Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/collierscyclopedOOrobirich c lAnoiH&ofCoimBus. ^^^^^0rlSF:£lLCTf?O T YF£ -^ T no period in the history of the United States has the necessity for a cheap but perfect Cyclopedia of Useful Knowledge been so imperative. So keen is the competitive spirit of the age, that the advan- tage of knowledge in the struggle for advancement is apparent to all. A good education is the best legacy we can leave to our children. It is the best investment we can make for ourselves. The educated man, in every walk of life, carries with him his own capital — a capital unaffected by monetary crises — an investment whose interest is not regulated by the success of specula- tion — a legacy which none can dispute, and of which none can deprive him. This is essentially a practical book. Its aim and object is to enable people to educate themselves. The ambition of the Publisher is to place in every American home this treasury of knowledge, invaluable as a manual of study and a work of reference ; and while it is simple, progressive and interesting in style, is a veritable power, from the manner in which it enforces education. A reference to the list of contents will show, that under various heads are included those numerous branches of study essential to the varied walks of life, while its social forms convey those instructions which so qualify persons of both sexes for appear- ing to the highest advantage in society. Collier's Cyclopedia and Veritable Treasury of Knowledge contains a complete digest of Mercantile Law, together with forms of Legal Documents, Government Bonds, and a dictionary of law terms, enabling every man to become his own lawyer. The newest and best system of Phonography is copiously illustrated. Bookkeeping in all its branches ; arithmetic and algebra, together with a lightning calculator, form prominent features in this invaluable work. < \ '(\ ^ % ^ PREFACE. ^ The Complete Letter Writer is a gem in its way ; and the selections of English prose and verse, from the works of the most renowned authors, are as chaste as they are elegant and classical. A very important section in this Treasury of Knowledge is the self teaching of French and German, and the self instructor — illustrated — for the Piano and the singing voice. The Golden Rules of Etiquette will prove invaluable to those desirous of entering into, and shining in society ; and the indoor games, parlor magic, etc., will serve to render the winter nights "bright as day;" while the outdoor, com- prising gymnastics, riding, driving, etc., cannot fail to work the most beneficial and healthful results to those who are enabled to profit by the instruction. The laws of health also form a portion of the Cyclopedia ; nor have the all important items of agriculture or gardening been omitted. A glance at the Index will convey some slight idea of the numerous and varied subjects which the compiler has dealt with. Never within the scope of any one volume have so many subjects been so skilfully compressed, each of which is handled in so able a manner as to render its study a source of intense enjoyment, while affording the most advanced information. The Publisher has spared no expense in editing and illustrating, while the volume, for beauty, finish and cheapness, is a marvel of taste and progress. S3fe -<^ ^ PAGB. Grammar '. . i A Compendious English Grammar 7 Synonyms of Words in General Use 33 Select Short Prose Quotations 52 Poetical Quotations 69 French, Self-Taught 96 German, Self-Taught 113 A Guide for the Piano-Forte Player 127 A Practical Guide for Singers 154 Hints to Stammerers - • • 165 Penmanship 167 Phonography, or Short Hand 176 Languages l8l The Letter Writer 183 Various Forms of Invitations 195 Speeches 200 Toasts and Sentiments 203 Bookkeeping 207 Arithmetic 221 Arithmetical Amusements 228 The Lightning Calculator 234 Algebra 242 Gymnastics '. 249 Riding 262 Driving 268 Lessons in Bicycle Riding 272 Swimming , 277 Drowning 281 Rowing 283 Mercantile Law 288 Forms of Legal Documents 3^4 Government Bonds 314 Dictionary of Law Terms 317 PAGB. Miscellaneous Tables 330 Brief History of the United States 351 Declaration of Independence 366 Constitution of the United States 368 Out-Door Games 375 Parlor Games 390 Games of Cards 391 Games of Skill 414 Parlor Magic 431 Physics without Appliances 444 Astronomy 449 The Rules of Debate and How to Conduct One 455 Phrenology 471 Knots and Splices 477 A Full Rigged Ship 482 Home Studies for Young Ladies 483 Architecture 488 The Atmosphere 495 How to get up a Fair 497 Proverbs and Old Sayings 509 Agriculture 525 Cattle 541 The Horse 545 Poultry 563 The Cultivation of Fruit 577 Carving • 585 Etiquette for Ladies 589 Etiquette for Gentlemen 597 Etiquette for Party and Ball-room 604 Etiquette of Courtship and Matrimony 617 Etiquette of Mourning 627 Golden Rules 631 The Language of Flowers 636 How to Preserve your Health 645 4r- r- Sfe- M!iiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiitf|^^^^|iii|toiiiiiiiiii|iiiii'i -^ GRAMMAR. ^ RAMMAR is the sci- ence of language, and its principal use is to en- able those who study it to express their thoughts with correctness and propriety, so as to be under- stood by those whom they address. It must always be remem- bered that grammars can only define, but cannot de- termine, the correct use of language. This depends, in every instance, upon the forms of thought and meaning to be conveyed ; and in all languages was settled and employed long before the studies of grammarians commenced. And at this very time it may be seen how com- pletely powerless are all the grammatical treatises on our own tongue, now existing, to prevent such changes as the disuse of the subjunctive mood of verbs, etc., from being made in the forms of the English language ; by which the power of express- ing some finer shades of meaning must be greatly circumscribed, if not entirely lost. The best method, therefore, to be pursued by any one who desires to become practically and thor- oughly acquainted with his mother-tongue, is care- fully to read some select works of our best authors, in the manner now to be described, with the help of such a compendious grammar as that contained in the following pages. This method, by the peculiar interest it excites, relieves the study of all drudg- ery ; and at the same time furnishes one of the most satisfactory means of intellectual training, and an available introduction to the study of any other language to which the attention may afterward be directed. 2. The following paragraphs form the commence- ment of Lord Bacon's Essay, "OF STUDIES. " I. Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. " II. Their chief use for delight is in privateness and retiring ; for ornament, is in discourse ; and foi ability, is in the judgment and disposition of busi- ness. " III. For expert men can execute and perhaps judge of particulars, one by one ; but the general counsels and the plots, and marshaling of affairs, come best from those that are learned. *' IV. To spend too much time in studies is sloth ; to use them too much for ornament is affectation ; to make judgment only by their rules is the humor of a scholar. "V. They perfect nature, and are perfected by experience ; for natural abilities are like natural plants, that need pruning by study, and studies them- selves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience. " VI. Crafty men contemn studies; simple men ad- mire them ; and wise men use them, for they teach not their own use ; but that is a wisdom without them and above them, won by observation. "VII. Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted ; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider." 3. In the first paragraph we find something spoken of, " studies," and something said about \\\&a\,\\z., that they " serve " for certain purposes, as " for delight," -^^ ^§^ ^ GRAMMAR. " ornament," and " ability." The several parts may be arranged thus : Studies serve. for delight, for ornsunent and for ability. They are thus distinguished according to their offices in the paragraph, which can readily be no- ticed, when thus arranged, without the employment of any names for them. 4. The paragraph numbered (2) may be arranged in this manner : — i( privateness for delight is in-< and ( retiring ; for ornament . . is in discourse ; and (judgment ) „, '°^^''"^^ ^"-"^^'idis^sttion^usriess. Here the three purposes mentioned in the former paragraph are the things spoken of j and certain things are said about each of them, though not ex- actly in the same manner as those purposes were said to be answered by " studies," above. These two parts, therefore — something spoken of, and some- thing said about it — we may note as essential to a complete and intelligible sentence of the kind before us ; and we may adopt the names given to them by grammarians — subject and predicate; which, signifying precisely what has just been said, require no further explanation. 5 . Paragraph (3) we arrange thus : ( execute | J particulars, For . . . expert men . . .can •< and \ ■•{ one by one, (judge of) perhaps; but.. the general counsels 1 and ( _„_- J from those that are ( plots ) f • • • <=»•"« • • • 1 learned best, the -< and V of affairs J ( marshaling | 4r- Both subjects and predicates here are somewhat complex, " Expert " is prefixed to " men ; " " gen- eral " to " counsels ; " and to " the plots and mar- shalling " are appended the words " of affairs ; " just as in paragraph (2) "chief " was prefixed to " use," and " for delight, for ornament, and for ability " added to the same word, with the evident intention of circumscribing and defining it. And with a simi- lar intention, the meaning of " can execute and judge of " is carried out and completed by " particu- lars " and " one by one ; " and that of the latter predicate, "can judge of," is further limited by the word " perhaps " being attached to it. In the sec- ond part of the paragraph, also, " from those that are learned," and " best," are appended to the predicate " come." And so in paragraph (i), " for delight, for ornament, and for ability," follow the word " serve ; " and in paragraph (2), after " is," comes "in private- ness and retiring, in discourse," etc. It is evident that these appended words and phrases, although they are of the highest moment to the full and precise expression of the thoughts, when regard is had to the structure of the sentences alone, are not essential, but subordinate parts there- of. And they have accordingly received from gram- marians distinct names ; those employed to describe and define subjects being designated attributives ; and those employed with predicates, for the purpose of modifying and supplementing their meaning — objects ; which terms we will use for the future, to avoid trouble and confusion. 6. But we may observe further, that the attribu- tives, which have occurred in these paragraphs, are of two kinds. One kind (like the subjects) consists of names of things, called by grammarians nouns ; as "delight," "ornament," "ability," "business," " affairs ; " and these have before them the little words " of " and " for," which are known as prepo- sitions, to attach them to the subjects. The other kind consists of epithets merely, and not of names, as "chief," "expert," "general;" and they are called adjectives. In paragraph (3) we find another word, " the," used very much in the same way as adjectives are used ; except that its sole force is to point to the subject particularly spoken of ; whence it has been named the demonstrative. And in paragraph (2) there is a word, " their," in form closely resembling it ; but (in this instance) meaning, "of studies." It is plainly an adjective ; but it is also called a pro- noun, from its being thus used instead of a noun. One other word, "and," which occurs in the sub- jects of these paragraphs, requires a passing glance. Its use is obvious ; it connects certain parts of sen- tences together, so as to save much repetition, and the inconveniences that must result from it, and it is designated a conjunction. 7. Before we speak of the different kinds of object- ive words and phrases which we meet with in these paragraphs, some further notice should be taken of the predicates. In paragraph (i), and in the second example in paragraph (3), they are perfectly simple, consisting of the words " serve " and " come " alone ; -^ GRAMMAR. words which convey assertions, and speak of some sort of action, and are called verbs. " Can execute and judge of " (observe the use of the conjunction) are also verbs, but the latter has a preposition at- tached to it, to bring it into a particular relation with the objects that follow ; and to both of them is prefixed the word ** can," which alters their force from the assertion of action to the assertion of the mere capability of it. In paragraph (2), again, we have for predicates, " in privateness and retiring," in " discourse," etc., — which are plainly nouns with prepositions ; and the quality of predicates is given to them by the employment of the word " is " with each, which changes them from attributives into as- sertions. " Is " must consequently be called a verb, although it only expresses being and not action. The complex character of these predicates must be observed ; and the conjunctions, the demonstrative, and the addition of the attributive, " of business," to one of them (which happens because they are actu- ally nouns) carefully noted. 8. Turning now to the objects, we see in para- graph ( I ) that they indicate the purpose or effect of _ the action expressed by the verb ; and, in this ex- ample, are nouns attached to the verb by the help of prepositions, — " for delight," " for ornament," etc. In paragraph (3) the first object, "particulars," which is also a noun, indicates that on which the action represented by the verbs " execute and judge of," takes effect. Observe, also, that just as in the words " studies," " plots," and " affairs," the fact that more than one of the kind is meant, is shown by the addition of the letter " s " to the ordinary word ; whilst in the instance of " men," the same fact is indicated by the change of the vowel sound from " a " in man. The second object, " one by one," is of a dif- ferent kind. It indicates the manner of execution and judgment ; and consists of a word signifying number, called a numeral, repeated, with a preposi- tion. '* Perhaps," which is the third object, belongs to the predicate, "judge of," only ; and is inserted for the purpose of lessening the strength of the assertion conveyed by the predicate. Words like it are called by grammarians adverbs. The second object in the other example contained in this para- graph, " best," is of the same class of words ; but, instead of lessening the force of the predicate, it is employed to intensify it. 9. " From those that are learned," is a very re- markable kind of object ; for it contains a complete sentence in itself. The actual object is " those," attached to the predicate by the preposition " from ; " and indicating the source and origin of the action expressed by the verb. " Those " is not, however, the name of anything ; but it stands here for " those men ; " and thus partakes of the nature of pronouns, while it also serves demonstratively to point out the specific description of men spoken of. In consequence of its being in part a pronoun, it can liave an attributive attached to it, and the sentence, " that are learned," serves as an attribu- tive, to define and describe the '* men " particularly intended. The predicate of this sentence, " are learned," is of the same kind as those in paragraph (2), only an adjective takes the place of the nouns there used. The subject is neither a name nor an epi- thet, but a kind of pronoun, since it stands for " men," and plainly for the same men as " those " did ; and, from its having relation thus to a noun already known, is called a relative pronoun. Sen- tences used in this manner are called accessory sentences, to mark their subordinate character, and their connection with the sentences of which they form parts, distinguished as principal sen- tences. Only two words remain to be spoken of. "For," at the commencement of this paragraph, shows its connection in meaning with the preceding para- graph ; or, more correctly, with the last sentence in it ; for which it assigns a reason. " But," on the other hand, separates the two parts of this para- graph, by way of contrast ; so that it is manifest that not the first, but the second part of it, contains the reason for the assertion made in the foregoing paragraph. Both words are called conjunctions, from their thus serving to connect otherwise dis- joined and independent sentences together ; yet it is evident that they are not conjunctions of the same nature as " and." 10. Paragraph (4) contains the principal sen tences : „ , ) too much time To spend .... -j in studies i them ] < for ornament, >• — is . I too much ) i'udgmeat ly their rules to use iiudgt . . ■< by thi (only [.... [.... [......... sloth ; affectation ; the humor of a scholar ^ GRAMMAR. -^ Of these predicates, since they so nearly resemble those of paragraph (2), we only need to observe, that the nouns are used without prepositions to modify their meaning ; and the word "a." (before " scholar "), contracted from "an," is a numeral, and merely means " one," but in what we may call a somewhat general way. The remarkable character of these sentences lies in the subjects, which, as we can perceive at the first glance, are verbs with objects, — and yet are not accessory sentences, since no assertions are made. This form of the verb, with the preposi- tion " to " prefixed, differs entirely from the forms we have seen employed in the predicates. Gram- marians distinguish all verbs used in this last-named way, as being in the indicative mood ; and those with " to " before them as being in the infinitive mood. They are, in fact, as we see, used like nouns, only, being verbs, instead of attributives to define them, they have objects to complete them. II. Some of these objects are in forms which we have already noticed ; " time " and " judgment '' are like " particulars " in paragraph (3), the direct objects of the action of the verbs they follow ; " in studies " represents, by a very natural metaphor, that of place, the peculiar circumstances of the ac- tion spoken of ; "for ornament " precisely resembles the "for delight," &c., of paragraph (i) ; but the object, "by their rules," expresses the means by which the action of the verb is accomplished. " Them," we see, is a pronoun, as it stands for the word " studies ; " and it is the direct object of the verb " use ; " it is one of the very few words in our language which have two forms, one employed when it is a subject, "they," and another when it is an object, as we find it here, " them." Here are also two objects belonging to the class of words called adverbs, " much " and " only," both of them expressive of the manner in which the action of the verbs they follow is performed ; and the first of them has the adverb " too " prefixed, for the purpose of intensifying the meaning of "much," The first object has the words " too much " prefixed, as an attributive ; " too " being here, as in the instance last noted, an adverb expressive of intensity ; but " much," what is termed an indefinite numeral, expressing quantity merely in a general way. There is another of the series with an attribu- tive prefixed, " their rules ; " but of this we have spoken in connexion with paragraph (2). 12. We find the next paragraph (5) rather com- plex, as this arrangement of it shows : I perfect nature, They....-< and r are perfected, .by experience; (natural abilities .are . . like and studies themselves, .do give. [by study ; natural plants, .that, .need . .pruning 'directions forth, too much at large, | in by .except.they.be bounded. ■< experi- ( ence. In the first part of this paragraph we find the same pronoun used as a subject, which we have just seen in its objective form. Grammarians call these dif- ferent forms cases ; and that now before us, the nominative or subjective case ; that in the last para- graph, the accusative or objective case. 13. The first predicate and object are in the same form as several we have seen above ; but the second predicate is quite new to us. It signifies that "experience perfects studies," just as "they perfect nature ; " but we find what should be the subject following the predicate, and the real object in the place appropriated to the subject ; the form of the predicate, too, is changed, and a preposition is inserted between it and the word " experience." We must admit, however, that the passage would lose immensely in compactness, vivacity, and force if it were written thus: " They perfect nature, and experience perfects them ; " so that the reason for using this peculiar form is manifest. It is distinguished by grammarians thus : When the agent of the verb is the subject, the verbal form employed is called active ; but when the immediate object of the verb is the agent, the form employed is called passive. And in our tongue all passive forms, just as in this instance, consist of that form of the verb which grammarians call the perfect participle — a form resembling an adjective in this, that it can be used as an attributive ; but also partaking of the nature of a verb, inasmuch as the notion it conveys is modified so as to express the completeness of the action. The object following this verb here ex- presses the means by which what is spoken of the subject is effected ; as we have seen before. How the two sentences are combined by the conjunc- tion, so that one subject serves for both, we need not more particularly point out. 14. " For," prefixed to the second part of the hr- GRAMMAR. -^ paragraph, introduces two reasons for the last asser- tion respecting the influence of *' experience " upon " studies ; " as was seen in paragraph (3). Of the first reason, we have only to say, that the real predicate of the sentence is " like," to which the words, "natural plants," are added as an object ; and that in the accessory sentence, added as a second attributive to " plants," whilst *' pruning " is the im- mediate object of the verb "need ; " " by study " is an object annexed to "pruning." For this last word is another of the participles, properly the imperfect one, which, like the verb, at times requires some attempering object, as we see here. In the second reason, we must notice, first, an attributive attached to the subject, which we have not met with before, — " themselves." It is un- doubtedly a pronoun, and it is here used as a most emphatic demonstrative. The objective form of one part of it, " them," does not concern us here. Next, we notice the predicate, which is in a form we have not before seen ; but which is only equivalent to the word " give," alone, except that it is rather more emphatic. Grammarians call these words, "do," " can," " are," &c., when employed as in this case, auxiliary, or helping verbs. The first and second objects to this sentence do not require particular notice ; and in the third, " too much at large," it is only needful to observe the use of an adjective pre- ceded by a preposition, and having an adverbial phrase, which we have met with, before it, to express the manner of the action. Of the third object, which is an accessory sen- tence, more is to be said. It is annexed to the prin- cipal sentence by means of a conjunction, " except," which implies some limitation to the meaning of the predicate and the preceding objects ; but the form of its own predicate is different from any we have yet seen. Comparing it with the second predicate in this paragraph, "are perfected," we find that it is a passive form ; but the employment of " be " in- stead of " are," shows that the limitation hinges upon the effect of " experience " upon the " studies " spoken of. The forms of verbs which are thus used, to express contingency, have been called by gramma- rians the subjunctive mood ; they are far more rarely used now than they once were, and have, indeed, almost entirely disappeared from our spoken language. 15. Paragraph (6) affords us an opportunity of remarking some other facts in English Grammar : for Crafty men simple men and wise men Uiey contemn admire use teach studies ; them; them; their own use ; not; f without them. ''"^ •• "^^ '« •• ^^»«»°'° abSvethem, twon by observation. In the first three sentences there is nothing new to observe, except the use of the conjunction "and," without any abbreviation or condensation ; it here serves only to combine all three assertions together, so that the reasons assigned in the remainder of the paragraph are seen to apply equally to all. We may, however, notice the fact, that the association of the several attributives with their objects is effected en- tirely by juxtaposition ; there being nothing in the forms of the words specially to indicate their relation to the words they belong to. But the relation of the predicates to their subjects is shown by the agree- ment of their forms in one essential particular, called by grammarians number. Thus in paragraph (2) the noun " use," which is the subject, expresses but one thing ; and the form of the verb, " is," applies to no more than one ; whilst in paragraph (5), "they" (which is equivalent to "studies") and " abilities," referring to more things than one, have the form of the verb " are," which also applies to more than one, in the predicates following them. And similarly here, the subjects being in the plural number, " men," the verbs in the predicates are also in the plural, "contemn," "admire," "use." In like manner the place occupied by the word "studies," shows it to be the object of the verb " contemn ; " but the relation of the objects to the predicates in the other two sentences is indicated not only by their position, but (as we have before observed) also, and more certainly, by the form em- ployed, "them." 16. Little needs to be said respecting the first sen- tence, which is introduced by the conjunction "for," most of its forms being familiar ; but we may note the use of the word " own," an adjective rendering the pronoun, " their," emphatic. In the last sentence the subject is not a relative, but a demonstrative pronoun, and its reference to the "use" of "stud- ies " is shown by the order of the words, or, as the grammarians say, by the construction. Besides this, only the attributives to the predicate, which is here a noun, require remark ; for two of them, " without them, and above them," are pronouns attached by r. GRAMMAR. prepositions, exactly as we have seen nouns attached, in paragraphs (2), (3), and (4), but showing their subordinate position to the subject, by being in the objective or accusative case ; and the third, " won by observation," is a participle with an object ex- pressive of means. This participle is not formed in the same way as those were formed which we have before met with. " Perfect-ed " and " bound-ed " have been made by the addition of the final syllable ; but ** won " is formed by the change of the vowel in the verb " win." 17. The last paragraph (7) we thus arrange : ( contradict not to ■< and ( confute ; Read (1 to -I: (1 believe and take for granted ; ( tall£ nor to find < and ( discourse ; ( weigh .but to •< and / consider. Here we have a predicate "read," and a consider- able number of objects, but there is no subject ; yet the sense is complete. There is, however, no assertion made by the verb ; on the contrary, it conveys a command ; and the subject, if expressed, would not occupy the customary place to the left of the predi- cate, but would come between it and the objects. Grammarians distinguish the forms of verbs which signify commands as the imperative mood. The four principal groups of objects belong to one and the same class, that which expresses the purpose or design of the action ; and they are so combined by the conjunctions, "nor" and "but," as to enable a single verb to act as predicate to them all. The conjunction, "nor," serves to give to the second and third groups the same negative character that is im- parted to the first by the negative object " not ; " and the fourth is contrasted with all the preceding groups, as stating the design that should be kept in view in reading, by the use of " but." In the expression, "to take for granted," we have a participle attached to a verb by means of a preposition, as an object needful to complete it ; and the next group shows two nouns, " talk and dis- course," combined by the conjunction "and," so as to spare the repetition of the verb " to find," to which they both serve as " objects." 18. From this illustration, extending only to seven paragraphs — and those neither long nor very greatly complicated — may be seen, both what Eng- lish grammar actually is, and what a large and clear knowledge of its facts and laws may be attained by the plan of study which we have recommended. It may also be seen how completely language is the product and representation of the thought or mean- ing of those who speak or write ; and how subordi- nate is the office of the grammarian — limited, in fact, to the elucidation and interpretation of the forms and principles of language, by the most general laws and forms of thought. For not only cannot the grammarian determine what forms shall be used, and what discountenanced and avoided ; but he cannot possibly frame his declensions and conjugations, his concords and governments, so as to provide a place for every combination and inflexion and mode of giving expression to the infinitely diversified shades of meaning, even in the language of common life. 19. The following example will show how easy it is to analyze and arrange the most complicated paragraphs, so as to exhibit, without the employ- ment of a single technical term, every fact both of Etymology and Syntax contained in it. The pas- sage is from Locke's " Essay concerning Human Understanding." Book iv., chap, i., § i. " God, having designed man for a sociable creat- ure, made him not only with an inclination, and under a necessity, to have fellowship with those of his own kind, but furnished him also with language, which was to be the great instrument and common tie of society." maH» ^ J with an inclination, ™^* land Qod .. -I L under a necessity but also [ having designed { for" sociable creature, furnished ... I*^*?. , ... , ^ I with language, . . . which . . . was to be ""^'L^ho^- (fellowship po nave ^^jjjj tijogg <,£ ijj;, q^q kind, ( instrument thcK and ( common tie H society. ^ -^ ^ or THE ^ ^\ VNIYER8ITY ) GRAMMAR. -^ ^''^^^^^, %pet\A^° RAM MAR is divided into two parts — one which treats of the classification, formation, derivation, and inflection of words by themselves, and is called Ety- mology ; — and another, which treats of the combination of words into sentences, &c., and is called Syntax. When languages are analyzed in any state already reached, and not in a state of transition, they be- come the subject of special grammar belonging to the province of linguistics. Comparative grammar seeks, by comparing the grammars of several lan- guages, to reach the laws of inflection and construc- tion common to them, and finally to all languages. General or historic grammar attempts to explain the growth of language within a specified group. In this short treatise the formation and derivation of words are not included under Etymology, but are added by way of illustration to the concise History of the English Language, which forms the conclud- ing portion of it. By this means, not only is some repetition spared, but, being disencumbered of that which is rather curious than useful, this Etymology is rendered more serviceable to those for whom it is specially intended. Both Etymology and Syntax, it must be ob- served, are arranged, in the first place, with a view to assist in a study of the English language ; and next, to present such an elucidation of its principal facts, and such an interpretation of its most impor- tant laws, as .shall give to those who consider them attentively, some real and practical knowledge of their own tongue. And with the same intent, those technicalities only have been introduced, and those examples selected, which might be expected to aid in the simplification and explanation of the subject. LETTERS, ETC. 2. There are twenty-six letters in the English Al- phabet ; which have always been arranged in the following order, and are of these forms in Roman type : A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f , G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L 1, M m, N n, O o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X X, Y y, Z z. The number of sounds to be represented by these letters is estimated at about forty ; and, in conse- quence, several of them have to stand for more sounds than one. It is somewhat remarkable that since this is the case, the letters c, q, and x should be superfluous ; the two sounds of c being repre- sented by s and k, as in c&\\, stW ; calends, kalends ; q, being always followed by «, with the sound ex- pressible by kw J and the sounds of .r differing in no respect from those of ks, gz, and z (in some words borrowed from the French). It would be of con- siderable advantage, if symbols for the sounds repre- sented now by the combinations of letters, ch, sh, ih, ng, &c., could be devised and introduced ; but this is a matter of such great difficulty, as to be almost impossible. 3. The twenty-six letters are divided into two classes — Vowels and Consonants. The vowels are, a, e, /, o, u j and with them w and^ ought to be placed. They represent the sounds which are pro- duced by the transmission of the voice through the mouth, whilst the cavity is more or less enlarged in different directions. All the rest are named con- ^ -<^ r. GRAMMAR. sonants, and represent the sounds produced when the voice is interrupted by the voluntary action of the throat, tongue, palate, nose, teeth, and lips. Our vowel sounds differ from those of all other languages of Europe ; one of the sounds which we express by a, they express by e y where we write e, they write i; where we use t, they employ et j and our u corresponds with their eu. The natural series of vowel sounds, expressed in letters of our alpha- bet, is ee, ay, ah, oh, oo. The combinations of vowel sounds, called diph- thongs and triphthongs, such as ae, ai, au, ei, ie, oe, oi, ou, eau^ &c. , express the intermediate sounds of this series, but they also do not correspond with those of the other European languages, 4. Consonants are divided into three orders, Mutes, Sibilants and Liquids ; and these are further subdivided according to the organs employed in giving utterance to them. Thus the mutes are classified first as Smooth or Aspirated, and next in the following manner ; the sounds for which we have no symbols being inserted in their proper places : — Smooth. Aspirated. Sudden. Gradual Sudden. Gradual. Guttural k,c, q g ch (not English) gh (not English) Dental t d M(in) M(ine) Labial / b fi/>^ "v The ch here is the terminal sound of the Scotch word " loch ;" and the gh^ that of the Irish word " lough. " The letter h finds no place in this scheme, because it is, in fact, nothing but a sign of the transmission of the breath called "aspiration," and not of a sound at all. The sibilants may be classified thus : — Gradual. Dental Dental and Palatal Dental and Guttural Sudden, s, c sk (a)0(ure) uqy is identical with that of 6qy ; and in " adhesive," the sound d is pronounced dis- tinctly, and followed by the aspirate, or hard breath- ing h DERIVATION AND FORMA- TION OF W^ORDS. With the History of our Tongue, which follows this Grammar, the subject is illustrated so as to show the relation of the English language to other lan- guages, which have formerly existed, or are spoken at the present day. Here only the " internal rela- tions " of words are regarded ; and the sole purpose is the illustration of the manner in which, from the radical words, wherein may be traced the ethnologi- cal connections of the English race, other words have in various ways been formed by the natural vi- tality and power of the language. 7. Radical words (called by etymologists " roots," simply) are either nouns, verbs, adjectives, or pronouns ; expressive of common things, condi- tions, actions, &c., &c. Primary Derivatives are constructed by slight changes in the vowel sounds, or in the consonants or in both ; and are sometimes designated "stems." Secondary Derivatives are formed by means of prefixes and affixes, from both roots and primary derivatives. Ex. — 4r Roots. Prim. Deriv. Second. Deriv, Bake batch baker, baxter Bear bier, birth barrow, forbear Bind band, bond, bound bandage, bondage, bundle Bite bit biter Bless bliss blessing Blood bleed bloody Brood breed Child childish Choose choice Chop chip Deal dole Die dead, death deadly Drive drove drover Duck duckling Fall fell, foal (De)file foul, filth filthy, fulsome Find foundling Flee fleet, fly, flight Flow flood Forth further, furtherance Gape gap Gird girder, girdle Gold gild, gilt golden, gilding Good God goodness, godJy, godliness Guile guilt guilty YiG2L\(io cover othide)h.A\ hole, hale, health hellish, hollow, healer Lead lode leader, mislead --^ ^ GRAMMAR. Roots. Prim. Z)er«Jk Second. Deriv. Lend loan Lie lay, law lien, lawyer, layer Lose loss, loose loser, unloose Man mannikin, manhood Milk milch Pin pen, pound Pride proud (Be)reave raven ravenous Rise raise, rouse arise, arouse See sight sightly Shake shock shocking Sing song singer, songster Sit set, seat settle, settler Speak speech speaker, bespeak Stick stake, stitch Strike stroke Strong strength Tell tale Trow truth truthfulness Wake watch waken, watchful Weave woof, web weaver, webster Win winsome Work Wright Wring wrench, wrong wrongful Wry writhe, wreath 8. Derivative words are also formed by composi- tion ; that is, by the construction of a single word out of two or more words, each capable of being used independently. These compounds differ en- tirely from the secondary derivatives, and are found in every class of English words. They are not, however, so numerous in our tongue as in the Ger- man ; and in that they are less common than in the Greek language. Ex. Sunshine, fairhaired, thun- derstorm, harvestman, daybreak, nevertheless, therefore, into, everlasting, midnight, noontime, elsewhere, how- ever, undersell, overturn, because, hedgerow, ware- houseman, earthquake, steamengine, railroad. CLASSES OF W^ORDS. 9. The classification of words depends upon their signification as parts of sentences, which will be treated of under the head of " Syntax. " The fol- lowing will, however, suffice as an introduction to this part of the Grammar ; and the nature of Sub- jects and Predicates, Attributives and Objects, with the various means of expressing the relations between them, will be treated of in the succeeding division. Names of things, persons, and of whatever exists, even in imagination, are called Nouns, and sometimes Substantives. Ex. Tree, stone j man, boy ; Ccesar, Wellington ; virtue, hope. Words expressing an assertion respecting an ac- tion or condition, or the reception of the conse- quences of an action, or simply respecting existence, are called Verbs. Ex. To run; to strike; to sleep ; to be; to be beaten. Attributives which can only in figurative language be used without a noun (which they qualify in some way) are called Adjectives. Ex. Good, bad, green, high, everlasting. These are the three principal classes of words, which represent distinct notions of things, persons, actions, qualities, &c., &c., formed in the mind. Other words express not so much the notions we have formed, as the connection of those notions with each other, or their relations to us, or some of the infinitely various associations of thoughts. 10. Pronouns serve not only to prevent the too frequent repetition of the same nouns, but yet more to indicate the relation of the persons or things spoken of to the speaker. Such are the Personal Pronouns. Others are used as attributives, but they also show the relations of the subjects they charac- terize to the speaker. Ex. /, thou, he, they; mine, thine; this, those; whom, what. Whatever exists, or acts, or is acted upon, is re- garded as being, or acting, or being acted on, in some particular time, place, manner, &c. ; and these modifications of the simple notions indicated by the verb are expressed by a class of words called Ad- verbs. Ex. Now, where, so, seldom, perhaps. Many of the relations of notions one to another, also, are those of place, time, manner, means. &c.; and these are expressed by words called Preposi- tions, which serve to connect nouns and pronouns with other nouns and pronouns, and with verbs. Ex. From, by, of, to, after. The connection of things, &c., with each other, and of thoughts with other thoughts, is shown by means of Conjunctions. Ex. And, or, but, though, for. Numerals are in part names, and in part attribu- tives and adverbs; and therefore do not properly form a class by themselves. Ex. Two, four, six; first, tenth, hundredth; firstly, secondly, lastly. Interjections, which are expressions of emotion, such as fear, joy, pain, wonder, &c., and not of thought, and the greater number of wliich are rather sounds than words, cannot be noticed in a grammar ; although it is convenient to have such a class to which certain expressions which occur in the Dic- tionary may be referred. Ex. Ah ! O ! Ha ! 11. Nouns. The Gender of Nouns is determined lO GRAMMAR. -^ 4- by the sex of the persons or beings they represent, being called Masculine or Feminine, as they are the names of males or females. Beings without natural sex, things without life, and abstractions are called Neuter. Figuratively, sex is attributed to many beings naturally having no such distinction, and to abstrac- tions. Ex. The sun, he is setting ; the moon, she is rising ; Charity, she is the child of heaven. Very small beings, whatever sex they may be of, and those whose sex is not their distinctive characteristic, are spoken of as neuter. Ex. The ant, // is a patron of foresight and prudence ; the child, it knows not what it does. Very few words, in English, have terminations, or other specialties of form, indicative of their gender ; the following are examples of the only kinds, and they are not numerous. Ex. Arbiter, Arbitress; Prosecutor, Prosecutrix ; Margrave, Margravine ; he-bear, she-bears Man-servant, Maid-servant. In other instances different words are appropriated to the two sexes, but without any peculiarity of termin- ation. Ex. Brother, Sister; Horse, Mare; King, Queen. 12. The only distinction of Number is that be- tween one and more than one ; the ordinary forms expressing the former, and being called Singular ; and special forms being used for the latter, called Plural. Most commonly, s or (when it ends in a sibilant or x) es is added to the singular. Ex. Sword, swords J fish, fishes. Words ending in /or fe gen- erally make their plurals in ves. Ex. Calf, calves; life, lives. But all words ending in^, except staff, staves, and several words in f or fe, add s without any change of letters for the plural. Ex. Whiff, whiffs ; grief, griefs ; fife, fifes. Those ending in o, preceded by a vowel, add s only ; but if a conso- nant precede the o, s or es is added. Ex. Cameo, cameos; ratio, ratios; cargo, cargoes; volcano, volcanoes; por- tico^ porticoes; solo, solos. Words ending in y after a consonant have ies in the plural. Ex. fly, flies; history, histories. A very few change the vowel sound of the singu- lar. Ex. Poot, feet ; goose, geese ; tooth, teeth ; woman, women (pronounced wimmen). One adds en to the singular — ox, oxen. One both changes the vowel and adds en — brother, brethren. Besides these, the following must be noted : Child makes children in the plural. Mouse has mice, and louse, lice; but it is the spelling only which is pecul- iar. Penny has two plurals ; when coins are meant, pennies, but when money is spoken oi, pence. In like manner die, signifying a stamp for coining, has dies; but when it means a cube used in play, dice. Pea has peas and pease, the latter signifying peas collect- ively, or used for food. Kin£ is sometimes used as a plural to cow. Deer, sheep, swine, are used in both numbers ; and (when spoken of as food) fish, cod, salmon, ^'c. The names of metals are made plural only when employed to signify some particular things composed of them. Ex. Irons, coppers, brasses. Articles of trade and commerce which, in ordinary language, are never used in the plural form, have plural forms in the market. Ex. Cloth, oil, sugar, tea, ^'c. On the other hand, beast, which has a regular and com- monly used plural, is employed in the singular form alone by Smithfield salesmen. Words signifying abstract qualities seldom take the plural form, be- cause they cannot have a plural meaning, except when used figuratively. Ex. The honors of the world ; the decencies of life. Names of measures, weights, of some numbers, and of terms employed numerically, are in some instances used in the singu- lar form, with a plural meaning. Ex. A X.QX\.-pound note, eighteen hundred and fifty-eight, an army of eighty thousand men, twelve dozen of wine, three brace of dogs, a fleet of twenty sail, twelve thousand foot and three thousand horse, fifteen thousand stand of arms, a hundred head of cattle, each weighing thirty stone. Alms, means, news, pains, and riches, which are plural in form, are used both as singulars and as plurals. Ashes, bellows, breeches, cates, dregs, gallows, pincers, scissors, and tongs, have no singulars, either in form or meaning. The names of some sciences, derived from the Greek language, are plural in form, but in meaning singular. Ex. Ethics, hydrostatics, mathematics, mechanics, politics. And so is the term morals. Suds, and wages, plural in form, are singu- lar in signification ; and pulse (leguminous seeds), also plural in form, is simply collective in its mean- ing. 13. Almost all nouns, which have been simply adopted from foreign languages, retain their original plurals ; but some have also plurals formed in the English fashion, and in a few instances with a dif- -^ r- GRAMMAR. -^ ferent meaning. The following is nearly a complete list of these words : — Singula* Plural. Abacus, abaci. Acroterion (not used). acroteria. Addendum, addenda. Alluvion, alluvium. alluvia. Alto-relievo, alti-relievi. Alumnus, alumni. Amanuensis, amanuenses. Amphibium (not used), amphibia. Amphora, amphorae. Analysis, analyses. Animalculum (not used), animalcula. Antenna, antennae. Anthropophagus (not used), anthropophagi. Antithesis, antitheses. Apex, apices. Aphelion, aphelia. Aphis, aphides. Apparatus (« short). apparatus (a long), apparatuses Appendix, appendices, appendixes. Aquarium, aquaria, aquariums. Arcanum, arcana. Asylum, asyla, asylums. Automaton, automata, automatons. Axis, axes. Bandit, banditti. Basis, bases. Basso-relievo, bassi-relievi. Beau, beaux. Bonvlvant, bonsvivans. Calculus, calculi. Calx, calces. Candelabrum, candelabra. Catachresis, catachreses. Census (a short). census (a long), censuses. Chateau, chateaux. Cherub, cherubim, cherubs. Cheval-de-frise, chevaux-de-frise. Chrysalis, chrysalides, chrysalises. Cicerone, ciceroni. Cilium, cilia. Colossus, colossi. Convolvulus, convolvuli. Corps, corps, Crisis, crises. Criterion. criteria. Datum, data. Desideratum, desiderata. Diaeresis, diaereses. Dictum, dicta. Dilettante, dilettanti. Dogma, dogmata, dogmas. Effluvium, effluvia. Ellipsis, ellipses. Emphasis, emphases. Emporium, emporia, emporiums. Encomium, encomia, encomiums. Ephemeris, ephemerides. Erratum, errata. Eulogium, eulogia, eulogiums. Fasciculus, fasciculi. Flambeau, flambeaux. Focus, foci, focuses. Foramen, foramina. Formula, formulae, formulas. Forum, fora. Fungus, fungi, funguses.- Singular, Fulcrum, Genius, Genus, Gymnasium, Hiatus (« short\ Hippof>otamus, Hypothesis, Inamorato, Ignis-fatuus, Incubus, Index, Improvisatore, Jeu-d'esprit, Lamina, Larva, Lusus- (» short) naturae, Lyceum, Macula, Madame (not used), Magus, Mausoleum, Medium, Memorandum, Memorabile (not used). Menstruum, Mephitis, Metamorphosis, Miasma, Millennium, Minutia (not used). Momentum, Morceau, Monsieur, Narcissus, Nautilus, Nebula, Nidus, Nimbus, Nostrum, Novus homo. Nucleus, Oasis, Orchis, Ovum, Parenthesis, Parhelion. Perihelion, Phasis, Phenomenon, Polypus, Premium, Proboscis, Prima donna, Radius, Ranunculus, Regale (not used). Rhombus. Sarcophagus, Savant, Scholium, Scoria^ Seraph, Series, Species. Spectrum, Si)eculum. Sphinx, Spicula, Plural. fulcra. {genii, aerial beings. geniuses, /«-jo«j of genius. genera. gymnasia. hiatus (a long). hippopotami. hypotheses. inamorati. ignes-fatui. incubi. j indices, algebraic exponents. \ indexes, pointers, tables of contents. improvisatori. ieux-d' esprit. aminse. arvae. usus- (a long), naturae. ycea, lyceums. maculae. mesdames. magi. mausolea. media. memoranda, memorandums. memorabilia. menstrua. mephites. metamorphoses. miasmata. millennia. minutiae. momenta. morceaux, messieurs. narcissi. nautili. nebulae. nidi. nimbi. nostra. novi homines. nuclei. oases. orchides, orchises. ova. parentheses. parhelia. perihelia. phases. phenomena. polypi. premia, premiums. proboscides. prime donne. radii. ranunculi, ranunculuses. reg^ia. rhombi. sarcophagi. savans. scholia. scoriae. seraphim, ser^hs. series. species. spectra. specula. {sphinges, hawk-ntoths. sphinxes, in mythology. spiculae. -^ -^ GRAMMAR. Singular. Stadium, Stamen, Plural. stadia. ( stamens, /ar/j of flowers. < stamina, the solids of the human ( body. ^ stigmata, in botany and surgery. stigmas, marks 0/ reproach. stimuli, strata, striae. succedanea. symposia, synopses, syntheses, tableaux, termini, theses. triumviri, triumvirs, tumuli. vertebrae, vertices, virtuosi, viscera, vortices. 4r- Stigma, Stimulus, Stratum, Stria. Succedaneum, Symposium, Synopsis, Synthesis, Tableau, Terminus, Thesis, Triumvir, Tumulus, Vertebra, Vertex, Virtuoso, Viscus, Vortex, 14. When a noun is the subject of a sentence it is said to be in the nominative case, and when it immediately follows a verb or a preposition it is said to be in the objective case, but its form is precisely the same in both cases. Ex. Nom. The man walks; trees grow. Obj. I pity the man j he fells the trees ; — with the man ; under the trees. When one noun, in either the singular or plural number, is used along with another attributively, and indicating its possessor or origin, 's (with an apos- trophe before it, which shows that a vowel sound has been dropped) is added to the former, except when it ends in a sibilant, when most frequently only the apostrophe is added. Ex. A soldier's life; the sol- diers' friend ; the jury's verdict ; the judges' sen- tence.; Thomas's horse (read "Thomases"); the fox' (read " foxes ") brush ; " He that despised Mo- ses' law, died ; " " If ye suffer for righteousness' sake, happy are ye." Declension of a Noun. Singular. Plural. Nominative Case. \ zr: t^:„~o Objective Case, \ K'"^' K'"&^- Possessive Case. King's, Kings'. 15. In order to individualize the application of common nouns, two words usually designated arti- cles, one a demonstrative pronoun, the, the other a numeral, an (or, as abbreviated before a consonant sound, a), almost universally precede them. The former, which is called the definite article, is used before nouns of both numbers. Ex. The man, the men ; the horse, the horses. The latter is called the indefinite article, and is used before nouns in the singular number only. Ex. A man^ an hour, a tree, an enemy. Proper names, abstract nouns, names of mate- rials, and some other classes of nouns, take the ar- ticles only when they are used as common nouns. Ex. Solon, Brutus, hope., fear, water, wood ; the Solon of his country ; he is a Brutus ; the hopes and fears of youth ; the water s edge ; the wood of the ark. 16. Verbs. When the action signified by a verb takes effect immediately on any person or thing as its object, the verb is called transitive or active ; but when the action is completely described by the verb itself, or when the verb signifies a condition, it is called intransitive or neuter. Ex. We suspect deceit, he loves truth j I walk or run, they sleep, you stand. Many verbs, as may be seen in the EngHsh Diction- ary, are both active and neuter. Ex. To abate a nui- sance, the storm abated j to account a man wise, to account for one's conduct. Transitive verbs are conjugated in two ways: one form, called active, is used when the agent is the subject of the verb. Ex. / esteem him ; they speak both French and German ; the Allies defeated the Russians. The other is used when the agent is the immediate object of the verb, and is called pas- sive. Ex. He is esteemed by me j both French and German are spoken by them ; the Russians were de- feated by the Allies. In the conjugation of verbs, four moods are dis- tinguished—the indicative, the subjunctive, the im- perative, and the infinitive — and another class of forms, called participles. The indicative is used when the speaker asserts something as actually ex- isting or acting. Ex. He reads, we walked, they will consent, thou art punished, I was exalted, you will be confounded. The subjunctive is used when some possible or probable action or state of being is spoken of. Ex. " 7/" / be 2. father, where is mine honor ? " ^^ Though thou detain me, I will not eat ; " ''7/" he were a prophet, he would have known who touched him ; " ^''Though these three men were in it, they should deliver neither son nor daughter." When a command is given, the imperative is em- ployed. Ex. ^^Honor all men. Love the brother- hood. Fear God. Honor the king." The infini- tive mood consists of the substantive forms, and the participles of the attributive forms, of the verb to which they belong. The preposition to is prefixed to all infinitives, except those which follow auxiliary verbs, and such verbs as see, hear, etc., in the active voice. Ex. "71? err is human ; to forgive, divine ; " -^ ^ GRAMMAR. 13 to have praised, to have been blamed ; I saw him weep, he was seen to weep; erring, forgiven; " having noth- ing, and ytt. possessing all things." 17. The three tenses of verbs, or the times in which an action or event may be said to take place, are the present, the past, and the future ; and in each of them, it may be considered as indefinite- ly, or imperfectly, or perfectly accomplished. Ex. (Indef. pres.) / read, (imperf. pres.) / am reading, (perf. pres.) I have read ; (indef. past) I read, (im- perf. past) / was reading, (perf. past) / had read; (indef. fut.) I shall read, (ym^t\i.l\x\.?) I shall be read- ing, (perf. fut.) / shall have read. In the subjunc- tive mood, the tense forms express the probability or improbability of the event or action spoken of. Ex. (Prob.) "What matter where, if I be still the same ? " " Though thou detain me, I will not eat." (Improb.) ^' If ye were of the world, the world would love his own." "If ye loved me, ye would re- joice." The imperative mood admits of no distinctions of time, but only of the completeness or incomplete- ness of the action commanded. Ex. (Imperf.) Read thou, (perf.) Have done ! In the infinitive mood the only tense is the pres- ent. Ex. (Indef. pres.) to read, (imperf. pres.) to be reading, (perf. pres.) to have read. And the par- ticiples admit only of the distinctions of complete- ness and incompleness of the action spoken of. Ex. (Imperf.) reading, (perf.) read. 18. By means of a class of verbs, called Auxiliary verbs, the capability of expressing the several rela- tions of mood, tense, etc., is greatly extended and refined. Those tenses which are formed without the assistance of auxiliaries are called simple tenses, and the others, compound. Ex. We hope, you fear, they fled; I am hoping, thou hast feared, he has fled, we shall learn. The auxiliary verbs of mood are such as may and can, which express possibility; must, ought, and shall, which express obligation; shall diXidi will, expressing determination of will ; might, could, and would, ex- pressing desire ; let and may, implying permission ; do, which adds emphasis to assertion, and is em- ployed in negatives and questions, etc., etc. Ex. It may be so, he can do it, you must see that you should obey, " these things ought not so to be," we shall see to that, / will be heard, might it but be so ! could we but know it, would he iv€re here ! lei him do what he will, you may do as you please, we ^'in' ^y-cUpt " is the old participial prefix, of which only Slay slew slain one other instance re mains in occasional use i n our languaere, " r-c/a*^." Laugh Choose chos Go Lose lost Shoot shot Do did (loghe, leugh) laughed laughed 4/A Class. Vowel 0, shortened. .se) chosen gone (lorn) lost shotten, shot done 5M Class. Come came come Note., that the participle " sawn " seems to have been formed analog- ically after " drawn ; " also, that the word did is a contracted form ; and the vowel i does not represent the o of the present, but is the short vowel sound of a reduplication of the d. It is the only instance in our language. 22. Second Division. Verbs which change their vowel sound, but form their perfect participles vxdor t : and are therefore weak verbs. \st Class. Vowels shortened. Bleed bled bled Breed bred bred Feed fed fed Meet met met Read read read Speed sped sped Bereave, reave bereft. bereaved bereft, bereaved (Clepe) y-clept Deal dealt dealt Deem (dempt) deemed deemed Dream dreamt , dreamed dreamt, dreamed Feel felt felt Flee fled fled Hear heard heard Keep kept kept Kneel knelt. Imeeled knelt, kneeled Lean leant, leaned leant, leaned Mean meant meant Sleep slept slept Sweep swept swept Shoe shod shod 4r- Note., also, that both " distraught" and '■'■ /raught" are formed from words derived from other languages. 23. Third Division. Contracted Weak Verbs. Have Make Lay Pay Say Dwell Pen Spill (Wis) Bend Build Gild Gird Lend Rend Send Shend Spend (Wend) Cast Cost Cut Hit Hurt Knit Lift Put Quit Rid Roast Set Shed Shred Shut Split Spread Thrust Wet had made laid paid said dwelt, dwelled penned spilt, spilled (wist) bent, bended built, builded gilt, gilded girt, girded lent rent sent shent vpexA went cast cost cat hit hurt knit, knitted lift, lifted put quit, quitted rid roasted set shed shred shut split, splitted spread thrust wet, wetted had made laid paid said dwelt, dwelled pent, penned spilt, spilled bent, bended built, builded gilt, gilded girt, girded lent rent sent shent spent cast cost cut hit hurt knit, knitted lift, lifted put quit, quitted rid roast, roasted set shed shred shut split, splitted spread thrust wet, wetted I i6 GRAMMAR. 24. Defective Verbs. Present Indefinite Past Indefinite Tense. Tense. Perfect Participle Am was been Clothe clad, clothed (y-clad) clothed Go went gone In the first of these, each part belongs to a differ- ent verb ; in the second, ''^ clad'' and ^''y-clad" are derived from some word not greatly unlike " clothe; " and both forms in this kind have appeared in the preceding lists. 25. Irregular Verbs. Can could Dare, durst durst It is the introduction of the / into ^^ could,'' which makes the former of these irregular. The other appears to have adopted its original past tense as an additional form for the present ; when used transitively, in the meaning of " to challenge or pro- voke," its past tense and perfect participles are " dared. " 26. Conjugation of Auxiliary Verbs. 1. To Be. Indicative Mood. Present Indefinite Tense, Sing. I. I am, 2. Thou art, 3. He is, Plur. I. We are, 2. You are, 3. They are. Past Indefinite Tense. • Sing. 1. I was, 2. Thou wast, 3. He was, JPlur. 1. We were, 2. You were, 3. They were. Subjunctive Mood. Form implying probability. Sing, and plur. (If) I, thou, he, we, you, they be. Porm implying improbability. Sing and plur. (If) I wert ; thou wert ; he, we, you, they were. Imperative Mood. Sing. Be thou. Plur. Be ye. Infinitive Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. To be. Participles. Imperfect. Being. Perfect. Been. 2. To Have. Indicative Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. Sing. I. I have, 2. Thou hast, 3. He hath or has, Plur. I. We have, 2. You have, 3. They have. Past Indefinite Tense. Sing. I. I had, 2. Thou hadst, 3. He had, Plur. I. We had, 2. You had, 3. They had. Subjunctive Mood. Probable form. Sing, and plur. (If) I, thou, he, we, you, they have. Improbable form. Sing, and plur. (If) I fiad ; thou hadst ; he, we, you, they had. Infinitive Mood. Preient Indefinite Tense. To have. Participles. Imperfect. Having. Perfect. Had. 3. To Do. Indicative Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. Sing. I. I do, 2. Thou dost, 3. He doth or does, Plur. I. We do, 2. You do, 3- They do. Past Indefinite Tense. Sing. 1. I did, 2. Thoudiddestordidst, 3. Hedid, Plur. I. We did, 2. You did, 3. Xhey did. Subjunctive Mood. Probable form. Sing and plur. (If) I, thou, he, we, you, they do. Improbable form. Sing, and plur. (If) I did ; thou didst ; he, we, you, they did. Infinitive Mood. Present Indefinite. To do Participles. Imperfect. Doing. Perfect. Done. In the auxiliaries, may, can, shall, will, the only change of form is in the second person singular, which are mayest, mightest ; canst, couldst j shalt, shouldst J wilt, wouldst J in the present and past tenses respectively. Let and must have no inflexions, and ought (which admits of no distinction of time) has oughtest in the second person singular. Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, or should be, be. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or- Ye or you might, could, would, or shouldst be, should be. He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would, <>r should be. be. Pluperfect. I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, <7r should have been, have been, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could, would, or shouldst have been, should have been, He might, could would, (jr should They might, could, would, or have been. should have been. Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, or have, should have. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst Ye or you might, could, would, or shouldst have, or should have. He might, could, would, or They might, could, would, or should have. should have. Pluperfect. I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would. <7r should have had, have had. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst. Ye t>r you might, could, would, r should They might, could, woiikJ, or have had. should have had. ■^ ^ GRAMMAR. 7^ «r Hi: m Indefinite. 5'i«^. Plur. I see, We see, Thou seest. You see. He seeth, or sees. They see. I saw, Thou sawest. He saw. We saw. You saw, They saw. I shall see. We shall see, Thou Shalt see, You shall see. He shall see. They shall see. (If) I see. We see, (If) Thou see. You see, (If) He see. They see. (If) I saw. We saw, (If) Thou sawest. You saw, (If) He saw. They saw. Imperative. See thou. See you. Infinitive Present. To see. Participle. 27. Conjugation of the Verb, To See. ACTIVE FORMS. Imperfect. I am seeing, Thou art seeing. He is seeing. I was seeing Thou wast seeing. He was seeing. Plur. We are seeing. You are seeing. They are seeing. We were seeing. You were seeing. They were seeing. I shall be seeing. We shall be seeing. Thou shalt be seeing. You shall be seeing. He shall be seeing. They shall be seeing. (If) I be seeing. We be seeing, (If) Thou be seeing, You be seeing, (If) He be seeing. They be seeing. (If) I were seeing. We were seeing, (If) Thou wert seeing, You were seeing, (If) He were seeing. They were seeing. Be thou seeing. Be ye seeing. To be seeing. Seeing. Perfect. Sing:. I have seen, Thou hast seen. He has seen. I had seen. Thou hadst seen, He had seen. I shall have seen, Thou shalt have seen. He shall have seen. (If) I have seen, (If) Thou have seen, (If) He have seen. (If) I had seen, (If) Thou hadst seen, (If) He bad seen. Plur. We have seen. You have seen. They have seen. We had seen. You had seen. They had seen. We shall have seen. You shall have seen. They shall have seen We have seen. You have seen. They have seen. We had seen. You had seen. They had seen. To have seen. Seen. PASSIVE FORMS. Indefinite. Sing. am seen. Thou art seen. He is seen. was seen. Thou wast seen. He was seen. I shall be seen. Thou shalt be seen. He suall be seen. (If) I be seen, (If) Thou be seen, (If) Hebe seen. (If) I were seen, (If) Thou wert seen, (If) He were seen. Plur. We are seen. You are seen. They are seen. We were seen. You were seen. They were seen. We shall be seen. You shall be seen. They shall be seen. We be seen, You be seen. They be seen. We were seen. You were seen. They were seen. Perfect. Sing. I have been seen. Thou hast been seen, He has been seen. I had been seen. Thou hadst been seen. He had been seen. I shall have been seen, Thou shalt have been seen, He shall have been seen. (If) I have been seen, (If) Thou have been seen, (If) He have been seen. (If) I had been seen, (If) Thou hadst been seen, (If) He bad been seen. Plur. We have been seen. You have been seen. They have been seen. We had been seen, You had been seen. They had been seen. We shall have been seen. You shall have been seen. They shall have been seen. We have been seen. You have been seen. They have been seen. We had been seen, You had been seen, Tbey had been seen. Imperative. Infinitive Present. Participle. Be thou seen. Be ye seen. To be seen. Being seen. To have been seen. Having been seen. Note. That by means of the various auxiliaries a great number of additional tenses, in all the moods, might be formed. Hote also, that in the passive, the imperfect tenses cannot be formed except for a few verbs, and then only in the past and present, and in two ways — " the house is building," or "M(f house is being built;" *^the books 7vere printing," ox ^^ were being printed." For- merly the first of these forms was different. Ex. The ark was a-preparing. 28. Adjectives. — There are no changes of forms in the adjectives, to show their relations to the nouns they qualify, as to gender, number or case. Ex. A wise tnan, wise men; a tall man, a tall woman, ^ a tall tree; they saw the powerful king's golden crown; he defeated three great emperors' vast armies. But the degree of intensity in which any quality is regarded as characterizing one or more persons or things, when compared with others, is expressed by the addition of er (or r) and est (or st) to the simple (or positive) form of the adjective; — the former (called the comparative degree) being employed where only two subjects are compared, the latter (named the superlative) when a subject is compared with more than one other in respect of the same quality. Ex. This tree is taller than that, but the next is the tallest of the three, and those trees are the tallest in the wood ; this man is wiser than those --^ ^ -J^ i8 GRAMMAR. and those men are the wisesr in our country ; pla- tinum is the heaviest metal, or platinum is heavier than any other metal. . Instead of using these inflexions, with adjectives of more than one syllable, the comparative is fre- quently formed by prefixing more, and the superla- tive by prefixing most, to the simple form. Ex. A more prudent man, the most prudent conduct ; more seasonable weather, most unseasonable importunities. 29. Some adjectives are defective, or have com- paratives and superlatives formed from other words ; and some do not form them according to the common rule. The following are the principal adjectives to which these remarks apply: — Bad worse (worser) worst Far farther farthest Fore further furthest, first Good better best Late later, latter latest, last Little less, lesser least Much, many more most Near, nigh nearer, nigher nearest, next Old older, elder oldest, eldest. Another class of adjectives differ from the com- mon rule in having a positive signification with the comparative form (as is the case with the compara- tives, superior, inferior, exterior, and interior, bor- rowed from the Latin), and only a superlative degree of comparison beside. Ex. Former, foremost; hinder, hindmost, and hindermostj hither, hithermost; inner, inmost, and innermost; nether, nethermost; outer, outmost, and outermost; under, undermost; upper, upmost, and uppermost; utter, utmost, and ut- termost. The following superlatives also occur: midmost for midst, 7iothernmost and southernmost. Different degrees of intensity are also more gener- ally expressed by the use of some adverbs. Ex. Too hot, very cold, exceedingly angry. ''''Less " and "least " are employed when the comparison regards lower degrees of intensity. Ex. Zess scrupulous, least scrupulous. 50. Numerals, — When the cardinal numerals are employed to signify abstract numbers, they are nouns. Ex. Four and three are seven, two and one are three. But when used to express concrete quanti- ties they are adjectives. Ex. Four horses, ten men, a hundred pounds. The ordinal numerals (which signify position in a series) are most frequently adjectives. Ex. The first man, the tenth sheep, the thirtieth day. But they are sometimes used objectively, and then are adverbs. Ex. He stands first, I am tenth on the list. There are also the regularly formed adverbial ordinal numerals, firstly, secondly^ thirdly, d^c. Fractional numerals are the same as ordinals, but they are nouns, and are so because they are abbreviations. Ex. Ont-third (for ** one third part ") thrtQ-fourths (for " three fourth parts "), ionr-fifths, two-tenths of an inch. In this series ^/^rj-/ is omitted, half is used for second, and quarter is often substi- tuted iox fourth. Beside these there are the reiterative numerals, once, twice, thrice, four times, &'c.; the multiplica- tives, single, double or two-fold, triple or three-fold, quadruple or four-fold, &'c.; — the distributives, singly or one by one, two by two, dr'c; and other classes. The words neither, either, other, both, next, again, then, and some others, which are also called pronouns, are frequently employed as numerals, to signify not one, one, second, two, secondly, dr'c. Indeterminate numerals express number and quan- tity, but not definitely. They are such words as more, some, none, few, many, several, much, all, ^c. 31. Pronouns. — Those which are used as nouns only, are the personal pronouns, /, thou, he, she, it, and their plurals. They are thus declined. First Person. Plur. Second Person. Sing. Plur. Sing. Nominative Case, I we thou Objective Case, me us thee Possessive Case, my, mine our, ours thy, thine Third Person. Sing. Masc. Fern. Neut. Nominative Case, he she it Objective Case, him her it Possessive Case, his her, hers its Plur. you, ye you, ye your, yours Plur. All genders. they them their, theirs. The possessive cases of these pronouns are some- times spoken of as a class by themselves, and called possessive (adjective) pronouns. In the first and second persons, the possessive cases, and in the third person, the objective cases, with self ox selves affixed, constitute the reflective pronouns. Ex. Know thy- self, he loves himself, they were ashamed of them- selves. And these and the possessives are rendered emphatic by the insertion of own. Ex. " I scarcely coveted what was my own ;' " Thou owest unto me even thine own self." 4— -A f- GRAMMAR. ZJ 12. The demonstrative pronouns are this sind that, with the plurals these and those; such, the same, yon and yonder, here, there, hetue, thence, then, ^rc, most of which are adverbs. Ex. " This same shall comfort us," " after this or that determinate manner," " it makes a greater show in these months than in those," " such are the cold Riphean race, and such the savage Scythian," " darkness there might well seem twilight here," " now shaves with level wing the deep, then soars," " useless and thence ridiculous," ^^ yon flower- ing arbors, yonder alleys green." The, commonly called the definite article, is properly a demon- strative pronoun. Pronouns used in questions, called interrogative, and those used in subjective and adjective acces- sory sentences, called relative, are who (in the ob- jective whom, and the possessive whose, in both numbers), which (occasionally with a possessive case, whose) what, where, whither, whence, when, how ; some of them being adverbs. Ex. Who art thou ? Which is it ? What do you mean ? " Whose dog are you ? " " Whom dost thou serve ? " Whence come you ? " Whither goest thou ? " "ITow can these things be ? " " The son of Duncan, from whom the tyrant holds the due of birth, lives in the English court," " The handsel or earnest of that which is to come." . " See what natures accompany the several colors." " In Lydia bom, where plenteous harvests the fat fields adorn." " Grateful t'acknowledge whence his good descends." " I strayed I knew not whither." Note, that the relative pronoun what is in significa- tion equivalent to the, that, or those which. ■^T^. Whoever, whosoever (and whomsoever, whose- soever) whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever, wherever, whencesoever, however, herein, therein, therefore, wherefore, whereof, whereas, &'c., are compounded or contracted pronouns and pronomi- nal phrases. Ex. " I will follow thee whithersoever thou goest." " I think myself beholden, whoever shows me my mistakes." " Whomsoever else they visit, with the diligent only do they stay." " \n whatsoever ^z.'^t. he lurk, I'll know." "Thy very stones prate of my whereabout." "You do take the means whereby I live." " Herein is a wonderful thing." ^^Howbeit, this wisdom saved them not." In addition to these various classes of pronouns, there are some which are called indefinite, such as one, aught, nxiught, (sometimes spelt ought, nought), each, every, either, neither, any, other (which has a plural when used as a noun, but not when used at- tributively), they (when used to signify " people in general "), ^c. Ex, " One may be little the wiser for reading," " for aught that I can understand," " it Cometh to naught." "are there awywith you ?" "the virtue and force of every of these three is shrewdly allayed," ^^ they say that he has died immensely rich." 34. Adverbs.— These words do not admit of inflex- ion, and of them some are found only in the adverbial form, others are used as prepositions or conjunctions also ; some are pronouns or adjectives ; and many are derived from adjectives and even from substan- tives. They are employed to express the relations of place — as here, there, where, hither, thither, whither, hence, thence, whence, above, below, before, behind, in, out, off, on, near, afar, backwards, forwards, aside, b^c, — of time, as, then, when, now, after, before, still, soon, already, lately, daily, hitherto, ^'c, — of manner, as Jum), thtis, so, as, otherwise, well, fluently, kindly, blind- ly, lovingly, bravely, brightly, &fc., — of mood, as yes, no, 7wt, if , perhaps, probably, possibly, likely, really, ^c, — of degree or intensity, as frequently, seldom, often, again, very, quite, even, nearly, only, too, almost, much, rather, once, tivice, thrice, ^c, — of causality, a.^ where- fore, therefore, however, nevertheless, ^fc. Some of those of manner, degree, and mood, ad- mit of degrees of comparison, which they form after the manner of adjectives. Ex. Soon, sooner, soonest, bravely, more bravely, most bravely. 35. Prepositions. — These also are uninflected words, and besides the prepositions, properly so- called, nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, and ad- verbs, and even combinations of words, are employed as prepositions. Almost all the real prepositions ad- mit of being used to express every variety of rela- tion between the predicate and its objects, and be- tween a subject and its attributes ; but originally they all expressed the relation of place alone. The prepositions, properly so called, and other words used for prepositions, are such as above, about, across, after, against, along, among, at, before, behind, beside, between, beyond, by, concerning, down, during, from, in, into, of, off, on, over, save, since, through, till, to, towards, up, upon, with, &'c. The following are some of the combinations of words used as prepositions : — because of by means of, on account of, in behalf of, instead of, according to, ad- jacent to, contrary to, with respect to, ^-c. 4- -^ 20 GRAMMAR. Verbs frequently have prepositions as affixes, to modify their signification ; and sometimes preposi- tions are used as adverbial objects in our language, which in other tongues are compounded with the verb. Ex. He undertook that business willingly ; they have overcome their enemies ; what would I not undergo for you ? " they went over to the enemy ; " " the i^oqX passes it over as hastily as he can ; " "to set forth great things by small ; " "I shall set out for London to-morrow." 36. Conjunctions, like adverbs and prepositions, are indeclinable words. Some words are used only as conjunctions, and are called conjunctions proper ; others are really pronouns, adverbs, &c. Coordinative conjunctions are simply copulative, as, and, also, besides, moreover, too, not only — but also, both — and, as well as, neither^nor, then, 6^<:. ; adver- sative, as, else, either — or, not — but, on the contrary, still, nevertheless, dr'c.j or causative, as, therefore, hence, so, consequently, for, accordingly. Subordina- tive conjunctions connect adverbial and subjective accessory sentences with their principal sentences ; and are such as, that, but that, but, whether, if, since, although, unless, so, when, while, whilst, where, whence, b^c. 37. Amongst these indeclinable classes of words may be found many very interesting examples of ancient forms and inflexions of the English lan- guage, some of which have been lost in all but these instances, and in these the original signification is no longer preserved. Ex. Possessive cases, else, una- wares, needs ; dative cases, seldom, whilom; neuter objective cases, little, less, well, nigh, athwart j com- parative degrees, after, yonder, over, ere; superlative degrees, erst, next, almost. Note, that indeclinable words, which are used only as adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjec- tions, are frequently called particles — and also, that the direct affirmative, yes, and the direct negative, no, are by some grammarians placed in a distinct class, as not being properly adverbs. The great cause of the varied appearances or pro- nunciations of words originally the same in the speech of several races, is loss of care in utterance. The reasons for preferring one form to another are not always exactly definable, but as a rule the linguistic laws of phonetic alteration conform to the physical laws of articulation. Loss of care in utterance is ever to be avoided. 38. For the purpose of rendering this compen- dium of English Grammar more serviceable in such a study as that recommended in the first part, the examples in illustration of the Syntax are taken from casually opened pages of the English Bible, Shake- speare, the quotations in Dr. Johnson's English Dic- tionary, and one or two other books. In the same manner, the student should select examples by way of exercise, and to demonstrate to himself that he un- derstands the grammatical principles exhibited here. Words are combined in the formation of sentences in three ways ; as subjects and predicates, as attrib- utives to sulDJects, and as objects to predicates. And sentences are combined coordinately, or subordi- nately ; subordinate or accessory sentences occupy- ing the positions of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs, in the principal sentences of which they form part. 39. Subject and Predicate. — In every sen- tence of perfectly expressed thought, these two ele- ments are absolutely requisite — some person or thing spoken of, or a subject ; and something asserted re- specting it, or a predicate. If either subject or predicate be wanting, the expression in itself is un- intelligible. For subjects, nouns (which stand for persons or things) or pronouns (used in the place of nouns, and always in the nominative case), adjectives, participles or infinitive moods (representing qualities, actions, &c.), single words or letters (in which the thing and the name are identical), or subjective accessory sen- tences, may be used. Ex. "All tongues speak of him;" ^^ action is eloquence; " ^^vay praises made the first a soldier;" ''younreo. traitor;" " here >^r. Johnson^s Dictionary," ^^ Duke Hum- phrey's deeds," " The Lord Protector's wife," " my Lord Cardinal's man," " Saint Albans shrine." Accessory sentences are employed as attribu- tives. Ex. " Whose hand is that the forest bear doth lick? Not hi?, that spoils her young before her face," " a day will come, whe?t York shall claim his own," " in that chair, where kings and queens are crowned." 51. Many of the illustrations given above show how common it is for a single subject to be described and defined by means of many attributives. The fol- lowing examples will show some of the ways in which the repetition of the same word as subject to several attributives, or as attributive to several subjects, is prevented. Ex. " I thought the king had more af- fected the Duke of Albany than Cornwall," " the princes, France and Burgnndy," " here I disclaim all . , . propinquity and property of blood, and as a stranger to my heart and me, hold thee," " we still re- tain the name and all the additions to a king," "thy dowerless daughter is queen of us, of ours, and our fair France," " he wrote this but as an essay or taste 4r- -A \^ GRAMMAR. 25 of my virtue; " " menaces and maledictions against king and nobles; " " the marks of sovereignty, knowledge, and reason; " " my train are men of choice and rarest parts; " " the messengers from our sister and the king;" " he, the sacred honor of himself, his queen's, his hopeful son's, his babe's betrays to slander; " " uftcles of Gloster and of Winchester; " " the Dukes of Or- leans, Calaber, Bretaigne, and Alengon." 52. Predicate and Object. — The signification of predicates is modified or completed by means of words, phrases, and accessory sentences, which are called objects. And not only are all parts of verbs followed by these adjuncts, but adjectives also fre- quently require them. Objects which complete or supplement the mean- ing of their predicates are of three kinds : — (i.) The immediate or direct object of the predicate ; (2.) the remoter, or mediate and indirect object ; (3.) the remotest object, or that which indicates the ef- fect or result of what is asserted in the predicate. Ex. 1st obj. 2d obj. 3d obj. "I will take you tome for a people." 2d obj. 1st obj. 3d obj. " This opinion gave them courage to all adventures." Those which modify or attemper the signification of their predicates are six in number : — (i.) Those which indicate the cause or origin of whatever is as- serted in the predicate ; (2.) those which tell its de- sign or purpose ; (3.) those which declare the means by which it is brought about ; (4.) those which show the manner of its existence or action ; (5.) and (6.) those indicating the time and place of its occurrence. It must, however, be observed, that it is not easy in all instances to determine to which class an object belongs — those expressing cause, purpose, or means frequently being distinguishable by exceedingly evanescent characteristics. But this is not, practi- cally, either inconvenient or productive of ambi- guity ; as may be seen in the examples of these and other kinds of objects. Ex. (i.) "My soul grows sad with troubles ; " " by that sin fell the angels." (2.) "She went to glean Palcemon's fields;" "one man pursues power in order to wealth, and another wealth in order to poiver." (3.) "Judge the event by what has passed;" "the strong through pleasure falls soonest." (4.) " They act ay/j^^y " " beware and gov- ern w>, \ \ \ % \ % \ % f^ ^ % % % !% % ^ \ % •% % % t% % 1^ -% ^^ % ^. % •% t, % ^ ^ -%ll Synonvme is a term applied to different words, whose meaning is so nearly the same, that the one may be substituted for the other, without altering the sense of the sentence, in order to avoid the inelegant repe- tition of the same word : ^BANDON, leave, forsake, desert, renounce, relinquish, quit,*forego, let go, waive. Abandoned, wicked, reprobate, dissolute, profligate, flagitious, corrupt, depraved, vicious. Abandonment, leaving, desertion, dereliction, renun- ciation, defection. Abasement, degradation, fall, degeneracy, humilia- tion, abjection, debasement, servility. Abash, bewilder, disconcert, discompose, confound, confuse, shame. Abbreviate, shorten, abridge, condense, contract, curtail, reduce. Abdicate, give up, resign, renounce, abandon, forsake, relinquish, quit, forego. Abet, help, encourage, instigate, incite, stimulate, aid, assist. Abettor, assistant, accessory, accomplice, promoter, instigator, /ar^/- ce/s criminis, coadjutor, associate, companion, cooperator. Abhor, dislike intensely, view with horror, hate, detest, abominate, loathe, nauseate. Ability, capability, talent, faculty, capacity, qualification, aptitude, apt- ness, expertness, skill, efficiency, accomplishment, attainment. Abject, grovelling, low, mean, base, ignoble, worthless, despicable, vile, servile, contemptible. Abjure, recant, forswear, disclaim, recall, revoke, retract, renounce. Able, strong, powerful, musculfir, stalwart, vigorous, athletic, robust, brawny, skillful, adroit, competent, efficient, capable, clever, self- qualified, telling, fitted. Abode, residence, habitation, dwelling, domicile, home, quarters, lodging. Abolish, quash, destroy, revoke, abrogate, annul, cancel, annihilate, extinguish, vitiate, invalidate, nullify. Abominable, hateful, detestable, odious, vile, execrable. Abortive, fruitless, ineffectual, idle, inoperative, vain, futile. About, concerning, regarding, relative to, with regard to, as to, respect- ing, with respect to, referring to, around, nearly, approximately. Abscond, run off, steal away, decamp, bolt. Absent, a., inattentive, abstracted, not attending to, listless, dreamy. Absolute, entire, complete, unconditional, unqualified, unrestricted, despotic, arbitrary, tyrannous, imperative, authoritative, imp>erious. Absolve, set free, loose, clear, acquit, liberate, release, forgive. Absorb, engross, swallow up, engulf, imbibe, consume, merge, fuse. Absurd, silly, foolish, preposterous, ridiculous, irrational, unreasona- ble, nonsensical, inconsistent. Abuse, v., asperse, revile, vilify, reproach, calumniate, defame, slander, scandalize, malign, traduce, disparage, depreciate, ill-use. Abuse, »., scurrility, ribaldry, contumely, obloquy, opprobrium, foul invective, vituperation. Accede, assent to, consent, acquiesce, comply with, agfree, coincide, concur, approve. Accelerate, hasten, hurry, expedite, forward, quicken, despatch. Accept, receive, take, admit. Acceptable, agreeable, pleasing, pleasurable, gratifying, welcome. Accident, casucdty, incident, contingency, adventure, chance. Acclamation, applause, plaudit, exultation, joy, shouting, cheering, triumph, jubilation. Accommodate, adapt, adjust, fit, suit, serve, supply, furnish. Accomplice, confederate, accessory, abettor, coadjutor, assistant, ally, associate, particefs crintinis. Accomplish, do, effect, finish, execute, achieve, complete, perfect, con- summate. Accomplishment, attainment, qualification, acquirement. Accord, grant, allow, admit, concede. Accost, salute, address, speak to, stop, greet. Account, z'., assign, adduce, reckon, compute, calculate, estimate. Account, »., narrative, description, narration, relation, detail, recital, moneys, reckoning, bill, charge. Accountable, punishable, answerable, amenable, responsible, liable. Accredited, authorized, commissioned, empowered, intrusted. Accumulate, bring together, amass, collect, gather. Accumulation, collection, store, mass, congeries, concentration. Accurate, correct, exact, precise, nice, truthful. Achieve, do, accomplish, effect, fulfill, execute, gain, win. Achievement, feat, exploit, accomplishment, attainment, perform- ance, acquirement, gain. Acknowledge, admit, confess, own, avow, grant, recognize, allow, con- cede. Acquaint, inform, enlighten, apprise, make aware, make known, no- tify, communicate. Acquaintance, familiarity, intimacy, cognizance, fellowship, compan- ionship, knowledge. Acquiesce, agree, accede, assent, comply, consent, give way, coincide with. Acquit, pardon, forgive, discharge, set free, clear, absolve. Act, do, operate, make, perform, play, enact. Action, deed, achievement, feat, exploit, accomplishment, battle, en- gagement, agency, instrumentality. Active, lively, sprightly, alert, agile, nimble, brisk, quick, supple, prompt, vigilant, laborious, industrious. Actual, real, positive, genuine, certain. Acute, shrewd, intelligent, penetrating, piercing, keen. Adapt, accommodate, suit, fit, conform. Addicted, devoted, wedded, attached, given up to, dedicated. Addition, increase, accession, augmentation, reinforcement. Address, tact, skill, ability, dexterity, deportment, demeanor. Adhesion, adherence, attachment, fidelity, devotion. Adjacent, near to, adjoining, contiguous, conterminous, bordering, neighboring. Adjourn, defer, prorogue, postpone, delay. Adjunct, appendage, appurtenance, app>endency, dependency. Adjust, set right, fit, accommodate, adapt, arrange, settle, regulate, or- ganize. Admirable, striking, surprising, wonderful, astonishing-. -^ 34 SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. Admonition, warning, notice, caution; Adopt, take, assume, appropriate, choose. Adorn, beautify, decorate, embellish, ornament. Adroit, skillful, clever, dexterous, expert. Advance, bring forward, adduce, assign, allege. Advancement, preferment, promotion, progress. Advantage, benefit, good, profit, avail, utility, service. Advantageous, beneficial, profitable, salutary. Adventure, incident, occurrence, casualty, contingency, accident, event. Adventurous, bold, enterprising, daring, chivalrous, rash, precipitate, foolhardy. Adversary, opponent, antagonist, enemy, foe. Adverse, opposed to, contrary, opposite, counteractive, hostile, re- pugnant. Adversity, misfortune, affliction, calamity, disaster. Advertise, publish, announce, proclaim, promulgate. Advice, warning, counsel, instruction, information, deliberation, con- sultation, reflection, consideration. Advise, acquaint, inform, communicate, notify, tell. Advocate, counsel, defender, upholder. Affability, courteousness, courtesy, urbanity, politeness. Affect, influence, act upon, interfere with, feign, pretend, assume. Affecting, touching, pathetic, melting, moving. Affection, fondness, attachment, kindness, love, tenderness, endear^ ment. Affectionate, loving, attached to, fond, kind, tender, filial. Affinity, relationship, alliance, union, kin, kindred, relation. Affirm, swear, assert, asseverate, declare, aver, protest. Affirmation, asseveration, protestation, declaration. Affix, attach, annex, subjoin, connect, adjoin. Afflict, grieve, give pain, distress, trouble, torment, agonize. Afflicting, grievous, unhappy, painful, disastrous, calamitous. Affluence, opulence, w^ealth, riches, abundance, luxuriance. Afford, give, impart, communicate, produce, bestow, grant, confer, spare. Affright, frighten, terrify, appall, overawe, dismay, scare, daunt, cow. Affront, injury, wrong, insult, offence, outrage. Afraid, timid, fearful, timorous, faint-hearted. Age, period, time, date, generation, era, epoch, decade, century, • Agency, instrumentality, influence, operation, management. Aggrandize, exalt, promote, prefer, advance, elevate. Aggravate, tantalize, irritate, inflame, provoke, chafe, nettle, embitter, exasperate, increase, enhance, heighten, make worse. Aggregate, «., total, entire, complete, the whole. Aggregate, z»., heap up, amass, accumulate, get together. Agitate, convulse, disturb, stir, move, shake, oscillate, toss, upheave. Agitation, perturbation, emotion, trepidation, throb, thrill, tremor. Agonize, distress, rack, torture, writhe, excruciate, pain. Agony, anguish, pang, throe, pain, distress, suffering, woe. Agree, consent, assent, accede, acquiesce, comply, coincide, tally. Aid, »., assistance, support, sustenance, succor, relief, help, coopera- tion. Ailing, unwell, sickly, diseased, ill. Aim, v., direct, point, level, endeavor to attain. Aim, «., end, purpose, object, drift, scope, design, intent, intention, tendency. Alarm, terror, fright, affright, dismay, consternation, disquietude. Alienate, estrange, take off, withdraw from, transfer, assign, convey. Allay, appease, assuage, mitigate, soothe, alleviate, solace, compose, calm, pacify, tranquilize, repress. Allege, affirm, declare, maintain, adduce, advance, assign. Alleviate, assuage, mitigate, soothe, solace, relieve, abate, allay, di- minish, extenuate, soften. Alliance, affinity, union, connection, relation, confederacy, combina- tion, coalition, league, confederation. Allot, assign, apportion, appropriate, appoint, distribute. Allow, admit, concede, yield, grant, give, permit, tolerate, suffer, sanc- tion, authorize. Allude, hint, refer, insinuate, imply, glance at, intimate, suggest. Allure, entice, attract, decoy, tempt, seduce, abduce. Alteration, change, variation, shifting, transition, changeableness, mu tability. Altercation, contention, dispute, dissension,, variance, affray, brawl, feud, quarrel. Altitude, height, elevation, ascendant. Always, continually, ever, perpetually, constantly, incessantly, un- ceasingly, forever, eternally. Amass, accumulate, collect, gather, heap up, pile up, hoard, store up. Amazing, astonishing, wondrous, surprising, marvelous, stupendous. Ameliorate, improve, amend, better. Amend, mend, better, improve, correct, rectify, ameliorate. Amends, compensation, recompense, restoration, reparation, atonement. Amicable, friendly, social, sociable. Ample, complete, full, wide, spacious, capacious, extensive, liberal, ex- pansive, diffusive. Amplification, enlargement, exegesis, expansion, development. Amusement, recreation, pastime, entertainment, diversion, sport. Ancient, old-fashioned, old, antique, antiquated, obsolete. Anger, v., vex, exasperate, enrage, inflame, irritate, kindle, provoke, imbitter, incense. Anger, «., wrath, -passion, rage, fury, indignation, ire, choler, bile, ex- asperation, irritation, resentment, incensement, pique, displeasure. Angry, passionate, irascible, choleric, touchy, hasty, hot, sullen, moody, incensed, irritated, enraged, provoke^ galled, chafed, nettled, piqued, exasperated, wrathful. Anguish, woe, agony, pain, distress, suffering. Animosity, enmity, feeling against, malignity, hostility, antagonism. Annex, add, attach, affix, append, subjoin, adjoin. Annihilate, destroy, annul, extinguish, nullify. Announce, make known, publish, advertise, proclaim, report, notify, give out. Annoy, vex, tease, chafe, molest, incommode, discommode, inconveni- ence, disaccommodate. Annoyance, trouble, uneasiness, discomfort. Annul, revoke, abolish, abrogate, repeal, cancel, destroy, extinguish, quash, nullify. Answerable, responsible, accountable, amenable, suitable. Anterior, preceding, antecedent, previous, prior, foregoing, former. Anticipate, forestall, foretaste, prejudge. Antipathy, dislike, aversion, repugnance, contrariety, opposition, hatred, antagonism, hostility, feeling against. Antithesis, contrast, opposition. Anxiety, care, solicitude, attention, intentness, eagerness. Apathetic, insensible, impassive, insensitive, indifferent. Apocryphal, uncertain, unauthentic, legendary. Appall, affright, dismay, terrify, frighten, scare, daunt, cow. Apparent, easily seen, visible, palpable, clear, plain, transparent, un- mistakable, unambiguous, evident, manifest, distinct, self-evident. Appease, pacify, quiet, calm, compose, sooth, tranquilize, assuage. Appellation, name, denomination, cognomen. Applaud, praise, extol, commend, approve. Appoint, assign, allot, ordain, depute, order, prescribe, constitute, settle, determine. Apportion, distribute, allot, appropriate. Apprehend, take, arrest, seize, think, feel, conceive, imagine, fancy, anticipate, fear, dread, understand. Apprise, make known, acquaint, notify, inform, make aware, make cognizant, disclose, communicate. Appropriate, »., take to, adopt, assume, arrogate, usurp, allot, assign. Approval, assent, approbation, concurrence, consent. Apt, fit, meet, suitable, pertinent, prompt, ready, quick, dexterous, ap- propriate. Arbitrary, despotic, imperious, domineering, tyrannous, tynmnical. Arbitrator, arbiter, judge, umpire, referee. Ardent, eager, fervid, hot, fiery, glowing, passionate. Arrange, put in order, place, assort, classify, regulate, dispose, adjust. Arrest, stop, apprehend, withhold, keep back, restrain. Arrogance, assumption, haughtiness, pride, loftiness. Art, skill, tact, aptitude, adroitness, expertness, cunning, subtilty. Artifice, trick, stratagem, machination, deception, cheat, imposture delusion. ■^ SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. ^ 4r Artless, fair, honest, ingenuous, frank, candid, unsophisticated, open. Ascendency, superiority, influence, authority, sway, mastery. Ask, request, entreat, solicit, beg, claim, demand, invite, question. Aspect, light, view, appearance, complexion, feature, lineament, air, look, mien, countenance. Asperity, acrimony, acerbity, harshness, smartness, pungency, poign- ancy, tartness, roughness. Asperse, accuse falsely, malign, slander, traduce, defame, scandalize, disparage, depreciate. Assault, v., assail, attack, invade, encounter, storm. Assemble, congregate, collect, gather, muster, bring together. Assembly, assemblage, collection, group, company, muster, congrega- tion, convention, congress, diet, council, convocation, conclave, synod, meeting, auditory, audience. Assert, affirm, declare, aver, protest, maintain, vindicate, defend. Assign adduce, allege, advance, bring forward, appoint, allot, appro- priate, apportion. Associate, colleague, ally, partner, coadjutor, comrade, companion. Association, company, society, confederacy, union, partnership, fellow- ship, companionship. Assuage, compose, calm, pacify, allay, soothe, conciliate, appease, tranquilize, mitigate, alleviate, palliate, mollify. Assume, pretend to, arrogate, usurp, appropriate, affect. Assurance, confidence, certainty, consciousness, conviction, effrontery, impudence. Athletic, stalwart, powerful, brawny, muscular, robust, able-bodied. Atrocious, heinous, enormous, flagrant, villainous, notorious, mon- strous, inhuman. Attach, affix, append, subjoin, annex, adjoin, connect, stick, distrain. Attachment, affection, devotedness, devotion, fondness, love, endear- ment. Attain, gain, get, procure, reach, arrive at, acquire, win, obtain. Attempt, effort, exertion, endeavor, essay, trial, experiment. Attend, go with, accompany, escort, wait on, listen, nearken, heed. Attest, testify, witness, prove. Attire, »., dress, apparel, garments, clothes, habiliments. Attitude, posture, gesture, gesticulation, action. Attract, draw to, allure, entice, charm, wheedle. Attribute, quality, property, grace, accomplishment, attainment. Audacious, assuming, forward, presumptuous. Augment, increase, enlarge, extend, stretch out, spread out. Auspicious, fortunate, favorable, propitious, prosperous, lucky, happy. Austere, rigid, severe, rigorous, stern, harsh. Authoritative, commanding, swaying, imperative, imperious. Auxiliary, assistant, helping, conducive, furthering, instrumental. Avail, advantage, profit, use, benefit, service, utility. Available, profitable, advantageous, useful, beneficial. Avarice, covetousness, cupidity, greediness. Averse, adverse, hostile, reluctant, unwilling, backward. Aversion, dislike, antipathy, hatred, repugnance, distaste. Avocation, employment, calling, business, occupation, office, engage- ment, function, profession, trade. Award, adjudge, adjudicate, judge, determine. Awkward, rough, clumsy, unpolished, untoward, backward. Awry, crooked, wry, bent, curved, inflected, oblique. BAD, wicked, evil, unsound, unwholesome, baneful, deleterious, per- nicious, noisome, noxious. Baffle, defeat, discomfit, bewilder. Balance, poise, weigh, neutralize, counteract, equalize. Balmy, fragrant, sweet-scented, odoriferous, odorous, perfumed. Baneful, hurtful, destructive, pernicious, noxious, deleterious. Barbarous, savage, brutal, cruel, inhuman, ruthless, merciless, re- morseless, unrelenting, uncivilized. Bargain, agreement, convention, compact, stipulation, covenant, con- tract. Base, bad, low, mean, sordid, grovelling, ignoble, ignominious, dis- honorable, vile, counterfeit. Battle, combat, engagement, action, conflict, contesi, fight. Bear, hold up, sustain, support, endure, carry, maintain, convey, trans- port, waft, suffer, tolerate, tmdergo, put up witJa. Bearing, manner, deportment, demeanor, behavior, conduct. Beat, strike, knock, hit, belabor, thump, dash, vanquish, overpower, conquer, defeat. Beau, sweetheart, wooer, lover, suitor, fop, dandy, coxcomb. Beaytiful, elegant, beauteous, handsome, fair, pretty. Beautify, adorn, decorate, embellish, deck, ornament. Becoming, befitting, comely, decent, fit, proper, suitable. Beg, ask, entreat, crave, solicit, beseech, implore, supplicate. Beguile, amuse, entertain, deceive, mislead, impose upon. Belief, faith, credence, credit, trust, confidence, reliance, conviction. persuasion. Below, underneath, beneath, under, lower, inferior, subordinate. Bend, lean, incline, distort, stoop, descend, condescend. Beneficent, benevolent, bountiial, bounteous, munificent, liberal, gen- erous. Benefit, advantage, good, pwofit, service, ability, avail, use. Benevolence, beneficence, benignity, kindness, generosity. Benign, benignant, benevolent, kind, gracious, bland, tender, good. Bent, «., inclination, disp>osition, tendency, bias, prepossession, pro- pensity, predilection, proneness. Bereave, deprive, strip, dispossess, disarm, divest. Better, improve, amend, ameliorate, reform, rectify. Bewail, wail, bemoan, lament, mourn over. Bewilder, confound, perplex, embarrass, entangle, puzzle. Bewitch, entrance, enchain, fascinate, charm, enchant, enrapture, ca{>- tivate, enamor. Bias, bent, inclination, predilection, tendency, partiality, prejudice. Bid, offer, proffer, tender, prop>ose, call, invite, summon. Bind, tie, restrain, restrict, connect, link, engage, oblige. Binding, astringent, costive, valid, obligatory, stringent, constrain- ing. Bitter, harsh, pungent, poignant, stinging. Black, dark, murky, pitchy, inky, Cimmerian. Blacken, defame, calumniate, slander, scandalize, asperse. Blamable, culpable, censurable, reprehensible, reprovable. Blame, reprove, reprehend, censure, condemn, reprobate, reproach. Blameless, inculpable, guiltless, sinless, innocent, immaculate, un« sullied, unblemished, spotless. Bland, soft, gentle, mild, kind, gracious, benign, benignant. Blast, v., blight, wither, shrivel, destroy. Blatant, noisy, clamorous, braying, bellowing, vociferous. Blemish, v., stain, blur, sully, sjjot, obscure, dim, ruin, spxiil, mar. Blemish, «., flaw, si>eck, spiot, blur, defect, imi)erfection, fault. Bliss, ecstacy, felicity, blessedness, blissfulness. Bloodshed, carnage, slaughter, butchery, massacre. Bloody, gory, sanguinary, ensanguined, murderous. Bloom, blossom, bud, sprout, germinate, shoot forth. Blot, stain, blur, speck, flaw, blemish, defect. Blot out, Yfipe out, erase, expunge, delete, obliterate, cancel, efface. annihilate. Bluff, blustering, burly, swaggering, hectoring, bullying. Blunt, pointless, obtuse, edgeless, unpolite, rough, rude. Boast, glory, triumph, vaunt, brag. Boisterous, violent, furious, impassioned, impetuous, vehement, stormy, turbulent. Bold, fearless, undaunted, dauntless, braVe, daring, adventurous, in- trepid, audacious, impudent, contumacious. Bondage, slavery, thraldom, vassalage, servitude, serfdom, capthrity imprisonment, confinement. Bound, limit, circumscribe, confine, restrict, restrain, terminate. Boundless, unlimited, unbounded, infinite, interminable. Bounty, munificence, liberality, generosity, benevolence, beneficence, charity, benignity, humanity. Brand, stigmatize, denounce, mark. Brave, courageous, gallant, chivalrous, daring, adventurous, valorous, heroic, valiant, bold, dauntless, intrepid, magnanimous, fearless. Brawny, muscular, athletic, sinewy, powerful, robust, stalwart, able- bodied, strong. Break, burst, rend, rack, violate, infringe, transgress, demolish, de- stroy. Breed, hatch, brood, incubate, beget, engender, generate, produce. Brevity, shortness, conciseness, succinctness. 36 SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. Brief, short, concise, compendious, succinct, summary. Bright clear, lucid, transparent, limpid, lustrous, translucent, shining, brilliant, luminous, radiant, gleaming. Brisk, active, agile, nimble, lively, quick, sprightly, prompt, alert, as- siduous, vigorous, vigilant. Broad, wide, large, ample, expanded, extensive. Brotherly, fraternal, affectionate, kind. Bruise, break, crush, squeeze, pulverize, levigate, triturate. Brutality, savageness, ferocity, barbarity. Brutish, cruel, inhuman, merciless, ferocious, remorseless, ruthless, barbarous, savage, irrational, sensual. Bud, sprout, germinate, blossom, bloom, shoot forth. Build, erect, construct, raise, found. Bulk, siiie, dimension, magnitude, greatness, bulkiness, bigness, large- ness, massiveness. Buoyancy, lightness, elasticity, animation, spirit, vivacity. Burst, break, crack, split, rend. ■ Bury, inter, inhume, entomb, immure. Bystander, onlooker, spectator, beholder, observer. CAJOLE, coax, wheedle, flatter, fawn. Calamitous, disastrous, fatal, unfortunate, unlucky, hapless, luckless, ill-fated, ill-starred. Calculate, reckon, guess, suppose, compute, estimate. Call together, convene, convoke, assemble, muster, collect, gather. Called, named, termed, designated, denominated, ycleped. Calling, «., employment, business, avocation, vocation, pursuit, engagement, occupation, trade, profession, office, duty, func- tion. Callous, hard, obdurate, impenitent, unfeeling, insensible, insensitive, unsusceptible. Calm, v.^ tranquillize, allay, appease, quiet, hush, pacify, assuage, soothe, compose. Calm, a., quiet, undisturbed, serene, placid, composed, collected, im- perturbable, tranquil, pacific, unruffled, still. Calumniate, vilify, revile, accuse falsely, asperse, traduce, malign, slander, defame, scandalize, disparage. Calumny, slander, false accusation, aspersion, defamation. Cancel, blot out, obliterate, expunge, efface, wipe out, rub out, erase, quash, abolish, annul, repeal, abrogate, revoke, destroy, invalidate, nullify. Candid, fair, sincere, honest, open, artless, ingenuous, frank, plain. Canvass, discuss, dispute, contest, controvert, sift, examine, solicit, apply for. Capable, able, qualified, competent, efficient, fitted, susceptible, clever, skillful. Capacious, roomy, ample, spacious. Capacity, capability, skill, ability, faculty, power, talent, efficiency. Caprice, freak, whim, humor, crotchet, fancy. Captious, touchy, testy, cross, petulant, peevish, fretful. Captivate, charm, enchant, fascinate, enrapture, bewitch, entrance enchain, enamor, confine, imprison. Captivity, imprisonment, confinement, bondage, slavery, thraldom servitude, serfdom. Care, anxiety, solicitude, concern, attention, regard, circumspection, caution. Career, history, course, race, passage, life. Careful, attentive, anxious, solicitous, heedful, provident, circum- spect. Careless, negligent, heedless, supine, inattentive, incautious, thought- less, remiss, indolent, listless. Caress, fondle, hug, embrace. Carnage, butchery, bloodshed, slaughter, massacre. Carnal, fleshly, sensual, voluptuous, luxurious, secular, worldly. Carry, bear, sustain, convey, transport. Casualty, accident, contingency, incident, occurrence, event, adven- ture. Catch, overtake lay hold on, grasp, seize, capture, grip, clutch, snatch, arrest, apprehend. Catching, infectious, contagious, pestilential, miasmatic, insidious. Cause, «., motive, reason, incentive, inducement, incitement, impulse, effort, work, operation. Cause, »., occasion, make, induce, originate, give rise to, evoke, ptxx^ voke, incite. Caution, care, vigilance, circumspection, admonition, warning, notice. Cautious, careful, watchful, prudent, wary, vigilant, circumspect. Celebrate, commend, applaud, laud, extol, magnify, glorify. Celebrated, famous, renowned, far-famed, illustrious, glorious. Celerity, quickness, speed, rapidity, velocity, swiftness, fleetness. Celestial, heavenly, divine, godlike, seraphic, angelic. Censure, »., blame, reprove, reprehend, reprobate, condemn, upbraid. Ceremony, form, observance, rite, solemnity. Certain, sure, indubitable, unquestionable, unfailing, secure, real, actual, positive. Certify, testify, vouch, declare. . Cessation, intermission, rest, pause, discontinuance. Champion, leader, chieftain, head. Chance, accident, fortune, casualty, hazard, luck. Change, z/., alter, vary, transform, exchange, barter. Change, «., variety, alteration, alternation, vicissitude. Changeable, variable, unsteady, undecided, wavering, hesitating, vac- illating, fluctuating, inconstant, unsteadfast, unstable, fickle, ver- satile, restless, fitful, capricious. Character", cast, turn, tone, description, nature, disposition, reputa- tion. Charge, z/., accuse, impeach, arraign, inculpate. Charge, «., care, custody, ward, trust, management, cost, price, ex- pense, account, fee, bill, assault, shock, onset, attack, accusation, impeachment, imputation. Charity, kindness, benig^nity, beneficence, benevolence, tenderness. Charm, enchant, fascinate, bewitch, enrapture, captivate, enamor. Chat, chatter, prattle, prate, babble, gossip. Cheat, z;., defraud, gull, dupe, trick, beguile, deceive, delude, hood- wink. Cheat, «., deception, imposture, fraud, delusion, artifice, deceit, trick, imposition. Check, curb, restrain, repress, control, counteract, chide, reprimand, reprove, rebuke. Cheer, exhilarate, animate, inspirit, inspire, enliven, gladden, comfort, solace. Cheerfulness, gayety, sprightliness, merriment, mirth, liveliness, vi- . vaclty, joviality. Cheerless, broken-hearted, comfortless, disconsolate, inconsolable, des- olate, forlorn. Cherish, nourish, nurture, nurse, foster, sustain. Choose, prefer, select, elect, call, pick. Circuitous, roundabout, tortuous, flexuous, tiresome. Circulate, spread, diffuse, disseminate, propagate. Circumspection, caution, watchfulness, vigilance, deliberation, though tfulness, wariness. Circumstance, situation, condition, position, fact, incident. Cite, quote, adduce, summon, call. Civil, polite, complaisant, affable, courteous, obliging, urbane, well- bred. Claim, v.y ask, demand, challenge, call for, plead. Clamor, outcry, fuss, noise, hubbub, uproar. Clandestine, hidden, secret, private. Class, «., order, rank, degree, grade, category, caste, tribe. Clause, stipulation, proviso, term, article. Clean, v., cleanse, clarify, purify. Clear, z/., absolve, acquit, liberate, deliver, release, set free, unbind. Clear, a., apparent, palpable, visible, obvious, plain, evident, manifest, unmistakable, distinct, intelligible, lucid, transparent, limpid. Clemency, leniency, mercy, mildness, mitigation. Clever, skillful, expert, dexterous, adroit. Cling, hold, stick, adhere, attach. Close, z*., conclude, shut, end, terminate, finish. Close, «., compact, solid, firm, dense. Clothes, garments, vestments, dress, habiliments, apparel, attire, array, raiment, vesture, drapery. Cloudy, dim, obscure, dark, dusky, murky, indistinct, shadowy, mjrs- terious. Clumsy, awkward, unpolished, uncourtly, ponderous. Clutch, grasp, lay hold on, catch, seize, grip. ^ -<%, r- SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 37 ^ Coalition, imion, alliance, confederacy, league, combination. Coarse, rough, rude, rugged, gruff, harsh. Coeval, contemporaneous, cotempwrary, contemporary. Cogent, forcible, strong, valid, irresistible, resistless. Colleague, fellow, compeer, companion. Collect, z/., gather, assemble, muster, congregate, accumulate, hoard. Colossal, large, gigantic, huge, enormous, immense, vast. Color, hue, tint, tinge, complexion. Combat, «., engagement, conflict, contest, fight, action, battle. Combat, v., oppose, resist, withstand, thwart. Combination, alliance, union, league, confederacy, coalition, con- spiracy. Comfort, solace, console, encouraj^, revive. Comfortless, cheerless, forlorn, disconsolate, inconsolable, desolate, wretched. Comic, funny, laughable, droll, ludicrous. Command, «., order, decree, injunction, mandate, precept, behest. Commence, begin, enter upon. Commend, z/., praise, applaud, extol, eulogize, recommend. Comment, observation, remark, annotation, elucidation. Commerce, dealing, trade, trafQc, intercourse, interchange, reciproc- ity. Commit, perpetrate, do, intrust, confide, consign. Commodious, convenient, useful, suitable. Common, vulgar, low, mean, frequent, ordinary, usual, general. Communicate, make known, divulge, disclose, reveal, impart. Communication, intercourse, correspondence, commerce, inter- change. Community, society, commonwealth, social state. Commute, change, alter, exchange, barter. Companion, comrade, coadjutor, partner, ally, associate, confederate, fellow, colleague. Company, association, society, assemble, assemblage, audience, audi- tory, corporation, body, troop, horde, crew. Comparison, simile, similitude, illustration. Compassion, pity, commiseration, sympathy, condolence. Compatible, consistent, consonant, accordant. Compel, force, constrain, coerce, enforce, oblige, necessitate. Compendious, brief, short, succinct, concise. Compensate, recompense, make amends, remimerate, requite. Competent, able, capable, efficient, qualified, fitted, clever, skillful, sufficient, adequate. Complete, v., accomplish, fulfil, realize, execute, effect, achieve, con- clude, consummate, finish, end, fill up, terminate. Complexion, aspect, appearance, feature, lineament, look. Complicated, complex, compound, involved, intricate. Compliment, praise, flatter, adulate, applaud. Comply, yield, accede, assent, consent, acquiesce. Compose, form, compound, put together, constitute, soothe, calm, quiet, lull, hush, frame, indite. Composed, serene, placid, calm, collected. Comprehend, comprise, take in, embrace, contain, embody, include, conceive, imagine, apprehend, understand. Comprehension, capacity, capability, knowledge. Intelligence, under- standing. Compress, condense, press, squeeze. Comprise, contain, include, compa-ehend, embody. Compromise, concede, implicate, involve, entangle, embarrass. Cempulsion, constraint, force, coercion. Compute, calculate, count, sum, number, account, reckon, estimate, rate,jneasure. Comrade, associate, companion, ally. Conceal, hide, secrete, disguise, dissemble. Concede, give up, deliver, yield, compromise, allow, grant, admit. Conceited, proud, vain, egotistical. Conceive, think of, imagine, suppose, comprehend, understand. Concern, affair, business, matter, care, regard, interest. Concerted, joint, cooperative, designed, wrought out, studied, elabo- rate. Concise, brief, short, succinct. Conclude, end, close, finish, terminate. Conclusion, end, upshot, event, inference, deduction. Concord, concert, chorus, harmony, unity. Concourse, crowd, confluence, conflux. Concur, acquiesce, agree, coincide. Condemn, blame, reprobate, reprove, reproach, upbraid, censure, rep- rehend, doom, sentence. Condense, compress, press, squeeze, concentrate, epitomize. Condition, state, plight, case, predicament, category, stipulation, cove- nant, article, term. Condolence, sympathy, commiseration, compassion. Conduce, contribute, subserve, lead, tend, incline. Conduct, «., behavior, demeanor, carriage, walk, deportment. Conduct, v., guide, lead, direct, manage. Confer, bestow, give, discourse, converse. Conference, meeting, conversation, talk, colloquy, dialogue, parley. Confess, acknowledge, avow, own, recognize. Confide, trust, repose, depend, rely. Confidence, assurance, trust, faith, reliance, hope. Confident, dogmatical, positive, absolute, bold, presumptuous, san- guine. Confine, limit, bound, circtimscribe, restrict, restrain, shut up. Confirm, ratify, establish, substantiate, corroborate, settle. Conflicting, jarring, discordant, irreconcilable. Confused, muddled, mixed, promiscuous, indistinct, deranged, disor- dered, disorganized, bewildered. Confusion, disorder, derangement, disorganization, chaos, anarchy, misrule. Confute, refute, disprove, belie. Conjure, v., adjure, beseech, entreat, implore. Connect, join, link, bind. Connection, union, alliance, coalition, junction, intercourse, com- merce, affinity, relationship. Conquer, vanquish, subdue, overcome, subjugate, surmount. Consecrate, sanctify, hallow, devote, dedicate. Consent, «., assent, acquiescence, concurrence, approval. Consequence, effect, result, event, issue, sequence. Consider, reflect, regard, weigh, ponder, deliberate. Consistent, consonant, compatible accordant. Console, solace, comfort, soothe. Conspicuous, distinguished, noted, marked, prominent, eminent, pre- eminent, illustrious, famed. Constancy, firmness, stability, steadiness. Constantly, ever, always, continually, j)erpetually, incessantly, ever- lastingly. Constitute, make, form, compose, mould. Constitutional, legal, regulated, organized, radical, rooted, funda- mental. Consult, advise with, take counsel, deliberate, debate. Ccosume, bum, absorb, spend, swallow, imbibe, engulf, devour. Consumption, decay, decline, waste. Contagious, infectious, pestilential, miasmatic. Contain, comprise, comprehend, include, embrace, bold, incorporate, embody. Contemplate, meditate, muse, think. Contemporary, contemporaneous, coeval, simultaneous. Contemptible, mean, vile, despicable, pitiful, paltry. Contend, contest, debate, argue, dispute, cope, strive, vie. Contingency, casualty, accident, incident, occurrence, adventure, event. Continual, imceasing, incessant, continuous, perpetual, uninterrupted, unremitting, endless, everlasting. Contort, distort, twist, writhe, wrest, wrench. Contract, v., abbreviate, curtail, shorten, condense, abridge, retrench, reduce. Contract, «., agreement, compact, bargain, stipulation, covenant. Contradict, oppose, deny, gainsay, controvert. Contrary, adverse, opposite, antagonistic, repugnant, hostile. Contribute, give to, cooperate, conspire. Contrition, repentance, j>enitence, remorse. Control, check, curb, repress, restrain, govern. Convene, call together, bring together, convoke, assemble, congregate, muster. Convention, assembly, meeting, convocation, company. 38 SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. kr^ Conventional, usual, ordinary, fashionable. Conversant, acquainted with, familiar, relating to, concerning. Converse, v., speak, talk, discourse, commune. Convert, change, turn, transform. Convey, carry, transport, bear, take, waft. Convivial, joyous, festal, soci&l, sociable. Convulse, upheave, upturn, shake. Cool, cold, frigid, dispassionate, unimpassioned, calm, undisturbed, composed. Co-operate, work with, conspire, conduce, contribute. Copious, ample, abundant, rich, afHuent, exuberant, plentiful, plente- ous, full. Corpulent, portly, stout, lusty, plethoric. Correct, v., put right, mend, amend, rectify, better, reform, improve. Correct, a., accurate, exact, precise, proper, faultless, punctual, strict. Corrupt, »., contaminate, defile, taint, pollute, infect, adulterate, demor- alize, deprave. Corrupt, a., depraved, debased, vitiated, demoralized, profligate. Corruption, defilement, contamination, pollution, infection, adultera- tion, vice, depravity, corruptness. Cost, price, charge, expense. Costly, expensive, valuable, precious, sumptuous. Council, assembly, company, congress, meeting, diet, convocation. Counsel, advice, instruction, intelligence, consultation, deliberation. Count, calculate, compute, reckon, number, sum, estimate, rate. Counterfeit, spurious, forged, imitated, suppositious, false. Counterpart, converse, reverse, correlative, correspondent, answer- able. Countless, innumerable, numberless, incalculable, unnumbered. Courage, resolution, fortitude, fearlessness, prowess, bravery, chivalry, intrepidity, boldness, firmness. Courteous, affable, urbane, conciliating, kind. Covenant, agreement, contract, bargain, stipulation. Cover, shelter, screen, hide, overspread, overshadow. Covert, secret, clandestine, concealed, hidden, latent, cabalistic, mys- terious. Crafty, cunning, artful, sly, subtle, wily. Crazy, crack-brained, imbecile, foolish, brainless. Create, make, form, cause, produce, generate, engender. Credence, belief, faith, confidence. Credit, belief, trustworthiness, reputation, security, honor, praise. Credulity, gullibility, simplicity. Crime, offence, misdeed, misdemeanor, felony. Cripple, weaken, impair, curtail, cramp. Criterion, test, touchstone, proof. Critical, nice, exact, fastidious, precarious, ticklish, crucial, important, hazardous. Criticise, examine, scan, analyze, discuss, anatomize. Cross, ill-tempered, fretful, ill-humored, crusty, peevish, fractious. Crude, raw, undigested, unconsidered, half-studied, harsh, unshaped, unfinished, unrefined, ill prepared. Curb, restrain, hold, check, moderate. Curiosity, inquisitiveness, interest, rarity, celebrity, oddity, lion. Curious, inquiring, inquisitive, searching, interrogative, prying, peep- ing, peering, rare, odd. Curse, malediction, anathema, bane, blight. Cursory, summary, rapid, superficial. Custody, keeping, guardianship, conservation, care. Custom, manner, habit, use, prescription. Cut, sever, slice, sunder, avoid, elude. Cynical, sarcastic, snarling, sneering, cross-grained, DAINTY, choice, rare, refined, tasty, exquisite, luxurious, epicurean, fcistidious. Danger, peril, hazard, risk, jeopardy. Dare, venture, face, brave, hazard, risk, defy. Dark, black, dusky, sable, swarthy, opaque, obscure, abstruse, unin- telligible, blind, ignorant, shadowy, dim, sombre, joyless, mourn- ful, sorrowful. Dash, hurl, cast, throw, drive, rush, send, fly, speed, course. Dead, defunct, deceased, departed, gone, inanimate, lifeless, insensible, heavy, unconscious, dull, spiritless. Death, departure, demise, decease, dissolution, mortality, expiration. Debase, degrade, lower, depress, deprave, deteriorate, corrupt, alloy. Debate, contend, dispute, argue, discuss, deliberate, question, ven- tilate. Debility, weakness, feebleness, lassitude, languor. Decay, decline, wane, dwindle, waste, ebb, decrease. Decayed, rotten, corrupt, unsound, decomposed, faded, unprosperous, impoverished. Deceit, cheat, imjyosition, trick, delusion, guile, beg^ilement, treach- ery, sham. Decide, determine, settle, adjudicate, terminate, resolve. Decipher, read, spell, interpret, solve. Decision, determination, conclusion, resolution, firmness. Declamation, oratory, elocution, harangue, effusion, debate. Declaration, avowal, manifestation, statement, profession. Decrease, diminish, lessen, wane, decline, retrench, curtail, reduce. Dedicate, devote, consecrate, offer, set, apportion, assign, apply, sepa rate. Deed, act, action, commission, achievement, instrument, document muniment. Deem, judge, estimate, consider, think, suppose, conceive. Deep, profound, subterranean, submerged, designing, abstruse, learned Deface, mar, spoil, injure, disfigure. Default, lapse, forfeit, omission, absence, want, failure. Defect, imperfection, flaw, fault, blemish. Defence, excuse, plea, vindication, bulwark, rampart. Defend, guard, protect, justify. Defer, delay, postpone, put off, prorogue, adjourn. Deficient, short, wanting, inadequate, scanty, incomplete. Defile, v., pollute, corrupt, sully. Define, fix, settle, determine, limit. Defray, meet, liquidate, pay, discharge, quit. Degree, grade, extent, measure, mark, range, quantity, amoimt, limit. Deliberate, v., consider, meditate, consult, ponder, debate. Deliberate, a., purposed, intentional, designed, determined. Delicacy, nicety, dainty, refinement, tact, softness, modesty. Delight, enjoyment, pleasure, happiness, transport, ecstacy, gladness, rapture, bliss. Deliver, liberate, free, rescue, pronounce, hand to, give. Demonstrate, prove, show, exhibit, illustrate. Depart, leave, quit, go, decamp, start, sally, retire, withdraw, remove, vanish. Deprive, strip, bereave, despoil, rob, divest. Depute, appoint, commission, charge, intrust, delegate, authorize, ac- credit. Derision, scorn, contempt, contumely, disrespect. Derivation, origin, source, beginning, cause, etymology, root, spring, analysis. Describe, draw, delineate, portray, explain, illustrate, define, picture. Desecrate, profane, secularize, misuse, abuse, pollute. . Deserve, merit, earn, justify, win. Design, «., delineation, sketch, drawing, cunning, artfulness, contriv- ance. Desirable, expedient, advisable, valuable, acceptable, proper, judicious, beneficial, profitable, good. Desire, «., longing, affection, craving. Desist, cease, stop, discontinue, drop, abstain, forbear. Desolate, bereaved, forlorn, forsaken, deserted, wild, waste, bare, bleak, lonely. Desperate, wild, daring, audacious, determined, reckless. Destination, purpose, intention, design, consignment, object, end, fate, doom, use, scope, goal, aim. Destiny, fate, decree, doom, end. Destructive, detrimental, hurtful, noxious, injurious, deleterious, bale- ful, baneful, subversive. Desultory, rambling, discursive, loose, unmethodical, superficial, un- settled, erratic, fitful. Detail, particularize, enumerate, specify. Deter, warn, stop, dissuade, dispirit, discourage, dishearten, terrify, scare. Detriment, loss, harm, injury, deterioration. Develop, enunciate, amplify, expand, enlarge. r- SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 39 Device, «., artifice, expedient, contrivance. Devoid, void, wanting, destitute, unendowed, unprovided. Devolve, impose, place, charge, commission, befall, fall on. Devoted, attached, fond, absorbed, dedicated, given, abandoned. Dictate, prompt, suggest, enjoin, order, command. Dictatorial, imperative, imperious, domineering, arbitrary, tyrannical, overbearing. Die, expire, depart, perish, decline, languish, wane, sink, fade, decay. Diet, food, victuals, nourishment, nutriment, sustenance, fare, cheer, regimen. Difference, separation, disagreement, discord, dissent, estrangement, variety. Difficult, hard, intricate, involved, perplexing, obscure, unmanage- able. Diffuse, discursive, prolix, diluted, copious. Dignify, agrandize, elevate, invest, exalt, advance, promote, honor. Dilate, stretch, widen, expand, swell, distend, enlarge, descant, ex- patiate. Dilatory, tardy, procrastinating, behindhand, lagging, dawdling. Diligence, care, assiduity, attention, heed, industry. Diminish, lessen, reduce, contract, curtail, retrench. Diplomatic, judicious, knowing, wise, prudent, sagacious. Disability, unfitness, incapacity. Discern, descry, observe, recognize, see, discriminate, separate, per- ceive. Discernible, visible, conspicuous, manifest, palpable. Discernment, discrimination, far-sightedness, clear-sightedness, pene- tration, observation, sagacity. Discipline, order, strictness, training, coercion, punishment, organiza- tion. Disclose, discover, reveal, confess, detect. Disconcert, abash, confuse, confound, upset, baffle, derange, discom- pose, frustrate, discomfit. Discover, make known, find, invent, contrive, expose, reveal. Discreditable, shameful, disgraceful, scandalous, disreputable. Discreet, cautious, prudent, wary, judicious. Discrepancy, disagreement, difference, variance. Discrimination, acuteness, discernment, judgment, caution. Disdain, contempt, scorn, haughtiness, disregard. Disease, complaint, malady, disorder, ailment, sickness. Disgrace, «., disrepute, reproach, dishonor, shame, odium. Disgrace, z/., debase, degrade, defame, discredit. Disgust, dislike, distaste, loathing-, abomination, abhorrence. Dishonest, unjust, fraudulent, unfair, deceitful, cheating, deceptive, wrongful. Dishonor, &., disgrace, shame, degrade, ravish, pollute. Dismay, v., terrify, frighten, scare, daunt, appall, dishearten. Dismay, «., terror, dread, fear, fright. Dismiss, send off, discharge, discard, banish. Disorderly, irregular, confused, lawless, unruly. Dispel, scatter, drive away, disperse, dissipate. Display, show, spread out, exhibit, expose. Displease, offend, vex, anger, provoke, irritate. Dispose, arrange, place, order, give, bestow. Dispute, w., argue, contest, contend, question, impugn. Dispute, «., argument, debate, controversy, quarrel, disagreement. Disregard, z/., slight, neglect, despise, disparage. Dissent, disagree, differ, vary. Distinct, clear, plain, obvious, different, separate. Distinguish, perceive, discern, mark out, divide, discriminate. Distinguished, famous, glorious, far-famed, noted, illustrious, eminent, celebrated. Distract, perplex, bewilder, madden. Distribute, allot, share, dispense, apportion, deal. Disturb, derange, discompose, agitate, rouse, interrupt, confuse, an- noy, trouble, vex, worry. Divide, part, separate, distribute, deal out, sever, sunder. Divine, godlike, holy, heavenly, sacred, a parson, clergyman, minister. Do, effect, make, perform, accomplish, finish, transact. Docile, tractable, teachable, compliant, tame. Doctrine, tenet, articles of belief, creed, dogma, teaching. Doleful, dolorous, woe-begone, rueful, dismal, piteous. Doom, n., sentence, verdict, judgment, fate, lot, destiny. Doubt, «., uncertainty, suspense, hesitation, scruple, ambiguity. Draw, pull, haul, drag, attract, inhale, sketch, describe. Dread, «., fear, horror, terror, alarm, dismay, awe. Dreadful, fearful, frightful, shocking, awful, horrible, horrid, terrific. Dress, «., clothing, attire, apparel, garments, costume, garb,'livery. Drift, purpose, meaning, scope, aim, tendency, direction. Droll, funny, laughable, comic, whimsical, queer, amusing. Drown, inundate, swamp, submerge, overwhelm, engulf. Dry, a., arid, parched, lifeless, dull, tedious, uninteresting, meagre. Due, owing to, attributable to, just, fair, proper, debt, right. Dull, stupid, gloomy, sad, dismal, commonplace. Durable, lasting, permanent, abiding, continuing. Dwell, stay, stop, abide, sojourn, linger, tarry. Dwindle, pine, waste, diminish, decrease, fall off. EAGER, hot, ardent, impassioned, forward, impatient. Earn, acquire, obtain, win, gain, achieve. Earnest, ardent, serious, grave, solemn, warm, pledge. Ease, v., calm, alleviate, allay, mitigate, appease, assuage, pacify, dis- burden, rid. Eccentric, irregular, anomalous, singular, odd, abnormal, wayward, particular, strange. Economical, sparing, saving, provident, thrifty, frugal, careful, nig- gardly. Edge, border, brink, rim, brim, margin, verge. Efface, blot out, expunge, obliterate, wipe out, cancel, erase. Effect, »., consequence, result, issue, event, execution, operation. Effect, v., accomplish, fulfill, realize, achieve, execute, operate, com- plete. Effective, efficient, operative, serviceable. Efficacy, efficiency, energy, agency, instrumentality. Efficient, effectual, effective, competent, capable, able, fitted. Eliminate, drive out, expel, thrust out, eject, cast out, oust, dislodge, banish, proscribe. Eloquence, oratory, rhetoric, declamation. Elucidate, make plain, explain, clear up, illustrate. Elude, evade, escape, avoid, shun. Embarrass, perplex, eniangle, distress, trouble. Embellish, adorn, decorate, bedeck, beautify, deck, illustrate. Embolden, inspirit, animate, encourage, cheer, urge, impel, stimulate. Eminent, distinguished, signal, conspicuous, noted, prominent, ele- vated, renowned, famous, glorious, illustrious. Emit, g^ve out, throw out, exhale, discharge, vent. Emotion, perturbation, agitation, trepidation, tremor, mental conflict. Employ, occupy, busy, take up with, engross. Employment, business, avocation, engagement, office, function, trade, profession, occupation, calling, vocation. * Encircle, enclose, embrace, encompass, surrotmd, gird, begird, engird, environ, beset. Enclose, v., fence in, confine, circumscribe. Encompass, v., encircle, surround, gird, begird, environ, beset, in- vest. Encounter, attack, conflict, combat, assault, onset, engagement, battle, action. Encourage, countenance, sanction, support, foster, cherish, inspirit, embolden, animate, cheer, incite, urge, impel, stimulate. End, «., aim, object, purpose, result, conclusion, upshot, close, expira- tion, termination, extremity, sequel. Endeavor, attempt, try, essay, strive, aim. Endorse, superscribe, ratify, confirm. Endurance, continuation, duration, fortitude, patience, resignation. Endure, z/., last, continue, support, bear, sustain, suffer, brook, submit to, undergo. Enemy, foe, antagonist, adversary, opponent. Energetic, effectual, efficacious, powerful, energetic, binding, strin- gent, forcible, nervous. Engage, employ, busy, occupy, attract, invite, allure, entertain, en- gross, take up, enlist. Engross, absorb, take up, busy, occupy, engage, monopolize. Engulf, swallow up, absorb, imbibe, drown, submerge, bury, entomb^ overwhelm. ^ 40 SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. -^ Enlarge, increase, extend, augment, broaden, swell. Enlighten, illumine, illuminate, instruct, inform. Enliven, cheer, vivify, stir up, animate, inspire, exhilarate. Enormous, gigantic, colossal, huge, vast, immense, prodigious. Enraged, infuriated, raging, wrathful. Enrapture, enchant, fascinate, charm, captivate, bewitch. Entangle,* perplex, embarrass, inveigle, implicate, involve, compro- mise, ensnare, entrap. Entertainment, amusement, divertisement, diversion, recreation, pi.s- time, sport, feast, fete, banquet, treat. Enthusiasm, zeal, ardor, fervor, warmth, fervency. Entice, allure, attract, decoy, lure, tempt. Entire, whole, complete, perfect, total. Entrance, «., entry, inlet, ingress, porch, portal. Entrance, z/., charm, enchant, fascinate, bewitch, enrapture, captivate. Entreat, beg, crave, solicit, beseech, implore, supplicate. Enumerate, tell over, relate, narrate, recount. Epitome, abridgment, compendium, abstract, summary. Equitable, just, fair, even-handed, honest, impartial, upright, reason- able. Erase, scratch out, blot out, expunge, efface, cancel. Erect, set up, raise, elevate, construct, establish, institute, found. Erring, misguided, misled. Error, mistake, fallacy, blunder, hallucination, fault. Essay, «., attempt, trial, endeavor, effort, tract, treatise. Essential, necessary, indispensable, requisite, vital. Establish, v,^ institute, found, organize, confirm, fix, settle. Esteem, prize, value, appreciate, respect, regard, reverence, venerate, revere. Estimate, value, measure, compute, calculate, appraise. Eternal, everlasting, endless, infinite, perpetual, deathless, immortal, undying, never-dying, ever-living, imperishable. Event, incident, occurrence, accident, adventure, issue, result, copse- quence. Ever, always, eternally, everlastingly, evermore, aye, forever, perpet- ually, continually, incessantly. Evidence, «., testimony, deposition, proof, declaration. Evidence, »., manifest, prove, evince, demonstrate, exemplify. Evident, clear, plain, manifest, apparent, obvious, visible, palpable. Evince, show, argue, prove, evidence, demonstrate, manifest. Evoke, call out, invite, summon, challenge. Exact, a., accurate, correct, definite, precise, literal, nice. Exaggerated, overstated, heightened, amplified, enlarged. Exalt, raise, elevate, erect, lift up, dignify, ennoble. Examination, search, inquiry, research, scrutiny, investigation. Example, pattern, sample, model, specimen, copy, instance. Exasperate, irritate, inflame, incense, enkindle, envenom, nettle, pro- voke, chafe. Except, unless, save, saving, but. Excessive, exorbitant, extortionate, unreasonable, immoderate, inordi- nate, extravagant. Exchange, w., change, barter, truck, commute, interchange, recipro- cate. Exchange, »., barter, dealing, trade, traffic. Excite, incite, arouse, awaken, stir up, disquiet, disturb, agitate, pro- voke, irritate. Exclude, shut out, debar, preclude, seclude. Excuse, z;., palliate, mitigate, acquit, justify, absolve, disp>ense, ex- empt. Excuse, «., plea, justification, pretence, pretext, pretension. Execrable, abominable, detestable, hateful, accursed, cursed, con- founded. Execute, accomplish, effectuate, fulfil, effect, realize, achieve, com- plete, finish. Exemption, freedom, immunity, privilege. Exhale, emit, give out, smoke, steam. Exhaust, spend, drain, empty, debilitate. Exile, banishment, deportation, expatriation, expulsion, proscription. Exonerate, clear, acquit, discharge, absolve, relieve, justify. Exorbitant, excessive, extortionate, unreasoxable, immoderate. Expand, spread, diffuse, dilate, extend, enlarge, amplify, unfold, de- velop. Expedient, fit, necessary, essential, requisite. Expedite, accelerate, quicken, hasten, facilitate, forward, advance. Expel, drive out, eject, dispossess, dislodge, oust. Expensive, costly, dear, valuable, sumptuous. Expert, a., clever, dexterous, adroit, skilful. Expiration, end, completion, close, termination. Explicit, express, plain, definitive, positive, determinate. Exploit, achievement, feat, deed, accomplishment. Expound, explain, interpret, unfold, elucidate, clear up. Express, «., explicit, plain, positive, definite, determinate, categorical. Express, j»., declare, enunciate, pronounce, articulate, denote, utter, signify, testify, intimate. Expressive, significant, energetic, emphatic. Extend, enlarge, amplify, expand, increase, stretch out, spread out, make larger, augment. Exterior, outward, outer, external. Exterminate, eradicate, root out, annihilate, extinguish. Extort, exact, wrest, wring, draw from. Extraordinary, remarkable, signal, eminent, uncommon. Extravagant, prodigal, lavish, profuse, excessive. Extricate, free, disengage, disentangle, disembarrass, liberate. Exuberant, plenteous, plentiful, luxuriant, abundant, profuse, rich, FABRIC, edifice, structure, pile. Fabricate, invent, frame, feign, forge, coin. Facetious, jocose, jocular, pleasant. Facile, easy, pliable, flexible. Faculty, ability, gift, talent, endowment. Failing, imperfection, weakness, frailty, foible, miscarriage, mishap. Faint, languid, weak, low. Faith, belief, assurance, confidence, trust, credence, credit, fidelity. Faithless, unfaithful, false-hearted, treacherous. Fallacious, deceptive, illusive, fraudulent, deceitful, delusive. Falsehood, untruth, story, lie, fabrication, fib, falsity. Falter, halt, stammer, stutter, hesitate. Fame, reputation, glory, renown, celebrity, honor, credit. Famed, famous, far-famed, renowned, celebrated, illustrious, surpass- ing, eminent, distinguished. Familiar, free, frank, affable, conversant, intimate. Familiarity, acquaintance, intimacy, courtesy, affability, fellowship. Fanciful, imaginative, ideal, fantastical, whimsical, capricious. Fancy, imagination, notion, conceit, vagary, frolic, inclination, liking, humor. Farthest, most distant, extreme, remotest, utmost, uttermost. Fascinate, charm, enchant, bewitch, enrapture, captivate, entrance. Fast, firm, solid, constant, steadfast, staunch, stable, steady, unyield- ing, inflexible, unswerving, gay, wild, dissipated. Fasten, v., fix, tie, link, stick, hold, affix, attach, annex. Fatal, deadly, mortal, lethal, inevitable. Fatigue, weariness, lassitude, languor, enervation, exhaustion. Fault, blemish, defect, imperfection, vice, failure, omission. Favor, benefit, kindness, civility, grace. Fear, fright, terror, dismay, alarm, dread, trepidation, consternation, apprehension. Fearless, brave, bold, intrepid, courageous, undaunted, dauntless, dar- ing, gallant, valorous, valiant. Fearful, afraid, timid, nervous, timorous, terrific, dreadful, awful, frightful, horrible, distressing, shocking. Feast, fete, banquet, treat, entertainment, festival. Feeble, weak, infirm, nerveless, forceless, failing, frail, enfeebled, de- bilitated, enervated, impotent, paralyzed, palsied. Feeling, emotion, sentiment, impression, sensation, consciousness, sen- sibility. Feign, pretend, simulate, dissemble, invent, forge, devise. Felicity, happiness, bliss, blessedness, beatitude, blissfulness. Ferocious, fierce, savage, ravenous, voracious, cruel, inhuman, fell, barbarous. Fertile, fruitful, prolific, teeming, pregnant, productive, rich, luxu- riant. Fervid, growing, ardent, impassioned, fervent, warm. Festivity, hilarity, joviality, jovialness, gayety. Fickle, unstable, inconstant, restless, fitful, variable, changeable. -<^ ^ SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 41 4r Fiction, romance, invention, falsehood, fabrication. Fidelity, faithfiUness, honesty, integrity. Fiendish, diabolic, demoniacal, devilish. Fierce, furious, violent, ferocious, savage. Fiery, hot, glowing, ardent, fervid, impassioned, passionate, imp>assion- ate, fervent, vehement. Fight, battle, action, engagement, combat, conflict, contest, encounter, contention, struggle. Fill, satisfy, content, store, replenish, glut, gorge, stuff. Filthy, dirty, dingy, unclean, gross. Final, ending, ultimate, last, latest, conclusive, decisive. Fine, a., refined, delicate, pure, nice, handsome, pretty, beautiful, ele- gant, showy. Firm, strong, robust, sturdy, fast, steadfast, stable, solid. Fit, »., suit, adapt, adjust, equip, prepare, qualify. Fit, a., apt, suitable, meet, befitting, becoming, decent, decorous, ex- pedient. Fix, zr., fasten, tie, link, enlink, attach, stick, settle, establish, deter- mine, define. Flat, level, horizontal, even, downright, absolute, insipid, mawkish, dull, spiritless, tasteless, lifeless. Flattery, adulation, servility, cajolery. Flaw, blemish, spot, blur, speck, defect, crack. Fleeting, tempwrary, transient, transitory, short-lived. Fling, cast, throw, hurl, toss. Flippancy, pertness, sauciness, lightness. Flock, throng, crowd, multitude, swarm, shoal. Flourish, thrive, prosper, wave, brandish. Fluctuate, waver, hesitate, oscillate, vacillate, scruple, change. Fluent, flowing, glib, voluble, unembarrassed, ready. Folks, persons, people, individuals, fellows. Follow, succeed, ensue, imitate, copy, pursue. Follower, partisan, disciple, adherent, retainer, pursuer, successor. Folly, silliness, foolishness, imbecility, weakness. Fond, enamored, attached, affectionate. Fondness, affection, attachment, kindness, love. Foolhardy, venturesome, incautious, hasty, adventurous, rash. Foolish, simple, silly, irrational, brainless, imbecile, crazy, abstird, preposterous, ridiculous, nonsensical. Fop, dandy, beau, coxcomb, puppy, jackanapes. Forbear, abstain, refrain, withhold. Force, «., strength, vigor, dint, might, energy, power, violence, army, host. Forecast, forethought, foresight, premeditation, prognostication. Forego, quit, relinquish, let go, waive. Foregoing, antecedent, anterior, preceding, previous, prior former. Forerunner, herald, harbinger, percursor, omen. Foresight, forethought, forecast, premeditation. Forge, coin, invent, frame, feign, fabricate, counterfeit. Forgive, pardon, remit, absolve, acquit, excuse, except. Forlorn, forsaken, abandoned, deserted, desolate, lone, lonesome. Form, «., ceremony, solemnity, observance, rite, figure, shape, confor- mation, fashion, appearance, representation, semblance. Form, v., make, create, produce, constitute, arrange, fashion, mould, shape. Formal, ceremonious, precise, exact, stiff, methodical, affected. Former, antecedent, anterior, previous, prior, preceding, foregoing. Forsaken, abandon, forlorn, deserted, desolate, lone, lonesome. Forthwith, immediately, directly, instantly, instantaneously. Fortitude, endurance, resolution, fearlessness, dauntlessness. Fortunate, lucky, happy, auspicious, prosperous, successful. Fortune, chance, fate, luck, doom, destiny, property, {>ossession, riches. Foster, cherish, nurse, tend, harbor, nurture. Foul, impure, nasty, filthy, dirty, unclean, defiled. Fractious, cross, captious, petulant, touchy, testy, peevich, fr«tftil, splenetic. Fragile, brittle, frail, delicate, feeble. Fragments, pieces, scraps, chips, leavings, remains, remnants. Frailty, weakness, failing, foible, imperfection, fault, blemish. Frame, v. , construct, invent, coin, fabricate, forge, mould, feign, make, compose. Franchise, right, exemption, immunity, privilege, freedom, suffrage. Frank, artless, candid, sincere, free, easy, familiar, open, ingenuous, plain. Frantic, distracted, mad, furious, raving, frenzied. Fraternize, cooperate, consort, associate with. Fraud, deceit, deception, duplicity, guile, cheat, imposition. Free, «., liberal, generous, bountiful, bounteous, munificent, frank, art- less, candid, familiar, open, unconfined, unreserved, unrestricted, exempt, clear, loose, easy, careless. Free, v., release, set free, deliver, rescue, liberate, enfranchise, affran- chise, emancipate, exempt. Freedom, liberty, independence, unrestraint, familiarity, license, franchise, exemption, privilege. Frequent, often, common, usual, general. Fret, gall, chafe, agitate, irritate, vex. Friendly, amicable, social, sociable. Frightful, fearful, dreadful, dire, direful, terrific, awful, horrible, horrid. Frivolous, trifling, trivial, petty. Frugal, provident, economical, saving. Fruitful, fertile, prolific, productive^ abundant, plentiful, plenteous. Fruitless, vain, useless, idle, abortive, bootless, unavailing, without avail. Frustrate, defeat, foil, balk, disappoint. Fulfil, accomplish, effect, complete. Fully, completely, abundantly, perfectly. Fulsome, coarse, gross, sickening, offensive, rank, obscene. Furious, violent, boisterous, vehement, dashing, sweeping, rolling, impetuous, frantic, distracted, stormy, angry, raging, fierce. Futile, trifling-, trivial, frivolous, useless. GAIN, «., profit, emolument, advantage, benefit, winnings, earnings. Gain, v., get, acquire, obtain, attain, procure, earn, win, achieve, reap, realize, reach. Gallant, brave, bold, courageous, gay, fine, showy, intrepid, fearless, heroic. Galling, chafing, irritating, vexing. Game, play, pastime, diversion, sport, amusement. Gang, band, horde, comp)any, troop, crew. Gap, breach, chasm, hollow, cavity, cleft, crevice, rift, chink. Garnish, embellish, adorn, beautify, deck, decorate. Gather, pick, cull, assemble, muster, infer, collect. Gaudy, showy, tawdry, gay, glittering, bespangled. Gaunt, emaciated, scraggy, skinny, meagre, lank, attenuated, spare, lean, thin. Gay, cheerful, merry, lively, jolly, sprightly, blithe. Generate, form, make, beget, produce. Generation, formation, race, breed, stock, kind, age, era. Generous, beneficent, noble, honorable, bountiful, liberal, free. Genial, cordial, hearty, festive, joyous. Genius, intellect, invention, talent, taste, nature, character, adept. Genteel, refined, polished, fashionable, polite, well-bred. Gentle, placid, mild, bland, meek, tame, docile. Genuine, real, true, unaffected, sincere. Gesture, attitude, action, posture. Get, obtain, earn, gain, attain, procure, achieve. Ghastly, pallid, wan, hideous, grim, shocking. Ghost, spectre, spright, sprite, apparition, shade, phantom. Gibe, scoff, sneer, flout, jeer, mock, taunt, deride. Giddy, unsteady, flighty, thoughtless. Gift, donation, benefaction, grant, alms, gratuity, boon, present, £ac ulty, talent. Gigantic, colossal, huge, enormous, vast, prodigious, immense. Give, grant, bestow, confer, yield, impart. Glad, pleased, cheerful, joyful, gladsome, gratified, cheering. Gleam, glimmer, glance, .glitter, shine, flash. Glee, gayety, merriment, mirth, jovially, jovialness, catch. Glide, slip slide, run, roll on. Glimmer, v., gleam, flicker, glitter. Glimpse, glance, look, glint. Glitter, gleam, shine, glisten, glister, radiate. Gloom, cloud, darkness, dimness, blackness, dulness, sadness. -^ SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. -^ Glorious, famous, renowned, celebrated, illustrious, distinguished, conspicuous, noble, exalted, grand. Glory, honor, fame, renown, splendor, grandeur. Glowing, hot, intense, fervid, cirdent, fervent, fiery. Glut, gorge, stuff, cram, cloy, satiate, block up, fill to repletion, inun- date. Good, a., virtuous, righteous, upright, just, true. Gorgeous, superb, grand, magnificent, splendid. Govern, rule, direct, manage, command. Government, rule, administration, cabinet, constitution, state, control, sway. Graceful, becoming, comely, elegant, beautiful. Gracious, merciful, kindly, beneficent, courteous, civil. Gradual, slow, progressive. Grand, majestic, stately, dignified, lofty, elevated, exalted, splendid, gorgeous, superb, magnificent, sublime, pompous. Grant, v., bestow, impart, give, yield, cede, allow, confer, invest. Grant, «., pay, wages, salary, stipend, gift, boon, donation. Graphic, forcible, telling, picturesque, vivid, pictorial. Gratification, enjoyment, pleasure, delight, reward. Grave, a., serious, sedate, thoughtful, solemn, sober, important, weighty, pressing, heavy. Gravity, weight, heaviness, importance, moment, seriousness. Grief, affliction, sorrow, trial, woe, tribulation. Grieve, motu^, lament, sorrow, pain, hurt, wound, bewail. Gross, coarse, outrageous, unseemly, shameful, indelicate. Ground, v., found, rest, base, establish. Groundless, unfoimded, baseless, ungrounded, gratuitous. Group, assembly, assemblage, cluster, collection, clump, order, class. Grow, increase, vegetate, expand, advance. Grudge, malice, rancor, spite, pique, hatred, aversion. Gruff, rough, rugged, blunt, rude, harsh, surly, bearish. Guard, v., protect, defend, shield, keep, watch. Guard, «., shield, fence, security, defence, sentinel, sentry, watchman, conductor. Guardian, protector, conservator, preserver, custodian, warder. Guess, conjecture, divine, surmise, reckon, fancy, suppose. Guide, v., lead, conduct, direct, regulate, manage, superintend. Guile, deceit, fraud, artifice, trickery. Guilt, crime, sin, offence. Gull, dupe, cheat, trick, cozen, deceive, beguile, delude. Gush, stream, flow, rush, spout. HABILIMENTS, clothes, dress, garb, apparel, vestments. Habit, manner, custom, usage, way. Habitation, dwelling, residence, abode, domicile. Habitual, usual, customary, accustomed, wonted, regular, ordinary. Hale, hearty, robust, sound, healthy, strong. Hallow, consecrate, sanctify, venerate, dedicate, enshrine. Handsome, pretty, elegant, graceful, ample, beautiful, fine. Hapless, luckless, unlucky, unhappy, unfortunate. Happiness, felicity, bliss, prosperity, contentment, well-being, wel- fare. Harass, distress, perplex, weary, tire out, worry, vex, fatigue. Hard, firm, solid, flinty, unfeeling, harsh, cruel, difficult, arduous. Hardihood, audacity, imprudence, effrontery. Hardy, manly, manful, masculine, vigorous, courageous, brave, he- roic, intrepid, stout, strong, firm. Harm, evil, ill, misfortune, mischief, mishap, injury, hurt. Harmonious, symphonious, consonous, accordant. Harsh, rough, severe, rigorous, gruff, rugged, blunt, grating, jarring, sour. Hasty, quick, precipitate, rash, excitable, hot, fiery, passionate, angary, cursory, slight. Hate, detest, abominate, abhor, loathe, dislike. Hateful, odious, detestable, execrable, abominable, loathsome, repul- sive. Haughtiness, arrogance, vanity, pride. Hazard, v., f)eril, imperil, jeopardize, risk, dare, adventure, conjecture. Headstrong, obstinate, dogged, stubborn, forward, venturesome. Heal, cure, remedy, reconcile. Healthy, hearty, hale, soimd, strong, wholesome. Heap, pile, amass, accumulate. Hearty, hale, healthy, sound, strong, heart-felt, warm, cordial, sincerOi Heavenly, celestial, divine, seraphic, angelic. Heavy, weighty, massive, dull, drowsy, insipid. Height, top, crisis, acme, apex, climax, zenith. Heighten, amplify, exaggerate, raise, enhance, increase. Help, v., aid, assist, cooperate, succor, relieve, serve. Hesitate, falter, pause, demur, scruple. Hide, ?'., conceal, disguise, secete, cover, screen. Hide, «., skin, rind, peel, bark. Hideous, ghastly, grim, grisly, frightful, horrible, ugly. High, tall, lofty, elevated, proud, conceited. Highly, greatly, exceedingly, immeasurably, preeminently. Hilarity, mirth, glee, jollity, merriment, joviality. Hinder, thwart, retard, stop, prevent, impede, obstruct. Hint, v., suggest, allude to, refer to, glance at, intimate, insinuate. Hit, strike, dash, beat, thump. Hold, have, possess, keep, detain, retain. Holy, sacred, pious, devout, religious, divine. Homage, respect, deference, honor, veneration. Home, dwelling, house, domicile, residence, abode. Honest, upright, honorable, conscientious, virtuous. Honesty, integrity, purity, probity, sincerity, veracity, virtue, justice. Honor, v., reverence, revere, venerate, respect, dignify, exalt. Horrible, fearful, dreadful, dire, direful, frightful, terrible, terrific, horrid. Hot, ardent, fervent, fiery, burning, glowing, intense, passionate. Huge, vast, enormous, large, great, prodigious, immense, gigantic, colossal. Humanity, kindness, benevolence, philanthropy, tenderness, sensi- bility. Humble, v., lower, debase, degrade, disgrace, humiliate. Humble, «., lowly, modest, submissive, unpretending, unassuming. Humiliation, fall, abasement, degradation, degeneracy. Hurry, v., hasten, speed, expedite, precipitate. Hurt, «., harm, injury, damage, mischief. Hurt, v., annoy, grieve, vex, wound. Hurtful, pernicious, baneful, deleterious, noxious, detrimental, preju- dicial. IDEA, imagination, conception, notion, thought, sentiment, impression. Ideal, fanciful, imaginary, imaginative. Identical, same, self-same, particular. Idle, lazy, indolent, inactive, unemployed. Ignorant, unlearned, illiterate, unlettered, uninformed, uneducated. Ill, «., evil, wickedness, misfortune, mischief, harm. • 111, a., sick, indisposed, unwell, diseased. Illimitable, boundless, limitless, measureless, immeasurable, unlimited, infinite. Illiterate, unlettered, unlearned, untaught, uninstructed. Illness, sickness, indisposition, disease, disorder, malady, ailment. Illusion, fallacy, deception, phantasm. Illustrate, explain, elucidate, clear. Illustrious, celebrated, glorious, noble, eminent, distinguished, famous, renowned. Imbibe, absorb, swallow up, take in, engulf, consume. Imbolden, inspirit, animate, encourage, incite. Imitate, copy, ape, mimic, mock, counterfeit. Immediately, instantly, forthwith, directly, instanter, presently, straightway. Immense, vast, enormous, huge, prodigious, monstrous, immeasurable. Immunity, privilege, perogative, exemption. Immure, confine, shut up, imprison. Impair, injure, diminish, decrease. Impart, communicate, reveal, divulge, disclose, discover, give, bestow, afford. Impeach, accuse, charge, arraign, censure. Impede, hinder, retard, obstruct, prevent. Impel, animate, actuate, induce, move, incite, inspirit, instigate, en* courage, imbolden. Imperative, commanding, dictatorial, authoritative, despotic, p>ep emptory. SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 43 ■^ 4r- Imperil, peril, endang-er, hazard, jeopardize. Imperious, commanding, dictatorial, authoritative, imperative, lordly, overbearing-, domineering. Impertinent, intrusive, meddling, officious, rude, saucy, impudent, in- solent. Impervious, unpassable, impassable, inaccessible, impenetrable. Impetuous, violent, boisterous, furious, vehement, rapid. Impious, profane, irreligious, godless. Implicate, involve, entangle, embarrass, compromise. Imply, involve, comprise, infold, import, denote, signify. Importance, signification, significance, avail, consequence, weight, gravity, moment. Impose, put, place, set, fix, lay. Imposing, impressive, striking, majestic, august, noble, grand. Impotence, weakness, incapacity, infirmity, frailty, feebleness. Impotent, weak, feeble, helpless, enfeebled, nerveless, infirm. Impress, »., engrave, stamp, print, fix, instil, inculcate. Impression, feeling, sentiment, sensation, susceptibility, stamp, edi- tion. Impressive, stirring, fercible, exciting, affecting, moving. Imprison, incarcerate, shut up, immure, confine. Imprisonment, incarceration, captivity, durance, confinement. Improve, amend, better, mend, reform, rectify, ameliorate, apply, use, employ. Improvident, careless, incautious, imprudent, prodigal, wasteful, reck- less, rash. Impudence, assurance, impertinence, confidence, insolence, rudeness. Impudent, saucy, brazen, bold, impertinent, forward, rude, insolent, immodest, shameless. Impugn, gainsay, oppose, attack, assail. Impulse, incentive, incitement, motive, instigation. Impulsive, rash, hasty, forcible, violent. Imputation, blame, censure, reproach, charge, accusation. Inability, weakness, impotence, incapacity, incapability. Inadvertency, error, oversight, blunder, inattention, carelessness, negligence. Incapable, unable, inadequate, incompetent, insufficient, unfit. Incapacity, disability, incapability, inability, incompetency. Incentive, motive, inducement, impulse. Incite, instigate, excite, provoke, stimulate, encourage, iirge, impel. Inclination, leaning, slope, disposition, tendency, bent, bias, affection, attachment, wish, liking, desire. Incline, z/., slope, lean, slant, tend, bend, turn, bias, dispose. Inclose, surround, shut in, fence in, cover, wrap. Include, comprehend, comprise, contain, embrace, take in, hold. Incommode, annoy, plague, molest, disturb, inconvenience, trouble. Incompetent, incapable, imable, inadequate, insufficient. Increase, i/., extend, enlarge, augment, dilate, expand, amplify, raise, enhance, aggravate, magnify, grow. Increase, «., augmentation, accession, addition, enlargement, exten- sion. Incumbent, obligatory, morally necessitated. Indefinite, vague, uncertain, unsettled, loose, lax. Indicate, point out, show, mark. Indifference, apathy, carelessness, listlessness, insensibility. Indigence, want, neediness, penury, poverty, destitution, privation. Indignation, anger, wrath, ire, resentment. Indignity, insult, affront, outrage, obloquy, opprobrium, reproach, ignominy. Indiscriminate, promiscuous, chance, indistinct, confused. Indispensable, essential, necessary, requisite, expedient. Indisputable, undeniable, undoubted, incontestable, indubitable, un- questionable, sure, infallible. Indulge, foster, cherish, fondle. Ineffectual, vain, useless, unavailing, fruitless, abortive, ineffective, inoperative. Inequality, disparity, disproportion, dissimilarity, unevenness, protu- , berance, prominence. Inevitable, unavbidable, not to be avoided, certain. Infamous, scandalous, shameful, ignominious, opprobrious, dis- graceful. Inference, deduction, corollary, conclusion, consequence. Infernal, diabolical, fiendish, devilish, hellish. Infest, annoy, plague, harass, disturb. Infirm, weak, feeble, enfeebled. Inflame, anger, irritate, enrage, chafe, incense, nettle, aggravate, im. bitter, exasperate. Influence, z/., bias, sway, prejudice, prepossess. Influence, «., credit, favor, reputation, character, weight, authority, sway, ascendency. Infraction, infringement, encroachment, invasion, intrusion, contra- vention, breach. Infringe, invade, intrude, contravene, break, transgress, violate. Ingenuous, artless, candid, generous, open, frank, plain, sincere. Inhuman, cruel, brutal, savage, barbarous, ruthless, merciless, fero- cious. Iniquity, injustice, wrong, grievance. Injure, damage, hurt, deteriorate, wrong, aggrieve, harm, spoil, mar, sully. Injurious, hurtful, baneful, pernicious, deleterious, noxious, prejudi- cial, wrongful, damaging. Injustice, wrong, iniquity, grievance. Inlet, entrance, entry, ingress. Innocent, guiltless, sinless, harmless, inoffensive, innoxious. Inordinate, intemperate, irregular, disorderly, excessive, immoderate. Inquiry, investigation, examination, research, scrutiny, disquisition, question, query, interrogation. Inquisitive, prying, peeping, curious, peering. Insane, mad, deranged, delirious, demented. Insanity, madness, mental aberration, lunacy, delirium. Insinuate, hint, intimate, suggest, infuse, introduce, ingratiate. Insipid, dull, flat, mawkish, tasteless, vapid, inanimate, lifeless. Insnare, entrap, decoy, allure, net, enmesh, entoil, entangle, inveigle. Insolent, rude, saucy, pert, impertinent, abusive, scurrilous, opprobri- ous, insulting, offensive, outrageous. Inspire, animate, exhilarate, enliven, cheer, breathe, inhale. Instability, mutability, fickleness, mutableness, wavering. Instigate, stir up, persuade, animate, incite, urge, stimulate, en- courage. Instil, implant, inculcate, infuse, insinuate. Institute, establish, found, erect, begin, form, organize, prescribe. Instruct, inform, teach, educate, enlighten, initiate. Instrumental, conducive, assistant, helping, ministerial. Insufficiency, inadequacy, incompetency, incapability, deficiency, lack. Insult, affront, outrage, indignity, blasphemy. Insulting, insolent, rude, saucy, impertinent, impudent, abusive. Integrity, uprightness, honesty, probity, entirety, entireness, com- pleteness, rectitude, purity. Intellect, understanding, sense, brains, mind, intelligence, ability, talent, genius. Intellectual, mental, ideal, metaphysical. Intelligible, clear, obvious, plain, distinct. Intemperate, immoderate, excessive, drunken, nimious, inordinate. Intense, ardent, earnest, glowing, fervid, burning, vehement, strained, forced, excessive, extreme. Intent, design, purpose, intention, drift, view, aim, purport, meaning. Intercourse, commerce, connection, intimacy, acquaintance. Interdict, forbid, prohibit, inhibit, proscribe, debar, restrain from. Interfere, meddle, intermeddle, interpose. Interminable, endless, interminate, infinite, unlimited, 'illimitable, boundless, limitless. Interpose, intercede, arbitrate, mediate, interfere, meddle. Interpret, explain, exjwund, elucidate, unfold, decipher. Intimate, hint, suggest, insinuate, express, signify, impart, tell. Intimidate, dishearten, alarm, frighten, affright, scare, appall, daunt, cow, quail, browbeat. Intolerable, insufferable, unbearable, insupportable, unendurable. Intrepid, bold, brave, daring, fearless, dauntless, undaunted, courage ous, valorous, valiant, heroic, gallant, chivalrous, doughty. Intrigue, plot, conspiracy, combination, artifice, ruse, amour. Intrinsic, real, true, genuine, sterling, native, natural. Inure, habituate, use, train, accustom, familiarize. Invalidate, quash, cancel, overthrow, vacate, nullify, annul. 44 SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. -y Invective, abuse, reproach, railing, censure, sarcasm, satire. Inveterate, confirmed, chronic, malignant. Invidious, envious, hateful, odious, malignant. Invincible, unconquerable, impregnable, insuperable, insurmountable. Invisible, unseen, imperceptible, impalpable, unperceivable. Involve, implicate, entangle, compromise, envelop. Ire, rage, anger, wrath, indignation, passion. Irksome, wearisome, burdensome, tiresome, tedious, troublesome, vex- atious, annoying. Irony, sarcasm, satire, ridicule, raillery. Irrational, foolish, silly, imbecile, brutish, unreasonable, absurd, I)r6- posterous, ridiculous. Irreligious, profane, godless ^ impious, sacrilegious, desecrating. Irreproachable, blameless, spotless, irreprovable, unblemished. Irresistible, resistless, opposeless, irrepressible. Irresolute, wavering, undetermined, undecided, vacillating. Irritable, excitable, irascible, susceptible, sensitive. Irritate, aggravate, worry, provoke, im bitter, madden, exasperate, dis- please. Issue, «., end, conclusion, upshot, effect, consequence, result, offspring, progeny, children. JARRING, conflicting, discordant, inconsonant, irreconcilable, incon- sistent, incompatible. Jeer, sneer, scoff, mock. Jeopardize, imperil, hazard, endanger. Jocose, jocular, jolly, facetious, witty, pleasant. Join, accompany, go with, add, unite, append, adjoin, combine, confed- erate, league, band. Journey, travel, tour, trip, excursion, voyage. Joy, delight, gladness, charm, pleasure, ecstacy, rapture, transport. Judgment, discernment, discrimination, sagacity, intelligence, sen- tence, decision, order, award. Juicy, succulent, bibulous, spongy. Junction, union, alliance, connection, confederacy, combination. Juncture, contact, touch, conjuncture, crisis. Just, right, proper, fare, equitable, impartial. Justify, excuse, clear, exonerate, defend, absolve. Juvenile, yoimg, youthful, boyish, infantile, childish. KEEN, sharp, acute, penetrating, cutting, biting, stinging, sarcastic, satirical. Keep, retain, hold, detain, preserve, maintain, sustain, hinder. Kill, murder, assassinate, slay, massacre, butcher. Kind, fl., thoughtful, affable, gentle, meek, tender, good, gracious, compassionate, indulgent, forbearing. Kindle, ignite, enkindle, awaken, arouse, stir up, excite. Kingly, royal, imperial, regal, sovereign. Knowledge, learning, scholarship, acquirements, attainments. LABOR, work, task, toil, exertion. Labored, elaborate, hard-wrought, studied. Laborious, hard-working, industrious, diligent, assiduous, active, toil- some, wearisome. Lack, want, need, require. Laconic, short, brief, concise, curt. Lament, grieve, mourn, regret, bewail, deplore, bemoan. Language, speech, tongue, dialect, phraseologry. Languid, weak, faint, drooping, pining. Lank, lean, thin, skinny, meagre, scraggy. Lassitude, weariness, fatigue, languor. Lasting, durable, abiding, permanent, perpetual. Latent, hidden, secret, occult, inscrutable. Laud, praise, command, applaud, extol, magnify, eulogize. Lavish, profuse, extravagant, prodigal. Lax, loose, vague, dissolute, licentious. Lazy, idle, indolent, slothful, sluggish, inactive. Lead, conduct, guide, direct, induce, persuade, influence. Leader, chief, director, head, guide. Lean, a., thin, scraggy, lank, skinny. Lean, v., incline, tend, bend, slope. Leave, v., quit, relinquish, renounce, give up, retire. Legend, fable, myth, memoir, annal, chronicle. Legitimate, legal, lawful, genuine, fair. Lengthen, extend, elongate, protract, prolong. Lessen, abate, diminish, decrease, lower, subside. Level, even, plain, smooth, flat. Levity, giddiness, lightness, flightiness. Liberal, generous, bountiful, bounteous, munificent, plentiful. Liberty, leave, license, permission, freedom. Licentious, loose, lax, dissolute, rakish, unbridled. Lie, untruth, falsehood, falsity, fabrication, fiction, invention, story. Life, animation, vivacity, buoyancy, spirits, history, career, existence. Likelihood, probability, appearance. Likeness, picture, image, effigy, carie de visite, resemblance, similar* ity, representation, similitude. Limit, «., extent, boundary, bound, border. Limp;ci, ciear, transparent. ^ Linger, tarry, loiter, wait, lag, saunter. Link, tie, bind, join, chain. l^iquidate, clear off, extinguish, pay off, lessen, discharge. List, roll, roster, catalogue, register, inventory. Listless, indifferent, indolent, careless. Literal, actual, real, positive, true. Little, small, diminutive, dwarf. Lively, active, brisk, quick, sprightly, prompt, buoyant, racy, viva- cious. Loathe, dislike, nauseate, abhor, detest, abominate. Lofty, high, tall, elevated, exalted. Loiter, wait, linger, tarry, saunter. Look, «., manner, appearance, aspect, feature, glance, peep. Look, v., see, witness, view, eye, inspect. Loquacity, talkativeness, volubility, glibness, babbling. Lot,' destiny, fate, future, doom. Loud, noisy, clamorous, vociferous, blustering, riotous, turbulent, tumultuous. Love, endearment, affection, attachment, fondness. Lovely, charming, amiable, delightful. Lover, suitor, wooer, sweetheart. Loyalty, allegiance, fealty. , Luck, chance, fortune, accident. Luckless, hapless, unlucky, unprosperous, unfortunate. Lucre, gain, profit, emolument, money. Ludicrous, laughable, ridiculous, comic, droll, odd, silly. Lurid, gloomy, murky, lowering. Luscious, honeyed, sweet, mellifluous. Lustre, splendor, brightness, brilliancy, effulgence, refulgence. Lusty, stout, strong, able-bodied, stalwart, robust, muscular, brawny. Luxuriant, overflowing, exuberant, superfluous, redundant, abundant. MACHINATION, stratagem, cheat, imposture, fraud, trick. Mad, wild, frantic, distracted, furious, rabid. Madden, irritate, enrage, exasperate. Madness, mental aberration, insanity, lunacy, mania, frenzy, rage. fury. Magnanimous, august, dignified, noble, exalted, lofty. Magnificence, splendor, grandeur, gorgeousness, pomp. Magnify, enlarge, extol, applaud, laud. Magnitude, greatness, bigness, size, bulk. Main, chief, principal, leading, first. Maintain, assert, vindicate, hold, support, sustain. Majestic, dignified, noble, stately, pompous, splendid, grand. Make, create, form, produce, mould, shape. Malediction, curse, imprecation, denunciation, anathema. Malefactor, criminal, culprit, felon, convict. Malice, spite, rancor, ill-feeling, grudge, pique, animosity, ill-will. Malicious, virulent, malignant, wicked. Manage, contrive, concert, direct. Management, direction, super ihtendence, care, economy. Mangle, tear, lacerate, mutilate, cripple, maim. Manifest, v., reveal, prove, evince, exhibit, display, show. Manifest, a., clear, plain, evident, open, apparent, visible, obvious. Manly, masculine, hardy, vigorous, courageous, brave, heroic, fearlesa Manners, morals, habits, behavior, carriage. -^ SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 45 ^ Many, numerous, several, sundry, divers, various, manifold Mar, spoil, ruin, disfigure. March, tramp, tread, walk, step, space. Margin, edge, rim, border, brink, verge. Mark, «., sign, note, symptom, token, indication, trace, vestige, track, badge, brand. Mark, v., impress, print, stamp, engrave, note, notice, remark, show, point out, indicate. Marriage, wedding, nuptials, matrimony, wedlock. Martial, military, warlike, soldier-like. Marvel, wonder, miracle, prodigy. Marvellous, wondrous, wonderful, amazing, miraculous. Masculine, manly, virile, hardy, vigorous, brave, courageous. Massive, massy, bulky, heavy, weighty, p>onderous. Masterly, skilful, clever, expert, dexterous, adroit. Masterly, dominion, rule, sway, ascendency, supremacy. Matchless, unrivalled, unequalled, unparalleled, peerless, incompara- ble, inimitable, surpassing, unique. Material, a., corporeal, bodily, physical, temporal, momentous. Matrimony, marriage, wedlock, wedding, nuptials, espousals. Mature, ripe, ready, mellow, perfect, fit. Maxim, adage, apophthegm, proverb, saying, by-word, saw. Meagre, poor, lank, emaciated, barren, dry, uninteresting. Mean, a., stingy, niggardly, low, abject, vile, ignoble, degraded, con- temptible, vulgar, despicable. Mean, z/., design, purpose, intent, contemplate, signify, denote, indi- cate. Meaning, signification, import, acceptation, sense, purport. Medium, mediocrity, organ, channel, instrument, means. Medley, mixture, variety, diversity, miscellany. Meek, unassuming, mild, gentle. Melancholy, low-spirited, dispirited, dreamy, sad. Mellow, ripe, mature, soft. Melodious, tuneful, musical, silver, dulcet, sweet. Melt, liquefy, fuse, dissolve, moisten. Memoir, narrative, chronicle, legend, life, history. Memorable, signal, distinguished, marked. Memorial, monument, memento, commemoration. Memory, remembrance, recollection. Menace, «., threat, threatening, commination. Mend, amend, correct, better, ameliorate, improve, rectify. Mention, tell, name, communicate, impart, divulge, reveal, disclose, inform, acquaint. Merchandise, goods, wares, commerce, traffic. Merciful, compassionate, lenient, clement, tender, gracious, kind. Merciless, hard-hearted, cruel, unmerciful, pitiless, remorseless, unre- lenting. Mercy, lenity, mildness, clemency, compassion, pity. Merited, deserved, condign, suitable, adequate, prop>er. Merriment, mirth, joviality, jollity, hilarity. Merry, cheerful, mirthful, joyous, gay, lively, sprightly, hilarious, blithe, blithesome, jovial, sportive, jolly. Metaphorical, figurative, allegorical, symbolical. Method, way, manner, mode, process, order, rule, regularity, system. Mien, air, look, manner, aspect, appearance. Migratory, roving, strolling, wandering, vagrant. Mimic, imitate, ape, mock. Mindful, observant, attentive, heedful, thoughtful. Mingle, mix, blend, comiX)und, amalgamate. Minute, circumstantial, particular. Mirth, joy, merriment, gladness, festivity, joviality, hilarity, cheerfuU ness, vivacity, gayety, fun, jollity. Misapprehension, misconception, misunderstanding, mistake, error. Miscellaneous, promiscuous, indiscriminate, mixed. Miscellany, medley, diversity, variety, mixture, hotchpotch. Mischief, injury, harm, damage, hurt, evil, ill. Misconception, misapprehension, misunderstanding, mistake. Miscreant, caitiff, villain, ruffian. Miserable, unhappy, wretched, distressed, afBicted. Miserly, stingy, niggardly, avaricious, griping. Misery, wretchedness, woe, destitution, penury, privation, beggjary. Misfortune, calamity, disaster, mishap, catastrophe. Misguide, mislead, dazzle, beguile, deceive. Miss, omit, lose, fail, miscarry. Mistake, «., error, blunder, delusion, misapprehension, misunderstand- ing. Misuse, «., abuse, perversion, maltreatment. Mitigate, alleviate, relieve, abate, diminish. Moderate, temperate, abstemious, sober, abstinent. Moderation, temperance, sobriety, abstemiousness. Modest, chaste, virtuous, bashful, reserved. Moist, wet, damp, dank, humid. ■Molest, annoy, incommode, discommode, incommodate, vex, tease, dis- turb. Momentous, important, significant, weighty. Monotonous, unvaried, dull, tiresome, undiversified. Monstrous, shocking, dreadful, horrible, huge, immense. Monument, memorial, record, remembrancer, cenotaph. Mood, humor, disposition, vein, temper. Morass, bog, quagmire, slough, marsh, fen, swamp. Morbid, sick, ailing, sickly, diseased, corrupted. Morose, gloomy, sullen, surly, fretful, crabbed, crusty. Mortify, vex, chagrin, grieve, hurt, afilict, annoy. Motion, proposition, proposal, movement, change, action. Motionless, still, stationary, torpid, stagnant. Motive, cause, reason, principle, inducement, incentive, impulse, spur, stimulus. Mount, arise, rise, ascend, soar, tower, climb, scale, embellish. Mournful, sad, sorrowful, lugubrious, g^rievous, doleful, heavy. Move, actuate, impel, induce, prompt, instigate, persuade, stir, agitate, propel, push. Moving, affecting, touching, pathetic, melting. Multifarious, divers, many, manifold. Multitude, crowd, throng, host, mob, swarm. Munificent, bounteous, bountiful, generous, liberal. Murder, v., kill, assassinate, slay, massacre, despatch. Murky, dark, dusky, dim, cloudy, misty, shadowy. Muse, v., meditate, contemplate, think, reflect, cogitate, ponder. Music, harmony, melody, symphony. Musical, tuneful, melodious, harmonious, dulcet, sweet. Musty, stale, sour, fetid. Mutable, inconstant, unsteadfast, unstable, fickle, alterable, restless, fitful, variable, changeable, unsteady, undecided. Mute, dumb, silent, speechless. Mutilate, maim, cripple, disable, disfigure. Mutinous, insurgent, seditious, tumultuous,*turbulent, riotous. Mysterious, dark, obscure, hidden, secret, dim, mystic, enigmatical, unaccountable. Mystify, confuse, perplex, puzzle. NAKED, nude, bare, uncovered, unclothed, rough, rude, simple. Name, z;., denominate, entitle, intitule, style, designate, term, call, christen, specify. Name, «., appellation, designation, denomination, title, cognomen," reputation, character, fame, credit, repute. Narrate, tell, relate, detail, recount, describe, enumerate, rehearse, recite. Nasty, filthy, foul, dirty, unclean, impure, indecent, gross, vile. Nation, people, community, realm, state. Native, real, genuine, indigenous, vernacular, mother. Natural, original, regular, normal, bastard. Near, nigh, neighboring, close, adjacent, contiguous, intimate. Necessary, needful, expedient, essential, requisite, indispensable. Necessitate, v., compel, force, oblige. Necessity, need, occasion, exigency, emergency, urgency, requisite. Need, «., necessity, distress, poverty, indigence, want, penury. Need, z/., require, want, lack. Neglect, z/., disregard, slight, omit, overlook. Neglect, «., omission, failure, default, negligence, remissness, carOi lessness, slight. Neighborhood, environs, vicinity, nearness, adjacency, proximity. Nerveless, feeble, impuissant, weak, forceless, enfeebled, debilitated enervated, impotent, paralyzed, palsied. Nervous, timid, timorous, shaky. K 46 SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. -y Neutralize, counterbalance, counteract. News, tidings, intelligence, information. Nice, exact, accurate, good, particular, precise, fine, delicate. Niggardly, miserly, griping, stingy, penurious, saving, greedy. Nimble, active, brisk, lively, alert, quick, agile, prompt, sprightly. Noble, exalted, elevated, dignified, illustrious, great, grand, stately, lofty. Nocturnal, nightly, gloomy, dark. Noise, cry, outcry, clamor, row, din, uproar, tumult. Nonsensical, irrational, absurd, preposterous, silly, foolish. Notable, plain, evident, remarkable, signal, memorable, striking, rare. Note, »., token, symbol, mark, sign, indication, remark, observation, comment, memorandum. Noted, distinguished, remarkable, eminent, celebrated, renowned, well known, famous. Notice, «., advice, notification, intelligence, information, warning. Notice, »., mark, note, observe, attend to, regard, heed. Noticeable, striking, observable, remarkable. Notification, notice, declaration, publication, intelligence, informa- tion. Notify, publish, acquaint, communicate, apprise, inform, declare. Notion, conception, idea, belief, opinion, sentiment, impression, con- viction. Notorious, noted, well known, renowned, famous. Novel, modern, new, fresh, recent, unused, strange, uncommon, rare. Noxious, hurtful, deadly, poisonous, deleterious, baneful. Nullify, annul, vacate, invalidate, quash, cancel, repeal. Number, z/., calculate, compute, estimate, reckon, count, enumerate. Number, «., multitude, many, throng, crowd, swarm, host, figure, numeral. Numerous, many, sundry, various, several. Nurture, nurse, cherish, nourish, foster, supply. Nutrition, food, diet, nutriment, nourishment. OBDURATE, hard, callous, hardened, unbending, graceless, unfeel- ing, insensible, insusceptible. Obedient, compliant, submissive, dutiful, respectful. Obese, corpulent, fat, adipose, fleshy. Object, «., aim, end, purpose, design, mark, butt. Object, v., oppose, except to, contravene, impeach, deprecate. Oblige, compel, bind, engage, coerce, constrain, force, impel, accom- modate. Obliterate, erase, blot out, expunge, efface. Obloquy, odium, reproach, censure, abuse, scurrility, opprobrium, shame. Obnoxious, hateful, offensive, liable, exposed, unpopular. Obscure, a., dim, misty, cloudy, shadowy, dusky, dark, gloomy, in- distinct, unknown, humble, unintelligible. Observance, form, etiquette, ceremony, solemnity, rite, celebration. Observant, watchful, mindful, attentive, heedful. Observe, keep, fulfil, heed, obey, perform, notice, remark, watch. Obsolete, disused, antiquated, old-fashioned, ancient, old, neglected. Obstacle, difficulty, impediment, stumbling-block, barrier, hindrance, obstruction. Obstruct, hinder, prevent, impede, bar, clog, barricade, choke, inter- rupt. Obtain, acquire, attain, secure, achieve, gain, get, procure, win, earn. Obtuse, stolid, heavy-headed, dull, stupid, unintelligent. Obviate, prevent, preclude, hinder, provide against. Obvious^ clear, plain, evident, manifest, open, apparent, visible, patent. Occult, secret, hidden, unknown, invisible, dark, mysterious. Occupation, occupancy, profession, holding, tenure, business, trade, avocation, calling, engagement, office, pursuit. Odd, singular, eccentric, strange, extraordinary, whimsical, comical, droll, uneven. Odious, hateful, loathsome, execrable, detestable, abominable, disgust- ing, repvilsive. Odor, smell, scent, perfume, fragrance. Offence, affront, insult, outrage, indignity, misdeed, trespass, trans- gression, wrong, misdemeanor, injustice. Offend, displease, vex, nettle, irritate, shock, transgress, err. Offensive, insulting, rude, saucy, impertinent, distasteful, obnoxious^ opprobrious. Offer, present, bid, tender, proffer, extend, propose, volunteer. Officious, obtrusive, busy, interfering, meddling. Offspring, issue, progeny, descendants, children. Old, aged, elderly, senile, ancient, antique, antiquated, obsolete. Omission, oversight, failure, neglect, default. Omit, leave out, miss, overlook. Onerous, responsible, burdensome, heavy, laborious, oppressive, toil. some. Only, singly, alone, solely, merely, barely, simply, exclusively. Opaque, untransparent, dull, dark, cloudy. Open, a., candid, frank, unreserved, free, ingenuous, sincere, unaffected, genuine, undisguised, unfolded. Open, z/., unclose, unlock, unseal, exhibit, dissolve, spread, expand, begin. Operate, act, do, make, work, labor. Operation, action, agency, instrumentality, force, effort, enterprise. Operative, stringent, effective, serviceable, binding. Opportunity, occasion, chance, fit opening. Oppose, combat, bar, hinder, resist, withstand, contradict. Opposite, adverse, diverse, contrary, hostile, antagonistic, repugnant, incompatible, inconsistent, paradoxical, facing. Opprobrious, abusive, scurrilous, insulting, offensive, outrageous, shameful. Opprobrium, disgfrace, odium, infamy, ignominy, obloquy. Option, choice, preference, election. Opulent, wealthy, rich, afiluent, moneyed. Oral, verbal, spoken, parole. Oration, address, speech, harangue, discourse. Orderly, regular, systematic, methodic, methodical, quiet, peaceable. Ordinance, decree, law, statute, edict, regulation. Ordinary, common, vulgar, plain, customary, settled, wonted, conven- tional, habitual, usual. Organization, structure, form, instrumentality, construction. Origin, commencement, original, beginning, rise, source, spring cause. Original, first, primary, pristine, primeval, peculiar, odd. Originate, create, form, spring, ooze, issue, proceed, begin. Ornament, «., embellishment, adornment, decoration. Over, above, upon, across, more than. Overawe, daunt, intimidate, affright, cow. Overbearing, bullying, blustering, imperious, lordly, domineering. Overcharge, oppress, overload, surcharge, surfeit. Overlook, inspect, survey, excuse, forgive, pardon, neglect, miss. Overplus, excess, surplus, surplusage. Overreach, cheat, outwit, circumvent, cozen, gull, dupe, defraud. Oversight, inadvertence, inattention, neglect, mistake, error, omission, inspection, superintendence. Overt, open, public, notorious, manifest, patent. Overture, praposal, offer, invitation, resolution. Own, z/., acknowledge, admit, confess, recognize, have, possess. Owner, proprietor, possessor, master, holder. PACIFIC, peaceful, peaceable, mild, gentle, calm, quiet, conciliatory. Pacify, appease, calm, quiet, still. Pain, ft., anguish, agony, distress, suffering, pang, grief. Pain, v., agonize, rack, torment, torture. Painful, afflicting, grievous, torturing. Pair, two, couple, brace. Palatable, tasteful, savory, appetizing. Palate, taste, relish. Pale, a., pallid, wan, whitish, sallow, faint. Palliate, extenuate, varnish, cover, allay, soothe, soften. Palpable, clear, distinct, plain, obvious, evident. Paltry, contemptible, pitiful, mean, sorry, despicable, shabby, beg., garly. Panegyric, eulogy, encomium, eulogium, praise. Pang, throe, twinge, agony, anguish, pain, distress. Paramount, supreme, principal, chief. Pardon, forgive, absolve, overlook, excuse, remit, acquit, discharge, set free, clear, liberate. kr- -^ r- SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 47 %> Parsimonious, stingy, niggardly, miserly. Partial, biassed, prejudiced, limited, incomplete. Participate, share, partake, join in. Particle, jot, tittle, grain, atom. Partition, v., parcel, divide, apportion, distribute. Partner, colleague, coadjutor, associate, sharer, confederate, spouse. Partnership, union, connection, firm, house, association, company, companionship, society. Party, faction, confederacy, combination, detachment, clique, league. Passion, anger, rage, fury, vehemence, imjjetuosity, love, affection. Passionate, h6t, hasty, irritable, angry, excitable, fiery, vehement, im- petuous, glowing, burning, ardent. Passive, unresisting, unopposing, submissive, enduring, patient. Pathetic, moving, touching, affecting, melting, tender. Patience, resignation, endurance, fortitude. Peculator, defaulter, delinquent, offender, thief. Peculiar, appropriate, particular, exclusive, remarkable, sig^nal, special, singular, uncommon. Peevish, ill-natured, touchy, testy, captious, fractious, cross, fretful, petulant, cynical, irascible. Pellucid, translucent, lucid, limpid, transparent, clear. Penetrate, pierce, perforate, bore, fathom, reach. Penetration, insight, sharpness, acuteness, sagacity, discernment, dis- crimination. Penitence, contrition, repentance, remorse. People, commonalty, populace, mob, mobility, nation, tribe, race. Perception, seeing, sense, taste, perceptibility, sensibility, susceptibil- ity, sensation, apprehension, conviction. Percolate, filtrate, strain, filter, ooze. Peremptory, absolute, positive, arbitrary, desfXJtic, decisive, impera- tive. Perennial, impterishable, undying, immortal, deathless, enduring, per- petual. Perfect, complete, whole, entire, finished, unbroken, thorough, mature, ripe. Perfume, odor, scent, fragrance, aioma, smell, incense. Perhaps, perchance, possibly, peradventure. Perish, decay, die, expire, dissolve. Permanent, durable, abiding, enduring, lasting, fixed, stable, stead- fast, constant. Permission, permit, leave, liberty, license. Permit, v., admit, allow, let, consent, suffer, tolerate, license, warrant. Pernicious, destructive, ruinous, baneful, deleterious, hurtful. Perpetual, constant, continual, continuous, endless, eternal, lasting, incessant, ceaseless, unceasing, uninterrupted. Perplex, embarrass, harass, confuse, bewilder, entangle, involve, puzzle. Pestilential, contagious, infectious, epidemical, mischievous, perni- cious, nocent, noxious, baneful, destructive, p)estiferous, f^tal, deadly. Petition, prayer, supplication, entreaty, request, suit, appeal. Petty, trifling, trivial, frivolous, insignificant, small, little. Petulant, captious, fractious, cross, peevish, fretful, splenetic, excita- ble, ill-humored. Philanthropic, charitable, kind, benevolent, gracious, benignant. Phlegmatic, frigid, cold, heavy, unfeeling, apathetic. Phrase, term, style, sentence, proposition, period, phraseology, dic- tion. Piercing, thrilling, ringing, clangous. Piety, religion, sanctity, holiness, devotion, grace, godliness. Pile, v., heap, accumulate, hoard, amass, collect. Pine, v., flag, droop, languish, sink, fade, wither, decay, decline. Pious, holy, godly, saintly, devout, religious. Piquant, pungent, acrid, smart, keen, biting, harsh, stinging, cutting, racy. Pique, spite, grude, umbrage, resentment. Pithy, terse, concise, forcible, strong. Pitiful, mean, paltry, sordid, contemptible, despicable. Pity, »., compassion, sympathy, condolence, mercy. Plea, apology, defence, vindication, entreaty. Plead, defend, vindicate, exonerate, justify, exculpate, excuse. Pleasant, pleasing, agreeable, gratifying, satisfactory, delicious, ex- quisite, delightful, pleasurable, jocular, jocose, witty, smiling, laughing. Please, gratify, satisfy, content, delight, fascinate, indulge. Pleasure, comfort, enjoyment, gratification, joy, delight, rapture, charm, wish. Plight, v., pledge, hypothecate, vow. Plot, v., concoct, hatch, frame, contrive, conspire. Pluck, courage, mettl^, spirit, nerve. Plump, fleshy, round, fat, full, chubby. Polite, refined, genteel, civil, accomplished, well-bred. Politeness, gentility, civility, urbanity, courteousness, courtesy, affa- bility. Politic, political, civil, judicious, prudential. Pomp, parade, display, gorgeousness, splendor, grandeur, pageantry, show, state. Pompous, majestic, stately, grand, august, dignified, lofty, inflated, bombastic. Portray, draw, sketch, paint, depict, delineate, represent, describe. Praise, «., approval, eulogy, commendation, applause, exaltation, honor. Praise, z/., commend, extol, eulogize, panegyrize, laud, applaud, glorify. Praiseworthy, laudable, honorable, commendable, meritorious, worthy. Prank, frolic, gambol, freak, trick, escapade. Precious, valuable, costly, dear, estimable. Precipice, cliff, crag. Precipitate, v., hurry, hasten, cast down, expedite. Precipitate, a., hasty, hurried, rash, premature. Predicament, situation, condition, state, plight, dilemma. Predict, v., foretell, prognosticate, prophesy, foreshadow. Predilection, preference, partiality, bias, prejudice. Predominant, prevailing, prevalent, ascendant, overruling. Pregnant, prolific, teeming, replete, enceinte. Prejudice, prepossession, bias, partiality, detriment, harm, hurt, damage. Preliminary, prefatory, introductory, anterior, previous, antecedent. Preponderate, !»., predominate, prevail, overbalance, outweigh, out- balance. Prepossessing, charming, engaging, taking, attractive, winning. Preposterous, irrational, foolish, absurd, ridiculous. Prerogative, privilege, immunity, right, exemption. Presage, foresee, predict, portend, augtir, forebode, prognosticate, be- token, threaten. Prescribe, appoint, ordain, dictate, decree, enjoin, impose, order. Presumptuous, presuming, over-confident, forward, arrogan^, bold, rash, foolhardy. Pretence, cloak, mask, garb, pretext, excuse, plea. Pretend, feign, affect, simulate, profess. Pride, arrogance, haughtiness, vanity, self-esteem, lordliness, conceit, loftiness, vainglory. Principally, chiefly, essentially, mainly. Principle, ground, reason, motive, impulse, maxim, rule, rectitude, in- tegrity. Print, v., mark, impress, stamp, imprint. Privilege, immunity, advantage, favor, prerogative, exemption, right, claim. Probity, rectitude, uprightness, honesty. Integrity, sincerity, sound- ness. Problematical, uncertain, doubtful, dubious, questionable, disputable, suspicious. Prodigious, huge, enormous, vast, amazing, astonishing, astounding, surprising, remarkable, wonderful, f)ortentous. Profession, business, trade, occupation, vocation, office, employment, engagement, avowal. Proffer, volimteer, offer, propose, tender. Profligate, abandoned, dissolute, depraved, vicious, degenerate, cor- rupt, demoralized. Profound, deep, fathomless, penetrating, solemn, abstruse, recondite. Profuse, extravagant, prodigal, lavish, improvident, excessive, copi- ous, plentiful. Project, shoot, discharge, throw, hurl, jut, protrude, bulge. Prolific, productive, generative, fertile, fruitful, teeming. ^ 48 SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. -^ Prolix, diffuse, long, prolonged, tedious, tiresome, wordy, verbose, prosaic. Prominent, eminent, conspicuous, marked, jutting, important, leading. Promiscuous, mixed, unarranged, mingled, indiscriminate. Prop, t/., maintain, sustain, support, stay. Propagate, spread, circulate, diffuse, disseminate, extend, breed, in- crease. Propensity, inclination, disposition, bias, proneness, tendency, bent, predilection, proclivity. Proper, legitimate, right, just, fair, equitable, honest, suitable, fit, adapted, meet, becoming, befitting, decent, pertinent, appropriate. Prosper, flourish, succeed, grow rich, thrive, advance. Prosperity, well-being, weal, welfare, happiness, good luck. Prostrate, oppressed, trampled on, abject, paralyzed. Proverb, adage, maxim, aphorism, saying, byword, saw. Proximate, next, immediate, nearest, closest. Proximity, nearness, vicinity, neighborhood. Proxy, agent, representative, substitute, delegate, deputy. Prudence, carefulness, judgment, discretion, wisdom. Prurient, itching, craving, hankering, longing. Puerile, youthful, juvenile, boyish, childish, infantile, trifling, weak silly. Punctilious, trifling, nice, particular, formal, precise. Punctual, exact, precise, nice, particular, prompt, timely. Pungent, acrid, acrimonious, piquant, smart, keen, stinging. Putrefy, rot, decompose, corrupt, decay. Puzzle, w., perplex, confound, embarrass, bewilder, confuse, pose, mystify. QUACK, impostor, pretender, charlatan, empiric, mountebank. Quaint, artful, curious, far-fetched, fanciful, odd, singular. Querulous, complaining, fretting, repining. Query, question, inquiry, interrogatory. Quibble, cavil, evade, equivocate, shufile, prevaricate. Quick, lively, ready, prompt, alert, nimble, agile, active, brisk, expe- ditious, adroit, fleet, rapid, swift, impetuous, sweeping, dashing, clever, sharp. Quote, note, repeat, cite, adduce. RABID, mad, furious, raging, frantic. Race, course, match, pursuit, career, family, clan, house, ancestry, lineage, pedigree. Rack, agonize, wring, torture, excruciate, distress, harass. Racy, spicy, pungent, smart, spirited, lively, vivacious. Radiance, splendor, brightness, brilliance, brilliancy, lustre, glare. Radical, organic, innate, fundamental, original, constitutional, inher. ent, complete, entire. Rancid, fetid, rank, stinking, sour, tainted, reasty. Rancor, malignity, hatred, hostility, antipathy, animosity, enmity, ill- will, spite. Range, z'., arrange, class, place, rank, wander, stroll, roam, ramble, rove, expatiate. Rapacious, ravenous, voracious, greedy, grasping. Rapidity, quickness, swiftness, speed, velocity, celerity, fleetness, ac- tivity, exf)edition, despatch. Rapture, ecstacy, transport, delight, bliss. Rational, reasonable, sagacious, judicious, wise, intellectual, sensible, sane, sound. Raze, demolish, destroy, overthrow, ruin, dismantle. Realize, accomplish, achieve, effect, gain, get, acquire. Reciprocal, mutual, alternate, interchangeable. Recompense, «., indemnity, compensation, remuneration, requital, satisfaction, reward. Record, «., chronicle,register, note, trace,vestige,minute, memorandum. Rectitude, justice, uprightness, integrity, virtue, equity. Redundant, superfluous, unnecessary, excessive, luxuriant. Refer, appeal, allude, advert, relate, belong. Reformation, improvement, reform, amendment. Refractory, unruly, jjerverse, ungovernable, obstinate, stubborn. Regret, «., grief, sorrow, lamentation, repentance, remorse. Regular, orderly, methodic, systematical, uniform, unvaried, custom- ary, ordinary, stated, periodical. Reimburse, refund, repay, satisfy, indemnify. Reiterate, repeat, reproduce, renew. Relevant, fit, proper, suitable, appropriate, pertinent, apt. Reliance, trust, hope, dependence, confidence. Relief, succor, aid, help, redress, alleviation. Relinquish, give up, forsake, resign, surrender, quit, leave, forego. Remedial, healing, curative, mitigating, sanitary. Remedy, help, relief, redress, cure, specific, reparation. Rem'orseless, pitiless, relentless, cruel, ruthless, merciless, barbarous Remote, distant, far, secluded, indirect. Renown, distinction, reputation, fame, glory, celebrity. Reproduce, propagate, imitate, represent, copy. Reprove, chide, rebuke, reprimand, scold. Repudiate, disown, discord, disavow, renounce, disclaim. Repugnant, antagonistic, averse, adverse, hostile, unwilling. Repulsive, forbidding, odious, ugly, disagreeable, revolting. Reputable, creditable, estimable, honorable, respectable. Respite, reprieve, interval, stop, pause. Revel, feast, carouse, luxuriate, banquet, wallow. Revenge, vengeance, retaliation, requital, retribution. Revenue, produce, income, fruits, proceeds, wealth. Reverence, »., honor, respect, awe, veneration, deference, worship, homage. Revise, review, reconsider. Revive, refresh, renew, renovate, animate, resuscitate, vivify, cheer, comfort. Rich, wealthy, affluent, opulent, copious, ample, abundant, exuberant, plentiful, fertile, fruitful, superb, gorgeous. Rival, «., antagonist, opponent, competitor. Road, way, highway, route, course, path, pathway, anchorage. Roam, ramble, rove, wander, stray, stroll. Robust, strong, lusty, vigorous, sinewy, stout, sturdy, stalwart, able- bodied. Rout, v., discomfit, beat, defeat, overthrow, scatter. Route, road, course, march, way, journey, path, direction. Rude, rugged, rough, uncouth, unpolished, harsh, gruff, impertinent, saucy, flippant, impudent, insolent, churlish. Ruinous, destructive, hurtful, deleterious, baneful, wasteful. Rule, sway, method, system, law, maxim, precept, guide, formula, reg- ulation, government, standard, test. Rumor, hearsay, talk, fame, report, bruit. Ruthless, cruel, savage, barbarous, inhuman, merciless, remorseless, relentless, unrelenting. SACRED, holy, hallowed, divine, consecrated, dedicated, devoted. Sanction, confirm, countenance, encourage, support, ratify, authorize. Sapient, sagacious, discerning, knowing, sage, wise. Saturate, steep, soak, imbue. Saucy, impertinent, rude, impudent, insolent, flippant, forward. Savory, tasty, piquant, tasteful, palatable. Scandalize, shock, disgust, offend, calumniate, vilify, revile, malign, traduce, defame, slander. Scanty, bare, pinched, insufficient, slender, meagre. Scatter, strew, spread, fling around, disseminate, disperse, dissipate, dispel. Secret, clandestine, concealed, hidden, sly, underhand, latent, private. Secular, worldly, temporal, civil, lay, profane. Seditious, factious, tumultuous, turbulent, insurgent, mutinous, rebel- lious, incendiary. Seduce, allure, attract, decoy, entice, abduct, inveigle, deprave. Sensation, perception, apprehension, sentiment, feeling, impression. Sense, discernment, appreciation, view, opinion, feeling, perception, sensibility, susceptibility, thought, judgment, signification, import, significance, meaning, purport, wisdom. Sensibility, feeling, perception, sensitiveness, susceptibility. Sensible, a., wise, intelligent, reasonable, sober, sound, conscious, aware. Sensual, carnal, fleshly, voluptuous, animal. Set, put, place, lay, arrange. Settle, arrange, adjust, regulate, organize, conclude, determine, fix, ratify, confirm. Sever, break, disconnect, dissever, separate detach. kr- -^ r- SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 49 Share, portion, lot, division, quantity, quota, contingent. Shock, »., offend, disgiist, appall, dismay, scare, stun, terrify. Shudder, shake, tremble, quake, quiver. Signalize, distinguish, exalt, dignify, immortalize. Significant, expressive, indicative, important, momentous, weighty. Signify, express, declare, intimate, imply, denote, mean. Simple, silly, imbecile, foolish, elementary, unmixed, mere, plain, frank, open, shallow. Sin, wrong, wickedness, iniquity, crime, ungodliness, evil. Sincere, unvarnished, genuine, honest, unaffected, upright, true, plain, frank, candid, cordial. Sinister, imfair, disingenuous, dishonest, bad, evil, left, unlucky. Skulk, sneak, hide, cover, slink, shroud, shelter, veil. Slight, K., neglect, contempt, scorn, disdain. Slippery, smooth, glossy, unsafe, deceptive, evasive. Sly, cunning, astute, crafty, artful, subtle, wily, underhand. Small, little, diminutive, minute, slight, trivial, slender. Smart, quick, keen, brisk, sharp, caustic, severe, clever, witty, showy, spruce. Smartness, acuteness, keenness, liveliness, dexterity, cleverness. Sneer, «., scoff, taunt, gibe, mock. Snub, rebuke, reprimand, humiliate, nip, clip, dock. Snug, close, compact, concealed, comfortable. Solemn, grave, impressive, serious, formal, sacred, religious, devo- tional. Solicitude, carefulness, concern, trouble, anxiety, care. Soothe, soften, allay, appease, relieve, assuage, compose, calm, quiet, still, hush, lull, pacify, mitigfate. Sordid, earthly, selfish, mean, covetous, niggardly, greedy, close, dirty, foul, gross, vile, base. Sorrow, affliction, distress, grief, trouble, sadness, mourning. Speak, converse, say, tell, talk, discoxirse, utter, express. Special, exceptionable, peculiar, specific, particular, distinctive. Specify, particularize, state, designate, mention. Spite, rancor, spleen, malice, malevolence, ill-will, grudge, pique, vin- dictiveness. Splendid, magnificent, grand, brilliant, showy, superb, sumptuous, pompous, glorious, illustrious, signal. Spread, extend, disperse, expand, diffuse, distribute, circulate, propa- gate, disseminate, unfurl. Stable, a., firm, established, solid, substantial, constant, staunch, stead- fast, steady, fast, standing, permanent, perpetual. Staff, mark, impress, impression, print, genus, kind, description, make, mould, type. Station, standing, position, post, office, situation, state, rank, location. Sterling, genuine, pure, unalloyed, unadulterated, sound, substantial. Stimulate, spur, goad, animate, incite, encourage, impel, prompt, arouse, rouse. Stingy, close, mean, niggardly, sparing. Stipend, remuneration, allowance, pay, wages, salary, hire. Stipulate, bargain, contract, agree on, engage, covenant. Strengthen, fortify, reinforce, invigorate, consolidate, establish, substantiate. Strenuous, vigorous, zealous, vehement, bold, ardent, strong, resolute. Strong, forcible, cogent, powerful, fortified, potent, sturdy, stalwart, hale, robust, brawny, sinewy, athletic, hardy, firm. Studious, diligent, thoughtful, careful, attentive, mindful. Sturdy, robust, strong, stalwart, brawny, muscular. Suavity, mildness, gentleness, urbanity, sweetness, pleasantness. Subterfuge, evasion, shift, quirk, subtlety, artifice, dodge. Subtile, fine, thin, rare, delicate, nice, acute, refined. Subtle, cunning, crafty, astute, sly, wily, artful, shrewd. Succumb, yield, submit, comply, resign, surrender, give in. Suffrage, vote, voice. Suggest, hint, allude, refer, intimate, insinuate, propose. Sully, stain, tarnish, soil, spoil, blemish, mar, bedim, disgrace, dis- honor. Superficial, shallow, flimsy, slight, imperfect, external, outer. Supine, indolent, sluggish, lazy, listless, dull, apathetic, torpid| inac- tive, careless. Supple, lithe, flexible, pliant, bending, jrielding, compliant. Support, z;., sustain, prop, uphold, upbear, maintain, help, befriend, as- sist, countenance, patronize, favor, second, further, forward, pro- mote, nurture, nourish, foster, cherish, endure, suffer. Sure, infallible, certain, indisputable, unmistakable, doubtless, firm, safe, secure, confldent, positive, assured. Surmise, v., presume, conjecture, guess, suppose, suspect. Surmount, overcome, subdue, vanquish, conquer, surpass, exceed Surreptitious, underhand, furtive, stealthy, clandestine. Susceptible, sensible, sensitive, excitable, tender. Swear, declare, affirm, depose, testify, curse, blaspheme. Symbol, representation, sign, token, emblem, figure, type. Sympathy, commiseration, condolence, pity, compassion, ag^reement, fellow-feeling, union, concert. Synonymous, like, equivalent, interchangeable, identical, tantamount. Synopsis, epitome, syllabus. System, method, arrangement, regularity, order, rule, plan, scheme. TALE, anecdote, story, fable, legend, memoir, noyel, narrative, inci' dent, romance. Talent, ability, faculty, genius, cleverness," capability, gift, endow ment. Talk, conversation, chat, gossip, dialogue, discourse, report, rumor. Tantamount, equivalent, synonymous, equal to. Tardy, slow, dilatory, tedious, sluggish. Tarnish, v., stain, blemish, sully y' soil, dim, darken, obscure, taint. Tarry, await, stay, remain, continue, linger, lag, loiter, abide, lodge, dwell. Tart, sour, acid, sharp, keen, acrid, bitter, caustic, acrimonious. Taste, judgment, discernment, perception, sensibility, relish, gusto, zest, nicety, elegance, refinement. Tautology, verbosity, repetition, reiteration. Tear, rend, break, lacerate, sever, sunder. Tease, v., vex, plague, torment, irritate, disturb, provoke. Tedious, slow, dilatory, tardy, wearisome, irksome, dreary, tiresome, prosy, sluggish. Tell, number, enumerate, count, state, mention, communicate, apprise, impart, reveal, inform, ascertain, signify, acquaint, notify, intimate, report. Temporary. — See Temporal. Temporize, fence, manoeuvre, procrastinate. Tempt, allure, try, test, prove, draw, attract, decoy, entice, seduce. Tenacity, retentiveness, fixity, stubbornness. Tendency, inclination, leaning, propensity, proclivity, proneness, pre- disposition, scof>e, direction, bent, drift, aim, bias. Tenderaess, delicacy, softness, beneficence, benignity, humanity, sen- sibility, benevolence, kindness, pity, clemency. Testify, depose, declare, swear, attest, witness, prove, certify, confirm. Testimony, witness, confirmation, attestation, proof, evidence, corrob- oration. Theme, subject, topic, text, essay. Theory, speculation, scheme, plea, hjrpothesis, conjecture. Thought, idea, conception, imagination, fancy, conceit, notion, suppo- sition, care, provision, consideration, opinion, view, sentiment, re- flection, deliberation. Thraldom, slavery, enslavement, servitude, bondage, vassalage, serf- ism, captivity. Throb, palpitate, heave, beat. Throng, concourse, host, multitude, crowd, swarm, horde, shoal, myriad. Tie, v., bind, restrain, restrict, oblige, secure, unife, join. Tie, «., band, ligament, ligature. Time, duration, season, period, era, age, date, span, spell. Tipsy, drunk, intoxicated, inebriated, fuddled. Tolerate, allow, admit, receive, suffer, permit, let, endure, abide. Tongue, speech, language, idiom, dialect, talk, discourse. Top, summit, apex, head, crown, surface. Torpid, benumbed, numb, dull, stupid, sluggish, inert. Torrid, burning, hot, parching, scorching, sultry. Tortuous, twisted, winding, crooked, indirect. Torture, torment, anguish, agony. Touching, tender, affecting, moving, pathetic. Tractable, docile, manageable, amenable. Trade, traffic, commerce, dealing, occupation, employment, office. ^ SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. Traditional, oral, uncertain, transmitted. Traffic, trade, exchange, commerce, intercourse. Trammel, «., fetter, shackle, clog, bond, chain, impediment, hinder- ance. Tranquil, still, unruffled, peaceful, quiet, hushed. Transaction, negotiation, occurrence, proceeding, affair. Transgress, pass, exceed, violate, infringe, contravene, offend, tres- pass. Trash, nonsense, twaddle, trifles, dross. Travel, trip, ramble, peregrination, excursion, journey, tour, voyage. Traverse, cross, pass, thwart, obstruct. Treacherous, traitorous, disloyal, treasonable, faithless, false-hearted, perfidious, sly, false. Trenchant, cutting, sharp, severe, sarcastic. Trite, stale, old, ordinary, commonplace, hackneyed. Triumph, achievement, ovation, victory, conquest, jubilation. Trivial, trifling, petty, small, frivolous, unimportant, insignificant. Truculent, fierce, savage, barbarous, cruel, ruthless. True, genuine, actual, sincere, unaffected, true-hearted, honest, up- right, veritable, real, veracious, authentic, exact, accurate, correct. Tumult, ferment, outbreak, brawl, fray, turbulence, uproar, commo- tion, hubbub, disturbance, riot. Tumultuous, turbulent, riotous, disorderly, disturbed, confused, un- ruly. Tune, tone, air, melody, strain. Turbid, foul, thick, muddy, impure, unsettled. Turpitude, depravity, vileness, baseness, wickedness, sin. Tutor, teacher, preceptor, instructor, guardian, governor. Twit, taint, mock, jeer, gibe, sneer, scoff. Type, emblem, symbol, figure, sign, kind, sort, letter. Tyro, novice, beginner, learner. UGLY, unsightly, plain, homely, ill-favored, hideous. Ultimate, farthest, last, latest, final, eventual. Umbrage, offence, dissatisfaction, displeasure, resentment. Umpire, referee, arbitrator, judge, arbiter. Unanimity, accord, agreement, unity, concord. Unadvised, thoughtless, indiscreet, imprudent. Unanimous, agreeing, like-minded. Unblemished, pure, spotless, unspotted, unsullied. Unbridled, wanton, licentious, dissolute, loose, lax. Uncertain, doubtful, dubious, questionable, fitful, equivocal, ambigu- ous, indistinct, variable, fluctuating. Uncivil, rude, discourteous, disrespectful, disobliging. Unclean, dirty, foul, filthy, sullied. Uncommon, rare, strange, scarce, singular, choice, unique, unusual. Unconcerned, careless, indifferent, apathetic. Uncouth, strange, odd, clumsy, ungainly. Uncover, reveal, strip, expose, lay bare, divest. , Under, below, underneath, beneath, subordinate, lower, inferior. Undergo, bear, suffer, endure, sustain, experience. Understanding, knowledge, intellect, intelligence, faculty, comprehen- sion, mind, reason, brains. Undertake, engage in, embark in, agree, promise. Undo, annul, frustrate, untie, unfasten, destroy. Uneasy, restless, disturbed, unquiet, stiff, awkward. Unfair, wrongful, dishonest, unjust. Unfit, a., improper, unsuitable, inconsistent, untimely, incompetent. Unfortunate, calamitous, ill-fated, unlucky, wretched, unhappy, mis- erable. Unfounded, false, groundless, baseless. Uniform, regular, symmetrical, equal, even, alike, unvaried. Uninterrupted, continuous, perpetual, unceasing, incessant, endless. Union, junction, combination, alliance, confederacy, league, coalition, agreement, concert. Unique, unequalled, uncommon, rare, choice, matchless. Unison, harmony, concord, agreement, union. Unity, oneness, accord, uniformity, agreement. Universal, general, all, entire, total, catholic. Unlimited, absolute, undefined, boundless, infinite. Unreasonable, foolish, silly, absurd, preposterous, ridiculous. Unrivalled, unequalled, unique, unexampled, incomparable, matchless. Unroll, unfold, open, discover. Unruly, ungovernable, unmanageable, refractory. Unusual, rare, unwonted, singular, uncommon, remarkable, strangv^ extraordinary. Upbraid, blame, reproach, taunt, reprove, rebuke, chide, censure. Uphold, maintain, defend, sustain, support, vindicate. Upright, vertical, perpendicular, erect, just, equitable, fair, pure, hon- orable. Uprightness, honesty, integrity, fairness, goodness, probity, virtue, honor. Uproot, eradicate, exterminate, weed out. Urge, incite, impel, push, drive, instigate, stimulate, press, induce, so licit. Urgent, pressing, important, imperative, immediate, serious, wanted. Usage, custom, fashion, practice, prescription. Use, «., usage, practice, habit, custom, avail, advantage, utility, bene- fit, application. Use, z/., employ, exercise, occupy, practise, accustom, inure. Useful, advantageous, serviceable, available, helpful, beneficial, good. Useless, unserviceable, fruitless, idle, profitless. Usual, ordinary, common, accustomed, habitual, wonted, customary, general. Usurp, arrogate, seize, appropriate, assume. Utility, benefit, advantage, profit, service, avail, usefulness. Utmost, farthest, remotest, uttermost, greatest. Utter, a., extreme, excessive, sheer, mere, pure. Utter, z/., speak, articulate, pronounce, express, issue. Utterly, totally, completely, wholly, quite, altogether, entirely. VACANT, empty, unfilled, unoccupied, thoughtless, unthinking. Vagrant, «., wanderer, beggar, tramp, vagabond, rogue. Vague, unsettled, undetermined, uncertain, pointless, indefinite. Vain, useless, fruitless, empty, worthless, inflated, proud, unreal, un- availing. Valiant, brave, bold, valorous, courageous, gallant. Valid, weighty, strong, powerful, sound, binding, efficient. Valor, courage, gallantry, boldness, bravery, heroism. Value, z/., appraise, assess, reckon, appreciate, estimate, prize, esteem, treasure. Vanish, disappear, fade, melt, dissolve. Vanity, emptiness, conceit, self-conceit, affectedness. Vapid, dull, flat, insipid, stale, tame. Vapor, fume, smoke, mist, fog, steam. Variable, changeable, unsteady, inconstant, shifting, wavering, fickle, restless, fitful. Variety, difference, diversity, change, diversification, mixture, medley, miscellany. Vast, spacious, boundless, mighty, enormous, immense, colossal, gigantic, huge, prodigious. Vaunt, boast, brag, puff, hawk, advertise, flourish, parade. Vend, sell, retail, dispose of, hawk. Venerable, grave, sage, wise, old, reverend. Venial, pardonable, excusable, justifiable. Venom, poison, virus, spite, malice, malignity. Vent, opening, touch-hole, outlet, utterance. Venture, «., speculation, chance, peril, stake. Venture, »., dare, adventure, risk, hazard, jeopardize. Veracity, truth, truthfulness, credibility, accuracy. Verbal, oral, spoken, literal, parole, unwritten. Verdict, judgment, finding, decision, answer. Versatile, unsteady, changeable, unfixed, wavering, vacillating, oscil- lating, fluctuating, inconstant, fickle, restless, manifold. Versed, skilled, practised, conversant, clever, proficient. Vice, «., vileness, corruption, depravity, pollution, immorality, wick- edness, guilt, iniquity, crime, fault, defect, blemish. Vigilant, circumspect, watchful, wakeful, observant, cautious, careful. Vigorous, healthy, strong, powerful, energetic, stalwart, robust, hardy i firm, spirited, determined. Vile, ignoble, base, low, worthless, abject, sordid, mean, dishonorable, sinful, wicked, vicious. Vilify, debase, degrade, slander, decry, defame, scandalize, upbraid, brand, stigmatize, denounce. kr SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 51 Vindictive, spiteful, resentful, revengeful, unforgiving. Virtuous, just, upright, moral, chaste, pure. Visible, apparent, obvious, clear, plain, evident, manifest, distinct, pal- pable, patent. Vivid, lively, clear, lucid, bright, sunny, glowing, graphic. Vocation, profession, calling, trade, business, employment, office, mis- sion. Vogue, usage, way, custom, fashion, use, practice. Void, null, invalid, unfilled, empty, hollow, useless, nugatory. ■WAFT, transport, bear, convey. ■Wage, make, carry on, engage in, undertake. ■Wages, salary, hire, allowance, stipend, pay, remuneration, earnings. Waggish, frolicsome, furmy, jocular, sportive, merry, wanton. Wait, await, abide, bide, stay, remain, tarry. ■Waive, forego, relinquish, let go. ■Wanton, licentious, libertine, unrestrained, unbridled, uncurbed, dis- solute, loose, lax. ■Ward, f., avert, parry, fend, repel, turn aside, guard, defend. ■Warlike, bellicose, martial, military, soldier like. ■Warm, affectionate, attached, devoted, ardent, fervent, fervid, glow- ing. Warmth, ardor, fervency, fervor, cordiality, vehemence-, heat, fervid- ness, glow. ■Wary, careful, cautious, circumspect, guarded, Mratchful, heedful, pru- dent, vigilant. Wash, clean, rinse, wet, moisten, stain, tint. ■Waste, v., squander, dissipate, lavish, destroy, decay, dwindle, wither. ■Way, method, plan, system, means, manner, mode, form, fashion, course, process, road, route, track, path, habit, practice. ■Wayward, forward, obstinate, stubborn, unruly, perverse, disobedient. ■Weak, feeble, infirm, enfeebled, debilitated, powerless, helpless, ema- ciated, prostrate, thin, watery, diluted, flimsy, slight, j)oor, silly, defenceless. Weal, prosperity, welfare, advantage, well-being, happiness. ■Wealth, riches, opulence, affluence, plenty, mammon. ■Welfare, good fortune, well-being, prosperity, happiness, success. ■Wheedle, coax, cajole, flatter, entice, decoy, humor, court. White, snowy, pure, sjwtless, unspotted, unblemished, stainless, clean. Whole, sound, healthy, well, total, all, entire, perfect, complete, in- tegral, aggregate, undivided. Wholesome, nutritious, healthy, salubrious, healing, salutary. Wholly, entirely, totally, altogether, quite, perfectly, completely, ut- terly. ■Wicked, bad, ill, unjust, irreligious, ungodly, godless, profane, impi- ous, unhallowed, black, dark, foul, atrocious, villanous, enormous, monstrous, outrageous, profligate, abandoned. Wide, broad, ample, large, expanded, diffuse, extensive. ■Wild, savage, uncivilized, loose, irregular, disorderly, untamed, un- domesticaited, unruly. Wilful, perverse, stubborn, self-willed, headstrong, obstinate. ■Wilfully, designedly, purposely, intentionally. ■Willingly, voluntarily, spontaneously, gratuitously. ■Win, get, obtain, gain, procure, effect, realize, accomplish, achieve. ■Wind, v., coil, twine, wreathe, turn, bend, curve, twist, wriggle. ■Wing, v., fly, mount, ascend, soar, tower. ■Wisdom, sense, knowledge, learning, prudence, judgment, intelli- gence, sagacity. ■Wise, intelligent, learned, skilled, judicious, rational, discreet, pru- dent. ^Vish, desire, long for, yearn, banker, covet. ■Wit, mind, intellect, understanding, genius, imagination, humor, sa- tire, irony, mirth. Woe, distress, sorrow, affliction, disaster, trouble. ■Wonder, amazement, surprise, astonishment, admiration, miracle, marvel, prodigy, curiosity, rarity. ■Wonderful, marvellous, wondrous, amazing, astonishing, striking, sur- prising, admirable. ■Wondrous, wonderful, amazing, marvellous, stupendous, miraculous. ■Word, term, expression, accent, promise, engagement, account, tidings, message, order, command, signal. Worldly, terrestrial, mundane, temporal, secular, carnal, earthly. W^orry, plague, tease, torment, vex, annoy, irritate, fret. ■Worth, price, value, rate, desert, merit, virtue, excellence. ■Worthless, i^seless, valueless, frivolous, corrupt, libertine, dissolute, licentious, profligate. ■Worthy, excellent, deserving, eligible, preferable, meritorious, esti- mable, commendable, laudable, praiseworthy. ■Wrap, muffle, envelop, fold, encase. ■Wreathe, v., turn, twist, interweave, enfold. ■Wreck, ddbris, ruins, havoc, rubbish. ■Wretched, deplorable, miserable, unhappy, distressed, afflicted, un- fortunate, afflicting, disastrous, calamitous, drear, dismal. ■Wring, v., twist, wrench, wrest, distort, squeeze. Wrong, v., abuse, injure, maltreat, oppress, aggrieve. ■Wrong, a., bad, evil, incorrect, erroneous, unsuitable, improper, un- just. ■Wry, twisted, distorted, awry, crooked. ■YEARN, hanker after, long for, desire, crave. Yield, bear, give, afford, impart, communicate, confer, bestow, give up, abdicate, resign, cede, surrender, relinquish, relax, quit, forego, let go, waive, comply, conform, accede, assent, acquiesce, succumb, sink, submit. Yoke, z/., couple, link, connect. Youth, boy, lad, minority, adolescence, juvenility. Youthful, young, juvenile, boyish, girlish, puerile. ZEAL, energy, fervor, ardor, earnestness, enthusiasm, eagerness. Zest, relish gusto, flavor. 52 SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS. T T T T ^^ -^^ o' ^r^ ^ T T T 1%,^, ,. ||f .^ j|i ^f .:jif.jif::f f ^ f f # f if f ^ f ^ijv'^ '^ " « i " _ « ^ »< .;+ n 4- w ^ « _ K ^ w ■ w r. n _ w :, B -' H ■ b « - i« ■ ~ -•''» 'm ¥p ¥^ ¥h ^ ¥^ ¥p m ¥^ ^ ¥^ ^' ~ ' ' kr- A. BSENCE destroys trifling intimacies, but it invigorates strong ones. — Rochefoucauld. Actions are of so mixed a nature, that as men pry into them, or observe some parts more than others, they take different hues, and put contrary interpretations on them. — Addison. Hurry and cunning are the two apprentices of dis- patch and skill, but neither of them ever learned their mas- ter's trade. — CoLTON. Admiration is a short-lived passion, that immediately decays upon growing familiar with its object, unless it still be fed with fresh discoveries. — Addison. He that hath never known adversity is but half acquainted with others, or with himself. — Atterbury. Adversity borrows its sharpest sting from our impatience. — Home. Let no man presume to give advice to others that has not at first given good counsel to himself. — Seneca. Affection is still a bribe of judgment, and it is hard for a man to admit a reason against the thing he loves, or to con- fess the force of an argument against an intent. — South, The furnace of affliction refines us from earthly drowsi- ness, and softens us for the impression of God's own stamp. — Boyle. Age makes us most fondly hug and retain the good things of this life, when we have the least prospect of enjoying them. — Atterbury. Providence gives us notice by sensible declensions that we may disengage from the world by degrees. — Collier, It is proper that alms should come out of a little purse as well as out of a great sack ; but surely when there is plenty, charity is a duty, not a courtesy ; it is a tribute imposed by Heaven upon us, and he is not a good subject who refuses to pay it. — Feltham. Ambition sufficiently plagues her proselytes by keeping them always in show, like the statues in a public place. — Montagne. Ambition breaks the ties of blood and forgets the obliga- tions of gratitude. — ScoTT. Title and ancestry render a good name illustrious, but an ill one more contemptible. — Addison. The man who has not anything to boast of but his illustri- ous ancestors is like a potato — the only good belonging to him is underground. — Overbury. When anger arises, think of the consequences. — Confu- cius. Anger is a transient hatred, or at least, very like it. — South. Anxiety is the passion of human life. — Addison, According to the stories, apathy meant the extinction of the passions by the ascendancy of reason. — Fleming. Passionate expressions and vehement* assertions are no arguments, unless it be of the weakness of the cause that is defended by them, or of the man who defends it. — Chilling- worth. If your arguments be rational, offer them in as moving a manner as the nature of the subject will admit ; but beware if the pathetic part swallow up the rational. — Swift. The enemy of art is the enemy of nature. Art is nothing but the highest sagacity and exertion of human nature ; and what nature will he honor who honors not the human ? — Lavater. No atheist, as such, can be a true friend, an affectionate relative, or a loyal subject. — Bently. Men are atheistical because they are at first vicious ; and question the truth of Christianity because they hate the prac- tice. — South. By attention ideas are registered in the memory. — Locke. I never knew any man cured of inattention. — ^SwiFT. The practice of all ages and all countries hath been to do honor to those who are invested with public authority. — ■ Addison, " or THE V/N/VER8fTy SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS. 53 ■^ There is no vice which mankind carries to such wild ex- tremities as that of avarice. — Seneca. Poverty is in want of much, but avarice of everytliing. — Lyons. B. Beauty is nothing else but a just accord and mutual har- mony of the members, animated by a healthful constitution. ^Dryden. No better cosmetics than a severe temperance and purity, modesty and humility, a gracious temper and calmness of spirit ; no true beauty without the signature of these graces in the very countenance. — Ray. Rare benevolence, the minister of God. — Carlyle, A man must be exceedingly stupid, as well as uncharitable, who believes there is no virtue but on his own side. — Addison an Bigotry. The blessings of fortune are the lowest ; the next are the bodily advantages of strength and health ; but the superlative blessings, in fine, are those of the mind. — L'Estrange. The bold and sufficient pursue their game with more pas- sion, endeavor and application, and therefore often succeed. — Temple. Every good book is an action, and every great action is a book. — Luther. We ought to regard books as we do sweetmeats, not wholly to aim at the pleasantest, but chiefly to respect the wholesom- est ; not forbidding either, but approving the latter most. — Plutarch. C. In some calamities we can have no relief but from God alone ; and what would men do in such a case if it were not for God ? — TiLLOTSON. As the calling dignifies the man, so the man much more advances his calling. — South. If the calumniator bespatters and belies me, I will en- deavor to convince him by my life and manners, but not by being like himself. — South. A man should never be ashamed to own he has been in the wrong, which is but saying in other words that he is wiser to- day than he was yesterday. — Pope on Candor. Speech of touch towards others should be sparingly used ; but discourse ought to be as a field, without coming home to any man.- — BACON on Censoriousness. Chance is but the pseudonym of God for these particular cases which He does not choose to subscribe openly with his own sign-manual. — Coleridge. The opposites of apparent chance are constancy and sensible inte rposition. — P aley. These two things, contradictory as they may seem, must go together, manly dependence and manly independence, manly reliance and manly self-reliance. — Wadsworth on Char- acter. The smallest act of charity shall stand us in great stead. — Atterbury. Charity is made the constant companion and perfection of all virtues ; and well it is for that virtue where it most enters and longest stays. — Sprat. To be pure-minded and cheerfully disposed at hours of meat, sleep and exercise, is one of the best precepts of long last- ing. — Bacon. The cheerful man, truly wise, creams off nature, leaving the sour and the dregs for philosophy and reason to lap on. — Swift. I love little children ; and it is not a slight thing when they, who are fresh from God, love us. — Dickens. Children are travelers newly arrived in a strange country ; we should therefore make conscience not to mislead them. — Locke. I seem, for my own part, to see the benevolence of the Deity m«re clearly in the presence of very young children than in anything in the world. — Paley. There never was law, or sect, or opinion did so much mag- nify goodness as the Christian religion doth. — Bacon. Christianity, which is always true to the heart, knows no abstract virtues, but virtues resulting from our wants and use- ful to all. — Charnock. Everywhere throughout all generations and ages of the Chris- tian world, no Church ever perceived the Word of God to be against it. — Hooker. It seems to be in the power ©f a reasonable clergfyman to make the most ignorant man comprehend his duty. — Swift. Comedy is a representation of common life in low subjects. — Dryden. Common sense is a phrase employed to denote that degree of intelligence, sagacity, and prudence which is common to all men. — Fleming. A crowd is not company, and faces are but a gallery of pictures, where there is no love. — Bacon. Bad company is like a nail driven into a post, which after the first or second blow may be drawn out with little difficulty ; but being once driven up to the head, the pincers cannot take hold to draw it out, but which can only be done by the destruction of the wood. — St. Augustine. Long sentences in a short composition are like large rooms in a little house- — Shenstone. Too great confidence in success is the likeliest to prevent it ; because it hinders us from making the best use of the ad- vantages which we enjoy. — Atterbury. Confidence is a plant of slow growth in an aged bosom. — Chatham. Conscience is the great ledger-book in which all our offences are written and registered. — Burton. The authority of conscience stands founded upon its vice- regency and deputation under God. — South. The last and crowning privilege, or rather property of friendship is constancy. — South. It is often more necessary to conceal contempt than resent- ment ; the former being never foi^iven, but the latter some- times forgot. — Chesterfield. The highest point outward things can bring me into is the contentment of the mind, with which no state is miser- able. — Sidney. The advantage of conversation is such that, for want of company, a man had better talk to a post than let his thoughts lie smoking and smothering. — Collier. -^ 'f- 54 SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS. Conversa.tion warms the mind, enlivens the imagination, and is continually starting fresh game that is immediately pur- sued and taken, and which would never have occurred in the dull intercourse of epistolary correspondence. — Franklin. The first ingredient in conversation is truth ; the next, good sense ; the third, good humor ; and the fourth, wit. — Temple. Dangers are light, if they once seem light ; and more dangers have deceived men than forced them. — Bacon on Courage. Courtship consists in a number of quiet attentions, not so pointed as to alarm, nor so vague as not to be understood. — Sterne. The covetous man heaps up riches, not to enjoy them, but to have them. — Tillotson. Cunning pays no regard to virtue, and is but the low mimic of wisdom. — Bolingbroke. Cunning leads to knavery ; it is but a step from one to the other, and that very slippery ; lying only makes the difference ; add that to cunning, and it is knavery. — La Bruyere. Curiosity in children, nature has provided to remove that ignorance they were bom with. — Locke. A person who is too nice an observer of the kings of the council, like one who is too curious in observing the labors of the bees, will often be stung for his curiosity. — Pope. By custom, practice and patience, all difficulties and hard- ships, whether of body or of fortune, are made easy. — L'Es- trange. Custom has an ascendency over the understanding. — Watts. D. Death is the liberator of him whom pardon cannot release, the physician of him who cannot cure, and the comforter of him whom time cannot console. — Colton. The thought of being nothing after death is a burden un- supportable to a virtuous man. — Dryden. The darkness of death is like the evening twilight ; it makes all objects appear more lovely to the dying. — RiCHTER. All deception in the course of life is, indeed, nothing else but a lie reduced to practice, and falsehood passing from words to things. — South. Despair is the thought of the unattainableness of any good, which works differently in men's minds, sometimes producing uneasiness or pain, sometimes rest and indolency. — Locke. Despotism can no more exist in a nation until the liberty of the press is destroyed than the night can happen before the sun is set. — CoLTON. To reprove discontent, the ancients feigned that on a hill stood a man twisting a rope of hay ; and still he twisted on, suffering an ass to eat up all that was finished. — Taylor. ^ Discretion is the perfection of reason, and a guide to win all the duties of life. — Addison. The greatest facts, without discretion, may be fatal to their owner. — Hume. Men love to hear of their power, but have an extreme dis- relish to be told their duty. — Burke. There is not a moment without some duty. — Cicero. What it is our duty to do we must do because it is right, not because any one can demand it of us. — Whemle. E. Beware of little expenses ; a small leak will sink a great ship. — Franklin on Economy. Frugality may be termed the daughter of prudence, the sister of temperance, and the parent of liberty. — Johnson on Economy. Education begins the gentleman, but reading, good com- pany and reflection must finish him. — Locke. Education, in the more extensive sense of the word, may comprehend every preparation that is made in our youth for the sequel of our lives. — Paley. Eloquence is the language of nature, and cannot be learnt in the schools. — CoLTON. False eloquence passeth only where true is not understood. — TiLTON. Eloquence comes, if it comes at all, like the outbreaking of a fountain from the earth. — Webster. Employment, which Galen calls " nature's physician," is so essential to human happiness that indolence is justly con- sidered the mother of misery. — Burton. He who would do some great thing in this short life must apply himself to the work with such a concentration of his forces as, to idle spectators, who live only to amuse them- selves, looks like insanity. — Foster on Energy. Is there one whom difficulties dishearten — who bends to the storm ? He will do little. Is there one who wi'U conquer ? That kind of man never fails. — Hunter on Energy. Envy, like a cold poison, numbs and stupefies ; and, con- scious of its own impotence, folds its arms in despair. — Col- lier. We ought to be guarded against any appearance of envy, as a passion that always implies inferiority wherever it resides. — Pliny. How ready is envy to mingle with the notices which we take of other persons. — Watts. To be indifferent whether we embrace falsehood or truth is the great road to error. — Locke. Every absurdity hath a champion to defend it, for error is always talkative. — Goldsmith. Not one false man but does unaccountable evil. — Carlyle. The doing evil to avoid an evil cannot be good. — Cole- ridge. The innocence of the intention abates nothing of the mis- chief of the example. — Hall. People seldom improve when they have no model but them- selves to copy after. — Goldsmith on Example." All is but lip-wisdom which wants experience. — Sidney. The knowledge drawn from experience is quite of another kind from that which flows from speculation or discourse. — South. He that is extravagant will quickly become poor , and poverty will enforce dependence and invite corruption, — Johnson. -^ r- SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS. U A miser grows rich by seeming poor ; an extravagant man grows poor by seeming rich. — Shenstone. F. Faith believes the revelations of God ; hope expects His promises ; charity loves His excellencies and mercies. — Taylor, - The faith which is required of us is then perfect when it produces in us a fiduciary assent to whatever the gospel has revealed. — Wake. False men are not to be taken into confidence, nor fearful men into a post that requires resolution. — L'Estrange. Falsehood is never so successful as when she baits her hook with truth. — CoLTON. The desire for fame betrays an ambitious man into inde- cencies that lessen his reputation ; he is still afraid lest any of his actions should be thrown away in private. — Addison. Fame is an undertaker ; it pays but little attention to the living, but bedizens the dead, furnishes out their funerals, and follows them to the grave. — C«lton. A regard for fame becomes a man more toward the exit than at his entrance into life. — Swift. However strict a hand is kept upon all the desires of fancy, yet in recreation fancy must be permitted to speak. — Locke. All things are in fate, yet all things are not decided by fate. — Plato. God overrules all mutinous accidents, brings them under His laws of fate, and makes them all serviceable to His purpose. — Antoninus. What can a man fear who takes care to please a Being that is able to crush all his adversaries. — Addison. Fear is far more painful to cowardice than death to true courage — Sidney. Flattery corrupts both the receiver and the giver ; and ad- ulation is not of more service to the people than to kings. — Burke. He that is much flattered soon learns to flatter himself. — Johnson. Men find it more easy to flatter than to praise. — Richter. Folly consists in the drawing of false conclusions from just principles, by which it is distinguished from madness, which draws just conclusions from false principles. — LocKE. Of all thieves fools are the worst ; they rob you of time and temper. — Goethe. Foppery is never cured ; it is the bad stamina of the mind, which, like those of the body, are never rectified ; once a cox- comb always a coxcomb. — Johnson. Humanity is never so beautiful as when praying for for- giveness, or else forgiving another. — Richter. You should forgive many things in others, but nothing in yourself. — Ansonius. Fortune is but a synonymous word for nature and neces- sity. — Bently. Every man is the maker of his own fortune, and must be, in some measure, the trumpet of his fame. — Dryden. It is madness to make fortune the mistress of events, be- cause in herself she is nothing, but is ruled by prudence.— Dryden. Ill fortune never crushed the man whom good fortune de- ceived not. JONSON. We are sure to get the better of fortune if we do but grap- ple with her. — Seneca. Friendship is a strong and habitual inclination in two per- sons to furnish the good and happiness of each other. — Ad- dison. A long noviciate of acquaintance should precede the vows of friendship. — Bolingbroke. Friendship ought not to be unripped but unstitched. — Cato. A man should keep his friendship in constant repair. — Johnson. G. Genius always gives its best at first, prudence at last. — Lavater. Genius without religion is only a lamp in the outer gates of the palace. It may seem to cast a gleam of light on those that are without, while the inhabitant sits in darkness. — H. More. True glory takes root, and ever spreads ; all false pre- tences, like flowers, fall to the ground, nor can any counter- feit last long. — Cicero. There are two things which ought to teach us to think but meanly of human glory ; the very best have had their calum- niators, the very worst their panegyrists. — CoLTON. To an honest mind the best perquisites of a place are the ad- vant^es it gives a man of doing good. — Addison. He who receives a good turn should never forget it ; he who does one should never remember it. — Charron. A man's own good breeding is the best security against other people's ill manners. — Chesterfield. Honest good humor is the oil and wine of a merry meet^ ing, and there is no jovial companionship equal to that when the jokes are rather small and the laughter abundant. — Irving. Men naturally warm and heady are transported into the greatest flush of good nature. — Addison. Persons lightly dipped not grained in generous honesty, are but pale in goodness. — Browne. Forever all goodness will be most charming ; forever all wickedness will be most odious. — Sprat. Government mitigates the inequality of power, and makes an innocent man, though of lowest rank, a match for the mightiest of his fellow subjects. — Addison. Few consider how much we are indebted to government, because few can represent how wretched mankind would be without it. — Atterbury. Of governments, that of the mob is the most sanguinary ; that of the soldiers the most expensive, and that of civilians the most vexatious. — Colton. Grace is to the body what good sense is to the mind. — Rochefoucauld. Gratitude consists adequately in these two things : first, that it is a debt ; and secondly, that it is such a debt as is left 4- r 5C SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS. to every man's ingenuity, whether he will pay or no. — South. There is selfishness even in gratitude when it is too pro- fuse ; to be unthankful for one favor is in effect to lay out another. — Cumberland. A solid and substantial greatness of soul looks down with neglect on the censures and applauses of the multitude. — Ad- dison. 'Tis highly imprudent in the greatest of men to unnecessa- rily provoke the meanest. — L'Estrange. Reproach is concomitant to greatness. — South. In the loss of an object we do not proportion our grief to its real value, but to the value our fancies set upon it. — Ad- dison. It will appear how unfortunate that grief was which served no end in life. — Taylor. H. In the great majority of things habit is a greater plague than ever afflicted Egypt ; in religious character it is a grand felicity. — Foster. Habit, if wisely and skillfully formed, becomes truly a second nature, as the common saying is ; but unskillfully and unmethodically directed it will be as it were the ape of nature, which imitates nothing to the life, but only clumsily and awk- wardly. — Bacon. Habit is the deepest law of human nature. — Carlyle. Comparison, more than reality, makes man happy, and can make them wretched. — Feltham. There are two ways of being happy — we may either diminish our wants, or augment our means ; either will do — the result is the same ; and it is for each man to decide for himself, and do that which happens to be the easiest. If you are idle, or sick, or poor, however hard it may be to diminish your wants, it will be harder to augment your means. If you are active and prosperous, or young, o\ in good health, it may be easier for you to augment your means than to diminish your] wants. But if you are wise you will do both at the same time, young or old, rich or poor, sick or well ; and if you are very wise you will do both in such a way as to augment the general happi- ness of society. — Benjamin Franklin. False happiness renders men stern and proud, and that happiness is never communicated ; true happiness renders them kind and sensible, and that happiness is always shared. — MontesquieUc Health is, indeed, so necessary to all the duties as well as pleasures of life, that the crime of squandering it is equal to the folly ; and he that for a short gratification brings weak- ness and diseases upon himself, and for the pleasure of a few years passed in the tumults of diversion and clamors of mer- riment condemns the maturer and more experienced part of his life to the chamber and the couch, may be justly re- proached, not only as a spendthrift of his happiness, but as a robber of the public ; as a wretch that has voluntarily disqual- ified himself for the business of his station, and refused that part which Providence assigns him in the general task of human nature. — ^Johnson. Be sober and temperate and you will be healthy. — R Franklin. Preserving the health of too strict a regimen is a weari- some malady. — ROCHEFOUCAULD. Perfect purity, fulness of joy, everlasting freedom, perfect rest, health and fruition, complete security, substantial arid eternal good. — HANNAH More on Heaven. Think of heaven with hearty purposes and peremptory de- signs to get thither. — Taylor. Many might go to heaven with half the labor they go to hell, if they would venture their industry the right way.--JoN- son. If shame superadded to loss, and both met together, as the sinner's portion here, perfectly prefiguring the two saddest in- gredients in hell — deprivation of the blissful vision, and confusion of face — cannot prove efficacious to the mortify- ing of vice, the church doth give over the patient. — Ham- mond. When the historian cannot give patterns to imitate, he must give examples to deter. — ^Junius. The perfect historian is he in whose work the character and spirit of an age is exhibited in miniature. He relates no fact, he attributes no expression to his characters, which is not authenticated by sufficient testimony. But, by judicious se- lection, rejection, and arrangement, he gives to truth those attractions which have been usurped by fiction. In his narra- tive a due subordination is observed ; some transactions are prominent ; others retire. But the scale on which he repre- sents them is increased or diminished, not according to the dignity of the persons concerned in them, but according to the degree in which they elucidate the condition of society and the nature of man. He shows us the court, the camp, and the senate. But he shows us also the nation. He considers no anecdote, no peculiarity of manner, no familiar saying, as too insignificant for his notice which is not too insignificant to il- lustrate the operation of laws, of religion, and of education, and to mark the progress of the human mind. Men will not merely be described, but will be made intimately known to us. The changes of manners will be indicated, not merely by a few general phrases or a few extracts from statistical documents, but by appropriate images presented in every line. If a man, such as we are supposing, should write the history of England, he would assuredly not omit the battles, the sieges, the negotiations, the seditions, the ministerial changes. But with these he would intersperse the details which are the charm of historical romances. — Lord Macaulay. Blessed is the memory of those who have kept themselves unspotted from the world ! Yet more blessed and wise the memory of those who have kept themselves unspotted in the world. — William Jameson on Holiness. It was the policy of the good old gentleman to make his children feel that home was the happiest place in the world ; and I value this delicious home feeling as one of the choicest gifts a parent can bestow. — Washington Irving. The maxim that " Honesty is the best policy " is one which, perhaps, no one is ever habitually guided by in practice. An SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS. 57 honest man is always before it, and a knave is generally be- hind it. — Whately. Wisdom without honesty is mere craft and cozenage ; and, therefore, the reputation of honesty must first be gotten, which cannot be but by living well ; a good life is a main argument. — Ben Jonson. A principle of honor, as long as it is connected with virtue, adds no small efficacy to its operation, and no small brilliancy and luster to its appearance ; but honor, the moment that it becomes unconnected with the duties of official function with the relations of life and the eternal and immutable laws of morality, and appears in its substance alien to them, changes its nature, and, instead of justifying a breach of duty, aggra- vates all its mischiefs to an almost infinite degree : by the ap- parent lustre of the surface it hides from you the baseness and deformity of the ground. — BuRKE. When honors come to us, rather than we to them ; when they meet us, as it were, in the vestibule of life, it is well if our enemies can say no more against us than that we are too young for our dignities ; it would be much worse for us if they could say that we are too old for them. Time will destroy the first objection, but confirm the second. — COLTON. The law of honor is a system of rules constructed by people of fashion, and calculated to facilitate their intercourse with one another. — Paley. Hope is a prodigal young heir, and experience is his banker ; but his drafts are seldom honored, since there is often a heavy balance against him, because he draws largely upon a small capital, is not yet in possession, and if he were, would die. — COLTON. That vain and foolish hope, which is misemployed on tem- poral objects, produces many sorrows. — Addison. Hope thinks nothing difficult ; despair tells us that difficulty is insurmountable. — Watts. If we hope for what we are not likely to possess, we act and think in vain, and make life a greater dream and shadow than it really is.- -Addison. Hospitality to th*^ better sort, and charity to the poor — two virtues that are never exercised so well as when they ac- company each other. — Atterbury. Hospitality sometimes degenerates into profuseness, and ends in madness and folly. — Atterbury. Humility and resignation are our prime virtues. — Dry- den. Humility in a man consists not in denying any gift that is in him, but a just valuation of it ; rather thinking too meanly than too highly. — Ray. Humility leads to the highest distinction, because it leads to self-improvement. Study your own characters ; endeavor to learn and supply your own deficiencies ; never assume to yourselves qualities which you do not possess ; combine all this with energy and activity, and you cannot predicate of your- selves, nor can others predicate of you, at what point you may arrive at last. — Brodie. I shall set down at length the genealogical table of false humor, and, at the same time, place under it the genealogy of true humor, that the reader may at one view behold their dif- ferent pedigrees and relations : Falsehood. Nonsense. Frenzy. — Laughter. False Humor. Truth. Good Sense. Wit. — Mirth. Humor. — Addison. There are more faults in humor than in the mind. — Ad- dison. I. dleness is a constant sin, and labor is a duty. Idleness is but the devil's home for temptation, and unprofitable, dis- tracting musings. — Baxter. The idle, who are neither wise for this world nor the next, are emphatically fools at large. — Tillotson. Idleness is the badge of gentry, the bane of body and mind, the nurse of naughtiness, the stepmother of discipline, the chief author of all mischief, one of the seven deadly sins, the cushion upon which the devil chiefly reposes, and a great cause not only of melancholy, but of many other diseases, for the mind is naturally active, and if it be not occupied about some honest business, it rushes into mischief or sinks into melancholy. — Robert Burton. If you have but an hour, will you improve that hour instead of idling it away ? — Chesterfield. Idolatry is certainly the first bom of folly, the great and leading paradox : nay, the very abridgment and sum total of all absurdities. — South. There is not so contemptible a plant or animal that does not confound the most enlarged understanding. — Locke. But the greatest part of those who set mankind at defiance by hourly irritation, and who live but to infuse malignity and multiply enemies, have no hopes to foster, no designs to pro- mote, nor any expectations of attaining power by insolence, or of climbing to greatness by trampling on others. They give up all the sweets of kindness for the sake of peevishness, petu- lance or gloom, and alienate the world by neglect of the com- mon forms of civility, and breach of the established laws of conversation. — Johnson on 111 Nature. Ill Nature consists of a proneness to do ill turns, attended with a secret joy upon the sight of any mischief that befalls another, and of an utter insensibility of any kindness done him. — South. If we will stand boggling at imaginary evils, let us never blame a horse for starting at a shadow. — L'Estrange. By imagination a man in a dungeon is capable of entertain- ing himself with scenes and landscapes more beautiful than any that can be found in the whole compass of nature. — Ad- dison. Besides the ideas, with their annexed pains and pleasures, which are presented by the sense, the mind of man possesses a sort of creative power of its own, either in representing at pleasure the images of things in the order and manner in which they were received by the senses, or in combining those images 4r- ^ 58 SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS. -^ in a new manner, and according to a different order. This power is called imagination ; and to this belongs whatever is called wit, fancy, invention, and the like. But it must be ob- served that this power of the imagination is incapable of pro- ducing anything absolutely new ; it can only vary the disposi- tion of these ideas which it has received from the senses. Now the imagination is the most extensive province of pleasure and pain, as it is the region of our fears and our hopes, and of all our passions that are connected with them ; and whatever is calculated to affect the imagination with these commanding ideas, by force of any original natural impression, must have the same power pretty equally over all men. For since the imagination is only the representation of the senses, it can only be pleased or displeased with the images, from the same principle on which the sense is pleased or displeased with the realities ; and consequently there must be just as close an agreement in the imaginations as in the senses of men. A little attention will convince us that this must of necessity be the case. — Burke. Those are carried above sense, and aspire after,immortal- ity, who believe the perpetual duration of the soul. — TlLLOT- SON. Almost every one has a predominant inclination to which his other desires and inclinations submit, and which governs him, though perhaps with some intervals, through the whole course of his life. — Hume. Mutability of temper and inconsistency with ourselves is the greatest weakness of human nature. — Addison. I look upon indolence as a sort of suicide ; for the man is effectually destroyed, though the appetite of the brute may serve. — Chesterfield. The desire of leisure is much more natural than that of business or care. — Temple. Lives spent in indolence and therefore sad. — CowPER. I persuade myself that the bountiful and gracious Author of man's being and faculties, and all things else, delights in the beauty of his creation, and is well pleased with the industry of man in adorning the earth with beautiful cities and castles, with pleasant villages and country houses, with regular gar- dens and orchards, and plantations of all sorts of shrubs, and herbs, and fruits, for meat, medicine, or moderate delight; with shady woods and groves, and walks set with rows of ele- gant trees ; with pastures clothed with flocks, and valleys cov- ered over with corn, and meadows burthened with grass, and whatever else differenceth a civil and well-cultivated region from a barren and desolate wilderness. — Ray. A man who gives his children habits of industry provides for them better than by giving them a fortune. — Whately. There is no art or science that is too difficult for industry to attain to ; it is the gift of tongues, and makes a man un- derstood and valued in all countries and by all nations. It is the philosopher's stone that turns all metals, and even stones, into gold, and suffers no want to break into its dwelling. It is the northwest passage that brings the merchant's ships as soon to him as he can desire. In a word, it conquers all ene- mies, and makes fortune itself pay contribution. — Claren- don. When once infidelity can persuade men that they shall die like beasts, they will soon be brought to live like beasts. — • South . Men always grow vicious before they become unbelievers ; but if you would once convince profligates by topics drawn from the view of their own quiet, reputation, and health, their infidelity would soon drop off. — Sv^^ift. Every man, however humble his station or public his powers, exercises some influence on those who are about him for good or for evil. — Sedgwick. Ingratitude is abhorred by God and man. — L'Estrange. We seldom find people ungrateful as long as we are in a condition to render them services. — Rochefoucauld. There is not any one vice incident to the mind of man against which the world has raised such a loud and universal outcry as against ingratitude. — South. One ungrateful man does an injury to all who stand in need of aid. — PuBLius Syrus. Injustice arises either from precipitation or indolence, or from a mixture of both. The rapid and the slow are seldom just ; the unjust wait either not at all, or wait too long. — Lavater. With more patience men endure the losses that befall them by mere casualty than the damages which they sustain by in- justice. — Sir W. Raleigh, Essays. To dread no eye, and to suspect no tongue, is the great pre- rogative of innocence : an exemption granted only to invari- able virtue . But guilt has always its horrors and solicitudes ; and, to make it yet more shameful and detestable, it is doomed often to stand in awe of those to whom nothing could give in- fluence or weight, but their power of betraying. — Dr. S. Johnson. How many bitter thoughts does the innocent man avoid ! Serenity and cheerfulness are his portion. Hope is contin- ually pouring its balm into his soul. His heart is at rest, whilst others are goaded and tortured by the stings of a wounded conscience, the remonstrances and risings up of principles which they cannot forget ; perpetually teased by returning temptations, perpetually lamenting defeated resolu- tions. — Paley. An innocent nature could hate nothing" that was inno- cent ; in a word, so great is the commutation that the soul then hated only that which now only it loves, i. 5 and energy, but in the present. The man who will not execute his resolutions when they are fresh upon hini can have no hope from them afterwards ; they will be dissipated, lost, and perish in the hurry and skurry of the world, or sunk in the slough of indolence. — Maria Edgeworth on Procrastination. None so nearly disposed to scoffing at religion as those who have accustomed themselves to swear on trifling occasions. — TiLLOTSON on Profanity. Is not the separate property of a thing the great cause of its endearment amongst all mankind?— South. Property communicates a charm to whatever is the object of it. It is the first of our abstract ideas ; it cleaves to us the closest and the longest. It endears to the child its plaything, to the peasant his cottage, to the landlord his estate. It sup- plies the place of prospect and scenery. Instead of coveting the beauty of distant situations, it teaches every man to find it in his own. It gives boldness and grandeur to plains and fens, tinge and coloring to clays and fallows. — Paley. The temptations of prosperity insinuate themselves after a gentle, but very powerful manner, so that we are but little aware of them, and less able to withstand them. — Atterbury. To speak in a measure, the virtue of prosperity is temper- ance ; the virtue of adversity is fortitude. — Bacon. Happy it were for all of us if we bore prosperity as well and wisely as we endure adverse fortune. — Southey. A proverb is the wit of one, and the wisdom of many. — Russell. Providence is an intellectual knowledge, both foreseeing, caring for, and ordering all things, and doth not only behold all past, all present, and all to come, but is the cause of their being so provided, which prescience is not. — Raleigh. Good Providence ! that curbs the raging of proud mon- archs, as well as of mad multitudes. — Milton. We are to vindicate the just providence of God in the government of the world, and to endeavor, as well as we can upon an imperfect view of things, to make out the beauty and harmony of all the seeming discords and irregularities of the divine administration. — TiLLOTSON. Prudence is one of the virtues which were called cardinal by the ancient ethical writers. — Fleming. The great end of prudence is to give cheerfulness to those hours which splendor cannot gild, and acclamation cannot ex- hilarate ; those soft intervals of unbended amusement, in which a man shrinks to his natural dimensions, and throws aside the ornaments or disguises which he feels in privacy to be useless encumbrances, and to lose all effect when they be- come familiar. — Johnson. 'Tis a rule that goes a great way in the government of a sober man's life, not to put anything to hazard that may be secured by industry, consideration, or circumspection. — L'Es- trange. Prudence is principally in reference to actions to be done, and due means, order, reason, and method of doing or not doing. — Hale. Horace Has enticed me into the pedantry of quotation. — Cowley. He that has ever so little examined the citations of writers cannot doubt how little credit the quotations deserve when the originals are wanting. — Locke. R. Force yourself to reflect on what you read, paragraph bv paragraph. — Coleridge. A man may as well expect to grow stronger by always eat- ing as wiser by always reading. Too much overcharges nature, and turns more into disease than nourishment. — Collier. For general improvement a man should read whatever his immediate inclination prompts him to ; though, to be sure, if a man has a science to learn, he must regularly and resolutely advance. What we read with inclination makes a much stronger impression. If we read without inclination, half the mind is employed in fixing the attention, so there is but one- half to be employed on what we read. If a man begins to read in the middle of a book, and feels an inclination to go on, let him not quit it to go to the beginning. He may, per- haps, not feel again the inclination. — Johnson. Reason is always striving and always at a loss while it is exercised about that which is not its proper object. — Dryden. There is no opposing brutal force to the stratagems of human reason. — L'Estrange. Pure reason or intuition holds a similar relation to the understanding that perception holds to sensation. — Locke. Reason cannot show itself more reasonable than to leave reasoning on things above reason, — Sidney. He that will make a good use of any part of his life must allow a large portion of it to recreation. — Locke. There is an art of which every man should be master, the art of reflection. — Coleridge. Lukewarm persons think they may accommodate points of religion by middle ways and witty reconcilements ; as if they would make an arbitrament between God and man. — Bacon. Religion is for the man in humble life, and to raise his nature, and to put him in mind of a state in which the priv- ileges of opulence will cease, when he will be equal, and may be more than equal by virtue. — Burke. Religion receives man into a covenant of grace, where there is a pardon reached out to all truly penitent sinners, and as- sistance promised, and engaged, and bestowed, upon very easy conditions ; viz. : humility, prayer, and affiance in him. — Hammond. Remorse of conscience is like an old wound ; a man is under no condition to fight under such circumstances. The pain abates his vigor, and takes up too much of his attention. —Collier. A man's first care should be to avoid the reproaches of his own heart ; his next, to escape the censures of the world. ^ Addison. Sins may be forgiven through repentance, but no act of art will ever justify them. — Sherlock. Repentance so altereth and changeth a man through the mercy of God, be he ever so defiled, that it maketh him pure and clean. — Whitgift. ■^ ^ 66 SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS. -^ hr- A man's reputation draws eyes upon him that will nar- rowly inspect every part of him. — ^Addison. To be desirous of a good name, and careful to do every- thing that we innocently may to obtain it, is so far from being a fault, even in private persons, that it is their great and in- dispensable duty. — Atterbury. True resignation, which always brings with it the confi- dence that unchangeable goodness will make even the disap- pointment of our hopes and the contradictions of life condu- cive to some benefit, casts a grave but tranquil light over the prospects of even a toilsome and troubled life. — Humboldt. A man that studieth revenge keepeth his own wounds green, which otherwise would heal and do well. — Bacon. The indulgence of revenge tends to make man more cruel and savage. — Kames. A pure and simple revenge does in no way restore man towards the felicity which the injury did interrupt. For re- venge is but doing a simple evil, and does not, in its formal- ity, imply reparation ; for the mere repeating of our own right is permitted to them that will do it by charitable instruments. All the evils of human felicity are secured without revenge, for without it we are permitted to restore ourselves ; and there- fore it is against natural reason to do an evil that no way co- operates the proper and perfective end of human nature. And he is a miserable person whose good is the evil of his neigh- bor ; and he that revenges, in many cases, does worse than he that did the injury ; in all cases as bad. — Jeremy Tay- lor. Riches expose a man to pride and luxury, and foolish ela- tion of heart. — Addison. Riches do not consist in having more gold and silver, but in having more in proportion than our neighbors. — Locke. Nothing is so hard for those who abound in riches, as to conceive how others can be in want.— Swift. It is easy to run into ridicule the best descriptions when once a man is in the humor of laughing till he wheezes at his own dull jest. — Dryden. Derision is never so agonizing as when it pounces on the wanderings of misguided sensibility. — Lord Jeffrey. If ridicule were employed to laugh men out of vice and folly, it might be of some use ; but it is made use of to laugh men out of virtue and good sense, by attacking everything solemn and virtuous. — Addison. Nothing the united voice of all history proclaims so loud, as the certain unfailing curse that has pursued and overtaken sacrilege. — South. Satire is a sort of glass, wherein beholders generally dis- cover everybody's face but their own ; which is the chief rea- son for that kind of reception it meets in the world, and that so few are offended with it. — SwiFT. A satire should expose nothing but what is corrigible, and make a due discrimination between those that are and those that are not the proper objects of it. — Addison. Science is knowledge certain and evident in^ itself, or by the principles from which it is deduced or with which it is certainly connected. It is subjective, as existing in the mind; objective, as embodied in truths ; speculative, as leading to do something, as in practical science. — Fleming. Self-denial is a kind of holy association with God ; and by making you his partner, interests you in all his happiness. — Boyle. Teach self-denial, and make its practice pleasurable, and you create for the world a destiny more sublime than ever is- sued from the brain of the wildest dreamer. — Scott. It is the nature of extreme self-lovers, as they will set an house on fire and it were but to roast their eggs. — Bacon. The reverence of a man self is not religion, the chiefe^ bridle of all vices. — Bacon. The weakness of social affections and the strength of pri- vate desires constitute selfishness. Shame is a painful sensation occasioned by the quick ap. prehension that reputation and character are in danger, or by the perception that they are lost. — Cogan. Where there is shame there may yet be virtue. ^Johnson. Is there anything that more embitters the enjoyments o! this life than shame ? Sickness is early old age ; it teaches us diffidence in oui earthly state, and inspires us with thoughts of a future. — Pope. Simplicity is that grace which frees the soul from all un- necessary reflections upon itself. — Fenelon. There is a majesty in simplicity which is far above the quaintness of wit. — PoPE. Use sin as it will use you ; spare it not, for it will not spare you : it is your murderer, and the murderer of the world ; use it, therefore, as a murderer should be used. Kill it before it kills you ; and though it kill your bodies, it shall not be able to kill your souls ; and though it bring you to the grave, as it did your Head, it shall not be able to keep you there. — Baxter. Sin is the contrariety to the will of God, and if all things be preordained by God, and so demonstrated to be willed by him, it remains there is no such thing as sin. — Hammond. Sincerity is the most compendious wisdom, and an excel- lent instrument for the speedy dispatch of business ; it creates confidence in those we have to deal with, saves the labor of many inquiries, and brings things to an issue in few words. It is like traveling in a plain beaten road, which commonly brings a man sooner to his journey's end than by-ways, in which men often lose themselves. In a word, whatsoever convenience may be thought to be in falsehood and dissimula- tion, it is soon over ; but the inconvenience of it is perpetual, because it brings a man under an everlasting jealousy and sus- picion, so that he is not believed when he speaks truth, nor trusted when perhaps he means honestly. When a man has once forfeited the reputation of his integrity, he is set fast; and nothing then will serve his turn, neither truth nor false- hood. — TiLLOTSON. Slander is a complication, a comprisal and sum of all wick- edness. — Barrow. The worthiest people are the most injured by slander, as we usually find that to be the best fruit which the birds have been pecking at. — Swift. Now blessings light on him that first invented sleep ! it ^ --^ )^^ ^ SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS. 67 ^ covers a man all over, thoughts and all, like a cloak; it is meat for the hungry, drink for the thirsty, heat for the cold, and cold for the hot. — Cervantes. Sleep death's beautiful brother — fairest phenemenon — poetical reality, — thou sweet collapsing of the weary spirit; thou mystery that every one knows ; thou remnant of primeval innocence and bliss : for Adam slept in Paradise. To sleep — there's a drowsy mellifluence in the very word that would almost serve to interpret its meaning — to shut up the senses and hoodwink the soul ; to dismiss the world ; to escape from one's self ; to be in ignorance of our own existence ; to stag- nate upon the earth, just breathing out the hours, not living them — "Doing no mischief, only dreaming of it;" neither merry nor melancholy, something between both, and better than either. Best friend of frail humanity, and, like all other friends, best estimated in its loss. — Longfellow. SorrOAV is uneasiness in the mind upon the thought of a good lost which might have been enjoyed longer ; or the sense of a present evil. — Locke. Sorrow being the natural and direct offspring of sin, that which first brought sin into the world must, by necessary con- sequence, bring in sorrov? too. — South. He that studies books alone will know how things ought to be ; and he that studies men will know how things are. — COLTON. The intellectual husbandry is a goodly field, and it is the worst husbandry in the world to sow it with trifles. — Hall. The talent of success is nothing more than doing what you can do well, and doing well whatever you do, without a thought of fame. — Longfellow. He that would relish success to purpose should keep his passion cool, and his expectation low. — Collier. If you wish success in life, make perseverance your bosom friend, experience your wise counsellor, caution your elder brother, and hope your guardian genius. — Addison. Suicide sometimes proceeds from cowardice, but not always ; for cowardice sometimes prevents it ; since as many live be- cause they are afraid to die, as die because they are afraid to live. — Colton. By all human laws as well as divine, self-murder has ever been agreed on as the greatest crime. — Temple. Superstition renders a man a fool, and scepticism makes him mad. — Fielding. The child taught to believe any occurrence a good or evil omen, or any day of the week lucky, hath a wide inroad made upon the soundness of his understanding. — Watts. Suspiciousness is as great an enemy to wisdom as too much credulity. — Fuller. Nature itself, after it has done an injury will ever be sus- picious : and no man can love the person he suspects. — South. Let us cherish sympathy. By attention and exercise it may be improved in every man. It prepares the mind for receiv- ing the impressions of virtue ; and without it there can be no true politeness. Nothing is more odious than that insensi- bility which wraps a man up in himself and his own concerns, and prevents his being moved with either the joys or the sor- rows of another. — Beattie. 4- I Temperance gives nature her full play and enables her to exert herself in all her force and vigor. — Addison. Temperance, that virtue without pride, and fortune with- out envy, that gives indolence of body with an equality of mind ; the best guardian of youth and support of old age ; the precept of reason as well as religion, and physician of the soul as well as the body ; the tutelar godess of health and universal medicine of life. — Temple. Every Christian is endowed with a power whereby he is en- abled to resist and conquer temptation. — TiLLOTSON. Reflect upon a clear, unblotted, acquitted conscience, and feed upon the ineffable comforts of the memorial of a con- quered temptation. — South. Time is the surest judge of truth ; I am not vain enough to think I have no faults in this, which that touchstone will not discover. — Dryden. One of the commonest errors is to regard time as an agent. But in reality time does nothing and is nothing. We use it as a compendious expression for all those causes which operate slowly and imperceptibly ; but, unless some positive cause is in action, no change takes place in the lapse of a thousand years. — Coplestone. The greatest friend of truth is time, her greatest enemy is prejudice, and her constant companion is humility. — CoLTON. Truth is the object of our understanding, as good is of the will. — Dryden. Truth and reason constitute that intellectual gold that de- fies destruction. — ^Johnson. The law of Christianity is eminently and transcendently called the word of truth. — South. U. By understanding I mean that faculty whereby we are en- abled to apprehend the objects of knowledge, generals as well as particulars, absent things as well as present, and to judge of their truth or falsehood, good or evil. — Wilkins. Every man has just as much vanity as he wants understand- ing. — Pope. Vanity is the production of the most ridiculous and con- temptible vices — the vices of affectation and common lying. — Adam Smith. In a vain man the smallest spark may kindle into the great- est flame, because the materials are always prepared for it. — ■ Hume. Vice incapacitates a man from all public duty ; it withers . the powers of his understanding, and makes his mind paralytic. — Burke. Vice stings us even in our pleasures, but virtue consoles us even in our pain. — CoLTON. It will be found a work of no small difficulty to dispossess vice from the heart, when long possession begins to plead prescription. — BACON. Virtue is like a rich stone, best plain set ; and surely virtue is best in a body that is comely, though not of delicate features ; f^ )^ — SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS. -^ 4r- and that hath rather dignity of presence than beauty of aspect ; neither is it almost seen that very beautiful persons are other- wise of great virtue ; as if nature were rather busy not to err, than in labor to produce excellency ; and therefore they prove accomplished but not of great spirit ; and study rather be- havior than virtue. But this holds not always. — Bacon. The four cardinal virtues are prudence, fortitude, temper- ance and justice. — Paley. The felicity and beatitude that glitter in virtue shines throughout all her apartments and avenues, even to the first entry, and utmost pale and limits. Now of all the benefits that virtue confers upon us the contempt of death is one of the greatest, as the means that accommodates human life with a soft and easy tranquillity, and gives us a pure and pleasant taste of living, without which all other pleasure would be extinct ; and which is the reason why all the rules by which we are to live, centre and concur in this one article. — Montaigne. W. Mad wars destroy in one year the works of many years of peace. — Franklin. The bodies of men, munition and money may justly be called the sinews of war. — Raleigh. The way to wealth is as plain as the way to market. It depends chiefly on two words — industry and frugality. — Franklin. When, therefore, the desire of wealth is taking hold of the heart, let us look round and see how it operates upon those whose industry or whose fortune has obtained it. When we find them oppressed with their own abundance, luxurious without pleasure, idle without ease, impatient and querulous in themselves, and despised or hated by the rest of mankind, we shall soon be convinced that, if the real wants of our con- dition are satisfied, there remains little to be sought with solicitude or desired with eagerness. — Dr. S. Johnson. Wickedness may prosper for a while, but at the long run he that sets all knaves at work will pay them. — L'EsTRANOE. No one kind of true peace is consistent with any sort of prevailing wickedness. — Stillingfleet. Common sense in an uncommon degree is what the world calls wisdom. — Coleridge. Wisdom groundeth her laws upon an infallible ruling of comparison. — Hooker. Human vvisdom is the aggregate of all human experience, constantly accumulating, and selecting and reorganizing its own materials — Story. Wisdom is that which makes men judge what are the best ends, and what the best means to attain them, and gives a man advantage of counsel and direction. — Temple. Strong and sharp as our wit may be, it is not so strong as the memory of fools, nor so keen as their resentment : he that has not strength of mind to forgive, is by no means so weak as to forget ; and it is much more easy to do a cruel thing than to say a severe one. — CoLTON. Wit is not the jerk or sting of an epigram, nor the seeming contradiction of a poor antithesis ; neither is it so much the morality of a grave sentence, affected by Lucan, but more sparingly used by Virgil. — Dryden. Intemperate vrits will spare neither friend nor foe, and make themselves the common enemies of mankind. — L'Es- TRANGE. I am married, and have no other concern but to please the man I love ; he is the end of every care I have ! if I dress, it is for him ; if I read a poem, or a play, it is to qualify my- self for a conversation agreeable to his taste ; he is almost the end of my devotions ; half my prayers are for his happiness. — Steele on wives. Women have, in general, but one object, which is their beauty ; upon which scarce any flattery is too gross for them. Nature has hardly formed a woman ugly enough to be insen- sible to flattery upon her person ; if her face is so shocking that she must in some degree be conscious of it, her figure and her air, she trusts, make ample amends for it. If her figure is de- formed, her face, she thinks, counterbalances it. If they are both bad, she comforts herself that she has graces ; a certain manner ; a je ne scais quoi, still more engaging than beauty. This truth is evident from the studied dress of the ugliest women in the world. An undoubted, uncontested, conscious beauty is, of all women, the least sensible of flattery upon that head ; she knows it is her due, and is therefore obliged to nobody for giving it her. She must be flattered upon her un- derstanding ; which, though she may possibly not doubt of herself, yet she suspects that men may distrust — Lord Ches- terfield. Women generally consider consequences in love, seldom in resentment. — Colton. There is in every, true vyoman's heart a spark of heavenly fire which beams and blazes in the dark hours of adversity. — Irving. Y. Youth is the time of enterprise and hope ; having yet no occasion of comparing our force with any opposing power, we naturally form presumptions in our own favor, and imagine that obstruction and impediment will give way before us. The first repulses rather inflame vehemence than teach prud- ence ; a brave and generous mind is long before it suspects its own weakness, or submits to sap the difficulties which it ex- pected to subdue by storm. Before disappointments have en- forced the dictates of philosophy we believe it in our power to shorten the interval between the first cause and the last effect ; we laugh at the timorous delays of plodding industry, and fancy that by increasing the fire we can at pleasure accelerate the projection. — Dr. S. Johnson. Youth is not like a new garment, which we can keep fresh and fair by wearing sparingly. Youth, while we have it, we mustvicdit daily, and it tw7/fast wear away. — Foster. True zeal is not any one single affection of the soul, but a strong mixture of many holy affections, filling the heart with all pious intentions ; all, not only uncounterfeit, but most fervent. — Sprat. Nothing hath wrought more prejudice to religion, or brought more disparagement upon truth, than boisterous and unseason- able zeal. — Barrow. -^ «T 'v^*"V£«8(Ty T^crd, ^ POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 69 ^ BSENCE. What ? keep a week away ? nights ? Eight score eight hours ? and lovers' absent hours, More tedious than the dial eight score times ? O weary reckoning ! — Shaks. Othello. Call thou me home ! from thee apart Faintly and low my pulses beat, As if the life-blood of my heart Within thine own heart holds its seat, And flowetR only where thou art : Oh ! call me home. — Mrs. E. Oakes Smith. As slow our ship her foamy track Against the wind was cleaving, Her trembling pennant still look'd back To that dear isle 'twas leaving. So loath we part from all we love. From all the links that bind us ; So turn our hearts, where'er we rove, To those we've left behind us. — T. MoORE. Accomplishments. Accomplishments were native to her mind. Like precious pearls within a clasping shell. And winning grace her every act refined, Like sunshine shedding beauty where it fell. — Mrs. Hale. Her even carriage is as far from coyness As from immodesty ; — in play, in dancing. In suffering courtship, in requiting kindness. In use of places-r-hours — and compani©ns. Free as the sun, and nothing more corrupted ; As circumspect as Cynthia in her vows. And constant as the centre to observe them. — George Chapman. Accusation. Give me good proofs of what you have alleged : 'Tis not enough to say— in such a bush There lies a thief — in such a cave a beast. — But you must show him to me ere I shoot. Else I may kill one of my straggling sheep ; I'm fond of no man's person but his virtue. Crown's \st part of Henry VI. Actions. Be just in all thy actions, and if join'd With those that are not, never change thy mind ; If aught obstruct thy course, yet stand not still. But wind about till the mast topp'd the hill. — Denham. Actions rare and sudden, do commonly Proceed from fierce necessity ; or else From some oblique design, which is ashamed To show itself in the public road. — Sir William Davenant. Activity. Let's take the instant by the forward top. For we are old, and on our quick'st decrees, The inaudible and noiseless foot of time Steals, ere we can effect them. — Shaks. AlFs Well. Lives of great men all remind us. We can make our lives sublime, And, departing, leave behind us Footprints on the sands of time. — Longfellow. Adversity. Sweet are the uses of adversity ; Which, like the toad, ugly and venemous, Wears yet a precious jewel in her head : And this our life, exempt from public haunt. Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks. Sermons in stones, and good in every thing. — Shaks. As You Like It ^ 70 POETICAL QUOTATIONS. -^ Affliction is the wholesome soil of virtue : Where patience, honor, sweet humanity. Calm fortitude, take root, and strongly flourish. — Alfred. Adversity's cold frosts will soon be o'er ; It heralds brighter days : — the joyous Spring Is cradled on the Winter's icy breast. And yet comes flushed in beauty. — Mrs. Hemans. Advice. Learn to dissemble wrongs, to smile at injuries, And suffer crimes thou want'st the power to punish ; Be easy, affable, familiar, friendly : Search and know all mankind's mysterious ways, But trust the secret of thy soul to none : This is the way. This only, to be safe in such a world as this is. — Rowe's Ulysses. Aye free, off han', your story tell When wi' a bosom crony ; But still keep something to yoursel' Ye scarcely tell to ony. Conceal yoursel' as weel's ye can Frae critical dissection ; But keek thro' ev'ry other man, Wi' sharpen'd shy inspection. — Burns' Epistle to a Young Ft tend. Adieu. Then comes the parting hour, and what arise When lovers part — expressive looks, and eyes Tender and tearful — many a fond adieu, And many a call the sorrow to renew. — Crabbe. We part — But this shall be a token — thou hast been A friend to him who pluck'd these lovely flowers, And sent them as a tribute to a friend. And a remembrance of the few kind hours Which lightened on the darkness of my path. — Percival. Affection. O ! there is one affection which no stain Of earth can never darken ; — when two find, The softer and the manlier, that a chain Of kindred taste has fastended mind to mind, 'Tis an attraction from all sense refined ; The good can only know it ; 'tis not blind. As love is unto baseness ; its desire Is but with hands entwined to lift our being higher. — Percival. Ah ! could you look into my heart, And watch your image there ! You would own the sunny loveliness Affection makes it wear. — Mrs. Osgood. Age. Thus aged men, full loth and slow, The vanities of life forego. And count their youthful follies o'er. Till memory lends her light no more. —Scott's Rokeby. Age sits with decent grace upon his visage, And worthily becomes his silver locks ; He wears the marks of many years w^ spent, Of virtue, truth well tried, and wise experience. — Rowe's Jane Shore. True, time will sear and blanch my brow ; Well — I shall sit with aged men. And my good glass will tell me how A grisly beard becomes me then. And should no foul dishonor lie Upon my head when I am grey, Love yet may search my fading eye. And smooth the path of my decay. — Bryant. Ambition. Cromwell, I charge thee, fling away ambition ; By that sin fell the angels ; how can man tken, The image of his Maker, hope to win by't ? — Shaks. Henry VIII. I have ventured. Like little wanton boys that swim on bladders, This many summers in a sea of glory : But far beyond my depth : my high-blown pride At length broke under me ; and now has left me. Weary, and old with service, to the mercy Of a rude stream, that must forever hide me. — Shaks. Henry VIII. What is ambition ? 'Tis a glorious cheat ! Angels of light walk not so dazzlingly The sapphire walls of Heaven. The flow Of life-time is a graduated scale ; And deeper than the vaijities of power. Or the vain pomp of glory, there is writ A standard measuring its worth for heaven. — WiLLli America. Land of the West ! though passing brief The record of thine age. Thou hast a name that darkens all On History's wide page ! Let all the blasts of fame ring out — Thine shall be loudest far : Let others boast their satellites — Thou hast the morning star. Thou hast a name whose characters Of light shall ne'er depart ; 'Tis stamped upon the dullest brain. And warms the coldest heart ; A war-cry fit for any land, Where Freedom's to be won : Land of the West ! it stands alone — It is thy Washington. — Eliza Cook. Land of the forest and the rock. Of dark blue lake and mighty river. Of mountains reared on high to mock The storm's career and lightning's shock. My own green Land forever ! -^ POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 7^ Oh ! never may a son of thine, Where'er his wandering feet incline, Forget the sky that bent above His childhood like a dream of love ! — Whittier. I see the living tide roll on. It crowns with fiery towers The icy capes of Labrador, The Spaniard's " land of flowers ! " It streams beyond the splintered ridge. That parts the northern showers, From eastern rock to sunset wave, The Continent is ours. — O. W. Holmes. America ! the sound is like a sword To smite th' oppressor ! like a loving word To cheer the suffering people, while they pray That God would hasten on the promised day. When earth shall be like heaven, and men shall stand. Like brothers round an altar, hand in hand. O ! ever thus, America, be strong, — Like cataract's thunder pour the Freeman's song. Till struggling Europe joins the grand refrain ; And startled Asia bursts the despot's chain ; And Afric's manumitted sons, from thee To their own Fatherland shall bear the song, — Worth all their toils and tears — of Liberty : For these good deeds, America, be strong ! — Mrs. Hale. Ancestors. They that on glorious ancestors enlarge. Produce their debt, instead of their discharge. — Young. I am one. Who finds within me a nobility That spurns the idle pratings of the great. And their mean boast of what their fathers were ; While they themselves are fools effeminate, The scorn of all who know the worth of mind And virtue. — Percival, Anger. Not youthful kings in battle seized alive. Not scornful virgins who their charms survive, Not ardent lovers robb'd of all their bliss, Not ancient ladies when refused a kiss, Not tyrants fierce that unrepenting die, Not Cynthia when her mantua's pinn'd awry, E'er felt such rage. — Pope's J^ape of the Lock. The wildest ills that darken life, Are rapture to the bosom's strife ; The tempest, in its blackest form, Is beauty to the bosom's storm ; The ocean, lash'd to fury loud. Its high wave mingling with the cloud. Is peaceful sweet serenity, To anger's dark and stormy sea. — J. W. Eastburn. Apparel. Costly tjiy habit as thy pursee an buy, But not expressed in fancy ; rich, not gaudy ; For the apparel oft proclaims the man. — Shakespeare's Hamlet. Applause. At which the universal host up sent A shout that tore hell's concave, and beyond Frighted the reign of chaos and old night. — Milton's Paradise Lost. Argument. In arguing, too, the parson owned his skill. For ev'n tho' vanquish'd, he could argue still. —Goldsmith's Deserted Village. A man convinced against his will Is of the same opinion still. —Butler's Hudibras. Art. Art became the shadow Of the dear star-light of thy haunting eyes ! They call'd me vain, some mad — I heeded not, But still toil'd on, hoped on, for it was surest. If not to win, to feel more worthy thee. — Bulwer's Lady of Lyons. Immortal art ! where'er the rounded sky Bends o'er the cradle where thy children lie, Their home is earth, their herald every tongue. — O. W. Holmes. Authority. Man, proud man, Drest in a little brief authority, Most ignorant of what he's most assur'd, His glassy essence — like an angry ape. Plays such fantastic tricks before high heaven As make the angels weep. — Shakespeare's Measure for Measure. Authority intoxicates. And makes mere sots of magistrates, The fumes of it invade the brain. And make men giddy, proud, and vain. By this the fool commands the wise. The noble with the base complies. The sot assumes the rule of wit, And cowards make the base submit. — Butler's Hudibras Autumn. The year growing ancient. Not yet on summer's death, nor on the birth Of trembling winter. — Shakespeare's Winter's Tale. Thrice happy time. Best portion of the various year, in which Nature rejoiceth, smiling on her works, Lovely to full perfection wrought. — Philip's Cider. Avarice. The love of gold, that meanest rage, And latest folly of man's sinking age, Which, rarely venturing in the van of life. While nobler passions wage their heated strife. Comes sculking last with selfishness' and fear. And dies collecting lumber in the rear ! — MooRE. -^ ^ 72 POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 4- O cursed love of gold ; when for thy sake The fool throws up his interest in both worlds, First starv'd in this, then damn'd in that to come. — Blair's Grave Battle. The combat deepens. On, ye brave, "Who rush to glory or the grave ! Wave, Munich ! all thy banners wave ! And charge with all thy chivalry ! Few, few shall part where many meet ! The snow shall be their winding-sheet, And every turf beneath their feet Shall be a soldier's sepulchre. — Campbell's Hohenlinden. Our bugles sang truce — for the night-cloud had lower'd, And the sentinel stars set their watch in the sky ; And thousands had sunk on the ground overpower'd. The weary to sleep and the wounded to die. — Campbell's Soldier's Dream. Did ye not hear it ? — No : 't was but the wind. Or the car rattling o'er the stony street ; On with the dance ! let joy be unconfined ; No sleep till morn, when youth and pleasure meet, To chase the glowing hours with flying feet, — But hark ! — that heavy sound breaks in once more, As if the clouds its echo would repeat ; And nearer, clearer, deadlier than before ! Arm ! arm ! it is — it is — the cannon's opening roar ! Byron's Child Harold. Point to the summits where the brave had bled, Where every village claims its glorious dead ; Say, where their bosoms met the bayonet's shock, Their only corslet was the rustic frock ; Say, when they mustered to the gathering horn, The titled chieftain curled his lip in scorn ; Yet, when their leader bade his lines advance. No musket wavered in the lion's glance ; Say, when they fainted in their forced retreat. They tracked the snow-drifts with their bleeding feet ; Yet still their banners, tossing in the blast, Bore Ever Ready, faithful to the last. Through storm and battle, till they waved again On Yorktown's hills and Saratoga's plain. — O. W. Holmes. Beauty. Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale Her infinite variety ; other women cloy The appetites they feed ; but she makes hungry, Where most she satisfies. — Shaks. Anthony and Cleopatra. Beauty is a witch. Against whose charms faith melteth into blood. — Shaks. Much Ado. 'Tis beauty truly blent, whose red and white Nature's own sweet and cunning hand laid on. —Shaks. Twelfth Night. Beauty is but a vain and doubtful good, A shining gloss that fadeth suddenly, A flower that dies when first it 'gins to bud, A brittle glass that's broken presently A doubtful good, a glass, a flower. Lost, faded, broken, dead within an hour. — Shakespeare, Her cheek had the pale pearly pink Of sea-shells, the world's sweetest tint, as though She lived, one half might deem, on roses sopp'd In silver dew. — Bailey's Festus. An eye's an eye, and whether black or blue. Is no great matter, so 'tis in request, 'Tis nonsense to dispute about a hue, — The kindest may be taken as a test. The fair sex should be always fair ; and no man. Till thirty, should perceive there's a plain woman. — Byron's Don Juan. A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. — Keats. Beauty gives The features perfectness, and to the form. Its delicate proportions : she may stain The eye with a celestial blue — the cheek With carmine of the sunset ; she may breathe Grace into every motion, like the play Of the least visible tissue of a cloud : She may give all that is within her own Bright cestus — and one glance of intellect. Like stronger magic, will outshine it all. — WILLIS. Beggar. Beggar ? the only free men of our commonwealth. Free above scot-free, that observe no laws. Obey no governor, use no religion, But what they draw from their own ancient custom, Or constitute themselves, yet are no rebels; — Brome. Birds. Every copse Deep tangled, tree irregular, and bush, Bending with dewy moisture, o'er the heads Of the coy quiristers that lodge within. Are prodigal of harmony. The thrush And wood-lark, o'er the kind contending throng, Superior heard, run through the sweetest length Of notes ; when listening Philomela deigns To let them joy, and purposes in thought Elate, to make her night excel the day. — Thomson's Seasons. Birthday. Yet all I've learnt from hours rife With painful brooding here. Is, that amid this mortal strife. The lapse of every year But takes away a hope from life. And adds to death a fear, — Hoffman. Why should we count our life by years. Since years are short and pass away ! Or, why by fortune's smiles or tears. Since tears are vain and smiles decay ! O ! count by virtues — these shall last When life's lame-footed race is o'er ; And these, when earthly joys are past. May cheer us on a brighter shore. — Mrs. Hale. ^ POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 73 -^ Bluntness. I have neither wit, nor words, nor worth. Nor actions, nor utterance, nor the power of speech. To stir men's blood : I only speak right on. — Shaks. Julius CcEsar. Blush. From every blush that kindles in thy cheeks, Ten thousand little loves and graces spring To revel in the roses. — Rowe's Tamerlane. Confound me not with shame, nor call up all The blood that warms my trembling heart. To fill my cheeks with blushes. — Trap's Albramule. Books. Books should to one of these four ends conduce. For wisdom, piety, delight, or use. — Denham. Books are a part of man's prerogative, In formal ink they thought and voices hold, That we to them our solitude may give, And make time present travel that of old. Our life, fame pieceth longer at the end. And books it farther backward doth extend. — Sir Thomas Overbury. Brevity. Since brevity is the soul of wit. And tediousness the limbs and outward flourishes, I will be brief. — Shaks. Hamlet. Calamity. Do not insult calamity : It is a barb'rous grossness, to lay on The weight of scorn, where heavy misery Too much already weighs men's fortunes down. — Daniel's Philotas. Calm. How calm, — how beautiful comes on The stilly hour, when storms are gone. When warring winds have died away. And clouds, beneath the glancing ray Melt off and leave the land and sea. Sleeping in bright tranquillity ; — When the blue waters rise and fall. In sleepy sunshine mantling all ; And ev'n that swell the tempest leaves. Is like the full and silent heaves Of lovers' hearts, when newly blest, Too newly to be quite at rest ! — Moore's Lalla Rookh. Caution. Trust none ; For oaths are straws, men's faiths are wafer cakes. And hold-fast is the only dog. — Shaks. Henry V. Man's caution often into danger turns. And his guard falling, crushes him to death. — Young's Night Thoughts. He knows the compass, sail, and oar. Or never launches from the shore ; Before he builds, computes the cost, And in no proud pursuit is lost. — Gay's Fables. All's to be fear'd where all is to be lost. — Byron. %r- Let no man know thy business save some friend, A man of mind. — Bailey. Change. I ask not what change Has come over thy heart, I seek not what chances Have doomed us to part ; I know thou hast told me To love thee no more, And I still must obey Where I once did adore. — Hoffman. Not in vain the distance beckons, Forward, forward, let us range ; Let the peoples spin forever Down the ringing grooves of change. — Tennyson. Charity. Then gently scan your brother man. Still gentler sister woman. Though both may gang a kennie wrang. To step aside is human. — Burns. O, rich man's son ! there is a toil. That with all others level stands ; Large charity doth never soil, But only whitens soft white hands ; — This is the best crop for thy lands ; A heritage, it seems to me, Woith being rich to hold in fee. — J. R. Lowell. True charity, a plant divinely nurs'd. Fed by the love, from which it rose at first, Thrives against hope, and in the rudest scene. Storms but enliven its unfading green ; Exuberant is the shadow it supplies. Its fruit on earth, its growth above the skies, — Cowper's Charity, Chastity. So dear to heav'n is saintly chastity. That when a soul is found sincerely so, A thousand liv'ry'd angels lackey her. Driving far off each thing of sin and guilt. — Milton's Comus. When lovely woman stoops to folly, And finds too late that men betray, What charm can soothe her melancholy ? What art can wash her guilt away ? The only art her guilt to cover. And hide her shame from every eye. And give repentance to her lover, And wring his bosom is — to die. — GOLDSMITH. Childhood. Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought, To teach the young idea how to shoot. To pour the fresh instruction o'er the mind, To breathe the enlivening spirit and to fix The generous purpose in the glowing breast ! — Thomson's Seasons. I know he's coming by this sign. That baby's almost wild ; See how he laughs, and crows, and starts, — Heaven bless the merry child ! ■^ )^ — POETICAL QUOTATIONS. He's father's self in face and limb, And father's heart is strong in him. Shout, baby, shout ! and clap thy hands, For father on the threshold stands. — Mary Howitt. Of all the joys that brighten suffering earth, What joy is welcom'd like a new-bom child ! — Mrs. Norton. Sleep, little baby ! sleep ! Not in thy cradle bed, Not on thy mother's breast — But with the quiet dead. — Mrs. Southey. Churchman. I like a church, I like a cowl, I love a prophet of the soul, And on my heart monastic aisles Fall like sweet strains or pensive smiles. Yet not for all his faith can see. Would I that cowled churchman be. — Ralph Waldo Emerson. By the white neck-cloth, with its straiten'd tie, The sober hat, the Sabbath-speaking eye, Severe and smileless, he that runs may read The stern disciple of Geneva's creed. — O. W. HOLMES. City. I dwell amid the city. And hear the flow of souls ! I do not hear the several contraries, I do not hear the separate tone that rolls, In art or speech. For pomp or trade, for merrymake or folly, I hear the confluence and sum of each. And that is melancholy ! — Thy voice is a complaint, O crowned city. The blue sky covering thee, like God's great pity. — Miss Barrett. Come out, love — the night is enchanting ! The moon hangs just over Broadway ; The stars are all lighted and panting — (Hot weather up there, I dare say !) *Tis seldom that "coolness" entices. And love is no better for chilling — Yet come up to Thompson's for ices And cool your warm heart for a shilling ! — N. P. Willis. Clouds. Ye clouds, that are the ornament of heaven, Who give to it its gayest shadowings And its most awful glories ; ye who roll In the dark tempest, or at dewy evening Bow low in tenderest beauty ; — ye are to us A volume full of wisdom. — Percival's Poems, Conscience. It is a dangerous Thing, it makes a man a coward : a man Cannot steal but it accuseth him ; a man Cannot swear, but it checks him. 'Tis a blushing shame-fac'd spirit, that Mutinies in a man's bosom ; it fills One full of obstacles. It made me once Restore a purse of gold, that by chance I Found. It beggars any man that keeps it. It is turn'd out of towns and cities for A dang'rous thing ; and every man that means To live well, endeavors to trust to himself. And live without it. — Shaks. Richard III. Thus conscience does makes cowards of us all, And thus the native hue of resolution Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought; And enterprises of great pith and moment. With this regard, their currents turn away. And lose the name of action. — Shaks. Hamlet. There is no power in holy men, Nor charms in prayer — nor purifying form Of penitence — nor outward look — nor fast — Nor agony — nor, greater than all these, • The innate tortures of that deep despair. Which is remorse without the fear of hell, But all in all sufficient to itself. Would make a hell of heaven — can exercise. From out the unbounded spirit, the quick sense Of its own sins, wrongs, sufferance, and revenge Upon itself. — Byron's Manfred. Constancy. I am constant as the northern star; Of whose true, fix'd and resting quality There is no fellow in the firmament. — Shaks. yulius Ccesar. I have won Thy heart, my gentle girl ! but it hath been When that soft eye was on me ; and the love I told beneath the evening influence, Shall be as constant as its gentle star. — Willis. Content. O grant me, heav'n, a middle state. Neither too humble nor too great ; More than enough for nature's ends. With something left to treat my friends. — MallEt. Unfit for greatness, I her snares defy. And look on riches with untainted eye. To others let the glitt'ring baubles fall. Content shall place us far above them all. —Churchill. Coquette. Would you teach her to love ? For a time seem to rove ; At first she may frown in a pet; But leave her awhile. She shortly will smile, And then you may win your coquette. — Byron. Can I again that look recall, That once could make me die for thee ? — No, no ! — the eye that beams on all, Shall never more be priz'd by me. — Moore. kr ^ --^ ^ POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 75 Country Life. Your love in a cottage is hungry, Your vine is a nest for flies— Your milkmaid shocks the graces, And simplicity talks of pies ! You lie down to your shady slumber. And wake with a bug in your ear, And your damsel that walks in the morning Is shod like a mountaineer. — ^Willis. Courage. Ah, never shall the land forget How gush'd the life-blood of the brave, Gush'd warm with hope and courage yet, Upon the soil they fought to save ! — BRYANT. Her look compos'd, and steady eye. Bespoke a matchless constancy. — Scott's Marmion, True courage scorns To vent her prowess in a storm of words : And to the valiant action speaks alone. — Smollett's Regicide. Courtship. And otherwhyles with amorous delights And pleasing toyes he would her entertaine, Now singing sweetly to surprise her sprights. Now making layes of love and lover's paine, Bransles, ballads, virelayes, and verses vaine ; Oft purposes, oft riddles, he devys'd ; And thousands like which flowed into his braine. With which he fed her fancy, and entys'd To take to his new love, and leave her old despys'd. — Spenser's Fairy Queen. Thou hast by moonlight at her window sung, With feigning voice, verses of feigning love ; And stol'n the impression of her fantasy With bracelets of thy hair, rings, gauds, conceits. Knacks, trifles, nosegays, sweet-meats ; messengers. Of strong prevailment in unharden'd youth. — Shaks. Alidsummer Night's Dream. O days remember'd well ! remember'd all ! The bitter sweet, the honey and the gall ; Those garden rambles in the silent night. Those trees so shady, and that moon so bright. That thickset alley by the arbor clos'd. That woodbine seat where we at last repps'd ; And then the hopes that came and then were gone Quick as the clouds beneath the moon past on. — Crabbe. Woe to the man who ventures a rebuke, 'Twill but precipitate a situation Extremely disagreeable, but common To calculators when they count on woman. — Byron. Learn to win a lady's faith Nobly as the thing is high ; Bravely, as for life and death With a loyal gravity. Lead her from the festive boards. Point her to the starry skies. Guard her by your truthful words. Pure from courtship's flatteries. — Miss Barrett's Poems. 4r- Coward. Am I a coward? Who calls me villain ? breaks my pate across ? Plucks off my beard and blows it in my face ? Tweaks me by the nose ? gives me the lie i' the throat. As deep as to the lungs ? who does me this ? Ha ! why, I should take it ; for it cannot be. But I am pigeon-liver'd, and lack gall To make oppression bitter ; or, ere this I should have fatted all the region kites With this slave's off^al. — Shaks. Hamlet. Go — let thy less than woman's hand Assume the distaff — not the brand. — Byron's Bride of Abydos. Curiosity. Conceal yersel' as weel's ye can Fra' critical dissection ; But keek thro' every other man With lengthen'd, sly inspection. — Burns. Eve, With all the fruits of Eden blest. Save only one, rather than leave That one unknown, lost all the rest. — Moore. Custom. That monster, custom, who all sense doth eat Of habits evil, is angel yet in this ; That to' the use of actions fair and good, He likewise gives a frock, or livery. That aptly is put on : refrain to-night ; And that shall lend a kind of easiness To the next abstinence ; the next, more easy ; For use can almost change the stamp of nature. And master ev'n the devil, or throw him out. With wondrous potency. — Shaks. Hamlet. Dancing. A thousand hearts beat happily ; and when Music arose with its voluptuous swell. Soft eyes look'd love to eyes which spake again. And all went merry as a marriage-bell. — Byron's Childe Harold I gaz'd upon the dance, where ladies hight. Were moving in the light Of mirrors and of lamps. With music and with flowers, Danced on the joyous hours ; And fairest bosoms Heaved happily beneath the winter roses' blossoms And it is well ; Youth hath its time. Merry hearts will merrily chime. — C. P. Cranch. Death. For who would bear the whips and scorns of time, The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely, The pangs of despis'd love, the law's delay. The insolence of office, and the spurns That patient merit of the unworthy takes, When he himself might his quietus make With a bare bodkin ? who would fardels bear. To grunt and sweat under a weary life ; -^ ^ 76 POETICAL QUOTATIONS. But that the dread of something " death — The undiscover'd country, from whose bourn No traveller returns, puzzles the will ; And makes us rather bear those ills we have. Than fly to others that we know not of ? — Shaks. Hamlet. Why am I mock'd with death, lengthened out To deathless pain ? how gladly would I meet Mortality my sentence, and be earth Insensible, how glad would lay me down, As in my mother's lap ; there I should rest And sleep secure. — Milton's Paradise Lost, Death is the crown of life : Were death deny'd, poor men would live in vain ; Were death deny'd, to live would not be life : Were death deny'd, ev'n fools would wish to die. — Young's Night Thoughts. All flesh is grass, and all its glory fades. Like the fair flow'r dishevell'd in the wind ; Riches have wings, and grandeur is a dream ; The man we celebrate must find a tomb, And we that worship him ignoble graves. — Cowper's Task. Death should come Gently to one of gentle mould, like thee, ' As light winds, wandering through groves of bloom. Detach the delicate blossoms from the tree. Close thy sweet eyes calmly, and without pain, And we will trust in God to see thee yet again. — Bryant. Deceit. O what a tangled web we weave, When first we practice to deceive ! — Scott's Marmion. Defiance. Whence and what art thou, execrable shape, That dar'st though grim and terrible, advance Thy miscreated front athwart my way To yonder gates ? through them I mean to pass ! That be-assur'd, without leave ask'd of thee. Retire or taste thy folly, and learn by proof. Hell-bom, not to contend with spirits of heaven. — Milton's Paradise Lost. Stand ! the ground's your own my braves? Will ye give it up to slaves ? Will ye look for greener graves ? Hope ye mercy still ? What's the mercy despots feel? Hear it in yon cannon's peal. See it on yon bristling steel, Ask it ye who will ! — Pierpont. Delay. 4r- Be wise to-day, 't is madness to defer ; Next day the fatal precedent will plead Thus on, till wisdom is push'd out of life. — Young's Night Thoughts. Despair. My loss is such as cannot be repair'd ; And to the wretched, life can be no mercy. Dryden's Marriage h la Mode. One fatal remembrance, one sorrow which throws Its bleak shade alike o'er our joys and our woes. To which life nothing darker or brighter can bring. For which joy has no balm and affliction no sting. — MOORE. Discontent. Man hath a weary pilgrimage. As through the world he wends, On every stage, from youth to age, Still discontent attends. — SouTHEY. Doubt. Our doubts are traitors. And make us lose the good we oft might win, By fearing to attempt. — Shakespeare's Measure for Measure. Yet do not think I doubt thee, I know thy truth remains ; I would not live without thee, For all the world contains. — G. P. MORRia Dreams. Dreams are the children of an idle brain, Begot of nothing but vain fantasy ; Which is as thin of substance as the air; And more inconstant than the wind. Shakespeare's Romeo and yuliet. Lightly he dreamt as youth will dream. Of sport by thicket, or by stream, Of hawk, of hound, of ring, of glove. Or lighter yet — of lady's love. — Scott's Marmion Duty. Rugged strength and radiant beauty — These were one in nature's plan ; Humble toil and heavenward duty — These will form the perfect man. — Mrs.Hall. Eloquence. There's a charm in deliv'ry, a magical art, That thrills like a kiss from the lips to the heart ; 'Tis the glance — the expression — the well-chosen word — By whose magic the depths of the spirit are stirr'd. The lip's soft persuasion — its musical tone ; Oh ! such were the charms of that eloquent one ! — Mrs. Welby. Oh ! as the bee upon the flower, I hang Upon the honey of thy eloquent tongue. Bulwer's Lady of Lyons Her tears her only eloquence. — Rogers' Jacqueline. Emigration. I hear the tread of pioneers Of nations yet to be. The first low wash of waves where soon Shall roll a human sea. — Whittier. The emigrant's way o'er the Western desert is mark'd by Camp-fires long consum'd, and bones that bleach in the sun- shine. — Longfellow's Evangelim. -<^ POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 77 ^ Enthusiasm. Methinks we must have known some former state More glorious than our present, and the heart Is haunted with dim memories, shadows left . By past magnificence ; and hence we pine With vain enthusiastic hopes that fill The eyes with tears for their own vanity. — Miss Landon. Envy. Base envy withers at another's joy. And hates that excellence it cannot reach. — Thomson's Seasons. Envy dogs success And every victor's crown is lin'd with thorns. And worn 'mid scoffs. — Miss Landon. Equality. Children of wealth or want, to each is given One spot of green, and all the blue of heaven ! — O. W. Holmes. Evening. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, The ploughman homeward plods his weary way. And leaves the world to darkness and to me. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. And all the air a solemn stillness holds. Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight, And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds. Save that from yonder ivy-mantled tower. The moping owl does to the moon complain Of such as, wandering near her secret bower, Molest her ancient solitary reign. — Gray's Church-Yard. Ave Maria ! blessed be the hour ! The time, the clime, the spot where I so oft Have felt that moment in its fullest power Sink o'er the earth so beautiful and soft, While swung the deep bell in the distan* tower, Or the faint dying day-hymn stole aloft. And not a breath crept through the rosy air. And yet the forest leaves seem'd stirr'd with prayer. Soft hour ! which makes the wish and melts the heart Of those who sail the seas, on the first day ; When they from their sweet friends are torn apart ; Or fills with love the pilgrim on his way. As the far bell of vesper makes him start. Seeming to weep the dying day's decay ; Is this a fancy which our reason scorns? Ah ! surely nothing dies but something mourns ? — Byron. The summer day has clos'd — the sun is set : Well have they done their office, those bright hours. The latest of whose train goes softly out In the red west. — Bryant. Example. For as the light Not only serves to show, but render us Mutually profitable ; so our lives. In acts exemplary, not only win Ourselves good names, but do to others give Matter for virtuous deeds, by which we live. — Chapman. Exile. But me, not destined such delights to share. My prime of life in wandering spent and care ; Impell'd, with steps unceasing, to pursue Some fleeting good, that mocks me with the view ; That, like the circle bounding earth and skies. Allures from far, yet, as I follow, flies ; My fortune leads to traverse realms alone. And find no spot of all the world my own. — Goldsmith's Traveller. Beloved country ! banish 'd from thy shore, A stranger in this prison-house of clay, The exil'd spirit weeps and sighs for thee ! Heavenward the bright perfections I adore direct. — Longfellow. Experience. A thousand volumes in a thousand tongues, enshrine the les- sons of Experience ; Yet a man shall read them all, and go forth none the wiser ; If self-love lendeth him a glass, to color all he conneth. Lest in the features of another he find his own complexion. — Topper's Proverbial Philosophy. Expectation. Oft expectation fails, and most oft there Where most it promises : and oft it hits Where hope is coldest, and despair most sits. — Shakespeare's AlFs Will. Eyes. Her eye (I'm very fond of handsome eyes) Was large and dark, suppressing half its fire Until she spoke ; then, through its soft disguise, Flash'd an expression more of pride than ire. And love than either. — Byron. And then her look — Oh, where's the heart so wise Could, unbewilder'd, meet those matchless eyes ? Quick, restless, strange, but exquisite withal, Like those of angels. — Moore. I never saw an eye so bright, And yet so soft as hers ; It sometimes swam in liquid light. And sometimes swam in tears ; It seem'd a beauty set apart For softness and for signs. — MRS. Welby. Those laughing orbs, that borrow From azure skies the light they wear, Are like heaven — no sorrow Can float o'er hues so fair. — Mrs. Osgood. Those eyes, Soft and capacious as a cloudless sky, Whose azure depths their colour emulates, Must needs be conversant with upward looks. Prayer's voiceless service. — WoRDSWORTH. Falsehood. You told a lie ; an odious, damned lie ; Upon my soul a lie ; a wicked lie. — Shaks. Othello. 78 POETICAL QUOTATIONS. -^ O agony ! keen agony, For trusting heart to find That vows believed, were vows conceived As ligVit as summer wind. — Motherwell. I live among the cold, the false. And I must seem like them ; And such I am, for I am false As those I most condemn. — Miss Lanuon. Farewell. So fare thee well, — and may th' indulgent gods * * * grant thee every wish Thy soul can form ! Once more, farewell. — Sophocles. And farewell goes out sighing. Shaks. Troilus and Cressida. Farewell ; thou canst not teach me to forget. — Shaks. Romeo and Juliet. Farewell ! I will omit no opportunity That may convey my greetings, love, to thee. — Shaks. Romeo and yuliet. Farewell — thou hast trampled love's faith in the dust, Thou hast torn from my bosom its hope and its trust '; Yet, if thy life's current with bliss it would swell, I would pour out my own in this last fond farewell. — Hoffman. And, like some low and mournful spell. To whisper but one word — farewell ! — Park Benjamin. Fate. What fates impose, that men must needs abide ; It boots not to resist both wind and tide. —Shaks. Henry VI. Part III. But Fate whirls on the bark, And the rough gale sweeps from the rising tide, The lazy calm of thought. — BuLWER^ Lytton. Fear. But that I am forbid To tell the secrets of my prison-house, I. could a tale unfold, whose lightest word Would harrow up thy soul ; freeze thy young blood ; Make thy two eyes, like stars, start from their spheres ; Thy knotted and combined locks to part, And each particular hair to stand on end. Like quills upon the fretful porcupine. — Shaks. Hamlet. Like one, that on a lonesome road Doth walk in fear and dread, And having once turn'd round walks on, And turns no more his head ; Because he knows a frightful fiend Doth close behind him tread. _ — Coleridge's Ancient Mariner. Fame. Death makes no conquest of this conqueror ; For now he lives in fame though not in life. — Shaks. Richard III. The evil that men do, lives after them ; The good is often interred with their bones. Shaks. Julius Ccesar. Men's evil manners live in brass : their virtues We write in water. — Shaks. Henry VIII. The fame that a man wins himself is best ; That he may call his own : honors put on him Make him no more a man than his clothes do, Which are as soon ta'en off ; for in the warmth The heat comes from the body not the weeds ; So man's true fame must strike from his own deeds. — Middleton What so foolish as the chase of fame ? How vain the prize ! how impotent our aim ! For what are men who grasp at praise sublime. But bubbles on the rapid stream of time, That rise and fall, that swell, and are no more. Born and forgot, ten thousand in an hour. — Young's Love of Fame- Nor let thy noble spirit grieve, Its life of glorious fame to leave ; — V life of honor and of worth Has no eternity on earth. — Longfellow. Fancy. Tell me, where is fancy bred ; Or in the heart, or in the head ? How begot, how nourished ? It is engendered in the eyes. With gazing fed : and fancy dies, In the cradle where it lies. — Shaks. Merchant of Venice. Woe to the youth whom Fancy gains, Winning from reason's hand the reins. — Scott's Rokeby. Fidelity. He that can endure To follow with allegiance a fallen lord. Doth conquer him that did his master conquer. And earns a place i' the story. — Shaks. Antony and Cleopatra, Mark me, Clotilda, And mark me well ; I am no desperate wretch. Who borrows an excuse from shameful passion To make its shame more vile — I am a wretched, but a spotless wife. — Maturin's Bertram. Though human, thou didst not deceive me. Though woman, thou didst not forsake, Though loved, thou forebodst to grieve me, Though slander'd, thou never could'st shake, Though trusted, thou didst not disclaim me, Though parted, it was not to fly, Though watchful, 't was not to defame me, Nor, mute, that the world might belie. — Byron. Within her heart was his image, Cloth'd in the beauty of love and youth, as last she beheld him, Only more beautiful made by his death-like silence and ab- sence. — Longfellow's Evangeline. h^ ^ POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 79 Flattery. You play the spaniel, And think with wagging of your tongue to win me. — Shaks. Henry VIII. 'Tis an old maxim in the schools, That flattery's the food of fools, Yet now and then you men of wit Will condescend to take a bit. — Swift's Cadenus and Vanessa, O flatt'ry ! How soon thy smooth insinuating oil Supples the toughest fool ! — Fenton's Mariamne. Flowers. There is to me A daintiness about these early flowers. That touches me like poetry. They blow out With such a simple loveliness among The common herbs of pasture, and they breathe Their lives so unobtrusively, like hearts Whose beatings are too gentle for the world. — ^Willis's Poems. In Eastern lands they talk in flowers. And they tell in a garland their loves and cares ; Each blossom that blooms in their garden bowers, On its leaves a mystic language bears ; Then gather a wreath from the garden bowers. And tell the wish of thy heart in flowers. — Percival. Oh ! what tender thoughts beneath Those silent flowers are lying. Hid within the mystic wreath My love hath kiss'd in tying. — Moore. A violet by a mossy stone. Half hidden from the eye, Fair as a star, when only one Is shining in the sky. — Wordsworth. Forgetfulness. When I forget that the stars shine in air — When I forget that beauty is in stars — When I forget that love with beauty is — Will I forget thee : till then all things else. — Bailey's Festus. Forgiveness. He added not, and from her tum'd ; but Eve Not so repuls'd, with tears that ceas'd not flowing, And tresses all disorder'd, at his feet Fell humble, and embracing them, besought His peace. — Milton's Paradise Lost. 'Tis easier for the generous to forgive, Than for offence to ask it. — Thomson's Edmund and Eleanora. Young men soon give, and soon forget affronts ; Old age is slow in both. — Addison's Cato. Fortitude. Fortitude is not the appetite Of formidable things, nor inconsult Rashness : but virtue fighting for a truth ; Deriv'd from knowledge of distinguishing Good or bad causes. — N abb's Covent Garden. — Gird our hearts with silent fortitude, Suffering yet hoping all things. — Mrs. Hemans. Fortune. Since you will buckle fortune on my back. To bear her burden whe'r I will or no, I must have patience to endure the load. — Shakespeare's Richard III. To catch dame fortune's golden smile, Assiduous wait upon her ; And gather gear by every wile That's justified by honor. Not for to hide it in a hedge. Nor for a train attendant ; But for the glorious privilege Of being independent. — BURNS. Freedom. For freedom's battle oft begun, Bequeath'd from bleeding sire to son, Though baffled oft, is ever won. — Byron's Giaour. Better to dwell in freedom's hall, With a cold damp floor and mouldering wall. Than bow the head and bend the knee In the proudest palace of slaverie. — Moore. Oh ; not yet May'st thou unbrace thy corslet, nor lay by Thy sword, nor yet, O Freedom ! close thy lids In slumber ; for thine enemy never sleeps. And thou must watch and combat, till the day Of the new Earth and Heaven.— Bryant. Freedom's soil hath only place For a free and fearless race. — Whittier, When freedom, on her natal day. Within her war-rock'd cradle lay. An iron race around her stood, Baptiz'd her infant brow in bloor., And through the storm that round her swept. Their constant ward and watching kept. — Whittier Friendship. Friendship is the cement of two minds, As of one man the soul and body is ; Of which one cannot sever but the other Suffers a needful separation. — Chapman's Revenge. Friendship has a power To soothe affliction in her darkest hour. — H. K. White. Friend after friend departs ; — WTio hath not lost a friend ? There is no union here of hearts That hath not here its end.— MONTGOMERY. Friendship is no plant of hasty growth ; Tho' planted in esteem's deep fixed soil. The gradual culture of kind intercourse Must bring to it perfection. — Joanna Bailie's De Montfort -^ \ 80 POETICAL QUOTATIONS. Futurity. O, that a man might know The end of this day's business, ere it come ! But it sufficeth that the day will end, And then the end is known. — Shakespeare's Julius Ccesar. Eternity, thou pleasing — dreadful thought ! Thro' what variety of untry'd beings, Thro' what new scenes and changes must we pass ; The wide, the unbounded prospect lies before me ; But shadows, clouds, and darkness rest upon it. Addison's Cato. There is no hope — the future will but turn The old sands in the failing glass of time ! — R. H. Stoddard. Generosity. An act that does deserve requital. Pay first themselves the stock of such content. — Sir Robert Howard. God blesses still the generous thought, And still the fitting word He speeds, And truth at His requiring taught, He quickens into deeds. — Whittier. Gentleman. Who misses or who wins the prize ? Go, lose or conquer as you can ; But if you fail, or if you rise, Be each, pray God, a gentleman. — Anon. Whom do we dub as gentlemen ? The knave, the fool, the brute — If they but own full tithe of gold and wear a courtly suit ! The parchment scroll of titled line, the riband at the knee, Can still suffice to ratify and grant a high degree. — Eliza Cook. Gifts. Win her with gifts, if she respect not words ; Dumb jewels often, in their silent kind. More quick than words do move a woman's mind. — Shakespeare's Two Gentlemen of Verona, Glory. Glory is like a circle in the water, Which never ceaseth to enlarge itself. Till by broad spreading, it disperse to naught. — Shakespeare's Henry VI, Part I. Glories, like glow-worms, afar off shine bright ; But look'd too near, have neither heat nor light. —Webster's Dwhess of Malfy. What is glory ? What is fame ? The echo of a long-lost name ; A breath, an idle hour's brief talk ; The shadow of an arrant naught ; A flower that blossoms for a day, Dying next morrow ; A stream that hurries on its way. Singing of sorrow. — Motherwell Gold. There is thy gold ; whose poison to men's souls, Doing more murders in this loathsome world Than these poor compounds that thou may'st not sell : I sell thee poison, thou hast sold me none. Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. For gold the merchant ploughs the main. The farmer ploughs the manor. — Burns. Thou more than stone of the philosopher ! Thou touchstone of philosophy herself ! Thou bright eye of the mine ! Thou load star of The soul ! Thou true magnetic pole, to which All hearts point duly north, like trembling needles. — Byron. Grace. Grace was in all her steps, heaven in her eye. In every gesture dignity and love. Milton's Paradise Lost. Gratitude. A grateful mind By owing owes not, but still pays, at once Indebted and discharg'd. — Milton's Paradise Lost. I've heard of hearts unkind, kind deeds With coldness still returning ; Alas ! the gratitude of men Hath of tener left me mourning. — Wordsworth. Grave. Our lives are rivers, gliding free In that unfathom'd, boundless sea. The silent grave ! Thither all earthly pomp and boast Roll, to be swallowed up and lost In one dark wave. — Longfellow I gazed upon the glorious sky And the green mountains round ; And thought that when I came to lie Within the silent ground, 'Twere pleasant, that in flowery June, Where brooks sent up a cheerful tune. And groves a joyous sound, The sexton's hand, my grave to make. The rich green mountain turf should break. — Bryant Grief. O that this too, too solid flesh would melt, Thaw, and resolve itself into a dew ! Or that the everlasting had not fix'd His cannon 'gainst self slaughter ! O God ! O God I How weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable Seem to me all the uses of this world ! Fie on't ! O fie : 'tis an unweeded garden. That grows to seed : things rank and gross in nature Possess it merely. — Shakespeare's Hamlet. Some grief shows much of love ; But much of grief shows still some want of wit. Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. 4r- ^ POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 8i ^ sir- Half of the ills we hoard within our hearts. Are ills because we hoard them. — Proctor's Mirandole. We look before and after, And pine for what is not ; Our sincerest laughter With some pain is fraught. — Shelley. Thine is a grief that wastes the heart, Like mildew on a tulip's dyes — When hope, deferr'd but to depart. Loses its smiles but keeps its sighs. — Miss Landon. Guilt. God hath yok'd to guilt Her pale tormentor — misery. — Bryant. O what a state is guilt ! how wild ! how wretched 1 When apprehension can form nought but fears, And we distrust security herself. — Havard's Regulus. Hand. Her hand In whose comparison, all whites are ink Writing their own reproach, to whose soft seizure The cygnet's down is harsh, and spirit of sense Hard as the palm of ploughman ! — Shaks. Troilus and Cressida. I love a hand that meets mine own With grasp that causes some sensation. —Mrs. Osgood. Happiness. O how bitter a thing it is to look Into happiness through another man's eyes ! — Shaks. As You Like It. Beware what earth calls happiness ; beware All joys, but joys that never can expire ; Who builds on less than an immortal base, Fond as he seems, condemns his joy to death. — Young's Night Thoughts. There is a gentle element, and man May breathe it with a calm unruffled soul. And drink its living waters, till his heart Is pure, and this is human happiness. — Willis. Hate. It is the wit, the policy of sin, To hate those men we have abused. — Sir W. Davenant's Just Italian. They did not know how hate can bum. In hearts once changed from soft to stem; Nor all the false and fatal zeal The convert of revenge can feel. — Byron's Siege of Corinth. Health. The surest road to health, say what they will Is never to suppose we shall be ill. Most of those evils we poor mortals know From doctors and imagination flow. — CHURCHILL. Heart. The heart is like the sky a part of heaven, But changes, night and day, too, like the sky; Now o'er it clouds and thunder must be driven. And darkness and destruction, as on high ; But when it hath been scorch'd, and pierc'd, and riven, Its storms expire in water-drops ; the eye Pours forth, at last, the heart's blood turned to tears. — Byron. The flush of youth soon passes from the face. The spells of fancy from the mind depart ; The form may lose its symmetry, its grace, But time can claim no victory o'er the heart. — Mrs. Drimes. A young maiden's heart Is a rich soil, wherein lie many germs Hid by the cunning hand of nature there To put forth blossoms in their fittest season ; And though the love of home first breaks the soil. With its embracing tendrils clasping it. Other affections strong and warm will grow. While that one fades, as summer's flush of bloom Succeeds the gentle budding of the spring. — Mrs. Francis K. Butler. Home. Home is the resort Of love, of joy, of peace and plenty, where Supporting and supported, polish'd friends And dear relations mingle into bliss. — Thomson's Seasons. At length his lonely cot appears in view. Beneath the shelter of an aged tree ; Th' expectant wee things, todlin stacher through To meet their dad, wi' flichtering noise and glee ; His wee-bit ingle blinkin bonnilie. His clean hearth-stane, his thrifty wifie's smile. The lisping infant prattling on his knee, Does a' his weary kiaugh and care beguile. And makes him quite forget his labor and his toil. — Burns' Cotter's Saturday Night. Leans o'er his humble gate and thinks the while — Oh ! that for me some home like this would smile, Some hamlet shade, to yield my sickly form. Health in the breeze, and shelter in the storm. — Campbell's Pleasures of Hope, 'Tis sweet to hear the watch-dog's honest bark. Bay deep-mouth'd welcome as we draw near Home ; 'Tis sweet to know there is an eye will mark Our coming, and look brighter when we come.— Byron. O, it was pitiful ! Near a whole city full. Home she had none. — Thomas Hood. My son — thou wilt dream the world is fair, And thy spirit will sigh to roam. And thou must go ; — but never, when there. Forget the light of home. — Mrs. Hale. -^ r- 83 POETICAL QUOTATIONS. -^ 4r- Honest. Ay, sir ; to be honest as this world goes. Is to be one pick'd out of ten thousand. — Shak?. Hamlet. Take heed what you say, sir ! An hundred honest men ! why if there were So many i' th' city, 't were enough to forfeit Their charter. — Shirley's Gamester. Honor. Mine honor is my life ; both grow in one ; Take honor from me, and my life is done. — Shaks. Richard II. Honor is Virtue's allowed ascent : honor that clasps All perfect justice in her arms ; that craves No more respect than what she ^ives ; that does Nothing but what she'll suffer. — Massinger's Very Woman. The noblest spur unto the sons of fame Is thirst of honor. — John Hall. Better to die ten thousand deaths Than wound my honor. — Addison'S Caio. A life of honor and of worth Has no eternity on earth, — 'Tis but a name — And yet its glory far exceeds That base and sensual life which leads To want and shame. — Longfellow. Hope. The miserable hath no other medicine But only hope. — Shaks. Measure for Measure. Hope ! fortune's cheating lottery ! Where for one prize an hundred blanks there be ; Fond archer, hope ! who tak'st thy aim so far, That still, or short, or wide, thine arrows are ! — CoWLEY. Unfading hope ! when life's last embers bum. When soul to soul, and dust to dust return ! Heaven to thy charge resigns the awful hour ! Oh ! then thy kingdom comes ! immortal power, What though each spark of earth-bom rapture fly, The quivering lip, pale cheek, and closing eye ! Bright to the soul thy seraph hands convey The morning dream of life's eternal day — Then, then, the triumph and the trance begin ! And all the phoenix spirit bums within ! Campbell's Pleasures of Hope. White as a white sail on a dusty sea. When half the horizon's clouded and half free, Fluttering between the dun wave and the sky, Is hope's last gleam in man's extremity. — Byron's Island. Humility. Humility is eldest-bom of virtue. And claims the birth-right at the throne of heav'n. — Murphy's Zobeide. The meek mountain daisy, with delicate crest. And the violet whose eye told the heaven of her breast. — Mrs. Sigourney. Husbands. Look here upon this picture, and on this : The counterfeit presentment of two brothers : See, what a grace was seated on this brow ; Hyperion's curls ; the front of Jove himself ; An eye, like Mars, to threaten or command ; A station, like the herald Mercury, New lighted on a heaven kissing hill ; A combination, and a form indeed, Where every god did seem to set his seal. To give the world assurance of a man ! This was your husband. — Look you now what follows ; There is your husband — like a mildew'd ear Blasting his wholesome brother. — Shaks. Hamlet. Marry ! no, faith ; husbaj;ids are like lots in The lottery, you may draw forty blanks Before you find one that has any prize In him ; a husband generally is a Careless domineering thing, that grows like Coral ; which as long as it is under water Is soft and tender ; but as soon As it has got its branch above the waves Is presently hard, stiff, not to be bow'd. — Marston. Hypocrisy. How many cowards, whose hearts are all as false As stairs of sand, wear upon their chins The beard of Hercules, and frowning Mars, Who, inward search'd, have livers white as milk ? Shaks. Merchant of Venice. Bartering his venal wit for sums of gold, He cast himself into the saint-like mould ; Groan'd, sigh'd, and pray'd, while godliness was gain. The loudest bag-pipe of the squeaking train. — Dryden. Few men dare show their thoughts of worst or best ; Dissimulation always sets apart A comer for herself ; and therefore Fiction Is that which passes with least contradiction. — Byron. Idleness. From worldly cares himself he did esloin, And greatly shunned manly exercise ; From every work he challenged essoin. For contemplation sake : yet otherwise. His life he led in lawless riotise By which he grew to grievous malady, For in his lustless limbs through evil guise, A shaking fever reign'd continually ; Such one was Idleness. — Spenser's Fairy Queen, Leisure is pain ; takes off our chariot wheels ; How heavily we drag the load of life ; Blest leisure is our curse ; like that of Cain, It makes us wander : wander earth around To fly that tyrant thought. As Atlas groan'd The world beneath, we groan beneath an hour. — Young's Night Thoughts. When you have found a day to be idle, be idle for a day. When you have met with three cups to drmk, drink your three cups.— Chinese Poet. ■^ POETICAL QUOTATIONS. ^ Idleness is sweet and sacred. — Walter Savage Landor. I would not waste my spring of youth In idle dalliance : I would plant rich seeds, To blossom in my manhood, and bear fruit When I am old. — HiLLHOUSE. Ignorance. -, Where ignorance is bliss, 'Tis folly to be wise.— Gray. By ignorance is pride increas'd ; They most assume who know the least. — Gray's Fables. Imagination. My brain, methinks, is like an hour-glass. Wherein m' imaginations run like sands, Filling up time ; but then are tum'd and turn'd, So that I know not what to stay upon, And less to put in art. — Jonson's Every Man in his Humor. 'Mid earthly scenes forgotten or unknown. Lives in ideal worlds, and wanders there alone. — Carlos Wilcox. Immortal. Can it be ? Matter immortal ? and shall spirit die ? Above the nobler, shall less nobler rise ? Shall man alone, for whom all else revives, No resurrection know ? Shall man alone, Imperial man ! be sown in barren ground. Less privileg'd than grain, on which he feeds ? — Young's Night Thoughts. Love, which proclaims the human, bids thee know A truth more lofty in thy lowliest hour Than shallow glory taught to human power — " What's human is immortal ! "— Bulwer's Poems. Inconstancy. How long must women wish in vain A constant love to find ? No art can fickle man retain, Or fix a roving mind. Yet fondly we ourselves deceive. And empty hopes pursue ; Though false to others we believe They will to us prove true. — Thomas Shadwell. Three things a wise man will not trust. The wind, the sunshine of an April day. And woman's plighted faith. I have beheld The weathercock upon the steeple point Steady from morn till eve, and I have seen The bees go forth upon an April mom. Secure the sunshine will not end in showers : But when was woman true ? — Southey's Madoc^ Industry. Industry — To meditate, to plan, resolve, perform, Which in itself is good — as surely brings Reward of good, no matter what be done. Pollock's Course of lime. Behold .- The ruddy damsel singeth at her wheel. While by her side the rustic lover sits. Perchance his shrewd eye secretly doth count The mass of skeins, which, hanging on the wall, Increaseth day by day. Perchance his thoughts, (For men have deeper minds than women — sure !) Are calculating what a thrifty wife The maid will make. — MRS. Sigourney. Infidelity. Why, she would hang on him As if increase of appetite had grown By what it fed on ; and yet within a month — Let me not think on 't ; — Frailty, thy name is woman • — Shaks. Hamlet O wretched is the dame, to whom the sound, * ' Your lord will soon return " no pleasure brings. — Maturin's Bertram. Ingratitude. For vicious natures, when they once begin To take distaste, and purpose no requital ; The greater debt they owe, the more they hate. — May's Agrippina, Ingratitude is a monster — To be strangled in the birth ; not to be cherish'd. — Massinger. If there be a crime Of deeper dye than all the guilty train Of human vices, tis ingratitude. — Brooke's Earl of Warwick. Innocence. I have mark'd A thousand blushing apparitions start Into her face ; a thousand innocent shames In angel whiteness bear away those blushes ; And in her eye there hath appear'd a fire. To bum the errors that these princes hold Against her maiden tmth. — Shaks. Much Ado about Nothing. Innocent maid, and snow-white flower. Well are ye pair'd in your opening hour ; Thus should the pure and lovely meet. Stainless with stainless, and sweet with sweet. Throw it aside in thy weary hour ; Throw it to the ground the fair white flower. Yet as thy smiling years depart. Keep that white and innocent heart. — Bryant. Instinct. Reason raise o'er instinct as you can. In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man. — POPB. Jealousy. O, beware, my lord, of jealousy ; It is the green-ey'd monster which doth mock The meat it feeds on ; that cuckold lives in bliss Who, certain of his fate, loves not his wronger ; But, O, what damned minutes tells he o'er. Who dotes, yet doubts ; suspects, yet strongly loves. — Shakespeare's OtheUiK -^ f- 84 POETICAL QUOTATIONS. Joy- All other passions have their hour of thinking, And hear the voice of reasoning. This alone Breaks at the first suspicion into phrenzy, And sweeps the soul in tempests. — Francis's Constantine. Yet he was jealous, though he did not show it, For jealousy dislikes the world to know it. — Byron. True joy is only hope put out of fear ; And honor hideth error ev'ry where. Lord Brooke's Alaham. Joy kneels, at morning's rosy prime. In worship to the rising sun. — James G. Brooks. Joy for the present moment ! Joy to-day ! Why look we to the morrow ? Mingle me bitters to drive care away; Nothing on earth can be for ever gay. And free from sorrow. — Epes Sargent. Her world was ever joyous — She thought of grief and pain As giants in the olden time That ne'er would come again. — Mrs. Hale's Alice Ray. Justice. Justice, when equal scales she holds, is blind, Nor cruelty, nor mercy, change her mind ; When some escape for that which others die, Mercy to those, to these is cruelty ; A fine and slender net the spider weaves Which little and slight animals receives ; And if she catch a summer bee or fly. They with a piteous groan and murmur die ; But if a wasp or hornet she entrap. They tear her cords, like Samson, and escape : So like a fly, the poor offender dies ; But like the wasp the rich escapes and flies. — Denham. Justice, while she winks at crimes, Stumbles on innocence sometimes. — Butler's Hudibras. A happy lot be thine, and larger light Await thee there ; for thou hast bound thy will. In cheerful homage to the rule of right, And lovest all, and doest good for ill. — Bryant. Man is unjust, but God is just ; and finally justice Triumphs. — Longfellow's Evangeline. ■ Kindness. Kindness in woman, not their beauteous looks. Shall win my love. — Shakespeare's Taming the Shrew. Kindness by secret sympathy is tied ; For noble souls in nature are allied. — Dryden. If a soul thou wouldst redeem, And lead a lost one back to God ; — Wouldst thou a guardian-angel seem To one who long in guilt hatb trod, — Go kindly to him — take his hand With gentlest words within thine own. And by his side a brother stand. Till all the demons thou dethrone. — Mrs. C. M. Sawyer. King. He's a king, A true, right king, that dares do aught, save wrong; Fears nothing mortal, but to be unjust; Who is not blown up with the flattering puffs Of spongy sycophants ; who stands unmov'd. Despite the jostling of opinion. Kiss. — Marston's Antonio and Mellida. Part J. O, a kiss Long as my exile, sweet as my revenge ! Now, by the jealous queen of heaven, that kiss, I carried from thee, dear ; and my true lip Hath virgin'd it o'er since. — Shakespeare's Coriolanus. Teach not thy lip such scorn ; for it was made For kissing, lady, not for such contempt. • — Shakespeare's Ricliard III, Oh ! could I give the world ; One kiss of thine, but thus to touch thy lips, I were a gainer by the vast exchange. The fragrant infancy of opening flowers Flow 'd to my senses in that melting kiss. — Southern's Disappointment. The kiss you take is paid by that you give ; The joy is mutual, and I'm still in debt. — Lord Lansdown's Heroic Love. Soft child of love — thou balmy bliss. Inform me, O delicious kiss ! Why thou so suddenly art gone, Lost in the moment thou art won ? — Dr. WoLcxyr. Knowledge. Through knowledge we behold the world's creation. How in his cradle first he fostered was ; And judge of nature's cunning operation, How things she formed of a formless mass : By knowledge do we learn ourselves to know ; And what to man and what to God we owe. — Spencer. Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers. And I linger more and more. And the individual withers. And the world is more and more. — TENNYSON. O fear not in a world like this. And thou shall know ere long. Know how sublime a thing it is To suffer and be strong. — LONGFELLOW. Labor. " Labor is worship " — the robin is singing ; " Labor is worship " — the wild bee is ringing. Listen ; that eloquent whisper upspringing. Speaks to the soul out of nature's great heart. Mrs. Osgood -^ r- POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 8S -^ Let us, then, be up and doing. With a heart for any fate ; Still achieving, still pursuing, Learn to labor and to wait. — LONGFELLOW. Law. The hungry judges soon the sentence sign. And wretches hang that jurymen may dine. Pope's Rape of the Lock. Let the laws of your own land, Good or ill between you stand. Hand to hand, and foot to foot, Arbiters of the dispute. — Shelley's Liberty. Learning. A little learning is a dang'rous thing, Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring : There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain, And drinking largely sobers us again. — Pope's Essay on Ctiticism. Liberty. Oh ! give me liberty ! For were ev'n paradise my prison. Still I should long to leap the crystal walls. — Dryden's Don Sebastian. O liberty. Parent of happiness, celestial-born ; When the first man became a living soul, His sacred genius thou. — Dyer's Ruins of Rome. What are fifty, what a thousand slaves, Match'd to the sinew of a single arm That strikes for liberty ? — Brooke's Gustavus Vasa. There is a spirit working in the world Like to a silent, subterranean fire ; Yet ever and anon some monarch hurl'd Aghast and pale, attests its fearful ire : The dungeon 'd nations now once more respire The keen and stirring air of Liberty. — George Hill. Life. Out, out, brief candle ! Life's but a walking shadow ; a poor player. That struts and frets his hour upon the stage, And then is heard no more : it is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury. Signifying nothing. — Shaks. Macbeth. The cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces. The solemn temples, the great globe itself, Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve, And, like this unsubstantial pageant faded, Leave not a rack behind : we are such stuff As dreams are made of, and our little life Is rounded with a sleep. — Shaks. Tempest. Farewell, a long farewell, to all my greatness ! This is the state of man : to-day he puts forth The tender leaves of hope, to-morrow blossoms. And bears his blushing honors thick upon him : The third day comes a frost, a killing frost ; And — ;when he thinks, good easy man, full surely His greatness is a-ripening — nips his root, . And then he falls, as I do. — Shaks. Henry VIII. Life is a weary interlude — Which doth short joys, long woes include : The world the stage, the prologue tears ; The acts vain hopes and varied fears ; The scene shuts up with loss of breath. And leaves no epilogue but death. — Bishop King. To-day is like yesterday, it cheats ; We take the lying sister for the same ; Life glides away, Lorenzo, like a brook ; For ever changing, unperceiv'd the change. — Young's Night Thoughts Be wise with speed ; A fool at forty is a fool indeed. — Young's Love of Fame What is life ? A gulf of troubled waters — where the . . . .? Like a vex'd bark, is tossed upon the waves Of pain and pleasure by the wavering breath Of passions. — Miss Landon. Life is real, life is earnest ; And the grave is not its goal ; Dust thou art, to dust retumest. Was not spoken of the soul. — Longfellow. Thus bravely live heroic men, A consecrated band ; Life is to them a battle-field. Their hearts a holy land. — Tuckerman. Love. Love is life's end ; an end but never ending ; All joys, all sweets, all happiness, awarding ; Love is life's wealth (ne'er spent but ever spending), More rich by giving, taking by discarding. Love 's life's reward, rewarded in rewarding ; Then from thy wretched heart fond care remove. Ah ! should'st thou live but once love's sweets to prove. Thou wilt not love to live, unless thou live to love. — Spenser's Britain's Ida. The more thou damm'st it up, the more it bums. The current that with gentle murmur glides. Thou know'st, being stopp'd, impatiently doth rage ; But when his fair course is not hindered, He makes sweet music with the enamel'd stones, Giving a gentle kiss to every sedge He overtaketh in his pilgrimage. — Shaks. Two Gentlemen of Verona, Fantastic tyrant of the amorous heart. How hard thy yoke ! how cruel is thy dart ! Those 'scape thy anger who refuse thy sway. And those are punish'd most who most obey. — Prior's Solomon, The maid that loves Goes out to sea upon a shattered plank. And puts her trust in miracles for safety. — Young's Revenge. ^ ■^ ^ 86 POETICAL QUOTATIONS. Love, strong in wish, is weak in reason, still Forming a thousand ills, which ne'er shall be, And, -like a coward, kills itself to-day, With fancied grief for fear it die to-n\orrow. — Sewell's Sir W. Raleigh. O magic of love I unembellish'd by you Has the garden a blush or the herbage a hue. Or blooms there a prospect in nature or art. Like the vista that shines through the eye to the heart ? — Moore. Man's love is of man's life a thing, a part, 'Tis a woman's whole existence ; man may range The court, the camp, church, vessel and the mart. Sword, gown, gain, glory, offer in exchange ; Pride, fame, ambition, to fill up his heart ; And few there are whom these can not estrange ; Men have all these resources, we but one — To love again, and be again undone. — Byron. Love's reign is eternal. The heart is his throne, And he has all seasons Of life for his own. — G. P. Morris. Lovers. Then, the lover, Sighing like furnace, with a woful ballad Made to his mistress' eye-brow. — Shaks. As You Like It, They parted as all lovers part ; — She with her wrong'd and breaking heart ; But he rejoicing to be free. Bounds like a captive from his chain. And wilfully believing she Hath found her liberty again ; Or if dark thoughts will cross his mind, They are but clouds before the wind. — Miss Landon. Never thread was spun so fine, Never spider stretch'd the line, Would not hold the lovers true That would really swing for you. — O. W. Holmes. Madness. Alas ! how is 't with you ? That you do bend your eyes on vacancy. And with the incorporeal air do hold discourse ? —Shaks. Hamlet. His brain is wrecked — For ever in the pauses of his speech His lip doth work with inward mutterings And his fixed eye is riveted fearfully On something that no other site can spy. — Maturin's Bertram. Man. Man is supreme lord and master Of his own ruin and disaster ; Controls his fate, but nothing less In ord'ring his own happiness : For all his care and providence Is too, too feeble a defence To render it secure and certain Against the injuries of fortune ; And oft, in spite of all his wit, Is lost with one unlucky hit. And ruin'd with a circumstance, And mere punctilio of chance. — Massinger's Guardian. Know then thyself, presume not God to scan : The proper study of mankind is man. Plac'd on this isthmus of a middle state, A being darkly wise and rudely great. With too much knowledge for the skeptic's side, With too much weakness for the stoic's pride. He hangs between, in doubt to act or rest ; In doubt to deem himself a god or beast. — Pope's Essay on Man. All that hath been majestical In life or death since time began, Is native in the simple heart of all. The angel-heart of man. — James Russell Lowell. Marriage. Nothing shall assuage Your love but marriage : for such is The tying of two in wedlock, as is The tuning of two lutes in one key : for Striking the strings of the one, straws will stir Upon the strings of the other ; and in Two minds link'd in love, one cannot be Delighted but the other rejoiceth. — Lilly's Sappho and Phacn. O marriage ! marriage ! what a curse is thine, Where hands alone consent and hearts abhor. — Hill's Alzira. While other doublets deviate here and there What secret handcuff binds that pretty pair ? Compactest couple ! pressing side to side, — Ah ! the white bonnet — that reveals the bride ! — O. W. Holmes. I saw her, and I lov'd her, I sought her, and I won ; A dozen pleasant summers. And more, since then, have run. And half as many voices Now prattling by her side. Remind me of the autumn. When she became my bride. — Thomas Mackay, Meeting. Ah me ! The world is full of meetings such as this — A thrill, a voiceless challenge and reply — And sudden partings after ! — WllXIS. -^ •'•il ''t .cJl^^fTy POETICAL QUOTATIONS. ^ £5VIA 87 %- I have said I would not meet him — Have I said the words in vain ? Sunset bums along the hill-tops, And I'm waiting here again : But my promise is not broken, Though I stand where once we met ; When I hear his coming footsteps, I can fly him even yet. — Phcebe Carey. Melancholy. Melancholy is a fearful gift, What is it but the telescope of truth ? Which strips the distance of its phantasies. And brings life near in utter darkness. Making the cold reality too real. — Byron. Go, you may call it madness, folly, — You shall not chase my gloom away ; There's such a charm in melancholy, I would not, if I could, be gay. — ROGERS. Ah, there are moments for us here, when, seeing Life's inequalities, and woe, and care. The burdens laid upon our mortal being Seem heavier than the human heart can bear. — Phcebe Carey. Memory. O memory ! thou fond deceiver. Still importunate and vain, To former joys recurring ever. And turning all the past to pain; Thou, like the world, th' opprest oppressing, ^ Thy smiles increase the wretch's woe ! And he who wants each other blessing In thee must ever find a foe. — Goldsmith. Through the shadowy past. Like a tomb-searcher, memory ran. Lifting each shroud that time had cast O'er buried hopes. — Moore's Loves of the Angels. Lull'd in the countless chambers of the brain. Our thoughts are linked by many a hidden chain. Awake but one, and lo, what myriads rise ! Each stamps its image as the other flies ! — Rogers' Pleasures of Memory. Mercj. The quality of mercy is not strain 'd ; It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven Upon the place beneath : it is twice bless'd ; It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes ; *Tis mightiest in the mighty ; it becomes The throned monarch better than his crown. — Shaks. Merchant of Venice. Hate shuts her soul when dove-eyed Mercy pleads. — Sprague. Man may dismiss compassion from his heart, But God will never, — Cowper's Tctsk. Merit. There's a proud modesty in merit ! Averse from asking, and resolv'd to pay Ten times the gifts it aslas. — Dryden's Cleomenes. Mind. The mind doth shape itself to its own wants. And can bear all things. — Joanna Baillie's Raytter. The mind Forges from knowledge the archangel's spear. And with the spirits that compel the world. Conflicts for empire. — Willis. Mirth. 'Tis ever common. That men are merriest when they are from home. — Shaks. Henry V. A little of thy merriment. Of thy sparkling, light content. Give me, my cheerful brook, — That I may still be full of glee And gladsomeness where'er I be. Though fickle fate hath prison'd me In some neglected nook. — ^James Russell Lowell. Misfortune. Misfortune brings Sorrow enough : 'tis envy to ourselves, To augment it by prediction. — Habbington's Queen of Arragon. The furrows of long thought dried lip in tears. — Byron's Childe Harold Modesty. Her looks did ai^e her replete with modesty. — Shaks. The blushing beauties of a modest maid. — Dryden's Oma. Methinks the rose * * * * Is the very emblem of a maid ; For when the west wind courts her gently, How modestly she blows, and paints the sun With her chaste blushes ; when the north come near her, Rude and impatient, then like chastity She locks her beauties in her bud again. And leaves him to base briars. — Rowley's Two Noble Kinsmen. Morning. The glow-worm shows the matin to be near. And 'gins to pale his ineffectual fire. — Shaks. Hamlet. At length the world, renew'd by calm repose. Was strong for toil, the dappled mom arose. — Parnell's Hermit, Day takes his daily turn, Rising between the gulfy dells of night. Like whiten'd billows on the gloomy sea. — Joanna Baillie's Orra. Day glimmered in the east, and the white moon Hung like a vapour in the cloudless sky. — Rogers' Italy. Day dawns, the twilight gleam dilates. The sun comes forth, and, like a god. Rides through rejoicing heaven. — Southey's Thalaba ^ 88 POETICAL QUOTATIONS. Mother. The mother, in her office, holds the key Of the soul ; and she it is who stamps the coin Of character, and makes the being who would be a savage, But for her gentle cares, a Christian man, Then crown her Queen o' the world. — Wych. My mother ! — manhood's anxious brow And sterner cares have long been mine, Yet turn I to thee fondly now, As when upon thy bosom's shrine My infant griefs were gently hush'd to rest. And thy low whisper'd prayers my slumber bless'd. — George W. Bethune. A mother's love — how sweet the name — What is a mother's love ? — A noble, pure and tender flame Enkindled from above. To bless a heart of earthly mould ; The warmest love that can grow cold ; This is a mother's love. — James Montgomery. There are smiles and tears in my mother's eyes, For her new-born babe beside her lies ; Oh, heaven of bliss ! when the heart o'erflows With the rapture a mother only knows ! — Henry Ware, Jr. And while my soul retains the power To think upon each faded year. In every bright or shadow'd hour. My heart shall hold my mother dear. The hills may tower — the waves may rise. And roll between my home and me ; Yet shall my quenchless memories Turn with undying love to thee. — Willis Gaylord Clark. Music. If music be the food of love, play on; Give me excess of it ; that, surfeiting. The appetite may sicken, and so die. — Shakespeare's Twelfth Night. To hear him, you'd believe An ass was practising recitative. — Byron. Music, where soft voices die, Vibrates in the memory. — Shelley. There's music in the forest leaves, When summer winds are there. And in the laugh of forest girls. That braid their sunny hair. The first wild bird that drinks the dew, From violets of the spring. Has music in his song, and in The fluttering of his wing. — Halleck. Name. Good name in man or woman dear — Is the immediate jewel of their souls. — Shakespeare's Othello. Nature. Nature ! great parent ! whose unceasing hand Rolls round the seasons of the changeful year, How mighty, how majestic, are thy works ! With what a pleasing dread they swell the soul ! That sees astonish'd ! and astonish'd sings ! — Thomson's Seasons Nature — faint emblem of Omnipotence ! — Shap'd by His hand — the shadow of His light — The veil in which He wraps His majesty, And through whose mantling folds He deigns to show. Of His mysterious, awful attributes And dazzling splendours, all man's feeble thought Can grasp uncrush'd, or vision bear unquench'd. — Street. Necessity. When fear admits no hope of safety, then Necessity makes dastards valiant men. — Herrick. Between you and your best intent Necessity her brazen bar Will often interpose, as sent Your pure benevolence to mar. — R. M. Milnes. Necessity, like electricity, Is in ourselves and all things, and no more Without us than within us. — Bailey's Festus. Night, Fair oldest child of love, thou spotless night ! Empress of silence, and the queen of sleep ; Who, with thy black cheek's pure complexion, Mak'st lovers' eyes enamor'd of thy beauty. — Marlovv^. The midnight bell Did with his iron tongue and brazen mouth Sound one unto the drowsy race of night. — Shakespeare's King John. In sable pomp, with all her starry train, The night resum'd her throne. — Glover. The night has come, but not too soon ; And sinking silently. All silently, the little moon Drops down behind the sky. — LONGFELLOW. Nobility. There's no power In ancestry to make the foolish wise. The ignorant learn 'd, the cowardly and base Deserving our respect as brave and good. All men feel this : nor dares the despot say His fiat can endow with truth the soul. Or like a pension, on the heart bestow The virtues current in the realms above. Hence man's best riches must be gain'd — not given ; His noblest name deserv'd, and not deriv'd. Mrs. Hale's Omiond Grosvevor. Novelty. Of all the passions that possess mankind. The love of novelty rules most the mind ; In search of this, from realm to realm we roam, Our fleets come fraught with ev'ry folly home. — FOOTK. r- POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 89 y Oaths. Tis not the many oaths that make the truth ; But the plain single vow, that is vowed true. Shakespeare's A/Ps Well. Ocean. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean — roll I Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain ; Man marks the earth with ruin — his control Stops with the shore ; — upon the watery plain The wrecks are all thy deed, nor doth remain A shadow of man's ravage, save his own, When, for a moment, like a drop of rain, He sinks into thy depths with bubbling groan, Without a grave, unknell'd, uncoffin'd, and unknown. Byron's Childe Harold. The sea ! the sea ! the open sea ! The blue, the fresh, the ever free ! Without a mark, without a bound. It runneth the earth's wide regions round ; It plays with the clouds ; it mocks the skies, Or like a cradled creature lies. — Bryan W. Proctor. Look how the grey old ocean. From the depth of his heart rejoices, Heaving with a gentle motion. When he hears our restful voices ; List, how he sings in an undertone. Chiming with our melody ; And there, where the smooth, wet pebbles be. The waters gurgle longingly, As if they fain would seek the shore. To be at rest from the ceaseless roar, To be at rest for ever more. —J. R. Lowell — The Syrens. Opinion. Opinion's but a fool that makes us scan The outward habit by the inward man. —Shakespeare's Pericles. Yet in opinions look not always back ; Your wake is nothing, mind the coming track ; Leave what you've done for what you have to do, Don't be "consistent," but be simply true. — O. W. Holmes. Opportunity. There is a tide in the affairs of men, Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune ; Omitted, all the voyage of-their life Is bound in shallows and in miseries. On such a full sea we are now afloat, And we must take the current when it serves, Or lose our ventures. — Shakespeare's yulius Casar. Our hands are full of business ; let's away ; Advantage feeds them fat, while men delay. — Shakespeare's Henry IV. Part I. Pain. %c- Again the play of pain Shoots o'er his features as the sudden gust Crisps the reluctant lake, that lay so calm Beneath the mountain shadow. — Byron. They talk of short-liv'd pleasure — be it so — Pain dies as quickly ; stern, hard-featured pain Expires, and lets her weary prisoner go. The fiercest agonies have shortest reign. — Bryant. Parting. All she did, was but to wear out day. Full oftentimes she leave of him did take ; And oft again devis'd somewhat to say, Which she forgot ; whereby excuse to make. So loath was she his company for to forsake. — Spenser's Fairy Queen. Good night, good night ! parting is such sweet sorrow, That I shall say good night, till it be morrow. Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. Have not all past human beings parted, . And must not all the present one day part ? Byron's Sardanapalus. Passions. Exalted souls Have passions in proportion violent, Resistless, and tormenting ; they're a tax Impos'd by nature on pre-eminence : And fortitude and wisdom must support them. — Lillo's Elmerick. Oh, how the passions, insolent and strong. Bear our weak minds their rapid course along ; Make us the madness of their will obey ; Then die, and leave us to our griefs a prey. — Crabbe. Patience in cowards is tame, hopeless fear ; But in brave minds, a scorn of what they bear. Sir R. Howard's Indian Queen. He is a coward who would borrow A charm against the present sorrow. From the vague Future's promise of delight ! As life's alarums nearer roll, The ancestral buckler calls. Self-clanging from the walls In the high temple of the soul ; Where are most sorrows, there the poet's sphere is To feed the soul with patience, To heal its desolations, With words of unshorn truth, with love that never wearies. James R. Lowell. Patriotism. To fight. In a just cause, and for our country's glory. Is the best office of the best of men ; And to decline when these motives urge. Is infamy beneath a coward's baseness. — Ha yard's Regulus. Our country ! — 't is a glorious land ! With broad arms stretch 'd from shore to shore. The proud Pacific chafes her strand, She hears the dark Atlantic roar ; )^ — POETICAL QUOTATIONS. -^ And nurtured on her ample breast, How many a goodly prospect lies In Nature's wildest grandeur drest, Enamell'd with the loveliest dyes. — William Jewett Pabodie. Peace. A peace is of the nature of a conquest ; For then both parties nobly are subdued, And neither party loser. — Shaks. J/^nty IV. Part II. Oh first of human blessings ! and supreme ! Fair peace ! how lovely, how delightful thou ! By whose wide tie the kindred sons of men Live brothers like, in amity combin'd, And unsuspicious faith ; while honest toil Gives every joy, and to those joys a right, Which idle, barbarous rapine but usurps. — Thomson's Biitannia. Down the dark future, through long generations, The echoing sounds grow fainter and then cease. And like a bell, with solemn, sweet vibrations, I hear once more the voice of Christ say — " Peace." — Longfellow. Pen. Oh ! nature's noblest gift — my grey goose quill, Slave of my thoughts, obedient to my will, Torn from thy parent bird to form a pen. That mighty instrument of little men ! — Byron's English Bards and Scotch Reviewers. Perfection. To gild refined gold, to paint the lily, To throw a perfume on the violet, To smooth the ice, or add another hue Unto the rainbow, or with taper light To seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish, Is wasteful and ridiculous excess. — Shaks, King John. Philosophy. Philosophy consists not In airy schemes, or idle speculations : The rule and conduct of all social life Is her great province. Not in lonely cells Obscure she lurks, but holds her heavenly light To senates and to kings, to guide their councils, And teach them to reform and bless mankind. — Thomson's Coriolanus. Perseverance. Perseverance is a Roman virtue, That wins each god-like act, and plucks success E'en from the spear-proof crest of rugged danger. — Ha yard's Regulus. Stick to your aim ; the mongrel's hold will slip, But only crow-bars loose the bull-dog's lip ; Small as he looks, the jaw that never yields Drags down the bellowing monarch of the fields. — O. W. Holmes. Physic. Throw physic to the dogs, I'll none of it. —Shaks. Macbeth For men are brought to worse distresses By taking physic than diseases ; And therefore commonly recover As soon as doctors give them over. — BuTLERIANA. Pity. If ever you have look'd on better days ; If ever been where bells have knoll 'd to church ; If ever sat at any good man's feast ; If ever from your eyelids wip'd a tear, And know what 'tis to pity and be pitied, Let gentleness my strong enforcement be. — Shaks. As You Like It Pleasure. Pleasure ! thou only good on earth ! One little hour resigned to thee — O ! by my Lais' lip, 't is worth The sage's immortality. — Moore. Pleasures are like poppies spread, You seize the flower, its bloom is shed ; Or like the snow-falls in the river, A moment white, then melts forever ; Or like the borealis race, That flits ere you can point their place ; Or like the rainbow's lovely form Evanishing amid the storm — Nae man can tether time or tide. — Burns. Poets. A drainless renown Of light is Poesy : *Tis the supreme of power : The night half slumbering on its own right arm. — John Keats Love well The poet who may sow your grave with flowers, The traveler to the far land of the past. — Willis. Poverty. She, wretched matron, forced in age, for bread. To strip the brook with mantling cresses spread. To pick her wintry faggot from the thorn. To seek her nightly shed, and weep till morn. — Goldsmith's Deserted Village. Burns o'er the plough sung sweet his wood-notes wild ; And richest Shakespeare was a poor man's child. — Ebenezer Elliott What doth the poor man's son inherit ? Stout muscles and a sinewy heart, A hardy frame, a hardier spirit ; King of two hands, he does his part In every useful toil and art ; A heritage, it seems to me, A king might wish to hold in fee. — James R. Lowell. 4- f- POETICAL QUOTATIONS. r^ Prayer. A good man's prayers Will from the deepest dungeon climb to heaven's height, And bring a blessing down. — Joanna Baillie's Ethwald. Our little babe ! our bright-eyed one ! Our youngest, darling joy, We teach, at evening hour, to kneel Beside our little boy ; And though she cannot lisp a word Nor breathe a simple prayer, We know her Maker blesseth her The while she kneeleth there. — RiCHAiU) CoE, Jr. Pride. What is pride ? a whizzing rocket That would emulate a star. — Wordsworth. Oh ! ask not a home in the mansions of pride, Where marble shines out in the pillars and walls ; Though the roof be of gold it is brilliantly cold. And joy may not be found in its torch-lighted halls. — Eliza Cook. Promises. A promise may be broke ; Nay, start not at it — 'Tis an hourly practice. The trader breaks it, yet is counted honest. The courtier keeps it not — yet keeps his honor. Husband and wife in marriage promise much, Yet follow separate pleasure, and are — virtuous. The churchmen promise, too, but wisely they To a long payment stretch the crafty bill, And draw upon futurity. — Havard's King Charles I. When wicked men make promises of truth, 'Tis weakness to believe 'em. — Havard's Scanderberg. Prosperity. Prosperity doth bewitch men, seeming clear ; But seas do laugh, show white, when rocks are near. — Webster's White Devil. Prosperity puts out unnumbered thoughts. Of import high, and light divine, to man. — Young. Providence. O, all-preparing Providence divine ! In thy large book what secrets are enrolled ! What sundry helps doth thy great power assig^n. To prop the course which thou intend'st to hold? What mortal sense is able to define Thy mysteries, thy counsels manifold ? It is thy wisdom strangely that extends Obscure proceedings to apparent ends. — Drayton's Baron's Wars. Prudence. Consult your means, avoid the tempter's wiles. Shun grinning hosts of unreceipted files. Let Heayen-ey'd prudence battle with desire. And win the victory, though it be through fire. — James T. Fields. Purity. Let me be pure ! Oh ! I wish I was a pure child again. When life was calm as is a sister's kiss. — Bailey's Festus. Be purity of life the test — Leave to the heart, to heaven, the rest. — Sprague Reason. Thought Precedes the will to think, and error lives Ere reason can be bom. Reason, the power To guess at right and wrong, the twinkling lamp Of wand'ring life, that winks and wakes by turns. Fooling the follower betwixt shade and shining. — Congreve. Within the brain's most secret cells, . A certain lord chief justice dwells. Of sovereign power, whjm one and all. With common voice we reason call. — Churchill. Rebellion. For forms of government let fools contest, Whate'er is best administer'd is best. — Pope's Essay on Man. The state is out of time ; distracting fears And jealous doubts jar in our public counsels ; Amidst the wealthy city, murmurs rise, Loud railings, and reproach, on those that rule. With open scorn of government ; hence credit And public trust 'twixt man and man are broke. The golden streams of commerce are withheld Which fed the wants of needy hinds, and artisans, Who therefore curse the great, and threat rebellion. — RowES Jane Shore. Religion. He wears his faith but as the fashion of His hat ; it ever changes with the next block. — Shaks. Much Ado. Slave to no sect, who takes no private road. But looks through nature up to nature's God. — Pope's Essay on Man. True religion Is always mild, propitious, and humble, Plays not the tyrant, plants no faith in blood ; Nor bears destruction on her chariot-wheels ; But stoops to polish, succor, and redress. And builds her grandeur on the public good. — Miller's Mahomet Remembrance. Remember thee ? Yea, from the table of my memory I'll wipe away all trivial fond records. All saws of books, all forms, all pressures past. That youth and observation copied there ; And thy commandment all alone shall live Within the book and volume of my brain, Unmixed with baser matter. — Shaks. Hamlet. %r- 92 POETICAL QUOTATIONS. ^ When shall we come to that delightful day, When each can say to each, " Dost thou remember?" Let us fill urns with rose-leaves in our May, And hive the thrifty sweetness for December ! — Bulwer. Repentance. Come, fair repentance, daughter of the skies ! Soft harbinger of soon returning virtue ! The weeping messenger of grace from heav'n. — Brown's Athelstan. Repentance often finds too late, To wound us is to harden ; And Love is on the verge of Hate, Each time it stoops for pardon. — Bulwer. Reputation. reputation ! dearer far than life. Thou precious balsam, lovely, sweet of smell, Whose cordial drops once spilt by some rash hand. Not all the owner's care, nor the repenting toil Of the rude spiller, ever can collect To its first purity and native sweetness. — Sewell's Sir Walter Raleigh. Resolution. Press on ! there's no such word as fail ; Press nobly on ! the goal is near — Ascend the mountain ! breast the gale ! Look upward, onward — never fear ! Why should'st thou faint ? Heaven smiles above. Though storm and vapor intervene ; That sun shines on, whose name is Love, Serenely o'er life's shadow'd scene. — Park Benjamin. Revenge. The best revenge is to reform our crimes ; Then time crowns sorrows, sorrows sweeten times. — MiDDLETON and Rowley's Spanish Gipsey. Revenge at first though sweet, Bitter ere long, back on itself recoils. — Milton's Paradise Lost. Satire. Satire's my weapon, but I'm too discreet To run a-muck and tilt at all I meet ; 1 only wear it in a land of Hectors, Thieves, supercargoes, sharpers, and directors. — Pope. Say, shall I wound with satire's rankling spear The pure, warm hearts that bid me welcome here ? — O. W. Holmes. Scorn. He hears On all sides, from innumerable tongues, A dismal universal hiss, the sound Of public scorn. — Milton's Paradise Lost. Infamous wretch ! So much below my scorn, I dare not kill thee. — Dryden's Duke of Guise. Secrecy. He deserves small trust. Who is not privy counsellor to himself. — ^JoHN Forde's Broken Heart A secret in his mouth Is like a wild bird put into a cage ; Whose door no sooner opens, but 'tis out, — ^Jonson's Case is Altered. Selfishness. The craven's fear is but selfishness, Like his merriment. — Whittier. Ship. How gloriously her gallant course she goes ! Her white wings flying — never from her foes ; She walks the waters like a thing of life. And seems to dare the elements to strife. Who would not brave the battle-fire — the wreck — To move the monarch of her peopled deck ? — Byron's Corsair. Silence. Silence ! coeval with eternity ; Thou wert, ere nature's self began to be ; 'Twas one vast nothing all, and all slept fast in thee. — Pope. Sin. Sin hath broke the world's sweet peace — unstrung Th' harmonious chords to which the angels sung. — Dana's Buccaneer. Sincerity. Sincerity, Thou first of virtues, let no mortal leave Thy onward path, although the earth should gape And from the gulf of hell destruction rise, — To take dissimulation's winding way. — Home's Douglasa. Slander. There is a lust in man no charm can tame. Of loudly publishing his neighbor's shame ; On eagles' wings immortal scandals fly ; While virtuous actions are but bom and die. — Harvey. Soft buzzing slander ; silky moths, that eat An honest name. — Thomson's Liberty. Sleep. Sleep, that knits up the ravell'd sleeve of care, The death of each day's life, sore labor's bath, Balm of hurt minds, great nature's second course. Chief nourisher in life's feast ! — Shaks. Macbeth. Tir'd nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep ! He, like the world, his ready visit pays Where fortune smiles ; the wretched he forsakes : Swift on his downy pinions flies from woe. And lights on lids unsullied with a tear. — Young's Night Thoughts. -^ ^ POETICAL QUOTATIONS. ^ 93 ■ Soldier. Each soldier's name Shall shine untarnish'd on the rolls of fame. And stand the example of each distant age, And add new lustre to the historic page. — David Humphreys. Solitude. solitude ! where are the charms That sages have seen in thy face ? Better dwell in the midst of alarms, Than reign in this horrible place. 1 am out of humanity's reach, I must finish my journey alone. Never hear the sweet music of speech, I start at the sound of my own.— COWPKR. If from society we leam to live, 'Tis solitude should teach us how to die ; It hath no flatterers ; vanity can give No hollow aid ; alone — man with his God must strive. — Byron. Sorrow. There's no way to make sorrow light But in the noble bearing ; be content ; Blows given from heaven are our due punishment ; All shipwrecks are not drownings ; you see buildings Made fairer from their ruins. — W. Rowley's JVew Wonder. What bliss is bom of sorrow ! 'Tis never sent in vain — The heavenly Surgeon maims to save, He gives no useless pain. — Thomas Ware. Soul. The soul, of origin divine, God's glorious image, freed from clay. In heaven's eternal sphere shall shine A star of day ! The sun is but a spark of fire, A transient meteor in the sky, The soul, immortal as its sire. Shall never die. — Montgomery. Spring. In these green days. Reviving sickness lifts her languid head ; Life flows afresh ; and young-ey'd health exalts The whole creation round. Contentment walks The sunny glade, and feels an inward bliss Spring o'er his mind, beyond the power of kings To purchase. — Thomson's Seasons. Come, gentle spring, ethereal mildness, come, And from the bosom of yon dropping cloud. While music wakes around, veil'd in a shower Of shadowing roses, on our plains descend. — Thomson's Seasons. When the warm sun that brings Seed-time and harvest, has retum'd again Tis sweet to visit the still wood, where springs The first flower of the plain. — LONGFELLOW. Statesmen. Thus the court-wheel goes round like fortune's ball ; One statesman rising on another's fall. — Richard Brome's Queen's Exchange. Suicide. Fear, guilt, despair, and moon -struck frenzy rush On voluntary death : the wise, the brave. When the fierce storms of fortune round 'em roar . Combat the billows with redoubled force : Then, if they perish ere the port is gain'd. They sink with decent pride ; and from the deep Honor retrieves them bright as rising stars. — Fenton's Mariamne. Our time is set and fix'd ; our days are told ; And no man knows the limit of his life ; This minute may be mine, the next another's ; But still all mortals ought to wait the sumnions, And not usurp on the decrees of fate, By hastening their own ends. — Smith's Princess of Parma. Summer. Then came the jolly summer, being dight In a thin silken cassock color'd green, That was unlined all, to be more light. And on his head a garland well beseene He wore, from which, as he had chaffed been, The sweat did drop, and in his hand he bore A bow and shafts, as he in forest green Had hunted late the libbard or the bore. And now would bathe his limbs, with labor heated sor^ — Spenser's Fairy Queen Now comes thy glory in the summer months, . With light and heat refulgent. — THOMSON. The spring's gay promise melted into thee, Fair summer ! and thy gentle reign is here ; Thy emerald robes are on each leafy tree ; In the blue sky thy voice is rich and clear ; And the free brooks have songs to bless thy reign — They leap in music 'midst thy bright domain. — Willis G. Clark. Sunshine. The sunshine is a glorious birth, — And yet I know, where'er I go, That there hath passed away a glory from the earth. — Wordsworth Sympathy. Love's soft s)rmpathy imparts That tender transport of delight That beats in undivided hearts. — Cartwright. It is the secret sympathy, The silver link, the silken tie, Which heart to heart, and mind to mind, In body and in soul can bind. — ScOTT. Tears. Believe these tears, which from my wounded heart, Bleed at my eyes. — Dryden's Spanish Friar. -^ 94 POETICAL QUOTATIONS. ^ Tears ! what are tears ? The babe weeps in his cot. The mother singing ; at the marriage bell, The bride weeps : and before the oracle Of high-fam'd hills, the poet hath forgot The moisture on his cheeks. — Miss Barrett. Give our tears to the dead ! For humanity's claim From its silence and darkness is ever the same ; . The hope of the world whose existence is bliss. May not stifle the tears of the mourners of this. — Whittier. Temptation. What ! do I love her, That I desire to speak to her again ? And feast upon her eyes ? what is 't I dream on ? O cunning enemy, that to catch a saint With saints dost bait thy hook ! most dangerous Is that temptation that doth goad us on To sin, in loving virtue. — Shaks. Measure for Measure. And while in peace abiding Within a shelter'd home, We feel as sin and evil Could never, never come ; But let the strong temptation rise. As whirlwinds sweep the sea — We find no strength to 'scape the wreck, Save, pitying God, in Thee. — Mrs. Hale's Alice Ray. To me the meanest flower that blows can give Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears. — Wordsworth. Fine thoughts are wealth, for the right use of which Men are, or ought to be, accountable. — Bailey's Festus. All the past of Time reveals A bridal dawn of thunder-peals. Whenever Thought hath wedded Fact. — Tennyson. Time. Time, the prime minister of death, There's nought can bribe his honest will ; He stops the richest tyrant's breath. And lays his mischief still. — Marvell. Art is long and Time is fleeting. And our hearts, though strong and brave, Still like muffled drums are beating Funeral marches to the grave. — Longfellow's Psalm of Life, Remorseless Time ! Fierce spirit of the glass and scythe — what power Can stay him in his silent course, or melt His iron heart with pity ! — George D. Prentice. Truth. All truth is precious, if not all divine. And what dilates the powers must needs refine. — Cowper. The sages say dame truth delights to dwell. Strange mansion ! in the bottom of a well. Questions are, then, the windlass and the rope That pulls the grave old gentlewoman up. — Dr. Wolcott's Peter Pindar. No soul can soar too loftily whose aim Is God-given truth and brother love of man. — J. Bayard Taylor. Vanity. Light vanity, insatiate cormorant. Consuming means, soon preys upon itself. — Shaks. Richard III. Vice. It is the intensest vanity alone That makes us bear with life. — Bailey's ivrj/«j. Not all that heralds rak'd from coffin'd clay, Nor florid prose, nor honied lies of rhyme. Can blazon evil deeds, or consecrate a crime. — Byron's Childe Harold. There dwelleth in the sinlessness of youth A sweet rebuke that vice may not endure. — Mrs. Embury. Virtue. Virtue may be assail'd, but never hurt ; Surpris'd by unjust force, and not enthrall'd ; Yea, even that which mischief meant most harm. Shall in the happy trial prove most glory ; But evil on itself shall back recoil. — Milton. A virtuous deed sheuld never be delay'd. The impulse comes from heav'n, and he who strives A moment to repress it, disobeys The god within his mind. — Dowe's Sethcna. Virtue in itself commands its happiness. Of every outward object independent. — Francis's Eugenia. War. O war ! begot in pride and luxury. The child of malice and revengeful hate ; Thou impious good, and good impiety ! Thou art the foul refiner of a state, Unjust scourge of men's iniquity, Sharp easer of corruptions desperate ! Is there no means but that a sin-sick land Must be let blood with such a boist'rous hand ? — Daniel's Civil War. More soluble is this knot. Like almost all the rest, if men were wise, By gentleness than war. — Tennyson's Princess. Wealth. Wealth in the gross is death, but life diffus'd ; As poison heals in just proportions us'd ; In heaps, like ambergris, a stink it lies. But well dispers'd is incense to the skies. — Pope. Can wealth give happiness? look round, and see What gay distress ! what splendid misery ! Whatever fortune lavishly can pour. The mind annihilates, and calls for more. — Young's Love of Fame. Wealth hath never given happiness, but often hasten'd misery. Tupper's Proverbial Philosophy, ^ --^ POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 95 ^ If all were rich, gold would be penniless. — Bailey's Festus. Wife. She is mine own ; And I as rich in having such a jewel. As twenty seas, if all their sand were pearl, The water nectar, and the rocks pure gold. — Shakespeare's Two Gentlemen of Verona. Husband, husband, cease your strife, Nor longer idly rave, sir ; Tho' I'm your wedded wife. Yet I am not your slave, sir. — Burns. Thou wast my nurse in sickness, and my comforter in health ; So gentle and so constant, when our love was all our wealth ; Thy voice of music sooth'd me, love, in each desponding hour, As heaven's honey-dew consoles the bruis'd and broken flower. — Albert Pike. Wine. O when we swallow down Intoxicating wine, we drink damnation ; Naked we stand the sport of mocking friends Who grin to see our noble nature vanquish'd, Subdued to beasts. — C. Johnson. Wine — bring wine Flushing high with its growth divine, In the crystal depth of my soul to shine : Whose glow was caught From the warmth which fancy's summer brought To the vintage fields in the Land of Thought ! — ^J. Bayard Taylor. Wisdom. O wisdom ! if thy soft control Can soothe the sickness of the soul. Can bid the warring passions cease. And breathe the calm of tender peace ; Wisdom ! I bless thy gentle sway. And ever, ever will obey. — Mrs. Barbauld. The bearing and the training of a child Is woman's wisdom. — Tennyson's Princess. Wit. As in smooth oil the razor best is whet. So wit is by politeness sharpest set, Their want of edge from their offence is seen. Both pain us least when exquisitely keen ; The fame men give us for the joy they fiad ; Dull is the jester when the joke's unkind. — Young's Love of Fame. Woman. O women, men's subduers ! Nature's extremes, no mean is to be had. Excellently good or infinitely bad. — Davenport's King John and Matilda. Whence love once pleads admission to our hearts, In spite of all the virtue we can boast, The woman that deliberates is lost. — Addison's Cato. The world was sad ! — the garden was a wild ! And man, the hermit, sigh'd — till woman smil'd. — Campbell's Pleasures of Hope. O woman ! in our hours of ease Uncertain, coy and hard to please. And variable as the shade By the light quivering aspen made ; When pain and anguish wring the brow, A ministering angel thou. — Scott's Marmion. World. All the world's a stage. And all the men and women merely players : They have their exits and their entrances ; And one man in his time plays many parts. — Shaks. As You Like It. 'Tis a harsh world in which affection knows No place to treasure up its lov'd and lost But the lone grave. — Willis. We know the world is dark and rough. But time betrays that soon enough. — Eliza Cook. Through the shadow of the world we sweep into the younger day : , Better fifty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay. — Tennyson. Youth. Youth is a bubble blown up with the breath. Whose wit is weakness, whose wage is death. Whose way is wilderness, whose inn is penance. And stoop gallant age, the host of grievance. — Spenser's Shepherd's Calendar. Promise of youth ! fair as the form Of Heaven's benign and golden bow. Thy smiling arch begirds the storm, And sheds a light on every woe. — James G. Brooks. I feel the rush of waves that round me rise — The tossing of my boat upon the sea ; Few sunbeams linger in the stormy skies, And youth's bright shore is lessening on the lee ! — J. Bayard Taylor. Youth, that pursuest, with such eager pace, That even way, Thou pantest on to win a mournful race : Then stay! oh, stay. — R. M. Milnes. Alas ! that youth's fond hopes should fade, And love be but a name. While its rainbows, follow'd e'er so fast. Are distant still the same. — Dawes. Zeal. Zeal and duty are not slow ; But on occasion's forelock watchful wait. — Milton's Paradise Pegained Press bravely onward ! — not in vain Your generous trust in human kind ; The good which bloodshed could not gain. Your peaceful zeal shall find. — Whittikr. ^ 96 FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. -% S^ISIF""^ why not teach yourself FRENCH ? ' ^LPH>VBET /ND pRONUJ^CIy\TIOJ^. S many languages as a man knows, so many times is he a man. This system of self-teaching has been devised for the purpose of inducting the beginner me- thodically. He has but to apply himself, and the language will come to him by de- lightfully imperceptible degrees. Let him try it at all events ! The French Alphabet consists of twenty-five letters, as follows : French ' Alphabet. Name. A a ah B b bay C c say D d day E e ai Ff eff Gg jay H h aash I i ee J J )ee K k kah L I el Mm m N n n PP pay Qq ku R r air S s ess T t tay U u eeyu V V vay X X eeks Yy egrec Zz zed Pronunciation. is pronounced like a in the English word " father." as in English. c before e and i, is pronounced like j ; be- fore a, 0, u, and before a consonant c sounds like k. as in English. e, vies (may) my your their " who, which, that what, that tes ses nos vos leurs (tay) thy (say) his, hei (no) our (vo) your (Icur) their (kel), le quel? which ? que (keh) what ^ T04 FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. avoir — to have INFINITIVE MOOD, Present. Past. Avoir, to have ; avoir eu to have had. PARTICIPLES. Ayanty having ; I have thou hast he has she has we have you have they have I had thou hadst he had we had you had they had I had thou hadst he had we had you had they had I have had thou hast had he has had she has had we have had you have had they have had I had ha^, thou hadst had he had had we liad had you had had they had had I had had thou hadst had he had liad we had had you had had they had had eu, had ayant eu, having had INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. ' tu tu ila ellea Jay, tu an eel ah el ah nous avons vous avez Us {elles) ont nooz avong vooz avai eels ont Imperfect. J'avais Javay tu avais tu avay il avait eel avay nous avians nooz aveeong vous aviez vooz aveeay Us avaient eels avay Past definite. feus Je^ tu eus tu evr il eut eel ew nous eilmes nooz eum vous edtes vooz eut Us eurent eels eur Perfect. fai eu tu as eu ila eu elle a eu nous avons eu vous avez eu Us {elles) ont eu 'Pluperfect. f avais eu tu avais eu il avait eu nous avians eu vans aviez eu Us avaient eu Past anterior, feus eu tu ens eu il eut eu nous cHines eu vous elites eu Us eurent eu Jay ew tu ahz ew eel all ew el ah ew nooz avongz ew vooz avayze ew eels ont ew Javayz ew tu avayz ew eel avait ew nooz aveeongz ew vooz aveeayze ew eels avait ew Jeus ew tu eus ew eel eut ew nooz eums eW vooz cuts ew eels eurt ew I shall have thou shall have he shall have we shall have you shall have they shall have Future. faurai tu auras ilaura nous aurons vous aurez Us auront Future anterior. I shall have had faurai eu thou shall have had tu auras eu he shall have had it aura eu we shall have had nous aurons eu you shall have had vous aurez eu they shall have had Us auront eu Joray tu orah eel orah nooz orong vooz oray eels orong Joray ew tu orahs ew eel orah ew nooz orongz ew vooz orayze ew eels oront ew I should have thou shouldst have he should have we should have you should have they should have Conditional. Present. faurais tu aurais il aurait nous atcrions vous auriez Us auraient Joray tu oray eel oray nooz oreeong vooz oreeay eels oray Conditional. Past. I should have had faurais eu thou shouldst have tti aurais eu had he should have had il auiait eu we should have had noiis aurions eu you should have had voits auriez eu they should have had Us auraient eu Jorays ew tu orays ew eel orait ew nooz areeongz ew vooz oreeayze ew eels orait ew IMPERATIVE MOOD. Have aie let us have ayons have (ye) ayez SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. That I may have Que/ aie that thou mayst have que tu aies that he may have quHl ait that we may have que nous ayons that you may have que vous ayez that they may have quHls aient Imperfect. That I might have Que feusse that thou, mightst que tu eusses have that he might have qtiil eiit that we might have que nous eussions that you might have que vous eussiez that they might have qu'ils eussent Perfect. That I may have had Que f aie eu that thou mayst have que tu aies eu had that he may have had qu'il ait eu that we may have que nous ayons eu had that you may have que vous ayez eu had that they may have qtCils aient eu had ay ayong ayay keh jai keh tu ai keel ai keh nooz ayong keh vooz ayay keels ai keh jeuss keh tu euss keel eu keh nooz eussyong keh vooz eussyay keels euss keh jai ew keh tu aiz ew keel ait ew keh nooz ayongz ew keh vooz ayayz ew keels ait ew -^ f^ FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. Pluperfect, Pcut anterior. That I might have Que feusse eu keh jeuss ew I had been J'eus /// Jeuz ettay had thou hadst been tu eus d(f tu euz ettay that thou mightst (/ue tu eusses eu keh tu euss ew he had been ileuteV eel eut ettay have had we had been nous eHines /// nooz eums ettay that he might have - i/u'i/ eilt eu keel eut ew you had been vous elites /// vooz eutes ettay had they had been ils eurcnt /// eels eurt etay that we might have que nous eussions eu keh nooz eussyongs had ew Future. that you might have ' que vous eussiez eu keh vooz eusseyaz ew had I shall be Je serai Je serray that they might have qu'ils eussent eu keels eusst ew thou shalt be tu seras tu serrah had he shall be il sera eel serrah we shall be you shall be nous serons vous serez noo serrong voo serray The Auxiliary Verb " etre," to be. they shall be ils seront eel serong INFINITIVE MOOD. Future anterior Present. Past. I shall have been Vaurai /// Joray ettay itre (aitr) — to be ; avoir e'tS (avoahr ettay) — to have been thou shalt have been tu auras /;/ tu orahs ettay he shall have been »/ aura ete eel orah ettay Partichles. we shall have been nous aurons M nooz orongz ettay /tant (ettang)— being ; ///(ettay) — been you shall have been they shall have been vous aurez /// ils auront /// vooz orayz ettay eels oront.ettay ayant /// (ayaunt ettay) — having been Conditional. Present. INDICATIVE MOOD. PfCSCtttu I should be Je serais Je serray thou shouldst be tu serais tu serray I am • Je suis Jeh swee he should be il serait eel serray thou art tues tu ay we should be nous serions noo serreeong he is il est eel ay you should be vous seriez voo serreeay she is elle est el ay they should be ils seraient eel serray we are nous sotnmes noo som you are vous ties vooz ait they are ils {elles) sont eel song Conditional. Past. Imperfect. I should have been J'aurais /// Jorays ettay thou shouldst have tu aurais /// tu orays ettay I was fdlais Jettay been thou wast tu tftais tu ettay he should have been il aurait /// eel orait ettay he was il /tail il ettay we should have been nous aurions ^te nooz oreeong''. ettay we were nous dtions nooz ettyong you should have been vous auriez /// vooz oreeayz ettay you were vous e'tiez vooz ettyay they should have ils auraient etS eels orait ettay they were ils ^talent eels ettay been Past definite. IMPERATIVE MOOD. I was thou wast Jefus tu fus Jefu tu fu Be — sois souah he was ilfut eelfu let us be (ye' be — soyons swoiyong we were nous fiimes noo fume — soyez swoiyay you were vous fiites voo fate they were ils furent eel fure SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Perfect. Present. I have been thou hast been he has been she has been fai /t/ tu as /t(f ila et> pay Qq i The World and its Elements. !^AV.)>^ God the Creator Nature the sky the world the air the cloud the storm the lightning the rainbow the fog the river the brook the lake the sea the tide the ebb the shore the mountain the meadow the forest The body the skin the face the head* the forehead the tongue the tooth Gott der Schopfer die Natur der Himmel die Welt die Luft die Wolke das Gewitter der Blitz der Regenbogen der Nebel der Fluss der Bach der See das Meer die Fluth die Ebbe das Ufer der Berg die Wiese der Wald got dar sheupfer dee natoor dar himmel dee velt dee Jooft dee volkay das gevitter dar blitz dar raygenbogen dar naybel dar floos dar bach dar zay das mare dee floot dee ebbay das oofer dar berg dee veesay dar vald The Human Body. der Korper dar kurper die Haut dee hout das Gesicht das gesicht der Kopf die vStirn die Zunge der Zahn dar kopf dee steem dee zoongay dar zaan GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. 117 -^ Eaglish. the stomach the voice the hearing the sight the taste the feeling the smell the neck the back the leg Gennan. der Magen die Stimme das Gehor das Gesicht der Geschmack das Gefiihl der Geruch der Hals der Riicken das Bein Pronunciation. dar maagen dee stimmay das geheure das gesicht dar geshmack das gefeeyul dar gerooch dar hals der reeyuckeni das bine Relations. The woman die Frau dee frou the boy der Knabe dar knabay the girl das Madchen das madchen the child das Kind das kind the old man der Greis dar grice the parents die Eltern dee eltern the father-in-law der Schwiegervater dar shveegayrfater the mother-in-law die Schwiegermutter dee schveegayrmoot the brother-in-law der Schwager dar shvaager the cousin der Vetter dar fetter the aunt die Tante dee tantay the marriage die Heirath dee hirath the wedding die Hochzeit dee hochzite Nutriments. The meal die Mahlzeit dee malzite breakfast das FrUhstuck das freeyuhsteeyuck dinner das Mittagessen das mittagessen the refreshment die Erfrischung dee erfrischoong supper das Abendbrod das abendbrode boiled meat gekochtes Fleisch gekochtes flishe roast meat Braten braaten beef Rindsfleisch rindsflishe roast-beef Rinderbraten rinderbraaten veal Kalbfleisch kalbflishe calves-liver Kalbsleber kalbslayber veal-cutlets Kalbscoteletten kalbscotlett mutton Hammelfleisch hanjelflishe a leg of mutton eine Hammelkeule in ay hamelskoylay pork Schweinefleisch shvinayflishe ham Schinken shinken bacon Speck speck a sausage eine Wurst inay voorst vegetables Gemlise gemeeyusay a pie eine Pastete inay pastatay an omele*^ ein Eierkuchen ine eyerkoochen cake Kuchen koochen cheese Kase casay eggs Eier eyer Hock Rheinwein rhinevine Port-wine Portwein portvine Sherry Xereswein xeresvine Eating Utensils. '^^ The eating the drinking the table-cloth the napkin the plate the knife das Essen das Trinken das Tischtuch die Serviette der Teller das Messer das essen das trinken das tischtooch dee serviette dar teller das messer English. the fork the spoon the vinegar the mustard the cup the dish The Ocean the Baltic the North-Sea the channel the island the shore the waves the tide the rock the beach the navy the vessel the steamer the man-of-war the merchant vessel the rudder the rigging the cabin the stem the bow the main-top the oar the rope the captain the boatswain the sailor the cabin-boy the pilot the light-house the harbor German. die Gabel der Loffel der Essig der Mostrich die Tasse die Schiissel The Sea. der Ocean die Ostsee die Nordsee der Kanal die Insel die KUste die Wellen die Fluth der Fels die Seekiiste die Marine das Schiff das Dampfboot das Kriegsschiff der Kauffahrer das Ruder das Takelwerk die Kajlite das Hintertbeil der Bug der Mastkorb das Ruder das Tau der Kapitau der Bootsmann der Matrose der Schiffsjunge der Lootse der Leuchtthurm der Hafen Pronunciation. dee gaabel dar leuffel dar essig dar mostrich dee tassay dee sheeyussel dar oatsayan dee ostsay dee nordsay dar canal dee insel dee keeyustay dee vellen dee floot dar fels dee saykeeyustay dee mareenay das shiff das dampfboat das kreegsshiff dar kowfTaarer das rooder das tackleverk dee cayutay das hintertile dar boog dar mastkorb das rooder das tou dar capiten dar boatsman dar matrosay dar schiffsyunge dar loatsay dar loychtoonn dar hafen Time and Seasons. A century the year the month the week the day the hour half-an-hour the minute the second the seasons spring summer autumn winter January February March April May June July August September October November December ein Jahrhundert das Jahr der Monat die Woche der Tag •aie Stunde tine halbe Stunde die Minute die Sekunde die Jahreszeiten Frllhling Sommer Herbst Winter Januar Februar Marz April Mai Juni Juli August September October November December ine yarhoondert das yar dar monat dee wochay dar tag dee stoonday inay halbay stoonday dee minutay dee secoonde dee yaresziten freeyuling sommer harebst vinter yanooar febrooar mayrz apreel my yoonee yoolee owgoost September October november detzember ii8 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. English. the days of the Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday a holyday Christmas Easter Whitsuntide the morning noon the afternoon the evening the night midnight sunrise sunset German. week die Wochentage Sonntag Montag Dienstag Mittwoch Donnerstag Freitag Sonnabend ein Feiertag Weihnachten Ostern Pfingsten der Morgen Mittag der Nachmittag der Abend die Nacht Mitternacht Sonnenaufgang Sonnenuntergang The city the suburb the gates the edifice the tower the cathedral the church-yard the town hall the arsenal the mint the custom house the liljrary the university the exchange the prison the square the lane the bridge the monument the dining-room the public house the shop The bell the knocker to open the servant the staircase the room the drawing-room the sitting-room the dining-room the sleeping-room the kitchen the cellar the window the stove the chimney the looking-glass the table the chair the armchair the carpet The To^wn. die Stadt die Vorstadt die Thore das Gebaude der Thurm der Dom der Kirchhof das Rathhaus das Zeughaus die Miinze das ZoUhaus die Bibliothek die Universitat die Borse das Gefangniss der Platz die Gasse die Briicke das Monument das Speisehaus das Bierhaus der Laden The House. die Glocke der Klopfer Qffnen die Magd die Treppe das Zimmer das Putzzimmer das Wohnzimmer das Esszimmer das Schlafzimmer die Kliche der Keller das Fenster der Ofen der Kamin der Spiegel der Tisch der Stuhl der Armstuhl der Teppich Pronunciation. dee vochentagay sontag monetag deenstag mittvoch donnerstag fritag sonabend ine firetag vinachten ostern pfingsten dar morgen mittag dar nachmittag dar abend dee nacht mitternacht sonnenowfgang sonnenoontergaug dee stadt dee forstadt dee toray das geboiday dar toorm dar dome dar keerchhof das raathouse das zoyghouse dee meeyunzay das zollhouse dee bibleeotake dee ooniversitate dee beursay das gefengniss dar platz dee gassay dee breeyuckay das monooment das spysayhouse das beerhouse dar laaden dee glockay dar klopfer eufnen dee magd dee treppay das tzimmer das pootstzimmer das vohntzimmer das estzimmer das shlaftzimmer dee keeyuchay dar keller das fenster dar ofen dar kameen dar speegel dar tish dar stool dar armstool dar teppich English. German. Pronunciation. the chest of drawers die Kommode dee commoday the sofa das Sopha das sofa the candlestick der Leuchter dar loychter the candle das Licht das licht the lamp die Lampe dee lampay the wick der Docht dar docht the oil das Oel das eul to light anzUnden anzeeyuenden the bed das Belt das bet the counterpane die Bettdecke dee bettdeckay the sheets die Betti'icher dee betteeyucher the pillow das kopfkissen das kopflcissen the basin das waschbecken das vashbecken the soap die Seife dee sifay the towel das Handtuch das handtooch warm water warmes Wasser varmes vasser cold water kaltes Wasser kaltes vasser hot water heisses Wasser heyses vasser to wash waschen vashen the comb der Kamm dar kam to comb kammen kemmen Fruits, Trees, and Flov^ers. The apple der Apfel dar apfel the apple-tree der Apfelbaum dar apfelbowm the pear die Birne dee beernay the pear-tree derBirnbaum dar beernbowm the plum die PHaume dee pflowmay the plum-tree der Pflaumenbaum dar pflowmenbowm the cherry die Kirsche dee keershay the chestnut die Kastanie dee kastanyay the peach der Pfirsich dar pfeersich the apricot die Apricose dee apreecosay the orange die Apfelsine dee apfelseenay the lemon die Citrone dee citronay the grape die Weintraube dee vinetrowbay the nut die Nuss dee nooss the walnut die Wallnuss dee valnooss the currant die Johannisbeere dee yohanisbaray the gooseberry die Stachelbeere dee stachelbaray the raspberry die Himbeere dee himbaray the blackberry die Brombeere dee brombaray the strawberry die Erdbeere dee erdbaray the oak die Eiche dee ichay the beech die Buche dee boochay the poplar die Pappel dee papel the lime die Linde dee linday the ash die Eshe dee eshay the fir die Tanne dee tannay the willow die Weide dee viday the rose die Rose dee rosay the pink die Nelke dee nelkay the tulip die Tulpe dee toolpay the lily die Lilie dee leeleeay the violet das Veilchen das filechen the lilac der Flieder dar fleeder the lily of the valley das Maiblumchen das mybleeyumchen Animals, Birds, Fishes, and Insects. TJie horse das Pferd das pfayrd the colt das Fullen das feeyuUen the donkey der Esel dar Aysel the goat die Ziege dee tzeegay the dog der Hund dar Hoond the pig das Schwein das shvine kc- -^ GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. 119 ^ English. the duck the pigeon the cock the chicken the wild boar the stag the chamois the rabbit the eagle the hawk the pheasant the bat the partridge the peacock the lobster the pike the perch the salmon the trout the snake the ant the butterfly The clothes the coat the trowsers the pocket the buttons the dressing-gown the slippers the drawers the stockings the shirt the braces the waistcoat the boot the boot-jack the cap the gloves the handkerchief the watch the umbrella the purse the brush the comb the apron the fan the dress the petticoat the stays the veil the powder the soap the tooth-powder The voyage the traveler the road the rail-road the station the train the engine the carriage the departure German. die Ente die Taube der Hahn das Hiihnchen der Eber der Hirsch die Gemse das Kaninchen der Adler der Habicht der Fasan die Fledermaus das Rebhuhn der Pfau der Hummer der Hecht der Barsch der Lachs die Forelle die Schlange die Ameise der Schmetterling The Dress. die Kleider der Rock die Hosen die Tasche die Knopfe der Schlafrock die Pantoffeln die Unterhosen die Striimpfe das Hemd die Hosentrager die Weste der Stiefel der Stiefelknecht die Mlitze die Handschuhe das Taschentuch die Uhr der Regenschirm die Borse die Blirste der Kamm die Schlirze der Facher das Kleid der Unterrock der Schnlirleib der Schleier der Puder die Seife das Zahnpulver Traveling. die Seereise der Reisende die Landstrasse die Eisenbahn die Station der Zug die Maschine der Wagen die Abreise Pronunciation. dee entay dee towbay dar haan das heeyunchen dar ayber dar heersch dee gemsay das caneenchen dar adler dar habicht dar fasan dee flaydermouse das rebhoon dar pfow dar hoommer dar hecht dar barsh dar lacks dee forellay dee shlangay dee amisay dar shmetterling dee klider dar rock dee hozen dee tashay dee kneupfay dar shlafrock dee pantofeln dee oonterhosen dee streeyumpfay das hemd dee hozen trayger dee vestay dar steefel dar steefelknecht dee meeyutzay dee handshooay das tashentooch dee oor dar raygensheerm dee borsay dee beeyurstay dar kam dee sheeyurzay dar fecher das klide dar oonterrock dar shneeyurlibe dar shlier dar pooder dee zifay das tzaanpoolver dee zayreyzay dar reyzenday dee landstrassay dee isenbaan dee statzion dar tzoog dee masheenay dar vaagen dee abreyzay English. the arrival the passport the inn (hotel) the landlord the waiter the bill the interpreter the luggage the trunk the carpet-bag The paper the writing-paper the writing the sheet the pen the steel pen the penknife the inkstand the ink the pencil the scissors the seal the sealing-wax the wafer the ruler the letter the note the envelope the date the direction the post German. die Ankunft der Pass der Gasthof der Wirth der Kellner die Rechnung der Dolmetscher das Gepack der Koffer der Reisesack Of Writing. das Papier das Schreibpapier die Schrift der Bogen die Feder die Stahlfeder das Federmesser das Tintenfass die Tinte der Bleistift die Scheere das Petschaft derSiegellack die Oblate das Lineal der Brief das Billet das Couvert das Datum die Adresse die Post Pronunciation. dee ankoonft dar pass dar gasthof dar veert dar kelner dee rechnoong dar dolmetsher das gepeck dar coffer dar rizayzack das papier das shribepapeer dee shrift dar bogen dee fayder dee staalfayder das faydermesser das tintenfas dee tintay dar blystift dee shayray das petshaft dar seegellack dee oblaatay das leenayal dar breef das bilget das coovayrt das datoom dee adressay dee post Countries and Nations. The country the native land the state the empire the kingdom Europe the European America the American Asia Africa the East Indies the West Indies the United States Brazil England the Englishman Ireland the Irishman Scotland the Scotchman France the Frenchman Germany the German Holland the Dutchman Austria ' the Austrian Prussia das Land das Vaterland der Staat das Reich das Konigreich Europa der Europaer Amerika der Amerikaner Asien Afrika Ostindien Westindien die Vereinigten Staa- ten Brasilien England der Englander Irland der Irlander Schottland der Schotte Frankreich der Franzose Deutschland der Deutsche Holland der Hollander Oesterreich der Oesterreicher Preussen das land das faterland dar staat das riche das keunigriche Europa dar Europayer America dar Amerikaaner Azien Afrika Ostindien Vestindien dee vereinigten staa ten Brazilien England dar Ennlender Eerland dar Eerlender Shotland dar Shottay Frankrich dar Frantzosay Doytshland dar Doytshay Holland dar Hollender Osterrich dar Osterricher Proyssen ^ I20 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. English. German. Pronunciation. English. German. Pronunciation. the Prussian der Preusse dar Proyssay 21 ein und zwanzig ine oond tsvantzig Russia Russland Roossland 22 zwei und zwanzig tsvi oond tsvantzig the Russian der Russe dar Roossay 23 drei und zwanzip dri oond tsvantzig Sweden Schweden Shvayden 30 dreissig dritzig the Swede der Schwede dar Shvayday 40 vierzig feertzig Denmark Danemark Danemark 50 funfzig feeyunftzig the Dane der Dane dar Daynay 60 sechszig zechstzig Switzerland die Schweiz die Shvitze 70 siebenzig zeebentzig the Swiss der Schweizer dar Shvitzer 80 achtzig achtzig Italy Italien Italyen 90 neunzig noyntzig the Italian der Italiener dar Italiayner 100 hundert hoondert Spain the Spaniard Spanien der Spanier Spanyen lOI hundert und eins hoondert oond ines r J dar Spaneeare 102 hundert und zwei hoondert oond tsvi Greece Griechenland Greechenland 200 zwei hundert tsvi hoondert the Greek der Grieche dar Greechay 300 drei hundert dri hoondert Turkey die Turkei dee Teeyurki 400 vier hundert feer hoondert the Turk der Turke dar Teeyurkay 500 funf hundert feeyunf hoondert the Jew der Jude dar Yooday 600 sechs hundert zex hoondert the Persian der Perser dar Perzer 700 sieben hundert zeeben hoondert 800 acht hundert acht hoondert 900 1000 neun hundert tausend noyn hoondert towzend Trade. 2000 zwei tausend tsvi towzend 3000 drei tausend dri towzend The merchant der Kaufmann dar kowfman 1 0000 zehn tausend tsane towzend the shop the counting-house the merchandise der Laden dar laaden a million eine Million inay milleeown das Comptoir die Waare das congtwor dee vaaray 1859 ein Tausend, acht ine towzend acht Hundert neun und hoondert noyn the wholesale mer - der Grosshandler dar grosshendler funfzig oona leeyuniizig chant the retailer der Kleinhandler dar klinehendler Ordinal NumlDerfi- the correspondent der Correspondent dar correspondent the stock das Lager das laager the first der Erste dar ayrste the daybook das Journal das joornal 2d " Zweite " tsvitay the ledger das Hauptbuch das howptbooch " 3d " Dritte " drittay the cash-book das Kassabuch das cassabooch " 4th " Vierte " feertay the invoice die Factur dee factoor " 5th " Funfte " feeyunf tay the bill of exchange der Wechsel dar vechsel 6th " Sechste " zexte the remittance die Rimesse dee rimessay " 7th " Siebente " zeebentay the acceptance das Accept das accept 8th " Achte " achtay the payment die Bezahlung dee betzaaloong 9th " Neunte " noyntay the receipt die Quittung dee quittoong " loth " Zehnte " tsanetay the buyer der Kaufer dar koyfer " nth " Eilfte " elftay the seller der Verkaufer dar ferkoyfer I2th " Zwblfte " tsvelftay the debtor der Debitor dar daybeetor " 13th " Dreizehnte " dreytsanetay the creditor der Creditor dar credeetor " 14th " Vierzehnte " feertsanetay " 15th " FUnfzehnte " feeyunftsanetay " i6th " Sechszehnte " zech tsanetay " 17th " Siebenzehnte " zeebentsanetay Cardinal Numbers. " 18th " Achtzehnte " achtsanetay 19th " Neunzehnte " noyn tsanetay One ein, eins ine, ines " 20th " Zwanzigste *' tsvanzigstay two zwei tsvi " 2ISt " Ein und Zwan- " ine oond tsvan- three drei dri zigste tsigstay four vier feer " 22d " Zwei und Zwan- " tsvi oond tsvan- five funf feeyunf zigste tsigstay six sechs zex " 23d ** Drei und Zwan- " dri oond tsvan- seven sieben zeeben zigste tsigstay eight acht acht " 30th " Dreissigste " drysigstay nine neun noyn " 40th " Vierzigste " feertsigstay ten zehn tsane " 50th " Fiinftzigste *' feeyunftsigstay eleven elf elf " 60th " Sechszigste " zechtsigstay twelve zwolf tsvelf 70th " Siebenzigste " zeebentsigstay thirteen dreizehn dreytsane 80th " Achtzigste " achtsigstay fourteen vierzehn feertsane ' ' 90th " Neunzigste *' noyntsigstay fifteen fiinfzehn feeyunftsane " looth " Hundertste " hoondertstay sixteen sechszehn zexstsane " lOISt " Hundert und " hoondert oond seventeen siebenzehn zeeben tsane. erste ayrstay eighteen achtzehn acht tsane " 200th " Zweihundertste " tsvi hoondertstay nineteen neun zehn noyntsane ' ' 300th " Dreihundertste " dri hoondertstay twenty zwanzig tsvantzig " loooth " Tausendste " towzendstay •^ r- GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. T 121 Collective Numbers. English. German. Pronunciation. English. German. - Pronunciation. dry trocken trocken wet nass nass A pair a dozen ein Paar ein Dutzend ine paar ine dootsend dirty cheap schmutzig billig shmootsig billig a score Zwanzig tsvantsig clean rein rine firstly erstens ayrstens tired mUde meeyuday beusay loostig secondly thirdly the first time zweitens drittens das Erstemal tsvitens drittens das ayrstaymal angry merry bose lustig the second time once das Zweitemal einmal das tsvitaymal inemal twice zweimal tsvimal Verbs. three times dreimal drymal singly einfach inefach To breakfast friihstUcken free)rusteeyucken double doppelt doppelt to dine speisen speyzen threefold dreifach dryfach to sup zu Abend essen tsoo abend essen fourfold vierfach feerfach to arrive ankommen ankommen one sort einerlei inerlye to depart abreisen abreizen two sorts zweierlei tsvierlye to meet treffen treffen ten sorts zehnerlei tzanerly to be tired mude sein meeyude seyn y to be sleepy schlafrig sein shlafrig seyn to excuse entschuldigen entshooldigen to understand verstehen farstayen to believe glauben glowben Adjectives. to know wissen vissen to write schreiben shriben Small klein kline to read lesen layzen narrow enge engay to pronounce aussprechen owssprechen low beautiful niedrig needrig to pronounce well gut aussprechen goot owssprechen schon sheun to translate iibersetzen eeyubersetsen handsome hubsch heeyubsh to recollect sich errinnem sich erinnem ugly bad easy hasslich schlecht leicht hesslich shiecht leicht to forget to promise to expect vergessen versprechen erwarten fargessen farsprechen arvarten heavy schwer schvare to converse unterhalten oonterhalten soft weich wahr kuiz veich to express ausdriicken owsdreeyuken true short vaar koorts to explain to tell erklaren sagen arklayren zaagen far weit vite to call rufen roof en sweet hollow sQss hohl seevuss hole to weep to recommend weinen empfehlen vinen empfaylen blunt delicious stumpf kostlich stoompf keustlich to receive to send empfangen schicken empfangen shicken disagreeable unangenehm oonangenaym to buy to pay to order kaufen kowfen honest ehrlich ayrlich bezahlen betsaalen polite hdflich heuflich bestellen bestellen obliging gefallig gefellig to furnish liefern leefern kind gUtig geeyutig to sell verkaufen farkowfen prudent klug kloog to reply antworten antvorten stupid dumm doom ridiculous reasonable lacherlich verniinftig lecherlich ferneeyunftig happy glucklich gleeyucklich Adverbs. unhappy unglucklich oongleeyucklich glad froh fro Yes i ja ja wohl yah satisfied zufrieden tsoofreeden yah vole active thatig tatig indeed in der That in dar tate rude grob grobe truly wahrlich vaarlich preud stoltz stolts certainly gewiss gayviss bold kahn keeyuhn surely sicherlich zicherlich strong stark stark only nur noor weak schwach shvach some etwas etvas attentive aufmerksam owfmerksam nothing nichts nichts clever geschickt geshickt much viel feel mild gelind gelind quite ganzlich gehntzlich sick krank krank very sehr zare pale blass blass so so zo healthy gesund gezoond thus also alzo poor arm arm how? wie? vee? empty ■ leer lare no nein nine light hell hell not nicht nicht dark dunkel doonkel but nur noor 4 122 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. English. enough scarcely all almost here there where in out then now soon till seldom since ever never oft already to-day yesterday late why? because if perhaps above about after against before of over since for from in near under up with and also even or nor yet because that therefore German. genug kaum ganz beinahe hier da wo herein heraus denn jetzt bald bis selten seit immer nie oft schon heute gestern spat warum ? well wenn vielleicht Prepositions. txber um nach gegen vor von Uber seit fUr von in nahe unter auf mit Conj unctions. und oond auch ouch sogar sogar oder oder noch noch doch doch weil vile dass das daher dahar Pronunciation. genooch kowm gants bynaey heer da vo herine herows den yetst bald bis zelten zite immer nee oft schone hoytay gestern spate varoom ? vile ven feelleycht eeyuber oom nach gaegen for fon eeyuber zite feeyur fon in nahay oonter owf mit % % % 1^ '% "'^ ^ ^ % % % \ % % % <^ -^l^ '^D ^ -^ ^ ^ % ^. ^ % # 1^ ^ ,■% ■% -y ' ^ ^ % NECESSARY PHRASES.!' Affirmative Phrases. English. It is true It is so I believe it I think so I say yes I say it is I am certain I am certain of it You are right You are quite right I know it I know it well I know him I know it positively I promise it I promise it to you I give it I give it to you I will give it to you You are wrong He is wrong I believe him Very well German. e«iRh)a^r e^ ill fo 3(^ bcnfe ti 3(^ f age ja 3c{) f age e*? ifl 3c^ bin gettji^ 3c^ Mn beffen ftet»t§ ©ie '^abcn SRec^t ©ie ^aben flanj 9ied^t 3* Wcig c<3 3c^ wcife c« gmau 3(^ fcntie i^n 3* tvet§ c(3 fictier 3c^ »erfprcd)e f(J 3d& »erfpred)e ti 3|nen 3d^ flebe e« 3(^ gebe i^ 3^nen 3c^ Witt ei3 3^ncn geben (Bie :^aben Unved^t (£r |at Unrec&t 3c^ glaube tl)m ©e'^r h)oM aben©te ge^ort? •^&ren©te? SBo? 2BotPe«? SBo titer? SBo ill Tie? SBortnb©te? SBo ge^en ©ie :^tn? SBofommen©ie^cr? SBott)oren©ie? SBai3? SBa^tfle^? SBaiSiflba^? fSHai ill bie 3eit? aQBie»tclU|rt|le(3? fBai ^aben ©ie? fBui fagen©tc? SBa« jagten©ie? 2Ba^ ntctnen ©te? SBa« woUenSie? S35a« wolIett©iet^un? Pronunciation. Vare ?. Vare var es ? Vas ist es ? Vare ist es ? Zaagten zee es ? Vas toon zee? Vas toot air ? Zaagen zee meer Vollen zee meer zaa- gen? Vee gates ? Vee gates eem ? Vofeeyur ? Varoom ? Varoom fraagen zee ? Varoom zoU ich gayen ? Varoom shprechen zee? Varoom shvigen zee? Varoom gingen zee ? Ist es fartig ? Haaben zee geheurt ? Heuren zee ? Vo? Vo ist es ? Vo ist air ? Vo ist zee ? Vo zind zee ? Vo gayen zeen hin ? Vo commen zee hare? Vo varen zee ? Vas? Vas ist es ? Vas ist das ? Vas ist dee tsite ? Veefeel oor ist es? Vas haaben zee ? Vas zaagen zee ? Vas zaagten zee ? Vas minen zee ? Vas vollen zee ? Vas vollen zee toon ? Imperative Phrases. kr- Come away ! Come here ! Go there ! Come back I Go on ! Sit down ! Stand still ! Wait Wait for me Wait a little Make haste Be quick Follow me Follow him Tell him Call him Speak Eat Commen ©te fort! i?ommen©ie^ter^er! @e|en ©te bort^tn! Sommen ©te juriicf ! ®e^en©tc Wetter 1 ©c^en ©te ftc^ ! ©teben©te|iia! SBarten ©ie SBarten ©te auf mtd& SBartfn ©te ctn wenig 3)?ad^eit ©ie fc^neU Seetlen ©ic fti^ golgen ©ie mtr golgen ©ie i^m ©ageti ©ie i^m JRufen ©ie t^n ©precfccn ©ic Sffen ©te Kommen zee fort ! Kommen zee heer- hare ? Gayen zee dorthin ! Kommen zee tsoo- reeyuck ! Gayen zee viter ! Setsen zee zich ! Stayen zee still ! Varten zee Varten zee owf mich Varten zee ine vaynig Machen zee shnel Bayilen zee zich Folgen zee meer Folgen zee eem Zaagen zee eem Roofen zee een Shprechen zee Essen zee English. Drink Hear Hear me Look at me Look at him Begin Continue Stop Tell me Tell it him Speak to me Speak to him Be quiet Go Go to him Go to bed Fetch Fetch it Bring it Bring it to me Let it be Let me have it German. Srinfen ©ie •^oren ©ie |)6ren ©ie mid& ©e^en ©ie mi^ an ©e^eit ©ie tbii att gattgen ©ie ait gabreit ©ie fort $iaU ©agen ©ie mir ©agen ©ie e^ i^m ©pret^en ©ie mit mtr ©pred^en ©te mit t^m ©cieit ©ie rul^ig ®eben ©ie ®e^en ©ie ju i^m ®e|en©iejtta3etle ■^olen |)olen ©ie e^ Sringen ©ie d Srtngen ©ie e^ mir Saffen ©ie e^ fcin Satfcn ©ie e« mic^ Pronunciation. Trinken zee Heuren zee Heuren zee mich Zayen zee mich an Zayen zee een an Fangen zee an Faaren zee fort Halt Zaagen zee meer Zaagen zee es eem Shprechen zee mit meer Shprechen zee mit eem Zyen zee rooig Gayen zee Gayen zee tsoo eem Gayen zee tsoo bettay ? Holen Holen zee es Bringen zee es Bringen zee es meer Lassen zee es zeyn Lassen zee es mich haaben Tell me ©agen ©ie mir If you please giittig(l — gcicilltgfl Have the goodness -^aben ©tc . e ®ittc Yes, Sir Yes, Madam No, Sir No, Madam No, Miss Do you speak German ? English ? or French ? I do not speak Ger- man I speak it a little I understand I understand it but I do not speak it 3a, metn ^err 3a, 2»abam 9?ein, metn $err Slein, SWabam 9?ein, mein grdulettt ©pred^en ©ie beutW ? englifd^ ? ober franii&flfd& ? 3c^ fprec^e ntd^t beutfd^ 3(i& fpredbe etwa^ 3d^ serflc^e 3(^ I'erjle^e t9 abix 3(i) fpred^e e<3 nicbt I speak English 3c^ fpreiic SnglifcJ^ I am an Englishman 3c^ bin ctn Snglanbcr I speak French aSc^ fprcdbe ctn tpentg little frrtnjojticft I am not a French- 3ci^ bin fcin granjofe man Do you understand ?33crfle5cn ©ie ? Can you understand? Jlonncn ©te »er|le^en ? Zaagen zee meer geeyutigst-gefelligst Haaben zee dee geeyutay Yah, mine har Yah, madam Nine, mine har Nine, Madame Nine mine froyline Shprechen zee doytsh ? english ? oder frantseuzish Ich shprechay nicht doytsh Ich sprechay etvas Ich ferstaye Ich ferstaye es aber Ich shprechay es nicht Ich shprechay Eng- lish Ich bin ine Englen- der Ich shprechay ine vaynig frantseuzish Ich bin kine Fran- tsozay Ferstayen zee ? Keunnen zee fer- stayen ? -^ ' 124 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. English. Speak slower You speak too fast Give me some bread some butter some water some tea some wine some meat something to eat to drink Bring me some coffee some milk some cheese I thank you German. ©pred^en ©ie langfamer ©ie fpreti^fn ju fc^neU ®eten ©te mir ajrob Sutter SBaffer 2^ee SBein gletf(^ ettt)a« iu effen ju trinfen Sringcn ©te mir Itaffee mm 3(^ banfe S^neit Good morning Good day Good afternoon How do you do ? How are you? Very well I am very well Pretty well Tolerably How is your father? How is your mother ? I am not well I am unwell She is not well He is not well She is ill He is very ill She has a cold I have the toothache I must go I am going now It is time to go Good bye Farewell I wish you a good morning Good evening Good night I wish you good night My compliments at home Meeting. ®uten SJJorgen ®uten 3:03 ®uten 9?a^mtttag 2Bie se^t'iJ ? 2Bie bfpnben ©ie ftc^ ? ©e'^r wo'^l 3c^ befmbc mic^ fe^r Stemlt^ wo'^l ©0 jiemltd^ 2Bte beftnbct ftc^ 3^r ^err abater? 2Bie beftnbet flc^ 3^re grau abutter? 3c& bin ntrbt wo^I 3c^ bin unttjo^l ©teifimc^ttDO'^t Sr ill r.tc^t i»o^l ©ie tjl franf eriflfe^rfranf ©ie ^at m efMItct 3c^ iabe Ba^nwe^ 3c^ mu§ ge^eti 3c^ gele je^t e« tjl Sett ju ge'^ett Seben ©te voo^ Slbteu 3c^ wimfd^c 3^nen etnen guten 5Worgen ®uten Slbenb ®ute S^ac^t 3c^ h)iinfc^e S^neii gute S'Jac&t Tliint Smpfe'^lungen ben S^rigen A Visit. Pronunciation. Shprechen zee lang- zaamer Zee shprechen tsoo shnel Gayben zee meer Brode Bootter Vasser Tay Vine Flishe etvas tsoo essen tsoo trinken Bringen zee meer Kaffay Milch Kaysay Ich dankay eenen Gooten morgen Gooten tag Gooten nachmittag Vee gaytes Vee befinden zee zich? Zare vole Ich befinday mich zare vole Tseemlich vole Zo tseemlich Vee befindet zich eer har fater ? Vee befindet zich eere frow mootter ? Ich bin nicht vole Ich bin oonvole Zee ist nicht vole Air ist nicht vole Zee ist krank Air ist zare krank Zee hat zich airkeltet Ich haabay tsaanvay Ich moos gayen Ich gayay yetst Es ist tsite tsoo gayen Layben zee vole Adeeu Ich veeyunshe eenen inen gooten mor- gen Gooten abend Gootay nacht Ich veeyunshe eenen gootay nacht Minay empfayloon- gen dan eeregen There is a knock S« fto^ft Es klopft It is Mr. A. (£(3 tfl ^crr SI. Es ist har A. It is Mrs. B. e^ tfl SRabam 23. Es ist madam B. I am glad to see you 3d& freue mii^ ©te Jtt Ich froyay mich zee •fe^en tsoo zayen Pray be seated S3ttte ^efeen fte jld^ Bittayzetsen zee zich English. What nejvs is there ? Good news Do you believt it ? I don't believe a word of it I think so I think not Who told you ? It is true It is not true I doubt it Have you heard from home ? The postman brought me a letter to-day Sad news Will you dine with us ? No, thank you German. 2Baegiebt(3 5Rcue(3? ®ute Stacbrid^ten ©louben ©te ti ? 3c^ glaube fein SBort bation 3db benfe (glaube) fo 3c^ benfe ntc^t SBer ^at e« S^nen ge= fagt? (£i ijl ttxi^r m ifl nicbt wo^r 3ci& bejwetfle ti |)aben ©ie son ^aufc ge^ort ? 25er fflriefttfiger bradbte nttt ^eute etnen Srtef ©c^lec^te ^Ra^rtc^ten aBoHen ©te mit un3 fpeifen ? 3lnn, t(| banfe 3^nen I cannot stay I must go You are in a great hurry I have a great deal 3c^ M^^ "W JU t^utt to do 3(^ ! onn ntc^t bletben 3d^ ntu§ ge^en ©ie iinfc^e S^nen Ich veeyunshe eenen @liid gleeyuck 3^ gratulire 3^nen Ich gratooleeray Of Anger and Blame. I am angry He is angry He is very angry Don't be angry You are wrong You are right Why don't you do it ? Be quiet What a shame ! How could you do it? I am ashamed of you 3c^ bin argerlic^ (£r i|l drgerlic^ (£r tfl je^r argerlic^ ©eien ©te ni^t drgerlic^ ©te 'baben Unredbt ©te babe n 9iec^t SBarum t^un ©le m*t? ©eien ©ie rubtg SBeld&e©cbanbe! 2Bte fonnten ©ie t^un? 3ci^ fcbdme mic^ 3^ret t» e« You are very much ©te ftnb fe^r ju tabeln to blame Don't answer Sfnttoorten ©te ntc^t Be patient ®ebulben ©ie fit^ I will improve 34 werbe mic^ beffern How old are you ? I am twenty I shall soon be thirty He looks older She is younger She cannot be so young He must be older I did not think you were so old He is at least sixty She must be forty How old is your father? He is nearly eighty Is he so old ? How old is your sister ? She is fifteen Is she so young ? How old is your aunt ? She is nearly ninety It is a great age He begins to grow old Age. 2Bte alt finb ©ie ? 3c^ bin jwanjig 3a^r alt 34 werbe balb bretgtg fein 6r fte^t alter aui ©ie ill jttnger ©ie fann ni^t fo jung fein (£r ntu§ atter fein 34glaubtenidbtbag©ie fo alt fein (Er if! »enigfien« ©te mui tttersig 3a'&r alt fein SBie alt i)! 3^r 35ater ? (Sr i|l nolle a^tjig 3|lerfoalt? SBie alt ifl i^re ©d)tt)cfler ? ©ie ill fiinfje'^n 3fl [it fo iunq ? SGBie alt ifl 3^re Sante ? ©ie ill fafl neunjig di i|l ein bobed 5tlter gr fctngt an olt gu roerben Ich bin argerlich Air ist argerlich Air ist zare argerlich Zyen zee nicht ar- gerlich Zee haaben oonrecht Zee haaben recht Varoom toon zee es nicht ? Zyen zee rooig Velchay .shanday ! Vee konten zee es toon ? Ich shamay mich eerer Zee sind zare tsoo tadeln Antvorten zee nicht Gedoolden zee zich Ich varday mich bessern Vee alt zind zee ? Ich bin tsvantsig yaar alt Ich varday bald dry- sig zine Er zeet elter ows Zee ist yeeyunger Zee kan nicht zo yoong zine Air moos elter zine Ich glowbtay nicht das zee zo alt zyen Air ist venigstens zechtsig Zee moos feertsig yaar alt zine Vee alt ist eer faater ? Air ist nahay achtsig Ist ar zo alt ? Vee alt ist eeray shvester? Zee ist feeyunftsane Ist zee zo yoong ? Vee alt ist eeray tantay ? Zee ist fast no)mtsig Es ist ine hohes alter Air fengt an alt tsoo vayrden To ask Questions. English. German. Pronunciation. What do you say ? S55ad fagen ©te ? Vas zaagen zee ? Do you hear ? |)5ren ©ie ? Heuren zee ? Do you hear me ? -gioren ©te micb ? Heuren zee mich ? I don't speak to you 34 fprec^e mit 3|nen Ich sprechay mit nicbt Do you understand Serjle^en ©te mi4 ? me? Listen -^oren ©ie Come here 5?ommen ©ie ^ier^er eenen nicht Fershtayen zee mich< Heuren zee Kommen zee heer- hare Vas ist das ? Antvorten zee What is that? fBai ifl bag ? Answer 2lnttt>orten ©ie Why don't you an- SBarum antworten ©ie Varoom antvorten swer? ni4t? zee nicht? What do you mean ? SBad meinen ©ie ? Vas minen zee ? What do you mean SBag meinen ©ie bantit ? Vas minen zee da- by that ? mit ? You speak German 34 »erntut^e ©ie fj>re» Ich fermootay zee I suppose 4en beutf4 shprechen doytsh Very little. Sir ©e^r wenig, metn |)err Zare vanig mine hare Do you know me ? itennen ©ie mi4 ? Kennen zee mich ? Do you know Mr. H? Jfennen ©ie ^errn |) ? Kennen zee ham H ? I know him 34 fenne i^n Ich keniiay een I do not know him 34 fenne i^n nt4t Ich kennay een nicht I know you 34 fenne ©ie Ich kennay zee I know him by sight 34 fenne i^n Uon 2ln= Ich kennay een von fe^en anzane I know him by name 34 ffwne t^n bet Stamen Ich kennay een by naamen I know him well ®r tjl mtr WO^l befannt Air ist meer vole be- kant What do you call 2Bie nennen ©ie bad ? Vee nennen zee das ? that? What is that in Ger- SBie ^ei§t bad man ? £)eutf4 ? What do you call SBie ^ei§t bad that in English ? engltf4 ? What does that SBad ^eigt bad ? mean ? What is it good for ? SBoju ifl ed gut ? It is good for nothing (£d ifl JU ni4td gut aufVee histe das owf Doytsh ? auf Vee histe das English ? Vas histe das? owf Is it good ? Is it bad ? Is it eatable? Is it drinkable ? Is it nice? Is it fresh ? An early morning Early It is a fine morning What o'clock is it ? It is nearly eight Light the fire Light a candle 3fl cd gut ? 3fl ed f4le4t ? 3|l ed e§bar ? 3|l ed trinfbat ? 3|ledf4on? 3|ledfrtf4? Morning. Sin frii^er SWorgen Sd ijl etn f45ner 3)?or» gen SBadtftbteU^r? ed ijl na^e a4t U^r 3iinben ©ie bad geuer an 3iinben ©te etn 2t4t on I am going to get up 34 Will auffle^en Get me some hot SSringen ©ie mir etwad water ^eiged SBaffer Some cold water ©ttrad faltcd SBaffer Some spring-water (Jtn>ad Srinfttsaffer Make haste 3JJa4en ©te f4neU Votsoo ist es goot ? Es ist tsoo nicbts goot Ist es goot ? Ist es shlecht ? Ist es esbar ? Ist es trinkbar? Ist es sheun ? Ist es frish ? Ine free)mer morgen Freeyu Es ist ine sheunee morgen Vas ist deeoor? Es ist naay acht oor Tseeyunden zee das foyer an Tseeyunden zee ine licht an Ich vill owfstayen Bringen zee meer etvas hises vasser Etvas kaltes vasser Etvas trinkvasser Machen zee shnel f; 26 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. -y English. German. Pronunciation. There is no towel S3 if! fein ^anbtuc^ ba Es ist kine handtooch da Bring me some soap Sringen ©tc mir ©eife Bringen zee meer zifay I want to wash my- 3c& wiinfc^e mid^ ju tta« Ich veeyunshe mich self fc^cn tsoo vashen How have you slept? 2Bte fiaten ®te 8efd^la= Vee haaben zee gay- fen ? shlafen ? Did you sleep well ? ^abftt (Sie gut ficfc^k' Haaben zee goot gay- fen ? shlafen ? Very well, thank you ©c^r gut, 3c^ banfe Zare goot, ich dan- S^nen kay eenen Not very well 3lidit fe^r gut Nicht zare goot I could not sleep 3(^ fonntc ntc^t fd>lafen Ich konntay nicht shlafen I was so tired from 3c^ iror f mitbe »Ott ber Ich vare zo meeyude traveling 9icife fon dar risay Breakfast. Breakfast is ready 2)a3 &rii||lii(f tfi ferttg Is breakfast ready ? 3fl ba B j^ , which is the chord required. We may now return to the practical part of our subject. For purposes of finger-exercises common chords may be played in three different positions, either the root, the third, or the fifth of the chord being used as lowest note. They may also be played either as small chords, consisting of three notes only, ox full or complete chords, in which the octave of the lowest note is added. In the following example the chord of C is shown in its three positions, both small and complete : (17.) a. Small Chords. First Second Third Position. Position. Position. b. CoMPLETB Chords. First Second Third Position. Position. Position. =t: The chord-passages which I propose to consider in this book are four in number, and are all founded on the complete chords ; those derived from the small chords being less impor- tant as exercises, and quite easy to understand when met with. The first chord-passage consists of the three positions of the chord in complete form (as in Ex. 17 V), broken in regular order, both ascending and descending, thus : — (18.) 4r- -<^ ^ A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. 133 The fingering given in Ex. 18 is in accordance with a rule ^yhich should be invariably observed, even in cases which may at first appear to stretch the hand more than is convenient. This rule is as follows : The second finger is used in the first position in the right hand and in the third position in the left, all other positions being fingered with the third finger. Apart from the accent which always belongs to the first note of a bar, of which I shall have more to say presently, the accent of the passage requires careful consideration. For the same regularity which is evident to the eye in such a passage as Ex. 18 must also be made perceptible to the ear, and this can only be done by strongly marking the first note of each group of four. Whoever listens to a well and brilliantly played chord-passage, paying particular attention to the accent, will probably be surprised to find how great a difference of force is made between the first note of a group and the other three ; and this strongly-marked accent does not appear at all disproportionate, as it would if it occurred at irregular inter- vals, but merely renders the whole passage brilliant and effec- tive. Such passages may be said to affect the ear in some- what the same way that a regular geometrical pattern or border appeals to the eye; and just as a pattern of this kind may be made more effective by means of a thicker line or deeper shade of color regularly introduced throughout, so the symmetry of a chord-passage is made more pronounced — and therefore more easy to be appreciated — by means of a regularly-recur- ring accent. In Ex. 18 the accent always falls on the lowest note of each chord or position of a chord — the chord and the group coincide. But this is not always the case in chord-passages; the group may begin on any note of the chord, and as the accent is always given to the first note of the group, it follows that some other note of the chord will be the marked note instead of the lowest. This will be best understood by comparing together the four bars of Ex. 19, in each of which the accent falls upon a different note in the various positions of the chord, because each note becomes in turn the first note of the group. In the first bar the accented note is the lowest note of each chord position ; in the second bar it is the second note ; in the third bar the third note ; and in the fourth bar the highest note. The position in which the various chords stand with respect to the groups is pointed out by means of brack- ets drawn above the notes, each bracket including a complete chord : (19-) a. _*. !si2 4' Xi3 4'si3 4' i_2_4[_X I 3 4' X 134' 24X1 34S1 34x1 4 ^13 4*13 4 S I I ! I — --« — --11 — I I i I J -— * — J 4r- The consequence of this is that although the order of both notes and fingering is absolutely the same in all four bars, the effect of the passage, both to the eye and the ear, is so differ- ent that each bar appears almost a new passage. Whenever, therefore, we meet with such passages as the above, our first care must be to ascertain on which note of the group the chord begins, as that note, when found, will require to be played with the thumb or little finger according as the passage ascends or descends, in order that the whole cord may lie under the hand at once. In Ex. 19 the chord begins and the thumb will be used at a on the first note of the group, at b on the last note, at c on the third, and at d on the second note. The first chord-passage may now be practiced in the four forms shown in Ex. 19, in every key, both major and minor, with the same fingering as that given for C major ; and the best (although of course not the only) way of arranging it for practice will be to imagine it written in bars of common time, four groups of four semiquavers each (and therefore four accents) in a bar. Counting aloud one to each group greatly facilitates the placing of the accent, and is much to be recom- mended in this as in all passages which require strongly marked accent. The whole passage must be practiced slowly (about M.M. J = 52), and great care must be taken that the additional strength of the accent is produced by a more forcible blow from the finger only, and not by pressure from the hand. The best compass for the entire exercise is three octaves and a third, and if the highest and lowest notes are repeated each time they occur, without interrupting the rhythm, the accent will be kept in the right place both in ascending and descending. I have written out the whole passage in full in the next example, and have pointed out the repeated notes by means of an aster- isk. The fingering given underneath the notes is for the left hand, and the passage should be played two octaves lower. The same plan will be adopted for left-hand fingering in all future examples. (20.) 8va. 4 . 134X1 34x1 The disagreement of position of the chord and group has already been explained, and in all the examples given the num- ber of notes (four) of both chord and group has been the same. But it is also possible for chords of three notes to be grouped in fours, or chords of four notes in threes or sixes, and so on ; the result, in each case, being a re-arrangement of the accent, so as to produce an apparently new passage, although the order of notes and fingering is unaltered. Examples of this kind of passage are given below, and maybe practiced with advantage, but not until the ordinary first chord passage (Ex. 20) has been made perfect. -^ r 134 A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. -^ {at.) Chord of three notes grouped in fours. Chord of four notes grouped in threes. 4 X ' -i4i 4„2i2 1-M ^--^si^y- =^^ ±is=- Chord of four notes grouped in sixes. S I 2 4^^ ^ , 4 -3- The remaining three-chord passages may be treated more briefly than the first, since the observations already made re- specting accent and fingering will apply to all. The second chord-passage consists of the same positions as the first, but differently broken, thus : x 2 i 4, instead of x 124; and in descending, 4 i 2 x , instead of 4 2 I x . (22.) 3 1 4 214 ■♦ ■» 4 Although the positions of the chord are the same as in the first chord-passage, the hand will appear more stretched, owing to the necessity for keeping the fingers over the whole of the chord at once, so that each may fall " vertically" at its proper time ; and in consequence there will be a greater tendency in the fingers to seek their keys improperly. As a help towards accustoming the fingers to remain stationary over the whole chord at a time, the following preparatory exercise will be found useful : (23) The second chord-passage may be practiced in all keys, major and minof, with the same fingering, and the accent may also be varied as in the first chord-passage. The compass, three octaves and a third, and the rhythm, four groups in a bar, is the same as in the first chord-passage ; but the repetition of the extreme notes — which is in itself a disadvantage, as break- ing the legato— is not necessary here, since a slight alteration of the last groups of both ascending and descending passages will enable the connection between the two to be made, and the regularity of the accent preserved. This alteration is pointed out by means of an asterisk in the next example : (24) 8va. :*:x:l:!jt"£:L:^ ^i i 1 1^'- .3 ^^5^ ^^^^s The practice of the first and second chord-passages in the keys of F^ major and EJ7 minor will be found particularly useful, because they consist entirely of black keys ; and the surface of these being narrower than that of the white keys they require greater precision in striking, lest the finger should slide off the key at one side or the other, or lest (which would be worse) the finger should give way to the temptation to in- sure safety by seeking its key before striking it. In connec- tion with this point it may be observed that the beginner will always find it easier to play the notes of a passage correctly with the wrong touch than with the right, and that therefore if mere note-playing were the sole object sought, good touch could never be acquired. In view, then, of the possibility of a fatal mistake in this respect, the following axiom may be laid down : Better a wrong note with the right touch, than a right note with the wrong touch ; that is to say, an oc- casional false note, caused by the uncertain movement of a properly-lifted finger, is comparatively unimportant, and will be corrected by practice, whereas playing every note correctly with fingers that creep and anxiously seek their keys will always hinder, if not entirely prevent, the formation of good touch. The third and fourth -chord-passages closely resemble each other, since they consist of the same order of notes and are fin- gered in the same manner, differing only in respect to their ac- cent, much as the four forms of the first chord-passage differ (Ex. 19). Strictly speaking, they might perhaps be considered as one passage, but the practical difference caused by the change of accent is greater than in the first chord-passage, and it will therefore be more convenient to study and practice them sep- arately. The third chord-passage consists of alternate groups of the second chord-passage, every other position being omitted, thus : As regards touch, the only new points to be attended to are, first, a contraction of the hand, which must take place at the moment of striking the fourth note of each group, so as to bring the thumb (or in descending the little finger) vertically over its key ; and secondly, a corresponding extension im- mediately after the thumb has been used, in order that the three following fingers maybe held directly above their respec- tive keys before striking. In making such contractions there is always a tendency to raise too much the inner or thumb side of the hand in ascending, and the outer or little-finger side in descending ; it must therefore be borne in mind that the back of the hand should be kept as level as possible throughout. The compass for the practice of the third chord-passage should be three octaves, and the rhythm four groups in a bar, as before,- with a similar alteration in the fourth group of the bar to that made in the second chord-passage (Ex. 24), in order that the return passage may be played without break of con- nection. The notes and fingering of the fourth chord-passage are the same as those of the third, but the accent is reversed-- -# A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. 135 that is, it falls on the highest note of each position in ascend- ing instead of on the lowest, and on the lowest note in de- scending instead of on the highest. (26.) I X 2 I , 31 "l"X-3-i" " t * J X 4 I 2 The first complete position of the above example begins on the second note of the group, and the note before it (the first note of the passage) is in reality the highest note of a still lower position which is not made use of. According to strict rule, therefore, this note would be played with the little finger, like the first notes of all the following groups ; but this would be inconvenient, and is not necessary, as the first finger can easily be used in its stead. Such slight exceptions as this, made for the sake of convenience, are always allowable at the beginning of a passage. For instance, we should certainly begin a de- scending scale of C in the right hand with the little finger in- stead of the thumb, although the thumb properly belongs to the key-note, and would be so used in all succeeding octaves. In the same way the second, third, and fourth forms of the first chord-passage (Ex. 19) may be begun in the position of the first co7nplete chord, instead of in the lowest or first position ; and thus one movement of the Jiand will be spared. For example : '^7-> I T d X X 14 X ^a 1 3^1 . 3x13 -^ rp" i-r?S^ — n 1 - 3-»— ^ II ^ r^-Vrr'^- H 4 s 4 2 2421 The fourth chord-passage should be practiced with a com- pass of four octaves and a third, and with two different rhythms, at first with four notes in a group and six groups in a bar, and afterwards with three notes in a group and four groups in a bar. It will be observed that the ascending pas- sage stops short of the highest note of all, this being only re- quired for the descending passage. 8va. — 1-1 — i — I 'mmkmd — ^T m I m-j-j-'-ma^^mJ i^kml .i:l:i i.H4 .'J^ -i,* 4 ?><4 b-Jf- — !-^^=-?=yp-f-i-|--F.*1^h»-!*- 1 —w^ B. I , .i.1 2 -^^^i- I 4m X } I 4x i 4h T'^ 4 J I So far the same fingering has been employed in all chord- passages. But in the third and fourth chord-passages this fingering becomes inconvenient when applied to such chords as would require the use of the thumb on the black keys; and on this account the various chords have to be divided into three classes, and a different fingering adopted for each. The first class includes those chords which are composed of either white or black keys exclusively, and for this class the chord of C major will serve as model ; the second class con- sists of those chords which have one black key — these may be represented by the chord of D major ; and the chords of the third class have but one white key — of these the chord of E 7 shall be chosen as representative. The fingering of the chords of the first class has already been shown in the examples ; it may be thus described : — A complete chord in every position — that is to say, wherever the thumb (or in descending the little finger) takes its place upon a key, three more fingers follow it, so that the hand exe- cutes a complete chord of four notes before changing its posi- tion. In the chords of the other two classes this is not the case. In the second class the first position is complete, as be- fore, but it is followed by only two notes of the next position, and these again by a complete position. The mle is therefore as follows : — A complete chord and a half chord alter- nately. In the next example I have pointed out this alterna- tion of chord and half chord by means of brackets. (29-) rm I, ^ ; i fl "" 'fr\ ^^V^ iTTT^ The fingers used for the two notes forming the half chord must be those which would be used for the same notes if the chord were complete. Thus the complete fingering of the second group of Ex. 29 would be x 3 i 4, and the fingers for the half chord must therefore be x 3, and not x 2, as such passages are sometimes, though incorrectly, fingered. The chord-passages of the third class follow the same rule, and are fingered with a complete and a half chord alternately ; but as there is only one white key, the thumb must necessarily be placed upon it, and the half chord, consisting of two black keys, will be played with the first and fourth fingers. If, therefore, the passage begins on the key-note, we shall have to commence with the half chord, thus : XJ14 I 4 1} All the rules of fingering just given apply equally to the same passages for the left hand, except in the following single instance. In the chords of the second class (Ex. 29) in the right hand, the complete chord was played in the first posi- tion, and the half chord was a part of the third position of the chord ; in the left hand this is reversed, the complete chord is ^ 136 A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. -^ played in the third position, and the half chord is a part of the first, thus : (31.) "* — W — ' — mf — '- J ■ ^m^^^ — fV.1l — ^^^•l-K-^^ — ^^^-^ — t— — I — ^ \^ j ij The fingering of the first two notes in the above example is not marked, and the question arises, how should they be fingered ? Properly, they form the upper part of a complete chord, starting from the A below first D, and should, there- fore, be fingered with the second finger and thumb. But since the third and fourth notes of the group have to be played with third finger and thumb, the fourth and first fingers are already in a position to play the first two notes ; and by employing them one unnecessary change of position of the hand will be spared. This explains itself. In practicing the third and fourth chord-passages in the keys of D and E I? and similar keys, it will be found that there is some danger of the accent becoming lost or changed, as the recurrence of complete chord at every sixth note would naturally lead one to group the passage in sixes instead of fours, thus : (32) i ==5*; It will, therefore, be necessary to watch for this tendency, and to guard against it. In the following table we have classified the chords accord- ing to their fingering, and have repeated the rules : CLASS I. Models - C - G major F ,, FJ,. Rule—K A minor D „ E „ eK. complete chord in every position. CLASS II. . - D - A major E .. C minor G „ F .. CLASS III. - - Ep A V major A 7 minor Rule — A complete chord and a half chord alternately. The complete chord to be in the first position, right hand, and in the third position, left hand. The half chord to be played with the thumb and third finger. The complete chord to be in the second position, both hands. The half chord to be played with the first and fourth fin- gers. The chords of B and B V, major and minor, are exceptional. The chords of B and B [?, major and minor, are not included in the above table, as their fingering is slightly exceptional, and will require a few words of additional explanation. They follow the same rules as the other chords, but with this differ- ence, that another position is chosen for the complete chord. The reason of this is as follows : The chords of B major and BI7 minor both contain one white key and two black ones, and should thus belong to the third class ; but in all other chords of this class the white key is the third of the chord, whereas in B major it is the root of the chord, and in B[7 minor ihejifih. Now, as the only proper place for the thumb is on the white key, it follows that in B major the complete chord will have to be in the first position, and in BJ7 minor in the third, in- stead of in the second position, as with the other chords of the same class. So also in the case of B}? major and B minor, which have but one black key, and should therefore belong to the second class ; the complete chord cannot be in the first position in the right hand and the third in the left, as with the other chords of this class, because this would bring the thumb on a black key. Here again then the choice of a different position becomes necessary, and the complete chord is played in B|7 major in the third position with the right hand and the second position with the left, and in B minor in the second position in the right hand and the first position in the left. The half chords in each case follow the usual rules, being played with the first and fourth fingers in B major and Bjj minor, and with the thumb and third in Bjj major and B minor ; except that in the half chord in the keys of B minor in the right hand and BJ7 major in the left, the second finger may, if preferred, be used instead of the third, on account of the half chord being smaller than usual (a fifth instead of a sixth) — (33.) Chord-passages of all kinds may be formed from the chords of the seventh as well as from common chords. In this case the addition of the octave is not necessary to form a complete chord, as the chord itself already contains four notes. The chord of the seventh may therefore be played in four posi- tions, thus — (34] iH-^- EEE "tr — I — ' — and the construction of the first and second chord-passages will present no difficulty. They will read as follows A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. % ^37 ^ (35.) First chord-passage The formation of the third and fourth chord-passages from the chord of the seventh, however, requires a new rule — the complete chord is played alternately with two half chords instead of one, as in the common chords. It is better not to attempt to classify the chords of the seventh like the common chords, for the various combinations of black and white keys are so numerous that we should require almost as many classes as there are chords. A simple and sufficient method is as follows : Choose from among the four positions of the chord the one most convenient to the hand for the com- plete chord (there will be no difficulty in finding this), and then introduce two half chords between this and its recurrence in the next octave. The fingering of the half chords will de- pend upon their size, and on the question whether they are composed of black keys or white. The choice lies between thumb and third finger, thumb and second, and first and fourth ; and after due study of the passages founded on com- mon chords, the student will find no difficulty in choosing the most suitable fingering, the only point to be borne in mind being that it is never well to finger two successive chords with the same fingers. Here are two examples, one containing black keys and the other exclusively white, the study of which will make clear the application of the rules : In some cases it will be found possible to combine the two half chords so as to form a second complete chord ; the whole passage will then consist of two complete chords, played alternately, and this is perhaps the best method of fingering all such passages as consist entirely of white keys, and it may sometimes be convenient to employ it for such as have a single black key, for example : -71 %*- 4- We now approach the most important of all finger-exercises, the scale. As this requires a position of the hand in some respects opposed to that proper for all the foregoing exer- cises, it should not be attempted until most if not all of the chord-passages have been sufficiently practiced, and a con- siderable degree of certainty acquired. In all previous exercises the change of position of the hand to a higher or lower octave has been accomplished by means of contractions and extensions, but in the scale this is not the case ; the hand changes its position by passing the thumb under the fingers or the fingers over the thumb. To facilitate this it is necessary that the hand should be turned slightly in- ward, so that a line drawn from the center of the wrist straight down the middle finger of the right hand would point to the left, while a similar line drawn down the middle finger of the left hand would incline to the right. This attitude must be preserved throughout the scale, in order that the thumb may find itself directly over the key it has to strike, and to avoid the awkwardness of reaching the thumb-note from one side. The rule for fingering the scale is simple : the thumb is placed on the first white key which occurs in ascending, and afterwards follows the second and third fingers alternately. In descending, each note is played with the same finger as in ascending, and the same rule is thus followed, but in reversed order, the third and second fingers passing alternately over the thumb. In the left hand the fingering of the ascending scale follows the rule of the descending scale in the right, and vice versA. Let us now play the first eight notes of the scale of C with the right hand, and consider separately the movements re- quired for each note. The thumb is placed on C, and the wrist drawn outwards, so that the wrist bone, which should be slightly prominent, may be about on a level with A. The first finger, being well raised and bent, will now be directly above its key. The first finger strikes D, and at the same moment the thumb passes underneath it, so as to be above E. In passing the thumb there is always some danger of bending the first or thumb-nail joint. This is not allowable, and to prevent it it is well to look down on the back of the hand, and see that the tip of the thumb is visible between the first and second fingers. The second finger strikes E, and the thumb passes under- neath it, so as to be above F, while the first finger is lifted with rapidity and to a considerable distance. These move- ments, which must of course be simultaneous, form the chief difficulty in scale-playing, and require the greatest attention. There are two things to be feared : first, the thumb may have become bent, and secondly, the first finger may be insuffi- ciently lifted. If both these dangers have been escaped, the hand will now be resting on the second finger, with the thumb held exactly above F, and not too close to it, and the first finger raised until its tip is nearly on a level with the second joint of the middle finger. The thumb strikes (not presses) F, the second finger is lifted, and the whole hand makes a decided movement of about an inch and a half to the right, without altering its position as regards being inclined inwards. The effect of this move- ment will be to bring the first finger into the same position with respect to its next note, G, as it held at the beginning of the scale with respect to D. -^ r 138 A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. The first finger strikes G with the movements described for D. The second finger strikes A with the movements described for E. The third finger strikes B, the second finger being lifted and the thumb passed on (still without bending), so as to ar- rive over C. The thumb strikes C, and a still farther movement of the hand to the right brings the first finger into readiness to go on with the next octave. The movements for the descending scale in the right hand are as follows : The thumb being placed on C, the whole hand is turned inwards, so that the third finger may be directly over B, and at a proper distance from its key. The third finger strikes B, and the thumb is raised inside the hand, so as to touch very gently the root of the third finger. The second finger plays A, the third finger is raised, and the thumb passes freely out into view, so as to be held over F. The first finger plays G, the second finger being simply lifted as in a five-finger exercise. The thumb plays F, and at the same moment the second finger is passed over it, so as to be in readiness to play E. The second finger plays E, and the thumb is lifted so as to touch the root of the second finger. The first finger plays D. The thumb strikes C, and (if the scale is to be continued beyond this note) the third finger passes over it, so as to be in readiness to play B. The same movements take place in scales played by the left hand, the ascending scale employing the movements of the right hand descending series, and the descending scale those of the right hand ascending series. At first it is best to prac- tice only the ascending scale in the right hand, and the de- scending scale in the left, and when these are perfect the scales in the opposite directions. They should be practiced very slowly (each note equal to M.M. 84) and through a com- pass of three octaves. As tending to facilitate the use of the third finger over the thumb, the following exercise will be found very useful, if practiced with careful attention to the rules given above. It may be transposed into various keys, provided the first note of the scale is a white key : (38.) X121 S121 i X i" ii i i I- :-•';«: ^A^ X J a JX } 4 J 23, - - ^ — ^ — &^^ — '~^^- 3 XJ|4 'i.^-X^ 3 ^ ^ i , 3 XJi 3X31 3 After good habits have been formed by the diligent practice of scales in one direction at a time, complete scales ascending and descending without interruption, maybe practiced. They are to be played as if grouped in fours, with a strong accent on the first note of each group. Perhaps a compass of three oc- taves distributes the accent among the different fingers better than any other ; but they should also be frequently practiced through four or five. Scales of one octave, or with a pause on the first note of each octave, are useless. The highest note in the right hand and the lowest in the left, provided it is a white key, should be played with the little finger. Minor scales are played precisely like major as regards such and fingering, but their construction will require some little explanation. All scales are said to be more or less closely related to each other, according as they contain more or fewer notes in common ; thus the scale of G is more nearly re- lated to that of C than the scale of D is, because it contains only one note which is not in the scale of C, namely F jf, whereas D contains two, F J and Cjf. In like manner, any given major scale has one minor scale which is more closely related to it than all the rest, and the terms relative majoranA relative minor are used to express this relationship between the two. The relative minor scale begins on the sixth degree of its relative major scale, and consists of the same notes as the relative major, with the exception of its own seventh degree, which is raised one semitone. The relative minor of C major is therefore A minor, which begins on the sixth degree of C, and consists of the notes A B C D E F and G J. Such a scale as this, which contains between its sixth and seventh degrees an interval greater than a tone, and termed an augmented second, is called the harmonic minor scale, because its notes form the component parts of all the harmonies of a minor composition. But it is not the only kind of minor scale in use ; another, called the melodic minor scale, is still more frequently met with in passage-writing. In this the ascending scale differs from the descending, since in the former both the sixth and seventh degrees are raised one semitone, and in the latter both these alterations are omitted —A B C D E F# Gj A and A Gt| F^ E D C B A. Thus the descending scale consists of the same notes as its relative major. In most instruction-books the minor scale is only given in its melodic form, but both forms should be practiced, because the harmonic form is frequently met with in pianoforte music, and also because the greater stretch which it contains helps to strengthen the third finger. After the scales have become quite perfect in each hand separately, they may be practiced with both hands together, at first in slow tempo and afterwards at increased speed and with every variety of strength of tone. The hands need not always be an octave apart, but may move in thirds, sixths, and tenths. Space will not allow me to give examples of scales of this kind, nor is it necessary, as they are to be found in every book of technical studies ; or, better still, the student 4 ^ -<^ A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. 139 may, with a little trouble, learn to play them without book. To conclude then this part of my subject, I would say, in words addressed by a very eminent teacher to a pupil in my hearing the other day, " Go now, and play tens of thousands of scales." After the scale comes the so-called grand arpeggio. This passage, which is of very frequent occurrence in brilliant pianoforte music, consists in the regular breaking of either a common chord or a chord of the seventh throughout a compass of two octaves or more, without repeating any note, for example : As the grand arpeggio requires the thumb to be passed under the fingers and the fingers over the thumb, it closely resembles the scale, and its movements are nearly the same, allowing for the extra stretch between the notes. At first it is best to practice it with a repetition of the thumb and second, or thumb and third fingers, as the case may be, much as the scale was practiced in Ex. 38, but without any regular rhythm, thus : 8va m $ 8va i=P=S: When by this means the action of the thumb and second (or third) finger has been rendered free and the touch vigorous, the arpeggio must be practiced without the repetition, and with a strong accent. This accent should fall on every fourth note when the passage is formed from a common chord, and on every third note when it is derived from a chord of the seventh : .^ 8va.... :^ 4- The fingering of the arpeggio will present no difficulty ; the thumb falls on the first white key which occurs in the ascend- ing passage, and on every succeeding octave of that note. In alternation with the scales and arpeggios the chromatic scale should be practiced. There are three ways of fingering the chromatic scale, all of which are shown in the next example ; the fingering given in the lowest line is the most generally useful, and should be studied first, the practice of the other two being postponed until the first is perfect : After the foregoing exercises, passages of double notes may be practiced. These are of twoktnds, exercises with stationary hand, such as those in the next example, and scales. The stationary exercises should be practiced first, care being taken that the two fingers which are used together shall strike their keys at precisely the same moment, and be afterwards lifted to as nearly as possible the same distance. The exercises should be transposed into various keys for practice : XE I z I 2 11} 4 3 z Various methods of fingering the scale of double notes have been adopted by different teachers. The most simple rule is this — The little finger is used once in each octave, and on the same note, thus : 3 4 z 3 z 3 The place of the little finger varies in the different scales, and different pianoforte schools do not always assign the same place to it even in the same scale. The following table gives a place for the little finger in all the major and minor scales, which will be found practical ; and the method has the ad- vantage of being available for descending as well as ascend- ing scales, and for both the harmonic and melodic forms of the minor scales : MAJOR SCALES. Key. Right Hand. Left Hand. C Fourth finger on G Fourth finger on C G " D « D D " A " A A .. E " A E " B .. A B " FJ " A;t F8 " F« " - " A;f Db " Gb '• Bb Ab " G '« F Eb .. Q «' c Bb " G •' G F " G • • F r 140 A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. -^ MINOR SCALES. Key. Right Hand. Left Hand. A Fourth finger on B Fourth finger on E E B A B " "AandAj " "A and A J F# "E " Ett A cjf "B " bJ "A " Att «E " e5 GS "F#" Fx Eb Gb "C " Cb Bb "G " Gb Bb F G F C c C G D G D E " G There is also another method of fingering the scale, which is in some keys decidedly easier than the above. In this method the little finger occurs twice in the octave, and the thumb is used on two consecutive notes, thus : This kind of fingering will be found suitable for the scale of A, E, A I?, E b, B b, F, and G, in the right hand, and E b, Ab, E, A, D, G, and F, in the left. The chromatic scale of double notes generally consists of minor thirds, and is fingered in two ways. In the first method the little finger of the right hand is used upon G and D, and that of the left upon D and A ; and in the second method the upper part of the scale in the right hand and the lower part in the left is played by the second, third and fourth fingers, and the other part (that is, the lower part in the right hand, and the upper part in the left) by the thumb and first finger. Both methods are shown in the next example, and it may be observed that most players find the fingering of the upper line best for ascending scales in the right hand and descend- ing in the left, and that of the lower line for descending in the right and ascending in the left. (46.) 3 4 3 4 ;q=i=ii ^pg^=s5teS^?l' lrgsES£i?E?EE a I a 4 4 J 4 J 'W= t^ - Other exercises in double notes, such as scales of sixths, etc., need not be given here, as they may be found in every book of technical studies. III.— FINGERING. A good method of fingering is, for the pianoforte player, an absolute necessity, as, without it, easy passages become diffi- cult, and difficult ones impossible. Such a method can only be the result of the careful study and application of certain principles, which I shall now endeavor to explain. As regards their fingering, all passages may be broadly di- vided into two classes, scales and chords. In most cases this classification is self-evident — as, for instance, in the following example : (47-) and although it is sometimes more difficult to recognize, yet, as we shall see presently, a little consideration will generally prove that even passages which present the most irregular ap- pearance belong in reality to one of these two classes, and have to be fingered accordingly. Let us in the first place consider those passages which are founded on scales. And here let me remark that I use the word passage in its widest sense, including not only brilliant passages, but slow progressions — in a word, any continuous legato movement. If such a passage does not extend beyond five notes it will be proper to use the five fingers, or as many as may be re- quired, in what is called their natural position, one finger for each note without contraction or extension. Here is a series of simple passages of this kind, the fingering given being correct and incorrect in alternate bars, the comparison of which will help us to understand the rules. (48-) 2^321 23432 3 In the above example the first bar is correctly fingered, ac- cording to the rule — One finger for each note in natural position. Bar 2 is incorrect ; there is an unnecessary contraction be- tween the first and second notes. Rule — Never make un- necessary contractions. Bar 3 is the correct fingering of bar 2. Bar 4 is incorrect ; there is an unnecessary extension be- tween the first and second notes of the bar. Rule — Never make unnecessary extensions. Bar 5 is bar 4 corrected. Bar 6 is incorrect ; the thumb is used on a black key. Rule A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. 141 — The thumb is not to be used on a black key unneces- sarily. Bar 7 is bar 6 corrected. Bar 8 is incorrect ; the thumb passes under the first finger unnecessarily, thus changing the position of the hand. Rule — Do not change the position of the hand unnecessarily. Bar 9 is bar 8 corrected. Bar 10 is incorrect ; the second finger passes over the first, and the first over (or under) the second. Rule — The first, second, and third fingers may pass over the thumb, and in rare cases over the little finger, but never over each other, at least in passages of single notes. Observe that in nearly every one of the rules just given the vsford "unnecessarily" is employed, and the faulty fingerings referred to are in fact only wrong because they are unneces- sary, and interfere with the natural position of the hand. Ex- tensions and contractions are necessary when the hand has to pass to a higher or lower position, or in order to cover a com- pass of more than five notes at once. Therefore the two bars in the next example, although they contain the same contrac- tion and extension as bars 2 and 4 of Ex. 48, are yet correctly fingered, the changes of position being justified by necessity. (49) f i- 2 I I ! ^ iBi^_te^_ki So also the use of the thumb on the black key, and the passing of the thumb under the first finger, forbidden in bars 6 and 8 of Ex. 48, are perfectly correct in the following ex- ample, because there they are necessary: (so-) 4 4 , I qti. I The fingering of the complete scale has already been de- scribed, and all scale passages should, if possible, be fingered with the regular fingering. But this depends very much upon the position of the hand at the moment of commencing the scale, and is not always possible. Each of the two bars of the next example contain the scale of D, and in the first bar the regular fingering will be perfectly convenient, and will therefore be used ; but in the second bar the position of the hand causes the first note of the scale (E) to be played with the little finger, and to follow this by the thumb on D, though strictly according to the rule, would be impossible, or at least extremely inconvenient. In such a case we have a choice of two methods ; either the passage is fingered as if the note on which it begins were the key-note of the scale, or else the third finger is passed over the thumb every time instead of alternately with the second finger, until at length the regular fingering of the scale is reached (which will always be the case sooner or later), ^ after which the remainder of the passage is fingered regu- larly. In the second bar of Ex. 51 the first of these two methods is adopted ; the first note of the descending passage is E, which is treated as the key-note, the thumb falling on A and E, just as it would if the passage were really the scale of E. In the next example we see the application of the other method, the point at which the regular fingering of the scale is arrived at being indicated by the asterisk. This last method is only suitable for descending scales in the right hand and ascending in the left ; whereas the other plan, in which the first note of the scale is treated as the key- note, is available in either direction and for both hands. In- stances will, however, be met with of ascending passages for the right hand and descending for the left, in which neither the regular scale fingering, nor the method which treats the first note as key-note, is convenient ; and in these cases the best way is to choose such a fingering as shall bring the thumb into its proper place in the scale as early as possible, after which the legular scale fingering will be used For example ; (S3) Chromatic passages are fingered like the chromatic scale (Ex. 42), and it will generally be found best, for passages re- quiring vigor and force, to choose that fingering which em- ploys the second finger upon all the black keys, and that in which the third finger is used upon B [7 for such as require speed and lightness. Chromatic scales are often met with — espe- cially in Beethoven's works — which increase in speed towards the end. In these it is well to use both methods of fingering, beginning the passage with the second finger on the black keys, and changing where the rate of movement changes. For example : (S4-) Besides regular scale passages, there are others which con- sist of scales with one or more notes omitted, or with one or more extra notes introduced. In each case there are two methods of fingering. Scales with notes omitted may be played either by not using the fingers which belong to the omitted notes (Ex. 55^), or else by passing the thumb under the second finger every time, instead of under second and third alternately (Ex. (55^). The latter method is not a.vail- able if more than one note in the octave is omitted. ^ 142 A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. -% The introduction of an extra note into a scale always causes a chromatic progression, and the simplest fingering is a mixture of the fingerings of the ordinary and chromatic scales, according as each may be required (Ex. 56a) ; or, if the scale does not contain more than one extra note in the octave, the thumb may be passed under the third finger (or this over the thumb) every time, instead of under second and third alternately (Ex. 56^). (56.) :y.T^ The fingering of chord-passages has already been fully ex- plained, and need not occupy much of our space here. It follows the simple rule that whatever fingers are suitable for an unbroken chord, are equally correct when applied to the separate notes of the same chord in a broken form. The correct fingering of any kind of chord-passage will therefore depend on the due observance of the various complete and half chords of which it is composed. -In most cases there is no difficulty in discovering them ; the four fundamental chord-passages will be readily recognized wherever they occur, while in most other varieties the chords on which the passage is founded will be sufficiently obvious. For example, it is clear that the first bar of Ex. 57, taken from Mendelssohn's Concerto in G minor, consists entirely of complete chords in various positions, while in the second bar (from Mendelssohn's Presto Agitato in B minor), each group is formed of a com- plete chord and a half chord. Passages derived from chords are, however, not always so regular as those just quoted ; sometimes the chords on which they are founded contain extra notes, in which case the hand will not be able to cover a whole octave without change of position. Still, the principle remains the same ; the passage is divided into chords and half chords, though not always fol- lowing each other in regular order, and is fingered accordingly. For example : (S8.) 4r- In such passages as the above the chord need not be a real harmony, such as would sound well if its notes were struck all together. Any set of four notes played without moving the hand may be considered a complete chord so far as regards the fingering, and any set of two a half chord. Thus the passage in the first bar of Ex. 59 is founded on the chords shown in the second bar, and fingered accordingly, although these chords certainly cannot be called real harmonies. (59) fTil The complete chords, besides being irregularly formed, as above, will sometimes require exceptional fingering, as in the next example, where the second of the two complete chords is fingered with the third finger instead of the fourth, for greater convenience. Passages are often composed of scales and chords mixed, as in the following example, from Weber's /nmiation i la Valse, in which the scales are indicated by means of curved lines and the chords by square brackets. Passages often consist of a series of groups, or sets of groups, each set containing the same number of notes ar- ranged in the same order of ascent or descent, though not necessarily always separated by the same intervals. In such passages the progression which is repeated is called the figure of the passage, and may consist of any number of notes ; thus the two passages quoted in Ex. 57 are formed by the repetition of a figure of four notes and six notes respectively. The rule for such passages is as follows : All repetitions of the same figure should be fingered with the same fingering — and this in spite of its occasionally causing such irregulari- ties as placing the thumb on a black key, &c. This rule is a comparatively modern one, and is invaluable as facilitating the execution of the difficult passages of modern music, such as that by Chopin, Rubinstein, &c. As an example I will quote a passage from Chopin's Scherzo in Bjt- minor. Op. 31, in which the figure consists of no less than twenty-four notes, which figure will require to be played with the same fingering, even where it occasions such unusual movements as I have pointed out by the asterisks in the example. A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. 143 ^ lo simple passages, when the figure consists of but few notes, and lies easily under the hand, it is a question whether the rule just given should in all cases be observed. In the opinion of many modem teachers it should ; but for my ©wn part I believe that a more elegant position of the hand is ob- tained without prejudice to certainty (which is the aim and object of the rule), by permitting such deviations, from regu- larity of fingering as will prevent the placing of the thumb on a black key, or any other awkwardness of the kind. For instance, the fingering given in the lower line of the next ex- ample is far preferable to that written above it, although this latter is strictly according to rule. (63.) 3Xiz}xii3Xiz*,J Z X I 2 } X_I2 } IXI }xiz}xi23Xiz 3x123x12312} A somewhat similar departure from rule will enable us to finger the first chord-passage in the key of D and similar keys without using the thumb on the black key, thus : ''"xJ-2-^ '.J=y 3^ *3 3 4... An interesting example of the difference between the older and more modem methods of fingering a simple passage is found in the edition of dementi's Gmdus ad Pamassum, fingered by Tausig, in which the fingering of the first study (No. 16 of the original edition) is altered thus : (650 X I i 3 4J41 X I 2 ] 4321 &c. As has already been shown, changes of position of the hand are effected by means of contractions and extensions, and by passing the thumb. And there is yet another method to be mentioned which is of great value in legato passages, espe- cially of double notes. This is the substitution of one finger for another on the same key, in effecting which the finger which first strikes the note must press its key firmly, or there will be danger of the note being repeated by the finger which follows. Changes of finger are marked by two figures brack- eted together, as in the example : (66.) 4 ri I ' * !. X I X 4 3 4 } i *• -a ! — 4 3 4 , I X ! ^'- * v The formation of a good system of fingering will be greatly assisted by the habit of paying careful attention to the marks of fingered editions of studies, &c., always supposing these to have been added by a competent teacher. Even then altera- tions will probably have to be made in some cases, for the method adopted by any one player will probably not be en- tirely convenient to any but his own pupils, who have been trained in his own peculiar school. Such alterations, which are not to be made capriciously, but always with the object of rendering more perfectly the intentions of the composer, should always be marked in the copy, and the fingering, once determined on, should be scrupulously adhered to, as nothing tends more to produce uncertain execution than the habit of fingering the same passage differently at different times. There are two methods of marking fingering : one, with which the student is already acquainted, used in English edi- tions, and the other in all music published abroad. It is no doubt unfortunate that such difference should exist, as it in- creases the difficulty of reading ; nevertheless, as foreign edi- tions are continually met with, it is necessary that the student should become familiar with the system of fingering which they adopt. In this system the first five numerals are em. ployed : i stands for the thumb ; 2 for the first finger ; 3 for the middle finger ; and so on. In learning to read them, it is better not to think of the fingers by their new numbers J.ox it would surely be very unnatural to speak of the thumb as a "first finger"), but rather to accustom oneself in the first place to look upon i and 3 as the signs for the thumb and second finger ; the figure 5 for the little finger presents no difficulty, as it does not occur in the English system, and after these three have been learnt, the other two signs, 2 for the first finger and 4 for the third, will be easily remembered. IV.— PHRASING. Phrasing may be said to bear the same relation to musical performance that correct accentuation and punctuation bear to speaking or reading aloud. It is the means by which the composition is rendered intelligible to the listener : and just as a wrong emphasis or false punctuation will make nonsense of a written sentence, so a musical composition may be ren- dered uninteresting and meaningless by false phrasing. The two subjects which have to be considered in regard to phrasing are the same as those which I have already spoken of as influencing good reading, namely, accentuation and punc- tuation, and I propose to speak of each in its turn. All music is divided into equal portions called bars. The parallel between music and spoken words will therefore be closer if we make the comparison with verse instead of prose, because verse may also be said to consist of regular bars, called, in literary composition, feet. Let us now take these two lines of verse : As thro' the land at eve we went. And pluck'd the rij)en'd ears, and try to adapt them to the first phrase of No. I in Book 6 of Mendelssohn's Lieder ohm Worte : (67-) At thro' tha Umd at eve we went, and pluik'd the ripen'd < 144 A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. -^ We see here a perfect correspondence of accent between words and music ; and just as in reading the verse we should lay a stress on certain syllables, thus : "As thro' the land at eve we went, and pluck'd the ripen'd ears ; " so in playing the musi- cal phrase we must give to the notes which correspond to these syllables an additional amount of force, and this will bring about an accent on the Jirs( z.nA.Jifth quavers of each bar. This is in strict accordance with the first principle of musi- cal accentuation, which is that there must be an accent on the first note of each bar, and if the bar is long enough and complicated enough to bear division into two or more sections, there will be an accent on the first note of each section. This accent is weaker than that on the first of the bar, and is called a secondary accent. The natural accents are as follows : (i) In 2-4 time generally, and in 6-8 time and common or alia breve time in rapid tempo, there are two beats in a bar and one accent. (2) In 3-8 time, and in 3-4 and 3-2 time in moderate or quick tempo, there are three beats in a bar and one accent. (3) In 2-4 time in slow tempo, and in common time in slow or moderate tempo, there are four beats in a bar and two accents. (4) In 3-4 and 3-2 time in slow tempo, and in 9-8 and 9-4 time generally, there are respectively six and nine beats in a bar and three accents. (5) In 4-4 or common time, in slow tempo, there are eight beats in a bar and four accents. (6) In 12-8 time there are twelve beats in a bar (usually counted as four for convenience) and four accents. It will thus be seen that each accent is followed by at least one unaccented note, and in all naturally accented passages this is the case, no two accents ever appearing in immediate succession. In brilliant passages the number of accents required in a bar will depend, to some extent, on the nature of the passage. As a rule, one accent on the first note of each group will suf- fice, the strongest being of course on the first of the bar ; but when the harmonies which accompany the passage, or on which the passage is founded, change rapidly, a greater num- ber of accents may be necessary to give effect to these changes. Thus, in the following example, the figure of the passage is in both bars the same, but in the first bar each group is accom- panied by a single harmony, while in the second there are two accompanying chords to each group. The second bar will therefore require twice as many accents as the first ; and the case would be precisely the same if the passage were unaccom- panied, as the group of notes would then represent the same harmonies as those played by the left hand in the example : (68.) This variety of accent is even more important in scale-pas- sages, for they possess no particular figure, and their agree- 4r- ment with the harmonies by which they are accompanied will therefore depend entirely upon their accents. (69.) As an example of varied accent depending on changes of harmony, I will quote the Trio of the Scherzo of Beethoven's Sonata in Ejj^, op. 7. In this case the proper rendering of the harmonies represented by the passage will even require the omission of the regular accent at the beginning of the ban marked with an asterisk in the sample : (7°0 The omission of the accent from the first beat of a bar, as in the above example, is often met with in compositions of rapid movement, written in bars of short duration. This seeming irregularity is to be accounted for by the fact that the bar, as understood by the listener, is in reality composed of two or more of the written bars, and the beat from which the accent is missing is, in fact, not the first beat of a bar at all. This is the case in Ex. 70, as will be seen by comparing it with the next example, in which the same melody is written in 6-4 time, two beats to a bar, the triplet movement having been omitted for the sake of showing the actual melody more clearly: (71.) fe5 g^5§=B In triple time, particularly in waltz movements, a compound rhythm is frequently met with in which two bars are so com- bined as to form one long bar of three beats, instead of a long bar of two as in the foregoing example ; in other words, the rhythm perceptible to the listener is that of 3-2 time, not 6-4. Ex. 72 is an instance of this ; it is an extract from Schumann's Con- certo, and is written as in the example, the effect being pre- cisely the same as if it were written in 3-2 time, as in Ex 73 : (72-) _ (73-) m=-0= ts- ^^m^^ m^ ^ ^ --^ A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. 145 In this, as in Ex. 70, the primary accent falls upon the first of every alternate bar only, but the place of the secondary ac- cents differs, as a comparison of the two examples will show. This kind of combination, of two or more bars into one, does not generally continue throughout the whole composition, but is intermingled with bars of the written length, contain- ng their proper accents, and thus the whole work gains in variety. So, in the movement quoted in Ex. 70, the 6-4 rhythm only continues as far as the tenth bar, the six next fol- lowing bars being in ordinary 3-4 rhythm, as is also the greater part of the movement from Schumann's Concerto. Another kind of rhythmic variety very frequently employed consists in the displacement of the accent ; the accent which belongs to any part of a bar being, not omitted, but anticipated. This occurs whenever a note is struck on a non-accented part of the bar, and prolonged, so as to include in its duration the next following accented beat. In this case the accent, which cannot fall on its proper beat by reason of the previous note not having come to an end, is anticipated, being given to the note which prevents its appearance in its proper place : (74-) p^ ±t In this example the C in the first bar falls on the second beat, but being prolonged beyond the third or accented beat, it takes, by anticipation, the accent which properly belongs to the latter. The same is true of the E in the second bar ; while the fourth note of the same bar, F, takes the accent be- longing to the first beat of the next bar, to which it is tied. In the third bar each note falls on the half-beat, and each note, except the last, will require a slight accent ; because, when two halves of a beat are present, the first half is always slightly accented in comparison with the second ; and as in the present case only the second halves are sounded, they will each take the accent belonging to the next following first half-beat, over which they are prolonged. The last note in the bar, not be- ing tied to the next following accent, will only possess its own proper force, and will be unaccented. Such passages as the above, which form the only exception to the rule that no two accents can occur in juxtaposition, are called syncopa- tions or syncopated passages. Having thus considered the various kinds of accentuation used in music, I have now to speak of the other part of phras- ing — punctuation. By punctuation is to be understood the division of music generally into separate phrases, and also the proper employment of legato and staccato in the rendering of the phrase itself. With respect- to this last point there are abundant means by which a composer may express his inten- tions even to the smallest detail, and correct phrasing in this respect is therefore merely a matter of sufficient acquaintance with the signs employed. But the power of dividing a com- plete work into its component phrases, there being no written sign of any such division, and of so executing it that the di- vision may be -appreciated by the listener, is a more difficult matter, and demands careful study. And here again we shall be assisted by the same idea which has already helped us to understand the nature of accent — namely, by the attempt to adapt words to the music, as in Ex. 67. If this can be done so that there is no disagreement between the accents of the words and those of the music, then the beginnings and end- ings of the musical phrases will coincide with the beginnings and endings of the sentences to which they are set. This is the principle upon which vocal music is composed, and the principle upon which instrumental music must be phrased is nearly related to it ; it is this — that the whole composition must be divided into separate phrases, answering to the lines of a composition in verse ; which phrases, though they need not be all of the same length — and, in fact, rarely are, except in very simple compositions — ^yet must each have a definite beginning and ending. I do not, of course, pretend that it is desirable or even pos- sible to adapt actual words to all instrumental music ; the ex- ample given above was chosen from a particularly favorable source, from one of the Songs without Words, which, like most of the others, might very easily be made a song with words. But the illustration will serve to make clear the principle. Very often the end of a phrase is followed by a rest, and when this is the case both the end of one phrase and the beginning of the next is perceptible as a matter of course ; when, how- ever, one phrase follows the other without interruption it ts not so easy to distinguish between the two, and it becomes the performer's duty to make the division clear to the listener. This is accomplished by ending the first phrase softly, and then giving a slight increase of force to the first note of the new one, and the effect may be assisted by slightly shortening the last note of the first phrase, if the character of the music will permit it. In the following examples, which will be rec- ognized as extracts from Mendelssohn's Lieder ohne Worte, I have marked the points of separation between the phrases by means of a vertical dotted line, and the varieties of force which will be required to make these separations perceptible by the usual signs of piano 2inA forte ; but it must be under- stood that these marks are merely indications of the strength of the notes relatively to each other, and are not intended to express any great degree of actual difference. In (he two first examples the whole melody is legato, even at the moment of passing from the end of one phrase to the beginning of the next ; the separation of the two phrases will therefore depend entirely on the relative strength of the notes at the point of division, as the above-mentioned shortening of the final note cannot be allowed. In the third and fourth examples, how- ever, such a curtailment is permissible, and will add to the effect. I have indicated its place by means of a comma (,), a sign which has also been used for a similar purpose by Dr. Lebert in his Instructive Edition of Beethoven's Sonatas (Vol. i., p. 21). f- 146 A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. -y Sometimes the same note serves for the end of one phrase and the beginning of the next, as in Ex. 76. In such a case the beginning of the new phrase is the most important, and the note which serves a double purpose (and which is marked with an asterisk in the example) must be played strong. (76.) Mendelssohn. Concerto in D minor. ^^^^^ « r\ rr One more subject in connection with phrasing remains to claim our attention ; this is the employment of legafo and staccato. Here the intentions of the composer are more clearly expressed than in the matter of division into phrases, as definite signs are used. These are the dot, the dash, and the slur. The dot and dash, placed either above or below the notes, both express staccato or detached notes, but with this dif- ference, that notes marked with a dash are to be played as short as possible, while the dot expresses a lesser degree of staccato, the notes being made about half their written length. Another sign consisting of dots placed inside a curved line ex- presses what is called mezzo staccato, or ■i,orsx&\\xa&% portamento, in which the notes are closely pressed and barely detached from each other. The three signs, with their proper rendering, as nearly as may be expressed in notes, are here shown. (77O The distinction between dot and dash, though considered of the first importance by the great masters, has unfortunately not been always observed by modern editors and printers, and on this account the proper rendering of a staccato passage will depend less upon a strict observance of the written signs than upon a just appreciation of the general character of the music in which they occur. Thus notes marked staccato, whether with dots or dashes, cannot properly be played so short in an adagio movement, such as Ex. 78a, as in an allegro such as Ex. 78(5. Besides this, the effect which a mark of staccato is (78.) Mozart. Sonata in G. Mozart. Sonata in D. Adagio. Jj. Allegro. allowed to have upon a note must depend to some extent on the written length of the note itself. For instance, in Beet- hoven's Sonata Fathe'tique we find the same sign applied to both minims and crotchets (Ex. 79), but the former ought certainly to be considerably less staccato than the latter, al- though no exact proportion between the two need be observed. (79-) f 6^ '■^ ^=«=^ ttiit ^=^& S So also in passages consisting of longer and shorter notes alternately, as in Ex. 80, from Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 7, a slight but perceptible difference must be made in the amount of staccato given to each note. (80.) Written ^ ' V Played. ^ ;'f- -f- -f- '-fL^s^-^-m — ,-r f -r- ^ gfe^j^ 'q ^ Not thus. -m — ;e As a rule, a staccato passage which consists of notes of the same written length should be perfectly equal, no single note being made more or less staccato than the rest, for on this regularity much of the beauty of such passages depends. But an exception may sometimes be made in the case of a staccato passage which leads either with or without rallentando to a new theme. In such a case a good effect may be produced by gradually lessening the amount of staccato so that the last few notes are scarcely detached at all: (81.) Beethoven. Sonata Pastorale, Op. 28. 1 T mAM^ -gi m -m :ff=P= tz=iz ±±t -r-r 3=1: :«=3: The proper sign to denote a legato or connected passage is a curved line drawn either above or below the notes ; but as all passages not marked staccato are intended to be played legato, whether they bear this curved line or not, the sign as ordinarily met with is introduced rather for the sake of giving a finished appearance to the passage than from necessity ; and except where it follows a staccato passage, and is therefore required as a sign of contradiction, might perfectly well be omitted. The curved line is, however, also used to indicate an effect which differs from simple legato, and is one of the most characteristic and striking of all phrasing effects. This is the slur, which is expressed by a curved line connecting two notes in moderate or quick tempo, and rendered by emphasizing the first note and making the second weak in tone and shorter than it is written. The slur is more easy to render on the violin or in singing than on the piano. In singing it is produced by singing two notes to one syllable, on the violin by pkying them with one stroke of the bow ; on the piano the effect is analogous to the pronunciation of a word of two syllables having the whole accent on the first, such as ever. (82.) Mozart. Sonata in C Minor. Written. Played. This stress must be laid on the first of two slurred notes, -^ :r A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. % 147 Y even when it falls on an unaccented part of the bar ; and thus a displacement of accent may be caused by the slur, which is in many cases highly effective. (83.) Mozart. Fantasia in C minor. As the curved line signifying simple legato is often applied to a group of two notes (in which case the second note is of course not shortened), it is always important to be able to tell whether an actual slur is intended or merely a legato. To distinguish between the two it must be borne in mind that for a couple of notes to be really slurred the tempo must be suffi- ciently rapid, and the second of the two notes must be either of equal length with the first, or else shorter, but not longer. Thus it would not be proper to slur the passages in Ex. 84, in the first example because the notes are too slow, and in the second because the second note is the longer of the two. The curved lines in both cases must therefore be understood to mean legato. (84.) Beethoven. Sonata, Op. 10, No. i. Beethoven. Sonata, Op. 3:, No. i. It would scarcely be possible to fix the exact rate of move- ment at which a curved line over two notes should cease to be a slur and become a legato. In general terms it may be said that notes of equal length and moving at a rate equal to about M. M. 112, or quicker, may be slurred, but not slower notes. There is, however, another kind of phrasing, in which the second of two notes connected by a curve, although the longer of the two, is yet slightly shortened by the slur, in opposition to the rule given above. An example of this effect is given below, in playing which the second of the two slurred notes is to be slightly shortened. The correct rendering of the passage differs, however, in two particulars from the real slur. In the first place the accent remains in its proper place in the bar, instead of being transferred to the first of the two notes (as in Ex. 83), and in the second place the crochet, the second of the two notes, is only slightly curtailed, instead of being made quite staccato. (8s-) Mendelssohn. Andante Cantabile and Presto Agitato. Written. The slur is often followed by one or more staccato notes in the same group, as in Ex. 86. In passages of this kind the second of the two slurred notes must be played both shorter and with less force than the succeeding staccato note, and it is important that this rule should be thoroughly understood and carefully observed, as the appearance of the sign of staccato on the note following the slur often tempts the player to make that the shortest note (as in Ex. 87), in consequence of which the effect of the slur is entirely lost : (86.) Beethoven. Sonata, Op. 49, No. i . Beethotkm, Wntten. Sonata, Op. 31, No. 3. Strictly speaking, the slur is only applied to groups of two notes, and the curved line drawn over three or more notes is to be considered a sign of legato merely, and is not to cause any shortening of the last note of the group ; unless, of course, there is a sign of staccato in addition (as in Ex. 87). This is at least always the case when the curved lines corre- spond to the rhythmic divisions of the bar, and it would there- fore be quite incorrect to phrase such passages as those in Ex. 88 with a short note at the end of the group : But when the position of the curved lines does not agree with rhythmic division of the bar, but ends either on or im- mediately after an accent, there must be a break of legato be- tween the end of one curved line and the beginning of the next ; and so the phrasing of the passage resembles the slur in the shortening of the last note of the group, although there is not necessarily any displacement of accent. (89.) Written. The same break of legato is also occasionally expressed without the use of the curved lines, by varying the grouping of the notes so as to make it disagree with the rhythmic di- visions of the bar ; for example : (90.) An example of this kind occurs in Schumann's Toccata, Op. 6. Passages which consist of notes of the same length through- out, or of a repetition of the same figure, and are intended to be played either legato or staccato, are often marked with the appropriate sign at the beginning only, the sign being then un- derstood to remain in force so long as the character of the pas- sage remains the same, or until a contradictory sign occurs. Such a passage as Ex. 91 must therefore be played staccato throughout, although only the commencement is so marked ; 148 A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. since if any change had been intended it would certainly have been indicated as in Ex. 92 : (91.) Mkndelssohn. Prelude, Op. 35, No. 3. E^^fET^E^^^^ ^=s **;sii H^ (92.) Mozart. Rondo in A minor. Sometimes a staccato melody is combined with a legato ac- companiment, as in the next example (from Mendelssohn's Lieder ohne Worte, Book 6, No. 4). When this is the case it is not necessary to lift the hand after the staccato note, be- cause the staccato has reference to the melody only, and not to the accompaniment. In the example, the melody notes are written as quavers and have to be played as semi-quavers, be- ing thus reduced to one-half their written value. At the rapid tempo at which the movement is played this will be a sufficient amount of staccato for the melody without injury to the legato of the accompaniment. If, on the other hand, the notes were made actually staccato, as in Ex. 94, the legato of the accom- paniment would be destroyed. The correct rendering of the passage will therefore be that shown in Ex 95, the prominence of the melody being secured by strongly marking each note. (93.) Presto. Passages similar in effect to the above example are some- times met with in which the notes forming the melody are marked with a sign of staccato alone, without separate stems. Ex. 96 (from Beethoven's Sonata Op. 14, No. i) is an instance of this, and is played in precisely the same manner as the fore- going example ; the staccato is understood to refer only to the melody, and not to the accompaniment. As a matter of fact, a real staccato with lifted hand is next to impossible at the speed of the movement, but the endeavor to produce one re- sults in giving just that amount of force to the notes which is necessary to render the melody prominent. (96.) -^«^ kr THE TURN. The turn is an ornament consisting of an essential note, together with its upper and lower auxiliary notes, ar- ranged in one of two ways. First, the turn begins with the upper auxiliary note, this is followed by the principal note, and this by the lower auxiliary note and the principal note again (Ex. 97a). This is called the direct turn, and is ex- pressed by the sign '~ placed over the principal note. The other arrangement is the reverse of this, and begins with the lower auxiliarj- note, followed by the principal, upper auxiliary, and principal note again. This is called the inverted turn, and is expressed by the sign I (Ex. 97<5). But the sign is but rarely used, as when the inverted turn is employed it is generally written out in full. (97.) Written. ^ a. r^ b. X P===;=:= w Played. m ai'»=«^ Wf-^ T'. If it is necessary to sharpen or flatten either of the two unwritten notes of the turn, the requisite signs are placed above or below the mark of the turn, or, as some composers have preferred to write, right before and after it, thus : (98.) Written. f Ir-lf Played. But the turn is often left without any sign of alteration even when alterations are necessary, and it is therefore important that the player should understand when and where to introduce them. The rule by which they are governed is as follows : — The upper auxiliary note agrees with the key in which the turn occurs, but the lower auxiliary note is usually only a semitone removed from the principal note. Whenever, therefore, the natural order of the scale would give a lower auxiliary note a whole tone distant from its principal, it is right to raise it one semitone in playing the turn, even though there may be no written indication of such a change. There are, however, cases in which this raising is not necessary, as will have been gathered from the wording of the above rule, and in order to understand these exceptions it will be well to ex- amine the construction of a series of turns made upon each note of the scale, thus : (99) In all the turns of the above series, excepting those on the first and fourth degrees, it was necessary to raise the lower auxiliary note in order to make it one semitone distant from its principal note ; but even when this has been done the tiims are not all absolutely alike. If we look at those on the third and seventh degrees, we find that in those two cases the order of the scale A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. — ^ 149 ^ gives an upper auxiliary which is only a semitone from its principal note, and that in consequence of this the whole turn is chromatic — that is, it proceeds by semitones. Now a chro- matic ornament is not wrong, and in certain cases is very effect- ive ; but a turn containing an interval of a tone on one side or the other is smoother and more melodious, and therefore more commonly useful ; and on this account the lower notes of turns which already have a semitone between the principal note and the upper auxiliary are better generally left unal- tered. There is another case in which the alteration of the lower note can be dispensed with : this is in the turn on the sec- ond degree, when followed by either the key-note of the scale or the third degree — as in the next example. Here the sharp- ening of the lower note would interfere to some extent with the next following harmony, and produce a certain harsh effect, called in musical theory 2i false relation. (100.) ^ -I — -ff=- F— *=^=t =:■ r — 1 4?— 1 — 1 :-l— L4— -t 1 In minor the same rules are observed ; but it should be noticed that on the fifth degree the chromatic turn is a ne- cessity. The turns of the minor scale are as follows : (lOI.) "cTViCjj^it-y-J-;?*-'^ If the sign of the turn is placed directly above the note, its execution, according to strict rule, should be that shown in the examples. It should consist of a group of four notes be- ginning with the upper auxiliary, and the value of the princi- pal note should be so apportioned among the notes of the turn, that the first three are played quickly and the last sus- tained, or, if the time allowed for the whole turn is too short to admit of this difference, the four notes are played of equal length, and fill up the entire value of the principal note : (102.) Mozart. a. ,^ Violin Sonata in G. Sonata in G minor. But this commencement with the upper note has in many cases a somewhat incomplete effect to modern ears, and it is therefore often advisable in the case of a turn on a short note to prefix an additional principal note to the commencement of the turn, so that the principal note may be heard before the auxiliaries (Ex. 103a). This is especially suitable when the note which bears the turn is preceded by a rest or a staccato note, as in Ex. 1030, or by a note one degree higher than it- self (Ex. 121(5). But when the turn is on the second of two repeated notes, as in Ex. 103^, the additional note is not nec- essary, the principal note having already been heard before the turn begins. (103.) MozART< Sonata in A minor. Bekthovbn. Sonata, Op. 2, No. 3. f^ i-^ J g* J li^*-w^ rfe: ^-ip^^ m When a turn is applied to a long note — ^by which is to be understood any note long enough to admit of variety in the length of the notes of the turn — it is either placed directly above it or a little to the right. In the first case, which oc- curs but seldom, its execution is that shown in Ex. I02a ; in the second case the principal note is played first, and held for nearly its full value, and the four notes of the turn are played at the end (Ex. 104). This rule does not fix the exact speed at which the turn-notes are played, as they may begin earlier and be played slower, or later and therefore more quickly, ac- cording to taste. As a rule, the rapid turn is most appropriate to a quick movement. (104.) Beethoven. Sonata, Op. 10. Beethoven. Son., Op. 2^No. i. ifal When a turn is placed over or after a dotted note, the principal note is played first, and the turn comes between that and the dot, so that the last note of the turn falls in the place of the dot. This rule, like the last, is elastic, as it allows of the turn being made quicker or slower according to circumstances, provided always the last note falls in its proper place. (105.) Mozart. Sonata in D. Hummel. Sonata, Op- 13- The rule just given only applies to dotted notes such ^^ — 150 A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. as those in the last example, which are followed by notes of half the value of the principal note without its dot, in order to complete rhythm. When, however, the dotted note repre- sents a bar of triple time, or half a bar of 6-8 or 6-4 time, it is treated simply as a long note (Ex. 106^), and Ihe same is the case when it is followed by two or more short notes (Ex. io63). (106.) Bbbthoven. Sonata, Op- 10. Mozart. Sonata in C minor. EbB£E S^l r^^^ In all the foregoing examples the turn has been exe- cuted during some part of the value of its principal note, either at the beginning (Ex. 102), the end (Ex. 104), or throughout the whole (Ex. 103^. But there are cases in which it has to be played before the principal note, so that the principal note itself forms the last note of the turn. This occurs when the sign stands over the second of two tied notes (Ex. 107a), and occasionally also when it is over the second of two notes of the same name which are not tied (Ex. 106^). Haydn. Sonata in Elj. Haydn Examples of the latter kind are frequent in Haydn's works, and the explanation of them appears to be that the second of the two repeated notes stands in the place of a dot, and therefore serves perfectly for the last note of a turn. Thus Ex. \. -^ ^ 152 A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. -^ (118.) Andante, Athough the rules just given will apply to most instances of accompanied trills, it will sometimes happen that a trill ac- companied by four notes cannot well be played like either of those in Ex. 117, on account of the tempo being too quick to allow of the distinct rendering of four beats, and yet too slow for two beats to appear sufficient. In such a case the trill of three beats is to be used, although against four notes of ac- companiment, and the whole seven notes of the trill have to be re-arranged, being divided into two halves, with three notes in the first half and four (which must therefore be slightly quickened) in the second (Ex. 119). This arrangement is certainly different from all others, as the accent falls first on the principal and then on the auxiliary note ; but when played at the proper tempo, the second accent (which of course need not be very pronunced) is not perceptible, and the effect of the whole is far more satisfactory than the slow trill of two beats, or the indistinct, because too rapid, trill of four beats. (119.) Mozart. Sonata in C. Allegro. r\ 1 1 f 1 i I In the same way a trill of two beats may sometimes oeused with an accompaniment of three notes, when the tempo is too quick to allow of a trill of three beats. In this case the notes of the trill, which are five in number shoyild be played of equal length. (120.) Mozart. Sonata in A. tr '^^^^'W'^W The exact number of notes in an unaccompanied trill, or a trill accompanied by a single note, is of less importance, but will nevertheless be generally governed by the rhythmic divis- ion of the note ; for example, a trill on a crotchet or quaver in simple common time will usually contain either two, four, or eight beats, while a trill on a dotted note in either triple or compound common time will be best rendered by three beats. The rule for the trill on a dotted note, a position which it frequently occupies, is the same as that which governs a turn similarly placed ; the last note of the trill falls on the dot. The most frequent use of a trill in this position occurs in the works of Bach and Handel, where it usually forms part of a cadence with the final note anticipated. When the prin- cipal note of the trill is situated below the short note which follows it, a turn is required (Ex. I2ia) ; but when the trill is on the note above the short note the turn is not necessary, and it is sufficient to end the trill with a principal note falling in the place of the dot (Ex. 121^). (121.) Bach. Suites Anglaises, No. tr Bach. Fugue No. i, Vol. i. b. l»» w tr «=S-^ i i ■! " Nevertheless a turn to such a trill as the second of the above is not impossible, and should always be made in the case of two trills occurring together, as in the Sonatas by Bach for Pianoforte and Violin. (122.) Sonata No. 2. Violin. tr ^^^E^=^^ Played. M il l l-j— f, Pianoforte, tr Played. In modern music in quick tempo, the execution of a trill on a dotted note differs from the above ; the trill is continued without pausing on the dot, and the short note which follows is slightly curtailed, so as to become of equal length with the notes of the trill. Here, as before, there will be a turn if the note bearing the trill is below the short note which follows it (Ex. 123^), but not if it is above (Ex. 1233). (123.) Mozart. Sonata in C. tr ■ ^ ?: *1 Wkbkr. tr Polacca in £. When a trill is made on a tied note, or on a note followed by another of the same name, a single lower auxiliary note is introduced immediately before the tied or repeated note so as to form a turn. This single note is sometimes written in, as in the 4th bar after the first Tutti of Beethovert's Concerto in Eb, but even if not indicated it must in any case be intro- duced by the player, thus — ■^ r- A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER. 153 (124.) Bach. Fugue No 15, Vol. 2. The rules relating to the distance of the lower auxiliary from the principal note of a trill follow in all respects those which govern the lower auxiliary note of the turn. In old music the trill is often expressed by a zigzag line, ;w> or ty the sign ♦♦♦, instead of the usual sign. (125.) Handel. Air in B)^. The same sign is also found sometimes with a small curved line or hook at one or both ends, thusAv,^^^, ,\/\i., or ^v^ The meaning of these marks is as follows : The hook at the be- ginning of the sign signifies a variation in the commencement of the trill ; if the hook comes up from below ( jvv) the trill begins with the lower auxiliary note (Ex. 126a) ; if it is drawn downwards from above (^v ) the trill begins on the upper auxiliary note, but passes down to the lower auxiliary note before making the regular alternation of principal note and auxiliary (Ex. 126^). (t26.) a ,w 6 /w ' _| 1 : In modern music the prefix to the trill is indicated by a small note or notes. Thus Ex. 126a would now be written as in the next example. The prefix Ex. 126^ is not used in modern music. ("7.) f I - yT- The hook at the end of the sign is always turned upwards, and merely signifies that a turn is to be made. A zigzag line with a hook at each end means, therefore, a trill with both prefix and turn. f ^ Besides the hook at the end, the turn is also sometimes in- dicated by a small vertical stroke through the end of the zig- zag (not through the middle — this indicates the extended mor- dent) or by an ordinary turn placed above or after the sign. ("7) ^w>k i The execution of each of these three examples is the same as that of Ex. 128a. 4r- --^ ^ 154 A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS. ^^tmicn fioiL F9R ?w6*^^'*' (^.^(^(^t^(Sg»(^C^(^t^(^(^(^(^^^(^t^^^^^^^^^!j^^^^(^f^<^(^^^ INGING is an art, and one of the most difficult of the arts to master ; and any one who at- tempts to learn it must be prepared to give the same devotion to it as is demanded by the sister arts of painting and sculpture. Remember that the human voice is the most delicate of all instruments, susceptible to more and more varied influence than any other. The singer has to combine in himself the instru- ment and the performer ; and while all the artistic and intellectual qualities necessary for the instru- mentalist are required by him, he is compelled be- yond that to realize that he is a living instrument, and to exercise over himself all the care — and indeed far more than all — that players exercise over their most cherished "weapons." He has not only to learn how to sing, but how to be and to remain fit for sing- ing. He, more than any other musical artist, will find that he is affected by moral as well as physical and intellectual cuases, and he must face this fact boldly. HABITS, DIET, ETC. Practice early rising, and, if possible, take a short walk be- fore breakfast. Strict cleanliness is of the greatest importance. If a mustache is worn, let it be kept within bounds, and not allowed to fall over the mouth, where it would affect the tone of the voice. Do not cut it straight along the lip, but train it right and left, allowing it to grow naturally and uncut. The advantages of the mustache are two : it acts to a certain extent as a respirator, and protects the mouth and throat as the eyelash does the eye, and it helps to conceal any slight distortion of the mouth in singing. Clean the teeth the first thing in the morning, «;/," and "K," are all let- ters requiring care in firm pronunciation. Avoid prefixing a slight sound of " A^" to the first word of a song or passage in singing. It is a common trick with be- ginners to do this, and they frequently do it without being in the least conscious of it. It is produced by a kind of nervous feeling of the teeth with the tongue, as if to make sure that all is right for the start ! We have heard an aspiring youth ac- tually begin a well-known song thus : " Nwaft her Rangels N through the sky" etc. The English language is not the most suitable one under the sun for singing purposes ; nevertheless, it^is not nearly so intolerable and unfavorable an one as it is the fashion to make out. The grand old Scripture passages which Handel, Men- delssohn, and others have set to music testify to this. Yet musical care is needed when singing English words, and especially in pronouncing the "sibilants," as 5, etc. These sibilants" must never be enunciated rapidly, or their ill effects will soon be found in a series of hissings. Let it be your study, then, to avoid this ill effect in singing English words, and to utter such sounds slowly and carefully, with the endeavor to produce a soft and agreeable effect ; for it is, in- deed, unpardonable to hear an English singer unable to render perfectly the words (if not the music) of his native country's songs and ballads. Having accustomed yourself to carefulness over each letter in your pronunciation, the next thing is to study correctness of emphasis, etc. All this is apart from the strictly musical portion of your studies, and, while you can work at this with- out music, you will certainly spoil the effect of your singing (however good your voice and voice production may be), unless you do so study your "words." We should recommend you to practice reading aloud for not less than a quarter of an hour at a time, say once a day. Read standing ; place your book on a desk, on a level with your eyes, and speak out deliberately, and with full tone of voice, and as much variety of intonation as the matter read requires. Shakespeare is your best author for this study. You will feel at first as if you were doing a very absurd thing, but never mind that — do it, and do it as well and as carefully as you can. In speaking and reading aloud during your preliminary training for singing, be very careful that there be no change in the aperture of the mouth or position of the lips while uttering any one sound, however prolonged. If the lips move from their first position, however slightly, the tone immediately changes, and the pronunciation ceases to be pure and refined. The words of a song are as much worthy of the singer's study as the music, that is, if the song is worth singing at all. Study the text, therefore, apart from the music. Read the words aloud deliberately ; master the sentiment of them, and note the prominent words and phrases, so as to be able to give them their due value when you have to combine them with the music. Avoid giving prominence to such words as "of," " for," " the," " and," " in," etc., etc., but yet let each be distinctly pronounced, and not slurred over in an indefinite murmur. Learn the words of your song by memory. Master the text, and consider the whole from an elocutionist's point of view before you attack the musical side of the matter. A singer when singing in public should not be troubled with his words and music too. For a singer to be successful, he or she must be in a position* to express, and bring home to an audience, such emotions as love, hatred, anger, fear, grief, and pity ; all these, and many other such feelings, have constantly to be transmitted by the singer, and it is to the most natural and faithful exposition of these, and that most consistent with the other equally important points of the art of singing, that the student's atten- tion should for a long while be patiently and perseveringly directed. To be a successful public singer, even in the concert-room, one must be more or less an actor ; and, therefore, the time and money bestowed in acquiring a sound knowledge of dra- matic action and elocution will be well spent. For the lyric stage, such a study is imperative ; but its utility to artists who aspire no higher than to ballad or oratorio singing cannot be too highly estimated. -^ ^ A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS. 157 VOICES AND THEIR VARIOUS QUALITIES. Naming the Voice. — "What is your voice?" is a very common question, sometimes expressed in the rather less polite but more intelligent form, "What do you call your voice?" The answer almost invariably is either "Soprano," "Con- tralto," " Tenor," " Bass," or " Barytone." Here is a warning for you at starting. Do not limit your notions of what voices are to those four or five generic names. Because choral music is generally written in four parts, for soprano, alto, tenor, and bass, the non-musical public, and a great many musical people (some composers included), seem to think that those names are an inclusive description of every human voice. Remember always that the character of a voice is determined not by compass or range of notes, but by quality, or body and timbre, of tone. Two ladies may have voices ranging from A to A — two octaves — and yet one might be a pure light soprano, and the other a genuine contralto ; while in length of compass a mezzo-soprano may even beat them both. And so with male voices (the variety in which is even greater than in female), you may have a voice of pure tenor quality, and yet of such limited compass that your energetic barytone friend next door may make your life miserable with jealousy of the ease with which he bellows high Gs, G sharps, and even on great occasions an A or so. But compass has nothing whatever to do with the name of the voice ; it may limit the quantity of music which can be performed, but it should have no influence on the choice of the style of music to be studied. This is a point of the greatest importance, therefore we repeat it briefly once more — Your voice must be described and used with reference to its quality, or volume and timbre, and not with reference to the number of notes which you can sing. Male and Female Voices. — The actual varieties in tone and quality in different voices cannot, of course, be expressed on paper ; but a careful use of your ears in listening to good public singers will soon teach you to discriminate. Female voices are of at least four kinds : soprano, mezzo-soprano, mezzo-contralto, and contralto. Male are of five or six or even more. Alto ; tenore-leggiero or light tenor; tenore- robusto or strong heavy-voiced tenor ; barytone ; basso-can- tante (erroneously identified with the barytone by some per- sons) ; basso-prof on do or bass. Besides all these divisions or species, voices must be again classed according to their power. Any one who has ever heard an opera singer in a moderate-sized private drawing-room, will readily appreciate the diff'erence between a voce di camera, or ' ' chamber voice," and a voce di teatro. Compass. — The respective compasses of the several voices may be roughly set down as follows, but it should be borne in mind that it is by no means a matter of course that a singer of any particular voice should possessor cultivate the whole range of notes supposed to belong to that voice. He or she may be none the less a tenor or a soprano because the one cannot pro- duce an " Ut de poitrim," or the other " F in Alt." There is a special individuality in every voice, as in every face, and therefore every voice must be treated, by a good teacher, on its own merits, as a thing in some respects unique. Perhaps it will be best, therefore, instead of saying that the compass of any given kind of voice is from — to — , to say that music for such and such a voice is generally written be- tween such and such limits. The range allotted by com- posers to the various voices is about two octaves to each — for solo work, of course — and is as follows, it being understood that the male voices are an octave lower in pitch than the female : from Soprano, and Tenore-Leggiero, and in operatic music a certain kind of Tenore-Robusio» from Mezzo-Soprano and Tenore-Robusto. Mezzo-Contralto and Barytone. from Contralto and Bass. :=F The basso-cantante is a low barytone, or high bass with a lighter quality of tone than the basso prof ondo. The alto voice, or counter-tenor, as it used to be called, is not a natural voice at all, but is artificially produced by training the falsetto to the exclusion of the other parts of the voice. It is totally distinct from the contralto voice of a female, in quality, average compass, and the style of music best suited to it. It is of more use in part-singing and cathedral music than for solo work, although in some oratorios solo parts have been al- lotted to it. It is rarely pleasing when heard alone, for very few alto singers are able to avoid the appearance of singing with effort ; and the whole performance, except in some in- 58 A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS. stances, appears unnatural and forced. The alto voice ranges generally from i^ but its best notes are confined to the octave of B flat. Soprano. — The soprano is generally clear, bright, and pene- trating in tone ; capable, if rightly produced, of "carrying" far without any appearance of force or effort. Its lower register is often weak and inefTective, and the forcing of these notes by a bad singer often damages the voice, and spoils the evenness of tone, which is of far more importance than power and noise in singing. Low notes, even if naturally weak, may be trained to take their proper share of the work of the voice, and every year will add to their natural power. Most soprano voices have a " break " on and another and more difficult one to deal with, on 4r- The lower notes are the (so-called) " chest" register ; the mid- dle ones, between the breaks, the "falsetto," and the upper ones the " head " notes. We shall speak of these often-used and frequently misapplied words presently ; we merely men- tion them now for the sake of pointing out to soprani what many young lady amateurs utterly ignore, that they have these "breaks," and possess "chest," " falsetto," and "head"notes, as well as male singers. Soprano voices are frequently capable of great flexibility, and passages are easy to them that tax the powers even of a light mezzo-soprano severely. The high notes, especially, are in many cases easily produced in a staccato manner, like notes of a piccolo flute, and an eff'ect is thus made, which, though pretty and pleasing if judiciously employed, becomes a great snare to many singers, who, for the sake of astonishing their audience, work the upper part of their voices unfairly, and, neglecting steady use and practice of the lower registers, will very soon find that they have weakened the power and thinned the tone of the whole voice. But there are many voices of pure soprano tone which lack this flexibility : let the fair owners console themselves with the recollection that good sostenuto singing is quite as pleasing in the long run as displays of vocal gymnastics. You may not be able to attempt the '' Dinorah" Shadow Song, or the " Re- joice Greatly" in the " Messiah," but you will find that you have plenty of good work left for you in such music as "Dove Sono," " Deh vieni, non tardar " (^'Figaro"), or "Jerusalem" {''St. Paur). Mezzo-Soprano. — The mezzo-soprano voice is perhaps the commonest of all female voices, and yet one of the rarest met with in perfection. It is fuller and rounder in quality than soprano — less flexible, and more adapted to a sostenuto or de- clamatory style. Mezzo-soprano voices vary so much that it is difficult to name any note on which the "break" will be found. Sometimes it is on the same as a soprano — sometimes on the same as a contralto — on the average, perhaps, nearer the former. Wherever it may be, however, a judicious teacher will soon point it out, and put the student into the way of rightly treating it. What lies within the sphere of a good mezzo-soprano has been shown in late years by a Grisi and a Tietjens, the latter of whom will live in the recollection of all who ever heard her, as the perfect model for every mezzo-soprano in the pro- duction of pure tone and even quality. Mezzo - Contralto. — The name mezzo-contralto speaks for itself. It is by no means an uncommon voice, and if used with discrimination is an effective and useful one. Both in compass and quality it lies between the contralto and the mezzo-soprano. Heavier in tone, less resonant and less flexible than the mezzo-soprano, it is yet lighter than the contralto. Contralto. — The quality of a true contralto voice is so pe- culiar that it is impossible to mistake it for any other voice, although other voices may be mistaken for it. Of course, there are exceptional cases in which the contralto and mezzo- contralto are combined in one voice : the lower range being of full and pure contralto quality, while instead of the some- what limited upper notes of the contralto, a rich mezzo-con- tralto range of notes may develop themselves ; and in such a case careful training will be able to soften these two into each other, so that a complete voice of peculiar charm and great usefulness will result. But such cases, if not rare, are cer- tainly the exception and not the rule, the deep and powerfully resonant tone of the true contralto being comparatively sel- dom met with. There is generally an awkward break between the low B and the D above it in this voice, and the E 7 or E are the highest notes within reach of the average contralto. Voices of this class are better adapted for a species of ballads, for solemn declamation, or music of a calm and flowing char- acter, than for elaborate execution or lively melodies. Alto. — The alto or counter-tenor voice is " simply a develop, ment of i\i& falsetto — generally the falsetto of an inferior bass voice." Of course, in a voice which is so artificial, there must be expected a worse "break" than usual — the break in this case being the point below which the falsetto cannot be ex- tended, and where the natural "chest " quality of tone has to be used. This break generally lies near the same place as the contralto break — if anything, rather higher — say between C and E in the middle of the voice. The effective notes of an alto usually lie in the octave of B or Blj, and the repertoire of music for which this voice is suited is comparatively limited. That repertoire, however, includes the greater number of ora- torios, a good deal of fine old Italian music, and a few old English songs ; while a singer of cleverness and cultivation A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS. 159 will find many ballads which he may make his own by the help of transposition and the style of delivery. Great pains must be taken by the possessor of an alto voice in the formation and production of a good tone. The voice must be made to sound as natural as possible ; and, if neces- sary, power must unhesitatingly be sacrificed to sweetness. There is great danger of producing a harsh, reedy, or nasal tone, which, to the hearer, is simply distressing or offensive. Above all, let him be content to develop his own means, and to keep to music suited to or written for his voice. Let him also beware of the snare of contralto music. The alto in a man is totally distinct from the contralto in a woman. The tone is utterly different — the best notes of the one are cer- tainly not the best notes of the other ; and although in certain cases a contralto may sing with good effect music written for a male alto (f. g., in some oratorios), yet the converse is scarcely ever true. The low notes, which are so fine in a contralto, and so unlike any other tone, except perhaps a few notes of some tenors, are utterly wanting in charm, and gen- erally in power, in a male alto ; while the sweet and ringing middle notes of the latter are far more effective in alto music than the (frequently) weak and uncertain middle notes of a contralto. Choose your music, as you name your voice, by the quality of tone you can produce, and not by the range of notes. Tenore-Leggiero. — The tenore leggiero, or "light tenor," is the male voice corresponding to the female soprano ; it is perhaps the most delicate and difficult to manage of all human voices. The tone of a light tenor is generally clear, resonant, and penetrating ; sometimes there is a metallic ring about it which is extremely pretty, if not forced. A light tenor must be careful not to force up the lower register of his voice beyond its natural and easy limit. The charm of the voice is in the perfect blending together of the lower, middle, and upper registers, and to do this the upper notes of each register should be equally at command, as the upper notes of that register or the lower notes of the one above it. In order to attain this, the change from one register to another should generally be made considerably lower than the place where the real "break "in the voice comes. For in- stance, supposing the ' ' break " to be on E (2, the singer should be able to change his register as low as B or BJZ, and to take all the notes between those two places either in the upper or lower register with equal effect. In voices of this character there is often one note which re- quires to be made — i. e. , which is so naturally defective in tone and quality that it can only be produced effectively by imi- tating as nearly as possible the quality of the register above or below it. The note is generally E, F, Fjf, or (sometimes) G, between the middle and upper registers ; and if you find that you unfortunately have such a refractory note, remember not to tiy and force the tone of it from the next note above or be- low ; e. g., if your bad note is F, do not try to improve it by singing E well and then passing on to the F ; but try and form the note from the fifth above or below (whichever it happens to resemble most in tone). Rounden the refractory note — give it a full tone in practicing, and produce it well from the chest, letting the sound reverberate from the center of the roof of the mouth — neither too far back towards the throat, nor too much on the teeth. Tenore-Robusto. — The robust or strong tenor is the male voice corresponding to the mezzo-soprano of a female. It is not an uncommon voice, but is rarely met with in anything like perfection. A robust tenor voice of large compass and round full tone is a treasure of the utmost value. The fact is, that too frequently the possessor of a good voice of this kind, instead of taking care of it and training it for the future, be- gins using it too soon, strains and forces it into coarseness, and spoils it forever. People do not realize that a voice may be strong in quality and powerful in tone, and yet in itself be an excessively delicate thing to keep in order. Moreover, voices of this kind in their youth frequently re- semble barytones, and their owners, fired with ambition to rival some popular barytone singer, mistake their vocation, and shout and bellow on the very part of the voice — the upper " chest" register — which requires the tenderest nursing to fit it for future difficulties. Consequently, when the voice de- velops with age, and the singer finds that barytone work is too heavy for the lower part of the voice, and that he can without much difficulty extend his compass beyond the barytone limits, he discovers that what he has been using as the top of his voice is nearer the middle of it, and that the mode of using those notes which he has practiced is excessivel]^ difficult, if not impossible, with those which now lie above them. The result is either the creation of a very awkward "break," which even time and practice can never entirely remove, or else (and this is a commoner case) the same process of forcing which has been employed hitherto is applied to the upper notes, as far as strength can lake it ! Barytone and Basso-Cantante. — The barytone voice is a voice of fuller quality than a tenor, and lighter than a bass, having a compass partly included in both. The distinctive character which this voice has assumed within the present century is due, we believe, to the great change in the pitch of musical instruments which has taken place. In the last century the pitch was so much lower than that at present in use, that a "high barytone'" was much the same as " robust tenor." Consequently, music was not written exclusively for the barytone voice, its existence as a separate class of voice not being sufficiently recognized. Gradually, as the pitch was raised, the barytone separated itself clearly from other voices, and has now a repertoire of music and a style of singing of its own ; and instead of appropriating tenor music, it, if anything, has stolen away some of the property of the bass ; for the raising of the pitch which placed tenor music be- yond the reach of a barytone has also rendered a good deal of music originally written for a bass far more suitable for a barytone, or at all events for a basso-cantante. Bass. — Of the bass voice less need be said here, not be- cause it is a less important voice than any of the others, but because it is more generally known and better understood. A perfectly pure bass voice is, however, a rare thing. This voice has no upper register," properly speaking ; the whole voice consisting of " chest " notes, and not admitting of even the process of developing upper notes of extraorc^inary quality -^ ^ ^ 1 60 A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS. which is part of the training of a barytone or basso-cantante. Power and richness are the chief qualities of charm in a bass, while flexibility and true intonation are the qualities most rarely found in that voice. The young singer who finds that he certainly is not meant by nature for a tenor, and also that with all his efforts the upper notes of a barytone are quite out of his reach, need not be discouraged by any lightness or thin- ness of quality in his voice from the hope that he may develop into a good bass. Buffo. — A clever and good buffo singer may very likely be able to sing other music well, but the style is so entirely dra- matic and so utterly out of place anywhere except on the stage, that no amateur should ever attempt it, and no pro- fessional should appear in a concert -room as an exponent of such music. Therefore, for those who wish to sing, any re- marks on the peculiarities of a buffo bass would be super- fluous ; those who wish to study that line as a profession, for stage work, must learn all that they need from a regular dra- matic teacher ; while those who wish to execute English " comic" songs, may spare themselves any anxiety as to their voices : if they have any voice naturally, ' ' comic " singing will soon destroy its charm, and that will not matter to them, for the last thing necessary to sing a " comic " song is the possession of a voice of any kind. Therefore, if you have a bass (or any other voice, indeed^ avoid " comic " songs, and leave the "buffo " business to those who can do nothing better. Qualities of Voice, Good and Bad. — It may not be un- welcome to the student to have pointed out to him those quali- ties of voice which are to be aimed at or cultivated, and also those which are to be avoided or overcome. The charms of a voice are found among the following quali- ties : clearness, sweetness, evenness, flexibility, power, extent of compass, variety, brilliancy, firmness, persuasiveness. On the opposite side must be ranked roughness, huskiness, feebleness (or want of power), shrillness (or want of depth), hardness and want of flejcibility,' dullness, or want of " ring," etc. It is, of course, impossible for any one voice to unite in itself all these merits or all these defects ; and you cannot give yourself merits which Nature has withheld ; but you may marvelously improve what natural merits you have, and do wonders in overcoming any difficulties which Nature has placed in your way. ON THE PRACTICE OF SINGING. It is of great importance to bear in mind that no two voices are exactly alike. To some singers is given quality of voice, to others quantity. And for each alike, steady, well-aimed, and well-ordered practice is indispensable. But, whatever you sing ought, like your voice, to have some touch of individuality : the song should seem to come naturally from you, and to be the spontaneous expression of your thoughts. At the'same time you must not lose sight of the all-important guide which you have in the composer's intentions and wishes. Remember that a small and delicate voice may be made to go as far as, if not farther than, a voice of large volume and long compass. By judicious management, by touching expression of the softer feelings, by careful selection of music to be performed, the obstacles which are placed in a singer's way by want of powei may be effectually removed, because the audience will irre- sistibly feel the influence of the singer's individuality. The difficulties of the singer who has the gift of quantity rather than quality of voice are in some respects greater, because the necessity for thus impressing on his audience a sense of his own individuality is not so strongly forced on him by circum- stances. The surest means of improving and strengthening the voice is by constantly exercising and practicing it. Just as the muscles and fibres of the legs of a pedestrian are increased and made capable of great exertion by careful training, so is it with the nerves and muscles of the throat. With judicious training, the compass of the voice is extended, its quality is improved, its tones grow rounder and firmer ; and, if the master is a good one, and the pupil is willing to study patiently for some time, never resting content, but always aiming at further progress as year succeeds year, he may not unreasonably hope to attain a well-earned place in his profession, and its attendant reward. A looking-glass should form a part of the furniture of a sing- ing student's study, for it is most important to watch the face — its features and expressions — when singing ; and it is none the less' useful for insuring the constant right position of the mouth. In respect of the facial expression when singing, there is a very great tendency to look too serious, too severe, and too hard when earnestly studying. Now, a cheerful and good- humored expression does not necessarily imply carelessness, and it is far more agreeable to the audience than an anxious and troubled look. Some people look quite savage when sing- ing ; and when rendering passages of love and tenderness, their features are far more indicative of rage, revenge and murder ! And this very common fault is generally quite an unconscious habit. It is only to be remedied by constant care, and to this end practice before a looking-glass will be found very helpful. How to stand when singing has been explained by a great number of writers on the subject, and most of the explanations given have been chiefly remarkable as being entirely erroneous and false. The body should not be kept in a perfectly upright position, as it is (too popularly) believed that it should. The best position is when the body is well collected, with its chief weight upon the right leg and foot, with the head gently lean- ing forward, and the arms, and indeed the whole carriage, disposed in that manner which would indicate to the audience a sort of desire on your part to persuade them and bring them over to your feelings and sentiments. When the right leg begins to tire with the weight of the body, the left leg can take its duty, when the right may be gracefully drawn back as in dancing. The best lesson on this subject, however, can be gleaned by carefully watching the pose of a good Italian singer during singing. A sitting position is a very bad one in which to practice. All singing should be done in a standing position, and the student is strongly urged to adhere to this rule. Instead of sitting at the pianoforte, and accompanying an exercise 01 "solfeggio," it is far better to sound the first note of each pas- sage therein, and master the same without any accompaniment. The advantages of this mode of practicing must be obvious ; "^ A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS. i6i kr but one of the most important is, that the attention is not divided between the pianoforte and the voice, while it leaves the singer free to give all his attention and care to the produc- tion of the notes which he is endeavoring to sing artistic- ally. We would urge upon the student to hold a piece of music in his hands while he practices. There is a place for the hands when singing in public ; but. this place is neither the trowsers pockets, nor on the hips, nor behind the back, nor across the chest, but rather that position which is secured by leisurely holding the music-sheet, not as if actually singing therefrom, but as though it were merely intended for reference, if required. This easy attitude not only gives the hands and arms their legitimate position, but also lends a grace and freedom to other parts of the body, all which points must be attended to in singing. Remember to keep the arms well away from the body. Some singers stick the elbows into the waist, as though to give support ; instead of doing which they hinder the free action of the lungs, besides giving an awkward look to the whole figure. Do not let your hands hang down, but keep them well be- fore you, in some position which allows of your turning the palms uppermost. In this way you (as it were) lock the joints of the shoulders, and put a check on the tendency to raise the shoulders, which is an invariable consequence of taking breath wrongly. Keep your shoulders well back, your elbows de- pressed, and your hands with the palms uppermost, and you will find it difficult, if not impossible, to indulge in the vice of heaving the chest and shoulders up and down, like the piston of a steam engine ! One of the first conditions of singing well is to keep the throat open. To have the throat in its proper position the tongue must be kept down, and hollowed like the bowl of a spoon, its root being well depressed. Nor must the throat ever be allowed to screw itself up small, a common failing of many singers whenever they approach a high note. Most of our readers have yawned once or twice in their lives ; if they will do it once more, in front of their looking-glass, and watch the inside of the mouth as they yawn, they will see and feel the exact position in which the throat should be during good sing- ing. It will be useful to repeat this proceeding until the mind is thoroughly impressed and the memory familiarized with the feeling of the mouth and throat in this, the correct position for singing. When singing softly, ox piano, as it is called, take great pains to keep your throat as open as you would for singing loudly, leaving it entirely to the mouth and lips to keep the tone soft, yet steady and firm. Do not forget, too, that in soft singing it is a great advantage to keep the mouth in a smiling position. The tongue, while being so useful, is nevertheless a very un- ruly member in singing, it has so great a tendency to get out of its place. Its legitimate office is to rest quite flat, or even hollow, in the bottom of the mouth, with its root well down, as this keeps the throat-passage clear, and with the tip of it just touching the lower teeth. Get a looking-glass, and con- tinually watch the position of the tongue. Never allow it to roll up or turn about when singing, or the effect produced will be scarcely worth repeating. The tongue should occupy the II least possible space in the mouth, and this is the case when the directions here given are carried out. The larynx, or upper part of the windpipe, plays a most im- portant part in singing. Upon it depends all the beauty and quality and richness of the voice. The singer will do well to constantly think about the larynx, to watch it, to feel that it is well down below the mouth before commencing the first note of a song, which note must, under such circumstances, be rich, round, and penetrating. Then the larynx must never be al- lowed to rise above this fixed point. It may be deepened, and must be, for the higher notes, but it must never ascend, or nearly approach the roof of the mouth, or the sound-passage is closed, and the sound becomes at once impure, vitiated, and without body or foundation. Try and guard against the bad hatit of pushing forward the chin when singing, otherwise the tone cannot fail to be faulty. The chin should be well down on the chest, and the larynx quite low, to lead to an easy and pure production of tone. To be constantly moving both the jaws for every note, continually displacing the larynx, impairs the purity of the tone, spoils the articulation of the words, and, what is worse than all, pro- duces a hideous expression of the features, which latter fault would alone be sufficient to prejudice seriously the chances of any singing artist. The lower parts of the jaws, not the up-* per ones, should do the work ; and when a high passage or note is before the singer, the lower parts of the jaws should be exercised to drop as the notes increase in height. The singer's face should be controlled, if no other member can be so regu- lated. There is, in all beginners, a tendency to sing too much in the head, that is, to have the foundation of the tones too high up in the throat. This fault is due to the difficulty experienced by beginners in keeping the larynx sufficiently below the mouth. The fullness of tone, the rich, round, and mellow quality which is so much admired in all good singers, is almost entirely ow- ing to the voice being pitched low down, and not high jp in the throat, towards the back of the head (as it appears to be). Throatiness, or singing in the throat, is the common enemy of all English speaking singers. Our language is the chief cause of this disagreeable habit, which we begin to acquire as soon as we learn to talk. Still, by diligence, the evil can be cured, and no better plan can be followed than to constantly practice singing the vowel-sounds Ah, A, E, O, throughout the compass of the voice, taking every possible care — and this is the point — never to allow the toru to vary, nor to leave the teeth, and not to screw up the throat, especially in high notes. It is impossible to produce a " throaty " quality of voice if the throat is well open, and the tone is firmly directed,- and kept on the upper teeth and front of the mouth. On the other hand, if the student screws up the throat, rolls the tongue, or practices singing without being constantly on the look-out for the "voice on the teeth," the result must be a " throatiness," which is most disagreeable to all people who have any real knowledge of what singing should be. Singers, good and bad, are often troubled with an apparent stoppage in the throat, and this inconvenience seems to be at its worst just at that moment when they wish to sing. To dis- place or to cure this stoppage, they begin hacking and cough- ^ 162 A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS. -^ ing (" clearing the throat " as it is called), which proceeding, however, only makes bad worse for the time being, and finally grows into a habit, till at last such people cannot venture to open their mouths without first subjecting the throat to a series of these irritating " hacks." It is in many cases simply a nerv- ous trick, and if the singer will accustom himself to swallow instead of coughing, whenever he feels the sensation of which we are speaking, he will soon get rid of it. If it results in any case from real weakness of the throat, it may be beneficial to gargle three or four times a day with moderately strong salt and water, especially before singing. Many people find great difficulty in counting with any de- gree of certainty upon the top notes of their register. We know of no greater assistance towards bringing these out than that of well contracting the mouth and lips at the beginning of the passage in which these high notes occur, dropping the lower jaw, and securing a good play of the mouth as the highest note is reached, at the same time keeping the throat as open as possible, ejecting the sound to the audience with as much " lip force " as can be secured, being careful that the ^ne is safe " on the teeth " before the note is " opened." There can be no doubt whatever that the grand ground- work of all singing is the diatonic scale. On it is built all the graceful forms and figures which belong to the great artist. Yet how few seem to know and to appreciate this fact ! To excel, the diatonic scale must be practiced most seriously and assiduously in its plain and simple form ; nor must it be left until the student can sing every note therein purely, without wavering or flutter, and with precision, in the soft, medium, and loud voices. The singer will derive much advantage by bearing in mind that the voice has three main gradations, which the Italians class as the forte, the mezzo di voce, and the piano. The man- agement of these three is of vital importance, and the singer should certainly practice the scales in all three voices, and have each at command for every exereise and passage which he studies. The tone of the voice must never be vitiated or rendered im- pure from any cause whatever. There is always a danger of this in passages of great energy and passion, but it should be remembered that whatever be the effect aimed at, it cannot be attained by any means which involves a change in the tone of the voice. The first and chief consideration must always be to produce a good tone in the right manner. If the tone be not good, the singing cannot be agreeable : and if it be not produced in the right manner, you have no security that it will be equally good throughout the voice, or in passages of all kinds. The changes of sound which are spoken of as " chest," "falsetto," and " head " voices are due to changes in the position of the larynx and its surroundings, and in the action of the vocal cords. What those changes are, and how or why they cause the results which we hear, has yet to be discovered ; there are several theories, but no one has yet ventured to claim the cer- tainty of truth for any one of them. The "chest " voice is probably so called because the vibrations of the notes in that register may be distinctly felt in the chest ; and because the breath passes directly from the chest, as it seems, without any opposit'on in the throat, producing the sound on its way. The "falsetto," or range of notes above the chest, is so called (and rightly so) because in that register of voice the tone feigns, or imitates, the tone of the " chest " notes below, although it is certain that the sounds are not pro- duced in the same way, for the position of the vocal cords and their attendant parts is different* and changes suddenly on the passage of the voice from the chest to the upper register. A falsetto, rightly trained and used, is one, therefore, which is true to its name, and so well imitates the "chest," that the hearer cannot distinguish the "false" from the real "chest tone." The "head voice," which many people persist in confusing with the falsetto, is so called because to the singer it feels as though the notes so produced came from the head. This is due to the larynx itself rising up in the throat and ap- proaching the back of the head. It comprises, in reality, all that part of the voice which lies above the " chest " register, all the lower part of it being shared by the " falsetto," exactly as the falsetto shares the greater part of the chest register. The falsetto, therefore, belongs to both, and its use is to carry, by its power of imitation, the tone of the lower or chest register into the upper or head register, so combining them that no audible change of quality, or " break " is perceptible. It cannot be too stronf.ly impressed upon, or too frequently pointed out to, the singer (no matter what may be the stage of his or her artistic development) how desirable and advan- tageous it is to be constantly singing exercises and solfeggi in preference to songs. Bear in mind, first, all that has already been said here about taking your breath, the position of standing, the form of your mouth, and place of throat, tongue, teeth, etc., and study the following exercises daily, say to the extent of thirty minutes three times a day, with full attention to all the above points : — / > — ts> — .c r ^ " ?r^ "si. : C2 m -^ Sing this fully and firmly. It should be begun and ended with the same quality and " thickness " of sound, as suggested by the even line over each note. You should be able to hold each note out in one breath for twenty seconds without the slightest alteration being preceptible in the tone, any more than there would be if it was a note proceeding from an organ- pipe. Practice it on each of the following sounds consecu- tively : "A"ift"Bard," " A " in " Fate," " E" in " Steel," " I " in " Life," " O " in " Pole," " U " in " Rule," prefixing each sound by L, and so singing Lah, Lay, Lee, Li, Lo, Loo. In singing this first exercise, which for basses and barytones will be, of course, an octave lower, be careful not to force the lower notes, and do not seek to get a powerful tone thereupon. The tone does not need to be full and heavy on these notes, but rather should be a WELL-PRODUCED, light, and thin quality of note. The way to proceed is : (r) To inspire the breath from the bottom of the lungs as it were — not raising the shoul- ders. (2) Steady the breath for a second or so in the chest while you THINK the note you are about to sing, and while •you prepare your throat and mouth for singing by lowering the larynx and opening the throat. (3) Then begin to sound hkr -* r? rh — -^ m — L- «^- - ^ 1— (^J rj Lc-iJ 22: This exercise (3) must be sung in the same manner as indi- cated with No. 2, care being taken as each note gets higher to pass under the preceding note, and not, as it were, to gene- rate a high note over a lower one. After which you may take this : 4 1-:?" T^- J^^^ but sing it very slowly and deliberately, bearing in mind the production of the high notes. As you begin to get all these notes firm and round, you may take these same exercises in D, Dj^, and £[7, but be very care- ful not to force the upper notes. —p — / rD fr\ %T ^,_ rj -c^»- CJ -^^ -(^ -- -^ Exercise 5 is one where the question of the breath and its proper management becomes of vital importance. The reader will observe the notes are bound together, and the student's attention should be turned towards passing from one note to the other without any appreciable difference in the quality — we do not say pitch — of the tone. Having inspired in the manner already explained, the singer will sound the Do with a pure, sympathetic, not harsh or forced, sound ; and by press- ing dozvH the breath, will lift the voice on to Re, When he has succeeded with the step of a second, he can go on to the step of a third, fourth, etc. The care must be to utilize the breath, always supporting the tone with the breath. If the sound wavers, then there is something wrong with the breath. You are either singing with too little, or are forcing the breath. 6 m. I I |-^ ==: -M h^^J - ^ ^ g )— g^ttfr ^- lf ^^ IH^ r^'l^ V) J Ji jt rJ-^ ^=y J fl J And so on. «7 I -1-^ 1- g^=^=^- J= --^^ ■■ =^=r^^— ;jr^ :^^ 3=^ ±^ '-^- And so on, descending the scale by semitones. =2^==^ ■tj—^ :^ ici: -f?^ 2i: B^S S=^I^S 164 A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS. ^ Duration of Practice. — Always guard against over-strain- ing and over-working the voice. Do not sing or practice for a longer time than half an hour without allowing the voice rest for some time. If you have three hours at your disposal daily to devote to singing, the most economical use of the time is to divide it equally between the morning, afternoon, and even- ing. Singing in Tune. — Whatever be your voice, do not take for granted that even the possession of a good ear will always insure your singing in tune. Never practice (nor sing, if you can help it) with a pianoforte which is not well in tune and well " up to pitch." And be very constant in practicing in- tervals, such as major and minor sixths and sevenths, so as to be able to strike them as perfectly in tune and as unvarying in quality as the notes of an organ diapason. Hew to Begin. — Many people never make a good start when beginning to sing any piece. Now a very good remedy for a part of this evil is not to prepare yourself loo soon. Use the bar immediately preceding that in which your part com- mences to gather up your faculties, and, to use a common phrase, " to pull yourself together ;" then let the muscles of the body gently settle down. The ease and freedom acquired by this momentary call upon the system is very remarkable ; and for the singer especially the hint cannot be too often acted upon. Chorus Singing. — If you are studying seriously for solo singing, you must discontinue all chorus singing, especially during training. Singing in church choirs and choral socie- ties must be abandoned. And this not because there is no good to be learned there, but because the little good is by no means commensurate with the great amount of harpi which is acquired along with the good. To enumerate here all the evil habits so easily learnt would be impossible. Not the least of them, however, is the tendency to shout louder than your neighbor, to use yourself to the bad habits of those on each side of you ; to produce a bad tone ; to " chop " the pas- sages instead of phrasing them ; to attack notes carelessly ; to sing coarsely ; to depend on others ; to get into a machine- like regularity of rendering the music. Studying Songs. — Be careful, in studying a new song, not to waste either time or strength by a trifling and super- ficial treatment of it. ' ' Whatever is worth doing at all, is worth doing well." First of all, sol-fa the melody a few times in a full mezzo-voce. Then study it with rather stronger tone, paying attention to lights and shades, yet at the same time being chiefly occupied with the melody itself. Then make your breath-marks, and adhere to the same unfailingly. Then sing the melody once throughout, in order to find the weak places ; having found which, you need no more practice the whole of the melody, but give all the attention to these latter phrases. Having mastered these, the melody will be complete. It will then be necessary to determine where the notes shall be made to bend into each other, to add the nuances, a few graceful figures and effects which belong alone to the true artist. General Music Study. — If you want to be a good singing artist, many more things besides singing should be studied. You should be sufiiciently acquainted with the pianoforte to play your own accompaniments, even of the most difficult songs, well enough to get an idea of them. Then a knowl- edge of harmony, counterpoint, and orchestration is of the greatest value. The study of the best scores, orchestral and vocal, should not be neglected, and further, the student should make himself or herself otherwise familiar with the rise and progress of the art, by reading all the best books on the subject, whether historical, critical, or biographical. r- HINTS TO STAMMERERS. 165 ^ HE chief difficulty with stammerers is to enunciate words or syllables that begin with a consonant ; or, in other words, con- sonant initials. 2. Any violent effort to speak only in- creases the difficulty ; therefore to facilitate this process, speak slowly, with an affected ease, in a style approaching to chanting as distinguished from staccato ; in other words, let the words flow out rather than attempt to jerk them out. 3. When it is recommended to prefix the sound of e — as in the French words le, de, me, se, etc. — it is not intended that this sound should be conspicuous, but inwardly, and little more than mentally, simply to open the glottis and make a free passage for the consonant initial succeeding. 4. The letters w, y, and u, as initials, present special difficulties, which may be obviated by close atten- tion to what follows. 5. The statement sometimes made, that no stammerer ever experienced any difficulty in enunciating a vowel sound, is not true ; all that can be said is that the chief difficulty is invariably found with the consonants. Of course this constant observation of words about to be uttered is attended by some degree of mental strain ; but the life of an inveterate stam- merer is attended by incessant strain from January to December, and without hope of amelioration : in the one case the strain is productive of gopd, and increases confidence ; in the other it is unpro- ductive, and attended with an amount of mental misery inconceivable to all but the sufferer. I. Commencing, then, with a word standing at the beginning of a sentence or phrase, and having a consonant initial ; for instance, " My friend who has just spoken," etc. Here the m of my presents an insuperable difficulty* but prefix to my the sound of e, as in the French Avords le, de, me, se, etc. — inwardly and little more than mentally as already described — and the my will flow out, and with it, probably, the whole of the sentence that follows. Again : " £\ii there is a fatality which attends us," etc. The above remarks apply equally to " B\xi " and the words following ; and the same directions will apply equally to the following and all other sentences or phrases having consonant or compound consonant initials, such as br, pr, dr, si, si, etc.; "Z?own with tyranny," etc.; "i^rom the beginning," etc.; " To infinity," etc.; "iVbw all that has to be changed, etc.; " Thert is one side of our political life," etc.; " Thai shewed the power," etc.; "Z>ur- ing the existence," etc.; "iVbr is that the only mat- ter," etd?; ybhn, Charles, ^Samuel, 77/omas, Cenesis, Zeviticus, iVumbers, Z>euteronomy, Arotland, Spam, etc. For this class of words, the directions for pre- fixing the sound of e as in the French le, etc., will prove amply sufficient. 2. Where one or more words, having consonant initials, stand, not at the beginning but in the body of a sentence, let the following plan be adopted : Write the sentence out first in the ordinary way, for instance, " May he rest in peace." Then divide it artificially, so as to bring every initial consonant at the end of a division, thus : " Im-ay heer-est inp- eace." Practice the reading of this latter form aloud many, times, studying to make it sound as much as possible like the original sentence. In the same way : Time discloses all things — Timed-iscloses allth-ings. Laws are silent in the midst of arms — Laws ars- ilent inth-um-idst of arms. Virtue alone is true nobility — Vir- tue alone istr-oon-obility. Every man has his own pleasures — Everym-an has his ownpl-easures. I came, I saw, I con- quered — Ic-ame, Is-aw, Ic-onquered. A rare bird in the earth, and very like a black swan — Ur-areb-ird inth-e earth andv-eryl-ike ubi-acksw-on. ■^ i66 HINTS TO STAMMERERS. -^ Here it must be noted that every sentence, in speaking or reading, need not be so divided, but only where an obstacle presents itself ; and this can mostly be anticipated by the stammerer with con- siderable certainty ; and further it will be found, that where some formidable word is conquered in this way, a whole host of succeeding words will flow with comparative ease. The above examples will suffice to give a sufficiently intelligible idea of the mode of treating words with consonant initials in the body of a sentence. , 3. Next among deadly enemies are to be recog- nized the letters w,y, and u, as initials. Whenever «/ stands as initial, substitute for it the sound of 00, as in moon. In this way write out and repeat aloud, so as to be able to apply it in colloquial speak- ing : What = oo-ot, when = ooen, why = ooy, where = ooare, whence = ooence, Watkins = 00- otkins, wheel = ooeel, window = ooindow, wait = ooiat, way = ooay, wine — ooine, will = ooil. If the speaker avoid hanging upon the 00, no peculiar- ity will be. observed in his pronunciation, and he will astonish both himself and others by his enuncia- tion of words of this class. It is a most difficult letter, and this substitution will be found most effective. Whenever y stands as initial, substitute for it the sound of ee, as in bee, see, etc. In this way write out Ind repeat aloud as before : Young = eeung, yea = eeay, yet = ee-et, youth = eeooth, yonder = eeonder, Yates = eeates, yeast = ee-east, yesterday = ee-esterday, Yankee = eeankee, year = ee-ear, yore = eeore, yacht = eeot. "Whenever «, having the long sound as in the alphabet, stands as initial, substitute for it the sound of ee, as in bee, followed by 00, as in moon. In this way write out and repeat aloud as before : Universe = eeooniverse, universal = eeooni- versal, unity = eeoonity, unit = eeoonit, unanimous = eeoon- animous, unanimity = eeoonanimity, ubiquity = eeoobiquity, uniform = eeooniform, uniformity = eeooniformity, unicorn = eeoonicom, usage = eeoosage, usual = eeoosual. usurer = eeoosurer, usury = eeoosury. etc. In each of the above cases, the substitution of the equivalent sounds for w, y, and u affords an amount of relief almost incredible ; but care must be taken not to dwell on these substituted sounds, but to pro- nounce them nearly as one syllable. Practice is in every case indispensable. Any one so affected will not grudge the labor of adding to these examples, and practising the same ; and our conviction is that he will iind his labor well rewarded. By the adop- tion of these artifices, I, a deplorable stammerer, was enabled to accomplish for myself what the most eminent professors of the day failed in effecting. To a man who never in his life experienced any difficulty in saying what he wished to say, doubtless these directions may appear very superfluous ; but to one whose daily bread is dependent on a tolerably distinct utterance, the matter will assume a perfectly different aspect. The late Canon Kingsley has touchingly said : " For the torments I have suffered since I was six years old, God alone knows or will know — still to me every stammerer is a friend at once, by unity of sorrow ; after all, perhaps, the most sacred unity on earth." kr- ■^ Jf PENMANSHIP. I^Lr^^llll?Kg^ll^lLW|llliLf^'fc^^ml-'^a^rt|fc THE HISTORY OF ITS RISE AND PROGRESS. fRITING is the art of ex- pressing ideas by visible signs or characters in- scribed on some material. It is either ideographic or phonetic. Ideographic writing may be either pic- torial, representing ob- jects by imitating their forms, or symbolic, by im- itating their nature or pro- portions. Phonetic writ- ing may be syllabic or alphabetic ; in the former each character represents a syllable ; in the latter, a single letter. Of the origin of this art nothing is positively known. The Egyptians ascribed it to Thoth ; the Greeks, to Mercury or Cadmus ; and the Scandinavians, to Odin. The first step towards writing was probably the rude pictorial representation of objects, without any indication of the accessories of time or place ; the next, the application of a symbolic signification to some of the figures, so that the picture of two legs, for example, represented not only two legs, bat also the act of walking. Pictures, abbreviated for con- venience, gradually became conventional signs, and in time these characters were made to stand for the sound of spoken language. The various systems of writing of the ancient world had probably at least three different sources — the Egyptian, the Assyrian and the Chinese systems, all of which were originally hieroglyphic. The Egyp- tians practiced four distinct styles of writing — the hieroglyphic, hieratic, demotic or enchorial, and Coptic. Hieroglyphic writing, which was in use much earlier than 3,000 B.C., was probably at first ideographic ; its symbols became gradually used to represent abstract ideas, and in time acquired a phonetic value. The phonetic characters are both syllabic and alphabetic. In the latter, pictoral figures are used to express the initial letters of the words which they represent ; for example, the*figure of an eagle, akhoni^ stands for a, of an owl," mulag, for ///, etc. The hieratic writing, which probably came into use 2,000 B.C., was a simplified form of the hie- roglyphic style, in which the pictorial symbols de- veloped through a stage of linear hieroglyph into a kind of curious hand. The demotic or enchorial writing was of a still simpler form of the hieroglyphic, and a nearer approach to the alphabetic system. It was in use from about the 7th century B.C. till the 2d century A.D., when it was gradually superseded by the Coptic, which grew out of the hieratic and demotic under Greek influences. The Ethiopians also used hieroglyphs similar to those of the Egyptians, and their current written language resembled the Egyptian demotic, but its alphabet had fewer symbols. At a later period a third graphic system, somewhat analogous to the Coptic, came into use, which may be called Ethiopic Greek. With what people the Assyrian Cuneiform or Spheno- graphic styles of writing originated is not known, but it was originally without doubt a hieroglyphic sys- tem, and became gradually modified by the different 4r- i68 PENMANSHIP. nations which occupied the Assyrian empire, until it assumed the form of the present known inscriptions. There are three classes of Cuneiform characters— the Assyrian or Babylonian, the Scythian or Median, and the Persian. The first is the most complicated, 4- containing from 600 to 700 symbols ; the second is less complicated, but contains about 100 symbols, or three times as many as the third, which is almost purely alphabetic. Of these three original systems, the Egyptian is by far the most important/for from its hieratic symbols was probably derived the Phoe- nician alphabet, the parent of almost all the princi- pal graphic systems of the world. The Roman letters were used in Italy until the latter part of the 6th century, when the Lombardic style was introduced. This is also sometimes called Roman, because used by the Popes in their bulls ; it continued in use until the 13th century. The Visigothic style, carried into Spain by the Visigoths, was legally abolished in 1091, and Latin letters were adopt- ed for all public instru- ments. In France the Merovingian style pre- vailed from the close of the 6th century to the end of the 8th. Char- lemagne introduced the Caroline, which, having degenerated before the close of the loth century, was restored by Hugh Capet, and was subse- quently called the Cape- tian. It was in use in England, France, and Germany till the middle of the 12th century, when the modern Gothic spread all over Europe. The present German al- phabet is a modification of this. There are no traces of writing in Britain before the Roman conquest, when Latin letters were introduced. What is called the Roman-Saxon, resembling the Roman, prevailed until the middle of the 8th century ; the set Saxon succeeded it, lasting until the middle of the 9th ; this was followed by the nmning- hand Saxon of the time of Alfred ; the mixed -^ r- PENMANSHIP. 169 y Saxon, combining the Roman, Lomba^dic, and Saxon letters ; and the elegant Saxon, wKich was introduced in the loth century, and did not become obsolete until the middle of the 12th. The Norman style, quaint, illegible, affected, and composed of letters nearly Lombard ic, came in with William the Conqueror. The modem Gothic dates in England from the 1 2th century ; the old English, from the middle of the 14th. The English court had a barbarous cor- ruption of the Norman, which was contrived by the lawyers of the i6th century, and lasted till the reign of George II., when it was abolished by law. The utmost diversity exists among different nations in the manner or direction of writing ; but in general the Semitic races wrote from right to left, and the Aryan from left to right. In form ancient manuscripts were either rolls, volumm'a, or flat pages like our printed books, codices. The Egyptian papyri are usually in rolls of an indefinite length, according to the subject matter, but some of the smaller ones are flat. The transcripts of manuscripts were committed by the Greeks and Romans principally to slaves, who were esteemed of great value when they excelled in the art. There were also at Rome professional copy- ists, some of whom were women. About the 5th century, associations of scribes, who worked under stringent rules, were formed. In the middle ages copying was almost exclusively in the hands of ecclesiastics, who were called clerks, clerici. In the Imperial library at Vienna is a Roman calendar executed in the first half of the 4th century. In the Vatican there is a fragment of a Virgil of the 4th century. The most ancient manuscripts extant are the papyrus rolls from the tombs of Egypt, where the dryness of the climate and of the sand beneath which they were buried preserved them in an almost perfect condition for thousands of years. 4r j^iaiBigBwHSapiB^MH EGIN with good paper, good pens, good ink. In a good copy the letters should be of elegant form, and constructed on natural principles. Every letter should be as perfect as it is possi^ ble for human skill to execute, that wherever it occurs it may present an unvarying model to pupil. The turns and slopes should be alike, loops of the same length and width, the proper distances between the letters carefully ob- served, and shade duly distributed. Curlicues, flourishes, and ornamental capitals, may delight an amateur in a show-case ; a thorough business man detests them in his correspondence. In a lady's writing they are sim- ply vulgar. The course of instruction given in the copies should consti- tute a system, arranged in that order of progression which" is indicated by a careful analysis of the forms of the letters and of the powers of the human hand, so that each advance miy pre- pare the way for the next, and the steps not be farther apart than the necessities of the case compel. To this end, the simpler forms should precede the more complex ; the short, the long. Those that have similar curves and turns and iden- tical parts should be together. Words should precede sen- tences. The columns should be first narrow, then broader, to accustom the hand by degrees to move easily on the given rests across the longest word. These columnar sections, in- tended to be written down, are the gradual preparation for the sentences, which occupy the width of the page. The se- lection of the words for the columns should be in accordance with the same principle of progressiveness, — first the easier, then the more difficult combinations. In them the loops should so occur that when the copy is written they may be hand- somely distributed, and the general appearance of the page be harmonious. A good paper costs more, but it is indispensable. It should be tolerably thick, well laid, with a smooth surface, moder- ately glazed ; so that the ink will not show through when dry, and that there may be no roughness or little hairs for the pen to pick up, and that the pen may glide along without jar on the muscles or nerves of the fingers and hand, — a very impor- tant consideration now that steel pens are used, as paralysis has in several instances resulted from their use, and their in- jurious effect must needs be greater on a rough surface. A white paper is generally to be preferred to a blue, indeed is almost invariably used. The pen should be fine-pointed, so that a good hair-line can be made, and have a good springy nib, that the shades may be cleanly cut, and that the writing may not be rendered stiff, a result inevitably following the use of a " hard " pen. They should be of a uniform character as much as possible, — not one r; lo PENMANSHIP. -^ very hard and another very soft. Slight differences cannot be avoided ; those that vary least are the best, if they are right in other respects. A new pen is often greasy, owing to a certain process in the manufacture, and will not retain the ink. Dip it and raise it from the ink slowly, then wipe it ; repeat this two or three times and the trouble will be removed. Good ink is a very difficult thing to procure. It should be sufficiently fluid to flow easily from the pen, dark enough to enable the pupil to see at the time what he is writing, and to judge of hair-strokes and shades. It must not evaporate rapidly from the inkstand, nor leave a layer of mud in it ; neither should it mould. Frost should not affect it. Ink should stain the paper in order to be permanent. Its color when thoroughly dry should be a deep black, which neither time nor exposure to the sun can change. Pupils will learn by experiment that, if they raise the pen from the ink suddenly, it will be too full, and apt to blot ; if very slowly, the attraction of the fluid will leave none in the pen ; and, therefore, a moderate motion must be used. One experiment is worth hours of talking. Attention to this will save many a blot. Cleanliness is as absolutely necessary for the well-being of the pen as for our own. Pens should be carefully cleaned at the close of the exercise. Always dip and wipe a new pen two or three times before it is written with, or it will be very likely to make a blot. To avoid the same mishap, the pen should never be wiped on the outside of the pen-wiper, but always between the leaves of it. Should the pen-wiper then happen to get on the book, no dam- age will be done. A stiff blotter will last the longest, but common blotting- paper, or a piece of newspaper, or any paper, will answer, not indeed for blotting, but for the use we now designate. The copy-book must be kept perfectly clean, and the blotter is to be used for that purpose. The right hand does not soil the book, for it rests on the nails of two fingers and only touches the page with them. It is the left hand that does the mischief. To obviate it, place the blotter so as to cover each column as soon as it is dry after being written, and rest the left hand on that, and not on the page. iiOiAiAiAtAiAiAiAtAii*^ k k k Position, Rests, and Movements. HE immediate human instrument in writing is the arm. It consists of three parts, the upper- arm, the fore-arm, and the hand. The two connections of these are the elbow and wrist. The arm is attached to the body by the shoulder- joint. The position of the body must, there- fore, evidently depend upon the use we wish to make of the arm and hand. This use, then, must be determined first. Various ones have been advo- cated by different teachers. The three following are the most strongly distinguished ; the others arise from combinations of two or more of them. First, considering the shoulder as a point of suspension, and moving the whole arm without any support and without any motion of the finger-joints. There are, however, very few who possess sufficient muscular strength and steadiness of nerve to write thus. It is the true move- ment for striking large capitals and flourishing. Secondly, resting the fore-arm near the elbow and on the nails of the third and fourth fingers, and forming the letters by its move- ment without any help from the pen-fingers. Thirdly, rest- ing the fore-arm and hand as in the last, while the letters are formed by the movement of those fingers only which hold the pen. This generally leads to a feeble, constrained style. There Must Be Freedom of Style. — This condition can only be fulfilled by keeping the arm free from all unnatural constraint. This precludes it from affording any support to the body. Again, the letters are to be written across the page on a horizontal line. A requirement of beauty is that this line should be straight. This is secured without much diffi- culty where the base is ruled. The only important thing is to keep on it. If, now, we take pen in hand, use the elbow, placed opposite the middle of the page, for a pivot, and move the hand across, we find that the arc of a circle is described, touching the base' line in only two points. In the middle it rises a full half inch above the base line. This is a difficulty to be overcome. Once more, whilst mere form does not de- mand consideration here, because readiness in shaping letters can only be acquired by practice, yet uniformity of slope and similarity of turns, which are required, will evidently greatly depend upon the maintenance of the same relative position of the pen, hand, and fore-arm for each letter. If we now ob- serve a little farther the movement above described, we find that in it the position of the hand in relation to each succeed- ing letter is changed, and assumes a new direction. How can this difficulty be overcome ? Again, it is clear that we -shall be able to write much faster, if the pen touches the paper lightly, than if it presses on it heavily : this also contributes greatly to freedom of style. Finally, in order to boldness of style, powerful muscles must, if possible, be brought into play in aid of the slight muscles of the fingers, while fonning the letters. This would also help to prevent fatigue. To sum up, the essentials of the work to be done are : long continu- ance, freedom, forming the letters on a horizontal straight line across the page, uniformity of slope and similarity of turns, rapidity and boldness. The conditions we have found to be hereby imposed on the arm are : avoidance of unnatural con- straint, relief of all unnecessary pressure, movement of the hand and fore-arm across the page with the same relative po- sition to each letter, and counteraction of the curve arising from this movement, adequate support, and use of powerful muscles. The Human Instrument.— A little in front of the elbow, at the thickest part of the fore-arm, we find a mass of muscle If the arm is placed on the desk, suspended from the shoulder, and resting lightly on this mass as a support, we find an ex- cellent ability for moving the fore-arm on it with freedom from left to right and back again, within a certain limited distance. ^ r- PENMANSHIP. % IT? ' the muscle rolling under the arm. We will name this support the tolling rest. It is o£ the highest importance to observe the peculiar movement of the fore-arm on this rest. It is not to be so used as that, when the hand passes to the left, the elbow moves to the right, and vice versa. The fore-arm moves side- ways as the muscle rolls under it, with sufficient play, when it is placed at right angles to the base line and opposite the mid- dle of a word or short clause, to carry the hand across from one end of it to the other without changing its direction. Bending the wrist sideways to the right — a most cramping movement, and painful if frequently repeated — is thus rendered quite unnecessary, and should be carefully watched against. By turning the third and fourth fingers under, so that the hand can rest on the comer of their nails, or, if preferred, on the little finger only, another support, like the runners of a sleigh, is provided, capable of moving freely over the paper. We name this the sliding rest. To. avoid friction, the wrist should not touch the desk ; by means of the two rests, it may easily and comfortably be kept a little raised. These, then, we conceive to be the natural positions and rests, — namely, the right hand and fore-arm in the same straight line, at right angles to the line of writing, and oppo- site the middle of a long word or a clause of moderate length. The fore-arm is supported on the rolling rest, the hand on the sliding rest, and the wrist slightly raised. The left fore-arm and hand are placed at right angles to the right fore-arm, with the fingers on the blotter, which covers the part already written, to steady the book, and move it when necessary. The left fore-arm is therefore in the direction of the line of writing. What now are the movements of the right fore-arm and hand? On the rolling rest the whole fore-arm moves, so as always to be parallel to its first position, and carries with it the hand supported on the sliding rest. The rolling rest is sta- tionary ; the sliding rest glides along the paper on a horizon- tal line, — that is, parallel to the line of writing : this is its only movement. The whole fore- arm and hand move gradually to the right in this way, with a nearly continuous motion, for the formation of the successive letters, so that their relative posi- tion to every letter is the same. All stoppages of the nails and jerks to get the hand forward are to be absolutely forbidden. This movement of the hand is named the sliding movement ; the movement of the fore-arm we have named the comital movement (Lat. comes, a companion), because it accompatiies the hand. Since the comital movement is more or less limited, some further means must be found of keeping the fore-arm and hand in the right relative position to the letters. Two methods offer themselves to us for selection. One is, to draw the paper to the left as we write. The other, which we prefer, is, by means of a lift from the shoulder, to place the fore-arm and hand in a position farther to the right : this should be done only at the end of a word. To distinguish this movement, we have named it the lateral movement. In performing it, the hand slides as before. Experiment will now demonstrate that, by the adoption of the rolling rest and the lateral movement, the difficulty mentioned above, of the curve formed by the hand crossing the page, is entirely done away with. For the attaining of Boldness of Style, the powerful muscles of the fore-arm must be brought into action by a slight play of the whole fore-arm forwards and backwards, in direc- tion of the slope on the rolling rest, over the sliding rest, — a fixed point, so far as this movement is concerned. This gives a full heft, through the medium of the hand, to the fingers which move the pen, and, as a consequence, boldness of style ; just as a large and massive stone rolling down a hill maintains its course over considerable inequalities of surface, while the slightest obstacle diverts a small and light one. This play of the fore-arm we name the muscular movement. The resulting play of the hand, as the medium of its transmission to the pen- fingers, we name the medial movement. We are now prepared to form a correct judgment as to the best position of the body for the accomplishing of these move- ments most naturally, and consequently with the least fatigue. It may be summed up in two words. The body must be upright and self-supported. Its relative position to the desk is a matter of comparative indifference ; only, all the pupils should conform to one plan. Each position has its advantages and inconveniences. The simplest division of positions is twofold ; the right side to the desk, and the face to the desk. Where we adopt the former, we direct the pupil to turn on his seat, so that his right side may be directly to the desk with- out touching ; the body to be erect, and supported by the spi- nal column ; the left foot slightly advanced. The book is ad- justed with the back to the front edge of the desk, and at a two-seated desk, the top edge of one at the outside edge of the desk, of the other in a line with the inkstand. When opened, the left side of the page to be written is to be placed at the edge of the desk. The left hand is brought across, and the fingers placed on the left side of the page to keep it steady. The right fore-arm is placed on the desk, parallel with the front edge. If necessary, from short-sightedness or bad adap- tation of the height of the seats to the desks, the body maybe inclined forward from the seat, — never by rounding the back and contracting the chest, — and the head may be bowed some- what forward by bending the neck. The advantages of this plan of seating the scholars are : the perfectly natural position of the body ; the freedom of the right arm from all avoidable weight, and its ability to form the movements required ; the certainty that both rests are on the desk ; and the facility with which the teacher can look down the files and along the lines in large classes, and see that every pen is rightly held, and every movement correctly made. • An objection to this posi- tion is made on the ground that, in business, when using large account-books, it is impossible. We reply, that we adopt this position for learners, because it is very convenient for the teacher. When the art is acquired, the position becomes com- paratively a matter of indifference. Where we adopt the second method of seating, namely, the body fronting the desk fairly, or with more or less inclination of the right or left side to it, we take care of these two points : that both rests of the right fore-arm shall be on and be kept on the desk, and that the book is at right angles to the right fore-arm. The following troubles are apt to arise : A tendency to sprawl over the desk, and, as a necessary conse- quence, to press the chest against it, — a practice most injuri- r- -^ 172 PENMANSHIP. 1 ous. The book gets turned from its proper position at right angles to the right fore-arm. When writing down a column, a habit we strongly commend for learners, the book must be continually pushed up, or the back rest of the arm will get more and more off the desk. Indeed, pupils are sometimes found actually resting the wrist on the front edge of the desk. On the other hand, this is often the only position the seats ad- mit of ; it is the position that must be adopted, when writing in large account-books ; and there is no necessity that the above faults should prevail. They certainly will not under the care of a faithful teacher. We conclude, then, that the posi- tion of the body at the desk is matter of indifference, provided it is upright and self-supported. The next point which claims our attention is the manner of holding the pen, and the movement of the pen-fingers. We have seen that the hand is supported on the sides of the nails of the third and fourth fingers. Their ends, being bent under, are separated from the others, and there is room for the execu- tion of the pen-finger movements. The fingers should touch one another at the second joints, as far as the shape of the hand permits : this gives unity and support. The pen is held by means of the thumb and the first and second fingers. Place the right extremity of the holder against the left side of the second finger just below the nail ; the end of the finger will thus be above the pen. Next, adjust the holder obliquely across the left side of the third portion of the first finger, just behind the second jomt, the middle finger be- ing at the same time slightly bent. The first two portions of the forefinger may now be closed down on the holder, which will be found to cross and touch them diagonally. The first and second fingers touch throughout. Next, let the upper cor- ner of the fleshy part of the thumb, near the nail, be placed, by slightly bending the thumb, against the lower half of the left side of the holder, opposite the first joint of the middle finger, and the pen will be found in a secure and natural po- sition, both for extension and retraction. It will be observed that we have given the medium position of the pen. The fin- gers and thumb with the joints slightly bent outwards, straight- ening them would extend the pen ; bending them still more would retract it. The pen is really held between three points, — the side of the end of the second finger, the side of the third portion of the first finger behind the second joint in front of the knuckle, and the side of the end of the thumb. The first finger is like the lid of a box placed on it to keep the pen from jumping out ; it is also the principal agent in ef- fecting the pressure for the shades. As to movement, the thumb may be regarded as a spring. The first and second fingers, by contraction of their muscles, press against it ; we relax its muscles, and it yields by bending : thus the downward strokes are made. By relaxing, in turn, the muscles of the fingers, and straightening the thumb by calling its muscles into action, it pushes back the fingers, and the up-strokes are formed. The movement is twofold and alternate, extending and retracting, to form oblique lines, ovals, or horizontals. The pen must be held with the least possible grasp. It is to be at right angles to the base line, and thus in a line with the fore-arm. Great care must be taken to guard against a wrong position of the hand and pen. The pen must be so held that the right side is turned a little down, so that the right nib touches the paper first when the pen is put down. With this right nib the hair-strokes are made. The nibs, so to speak, are at right angles to the slope ; not horizontal. By this means the shades can be made smooth. When it is neglected, the shades will be " scratchy," or rough on one side. A glance at the holder tells the teacher in a moment if the hand is right. With beginners, it will be found almost as variable as a weath- ercock. Now it is inclined to the right, showing that the hand is lying down, — a fault requiring constant watchfulness, and arising from neglect of the comital movement of the fore-arm ; now to the left, showing that the hand is turned too far over in that direction. Now the end points outwards, showing the elbow has got away ; again, it points inwards, showing that the wrist is bent to the right. The body with the right side to the desk, or directly facing it, or with either side more or less turned to it. It is to be up- right and self-supported. The fore-aims rest lightly on the desk at right angles to one another. The right is supported by the rolling rest, and the hand by the sliding rest. The left arm has the fingers on the left side of the book, to steady it and to move it when neces- sary. The copy-book is placed with its vertical lines in the direction of the right fore-arm, and its horizontal lines in that of the left. It must be kept far enough on the desk to allow the rests also to be on. This position of the book at right angles to the right fore-arm is invariable, whatever direction the arm may be in on the desk. The rolling rest is the muscle in front of the elbow ; the sliding rest, the comers of the nails of the third and fourth fingers bent under. The movements of the fore-arm are three. The comital, which accompanies the sliding movement of the hand, and is made sidewise on the rolling rest. The muscular, which causes the medial movement of the hand, and gives heft to the pen-fingers. It is a play of the arm forwards and backwards on the rolling rest. The consequent medial movement of the hand is made over the sliding rest, of which the only move- ment is in a horizontal line. The lateral is the lifting and moving the whole fore-arm and hand to the right : it is ren- dered necessary by the limited scope of the comital. The simplest movement for beginners is to form the letters by the motion of the fingers, moving the hand and arm along by the united sliding and comital movements, which should be nearly continuous. When thoroughly familiar with these, after considerable practice, the medial and muscular movements may be added to give freedom and boldness of style. The lateral will not be needed until sentences are written. The movements of the pen fingers are in different directions, by extension and retraction : thus are written oblique straight lines ; ovals, direct, inverted, and alternate ; and horizontal lines. The shades are made by pressure. As to these, great care is needed. They must be made in ovals, with a gradual increase and diminution of pressure. The usual fault is to make them too abrupt, or with the greatest thickness too long continued. The moment the thickest point is reached, the pressure should begin to diminish. Special directions are given in the analysis of the letters, where needed. -4 PENMANSHIP. »73 £leifi)eK)fe ^K)S ^lriK)cij}le3. ■^rF^*^>; 'ORDS are represented in writing by a single letter, or by a combination of letters. Letters are complex ; they can be resolved into forms common to several of them : thus, the form repeated in u is found also in i and 10 ; or, they are expressed by one such form as /, found in g and y. In some there are parts not found in any other. In writing, the letters are placed on horizontal lines, either ruled or imaginary. Some of the letters and parts of others are longer than the rest. The letter 0, which is the pure oval, is taken as the standard of size. We name the line on which the writing rests the Base Line. Suppose a line parallel to this to be drawa so as to touch the top of the o. This, whether ruled or imaginary, is named the Head Line. The distance between the base and head lines is called one space, and gives the height of the first four principles, wherever they enter into the formation of letters. The dot of the r, the point of the s, the top of the second part of the k^ are one-third of a space higher. Suppose, now, six lines parallel to the base line to be drawn, three above the head line, and three below the base line, at intervals equal to the first space. We shall have eight par- allel lines bounding seven equal spaces in a vertical direction. We call the middle space the first ; the next above and below, the second ; the next, the third ; and the last, the fourth. One of these spaces is taken for the unit of measurement. Rule. — Loop letters are four spaces, and double loops seven ; / and d two and a half, q three and a half,/ five, two above and two below the first space. All the rest are one space, except r, j, and the second part of k. which are one and a third. The capitals are four spaces. It will be observed that/i long j, and / extend as far above the first space as they do below ; and that the top of / is a little higher than that of t and d. and the bottom oi g ■&. little lower than that of/. The commencing and ending lines of the letters are always to begin and terminate at the biise and head lines respectively. There are two grammatical divisions of letters, distinguished by their forms : the small letters, which form the main body of writing, and the capitals, which are used on special occa- sions. We shall begin with the analysis of the small letters, because they occur oftenest and because their forms are sim- pler. We shall not take them up in their alphabetical order, but in that which gives the easiest first, and shows their simi- larity, arising from the possession of common principles. This is the method adopted in our copy-books, in order to render our system of teaching gradually progressive. 4r- THE CAPITAL LETTERS. General Rules. The height of the capitals is four spaces, the same as the loop letters. A. This letter has three parts. The first part is generally written upwards, the upper curve very slight. The second part is very slightly curved to one-third from the top, then it is a straight line, of which the shade gradually increases. The third part is the cross. It starts -from the right foot, coincides for a half space, crosses to the left and forms a loop, the center of which is one-third the height of the letter, and on the double curve line. A line from the top through the center of the letter would be on the main slope ; hence it will be seen that the second part, or down-stroke, has a little less than the main slope, the first part a little more. Observe that the width of the letter gradually increases from the top to the base, and regulate the first up-stroke accordingly. N. This letter consists of three parts. The first two are the same as in A^ except in slope ; at the bottom of the second a very narrow turn is made, and and a curve carried up from it, parallel to the first up- stroke, four-fifths the height of the letter. The spaces on a horizontal line across the middle are equal. The shade begins as in /4, and is heaviest just before the turn. A line drawn through the centre of the letter, dividing it into two equal lateral halves, would be on the main slope. Observe the gradual increase and diminution of width in the two sections. See the cautions on A . M. This letter has four parts. The first three are the same as N^ ex- cept that the third stroke is carried to the full height. The fourth part is curved from the top, and closes with the direct oval. Observe the shades carefully. A line through the centre, dividing the letter into equal lateral halves, would be on the main slope. The viridths at the top and the two at the base are equal. On a horizontal line through the middle there are three equal spaces. T has two parts. The strongest curve is in the lower section. There is no shade except in the third principle and dot. F'\^ T crossed in the middle by a small double curve placed horizon- tally, which is itself crossed by a small straight line on the main slope. P. This letter has two parts, the stem and the cap. It is on the main slop)e. The cap begins with the inverted oval, two-thirds the height, on the main slope, crossing the stem at right angles, the highest point of the cap being in the middle of the line between the section of the oval and the stem ; it is continued with the right curve, and terminates on the stem in a dot at half the height of the letter. On the short di- ameter of the first oval produced to the stem, there are four equal spaces ; on a parallel line from the left curve of the oval crossing the stem to the other curve, two equal spaces. A line on the main slope through the oval would pass through the dot. B. The stem and cap are like/", only that the right si je is carried down one-third instead of a half, and the dot is omitted. The separa- tion between the upper and lower sections of the right side is made by a horizontal loop. The lower curve ends with the inverted oval. A straight line drawn on the main slope, touching the right side of the upper curve, would pass through the center of the lower oval ; the lower right curve, therefore, projects beyond the upper. Across the first oval to stem on its short diameter produced, there are four equal spaces similarly as to the last oval, three. On a parallel line from the right side of the first oval to the right side of the upper lobe, there are two equal spaces. R is like B as far as the separating loop, which is here made at right angles to the main slope. After that the descending curve is turned back to finish with the direct oval. Across each of the two ovals to the stem on their short diameters produced, there are four equal spaces. On a parallel line from the right side of the first oval to the right side of the upper lobe there are two equal spaces. A line on the main slope through the oval would pass through the dot. X. The capital-stem is made first, writing downwards. Then the in- verted oval and direct oval joined by a straight line on the main slope. The two parts of the letter coincide through half the height, commenc- ing at one-fourth from the top. Across the ovals there sire four equai spaces The remark on the dot applies also. 174 PENMANSHIP. 4r S. Begin from base line with the rijjht curve on the slope of the con- necting lines to half the height of the letter, then form a loop on the main slope, half the height, complete a double curve, and end with a dot on the commencing line. The dot is half a space high, and on the main slope. The double curve h the essential part of tiiis letter. No- tice how the loop is formed on the upper part, and the greater intensity of cur\e is on the lower part. Let the shade begin just below the loop, and be nicely graduated. Give much attention to the lower turn and the dot. An oblique line through the loop lengthwise has similar curves formed on the double curve, on the upper left and lower right side. L. This letter begins like 5, but the double curve, instead of making a turn to end with the dot, is carried to the left to form a horizontal loop, v/hich rests on the base line, and whose thickness is half a space ; it descends on the right side to touch the base line at precisely the same distance from the crossing as on the left side, and ends with the direct oval incomplete. The lower curve of the stem is stronger than the upper. It will be observed that the upper curve of the horizontal loop, and the curve to the right which touches the base line, together form a double curve. The right section only of the direct oval is used. The shade begins as in the S, below the loop. The bottom of this letter, which may be termed the /.-foot, occurs also in Z>, Q, and one form of Z. Take care that the direct oval is made on the main slope. /. Begin v/ith the left curve at the height of one space from the base line, carry it round to the right to form a circular loop, and continue to curve to the height of the letter. The second part of the capital-stem and dot passing through the center of the circular loop, whose center is also in the middle of the stem. Take care that the upper part of the head is not made too broad. Modify the curve gently to accord with the upper part of the stem. y. This letter begins as the /, but the circular loop is not so high; its lov/cr curve is one space from the base line, and the double curve is carried dov.-n to form a loop, the same length as j\ three spaces belov/ the line. The left curve of the loop crosses at the base line. A line through the length of the loop should pass through the upper part of the letter. Notice the slight intensity of the curve in both parts of the stem. The heaviest shade is in the middle of the right side of the loop. The loop is one space wide. //. The commencement is the third principle. Next, the double curve with a loop, the hair-stroke of v/hich is carried across and upwards, on the sane slope, to form another loop similar to the first ; this side is finished virith the direct oval. The first section is a little lower than the second, which is the full height. The middle of the hair-line between the two stcns is half the height of the letter ; hence each loop is a little less than hclf the height. An oblique line through the center, dividing the central space equally, would be on the main slope. The width be- tween the down-strokes at the middle is one space. The second loop is longer than the first. IC. The first part is T. The second part consists of the left curve turned back to make a small separating loop, then continued symmet- rically with the upper part, and closed v/ith the direct oval. The sepa- rate curve is inclined as in i?, and is one-third the height of the letter from the top. The slope is the same as in //. y. Commencement. Next, down-stroke straight, shaded heaviest near the turn, which is narrow, like those of the small letters. Then, up-stroke parallel to previous one, branching off into the left curve, and terminated at the same height as the top of the introductory part. An oblique line through the centre, dividing the letter into two equal parts, would be on the main slope. /K. Commencement. Next, double curve down, ending on the base line ; then, double curve up with more slope. The second down-stroke is like the second of A , very slightly curved one-third, and then straight. The final stroke is the left curve, as in N. The spaces on a horizontal line drawn through the middle of the letter are equal. A line from the middle point at the top through the center of the letter would be on the main slope. Z. Gimmencement. The dov/n-stroke and foot like Z^, except that the lower curve of the stem is a little less intense. It has the main slope. D. This letter begins v>rith the double curve, commenced at the height of the letter ; its foot is like that of L until it touches the base line on the right side, whence it is carried up as the right side of an oval, crosses the stem near its top, and ends with the direct oval. The highest part of the letter is well in front of the stem. Q. Begin with the inverted oval, and end like L. The oval is on the main slope. C. Begin with the left curve from the base line to half the height ; next, make a loop half the height ; end with the direct oval. Take care that the loop does not pitch over too much. It necessarily has more than the main slope. £. Begin with the left curve a little distance from the base line, carry it two-thirds high, and make a loop one-third ; continue the curve to form a small separating, nearly horizontal, loop to the right, and close with the direct oval. The separating loop is a little inclined down tc» the right, to correspond to the lower oval. G. Begin with the left curve ; then, a loop two-thirds the'height ol the letter ; continue the down-stroke as the bottom of an oval, whose width is twice that of the loop, the bottom of t.he turn being one-fourth from the base line. End with a double curve and dot : the double curve is half the height of the letter. Both parts of the letter are on the main slope. A line through the length of the loop would pass through the dot. V. This letter begins with the inverted oval, continues like third principle to one-fourth from the base line, but the lower turn much narrower than the upper, and ends with the double curve and dot ; height, two-thirds. U. Begin with the inverted oval ; continue as V, except that it rests on the base line. The second part is a straight line ending with a di- rect oral. The top of the second part lower than that of the first. Its width is two spaces. 'kuihfi o/ 'Wdim^. (^1*P"pT^ "^='^' I " 1 " I ^ ^T^^P^^F^ FFF T T Y T ^A^ T T ^i ^ 4^ 4^ ^ <> 4^ ^ ^ ^■^ ^ O- ^ ^ O (^^^^^LASSIFICATION relates to the arrangement of the letters in groups, according to their pos- session of common forms. Since every letter must have something peculiar to distinguish it from others which have a common principle, classification includes a description of this peculi- arity, which is termed the characteristic. CLASSES OF SMALL LETTERS. The most natural and convenient division of the small letters seems to give four classes. Some letters will be found to belong to t\vo of them. The reason of the position here assigned is obvious. First Class.— Those letters which consist chiefly of the first, second, and third principles, ?', u^ «, w?, v^ w, x. Second Class.— Those formed from the oval, or the fourth principle, ^, rt, c, e. These two classes contain all the short letters except two. Third Class.— Those which have stems formed of the first element,/, q, i, d. These are called the Stem Letters. Fourth Class.— Those which have the fifth and sixth principles,^,*, /, ^,y, ^, ^, 2,y, long s. These are the Loop Letters. Besides these, there are two letters whose forms are anomalous, r, j. CHARACTERISTICS. The characteristics of the letters are as follows : In the First Class. Of /, one straight line with tur-n at the bottom and the dot above it ; — of u, two straight lines with turns at the bottom ; — of «, two straight lines with turns at the top /—of ;«, three straight lines with turns at the ioJ> ; — of », its two nearly parallel sides and the dot ;— A2y. y^a/. /^??^^«?2^^;^^i^f?^>%^i^^%^is PENMANSHIP. r^ of TV, its alternately parallel sides and the dot ; of jr, the straight line forming the cross. In ihe Second Class. Of o, the oval ; — of a, the addition of the first principle ;— of c, the dot ; — of e, the loop. In the Third Class. Of/, the third principle affixed; — of 7, the fourth principle prefixed -.—of /, the cross j— of d, the fourth principle prefixed to the /-stem without the cross. In the Fourth Class. Of A, the third principle affixed; — of A, the knot or kink ;— of /, the turn at the bottom ; — of 6, the parallel sides of the lower part and the dot ; — of/, the dot ; — of g, the fourth principle pre- fixed ; — of ^, the third principle prefixed ; — of z, the second principle and shoulder ; in the other form, the zig-zag \—oiy, the knot. In the anomalous letters. Of r, the dot and shoulder ; — of s, the twist on the right side. OF CAPITALS. We give the Capitals in the order of their introduction. O, — A , N, M, —P, F-P, B, R, X,-S, L—T, 7—H, K—V, ^K-Z, D, Q—C, £—G, K, I/. OCCURRENCE OF PRINCIPLES. The capital-stem, or line of beauty, ending with a dot, occurs in four- teen letters, A , TV, Af, T, F, P, B, P, X, S, I, /C, G, Y. The capital-stem is written :— Generally upwards and light, in three letters, A, N, M. Downwards and light, in eleven letters, T, F, P, B, P, X, H, A', H^, Z,D. Downwards, light and short, in two letters, G, V. Downwards and shaded in the lower curve, in three letters, /, Z, 5. Downwards, prolonged into a loop, shaded on the right side, in one letter, J. The third principle of small letters is used for the commencement of seven letters, T, C, //, X, V, IV, Z. The direct oval, when of full size, forms the O. Four-fii'ths of the vertical height, it is the end or front of D. Half the height, it terminates eight letters, >1/, /?, A', H^ X, C, E, U. One-third the height, it ends Z,, Z, Q. The inverted oval, two-thirds the height, commences seven letters, P, B, P, X, Q, U, Y. Half the height it ends one letter, B. A curve and circular loop are used for the head of /, % The loop, half the height of the letter, is found in six letters, 5", L, J, H, C, G; one-third the height, in E. The knot, kink, or small separating loop, is found in three letters, .5, Py K ; turned in the opposite direction, in E. The horizontal loop, or Z-foot, is found in four letters, Z., Z>, Q, Z. The first element, very slightly curved to one-third from the top, is found in A , N, M, IV; straight throughout, and closed by a turn, in V. Combination of Letters. OMBINATION treats of the arrangement of letters in words at proper distances. This is generally spoken of as Spacing. It is effected f^'|3 by the connecting lines of the two letters run- I ning into one another, and thus forming one line, which may be distinguished as the Combining Line. Good taste requires that the letters in a word should look about the same distance apart ; in other words, that the space on the line which the word occupies should be evenly filled. If this is neglected, the writing will look "patchy," — crowded in one place, scattered in another. We propose, therefore, to give rules for these distances, and to point out the reasons on which they depend. Every letter ends with a straight line, having a diagonal connecting line with a turn, as u, or without a turn, as/, q; or is an oval with a horizontal connecting line ; or is open on the right side, as c and e. Every letter begins with a straight line, having a diagonal connecting line without a turn, as u, h, p, or with a turn, as n, y ; or is an oval, as, o, a ; or is open on the left side, as j, in which the up-stroke is merely the con- necting line. The combinations of these different classes of letters may be determined by the following rules : Rule i. — When tv/o straight lines, or a straight line and an oval, are tmited by one turn and a combining line, or by a combining line only, the distance between them is one space, the height of o; as «V, «/, 7/, ill, ip; JO, ie: gi,go, qn, etc. Between is, us, etc., the distance is really the same, because the width of j equals that of o.- bat since we have to measure to the right side, it is a space and a half. Remark — In if, ih, ip, where the combining line joins the straight line at one-half, one-third, and the top, respectively, the distance is kept by giving less slope to the combining line. In^/, y«, etc., the same means are used. Rule 2. — When two straight lines are united by two turns and a combining line, the distance is one space and a half ; as, in, ir, nu, my, pn, etc. Remark.— This gives room enough to make the turns properly, and the line crossing diagonally prevents the distance from seeming too wide. Rule 3.— When two ovals, or an oval and a straight line, are united by a combining line only, or by a combining line and turn, the distance is three-quarters of a space ; as, 00, oc, od, ba, ve, wo ; oi, ot, oh , op, vi : on, zin, etc. The last part of ^, z/, to, is equivalent to the oval. In os Hie distance is really the same, since s is the width of o.- but as we measure to the right side, it is a little more than one space. Remark.— A full space for the distance mentioned in the first part of this rule would be too much, because, as the connecting line is horizon- tal, there is nothing to disguise it. We have, therefore, to bring the main lines nearer. Rule 4.— When c or e precedes a letter beginning like «, or an oval, the distance is one space and a half ; as, ci, ei, d, el, cp ; co, eo, ce, ee, etc. Remark.— The distance in this case is measured from the left side of the c and e, and is crossed by the combining line diagonally. General Remark —The combining line does not have an invariable slope, but is determined by the necessities arising from the rules of combination. Rule 5— Words are written about one space apart. This, however, depends very much on whether we wish to give the writing a free or a condensed appearance. Tn -^ 1/U AN EASY LESSON IN PHONOGRAPHY. riS'.'i c^"4 .'^'.'^ sS'V^ 'i?V4. (■^V4 W'.'i 'i^'-'-i '•^V'i '^"4. >J^V5i '^"i fi^"^ '^"4. '^"4 f^'i. j'^''^ '^"4i ^"4, r^"5i r^"?i '^"4 'i! iS*®^^- :?»«? i'^A^. ■>'^A^ .''tiif . ?<'is? .?>li^ ?/«? '''is? 15a*^. .'5j t?. I^A'i'., ^(S? igi's? ;^ijf ■ (?/A'? -^A^ .^/tS '■ f/il^ '%ii^ Si's? % AN EASY LESSON IN 8|©n©5rap|i|, ©r S|©ri-J|and[ ^E need not dwell on the value and advantages of short -hand. Every boy who learns it has a twofold III II advantage over those who do not, whether he goes to college or at once enters into business-life. The col- v'D legian can take down a full report of his professor's lecture, while his fellow-students have only rough and often unintelligible notes. The young man who goes to learn a business, whether me- chanical or commercial, takes down in a moment instructions givfn, conversations, examinations, details of any machine, method of Avorking, etc. There is no walk in life in which it does not come into play. It looks diihcult to many, but is really easy to acquire. The following is the phonographic alphabet : \^ I I Pee Be© Tee Deo / / Chay Jay Kay Gay V T Th Th S Z 8 Rh L B JB M N Ng W Y V V ( { ) ) . J J "Ef Vee Ith Dhee Es Zee Iss Ish Zhay r ^ / ^ ^ ^ \ r ^ Lay Ar Ray Em En lag Way Yay rfay The letters for which the above signs etand are : PB t"d ChJ RO zn Observe the double consonants, ch, th, /A, sh, zh, ng. Th is used in words like think, thought^ youth ; th in words like thcu, they, them. One is a light the other a heavy sound. Sh, in words like hush, cash ; zh, as in pleasure, measure. Curved R is used in words ending in JR ; straight line R when commencing a word, and a vowel follows after. The circle .S begins or ends a word. The printed names, Pee, Bee, etc., under the signs, are the sounds of the letters, for convenience in talking and writing about them. The naming of signs is called the nometiclature ; and it is very necessary to attend to that, as well as to the let- ters for which the signs stand. The great value of the no- menclature in describing the Phonography will appear as we proceed with the lessons. Remember each one of these signs is a part either of a circle, or a straight line, perpendicular, horizontal, or diago- nal. Imitate the cut as near as you can, in length and in depth of pressure on the heavy letters. The use of heavy let- ters simplifies the alphabet, making a few directions answer double purpose. Continue to repeat your copying or reading of the signs, sounds, and letters (it is best to read aloud as you write), until you can skip about, and by covering up the signs, write them from the print from memory, or covering the print, read the signs. All the heavy signs, perpendicular or diagonal, must be written from top to bottom ; all the horizon- tal lines, heavy and light, from left to right, Learn this alphabet thoroughly before you go on. If you learn it in a week, you will do as well as many of the smartest reporters did when they began to learn it. So get around your center-table and see who learn it first. Above we give you the Phonographic alphabet, condensed — in fact, all the consonants in the language in a " nutshell." You will find it handy for easy reference. (Patent not applied for.) If you have not mastered the letters as presented, by all means continue your study and practice by reading, writing, and sounding them, until you can call them one by one, not only in regular order, but by skipping, and immediately on sight. This cut represents the shape, but not the relative length. Lialf »' ;«v N^. Or ' ^ /^o KNIA AN EASY LESSON IN PHONOGRAPHY. 177 All the letters, light and heavy, should at first be written of the same length — that is, about one-quarter of an inch long. You will notice the letters which are of the same form or di- rection, but which differ in depth and name, are placed op- posite each other, so that you can compare the single and double letters more easily. It can also be studied upside down, or sidewise, or two students may study it at the same time while sitting opposite one another. The cut might be made a little more complete by placing the circle letter s in the center. The rest is composed of four circles. Supposing, now, that you have learned the single letters, we proceed to give you a few examples of joining letters : •pp pt pch pg pi) pd pj pJc tp tt tch tg tb td tj tk chp cbt chch chg clib chd chj chk :::<0i.7Z. ZSO1.ZL— kp ggtgch gg gb gd gj gk ..VV>.N-\-^....>..X_ top bt bch bg bb bd bj bk In like manner take some ruled paper and pen (which is better than pencil), and write the following, which you will see is a continuance of the order in the second cut, commencing with p, etc., joining the next letter on the right, until we come around to the letter from which we started. Let the first perpendicular letter come down to the line, and the rest fol- low. If horizontal, let the secojtd letter rest on the line. Write : ' dch, dg, db, dd, dj, dk, jch, jg, jb, jd, jj, jk, kch, kg, kb, kd, kj, kk, chm, km, bm, dm, jm, chn, kn, bn, dn, jn, tth, chth, kth, bth; dth, jth, chs, ks, bs, ds, js, etc. It would be easier, perhaps, -if a hyphen (-) were placed be- tween the single and the double letters, but if you are familiar with the alphabet you need not make a mistake, and try to write three letters in the above instead of two. Now, let us skip a little, and write three letters together : dp, dt, JP. jt. kp, kt, pm, tm, pn, tn, pth, tth, ps, ts, kmt, mnt, mlt, Itn, ntl, tin. tkk, mkt. nkt, kpl, itl, nit, vnt, snp, . shrp, Irn, hng, etc. The proper place for using the two kinds of R, sh, and circle S, will be fully explained in our next. A good long drill on the letters will do you immense service before you take up the vowels to make words. So take the examples above, and practice, practice, until you can read the letters at sight, and write them from dictation. If you have had any difficulty in making any of the single or joined letters, so far, let us know, and we will answer as soon after as possible. Ish (sh) is generally written downward ; Shay {s/i) upward ; Ar (r) is written downward ; Ray (r) upward ; Lay (1) upward, and commences a word ; but if the vowel comes before it in the spelling. El (/) is written instead, and downward. The circle S (iss) may either commence, occur in the middle, or at the end of a word. It also stands for Z. The words in which it happens will not be confounded, as there is but little differ- ence in the sound. Ch (ay) is always written downward, and a little more straight up than R (ay), which is always written upward and slanting to the right. If you try it you will no- tice how natural it is for you to make the distinction. G (ay) is the only letter that does not come under the rule that all the heavy letters are to be written downward, and that, of course, like all other horizontal letters, is to be written from left to right. Make your heavy signs heavy enough to show the difference between the light and heavy ones, and let them taper from and to a fine point gradually. Do not take off your pen or pencil between the letters in joining them. Double straight strokes should be made the full length of two single ones, as tt, kg, etc. In reading the joined signs, commence with the letter on the left and top, thus : t-ch, not rt. H (ay) is always written upward. S-h (not sh) is made with the hook part of H changed into a circle, We trust you may understand the remarks without giving you engraved examples in all cases. H (ay) and R (ay) are both written in the same direction. Now we give you a Vowel Scale, which you must learn be- fore you begin to make up words. The straight up t sign in this table has no value as a letter, and is used only to show the place of putting the vowel, Jirst, second and third place. The regular vowels, a, e, i, o, u, are not sufficient for all the sounds of the language, so they are left out in the cold for the present, and the following, with the rest that will appear in our two next, are substituted : LONG VOWKLS. AB in eat, ate, .___! ate achs aim eel awl ear oar tea key may lay law raw row pour poor sheep shape four shave school In like manner, write, and read aloud as you write : Ape, ^ -^ r: 178 AN EASY LESSON IN PHONOGRAPHY. .....J 1 as in it EHOET VOVBtSi J :.... 1 e a n 00 t get hat got hut footi ^ or, more simply, •without reference to words, eounds : it, ct, at, ot at, cot. ope, pa, paw, ate, ought or aught, oat, taw, to or toe, too, age, jay, jaw, Joe, Jew, ache, oak, key, caw, coo, be or bee, bay, bow or beau, each, chaw, chew, chcose, me, ma, maw, mow, own, oath, ace, ail or ale, all, lo, lieu, foe, she, Shae, shawl, shoe, eve, we, way, woe, woo, ye, yea, you. This cut shows the vowels that occur in many words of the language, and are called the lon^ vowels. Study the power of each vowel sign, by reference to the word underneath it, un- til you can detect the long vowels in any other word you may read. The exercise will improve your pronunciation of words. The long sound of e is placed in the beginning of every let- ter, in the first place, either before or after the letter ; the a sound is put in the middle, or second place, before or after the letter ; and the ah sound in the third place, before or after. So with the au, o, 00. Placed before the better or letters, the vowel is read first ; placed after, it is read after ; placed above a horizontal letter, the vowel is read first ; placed under the letter, it is read after. If you commence the making of the letters from the top down, you begin to place the vowels from the top ; if the let- ter is slanting and upward, you reckon the positions from the bottom, or where you commenced. The stroke vowel signs must be written at right angles to the letter to which it belongs. The double vowel letters must be pronounced together, as au (awe), not a-u,oo (as in food), not double 00. The letters must be made first, and vowels put in afterward. Take all the consonants you can beginning with p or t, one at a time, and write the first place vowel e befo7e it, until you go all round the circle. Then take the same consonants, one by one, and place the same first vowel e after it, until you complete the circle again. Then take the second \o\w&\ sound a and use it in the same manner. In every case be sure to sound the letter and vowel together, whether it happens to make a 7vo>d or not. This will give you plenty of exercise, interesting and instructive. If necessary, get some one to show you how to commence. Then pick out all the words you can in this reading matter which contain one or more long vowel sounds, and if they have no sound different from those in the words under the above scale, write them on paper, first the English word, and under it the Phonographic consonant outline, with the vowel properly placed. Don't be alarmed at the task. The first principles are always the hardest, but the art becomes easier as you learn to understand it. Taking it for granted that you have learned the rules for writing the long vowels according to the scale, in proper po- sition, first, second, or third place, heavy dot or heavy dash, before or after the letters, we proceed to give you the scale of pit pot pat top tap rich . chaprr iellow berry merry marry lively Sunday Monday* Mary, Johnnie, Sammy, Thomas, Billy, Joseph, Ella, You will see the short vowels follow the same arrangements of the long vowels in position, are somewhat alike in make and sound, only the short vowels are more quickly and more lightly spoken. Study this table also until you can pick out the words in the reading matter of any paragraph or column , whether the words contain long or short vowels, or both, and by the aid of your acquaintance with the full Alphabet, and vowels of both kinds, write them all in correct phonographic (short-hand) characters and without much time to study over it. The t sign before which the short vowels in the table are placed, has no value as a letter, but is to show the relative po- sitions of the vowels to any consonant, whether written before or after, at the beginning, in the middle, or end of a letter or letters. Referring to the table when necessary, copy, and read as you write, the above exercise with the short vowels. In like manner write, and read aloud as you do so, the fol- lowing words : Pick, peck, pack, peak, peach, poach, putty, tick, tack, tuck, took, touch, tip, top, tug, chick, check, cup, kept, cage, catch, cut, cud, bit, bid, biddy, budge, back, book, jot, jet, map, met. Mat, Mattie, mud, muddy, mint, meant, among, nothing, fish, ship, shape, shop. Some of these words you must write with three letters. Take the reading matter in this lesson, or any other print on this page, pick out all the words you can that have cither or both sets of vowels, and write them out, first the consonant outline, then fill in the proper vowels. A great many words you will find have a kind of double vowel sound. These you can skip until a more convenient season. Now we conclude this lesson with the rule for placing the vowels, in writing words. First position vowels (long or short) are written after the first consonant. Second position vowels {long) are written after the first con- sonant ; if short, before the second consonant. Third position vowels (long or short) are written before the second consonant. You have a first-rate chance for practice in your every-day schools, public and private : that is, you can use the big black- board and chalk during recess, or before or after school hours. Besides, the beautiful, mysterious, puzzling signs will excite the curiosity and admiration of your fellow schoolmates, and perhaps induce your teachers to inquire into the subject, and to order the necessary books, and introduce short-hand into their schoolrooms as a regular branch of study. Practice in this way all the time you can spare, on the alphabet, then the joined letters, then the Joined letters with the long vowels, ^ ~-^ AN EASY LESSON IN PHONOGRAPHY. 179 ~%«^ Y then with both long and short vowels, then make up new words as fast as you can until you can write what you have been over without stopping to think much of how you must write. You had also better review every week the previous week's lesson before you take up the new one. Be thorough — familiar — well acquainted — with your short-hand company as you go along together. Supposing that you have learned all the past lessons, we now give you the BiPHTHONaa; _......:l...!i . .. j....._.j Sound of I 01 oa n My boy ' bows (to) Sao ist in pie pies wise size rise arisQ .is.^...Uv. _So .>0— -Vo' nfgh high spice spiea Silaa X...^...^_/C..is^-^ boy boys voice alloy annoy spoil .\a-..\>a..>w.../^t:»...^- -Ja.-„ A A bonr boaghs vow tnonse allow endow ^ /" "^ A , A X. .aA.Jv_p. I. owl row aronse ounce cow ^...-\t— -<0>v.oi:...VJ?< o *^ — - . ^ ^ pew amuie shoes news accuse In like manner write the following words (from Graham's list) : Vie, vice, vices, mice, tie, ties, entice, entices, die, dye, dies, sigh, sighs, ally, rye, arises, nice, spy, spices, sky, sly, slice, slices, eyes (i-zee), ice (i-es), sight, side, sign. Annoys, noises, choices. Bough, dow, allows, rouse, rouses, arouses, ounces, cows, house, houses, south, sour. Abuse, abuses, fuse, mew, amuses, dew, due (same), adieu, adduce, chews and choose, juices, Jews, hew, suit (Iss [not Es] Tee), stew. It is easier to memorize the sounds of the diphthongs by the sen- tence above than by different and disconnected words. These signs have a place, like the single vowels, either first, second, or third, whether placed before, or after, at the be- ginning, in the middle, or at the end of a letter. Copy, and read aloud as you write, the above examples ; but do not simply copy them without you know how and why the signs mean what they read. Observe closely the angles of the diphthong signs, whether downward, upward, to the left, at the top, or bottom. We might give you, in this lesson, much more to study, but it is best not to try to do too much all at once. If you learn these perfectly, you can exercise yourself in making other words like them from your school-books. You will notice a difference is made between the S and Z sign, by making the Z circle a little heavier than the S circle. Two short-hand signs may be written entirely alike with this exception, and have different meanings. The double Iss adds another S to a single S, and is called sis, ses, sus, or sez, according to the sound of the word you are writing, oftener ses, and is made twice the size of the single S circle, as in rise (Ray Iss), rises (Ray Sis), vices (Vee Ses), entices (En Tee Ses), arises (Ar [not Ray] Ses), spices (Is Pee Ses), slices (Iss Lay Ses), voices (Vee Ses), noises (En Ses), and as in some of the above words. If you have forgotten what we have called the nomenclature, or describing of the letters (as just given in parenthesis), refer to the first of the alphabet. By using this naming; you see, we avoid all the drawing and engraving of examples, which you can understand just as well as from the print. .1 -1 J l....i i ire wa wah waa wo woo ■ :i ^ J I ij.„ wi we wa wo wu woo ...A..^..L 1 ^..^_., web wig wavy sweet switch swallow ^ -....,-^: ^^..c^ ^....-^:...., win wool willow^ wore walk J.....J ...1,.,..J _ wi wol won' /Examples :. wine quoit wound From the above tables you will notice that the sounds, in their order and power, resemble the ordinary long or short vowels, and also the diphthongs, onfy with the addition of W before them. Instead of e, a, ah, au, o, 00, it is we, wa, wah, wau, wo, woo, etc. It would be well for you to repeat these sounds of the long and short vowels, and this table with the IV, constantly in succession, until you have the sounds familiar and in order, just like your common alphabet. Most scholars have some trouble in learning the difference between the third place long vowel and the first place vowel of the last half of the vowel scale ; this is, in forming words, they have some difficulty in distinguishing the sound of Ah from the sound Au. Be careful of this. You can simplify these tables by dividing them into threes ; that is, separate the first three sounds a little wider apart from the second three, and so relieving the eye, you can memorize the different sounds and forms by sets of threes — twelve sounds in all. The first six are heavy — the first three open on one side, and the next three open on the opposite side ; the last six are light, and open in contrary ways, to be easily distin- guished. The next little cut represents sounds that do not occur very often, especrially the woi, Wi and wou are more frequent. i8o AN EASY LESSON IN PHONOGRAPHY. -y Now, in same manner as recomniended in previous lesson, take the letter p as a starting point, write all the above vowels preceded by JV, before each letter of the round alphabet cut, going round from left to right, both with the long and short sounds above. This will give you plenty of exercise. . In many cases you may not be able to make words or sense, but persevere in the sounds. In like manner, write the following words several times. Repetition gives you confidence and speed. Weep, warp, wait, wart, wit, wet, wot, watch, wag, weed, wade, wooed, wage, week, weak, wake, walk, woke, ween, wane, wan, weal, wail, wall, waif, woof, weave, wave, wove, wash, wish, wing, etc. The following suggestions are recommended for trial by students and reporters. Position according to accented syllable: Make a// half-lengths of word-signs express it, and in the same position as the full lengths ; as, Blet ^ for believe it ; Diet ", deliver it. Write words ending in er same as the primitive, with the addition of downward R ; as pardoner, Par-Den-Ar, instead of Per-Dee-Ner ; Dinner^ Den-Ar, instead of Dee-Ner ; Tinner, Tenor, Ten-ar, instead of Tee-Ner. Make all words ending with R, with downward R ; and all words with a final vowel following the R, with upward R ; but R before J is always Ray. This is an established rule, yet often departed from with perplexing frequency ; but it is sug- gested as a standing and unexceptional rule. So also with Ret and Ard, down or up, as followed or not by a vowel. So also with Lay and El, Let and Eld. As disposal, Dees-Pees-El ; retail, Ret-El ; down-hearted, Den-Art : retained, Ret-End ; ordained, Ard-End, and numerous others. This rule thus provides a distinction between words ending in er, ry, el, and ly, which, in many cases, according to the standard dictionary, are written alike. Retain the Pitman Ler sign for Ir, instead of Lay-Ar, which is longer, especially in compound words, as Chandler, Chent- Ler, instead of Chay-End, Lay-Ar. Write all words ending in tionist with the Steh loop inside the shon hook ; as abolitionist, Bee-Layshonst ; protectionist, Pret-Kayshonst ; prohibitionist, Per-Beeshonst : and as in revo- lutionist, resurrrctionist, secessionist, rationalist. In advanced writing, ing may be omitted both in nouns and participles, increasing the opportunity for phrasing ; as in see- ing, doing ; loving us, Lay-Vees ; doing his. Dees ; doing it, Det. Write half the " I " sign in all phrases and compound words ; my idea, eye-sight, thine eyes, eyelid, eyelet. If in writing word-signs or phrases, the single sign or second word of the phrase is out of position, throw it into position by striking a line either above, through, or below such sign, for first, second, or third position, as the case may be. Simplify the pronunciation of the syllable oid, signifying like, by ly substituting ty ; as petty, betty, tetty, detty, chetty, jetty, ketty, petty, pretty, etc., instead of pet-oid, bed-oid, etc. Write 7"y^er joined, and of understood, instead of double length Veether ', to expressly their; except when of is em- phasized. Write Retty for on, before p, b, t, d, ch, j, b, v, n, ng, s, z, sh, zh. el, th th, and y ; Chetty before k, g. Lay, Ar, Ray, w, and m. Write Retty for /, above the line, before p, b, t, d, ch, j, k, g, s, and th ; Chetty before Ar, and Ray ; Petty before m, and mp. He, should, and the on the line, by Retty before p, b, d, t, ch, j ; Chetty before k, g, m. How same as the preceding, below the line. When new and now commence a phrase, write them below the line without the tick ; as nowadays, En-Dees ; knew-therc- were, Enther-weh. Write the sounds of ar and er after m without the Ray ; as in March, merchant. Write "society" by S through the preceding word in all possible cases ; in a few other instances, join the S, as in "good society," "modem society," etc. " I should " may be joined to the rest of the verb, before Ray or Lay, by Retty-Chetty. As, I should rather, I should like. Emphasis and grammar usually suggest and should deter- minate whether you write " therefore " with a double-length and an Ef hook,, or with a 7".^er tick with a hook. It always comes between commas, and therefore is better distinct. " There," also, whether by double-length or the Ther sign, is best determined by the force of the emphasis. As, " do, there- fore," Dee- Jefty instead Deetherf ; it should have, Tee-Retty- Vee ; it should have, Tee-Chefty ; there is, therefore, Thers- Befty ; there is, therefore, Ther-Zeetherf. An a«-tick (not antic) and to tick on the line, and the rest near and below, may express an con-, to con or com-, as, and con- form ; to confer ; and combat. This when the article is not joined, and the con implied. A dot on the line may be used for a period, if the ticks are used for the articles, a, a-nd, and the. Ing thr may omit the disjointed heavy tick, and be expressed by a joined ther tick, or a double-length, omitting the ing, as, doing there, Deether ; having there, Vee-Jetty. See Rule 6. Ing between other words may be omitted, or expressed by writing the follo\ying word immediately after, disjoined. Write else always downward, and less upward, for distinc- tion, and according to Rule 3, as, any-body else, nothing-less. If desired, short forms as well as double-lengths of Lay may determine a vowel before it or not, by its inclination to per- pendicularity, as in alone, alien, Len nearly vertical ; lone, lane, learn, Len, usual, incline. " Never have " may be written with Nef I — i. e., En an Vee hook. "Being," if written alone, should be Bee-Ing ; but in phrases simply Bee — as " for the time being," Ef-Tee-Bee. Write half-lengths to express ality, idity, bility, ility, inity, —as Frugality, Fer-Gelt ; principality, Per-Pelt ; timidity, Tee-Med ; fluidity, Eel-Det ; stability, Stee-Belt ; possibility, Pees-Blet ; facility, Efs-Elt ; futility, Fet-Elt ; vicinity, Vees- Net. But after N hook, write Bee, or omit the hook, as in trainable. Having given the student a good start, we now send him on his way, assuring him that if he is diligent he will have no reason to regret having taken to the study of Phonography. LANGUAGES. i8i -^^ Y The number of languages and dialects, ancient and modern, has been computed by Adelung to be 3,064, namely: — Belonging to Asia 987 " "Europe 587 " " Africa 276 " "America 1,214 Total 3,064 It would take more space than our limits permit to give a tabular view of all languages : the following summary contains the principal families, and the classes in which they are generally placed : — I. Monosyllabic CZ^ji-.— Chinese, Siamese, Avan- ese, Japanese. II. Shemetic or Senietic Class. — Argemean (Chal- dee Syriac), Hebrew, Phoenician, Arabic. III. Indo- European or Indo-Germanic Class. — Sanscrit, Celtic, Teutonic or Gothic, Pelasgic or Greco-Latin, Sclavonic, Hungarian, Tartarian or Turkish. IV. The Polynesian Class, consisting of the dia- lects spoken in the Indian archipelago and islands of the South Seas. V. The African Class. — Remains of the ancient Libyan in the north ; Soosoo and Foulah (between the rivers Senegal and Gambia); Ashantee; Amaaric, spoken in parts of Abyssinia ; Hottentot, in the south ; Caff re, extending from the south along the east coast as far as Delagoa Bay. VI. Polysynthetic Class, extending from north to south of both continents of America, and comprising Chilian, Peruvian, Brazilian, Mexican, Western dia- lects of North America, Boreal dialects of North America, etc. "* The contrast between the first and the last of these classes presents an apparent anomaly. The Chinese languages have existed among a polished people from very remote antiquity, and yet are as rude and simple as if they had been just devised for the use of a nation but recently emerged from bar- barism ; whereas the languages in common use among the wild tribes of America are complex and difficult in their structure, and seem as if they had been invented by a people who had made great ad- vances in civilization. It has consequently been surmised that America was at one time the residence of a civilized people, of whom the Indian tribes are the degenerated remains. SPECIMENS OF LANGUAGES. With the view of affording the unlearned reader an idea of the appearance of some of the principal languages, dead and living, we append the passages from the New Testament composing the Lord's Prayer, in Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, French, German, Dutch, and English — for the sake of clear- ness the Greek is printed in the Roman alphabet, the aspirate at the beginning of certain words being represented by the letter h. The reader is called on to observe the difference between the Greek and Latin words, and how evidently the Latin is the pa- rent of the Italian, Spanish, and French, the latter, however, possessing the least resemblance in orthog- raphy and arrangement to its original. He will also have an opportunity of comparing the German with its kindred tongue, the Dutch, and both with their relation to the Anglo-Saxon or English. GREEK. Pater hemon ho en tois ouranois, hagiastheto to onoma sou. Eltheto he Basileia sou. Genetheto to thelema sou, hos en ourano, kai epi tes ges. Ton arton hemon ton epiousion dos hemin semeron. Kai aphes hemin ta opheilemata hemon, hos kai hemeis aphiemen tois opheiletais hem5n. Kai me eisen- engkes hemas eis peirasmon, alia rusai hemas apo tou ponerou; l82 LANGUAGES. -^ hoti sou estin he Basileia, kai he dunamis kai he doxa, eis tous aionas. Amen. LATIN. Pater nosTER, qui es in coelis, sanctificetur nomen tuum. Adveniat regnum tuum. Fiat voluntas tua, sicut in coelo, et in terra. Panem nostrum quotidianum da nobis hodie. Et re- mitte nobis debita nostra, sicut et nos remittimus debitoribus nostris. Et ne nos inducas in tentationem, sed libera nos a malo. Tibi enim est regnum, et potentia, et gloria, in sempi- ternum. Amen. ITALIAN. Padre nostro, che sei ne' cieli, sia santificato i' tuo nome. II tuo regno venga. La tua volenti sia fatta in terra come in cielo. Dacci oggi il nostro pane cotidiano. E rimettici i nostri debiti, come noi ancora gli rimettiamo a' nostri debitori. E non indurci in tentazione, ma liberaci dal maligno. Perci- oche tuo e il regno, e la potenza, e la gloria, in sempiterno. Amen, SPANISH. Padre nuestro, que estas en los cielos, sea sanctificado tu nombre. Vega tu reyno ; sea hecha tua volontad como en el cielo, ansi tambien en la tierra. Danos oy nuestro pan quoti- diano. Y sueltanos nuestras deudas, como tambien nosotros soltamos a nuestros deudores. Y no nos metas en tentacion, mas libranos de mal. Porque tuyo es el reyno, y la potecia, y la gloria, por todos los siglos. Amen. FRENCH. Notre Pere qui es aux cieux, ton nom soit sanctifie. Ton regne vienne ; ta volonte soit faite sur la terre, comme au ciel. Donne-nous aujourd'hui notre pain quotidien. Pardonne-nous nos pe'ches, comme aussi nous pardonnons k ceux qui nous ont offenses. Et ne nous abandonne point a la tentation, mais delivre nous du malin. Car a toi appartient le regne, la puis- sance, et la gloire, a jamais. Amen. GERMAN. Unser Vater in dem Himmel, dien Name vi^erde geheiliget. Dein Reich komme. Dien Wille geschehe auf Erden wie im Himmel. Unser tagliches Brod gieb uns heute. Und vergieb uns unsere Schulden, wie wir unsern Schuldigern vergaben. Und fuhre uns nicht in Versuchung, sondern erlese uns von dem Uebel. Denn dein ist das Reich, und die Kraft, und die Herrlichkeit, in Ewigkeit. Amen. DUTCH. Onze Vader, die in de Ilemelen zijt, uw naam worde geher- ligd. Uw Koningrijk kome. Uw wil gerchlede, Gelijk in den hemel. Zoo ook op de aarde. Geef ons heden ons dage- lijksch brood. En vergeef ons onze schulden, Gelijk ook wij vergeven onzen schuldenaren. En lied ons nict in verzoek- ing, Maar verlos ons van den booze. Want Uw is het kon- ingrijk, En de kracht, en de heerlijkheid, In de eeuwigheid. Amen. ENGLISH. Our Father who art in heaven, hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us. And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. For thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory, for ever and ever. Amen. Language, in the largest sense of the term, may be defined as the means by which thought is expressed. Thought, as is well known, may be expressed by means of mute signs, as frowns, sighs, kind looks, gestures of the body, or by inarticu- late sounds, as groans, cries, sobs, laughter. The first are usually called natural language^ and the second inarticulate lan- guage J and these means of expression partly belong to the lower animals. Finally, there is articulate language, peculiar to man alone, and consisting of a multitude of sounds, each of which represents a distinct idea. To this last mode of expres- sion, generally known by the simple term language, our atten tion is for the present to be directed. ORIGINAL FORMATION OF LANGUAGE. It is sufficiently clear that the vocal organs of man are con- stituted with a view to his expressing himself by speech. The larynx, epiglottis, pharynx, tongue, palate, and lips, are all of them framed in such a manner as to show incontestably that they were designed for producing such sounds as we employ in articulate language. The first language of a child is that of inarticulate sounds ; it cries when it is hungry, screams when it is angry, and moans when it is in pain. The strong resemblance which subsists between the words in different languages expressive of the first social ties, is worthy of observation. Thus the word mother is Em and am in Hebrew and Arabic. Modor in Anglo-Saxon. Madr . . Persian Moder . . Swedish. JMatr ..Sanscrit. Moder ..Danish. 3Ii'tc'r . . Greek. Moeder . . Dutch. Mate} ..Latin. Mutter ..German. Afadre . . Italian. Mater . . Russian. A/cre ..French. Mat/iair. .Celtic. When the primitive men, advancing from early necessities and simple tangible ideas, found it necessary to have words to represent the abstractions of the mind, they still proceeded according to the dictates and analogies of nature. In all languages, every term expressive of mental operations is borrowed from the material world. Some of the terms thus applied are signally appropriate. In the present stage of language we have become so habitu- ated to the use of terms applied metaphorically, that we seldom reflect on their original import. There are many instances in which the metaphorical word remains, when its primary signification has been forgotten. For instance, the word capricious does not suggest the idea of a goat, although it is derived from the Latin caper, a goat, to denote the char- acter of a person who bounds from subject to'subject, without paying due attention to any ; like a goat, which bounds from rock to rock, without settling long in any one spot. §^ -^ THE LETTER WRITER. 183 0-" ^^ ^^ Al lf\ ^^ fi^ ^^ ' " C'ii^ODS FOR A STORE IN THE COUNTRY. Spike, Thompson County, Ky., I Jane i, 1882. ' Messrs. Park & Tilford, New York : Gentlemen — I have just opened a large grocery store in this place, and the prospects of success seem assured. I should be happy to deal with your firm. I can refer you to Robinson & Charles, of 270 Broad- way, New York. This being our first transaction, I shall be prepared to pay the express co. upon delivery of goods, if you will forward me your ac. with the usual cash discount by a previous mail. Enclosed please find order, which I should wish filled as promptly as is consistent with your convenience. Very respectfully, R. M. Macarthy. REPLY. Broadway, New York, I 3 June^ 1882. Mr. R. M. Macarthy: • Dear Sir— Your favor of the ist to hand. We shall be pleased to open an account with you, Messrs. Robinson & Charles having spoken very highly of you. We have this day forwarded to your address the goods according to your invoice, but being desirous of obtaining your approval of their quality and value, will await your examination for the enclosed bill, which is subject to 5 per cent, discount for prompt cash. A post-office order or draft on one of our city banks will suit our convenience equally well as collection by Dodd's Express. Hoping to receive further orders, we are, Yours respectfully, Park & Tilford. LETTER OFFERING THE MS- OF A BOOK TO A PUBLISHER Wilmington, N. C, April ^^ 1882. Messrs. Provost & Co., Publishers, Tremont St., Boston, Mass.: Gentlemen — I have just written a society novel of the present day, and wish to have it put upon the market as soon as practicable. Please inform me if you are willing to publish it, and at what terms. This is my first novel, but under the name of " Daisy Dean" I have contributed quite a number of short stories to Frank Leslie's and other popular publications. I may mention that my style is what is termed " breezy ;" that is, bright and crisp. Awaiting an early reply, I am, gentlemen. Very truly yours, Mrs. J. F. Murray. REPLY. 292 Trenton St., I Boston, Mass., April a,, 1882. ' Mrs. J. F. Murray : Dear Madam— Having made all our arrangements for publications -^ r 188 THE LETTER WRITER. for the year, we are compelled to decline the offer of your MS., and trust that you may be successful elsewhere. We are, dear madam, Your obedient servants, Provost & Co., Per W. F, LETTER PBOPOSINa TO SELL GK)ODS ON COM- MISSION. , Drakeville, Young Co., Md., ( January 28, 1882. ' Messrs. Short & Stelt : Gentlemen— I have been in business in this town for over twelve years, and refer to the National Bank, and to Mr. James E. Towns- end, ex-Mayor and a prominent citizen. I see a good opening for in- creasmg my sales, and am desirous of a supply of your goods to sell on commission. If required I will give you full security against any loss. Should this proposition meet your views, please fiU the accompanying order, and give me the benefit of your most favorable terms. Respectfully, John Riley. REPLY. Baltimore, Feby. 2, '82. Mr. John Rilev— Dear Sir — We have to-day forwarded by Dodd's Express the goods ordered per your letter of the 28th ult. : the Inquiries about you, as suggested by you, having proved most satisfactory. The commission is 10 per cent. The bill of sale accompanies each package. Trusting that opening will lead to a long connection of mutual benefit, We are yours respectfully, Short & Stelt. REQTJESTINa THE SETTLEMENT OF AN ACCOUNT. / Milwaukee, Wis., July 30, 1882. Mr. T. W. Ingram : Dear Sir— As we have a large payment to make at the end of next week, and as your account remains unsettled, we must beg of you to send us a check for same by Tuesday next. We are reluctant to press you, but we are pressed ourselves. Very respectfully, Smith & Brown. REQUESTINO PAYMENT OF RENT. E. 29TH St., New York, \ March 27, 1882. ' Mr. Patrick K. Chiselhurst : Dear Sir — I must call your attention to the fact that, although your agreement for the house rented by you from me stipulates monthly pay- ments in advance, you have failed to pay for three months and are now in arrears $206. If you fail to pay the account within six days I shall be reluctantly compelled to place the matter in the hands of my lawyer for collection. Very respectfully, Thomas Vosburg. FROM A LADY IN THE COUNTRY ORDERING GOODS. Maida Vale, Tewkesbury Co., Mass., ) Jan. 18, 1882. I Messrs. Calice & Twist, Washington Street, Boston : Gentlemen — Please send me by Dodd's Express the following goods : 12 yards of green gauze. 24 yards gingham. 2 pair of six-button gloves, lavender color, size 6J^, Dent's make. 6 fKJcket handkerchiefs, plain white, with broad hem-stitched border. Also please send pattern of black satin of a good quality, price marked. The goods must be sent to Warrington by rail, and to Mr. V/illiam Snipe, 240 State Street, who will pay C. O. D. Direct as follows ; Mrs. Wilson Toft, Warrington Station, Tewkesbury Co., Mass. FROM A FARMER IN IRELAND, PROPOSING TO EMIGRATE. BaT-linkill, Co. Mayo, ) A uzust ist, 1882. ' To Mr. John Murphy, Tippins Cove, Burke County, Montana. Sir — Pat Lynch, of Coolamore, tells me that you could give me all the information I want about that part of the county you are now in. I have been farming about 60 acres for the last fifteen years, and have saved up £,'^00. I want to know what sort of a county you are in; climate, soil, water, and all that, and what I could get for my £,yx> ; also, if any in- ducements are held out to men of my class. I have a wife and seven children — 4 boys and 3 girls. The boys, thanks be to God, are all able to take a hand at farm work. Pat Lynch will answer for me. Yours obediently, Murty Joyce. REPLY. Tippins Cove, ( Burke Co., Montana. ' To Mr. Murphy Joyce : ^ My dear Friend — If Pat Lynch, my old friend , advised you to emigrate here he did well. I have been here now for five years, and no induce- ment would tempt me to leave it. For half of your Cs'^ you can buy as many acres as you wish to farm, and our little settlement is growing so rapidly thac in a short time your land will be worth double what you pay for it. Come to me straight, and stop with me, all of you, till your log hut is built. The climate here is healthy and invigorating ; the soil fine, and a lit* tie river of good water is close by, while the woods give us all th^ fuel we require. You can come to within fifty miles of me by rail, but I'll have horses and wagons at the station to take you ^d your family here. Let me hear full details of your starting, and giv? my warmest regards to Pat Lynch. I wish he was coming too with all my heart. Yours faithfully, John Murphy. TO THE FATHER OF A YOUNG LADY, ASKING HER HAND IN MARRIAGE. Washington Avenue, Brooklyn, ) Mar. 12, '82. » Sir — I venture to hope that you will call all your friehdly feelings to my assistance, in considering a proposal I am about to lay before you, in which my happiness is completely concerned. For a long time past your daughter, Effie, has held a strong hold over my affections, and I have reason to believe that I am not indifferent to her. My position is such as to warrant my belief that I could support her in the style of comfort which she so well deserves, and which it has been your constant aim to provide for your children. As regards my character and disposition, I trust they are sufficiently well known to you , to give you confidence in the prospect of your child's happiness. I have not, however, ventured on any express declaration of my feel- ings, without first consulting you on the subject, as I feel persuaded that the straightforward course is always the best, and that a parent's sanction will never be wanting when the circumstances of the case justify its being accorded. Anxiously awaiting the result of your consideration on this important and interesting subject, I remain, sir. Your most faithful and obedient servant, Edward L. Spring. To W. Parsons, Esq. f- THE LETTER WRITER. 189 FAVOKABIiX:. Meadow Bank, } March 13, 1882. > My dear Edward Spring : I thank you very much for the manly and honorable way in which you have addressed me in reference to my daughter's hand. I have long since perceived that your attentions to her were of a marked charac- ter, and that they apjjeared to give her much pleasure. I know no reason whatever to oppose your wishes, and, if I may judge from the manner in which she received the communication from myself, you will find a by no means unwilling listener. Dine with us to-morrow at six o'clock, if you are not engaged, and you will then have an opportunity of pleading your own cause. Mean- while, believe me, with every confidence in your integrity and good feeling. Yours most sincerely, William Parsons. To E. L. Spring, Esq. UNFAVORABLE. Meadow Bank, 1 March 13, 1882. J Dear Sir : It is always painful to return an unfavorable answer, but such is un- fortunately my task on the present occasion. My daughter has for a long time been engaged to a gentleman whose character and position give her no cause to regret the engagement. At the same time she duly appreciates the compliment implied by your pref- erence, and unites with me in the sincere wish that, as an esteemed friend, you may meet with a companion in every way calculated to en- sure your happiness. Believe me, dear sir. Your sincere friend, William Parsons. To E. L. Spring, Esq. A GENTLEMAN, AFTER MEETING A LADY AT A PARTY. ASKING PERMISSION TO PAY HIS ADDRESSES. * 18W. 36thSt.,N. Y., » July 27, 1882. f Dear Miss Winslow : I must crave your pardon for the somewhat bold address I am about to make, trusting that its apparent presumption may be excused by the consideration that my feelings are deeply enlisted in its success. The marked attentions paid you at Mrs. Burke's f>arty could not, I flatter myself, have failed to attract your notice, nor have been wholly disa- greeable to yourself. Cherishing this pleasing belief, I am encouraged to crave the privilege of being permitted to improve my acquaintance with a lady for whom I entertain so high an esteem. The company in which we met will, I trust, be considered a 'Sufficient guarantee of my character and position to warrant me in looking for- ward to an early renewal of the happy hours spent in your company. Your kind permission once granted, I shall lose no time in seeking, for my addresses, the sanction of your parents ; but I do not feel at liberty to take such a step until well assured that it will be agreeable to your wishes. May I entreat the favor of an early reply? which, dear Miss Wins- low, will be anxiously awaited by Your devoted admirer, William Thropcake. TO A WIDOW FROM A WIDOWER. 120TH St., New York, Nov. 19, 1882. Mv dear Madam — I am emboldened to lay open to you the present state of my feelings, being so convinced of your good sense and amia- ble disposition, that I feel assured you will deal candidly with me in your reply. Like yourself, I have been deprived of the partner of my earlier life, and, as I approach the middle state of existence, I feel more and more the want of some kindred spirit to share with me whatever years are reserved to mc by Providence. My fortune is such as to enable me to support a lady in the manner which I feel to be due to your accomplish- ments and position, and I sincerely hope that you will think carefully over my proposal ; and, if you can make up your mind to share my for- tune and affections, I trust that no efforts will be wanting on my part to ensure you the happiness you so well deserve. I need scarcely say that an early answer, on a matter so much con- nected with my future happiness, will be a great favor to. My dear madam. Your devoted friend and admirer, Arthur Borstop. To Mrs. Wadlow. A GENTLEMAN ASKING HIS BETROTHED TO NAME THE DAY. 2 Allen's Ford, > St. Louis, July 8, 1882. ( Mv Own Darling Wife that is to be \— Let mc implore of you to name the day that will make us one— that day which is to bring us together for all time. You blushed last night when I urged the question, and put me off with some pretty, but pitiful excuse. For once, darling, let »i^ dictate and say Wednesday. Won't you, my precious pet ? Yours, Ted. A YOUNG MAN IN COLORADO TO HIS BETROTHED IN NEW YORK. Leadville, Dec. 13, 18 — . Dearest Elizabeth — You have doubtless received letters from me lately, describing my situation here, and stating the projects that I had under consideration. In one of those letters, allusion is made to a spec- ulation in land in the neighborhood of this place, with the remark that, if it were successful, I should be able to make good my promise, and claim you as the partner of my joys and sorrows for life. My most san- guine expectations have been more than realized. Herewith you will receive a draft on the National Park Bank, in New York, for $500, of which I pray you to make use in providing such ar- ticles as may be necessary to replenish your wardrobe, in anticipation of our speedy marriage, after my return home. Pray present your dear mother with my affectionate regards, and say that I can never forget, now that I have the power, that it is my duty to assist and cherish her declining years. I also send some few trinkets, made of Leadville gold, which you will please present on my behalf to your sisters, as tokens of my brotherly regard ; for such I now consider my relations toward them. With my kindest respects to all, and trusting that I may soon be per- mitted to einbrace my dearest, I remain Her devoted Mark Taplev. COMPLAINTS OF A LADY'S COOLNESS. Cedar St., PHftADELPHiA, March i. Dear Susan — The change in your behavior toward me — from the kindness of an attached friend to the cool indifference of a distant ac- quaintance — indicates but too plainly that, by some means, I have had the misfortune to excite your displeasure ; though how or when I can- not imagine. Recently, I have several, times attempted to seek an ex- planation, but, in every instance, my courage failed me at the critical moment, and, as a last resort, intrusting to my pen the duty which my lips should have performed, I now write to you, to ask wherein I have offended. Whatever may be your reply, rest assured that my feelings toward yourself cannot be changed, and that your beloved image will ever be enshrined in the breast of Your affectionate friend, E. L. Dwyer. -^ ^ 90 THE LETTER WRITER. -^ EXPLAINING AN APPARENT SLIGHT. Boston, March 8, 1882. Dearest Julia — How could you consider me capable of inflicting a slight upon yourself, in whom are centered all my hopes of happiness ? Nothing more than ordinary courtesy was intended by my attentions to Miss Frith. That she was a comparative stranger to the Stanleys, in- duced me to pay her those attentions which have occasioned you so much annoyance, but which otherwise I would not have considered my- self justified in tendering. I regret from my soul that anything should have occurred to originate In your mind a doubt of my sincerity. Your truly affectionate, George Rogers. To Miss Julia Tilghman, No. — N. Fifteenth St., Philadelphia. ON RECErVTNO- A FAVORABLE REPLY TO A PRO- POSAL. Newton, N. Y., March 20, 1882. Darling — Words cannot express my rapture on finding your note on my table last night. How delightful was it to find a letter— and tuch a letter ! — from one whom I may now hop>e to hail as the compan- ion of my whole future life ! The weight taken off my mind by the can- did and gentle confession of one whose love seemed too great a happi • ness to hope for is beyond description. To-morrow I shall hasten to the presence of her from whom I hope 1 may never henceforth be parted ; but I could not retire to rest without making one feeble at- tempt to express my ecstasy at finding that hopes so flattering have not been in vain. Believe me, darling. Your devoted and happy Tom. COMPLAINING OF 'NOT RECEIVING A LETTER. Clifton, January 7, 1882. Dear Agnes — Four days have passed without my receiving a letter from you, and I am in painful anxiety lest illness should be the cause. Pray write quickly, or I shall really feel inclined to quarrel with you as an idle girl ; nay, I shall absolutely grow jealous, and fancy that some more favored suitor is undermining the affections of my dear girl. But I have no fears. I too well know that your innate goodness of heart would prevent your trifling with the feelings of any one ; so, hop- ing you will take this little scolding in good part, and relieve the offense by a very long letter as speedily as your dainty fingers can write, be- lieve me, Dear Agnes, Your affectionate Ed. ON A BIRTHDAY. New London, June i, 1882. My dearest Fannie — How sad it is that I am hindered from being with you on this dearest of all days of the year. Accept, dearest, the enclosed portrait. I feel that its original is too deeply stamped on your heart to require any effigy to remind you of him. It is, however, the most appropriate present I could offer to the cause of my happiness on this brightest of all days. God g^ant that every succeeding year may see you increase in all that is charming in body and mind, and believe me. My dearest Fannie, Your own John. A COMPLAINT. July to, i88a. Dear Maudie : It is with pain I write to you in aught that can seem like a strain of reproach, but I confess that. your conduct last night both surprised and vexed me. You received Mr. Watson's attentions in so marked a way that I feel it due to yourself to comment on your conduct. Belieye me, I am in no way given to idle jealousy j still less am I selfish or unmanly enough to wish to deprive any girl on whom I have so firmly fixed my affections of any pleasure to be obtained in good society. But my peace of mind would be lost forever, did I believe that I had lost one atom of your affection. Pray write, and assure me that you still preserve your undivided affection for Your devoted but grieved Fred. CONGRATULATING A FRIEND ON HIS MARRIAGE. Omaha, A ugust 20, 18 — . My dear Tom : As you have entered the enviable state of wedlock, and are no longer the merry bachelor formerly the butt of my cl'ude jests, I must address you in a tone of greater gravity than has been my custom. My dear friend, I sincerely congratulate you upon this desirable change ; for in your choic'e of a partner you have given evidence of the possession of a sound judgment and much good taste. If my beneficent wishes were the only requisite to insure your happiness in the married state, you. would never have occasion to regret the step you have recently taken ; for there is no one whom I more ardently desire to see surrounded with all the blessings of this life. Have the kindness to present my respectful compliments to Mrs. Armitage,and believe me ever to remain Your sincere well-wisher and friend, Edward Keogh. CONGRATULATING A GENTLEMAN UPON HIS MARRIAGE. Yankton, June i, 1882. Dear Bill I have just received the welcome message that informs me of your new happiness. I hasten to off'er you my most sincere congratulations and hearty good wishes. May every year of your married life find you happier than the last, and may Mrs. Chiffins find you as loyal a husband as you have been a friend. From my inmost heart, dear Bill, I say, God bless you and your bride with His choicest blessings. Ever your friend, George Meyers. William Chiffins, Esq. CONGRATULATING A LADY UPON HER MAR- BIAGE. K St., Washington, D. C, August 3, 1882. Dear Josie : Your cards have just reached me, and I write at once to try to express my heartfelt pleasure at your happy prospects. It is a great pleasure to your loving friends to be able to feel so much esteem and affection for the gentleman to whom you have confided your life's happiness, and to hope, as I do, that every year will unite your hearts more closely. That heaven may bless you both, dear Josie, is the earnest prayer of Your loving Julia Robinson. Mrs. Clifford Doyle. CONGRATULATING A FRIEND ON THE BIRTH OF A SON. Batavia, N. Y., July 5, 1882. My dear Joe: What luck ! A son bom on the great 4th. May he prove as good, as pure, and as honest a man and patriot as George Washington. What more can I say, old fellow, except to add that I earnestly trust that Mrs. Clithroe and George W. are doing well ? Yours, always sincerely, A. D. Hervy. Joseph Clithroe, Esq. -s5 THE LETTER WRITER. 191 -^ 4r CONGIIATUL.ATING A FRIEND ON THE BIRTH OF A DAUGHTER. Pegasus, Westchester Co., N. Y., i April 10, '82. ) Dear Millie : I congratulate you most heartily on your new acquaintance, and if " missy " only grows up like " mamma," the boys will be around pretty l-"ely. I suppose your husband is two feet taller. Take great care of yourself and the wee Utile lady. I hope very soon to come round to cougratulale you in person. Your very sincere friend, James Todhunthr. Mrs. E. F. EvERLiGH. SEEKING A CLERKSHIP. Trov, May 4, 1882. Gentlemen— Perceiving by your advertisement in the N. Y. Herald that you are in want of a clerk, I beg to inclose testimonials, and ven- ture to hope that from my previous experience in the line of business you pursue I should be of some use in your establishment. My habits of life are such as to assure regularity in the discharge of my duties, and I can only assure you that, should you honor me with your confi- dence, I shall spare no p>ains to acquit myself to your satisfaction. I remain, gentlemen. Your obedient servant, Harry Sanderson. To Messrs. Griffiths & Co. APPLICATION FOR SUBSCRIPTION TO A CHARITY. MlDGEViLLE, Tenn., October 8, 1882. Sir [or Madam] ;— I take the liberty of inclosing a prospectus of an institution which is likely to have a most beneficial effect upon the poor in our neighborhood. {Here state particulars?!, From your well- known liberality, I trust you will excuse this appeal from a stranger in iurtberance of an act of benevolence, and remain. Sir [or Madam], Your most obedient servant, Julia [or John] Smith. DECLINING. 30 West 27TH St., New York, I 29th October, 1882. ' Mr. Thomas Jones regrets exceedingly that the numerous applications for kindred purposes near home render it impossible for him to com- ply with the request contained in Mr. [or Mrs.] 's letter of the i8th October. A FRIEND IN THE COUNTRY ASKING A CITY FRIEND ABOUT BOARD. Erie, Pa., August 14, '82. Dear William— In a few days I will have occasion to visit New York, and, being a comparative stranger, I wish to be as near the business center as possible, though located in a private boarding-house, as I have a strong aversion to hotel life. My object in writing is to ask you to recommend me to some private boarding-house, and to engage rooms in advance of my arrival, so that I may proceed thither at once on landing from the cars. Leaving the selection entirely to yourself, and hoping to hear from you soon, I remain Yours faithfully, Isaac Jenkins. APPLICATION FOR A LOAN. State St., Chicago, July 27, '82. Dear Sir — I am temporarily embarrassed through the failure of my New York correspondent to remit. The sum of $2,000 would relieve my present necessities, but I dislike borrowing money of professional lend- ers, and would rather solicit the aid of some one of my numerous friends. My first thought was of yourself ; and, therefore, my object in writing is to ask if you can spare me the required sum without in any way interfering with your business arrangements ? \ bu may rely upon having it returned 10 you on the isih prox., and perhaps before that time. Pray reply at your earliest convenience, and oblige Your obedient servant, George White. To Philip Duke, Esq. REPLY IN THE AFFIRMATIVE. Grove St., Cincinnati,,^:^.^ 30, '82. Dear Sir — Your letter of yesterday was duly received, and it grati- fies me to be able to say that you can have the loan asked for. In- closed you will find a check for the amount, which you will return at the date named and oblige, Yours, very sincerely, P. Duke. To Geo. White, Esq. DECLINING TO LEND MONEY. Boston, /l/r/VSlh, 1882. Mv dear Sir — I have always made it a principle in life never to bor- row or lend money, not even when members of my own family have been concerned. As Shakespeare says : '• Neither a borrower nor a lender be. For loan oft loses both itself and friend." t therefore trust you will excuse conduct which may seem harsh and uncourteous on my part, but which I have ever found to be the safest, and, in the long run, the kindest course for all parties. I remain, my dear sir. Yours very faithfully, Joseph Johnson. To Howard Wells, Esq. SOLICITING RENEWAL OF A PROMISSORY NOTE. Ark St., Mobile, !\Iay 7, '82 Gentlemen— You have in your possession my note for $1,000, p.iya- ble May 14, which I am sorry to say I cannot meet at maturity, owing to a combination of circumstances adverse to my interests, and not antici- pated. If you will do me the favor to renew it for ninety days, with interest added, I do not doubt my ability to redeem it when due. A compliance with this request will confer an obligation upon, and oblige. Your obedient servant, Thomas Moean. To Messrs. Sadlier & Co., 30 William St., N. Y. TO A FIRM, WITH AN INSTALLMENT. Dean St., San Francisco, Cal., 1 May 20, 1882. 1 Gentlemen — Inclosed please find $500, in notes of San Francisco banks, which I will thank you to place to my credit, as the first install- ment upon my bill, now overdue nearly two months. The balance will be remitted during the second week in June, if not before that time. I regret the inconvenience caused you by my delay, which is a result of our system of long credits, and entirely beyond my power to control. I remain, gentlemen, Your obliged and faithful servant, William Dempsey, Messrs. Hatch, Wight & Co., 333 Broadway, New York. OFFERING A LOAN OF MONEY FOR BUSINESS PURPOSES. Elizabeth, N. J., Dec. 15, '82. Dear Robert — Knowing that you are desirous of starting in business for yourself, I write to say that it is in my f)ower to offer you a loan of two thousand dollars ($2,000) without interfering in any way with my 192 THE LETTER WRITER. ^ own business or expenditures. I trust that you will let me have a friend's privilege, and accept the money on such t*ms as will best suit you. With best wishes for your success, I am your friend, Austin Keep. Robert Rowe, Esq. Letters of condolence, though a necessity between friends, are very difficult to compose, since the more earnestly and touchingly they are written, the more deeply will they probe the wounds still bleeding under the stab of affliction. The shorter such letters are, the better. Let them be short and sin- cere, and always wind up with a hope that Providence will as- suage the grief with which it has pleased Him in His far-see- ing wisdom to afflict your friend. ON THE DEATH OF A HUSBAND. FORDHAM, N. Y., Nov. 29, 1882. Mv DEAR Mrs. Manning : Words fail to convey my feelings of sorrow on receipt of the intelli- gence of the death of my old and esteemed friend, your late husband. My own grief at the loss of a true friend teaches me how crushing must be your affliction. May the Almighty in his goodness console you in this dark hour of your tribulation. Believe me always your true and sincere friend, Joseph Butler. ON THE DEATH OF A WIFE. Providence, R. I., November 8, 1882. My dear George : I know how futile it is to address words, idle words, to you in this moment of supreme anguish, with which it has pleased God to visit you, and shall not say more than that the loss of your pure, good, and beautiful wife is a source of deep sorrow to the numerous friends who bad the privilege of knowing her, and to none more than Yours, in deep sympathy and affection, Terrence Barker. ON THE DEATH OF A SON. NoRWALK, Conn., June 3, 1882. Mv dear Julia : If God has plucked the bright blossom from your home it is for a pur- pose none of us dare divine. He alone can pour balm upon your crushed heart. The holy joy is yours of knowing that angel eyes now watch for your coming, and that your beautiful boy will receive you when " life's dark day is done." If the tenderest or much-loving sympathy could soothe you, dear Julia, learn that you have it from your Friend, Laura. ON THE DEATH OF A MOTHER. Tewkesbury, Mass., Nov. 8, 1882. My dear Charles : You have lost your mother. There is a very wail in the words. She may never be replaced. The dear good lady has passed away to a bet- ter land, cheered by the knowledge of your love and affectionate tender- ness, consoled by the thought that her teaching, when you were a little boy at her knee, has not been in vain, and that she leaves behind her for a little while a son who treads the path of rectitude and of honor. Dear Charles, ever remember that your darling mother watches you from on high, and as she was devoted to you in life, so is she devoted to you in death. God sustain you under this heavy affliction. Your true friend, John Traver. REPLIES TO ADVERTISEMENTS. In replying to advertisements never omit to mention the name of the paper in which the advertisement appeared, also its date, and a brief allusion to the matter in the advertisement. Be as concise as possible, covering the ground in a few well chosen sentences. BOOKKEEPEE. 28 Washington St., Boston, Mass., ) October 20, 1882. » To Messrs. Winsole, Bird & Co. : Gentlemen — In reply to your advertisement in this day's Transcript for a competent bookkeeper, I respectfully beg to offer myseif as candi- date for that position. I have been in the employment of Mr. Thomas Lepy, 19 Tremont Street, in this city- '.he large dry-goods store— in the capacity of bookkeeper for the last ti'uee years, and am about to leave on the islpro-xhuo, as Mr. Lepy is about to retire from business. Mr. Lepy has authorized me to refer to him in reference to character and ability. I can also refer to Messrs. Bose & Pickwick, 17 Remsen Street, with whom 1 clerked for a year and a half. Hoping to be fortunate enough to suit your requirements, I am, gentlemen, Respectfully, Joseph Sutcliff. GENERAL EMPLOYMENT. Newburg, I jUk Se/>t.^ '82. f Sir — I hasten to reply to your advertisement in the N.Y. Sun of to day. lam most desirous of obtaining employment, and vwjuld not consider present emolument so much an object as the prospect of a permanent and respectable situation. I am a young man (age 21), and single. I have received a good com- mercial education, and am versed in bookkeeping ai. J accounts gen- erally. In other respects I am willing to render myself generally useful, and, although I have not hitherto filled a situation, I doubt not but that in a short time I shall be able to fulfill any duties assigned to me. In the event of your doing me the honor to select me for the proffered employment, I could furnish you with satisfactory testimonials as to character, and could, if necessary, provide guarantees for fidelity. Trusting that I may have the honor of hearing from you in reply, I remain, sir. Your obedient servant, Joseph L'Estrange. To W. Henry Cullinan, 27 Wand St., N. Y. FROM A YOUNG MAN TO A FRIEND SOLICITING A SITUATION. Mohawk, March 28, 1882. Dear Edward : When you left Galveston, you were kind enough to promise that should it be in your power to forward my interest in any manner you would feel a pleasure in so doing. I am now in want of a position, my former employer having sold his business, and his successor having, as he in- forms me, a sufficient number of hands for all the work he is likely to have. If, therefore, you should hear of any situation or employment which you consider likely to suit me, either in my own business, that of a clerk, or in any other in which I can make myself useful, your recom- mendation would greatly oblige, and be of material service to. Dear Edward, Yours very truly, John James. ASKING PERMISSION TO REFER TO A PERSON. New Haven, Conn. 1 y^ly 7, '82. ' Dear Sir : As I have had the honor of being known to you for some years, dur« -^ THE LETTER WRITER. 193 -^ 4- inp which period I trust my conduct has impressed you favorably, I lake the liberty of soliciting at your hand the following favor : Messrs. Sebthorp, of Beaver Street, New York, are in want of a cor- respondent at London, and as I am about to proceed there on some affairs of my own, and shall probably take up my residence in that cap- ital for some years, I am anxious to secure a post which appears to me in every way eligible, and accords with my views exactly. As a matter of course, Messrs. Sebthorp desire testimonials as to my capiicity and integrity, and as you are in a position to speak positively on these points, I have written to ask you whether I may so far trespass on your kindness as to mention your name by way of reference. Should you kindly grant this request, I need scarcely assure you that my endeavor will be to prove both to Messrs. Sebthorp and yourself that you have not been mistaken in your opinion of me, while I shall ever feel grateful for this further instance of the interest evinced by you in the welfare of Your truly obliged, Walter Mott. To Mr. George Fouke, 7th St., Cincinnati, O. CLEBK. 29 Grove St., St. Louis, Mo., I November 16, 1882. ' Mr. Isaac Waters : Sir— I see by this day's Chronicle that you are in want of a competent Clerk, and I respectfully beg to apply for the pwsition. Owing to the financial difficulties of my late employers, Messrs. Kendrick & Warts, with whom I was Clerk for eight years, I am out of employment. I can refer to either of these gentlemen for a testimonial as to my industry, good conduct and ability. I may add that I am a teetotaler. Hoping to receive a favorable reply, I am. Respectfully, Rudolph Meyer. COOK. 100 West 28th St., New York, I March 18, 1882. ' Mrs. William Howard : Respected Madam — Having seen your advertisement for a plain Cook in this day's Herald^ I respectfully apply for the place. I can cook plain joints and do all manner of plain cooking, as my pres- ent employer, Mrs. James Posnett, is willing to testify. As Mrs Pos- nett is going to Europe on the ist of April, I will be out of place on that day. A line to Mrs. Posnett will satisfy all inquiries in regard to my character and capacity. Respectfully, Jane Matthews. GOVEBNESS. • 19 Bleecker St., Boston. 1 July 27, '82. ' Mrs. E. F. Slocum : Madam— In reply to your advertisement in to-day's Courier for a Governess to teach three little girls French, German and English, I hasten to inform you that I am graduate of Vassar Class '80 ; that I have resided one year in Paris and five months in Vienna, sojourning in both capitals for the purpose of completing my knowledge of French and German. I have been Governess in the family of Mr. George F. Witmore, but owing to the death of my dear little pupil, their only daughter, Ada, I have been thrown out of employment. In addition to my College and Academy testimonials, I beg to refer to Mrs. Witmore, Holly Park, Brookline, and to the Rev. Mr. Brooks, St. Matthew's Church. Hoping to be favored by your selection, I am, madam. Yours respectfully, MiRLAM J. Packard. A FEW LINES ACCOMPANYING A GIFT. A WEDDING GIFT. 200 Fifth Avenue, New York', | 18M April. > Nelly Suter sends her best love, and best wishes, to Susie Lorimer, and a little bracelet as a souvenir of an event that Nelly trusts will ever prove as happy and auspicious as she wishes it to be. CHRISTENING GIFT. Heath House, ( June 18, '82. > God-papa sends little Mamie a coral ; to enable her to cut her teeth, but not the acquaintance of Joseph Chambers. FLCWERS. 15 Madison Avenue, \ 19 July. ' Roses become Miss Irwin so much, that Mr. Harnett earnestly hopes to see the accompanying bunch in Miss Irwin's corsage this evening at Wallack's. MUSIC. 13 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, I 28M November^ '82. ' Mr. John St. Ruth presents his compliments to Miss Delamore and begp to send her a few selections from the operas, her singing last night at Mr. Hamlyn's having reminded him of the most celebrated prima donnas. EUROPEAN ETIQUETTE IN DRESSING LETTERS. AD- letters to the queen ; TO the prince and princess of wales ; TO relatives of the queen ; to dukes, duchesses, marquises ; earls, countesses, etc., etc. ; to judges ; members of the privy council, clergymen, etc. Letters for her Majesty the Queen are sent under cover, either to the Prime Minister, or to whomso- ever has charge for the time being of her Majesty's private correspondence. The inclosure is directed " To her Majesty the Queen." Official communi- cations, are ordinarily addressed, " To the Queen's most excellent Majesty." Letters to the Queen should be commenced, " Madam," or " Most gra- cious Sovereign," or " May it please your Majesty," according to the nature of the communication ; and should be concluded, " I have the honor to remain, with the profoundest respect, madam, your Majesty's most faithful and dutiful subject." Letters for the Prince and Princess of Wales should be sent under cover to Lieut.-Col. Knollys, and the inclosure directed to " His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales," or, " Her Royal Highness the Princess of Wales." The sons and daughters, brothers and sisters, and uncles and aunts of the Queen, are all addressed as " Royal Highness," but her Majesty's nephews ^ 194 THE LETTER WRITER. 4- and cousins are addressed simply as " Your High- ness." Letters to members of the Royal Family should begin, " Sir," or " Madam," and end, " I have the honor to remain, sir (or madam), your Royal Highness's most dutiful and most obedient servant. " A letter to a Duke or Duchess, not members of the Royal Family, should be addressed, "To His Grace, the Duke of ; " " To Hei- Grace, the Duchess of ." It should begin with " My Lord Duke ;" but a duchess, in common with all other ladies, from the Queen downwards, is addressed as *' Madam." In writing to a marquis, address the letter, " To the Most Hon. the Marquis of ;" and to a mar- chioness, " To the Most Hon. the Marchioness of ." Begin, " My Lord Marquis." In writing to an earl or countess, address, " To the Right Hon. the Earl (or Countess) of ." Begin letters to earls, viscounts, or barons, with " My Lord." A letter to a viscount or viscountess should be addressed, " To the Right Hon. the Vis- count (or Lady Viscountess) ." A letter to a baron should be addressed, " To the Right Hon." The younger sons of earls, and all the sons of vis- counts and barons, are addressed, " The Hon. , Esquire ; " and the daughters, and sons' wives, " The Hon. Mrs. , or Miss ." Letters should begin, " Sir," or " Madam." In addressing embassadors, begin, " My Lord," and use the title " Your Excellency " throughout, Avherever the pronoun " you " would ordinarily be used. The same title is used in addressing the Lord- Lieutenant of Ireland, and the Governor of Western Australia. The Governor-General of Canada and the Governor of Dover Castle are addressed as *' Right Honorable." A letter to a baronet is addressed to " Sir William , Bart. ; " one to a knight, ** Sir William Begin letters to baronets, knights, or their wives, " Sir," or " Madam," except, of course, in cases where acquaintanceship exists, when formality ceases and letters are begun, " Dear Sir William " Dear Lady ." Though the word " Esquire" means, in these days little or nothing, yet it is considered more polite when addressing persons of position, to write the word in full. In addressing a French gentleman also, it is impolite to use the initial of " Monsieur ' only. The word must be written in full, and it is very frequently written twice, thus : "A Monsieur. *' Monsieur ." Judges are addressed as *' Right Honorable," In addressing a consul, write, "To A. B., Esq., Consul to Her Britannic Majesty, at ." In directing a letter to any member of the Privy Council, prefix *' Right Hon." to the name, and add after it the title of the office held. Observe the same rules in addressing members of the Royal Household. Letters or addresses to the House of Peers as a body are addressed, " To the Right Hon. the Lords Spiritual and Temporal in Parliament assembled ;" and to the House of Conimons, " To the Honorable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland." The Speaker of the House is addressed as " The Right Hon. , Esquire, Speaker of the House of Commons." Individual members, who have no title, are addressed by their Christian and surname, fol- lowed by "Esq., M.P.," except, of course, in those cases where they have a title. When clergymen have titles, these should be inserted after the word Rev., in addressing a let- ter. The following are the forms for addressing our Church dignitaries : "To His Grace the Archbishop of ." " To the Right Rev. the Bishop of ." " The Rev. John Smith, D.D." " The Very Rev. the Dean of ." " The Very Rev. John Smith, D.D., Dean of ." " The Ven. Archdeacon .' Rectors and curates are addressed as " The Rev. John Smith ; " " The Rev. William Jones." Holders of the higher appointments in the Army and Navy are addressed as follows : " To Lieut.- General the Duke of , K.C.B., Commander-in- Chief of Her Majesty's Forces," etc. " To Field- Marshal the Viscount , K.G., Master-General of the Ordnance," etc. " To the Right Hon. Lord , Commander of Her Majesty's Forces," etc. "To Colonel the Hon. A. ." *' To Sir , K.C.B., Admiral and Commander of the Channel Fleet," etc. " To Sir , Captain of Her Majesty's ship Black Prince.'' In address- ing majors, captains, or lieutenants, add the names of the regiments to which they belong. In the Navy, address, " Lieutenant Brown, R.N., on board H.M.S. Resistance." "Mr. Smith, Midshipman of H.M.S. Devastation.^* -^ r NOTE OF INVITATION. NOTE IN REPUY. n{^A /<^;% yyi7n^nMy^/^n(^M^^^u^^\ /^ ^.^I^^^^IO^^^^C^^^^/'^ yafu^A^'^d^^^^l^^--a'l^^^ %^ \-S> Lz^/3,/J^^3 Yyi^yi, '^a<^klijn, June 261^, 1880. 196 VARIOUS FORMS OF INVITATIONS. 198 VARIOUS FORMS OF INVITATIONS. VARIOUS FORMS OF INVITATIONS. 200 SPEECHES. -^ 4r ^^^ SPEECH should be s/ior^ and to the Jjoint Remember that brevity is the soul of — a speech. A long speech, unless the speaker be exceptionally eloquent, or the occasion exceptionally mandatory, is one of the greatest of possible inflictions. Some men love to hear themselves talk, and, quite oblivious of the feelings of their listeners, continue to drone out labored sentences and weary platitudes until politely coughed or buzzed down. These men ought to be indicted as nuisances. The specimen speeches which we present in this Cyclopaedia, are merely meant to act as guides. They show the form of speech most popular, and give the length that is likely to be received with approval. Of course there are occasions when a long speech is absolutely necessary. The toasts and sentiments embrace all subjects, and are suited to occasions of a festive character. A PUBLIC OFFICER, ON RETIRING, IS PRESENTED WITH A SOUVENIR. Sir — Your friends— and their name is legion — cannot permit you to retire into private life without a direct expression of their esteem and regard. I am desired on their part to present you with the accompany- ing as a very slight token indeed of their appreciation of so admirable an officer, so good a citizen, and so perfect a gentleman. REPLY. Sir — To have won your approval, and that of the friends you so kindly represent, is indeed sweeter to me than anything else that life, with all its prizes, could offer. I am bold enough to say that I have en- deavored to win the good -will of my fellow-citizens of all grades and classes, but I am modest enough to assure you this gracious, superb, and totally unexpected offering so completely affects me, as to leave me poor in speech, but rich in thankfulness and gratitude. My children and children's children shall treasure this souvenir, as the prize won in the big fight by at least the honest efforts of their sire. THE LADIES. Where is the man who, upon one occasion or another, has not been called upon to respond to the toast of " The Ladies? " The following will enable the bashful youth to train his ideas in regard to the subject, and to prepare him with a reply when the mine shall have been sprung upon him. A ready response to this most popular of all toasts is as necessary as it is grace- ful and manly ; so let there be no hemming or hawing, no hes- itations, stutterings or stammerings, but start to your feet at once and dash into the subject as though you were enchanted at the privilege. Mr. President and Gentlemen : The high, the glorious privilege has been accorded me of replying to the toast of " The Ladies." You could not have selected a better man. Impossible"! This you will say is rather cheeky of me ; but when 1 tel you that there breathes not a man who reveres, loves, and adores the sex so much as I do, I ask you in all honesty could the chance of reply- ing to the toast have fallen upon more deserving shoulders ? The ladies, God bless them ! what would we do without them — that nearer, clearer, dearer heaven of stars ! In their smiles lie our sunshine, in their tears our anguish, in their beauty our heartaches. To the ladies we owe all the refining influences of our lives. They are the bright flowers by the wayside, the quite too too tenderly utter beings, who make, mar, and marry us. Then here, gentlemen, is my response to the toast of The Ladies. May they ever shine like stars in our firmament, never cease to capti- vate us, and, when we deserve it, of rewarding us. The ladies, God bless them ! ANOTHER REPLY. The toast to which I have the honor of responding is one that awakes in the manly heart the latent chivalry of manhood. The toast of The Ladies embraces womanhood, the mother, the wife, the daughter, the sister, and if you will, gentlemen, the cousins and the aunts. Sir Wal- ter Scott has beautifully wi itten : " O woman ! in our hours of ease. Uncertain, coy, and hard to please. And variable as the shade By the light quivering aspen made ; When pain and anguish rack the brow, A ministering angel thou ! " What an admirable delineation of woman's character! In our hours of ease, on the stoop, or by the stove, there is no doubt of it, gentlemen, that she ts uncertain, extremely coy, and infernally hard to please— I mean at times— while as for her variability, she is as whirly-giggy as a weather-cock on a windy March morning. But here is the other side of the shield, the silver one. Have any of you ever been ill ? Have any of you ever been smitten to the earth by grief or misfortune ? I hope not ; but if such has been your bitter experience,' turn back on your memories for the tender sympathy, the unfailing devotion, the cease- less graciousness of woman. Gentlemen, this is a theme upon which, like the brook, I could " run on for ever ; " yet, delightful as it is, time r- SPEECH. 20I -^ flies, and perhaps the time that I am spending in reply to the toast of The Ladies, could be far better spent in their company. Gentlemen, I return you my most heartfelt thanks for being called upon by you to reply to such an important and gracious toast. PRESENTATION OF A PIECE OF PLATE TO A PUB- LIC OFFICIAL. Sir — It affords me intense pleasure to represent a committee, who in turn represent your numerous friends and admirers, and on their behalf to present you with this as a very slight token of their apprecia- tion of the admirable and praiseworthy manner in which you have dis- charged the onerous and responsible duties appertaining to your posi- tion. Your high character, integrity, and zeal have not only won the esteem and confidence of your friends, and of those brought into immediate contact with you, but have radiated far and wide, so that you have reached the position — one that is not only a credit to yourself but to the country at large. That you may long continue in the service which you so admirably adorn is the wish of the many to whom your virtues are as household words. With this souvenir let me, on the part of those whom I repre- sent, wish you health, happiness, alid prt)sperity. BEPLY. Mr. AND Gentlemen : I need hardly say with what gratitude I accept this splendid gift — a gift which is dearer to me than all the " gold of Ind," since it comes from a set of friends whose endorsement on a bad bill no amount of treasure could purchase. Gentlemen, my aim in life has been to do what is right, to labor with earnestness, to win on the merits. My efforts have been crowned with success, and in this superb souvenir I recognize my crown of victory. Gentlemen, your too flattering recognition will but serve as a greater impetus to exertion, and, rest assured that no effort on my part shall be wanting to repay in the fullest measure of my capacity the compli- ment it has pleased you this day to bestow upon me. PBESENTATION TO A TEACHER BY THE YOTJNa LADY PUPILS. Dear Teacher : It devolves upon me to offer you, in the name of the yotrng ladies of this school, a slight token of our esteem and regard. To myself it is a source of immense pleasure to be made their mouthpiece on this occa- sion, since my sincere delight may make some amends for my many shortcomings. I am not now addressing you as our teacher, but as our friend, our dear, trusted, and very much tried friend ; for how often have we not tried your temper and your forbearance ! Dear Teacher, we will ever keep your image enshrined in our hearts, and shall look back to the school, not as an abode of jDenance, but rather of pleasure, since your kindness and your amiability have so rendered it— our studies having been illuminated by your patient graciousness. The little gift we offer you is of no intrinsic value, but it is rich in love, and gratitude, and respect. Please accept it, and with it our united hopes that your life will ever be as happy as you have made oiirs. REPLY. My Dear Pupils: I find that my heart is so anxious to speak that it has almost paralyzed my lips. Yes, it is indeed my heart that returns thanks to yours, for I know how pure, gentle, generous, strong, and true your hearts are, and my heart says to yours, " Oh, how deeply grateful I am for this tender mark of your affection ! " My dear pupils, if you have been a little inclined to— what shall I call it ? not idleness— no, no— well, a word from me ever brought you back from the plucking of the flowers of fancy, and a rebuke was but a reminder that you should tread the path of study for yet a little while. My life has been rendered doubly pleasant in the sunshine of your youth, and that I shall hold a place in your esteem and affection is indeed a delightful reward. That I thank you for your gift it is needless to say. Ah ! would that one spark of eloquence of some of the masters over whom we have studied together were given to me now, to let you know what I feel on this occasion, which shall ever be retnambered as one of the brightest resting-places in my journey through life. 4- A BACHELOR. Ladies and Gentlemen : It seems rather hard that I, an unfortunate bachelor, should be sin- gled out to reply to this toast. Surely the misfortune of being unable to meet a fair one to share my lot ought to have won your sympathy, and to have left me unnoticed save by what the poets are pleased to term the " passing tribute of a sigh." Ladies, it is no fault of mine that I am unmated. I detest, abhor, loathe bachelorhood— would that I could find stronger terms of detesta- tion—and if Fate, Kismet, Destiny, call it what you will, were to place some charming blushing maiden, such as I see around this board to- night, in my path, I would consider myself the most blessed of human mortals. What more contemptible being than the old bachelor ! who so lonely, who so uncared for, who so infamously selfish ! Of course, ladies, I allude to those cravens who have feared to risk their fate on that sweet small word " Yes." I must myself confess to a certain cow- ardice, and, with Sir Walter Raleigh, exclaim, " Fain would I climb but that I fear to fall." Oh, if some fair lady would but say, " If thy heart fail thee do not climb at all ! " That I live in hope, white blos- somed Hope, I do not deny, and whatever be my fate now, in the presence of such charming and beautiful witnesses, I denounce bach- elorhood and despise the bachelor. THE HOST. Gentlemen : Fill your glasses till the beaded bubbles at the brim topple over. This is a toast that to honor is a sacred duty. I give you the health of our host — God bless him t REPLY. Gentlemen : I thank you most heartily for the manner in which you have drank the toast of my health. I assure you from my heart that I never feel so happy as when I see myself surrounded by my friends, and to behold one's friends enjoying themselves is a sight fit for the gods. In the battle of life, which we are all compelled to fight, it becomes necessary to halt occasionally, stop by the wayside, and refresh. This brief snatching of pleasure at its best, makes us all feel that there is something worth living for, and that life without friends would indeed be but a dismal blank. I again thank you for your gracious good fellow- ship, and promise you that no effort shall be wanting on my part to enable you to propose the same toast, under the same circumstances, again, again, apd yet again. A DISTINQinSHED GUEST. Gentlemen : A duty, and a most pleasant one, devolves upon me of proposing the health of a very distinguished gentleman who has honored us with his presence this evening. Mr. has done us the very great favor of joining our circle, and we feel the most intense pleasure in doing honor to a citizen who has so justly elevated himself in the opinions and good wishes of his fellow-countrymen. Were Mr. absent I could talk about him for " a long hour by Shrewsbury clock," but as he is present I will endeavor to spare his blushes, and come at once to the drinking of his health in a bumper. Gentlemen, long life, prosperity and happi- ness to our distinguished guest, Mr. . Three times three and a tiger ! Take the time from me ! Hip, etc. REPLY., Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen : Our worthy host intimated that he wished to spare my blushes. Now it is so long since I blushed, that I forget the sensation, but I declare that I could find this no occasion to blush, save for very pleasure, since to be thus introduced and thus toasted is indeed an occasion so pleasurable to me, that it shall ever remain impressed on the tablets of both my memory and my heart. It is indeed a source of intense gratification to me to find that my little efforts, so far as they have gone, are appreciated, and by gentle- men such as I see around this board. True it is that I have done but little ; but, gentlemen, I assure you my object is to do a great deal, and failing in that, I have but done my share. If, however, I am to do my share in this evening's bout, I am extremely grateful to our respected 202 SPEECHES. ■^ 4r- chairman for giving me an opportunity of speaking so early in the evening, as later on — well, least said soonest mended. "WEDDINa-DAY ANNIVERSARY. This is indeed an occasion where a speech is utterly unnecessary, for the fact of our being here speaks so eloquently, that the words even of a Demosthenes or a Cicero would fall flat, stale, and unprofitable. Ladies and gentlemen, just cast a glance at that happy man, out host, and that beautiful lady, our hostess. See the " heavenly assenting smile " that speaks of the tenderest devotion, of a happiness those who wed whom they love, alone can know. The sunshine of unalloyed felicity is a nimbus to their lives, and it is well that, as the clock strikes another year upon their wedded bliss, we should be here to congratu- late and say God bless them both. That their journey of life will be always as smooth as it is now, and that they may ever be protected from storm and strait, is the sentiment I would couple with the health of our dear friends, Mr. and Mrs. , on this the anniversary of their wedding. REPLY. My very dear Friends : As a rule, no husband is perfectly safe in replying for his wife, since that much-to-be-respected party is usually so capable of replying for herself, and as on too frequent occasions, her sentiments differ a little from his. On this occasion, however, I reply for my dear wife, knowing that every word I say will be endorsed by her, and that every beat of her heart is in accord with mine. This is indeed a very joyous anniversary. It recalls the delicious rapture of the moment when I first could call my cherished partner by that sacred and endearing term of wife. It recalls the moment when she placed her happiness in my hands ; and, my dear friends, I ask of you if that smile which puckers round her mouth now, does not do me infinite justice ? If I have not been disappointed in her, I trust in God she has not been disappointed in me, and as years pass around, and, Darby and Joan like, we descend the hill, may this anniversary ever prove a resting-place for happy retrospection. CRYSTAL WEDDING. In this age of transparency, when glass has arrived at such perfection, it behooves us upon this, the anniversary of the crystal wedding of our dear friends, to " hold the mirror up to nature," and let them view themselves in the glass we now place before them. The lady smiles, as well she may, for Time's glass has not shaken out a single sand, and the fifteen years that have passed since she made our host the happiest of men, have left scarce a trace upon her pellucid brow. The crystals which we present our dear friends upon this auspicious and delightful occasion are but a type of the transparency and bright- ness of their lives. May they never look on life " as through a glass, darkly." May the goblets which stand upon the festive board ever brim with the nectar distilled from love and harmony, and may these glass pitchers, and bowls, and decanters serve as crucibles through which their silver and golden anniversaries may yet be passed, and in this joyous and sympathetic company. REPLY. Dear Friends : True it is that we have been married fifteen long years, yet it seems to me that is just as young, just as fresh, just as lovely as when, on this day fifteen years ago, I took her for better or for worse. Yet, dear friends, I like this celebration. It reminds us that we have reached one of the great resting-places on the line,'and that, whilst we look back with intense pleasure upon our journey, we also anticipate a great deal more farther on the road. It is indeed a source of intense gratification to us to find that, after fifteen years, so many friends come to visit us as we rest by the wayside, bringing gifts and bidding us to be of good cheer. These anniversaries are a sacred institution, and as you were good enough to express a hope that these beautiful goblets might prove crucibles, let me now engage each and every one of you not only to our silver and gold, but to our diamond weddings. I now drink your healths, thanking you for my fifteen-year partner from the bottom of my heart. SILVER WEDDING. Ladies and Gentlemen : On a certain day just twenty-five years ago, a certain lady and gentle- man entered for the race of life, and they have, I am delighted to de- clare, won the plate. Behold it! [Points to gifts.] They have, to continue the parlance of the turf, run neck and neck, and come in to this the winning-post in the easiest of possible canters. Ladies and gentlemen, let us drink to the winners, and let us earnestly hope that they may be matched for the gold plate, and that we may be present when the " little event" comes off. . Ladies and gentlemen, need we say how deeply we congratulate our dear friends ? Is not this occasion a lesson to maids and bachelors ? Never were there words more applicable, " Go and do likewise." I shall conclude, for I see that you ai"e all eager to do honor to my toast, by quoting Sheridan : " Ah, sure a pair were never seen So justly formed to meet by nature," Their healths — God bless them ! GOLDEN WEDDING. This is indeed a grand occasion, and one which, while it brings joy and thankfulness to our hearts, bears with it one of the most beautiful and touching lessons in the book of life. Our respected and venerable friends have indeed reached the golden age of maturity. Hand in hand have they ascended the hill, hand in hand are they descending into the valley, a valley lighted with the un- dying and unshifting lamp of faithfulness, love, and devotion. What a privilege for us to be here to witness this beautiful sight, to see the bride and bridegroom of to-day in soul, in heart, the bride and bride- groom of this day half a century ago ! Time has sown fresh flowers in their dear old hearts ; time has gar- landed their brows with choicest flowers ; time has but mellowed their affections, which, like good wine, has but improved with age. We have come here to felicitate them upon the fiftieth anniversary of their marriage, to wish them many a long year yet before they snap the golden link that bound them together ; that their bark may sail upon a golden sea, and that their sunset may be golden, is our united senti- ment. CONGRATULATING A CANDIDATE. Sir — It is not in mortals to command success, but, what is better, they should endeavor to deserve it. You have been successful because you have deserved it, and we come to fxc/^aw^^ congratulations, since whilst we rejoice for you, you undoubtedly rejoice with us. We have won a proud victory, but much of the glory is due to our standard-bearer. That you will conscientiously and worthily fill the office which has been bestowed upon you is beyond the region of doubt. We have done honor to ourselves by proposing so clear-headed and able a candidate, and you, sir, will do honor to us by pursuing in your new position that pure and unsullied line of conduct which has this day led us to nominate you for election. We do not attempt to crow over the defeated candidate. We can afford to be magnanimous, and since we are now so w^orthily repre- sented, we feel assured that the enemy will regard you as the exponent of their opinions as much as we shall. Sir, we cordially congratulate you on a well merited success, and we congratulate you, and congratu- late the good cause. REPLY. Gentlemen : Deeds, not words, is my motto. That I thank you, and the energetic workers in the good cause which has led to this triumph, a triumph in which I am personally interested, need scarcely be said. I am as yet an untried man, but it is my purpose to prove to you that your votes of to-day have not been thrown away, and that you have honored an in- dividual who will at least endeavor to prove his gratitudeby head, heart, and unflagging work. The good cause has indeed triumphed, and I pledge myself that the trust you have this day reposed in me shall lose nothing from being placed in my hands. I shall endeavor to the best of my poor ability to walk in the straight path, and to discharge the duties appertaining to my office without fear or favor. Once more I thank you for the high honor which you have done me. -^ ^ TOASTS AND SENTIMENTS. 203 -^ ^W^''^W^ '^W^' "^W ^"'^ i^^v^^v'^^^-'^^v'^'^v'^^v"^^^' AMATORY. MERICAN belles and American fashions. Laughing lovers to merry maids. Love and opportunity. Love's slavery. Love without licentiousness, and pleasure without excess. Love, liberty, and length of blissful days. Love without fear, and life without care. Love for one. Life, love, liberty, and true friendship. Love in every breast, liberty in every heart, and learning in every head. Love at liberty, and liberty in love. Love : may it never make a wise man play the fool. Artless love, and disinterested friendship. All that love can gfive, and sensibility enjoy. A speedy union to every lad and lass. Beauty's best companion — Modesty. Beauty, innocence, and modest merit. Beauty without affectation, and virtue without deceit. Community of goods, unity of hearts, nobility of sentiment, and truth of feeling to the lovers of the fair sex. Charms to strike the sight, and merit to win the heart. Constancy in love, and sincerity in friendship. Here's a health to the maid that is constant and kind, Who to charms bright as Venus' adds Diana's mind. I'll toast America's daughters — let all fill their glasses— Whose beauty and virtue the whole world's surpasses. May blessings attend them, go wherever they will, And foul fall the man that e'er offers them ill. Love without deceit and matrimony without regret. Love's garlands: may they ever entwine the brows of every true. hearted lover. Lovely woman — ^man's best and dearest gift of life. Love to one, friendship to a few, and good-will to all. Long life, pure love, and boundless liberty. May love and reason be friends, and beauty and prudence marry. May the lovers of the fair sex never want the means to defend them. May the sparks of love brighten into a flame. May the joys of the fair give pleasure to the heart. May we be loved by those whom we love. May we kiss whom we please, and please whom we kiss. May the bud of affection be ripened by the sunshine of sincerity. May a virtuous offspring succeed to mutual and honorable love. May the presence of the fair curb the licentious. May the confidence of love be rewarded with constancy in its object. May the honorable lover attain the object of his wishes. May the lovers of the fair be modest, faithful, and kind. May the wings of love never lose a feather. May the blush of conscious innocence ever deck the faces of the American fair. May the union of persons always be founded on that of hearts. May the generous heart ever meet a chaste mate. May the temper of our wives be suited to those of their husbands. May true passion never meet with a slight May every woman have a protector, but not a tyrant. The Girl we Love — When she is our toast, we don't want any iul her. May we find our wives to-mght where Cain found his — in the land of Nod. Harmony in all the states of the world — Especially the Married State. The Graces that every Man desires — The good graces of woman. The best Union Bonds in the Market — Marriage certificates. BACCHANALIAN. May we act with reason when the bottle circulates. May good fortune resemble the bottle and bowl. And stand by the man who can't stand by himself. May we never want wine, nor a friend to partake of it. May our love of the glass never make us forget decency. May the juice of the grape enliven each soul. And good-humor preside at the head of each bowl. May mirth exalt the feast. May we always get mellow with good wine. May the moments of mirth be regulated by the dial of reason. Champagne to our real friends, and real pain to our sham friends. Come, every man now give his toast — Fill up the glass — I'll tell you mine : Wine is the mistress I love most 1 This is my toast^now give me thine. Cheerfulness in our cups, content in our minds, and competency in oui pockets. Come, fill the glass and drain the bowl : May Love and Bacchus still agree ; And every American warm his soul With Cupid, Wine, and Liberty. Good-humor : and may it ever smile at our board. Full bags, a fresh bottle, and a beauty. Good wine and good company to the lovers of reasonable enjoyment. A friend and a bottle to give him. A hearty supper, a good bottle, and a soft bed to every man who fights the battles of his country. A full purse, a fresh bottle, and beautiful face. A full bottle and a friend to partake of it. A drop of good stuff and a snug social _party. To spend a dull evening, gay, social, and hearty. A mirth-inspiring bowl. A full belly, a heavy purse, and a light heart. A bottle at night and business in the morning. Beauty, wit, and wine. Qean glasses and old corks. Wine : may it be our spur as we ride over the bad roads of life. While we enjoy ourselves over the bottle, may we never drive prudence out of the room. Wine — for there's no medicine like it. Wine — ^the parent of friendship, composer of strife. The soother of sorrow, the blessing of life. Wine, the bond that cements the warm heart to a friend. Wine, Wit, and Wisdom — ^Wine enough to sharpen wit ; wit enough 204 TOASTS AND SENTIMENTS.- -^ to give zest to wine ; wisdom enough to " shut down " at the right moment. The Latch Kev — May it never open the door to reproach. May we never lose our taste for any of the sweets of life — especially 'lasses. The first duty of Bachelors — To ring the city belles. Success to all parties that, like this party, are founded on friendship, harmony, and hospitality. The best of all Revolvers— The bottle as it goes round. COMIC. May the tax-gatherer be forgiven in another world. To the early bird that catches the worm. To the bird in the hand that is worth two in the bush. The land we live in : may he who doesn't like it leave it. The three great Generals in power—General Peace, General Plenty, and General Satisfaction. May the parched pea never jnmp out of the frying-pan into the fire. The three R's : Reading, 'Riting, and 'Rithmetic. May evil communications never corrupt good manners. May the celebrated pin a day, of which we have heard so much, always make the groat a year. May the groat a year never be unwisely invested in a Joint-Stock Company. , May that man never grow fat Who carries two faces under one hat. Here's to the best physicians— Dr. Diet, Dr. Quiet, and Dr. Merryman. Here's to the feast that has plenty of meat and very little table-cloth. Here's to the full purse that never lacks friends. May fools make feasts, and wise men eat them. Here's to the man who never lets his tongue cut his own throat. Here's to the man who never quarrels with his bread and butter. Here's to the man who never looks a gift horse in the mouth. Here's to the old bird that is not to be caught with chaff. CONSERVATIVE. The equilibrium of state, may it always be preserved. Judicious reforms and reformers. The universal advancement of the arts and sciences. May the dispensers of justice ever be impartial. May the worth of the nation be ever inestimable. May taxation be lessened annually. May the sword of justice be swayed by the hand of mercy. May the seeds of dissension never find growth in the soil of America. May the love of country be imprinted in every American's breast. Liberty, not license. Confusion to all men who desert their party. Party ties before all other ties. A lasting cement to all contending powers. The protectors of commerce and the promoters of charity. A revision of the code of criminal laws. ENGLISH. England, home, and beauty. English oak and British valor. England forever : the land we live in. England. Scotland, and Ireland : may their union remain undisturbed by plots or treachery to the end of time. England , the queen of the isles and the queen of the main. May old England's sons, the Americans, never forget their mother. IBISH. A high post to the enemies of Quid Ireland. Erin, the land of the brave and the bold. Ireland : sympathy for her wrongs, and a determination to redress them. The country that gave St. Patrick birth, the birthplace of wit, and hos- pitality's home— dear Ould Ireland. May Ireland be ever equally distinguished by her love of liberty and true patriotism. May the enemies of Ireland never meet a friend. Justice to Ireland. Grattan and the Volunteers of '82. ^ SCOTCH. A health to the friends of Caledonia. Caledonia, the nursery of learning and the birthplace of heroes. Scotland, and the productions of its soil. Scottish heroes, and may their fame live forever. Scotland, the birthplace of valor, the country of worth. The Queen and the Scottish Union. The nobles of Caledonia and their ladies. To the memory of Scottish heroines. The Rose, Thistle, and Shamrock : may they flourish by the commoa graft of union. To the memory of Scotland's heroes. To the memory of those who have gloriously fallen in the noble strug- gle for independence. lilBEBAIi. Annihilation to the trade of corruption. Addition to our trade, multiplication to our manufactures, subtraction to taxes, and reduction to places and pensions. All the honest reformers of our country. America : may the land of our nativity ever be the abode of freedom, and the birthplace of heroes. America's annals : may they never suffer a moral or political blot. Confusion to those who barter the cause of their country for sordid gain. Confusion to those who, wearing the mask of patriotism, pull it off and desert the cause of liberty in the hour of trial. Confusion to those-despots who combine against the liberties of man- kmd. Disappointment to all those who form expectations of places and pen- sions on the ruin of their country. Everlasting life to the man who gave the death-blowto the slave-trade. Community, unity, navigation, and trade. Faith in every kind of commerce. Freedom to the oppressed, and slavery to the oppressors. Freedom to all who dare contend for it. Oblivion to all party rage. Humanity to all created beings, especially to our own species, whether black or white. No party except mankind. May the meanest American scorn the highest slave. May every succeeding century maintain the principles of the glorious- Revolution, enjoy the blessings of them, and transmit them to future ages unimpaired and improved. May the whole universe be incorporated in one city, and every inhabi- tant presented with the freedom. May freedom's fire take new birth at the grave of liberty. May our country be, as it has ever been, a secure asylum to the unfor- tunate and oppressed. High wages, and sense to keep them. May the freedom of election be preserved, the trial by jury maintained^ and the liberty of the press secured to the latest posterity. May the tree of liberty flourish round the globe, and every human be- ing partake of the fruits. May truth and liberty prevail throughout the World. May all partial and impolitic taxes be abolished. May the sons of liberty marry the daughters of virtue. May Americans never suffer invasion, nor invade the rights of others. May the miseries of war be banished from all enlightened nations. May our trade and manufactures be unrestrained by the fetters of monopoly. May the whole world become more enlightened and civilized. May revolutions never cease while tyranny exists. Our constitution as settled at the Revolution. The majesty of the people of America. The memory of our brave ancestors who brought about the Revolution, and may a similar spirit actuate their descendants. The sacred decree of heaven — Let all mankind be free. The people — the only source of legitimate power. The subject of liberty and the liberty of the subject. The greatest happiness of the greatest number. r- TOASTS AND SENTIMENTS. 205 May the nation that plots against another's liberty or prosperity fall a victim to its own intrigues. LITERAIIY. Toleration and liberty of the press. The Fourth Estate. The liberty of the press, and success to its defenders. The Press : the great bulwark of our liberties, and may it ever remain unshackled . The glorious literature of America. The glorious literature of Scotland. The glorious literature of Ireland. The glorious literature of England. liOYAI*. A lasting peace or an honorable war. A health to our patriots. Agriculture and its improvers. All societies associated for promoting the happiness of the himian race. All the charitable institutions of the United States. American virtue : may it always find a protector, but never need one. Holy pastors, honest magistrates, and humane rulers. Improvement to the inventions of our country. Improvement to our arts, and invention to our artists. May the sword of Justice be swayed by the hand of Mercy. May the love of country always prevail. May our sons be honest and fair, and our daughters modest and fair. May every American's hand be ever hostile to tyranny. May our jurors ever possess sufficient courage to uphold their verdict. May every American manfully withstand corruption. Our wives, homes, our country. May every American manfully withstand tyranny. May the glory of America never cease to shine. May our hearts ever be possessed with the love of country. May the brave never want protection. May we ever honestly uphold our rights. May we never cease to deserve well of our country. May the liberties of the people be Immortal. May the brow of the brave be adorned by the hand of beauty. May we never find danger lurking on the borders of security. May the laurels of America never be blighted. May all mankind make free to enjoy the blessings of liberty, but never take the liberty to subvert the principles of freedom. May America's name and America's fame stand forever pure, g^reat and free. May every true American be possessed of peace, plenty, and content. May every American act the patriot's part. May victory spin the robe of glory for the brave, and fame enroll his deeds. May the laws never be misconstrued. May the weight of our taxes never bend the back of our credit. MTLITARY. To the memory of Washington and all like him. May the enemy's flag be surmounted by the American standard. May the arms borne by a soldier never be used in a bad cause. May American soldiers fight to protect, and conquer to save. May the gifts of fortune never cause us to steer out of our latitude. May the brow of the brave never want a wreath of laurel to adorn it. May the brave soldier who never turned his back to the enemy never have a friend turn his back to him. May bronze and medals not be the only reward of the brave. May the laurels of America never be blighted. May all weapons pf war be used for warlike purpose only. May a soldier never fall a sacrifice but to glory. To the memory of sdl brave soldiers who fall in defense of their coun- try. NAVAL. May our iron-clads do as much as our brave old oaks. May rudders govern and ships obey. May no true son of Neptune ever flinch from his gun. May no son of the ocean ever be devoured by his mother. May our navy never know defeat but*by name. May our officers and tars be valiant and brave. Success to the fair for manning the navy. May gales of prosperity waft us to the port of happiness. May the pilot of reason guide us to the harbor of rest. May the memory of the noble Farragut inspire every seaman to do his duty. May the tar who loses one eye in defense of his country never see dis- tress with the other. The heart of a sailor : may it be like heart of oak. Though our bold tars are fortune's sport, may they ever be fortune's care. The flag of America : may it ever brave the battle and the breeze. The sea, the rough sea, the open sea : may our lives be spent upon it. The sea, the sleepless guardian of the world. Safe arrivals to our homeward and outward bound fleets. RELiaiOUS. The friends of religion, liberty, and science in every part of the globe. The honest reformers of our laws and religion. The friends of religious toleration, whether they are within or without the Establishment. SENTIBtENTAL. May we ever have a sufficiency for ourselves, and a trifle to spare for our friends. May we always look forward to better time, but never be discontented with the present. May the miseries of war never more have existence in the world. May the wing of friendship never moult a feather. May our artists never be forced into artifice to gain applause and for- tune. May solid honor soon take place of seeming religion. May our thoughts never mislead our judgment. May filial piety ever be the result of a religious education. May real merit meet reward, and pretension its punishment. May prosperity never make us arrogant, nor adversity mean. May we live happy and die in peace with all mankind. May the unsuspecting man never be deceived. May noise and nonsense be ever banished from social company. May the faults of our neighbors be dim and their virtues glaring. May industry always be the favorite of Fortune. May the rich be charitable and the poor grateful. May the misfortunes of others be always examined at the chart of our own conduct. May we never be so base as to envy the happiness of another. May we live to learn, and learn to live well. May we be more ready to correct our own faults than to publish the faults of others. May we never hurt our neighbor's peace by the desire of appearing witty. Modesty in our discourses, moderation in our wishes, and mutuality in our affections. May we never envy those who are happy, but strive to imitate them. May we derive amusement from business and improvement from pleas ure. ' May our faults be written on the seashore, and every good action prove a wave to wash them out. May virtue find fortune always an attendant. May we never repine at our condition, nor be depressed by f)overty. May reality strengthen the joys of imagination. May we never make a sword of our tongue to wound a good man's rep< utation. May our distinguishing mark be merit rather than money. A total abolition of the slave-trade. -^ r- 306 TOASTS AND SENTIMENTS. -% A heart to glow for others' good. A heart to feel and a heart to give. A period to the sorrows of an ingenuous mind. A health to our sweethearts, our friends, and our wives. May fortune smile on them the rest of their lives. May genius and merit never want a friend. Adam's ale : and may so pure an element always be at hand. All that gives us pleasure. All our wants and wishes. All our absent friends on land and sea. An honest guide and a good pilot. As we bind so may we find . As we travel through life may we live well on the road. May truth and liberty prevail throughout the world. May we never engage in a bad cause, and never fly from a good one. May the fruits of America's soil never be denied to her children. SPOIITIN&. May the lovers of the chase never want the comforts of life. The clear-sighted sportsman that sees his game with one eye. The steady sportsman that always brings down his game. The beagle that runs by nose and not by sight. The jolly sportsman that never beats about the bush. The joys of angling. May the pleasures of sportsmen never know an end. May we always gain fresh vigor from the joys of the chase. May the sportsman's day be spent in pleasure. May strength the sportsman's nerves in vigor brace. May cruelty ne'er stain with foul disgrace, The well-earned pleasures of the chase. May the love of the chase never interrupt our attention to the welfare of our country. May every sport prove as innocent as that of the field. May those who love the crack of the whip never want a brush to pursue. May the heart of a sportsman never know affliction but by name. MISCELLANEOUS. The three A's : Abundance, abstinence, and annihilation. Abundance to the poor. Abstinence to the intemperate. Annihilation to the wicked. The three B's : Bachelors, banns, and buns. Bachelors for the maidens. Banns for the bachelors. Buns after the consummation of the banns The three C's : Cheerfulness, content, and competency. Cheerfulness in our cup. Content in our minds. Competency in our pockets. The three F's : Firmness, freedom, and fortitude. Firmness in the senate. Freedom on the land. Fortitude on the waves. The three F's : . Friendship, feeling, and fidelity. Friendship without interest. Feeling to our enemies. Fidelity to our friends. The three F's : Fair, fat, and forty The three generals in peace. General peace. General plenty. General satisfaction. The three generals in power : General employment. General industry. General comfort. The three H's : Health, honor, and happiness. Health to all the world. Honor to those who seek for it. Happiness in our homes. The three L's : Love, life, and liberty. Love pure. Life long. Liberty boundless. The three M's : Mirth, music and moderation. Mirth at every board. Music in all instruments. Moderation in our desires. The three golden balls of civilization t Industry, commerce, and wealth. The three companions of beauty : Modesty, love, and constancy. The three blessings of this life. Health, wealth, and a good conscience. The four comforts of this life : Love, liberty, health, and a contented mind. The three spirits that have no souls : Brandy, rum, and gin. When we go up the hill of prosperity may we never meet a friend. The three M's : Modesty, moderation, and mutuality. Modesty in our discourse. Moderation in our wishes. Mutuality in our affection. The Musician's Toast— May a crotchet in the head never bar the ut- terance of good notes. May the lovers of harmony never be in want of a note, and its enemiei die in a common chord. The Surgeon's Toast— The man that bleeds for his count.ry. The Waiter's Toast— The clever waiter who puts the cork in first and the liquor afterwards. The Glazier's Toast— The praiseworthy glazier who takes panes to see his way through life. The Painter's Toast — When we work in the wet may we never want for dryers. The Hatter's Toast — When the rogue naps it, may the lesson he. felt. The Tailor's Toast— May we always sheer out of a law-suit, and by so doing cut bad company. The Baker's Toast — May we never be done so much as to make us crusty. The Lawyer's Toast— May the depth of our potations never cause us to let judgment go by default. LATIN. Adfinem esto fidelis . Be faithful to the end. Amor pair ice. The love of our country. Dilige arnicas. Love your friends. Dum vivimus vivamus. Let us live while we live. Esto perpetua. Be thou perpetual. Palmant qui meruit /erat. Let him who has won bear the palm. Pro aris et focis. For our altars and firesides. VoxpopuU vox Dei. The voice of the people is the voice of God. Ar- or XHt ^ . ^NIVER8{Ty V « or lilhalEHrm Capitals. Ledger Hand ^ y t^dd-Mny MEdium Hand. CDrrEspandingHand. '^/Z92^<< ^ BOOK-KEEPING. 207 'HERE are, properly speaking, only two methods of book-keeping, founded on distinct principles — viz.. Single and Double Entry. Single Entry is the more simple, and is generally adopted by shop- keepers and others who deal in a great vari- ety of articles, where the sales are small and nu- merous ; and to such it is peculiarly applicable, as they have seldom time to record them particularly. There is merely required a memorial of occurrences, in the order of time, with a Ledger, in which the names of all parties between whom transactions take place are entered ; debtor and creditor accounts of each party being arranged on the two opposite pages which are presented at an opening, the first on the right hand, and the second on the left. By this method the Ledger is defective, since it contains no accounts of cash, bills, or goods ; consequently it affords to the owner no knowledge of these particulars, but only records the debts due to and by him, with, at most, the accounts of stock, family expenses, and shop fur- niture. The Italian method of Double Entry differs from Single Entry chiefly in making cash, stock, goods, etc., parties as well as persons, and in mak- ing a debtor and creditor account in every transac- tion. Thus, if cloth is sold to A, A is made debtor to cloth, and cloth creditor to A ; if cash is received from B, cash is made debtor to B, and B creditor to cash ; and in every case the party, whether animate or inanimate, which receives is debtor to that which pays, and inversely. A double entry is therefore requisite in every transaction, and a balance may at any time be struck between things as well as persons ; and in order to avoid the confusion which would arise in a direct transfer of account from the Waste- book to the Ledger before the proper relation of debtor and creditor in each transaction is distinctly ascertained and recorded, they are first entered in the Journal in the same form in which they must ap- pear in the Ledger. But in order to form a proper criterion of the existing methods of book-keeping, it will be necessary to compare them, as we will now do, before proceeding further. As the Ledger, when kept by Single Entry, con- tains no accounts of cash, bills, and goods, it con- sequently affords to the owner no knowledge of these particulars ; but these must be collected from the subsidiary books. In a simple trade, such as the set by single entry which follows this, the information wanted may be obtained by the present arrangement of the Day-book, Cash-book, and Stock-book ; but in an extensive and diversified concern this arrange- ment would by no means be advisable, as the objects in question could not be easily and concisely ob- tained. Posting from a number of books, when one only is necessary, is of itself an insuperable objec- tion, because it is more liable to errors and omissions ; and from the unsightly appearance these books would exhibit by the multiplicity of figures, the eye would soon become fatigued and bewildered. It is both a slovenly and tedious method to enter each sum singly into the Ledger, and unnecessarily swells the accounts with lines, as by the Italian method, which increase the labor and difficulty of balancing. Besides, previous to taking a general balance, the number of entries, such as interest, commission, and postage, arising from the accounts current, must unavoidably be made either with a journal entry, or each entered singly by a simple transfer from one account to another, which is, in fact, a double entry, and would be both awkward and improper. The Cash-book might be constructed with columns to show the monthly amounts of the cash received and paid on account of bills receivable and bills payable, kr f- 208 BOOK-KEEPING. -% etc, ; yet the information in other respects would not be obtained, for the amounts of the sales, of con- signments and shipments, etc., monthly, would not be shown by Single entry. Although the Ledger, by the Italian method of book- keeping, contains accounts of cash, bills, goods, and other property, yet the arrangement of it and the Jour- nal is by no means adequate to the purposes of an extensive and complicated concern. By making all the original entries in one book, namely, the Waste- book, a jumble of transactions so heterogeneous is produced as cannot fail to render the business not only more complex in itself, and consequently more difficult, than if a separate book were kept for each kind ; but when dispatch is required, as in selling, shipping goods, etc., the greatest inconvenience is experienced, as only one person can be employed at once in making the entries. But the principal de- fects lie in journalizing daily, in posting each sum singly into the Ledger, and opening separate ac- counts for each kind of goods. Hence the imprac- ticability of following this method without the books of an extensive business falling behind, the patience of the book-keeper exhausted, or, perhaps, his health destroyed. Besides swelling the Journal and par- ticularizing the Ledger to an unwieldy size, it ren- ders the balancing of the latter a laborious and, in most cases, a difficult task. By the practice at present followed in the count- ing-house, the Waste-book is not recognized by that title. It is represented, however, by a number of subsidiary books, suited to the nature of the busi- ness carried on, each containing such transactions as exclusively apply to its title. Thus, a Cash-book, in which is entered the money received and paid ; a Bill-book, in which are recorded the bills received and accepted ; a Purchase-book, or Invoice-book Inward, in which are entered or posted invoices of all goods purchased ; a book of shipments, or Invoice-book Outward, in which are entered all goods shipped ; an Account Sales-book, in which are entered the particulars of such goods as are sold on commission, with the charges attending them ; a Day-book, in which are entered the sales of goods on the merchant's own account, with such other transactions as do not apply to any of the above books ; an Account Current-book, containing dupli- cates of the accounts as they stand in the Ledger, with the particulars of each article drawn out in a plain circumstantial manner, being exact copies of the accounts transmitted or delivered to the persons whose names they bear. These are the principal subsidiary books used either in inland or foreign trade, and from which the Journal or Ledger are made. The division of the Waste-book into a num- ber of books adapted to the nature of the business, is a valuable modem improvement, both for sim- plicity and dispatch. By bringing each kind of transactions together, and dividing the labor among a number of hands, the utmost simplicity, accuracy, and dispatch are obtained. The arrangement of the Journal, by combining together each class of accounts, and carrying only the amounts of these once a month into the Ledger, not only simplifies the Journal, but greatly abridges the former of these books, because no more than twelve lines yearly will be required in general at the accounts, though transactions be ever so numerous. The Ledger, when kept by this method, may there- fore be considered a general index to the Journal, as that book is to the subsidiary books. By this means the case of each account is brought into a concise point of view, and is easily examined, without fatiguing the eye with a multiplicity of figures, which unavoidably takes place when each sum is posted separately, as by the Italian method. It must also be observed that instead of opening dis- tinct accounts for each kind of goods, as by the Italian method, only one general account of goods is by the present practice opened ; for when the articles are numerous, one account of goods in the Ledger is quite sufficient, and will be found to answer every useful purpose. In an extensive business, where separate accounts for each kind of goods have been attempted, it was found difficult to keep the Journal and Ledger from falling behind. The Stock-book is the proper place *for every particular of this sort, which may be kept exclusively by one of the junior clerks, when the business requires it. The result of the general account in the Ledger of goods will always correspond with the particular profits and losses from the Stock-book. But superior as the present practice is for saving both time and labor in posting, it will be found still more so at balancing the Ledger. What was formerly a laborious, and, in some cases, next to an impracticable task, where that book was posted daily, namely, to bring the stock and balance accounts to ^^>- ^ BOOK-KEEPING. 209 -^ 4- agree (chiefly owing to the numerous. entries on the property and nominal accounts), is by the present method completely avoided, and that which was be- fore the labor of weeks, can now be accomplished in as many hours or days. It will be of more advantage to the learner to pro- cure or prepare for himself several sheets of ruled paper, with cash columns, and enter each transaction in the ca"der of time, than to trace the entries in the Day-book and Cash-book which we have prepared. In the first case he will find the task, as he proceeds, familiar and interesting, while ^ his knowledge and self-reliance will be increasing ; whereas, in the other case, he will acquire so superficial an acquaintance with the accounts that it will soon vanish from his memory. The Day-book is arranged so as to admit of entries being made both of sales and purchases, the former on the right side, and the latter on the left. By this means he will be taught what debit and credit entries are before he is called upon to post the Ledger, and, moreover, avoid the risk of carry- ing error and confusion forward to the last stage of his work. It has been observed that in an extensive business it is preferable to enter the purchases in one book and the sales in another ; and by adding these up monthly the amounts of each would be shown, which would enable the owner to extend or lessen the purchases as circumstances point out. The Day- book as now given will also serve this purpose, only that instead of having separate books for the sales and purchases, they are here arranged in one, and disposed, as we have said, in the form of debtor and creditor. It therefore follows that if we add at any time to the credit side the value of the articles re- maining on hand, the difference betwixt the sums total on the two sides will show the whole gain or loss upon the goods, and by entering the charges, etc., attending the business, with the discount, both against and in favor of it, to the proper sides, this book will exhibit the result of the whole. The following general rule is sufficient to direct the learner respecting debtor and creditor. The person from whom you buy goods on trust, or re- ceive money, is Creditor ; and, on the contrary, the person to whom you sell goods on credit, or pay money, is Debtor. For instance, if you buy goods on credit from John Carter, he, being the deliverer, is creditor for the value, and when you pay him for them, he, being the person who receives, is debtor. On the same principle, if you sell goods on credit to Philip Meek, he, being the receiver, is debtor ; and when he pays you for them, he, being the deliverer, is creditor. The same rule is observed when you contract or discharge a debt by any other transaction. Thus the person who becomes indebted to you is debtor, and the person to whom you become indebted is creditor. In the same manner, the person whose debt you pay is made debtor, and he who pays a debt to you, or for you, is creditor. In the Day-book, enter on the debtor, or left-hand, page all the purchases, with the discounts allowed by you, as these occur ; also all the petty expenses, monthly. Enter on the creditor, or right-hand page, all the sales, with the discount or interest allowed to you ; also the value of goods on hand at balancing. The Cash-book. — This book is very useful, whether the Ledger be kept by Single or Double Entry, in order to show at all times the money you receive and pay, and how much at any time should remain in hand. On the debtor, or left-hand page, is en- tered every sum you receive ; and on the creditor, or right-hand page, every sum you pay. The differ- ence between the two sides is called the balance, which should always agree with the money re- maining in hand. This book is generally added up and the amounts set down, at the end of each month ; and the balance is entered on the credit side to make the two sides equal, and likewise upon the debtor side of the succeeding month. The Bill-book is divided into two parts. In the first are entered all bills which you receive, and are therefore called Bills Receivable. It is ruled with a number of columns for recording the several clauses of the bill. When kept correctly the blank spaces in the last column towards the right hand will always show the bills which remain in your possession. As soon as a bill passes out of your hands, by being either paid, discounted, or endorsed to another per- son, it must be marked off in the above column. In the second part are entered all the bills which you accept, or agree to pay, and are therefore called Bills Payable. As soon as you pay a bill, it should also be marked off in the column towards the right hand ; when, of course, the blank spaces will just present such bills of yours as are unpaid. A dealer who does a cash business only requires but a single book — the Cash-book. In it he enters -^ BOOK-KEEPING. -^ on its appropriate side all his transactions : on the one side all he pays out, and what for, on the other all he receives and its vouchers. The balance be- tween the two sides will at any time show the state of his affairs. Suppose, for instance, his Cash-book shows on the debtor side a total transaction of $i,- 450.73, and on the credit side $659,32, the differ- ence, $791.41, is the sum which he ought to have on hand. These will appear on the Cash-book, thus : Dr. Cr. i,4So 73 659 32 Balance To balance brought for- ward 791 41 The transactions of which the foregoing forms a total may be like the following : Dr. CASH. Cr. 1880 Jan. I Capital i,cxx> oo Sales 10 IS " 894 " 17 20 " 12 80 " 19 72 20 07 " 10 15 " 24 44 " 18 41 " 7 16 " 9 02 " 18 27 " 21 06 " 26 81 " 4194 " 73 20 64 16 " 47 23 $1.450 73 Jan , I. Pd. Smith & Co. for 10 bbls. flour. 52 50 2. Expenses 20 15 3. " 10 00 4- " 19 50 5. 42s 6. I 30 8. Wages 50 00 9. Expenses 24 00 10. " 19 7* 11. " 60 40 12. " 72 16 13. " 40 01 15- " 27 9° 16. Wages .so 00 17. Expenses 27 00 18. " 19 25 20. " 7 14 22. Wages 50 00 23. Expenses 17 84 24. " 86 20 $659 32 A single operation will enable you to ascertain at any time the state of your affairs. Thus : Balance of cash on hand 791 41 Cost of goods in stock 200 00 991 41 If you owe anything on your stock, you must ar- rive at the result differently. Thus : Balance of cash on hand 791 41 Cost of goods in stock 400 00 1,191 41 Deduct amounts due to various persons for stock . . 200 00 Balance as before 991 41 So if you give no credit, but sell only for cash over your counter, you need only the one book, the Cash-book, which will at any time you wish, if cor- rectly kept, show the actual state of your business. But as very few tradesmen or dealers confine themselves to a cash business, it becomes necessary to have other books, so when credit is given a Ledger is demanded, so that the dealer may at all times know not only what cash he has on hand, but what money is owing him. Suppose you are a bookseller, and your customers keep running accounts, you will find it necessary to have at least three books, a Cash-book, for the en- tries of moneys received and paid out ; a Blotter, as it is usually called, for recording the daily trans- actions ; and a Ledger, for posting the accounts. - A customer, say Mr. Robert Walpole, comes to you and asks how his account stands. Looking at the index in the front of your ledger, you find Mr. Walpole's account on page 96. Turning to this page, you discover the following statement : MR. ROBERT WALPOLE. Dr. Cr. 1880. Jan. To mdse My acceptance at 3 months, dated April 10 Cash paid your order in favor of Brown Sc Co 66 60 38 00 1880. Jan. 10 25 16 18 14 144 52 By cash Your acceptance at 3 months, due April 13 130 CX) The debtor side, or what he owes you, is $144,25. and the creditor side, or what you owe him, is $130.00 ; the difference, $14.52, being in your favor, is therefore his debit to you. If he pays you, enter it on the cash-book and on the credit side of the ac- count in the ledger, thus making it balance. kr- BOOK-KEEPING. NARRATIVE OF TRANSACTIONS. 1878. Jan. I. Began trade with $2,000. Bought goods as follows : Of J. W. Bouton I150 20 Of Dodd, Mead & Co 241 00 Of A. S. Barnes & Co 300 00 Of D. Appleton & Co. 124 30 Sold 24 Annuals over the counter for ready money, amounting to 14 80 Jan. 2. Paid J. W. Bouton, Cash 80 00 Paid Dodd, Mead & Co. ditto 120 00 Paid A. S. Barnes & Co. ditto 150 00 Paid D. Appleton & Co. ditto. 61 00 Accepted the following bills drawn on me : J. W. Bouton, at 2 months 40 00 Dodd, Mead & Co., at 2 months 90 00 A. S. Barnes & Co, at 3 months 60 00 D. Appleton & Co., i month 40 00 Bought of A. D. F, Randolph, goods, value. 198 64 Jan. 3. Sold Tenter & Co., of Philadelphia, as follows : 120 Dodd, Mead & Co.'s Hand Books, at 20c 24 00 80 Novels 26 00 . 40 Assorted books 24 00 74 00 Terms, half Cash, half Bills at 3 months. Received from Tenter & Co.'s house in town, cash 36 20 Idem, bill at three months 36 20 Sold B. Flock, of Pittsburgh, 42 assorted books 50 80 Received from Flock's house in town, cash. 20 00 And a bill at 3 months date 30 80 Jan. 4. Sold Roberts Bros,, Boston, 36 Elements of Commerce 74 32 Received from Roberts Bros., of New York, for account of their house in Boston, their acceptance at two months for 74 32 Paid A. D. F. Randolph on account of what I owe him : Bill paid to me by Flock 30 So Bill paid to me by Roberts Bros 74 32 Together. 105 12 kr Bought of W. H. Vernon, 20 reams of paper. 170 00 Sold him 240 odd volumes all at 82 30 Sold for ready money over the counter, 6 vols. Hume and Smollett's History of En- gland 6 60 HOW THEY ARE TO BE ENTERED IN THE BOOKS. This item being C^^fA in hand, must be placed on the debtor side of the Cash Book. To be entered in the DAY Book as goods bought at the time of receiving the invoices. Each name, with the relative amount of invoice, to form a separate entry. To the Dr. side of Cash Book, as ready money received for goods. To be entered on the Cr. side of Cash Book, each^name and amount forming a separate line. To be entered in the Bills Payable Book, on separate lines, according to the printed form sold for that purpose. As before. To be charged in the ImY Book, explaining every particu- lar relating to the conditions of sale, and how forwarded. To be entered in CASH Book as cash received for account of Tenter & Co., Philadelphia. To be entered in the Bills Receivable to the account of Tenter & Co., Philadelphia, according to the printed forms. As before. As before. As before. As before. As before. This is a very peculiar entry, and one which persons ignorant of book-keeping will find comparatively difficult to arrange. As it is, however, a transaction which occurs continually, due attention ought to be given to it. There are two ways of entering it — one by the Cash Book, the other by the Day Book. If by the/brmer, the amount must be first entered on the Dr. side as received for the bills, and then the Cr. side as paid to the parties. This, however, is a mode I do not like, because, in the first place, it is noi a cash transaction at all ; and secondly, because an entry on the Dr. side of the Cash Book is obliged to be created in order to balance the other on the Cr. side. An entry by the Day Book is far the best, as nothing more is necessary than to charge the person to whom the bills are paid, with the amount of them, in the same way as for goods sold. The latter method is the one adopted in the examples. Day Book, as before. As before. As before. 213 BOOK-KEEPING. Jan. 6. Paid trade charges and wages this day 422 Paid expenses to this day 6 60 Feb. 5. Paid cash for my acceptance to D. Apple- ton & Co 40 00 Mar. 5. Idem to J. W. Bouton 40 00 Idem Dodd, Mead & Co 90 00 Apr. 5. Idem A. S. Barnes & Co 60 00 6. Received the amount of Tenter's acceptance, paid me on the 3d Jan 36 20 7. Flock's acceptance returned to me by A. D.F. Randolph, to whom I had paid it, it not having been honored by the acceptor 30 80 8. Paid one month's Rent Income Tax City Taxes Kov. I. Sold the following goods : Ramsden & Co S. Green G. Barrows % W. Sinn V. S. Brown Dec. I. Received the following acceptances, at three months : Ramsden & Co S. Green G. Barrows. ... W. Sinn V. S. Brown Dec. 20. Bought goods as follows : From Leggat Bros From Houghton, Mifflin & Co From S. R. Wells From James R. Osgood & Co Dec. 30. Gave my acceptances as follows, at three months : Leggat Bros ' To Houghton, Mifflin & Co To S. R. Wells To James R. Osgood & Co Having entered all these various items in their proper books, as explained, we proceed to transfer them under their respective heads in the Ledger, which is technically called Posting. First, taking the Day Book, we post all under the date of the i st of January ; then follows the Cash Book in the same way, and finally the two Bill Books, care being taken to mark the proper page of the Ledger in the col- umns left for that purpose in the other books, and vice versa to note in the Ledger, in like manner, the folio of the book from which the entry has been ex- 80 00 20 24 15 20 20 00 18 24 80 00 120 00 74 20 20 00 18 24 80 00 120 00 74 20 52 20 200 00 192 40 170 80 52 20 200 00 192 40 170 80 To be entered on the CASH Book, under the head of Trade Expenses. Idem. To be entered in the Cash Book to the charge of Bilb Pay- able, specifying the number of the Bill, D. Appleton & Co. having been debited with the amount when my acceptance was given. Idem. Idem. Idem. To be entered in the Cash Book to the account of Bills Re- ceivable, specifying the number, Tenter & Co. having been credited for the Bill when I received it from them. As I was obliged to take up this Bill, in other words to pay it, for account of Flock, who ought to have paid it, I charge Flock in the Cash Book with the amount I pay to A. D. F. Randolph. In the Cash Book, in the same way I entered trade and other expenses. To be entered in the Day Book, as before. To be entered in the Bills Receivable Book, as before. To be entered in the Day Book, as before. To be entered in the Bills Payable Book, as before. tracted. Thus, day by day, all the entries in the Ledger are condensed from these four books. All the items contained in the Cash Book, Bills Receivable and Payable Books, and Day Book hav- ing been properly posted in the Ledgfer, the next operation will be to Balance ! This is generally done on the last day of the year, at which time the value of the stock on hand is taken. By reference to the Ledger, it will be seen how those accounts are ruled oif which balance of themselves, and in what way the balances of the others are brought down, -^ BOOK-KEEPING. 213 some being amounts we owe, and others due to us. The balances due us stand upoiv the Debtor side of each account, and those we owe on the Creditor side. Having done this, we next proceed to draw up the Balance Sheet, by which we shall ascertain the amount of profit made or loss incurred upon the year's transactions, after having paid all expenses and trade charges. In order to do this properly, we must collect into one sum a// we owe, and into an- Dr. AMOUNTS DUE TO ME, OR ASSETS. BALANCES. Folio in the Ledger. Accounts extracted. B. Flock Amount of book debts due /<'ine ♦ Bills Receivable in my hands not yet due. Balance of Cash in hand Estimated value of stock in hand Balance in my favor Which shows that after paying house and trade charges, rent and taxes, I nave made a clear net profit of $90.44 on my capital of $2,000. * Enumerate each item. Balances as per Ledger. $30 80 $30 312 ii3iS »,39° $3i049 ♦2,090 CASH 1880. * 6 I * To Capital $2,000 14 36 20 6 $2,067 3- Cash received for goods (ready money) Tenter & Co., received for account of 80. 00 B. Flock 20 4- Cash received for goods (ready money). 60 60 Feb. I.... To Balance '. $1,654 40 $1,654 40 March i. To Balance $1^614 40 $1,614 40 April I . . . 6. To Balance $1,484 38 $1,522 Bill receivable, No. loi, received in cash, this day 04 May I To Balance $1,315 So" Note. — The amounts marked in the folio margin with a star, are not by single entry, posted in the Ledger ; the Cash Book alone, under that system, being quite sufficient for their registery. Only accounts with ^frj<7«j are kept : not with things as in Double Entry. At tlie same time they may, ii wished, be posted under their respective heads as matters of reference, but care must be taken not to include them in the Balance, of which they form no part. Other all we are possessed of, and the difference be- tween the two will be the amount we are worth. The amounts we owe are to be found in the Ledger and the Bills Payable Book. The amounts due to us in the Ledger, also, and the Bills Receivable Bo6k. Be- sides these we must reckon as assets, Cash in hand, as will appear by balancing Cash Book, and stock on hand, which must be taken at a proper valuation. Below will be found a General Balance Sheet, drawn up according to these instructions. 31st December, 1880. Cr. AMOUNTS I OWE, OR LIABILITIES. Folio in the Ledger. BOOK. 1880. Jan. 2. Feb. 5.. March 5. Aprils.. Accounts extracted. J. W. Bouton Dodd, Mead & Co A. S. Barnes & Co D. Appleton & Co A. D. F. Randolph W.H. Vernon Amount of book debts due by me. Bills accepted by me not yet due ♦ Balance carried down Balances as per Ledger. $30 20 31 00 90 00 22 60 82 60 87 8343 40 614 40 $958 80 2,090 44 $3,049 * Enumerate each bill separately. Cr. By amount paid J. W. Bouton Dodd, Mead & Co A S. Barnes & Co D. Appleton & Co By Trade Charges,Expenses and Wages to this day Balance to next month . By Bill Payable, No. 104, due this day . . Glance By Bill Payable, No. loi, due this day Do do. 102, do Balance. By Bill Payable, No. 103, due this day. . A. D. F. Randolph for Flock's Accep- tance, due this day returned unpaid One month's rent due this day _— —Income Taxes City Taxes Balance. |8o I20 ISO 62 $423 $1,654 $2,077 $40 1,614 $1,654 130 $1,484 $1,614 $fo 30 80 $206 I.3I5 $1,522 °4 ^ 214 BOOK-KEEPING. DAY BOOK. Folio in Ledger. $150 Bought of J. W. Bouton I 20 a Bought of Dodd, Mead & Co. $240 3 Bought of A. S. Barnes $300 4 Bought of D. Appleton & Co. I124 fin 5 Bought of A. D. F. Randolph $188 fio 6 Sold Tenter & Co. Half Cash. Half Three Month's Bill I20 Dodd, Mead & Co.'s Hand Books 8o Novels $24 26 24 00 Forwarded by Union Express. $74 00 7 Sold B. Flock 84 Assorted Books $50 80 8 Sold Roberts Bros. 72 Elements of Commerce $74 32 Forwarded per U. S. Express. 5 Paid A. D. F. Randolph Flock's Acceptance, due April 7 Roberts Bros.' Acceptance, due March 7. .. $30 74 80 32 $107 12 DAY BOOK— Continued. Folio in Ledger. 9 $170 Bought of W. H. Vernon 200 Reams of Paper 9 Sold W. H. Vernon 240 Odd Volumes all for $82 30 10 Sold Ramsden & Co. Books $20 $18 II Sold S. Green Books 24 12 Sold G. Barrows Books $80 13 Sold W. Sinn Books $Z20 14 Sold V. S. Brown Books $74 15 Bought of Leggat Bros. Goods as per invoice $52 16 Bought of Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Goods as per invoice $200 17 Bought of S. R. Wells Goods as per invoice $192 40 18 Bought of J. R. Osgood & Co. Goods as per invoice $170 Ro N. B.— The folios should be marked in red ink. x88o. BILLS RECEIVABLE. Folio. Number of the Bill. On whose account. Date. Time. When due. Amount. 6 lOI 102 103 104 i^ 107 108 Tenter & Co January 3 4 3 months April 6 March 7 March 4 $36 32 74 7 8 B Flock 80 2 32 December i $143 32 20 18 80 120 74 00 S. Green 24 00 13 14 W. Sinn 00 V. S. Brown 20 312 44 X880. BILLS PAYABLE. Folio Number of Bill. lOI I03 103 104 106 By whom drawn. J. W. Bouton Dodd. Mead& Co A. S. Barnes & Co D. Appleton & Co Leggat Bros Houghton, Mifflin & Co S.R.Wells Jas. R. Osgood & Co. . . Date. January 2 December 30 30 30 30 Time. 2 months When due. March 5 5 April 5 Feb. s Api 1879. nl Amount. $40 00 ■ 60 00 00 40 00 $230 00 ~"$5^ 20 200 00 192 170 40 80 $6iS 40 -^ ^>- ^ ^ BOOK-KEEPING. 215 Folio ; Dr. THE LEDGER. J. W. BOUTON. Cr. 1880. Jan. 2 I Dec. 3» To cash To balance carried down. To bills payable, No. loi . 1880. $80 00 Jan. I I 40 00 30 so Dec. 31 150 20 By goods . By balance brought down. I150 150 20 Folio 2. Dr. DODD, MEAD & CO. Cr. 1880. Jan. 2 I Dec. 31 To cash To bills jjayable, No. 102. To balance carried down. 1880. 1 $120 00 Jan. I I 90 00 31 00 Dec. 3» 241 00 By goods . By balance brought down. $341 Folio 3. Dr. A. S. BARNES & CO. Cr. 1880. Jan. Dec. To cash To bills payable. No. 103 . To balance carried down. $150 60 90 00 00 00 1880. Jan. Dec. I 31 I 300 00 By goods . By balance brought down. $300 Folio 4. Dr. D. APPLETON & CO. Cr. 1880. Jan. 2 I 2 I Dec. 31 To cash To bills payable, No. 104. To balance carried down. $62 40 22 00 00 60 1880. Jan. Dec. I 31 I 124 60 By goods , By balance brought down. $124 Folio 5. Dr. A. D. F. RANDOLPH. Cr. 1880. Jan. 4 z Dec. 31 To two bills receivable, paid them . To balance carried down $106 82 00 60 1880. Jan. Dec. I 31 I 188 60 By goods. By balance brought down. $188 188 82 60 Folio 6. Dr. 1880. Jan. TENTER & Co., Philadelphia. To goods , $72 40 1880. Jan. By cash By bill receivable, No. loi. Cr. I36 36 Folio Dr. 7- w. SINN, Partsburg, West Va. Cr. 1880. Jan. April 3 7 31 I 1 $50 30 80 80 1880. Jan. 3 4 31 II I By cash $20 30 30 00 To your acceptance returned unpaid To balance brought down Ho Dec. «o 81 60 81 60 Dec. 30 80 ■—^ r 216 BOOK-KEEPING. Folio 8. Dr. ROBERTS BROS., Boston. x88o. Jan. 4 I To goods. $74 3* 1880. Jan. By bill receivable, No. 103 . Folio 9. Dr. W. H. VERNON. 1880. Jan. Dec. To snoods To balance carried down $83 87 30 00 1880. Jan. Dec. 4 31 I 169 3° By goods , By balance brought down. Cr. $74 Cr. $169 169 87 Folio Dr. lO. KAJ\ abiJii JN ac »..» J. Cr. 1880. Nov. I I 1 $20 20 1880. Dec. I I By bill receivable. No. 104 $20 20 Folio Dr. ri. t • ). liK KBM. Cr. 1880. Nov. I X $18 24 1880. Dec. I I By bill receivable, No. 105 $18 24 L Folio 12. Dr. GEOR GE 1 JARRO WS. - Cr. 1880. Nov. I I To goods $80 00 1880. Dec. I I By bill receivable, No. 106 $80 ' ' Folio Dr. '3- W. S INN. Cr. 1880. Nov I I $120 00 1880. Dec. I I By bill receivable. No. 107 $120 Folio 14. V. S. BROWN. Dr. C r. 1880. Nov. 1 I To goods $74 20 1880. Dec. I I By bill receivable. No. 108 $74 20 Folio Dr. IS- LEGGAT BROS Cr. 1880. Dec. 30 I To bill payable. No. 105. . . $52 20 i88o. Dec. 30 I Bv firoods $52 Folio 16. Dr. HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO. Cr. Dec. 30 1 To bill payable, No. 106. 1880. $200 00 Dec. 30 1 By goods Folio Dr. '7- S. R. WELLS. Cr. 1880. Dec. 30 I To bill payable, No. 107 $192 40 1880. Dec. 30 I Bv eoods , $192 40 ' * Folio Dr. 18. JAMES R. OSGOOD & CO. Cr. 1880. Dec. 30 I To bill payable. No. 108 $170 80 1880. Dec. 30 I By goods I170 Hn ' r- BOOK-KEEPING. 217 After the Ledger has been duly examined, and it is seen that the balances are struck and brought down correctly, pro- ceed to observe if those balances are transferred properly to the general Balance Sheet at page 213, which is the last operation of all. Beyond this, Book-keeping by Single Entry "can no further go." It is only a confined system, and its results are never demonstrated or proved. Errors of omission, of addition, and of wrong posting, may, and in large establishments do fre- quently occur without any means of detection, except the tire- some and frequently fallacious method of a re-examination of the entire books by another person. But by Double Entry, provided the system be a correct one, no error of any kind can escape without detection, because everything is verified by an infallible rule. Nevertheless the diligent study of the method of Single Entry is absolutely necessary as a preparatory step towards acquiring a knowledge of the other. No one can keep a set of books by Double Entry who does not understand Single Entry, because the one is based upon the other. When the learner has well studied what has already been laid before him, let him pass on to the following pages, where he will find the same transactions registered by Double Entry. BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. This method differs from the former chiefly in making cash, stock, goods, &c., parties, as well as persons, and in making a debtor and creditor account in every transaction. Thus, if cloth is sold to A, A is made debtor to cloth, and cloth creditor to A ; if cash is received from B, cash is made debtor to B, and B creditor to cash ; and in every case the party, whether animate or inanimate, which receives is debtor to that which pays, and inversely. In Single Entry the record is single, and there it ends, whereas in Double Entry every transaction has a debit and credit, and every account in which it is not so represented is imperfect. Two parties are necessarily engaged in every transaction, and therefore each of them requires in his Ledger two separate accounts, one for himself, and a sec- ond for his customer or furnisher, as the case may be. Now, by the use of what are called nominal accounts representing the proprietor in his own Ledger, the double receptacle is provided which every transaction requires. The nominal accounts receive the counter entries of all the personal accounts, and through their operation the merchant is enabled to ascer- tain whether his business is profitable or the reverse. These accounts are those or Stock. Profit and Loss, and its branches. Stock is a term used to represent the proprietor, and it con- tains on the credit side the amount of the money, goods, or other property brought into trade ; and on the debtor, the owner's liabilities. In Profit and Loss, the credit side exhibits the gain of the business, and the debit the loss. In Single Entry, nominal accounts have no place. There is a record only of the side of the accounts belonging to the person deal- ing with the concern, and none whatever of that which repre- sents the owner. Such a method enables us to balance the accounts of each party, but exhibits no register by which the state of the stock in trade, and the balances of capital and cash, can be at once ascertained without a separate and inde- pendent investigation. We have seen, that by Single Entry the items are transferred from the Cash Book, Day Book, and Bill Books, at once, into the Ledger ; but in Double Entry, another book, called the Journal, is necessarily used, in which the items from all the others are first arranged in proper form, and then passed into the Ledger. Thus, posting by Single Entry is done from several books ; whereas by Double Entry from the Journal alone. The old Italian method of keeping a Journal is fraught with so many crudities, useless repetitions, and technical jargon, that it has been long abandoned for one a thousand fold more simple in its construction, and perfect in its results. Instead of continually entering " Sundries Dr. to Cash," " Interest Dr. to Sundries," " Commission Dr. to A. B. C," and "D. E. F. Dr. to Commission," with a multitude of such anomalies, the Journal is divided into two parts, (the right and left hand side of the book) the one called the Debtor side and the other the Creditor side. Under the Debtor side must be entered unin- terruptedly everything that is to be debited ; and under the Creditor side, everything that is to be credited ; and both sides must agree, if the entering has been done correctly. In addition to the simplicity of this arrangement, there are other advantages which may not be overlooked. In the first place, all the entries on one side of the Journal are posted upon the same side in the Ledger, a convenience which every book- keeper will know how to prize. Next, all the items for each account in a month are consolidated in one entry previous to posting, thus greatly reducing that labor, and offering the phenomenon of a Ledger wherein no account for one year can have more than twelve lines, one for each month ; and, finally, the totals of each month in the Journal added together must correspond with the gross amount of all the totals in the Ledger, the last and surest demonstration of correctness which figures can offer. Let us proceed to Journalize according to this method all the entries contained in the preceding Day Book, Cash Book, Bills Payable Book and Bills Receivable Book, (for which see pages 213, 214) begging the learner meanwhile, to recol- lect the following rules : — 1st. When Goods are sold, the buyers must be debited and Trade Account credited with the amount. 2d. When goods are bought Trade Account must be debited and the sellers credited for the amount. 3d. When Cash is paid, the parties receiving it must be debited and Cash Account credited, and when it is received the Account must be debited and the payers credited. 4th. When Acceptances are given, the persons on whose account they are drawn must be debited, and Bills Pay- able credited ; and when they are received Bills Receiv- able must be debited and the party on whose account they are received must be credited. 5th. When Accepted Bills become due and are paid. Bills * Payable must be debited and Cash credited ; and when Bills to be received become due and are paid. Cash must be debited with the amount, and Bills Receivable credited. Finally. No entry can be made in the Ledger unless it be extracted from the Journal, consequently everything must , go into the Journal first. These rules must be most carefully heeded in order to rapidly acquire the science of book-keeping. f- 2l8 BOOK-KEEPING. Dr. JOURNAL. January, 1880. Tenter & Co. D. Flock. Roberts Bros. A. D. F. Randolph. W. H. Vernon. J. W. Bouton. Dodd, Mead & Co. A. S. Barnes & Co. D. Appleton & Co. Bills Receivable. Cash. Trade Acount. 3. Goods sold as per invoice 3. ditto — 4. ditto 4. Paid them Bill Receiv- able, No. 102 30 80 Idem 103 74 32 4. Goods, as per invoice 2. Bill Payable, No. 101...40 00 Cash paid them 80 00 2. Bill Payable, No. 102.. go 00 Cash paid them 120 00 2. Bill Payable, No. 103.. 6000 Cash paid them rso 00 2. Bill Payable, No. 104... 40 00 Cash paid them 62 00 31. Amount received this month as per Bill Receivable book 3x. Amount received this month as per Cash Book Goods bought this month : or J. W. Bouton 150 20 Dodd, Mead & Co.. 241 00 A. S. Barnes & Co.. 300 00 D. Appleton & Co.. 124 60 A. D. F. Randolph. 186 60 W. H. Vernon 170 00 Cash paid charees as per Cash Book 10 28 74 50 00 80 74 32 los 82 12 82 :2o 00 . 210 00 210 00 102 00 142 20 2,076 34 1,182 68 4,430 28 J. W. Bouton. Dodd, Mead & Co. A. S. Barnes & Co. D. Appleton & Co. A. D. F. Randolph. W. H. Vernon. Bills Payable. Tenter & Co. B. Flock. Robert Bros, Trade Account. Cash. Bills Rceivable. I . Goods as per invoice I. ditto I. ditto 1. ditto 2. ditto 4. ditto 31. Amount of Bills accepted this month as per Bill Book 3. Bill Receivable No. loi.. 36 20 Cash received 36 20 4. Bill Receivable No. 102. 30 80 3. Cash Received 20 00 4. Bill Receivable No. 102 I. Cap'al invested this day 2,000 Goods sold this month : 3. To Tenter & Co 74 00 3. Flock 5080 4. Roberts Bros 74 32 W. H. Vernon 82 30 I. Cash received 14 80 4. Ditto 6 60 31. Amount paid this month as per Cash Book 4. No. 102, paid A. D. F. Randolph 30 80 No, 103, ditto 74 32 Cr. Bills Payable. 5, Cash paid, No. 104. February, 40 00 1880. Cash. 26. Amount paid this month as per Cash Book Dr. Bills Payable. 5. Cash paid No. 102 . Ditto March, 90 40 130 1880. Cash. 31. Amount paid this month, as per Cash Book Bills Payable. B. Flock. 5. Cash paid No. 103 7. His bill returned unpaid 8. Cash for rent 80 00 Taxes 20 24 Taxes 15 20 Apri 60 30 "5 36 242 00 80 44 20 44 1880. Cash. Bills Receivable. 30. Amount paid this month, as per Cash Book 206 36 44 00 Charges on Trade. 6. Cash received No. loi Cash. 30. Amount received this month per Cash Book 242 44 Trade Account. 20. Goods bought this month : Of Leggatt Bros 52 20 Houghton, Mifflin & Co 200 00 S. R. Wells 192 40 Jas. R. Osgood & Co.. 170 80 December, Leggat Bros. 30. Bill Payable, No. 105 Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 30. Idem 106 S. R. Wells. 30. Idem loy....... '. J.R.Osgood. 30. Idem 108 Bills Receivable. 31. Amount received this month as per Bill Book 61S 52 206 192 170 714 Leggat Bros. 20. Goods bought by him Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 20. Idem S. R. Wells. 20. Idem Jas. R. Osgood & Co. 20. Idem Bills Payable. 30. Bills accepted this month as per Bill Book Ramsden&Co. i. Bill Receivable, No. 104 — S.Green. 1. Idem No. 105 — G. Barrows. i. Idem No. 106 W. Sinn. i. Idem No. 107 . . V. S. Brown. i. Idem No. 108 Ramsden & Co. N I. Goods sold them ovember 20 18 80 120 74 00 24 00 00 20 44 1880. Trade Account. Goods sold this month : — I. To Ramsden & Co 20 00 I. S. Green 18 24 I. G. Barrows 80 00 I. W. Sinn 120 00 I. V. S Brown 74 lo 312 S. Green. 1. Goods sold him G. Barrows. I. Goods sold him W. Sinn. I. Goods sold him V. S. Brown. I. Goods sold him 44 312 312 44 . f~ BOOK-KEEPING. 219 THE LEDGER. IVheretn the contents 0/ the preceding Journal are posted. Dr. TENTER 1880. Jan . 3 To Goods 74 00 Dr. B. Jan. 3 To Goods 5080 April 7 To Bill returned 30 80 81 60 To Balance 30 00 Dr. ROBERTS Jan. 4 To Goods 74 32 Dr. A. D. F. Jan. 4 To Sundries 106 00 To Balance 83 66 188 60 Dr. W. H. Jan. 4 To Goods 82 30 To Balance 87 00 189 30 Dr. J. W. Jan. 3 To Sundries 120 00 To Balance 30 20 150 30 Dr. DODD, Jan. 3 To Sundries ; 210 00 To Balance 31 00 241 00 Dr. A. S. BAR Ian. 3 To Sundries 210 00 To Balance 90 00 300 00 ~D^. "" D. AP Jan. 3 To Sundries 102 00 To Balance 22 60 134 60 Dr. BILLS Jan. 31 To Sundries 142 20 Dec. 31 Idem 3^4 4° 456 60 To Balance 3 1 4 4° Dr. CASH Jan. 31 To Sundries 3,07634 April 30 Idem 36 20 3,113 54 To Balance 1,313 80 & Co. Cr. 1880. Jan . 31 By Sundries . . 74 00 FLOCK. Cr. Jan. 31 By Sundries 50 80 By Balance 30 80 81 60 BROS. Cr, By Bill Receivable 74 3a RANDOLPH. Jan. 2 By Goods 18860 188 60 By Balance 82 60 VERNON. Cr. Jan. 4. By Goods 189 30 189 30 By Balance 87 00 BOUTON. Cr. By Sundries 150 20 150 20 By Balance 30 10 MEAD & Co. Cr. Jan. 4 By Sundries 241 00 210 00 By Balance 31 00 NES & Co. Cr. Jan. I By Goods 30000 30000 By Balance 90 00 PLETON & Co. Cr. Jan. I By Goods 124 60 124 60 By Balance 22 60 RECEIVABLE. Cr. Jan. 31 By Sundries 106 00 April 30 laem 36 20 142 20 Balance 314 40 456 60 ACCOUNT. Cr. Jan. 31 By Sundries 42* 28 Feb. 29 Idem 4000 March 31 Idem 13000 April 30 Idem 206 40 798 68 Balance 1,313 86 8,xi3 54 r 220 BOOK-KEEPING. -y j)f._ TRADE Jan. 31 To Sundries 1,184 34 April 30 Idem "4 36 Dec. 31 Idem "^4 34 1,913 04 Balance 700 20 2,613 24 ACCOUNT. {an. 31 By Sundries, lov. 30 Idem Cr. 2,304 40 308 84 2,613 24 By Balance 700 20 PAYABLE. Cr. Jan. 31 By Sundries 33000 Eec. 31 Idem 614 34 Dr. BILLS Feb. 28 To Sundries 40 00 March 31 Idem 130 00 April 30 Idem 60 00 230 00 Balance 614 34 844 34 844 34 By Balance 614 34 Dr. Nov. I To Goods RAMSDEN &Co. Dec. I By Bill Receivable. Cr. Dr. Nov. 1 To Goods S. 18 24 GREEN. Dec. I By Bill Receivable, No. 105 Cr. 18 24 Dr. Nov. I To Goods G. 80 00 BERGER. Dec. I By Bill Receivable, No. 106 Cr. 80 00 Dt. Nov I To Goods W. SINN. Dec. I By Bill Receivable, No. 107 Cr. Dr. Nov I To Groods V. s. BROWN. Dec. 1 By Bill Receivable No 108 Cr. 74 20 - Dr. Dec. 30 To Bill Payable, No. LEGGAT BROS. Dec. 20 By Goods Cr. 52 20 Dr. Dec. 30 To Bill Payable, No. 106 HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & Co. Cr. Dr. Dec. 30 To Bill Payable, No. S. R. WELLS. Dec. 20 By Goods Cr. 192 40 Dr. Dec. 30 To Bill Payable, No. 108 JAS. R. OSGOOD &Co. Cr. T-7r> Rn In the preceding Ledger we have posted under the head of Trade Account all goods bought and charges incurred (both in business and family matters) to the Debit ; and to the Credit, the amount of my capital and goods sold, consequently the balance of this account added to the amount of stock on hand always shows the profit of the business. For instance : Balance of the account 7CX3 16 Value of stock on hand, as estimated in the Balance Sheet by Single Entry l>390 28 Total balance in my favor as shown in the Balance Sheet by Single entry 2,090 44 Bat in partnership accounts, such a plan would not do, be- cause domestic expenses cannot be charged to trade, nor should the respective capitals be included. In such cases separate accounts must be opened for each individual, which must be credited with their separate capitals and debited with their relative charges. At the end of the year, a balance is struck, the profit or loss determined, and the sum total di- vided into proper proportions, and transferred from the gen- eral Trade or Profit and Loss Account, to each individual's debit or credit, as the case may be. N. B. — A Profit and Loss Account is merely another name for a Trade Account. All bad debts must be charged to that Ac- count which shows the Profit and Loss (whatever the name may be), and the bad Accounts themselves closed by transfer. Let us now see if the Ledger is correct. To determine this, first extract all the totals, Dr. Cr. (before the balances are struck) which must not only agree with each other,*but corre- spond as well with the sums total in the Journal. Put all the amounts at debit on one side, and the amounts at credit on the other. The totals must agree with the totals in the Jour- nal. If this prove to be the fact, it is thus demonstrated that everything in the Journal has been posted in the Ledger. Having thus seen that the totals on both sides of the Ledger not only agree with each other, but correspond as well with those of the Journal, which \% proof positive that the books are correct, the next and last care will be to see that the balances are properly struck and brought down, which is done by ex- tracting them, and observing that both sides are alike. If they agree, the balancing has been properly done. This is the final operation at the end of a year ; and the Journal of the next should have for its first entries Debtor and Creditor, an exact copy of the Balance Sheet, registered the same as all other items and included in the monthly total -^ ^ ARITHMETIC. 22 -J HE numerals now in use, with the mode of causing them by peculiar situation to express any number, and whereby the processes of arithmetic have been rendered so highly convenient, have heretofore been supposed to be of Indian origin, transmitted through the Persians to the Arabs, and by them introduced into Europe in the tenth century, when the Moors invaded and became masters of Spain. Such in reality appears to have been in a great measure the tme history of the transmission of these numerals ; but as it has been lately found that the ancient hieroglyphical inscriptions of Egypt contain several of them, learned men are now agreed that they originated in that early seat of knowledge, between which and India there exist more points of resemblance, and more traces of intercourse, than is generally supposed. In the eleventh century, Gerbert, a Ben- edictine monk of Fleury, and who afterwards ascended the Papal throne under the designation of Sylvester II., traveled into Spain, and studied for several years the sciences there cul- tivated by the Moors. Among other acquisitions, he gained from that singular people a knowledge of what are now called the Arabic numerals, and of the mode of arithmetic founded on them, which he forthwith disclosed to the Christian world, by whom at first his learning caused him to be accused of an alliance with evil spirits. The knowledge of this new arithmetic was about the same time extended, in consequence of the intercourse which the Crusaders opened between Europe and the East. For a long time, however, it made a very slow and obscure progress. The characters themselves appear to have been long considered in Europe as dark and mysterious. Deriving their whole efficacy from the use made of the cipher, so called from the Arabic word tsapkara, denoting empty or void, this term came afterwards to express, in general, any secret mark. Hence, in more troublous times than the pres- ent, a mode of writing was practiced, by means of marks pre- viously concerted, and called writing in cipher. The Arabic characters occur in some arithmetical tracts composed in Eng< land during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, particu- larly in a work by John of Halifax, or De Sacrobosco ; but another century elapsed before they were generally adopted. They do not appear to have settled into their present form till about the time of the invention of printing. It would be impossible to calculate, even by their own tran- scendent powers, the service which the Arabic numerals have rendered to mankind. mm(i\f((^t(('i\ns^^^ HE Arabic numerals take the following well- known forms : — I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, o. The first nine of these, called digits, or digital numbers, represent each one of the numbers be- tween one and nine, and when thus employed to represent single numbers, they are considered as units. The last (o), called a nought, nothing or cipher, is, in reality, taken by itself, expressive of an absence of number, or nothing ; but, in connection with other numbers, it becomes expressive of number in a very remarkable manner. The valuable peculiarity of the Arabic notation is the en- largement and variety of values which can be given to the fig- ures by associating them. The number ten is expressed by I and o put together — thus, 10 ; and all the numbers from this up to a hundred can be expressed in like manner by the asso- ^ 222 ARITHMETIC. ciation of two figures — thus, twenty, 20 ; thirty, 30 ; eighty- five, 85 ; ninety-nine, 99. These are called decimal numbers, from decern, Latin for ten. The numbers between a hundred and nine hundred and ninety-nine inclusive are, in like man- ner, expressed by three figures — thus, a hundred, 100 ; five hundred, 500; eight hundred and eighty-five, 885 ; nine hun- dred and ninety-nine, 999. Four figures express thousands ; five, tens of thousands ; six, hundreds of thousands ; seven, millions ; and so forth. Each figure, in short, put to the left hand of another, or of several others, multiplies that one or more numbers by ten. Or if to any set of figures a nought (o) be added towards the right hand, that addition multiplies the number by ten ; thus 999, with o added, becomes 9990, nine thousand nine hundred and ninety. Thus it will be seen that, in notation, the rank or place of any figure in a number is what determines the value which it bears. The figure third from the right hand is always one of the 1.234.567,890 hundreds; that which stands seventh al- g'c g =;c g g-c g a" ways expresses millions ; and so on. And 50 g^o SS ? Sf^-oQ-^Sai"!* whenever a new figure is added towards the si 3 right, each of the former set obtains, as it were, a promotion, or is made to express ten times its former value. A large number is thus expressed in the ."" ■" g* Arabic numerals, every set of three from the right to the left hand being divided by a comma for the sake of distinctness. The above number is therefore one thousand two hundred and thirty-four millions, five hundred and sixty-seven thous- ands, eight hundred and ninety. Higher numbers are ex- pressed differently in France and England. In the former country, the tenth figure expresses billions, from which there is an advance to tens of billions, hundreds of billions, tril- lions, etc. In our country, the eleventh figure expresses ten thousands of millions, the next hundreds of thousands of mil- lions, the next billions, etc. The two plans will be clearly apprehended from the following arrangement : — ENGLISH METHOD. Units. Tens. Hundreds. Thousands. Tens of thousands. Hundreds of thousands. Millions. Tens of millions. Hundreds of millions. Thousands of millions. Ten thousands of millions. Hundreds of thousands of mil- lions. Billions. Tens of billions. Hundreds of billions, etc. FRENCH METHOD. Units. Tens. Hundreds. Thousands. Tens of thousands. Hundreds of thousands. Millions. Tens of millions. Hundreds of millions. Billions. Tens of billions Hundreds of billions. Trillions. Tens of trillions. Hundreds of trillions, etc. SIMPLE OR ABSTRACT NUMBERS. There are four elementary departments in arithmetic— Ad- dition, Multiplication, Subtraction, and Division. 27 5 536 352 275 "95 TION is the adding or summing up of several numbers, for the purpose of finding out their united amount. We add numbers to- gether when we say, i and i make 2 ; 2 and 2 make 4 ; and so on. The method of writing numbers in addition, is to place the figures under one another so that units will stand under units, tens under tens, hundreds under hundreds, etc. Sup- pose we wish to add together the following numbers — 27. 5, 536, 352,and 275; we range them in columns one under the other, as in the margin, and draw a line under the whole. Be- ginning at the lowest figure of the right-hand column, we say 5 and 2 are 7 — 7 and 6 are 13 — 13 and 5 are 18 — 18 and 7 are 25 ; that is, 2 tens and 5 units. We now write the five below the line of units, and carry or add the 2 tens, or 20, to the lowest figure of the next column. In carrying this 20, we let the cipher go, it being implied by the position or rank of the first figure, and take only the 2 ; we therefore proceed thus — 2 and 7 are 9—9 and 5 are 14 — 14 and 3 are 17 — 17 and 2 are 19. Writing down the 9, we proceed with the third column, carry- ing I, thus — I and 2 are 3 — 3 and 3 are 6 — 6 and 5 are 11. No more figures remaining to be added, both these figures are now put down, and the amount or sum of them all is found to be 1 1 95. Following this plan, any quantity of numbers may be summed up. Should the amount of any column be in three figures, still only the last or right-hand figure is to be put down, and the other two carried to the next column. For example, if the amount of a column be 127, put down the 7 and carry the other two figures, which are 12 ; if it be 234, put down the 4 and carry 23. For the sake of brevity in literature, addition is often de- noted by the figure of a cross, of this shape + . Thus, 7 + 6 means 7 added to 6 ; and in order to express the sum result- ing, the sign =, which means equal to, is employed, as 7 + 6 = 13 ; that is, 7 and 6 are equal to 13. The Sign of Dollars is $. It is read dollars. Thus, $64 dollars is read 64 dollars j $5 is read 5 dollars. When dollars and cents are written, a period or point ( . ) is placed before the cents, or between the dollars and cents. Thus, $4.25 is read 4 dollars and 25 cents. Since loo cents make $1.00, cents always occupy two places, and never more than two. If the number of cents is less than 10 and expressed by a single figure, a cipher must occupy the first place at the right of the point. Thus, 3 dollars 6 cents are written $3.06 ; i dollar 5 cents are written $1.05. When cents alone are writ- ten, and their number is less than 100, either write the word cents after the number, or place the dollar sign and the point before \h& number. Thus, 75 cents maybe expressed, $.75. In arranging for addition, dollars should be written under dol- %r ^ ARITHMETIC. — ^ 223 f lars, and cents under cents, in such order that \.)\q points stand in a vertical line. The sign $, and the point ( . ) should never be omitted. , ULTIPLICATION is a short method of ad- dition under certain circumstances. If we wish to ascertain the amount of twelve times the number 57, instead of setting down twelve rows of 57, and adding them together, we adopt a shorter plan by which we come to the same conclusion. For ascertaining the amount of all simple numbers as far as 12 times 12, young persons commit to memory the following Multiplication Table, a knowledge of which is of great value, and saves much trouble in after-life : — > 2 3 4 5 6 7l 8| 9 10 1 " 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1 .6 1 18 20 22 24 3 6 9 12 •5 18 21 1 24 1 27 30 33 36 48 4 8 12 .6 20 24 28 1 32 1 36 40 44 5 10 •5 20 25 30 35 1 40 1 45 50 1 55 60 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 1 48 1 54 60 06 72 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 1 56 1 63 70 77 84 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 1 64 1 72 80 88 96 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 1 72 1 81 90 99 .08 .0 20 30 40 50 60 7o| 8o| 90 100 no .20 " 22 33 44 55 66 77 1 88 1 99 no I2i 132 [12 24 36 48 60 72 84I96I 108 120 132 144 This table is so well known, that it is almost superfluous to explain that, when any number in the top row is multiplied by any number in the left-hand side row, the amount is found in the compartment or square beneath the one and opposite the other. Thus, 2 times 2 are 4 ; 5 times 6 are 30 ; 12 times 12 are 144. The multiplying of numbers beyond 12 times 12 is usually effected by a process of calculation in written figures. The rule is to write down the number to be multiplied, called the multiplicand ; then place under it, on the right-hand side, the number which is to be the multiplier, and draw a line under them. For example, to find the amount of 9 times 27, we set down the figures thus — 27 {Multiplicand.) 9 {Multiplier.) 243 {Product.) Beginning with the right-hand figure, we say 9 times 7 are 63 ; and putting down 3 we carry 6, and say 9 times 2 are 18, and 6, which was carried, makes 24 ; and writing down these fig- ures next the 3, the product is found to be 243. When the multiplier consists of two or more figures, place it so that its right-hand figure comes ex- actly under the right-hand figure of the multiplicand ; for instance, to multiply 5463 by 34, we proceed as here shown. Here the number is multiplied, first by the 4, the product of which being written down, we proceed to multiply by 3, and the amount produced is placed below the other, but one place farther to the left. A line is then drawn, and the two products added together, bringing out the result of 185742. We may, in this manner, multiply by three, four, five, or any number of figures, always placing the product of one figure below the other, but shifting a place far- ther to the left in each line. An example is here given in the multiplying of 76843 by 4563. Multiplication is denoted by a cross of this shape X : thus 3 x 8 = 24, signifies, that by multiplying 8 by 3, the product is 24. A number which is produced by the multiplication of two other numbers, as 30 by 5 and 6, leaving nothing over, is called a composite number. The 5 and 6, called the factors (that is, workers or agents), are said to be the com- ponent parts of 30, and 30 is also said to be a multiple of either of these numbers. The equal parts into which a number can be reduced, as the twos in thirty, are called the aliquot parts. A number whfch cannot be produced by the multiplication of two other numbers, is called a prime number. When the mul- tiplicand and multiplier are the same, that is, when a number is multiplied by itself once, the product is called the square of that number : 144 is the square of 12. 5463 34 21852 16389 185742 76843 4563 230,529 4,610,58 38,421,5 307.372 350,634,609 UBTRACTION is the deducting of a smaller number from a greater, to find what remains, or the difference between them. The Sign of Subtraction is — . It is read minus, and signifies less. When placed between two numbers, it indi- cates that the one after it is to be subtracted from the one before it. Thus, 12 — 7 is read 12 minus 7, and means that 7 is to be subtracted from 12. A Parenthesis ( ) is used to include within it such numbers as are to be considered together. A Vinculum has the same signification. Thus, 25 — (12 + 7), or 25 — 12 + 7, sigaifies that from 25 the sum of 12 and 7 is to be subtracted. Principles. — i. Only like numbers and units of the same order can be subtracted. 2. The minuend must be equal to the sum of the subtrahend and remainder. ^ 224 ARITHMETIC. 537 325 We subtract when vre say, lake 3 from 5, and 2 remains. To ascertain what remains, after taking 325 from 537, we proceed by writing the one under the other as here indicated, and then subtracting. Commencing at 5, the right-hand figure of the lower and smaller number, we say, 5 from 7, and 2 remains ; setting down the 2, ^^^ we say next, 2 from 3, and I remains; and setting down the I, we say, 3 from 5, and 2 remains ; total remainder, 212. To subtract a number of a higher value, involving the car- rying of figures and supplying of tens, we proceed as in the margin. Commencing as before, we find that 5 cannot be subtracted from 2, and therefore supply or lend 10 to the 2, making it 12 ; then we say, 5 from 12, and 7 remains. Setting down the 7, we take i, being the de- cimal figure of the number which was borrowed, and give it to the l, making it 2, and taking 2 from 3, we find that i remains. Setting down the i, we go to the 8, and finding it cannot be taken from the 4 above it, we lend 10 to the 4, making it 14, and then we say, 8 from 14, and 6 rjmains. In the same manner as before, adding the first fig- ure of the borrowed number (i) to the 6, we say, 7 from 8, and I remains ; thus the total remainder is found to be 161 7, From these explanations, which apply to all calculations in subtraction, it will be observed, that when the upper figure is less than the figure directly under it, 10 is to be added, and for this one is carried or added to the next undet- figure. A man having $15, paid $4 for a hat, and $2 for a vest. How many dollars had he left ? Analysis. — The difference between I15, and the sum of %\ and $2, which is $9. 8432 6815 1617 4r- 'IVISION is that process by which we discover how often one number may be contained in an- other, or by which we divide a given number into any proposed number of equal parts. By the aid of the Multiplication Table, we can ascertain without writing figures how many times any number is contained in another, as far as 144, or 12 times 12 ; beyond this point notation is employed. There are two modes of work- ing questions in division, one long and the other short. Let it be required to divide 69 by 3 : accord- ing to the long method, write the figures 69 as an- nexed, with a line at each side, and the divisor, or 3, on the left. The question is wrought out by ex- amining how many times 3 is in 6, and finding it to be 2 times, we place 2 on the right side ; then placing 6 be- low six, we draw a line and bring down the 9, and proceed 3)69(23 6 9 9 with it in the same manner. The quotient is found to be 23. But we take a more difiicult question — the divi- sion of 7958 by 6. In commencing we find that there is only one 6 in 7, and I over ; we 6)7958(1326 therefore place the 6 below the 7, and subtract it, in order to bring out the i. The i being jg written, we bring down the 9 to it, and this 18 makes 19. There being 3 times 6 in 18, we — place the 3 to the product (which in division is ^ called the quotient, literally. How many times ?) and 18 below the 19, leaving i over as before. 38 To this I we bring down the 5, and trying 3^ how many sixes there are in 15, it appears there are only 2. We place 2 to the quotient, and 12 below the 15. This leaves 3 over, and bringing down 8 to the 3, we have 38, in which there are 6 sixes. Six sixes make 36 ; therefore, placing 6 to the quotient, and 36 below the 38, we find that there are 2 over. Here the account terminates, it being found that there are 1326 sixes in 7958, with a remainder of 2 over. In this question, 6 is called the divisor ; the 7958 is the dividend, and 1326 is the quotient. Skillful arithmeticians never adopt this long method of di- vision ; they pursue a plan of working out part of the question in the mind, called short division. They would, for example, treat the above question •'795^ as here shown. The over number of I from the 1326-2 7 is carried in the mind to the 9, making 19 ; the I from 19 is in the same manner carried to the 5 ; and the 3 from it is carried to the 8, leaving the overplus of 2. In Short Division the quotient only is written, the opera- tions being performed vtentally. It is generally used when the divisor does not exceed 12. Divide $48.56 by 8 cents. • Eight cents may be written ?.o8. %. Analysis. — Since the OPERATION. ^i 20.60 = Principal. .08 = Rate per cent. interest of any sum at 8^ for I yr. is .08 of the principal, the interest of $120.60 at 8^ for I yr. is $9,648 ; and the interest for 3 yr. 4 mo. is 3I times $9,648, or $32.16. $9.6480 = Int. for I year. 3^ = Time in years. $3 2. 1 60= Int. for 3 yr. 4 mo. RULE. — I. Multiply the principal by the rate per cent., and the product will be the interest for i year. II. Multiply the interest for i year by the time in years and the fraction of a year, and the product loill be the required in- terest. In ordinary business transactions involving interest, 30 days are considered one month, and 12 months, I year. To find the interest of $175 for i yr. 7 mo. 15 da. at 7!?^. Ana lysis. OPERATION. $175 = Principal. .07 = Rate per cent. Int. for I yr. 112.25 6. 1 25 = Int. for 6 mo. 1.020= Int. for I mo. .5 10= Int. for 15 da. — First multi- ply ing the principal by the rate %, we have $12.25, the int. for I yr. Then, for 6 mo. take \ of I year's int., for I mo. take i of 6 months' int., and for 15 da. take \ The sum of the several results is the int. $19,965 = Int. for I yr. 7 mo. 15 da. $175 = Principal. $194,905 = Amt. for I yr. 7 mo. 15 da. 4r- of I month's int for the whole time. Adding the principal to the interest gives the amount. An easy and uniform method of computing interest, D. Fish's method, is to place the principal, the rate, and the time in months, on the right of a vertical line, and 12 on the left ; or, if the time is short and contains days, reduce to days, and place 360 on the left. After canceling equal factors on both sides of the line, the product of the remaining factors on the right, divided by the factor, if any, on the left, will give the required interest. To find the interest of $184.80 for i yr. 5 mo. at 5^. It OPERATION, ns.4o •05 17 Analysis. — $184.80 x .05 gives the interest for i yr. or 12 months, which divided by 12 gives the interest for i month ; the quotient multiplied by 17, the number of months in i yr. 5 mo., gives $13.09, the interest required. 13.09, Ans. To find the interest of $240 for 2 mo. 18 da. at "]%. OPERATION. $2^0" .07 '300 Analysis. — $240 x .07 gives the in- terest for I year or 360 days, which divided by 360 gives the interest for I day ; the quotient multiplied by 78, the number of days in 2 mo. 18 da., gives $3.64, the required interest. $3.64, Ans. To find the interest of $696 for 93 da. at \% a month. Of $325.20 at \'Ji a month for 63 da. 510.92 OPERATION. L348 5 OPERATION. ^8.10 i3l -^^300 $107.88 ^l %<^.\oi,Ans. $21,576, Ans. See interest tables in our Lightning Calculator. An Aliquot Part or Even Part of a number is such a part as will exactly divide that number. Thus, 2, 2^, 3i, and 5, are aliquot parts of 10. An aliquot part may either be an integer or a mixed num- ber, while a component factor xa}\%\. be an integer. Aliquot Parts of One Dollar. 5 cents = gV of $1. 10 cents = 1^ of $1. 20 cents = ^ of $1. 25 cents = i of $1. 50 cents = 5 of $1. b\ cents = A of $1. 8^ cents = h of l^- 12^ cents = i of $1. 16J cents = i of $1. 33i cents = i of $l. 1 228 ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS. -^ TO TELL ANY NUMBER THOUGHT OF. ESIRE any person to think of a number, say a certain number of shillings ; tell him to borrow that sum of some one in the company, and add the number borrowed to the amount thought of. It will here be proper to name the person who lends him the shillings and to beg the one who makes the calculation to do it with great care, as he may readily fall into an error, especially the first time. Then, say to the person — " I do not lend you, but give you 10, add them to the former sum." Continue in this manner : —"Give the half to the poor, and retain in your memory the other half." Then add : — " Return to the gentleman, or lady, what you borrowed, and remember that the sum lent you was exactly equal to the number thought of." Ask the person if he knows exactly what remains. He will answer " Yes." You must then say — " And I know, also, the number that remains ; it is equal to what I am going to conceal in my hand." Put into one of your hands five pieces of money, and desire the person to tell how many you have got. He will answer five ; upon which open your hand, and show him the five pieces. You may then say — " I well knew that your result was five ; but if you had thought of a very large number, for example, two or three millions, the result would have been much greater, but my hand would not have held a number of pieces equal to the remainder." The person then supposing that the result of the calculation must be different, according to the difference of the number thought of, will imagine that it is necessary to know the last number in order to guess the result : but this idea is false ; for, in the case which we have here sup- posed, whatever be the number thought of, the remainder must always be five. The reason of this is as follows : — The sum, the half of which is given to the poor, is nothing else than twice the number thought of, plus lo ; and when the poor have received their part, there remains only the number thought of, plus 5 ; but the number thought of is cut off when the sum borrowed is returned, and, consequently, there re- main only 5, It may be hence seen that the result may be easily known, since it will be the half of the number given in the third part of the operation ; for example, whatever be the number thought of, the remainder will be 36 or 25, according as 72 or 50 have been given. If this trick be performed several times successively, the number given in the third part of the operation must be always different ; for if the result were several times the same, the deception might be discovered. When the first five parts of the calculation for obtaining a result are finished, it will be best not to name it at first, but to continue the opera- tion, to render it more complex, by saying, for example : — "Double the remainder, deduct 2, add 3, take the fourth part," etc. ; and the different steps of the calculation may be kept in mind, in order to know how much the first result has been increased or diminished. This irregular process never fails to confound those who attempt to follow it. A Second Method. — Bid the person take i from the number thought of, and then double the remainder ; desire him to take I from the double, and to add to it the number thought of ; in the last place, ask him the number arising from this addition, and, if you add 3 to it, the third of the sum will be the num- ber thought of. The application of this rule is so easy, that it is needless to illustrate it by an example. A Third Method. — Desire the person to add i to the triple of the number thought of, and to multiply the sum by 3 ; then bid him add to this product the number thought of, and the result will be a sum, from which, if 3 be subtracted, the re- mainder will be ten times the number required ; and if the cipher on the right be cut off from the remainder, the other figure will indicate the number sought. ^ Example : — Let the number thought of be 6, the triple of which is 18 ; and^if i be added, it makes 19 , ilie triple of this last number is 5!^^ and if 6 be added, it makes 63^ from which, if 3 be subtracted, the remainder will be 66 ; now, if the cipher on the right be cut off, the remaining figure, 6, will be the number required. A Fourth Method. — Bid the person multiply the number thought of by itself ; then desire him to add X to the number thought of, and to multiply it also by itself ; in the last place, ask him to tell the difference of these two products, which will certainly be an odd number, and the least half of it will be the number required. Let the number thought of, for exam- ple, be 10, which, multiplied by itself, give 100 ; in the next place, ID increased by i is it, which, multiplied by itself, makes 121 ; and the difference of these two squares is 21, the least half of which, being 10, is the number thought of. This operation might be varied by desiring the person to multiply the second number by itself, after it has been diminished by 1. ^ ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS. 229 In this case, the number thought of will be equal to the greater half of the difference of the two squares. Thus, in the preceding example, the square of the number thought of is 100, and that of the same number less i, is 81 ; the difference of these is 19 ; the greater half of which, or 10, is the number thought of. TO TELL TWO OR MORE NUMBERS THOUGHT OF. If one or more of the numbers thought of be greater than 9, we must distinguish two cases ; that in which the number or the numbers thought of is odd, and that in which it is even. In the first case, ask the sum of the first and second, of the second and third, the third and fourth, and so on to the last, and then the sum of the first and the last. Having written down all these sums in order, add together all those, the places of which are odd, as the first, the third, the fifth, etc. ; make another sum of all those, the places of which are even, as the second, the fourth, the sixth, etc., subtract this sum from the former, and the remainder will be the double of the first number. Let us suppose, for example, that the five fol- lowing numbers are thought of, 3, 7, 13, 17, 20, which, when added two and two as above, give 10, 20, 30, 37, 23 : the sum of the first, third, and fifth, is 63, and that of the second and fourth is 57 ; if 57 be subtracted from 63, the remainder, 6, will be the double of the first number, 3, Now, if 3 be taken from 10, the first of the sums, the remainder, 7, will be the second number, and by proceeding in this manner we may find all the rest. In the second case, that is to say, if the number or the numbers thought of be even, you must ask and write down, as above, the sum of the first and the second, that of the second and third, and so on, as before ; but, instead of the sum of the first and last, you must take that of the second and last ; then add together those which stand in the even places, and form them into a new sum apart ; add also those in the odd places, the first excepted, and subtract this sum from the former, the remainder will be the double of the second num- ber ; and if the second number, thus found, be subtracted from the sum of the first and second, you will have the first number ; if it be taken from that of the second and third, it will give the third ; and so of the rest. Let the numbers thought of be, for example, 3, 7, 13, 17 ; the sums formed as above are 10, 20, 30, 24, the sum of the second and fourth is 44, from which, if 30, the third, be subtracted, the remainder will be 14, the double of 7, the second number. The first, therefore, is 3, the third 13, and the fourth 17. When each of the numbers thought of does not exceed 9, they may be easily found in the following manner : — Having made the person add i to the double of the first number thought of, desire him to multiply the whole by 5, and to add to the product the second number. If there be a third, make him double this first sum, and add I to it ; after which, desire him to multiply the new sum by 5, and to add to it the third number. If there be a fourth, proceed in the same manner, desiring him to double the preceding sum, to add to it I, to multiply by 5, to add the fourth number, and so on. Then ask the number arising from the addition of the last number thought of, and if there were two numbers, subtract 5 from it ; if there were three, 55 ; if there were four, 555 ; and so on, for the remainder will be composed of figures, of which the first on the left will be the first number thought of, the next the second, and so on. Suppose the number thought of to be 3, 4, 6 ; by adding i to 6, the double of the first, we shall have 7, which, being mul- tiplied by 5, will give 35 ; if 4, the second number thought of, be then added, we shall have 39, which, doubled, gives 78 ; and, if we add i, and multiply 79, the sum, by 5, the result will be 395. In the last place, if we add 6, the number thought of, the sum will be 401 ; and if 55 be deducted from it, we shall have, for remainder, 346, the figures of which, 3, 4, 6, indicate in order the three numbers thought of. THE MONEY GAME. A person having in one hand a piece of gold, and in the other a piece of silver, you may tell in which hand he has the gold, and in which the silver, by the following method : — Some value, represented by an even number, such as 8, must be as- signed to the gold ; and a value represented by an odd num- ber, such as 3, must be assigned to the silver ; after which, desire the person to multiply the number in the right hand, by any even number whatever, such as 2 ; and that in the left hand by an odd number, as 3 ; then bid him add together the two products, and if the whole sum be odd, the gold will be in the right hand, and the silver in the left : if the sum be even, the contrary will be the case. To conceal the artifice better, it will be sufficient to ask whether the sum of the two products can be halved without a remainder ; for in that case the total will be even, and in the contrary case odd. It may be readily seen, that the pieces, instead of being in the two hands of the same person, may be supposed to be in the hands of two persons, one of whom has the even number, or piece of gold, and the other the odd number, or piece of silver. The same operations may then be performed in regard to these two persons, as are performed in regard to the two hands of the same persons, calling the one privately the right, and the other the left. • THE GAME OF THE RING. This game is an application of one of the methods employed to tell several numbers thought of, and ought to be performed in a company not exceeding nine, in order that it may be less complex. Desire any one of the company to take a ring, and put it on any joint of whatever finger he may think proper. The question then is, to tell what person has the ring, and on what hand, what finger, and on what joint. For this purpose, you must call the first petson i, the second 2, the third 3, and so on. You must also denote the ten fingers of the two hands by the following numbers of the natural progression, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., beginning at the thumb of the right hand, and ending at that of the left, that this order of the number of the finger may, at the same time, indicate the hand. In the last place, the joints must be denoted by I, 2, 3, beginning at the points of the fingers. ^ ^ 230 ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS. To render the solution of this problem more explicit, let us suppose that the fourth person in the company has the ring on the sixth finger, that is to say, on the little finger of the left hand, and on the second joint of that finger. Desire some one to double the number expressing the per- son, which, in this case, will give 8 ; bid him add 6 to this double, and multiply the sum by 5, which will make 65 ; then tell him to add to this product the number denoting the finger, that is to say 6, by which means you will have 71 ; and, in the last place, desire him to multiply the last number by 10, and to add to the product the number of the joint, 2 ; the last result will be 712 ; if fi-om this number you deduct 250, the remain- der will be 462 ; the first figure of which, on the left, will denote the person ; the next, the finger, and, consequently, the hand ; and the last, the joint. It must here be observed, that when the last result contains a cipher, which would have happened in the present example had the number of the figure been 10, you must privately sub- tract from the figure preceding the cipher, and assign the value of 10 to the cipher itself. THE GAME OF THE BAG. To let a person select several numbers out of a bag, and to tell him the number which shall exactly divide the sum of those he had chosen : — Provide a small bag, divided into two parts, into one of which put several tickets, numbered 6, 9, 15. 36, 63, 120, 213, 309, etc., and in the other part put as many other tickets, marked No. 3 only. Draw a handful of tickets from the first part, and after showing them to the com- pany, put them into the bag again, and having opened it a second time, desire any one to take out as many tickets as he thinks proper ; when he has done that, you open privately the other part of the bag, and tell him to take out of it one ticket only. You may safely pronounce that the ticket shall contain the number by which the amount of the other numbers is divisi- ble ; for, as each of these numbers can be multiplied by 3, their sum total must, evidently, be divisible by that number. An ingenious mind may easily diversify this exercise, by mark- ing the tickets in one part of the bag with any numbers that are divisible by 9 only, the properties of both g and 3 being the same ; and it should never be exhibited to the same com- pany twice without being varied. THE CERTAIN GAME. Two persons agree to take, alternately, nurnbers less than a given number, for example, 11, and to add them together till one of them has reached a certain sum, such as 100. By what means can one of them infallibly attain to that number before the other? The whole artifice in this consists in immediately making choice of the numbers i, 12, 23, 34, and so on, or of a series which continually increases by 11, up to 100. Let us suppose that the first person, who knows the game, makes choice of i ; it is evident that his adversary, as he must count less than 11, can at most reach 11, by adding 10 to it. The first will then take I, which will make 12 ; and whatever number the second may add, the first will certainly win, provided he continually add the number which forms the complement of that of his adversary to 11 ; that is to say, if the latter take 8, he must take 3 : if g, he must take 2 ; and so on. By following this method he will infallibly attain to 8g : and it will then be im- possible for the second to prevent him from getting first to 100 ; for whatever number the second takes he can attain only to gg ; after which the first may say — " dnd i makes 100.' If the second take i after 8g, it would make go, and his ad- versary would finish by saying — " and 10 make 100." Between two persons who are equally acquainted with the game, he who begins must necessarily win. If your opponent have no knowledge of numbers, you may take any other number first, under 10, provided you subse- quently take care to secure one of the last terms, 56, 67, 78, etc., or you may even let him begin, if you take care after- ward to secure one of these numbers. This exercise may be performed with other numbers ; but, in order to succeed, you must divide the number to be attained by a number which is a unit greater than what you can take each time, and the remainder will then be the number you must first take. Suppose, for example, the number to be attained be 52, and that you are never to add more than 6 ; then, di- viding 52 by 7, the remainder, which is 3, will be the number which you must first take ; and whenever your opponent adds a number you must add as much to it as will make it equal to 7, the number by which you divided, and so in continua- tion. ODD OR EVEN. Every odd number multiplied by an odd number produces an odd number ; every odd number multiplied by an even number produces an even number ; and every even number multiplied by an even number also produces an even number. So, again, an even number added to an even number, and an odd number added to an odd number, produce an even num- ber ; while an odd and even number added together produce an odd number. If any one holds an odd number of counters in one hand, and an even number in the other, it is not difficult t» discover in which hand the odd or even number is. Desire the party to multiply the number in the right hand by an even number, and that in the left hand by an odd number, then to add the two sums together, and tell you the last figure of the product ; if it is even, the odd number will be in the right hand ; and if odd, in the left hand ; thus, supposing there are 5 counters in the right hand, and 4 in the left hand, multiply 5 by 2, and 4 by 3, thus : — 5 x 2 = 10, 4 x 3 = 12, and then adding 10 to 12, you have 10 +12 = 22, the last figure of which, 2, is even, and the odd number will consequently be in' the right hand. PROPERTIES OF CERTAIN NUMBERS. Of Odd Numbers. — All the odd numbers above 3, that can only be divided by i, can be divided by 6, by the addition or subtraction of a unit. For instance, 13 can only be divided by I ; but after deducting I, the remainder can be divided by 6 ; for example, 5+1 = 6; 7 — 1 = 6; 17 + 1 = 18; ig — I = 18 ; 25 — I = 24, and so on. ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS. 23 -^ Of Number Three. — Select any two numbers you please, and you will find that either one of the two, or their amount when added together, or their difference, is always 3, or a number divisible by 3. Thus, if the numbers are 3 and 8, the first number is 3 ; let the numbers be i and 2, their sum is 3 ; let them be 4 and 7, the difference is 3. Again, 15 and 22, the first number is divisible by 3 ; 17 and 26, thair difference is divisible by 3, etc Of Number Five. — If you multiply 5 by itself, and the quotient again by itself, and the second quotient by itself, the last figure of each quotient will always be 5. Thus, 5x5 = 25 ; 25 X 25 = 625 ; 125 X 125 = 15,625, etc. Again, if you proceed in the same manner with the figure 6, the last figure will constantly be 6. To divide any number by 5, or any multiplicand of that number, by means of simple addition : — To divide by 5, dou- ble the number given, and mark off the last figure, which will represent tenths. Thus, to divide 261 by 5 : — 261 + 261 = 522, or 5 22-ioths. Again, to divide the same number by 25, you must take four times the number to be divided, and mark off the last two figures, which will be hundredths, thus, 261 + 261 + 261 + 261 = 1044, or 10 44-iooths. Of Number Nine. — The following remarkable properties oi the number 9 are not generally known : — Thus, 9 x 1=9; 9 X 2 = 18, I + 8 = 9 ; 9 X 3 = 27, 2 + 7 = 0, 9 X 4 ^ 36, 3 + 6 = 9:9x5 = 45, 4+5=9;9x6 = 54, 5+4 = 9; 9x7 = 63, 6 + 3 = 9; 9x8 = 72, 7 + 2 = 919x9 = 81, 8 + 1 = 9. It will be seen by the above that — i. The component figures of the product made by the multiplication of every digit into the number 9, when added together, make nine. 2. The or- der of these component figures is reversed, after the said num- ber has been multiplied by 5. 3. The component figures of the amount of the multipliers (viz. 45), when added together, make nine. 4. The amount of the several products, or mul- tiples of 9 (viz. 405), when divided by 9, gives, for a quotient, 45 ; that is, 4 + 5 = nine. It is also observable, that the number of changes that may be rung on nine bells is 362,880 ; which figures, added to- gether, make 27 ; that is, 2 + 7 = nine. And the quotient of 362,880, divided by 9, will be 40,320 ; that is, 4 + 0+3+2 + 0= nine. To add a figure to any given number, which shall render it divisible by Nine : — Add the figures together in your mind, which compose the number named ; and the figure which must be added to the sum produced, in order to render it divisible by 9, is the one required. Thus, suppose the given number to be 7521 : — Add those together, and 15 will be produced ; now 15 re- quires 3 to render it divisible by 9 ; and that number 3, being added to 7521, causes the same divisibility : — 7521 3 -kr- 9)7524(836 This exercise may be diversified by your specifying, before the sum is named, the particular place where the figure shall be inserted, to make the number divisible by g ; for it is ex- actly the same thing whether the figure be put at the head of the number, or between any two of its digits. To multiply by Nine by Simple Subtraction. — Supposing you wish to multiply 67583 by 9, add a cipher to the end of the sum, then place the sum to be divided underneath the amount, and subtract it from the same ; the quotient will be the pro- duct of 67583 multiplied by 9 ; thus : — 675830 67583 608247 Number Nine and Eighteen. — If any two of the following sums, 36, 63, 81, 117, 126, 162, 207, 216, 252^ 261, 306, 315, 360, 432, are added together, the figures in the quotient, when cast up, will make either 9 or 18. For instance, 216 + 252 = 468, and 4 + 6 + 8 = 18 ; or, 63 + 81 = 144, and I + 4 + 4 = 9. THE UNITED DIGITS. The figures I to 9 may be placed in such order that the whole added together make exactly loo. Thus — > 15 36 47 The secret is to arrange the figures I, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, in such a manner that, added together, they make 98, when by add- ing 2 you get the whole nine digits into the calculation. TO DISCOVER A SQUARE NUMBER. A square number is a number produced by the multiplica- tion of any number into itself ; thus, 4 multiplied by 4 is equal to 16, and 16 is consequently a square number, 4 being the square root from which it springs. The extraction of the square root of any number takes some time ; and after all your labor you may perhaps find that the number is not a square number. To save this trouble, it is worth knowing that every square number ends either with a i, 4, 5, 6, or 9, or with two ciphers, preceded by one of these numbers. Another property of a square number is, that if it be divided by 4, the remainder, if any, will be i — thus, the square of 5 is 25, and 25 d^ded by 4 leaves a remainder of i ; and again, 16, being a square number, can be divided by 4 without leav> ing a remainder. A MAGIC SQUARE. The following arrangement of figures, from i to 36, in the form of a square, will amount to the same sum if the numbers are cast up perpendicularly, horizontally, or from ^ 232 ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS. comer to corner, the quotient in every direction being III : — 29 7 28 9 12 26 32 31 3 4 36 , 5 23 18 15 16 19 20 14 24 21 22 13 17 2 I 34 33 6 35 II 25 10 27 30 8 TO WEIGH FROM ONE TO FORTY POUNDS WITH FOUR WEIGHTS. To weigh any weight from i to 40 pounds by the use of four weights only, the weights must be respectively i, 3, 9, and 27 pounds each. Thus, 2 pounds may be weighed by placing 3 pounds in one scale and i in the other ; 5 pounds, by placing i and 3 in one scale and 9 pounds in the opposite, and so on. THE CANCELLED FIGURE GUESSED. To tell the figure a person has struck out of the sum of two given numbers : — Arbitrarily command those numbers only that are divisible by 9 ; such, for instance, as 36, 63, 81, 117, 126, 162, 261, 360, 315, and 432. Then let a person choose any two of these numbers ; and, after adding them together in his mind, strike out from the sum any one of the figures he pleases. After he has so done, desire him to tell you the sum of the remaining figures ; and it follows, that the number which you are obliged to add to this amount, in order to make it 9 or 18, is the one he struck out. Thus — Suppose he chooses the numbers 162 and 261, making alto- gether 423, and that he strikes out the centre figure, the two other figures will, added together, make 7, which, to make 9. requires 2, the number struck out. THE DICE GUESSED UNSEEN. A pair of dice being thrown, to find the number of points on each die without seeing them : — Tell the person who cast the dice to double the number of points upon one of them, and add 5 to it ; then to multiply the sum produced by 5, and to add to the product the number of points upon the other die. This being done, desire him to tell you th? amount, and, having thrown out 25, the remainder will be a number con- sisting of two figures, the first of which, to the left, is the number of points on the first die, and the second figure, to the right, the number on the other. Thus — Suppose the number of points on the first die which comes up to be 2, and that of the other 3 ; then, if to 4, the dou- ble of the points of the first, there be added 5, and the sum produced, 9, be multiplied by 5, the product will be 45 ; to which, if 3, the number of points on the other die, be added, 48 will be produced, from which, if 25 be subtracted, 23 will remain ; the first figure of which is 2, the number of points on the first die, and the second figure 3, the number on the other. THE SOVEREIGN AND THE SAGE. A sovereign being desirous to confer a liberal reward on one of his courtiers, who had performed some very important service, desired him to ask whatever he thought proper, assur- ing him it should be granted. The courtier, who was well acquainted with the science of numbers, only requested that the monarch would give him a quantity of wheat equal to that which would arise from one grain doubled sixty-three times successively. The value of the reward was immense ; for it will be found that the sixty-foUrth term of the double progression divided by I, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc., is 9,223,372,036,854,775,808. But the sum of all the terms of a double progression, begin- ning with I, may be obtained by doubling the last term, and subtracting from it i. The number of the grains of wheat, therefore, in the present case, will be 18,446,744,073,709,551,- 615. Now, if a pint contain 9216 grains of wheat, a gallon will contain 73,728 ; and, as eight gallons make one bushel, if we divide the above result by eight times 73,728 we shall have 31,274,997,411,295 for the number of the bushels of wheat equal to the above number of grains, a quantity greater than what the whole surface of the earth could produce in several years, and which, in value, would exceed all the riches, perhaps, on the globe. THE HORSE-DEALER'S BARGAIN. A gentleman taking a fancy to a horse, which a horse- dealer wished to dispose of at as high a price as he could, the latter, to induce the gentleman to become a purchaser, offered to let him have the horse for the value of the twenty-fourth nail in his shoes, reckoning one cent for the first nail, two for the second, four for the third, and so on to the twenty- fourth. The gentleman, thinking he should have a good bar- gain, accepted the offer ; how mistaken he was the result will shov/. By calculating as before, the twenty-fourth term of the pro- gression, I, 2, 4, 8, etc., will be found to be 8,388,608, equal to the number of cents the purchaser gave for the horse ; the price, therefore, amounted to $83,886.08. THE DINNER PARTY. A club of seven persons agreed to dine together every day successively, so long as they could sit down to table differ- ently arranged. How many dinners would be necessary for that purpose? It may be easily found, by the' rules of simple progression, that the club must dine together 5,040 times be- fore they would exhaust all the arrangements possible, which would require above thirteen years. THE BASKET AND STONES. If a hundred stones be placed in a straight line, at the dis- tance of a yard from each other, the first being at the same dis- -^ ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS. ^ tance from a basket, how many yards must the person walk who engages to pick them up, one by one, and put them into the basket ? It is evident that, to pick up the first stone and put it into a basket, the person must walk two yards ; for the sec- ond, he must walk four ; for the third, six ; and so on, in- creasing by two to the hundredth. The number of yards, therefore, which the person must walk will be equal to the sum of the progression, 2, 4, 6, etc., the last term of which is 200 (22). But the sum of the pro- gression is equal to 202, the sum of the two extremes, multi- plied by 50, or half the number of terms ; that is to say, 10, 100 yards, which makes more than 5^ miles. THE CAN OF ALE. How to divide 8 gallons of ale contained in an 8-gallon can into two equal parts, having only two empty bottles to effect it with, one containing 5 gallons and the other 3. First, fill the 5-gallon bottle, and you will have 3 remaining in the 8-gal- lon can ; fill the 3-gallon bottle from the 5-gallon, which will then contain only 2 gallons ; pour the 3 gallons in the 3-gallon bottle into that which holds 8 gallons, which will then contain 6 gallons ; then pour the 2 gallons out of the 5-gallon bottle into the 3-gallon bottle, and filling the 5-gallon bottle from the 8-gallon can, which at present contains 6 gallons, you will have I gallon in the can, 5 in the largest bottle, ind 2 in the smallest ; by filling up the 3-gallon can fron^ the 5-gallon, you leave 4 gallons, or one-half the 8 gallons, in the largest bottle ; and, lastly, pouring the contents of the 3-gallon bottle into the 8-gallon can, which contains i gallon, you have the second half, or 4 gallons. COUNTING A BILLION. What is a billion? The reply is very simple — a million times a million. This is quickly written, and more quickly still pronounced. But no man is able to count it. You can count 160 or 170 a minute ; but let us even suppose that you go as far as 200 in a minute, then an hour will produce 12,000 ; a day, 288,000 ; and a year, or 365 days (for every four years you may rest from counting, during leap year), 105,120,000. Let us suppose, now, that Adam, at the beginning of his ex- istence, had begun to count, had continued to do so, and was counting still, he would not, even now, according to the usually supposed age of our globe, have counted nearly enough. For, to count a billion, he would require 9512 years, 34 days, 5 hours, and 20 minutes, according to the above rule. THE NUMBER SEVENTY-THREE. If number 73 be multiplied by any of the progressive num- bers arising from the multiplication of 3 with any of the units, the result will be as follows : — 73 X 3 = 219 73 X 6 = 438 73 X 9 = 657 73 X 12 = 876 73 X 15 = 1095 73 X 18 = 1314 73 X 21 = 1533 73 X 24 = 1752 73 X 27 = 1971 On inspecting these amounts it will be seen that the last figures run thus — 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, I, Again, if we refer to the sums produced by the multiplication of 73 by 3, 6, gt 12, and 15, it will be found that by reading the two figures to the left of each amount backwards, it will give I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, o. CURIOUS CALCULATION. If a pin were dropped into the hold of the Great Eastern steamship, and on that day week a second pin, and on that day week four pins, and so on, doubling the number of pins each week for a year, there would, by the end of the 52 weeks, be deposited no fewer than 4,503,599,627,370,495 pins. Al- lowing 200 to the ounce, the weight of the whole would be 628,292,358 tons ; and to carry them all would require 27,924 ships as large as the Great Eastern, which is calculated to hold 22,500 tons. ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION. If you could buy a hundred ships, giving a farthing for the first, a halfpenny for the second, a penny for the third, two- pence for the fourth, and so on to the last, doubling the sum each time, the whole amount paid would be £557,750,707,- 053,344,041,463,074,442 i8s. 7ld. — a sum which in words runs thus : 557 quadrillions, 750,707 trillions, 53,344 billions, 41,643 millions, 74 thousand, 442 pounds, eighteen shillings and sevenpence three farthings. This amount in sovereigns would weigh 3,557,083,590,327,499,123,418 tons. ^^ \ 234 THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. ■ i inn 1 1 iiiijijjyiijiijijiijjii e^ HE following tables show at a glance the price of any number of articles at any given rate : The first column of figures shows the number of articles, and the second, the total ; e. g., Sj articles at ^ cent each, amount to 2 if cents ; 46 articles at 56^ cents each, give for a total $25.87^. If the price be one not given in the tables, the sum is easily ascertained by adding together two or more of those which are given, thus : 23 articles at 19^ cents, 23 at 10 cents would be 2.30, at 5 cents 1.15, at 2 cents 46 cents, at -^ 11^ cents, and at ^ 5I; adding these totals, 2.30 + 1.15 + 46 + 46 + "i + Sf = $4-54i, the amount sought for. These tables, too, will operate in other directions, and show the number of articles, when the total amount and the price per capita are given ; also when the number of articles and the total amount are given, the price per capita is easily ascertained. When fractions of a cent are involved, it is often confusing to an inexpert accountant to readily com- pute the amount. A reference to these tables will quickly give the required result, thereby saving that which is so important to the business man — time. The convenience of these tables cannot be over- rated. Not only do they save time, but are also conducive to perfect accuracy, a result which is not always certainly obtained in a hurried calculation. kr- At i Cent. No. Dol s. Cts. No. Dol s. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I ■i 18 4i 35 . n 52 •13 i 6q .I7i 86 .2li 2 \ 19 4i 36 • 9 53 .134 70 .17J 87 .2l4 3 \ 20 5 37 . 94 54 .I3i 71 .174 88 .22 \ I 21 54 38 • 9* 55 •134 72 .18 89 .224 i 6 n 22 5i 39 . 9I 56 .14 73 .184 90 .22^ li 23 54 40 .10 57 .144 74 .i8i 91 .22I 7 T.% 24 6 41 .104 58 .14^ 75 .184 92 .23 8 2 25 64 42 .loi^ 59 . 144 76 .19 93 .231 9 24 26 6i 43 .xol 60 •15. 77 .i9i 94 .23^ 10 2i 27 64 44 .11 61 .154 78 - .19^ 96 .24 II 2I 28 7 45 .114 62 .I5i 79 .194 98 .24i 12 3 29 74 46 .Hi 61 .154 80 .20 100 • 25 13 34 30 1\ 47 .114 64 .16 81 .204 200 • 50 14 ^\ 31 ll 48 .12 65 .i6i 82 .20i 300 •75 15 34 32 8 49 .124 66 .16} 83 .204 400 1. 00 16 4 33 8i 50 .12} 67 .164 84 .21 500 1.25 17 4i 34 8i 51 .12^ 68 •17 85 .214 1000 2.50 -^ THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 235 At i Cent. No. Do] s. Cts. I No. Dols. Cts. No. Dol s. Cts. I . i 32 .16 63 .314 2 . I 33 .i6i 64 32 3 . li 34 •^7, 65 324 4 2 35 .174 66 33 5 2i 36 .18 67 335 6 3 37 .m 68 34, 7 3i 38 .19 69 344 S 4 39 .i9i 70 35, 9 4i 40 .20 71 352 ID 5 41 • 20 J 72 36^ II 5i 42 .21 73 364 12 6 43 .2li 74 37, 13 6i 44 .22 75 375 14 7 45 .22^ 76 38 15 74 46 •23 78 39 16 8 47 •23i 80 40 17 «4 48 .24 82 41 18 9 49 •244 84 42 19 94 50 •25 86 43 20 10 51 •254 88 44 21 loi 52 .26 90 45 22 II 53 .26^ 92 46 23 ii4 54 •27 94 47 24 12 55 .274 96 48 25 124 56 .28 98 49 26 13 57 .284 100 50 27 134 58 .29 200 I 28 14 59 .29i 300 I 50 29 144 60 • 30 400 2, 30 15 61 .305 500 2 50 31 154 62 • 31 1000 5 At I Cent. No. Dol s. Cts. No. Dol s. Cts. No. Dol s. Cts. I I 32 32 63 63 2 2 33 33 64 64 3 3 34 34 65 65 4 4 35 35 66 66 5 5 36 36 67 67 6 6 37 37 68 68 7 7 38 38 69 69 8 8 39 39 70 70 9 9 40 40 71 71 10 10 41 41 72 72 II II 42 42 73 73- 12 12 43 43 74 74 13 13 44 44 75 75 14 14 45 45 76 76 15 15 46 46 78 78 16 16 47 47 80 80 17 17 48 48 82 83 l8 18 49 49 84 84 19 19 50 50 86 86 20 20 51 51 88 88 21 21 52 52 90 90 22 22 53 53 92 92 23 23 54 54 94 94 24 24 55 55 96 96 25 25 56 56 98 98 26 26 57 57 100 I 27 27 58 58 200 2 28 28 59 59 300 3 29 29 60 60 400 4 30 30 61 61 500 5 31 •31 62 .62 1000 10 At 2 Cents. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I . 2 32 .64 63 1.26 2 • 4 33 .66 64 1.28 3 . 6 34 .68 65 1.30 4 . 8 35 .70 66 1.32 5 .10 36 •72 67 1-34 6 .12 37 •74 68 I 36 7 .14 38 .76 69 1.38 8 .16 39 •78 70 1.40 9 .18 40 .80 71 1.42 10 .20 41 .82 72 1.44 II .22 42 .84 73 1.46 12 •24 43 .86 74 1.48 13 .26 44 .88 75 1.50 14 .28 45 .90 76 152 15 ■30 46 .92 78 1.56 16 •32 47 •94 80 1. 60 17 • 34 48 .96 82 1.64 18 •36 49 .98 84 1.68 19 •38 50 I, 86 1.72 20 .40 51 1.02 88 1.76 21 .42 52 1.04 90 1.80 22 •44 53 1.06 92 1.84 23 .46 54 1.08 94 1.88 24 .48 55 1. 10 96 1.92 25 •50 56 1. 12 98 1.96 26 • 52 57 1. 14 100 2 27 •54 58 1. 16 200 4^ 28 •56 59 i.iS 300 6. 29 •58 60 1.20 400 8. 30 .60 61 1.22 500 10. 31 .62 62 1.24 1000 20. At 5 Cents. No. Dol s. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I 5 32 1.60 63 3-15 2 10 33 1.65 64 3 20 3 15 34 1.70 65 3 25 4 20 35 1^75 66 3 30 5 25 36 1.80 67 3 35 6 30 37 1.85 68 3 40 7 35 38 1.90 69 3 45 8 40 39 1-95 70 3 50 9 45 40 2. 71 3 55 10 50 41 2.05 72 3 60 II 55 42 2.10 73 3 65 12 60 43 2.15 74 3 70 13 65 44 2.20 75 3 75 14 70 45 2.25 76 3 80 15 75 46 2.30 7« 3 90 16 80 47 2.35 80 4 17 85 48 2.40 j 82 4 10 18 90 49 2.45 84 4 20 19 95 50 2.50 86 4 30 20 I 51 2^55 88 4 40 21 I 05 52 2.60 90 4 50 22 I 10 53 2.65 ! 92 4 60 23 I 15 54 2.70 94 4 70 24 I 20 55 2.75 96 4 80 25 I 25 56 2.80 98 4 90 26 I 30 57 2.85 100 5 27 I 35 58 2.90 125 6 25 28 I 40 59 2-95 150. 7 50 29 I 45 60 3^ 175 8 75 30 I 50 61 3-05 200 10 31 I 55 62 3.10 225 II 25 -<^ 23<5 THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. At 10 Cents. No. Dols. CIS. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I .10 32 3.20 63 6.30 2 .20 33 330 64 6.40 3 •30 34 3-40 65 6.50 4 .40 35 3-50 66 6.60 5 •50 36 3.60 67 6.70 6 .60 37 3-70 68 6.80 7 .70 38 3.80 69 6.90 8 .80 39 3-90 70 7- 9 .90 40 4- 71 7.10 lO I. 41 4.10 72 7.20 II 1. 10 42 4.20 73 7-30 12 1.20 43 4-30 74 7.40 13 1.30 44 4.40 75 7-50 14 1.40 45 4- 50 76 7.60 15 1.50 46 4.60 7H 7.80 16 1.60 47 4.70 80 8. 17 1.70 48 4.80 82 8.20 18 1.80 49 4.90 «4 8.40 19 1.90 50 5- 86 8.60 20 2. 51 5.10 88 8.80 21 2.10 52 5.20 90 9- 22 2.20 53 5-30 92 9.20 23 2.30 54 5.40 94 9.40 24 2.40 55 5-50 96 9.60 25 2.50 56 5-6o 98 9.80 26 2.60 57 5-70 100 10. 27 2.70 58 5.80 125 12.50 28 2.80 59 5.90 150 15- 29 2.90 60 6. 175 17-50 30 3- 61 6.10 200 20. 31 3.10 62 6.20 225 22.50 At i2i Cents, or i of a Dollar. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I .12i 32 4- 63 7.87^ 2 25 33 4.i2i 64 8. 3 37* 34 4-25, 65 8.12t 4 50 35 4-37i 66 8.25 5 62* 36 4-50 67 8.37i 6 75 37 4.62^ 68 8.50 7 874 38 4-75 69 8.62* 8 39 4-87i 70 8.75, 9 12^ 40 5- 71 8.87i 10 25 41 5-I2i 72 9- , II 37i 42 5-25 73 9.12^ 12 50 43 5-372 74 9-25, 13 62 L 44 5-5o_ 75 9-37i 14 75 45 5.62i 76 9-50 15 87^ 46 5-75 78 9-75 16 2 47 5-87i 80 10. 17 2 12-^ 48 6. 82 10.25 18 2 25 49 6.12i 84 10.50 19 2 ■37l 50 6.25 86 10.75 20 2 • 50 51 6-37i 88 II. 21 2 .62^ 52 6.50 90 11.25 22 2 •75 53 6.62i 92 11-50 23 2 .87i 54 6.75 94 11-75 24 3 55 6.87^ 96 12. 25 3 .12i 56 7- 98 12.25 26 3 •25 57 7-I2|r 100 12.50 27 3 ■37h 58 7.25 125 15 62 J 28 3 •50 59 7-37i 150 18.75 29 3 .62^ 60 7-50 175 21.87^ 30 3 •75, 61 7.62i 200 25- 31 3 •87i 62 7-75 225 28.12i At 25 Cents. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I -25 32 8. 63 15-75 2 •50 33 8 25 64 16. 3 •75 34 8.50 65 16.25 4 I. 35 8-75 66 16.50 5 I 25 36 9- 67 16.75 6 1.50 37 9-25 68 17- 7 1-75 38 950 69 17-25 8 2. 39 6.75 70 17-50 9 2.25 40 10. 71 17-75 10 2.50 41 10.25 72 18. II 2.75 42 10.50 73 18.25 12 3- 43 10.75 74 18.50 13 3-25 44 II. 75 18.75 14 3-50 45 11.25 76 19. 15 3-75 46 11.50 78 19.50 16 4. 47 11-75 80 20. 17 4-25 48 12. 82 20.50 18 4-50 49 12.25 84 21. 19 4-75 50 12.50 86 21.50 20 5- 51 12.75 88 22. 21 5-25 52 13- 90 22.50 22 5-50 53 13-25 92 23- 23 5-75 54 13-50 94 23-50 24 6. 55 13-75 96 24. 25 6.25 56 14. 98 24.50 26 6.50 57 14-25 100 25- 27 6-75 58 14.50 125 3^-25 28 7- 59 14-75 150 37-50 29 7-25 60 15- 175 43-75 30 7-50 61 15-25 200 50. 31 7-75 62 15-50 225 56.25 At 33i Cents, or s of a Dollar No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I .33i 32 10. 66 J 63 21* 2 661 33 II 64 21.33* 3 I 34 II 33Jf 65 21 66§ 4 I 33^ 35 II 661 66 22. 5 I 66| 36 12 67 22.33* 6 2 . 37 12 33^ 68 22 . 665 7 2 33i 38 12 661 69 23- 8 2 66^ 39 13 70 23.33* 9 3 40 13 33f 71 23.66ii 10 3 33^ 41 13 66^ 72 24. li 3 662, 42 14 73 24-33* 12 4 43 14 33f 74 24.66I 13 4 33^ 44 14 661 75 25- 14 4 661 45 ^5 76 25-33* 15 5 46 15 33i 78 26. 16 5 335 47 15 66§ 80 27- 17 5 661 48 16 82 27.33* 18 6 49 16 3.3* 84 28. 19 6 33i 50 16 661 86 28.66I 20 6 661 51 17 i 88 29. 66 J 21 7 52 17 33* 90 30. 22 7 33^ 53 17 66S 9.2 30.66I 23 7 661 54 18 94' 31 -33* 24 8 55 18 333 96 32. 25 8 33* 56 18 66'^ 98 32.66f 26 8 66! 57 19 100 33-33* 27 9 58 19 33* 1 125 4i.66i 28 9 33i 59 19 66§ 1 150 50. 29 9 66f 60 20 [ 175 58.33I 30 10 61 20 33i 200 66.661 31 10 33i 62 20.66I 225 75- THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 237 At 43J Cents or iV of a Dollar No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I •43I 32 14. 63 27.564 2 .87i 33 14 43i 64 28. 3 i.3ii 34 14.874 65 28.434 4 1-75 35 15.314 66 28.874 5 2.184 36 15.75 67 29-314 6 2.62i 37 16. m 68 29-75 7 3.064 38 i6.62i 69 30.184 8 3-50 39 17.06.1 70 30.624 9 3 -931 40 17.50 71 31.064 10 4-37i 41 17.934 72 31-50 II 4.8U 42 i8.37i 73 31.934 12 5-25 43 i8.8ii 74 32.37* 13 5.68i 44 19 25 75 32.814 14 6.12i 45 19. 681 76 33-25 15 6.564 46 20.12i 78 34-124 16 7- 47 2o.56i 80 35- 17 7-434 48 21. 82 35-874 18 7-87i 49 21.43I 84 36.75 19 8.31^ 50 2i.87i 86 37-62i 20 8.75 51 22.314 88 38.50 21 9.18I 52 22.75 90 39-37i 22 9.62i 53 23.184 92 40.25 23 10.064 54 23.624 94 41.124 24 10.50 55 24.064 96 42. 25 10.934 56 24.50 98 42.874 26 ii.37i 57 24.934 100 43-75 27 II. 814 58 25375 125 54-684 28 12.25 59 25.814 150 65.62^ 29 12.684 60 26.25 175 76.564 30 I3.I2i 61 26.684 200 87.50 31 13-65-i 62 27.124 225 98.434 At 50 Cents. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts, I • 50 32 16. 63 31-50 2 I. 33 16.50 64 32 3 1.50 34 17- 65 32 50 4 2. 35 17-50 66 33 5 2.50 36 18. 67 33 50 6 3- 37 18.50 68 34 7 3-50 38 19. 69 34 50 8 4- 39 19.50 70 35 9 4-50 40 20. 71 35 50 10 5- 41 20.50 72 36 II 5-50 42 21. 73 36 50 12 6. 43 21.50 74 37 13 6.50 44 22. 75 37 50 14 7- 45 22.50 76 38 15 7-50 46 23- 78 39 16 8. 47 23.50 80 40 17 8.50 48 24- 82 41 18 9- 49 24.50 84 42 19 950 50 25- - 86 43 20 10 51 25.50 88 44 21 10.50 52 26. 90 45 22 II. 53 26.50 92 46 23 11.50 54 27- 94 47 24 12. 55 27.50 96 48 25 12.50 56 28. 98 49 26 13- 57 28.50 100 50 27 13.50 58 29. 125 62 50 28 14. 59 29-50 150 75 29 14.50 60 30. 175 87 50 30 15- 61 30.50 200 100 31 15.50 62 31- 225 112 50 At 56i Cents, or -,% of a Dollar. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts, I .56i 32 18. 63 35-431 2 1.12^ 33 i8.56i 64 36. 3 1. 68 J 34 19.12^ 65 36.56^ 4 2.25 35 19.68^ 66 37i2i 5 2.81, 36 20.25 67 37. 68 J 6 3-37t 37 20.8li 68 38.25 7 3-93f 38 21-378 69 38.8ii 8 4- 50 39 21.93* 70 39 -37* 9 5-o6i 40 22.50 71 39-931 10 5.62,^ 41 23.064 72 40.50 II 6.18J 1 42 23. 62^ 73 4i.o6i 12 6.75, 43 24.18? 74 41.62^ 13 7.3ii 44 24.75, 75 42.183 14 7.87^ 45 25.3ii 76 42.75 15 8.43J 46 25 .87^ 78 43-87* 16 9- , 47 26.43* 80 45- 17 9-56i 48 27- , 82 46.i2i 18 10.12^ 49 27 56f 84 47-25 19 10.681 50 28.12i 86 48.37* 20 11.25 51 28.68I 88 49-50 21 ii.8ii 52 29.25 90 50.62* 22 12.37^ 53 29.8ii 92 51-75, 23 12. 93 J 54 30.37I 94 52.87* 24 13-50 55 30.935 96 54- . 25 14.06^ 56 31-50 98 55-12* 26 14. 62 J- 57 32.o6t 100 56.25 27 i5-i8i 58 32.62I 125 70.31* 28 15-75 59 33-18? 150 84-37* 29 16.31] 60 33-75 175 98-43^' 30 i6.87i 61 34-3ii: 200 112.50 31 17-43J 62 34-87i 225 126. 56i At 87i Cents , or 1 of a Dollar. No, Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I .87* 32 28. 63 55-12* 2 1-75, 33 28.87I 64 56. 3 2.62^ 34 29-75, 65 56.87* 4 3-50 35 30.62^ 66 57.75 5 4-374 36 31-50 67 58.62* 6 5-25, 37 32-37* 68 59-50 7 6.I2I 38 33-25, 69 60.37* 8 7- , 39 34-12* 70 61.52 9 7.87* 40 35- , 71 62.12* 10 8.75, 41 35-87* 72 63- 11 9 62* 42 36.75, 73 63.87* 12 10.50 43 37.62* 74 64.75 13 11-37* 44 38.50, 75 65.62* 14 12.25 45 39-37* 76 66.50 15 13.12* 46 40.25 78 68.25 16 14. 47 41.122^ 80 70. 17 14-872^ 48 42. 82 71.75 18 15-75, 49 42.87* 84 73 50 19 16.622 50 43-75, 86 75-25 20 17.50, 51 44.62s 88 77. 21 18.37* 52 45-50 90 78.75 22 19.25 53 46.37* 92 80.50 23 20.12^ 1 54 47-25, 94 82.25 24 21. 55 48.12* 96 84. 25 21.87* 56 49- , 98 85-75 26 22.75 57 49-87* 100 87.50 27 23.62^^ 58 50.75 125 109-37* 28 24.50 59 51 -62^ 150 131-25, 29 25-37* 60 52-50 175 153-12* 30 26.25 61 , 53-37* 200 175- 31 27.12^ 62 54-25 225 196.87* ^ r 23S THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. At $ 1.25 Cents. At $] [.50 Cents. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No, Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I 125 36 45- 71 88.75 I 1.50 36 54- 71 106.50 2 2.50 37 46.25 72 90. 2 3- 37 55.50 72 108. 3 3-75 38 47-50 73 91-25 3 4.50 38 57. 73 109.50 4 5- 39 48-75 74 92.50 4 6. 39 58.50 74 III. 5 6.25 40 50. 75 93.75 5 7.50 40 60. 75 112.50 6 7-50 41 51-25 76 95- 6 9- 41 61.50 76 114. 7 8.75 42 52.50 77 96.25 7 10.50 42 63. 77 115.50 8 10. 43 53-75 78 97.50 8 12. 43 64.50 7« 117. 9 11.25 44 55. 79 98.75 9 13-50 44 66. 79 118.50 10 12.50 45 56.25 80 100. 10 15- 45 67.50 80 120. II 13-75 46 57.50 81 101.25 II 16.50 46 69. 81 121.50 12 15- 47 58.75 82 102.50 12 18. 47 70.50 82 123. 13 16.25 48 60. 83 103.75 13 19.50 48 72. 83 124.50 14 17-50 49 61.25 84 105. 14 21. 49 73.50 84 126. 15 18.75 50 62.50 85 106.25 15 22.50 50 75- 85 127.50 16 20. 51 63.75 86 107.50 16 24. 51 76.50 86 129. 17 21.25 52 65- 87 108.75 17 25-50 52 78. 87 130.50 18 22.50 53 66.25 88 no. 18 27. 53 79.50 88 132. 19 23 -75 54 67.50 89 III. 25 19 28.50 54 81. 89 133.50 20 25- 55 68.75 90 112.50 20 30. 55 82.50 90 135. 21 26.25 56 70. 91 113.75 21 31-50 56 84. 91 136.50 22 27.50 57 71.25 92 115- 22 33- 57 85.50 92 13S. 23 28.75 58 72.50 93 116.25 23 34.50 58 87. 93 139.50 24 30. 59 73-75 94 117.50 24 36. 59 88.50 94 141. 25 31-25 60 75. 95 118.75 25 37.50 60 90. 95 142.50 26 32.50 61 76.25 96 120. 26 39- 61 91.50 96 144. 27 33-75 62 77.50 97 121.25 27 40.50 62 93- 97 145.50 28 35- 63 78.75 98 122.50 28 42. 63 94-50 98 147. 29 36.25 64 80. 99 123.75 29 43.50 64 96. 99 148.50 30 37-50 65 81.25 100 125. 30 45- 65 97-50 TOO 150. 31 38.75 66 82.50 125 156.25 31 46.50 66 99. 125 187.50 32 40. 67 83.75 150 187.50 32 48. 67 TOO. 50 150 225. 33 41.25 68 85- 175 218.75 33 49-50 68 102. 175 262.50 34 42.50 69 86.25 200 250. 34 51. 69 103.50 220 300. 35 43-75 70 87.50 225 281.25 35 52.50 70 TO5. 250 337.50 At $1.75 Cents. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I 1-75 18 31-50 35 61.25 52 91. 69 120.75 86 150.50 2 3.50 19 33.25 36 63. 53 92 75 70 122 50 87 152.25 3 5.25 20 35- 37 64.75 54 94 50 71 124 25 88 154. 4 7- 21 36.75 38 - 66.50 55 96 25 72 126 89 155 75 5 8.75 22 38.50 39 68.25 56 98 73 127 75 90 157.50 6 10.50 23 40.25 40 70. 57 99 75 74 129 50 91 159-25 7 12.25 24 42. 41 71.75 58 lOI 50 75 131 25 92 161. 8 14. 25 43.75 42 73-50 59 103 25 76 133 93 162.75 9 15.75 26 45.50 43 75.25 60 105 77 134 75 94 164.50 10 17.50 27 47.25 44 77. 61 106 75 78 136 50 96 168. II 19.25 28 49- 45 78.75 62 108 50 79 138 25 98 171-50 12 21. 29 50.75 46 80.50 63 no 25 80 140 100 175- 13 22.75 30 52.50 47 82.25 64 112 81 141 75 125 218.75 14 24.50 31 54.25 48 84. 66 113 75 82 143 50 150 262.50 15 26.25 32 56. 49 85.75 65 115 50 83 145 25 175 306.25 16 28. 33 57-75 50 87.50 67 117 25 84 147 200 350. 17 29.75 34 59 50 51 89.25 68 119 85 148.75 225 393.75 4r- RATE OF WAGES. — ^ 239 ' ^kte of Wk^e^, ffom $1 to $!^1 f^ef Week. 50 Cts. 62^ Cts. 75 Cts. 87I Cts. 50 Cts. 62 1 Cts. 75 Cts. 87^ Cts. Days. Dol 5. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dol. 5. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. i 2 . 2i 3 • 3l 4^ •37i 1 .464 .564 .65i i 4 . 5i 64 • 74 4l .392 .49i .594 .694 1 6i • 7f 9i .104 5 .418 .52 .62i •73, I 8i .10^ I2i .148 5i .434 .54i .57i .65i .76i li to| •13 i5i .184 5t ■4Si .68J .80 P^ 12^ .151 18I .22 5J .474 .59! .711 .834 i| 14^ .18 21I .25i 6 .50 .62i .75 .87i 2 i6j .20| 25 .29 7 .584 .72 J .87i 1.02 2i isl ■23i 28 .32} 8 .66i .83i I. 1.16^ 2i 204 .26 314 .36i 9 •75 •93? i.i2i 1. 314 2| 23 .281 .344 .40 10 .834 1.04 1.25 1.454 3 25 .3ii 37i .431 II .911 I.i4i i-37i x.6o4 3i 27 •33I 40^ .474 12 I. 1.25 1.50 1-75 3i 29 .364 435 •51 18 1.50 i.87i 2.25 2.62^ 3J 3ii •39 464 .54i 24 2. 2.50 3. 3-50 4 33i .4ii 50 .584 26 • 2.i6i 2.71 3^25 3.79 4i 354 •44 53 .62 |i $I.I2i $1.25 $i^37i Days. $1.50 $I.62i $1-75 $i.87i Dol 5. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. i 4 . 45 . 5} • 55 i . 6i . 6t . 7i • 75 i H ■ . 9k .10^ .Hi i .I2i .I3i .I4i .154 J 12 r .14 • I5i •i7i 5 .185 .20t .2l5 .234^ I x6 i 20J .i8i .20 J .23 I • 25 •27 •29 .31-i li • 23i .26 .28i li .3ii •335 .36i .39 li 25 .28 •3ii .34^ li •372 •4oi •435 .465 i| 29 .32 J •36^ .40 i5 •435 •47^ •51 .545 2 33i .37^ •4ii •455 2 •50 •54 .58I •62^ 2i 37^ •42i .46I •5ii 2i • 56i .61 .65i •7oi 2| 4ii .46I •52 •57i 2i .62i .675 •73 •78 2J 45i .54 • 57i .63 25 .685 •74k .8oi .86 3 50 .56i .62i .685 3 •75, .8ii •87^ •935 3i 54 .61 • 675 .74i 3i .8ii .88 •945 i.oii 3^ 58i .65f • 72 J .8oi H .87i •945 1.02 i.ogi i-i7i 3J 62^ .7oi .78 .86 35 .935 i.oii 1.09I 4 66^ •75 .83i -9la 4 I. 1.08I 1.16I 1-25 4i 7o| •79i .88i •97t 4i 1.06^ 1. 15 1-235 1-324 4^ 75 •84i • 93I 1.03 4-^ 1.12^ 1.21J i-3ii 1-402 4? 79 .89 • 985 1.081 45 I.i8f I.28i i-38i i-48i- 5 83t •93 J 1.04 x.i4i 5 1.25 i.35i 1-455 i.56i 5t m •98^ ^■ogk 1.20^ 5\ 1-314 1-427 i.53i 1.64 5| 9^ 1.03 I.i4i 1.26 Sk i.37i 1-49 i.6oi 1.715 5J 955 1.075 1. 19 J 1.315 55 1-435 1-555 1-675 1.795 6 I 1. 124 1.25 i.37i 6 1.50 I.62i 1-75 i.87i 7 I i^^ i.3i-i 1.455 i.6oi 7 1.75 i.Sgi 2.04 2.18I 8 I 33i 1.50 i.66i i.83t 8 2. 2.16I: 2.33i 2.50 9 I 50 i.68f i.87i 2.o6i 9 2.25 2-435 2.62^ 2.8l:i 10 I 66^ 1.87,^ 2.o8i 2.29 10 2.50 2.705 2.91^ 3-12^ II I 83t 2.o6i 2.29 2.52 II 2.75 2.98 3.205 3-435 12 2 2.25 2.50 2.75 12 3- 3-25 3- 50 3.75 18 3 3.37^ 3^75 4.12i 18 4.50 4-87i 5.25 5.62t 24 4 4- 50 5- 5^50 24 6. 6.50 7. 7.50 26 4 33i 4.87i 5^42 5 96 26 6.50 7.04 7.58i 8.12^ ^ 240 RATE OF WAGES. -^ Days. |2 I2.50 $3 $3-50 Dols. Cts. Dols, Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. i . 8J .10^ .I2i • i4i i i6t .20J •25 .29 J 25 .3ii •37i .43 I 331 .41? .50 .58 i\ 41. i •52 .62i .72 i^ 50 .621 •75, .872^ li^ 58i •73 .87i 1.02 2 66^ •83i I. 1.16^ 21 75 •93 J i.i2i i^3il 2^ 83I 1.04 I 25 i-45| 25 9ii 1. 14 i^374 1.60I 3 1.25 1.50 1-75 3l 08 1 I 35 If I.62i 1.89^ 3i 16^ 1.46 I 75 2.04 3? 25 1-561 i.87i 2.18J 4 33]- 1.66^ 2. 2 -331 4i 4^ 1-77 2.12^ 2 -471 4^ 50 1.87^ 2.25 2.62? 43 58i I-97I 2.37^ 2.77 5 66i 2.08I 2.50 2.9ii 5i «3i 2.29 2.75 3-2oi 6 2 2.50 3- 3^50 7 2 33i 2.91^ 3-50 4.081 8 2 66^ 3-331 4- 4.66i 9 3 3-75 4-50 5-25 10 3 33i 4.16J 5- 5.83I II 3 66^ 4-581 5^50 6.4ii 12 4 5- 6. 7- 18 6 7^50 9- 10.50 24 8 10. 12. 14. 26 8 66^ 10.83I 13- i5-x6i $4 $4.50 $5 $5-50 Days. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. i .i6i .184^ .204 -23 i .334 -37^ • 4ii -451 1 •50 • 564 .62i .681 I .66i •75 -834 • 9ii i4 .83i •934 1.04 1.14J li I. i.i2i 1-25 i-37i a I.I64 1. 314 1-454 i.6oi 2 i^334 1.50 1.66^ 1 .831 24 1.50 1.684 . i.87i 2.06I 2i i.66i i.87i 2.08i 2.29 2| 1.834 2.064 2.29 2.52 3 2. 2.25 2.50 2.75 3-1 2.l6i 2.434 2.70J 2.98 3i 2.33i 2.62i 2. 911 3.201 31 2.50 2. 814 3-12^ 3-431 4 2.66^ 3- 3-334 3-66i 44 2.83i 3-184 3-54-f 3-89i 4i 3- 3-375 3-75 4-121 44 3.i6i 3-564 3-954 4-35i 5 3^334 3-75, 4-i6i 4-58i 5i 3-664 4.125 4-58i 5 -04 6 4- 4-50 5- 5-50 7 4-66i 5-25 5-83i 6-4ii 8 5-33I 6. 6.66i 7-331 9 6. 6.75 7-50 8.25 10 6.66i 7-50 8-33i 9.16^ II 7-33'i 8.25 9-i6i 10.08I 12 8. 9- 10. II. 18 12. 13-50 15- 16.50 24 16. 18. 20. 22. 26 17-334 19.50 2i.66i 23-83! |6 $7 $8 $9 Days. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. i •25 .29 -33i -371 i 50 • 58i .661 •75 i 75 .87i I. i.i2i I I i.i6i i-33i 1.50 li I 25 I •454 1.661 1. 871 H I 50 1-75 2. 2.25 15 I 75 2.04 2-33i 2.62I 2 2 2^331 2.661 3- 2i 2 25 2.62i 3- 3-37i 2i 2 50 2-9ii 3-331 3-75 2? 2 75 3.20I 3 661 4.12i 3 3 3- 50 4- 4-50 3i 3 25 3-79 4 33l 4-87* 3i 3 50 4.08I 4-661 5-25 31 3 75 4-37* 5- 5-621 4 4 4 -661 5-33I 6. 4i 4 25 4- 954 5-661 6.37i 4i 4 50 5.25 6. 6.75 4l 4 75 5-54 6-33I 7-12I 5 5 5-83! 6.661 7-50 5i 5 50 6.4ii 7 -337 8.25 6 6 7- 8. 9- 7 7 8.]6i 9-33i 10.50 8 8 9-33I 10. 661 12 9 9 10.50 12. 13-50 10 10 ii.66i I3-33T 15- II II i2.83i 14. 661 16.50 12 12 14- 16. 18. .18 18 21. 24. 27. 24 24 28. 32. 36. 26 26 30.334 34-661 39- $10 $11 $12 $13 Days. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. i •4if .46 ■ 50 •54- i .83i .911 I. i.o8i i 1.25 1-37* 1.50 I.62i I 1. 661 1-83* 2. 2.16J li 2.08I 2.29 2.50 2.71 li 2.50 2-75 3- 3^25 il 2.91^- 3.21 3-50 3^79 2 3^33i 3 66^ 4- 4^33* 2} 3-75 4-121 4-50 4.87i 21 4- 16! 4-58I 5- 5-413 2l 4-58* 5 -04 5-50 5 96 3 5- 5-50 6. 6.50 3i 5-4ii 5-96 6.50 7.04 3i 5-83i 6.41I 7- 7-58* 3l 6.25 6.871 7^50 8.12I 4 6.661 7-33* 8. 8.661 4l 7-08I 7-79 8.50 9.21 4t 7-50 8 25 9- 9-75 4? 7-9if 8.71 9-50 10.29 5 8-33* 9.16I 10. 10.83I 5i 9-16^ 10.08I II. ii.9lf 6 10. II. 12. 13^ 7 11.665 12.83^ 14. 15-16I 8 13-33* 14-66I 16. 17-33* 9 15- 16.50 18. 19.50 10 16.66', 18.33* 20. 21.66^ II 18.33* 20.16'^ 22. 23-83* 12 20. 22. 24. 26. 18 30. 33- 36. 39- 24 40. 44. 48. 5«- 26 43-33* 47 •66'^ 52. 56.33* -.x^ r- RATE OF WAGES. 24 -J $14 $15 $16 $17 $18 fig $20 $21 Days. Days. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. i .58i .62i .661 .71 i -75 •79 -83* .87* i 1.16J 1-25 1-33^ i.4if i 1.50 i-58i 1.66J 1.75 f 1-75, i.87i 2. 2.12i i 2.25 2.37* 2.50 2.62i I 2.333- 2.50 2.66^ 2.83i I 3. 3-165 3-33* 3-50 li 2.91J 3-i2i 3 -331 3-54 li 3-75 396 4.16I 4-37* li 3.50 3.75 4- 4-25 li 4-50 4-75 5- 5-25 1} 4 -081 4-37i 4-661 4.0 ij 5-25 5-54 5-83* 6.12* 2 A. 66^ 5- , 5-33i 5 -66 J 2 6. 6.33i 6.66^ 7- 2i 525 5.62i 6. 6-37i 2i 6.75 7-12* 7-50 7-87* H 5.83i 6.25 6.661 7 oSi 2i 7-50 7-9^ 8.33* 8.75 2i 6.41^ 6.87^ 7-33i 7-79 2| 8.25 8. 71 9.16J 9.62* 3 7- 7.50, 8. 8.50 3 9- 9-50 10. 10.50 3i 7.58^ 8.i2i 8.66J 9.21 3i 9-75 10.29 10.83* 11-37* 3t 8.16I 8.75, 9-33i 9-9l| 3i 10.50 ii.oSi 11.66J 12.25 3i 8.75 9-.37i 10. 10. 62^ 3f 11. 25 ii.87i 12.50 13.12* 4, 9-33* 10. io.66f ii-33i 4 12. 12.661 13-33* 14. 4i 9-913 10.62^^ ii-33i 12.04 4i 12.75 13.46 14.16J 14.87* 4t 10.50 11.25 12. 12.75 4i 13-50 14.25 15- 15-75 4i 11.08J II. 87^ 12.66! 13.46 4i 14-25 15.04 15-83* 16.62* 5 11.66I 12.50 13 -33* 14 16?, 5 15- 15-83* 16. 66 J 17-50 5i I2.83i 13-75 14 -661 I5.58i 5i 16.50 17. 413 18.33* 19-25 6 14. 15- 16. 17- 6 18. 19. 20. 21. 7 i6.33i 17.50 18.66J i9-83i 7 21. 22.165 23-33* 24.50 8 18.66J 20. 2i.33i 22.66f 8 24. 25-33i 26.66I 28. 9 21. 22.50 24. 25 50 9 27. 28.50 30. 31-50 10 23 -33* 25- 26. 66 J 28.33i 10 30. 3i-66i 33-33* 35- ■ II 25.66I 27.50 29 -33^ 31-16I II 33. 34-83* 36.66I 38. 12 28. 30. 32- 34- 12 36. 38. 40. 42.00 18 42. 45- 48. 51. 18 54- 57- 60. 63- 24 56. 60. 64. 68. 24 72. 76. 80. 84 26 60. 66^ 65. 69 -33^ 73-66! 26 78. 82.33* 86.661 91. RATE OF BOARD BY THE WEEK. Time. Rate. Rate, Rate. Rate. Rate. W.^D. I2.00 $2.25 $2.50 $3.00 $3-50 I .29 .32 -36 •43 •50 2 -57 .64 •71 .86 I. 3 .86 .96 1.07 1.29 1.50 4 1. 14 1.26 1-43 1. 71 2. 5 1-43 1. 61 1-79 2.14 2.50 6 1. 71 1-93 2.14 2.57 3^ I.I 2.29 2-57 2.86 3-43 4- 1.2 2.57 2.89 3-21 3-86 4^50 1-3 2.86 3-21 3-57 4.29 5- 1.4 3-14 3-54 3-93 4-71 5-50 1-5 3-43 3.86 4.29 5-14 6. 1.6 3-71 4.18 4.64 5-57 6.50 2. 4- 4-50 5- 6. 7- 2.1 4.29 4.82 5-36 6.43 7-50 2.2 4-57 5-14 5-71 6.86 8. 2-3 4.86 5-46 6.07 7-29 8.50 2.4 5-14 5-79 6-43 7-71 9- 2-5 5-43 6. II 6.79 8.14 9-50 2.6 5-71 6.43 7-14 8.57 10. 3- 6. 6.75 7.50 9- 10.50 3-1 6.29 7.07 7.86 9-43 II. 3-2 6.57 7-39 8.21 9.86 11.50 3-3 6.86 7.71 8.57 10.29 12. 3-4 7.14 8.04 8.93 10.71 12.50 3-5 7-43 8.36 9-29 II. 14 13. 3-6 7.71 8.68 9-64 11-57 13-50 4- 8. 9- 10. 12. 14. Time. Rate. Rate. Rate. Rate. Rate. W. D. $4.00 $4.50 $5-oo $5-50 $6.00 I •57 .64 -71 -79 .86 2 1. 14 1.29 1-43 1-57 1. 71 3 1. 71 1-93 2.14 2.36 2-57 4 2.29 2.57 2.86 3.14 3-43 5 2.86 3-21 3-57 3-93 4-29 6 3-48 3-86 4-29 4-71 5-14 I.I 4-57 5-14 5-71 6.29 6.86 1.2 5-14 5-79 6.43 7-07 7.71 1-3 5-71 6.43 7.14 7.86 8-57 1-4 6.29 7.07 7.86 8.64 9-43 1-5 6.86 7.71 8.57 9-43 10.20 1.6 7-43 8.36 9-29 10.21 11.14 2. 8. 9- 10. II. 12. 2.1 8.57 9-64 10.71 11.79 12.86 2.2 9.14 10.29 11-43 12.57 13-71 2.3 9.71 10.93 12.14 13-36 14-57 2.4 10.29 11.67 12.86 14.14 15-43 2.5 10.86 12.21 13-57 14-93 16.29 2.6 11-43 12.86 14.29 15-71 17.14 3- 12. 13-50 15- 16.50 18. 3-1 12.57 14.14 15.71 17 29 18.86 3-2 13-14 14.79 16.43 18.07 19.71 3-3 13-71 15-43 17.14 18.86 20.57 3-4 14.29 16.07 17.86 19.64 21.43 3-5 14.86 16.71 18.57 20.43 22.29 3-6 15-43 17.36 19.29 21.21 23.14 4- 16. 18. 20. 22. 24- 242 ALGEBRA. E have seen that logarithmic tables may be used as a substitute for many lengthened operations in arithmetic. It is evident that the value of all methods of computation lies in their brev- ity. Algebra must be considered as one of the most important departments of mathematical science, on account of the extreme rapidity and cer- tainty with which it enables us to determine the most involved and intricate questions. The term algebra is of Arabic origin, and has a reference to the resolution and compo- sition of quantities. In the manner in which it is applied, it embodies a method of performing calculations by means of various signs and abbreviations, which are used instead of words and phrases, so that it may be called the system of symbols. Although it is a science of calculation, yet its operations must not be confounded with those of arithmetic. All calculations in arithmetic refer to some particular individual question, whereas those of algebra refer to a whole class of questions. One great advantage in algebra is, that all the steps of any particular course of reasoning are, by means of symbols, placed at once before the eye, so that the mind, being unimpeded in its operations, proceeds uninterruptedly from one step of reasoning to another, until the solution of the question is at- tained. Symbols are used to represent not only the known, but also the unknown quantities. The present custom is to represent all known quantities by the first letters of the alphabet, as a, b, c, etc., and the unknown quantities by the last letters, X, y, z. The symbols used in arithmetic to denote addition, subtrac- tion, etc., belong properly to algebra. Thus the sign + plus denotes that one quantity is to be added to another, and is called the positive or additive sign ; all numbers to which it is prefixed are called positive. The sign — minus denotes that one quantity is to be subtracted from another ; it is called the negative or subtractive sign, and all quantities to which it is prefixed are called negative. If neither + nor — be prefixed to a quantity, then the sign + plus is understood. The general sign to denote that one number is to be multi- plied by another is x ; but it often occurs that one letter has to be multipliad by another, and this is represented by placing those letters one after another, generally according to the or- der in which they stand in the alphabet ; thus a multiplied by b is expressed by ab. The multiplication of quantities con- sisting of more than one term, as, for instance, a + b hy c + d, may be represented by any one of the following methods : a + by.c+d, or a-^b'c+d, or {a + b) (c+d). The bar drawn over a+b and c-^-d, which in the first two examples marks them as distinct quantities, is called a vinculum, but brackets or parentheses for the same purpose, as in the last example, are now in more frequent use. When a letter is multiplied by any given number, it is usual to prefix that number to the letter. Thus, twice a, three times b, four times c, six times jr, etc., are expressed thus: la, 3(5, 4r, 6x ; and the numbers 2, 3, 4, 6, thus prefixed, are called the coefficients of the letters before which they stand. The sign -i- between two numbers shows, as in arithmetic, that the former of those numbers is to be divided by the latter ; thus, a-^b means that a is to be divided by b. It is, however, more usual to place the number to be divided above that by which it is to be divided, with a small line between, in the form ef a fraction ; thus -, denotes that a is divided by b. In arithmetic the powers of quantities are denoted by a small figure, called the exponent or index of the power. Thus ay. a, or the square of a, is expressed by or < is called that of inequality, it being placed between two quantities, of which one is greater than the other ; the open part of the symbol is always turned towards the greater quantity : thus, a> b denotes a to be greater than b ; and c <.d denotes d to be greater than c. The sign of dif- ference ~, is only used when it is uncertain which of two quantities is the greater ; thus ^ ~ / denotes the difference between e and/ when it is uncertain which is the greater. The word therefore, or consequently, often occurring in alge- braical reasoning, the symbol .*. has been chosen to represent it : thus, the sentence " Therefore a + 3 is equal to ^ + d," is thus expressed in algebra, .'. a -V b=c + d. Like quantities are such as consist of the same letter or let- ters, or power of letters : thus, 6 a and 2 a are like quantities, and also 4 abc and 9 abc. Unlike quantities are such as con- sist of different letters : as, 4a, 5^, 6fljr*, i^d, which are all unlike quantities. ■^rf^^ The operation of addition in arithmetic consists, as has been shown, simply in joining or adding several quantities together : thus, 4 + 8+7 + 6= 25. This same process is always used in algebra, whenever like quantities with like signs are required to be added : thus, 2a + 3a+6a=iia; and — "] b — ^ b — 6^= — 17^. But as it often happens that like quantities which are to be added together have unlike signs, addition has in algebra a far more extended signification than in arith- metic. Thus, to add 7 a + 4 a to 8 a — 3 a, it is evident that, after 7a + 4a + 8a have been added according to the usual method, 3 a must be subtracted. Hence the general rule for the addition of like quantities with unlike signs is to add first the coefficients of the positive terms, and then to add those of the negative terms ; the less sum must be subtracted from the greater, and to this difference the sign of the greater must be annexed, with the common letter or letters. Thus, let it be required to add 7a — 30 + 4^ + 5a — 6a — 2a and g a ; 25 a will be found the sum of the positive terms, and 11 a that of the negative ; li a, being the less number, must there- fore be subtracted from 25 a, the greater, leaving a remainder of 14 a, which is the required amount. Unlike quantities can only be added by collecting them in one line, and prefixing the proper sign of each ; thus, the sum of3a+2^ + 4'— 5^ 5ajr— 6 qx + II y — xy — 4 a + g ax 2 ay + 12 X — 2 a — loy — 2 xy + T'i ay 3a— i ax— Sxy +y ^ KyWK/K/WK/WK/WKyWWK/K/^ When two like quantities, having like signs, are to be sub- tracted the one from the other, the process is precisely the same as that already described in arithmetic : thus, 3 a sub- tracted from 7 a, leaves as a remainder 4 a. From 8 a + 5 a take 6 a + 2 a, and the remainder will be 2 a + 3 a, or 5 a. But supposing it were required to subtract 6 a — 4 a from 9 a, it is evident that some other process must be adopted ; because, if 6 a be subtracted from 9 a, the proposed operation will not be performed ; for it is not 6 a, but 6 a — 4 a, that is, 2 a, which is required to be subtracted from 9 a ; 6 a sub- tracted from 9 a leaves 3 a, which is 4 a less than would result ■^ LI Ky»irr Or 244 ALGEBRA. from subtracting 2 a from 9 a ; but if to 3 a we add the other term, namely, 4 a, the sum will be the remainder sought, be- cause 3o + 4i-^@(g>@@)@{e)'^§)@{e)@gxgg)'|(® '( ^ (§gX§§)^P@g)^P^g)(^) % The multiplication of two quantities is performed by multi- plying, as in arithmetic, the coefficients of the quantities, and then prefixing the proper sign and annexing letters : thus, the product of 3 a, multiplied by 5 <5, is 15 ab, and 7 a + 24 ab + S a^ + 12 ae — = 3 + l2b + 4a + 6c When the divisor and dividend are both compound quantities, the rule is the same as that of long division in arithmetic. "WTien there is a remainder, it must be made the numerator of a fraction, under which the divisor must be put as the denom- inator; 'this fraction must then be placed in the quotient, as in arithmetic. The compound quantities must, however, be previously arranged in a particular way, namely, according to the descending powers of some letter, as of b in the following example ; and this letter is called the leading quantity. The following is an example of the division of compound quan. titles : — -^ r- ALGEBRA. 245 -^ — X) P — 3 Px + 3 dx'^ — x^ (^' — 2 i>x + x'' P - Px * - 2 5i 3» ^rid ii> 31^^ incommensurable quantities, and are also said to be prime to each other. When fractions are required either to be added or to be subtracted, they must necessarily be first reduced to a common denominator, which is effected by multiplying each numerator by every denominator but its own, to produce new numerators, and all the denominators together for the common denominator. The new numerators can then be either added or subtracted according as the case may require, and the new denominator must be left unchanged. Multiplication of fractions is performed by multiplying all the • numerators together for a new numerator, and their denomi- nators together for a new denominator ; it is then usual to re- duce the resulting fraction to its lowest terms. Division of fractions is effected by multiplying the dividend by the reci- procal of the divisor. The reciprocal of any quantity is unity, or I, divided by that quantity, or simply that quantity inverted : thus, the reciprocal of a or — is — , and the reciprocal of the divi- which is ad 8 a 4 a — is — ; therefore, to divide a fraction, as , by — , da 4-5 dend, , must be multiplied by the reciprocal of , 5 8 a' 5 40 «' — — : therefore, x = —. — : this last fraction, divi- 4 a 4 4 a 10 a ded by its greatest common measure, 8 a, is the fraction re- quired, namely, — . The raising of a quantity to any required power is called involution, and is performed by multiplying the quantity into itself as often as it is indicated by the given power. When the quantity has no index, it is only necessary to place the given power above it, in order merely to indicate the power : thus, the 4th power of a is a*, and the cube or 3d power of a + d is {a + df. When the quantity has an index, that index must be multi. plied by the given power ; thus, the fourth power of «' is a", because 2x4 = 8. If the quantity required to be raised be a fraction, both the numerator and the denominator must be , aV a* multiplied by the given power : thus, the square of —3 is —^. When the sign of the quantity is + , then all the powers to which it can be raised must be 4- ; if — , then all the even powers will be + , and all the odd powers — . Thus « x a z= x^ ; — ax — a = + a^ ; —ax —ax — a = — a^. A compound quantity, that is, one consisting of more than -^ " 246 ALGEBRA. one term, is raised to any given power by multiplying it into itself the number of times denoted by the power. This is done according to the method already described in multiplica- tion. Thus, the square of a; + 4 j, is thus found : — Multiply a; +4/ By X + 4y x' + 4xy 4xy + l6y Square = x' + 8 xjf + 16/ The operations of evolution are the reverse of those of invo- lution, being designed to discover the square root, cube root, etc., of any given quantity. The roots of numerical coeffi- cients are found as in arithmetic : thus, the square root of 49 a^, is 7 a, because 7 x 7 = 49. The index of the given quan- tity must be divided by 2 for the square root, by 3 for the cube root, by 4 for the 4th root, etc. : thus, the cube root of a' is a''. The square root of compound quantities may be extracted by a method very similar to that described in arithmetic, and of which an example was there given. The cube root may likewise be extracted by a similar procesj. ^ 11 Irrational Qnaititles, or Snris.|^ ^|^^<4 ^t^f.^ ^>^r^ ^>'^^"d ^f^y^f^ ^>« ^yf^ yji^^ ^^\i ^Ji^'^ ^JK^^^ Some numbers have no exact root ; for instance, no num- ber multiplied into itself can produce 5. The roots of such quantities are expressed by fractional indices, or by the sign Y, ■which is called the radical sign, from the Latin radix, a root ; thus, the square root of 5, and the cube root of {a + bf, may be expressed either by \/$, ?/ (a + Sf, or by 5i, (« + 3)i. The approximate value of such quantities can be ascertained to any required degree of exactness by the common rules for extracting roots : thus, the square root of 2 is i and an indefi- nite number of decimals : but as the exact value can never be determined, the name of irratiortal is given to such quantities, to distinguish them from all numbers whatever, whether whole or fractional, of which the value can be found, and which are therefore termed rational. Irrational numbers are generally called surds, from the Latin surdus, deaf or senseless. kr- When two quantities are equal to each other, the algebra- ical expression denoting their equality is called an equation. Thus, jf — 2 = 4 + 3 is an equation, denoting that if 2 be deducted from some unknown quantity represented by x, the remainder will be equal to 4 + 3, that is, to 7 ; therefore, the value of X in this equation is evidently 7 + 2, or 9. The doctrine of equations constitutes by far the most im- portant part of algebra, it being one of the principal objects of mathematics to reduce all questions to the form of equations, and then to ascertain the value of the unknown quantities by means of their relations to other quantities of which the value is known. Many problems, which are now quickly and readily deter- mined by being reduced to equations, used formerly to be solved by tedious and intricate arithmetical rules ; and they may still be found in old treatises on arithmetic, arranged under the titles of Double and Single Position, False Position, Allegation, etc. Equations receive different names, accord- ing to the highest power of the unknown quantities contained in them. An equation is said to be simple, or of the Jirst de- gree, when it contains only the first power of the unknown quantity : thus, jrx^ = 35fl — 2 is a simple equation, the unknown quantity being represented by x, as it generally is in other equations, and the known quantities by the other letters and figures, jr* + 4 =: S «, is a quadratic equation, because X, the unknown quantity, is raised to the second power. a;' = a + 3 ^ is a cubic equation, the unknown quantity be- ing raised to' the third power. X* — « = 25 r is a biquadratic equation, because x is raised to the 4th power. If equations contain unknown quantities ■ raised to the 5th, 6th, or higher powers, they are denominated accordingly. The quantities of which an equation is composed, are called its terms j' and the parts that stand on the right and left of the sign =, are called the members or sides of the equation. When it is desired to determine any question that may arise respecting the value of some unknown quantity by means of an equation, two distinct steps or operations are requisite ; the first step consists in translating the question from the collo- quial language of common life into the peculiar analytical language of the science. The second step consists in finding, by given rules, the answer to the question, or in other words, the solution of the equation. Expertness and facility in per- forming the former operation cannot be produced by any set of rules ; in this, as in many other processes, practice is the best teacher. Every new question requires a new process of reasoning ; the conditions of the question must be well con- sidered, and all the operations, whether of addition, subtrac- tion, etc., which are required to be performed on the quanti- ties which it contains, are to be represented by the algebraic signs of +, — , etc. : the whole problem must be written down as if these operations had been already performed, and as if the unknown quantities were discovered, which can be done very briefly by substituting the first letters of the alphabet for the known quantities, and the last letters for the unknown, prefixing to each the signs of addition, multiplication, etc., which may be denoted in the question. The second operation in determining a question may be sal(J to consist in contrivances to get x, or the unknown quantity, to stand alone on one side of the equation, without destroying the equality or balance between the two sides ; because, in ^ ALGEBRA. 247 -^ such an equation, for instance, as the following, x = 4 + 2, the value of x is at once seen ; if 6 were to be put in the place of X, the question would be said to be fulfilled, because then it would stand thus, 6 = 6; therefore, 6 is the root or solution of the equation jt = 4 + 2. In some questions, the unknown quantity is so much involved with known quantities, that it is often a difficult, although always a highly interesting, pro- cess to separate it from them. Many rj'" : for effecting this are given in most algebraical treatises, 1 at they may all be comprised in one general observation, namely, that any oper- ation, whether of addition, subtraction, etc., may be performed on one side of an equation, provided only that the very same operation be performed on the other side, so as not to destroy their equality. Thus, in the equation a; + 5 = 12, it is evi- dent that, if 5 could be removed from the left to the right side of the equation, x would stand alone, and its value at once be ascertained ; it having been already stated that any operation may be performed on one side of the equation, provided only the same operation be performed on the other, it follows that 5 may be subtracted from the left side, if subtracted likewise from the right ; therefore, x + 5 — 5 = 12 — 5; but 5—5 be- ing equal to o, the equation would more properly be expressed thus, ;f = 12 — 5 ; that is to say, the value of x is 7. Again, in the equation jr — 10 = 27, add ten to each side of the equation ; then, jt — 10 + 10 = 27 + 10 ; but — 10 + 10 = o ; therefore, jr = 27 + 10. When the same quantity is thus sub- tracted from both sides of an equation, or added to both sides, the operation is technically, though perhaps incorrectly, termed, ^^transposing quantities from one side of an equation to the other." The reason why the same operation performed upon both sides of an equation does not alter their equality, is simply because "if equal quantities be added to, or subtracted from, equal quantities, the value of the quantities will still be equal." To illustrate this, supposing a wine-merchant has 2 casks of wine, each cask containing 36 gallons, it is evident that, if he draws off the same number of gallons from each cask, the quantity of gallons remaining in each cask will still be equal ; so, if he were to replace the same number of gal- lons of wine in each cask, the number of gallons contained in each would still be equal to each other. For the same reason, if the two sides of an equation were either multiplied or divi- ded by the same number, their equality to each other would still remain ; in the equation 3^=27, the value of x may be discovered by dividing both sides of the equation by its coeffi- '\X 27 'XX 27 cient, 3 ; thus — ^ = — ; but — = x, and — = Q ; .*. jr = g. 3 3 3 3 In the same way, if the unknown quantity in an equation is required to be divided by some known quantity, each side of the equation may be multiplied by the divisor : thus, in the X equation — = 32, if each member be multiplied by 4, the re- 4 suit will be ;«: = 32 X 4 = 128. This is technically called clearing an equation of fractions. ON SIMPLE EQUATIONS CONTAINING TWO OR MORE UNKNOWN QUANTITIES. It may be given as a general rule, that when a question arises as to the value of two or more unknown quantities, each of these quantities must be represented by one of the last let- ters of the alphabet, and as many separate equations must be deduced from the question as there are unknown quantities. A group of equations of this kind is called a system of simul- taneous equations. If it be required to solve a system of two simple equations, containing two unknown quantities, the most natural method seems to be to determine first the value of one of the unknown quantities by means of both the equations. Then as " things which are equal to the same thing are equal to each other," it follows that the two sets of numbers or letters in the two equations, which have been ascertained to be equal to the value of X, will also be equal to each other, and may be re- duced to an equation, which will contain only one unknown quantity. This process is technically called elimination. Let it, for instance, be required to find the length of two planks of wood : the length of both planks together is 20 feet, and one plank is 8 feet longer than the other plank. This is evi- dently a question involving two unknown quantities, namely, the length of each of the two planks of wood. To translate this question into algebraical language, call the longer plank jr, and the shorter plank _y, then the facts above mentioned may be thus stated : x ■¥ y = 20, and x — y ■=%. The value of jr may be ascertained by means of both the equations, in the following manner : — The first equation gives x =■ 2.0 — y And the second, x = 8 4- ^ The two values of x, thus ascertained, must form a new equa- tion, thus : — 20 — ^ = 8 -f- ^y 20 = 8 + 2 _>' So that it is evident from this last equation that 2 ^ is equal to 12, because 20 — 8 = 12 ; therefore ^ = 6, and 20 — 6 = 14. The length of both the planks is thus ascertained, the longer being 14 feet in length, and the shorter 6 feet. This problem is not only given as an example of elimina- tion, but also as an illustration of the general theorem, that " the greater of two numbers is equal to half their sum, //«j half their difference ; and that the less number is equal to half the sum, minus half the difference." Thus the above ques- tion might have been solved in the following manner : — 20 8 , 20 8 , 1 — = 14, and =6 2 2 2 2 The following is the method of demonstrating this curious theorem algebraically : — Let a and b be any two numbers of which a is the greater, and let their sum be represented by s, and their difference by d ; Then, a 4- ^ = j and a — b ^ d 2 a ^^ s + d s d and a = - -f — 2 2 Also, 2 b — s — d and 3 = 2 2 —-^ r 248 ALGEBRA. A quadratic equation literally means a squared equation, the term being derived from the Latin quadratus, squared ; a quadratic equation, therefore, is merely an equation in which the unknown quantity is squared or raised to the second pow- er. Quadratic equations are often called equations of two dimensions, or of the second degree, because all equations are classed according to the index of the highest power of the unknown quantities contained in them. There are two kinds of quadratic equations, namely, pure and adfected. Pure quadratic equations are those in which the first power of the unknown quantity does not appear : there is not the least difficulty in solving such equations, be- cause all that is requisite is to obtain the value of the square according to the rules for solving simple equations, and then, by extracting the square root of both sides of the equation, to ascertain the value of the unknown quantity. For instance, let it be required to find the value of x in the equation x'' + 4 = 29. By deducting 4 from each side of the equation, the value of x^ is at once seen to be as follows : jt'^ = 29 — 4 =; 25 ; the square root of both sides of this equation will evidently give the value of x, thus, - y 25 = 5. Adfected or affected quadratic equations are such as contain not only the square, but also the first power of the unknown quantities. There are two methods of solving quadratic equations ; we are indebted to the Hindoos for one of these methods, of which a full account is given in a very curious Hindoo work entitled Bija Ganita. The other method was discovered by the early Italian algebraists. The principle upon which both methods are founded is the following : It is evident that in an adfected equation, as for instance, ax"^ -f- bx = d, the first member, ax"^ + bx, is not a complete square ; it is, however, necessary for the solution of the equation that the first side should be so modified as to be made a complete square, and that, by corresponding additions, multiplications, etc., the equality of the second side should not be lost ; then, by ex- tracting the square root of each side, the equation will be re- duced to one of the first degree, which may be solved by the common process. ■^ GYMNASTICS. 249 4r- YMNASTICS is a sys- tem of exercises which develop and invigorate the body, particularly the muscular system. If properly directed, gym- nastics will enlarge and strengthen the various mus- cles of the trunk, neck, arms, and legs, and will expand the chest so as to facilitate the play of the lungs, will render the joints supple, and will impart to the person grace, ease, and steadiness of car- riage, combined with strength, elasticity, and quick- ness of movement ; but an injudicious mode of exer- cise will frequently confirm and aggravate those physical imperfections for which a remedy is sought, by developing the muscular system unequally. WALKING, RUNNING, JUMPING, AND LEAP- ING. In Walking, the arms should move freely by the side, the head be kept up, the stomach in, the shoulders back, the feet parallel with the ground, and the body resting neither on the toe nor heel^ but on the ball of the foot. On starting, the pupil should raise one foot, keep the knee and instep straight, the toe bent downward. When this foot reaches the ground, the same should be repeated with the other. This should be practised until the pupil walks firmly and gracefully. In Running, the legs should not be raised too high ; the arms should be nearly still, so that no unnecessary opposition be given to the air by useless motions. In swift running the swing of the arms should be from the shoulder to the elbow, the fore-arm being kept nearly horizontal with the chest. Running in a circle is excellent exercise, but the direction should be changed occasionally, so that both sides of the ground may be equally worked : as if the ground be not kept level, the runners will find it difficult to maintain their equilibrium. Jumping. — The first rule is, to fall on the toes, and never on the heels. Bend the knees, that the calves of the legs may touch the thighs. Swing the arms forward when taking a spring ; break the fall with the hands if necessary ; hold the breath, keep the body forward, come to the ground with both feet together, and, in taking the run, let your steps be short, and increase in quickness as you approach the leap. Leaping. — The Long Leap. — Make a trench, which widens gradually from one end to the other, so that the breadth of the leap may be increased daily. Keep the feet close together, and take your spring from the toes of one foot, which should be quickly drawn up to the other, and they should descend at the same instant ; throw the arms and body forward, especi- ally in descending. Take a run of about twenty paces. The Deep Leap.—'\\\vs, is performed from the top of a wall, or a flight of steps, increasing the depth according to the pro- gress of the pupil. The body should be bent forward, the feet close together, and the hands ready to touch the ground at the same time with, or rather before the feet. The High Zm/.— This leap can best be taken over a light fence that will give way in the event of its being touched by the feet. It may be taken either standing or with a run : for the former, the legs should be kept together, and the feet and knees raised in a straight direction ; for the latter, we recom- mend a short run, and a light tripping step, gradually quick- ened as the object to be leaped over is approached. You should be particularly careful not to alight on your heels, but rather on the toes and balls of the feet. Let a set of apparatus be erected after the pattern we are about to give, and use be made of it as we f.hall recommend, and we will guarantee that there shall be fewer accidents in a ■-^ ^ 250 GYMNASTICS. -^ whole year than may be looked for in any ordinary high field- day at football ; nay, more than this — that it shall prove not only a less perilous pastime than any of the regular outdoor sports, but actually a preservative against accidents from other causes. Fig. I. Our apparatus will consist of the following : horizontal bar, hanging bar, parallel bars, vaulting-horse, ladder, hanging ropes, and the usual et ceteras. Of these latter, however, we shall not take notice here ; our attention will be entirely directed to the more advanced exercises. The Horizontal Bar should be set up as follows : If intended as a permanency, two strong posts must be let into the ground or into iron sockets, standing seven feet apart and about eight feet in height ; these are to support the bar, which must be made to shift up and down in grooves cut in the posts, so as to be easily adapted to the height of the performer. This bar should be of straight-grained ash, seven feet between the uprights, an inch and three-quarters in diameter, perfectly round, with a steel core an inch thick running through the centre. This last is a very important point. If there be no steel core, then the bar must be reduced at least one foot in length and increased to two inches diameter ; both of which, especially the latter, as making it clumsy to the grasp of an ordinary hand, will detract much from its prac- tical value. The bar must be so fastened to the uprights that there shall be no unsteadiness or vibration. A wabbly bar is a terrible nuisance, and is apt to throw one out of all calculation just at the critical point of a feat. If for private use, or it be thought desirable to make it port- able, the method of construction figured in our cut (Fig. i) will be found very convenient and serviceable, and, what is more, thoroughly trustworthy. The Hanging Bar must be very carefully constructed. The ropes should be attached securely to a good, firm, unyielding support, about fifteen or eighteen feet from the ground — this will be quite sufficient height — and the bar, which should be about twenty-six inches long by one-and-a-quarter in diameter, with a steel core as before, must be firmly attached to the. ropes, so as to afford a safe hold. Above all things, it must not revolve in the gi asp. The height from the ground must be regulated by the stature of the performer. The Parallel Bars are very seldom constructed with any- thing like correctness of shape or proportions. A couple of clumsy rails — one might almost say beams — laid across two pairs of posts at any height from the ground and at any dis- tance apart, are set up, dubbed " parallel bars," and are sup- posed to be all that could be desired. But, as might be sup- posed if people only took the trouble to think, parallel bars, to be of any real service, require as nice an adaptation to their purposes as any other mechanical contrivance. The bars or rails, being intended for the grasp of the hands, must be of such size and shape as will afford the best grasp, and their height and distance apart must be adapted to the stature of those for whose use they are intended. The size of the bars is especially important : if they be too large for a fair grasp, not only is the hand likely to slip and a heavy fall to result, but there is great danger to the wrist and thumb of serious sprains or dislocation. Moreover, when a fair grasp is impossible, many of the exercises — most of them, indeed — are also ipso facto impossible, and thus many begin- ners are disgusted at the outset : they are told to begin with such and such exercises, as simple preliminaries to others more advanced ; they find after repeated trials that they cannot even make a commencement, and naturally soon give up the whole thing in despair. For ordinary purposes, that is, for people not of exceptional stature, the most useful dimensions are these : height from the ground, four feet eight inches ; distance apart, eighteen inches, or nineteen at most ; for boys, seventeen or even six- teen will be sufficient. The length should not be less than seven feet, and the bars should be round, and of a diameter of two-and-an-eighth inches. Oval bars are sometimes used, but we prefer the round ones. Fig. 2. as they feel more natural, most of the other apparatus being of similar form. For the uprights no dimensiens need be given : all that is -<%. GYMNASTICS. 251 needful is that they should be sufficiently strong. They should be fitted into a stout wooden frame, firmly morticed together. When in use, this frame must be fastened to the floors by screws. If required for a playground, or any place where it is necessary to have them fixed, they may readily be secured by wooden stakes or wedges driven into the ground. A more convenient way is to sink the posts permanently into the ground ; but then they are liable to decay from the damp, and thus to become unsafe. The Vaulting-Horse is of all gymnastic apparatus that which has been hitherto most neglected. There are various lengths for these horses, but the one you will find to be the most generally useful is six feet long and about sixteen inches across the back. It is covered with cow- hide all over and evenly padded, and is generally made with one end a little raised, with a slight bend corresponding to the neck of the animal which is its prototype ; and this gives some form to it, and is useful as a mark where to place the hands. There are two pommels placed about the centre, eighteen inches apart, and movable, so that the horse may be used with- out them if required ; and in this case flush pommels, level with the back of the horse, are inserted into the grooves. The legs must be made to slide up and down after the man- ner of a telescope, so that the horse may be used at heights varying from about three feet six inches to six feet. It is also necessary to have a solid deal board, about three feet square, rising in thickness from a feather-edge to three inches, for taking what is technically termed a "beat" off Fig. 3. which is very useful in exercises which require to be performed lengthways on the horse. Of course it is not used as a spring- board, but only to give a firm foundation for the feet in jump- ing, and particularly to mark the place of starting when in- creasing or diminishing the distance from the horse. The ladders, hanging ropes, and so on, we need not de- scribe. There are, however, two more requisites to which we should wish to direct attention. One is the Hand-Rings : two ropes, as if for a hanging bar, but terminating instead each in an iron ring covered with leather, and large enough for the hand to grasp comfortably. These rings are made of various shapes ; but that which we recommend as the most practically useful is the stirrup. One other requisite, indispensable for safety in first essays at many of the feats we shall describe, is the Lungers, so called. This is a strong broad leather belt to buckle round the waist, with an iron ring or eye at each side. To these eyes are strongly attached ropes, one on each side, of sufficient strength to support the weight of the wearer. The figure will indicate the method of using it." (Fig. 4.) Fig. 4. This is an invaluable safeguard for novices, and enables many to learn quickly — simply by the fearlessness it engen- ders — many a difficult feat which they would otherwise never dream of attempting. We cannot help thinking that a similar appliance, only a little more above the centre of gravity, would prove of im- mense service in learning difficult figures in skating. Ladies, too, might profit by it in their first efforts, as all fear of un- seemly falls would be quite dispelled. So much for the construction of an apparatus ; now for the use to be made of it. We will begin with THE HORIZONTAL BAR. But before we begin it must first be put into good condition. Most likely there will be a little grease on it from previous practice, which it is highly important should be removed be- fore commencing. This is done in the following manner : Take a wet cloth ( without soap or soda, as any kind of alkali will raise the grain of the wood and make it rough ), and rub the bar with it ; then get a few feet of rope — I find thick sash-line the best — give it one turn round the bar, and taking hold of each end, rub it up and down, gradually moving it from one end to the other. The friction will dry the wood, remove the grease or dirt, and put on a good surface. The bar being now in good condition, wash your hands per- fectly clean, and you are ready to commence. You will find that there is no resin required, which every gymnast is com- pelled to use if the bar is not kept in good order. The use of resin is bad for various reasons : it will dirty your hands, and if you have not practiced much it will cause blisters sooner than otherwise. I have sometimes seen the skin of hard hands torn, and wounds ensue, preventing further practice for some -^ 252 GYMNASTICS. ^ time. But if you are obliged to use resin, do it judiciously : powder a little, and rub only the tips of the fingers in it ; avoid, above all things, getting it into the palm of the hands, as it will make them stick to the bar, and it is also very likely to cause jerks in swinging, and the grip will not be so certain as when the hands move smoothly round. These details may appear rather tedious, but you will find them useful, as they apply to all apparatus where the wood is handled. Now, there is another thing you must bear in mind, and that is, the way in which you must take hold of the bar. Some say that you should take hold of it as you would a handle, with the thumb underneath ; but we think there is no doubt that the proper way is the same as that in which a monkey holds the branch of a tree — the thumb on the same side as the fingers. If the thumb be underneath, in all ordinary swing- ing exercises it has a tendency to draw the fingers off; although in some few slow movements it may be under, yet, as a rule, it is better above. Now, keeping what has been said in mind, let us try some actual exercises. Jump up at the bar, and hang with the hands, the body, arms, and legs perfectly straight, and the feet close together. Hardly anything looks worse than to see the legs swinging about in all directions when you are performing an exercise ; be careful, therefore, to keep them quite quiet ; every un- necessary movement, you must recollect, is so much wasted force, and so much, therefore, taken from your chance of per- forming the feat. To perform all feats quietly and easily shows the finished gymnast ; and so far from violent exertions being the test of difficulty, the reverse is generally the case, and the easiest- looking feats are very often the hardest, and vice versa, and, besides, these irregular movements only tend to tire you. Now, having hold of the bar with both hands, draw your- self up until the chin is above the bar ; then lower the body until the arms are quite straight again. Practice this exercise as often as you can without tiring, or until you can perform it six or eight times in succession, which you will not do until you have practiced for some little time. Fig. 5. Beginners must now try a few gentle exercises, such as hanging by each hand alternately, the other close to the side. Then begin to walk along the bar by the hands, taking alter- nate steps with them, making the steps as equal as possible, and keeping, as we said before, the legs hanging quietly down. Go in this manner from one end to the other, then reverse the hands, and back again. Now draw yourself up, with your chin above the bar, as in Fig. 5, and repeat the walk in this position. Next try a few good swings backward and forward at arms* length : you will find that you will swing farther each time, until you can swing your body almost into a horizontal posi- tion. All these little exercises should be repeated as often as pes sible ; they help to strengthen the muscles, and accustom the hands to the feel of the bar. To Get on the Bar. — Draw yourself up as in the last figure (Fig. 5), then suddenly drop the whole of the right side, raising at the same time the left leg and throwing it over the bar, as in Fig. 6. Now establish a good swing with the right leg, and you will bring your body well over the bar, when a sudden exertion of muscle will bring you sitting in the atti- tude of Fig. 7. This is by no means an easy thing to do at first ; but persevere, and, after a few failures, you will sud- denly find you have succeeded : once accomplished, it will come easy enough. At first you will find it hard matter enough to get your legs up to the bar at all. Beginners mostly try to lift the toes without bending the knees, and, of course, find it beyond their powers. Bring your knees up to your chin, doubling your feet well into your body, and you will find it come easy enough. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. There is another method of getting on to the bar, by bring- ing the leg up through the hands, and with one good swing bringing yourself roundly up. You may try either of these methods, but nothing but con- tinued practice will enable you to master either of them ; but when you do, and can get on to the bar in a respectable man- ner, you may consider you are making some progress. We now proceed to The Leg-Sw^ing. — Being in your original position, as in Fig. 7, throw your right leg as far behind you as possible, at the same time slipping the other leg backward, and catching by the bend of the knee, as in Fig. 8. Then throw the head back with a good swing (keeping the arms straight), and you will thus make one turn backward round the bar. You will find at first you are apt to make a half-turn too much ; but after a little practice you will be able to regulate the first swing so as to go round once, and come up into your first position with a good balance. ■^ r- GYMNASTICS. 253 ^ Next try two or three turns without stopping ; but always endeavor to finish above the bar, as at starting. It is bad to stop as in Fig 9, as you are disabled for the next exercise. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. II. For the forward swing, reverse the hands, keeping the whole weight of the body on the arms, throw the head well to the front, and with one plunge forward — keeping tight hold with the hands, and the bodyerect, as in Fig. 10 — you will make one forward revolution round the bar. After some practice, you will be able to go round several times without stopping. This exercise is actually easier than the former, but it re- quires more confidence, for the want of which you are apt to keep too close to the bar, and thus you do not get sufficient swing to bring you up again. Practice both these exercises with right and left legs alter- nately. Sitting on the Bar.— Having accomplished the backward leg-swing, we will now proceed to something a little more difficult. You will now get on lo the bar as in Fig. 7, with leg over ; now try to balance yourself in this position without holding by your hands ; having succeeded, take hold of the bar with both hands behind you, and pass the hanging leg over the bar into a sitting position, as in Fig. 11. Now practice a few different balances while sitting ; that is, with the bar under different parts of the thigh. Fig. 12. Fig. 13. 4r- Try to sit almost straight, and again with the bar just within the angle of the knee. This must be done without touching the bar with the hands. We now come to The Sit-Swing. — This is so called from its being a swing performed while sitting on the bar, and we will commence with the backward swing. The " sit-swing" is somewhat similar to the leg-swing, but, of course, more difficult, as in the latter the weight of the body is mostly on the leg ; but in the present exercise the whole weight is thrown upon the arms, therefore requiring more^strength. While sitting on the bar, as in the last figure, but holding with the hands, straighten the arms, and let them support a great part of the weight of the body ; now throw yourself backwards with a good swing, still keeping a firm hold of the bar with both hands. Now, the object of this movement is to go quite round the bar in the swing, and thus make one complete revolution, which is called the "sit-swing backward;" but of course no one can expect to accomplish this feat at once. The first few times you attempt it, you will most likely find youi-self hanging with the weight of the body beneath the bar, and with the momentum of the swing gone. In this case, all you can do is to let your legs pass through your arms, and thus drop on to the ground ; but you must re- peat the movement until you are able to swing quite round- Fig. 14. Fig. 15. The way to practice this is, to swing about three-quarters round, and then lo come back into the sitting posture again. This will give you confidence, and after a time you will feel yourself able to go all the way round, and lo come up into your original position. For some time you will find that you will come up in rather an awkward manner, without having swing enough to balance yourself, and therefore you will fall forward again ; in which case you must be prepared to let go with the hands, and to throw yourself off the bar on to your feet ; or, what is much better, to have some one standing in front, in readiness to catch you as you come off. But you may take comfort, for when you can get thus far the feat is nearly achieved, and after a few more trials you will be rewarded by feeling yourself able to accomplish the " sit-swing." In the forward sit-swing, the first start is the principal thing, as the impetus gained will be sufficient to bring you up again. In order to get a good start, you must raise the body as far ^ 254 GYMNASTICS. -^ away from the bar as possible, supporting the whole weight on the arms, as in Fig. 13 ; now throw the chest out and the head back, with the legs rather straight, then with a good plunge forward, keeping the arms straight as in Fig. 15, you will go quite round ; that is to say, you will in time, for you must not think of succeeding at first in any of these feats, but perseverance will soon enable you to accomplish them. You will find in practicing this exercise, that some of your strength will be expended in getting on to the bar again after each failure. I will now show you a verygood way of getting into the sitting position again, while hanging, as in Fig g. Straighten the body as in Fig. 15, and draw your center of gravity a little above the bar, then, bending the body again slightly, you will roll quite over so as to come into a sitting position again. This movement is called the " Plymouth." Hanging by the Legs.— Get on to the bar in a sitting position, and then throw yourself off backward, as for a sit- swing ; but, instead of going round, drop the body and bend your knees, and thus let them catch on the bar, getting a firm grip with them, at the same time letting go your hands as in Fig. 17. A young beginner should practice this on a low bar, so that, when he hangs by the legs, his hands will touch the ground ; and thus, when he is getting tired and cannot raise himself, he may let his legs drop, and come on to his hands on the floor Fig. 17. Fig. 18. %- safely. He may then get on to the bar again, hanging by the knees as before, and practice swinging backward and forward as high as he can. At first the friction will make the legs a little sore, but the muscles will soon harden with practice. There are a few other leg exercises which may be practiced with advantage, and which will afford variety, and also help to bring all the muscles into play. One of these is shown in Fig. 18, where you hang on the bar with one leg, stretching the other straight out with the toe against the under side of the bar, and the exercise is to bend the body up and down. This should be done with right and left legs alternately. A performance which is also very showy (although we should not advise any one to attempt it without very good nerve and also strength in the legs), is the standing balance on the bar. This may be practiced on a bar as low as you like, so that you can easily jump off ; but of course it looks better on a bar of ordinary height. While sitting on the bar, lift one foot and gradually bring it on to the bar, as in Fig. iq, and then raise yourself up standing, as in Fig. 20, a feat which, of course requires great Fig. 19. Fig. strength in the legs, and a good command of balancing power. Now endeavor to walk forward and backward by shifting the feet ; and if you lose your balance, jump off the bar altogether, without trying to recover it, and get up again. Hanging by the Toes.— This will make a good finish after the standing balance on the bar. To do it artistically, stand first on one .foot, then on the other, turn round, let yourself down, and drop quietly and smoothly beneath the bar, hook your toes on to it, and hang down quite straight with your arms folded across your chest. (See Fig, 21.) This, if done without stopping, has a good effect ; but of course you must not expect to accomplish anything in this style for some time, and therefore must be content simply to hang by your hands, and then bring your legs up, and hook your toes over the bar, tak- ing care, the moment you let go with your hands, to straighten the body and stretch out your arms, so as to save your head if you should chance to slip. Vaulting over the Bar is a very useful exercise, and quite as well performed on the horizontal bar as on the vaulting- horse, if your choice of apparatus should be limited. Try it first on a bar about three feet six inches from the ground, and gradually raise it ; but take care not to overtask your powers by having it too high for you, as. very often, when young gymnasts find that they are getting on respectably, they are very apt to be too ambitious, and to attempt heights far beyond their powers. About four feet six inches is a fair height for a person about five feet four or five, to begin with. Learn to clear this clean and in correct style, before you at- tempt anything higher. As vaulting is by no means a difficult feat, to look well it Fig. GYMNASTICS. 255 Fig. 22. 4r should be done in good style. To make a clean vault, the body should be kept as straight and as far away from the bar as possible (see Fig. 22), and should be practiced right and left alike. No careful gymnast need ever be afraid of in- jury if he uses his brain as well as his body, and you will find that, if a mishap occurs, it is gen- erally to some one who attempts exercises with- out taking into consid- eration in what different positions he may come off the apparatus ; but all these exercises may be gone through safely if sufficient precautions are taken at first. Mr. Spencer says on this head : " I am sure I can speak for myself, having often in former times made myself quite a laughingstock at the gymnasium from the careful way in which I have tried new exercises which had any risk attending them. But ' let those laugh who win.' "I first put on the ' lungers ' (which you will find repre- sented and described on page 251), with a comrade on each side to hold the ropes, and something soft underneath (such as a mattress, tan bark, or any other suitable material), and hav- ing some one in front to prevent my pitching forward when I came down. " This is as you might have seen me when trying my first • fall-back,' or other difficult exercises ; and what was the re- sult ? Why, I tried many times, and fell many times, and should have hurt myself many times had I not been caught. " But I knew I was perfectly safe, from the precautions taken (I did not mind the look), and this gave me confidence, and left me at liberty to give my whole attention to the feat I was attempting ; and since then I have done that, and many other more difficult feats, numerous times, without the slightest injury." HANGING BAR. The exercises on this will be much the same as those on the fixed bar. We shall not, therefore, with the limited space at our disposal, do more than recommend it as an agreeable change from the fixed bar. Its use as a flying trapeze is too dangerous for ordinary boys to attempt, and we shall there- fore not introduce it here. THE PARALLEL BARS. You may commence with the parallel bars, as in the hori- zontal bar, with the simple movements which any one would naturally perform upon them ; such as standing between them, and with a spring placing a hand upon each, and thus support- ing the weight of the body. When you have become somewhat used to them in this way, commence swinging backwards and forwards, with the legs straight down, trying to go higher each time. Of course, if you have practiced on the horizontal bar, the preliminary exercises will be mastered at once ; but as it is possible that some may commence on the parallels, I give this short description of these simple movements. The first exercise after you are on the bars should be The Walk. — This is very simple, being performed by jumping up and placing one hand on each bar, with the body hanging suspended between them as before. Now walk along the bar by taking steps with the arms, making them as evenly and regularly as you can, keeping the head well up, and the body perfectly straight. Walk in this way from one end to the other, and when you can do this easily, walk back in the same way, without turning round. Then let the body sink down as in Fig. 23, and hop from one end to the other backward and forward. This you will find capital practice for the muscles of the arms, although rather tiring at first. Fig. 23. Fig. 24. When this hopping movement is done with a good swing, so as to go forward or backward some considerable distance, it has a very good effect, and is called " The Grasshopper." Vaulting Movements are performed by getting up be- tween the bars as for the walk, placing yourself near the centre of the bars. Now swing backwards and forwards until you are able to throw both legs over one side of the bars in front of you, as in Fig. 24. Now with another swing bring them back again, and throw them over behind you on the same side as before. (Fig. 25.) Fig. 25. Fig. 26. There are several of these movements which may be prac- ticed with great advantage to the muscles. Another is shown in Fig. 26. This is one of many which may be gone through while in ^ 256 GYMNASTICS. -^ this position on the bars, the dotted line showing the serpentine course of the movement. All these exercises should be performed with the body as straight as possible, and when done neatly, with the legs close together, have a very pretty effect, and are very good practice. There are several similar movements, such as those repre- sented in Figs. 27 and 28, which are done by first swinging backwards and forwards, and then throwing the legs over the outside of the bars in front, one on each side ; then bending back a little, and bringing the legs over back again between the bars, and then, without stopping, throwing them over again behind you, one on each side as before. This you should practice until you can repeat it several times without stopping. Fig. 27. Fig. 28. The next exercises are good practice. Stand between the bars, and place the, hands on the under side of them, even with the shoulders, then gradually raise the legs until they turn over and bring the body into an inverted position, as in Fig. 29 ; then continue the movement right over, until you are hanging as in the position shown in Fig. 30. Fig. 29. Fig. 30. You should practice this until you can do it several times without touching the ground with the feet, and you will find it very good prac- tice for the front and back horizon- t a 1 movements, previously shown on the horizontal bar. The Pumping F,G. 31. Movement is one of the finest exercises for developing the muscles of the chest. You must first practice the swing until you can bring yourself up horizontally, as show in Fig. 31 ; then, by bending the arms, drop the body into Fig. 32, and then swing round, your feet describing a semicircle, and come up again into Fig. 33, fin- ishing the movement by swinging backwards again in the same manner into Fig 31, as on commencing the movement. The Vaulting Horse. — There are no simple preliminary exercises on the horse but what may be just as well performed on the parallels ; and, indeed, such is the similarity in some of them, that we have invariably noticed that any gymnast who is good on the one is not likely to be a novice on the other. For this reason we shall endeavor to make as much variety as possible, and shall therefore not describe exercises which may be as well gone through upon the parallels, but only give those which have a distinctive character. Commence by jumping on to the horse, with the hands one Fig. 32. Fig!' 33. Fig. 34- on each of the pommels, and supporting the whole weight of the body ; the legs hanging straight down as in Fig. 3. Now bring one leg over the body of the horse in between the pommels, as in Fig. 34 ; then bring it back again without Fig. 35. Fig. 36. touching the horse with the foot, and pass the other leg through in the same manner. Now try and change the legs simultaneously ; that is, while -^ GYMNASTICS. 257 Fig. 37. the one is being brought back, pass the other through -forward ; the body, of course, still supported by the arms. The Leg-Spring is the next exercise, and is performed in the following manner : Get on to the horse as in Fig. 3, and then bring both legs up on to the back in a kneeling position, as in Fig. 35 ; then, while the body is thus gathered, give a good spring up, throw- ing up the arms as in Fig. 36, and you will come over to the other side on to your feet on the ground. If you are nervous in attempting this at first, get the assist- ance of some one to hold your hand, and you will accomplish it without much difficulty. The next exercise must be practiced at first with the horse as low as possible, and the jumping-board placed about a foot from the horse. Jumping Through the Hands. — Take a short run, and jump on to the board with both feet down at once, flat-footed. Place your hands one on each pommel, spring up, and pass the legs through the hands, as in Fig. 37, shooting them out in front of you over the horse, so as to come neatly down on the other side. Of course you must measure your distance, so that you may rise high enough while passing over for the back to clear the top of the horse. Another form of this exercise is to jump over the horse with the legs outside the hands, and is per- formed in a similar manner to the last, but is rather more difficult, as you will need a much greater spring to raise your- self sufficiently high to pass clear over ; and you must also take care to let go with the hands at the proper moment, when in the po- sition shown in Fig. 38. If you retain your hold of the pom- mels too long, you will lose command of yourself, and they will have a ten- dency to pull you back and cause you to pitch head first on to the ground ; but when you commence to practice this movement, it is ne- cessary to have some one standing in front, to catch you in case your feet do not quite clear the top of the horse, more especially if it should be at all too high for you. Saddle Vaulting. — Get on to the horse as in Fig. 39, sit- ting across as in a saddle, but behind the pommels ; then, bearing the whole weight upon the arms, throw your legs right up, and giving yourself a kind of twist, de- scribe a semicircle with them, and bring yourself round with the face the other way ; your hands being one upon each pommel, your course will naturally be towards the one which holds the aftermost. The Long Fly is a very fine exercise for the whole of the body, and more especially the lower ex- tremities. Fig. 38. Fig. 39. You commence practice for this movement by placing the jumping-board about three feet from the largest end of the horse, then with a run, pitch with yeur hands on to the end, as in Fig. 40. Now move the board a little farther off, and repeat the movement ; and thus continue the exercise, increasing the distance each time, until you can pitch on to the end from about five or six feet. Now vary this movement by jumping from different dis- tances, and pitching on the hands first, and then bringing up the feet on to the back of the horse, as in Fig. 41. Fig. 40. Fig. 41. And when you are in this position, pitch with the hands on to the extreme end of the horse, and go over as at "leapfrog." Having now sufficiently practiced these preliminaries, place the board about a foot from the end of the horse (having first had the high pommels taken out, and the flush ones substi- tuted). Now take a run and jump, pitching with your hands on the first pommel, landing yourself astride, as near the middle of the horse as possible ; repeat this exercise, gradually increas- ing the jump, until at last you clear the whole length, as in Fig. 42, coming down safely on the ground in front of the horse. Fig. 42. When you can get near the neck and are likely to come right over in a few more trials, have some one standing in front to catch you in case you do not quite clear the end, and come instead into a sitting position on the neck of the horse, as in this case the sudden stop is likely to throw you over head forwards in a rather ignominious manner ; but if you practice assiduously, when you feel that you can do it, and make up your mind for it, you are almost certain to clear it. It will, of course, take some time to master this thoroughly ; but it is a fine dashing feat, well worth the trouble of acquir- ing. Only don't think you are doing it if you are satisfied to pitch short and paddle along on your hands for the rest of the distance ; you ought to pitch clear over at one movement. If 4r- 258 GYMNASTICS. ^ horses of various lengths arc available, they will prove of im- mense service in practicing this exercise. Hanging Rings. — These are very useful for developing the muscles of the arms and shoulders. We have, therefore, found room for a few exercises upon them as a guide to the young gymnast, who will find little difficulty in supplement- ing our instructions with exercises of his own. Fig. 43. Fig. 44. Commence by drawing yourself up, as in Fig. 43, holding one ring at arm's length, and the other close to the body. Draw in the outstretched arm and straighten the other, and repeat this as often as you like, as it is very good preliminary exercise for the trapeze. Now, from this position gradually spread the arms wide apart, suspending the body between them, as in Fig. 44, and then let the body gradually sink down until you hang straight down by the arms again. There are many other strength movements on the hand- rings, but you will soon find them out for yourself ; we will, therefore, pass on to the swinging exercises. Commence swinging simply backward and forward, increas- ing your momentum by drawing yourself up by contracting the arms as you ascend, and when at the highest, lowering your body with a drop, and by this means you will swing higher each time, until you are able to bring your arms and legs straight and nearly into a horizontal position, as in Fig. 45. Fig. 4s. Also swing in different positions in order to get command of yourself while swinging. Practice by drawing the legs over the head when at the end of the swing, as in Fig. 46, passing back in this position to the other end, and then bringing the legs smartly over, and shooting them straight out (in order to preserve the momen. turn), and coming back all straight again to the starting point. Fig. 46. Repeat this several times, and you will find it very good work for the muscles. Fig. 47. Also swing with the hands close to the groin, and the arms nearly straight by the side, and supporting the body, as in Fig. 47 ; keeping yourself from pitching your head and shoulders too much forward, at the end of the swing, by bending the arms Fig. 48. and projecting the legs, as in Fig. 48, which represents the bent position which you assume when beginning to descend. Fig. 49. Another variety of this swing is shown in Fig. 49, where the body is kept horizontal throughout. ^^ — GYMNASTICS. 259 "% CLIMBING LADDERS, ROPES, POLES, etc., etc. Climbing the rope is a very useful exercise, which should be practiced by every one, as it may often be the means of saving life in case of fire or shipwreck, etc. Fig. 50. Fig. 51. We mean climbing by the use of both legs and arms. Fig. 50 shows the way of taking hold of the rope, and Fig. 51 the position when climbing. At a gymnastic festival lately, some of the competitors ascended on a rope in this way to the height of upwards of one hundred feet. Fig. 59. Fig. S3. Another method is by holding on and raising yourself by using the hands only, but this is more difficult. Another exercise is by climbing the knotted rope, and also one with short cross-bars fixed at frequent intervals. Climbing the pole, either fixed or hanging, as in Fig. 52, only varies from the same exercise on the rope by its being rather more difficult to grasp, from being thicker and also rigid. 4r- Climbing ladders, fixed both in vertical and horizontal positions, and at various angles, furnishes a good variety of exercise for the arms, and is very easy to commence with. Fig. 53 shows an exercise on the horizontal ladder, in which you hold by the outside, and progress by moving the hands forward alternately. Fig. 54 represents another movement. Fig 54. Fig. 55. in which you walk along under the ladder, increasing the length of the step by holding the rounds at some distance apart, the intervening ones being passed. Fig. 55 shows one of the movements upon the perpendicular ladder, in which the object is to keep the arms and legs as straight as possible while the steps are taken. Fig. 56 is the oblique ladder, which may be prac- ticed by moving both up and down by the hands. The "giant's stride ' is a very good ex- ercise for beginners, and consists of a very strong and firmly fixed upright, about fifteen feet in height, having an iron cap at the top which will revolve easily, and around which ropes are fixed, each having a short cross- bar at the bottom, so that several may ex- ercise at once, each one holding a bar and running round, increasing the speed until the body takes the same angle as the rope. Various evolutions may be gone through in this manner, which will be found very amusing. It is hardly necessary to say that there are some simple rules to be observed in practicing. One is, never over-tire yourself by practice, as that will do more harm than good. And be careful not to get into a heat without having a wrapper handy to put on when you leave off ; and do not practice after a full meal. Dress must also be suitable, as it is highly important to have all the limbs free and unfettered ; and therefore light and loose garments and gymnastic shoes should be worn. A belt may be used by those who require it, but it is not indispens- able. Fig. 56. -^ r 260 GYMNASTICS. aYMK^^I'lCi^ Wl¥SoU¥ ^f>s{dlSl< Sf>f>af(S¥l/^. THE THREE CHAIRS. Even should the young gymnast be without any apparatus, he can train his body in various ways, so that when he obtains apparatus, its work will be half done. For example, he may practice the " Three Chairs " exercise, which will strengthen the loins immensely ; that being just the jiortion of the body that is least exercised in the artificial life of the present day. The young gymnast should take three chairs, and set them in a row, the two endmost chairs facing each other, and the central one set sideways They should be just so far apart that the back of the head and the heels rest on the two end- most chairs, and that the central chair supports the middle of the body. Now curve the body a little upwards, so as to take its weight off the center chair ; take the chair with the right hand, draw it from under you, pass it over you to the other side, and with the left hand replace it under your body. This should be done several times, so as to pass the chair from side to side. The easiest way of learning this really useful exercise is to begin by putting the head and nape of the neck on one chair, and allowing the feet to reach nearly to the middle of the other. This will greatly take off from the difficulty ; and as you feel yourself getting stronger, move the chairs gradually apart, so that at last you lie exactly as shown in the illustra- tion. KICKING THE CORK. This is a capital exercise, and has the advantage of being ex- ceedingly amusing. Draw two lines on the ground (like a J_ reversed), one at right angles to the other. Place your right foot with the heel just touching the cross-line of the X» ^i^d the foot pointing along the upright line. Next, put your left foot in front of the right, with the heel just touching = its toe, and then place the '<^ right foot in advance of left in a similar manner. You will thus make three short steps, each the exact length of your foot. Exactly in front of the advanced foot, stand a common wine cork upright. kc Now, go back to the cross-line, place your left heel against it as before, and with the right foot try to kick down the cork, as shown in the illustration, without losing the balance of the body or allowing the left foot to touch the ground. At first it will be found utterly impossible to do so, the toe not reaching to within an inch of it ; but a little practice wil enable the young gymnast to perform the feat without very much difficulty. The best plan is to reach forward until you judge that your foot is close to the cork, and then, with a slight sideways kick, strike at the cork, and bring yourself again to the upright position. This exercise is exceedingly valuable for strengthening the legs and giving pliability to the whole body. THE STOOPING STRETCH. This exercise does for the arms what the preceding does for the legs. Take the same lines as before, and stand with both toes on the cross-line. Now throw yourself forivard on your hands, and with the right hand make a chalk-mark on the floor as far as you can stretch. Having done this, spring up to the upright position b y means of the left arm, taking care not to move the toes from the cross- line. Each competitor at this exercise tries to chalk his mark as far as possible. When this exercise is first attempted, it seems utterly im- possible to reach to any distance, the spring of the left arm being found insufficient to bring the body upright again. After a time, however, when the muscles of the arms become strengthened, the player finds that he can rapidly extend the length of stretch, until at last he can throw himself nearly flat on the ground, and yet spring up again. In order to strengthen both arms equally, they should be used alternately. One secret in performing this exercise is to chalk the mark and spring back as quickly as possible, as every second of time takes away the strength of the supporting arm. STILTS. There are various forms of stilts and modes of using them. Some, such as those which are employed by professionals, are strapped to the ankles and have no handles. These should not be tried until the young gymnast is skilled with the handle- stilts, as a fall is really dangerous. Others have long handles, and the feet are received into leathern loops nailed on the stilt ; but by far the best are those which, like the stilts represented in the illustration, are fur- nished merely with two wooden projections on which the feet can rest. The easiest way of getting on the stilts is to stand with the back against the wall, and take the handles of the stilts under GYMNASTICS. 261 the arms, as shown in the illustration. Then place the right foot on the step of one stilt, raise yourself, with your back still leaning against the wall, and then place the left foot on the step of the other stilt. Now try to walk, raising each stilt alter- nately with the hands, and lifting the foot with it. A very short time will get you into the way of doing this, and in a few days you ought to be able to walk with freedom. Having obtained some degree of proficiency, you should race with other stilt-walkers, ascend and descend steps, planks, or stairs, pirouette on one stilt, holding the other above your head, and then replace the feet without com- ing to the ground, and perform similar feats. Accomplished stilt-walkers can even ascend and descend ladders laid at a considerable slope. The height of the feet from the ground rather diminishes than adds to the difficulty of walk- ing on stilts. If the stilt-walker should feel himself losing his balance, he should at once jump to the ground, and not run the risk of damaging himself by trying to recover his balance. After some little skill has been attained, the young athlete ought to be able to get on his stilts without needing the support of the wall, a short run and a spring being quite enough for the purpose. THE WALL-SPRING. A very good preliminary exercise is that which is called the "Wall-spring." The young gymnast stands at some little distance from a wall, places his right hand behind his back, and throws himself against the wall, supporting himself by the left hand. He then springs back to the upright position without moving his toes from the spot on which they had been placed. This, like all similar exercises, should be done with both arms alternately, and the gymnast should learn to throw the strength of all his body, as well as of the arms, into the spring. ^ 262 RIDING. ti 1 11 1 I'll tiiii I II mil 1 1 1'i'i IIIIIIEIilllllllyllf Il9l!llif I -^ Your head and your heart keep boldly up; Your hands and your heels keep down ; Your legs keep close to your horse's side ; And your elbows keep close to your own. Chefneys Secret of Riding. ^LL boys, nnd most men, ate ambitious of the triumphs of hoisemanship ; and, with many, a knowledge of hoises and dogs stands in the place of a polite education. The child escaped fiom leading-strings, bestrides his fathei's walking- stick, and. with a pack-thiead rein, toddles over le carpet on his mimic steed, with as much glee as a fox-hunter gallops after the hounds. From riding a cane, the same spirit and feeling makes a gate with string stirrups an acceptable means for a few first lessons in equitation, and tenders a tocking-horse a perfect idol. The trim saddle of the painted steed, the teat reins (made fast by tin tacks), the horse hair mane and tail supported by a wooden crupper — all these aie sources of as great a triumph as Alex- ander felt when he subdued Bucephalus ; a deed that history seems proud to tell of, and which painters love to depict, as our artist has. From the rocking-horse the young rider takes another step upwards in the scale of equitation, by mounting u real live donkey, who kicks and shies, and stands stock-still, and rubs against a post or backs into a pond, and by these various tricks gives another morsel of experience to the youth- ful horseman. The day of gladness comes to him at last, when the grand creature, which has long been his admiration, stands before him ready to be mounted. Mounting. — When about to mount, stand before the left shoulder of the horse, hold the whip in the left hand with the lash downwards, leave the curb-rein loose on the neck, and take the snaffle-reins at their center, between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, with which draw them up evenly between the fore and third fingers of the left hand (the middle or longest finger dividing them), until they are sufficiently tightened for you to feel the bearing of the horse's mouth. Throw the loose ends over the middle joint of the forefinger, so as to drop down on the off-side of the horse's neck. Then take the center of the curb-reins between the thumb and fore- finger of the right hand, as already described, and allowing them to hang more slackened than the snaffle-reins, separate them with the little finger of the left hand, passing the loose ends up the palm, and casting them to the off-side over the ends of the snaffleieins. Take with the tight hand a lock of the mane, and wind it once or twice round the left thumb, closing the hand so as firmly to grasp the reins and mane. The left hand may now be tested on the neck of the horse near to the withers, and within about six or eight inches of the pommel of the saddle. With the right hand, hold the stirrup until the left foot is placed in it ; the right hand should now be put on the cantle, the body raised until the feet are side by side, and both knees press the saddle ; move the right hand from the cantle to the pommel, and throw the light leg quickly, but not hastily, or with a jeik, across the horse, and sink easily (no jerking or bumping) into the saddle. By turning the toe of the boot slightly inwaids, so as to strike the right stirrup gently, the movement will cause it to swing partly round ; by this means the foot obtains possession of it with- out the aid of the hand, which should never be employed when the stirrups are lost ; after a little practice the stirrups may be dropped even when galloping, and quickly regained by striking both toes simultaneously inwards. Get into the habit of making your horse stand steady dur- ing and immediately after mounting. When an animal has been in careless hands, he not unfrequenlly tries to move off immediately he feels your weight on the stirrup. This is not only an unpleasant but also a dangerous ptoceeding, especially when a lady is mounting. It may be checked by keeping the RIDING. 263 ^ reins tight, and, if necessary, using the curb- rein. The horse is so docile an animal, though a creature of habit, that it can easily be taught what is required, or cured of its defects, pro- vided only that its master is patient and intelligent. Thus, A. Pommel. B. Hind Arch. C. D's on Saddle. D.. Saddle-flaps. E. Stirrup leathers. F. Girths. when mounted, instead of immediately starting off at a trot or or walk, wait a few seconds, and thus teach your horse that he is not to rush away immediately he feels your weight in the saddle. In order to discover the proper length for your stirrups, sit comfortably down on your saddle, keep the body upright, let the legs hang loosely at first, then clasp the horse slightly with them, turn the toe in and rather up ; then the stirrup ought just to support the foot. Then stand up in the stirrups with the legs straight, and see whether the fork will clear the pommel of the saddle : it ought just to do so if the stirrups are the correct length. Having once ascertained what is the correct length for the stirrups, you should measure from the finger-tip to armpit the length from the buckle to the end of the stirrups, and thus you can always on future occasions tell whether any alterations are required before mounting. Being now seated on the horse, which we will suppose is a quiet, well-trained animal, it would be advisable that a groom or some friend should lead the horse for a time, in order that we may get accustomed to the motion of the horse and to sit- ting in the saddle. The seat in the saddle should be obtained by sitting -we/l doitm, leaning rather backwards than forwards, and grasping the horse with a tolerably firm grip of both legs. There are two seats to be avoided, but which nearly all beginners at first practice : one is leaning forward as if in readiness to go over the horse's head ; the other is sitting on the saddle as though it were red hot. The very best method of getting "shaken down in the saddle," as the term is, is to quit the stirrups — that is, take the feet out of them — and trot round and round a circle. This can be easily done by having a rope attached to a head-collar on the horse, and getting this rope held by an attendant. After a few days of this kind of bumping, we learn how to grasp with the legs so that we scarcely move from the saddle, and we do not then adopt the dangerous and unsightly practice of depending mainly on the stirrups for our equilibrium. During the time that we are " jogging " in the trot, the reins should be held one in each hand, and so that we "feel" gently the horse's mouth : at no time should the reins become slack, but an uniform "feel" should be maintained. A horse soon becomes accustomed to the hand of its rider, and learns to obey the slightest change. Many horses, especially those gifted with tender mouths, will become restive, or will rear, attempt to run away, etc., when their riders either suddenly slacken, then tighten the reins, or in other ways alter their hold upon them. The Trot.— Having passed through the process of being shaken down in the saddle, we may then take our stirrups and learn how to sit down in the saddle, keep our stirrups, and yet not to rise in them when the horse trots ; after which we may practice rising to the trot. There is scarcely a more ridiculous exhibition than that of a rider working laboriously to rise to his horse's trot, using much more exertion than the animal he bestrides, whilst he works his arms and body as though riding were a very painful matter. The very slightest movement of the instep and a spring from the knee is suffi- cient to prevent the bumping produced by a horse's trot ; and the skill or awkwardness of a rider is never more prominent than when his horse is indulged in a long slashing trot. — -r^ 264 RIDING. — ^ The Canter. — To "raise a horse into a canter" from a trot, we should slightly pull the left rein, at the same time closing the legs. By a steady hand on the reins we may in- crease or decrease the speed of the horse, or again reduce his pace to a trot. Nothing but practice and instruction will ever give a rider a good firm seat on a horse ; but at the same time, practice alone may produce a strong seat but a very awkward one, un- less the defects of the seat are pointed out early. Vices and their Treatment. — Having attained a certain amount of skill in sitting on a horse and in handling the reins, the horseman may devote his attention to certain matters which are not unlikely to happen to every equestrian per- former. These may be classed under the head of the vices of the horse, and are principally as follows : running away, shy- ing, rearing, bucking, and refusing to move ; kicking, biting, and stumbling. Running A'way. — A runaway horse is a most dangerous animal, and for an unskilled rider to keep such a creature is not advisable. Many so-called runaway horses, however, are merely high-spirited animals whose former riders were unable to manage them. As an example : we possessed for three years a horse which we regularly hunted, and on which we placed a lady, and which had been sold because he was a de- termined runaway. Only once did this horse run away with us, and that was in consequence of the reins breaking. That horses do run away, however, is a fact ; and we will now con- sider the best means of dealing with this vice. A runaway horse is usually one with a very hard mouth, which is unaffected by any amount of pulling applied merely as a dead pull. A horse is stronger than a man, and there- fore to pull against him is useless. A particular kind of "bit " is requisite for a runaway horse ; the best that we have found being a powerful " Pelham." The rpins should be very stout, so as to afford a firm grasp, with no fear of breaking. Stout strong reins also do not slip through the fingers as do those which are thin. We will now suppose that a rider is seated on a horse, and starts for a canter on a nice bit of turf. His horse, probably fresh, bounds off, and the rider soon finds the animal pays no attention to his " Woa, woa ! " or to the pull at the reins. A bad rider has at this point come to the end of his expedients, and usually does nothing more than give a dead pull at the reins until he gets cramp in his arms and fingers, and is unable to use them effectively, when he is at the mercy of his horse. Some riders vary the "dead pull" by sawing their horses' mouths by alternately pulling the right and left rein. This sometimes, but rarely, has the effect of stopping a horse ; the common result being that the animal throws up its head, changes its feet in the gallop, but still goes on, probably with a temper not improved by the fact of its mouth bleeding in consequence of this ill treatment. As an effectual method foV pulling up a runaway horse we have never found any equal to the following : The reins being very strong, and the bit a "Pelham," or one which will not slip through a horse's mouth, we gather the reins short up in the left hand, so short that the hand is pressed against the horse's mane ; then pass the right hand down the right rein until it grasps this rein within a few inches of the bit ; with a firm hold pull this round towards the right knee, taking care that the horse does not snatch the rein out of your hand, as he will try to do if he be an accom- plished runaway. When the horse's head is thus pulled round he cannot gallop, nor can he do more than twist round. We have by this method the advantage of a lever pulling round the horse's head with enormous power. Against this plan it has been urged that we are very likely to throw a horse down. Grant this ; and it is perhaps the less of the two evils that we throw a horse down where we like, selecting a soft piece of turf, than that we get dashed to pieces by coming in collision with a carriage or cart, a lamp-post or railing, or slip up on stone pavement, etc. But in answer to this objection we can say that, on an average, once a week the horse we before mentioned iried to run away with us, but we invariably stopped him by this plan, and never, during three years, did we ever throw him down. Two other horses that we rode also on one or two occasions tried to run away, and were instantly stopped by this method ; thus we have practical proof of its efficacy, against the theoretical objection urged against it. To a bad or timid rider, or even to one not capable of deal- ing with it, a runaway horse is a dangerous possession ; un- less, therefore, a rider is well skilled, well nerved, and strong armed, our advice is, never mount a known runaway horse. As, however, every horse may, some time or other, try to run away, the preceding advice should not be neglected, as it may save a fall, a broken arm, leg, or neck. Shying. — Shying is a very common practice of horses, par- ticularly of young horses. It may arise from defective sight, or from mere frolic. To a good rider it is of no consequence, but to a bad horseman a fall may result. After a brief ac- quaintance with an animal, we can tolerably well tell at what ob- jects he usually shies. To overcome this practice we should never be off our guard, but should ever keep a watch on our horse's ears. When we notice that he suddehly raises his ears, and looks attentively at any object, it is probable that he may shy. To avoid such a result, we should endeavor to distract the animal's attention by patting his neck and speaking to him, a slight movement of the reins to arouse him, or by let- ting the whip rest on his neck, his attention may be with- drawn from the object that alarms him. A brutal and igno- -ight leg over the saddle. Stand close to the machine, holding the handles firmly ; then run a few steps with it to get a sufficient momentum, and then, leaning your body well over the han- dles, and throwing as much of your weight as you can upon them, with a slight jump throw your right leg over the saddle. This may sound formidable, but it is in reality no more than most equestrians do every time they mount, as the height of the bicycle to be cleared is little more than that of the horse's back when the foot is in the stirrup, only the horse is supposed to stand quiet, and therefore you can jump with a kind of swing. You must be very careful that while running by the side you keep the machine perfectly upright, particularly at the mo- ment of jumping. Perhaps at first you will vault on, forget- ting to keep the machine quite perpendicular, and as an in- evitable consequence you will come to the ground again, either on your own side, or, what is worse, you may go right over it, and fall with it on the top of you on the other side. Of course it is much better to have an assistant with you at your first attempts at vaulting, and it is good practice to let him hold the machine steady while you vault on and off as many times as you can manage. You must not forget to put all the weight you can on the handles, and although at first this seems difficult, it is comparatively easy when the knack is acquired. You will not attempt any vaulting until you can manage the machine pretty well when you are on, up to which time the assistant should help you on and set you straight. -^ 274 LESSONS IN BICYCLE RIDING. -% To get on with the help of the irea^t'd'/y where the keel turns up forward, it is called the stem ; the upright piece of wood fitting into the keel abaft is called the stern-post, and to this the rudder is hung. In square-slerned boats there is, besides, the transom. The sides of the boat are made of planks nailed together, and called strakes ; the lowest strakes next the keel are called the garboards. The strakes are strengthened and the boat is kept in shape by pieces of wood crossing the boat in the inside, like ribs, called timbers or lands. The square holes are called rowlocks, and consist of the thole, against which the oar is pulled ; the stopper, or after thole, forming the other side of the rowlock ; and the leather yf//«//^, forming the bottom of the rowlock. The seats across the boat are called thwarts; the pieces of wood fasten- ing them to the sides of the boat are knees ; the piece of board against which the feet rest, the stretcher j the boards for standing on at the bottom of the boat amidships are bot- tom-boards or burdens ; the boards in the bow, the how-sheets ; those in the stern, the stern-sheets ; the space between the steerer's thwart and the thwart of the stroke-oar is the state- room, and in large boats has seats on each side for sitters. Fitted to the top of the rudder is a cross-piece of wood or brass called the yoke, attached to which are ropes called yoke- lines, for the steerer's hands. In eight-oars it is usual to have the yoke-lines attached to the side of the boat, and passing through pulleys in the yoke, in order to give more power to the steerer. The rope by which the boat is made fast is called the painter, or sometimes the head fast. Wager-boats are built of white fir or mahogany, gigs usually of white fir, but sometimes of oak. Fir is perhaps lighter, but oak lasts much longer. Sea-going boats are usually built of elm ; and the timbers of ash. When the rower rows with an oar in each hand, the oars are called sculls, and are shorter ; when he uses only one oar, it is called an oar, and is about 13 feet 5 inches long. Sculls and oars are usually of white pine, and consist of the han- dle and the loom, within the rowlock, the part outside of the rowlock consisting of the shank or small, and the blade, and are fitted either with boxing or filling, and a button, or with leather and a stop. The sculls usually overlap about four inches ; the handle of the oar should just clear the other side of the boat. The oars in a boat are numbered from the bow, No. i being the bow, No. 2 the next, and so on to No. 8, or stroke in an eight-oar. The stroke-oar is always on the port, larboard, or left side of the boat, and the oars on that side are called the stroke or larboard oars ; the oars on the right side of the boat, the bow or starboard oars. It should be recollected that pair-oar rowing is the founda- tion of all rowing ; in a four, and still more easily in an eight, defects, especially shirking, may pass undetected, but not easily in a pair-oar. Let the beginner, therefore, get some ex- perienced friend or a waterman to giv^ the first lessons in a steady and not too light boat ; if he can get some one to row stroke whilst the friend or waterman steers and instructs, so much the better ; if not, let the friend or waterman pull the bow oar so as to see his pupil at his work. The mat must be firmly tied to the thwart, and this every man should learn to do for himself, as the men at the boat-house never do it prop- erly. Flannel mats with strings are much the best. Let the pupil then seat himself on the thwart nearly on the after edge of it, bending his knees a little, and opening them about a foot, and placing his feet firmly against the stretcher, with heels close together and toes turned out straight before him ; if the strap is used, the outside foot, or that nearest the mid- dle of the boat, will be passed under it ; but for the first few lessons, the strap should not be used, as a man ought to be able to row without it. The stretcher must of course be ad- justed to the proper length. The pupil will then take hold of the oar with the button just inside the thole, and grasp the oar with the outside hand close to the end, but not capping it, and thumb above the oar, the inside hand about three inches from the other, just where the square loom begins, thumb un- der the oar. Let him then sit upright, straighten his back, flatten and drop his shoulders, keeping them perfectly square, and hold his head a very little forward, elbows close to his sides, sitting very nearly as he would be directed to sit by a drill sergeant or dancing-master, the only exception being that the knees are open and the head a little forward, and that he holds the oar. Let him then stretch forward as far as the stopper will allow the oar to go, which is about as far as he can reach, still keeping his back straight, his shoulders square, though of course a little raised, his arms extended, his outside wrist flat with the arm, his inside wrist bent convexly. And here let the pupil understand clearly that all the motions are to be made by swinging evenly backwards and forwards on his seat as on a hinge ; the back is never to be bent, and though the shoulders must necessarily be raised a little in reaching forward, in going back they should be dropped as low as they can be brought. There is a common notion that rowing rounds the back and shoulders, and bad rowing does so, but a good oar has his shoulders and back as flat as any drill sergeant would wish them to be ; when his shoulders are humped or his back rounded, it is a sign that he is tired out and done. If the rower raises one shoulder higher than the other, or does not swing evenly backwards and forwards, he makes the boat roll, and prevents the other men from rowing properly. Let the pupil then resume the upright position, stretch forward a little, and dip the oar into the water, taking care that the blade is upright, and the button against the thole ; let him then pull a short stroke, keeping the blade upright and leaning back a little, "the first stroke or two without any pressure, afterwards pressing on the oar, taking care to have the chest well bent forward towards the loom, so as to strike the water and feel resistance at once. Let the pupil continue to make short strokes like this until he can keep his oar upright and recover himself after each stroke, keeping the button against the thole, and when he can do this r ROWING. 285 ^ pretty well, let him begin to feather, or bring the oar out of the water in a horizontal or flat position ; this is done by dropping the wrists sharply at the end of the stroke, and, though difficult at first, is very soon acquired. There are different styles of feathering : the Harvard men feather high ; Yale men almost graze the surface of the water, which certainly looks well, but cannot be done if there is any sea or rough water. In about an hour any one who takes pains ought to have mastered these points, and that ought to suffice for one day ; and at the end of each quarter of an hour, the pupil should change sides and work with the other oar. If this is not done at the very beginning, he is likely to contract a habit of rowing on one side only, and will never learn to row on the other side : a deficiency which will cause great incon- venience to himself and others in future time. On the following day, the pupil should be taught to stretch out and pull his stroke through, and to keep time, the instruc- tor pulling a very long, slow, and steady stroke ; the pupil should then be taught to back water, which is exactly the re- verse of pulling, as the oar is then pushed through the water so as to propel the boat stem foremost, or to assist in turning the boat round ; he should also be taught to ship\\\% oar neatly and quickly ; and this is done by letting go with the outside hand, and lifting the oar sharply up out of the rowlock with the inside hand, letting the blade float astern. The beginner would do well to go out in a safe boat with a friend, and practice backing and shipping till he can do both quickly and neatly at the word of command ; and in about three lessons of an hour each the pupil ought to become a passable oar. This system of pair-oared tuition is immeasurably superior to and quicker than the ordinary plan pursued at schools and colleges, of putting seven raw hands into an eight-oar with a tolerable stroke and a good coxswain, and trying to teach them all at once. The unhappy wretches have no idea of what they ought to do, and cannot understand the directions of their coxswain, who sits raving and storming at them, and at the end of the lesson they return stiff, sore, tired, and disgusted, having learnt very little, and probably begun to contract faults which they may never get rid of. Let the first rowing of every man be carefully attended to, and all faults checked at once before they grow into habits. For all further tuition we refer to the following extract from " The Principles of Rowing and Steering," by studying which the beginner, or even the advanced oar, may learn what to do and what to avoid : — " The requisites for a perfect stroke are : — " I. Taking the whole reach forward, and falling back gradually a little past the perpendicular, preserving the shoulders throughout square, and the chest developed at the end. " 2. Catching the water and beginning the stroke with a full tension on the arms at the instant of contact. "3. A horizontal and dashing pull through the water im- mediately the blade is covered, without deepening in the space subsequently traversed. " 4. Rapid recovery after feathering by an elastic motion of the body from the hips, the arms being thrown forward per- fectly straight simultaneously with the body, and the forward motion of each ceasing at the same time. " 5. Lastly, equability in all actions, preserving full strength without harsh, jerking, isolated, and uncompensated movements in any single part of the frame." ' ' Faults in Rowing, — The above laws are sinned against when the rower — " I. Does not straighten both arms before him. " 2. Keeps two convex wrists instead of the outside wrist flat. " 3. Contrives to put his hands forward by a subsequent motion after the shoulders have attained their reach, ^tkte^ of in EN a person dies, leav- ing no valid will behind him, his estate is distrib- uted among his heirs by what is known as opera- tion of law. This is reg- ulated by the statute of the State in which the deceased resided at the time of his death. The distribution must be made by an administrator duly appointed by law. The administrator is a p - pointed by the court having jurisdiction in such cases on being satisfied that the person proposed is legally qualified. The appointment must be made with the consent of the person appointed. It is the generally accepted rule that any one is legally com- petent to be an administrator who is competent to make a contract. Certain classes of persons are dis- qualified by statute, as in the State of New York, for instance, drunkards, gamblers, spendthrifts, etc. The relatives of the deceased are considered as en- titled to the appointment to administer the estate, and the order of precedence is regulated by statute. The husband is to be granted administration on the wife's personal estate, and administration on the husband's estate is to be granted to the widow and the next of kin in the following order if they or any of them will accept : 1. To the widow. 2. To the children. 3. To the father. To the brothers. To the sisters. To the grandchildren. To any other of the next of kin who would be entitled to a share in the distribution of the estate. The guardians of minors who are entitled may ad- minister for them. In case none of the relatives or guardians will accept, the administration will be given to the creditors of the deceased. The creditor who applies first, if legally competent, is to be preferred. If no creditor applies, any person who is legally qualified may be appointed. In the City of New York the public administrator may administer the estate after the next of kin. In the State of New York the Surrogate may select, among the next of kin, any one in equal degree, and appoint him sole administrator to the exclusion of the others. In case there are several persons of the same degree of kindred to the intestate, entitled to administration, they are preferred in the following order : 1. Males to females. 2. Relatives of the whole blood to those of the half blood. 3. Unmarried to married women ; and should there be several persons equally entitled, the Surro- MERCANTILE LAW. 289 -% gate may grant letters to one or more of them, as his judgment may suggest. If letters of administration should be unduly granted they may be revoked. Administration may likewise be granted on certain conditions, for a certain limited time, or for a special purpose. The powers and duties of an administrator differ from those of an executor only inasmuch as he must distribute and dispose of the estate according to the direction of the law, as he has no will to follow. First. The administrator must give bonds with sureties for the faithful execution of his trust. Second. He must make an inventory of the goods and chattels of the intestate, in accordance with the requirements of the law. Third. Two copies of this inventory shall be made, one of which will be lodged with the judge of the court, and the other will be kept by the admin- istrator. The latter will be obliged to account for the property mentioned in the inventory. Fourth. Having completed the inventory, the ad- ministrator must then collect the outstanding debts of the intestate, and also pay the debts of the same. The order of payment is regulated by local sta- tutes. Having liquidated . all the debts of the intestate, the administrator will divide the remainder of the assets among the surviving relatives of the deceased. In so doing, he will act under the direction of the court. &^Q^6y. By Agency is meant the substitution of one per- son by and for another, the former to transact busi- ness for the latter. An Agency may be established by implication — an express agreement with a person that he is to become the agent of another, not being necessary — or verbally, or by 7vriting. A verbal creation of agency suffices to authorize the agent to make a contract even in cases where such contract must be in writing. Agency is of three kinds : special, general, and professional. A special agency is an authority ex- ercised for a special purpose. If a special agent exceed the limits of his authority, his principal is not bound by his acts. A general agency authorizes the transaction of all business of a particular kind, or growing out of a particular employment. The principal will be bound by the acts of a general agent though the latter act contrary to private instructions, provided he keep, act the same time, Avithin the general limits of his authority. Professional agents are those licensed by the proper authority to transact certain kinds of busi- ness for a compensation. The following are among this class of agents : 1. Attorneys. 2. Brokers. 3. Factors. 4. Auctioneers. 5. Masters of Ships, In regard to the subject of an agency, the general rule is that whatever a man may do in his own right, he may also transact through another. Things of a personal nature, implying personal confidence on the part of the person possessing them, cannot be delegated. Infants, married women, lunatics, idiots, aliens, belligerents, and persons incapable of making legal contracts, cannot act as principals in the appoint- ment of agents. Infants and married women may, however, become principals in certain cases. Agency may be terminated in two ways : (i) by the act of the principal or agent ; (2) by operation of law. In the latter case, the termination of the agency is effected by lapse of time, by completion of the subject matter of the agency, by the extinc- tion of the subject matter, or by the insanity, bankruptcy, or death of either party. ^1^^)111^11011. Arbitration is an investigation and determination of subjects of difference between persons involved in dispute, by unofficial persons chosen by the par- ties in question. The general rule is that any person capable of making a valid contract concerning the subject in dispute may be a party to an arbitration. Any matter which the parties may adjust by agreement, or which may be made the subject of a suit at law, may be determined by arbitration. Crimes cannot be made the subject matter of an arbitration. This matter is regulated by statute in the different States. Questions may be submitted for arbitration in the following ways : -^ ^ §^ 290 MERCANTILE LAW. 1. By faro/. 2. By writing. 3. Under the statute, which must be done if the parties are desirous of availing themselves of its provisions. 4. By rule of court, which occurs when an action is pending in court and the parties agree to take it before arbitrators, in accordance with an order of the court. 5. By deposit of notes. A person may be selected as arbitrator, notwith- standing his natural incapacity or legal disability to make contracts. The arbitrators must fix the time and place of hearing, and give due notice of the same to the par- ties. They must be sworn, if the statute requires an oath, unless such oath is weighed by the parties themselves. In the matter of hearing evidence the statute of the State must be followed. The arbitrators may adjourn from time to time, provided the time does not extend beyond the period appointed for the delivery of the award. In arbitrations the parties are entitled to the aid of counsel, the same as they would be in court. After a fair submission and a legal award, the matter submitted cannot be litigated on, any more than if it had been settled by a judgment. An award may be impeached where it has been procured by corruption, fraud, or other undue means ; by misconduct, corruption or irregularity on the part of the arbitrators, when the arbitrators acknowledge they have made a mistake in their de- cision ; where the arbitrators have exceeded their powers ; where pertinent and material evidence was rejected, etc. If either party revokes the submission, he will be liable for an action for breach of contract, and the payment of damages by the other party. Sfi'e^t. &V- The defendant in an action may be arrested for the following causes, when the action is to recover damages : 1. Personal injury. 2. Injury to property, including wrongful taking, detention, or conversion of property. 3. Breach of promise to marry. 4. Fraud or deceit. 5. Misconduct or neglect in ofifice, or in profes- sional employment. 6. In an action to recover a chattel where said chattel or a part thereof has been removed, con- cealed, or disposed of, so that it cannot be found or be taken by the Sheriff, and with intent that it should not be found or taken by the Sheriff, or with the intent of depriving the plaintiff of the benefit thereof. 7. In an action upon contract, express or implied, other than a promise to marry, where the defendant has been guilty of fraud in contracting or incurring the liability. 8. In an action upon contract, either express or implied, other than a promise to marry, where de- fendant has, since the making of the contract, or in contemplation of the same, removed or disposed of his property with the intent of defrauding his cred- itors, or where he is about to remove or dispose of the same with like intent. 9. In case of action to recover for money re- ceived, or to recover property or damages for the conversion or misapplication of the same, where the money was received, or where the property was embezzled, or fraudulently misapplied by a public official, or by an attorney, solicitor, or counselor, or by an officer or agent of a corporation or banking association in the course of his employment, or by a factor, agent, broker, or any person in a fiduciary capacity. 10. In an action wherein the judgment demanded requires the performance of an act, the neglect or the refusal to perform which would be punishable by the court as contempt, or where the defendant, not being a resident of the State, or being a resident, is about to depart from the State, by reason of which departure there is a danger that a judgment or an order requiring the performance of the said act will be rendered ineffectual. Females are liable to arrest only in the cases mentioned in the preceding subdivision, or in cases of willful injury to person, character, or pro- perty. A debtor may be arrested in this Sta'te only when it can be proved that he employed fraud in con- tracting the debt, or that he concealed or put his property out of his hands with the intent of defeat- ing his creditors. The defendant, when arrested, may give bail. MERCANTILE LAW. 291 Stfed^ment. 4- An attachment may be issued, when it is a ques- tion of recovering a sum of money, for damages, in the following cases : 1. For breach of contract, whether express or implied, other than a contract to marry. 2. For wrongful conversion of personal property, or for any injury to personal property, in conse- quence of fraud, negligence, or any other act. The plaintiff must prove that a cause of action exists under one of the above heads before he is en- titled to a warrant of attachment. In case of an action to recover damages, his affidavit must show that he is entitled to recover a sum therein stated over and above any or all counter claims against him. In addition, he -must show that the defendant is either a foreign corporation or a non-resident of this State, or in case he is an individual person and resides in the State, that he has departed therefrom with the intention of defrauding his creditors, or avoiding being served with a summons, or that he keeps himself concealed within the State with like intent. If the defendant is a natural person or a domestic corporation, the affidavit must show that he or it has removed his or its property from the State with the intention of defrauding his or its creditors, or that he has assigned, disposed of. or secreted his property, or that he is about to do so with like intent. The plaintiff must also give a bond or undertaking to the amount of two hundred and fifty dollars before the attachment issues. Salary or wages may be attached provided the conditions already mentioned exist for so doing. In the ab- secice of said conditions, and after unsatisfied judg- ment and execution, wages may be taken by supple- mentary proceedings. The earnings of the debtor for his personal services for sixty days previous to the institution of said supplementary proceedings, where such earnings appear to be necessary for the support of a family wholly or in part supported by his labor, cannot be reached. Clikttel jVioi^t^k^e^. A mortgage of goods and chattels will be void to creditors of the mortgagee, if the following con- ditions are not complied with : I . The immediate deliveTy of the property accom- panying the mortgage, followed by actual and con- tinued claim of possession. 2. The filing of the mortgage, or a true copy thereof, as required by law, in the clerk's or regis- ter's office of the town, city or county where the mortgagor resides, and where the property lies at the time the instrument was executed. The mort- gage must be filed where the mortgagee resides, if he is a resident of the State ; if not, it must be filed in the city or town where the property is located at , the time of the execution of the mortgage. It must be filed in the Register's Office in the cities of New York and Brooklyn. Coiiti'kdt^. The conditions of a contract, as applying to individuals, are: i. Age; 2. Rationality; and 3, as to Corporations, the possession of general or special statutory powers. Persons under age are incompetent to make con- tracts, except under certain limitations. Generally such persons are incapable of making binding con- tracts. As to rationality, the general principle of law is that all persons not rendered incompetent by per- sonal disability, or by considerations of public policy, are capable of making a contract. Corporations have powers to make contracts strictly within the limits prescribed by their char- ters, or by special or general statute. The following classes of contracts are void, unless they shall be in writing and subscribed by the party to be charged thereby : 1. Every agreement that by its terms is not to be performed within one year from the making thereof. 2. Every special promise to answer for the debt, default, or miscarriage of another persqji. 3. Every agreement, promise or undertaking, made upon consideration of marriage, except mutual promises to marry. 4. Every contract for the leasing of a longer period than one year, or for the sale of any lands, or any interest in lands, shall be void, unless the con- tract, or some note or memorandum thereof, express- ing the consideration, be in writing and subscribed by the party by whom the lease or sale is made. Every contract for the sale of any goods, chattels, or things in action shall be void, unless. r 292 MERCANTILE LAW. 1. A note or memorandum of such contract be made in writing, and be subscribed by the parties to be charged thereby ; or, 2. Unless the buyer shall accept and receive part of such goods, or the evidences, or some of them, of such things in action ; or, 3. Unless the buyer shall, at the time, pay some part of the purchase money. Coi^pof^tioi\^. ^^ Corporations are bodies created by law, which consist of individuals united under a common name, whose members succeed each other, so that the body continues the same, notwithstanding the change of the individuals who compose it. Three or more persons so desiring may form a corporation. The persons desiring to form a corporation must make and acknowledge the same before an officer empowered to take the acknowledgment of deeds a certificate in writing, in accordance with the direc- tions required by law. A duplicate of this certificate must be filed in the office of the Secretary of State. The stockholders of the incorporated company are individually liable to the company's creditors to the amount of the stock held by them respectively, until all the capital stock shall have been paid in, and until a certificate stating the amount of the capital fixed and paid in shall be filed in the office of the County Clerk, in accordance with the requirements of the law. The stockholders are jointly and seve- rally individually liable to the laborers or servants of the corporation for work performed for the same. Corporations are liable for contracts made by the duly authorized agent within the scope of his authority, as well as for trespasses or torts committed by such agents under authority of such corpora- tions. Corporations are liable for negligence or breach of duty the same as individuals. Corporations are liable to pay taxes in the same manner as individual owners of property. Corporations are likewise subject to visitation, which consists of an authority to inspect the actions and regulate the behavior of the members v/ho share in the franchise. ®e^dei\t kr^d f)i,^trifeiitior^ of ?ei*. ^oi\kl 5<^tkte^: When a person dies intestate, his personal estate remaining after the payment of his debts, and where a will has been left, the surplus remaining after the payment of debts and legacies, if not bequeathed, shall be distributed to the widow, children, or next of kin of the deceased in the following manner : 1. One third part thereof to the widow, and all the residue in equal portions among the children, and such persons as may legally represent such children, if any of them shall have died before the deceased. 2. If there be no children, and no legal repre- sentative of them, then one moiety of the whole surplus, after the payment of debts, shall be allotted to the widow, and the other moiety shall be distri- buted to the next of kin of the deceased. 3. If the deceased shall leave a widow, and no descendant, parent, brother or sister, nephew or niece, the widow shall be entitled to the whole sur- plus ; but if there be a brother or sister, nephew or niece, and no descendant or parent, the widow shall be entitled to a moiety of the surplus and to the whole of the residue, where it does not exceed two thousand dollars ; if the residue exceed that sum, she shall receive, in addition to the moiety, two thousand dollars ; and the remainder shall be dis- tributed to the brothers and sisters and their repre- sentatives. 4. If there be no widow, then the whole surplus shall be distributed equally to and among the chil- dren and such as legally represent them. 5. In case there be no widow and no children, and no representatives of a child, then the whole surplus shall be distributed to the next of kin, in equal de- gree to the deceased, and their legal representatives. 6. If the deceased shall leave no children, and no representatives of them, and no father, and shall leave a widow and a mother, the moiety not dis- tributed to the widow shall be distributed in equal shares to the mother, and brothers and sisters, or the representatives of such brothers and sisters ; and, if there be no widow, the whole surplus shall be distributed in like manner to the mother, and to the brothers and sisters, or the representatives of such brothers and sisters. ■^ MERCANTILE LAW. 293 ^ 4- 7. If the deceased leave a father, and no child or descendant, the father shall take a moiety, if there be a widow, and the whole if there be no widow. 8. If the deceased leave a mother, and no child, descendant, father, brother, sister, or representative of a brother or sister, the mother, if there be a widow, shall take a moiety, and the whole if there be no widow. 9. Where the descendants, or next of kin of the deceased entitled to share in his estate, shall be all in equal degree to the deceased, their shares shall be equal. 10. When such descendants, or next of kin, are of unequal degrees of kindred, the surplus shall be apportioned among those entitled thereto, ac- cording to their respective stocks ; so that those who take in their own right shall receive equal shares, and those who take by representation shall receive the shares to which the parent whom they represent, if living, would have been entitled. 11. No representation shall be admitted among collaterals after brothers' and sisters' children. 12. Relatives of the half blood shall take equally with those of the whole blood in the same degree ; and the representatives of such relatives shall take in the same manner as the representatives of the whole blood. 13. Descendants and next of kin of the deceased, begotten before his death, but bom thereafter, shall take in the same manner as if they had been born in the lifetime of the deceased, and had survived him. The above provisions apply to the personal es- tates of married women who die intestate, leaving descendants ; and the husband of any deceased married woman may demand, recover, and enjoy . the same distributive share in her personal estate that she, if a widow, would be entitled to in his per- sonal estate, but no more. The real property of every person dying intestate shall descend as follows : 1. To his lineal descendants. 2. To his father. 3. To his mother. 4. To his collateral relatives. In case the inheritance comes to the intestate on the part of the mother, the father does not take if the mother be living ; and in such a case, if she be dead, the father only takes a life interest, unless all the brothers and sisters of the deceased, and their descendants, be dead, or unless the deceased had no brothers or sisters, in which cases the father is en- titled to take the fee. In case there is no father or mother, and the in- heritance came to the deceased on the part of the mother, it will descend to the collateral relatives of the mother in preference to those of the father. In case the inheritance came to the deceased on the part of neither father nor mother, it will descend to the collateral relatives of both in equal shares. Relatives of the half blood inherit equally with those of the whole blood in the same degree. The descendants and relatives of the intestate, begotten before his death, but born thereafter, in- herit in the same manner as if they had been born in the lifetime of the intestate. The mother of an illegitimate child, dying with- out any descendants, takes the inheritance. Besides the provisions in favor of the widow and the minor children from the personal estate of her husband, it is provided that she may tarry in the house of her husband forty days after his death, whether her dower be sooner assigned or not, with- out being liable to rent for the same, and meantime she shall have her reasonable sustenance off the estate of her husband. This sustenance shall be provided out of the personal property of her husband, and through the executor or administrator, should one be appointed prior to the expiration of the forty days, and shall be given according to the circum- stances and station in life of the family, to the widow and children dependent on her. In pro- viding this sustenance, the executor or administrator must exercise judgment and discretion, as he should in paying funeral expenses. Interest is a moderate profit for the use of money. In the different States the rate of interest is estab- lished by statute. In New York State seven per cent, is the legal rate of interest. Any excess over this, whether received directly or indirectly, will ren- der the contract void, and is a misdemeanor, pun- ishable by a fine not exceeding $1,000, or by im- prisonment not exceeding six months, or both. An excess of interest above the legal rate may be re- covered by an action at law, if brought in one year from the time of payment. 294 MERCANTILE LAW. Corporations cannot set up the defence of usury. In case promissory notes and bills of exchange do not specify the payment of interest, interest is not allowable until maturity. But from the moment they fall due, they bear interest, whether it be so specified or not. As a rule, compound interest is not allowable, but a contract is not usurious or void because of a stipu- lation for the payment of compound interest. The courts, however, will not enforce its payment, when the agreement is made before any interest has ac- crued. If a debt already due has an accumulation of interest not paid, the parties may agree to have the principal and interest added together, and draw interest. Interest is not allowable upon unliquidated de- mands for board and lodging, where price or time of payment is not agreed upon between the parties. A lender, whether banker or broker, can charge a reasonable amount for his services in addition to the interest, without being liable for usury. Interest in advance is allowed under certain limi- tations. I^cir^dlofd cii\d ¥er(kr\t. Leases for one year or less need no written agree- ment. Leases for more than a year must be in writing ; if for life, signed, sealed, and witnessed in fhe same manner as any other important document. Leases for over three years must be recorded. No particular form is necessary. If no agreement in writing for more than a year can be produced, the tenant holds the property from year to year at the will of the landlord. If there is no agreement as to time, the tenant as a rule holds from year to year. In the City of New York, when the duration of the occupation is not specified, the agreement shall be held valid until the first day of the May follow- ing the occupation under such agreement. A tenancy at will may be terminated by giving the tenant one month's notice in writing, requiring him to remove from the premises occupied. A landlord can no longer distress for rent in New York, nor has any lien on the goods and chattels of a tenant for rent due. Rent may be collected by action after the removal of the tenant. A tenant is not responsible for taxes, unless it is so stated in the kase. A lease falling into the hands of a party accident- ally would be invalid, and must in all cases be de- livered to the party for whom it is intended. The tenant may underlet as much of the property as he desires, unless it is expressly forbidden in the lease. Tenants at will cannot underlet. A lease made by a minor is not binding after the minor has attained his majority. It binds the lessee, however, unless the minor should release him. Should the minor receive rent after attaining his ma- jority, the lease will be thereby ratified. A lease given by a guardian will not extend beyond the majority of the ward. A new lease renders void a former lease. In case there are no writings, the tenancy begins from the day possession is faken ; where there are writings and the time of commencement is not stated, the tenancy will be held to commence from the date of said writings. If a landlord consents to receive a substitute, the former tenant is released. Ier cent., semi-annually, January i and July i January i and July i j February i and May i Continued Sixes of i88i..3>^ " Continued Fives of iS8i.3>^ " quarterly. Four-and-a-half-per-cts.4J^ " Four-per-cents 4 " ' August I and Nov. J March i and June i ' Sept. I and Dec. 1 J January i and April i ' July I and October 1 The only coupon bonds are in the Four- and the Four-and-a-half-per-cent loans. They are in de- nominations of $50, $100, $500, and $1,000. There are registered bonds of all issues. They are in denominations of $50, $100, $500, $1,000, $5,000 and $10,000, except that of the Currency Sixes there are none of a less denomination than $1,000. Of the funded loans, viz., the Five-per-cents (continued at 3^ per cent.), the Four-and-a-half-per- cents, and the Four-per-cents, there are, in addition to the above, registered bonds of the denomination of $20,000 and $50,000. It is not generally advisable to have bonds regis- tered in higher denominations than $10,000, as they will not bring as good a price in the market in case of sale. The highest denomination which is a good delivery at the New York Stock Exchange is $10,000 CALLED BONDS. Bonds concerning which the Government has ex- ercised its option of redemption, and givei\ notice that they will cease to bear interest after a certain date, are designated as *' called bonds." %r DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. 317 ^ |y,y II III! ijjj 11,11 ijji iiji 11,11 iiji III! ijj] III"! III! iii'i III] I'll] iiii iiiffi'iriiiiiiii iii'i iiy tiC. 'uL* *2L^'*1 ^4W TEB-^^' (abandonment. The relinquishing to the under- writers, under an insurance, of all the property saved from a wreck, in order to entitle the insured to claim for a total loss. Abate. To break down,, destroy, or remove ; as, for instance, to abate (remove or put an end to) a nuisance. Abduction. The unlawful taking or detention of a woman (having property in possession or expectancy) against her will, with the intention of procuring her marriage or de- filement. Also the unlawful taking of an unmarried girl, un- der the age of sixteen years, out of the fKJSsession, and against the will of, the father, or other person having the lawful care of her, although done without force or corrupt motives. The former is a felony, and the latter a misdemeanor. Abettor. A person who encourages or excites another to commit an offence punishable by law. Abeyance. The fee simple of lands is in abeyance when there is no person in being in whom it can vest, so that it is in a state of expectancy or waiting until a proper person shall appear, or the right thereto is determined. The same applies to digfnities or offices. Abjuration (oath of). An oath disclaiming any right in the pre- tender to the British throne, and also the jurisdiction and authority of the pope or any other foreign prince within this realm. Abortion. The offence of procuring the miscarriage of a woman quick with child. Abstract of Title. An epitome of the deeds and documents consti- tuting the evidence of title to an estate. Acceptance. The act by which a person on whom a bill of exchange is drawn undertakes to pay it at maturity. The bill of exchange itself is sometimes called, in common parlance, an acceptance. Accessory. A person concerned in a felonious offence, although not the actual perpetrator, nor present at its performance. He may be accessory either before or after the fact. Accommodation Bill. A bill of exchange accepted without value, for the purpose of raising money thereon by discount. Account Stated. An account closed or balanced. Acknowledgment by a Married 'Woman. A ceremony gone through by a married woman to enable her to convey her interest in land, and which has been substituted for^he old process of a fine. Action. The method of demanding the enforcement of a legal right, and procuring redress for a civil injury in the courts of common Aw. Act of Parliament. See Statutes. Acts of Bankruptcy are numerous — such as keeping out of the way to avoid a creditor, etc. Addition. The title, degree, profession, or business, jind also the place of abode of a person. Adjudication. In England, the act of giving judgment, as, for in- stance, when a bankruptcy judge finds a party bankrupt, it is called the Adjudication. In Scotland it is applied to the law whereby a creditor attaches the property of his debtor, and has different sigfnifications according to the nature of the property attached. Administrator. He that has the goods of a person dying without a will committed to his care, for the purpose of legal distribution. The nearest of kin is entitled to administration. Admiralty (Court of), has cognizance of all civil (but not now, as it had formerly, of criminal) matters, arising on the high seas, or on those parts of the coast which are not within the limits of an English county. — Also of prize cases. Criminal matters are triable before the ordinary assize courts of the nearest English county. Ad Valorem. Stamp duties, the amount of which is regulated ac- cording to the value of the property, etc., are so termed. Advowson. The right of presentation to an ecclesiastical benefice. He who possesses this right is styled the patron. Advowsons are of three kinds, presentative, collative, or donative. Affidavit. A written statement upon oath. It must be sworn before a person authorized to administer oaths ; who that is, depends upon what the affidavit relates to. The same officer is not usually empow- ered to administer oaths in all the courts. Affinity. Relation by marriage between the husband or wife and the blood relations of either ; but not between the husband and wifa themselves. Affirmation. A solemn declaration in lieu of an oath. A Fortiori. By so much stronger reason. Agent. A person appointed to do an act for another. The act when performed is, in law, the act of the principal ; the maxim being " qui facit peralium facit per se." Agistment. Where cattle are taken in to pasture; from agiser, i. e., levant and couchant. Alderman. Literally, an elder man. In London the aldermen are magistrates chosen for life. Alibi. Elsewhere. A defence by which it is proved that the accused was not at the place where the offence was committed at the time of its commission. 3i8 DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. -^ 4r Alien. One born in a foreign country out of the allegiance of the queen. To Aliene. To convey or dispose of property to another. Alimony. An allowance made by a husband to his wife when living apart from her. Aliunde. Elsewhere, besides, &c. Allegations. The pleadings in the Ecclesiastical Courts are so termed. Allegiance. The obedience which every subject owes to his prince or liege lord. Allocation. An allowance made on an accotint in the Exchequer. Allocatur. The certificate by which a taxing master certifies the amount at which he has taxed a bill of costs. Allodial (contradistinguished from feudal), is where lands are held free, i. e. without being subject to any fine, rent, or service. Amicus Curiae. A counsel (or by-stander), who informs the judge on a point of law, on which he is doubtful or mistaken. Ancestor. The law distinguishes between ancestor and prede- cessor ; the former is applied to individuals, the latter to corporations. Ancient Demesne. A tenure of lands partaking of the properties both of copyhold and freehold. Apparator. A messenger that serves the process of the Ecclesiasti- cal Court. Appeal. The removal of a cause from an inferior into a superior court, for the purpose of impeaching the judgment of the inferior court. Appearance to Action. The first formal step by a defendant in an action or suit. It is a notice that he intends to defend. Appellant. The person appealing to a superior from the decision of an inferior court. Appanage. The portion of the younger children of continental princes. Appointment. A formal execution of some power or authority ; as, for instance, a power to dispose of property amongst a certain class, as children or grauidchildren. Appraiser. A person who values personal chattels. Appropriation. The appropriation of a payment means the ap- plying of it to the discharge of a particular debt, where the creditor to whom it is made has more than one debt due from the same debtor. Approver. A person guilty of an indictable offence, who, to obtain pardon for himself, makes a full confession, and is admitted to give evidence against his accomplices. Arbitration. An extrajudicial method of settling matters in differ- ence by referring them to the arbitrament or determination of p)ei^ons appointed by the disputants, and termed arbitrators. Arches Court. A court of appeal from all inferior Ecclesiastical Courts within the province of Canterbury, England. Arraignment. A term of criminal procedure. A prisoner, after hav- ing had the indictment read over to him, is commanded to state wheth- er or not he is guilty. This proceeding is termed the arrraignment. Arrest. A legal seizure, capture, or taking of a man's person which is effected by corporeal touching, or something equivalent thereto. In civil cases a man can only be arrested under legal process. The officer cannot break open a man's outer door for the purpose of arresting him ; nor can arrest on a civil process be effected on a Sunday, except after an escape. Arrest of Judgment. Where the court stays a judgment, after a ver- dict, on some question of law. Arson. Felonious houseburning. Articled Clerk. A student bound by deed to serve an attorney pre- paratory to his own admission to practice. Articles of the Peace. A complaint against a person to compel him to find sureties to keep the peace. Assault and Battery. An attempt or offer, with force and violence, to do a corporal hurt to another is an assault ; an injury actually done to the {jerson of another in an angry, revengeful, or insolent manner, be it ever so small, is a battery. Assets. Property, whether real or personal, in the hands of an exec- utor, &c., for the purpose of satisfying debts. Assignee. A person to whom any real or personal property is trans- ferred by the act of law, as an executor, an assignee of a bankrupt, &c., or by the act of party, as a purchaser of a lease. Assignment. A transfer of any kind of property from one person to another. Assumpsit. A verbal or parol promise expressed or implied, spring- ing out of a simple contract. The law always implies a promise to do that which a party is legally bound to perform. An action of assump- sit or promise is the remedy for breach of a parol as distinguished from a written contract. Assurance. The securing the payment of a sum of money or other benefit on the happening of a certain event, as, for instance, the death of a person. This is the term now usually applied to life contingencies, as contradistinguished from fires, losses at sea, &c., as to which the term insurance is still used. Attachment. A process of the Courts of Law and Equity for com- pelling by arrest the performance of an act, which a party is already in contempt for not performing. Also an ancient remedy open to credi- tors in London, and some other cities, to attach the money or goods of their debtor in the hands of a third party within the city. Attorney. A person appointed by another by letter or power of at- torney to do anything for him in his absence. Attorney-at-Law. An officer of the superior courts of law, legally authorized to transact the business of other persons — termed his clients — in those courts. Attornment. An acknowledgment by one person that he holds lands, or is the tenant, of another, thereby creating between them the relation of landlord and tenant. Autre Droit. When a person holds an estate not in his own right, but in right of another. Autre Vie. For the life of another. Average. A contribution to a general loss. When, for the safety of a ship in distress, any destruction of property is incurred, all persons having goods on board contribute ratably to the loss ; this is called average. Award. The judgment or decision of an arbitrator. Backing a 'Warrant. The indorsing by a justice of the peace of the county where a warrant (which has been granted by the justice of the peace of another county) is about to be executed, and is a necessary act to be done before a person can be apprehended in a county different to that in which the warrant was issued. Bail. The sureties for the reappearance of a person released from custody. Bail-Bond. A document under seal, by which a p)erson becomes bail. Bailee. An individual intrusted with the custody of goods ; for in, tance, a carrier. Bailiff. There are various kinds of bailiffs ; the most common being those appointed by the sheriff, commonly called sheriff's officer. Bailment. A delivery of a thing in trust for some special object of purj)ose. Bailor. The person who makes a bailment, or delivers goods to a bailee. Banc, or Banco (sittingfs in). The sittings of the judges of the su- perior Courts of Common Law. Banker. A person who holds the money of another, and disposes of it as the other from time to time directs. Bank Note. A promise by a banker to pay a specified sum to the holder. Bankrupt. A trader who is indebted in a certain amount, and has committed an act of bankruptcy. See Acts of Bankruptcy. Bargain and Sale. A form of conveyance ; but rarely now used. Baron and Feme. The old legal style of husband and wife. Barratry. Any act of the master or crew of a ship which is of a crim- inal or fraudulent nature, tending to the prejudice of the owners. Barristers. A body of men qualified by admission in one of the Inns of Court to plead as advocates ; such admission is termed, being " called to the bar." Base Fee. A freehold estate of inheritance, liable to be determined on the happening of a certain event. Battel. A trial by combat, formerly.allowed by the law, by which the innocence or guilt of a party was decided. Battery. See Assault and Battery. Bencher. A Senior of the Inns of Court. Benefice. An ecclesiastical living. ■^ DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. 319 Benefit of Clergy. Certain privileges formerly enjoyed by the clergy alone ; afterwards a privilege claimed by all criminals who could read, but now abolished. Bequest. A testamentary disposition of personal estate. Bigamy. The criminal offence of a married man or woman pretend- ing to marry again, his wife or her husband (as the case may be) being still alive. Bill. The term applied to an intended statute when passing through Congress, prior to its becoming law. Bill in Chancery. A printed statement of the plaintiff's case in the form of a petition to the Lord Chancellor, praying for redress. It is the first step in a suit. Bill of Exceptions. A mode of app>ealing from the decision of a judge on a point of law. Bill of Exchange. A written order for payment of money by one j>erson (called the drawer) upon another (termed the drawee). When the drawee has undertaken to pay the bill, which he does by writing his name across it, he is termed the acceptor. Bills of exchange are ne- gotiable, i. e. they confer on the holder the right of suing upon it, which he could not do in the case of a mere ordinary contract, for the want of that privity which the law in ordinary cases requires between the parties to a contract. The law as to bills of exchange is governed by the law Merchant. See Law Merchant. Bill of Lading. A memorandum or receipt signed by the master of a ship, acknowledging the shipment of goods, which are usually made deliverable to the consignee, or his order. One part of the bill of lading is sent to the consignee by post. By indorsing the bill of lading the prop)erty in the goods is passed to the indorsee, and so from hand to hand. The bill of lading, properly indorsed, forms, in fact, the title to the goods, and without the production of which the captain would not deliver the goods. Bill of Sale. An assignment of goods and chattels, by writing ; gen- enerally, but not necessarily, imder hand and seal. Bona Fide. With good faith. Bond. A written obligation, under seal. If for the payment of a sum of money upon or after the death of a person, it is then termed a post-obit bond. The person making a bond is called the obligor, and he to whom it is given, the obligee. Borough. A town having now, or having formerly had, corporate rights. Borough-English. A tenure by which the youngest son inherits from the father. Bottomry. The borrowing of money by the master on th« bottom or hull of a ship ; to be paid with interest,, if the ship return in safety, but otherwise to be lost or forfeited. Breach of Covenant. The doing of an act which a party has cove- nanted not to do, or the neglecting to do that which he has covenanted to perform. Breach of the Peace. An act by which the public repose is dis- turbed, and the safety of the community, more or less, endangered. Breach of Promise. The doing, or abstaining from doing, something contrary to an undertaking or contract. Breach of Trust. A neglect of duty by a trustee, or person standing in a fiduciary relation, in violation of his trust. Bribery. The giving or receiving any reward for corrupt pur- poses. Brief. An abridgment of a client's case, for the instruction of coun- sel on a trial, or hearing in court. Broker. An agent employed to buy or sell goods; a sort of middle- man between vendor and purchaser. He is not, like a factor, intrusted with the possession of the articles he vends. Brokerage. The commission paid to a broker. Burgage Tenure. A tenure whereby houses or lands are held in cer- tain ancient boroughs. Burgesses includes all the inhabitants of a borough. Burglary. The offence of entering a dwelling-house, in the night, with intent to commit felony. Bursar. The treasurer of a college. In Scotland it is nearly syn- onymous with sizar in the English universities. By-Law. A private law made by those duly authorized by charter, custom, or prescription ; but such by-law must be consonant to the pub- lic laws laws and statutes, and for the common benefit. Canon Lavtr. A collection of ecclesiastical constitutions, definitions, and rules, derived from the ancient councils, the writings of the fath- ers, ordinances of popes, etc. At the Reformation it was enacted that a review should be had of the Canon Law ; but that, until such review, the existing law should continue in force, except as far as the same should be repugnant to the law of the land or the Royal Prerogatives— this still remains the state of the law, such review never having been made. The canons of 1603, having been made by the clergy, and con- firmed by the king, James I., alone, but not by Parliament, do not bind the laity. Capias. A writ authorizing the arrest of a defendant in a suit. It is issued, either after judgment, or when it is satisfactorily shown that the defendant is about to leave the realm before trial. Capias ad Satisfaciendum, or Ca-sa, The writ of capias when is- sued after judgment : so termed, because the defendant is taken to satisfy the plaintiff's demands. Caption. The act of arresting a man. See Arrest. Carrier. A person whose business it is to carry goods, for the proper delivery and safety of which he is legally responsible. Casus Omissus. Where anything is omitted, or not provided ag^ainst by a statute, &c. Caveat. A proceeding to prevent an act being done, such as the granting of administration, without notice to the party entering the caveat. Caveat Emptor. Let the purchaser beware. It signifies that a ven- dor is not bound to answer for the goodness of his wares, unless he expressly warrants them. Certiorari. A writ for the removal of a cause from an inferior to a superior court. This writ always lies, unless where expressly taken away by statute, and herein it differs from an appeal, which can never be had unless expressly given. Cestui que Trust. He who is the real and beneficial owner of prop)- erty held in trust. Cestui que Vie. The person for whose life lands are held. See Tenant pur autre vie. Challenge. An exception taken by a prisoner against one or more jurors, who, when challenged, are set aside, if the challenge be al- lowed, and new ones put in their places. Chambers. A lawyer's apartments. Champerty. The offence of unlawfully maintaining a suit in con- sideration of a bargain for a part of the thing in dispute, or some profit out of it. Chancellor. An officer of the highest dignity and authority in various departments. Chance Medley. The accidental killing of any one, without malice prepense. Chancery. The highest court of judicature next to the Parliament, and of very ancient institution. The Court of Chancery is called a Court of Equity, because it was instituted for the purpose of proceed- ing by the rules of equity and conscience, and of moderating the rigor of the common law ; equity being the correction of that wherein the law, by reason of its universality, is deficient. — Yet the Court of Chan- cery is not intended to act in opposition to, but in assistance of, the common law, supplying its deficiencies, not contradicting its rules ; no judgment of law being reversible by a degree in Chancery. Charter. A royal grant or privilege, granted to corporations, com- panies, etc. Charter-Party. An instrument between merchants and owners or masters of ships, containing the particulars of the contract for the hire of the ship. It is in fact a mercantile lease of the ship. Chattels. There are two kinds, chattels real and chattels personal ; the former are leasehold property, and the latter personal goods or chattels, as furniture or money. Chose. A thing. Chose-en-action is a thing of which a man has not the possession, and which he can only claim by action, as, for in- stance, a debt owing to him by another. Church Rates. Rates assessed by the parishioners, in vestry assem- bled, for the repair of the parish church. It is now definitely settled that, if the majority vote against the rate, it may be resisted with im- punity. Churchwardens. Officers annually chosen to superintend the church, churchyard, and such things as belong thereto. 4r- r- 320 DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. Citation. The first step in an ecclesiastical cause, analogous to the writ of summons in an action. Civil Law. The Roman law is comprised in the institutes, code, and digest of the Emperor Justinian. Clerk. The strict definition of the word " clerk " is a person in holy orders, but it is now generally applied to any person whose chief occu- pation is writing. Client. Anciently, a Roman citizen, taken under the protection of some great man, who was styled his patron. The term is now applied to a party who employs a solicitor or counsel in any legal proceeding. Close. An enclosed piece of ground. Code. A collection or system of laws, as the Code Napoleon. Codicil. A supplement to a will. See Will. Cognovit Actionem. An instrument by which a defendant ac- knowledges the plaintiff's cause, and suffers judgment to be entered against him without trial. Collateral Descent. That which descends from a side branch of a family ; as from an uncle or a nephew. Collative. An advowson vested in the bishop. He cannot present to himself, but he confers the benefice on his nominee by collation. Commendam. A beneficed clergyman, when promoted to a bishop- ric, vacates his benefice by the promotion, but the crown might for- merly, by special grant, have given him power to retain his benefice, and when this was done, he was said to hold it in commendam. Grants in commendam are now abolished. Commission. The warrant, or letters-patent, authorizing any in- quiry judicial or otherwise ; as the commission of the judges, the com- mission of the peace, etc. Commitment. The sending a person who has been guilty of any crime to prison, by warrant or order. Committee. Persons to whom the consideration of any matter is re- ferred ; as a Committee of the House of Congress. Common (Rights of). These are of four sorts : viz., pasture, pis- cary, estovers, and turbary. Common of pasture is the right of feeding one's cattle on the land of another ; piscary, that of fishing in waters belonging to another ; estovers, the right of taking wood from another's estate, for household use and implements in husbandry ; and turbary, the right of digging turf upon another's ground. Common Law. The law of England is composed of Acts of Parlia- ment or statutes, and the custom of the realm. The latter consisting of those rules or maxims, which have obtained by common consent an im- memorial usage. The former are designated the lex scripta, or stat- ute law ; the latter the lex non scripta, or common law. This term is also applied to the superior courts of Westminster, which are called Courts of Common Law, as distinguished from the Court of Chancery, which is a Court of Equity. Commonalty. In London one of the compyonent parts of the Livery Companies, which consist of the master, wardens, and commonalty. Commutation of Tithes. The term applied to the conversion of the tithes in England into a fixed rent ch^ge. Complainant. One who complains of the act of another in a court of justice, more commonly called plaintiff. •Compounding Offences. Entering into an agreement not to prose- cute an offender, for any consideration received or to be received, con- stitutes a crime, for which the offender may be indicted. Compounding with Creditors. An agreement by which creditors take a portion of their claims in discharge of the whole. Conditions of Sale. The terms upon which a vendor undertakes to sell to a purchaser. Confirmation. A deed by which a voidable estate in land is made perfect. Congd d'6lire. The license of the crown to a dean and chapter to choose a bishop ; a mere form to be gone through, as they can only ac- cept or reject the candidate nominated by the crown. Conjugal Rights. Those rights of husband and wife which spring out of their relationship. Consanguinity. Relationship by blood, in contradistinction to affin- ity, which is a relationship by marriage. Conservator, A standing arbitrator, appointed to compose and ad- just differences that may arise between parties, etc. Consideration. The price or motive of a contract, without which a simple contract is void. In technical language, it may be defined as " some detriment to the plaintiff sustained for the sake or at the instanco of the defendant, or some benefit to the defendant moving from the plaintiff." Consignee. A person to whom goods are delivered either as pur- chaser, or more generally for sale on commission. Consignor. The person by whose act or directions goods are deliv- ered to the consignee. Consignment. The act of making over, or delivering, goods to an- other. Conspiracy. A combination of two or more persons to carry into effect an unlawful purpose. Constructive Trust. A trust founded in what the law deems to be the presumed, as contradistinguished from the expressed, intention of its creator. Consul. An officer appointed by government to reside abroad and watch over the interests of our countrymen, who may happen to reside in or be passing through the place where the consul is located. Contempt. A disobedience to the rules, orders, or process of a court, which has power to punish such offence, which it does by imprison- ment. Contingent Remainders. Estates which cannot become vested until the happening of some uncertain event. Contract. A covenant or agreement between two or more persons with a lawful consideration. Contribution. Where one surety or joint contractor has been obliged to satisfy the whole demand, he may obtain contribution from his fellow- surety or contractor. Contributory. One liable to contribute to the liquidation of the lia- bilities of a joint-stock company, under the Winding-up Acts. Conveyance. A deed which passes or conveys land from one person to another. Conveyancers. Persons who devote themselves to the preparation of formal documents concerning property. Convict. He that is found guilty of an offence by the verdict of a jury. Coparceners. Such as have equal shares in the inheritance of their ancestors ; as, where a man dies intestate, having two daughters, his heiresses, they take his freehold lands as coparceners. Copyhold. Land held by a copy of the court rolls of a manor. Copyright. The exclusive right which the law allows an author of printing and publishing his own original work for a prescribed period, viz., the term of his natural life, and seven years afterwards; and if such seven years expire before forty-two years from the time of the first publication, then for such forty-two years. Coram non Judice. When a judge in a court of law exceeds his jurisdiction in a cause, it is said to be coram non judice. Coroner. An officer whose duty it is to inquire into the cause by which any person came to a sudden or violent death, which must be done, before him and the jury assembled for the purpose, upon view of the body. Costs. The expenses incurred in the prosecution or defence of legal proceedings, of which there are two kinds, those between party and party, and those between attorney and client. Counsel. See " Barrister at Law," who is usually termed counsel or counsellor. Count, in common-law pleadings, is a section of a declaration. County Court. Local courts established throughout the country. Court Baron. A court incident to every manor, held by the stev/ard, in which surrenders and admittances of the manor lands are passed, and other matters relating thereto transacted. Court Christian. The Ecclesiastical Courts are so called, as distin- guished from the civil courts. Covenant. An agreement under seal. Coverture. The state of a married woman as being under the protec- tion and influence of her husband or baron. She is called a feme covert. Crassa Negligentia. Gross neglect. Crim. Con., or Criminal Conversation. Illicit conversation with a married woman, for which the party is liable to an action for damages. Cross-examination. The interrogation of a witness by or on behalf of the party against whom the evidence is given. Curia Advisare Vult. When the court takes time to consider its judgment. --*^ DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. 321 4r- Cursitors. Officers of the Court of Chancery who make out all orig- inal writs. Curtesy of England. An estate which a husband has for his life in his wife's fee simple, or fee tail estates after her death. The wife must have been actually seised of such estates, and have ha'd issue bom alive. Custodia Legis. In the custody of the law. Custom. A law, not written, established by long use, and the con- sent of our ancestors : if it be universal, it is common law ; if particular, it is then properly custom. Customs. Duties levied on commodities exported and imported. Custos Rotulorum. The officer who has the custody of the rolls or records of a county. Cy pris (as near to). An equitable doctrine applied in certain cases, where the court cannot adhere strictly to the terms of an instrument, but carries it into effect cy pr^s, or as near to the object as it can. Damages. The amount of money awarded by a jury, to be paid by a defendant to a plaintiff, as a compensation for the injury of which the latter complains. Damnum absque injuria. Any act done by one which may cause loss to another without doing him a legal injury. De bene esse. To do a thing de bene esse is to accept or allow it for the present as good, until it comes to be more fully examined, and then to stand or fall according to its merits. Debenture. A written instrument of the nature of a bond or bill for a certain sum of money. De bonis non. When an administrator dies, the right does not de- scend to his own representative, but a fresh grant of administration must be obtained of the goods remaming unadministered, and which is called an administration de bonis non. Declaration, in an action at law, signifies the plaintiff's statement of his cause of action. Declaration of Trust. A written or verbal expression or statement by which a person acknowledges himself to be a trustee for another. If relating to lands, it must be in writing. Decree. The judgment of a Court of Equity. De die in diem. From day to day. Deed. A writing sealed and delivered by the parties to it. De facto. A thing actually done or existing. Default (Judgment by). If a defendant omits to appear or plead to an action, within the time allowed, the plaintiff can sign judgment by default. Defaulter, A person who neglects to perform an act required to be done. Defeasance. A collateral deed made at the same time with some other deed, and containing certain conditions which may defeat or ren- der null and void the provisions of such other deed. Defendant. The party against whom an action or suit is brought. Del credere. The additional commission paid to a factor who guar- antees the payment of the purchase -money of goods sold by him. Demesne. Lands which formerly the lord kept in his own hands, being next to his mansion. Demise. A word used in conveyances of estates for terms of years. Demurrage. A compensation or allowance for detaining a ship be- yond the usual or specified time. Demurrer. A mode of raising a point of law, upon the facts stated in the pleadings, assuming them to be true. Denizen. An alien who, on obtaining letters patent, was enabled to purchase and devise land. Deodand, was anything, as a horse or a carriage, which by accident caused the death of a human being, and thereby became forfeited. Deposition. The testimony of a witness taken down in writing and signed by him. Descent. One of the modes of acquiring a title to real property. De son tort, of his own wrong. A term applied to a party who as- sumes to act as the executor of a deceased party without auy legal au- thority. Detainer. A writ whereby a person may be detained in custody. Detinue. The form of action to recover possession of goods and chattels wrongfully withheld. Devise. The giving away of lands or other real estate by will. Disability. A legal incapacity to do an act. Disclaimer. A renunciation by an executor or trustee of the office imposed upon him, also a mode of defence in equity, etc. Discovert. A term applied to a widow or unmarried woman. Disfranchise. To take away from certain places or persons any privilege, freedom, or liberty. Disseisin. A wrongful invasion of the possession of another, and turning him out from the occupation of his lands, either by force or surprise. Distress. The distraining or taking the effects of a tenant, in order to satisfy the rent due to his landlord. Distringas (on Stock). A writ which stops the transfer of stock by the party in whose name it stands, and can be obtained at the instance of any party beneficially interested in the stock. Divorce. The legal separation of husband and wife. In England there are two kinds of divorce, the one absolute, the other what is now called a Judicial Separation. See the recent Statute 20 & 21 Vic. cap. 85, which takes away the jurisdiction, in matrimonial matters, from the Ec- clesiastical Courts, and vests the same in a New Court, which consists .of the " Judge Ordinary," and the Full Court, the latter only having power to grant an absolute divorce. By this Act a judicial separation (which does not enable the parties to marry again) may be obtained by husband or tvife, for (i.) Adultery, (2.) Cruelty, or (3.) Desertion with- out cause for two years. As to an Absolute Divorce, a difference takes place if it be the wife, instead of the husband, applying for it ; thus, a husband can obtain an absolute divorce against his wife on the groimd of adultery, but an absolute divorce by a wife against her husband can only be obtained if the husband has been guilty of (i) incestuous adul- tery, or (2) of bigamy with adultery, or (3) of rape, or sodomy, or besti- ality, or (4) of adultery coupled with cruelty, or (5) of adultery coupled with desertion^ without reasonable cause, for two years. Doctors of Civil Law. A degree (D. C. L.), granted by our Univer- sities of Oxford and Cambridge to such of its members as are learned in the civil law. Doctors Commons. A college of civilians in London, near St. Paul's Cathedral, where also the ecclesiastical and admiralty courts are held ; but by the recent statute abolishing the probate and matrimonial jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts, power is given to the doctors to dissolve this college. Doli Capax. Capable of committing a crime. Doli Incapax. Incapable of committing a crime. Domicile. The domicile of a person is where he has his permanent home. There are three sorts of domiciles— by birth, by choice, and by operation of law. Domitae Naturx, tame by nature. A term applied to animals of a naturally tame disposition, as sheep, etc. Donatio Mortis Causa. A gift of chattels made by a person in a dying stale, to become absolute only in the event of his death. Donative. A benefice given by the patron direct to the clerk by ■ deed, without either presentation to, or induction by, the bishop. Doomsday-Book. An ancient work compiled in the time of Wil- liam the Conqueror, consisting of two volumes, which contains the de- tails of a great survey of the kingdom. These volumes are now pre- ser\'ed in the Exchequer. Dower. A widow ft entitled, at the death of her husband, to a life- interest in a third part of the estates of inheritance of which her hus- band was seised, and did not dispose of by deed or will. Drawer. See Bill of Exchange. Duces Tecum. A clause added to a subpoena requiring the wit- ness to bring with him, and produce at the trial, certain documents in his possession. Durante Bene Placito. During pleasure. Durante Minore ^tate. During minority. Durante Viduitate. During widowhood. Durante Vita. During life. Duress. Anything done under compulsion and through unavoidable necessity. Easement. A convenience which one has in or over the lands of another, as a way or a water course. Easter Term. One of the four law terms, commencing on the 15th April and ending the 8th May in each year. Ecclesiastical Courts. Arches Court. The jurisdiction of these \ .322 DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. kr- courts is now confined to church matters, they having been shorn of that which constituted nine-tenths of their business, viz. the jurisdic- tion in testamentary and matrimonial matters. Effluxion of Time. The expiration of a term in its natural course as contradistinguished to its determination by act of the parties. Ejectment. An action at law to recover the possession of lands. Elegit. A writ of execution under which all the debtor's lands may be seized or extended, and held by the judgment creditor until his judgment is satisfied. Embezzlement. The act of appropriating that which is received in trust for another, which is a criminal offence. Emblements. The growing crops which are annually produced by the labor of the cultivator. They are deemed personal property, and pass as such to the executors, and not to the heir. Enfeoff (to). The act of conveying an estate of freehold by deed of feoffment. Enfranchisement. The admittance of a person into a society or body-pwlitic. Enfranchisement of copyholds is a conversion of copy- holds into freehold tenure. Engrossing. A style of writing, not now generally used for deedsj but still used for the probates of wills. Enrolment. The registering of deeds as required by certain stat- utes ; as, for instance, deeds conveying lands to charitable uses. Entail. That inheritance whereof a man is seized to hhn and the heirs of his body. Tail-General is where lands and tenements are given to one, and the heirs of his body generally. Tenant in tail-special is where the gift is restrained to certain heirs of the donee's body as male or female. There is no such thing as a perpetual entail by the law of England. The way in which property is tied up in families is by re- peated settlements. If in any one generation the usual settlement (which of course is the act of the parties and not of the law) should not be executed, the entailed property would be free. The property settled by the nation on Marlborough and Wellington were, by special Act of Parliament, vested in their heirs for ever, thus in fact creating what the common law would not permit, a perpetual entail. Equitable Estate. The beneficial interest of a cestui que trust, the legal ownership being in a trustee. Equitable Mortgage. The most familiar instance is the depwsit (either with or without a memorandum, although it is better to have one) of the title deeds of an estate by way of security, which consti- tutes an equitable mortgage without the execution of any formal mort- gage deed. Equity of Redemption. The right which equity gives to a mort- gager of redeeming his estate after the appointed time for payment has passed, and which right can only be barred by a foreclosure. Error. A w^rit of error is a commission to judges of a superior court, by which they are authorized to examine the record, upon which a judgment was given in an inferior court, and to affirm, reverse, or vary the same, according to law. Escheat. Is where lands, for want of heirs, or from forfeiture, es- cheat or fall back to the sovereign or lord of the fee as the original grantor. Escrow. A deed delivered to a 3d person conditionally until some- thing is done by the grantor. Until the condition has been performed the deedTias no legal effect. Estate. The interest which a person has in lands, or other prop- erty. Estoppel. Where a man is precluded in law from alleging or deny- ing a fact in consequence of his own previous act, allegation, or denial to the contrary. Estreat. Where a recognizance becomes forfeited by any of its conditions being broken, it is estreated: that is, extracted from the record, and sent up to the Exchequer, whence a process will issue to re- cover the penalty. Evidence. Proof , either written or unwritten, of the facts in issue in any legal proceeding. Exchange of Lands. A mutual grant of lands ; the one in consider- ation of the other. Excise. A tax or impost charge by government on certain commo- dities. Excommunication. A punishment inflicted by the sentence of an Exrclesiastical Court debarring the offender from the sacraments, etc. Execution. The act of putting the sentence of the law into force. Executor. One appointed by a person's last will to administer his personal estate. Executor de son tort. A stranger who takes upon himself to act as executor without any authority. , Exhibits. Documents, etc., produced in evidence, and marked for the purpose of identification. Exigent. A writ used in the process of outlawry. Ex-ofRcio. Anything done by virtue of an office. An information filed by the Attorney-general, by virtue of his office, is called an Ex- ojfficio Information. Ex-parte. A statement is called Ex-par te where only one of the parties gives an account of a transaction, in which two or more are concerned. Ex-post-facto. An ex-post-facto law, is a law made purposely to restrain or punish an offence already committed. Extra-judicial. Any act done by a judge beyond his authority, or any opinion expressed by him not strictly p)ertinent to the matter in issue before him. Extra-parochial. Places which are out of the bounds or limits of a parish ; and, therefore, exempt from parish rates and duties. Eyre (Justices in). The word eyre, or eire, is French, and is derived from the Latin iter, a journey. Thus, the term Justices in Eyre sig- nifies the itinerant court of justices, or those who journey from place to place to hold assizes. Factor. An agent intrusted with the possession of goods for sale belonging to his principal. A broker, on the other hand, has not the custody of the goods of his principal. See Broker. Faculty. A privilege or dispensation granted by an Ecclesiastical Court in certain cases. False pretenses. The criminal offence of obtaining any chattel, money, or valuable security by means of a false pretence ; it is punish- able by transportation, fine, or imprisonment. False return. An incorrect account, given by a sheriff , of his do- ings under a writ of execution, for which he is liable to an action. Falsi crimen. A fraudulent concealment of the truth. Fealty. The duty due to a lord from his tenant, pursuant to the oath taken at his admittance. Fee-simple. That estate or interest in lands which a person holds to him and his heirs for ever. During his life he possesses over it a per- fectly free and unrestrained power of disposition, and, 4)n his death without having alienated it by deed or will, it descends to his heirs, both lineal and collateral, male and female, according to an esublished order of descent. Felo-de-se. One who commits self-murder. Felony. Formerly defined as comprising " all capital crimes below treason." It may now more accurately be defined as comprising all crimes occasioning a forfeiture of lands or goods, or both. Feme-covert. A married woman. See Coverture. Feme-sole. An unmarried woman. Feoffment. A mode of conveyance of lands in fee, accompanied by certain solemnities. It is rarely, if ever, now used. Ferae naturae. Animals that are of a wild nature, such as foxes, hares, Vvild fowl, etc., in opposition to tame and domesticated ani- mals. Fiat. An order or warrant for a thing to be done or executed. Fieri Facias. A writ of execution, by which the sheriff is com- manded to levy the debt and damages of the goods and chattels of the defendant. Finding. A finder of goods may appropriate them to his own use if he really believes when he takes them that the owner cannot be found ; but if a jury should say that the finder appropriated the goods, not having (or that he could reasonabfy be supposed not'to have had) such belief at the time of appropriation, it amounts to a theft, and can be punished criminally. Finding a Bill. The grand jury either find or ignore the bills against prisoners ; if they find a true bill, the case goes into court, and is tried. Fire bote. The wood which a tenant of lands is legally entitled to take for the purpose of making his fires. If he takes too much he com- mits waste, and is liable to an action. DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. 323 Fire policy. An instrument by which an insurane ccompany guar- antees to a person, who has insured his property, the payment of a sum of money if it is injured or destroyed by fire. First-fruits and tenths. Certain revenues arising to the Crown from ecclesiastical livings ; which now form the fund called Queen Anne's Bounty, for the augmentation of poor livings. Fixtures. This term is generally used to denote those personal chattels which though annexed to the freehold of demised premises, a tenant is nevertheless entitled to remove. They consist of trade fix- tures, and of those put up for the ornament or convenience of the premises. Foreclosure. The barring the equity of redemption on mortgages. Foreign Bill of Exchange. A bill drawn by a person abroad and accepted in the United States, or vice versa. Forfeiting recognizances. When a person who has entered into recognizances, fails to comply with their conditions, the same are for- feited or estreated. Forfeiture. A punishment consequent upon the commission of cer- tain crimal offences or illegal acts. Forgery. The crime of counterfeiting a signature, seal, or mark ; or the fraudulent alteration of a writing to the prejudice of another. Franchise. A royal privilege to which a subject is entitled — as a fair, a market, a free warren, a park. Fraud. A dishonest and illegal artifice by which undue advantage is taken of another, or by which the interests of that other are unjustly prejudiced. Fraud strikes at the root of every transaction, and vitiates every contract, whether by record, deed, or otherwise. Free Bench. Is that estate or interest to which a woman is by vir- tue of a special custom, entitled for life in the one third part of the copyholds of her husband of which he died possessed, and is analogous to " dower " in freeholds. Freehold. Lands held in fee-simple, fee-tail, or at least for life. ■ Freight. The remuneration due to the owner of a ship for the con- veyance of goods or merchandise, on which he has a lien for the freight. Funded Debt. The public debt of this country, consisting of an im- mense sum which, from time to time, has been lent to government by individuals, and which they or their assigns receive interest for, out of the taxes. Further assurance. The name given to a covenant in a conveyance whereby the grantor undertakes to do any further act which may be re- quired for perfecting the grantee's estate. Future estates. Estates not in possession, but in expectancy, as a I'emainder. Garnishee. The party in whose hands money, due to a defendant, is attached. General issue. A form of plea in common law actions ; so called because the issue that it tenders goes to the whole cause of action. Gift. A voluntary conveyance or gift of lands or goods. If of the former, it is liable to be defeated in the life-time of the grantor, by his conveying the same lands to a purchaser, for a valuable consideration, even though with notice of the prior gift. Glebe. The name given to lands annexed to an ecclesiastical bene- fice. Grace, days of. The name given to the days of indulgence allowed to the acceptor of a bill of exchange after it becomes due. The number of such days varies in different countries. In some, as in France, they are abolished altogether. In England three days are allowed, so that a bill at a month drawn on the ist of one month, will become due on the 4th of the next. Grand Jury. The jury to whom all bills of indictment are referred in the first instance. It is the duty of this jury to interrogate the wit- nesses for the prosecution, and ascertain whether or not z. prima facie case is made out against the prisoner ; if so, they find a true bill, and he takes his trial, if not, they ignore the bill, and he is discharged. Grant. A mode of conveyance, formerly applicable only to incor- poreal hereditaments, reversionc, etc. ; but its significance has been ex- tended by a recent statute, and it is now the instrument most usually employed in the conveyance of land. Guaranty. An engagement to be responsible for the debts or duties of a third person. Habeas Corpus. A 'Writ of Right for those who are grieved by il- legal imprisonment. The Habeas Corpus Act is next in importance to Magna Charta ; for, so long as this statute remains, no subject of En|r_ land can long be detained in prison, except under legal process. Habendum. One of the formal parts of a deed ; its office is to limit or define the estate granted. It is so called because it begins with the words " to have," Heir. The legal representative of his ancestor, with respect to the real property of such ancestor. He takes all the real prof)erty, not otherwise disposed of by the ancestor in his life-time or by his will. Heir apparent is one whose right of inheritance is certain, and which nothing can defeat, provided he outlives his ancestor ; as the eldest son or issue. Heir presumptive is one who would inherit, provided his ancestor were 10 die at that particular time, but whose right of inheritance might be defeated by some nearer heir being after- wards bom ; as a brother or nephew, whose presumptive succession may be destroyed by the birth of a child. Heir looms. Such personal chattels as go to the heir along with the inheritance, and not to the executor of the deceased. Hereditaments. All things which may be inherited, that is, which would descend to the heir, if not disposed of by deed or will. Heredita- ments are of two kinds, corporeal and incorporeal. Heriot. The best beast, or in some cases the best chattel — such as a piece of plate — which falls to the lord of a manor on the death of a ten- ant. It is regulated by custom, and in some manors it does not ap- ply at all. Heritable (and Movable) Rights. These terms are used in the Scotch law to denote what in England is meant by real and personal property : real projjerty in England answering nearly to the heritable rights in Scotland, and personal property to the movable rights. Highway rate. A sum of money levied upon persons who are liable to pay poor rates, for the necessary reparation of highways. Homicide. The crime of killing any human being ; of which there are three Yvi\A.'&— justifiable., excusable, a-ndfielonious. House bote. The necessary quantity of wood which a tenant may lawfully take for the reparation and support of the demised premises. Hue and Cry. The old common law process of pursuing felons " with horn and voice." Also, the name of a paper now circulated amongst the police containing the names and descriptions of felons. Hypothecate. A term used for pawning a ship and goods, or either, for necessaries, which a master of a ship may do when in distress at sea. Ignore. When the grand jury reject a bill of indictment, they are said to ignore it, from the Latin word ignoramus. Illegal condition. A condition annexed to anything which is illegal, immoral, impossible, or otherwise contrary to law. Immoral contracts. Contracts infringing the rules of morality which, for reasons of public policy, are void at law. Impanelling. Writing in a parchment schedule the names of the jury by the sheriff. Incorporeal Hereditaments. Hereditaments of a non-tangible nature, and consisting of rights or benefits issuing out of corporal or tangible things— as a rent, an advowson, etc. Incumbent. The present possessor of an ecclesiastical benefice. Incumbrance. A charge or lien upon property, as a mortgage. Indemnity. A written instrument whereby one undertakes to free another from responsibility. Indenture. A deed, or writing, formerly cut or indented ; now the name usually given to deeds, although indenting is no longer essential. Indictment. A written accusation, of one or more persons, of a crime or misdemeanor, preferred to, and presented on oath, by a grand jury. Indorsement. Anything written on the back of a deed or other in- strument ; such as a bill of exchange. Induction. The act of giving to a clergyman the ix>ssession of his church. In esse. This term is used to express anything that has a real being, in contradistinction to the term in posse, which implies a thing that is not, but may be. Infant. Every person is by the law styled an infant till he has attained the age of t-wenty-one years. Inheritance. An estate in lands or tenements to a man and his heirs. 324 DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. Inhibition. A writ which issues from a higher Ecclesiastical Court to an inferior one from an appeal. Injunction. A prohibitory writ granted by the Court of Chancery forbidding certain acts to be done under pain of contempt. It may be granted in urgent cases ex parte, but notice is sometimes required to be given. Inland Bills. Bills of exchange are so called, when the drawer and acceptor both reside in the same country. Inquest. A meeting of jurors, who are summoned to take into con- sideration certain matters, which may appear in evidence before them, and to bring in their verdict accordingly. Inquiry (writ oO- A writ directed to the sheriff, commanding him to summon a jury and assess the damages in an action ; as, for instance, when the defendant has suffered judgment by default. Insolvency. The state of a person who is unable to pay his debts. Institution. Is the ceremony by which a bishop commits the cure of souls to a clerk on his presentation to a church living. Insurance. A security or indemnification against the risk of loss from the happening of certain events. The usual kinds are fire and marine. Interesse termini. The interest possessed by a lessee in a lease, after the granting thereof, but before he has entered upon the land de- mised. Interpleader. When two or more persons claim the same thing of a third, the latter may call upon them to interplead^ i. e. to try the right to it between themselves ; he, the third person, retaining possession of the thing in the meantime as a kind of stake-holder. Interrogatories. Written questions, to which the parties interro- gated are to give written iinswers on oath. Intestate. A person dying without a will, or, having made a will, without appointing an executor thereof. Inuendoe. That part of the declaration, in actions of libel and slander, which explains the meaning, or points the application, of the libellous or slanderous matter complained of. In Ventre sa Mere. A child not yet born, but of which the mother is pregnant. I. O. U. A written acknowledgment of a debt. This instrument is regarded in a court of law as evidence of an account stated. It is not a promissory note, and does not require a stamp. Issue. The disputed point or question to which the parties in an ac- tion have by pleadings narrowed their several allegations, and are hence said to Join Issue. If it be an issue of fact, it is tried by a jury, if of la w, by the court — Issue is also the legal term for children or remoter de- scendants. Jactitation of Marriage. When one party boasts or falsely declares that he or she is married to another, whereby a common reputation of their marriage may ensue. Jeofail. An oversight in pleading or other law proceeding. It is de- rived from the Trench. y at ■Jaille. Joinder in Action. The coupling or joining two parties in one suit or action. Joint-Tenants. Persons who hold lands, etc., jointly by one title. On the death of one the survivor takes the whole. Jointure. A settlement of lands or tenements on a woman, to take effect after her husband's death in lieu of dower. Judgment. TYiC sentence o/ the law pronounced by the court upon the matter contained in the record. Jurat. The clause written at the foot of an affidavit, stating when, and before whom, it was sworn. Jurist. A civil lawyer. Jury. A certain number of men sworn to deliver a verdict upon such evidence of facts as shall be delivered to them, touching the matter in question. Jury list. The list kept by the sheriff of persons liable to serve on juries. Jus. A law, a right. Jus accrescendi. The term expressive of the right of survivorship ' among joint tenants. Jus ad rem. Signifies an inchoate or imperfect right to a thing, in contradistinction to Jus in re, which signifies the complete and perfect right in a thing. Jus commune. The common law. Jus gentium. The law of nations. Justifying Bail. Is the act of proving to the satisfaction of the court, that the persons proposed as bail are sufficient for the purpose. Kin, or Kindred. A relation either of consanguinity or affinity. Landlord. A proprietor of lands occupied by another, which latter party is termed the tenant. Lapse. A forfeiture of the right of presentation to a church by the neglect of the patron to present. The word is also applied where a tes- tamentary gift fails by the death of its object in the life-time of the testator. Larceny. The wrongful and unlawful taking and carrying away by one person of the personal goods of another, with the felonious inten- tion of converting them to his own use. Law. This word signifies generally an inflexible rule of action. The law of England is composed of -written laws or statutes, and unwritten laws, or the customs of the realm. The latter is also termed the Com- mon Law. Law Merchant. Part of the unwritten or Common Law, consisting of particular customs, that have gradually grown into the force of law and are recognized as such by the courts ; such as the law relating to Bills of Exchange, etc. Law of Nations. A system of rules or principles deduced from the law of nature, and intended for the regulation of the mutual intercourse of nations. Leading Cases. Cases decided by the superior courts, which have settled and determined important pwints of law. Leading Question. A question put or framed in such a form as to suggest the answer sought to be obtained. Such a question is not allowed to be put to a witness, except on cross-examination. Lease. A conveyance or demise of lands or tenements for life, or years, or at will, but always for a less term than the party conveying has in the premises. Lease and Release. The form of conveyance, until recently com- monly used for conveying land ; but a lease, commonly called a lease for a year, is no longer necessary ; the release alone being now as effectual as a lease and release were formerly. Leasehold. Lands held on lease, which (however long the term) are considered as chattels real, and go to the next of kin, and not to the heir, on the death of the owner intestate. Legacy. A gift, or bequest of money, goods or other personal prop erty by will. The person to whom it is given is styled the legatee ; and, if the gift is of the residue, after payment of debts and legacies, he is then styled the residuary legatee. Le Roi (or La Reine) le vent. (The King or Queen wills it.) The form of the royal assent to public Bills in Parliament. Lessor and Lessee. The person who grants a lease is called the lessor, the party to whom it is granted, the lessee, and the person to whom either of them assigns, the assignee. Letters of Administration. The instrument granted by the Probate Court under which administrators derive their title to administer the goods and chattels of an estate. Letters (or Power) of Attorney. A writing, under seal, empower- ing another person to do any act instead of the person granting the let- ter. It may be either general or special ; the attorney represents his principal in the matters prescribed by the letter until it be revoked. Letters of License. An instrument whereby creditors grant to their debtor time for the payment of his debts, and bind themselves not to molest him until that time has expired. Levant and Couchant. The law term for cattle that have been so long in the grounds of another, that they have lain down and risen again to feed. Levari facias. A Writ of Execution, now superseded in practice, except in the case of outlawry. Levy. The seizing of goods or chattels by a sheriff under an execu- tion is called a levy. Lex loci contractus. The law of the place or country where the contract was made. Lex mercatoria. The mercantile law. Lex non scripta. The unwritten or common law. Lex scripta. The written law. Lex terrae. The law of the land. Libel. A malicious defamation, expressed either in printing or writ- ing, or by signs, pictures, etc., tending either to blacken the memory of -^ DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. 325 y one who is dead, or the reputation of one who is alive, and thereby ex- posing him to public hatred, contempt, or ridicule. Lien. A qualified right which a person has in or to a thing in his possession, arising from a claim upon the owner. Liens are of two kinds, particular or general. Limited liability. The limitation of the liability of shareholders in a company to the amount unpaid upwan their shares, introduced by re- cent Acts, and applicable to all companies registered thereunder : such companies are bound to use the word " Limited " in their title after the word " Company." Lineal Descent. That which goes from father to son, from son to grandson, and so on. Liquidated Damages, are damages the amount of which are fixed or ascertained. Liquidator. A person duly appointed to wind up the affairs of an in- solvent company, under the winding up acts. Lis pendens. A pending suit or action. Livery of seisin. A delivery of possession of lands by the alienor to the alienee. In former times when the feoffments were used, livery of seisin was indispensably necessary to complete a gift or alienation of lands. Locus in quo. The place where anything is alleged to be done in pleadings, etc. Locus poenitentiae — a place of penitence. The position of a party who may recede from a contract or bargain which he is about to enter into or make. Lords Spiritual. The two archbishops and twenty-four bishops of England, with one Irish archbishop and three bishops — in all thirty. Lords Temporal. The lay f)eers of the realm, whose number may be increased at the will of the sovereign. Lucri causa. For the cause or purpose of gain. Lunatic. One who has had understanding, but, by grief, disease, or other accident, has lost the use of his reason generally, though he may have lucid intervals. Magna Charta. The g^reat charter of English liberties, granted by, or rather extorted from. King John, at Runnymede, between Windsor and Staines, on the 19th June, 1215, and afterwards confirmed by Henry III. Maihem or Mayhem. The violently depriving another of the use of such of his members as may render him less able, in fighting, either to defend himself or to annoy his adversary. Mainprise. The surrendering a person into friendly custody, upon giving security that he shall be forthcoming at the time and place re- quired. The writ of mainprise is obsolete. Majority. The being of full age. Mala fides. Bad faith. Mala in se. Wrong in themselves. Malice prepense. Malice aforethought ; i. e. deliberate, predeter- mined malice. Malus animus. A bad or malicious intent. Mandamus. A writ commanding the completion or restitution of some right, or the performance of a duty. Manor. A territorial domain, held partly by the lord and partly by his tenants ; it must have continued from time immemorial, and have annexed to it a Court Baron, with at least two suitors. Manslaughter, The unlawful killing of another, but without malice. Manumission. The making a bondman free. Market overt. Selling goods in market overt, or open, has in many cases a different legal effect to a mere private sale. In London a sale in an open shop is a sale in market overt ; for every day, except Sunday, is a market there. Marksman. A deponent in an affidavit who cannot write, but makes his mark. Marque and Reprisal (Letters of.) Commissions granted to in- dividuals to fit out privateers in time of war ; not used in the late war, and abandoned by all the great powers at the Congress of Paris, 1856. Master of the Rolls. An assistant of the Lord Chancellor, who hears and decides the cases assigned to him, at his own Court in the Rolls Yard. He holds his office by patent for life. Maturity. Bills, or notes, when due, are said to be at their maturity. Maxims in Law. Certain proverbial axioms, which form part of the general custom or common law of the land. As, " No man is botmd to criminate himself." — " Conditions against law are void." — " It is fraud to conceal fraud," etc., etc. Medietas Linguae. A jury whereof one half are foreigners, and the other natives ; and is used to try a cause in which either party is a foreigner, and requires that mode of trial. Merger. The sinking of a smaller estate into a greater, whereby the former is utterly extinguished and destroyed. It lakes place when two estates meet together, without any intermediate estate between them, to both of which estates the same individual is entitled in one and the same right — as where a tenant for life afterwards acquires the fee- simple. Mesne-Process. Commonly used to describe the first process in an action, as where a party used to be arrested on mesne-process, as dis- tinguished from an arrest on a final judgment. Misdemeanor. An indictable offense, which, though criminal, does not amount to felony. Misprision. A neglect, oversight, or contempt ; as, for example, mis- prision of treason is a negligence in not revealing treason. Mittimus. A writ for removing of records from one court to another. Modus. A composition in lieu of tithes. Moot point. An obscure point of law not definitely settled ; and therefore open for discussion. Mortgage. A conveyance of lands by way of security, for the repay- ment of a sum of money borrowed, or owing. Mortmain. Lands held by corporations are said to be held in mort- main. Motion. An occasional application to the court, to obtain some rule or order in the progress of a cause. Municipal Law. That which pertains solely to the citizens of a particular state, city, or province. Muniments. Deeds, evidences, and writings in general. Murder. Unlawfully killing any person, with mzilice aforethought, either express or implied by law. Mutiny Act. An Act annually passed to punish mutiny and deser- tion, and for the better regulation of the army. Naturalization. The making a foreigner a lawful subject of the state. Ne exeat regno. A writ to restrain a person from leaving the kingdom. Negative Pregnant. A form of denial which implies or carries with it an affirmative. Negotiable Instruments. Those instruments which confer on the holders the legal right to sue for the money or property thereby se- cured, and which by delivery pass such money or property from man to man — as bills of exchange, bills of lading. Nemine Contradicente (Nem. con.). Words used to signify the unanimous consent of the members of Parliaiment, or other public body, to a vote or resolution. Next friend. The party in whose name an infant or feme-covert brings an action or suit. Nil debet. A common plea to an actioo of debt when the money is not owing. Nil dicit. When judgment is had against a defendant by default. Nisi prius. A term applied to those courts in which civil causes are tried before a judge and jury. Nolle Prosequi. An acknowledgment by the plaintiff that he will not further prosecute his suit^ as to the whole or a part of the cause of action. Nomine Poenae. A penalty agreed to be paid on the non-perform- ance of some specified act. Non assumpsit. He has not promised. A plea by which a defend- ant denies his liability in an action of assumpsit. Non compos mentis. Of unsound mind. Non concessit. He did not grant. Non constat. It is not clear or evident. Non est factum. A plea by which a defendant denies that the deed mentioned in the declaration is his deed. Non est inventus. The sheriff's return to a writ, when the defend^ ant is not to be found in his county or bailiwick. Nonfeasance. The omitting to do what ought to be done. -<^ r 326 DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. Non pros. When the plaintiff neglects to take any step within the prescribed time, the defendant may move for a judgment against him, which is called judgment of non pros. Nonsuit. A renunciation of a suit by a plaintiff, after which he may still commence another action for the same cause, which he could not do if a verdict goes against him. Notary-Public. A person whose business it is to note and protest bills of exchange, and who also attests deeds and writings, to make them authentic in another country. Nudum pactum. An agreement without consideration, which, when not under seal, is void in law. Nuisance. Anything which unlawfully annoys or does damage to another. Nuisances may be either public or private. Nuncupative Will. An oral will before a sufficient number of wit- nesses, and afterwards reduced to writing— now abolished, except as to soldiers and sailors. Nunc pro tunc. Literally, now for then: and is often so used in legal proceedings. Oath. An appeal to God as a witness of the truth of what is affirmed or denied in evidence, in the presence of a judge, magistrate, or other officer authorized to administer oaths. Obiter dictum. A casual remark or opinion of a judge, not neces- sary to or forming part of his judgment on the matter before him.. Obligee. An individual for whose benefit an obligation is entered into. Obligor. He who enters into a bond or obligation. Official Assignees. Officers of the Court of Bankruptcy, one of whom is allotted to each Bankrupt's Estate. He acts with the assign- ees appointed by the creditors in the administration of the estate ; but his especial duty is to keep the assets of the estate, and receive and pay all money on account of it. Onus probandi. The burden of proof. It is a legal principle that the issue in an action must be proved by the party who slates an affirm- ative ; not by the party who states a negative. The burden of proof, therefore, is on the former party. Ostensible partner, A person whose name appears to the world as a partner in a firm. Although such a person may not have any interest in the partnership, he is liable for its debts and engagements. Ouster. The turning of a person out of possession of property .^ Outlawry. The act or process by which a person is excluded from, or deprived of, the benefit of the laws, attended with a forfeiture of his goods to the Crown. Overt Act. An open act, capable of being manifested by legal proof. Oyer and Terminer. A commission directed to the judges and others, by virtue whereof they have power to hear and determine treasons, felonies, etc. O Yes. A corruption of the French oyez, hear ye ! The term is used by a public crier to enjoin silence and attention. Panel. A schedule or slip of parchment, containing the names of such jurors as have been returned by the sheriff to serve on trials. Paraphernalia. Things to which a wife is entitled over and above her dower, consisting of wearing apparel and ornaments suitable to her rank and station in life. The husband may (with the exception of his wife's wearing apparel) dispose of them in his lifetime, but not by will. On his death they belong to the wife absolutely. Parol. Word of mouth, verbal. Particeps criminis. A participator in a crime. Partition. The dividing of lands held by joint tenants, coparceners, or tenants in common, into two distinct portions. Patent ambiguity. A matter of doubt appearing upon the face of an instrument. Pawn. A delivery of goods and chattels, to be retained until a debt is discharged. Peculiar. A particular parish or church having a special jurisdic- tion within itself, as exempt from the bishop's court. Penance. An ecclesiastical punishment, varied according to the nature of the offense, in which the penitent is supposed to make satis- faction to the church for the scandal he has given by his evil example. Pendente lite. During litigation. Peppercorn Rent. A nominal rent. Perjury. The offense committed by a person who, having been sworn to tell the truth in a matter pending inacourtof justice, willfully and deliberately takes a false oath. Perpetuity. A rule that land cannot be limited beyond a life or lives in being and twenty-one years afterwards, and the period of ges- tation, if it actually exists, is commonly called the rule against per- petuities. Personal Estate, or Personalty. Movable things, whether alive or dead, as distinguished from land, or immovables, which are termed real estate. Petitioning creditor. A creditor who petitions the Court of Bank- ruptcy to make his debtor a bankrupt- Pin Money. An allowance set apart by the husband for the personal expenses of a wife, i.e., for her dress and pocket money. Piscary. The right or privilege of fishing. Plaint. Process by which actions are commenced in the County Court. Plaintiff. The complainant in an action or suit. Plea. The defendant's answer to the plaintiff's declaration. Pleader. A lawyer, who draws the pleadings in actions. Pleadings. The mutual allegations or statements which are made by the plaintiff and defendant in an action. Plene administravit. A plea by an executor or administrator that he has fully administered. Plough Bote. The wood which a tenant is entitled to take for the necessary reparation of his ploughs, carts, etc. Posse Comitatus. The power of the county. This includes the aid and attendance of all men, except ecclesiastics and inferior f>ersons, above the age of fifteen, within the county ; which force may be used in cases of riot or rebellion, or where any resistance is made to the exe- cution of justice. Postea. The verdict of the jury drawn up in due form, and entered on the back of the record. Pound breach. The indictable offense of breaking open a pound for the purpose of taking cattle therefrom. Praecipe. An abstract of a writ left with the officer at the time of issuing it. Praemium Pudicitiae. A bond or consideration given to a previously virtuous woman, by the person who has seduced her. Pre-emption. The right of first buying. Prescription. A title acquired by use and time, and allowed by law. Presentment. The notice taken by a grand jury or inquest of any offense, etc., from their own knowledge or observation. Primogeniture. The right of the eldest son to inherit his ancestor's estate, to the exclusion of the younger son, where the ancestor has died intestate. Privilege. An exemption from the general rules of law. It is of two kinds— real, attaching to any place, or personal, attaching to persons, as ambassadors, etc. Probate. The copy of a will made out on parchment with a certifi- cate of its having been proved. Process. A general term applied to formal judicial proceedings. Procheim Amy. Next friend (which see). Prohibition. A writ issuing out of the s iperior courts directing the judge of an inferior court not to proceed fu her in a suit. Promissory Note. A written promise by which one person engages or promises to pay a certain sum of money to another. Pro Rata. In proportion. Protest. On bills of exchange. A protest means the solemn decla- ration of a public notary of the dishonor of a bill. Provisional Assignee. An officer of the Insolvent Debtor's Court, in whom the estate of an insolvent vests. Proviso. A condition inserted in a deed, on the f>erformance whereof the validity of the deed frequently depends. Puisne. Younger, junior. The judges and barons of the superior courts, except the chiefs, are called puisne judges arid puisne barons. Quamdiu se bene gesserit. A clause expressing that the party to whom an office is granted shall hold the same so long as he properly conducts himself. DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. 327 y Quantum Meruit. So much as he has deserved. Quantum Valebat. So much as it is worth. Quarantine, signifies 40 days. It is applied to the period which per- sons coming from infected countries are obliged to wait on board ship before they are allowed to land. But in law it more strictly applies to the similar period during which a widow, entitled to dower, is per- mitted to remain in her husband's capital mansion after his death, whilst she awaits the assignment of her dower. Quare impedit. The form of action now adopted to try a disputed title to an advowson. Quarto die post. The fourth day after the term. Quash. To annul or cancel. Quasi Contract. An implied contract. Queen's Bench. The supreme Court of Common Law in the king- dom, consisting of a chief justice and four puisne judges. In this Court the sovereign used formerly to sit in person ; hence its title. Queen's Counsel. The ap[>ointment of Queen's Counsel does not confer any emolument from the Crown, but is regarded as a mark of distinction. The Queen's Counsel wear silk gowns (the other barristers wearing stuff ones) and are entitled to precedence in Court. Queen's Evidence. An accomplice in the commission of a crime, who gives evidence in the hof>e of receiving a pardon for himself. Quid pro quo. Giving one thing for another, being the mutual con- sideration in contracts. Quietus. Freed or acquitted A term used principally in proceed- ings on the revenue side of the Exchequer. Qui tarn. Actions brought by common informers, and vulgarly called " qui tarn " actions ; because in the form in which they are con- ceived, the prosecutor declares that he prosecutes " as well for our sovereign lord the king as for himself ; " tarn pro Domino Rege quam pro seipso. Quit rent. A small rent payable by the tenants of manors, and which entitle them to be quit and free of all other services. Quo Minus. A common writ formerly issued against a defendant on the plea side of the Court of Exchequer, founded upon a presumption or fiction of law that the plaintiff was the less able to pay the Crown on account of the defendant being his debtor. It was the writ which gave the Court jurisdiction in matters not relating to the Revenue, but now the Court of Exchequer has coordinate jurisdiction with the other supe- rior courts, without the necessity of any longer resorting to a fiction for the purpose of founding it. Quo warranto. An ancient writ still in use, directed against any person or corporation, who usurp any office, franchise, or liljerty, call- ing upion them to show by what authority they support their claim. Rack rent. A rent of the full annual value of the land, out of which it issues. Rape. The carnal knowledge of a female, who is above the age of ten years, against her will ; or of a girl under the age of ten years, although with her permission. Readers. The lecturers appointed by the Inns of Court are so termed. Real estate, or Realty, is the term applied to land, in contradis- tinction to personalty. Rebutter, The answer of the defendant to the surrejoinder of the plaintiff. Recaption. The taking a second distress during the pendency of a replevin on a former distress. Recital. The formal statement of some matter of fact in any deed or writing. It usually commences with the formal word " Whereas." Recognizance. An obligation of record which a man enters into, with condition to do some particular act ; as, to app>ear at the assizes, to keep the peace, to pay a debt, or the like. Rec«rd. An authentic testimony, in writing, contained in rolls of parchment, and preserved in a court of record. Rector. He who has the spiritual care or charge of a parish. Recusant. Used in old statutes for one who separates from the church as established by law. Red Book. An ancient record in the Exchequer, in which are reg- istered those who held lands per baroniam in the time of Henry II. Redendum. The clause in a lease by which the rent is reserved. It usually begins with the words " yielding and paying." Re-entry, proviso for. A stipulation in a lease that, on non-payment of rent or non-performance of the covenants, the leasor may regnter. Reference. The submitting of any cause or matter to arbitration. Refresher. A further fee to counsel, where the cause goes over from one term or sitting to another. Register. A book wherein things are registered for preservation. Registrars. Officers having custody of a Registry, such as the reg istrars of births, marriages, and deaths. Rejoinder. The answer of a defendant in an action to the plaintiff's replication. Release. A form of conveyance. Also, an acquittance under seal of a debt or other obligation. Remainder. A vested or contingent estate or interest in land, lim- ited to take effect and come into possession on the determination of a prior estate created at the same time. Remanet. A term used when a cause set down for trial at a partic- ular assize or sittings is postponed. Rent. The annual return made by the tenant to his landlord, which may be either money, labor, or provisions. Replevin. An action to try the validity of a distress. The things distrained are re-delivered to the tenant on security or pledges given by him to try the right. Replication . The plaintiff's answer to the defendant's plea or an- swer. Representative Peers. The peers elected from their own bodies to represent Scotland and Ireland in the House of Lords, being 16 for the former, and 28 for the latter. Reprieve. A suspension of the execution of sentence of death on a criminal. Rescue. A resistance against lawful authority, as, for instance, the violently taking away a man who is under legal arrest. Residuary devisee. The person to whom a testator devises the re- mainder of his lands, not otherwise disposed of. Residuary legatee. A legatee to whom is bequeathed the residue or remainder of a testator's personal estate, after payment of all legacies, claims, and demands. Residue, or Residuary Estate. The portion of a testator's estate not specifically disposed of. Res Integra. An entire thing. Rest. A pause in an account between a debtor and creditor, in striking periodical balances. Retainer. A fee given to counsel to secure his services. It.may be either general or special. The former secures the services of the coun- sel to the party giving it in all matters ; the latter only in one cause or matter. The fee in the former cause is 5 guineas, in the latter i guinea. Return of a 'Writ. The certificate of the sheriff made to the court of what he has done towards the execution of any writ directed to mm. Reversal. The making a judgment void, in consequence of some error in the same. Reversion. The residue of an estate left in the grantor, and return- ing to him or his heirs, after the grant is determined. Rider. A kind of schedule or writing, annexed to a document, which cannot well be incorporated in the body of it. Roll. A schedule or sheet of parchment, on which legal proceedings are entered. I^ule. An order made by the court at the instance of one of the par- ties in an action. It may either be a rule absolute, or merely a rule nisi or to show cause. Rules of Court. The rules framed by the judges for regulating the practice of the different Courts of Law. Sacrilege. A desecration of anything that Is holy. Salvage. An allowance made for saving ships or goods from ene- mies, or wreck, or loss at sea. Scandal. Rumor calculated to injure one's reputation. Schedule. A list or inventory of things. Scienter. Knowingly. Scire Facias. A judicial writ founded on matter of record, and is used for various purposes, as, for instance, to enforce against a share- holder a judgment against a Joint Stock Company wkich it is unable to satisfy. -^ ^ 328 DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. Sc.ivener. One intrusted with other men's monies to put out for theni, and for which he charges a commission, or bonus. Security for Costs. When the plaintiff lesides out of the jurisdiction of the Court, the defendant may require him to give security for costs. Secus. Otherwise. Se Defendendo. A plea for a party charged with the death of another person, who alleges that he was driven to do what he did in his own defense. Seisin. PossessiBn of a freehold esUte. Seisin in deed is when ac- tual possession is obtained. Seisin in law is a right to lands of which actual possession has not been obtained. Separate estate. Real or personal property settled upon a married woman, and which she may dispose of as if she were a single woman. Sequestration, is used in several cases ; but most frequently as sig- nifying an execution for debt against a beneficed clergyman, in which case the debt is satisfied out of the tithes and other profits of the bene- fice. In Scotland a Sequestration is nearly equivalent to our term " Bankruptcy." Set-off. A mode of defense, whereby a defendant sets up a demand of his own to counterbalance the plaintiff's claim either wholly or in part. Similiter. A set form of words in an action by which one party sig- nifies his acceptance of the issue tendered by his opponent. Simony. The corrupt presentation of any one to an ecclesiastical benefice, for money, gift, or reward. Simple Contract. An agreement entered into verbally or by writing not under seal. Slander. The malicious defamation of a man by word of mouth, analogous to libel, which is slander by writing. Socage. The tenure by which most freehold lands in England are held, which consists in the performance of some certain and determi- nate service, usually of a nominal nature, as distinguished from the old feudal services, which were generally at the will of the lord. Son assault demesne. A plea in an action for an assault that the defendant did the act complained of in his own defense. Special Case. A mode of raising a point of law for the opinion of the court on an agreed written statement of the facts. Special Jury, is a jury composed of individuals above the rank of ordinary freeholders Either parly in an action may apply for, and obtain, a special jury. Special pleading. When the pleadings in an action are not in the ordinary form, but are of a more complex character, they are termed special pleadings. Specific performance. A remedy in equity, to compel the perform- ance of a contract according to its terms, instead of proceeding at law^ to recover damages merely. Statutes. The written laws of the kingdom (see Common Law) are of two kinds, public or private ; the former applies to all statutes which affect the public generally, and of which the judges fake cogni- zance without being specially pleaded. The latter relates to the private rights of individual bodies, as, for instance, the various acts for the Management of Railway and other Companies are private acts. Stirpes. Taking property by representation is called succession per stirpes, as contradistinguished from per capita, which signifies taking it by one's own right. Stoppage in transitu. Goods sold on credit to a person, since be- come insolvent or bankrupt, may be seized by the vendor at any time before their actual and complete delivery to the vendee. This seizure is called stoppage in transitu ; it is often a nice and difficult question to determine when the transit has ended and the purchaser's possession begun. Subornation of perjury. The offense of procuring another to Uke a false oath. Subpoena. A writ used for the purpose of compelling witnesses to attend and give evidence. Sufferance, a tenant at, is a person who acquired the possession of lands by right, and holds over after his right is determined. Suit. Proceedings in Equity are usually termed suits, as distinguished from the proceedings at common law, which are termed actions. Summons, writ of. The process used for the commencement of all actions in the courts of law. Supersedeas. A command to sUy some ordinary proceedings at law, on good cause shown. Surrejoinder. An answer to the rejoinder of the defendant in ac- tion. Syngraph. A deed or bond under hand and seal of all the parties. Tail, or Fee-tail. See Entail. Tenancy. The holding of property under tenure. Tenant. One who holds lands of another as a tenant for life, for years, in tail, etc.; it is a word extensively used in legal phraseology. Tender. A legal tender is an unconditional offer to pay a debt, which, if refused, may be afterwards pleaded in bar to an action. Tenement. Property held by a tenant ; it comprises lands, houses, and every species of real property which may be holden. Tenure. The systwn of holding lands in subordination to some su- periors. Termer. A tenant who holds lands for a fixed and ascertained pe- riod of time. Testamentary Guardian. A person appointed by a father in his will to be the guardian of his child. Testator or Testatrix. The maker of a will. Teste. The clause at the bottom of a writ beginning with the word " witness " is so called. Theft bote. When a party, who has been robbed, and knowing the felon, takes his goods again or receives other amends upon agreement not to prosecute. Tithes. The tenth part of the increase yearly arising from the profits of lands, etc. Tithes are in this country now commuted into a fixed rent charge, which is chatted up>on the land, and not upon the per- son. Tithing. A f)ortion of a hundred. Tithing-man was formerly an officer of some importance ; in the present day, however, he is a mere constable. Title. The evidence of the right which a person has to the posses- sion of property. Traverse. A plea which denies the truth of some part of the plain- tiff's declaration in an action. Treasure Trove. Any money, etc., found bidden under the earth, the owner thereof being unknown. Trespass. Any wrong or damage which is done by one man to another^ whether it relates to his person or property, but it usually sig- nifies a wrongful entry on another's premises. Trial. The formal method of examining and adjudicating upon a question of fact in a court of law. Trover. The form of action used to try a disputed question of prop- erty in goods or chattels, in which the plaintiff can only recover their estimated value, and not the goods or chattels themselves. True bill. The words indorsed upon an indictment by a grand jury, when satisfied that the charge against the offender is made out. Trust. A trust exists where a party, called the cestuique-trusi, has a right in equity to the beneficial enjoyment of property, the legal owner- ship of which is vested in another, who is hence called a trustee. Umpire. A third person chosen to decide a matter in dispute left to arbitration, in case the arbitrators should not agree. Under-lease. A lease granted by one who is himself only a lessee of the premises under-let. Under-lessee. The person to whom an under-lease is granted. Unliquidated damages. Damages not fixed or ascertained, and which require therefore to be estimated by a jury. Use. A right to the beneficial enjoyment of land nominally vested in another. Usury. The extortion of unlawful gain ; the taking more for the use of money than is allowed by law ; but the usury laws in this country are now abolished, any rate of interest therefore may now be lawfully taken. Value received. Th# words usually, but unnecessarily, appearing in bills of exchange and promissory notes. Venditioni exponas. A writ directed to the sheriff, commanding him to sell goods which he has taken possession of under a writ of fieri facias, and which remain in his hands unsold. Vendor and Vendee. A vendor is the person who sells and a vendee the i>erson who buys, anything. ^ DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. 3»9 Venue. The county in which an action at law is intended to be tried. Verdict. A verdict is the unanimous judgment or opinion of the jury on the issue of fact submitted to them. Vi et Armis (with force and arms). Words used in indictments, to express the charge of a forcible and violent committing of any crime or trespass. Viva voce. By word of mouth. Voir dire. An examination of a witness to test hss competency is termed an " examination in the voir dire." Voluntary Conveyance, or Settlement. A conveyance or settle- ment made without any valuable consideration. Voucher. A receipt or discharge. Waifs. Stolen goods which the thief has thrown away or left be- hind him. Ward. An infant under the guidance and protection of a guardian. Ward ■>{ Court. An infant with reference to whose property a suit has been instituted in Chancery. A ward ought not to marry without leave of the court. Any person marrying a ward without such leave is guilty of a contempt of court, and can be punished by imprisonment. Warrant. An authority or precept from a justice, commanding the apprehension of an offender, or a search to be made for stolen goods. W^arrant of Attorney. An authority given by any one to an attor- ney-at-law, to appear and plead for him ; or to suffer judgment to pass against him, by confessing the action. AVarranty, as applied to goods and chattels, may be either expressed or implied ; the implied warranty only extends to the title of the vendor. If that proves deficient, the purchaser may demand satisfaction from the seller. Watercourse, right of. A right to an uninterrupted flow of water. ■Way, right of. The right of going over another man's ground. Will. A will is the legal written declaration of a man's intentions ol what he wills to be performed after his death with reference to the disposition of his property. It must be in writing signed by the testa- tor and attested by two witnesses, who must not only be present and see the testator sign, but must themselves subscribe the will as wit- nesses in the presence of the testator and of each other. Without these formalities the will is invalid. A codicil is a kind of addendum or sup- plement to a will. Its execution and attestation must be attended with the same formalities as the will itself. Will, estate at. An estate in lands held at the will of the landlord and tenant, and determinable at the pleasure of either party. Such a holding is very rare now, the law generally construes undefined hold- ings into tenancies from year to year. 330 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. A CALENDAR For ascertaining Any Day of the Week for any given time within Two Hundred Years from the introduction of t/ie New Style 1752* to 1952 inclusive. YEARS 1753 TO 1952. i >— > i M 0. .>».« c -g !3 o. rt rt § rt • O •s s S a J3 2 ii a 2 .^ rt 9- rt rt o t« rt-g J^ Pi h4 O hJ (^ c)^ -^ MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 33 -^ A TABLE OF THE KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND. Name. Egbert Ethelwulf J Ethelbald I Ethelbert Ethelred Alfred Edward the Elder Athelstan Edmund Edred Edwy . Edgar Edward the Martyr Ethelred II Edmund Ironside Cani'te Harold I Hardicanute Edward the Confessor Harold II William I William II Henry I Stephen j tiENRY II , Richard I John Henry III Edward I Edward II Edward III Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI Edward IV J Edward V Richard III Henry VII \ Henry VIII Edward VI Mary I Elizabeth James I •< Charles I Commonwealth -< Charles II James II William III t and •< Mary II : | Anne George I -I George II George III George IV William IV Victoria SAXONS AND DANES. First King of all England Son of Egbert Son of Ethelwulf Second son of Ethelwulf Third son of Ethelwulf Fourth son of Ethelwulf Son of Alfred Eldest son of Edward Brother of Athelstan Brother of Edmund Son of Edmund Second son of Edmund Son of Edgar Half-broth^ of Edward '. Eldest son of Ethelred By conquest and election Son of Canute Another son of Canute Son of Ethelred II Brother-in-law of Edward THE HOUSE OF NORMANDY. Obtained the Crown by conquest Third son of William I Youngest son of William I Third son of Stephen, Count of Blois, by Adela, fourth daughter I of William I f THE HOUSE OF PLANTAGENET. Son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, by Matilda, only daughter of Henry I. Eldest surviving son of Henry II Sixth and youngest son of Henry II Eldest son of John Eldest son of Henry III Eldest surviving son of Edward I Eldest son of Edward II Son of the Black Prince, eldest son of Edwjird III THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. Son of John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III Eldest son of Henry IV Only son of Henry V. (Died 1471) THE HOUSE OF YORK. His grandfather was Richard, son of Edmund, fifth son of Ed- 1 ward III.; and his grandmother, Anne, was great-grand- V daughter of Lionel, third son of Edward III ) Eldest son of Edward IV Younger brother of Edward IV THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. Son of Edmund, eldest son of Owen Tudor, by Katharine, widow ) of Henry V.; his mother, Margaret Beaufort, was great-)- granddaughter of John of Gaunt ) Only surviving son of Henry VII Son of Henry VIII. by Jane Seymour Daughter of Henry VIII. by Katherine of Arragon Daughter of Henry VIII. by Anne Boleyn THE HOUSE OF STUART. Son of Mary Queen of Scots, granddaughter of James IV. and { Margaret, daughter of Henry VII ) Only survivmg son of James I Commonwealth declared May 19 Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector 7 THE HOUSE OF STUART— RESTORED. Eldest son of Charles I Second son of Charles I. (died Sept. 16, 1701'* (Interregnum, Dec. 11, 1688 — Feb. 13, 1689 ) Son of William, Prince of Orange, by Mary, daughter of) Charles I V Eldest daughter of James II ) Second daughter of James II THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. Son of Elector of Hanover, by Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, I daughter of James I : ) Only son of George I Grandson of George IT Eldest son of George III Third son of George III Daughter of Edward, fourth son of George III Accession. 827 837, 8531 8;8r 866 871 901 925 940 946 9SS 958 975 979 1016 1017 1035 1040 1042 1066 1066 1C87 1 100 "54 1189 "99 1216 1272 1307 1327 1377 1399 1415 1422 1461 1483 1483 1485 1509 1547 1553 1558 1603 1625 1640 165-5 1658 1660 1685 1689 •< 1702 1714 1727 1760 1820 1830 1837 Died. 839 860 — 2 866 — 8 871 — 5 901 r2 30 9"5 46 24 940 — IS 946 23 6 955 — 9 958 20 3 975 31 17 979 17 4 1016 37 1016 28 I 1035 40 18 1040 — 5 1042 2 1066 64 24 1066 1087 IIOO "35 "54 1189 "99 1216 1272 1307 1327 ^ 1377 Dep. 1-99 1413 1422 Dep.. 1461 1483 1483 148s 1509 1547 1553 1558 1603 1625 1649 1658 Res. 1659 168s Dep. 1688 Dec. 1701 1702 1694 1714 1727 1760 1820 1830 1837 Age. 69 48 Reigned. whom god preserve. kr- ■J^ 332 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. SOVEREIGNS OF SCOTLAND FROM A.D. 1057 TO THE UNION OF THE CROWNS. Names. Began to reign. Malcolm (Ceanntohr) 1057, Apr. Donald (Bane) 1092, Nov. Duncan 1094, May. Donald (Bane) rest 1095, Nov. Edgar 1097, Sept. Alexander 1 1107, Jan. 8 David I... 1124, Apr. 27 Malcolm (Maiden) 1153. May 24 William (The Lion) 1165, Dec. 9 Alexander II 12141 Dec. 4 Names. Began to reign. Alexander III 1249, July 8 Margaret 1286, Mar. 19 John (Balliol) 1292, Nov. 17 Robert I. (Bruce) 1306, Mar. 27 David II 1329, June 7 Robert II. (Stewrart) 1371^ Feb. 22 Robert III 139°, Apr. 12 James 1 1406, Apr. 4 James II i437. Feb. 20 James III 1460, Aug. 3 Names. Began to reign. James IV 1488, June 11 James V 1513, Sept. 9 Mary 15421 Dec. 16 Francis and Mary 1558, Apr. 24 Mary 1560, Dec. 5 Henry and Mary 1565, July 29 Mary 1567, Feb. 10 James VI 1567, July 29 (Ascended the throne of England as James I., March 24th, 1603.) WELSH SOVEREIGNS OR PRINCES— A.D. 840 to A.D. 1282. Roderic the Great 840 Anarawd, son of Roderic 877 Howel Dda, the Good 943 Jefan and Jago 948 Howel ap Jefan, the Bad 972 Cadwallon, his brother 984 Meredith ap Owen ao Howel Dha 985 Idwal ap Me]'ric ap Eldwal Voel 992 Llewelyn ap Sitsylht 1015 lago ap Idwal ap Meyric 1023 Griffith ap Llewelyn ap Sitsylht. Killed 1039 Bleddyn 1063 Trahaern ap Caradoc 1073 Griffith ap Cynan 1070 Owain Gwynedd 1130 David ap Owain Gwynedd 1169 Llewelyn the Great 1194 David ap Llewelyn 1240 Llewelyn ap Gnffitti, last Prince, 1246; slain 1283 Edward of Carnarvon, afterwards King Edward II. of England ; born 1284 Created Prince of Wales 1301 FRENCH DYNASTIES The Merovingians. Clovis, " The Hairy," King of the Salic Franks 428 Childeric III., last of the race 737 The Carlovingians. Pdpin, " The Short," son of Charles Martel 752 Charlemagne, The Great, Emperor of the West 768 Louis v., " The Indolent," last of the race 986 The Capets. Hug;h Capet, " The Great," Louis IX., " St. Louis " «. Charles IV., " The Handsome " The House 0/ Valois. Philip VI. de Valois, " The Fortunate " .~ Heniy HI., last of the race The House of Bourbon. Henry IV., " The Great," King of Navarre Louis XIII., " The Just " Louis XIV., " The Great," Dieudonn^ Louis XV., " The Well-beloved " Louis XVI. (gfuillotined January 21, 1793) Louis XVII. (never reigned) The First Reptiblic. The National Convention first sat September 21, The Directory nominated November 1, 987 1226 1322 1328 1574 1589 1610 1643 1715 1774 >793 1792 179s AND SOVEREIGNS. The Consulate. Bonaparte, Cambac^rfes, and Lebrun December 24, 1799 Bonaparte, Consul for 10 years May 6, 1802 Bonaparte, Consul for Life ". . August 2, ^802 The Empire. Napoleon I. decreed Emperor May 18, 1804 Napoleon II. (never reigned) died July 22, 1832 The Restoration. Louis XVIII. re-entered Paris May 3, 1814 Charles X. (deposed July 30, 1830, died November 6, 1836) 1824 Heir-expectant, Henry, Comte de Chambord September 29, 1820 The House of Orleans. Louis Philippe, King of the French 1830 (Abdicated February 24, 1848, died August 26, 1850.) Heir-expectant, Comte de Paris, born August 24, 1838 The Second Republic. Provisional Government formed February 22, 1848 Louis Napoleon elected President December 19, 1848 The Second Empire. Napoleon HI. elected Emperor November 22, 1852 (Deposed September 4, 1870, died January 9, 1873.) Third Republic. Committee of Public Defence September 4i 1870 L. A. Thiers elected President August 31, 1871 Marshal MacMahon elected President May 24, 1873 Jules Gr^vy elected President January 30, 1879 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Declaration of Independence July 4, General Washington first President 1789 and John Adams Thomas Jefferson 1801 and James Madison 1809 and James Monroe 1817 and John Quincy Adams General Andrew Jackson 1829 and Martin Van Buren General William Henry Harrison (died April 4) John Tyler (elected as Vice-President) .'', Population in 1776, including slaves, 1776 1793 1797 180:; 1813 1821 182s 1833 1837 1841 1841 2,614 James Knox Polk 1845 General Zachary Taylor (died July 9, 1850) 1849 Millard Fillmore (elected as Vice-President) 1850 General Franklin Pierce 1853 James Buchanan 1857 Abraham Lincoln (assa-ssinated April 14, 1865) 1861 and 1865 Andrew Johnson (elected as Vice-President) 1865 General Ulysses S. Grant 1869 and 1873 Rutherford B. Hayes 1877 James A. Garfield 1881 Chester A. Arthur 1881 300. Population in 1880, all free, 48,632,218. THE BRITISH HOUSE OF COMMONS Consists at present of— Liberals, 344 ; Conservatives, 236 ; Home Rulers, 60, English boroughs were totally disfranchised, and 23 others lost i mem The English House of Commons, at the time of the Union with Scot- and, in 1707, consisted of 513 members ; 45 were then added for Scot- and, and in 1801, 100 for Ireland, making the total of 658. This total number was preserved by the first Reform Act (1832), as well as by the recent one (30 and 31, Vict. cap. 102), but in each case the apportion- ment was altered, and it now stands— England and Wales, 493 mem- bers; Scotland, 60; and Ireland, 105. By the Reform Act 0/^1867, n ber each ; but 25 seats were bestowed on new boroughs and universi- ties, and 28 on counties. Four boroughs, with 6 seats, have since been disfranchised for corrupt practices, viz., Beverley, Bridgewater, Sligo, and Cashel, and, in eight others, representing 12 seats, the writs are suspended, making the present number of sitting members 640. ^^ -A MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 333 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE TAXES. kr Ale, per bbl. of 31 gallons $l 00 Banks and bankers, on average amount of deposits, each month 1-24 of i per ct. Banks, savings, and savings institutions, having no capital stock and making no profit on deposits, are exempt from tax on so much of their deposits as is invested in United States securities, and on all sums not exceeding $1,000 in the name of one person. Banks and bankers, on capital, beyond the average amount invested in United States bonds, each month 1-24 of i per ct. Banks and bankers, on average amount of circulation, each month 1-24 of i per ct. Banks, on average amount of circulation, beyond 90 per cent, of the capital, an additional tax each month 1-6 of i per ct. Banks, persons, firms, associations, etc., on amount of notes of any person, firm, association (other than a national banking association), corporation, State bank, or State banking association, town, city, or municipal corporation, used and paid out as circula- tion 10 per ct. Banks, persons, firms, associations (other than national bank associations), and every corporation, State bank, or State banking association, on the amount of- their own notes used for circulation and paid out by them 10 per ct. Beer, per bbl. of 31 gallons $1 00 Brandy, per gallon go Brewers, manufacturing 500 bbls. or more, annually.. 100 00 manufacturing less than 500 bbls. annually. . . 50 00 Cigars, manufacturers of, special tax 10 00 Cigars of all descriptions, made of tobacco or any sub- stitute, per 1,000 6 00 Cigarettes, not weighing more than 3 lbs. per 1,000, per 1,000 I 75 Cigarettes, weight exceeding 3 lbs. per 1,000, per 1,000. 6 00 Cigars or cigarettes, imported, in addition to import duty, to pay same as above. Liquors, fermented, per bbl i 00 Liquors, distilled, per gallon 90 Liquor dealers (wholesale), special tax 100 00 Malt liquor dealers (wholesale) 50 00 Liquor dealers (retail), special tax 25 00 Malt liquor dealers (retail) 23 00 Manufacturers of stills 50 00 Manufacturers of stills, for each still or worm made. . 20 00 Rectifiers, special tax less than 500 bbls., $100 ; above 500 bbls 200 00 Snuff, or snuff flour, manufactured of tobacco, or any substitute, per lb 16 Spirits, distilled, per proof gallon 90 Stamps, for distilled spirits for export, wholesale liquor dealers, special bonded warehouse, distillery ware- house, and rectified spirits each 10 Tobacco, all kinds, per lb 16 Tobacco, dealers in 5 00 Tobacco, manufacturers of 10 00 Tobacco, dealers in leaf, wholesale 25 00 Tobacco, dealers in leaf, retail 500 00 Tobacco, dealers in leaf, for sales in excess of $1,000, per dollar of excess 50 Tobacco peddlers, traveling with more than two horses, mules, etc 50 00 Tobacco peddlers, traveling with two horses, mules, or other animals 25 00 Tobacco peddlers, traveling with one horse, mule, or other animal 15 00 Tobacco peddlers, traveling on foot, or by public con- veyance 10 00 Tobacco, snuff, and cigars for export, stamps for, each 10 90 F2 40 Whiskey, per proof gallon Wines and champagne (imitation), not made from grapes grown in the United States, and liquors not made from grapes, currants, rhubarb, or berries grown in the United States, but rectified or mixed with distilled spirits, or by infusion of any matter in spirits, to be sold as wine or a substitute, per dozen bottles of more than a pint and not more than a quart Imitation wines, containing not more than one pint, per dozen bottles i 20 Stamp Taxes. Bank check, draft, or order for the payment of any sum of money whatsoever, drawn upon any bank, banker, or trust company 2 cents. Playing cards, each pack 5 cents. Medicines, Preparations, Cosmetics, etc. Every packet, box, bottle, pot, vial, or other inclosure, containing any pills, powders, tinctures, troches, or lozenges, syrups, cordials, bitters, anodynes, tonics, plasters, liniment, salves, ointments, pastes, drops, waters, essences, spirits, oils, or other preparations or compositions whatsoever, made and sold, or re- moved for consumption and sale, by any person or persons whatever, wherein the person making or prepaiing the same has, or claims to have, any pri- vate, formula or occult secret or art for the making or preparing the same, or has, or claims to have, any exclusive right or title to the making or prepar- ing the same, or which are prepared, uttered, vended or exposed for sale under any letters patent, or held out or recommended to the public by the makers, venders, or proprietors thereof as proprietary medi- cines, or as remedies or specifics, and for every packet, box, bottle, pot, vial, or othfer inclosure, con- taining any essence, extract, toilet water, cosmetic, hair oil, pomade, hair dressing, hair restorative, hair dye, tooth wash, dentifrice, tooth paste, aromatic cachous, or any similar articles, by whatsoever name the same have been, now are, or may hereafter be called, known, or distinguished, used or applied, or to be used or applied as perfumes or applications to the hair, mouth, or skin, made, prepared, and sold or removed for consumption and sale in the U. S- , as follows ; where such packet, box, bottle, vial, or other inclosure, and contents, shall not exceed, at retail price or value, the sum of twenty-five cents. I cent. Exceeding twenty-five, and not exceeding fifty cents. .2 cents. Exceeding fifty, and not exceeding seventy-five cents. .3 cents. Exceeding seventy-five cents, and not exceeding one dollar 4 cents. Exceeding one dollar, for every additional fifty cents or fractional part thereof, an additional 2 cents. Matches, Wax Tapers, and Cigar Lights. Friction matches, or lucifer matches, or other articles made in part of wood, and used for like purposes, in parcels or packages containing 100 matches or less, for each parcel or package i cent. Packages containing more than 100, and not more than 200 matches 2 cents. And for every additional 100 matches, or fractional part thereof i cent. Wax tapers, double the rate upon friction or lucifer matches. Cigar lights, made in part of wood, wax, glass, paper, or other materials, in parcels or packages containing 25 lights or less in each parcel or package I cent. Parcels or packages containing more than 25, and not more than 50 lights 2 cents. For every additional 25 lights or fractional part of that number i cent. ^ 334 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. STYLES OF ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE. Name. Norman Transition Early English Transition Decorated Transition Perpendicular Tudor oivElizabethan Jacobean Prevailed. 1066 to 1154 1154 to 1189 1189 to 1272 1272 to 1307 1307 to 1377 1377 to 1407 1399 to 1547 1550 to 1600 1603 to 1641 Characteristics. J Round-hsaded doorways and windows, heavy pillars, and zigzag ornaments. (Example, Nave, I Rochester Cathedral.) Same, but with pointed windows. (Example, Choir, Canterbury Cathedral.) J Narrow-pointed windows, lancet shaped ; clustered pillars. (Example, Presbytery at the east I end of Lincoln Cathedral ; Choir, Westminster Abbey.) Tracery introduced into windows. (Example, east end of Lincoln Cathedral.) J Geometrical tracery in windows, enriched doorways, beautifully arranged mouldings. (Ex- ( ample, Lady Chapel, Ely.) Lines less flowing. (Example, Choir, York Minster.) J Upright lines of mouldings in windows, doorways often a combination of square heads with I pointed arches. (Example, King's (College Chapel, Cambridge.) J A debased species of Perpendicular, mostly employed in domestic architecture. (Examples, I Thornbury Castle, Gloucestershire ; Compton Winyate House, Warwickshire.) j An admixture of Classical with all kinds of Gothic or Pointed. (Example, Longleat House, 1 Wiltshire.) THE BRITISH EMPIRE. In the following brief table an abstract is given (approximately) of the area, population, revenue, public debt, and commerce of the British Empire. The figures given are near enough for the purpose, although it is to be regretted that the precise amounts cannot be procured. The table, short as it is, presents a result unparalleled in this world's his- tory. name of country. Great Britain and Ireland. Indian Possessions, etc Other Eastern Possessions Australasia North America Guiana, etc Africa West Indies, etc , European Possessions Various Settlements Totals area in square MILES. POPULATION. REVENUE. PUBLIC DEBT. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 121,115 34,500,000 ;^83,000,000 ;C783,OOO,O00 ;£6l2,OOO,O0O 1,558,254 246,000,000 60,000,000 150,000,000 105,000,000 30,000 3,500,000 2,600,000 1 ,800,000 39,000,000 3,173,310 2,700,000 18,000,000 68,000,000 94,000,000 3,620,500 4,000,000 5,000,000 30,000,000 35,000,000 100,000 200,000 375,000 500,000 5,000,000 270,000 1,500,000 3,500,000 9,000,000 13,000,000 12,707 1,253,000 1,500,000 1,400,000 10,000,000 120 160,000 250,000 320,000 2,000,000 96,171 200,000 550,000 650,000 2,000,000 8,982,177 294,010,000 >SI 74,775,000 ;Cl, 044,670,000 ;C9i7,ooo,ooo THE FIRST DAY OF THE YEAR. Readers of Parish Registers and other ^cient documents are some- times puzzled by the dates, and especially by the apparent discrepan- cies in the time when the year commenced. It began ; — 7th to 14th Centuries, at Christmas. 12 Century, by the Church, on March 25. 14th Cer.tury, by Civilians, same time. In 1752 the New Style was introduced, and 1753 commenced on the ist of January. Previous to this two dates were used, one for the civil year, and the other for the historical ; the former commenced March 25, and the latter January i ; thus we find the same event with two dates, e. £■., Feb. 20, 1681-2. Another change was made in the calendar by the same Act, 24 Geo. II. c. 23 ; the day after September 2d was accounted i!a& fourteenth, hence the difference between Old and New Michaelmas and other days. GENERAL COUNCILS. Jerusalem Against Judaizers 51 Aries Against the Donatists 314 *Nice First CEcumenical Council 325 Constantinople Arian 337 Rome Athanasian 342 Sardis Against Arius 347 * Constantinople Second QBcumenical 381 *Ephesus Third do 431 *Chalcedon Fourth do 451 * Constantinople Fifth do 553 ^Constantinople Sixth do 681 Nice Seventh do 787 Constantinople Eighth do 870 Rome First Lateran 1123 A.D. Rome Second Lateran 1139 Rome Third do , 1197 Rome Fourth do 1215 Lyons Emperor Frederick deposed 1243 Lyons Temporary reunion of Greek and Latin Churches. , 1274 Vienne Fifteenth CEcumenical , 1312 Pisa Popes elected and deposed 1409 Constance Huss condemned to be burnt 1414 Basle Eighteenth CEcumenical 1431 Rome Fifth Lateran 1512 to 1517 Trent Nineteenth CEcumenical 1545 to 1563 Rome Last CEcumenical 1870 "' Only the six thus marked were indisputably General or CEcumenical. --^ f- MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 335 DEBTS, REVENUES, EXPENDITURES, AND COMMERCE OF NATIONS. Countries, Argentine Republic Australia Austria-Hungary Austria proper Hungary proper .... Belgium Bolivia Brazil Canada Ceylon Chili China Colombia Denmark Ecuador Egypt France Germany Prussia .7 Other German States Great Britain Greece Hawaii * India, British Italy Japan Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Norway Paraguay Persia Peru Portugal Roumania Russia Servia Siam Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey United States Uruguay Venezuela Total debts Fiscal Year. 1879 1S81 1879 1880 1879 1878 1879 1880 1879 1879 1880 1879 1880 1880 1880 1880 1879 1876 1879 1880 1881 1880 1880 1879 1879 Public Debt. Doilars. 57,068,979 462,760,5:5 1,582,722,008 204,308,213 500,665,178 351,967,293 30,000,003 407,716,027 199,125,323 6,650,000 77,654.238 64,500,000 19,971,219 46,798,190 18,350,400 411,820,700 4,700,860,700 88,385,022 477.210,581 792.858,492 3,843.518,460 58,572,730 388,900 754,979,810 2,042,000,000 363,721,776 2,400,000 144,953,785 376,908,500 24,705,000 12,098,417 No debt. 254,000,000 387.659.57s 114,210,075 2,081,417,932 20,248,090 2- 504.571.684 62,196,184 6,120,780 1,289,565,000 2,018,869,698 47,861,042 67,309,990 26,979,170,506 Revenue, Doilars, 19,594.305 79.637.540 57.922,954 204,827,997 132.207,358 54,501,284 2,929,574 57,423,412 23,307,406 7.374.335 27,693,087 121,482,000 4,910,000 12.756.571 1,853,600 42,097,105 552,496,163 148,239,138 125,439,802 121,396,304 420,207,440 8,759,000 1,780,080 325,998,0^0 286,904,471 59,933.507 1,347,000 17,811,125 42,044,240 13.454.670 216,599 8,216,000 38,900,000 30,794,012 24,152.940 435.548.352 5,125,216 4,000,000 163,347,097 20,503,260 8,502,901 62,681,608 360,782,292 8,936,714 4,680,000 Expenditures. Collars. 17,270,516 93.225,515 61,092,009 231.556,152 153,590.048 55.763.710 4,500,504 59,762,289 24,850,634 7,343,915 24.777,360 121,475,000 8,634,571 11,251,561 2,688,000 41.544,350 547,241,755 147,695,846 228,267,605 116,032,115 415.509.620 18,765,000 2,196,000 315,826,780 283,340,500 59,204,609 1,612,400 23,128,218 49,786,774 n.937.340 270,031 8,131,000 54,600,000 34,478,143 24.164,876 469,121,794 5,127,108 4,000,000 156,529,840 20,098,260 8,020,764 57.390,803 260,712,887 10,090,260 4,448,000 Imports.' Dollars. 44,660,204 236,893,913 302,900,000 (In Austria- (In Austria- 452,265,000 5,000,000 81,752,900 86,489.747 25,'97.i75 22,740,000 70,804,027 10,787,634 53.744,310 7,596,264 32,749,664 981,509.400 973,2co,oco (In German (in German 2,056,147,825 29,101,400 3.673,000 224,286,715 244,548,042 32,637,000 29,962,407 338,680,000 40.715,976 956,000 7,500,000 27,000,000 34,046,000 51,057,200 395,466,667 5,244,100 5,200,000 88,660,000 62,139,340 Not given. 107,500,000 753,240,125 18,328,225 14,800,000 Exports.* Dollars. 66,497,423 206,149,785 329,995,000 Hungary. Hungary. 428,149,065 5,647,000 102,029,250 87,911,458 24,804,690 6,620,226 67,172,179 13,711,511 42,576,810 8,634,331 64,916,017 680,129.800 705,375.000 Empire. Empire. 1,432,072,330 47,992,000 4,968,000 324,598.705 225,128,904 28,364,000 31,659,151 232,680,000 29,359,530 1,046,700 4,500,000 45,000,000 20,502,000 43,782,000 418,466,667 7,002,97s 10,200,000 100,980,000 50,264,280 Not given. 99,250,000 921^784,193 19,752,201 11,300,000 I.- Including merchandise, specie, and bullion. 2. Including New South Wales, New Zealand, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia. THE NAVIES OF THE WORLD. Countries. Argentine Republic Austria- Hungary Belj;ium Brazil Canada (Dommion) Chili China Colombia Denmark Egypt France Germany Great Britain and Ireland Greece No. OF Vessels. 41 7 23 56 33 14 258 86 238 No. OF Men. 991 6,369 172 4.984 1.468 1,125 48,283 15.81S 58,800 652 Cost of Navy. $550,439 4,633.669 1,000,000 1,383,940 32,267,498 9,722,721 51,607,175 1,056,53^ Countries. Italy Japan 'Mexico Netherlands. . Norway Peru Portugal . . . . , Roumania Russia Spain Sweden Turkey United States Venezuela. . . . No, OF Vessels. 67 27 4 122 123 389 139 131 78 139 4 No. OF Men. 16.140 ■ 5.551 5,914 4.342 3.569 539 30,194 15,179 5.925 23,000 11,115 200 Cost of Navy. ^9,227,132 3,015,000 4,849,776 448,632 1,607,411 19,268,755 6,429,163 1,424,250 2,816,000 15,686,671 NAVY YARDS OF THE UNITED STATES. %r 1. Brooklyn Navy Yard, Brooklyn, N. Y. 2. Charlestown Navy Yard, Boston, Mass, 3. Gosport Navy Yard, near Norfolk, Va. 4. Kittery Navy Yard, opposite Portsmouth. N. H. 5. League Island Navy Yard, 7 miles below Philadelphia. 6. Mare Island Navy Yard, near San Francisco, Cal. 7. New London Naval Station (unfinished). New London, Conn. 8. Pensacola Navy Yard, Pensacola, Fla. 9. Washington City Navy Yard, Washington, D. C. -^ 336 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. ■^ Washington, D. C 1200 m. Athens, Greece 6 43 p. m. Auckland, New Zealand 4 51 a. m. Augusta, Me iz 29 p. m. Austin, Texas 10 37 a. m. Batavia, Java 1215 a.m. Bombay, India 10 00 p. m. Boston, Mass 12 24 p. m. Berlin. Prussia 601 p. m. Calcutta, India 11 01 p. m. Canton, China 12 41 a. m. Charleston, S. C 11 49 a. m. Chicago, 111 II 18 a. m. Constantinople, Turkey 7 04 p. m. Copenhagen, Denmark 5 58 p. m. VARIATIONS IN TIME. Denver, Col 10 07 a. m, Dublin, Ireland 443 p.m. Gibraltar, Spam 451p.m. Glasgow. Scotland 4 51 p. m. Halifax, Nova Scotia 12 54 p. m. Harrisburg, Pa iz 01 p.m. Lima, Peru 12 com. London, England 5 07 p. m. Madrid, Spain 4 53 p. m. Mecca, Arabia 7 49 p. m. Mexico, Mexico 10 27 a. m. New Orleans, La 11 08 a. m. New York, N. Y 12 12 p. m. Olympia, Washington Ter 8 57 a. m. Omaha, Neb 10 44 a. m. Paris, France 5 42 p. m. Pekin, China 12 54 a. m. Philadelphia, Pa 12 13 p.m. Pittsburg, Pa 11 48 a. m. Rio Janeiro, Brazil 2 16 p. m. Rome, Italy 5 58 p. m. St. Louis, Mo .., II 07 a m. St. Petersburg, Russia 7 09 p. m. Salt Lake City, Utah 940 a.m. San Francisco, Cal 8 58 a. m. Tallahassee, Fla 11 30 a. m. Toronto, Canada 11 51 a. m. Valparaiso, Chili 12 21 p. m. Yeddo, Japan 2 27 a. m. THE ENGLISH MILE COMPARED WITH OTHER EUROPEAN MEASURES. English Statute Mile. ........ English Geographical Mile... Kilometre. German Geographical Mile . . Russian Verst Austrian Mile Dutch Ure Norwegian M jle Swedish Mile Danish Mile Swiss Stunde ENGLISH STATUTE MILE. 1. 000 I -15.3 0.621 4.610 0.663 4-714 3-458 7.021 6.644 4.682 2.987 ENGLISH GEOG. MILE. I -153 1. 000 0.540 4.000 0.575 4.089 3.000 6.091 5-764 4.062 2.592 FRENCH KILO- METRE. 1,609 1-855 1. 000 7.420 1.067 7.586 5-565 1 1 . 299 10.692 7-536 4.808 GERMAN GEOG. MILE. 0.217 0.250 0.135 1.000 0.144 1.022 0.750 1-523 1.441 1.016 0.648 RUSSIAN VERST. 1.508 1-738 0.937 6-953 1.000 7.112 5.215 10.589 10.019 7.078 4-505 AU.STRIAN MILE. 0.212 0.245 0.132 0.978 0.141 1.000 0-734 1.489 1.409 0.994 0.634 DUTCH URE. 0.289 0.333 o 180 1-333 0.192 1-363 1.000 2.03s 1.921 1.354 0.864 NOR- WEGIAN MILE. 0.142 0.164 O.0S8 0.657 0.094 0.672 0.493 1.000 0.948 0.667 0.425 SWEDISH MILE. 0.151 0.169 0.094 0.694 0.100 0.710 0.520 1-057 1.000 0.705 0.449 DANISH MILE. 0.213 0.246 0.133 0.985 0.142 1.006 0.738 1.499 1.419 1. 000 0.638 SWISS STUNDE. 0.335 0.386 0.208 1-543 0.222 1.578 1-157 2.350 2.224 1-567 1.000 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. A TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF MILES IN A DEGREE OF LONGITUDE AT EACH DEGREE OF LATITUDE. LAT. MILES. LAT. MILES. LAT. MILES. LAT. MILES. LAT. MILES. LAT. MILES. LAT. MILES. LAT. MILES. LAT. MILES. !» 60 li" 58.9 21° 56.0 31" 51.4 41° 45-3 51" 37.8 61° 29.1 71° 19-5 81° 9.4 a 60 13 58.7 22 55.6 32 50.9 42 44.6 52 36.9 62 28.2 72 18.5 82 8.4 3 59-9 13 58.5 23 55- = 33 50.3 43 43.9 53 36.1 63 27.2 73 17-5 83 Z-3 4 59-9 14 58.2 24 54.8 34 49-7 44 43.2 54 35-3 64 26.3 74 16.5 84 6.3 s 59-8 15 58.0 25 54.4 35 49.1 45 42.4 55 34-4 65 25.4 75 iS-5 8-; 5-2 6 59.7 16 57.7 26 53-9 36 48.S 46 41.7 56 33.6 66 24.4 76 14.5 86 4.2 7 59.6 17 57.4 27 53-5 37 47-9 47 40.9 57 32.7 67 23.4 77 13. S 87 3.1 8 59-4 18 57.1 28 53.0 38 '♦^3 48 40.1 58 31.8 68 22.5 78 12. s 88 2.1 9 59-3 19 56.7 29 52-5 39 46.6 49 39-i §9 30.9 69 21-5 P 11.4 89 1.0 10 59.1 20 56.4 30 52.0 40 46.0 50 38.6 60 30.0 70 20. 5 80 10.4 90 0.0 MISCELLANEOUS ENGLISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Measures of Length. /«. 3 4 A Palm AHand Foot Yard 36 Rod , f)ole or perch 198 Chain 792 Furlong 7i92o Mile 63,360 F^. 3 i6j^ 66 660 5,280 Vs. Pis. Ch. Fs. 5}i 1,760 4 40 320 80 Particular Measures of Length. A fathom 6 feet. 12 lines 1 inch. 3 inches i palm. 4 inches I hand. A cubit 18 inches. A pace, military, 2 feet 6 inches. A pace, geometriccil, 5 feet. Square or Surface Measi're A cable's length 240 yards. A degree 69)^ miles = 60 nautical knots or geographical miles. A league 3 miles. In. Square foot 144 Square yard 1,296 Rod, pole, or perch 39,204 Square chain 627,264 Rood 1,568,160 Acre 6,272,640 Ft. Yds. Ph. Ch. R. ■^yi 9 1 272ji 303^ I 4,356 484 i6 10,890 l,?IO 40 43,560 4,840 _ 160 kr- A square mile contains 640 acres, 2,560 roods, 6,400 chains, 102,400 rods, poles, or perches, or 3,097,600 square yards. Apothecaries' Weights and Measures by which Medicines arb Compounded. 20 Grains = i Scruple 3 = 20 grs. 3 Sciuples = 1 Drachm 3 = 60 " 8 Drachms =^ i Ounce 3 = 480 " 12 Ounces — 1 Pound lb = 5760 " Drugs are purchased by Avoirdupois Weight. Fluid Measure. „ , , Marked 60 Minims Til = 1 Fluid Drachm f 3 8 Drachms — 1 Ounce f J 20 Ounces = 1 Pint ....; O 8 pints = I Gallon gal. Particular Weights. A Stone, Horseman's weight = 14 lbs. A Firkin of Butter = 56 " A Firkin of Soft Soap = 64 " A Barrel of Raisins = 112 " A Barrel (or pack) of Soft Soap = 256 " A Fodder of Lead, London and Hull = i^}i cwt " " Derby = 22>^ " " " Newcastle = 21^ " A Sack— Potatoes, 168 lbs.; Coals, 224 lbs.; Flour, 280 lbs. MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 33 -J MISCELLANEOUS ENGLISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES-Continued. Measures of Time. 60 Seconds = i Minute. 60 Minutes = i Hour. 24 Hours — I Day. 7 Days = I Week. 28 Days = I Lunar Month. 28, 29, 30, or 31 Days = i Calendar Month. 12 Calendar Months = i Year. 365 Days = I Common Year. 366 Days = I Leap Year. Angular Measure. 60 Seconds = i Minute. 60 Minutes = i Degree. 30 Degrees = i Sig^. 90 Degrees = i Quadrant, 4 Quadrants, or 360° = i Circumference, or Great Circle. Cubic or Solid Measure. 1728 Cubic Inches = i Cubic Foot. 27 Cubic Feet = i Cubic Yard. 40 Do. of Rough, or I ^ t j 50 Do. of Hewn Timber f = i Ton or Load. 42 Cubic Feet of Timber = i Shipping Ton. 108 Cubic Feet = i Stack of Wood. 128 Cubic Feet = 1 Cord of Wood. 40 Cubic Feet 1 Ton Shipping. Liquid Measure. Ca&. Q/s. Pis. Four Gills, one Pint i 8uart X 2 allon I Firkin or Quarter Barrel 9 Kilderkin or Half Barrel 18 Barrel 36 Hogshead of Ale (i^^ barrel) 54 Puncheon 72 Butt of Ale (3 barrels) 108 Practically, the only measures in use are gallons and quarts, the others are merely nominal ; e. g-., the hogshead of 54 gallons, old mea- sure, 001110.111% but 52 gjallons, i Quart, i pint, and 3.55 gills imperial measure, and of wine six nominal quart bottles go to the gallon. Of imported wines the following are the usual measurements : Pipe of Port or Masdeu = 115 Gallons. " Teneriffe = loq " 4 36 8 72 72 144 144 288 210 288 432 576 Pipe of Ma.-sala = 93 Gallons. " Madeira and Cape = 92 " Butt of Lisbon and Bucellas = "7 " " Sherry and Tent = io3 ' " Aum of Hock and Rhenish Hogshead of Claret = 30 = 46 Dry or Corn Measure. 4 Quarts =1 Gallon. 2 Gallons = I Peck. 4 Pecks = 1 Bushel. 3 Bushels (four of com) . . .• — i Sack. 12 Sacks = I Chaldron. 8 Bushels, or two sacks = i Quarter. 5 Quarters =1 Load. Measures of Weight. — Avoirdupois. 27>{ Grains = 1 Drachm = 27K ) 16 Drachms = i Ounce = 437^^ y Grains. 16 Ounces = i Pound = 7000 ) 8 Pounds = I Stone of Butcher's Meat. 14 Pounds = I Ordinary Stone. 28 Pounds = I Quarter (qr.). 4 Quarters = 1 Hundredweight (cwt.)./ 20 Cwt = I Ton. This weight is used in almost all commercial transactions, and com- mon dealings. Troy Weight. sVe Grains =1 Carat. 24 Grains = i Pennyweight. 20 Pennyweights = i Ounce 480 grs. 12 Ounces = i Pound 5770 " Hay and Straw. Truss of Straw, 36B>. Truss of Old Hay. 56*. Truss of New Hay. 60B). Load, 36 Trusses = Straw, 11 cwt. 2 qrs. 8fl>.; Old Hay, 18 cwt.; New Hay, 19 cwt. i qr. 4B). Woo"" cwt. qr. lb. 7 Pounds "' 2 Cloves 2 Stones 6>^Tods 12 Sacks = I Clove o = I Stone o = iTod o = I Wey I = I Last 39 14 FRENCH METRICAL SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The Metrical System is based upon the length of the fourth part of a terrestrial meridian. The ten-millionth part 01 this arc was chosen as the unit of measures of length, and called Metre. The cube of the tenth part of the mfeire was adopted as the unit of capacity, and denominated Litre. The weight of a litre of distilled water at its greatest density equal to Millimetre Centimfetre Drfcimfetre MtTRE Ddcametre Hectometre 3937.07000 Kilomfetre 39370.79000 Myriametre 393707.90000 Measures or Length (unit Metre). Inches. Feet. 0.003281 was called Kilogramme, of which the thousandth part, or Gramme, was adopted as the unit of weight. The multiples of these proceeding in decimal progression are distinguished by the employment of the pre- fixes deca, hecto, kilo, and myria, from the Greek, £ind the subdivisions by deci, centi, and milli, from the Latin : — 0.03937 o- 39371 3-93708 39-37079 393.70790 0.032809 0.328090 3 . 280989 32.809892 328.089917 3280.899167 32808.991667 Yards. 0.0010936 0.0109363 o. 1093633 1.0936331 10.9363306 109.3633056 1093.6330556 10936.3305556 equal to Millilitre, or cubic centimfetre . Centilitre, 10 cubic do Decilitre, 100 cubic do Litre, or cubic Decimetre Decalitre, or Centistfere. Cubic, or Measures of Capacity (unit Litre). Cubic Inches. Cubic Feet. Pints. 0.06103 •• 0.000035 . 0.00176 0.61027 •• 0-000353 6.io2jjt .. 0.003532 61.02705 .. 0.035317 610.27053 .. 0.353166 Hectolitre, or D^istfere 6102.70515 .. 3.531658 Kilolitre, or Stere, or cubic mitre 61027.05152 .. 35.316581 Myrialitre, or Decastfere 610270.51519 .. 353.165807 0.01761 0.17608 1.76077 17.60773 176.07734 1760.77341 17607.73414 Measures of Weight (unit Gramme). equal TO Grains. Troy Oz. Avoirdupois lb. Milligramme 0.01543 -■ 0.000032 .. 0.0000022 Centigramme 0.15432 .. 0.000322 .. 0.0000220 Decigramme 1.54323 .. 0.003215 .. 0.0002205 Gramme 'S-4323S .. 0.032151 .. 0.0022046 D^agramme 154.32349 .. 0.321507 .. 0.0220462 Hectogramme 1543.23488 .. 3.215073 .. 0.2204621 Kilogramme 15432.34880 .. 32.150727 .. 2.2046213 Myriagramme ..'. 154323.48800 .. 321.507267 .. 22.0462126 Square, or Measures of Surface (uNrr Ark). equal TO Sg. Feet. Sf. Yards. Sq. Perches. Centiare, or square mfetre 10.764299 .. 1. 196033 .. 0.0395383 Are, or 100 square mfetres 1076.429934 .. 119.603326 .. 3.9538290 Hectare, or 10,000 square mfetres 107642.993419 .. 11960.332602 .. 395.3828959 FathoTKs. 0.0005468 0.0054682 0.0546816 0.5468165 5.4681653 54 6816528 546.8165278 5468.1652778 Gallons. 0.0002201 0.0022010 0.0220097 o 2200967 2.2009668 22 . 0096677 220.0966767 2200.9667675 Cwt. ■=■ 112 lb. 0.0000000 0.0000002 0.0000020 0.0000197 0.0001968 0.0019684 0.0196841 0.1968412 Sq. Roods. 0.0009885 0.0988457 9.8845724 Miles. ., 0.0000C06 0.0000062 0.0000621 0.0006214 0.0062138 0.0621382 0.6213824 6.2138242 Bushels. 0.0000275 0.0002751 0.0027512 0.0275121 0.2751208 2.7512085 27.5120846 275.1208459 Tons — 20 curt. 0.0000000 0.0000000 o.ooooooi o.oooooio 0.0000098 0.0000984 0.0009842 0.0098421 Sq. Acres. 0.0002471 0.0247114 3.4711431 ^ 338 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. ■-^ TABLE FOR THE CONVERSION OF METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES INTO ENGLISH. Metres into Kilometres to miles Litres into galls. Hectolitres into Kilogrammes into cwts., Hectares into yards and yards. and quarts. quarts and bushels. qrs. lbs. , oz. acres, r. .P- I 1.094 I 1094 I 0.880 1 2-751 I 2 ^'i 1 2 I 3S 2 2.187 2 I 427 2 I. 761 2 5 502 2 4 6X 2 4 3 31 3 3.281 3 I '1^' 3 2.641 3 I 0.254 3 6 9%. 3 7 I 26 4 4-374 4 2 «55 4 3-521 4 1 3-005 4 8 13 4 9 3 22 5 5.463 5 3 18S 5 0,402 5 1 5.756 5 11 0^ 5 X2 I 17 6 6.562 6 3 1282 6 I 1.282 6 2 0.507 6 13 3^ 6 14 3 12 7 7-655 7 4 015 7 I 2.163 7 2 3.258 7 15 7 7 17 I 8 8 8.749 8 4 1709 8 I 3-043 8 2 6.010 8 17 loM 8 19 3 3 9 9.843 9 S 1043 9 I 3-923 9 3 0.761 9 19 I3>^ 9 22 38 10 10.936 10 6 376 10 2 0.804 10 3 3-512 10 22 0%. 10 24 2 34 20 21-873 20 12 753 20 4 1.608 20 6 7.024 20 I 16 i>4 20 49 I 28 30 32.809 30 18 1 129 30 6 2.412 30 10 2.536 30 2 10 ^y^ 30 74 21 4° 43-745 40 24 1505 40 8 3.215 40 13 6.048 40 3 4 3,. 40 98 3 15 50 54-682 50 31 122 50 11 0.019 SO 17 1.560 50 3 2t) iM so 123 2 9 60 65.618 ^0 37 49« 60 13 0.823 60 20 5.072 60 20 4>^ 60 148 I 3 70 76.554 70 43 874 70 15 1.627 r 24 0.585 70 1 14 5^ 70 172 3 37 80 87-401 80 49 1251 80 17 2.431 80 27 4.097 80 2 8 6 80 197 2 38 90 98.427 90 55 1627 90 19 3-235 90 30 7.609 90 3 2 bl4 90 222 I 24 100 109.363 100 62 243 100 22 0.039 100 34 3.121 100 3 24 7 100 247 18 200 218.727 200 124 487 200 44 0.077 200 68 6.242 200 3 3 20 15 200 494 'o 37 300 328.090 300 i86 730 300 66 0.116 300 103 1.362 300 5 3 17 6 300 741 I 15 400 437-453 400 248 973 400 88 0.15s 400 137 4-483 400 7 3 13 14 400 988 I 33 500 546.816 500 310 1217 500 110 0.193 Soo 171 7-604 500 9 3 10 5 500 1235 2 11 FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. FRANCE. I. Measure of Length. I Myriam^tre = loooo Mfetres. 1 Kilom&tre = 1000 Mfetres. 1 Decamfetre = 10 Mfetres. I Mfetre = The 10,000,000 part of the quarter of the merid- ian of the earth. I Decimfetre = i-ioth of a metre. 1 Centimetre = i-iooth of a mfetre. 1 Milim&tre = i-ioooth of a mfetre. n. Measttre of Surface. I Hectare = 100 Ares. I Are = 100 Square mfetres. I Centiare = 1 Square mfetre. ni. Measure of Solidity. I Stere = 1 Cubic mfetre. I Decistere = i-ioth of a stere. IV. Measure 0/ Capacity. 1 Kilolitre = 1 Cubic mfetre. I Hectolitre = 10 Decalitres. I Decalitre = 10 Litres. I Litre.. = 1 Cubic decimfetre. ' 1 Decilitre = i-ioth of a litre. Millia. V. Measure of Weight. = 1000 Kilogrammes, and is the weight of a ton of sea-water. 1 Quintal = 100 Kilogrammes. 1 Kilogramme = Weight of a. cubic decimfetre of water, at the temperature of 4" above melting ice, or about 40° Fahrenheit. 1 Hectogramme.... = 100 Grammes. 1 Decagramme = 10 Grammes. I Gramme = i-ioooth of a kilogramme. 1 Decigramme = i-ioth of a gramme. These measures may be compared with the English measures bv means of the following table : I Mfetre = 39.38 Engl i.sh inches, nearly. I Are = 3.9 English perches, nearly. I St^i'e = 35.32 English cubic feet. I L'tre = 1.76 English pints. I Gramme = 15.44 English grains. BELGIUM. The metrical system is used here; but the kilogramme is termed a livre; the litre, alitron ; and the mfetre, an aune. NETHERLANDS. Here., also the metrical system has been adopted • but Flemish names are employed instead of those used in France. LOMBARDO-VENETIAN KINGDOM. The metrical system, with Italian names substituted for most of the original terms, is used officially ; but the old measures are also used. See Venice. AUSTRIA. The ell — 30.6 inches. The joch ;:= i acre 1.75 rood. The metzen = 1-7 bushel. The eimer =; 12.4 gallons. The pfund = 1-2 pound. Gold and silver are weighed by the mark of Vienna, which = 4333 grains. BASLE. 100 pounds = 108.6 pounds avoirdupois. The ohm 3« 10.7 gallons. The sack =; 3.6 bushels. The large and small ells — 46.4 and 21.4 inches respectively. BAVARIA. The long and short ells = 24 and 23 . 3 inches respectively. The schaff of 8 metzen = 5.6 bushels. The muid of 48 mass = 15 gallons. 100 pounds heavy and lightweight = 108.3 and 104.2 pounds avoirdupois respectively. The mark of Augsburg — 3643 grains. BREMEN. The foot or half-ell =11.4 inches. The ohm = 31.5 gallons. The last =10.2 quarters. 100 pounds = 109.9 pounds avoirdupois. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. The centner, or loc pounds Dutch weight = 108.9 pounds avoirdu- pois. The leager of 15 ankers = 126.5 gallons. The muid of schepels := 3 bushels. The ell of 27 Rhynland inches = 27.8 inches. CHINA. The chang of 10 chih = 4 yards, nearly. The shing = i pint. 10 ho — I shing ; 10 shing = i tow ; 10 tow = i hwuh, or 120 catties. The catty = 1.33 pound avoirdupois. 16 taels =: i catty; 100 catties = i pccul. Liquids nre sold by weight ; but the English gallon is used in trading with foreigners. DENMARK. The foot = 12.3 inches. 100 ells = 68.6 yards. The viertel = 1.7 gallon. TOO tonnen = 47 . 8 quarters. The pound = 1.1 pound avoirdu- pois. The pound for gold and siver weighs 7266 grains. EAST INDIES. Bengal. — The Factory maund = 74.66 pounds avoirdupois. 10 bazar maunds = 11 Factory maunds. 16 chittacks = i seer; 40 seers — 1 maund. The guz of 2 cubits = 1 yard. Bombay. — The maund = 28 pounds avoirdupois. 40 seers = 1 maund ; 20 maunds = i candy. The candy = 24.5 bushels. Afadras.— The maund = 25 pounds avoirdupois. 4opollams = i vi ; 8 vis = I maund, mauns = i candy. The covid = 18.6 inches. The gars of 80 parahs — 16.875 quarters, and weighs 8400 pounds avoirdu- pois. -^ MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 339 ■^ EGYPT. The Turkish pike — 27 inches. The ardeb of 24 Cairo rubbie = 6 quarters. The cantar =: 100 pounds avoirdupois. 216 drains or 144 meti> cals = I rottole ; 100 rottoli or 36 okes =: i cantar. FRANKFORT ON THE MAINE. The ell = 21.2 inches. The foot = 11. 2 inches. The matter = 3 bushels, nearly. The viertel — 1.6 gallon, nearly. The pound, light and heavy weight, = 1.03 and i.i pound avoirdupois. The Zoll-cent- ner — no. 2 pounds avoirdupois. The Cologne mark, used for gold and silver, w^eighs 3609 grains. GENEVA. The ell = 45 inches. The acre = i acre i.i rood. The coupe, or sack = 2.1 bushels. The setier = 10 gallons. The heavy pound = 1.2 pound avoirdupois ; the light pound i-6th less. The mark weighs 3785 grains. GENOA. The braccio of 2.5palmi — 22.9 inches. The mina = 3.3 bushels. The barile — 16.3 gallons. The pound = 0.7 pound avoirdupois. 1.5 pound = I rottole. The pound sottile, for gold and silver, weighs 489 1. 5 grains. GREECE. The Venetian measures of length are used, the braccio being called a piche. loo kila =11.4 quarters. The cantaro of 40 okes — 112 pounds avoirdupois. HAMBURG. The foot =11.3 inches, nearly. 100 ells = 62.6 yards. Thescheflel = I acre 6 perches. The last = 1.09 last. The viertel = 1.6 gallon. The pound = 1.06 pound avoirdupois. For the Cologne mark, see Frank- fort. 2 marks = i pound troy. LUEECK. The ell = 22.9 inches. The last = 11 quarters. The viertel = 1.6 gallon. The pound = 1.07 pound avoirdupois, nearly. MALTA. The palme = 10.25 inches; 3.5 palmi = i yard ; 8 palmi = i canna. The salma = 7.8 bushels. The caflfiso = 4.5 gallons. The barile = 9.33 gallor.3. 64 rottoli — i hundredweight. The cantaro = 175 pounds avoirdupois. MAURITIUS. Besides the English weights and measures, those of France before the late alteration are used. The aune = 1.3 yr.rd. The velte = 1.7 gallon. The poid de marc — 1.08 pound avoirdupois. NAPLES. The canna = 83.2 inches. The moggia = 3 roods 12 perches. The tomolo .— 1.4 bushel. The barile — 9.1 gallons. The cantaro grosso and piccolo = 196.5 and 106 pounds avoirdupois, respectively. The pound used in weighing gold and silver contains 4950 grains. PORTUGAL. .8 inches. The almude = 3.6 gallons. The pound The covado j.„ ...^.,^ ^ 1. 01 f)ound avoirdupois. PRUSSIA. 4r The ell =26.5 inches. The morgen = 2 roods 21 perches. The scheffel = 1.5 bushel. The eimer =15.1 gallons. The pound = 1.03 pound avoirdup>ois. The mark of Cologne is used for gold and silver. ROME. The canna of 8 palmi = 2.2 yards. The canna of 10 palma = 88 inches, nearly. The rabbio = 8.1 bushels. The boccale = 0.4 gallon. The pound — 0.7 pound avoirdupois. RUSSIA. The arshine = 28 inches. The foot — 13. y 5 inches. The dessetnia - 2 acres 2.8 roods. The tschetwert = 5.7 bushels. The wedro = 2.7 gallons. The pound = 0.9 pound avoirdupois. The pood = 36 pounds avoirdupois. St. GALLEN. The ells for silks and woolens = 31.5 and 24.25 inches, resp>ectively. The miitt of 4 viertels = 2.09 bushels. The eimer = 11.25 gallons. The pound, light and heavy weight =1.03 and 1.3 pound avoirdupois, re- spectively. SAXONY. The foot =11.1 inches. The acre = i acre 1.5 rood, nearly. The eimer, at Dresden, = 14.9 gallons ; at Leipsic - 16.8 gallons. The wispel, at Dresden = 69.9 bushels; at Leipsic = 91.7 bushels. The pound = 1.03 f>ound avoirdupois. SICILY. The canna = 76.5 inches. The salma = 7.6 bushels. The barrel = 8 gallons, nearly. The pound of 12 ounces = 0.7 pound avoirdupois. The cantaro — 175 pounds avoirdupois. SMYRNA. The killow =11.3 gallons. The rottolo =• SOUTH AMERICA. The Spanish and Portuguese measures are most generally employed. The use of the English measures prevails in some parts. The pike = 27 inches. 1.2 pound avoirdupois. The vara, or ell 33.3 inches The arroba = 3.5 gallons, i.oi pound avoirdupois. SPAIN. The fanegada = i acre 21 perches. The fanega =1.5 bushel. The pound =1 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. The ell =23.3 inches. The tunneland = i acre i rood, nearly. The tunnu = 0.6 quarter. Thekann = 0.6 gallon. The pound = o.9pound avoirdupois. TURKEY. The pike = 26.25 inches. The killow = 0.9 bushel. The almud = I.I gallon. The oke = 2.8 pounds avoirdupois. The rottolo =13 pound avoirdupois. TUSCANY. The braccio ^ 23 inches, nearly. The saccata = i acre 0.9 rood. The sacche = 2 bushels. The fiasche — 4 pints. The pound = 12 ounces avoirdupois. VENICE. Besides the metrical system, the following measures are used : The braccio, for woolens = 26.6 inches ; for silks = 24.8 inches. The stajo = 2.2 bushels. The secchia = 2.4 gallons. The pound sottile —0.9 pound avoirdupois, nearly ; grosso = 1.05 pound avoirdupois. REDUCTION OF FRENCH, PARIS, ENGLISH, AND RHENISH MEASURES OF LENGTH, USED BY SCIENTIFIC WRITERS, TO THE SCALE OF EACH. TOISES, REDUCED TO ENGLISH AND RHENISH LENGTHS. TOISES. METRES. ENGLISH FEET. RHENISH FEET. I 1.94904 6.39459 6.21002 2 3.89807 12.78918 12.42004 3 S.8471I 19.18377 18.63006 4 7.79615 25.57837 24.84008 5 9-74518 31.97296 31 .05010 6 11.69422 38.36755 37.26012 7 13.64326 44-76214 43-47014 8 15.59229 51-15673 49.68016 9 17-54133 57-55132 55-89017 10 19.49037 63.94592 62 . 10019 100 194.90366 639.45916 62I.OO194 lOOO 1949.03659 6394-59160 6210. 91941 METRES, REDUCED TO PARIS, ENGLISH, AND RHENISH LENGTHS. METRES. TOISES. PARIS. ft. in. lines. ENGLISH. feet & inches. RHENISH FT. I 0.51307 3 11.296 3 3-3708 3 . 18620 2 I .02615 6 I 10.592 6 6.7416 6.37240 3 1-53922 9 2 9.888 9 10. I 124 9.55860 4 2.05230 12 3 9. 184 13 1.4832 12.74480 5 2.56537 15 4 8.480 16 4.8539 15.93100 6 3.07844 18 5 7.776 19 8.2247 19.11720 7 3-59'52 21 6 7.072 22 11-5955 22 . 30340 8 4.10459 24 7 6.368 26 2.9663 25.48960 9 4.61767 27 8 5.664 29 6-3371 28.67580 10 5-13074 30 9 4.960 32 9.7079 31.86200 100 51.30471 307 10 1.600 328 1.0790 318.62000 1000 513.07407 3078 5 4.000 3280 10.7900 3186. 19996 340 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. ■^ A TABLE OF THE SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF BODIES. BAROMETER, 30 INCHES ; FAHRENHEIT'S THERMOMETER, 60°. (From the Works of Drs. Thompson, Young, and Ure.) Platinum 22 .069 Gold 19.360 guicksilver 13.568 ead "-352 Silver lo- 474 Copper 8.878 Brass 8.396 Steel 7.833 Iron (cast) 7.645 Tin 7.320 Glass (crystal) 3.150 -Granite 3.000 Marble (Parian) 2.838 Flint 2 . 570 Brick 2.000 Nitre Ivory Brimstone , Coal Boxwood Sea Water Common Water. Oak (English) . . . Walnut Cedar Elm Willow Fir Poplar Cork 1.900 1.825 1. 810 X.250 1.030 1.026 1. 000 .760 .671 .613 .600 .585 • 550 • 383 .240 Note.— The several sorts of wood are supposed to be dry. THE ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. The Army of the United States consists of the following forces in officers and men : Ten calvary regiments Five artillery regiments Twenty-five infantry regiments Engineer battalion, recruiting parties, ordnance department, hospital service, Indian scouts, West Point, Signal detachment, and general service Officers. 434 283 881 551 Enlisted men. 6,882 2,403 10,530 3,781 Total 2,149 23,596 For convenience, and to fix responsibility, the country is divided into three military divisions, each witn several departments, as follows : 1. Military division of the Missouri, commanded by Lieut. -General Philip H. Sheridan, head-quarters Chicago ; comprehends the depart- ments of the Missouri (General John Pope) ; I'exas (General C. C. Auger) ; Dakota (General A. H. Terry), and the Platte (General George Crook). There are eight regiments of cavalry and eighteen of infantry in this division. 2. Military division of the Atlantic, commanded by Major-General Winfield S. Hancock, head-quarters New York. Includes department of the East (General Hancock) ; department of the South (Colonel H.J. Hunt, Newport Barracks, Ky.) There is also the department of West Point, commanded by Brig. -General O. O. Howard. This division in- cludes four regiments of artillery and three of infantry. 3. Military division of the Pacific, commanded by Major-General Irvin McDowell, head -quarters San Francisco. Includes departments of California (General McDowell) : the Columbia (General Nelson A. Miles); Arizona (General O. B. Willcox), comprises one regiment of ar- tillery, two of cavalry, and four of infantry. The maximum military force allowed under existing laws is 2,155 com- missioned officers and 25,000 enlisted men. The report of the General of the Army exhibits the actual number in service as 2,149 officers and 23,596 enlisted men, October 25, 1881. The following table exhibits the number in each rank of the army : Colonels, 66 ; lieutenant-colonels, 85 ; majors, 244 ; captains, 607 ; ad- jutants, 40 ; regimental quarter-masters, 39 ; first lieutenants, 567 ; second lieutenants, 446 ; chaplains, 34 ; store-keepers, 21 ; total, 2,149. The enlisted men embrace 38 sergeant-majors, 40 quarter-master ser- geants, 638 musicians, 215 trumpeters, 9 saddler sergeants, 114 ordnance sergeants, 181 hospital stewards, 148 commissary sergeants, 420 first sergeants, 1,999 sergeants, 1,57s corporals, 219 farriers, 64 artificers, 115 saddlers, 55 wagoners, and 17,162 privates ; total 22,992. Besides these there are employed in the Signal Corps 495 non-commissioned officers and privates ; Military Academy, 8 professors, 172 cadets, 191 enlisted men ; total, 371. The number of retired army officers is 397 ; number of privates dis- charged during the fiscal year 1881, 6,564 ; number died during same period, 248 ; number deserted, 2,361 ; number enlisted and reenlisted, 5,769. TOTAL COTTON PRODUCTION AND AVERAGE PRODUCT PER ACRE. From the Tables of the Tenth Census, 1880— (Crop year, 1879.) States, in Order of Production. Mississippi Georgia Texas.. Alabama Arkansas , South Carolina Louisiana North Carolina Tennessee Florida Missouri Indian Territory Virginia Kentucky Total POPULATION. Total. ,131 ,542 ,592 ,262. 802, 995 > 939. ,399' ,542, ,574 ,505 ,525 ,577 946 750 463 493- 1,512,565 1,648,690 16,808,644 White. 479,371 816,906 1,197,499 662,185 591,531 391,105 454,954 867,242 1,139,120 142,605 2,023,568 11,024,123 Colored. 652,221 725,274 395,076 600,320 210,994 604,472 484,992 532,508 403,343 126,888 145,236 631,707 271,511 5,784,541 COTTON PRODUCTION. Acres. 2,093,330 2,617,138 2,173,732 2,330,086 1,042,976 1,364,249 864,787 893,^53 722,569 245,595 32,711 35,000 24,000 2,667 14,441,993 Bales. 955,808 814,441 803,642 699,654 608,256 522,548 508,569 389,598 330,644 54,997 19,733 17,000 11,000 1,367 5,737,257 Mississippi Georgia Texas Alabama Arkansas South Carolina.. Louisiana North Carolina., Tennessee Florida Missouri Indian Territory Virginia Kentucky Total.. AVERAGE PRODUCT PER ACRE, IN POUNDS. Fraction of bale (475 lbs.) Seed Cotton 0.46 641 0.31 0.37 444 528 0.30 0.58 0.38 O.S9 0.44 0.46 429 831 546 837 621 651 0.22 0,60 318 861 0.49 0.46 693 654 0.51 729 567 Lint. 176 143 277 182 279 207 217 106 287 231 2l8 243 Cotton Seed. 434 296 352 286 554 364 558 414 434 212 574 462 436 486 378 TOTAL IN TONS. Lint. 227,004 193,430 190,865 166,168 144,461 124,105 120,785 92,530 78,528 13,062 4,687 4,037 2,612 325 1,362,599 Cotton Seed. 454,009 386,859 381,730 332,336 288,922 248,210 241,570 185,059 157,056 26,124 9,373 - 8,075 5,225 649 i- MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 341 HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL TABLE OF THE UNITED STATES AND TERRITORIES. SHOWING THE AREA OF EACH IN SQUARE MILES AND IN ACRES ; THE DATE OF ORGANIZATION OF TERRITORIES ; DATE OK ADMISSION OF NEW STATES INTO THE UNION, WITH THE STATUTORY REFERENCES FOR EACH. From the Report of the Commissioner of the General Land Office with Corrections. The areas are from the Census report of 1880. Thk Thirteen Original States. New Hampshire Massachusetts. . . Rhode Island . . . Connecticut New York , New Jersey Pennsylvania..., Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina.. South Carolina. . Georgia Ratified the Constitution Tune Feb. May Tan. July Dec. Dec. Dec. April June Nov. May Jan. 21, 1788. 6, 1788 29, 1790 9, 1788 26, 1788 18, 1787 12, 1787 7i 1787 28, 1788 25, 1788 21, 1789 23, 1788 2,7788 Area of the Original States. In Square Miles. 9i3oS 8.3'5 1,250 4,990 49,»70 7,815 ■45,215 2,050 12,210 42,450 52,250 30,570 59.475 In Acres. 5,955,200 5,321,600 800,000 3,193,600 31,468.800 5,001,600 28,937,600 1,312,000 7,814,400 27,168,000 33,440,000 19,564,800 38,064,000 States Admitted. Kentucky Vermont Tennessee Ohio Louisiana Indiana Mississippi... Illinois Alabama Maine , Missouri Arkansas Michigan Florida Iowa Texas Wisconsin.... California ... Minnesota Oregon Kansas West Virginia Nevada Nebraska ... Colorado Act Organizing Terri- tory. Out of Virginia ... Outof N. H.&N.Y. Out of N. Carolma. Ordinance 1787. March May April February March Out of Mass. June March January March June Annexed April 20, 1836 From Mexico March 3, 1849 August 14, 1848 May 30, 1854 Out of Virginia March 2, i86t May 30, 1854 February 28, 1861 1805 1800 1798 1809 1817 4, 1812 2, 1819 11, 1805 30, 1822 12, 1838 United States Statutes. I 5 3 3 33' 58 I 549 2 5'4 3 371 3 743 3 493 3 3 vyg 654 5 235 5 797 5 10 9 403 9 323 to 377 13 209 10 277 13 172 Act Admitting State. Feb. 4, Feb. 18, June I, April 30, April 8, Dec. II, Dec. 10, Dec. 3, Dec. 14, Mar. 3, Mar. 2, June 15, Jan. 26, Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Sept. May „ Feb. 14, Jan. 29, Dec. 31, Mar. 21, Feb. 9, Mar. 3, 1791 1791 1796 1802 1812 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1836 1837 184s 1845 1845 1847 1850 1858 1859 1861 1862 1864 1867 1875 United States Statutes. 189 191 491 »73 701 399 472 536 608 544 645 50 144 74« 742 108 ■ 178 452 285 383 126 633 30 391 474 Admission Took Effect. June Mar. June Nov. Apr. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Mar. Aug. June Jan. Mar. Dec. Dec. May Sept. May Feb. {an. une Oct. Mar. Aug. 1, 1792 4, 1791 I, 1796 29, 1802 30, 1812 II, 1816 10, 1817 3, 1818 14, 1819 15. 1820 10, 1821 15, 1836 26, 1837 3. 1845 z8, 1846 29, 1845 29, 1848 9, 1850 11. 1858 14, 1859 29, 1861 19, 1863 31, 1864 I, 1867 I, 1876 Area of Admitted States and Territories. In Square Miles. 40,400 9,565 42,050 41,060 48,720 36.350 46,810 56,650 52.250 33,040 69.415 53,850 58,915 58,680 56.025 265,780 56,040 158.360 83,365 96,030 82,080 24,780 110,700 76,855 103.925 In Acres. 25.856.000 6,121,600 26,912,000 26,278,400 31,180,800 23,264,000 29,958,400 36,256,000 33,440,000 21,145,600 44,425,600 34,464,000 37.705,600 37,555,200 35.856.000 170,099,200 35,865,600 101,350,400 53,353,600 61,459,200 52,531.200 15,859,200 70,848,000 49,187,000 66,513,000 UNITED STATES MONEY. United States money is the legal currency of the United States. Its denominations are shown in the following 10 mills 10 cents 10 dimes 10 dollars cent, marked c. dime, " d. dollar, " $. I eagle, E. Coins are pieces of metal converted into money by legal stamping. The Coins of the United States are of gold, silver, nickel, and bronze, as follows : 4- Double-eagle, Eagle, value $30 Half-eagle, value Three dollars " Quarter-eagle, " Dollar. $5 3 I SILVER. Dollar, value ) Half-dollar, Quarter-dollar, " Twenty cents, " Dime, " 1. 00 .50 .25 .20 .10 Also, a TraJe Dollar for purposes of foreign trade. NICKEL. Five cents, value Three cents, " 5C. 3C. BRONZE. Cent, value I c 342 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. The weight of the pold dollar is 25 8/ro grains, and of the other gold coins in proportion ; the weight of the silver half-dollar is i2>^ grains, or 192 9/10 grains, nearly, and of the smaller silver coins in proportion ; the weight of the dollar is 412X grains, and of the trade dollar 420 grains ; and of the nickel five cent, 5 grams, or 77 16/100 grains. 'TheS/auifar,OX1,000 $50,000 $11,250,0 1849 40,00 \ooo 50,000 1866 55,5-x),ooo I ,< 00,iA 1850 5 ^,'■00 ,00 50, 00 1867 5i,725,oco 13,500,000 1851 5S,ooo,ooo 50,000 1868 48,000,00 1 I?, 000 ,000 1852 60,000,000 50,000 i86g 49,503,000 13,000,000 i8s3 65,000,000 50,000 1870 50,000,000 16,003,000 1854 60,000,000 50,000 1871 43,500,000 23,000,000 1855 55,000,000 50,000 1872 36,000,000 25,750,000 1856 55,000,000 50,000 *'?73 36,000,000 35,750,000 1857 55,000,000 50,000 *i874 33,400903 37,3-4,504 1858 50,000,000 50,000 1875 3 -> 1467 ,8 56 31,727,560 18.S9 50,000,000 100,000 1876 39,929,166 38,783,016 i860 46,000,000 150,000 1877 46,897,390 3Q,'03,573 i86i 45,000,000 2,000,COO 1878 51,206,360 45,281,385 1S62 39,2 30,000 4.500,000 1879 38,899,858 40,812,132 1863 4:1,003,003 8,500,000 1883 36,030,000 39,200,000 1864 46,100,000 Tot 1 1 ,000,000 al, 1848-1881. 1881 36,500,000 42,100,000 ii5.';7ii4',532 501 ,072,260 Total Gold and Silver, $2,058,213,792. TABLE SHOWING VARIATIONS OF TIME, DISTANCES FROM NEW YORK CITY, HOURS BY RAILWAY, AND PASSENGER FARES FROM NEW YORK TO THE PRINCIPAL PLACES IN THE UNITED STATES. Names of Cities. Albany, N. Y Atlanta, Ga Auburn, N. Y Baltimore, Md Bangor, Me Boston, Mass Bridgeport, Conn.. . Brooklyn, N Y Buffalo, N. Y Burlmgton. Iowa Burlington, Vt Charleston, S. C Chicago, 111 Cmcinnati, O Cleveland, O Columbus. O Concord, N. H Council Bluffs, Iowa Davenport, Iowa Dayton, O Denver, Col Des Moines. Iowa... Detroit, Mich Dubuque. Iowa Easton, Pa Elmira, N. Y Evansville, Ind Fort Wayne, Ind Galveston, Tex Harrisburg, Pa Hartford , Conn Indianapolis, Ind... Kansas City, Mo. . . . Keokuk, Iowa Leavenworth, Kan.. Little Rock, Ark ... Louisville. Ky Lowell, Mass Memphis, Tenn Milwaukee, Wis Mobile, Ala Time when Distance Mail R. R. it IS 12 noon by rail time fares at N. Y. from N. Y. from N.Y. from N.Y miles. hours. % cts. 12 01 p. m. 145 4 IS 3.10 11 18 a. m. 881 52 15 25.50 11 50 a. m. 319 9 30 6.58 II 50 a. m. 188 6 6.20 12 21 p. m. 478 19 40 12.00 12 12 p. m. 233 8 6.00 12 03 p. m. 59 2 1.30 12 00 m. 2 ^ .02 II 40 a m. 424 14 925 10 51 a. m. 1 120 47 27.25 12 03 p. m. 302 11 8.00 II 36 a.m. 804 33 24.00 II 05 a. m. 913 35 20.00 II 18 a. m. 758 28 18.00 II 29 a. m. 585 20 13-00 II 24 a. m. 639 22 16.25 12 10 p.m. 274 10 30 7.15 10 34 a. m. 1389 56 35.- 50 10 53 a. m. 1096 41 40 26.00 II 19 a. m. 709 25 17.50 9 57 a. m. 1982 92 59-75 10 42 a m. 1270 51 10 31-20 11 24 a. m. 776 24 15.00 10 54 a. m. 1103 43 26.60 II 55.a. m. 76 2 30 2.25 II 49 a. m. 27s 22 30 7-25 11 07 a. m. 995 36 25 25.00 II 15 a. m. 765 29 '6.75 10 37 a, m. 1789 97 30 49-25 11 49 a. m. 183 5 »o 5.50 12 05 p. m. "3 3 45 2.65 11 12 p. m. 826 30 19.00 10 37 a. m. 1343 60 32.75 10 50 a. m. 1128 48 26.25 10 37 a. m. 1369 62 32.75 10 47 a. m. 1411 54 20 42.85 II 14 a. m. 868 35 22.00 12 10 p. m. 245 9 7.00 10 55 a. m. 1245 50 32.00 II .05 a. m. 998 40 23.00 11 04 a. m. 1236 52 40.75 Names of Cities. Montgomery, Ala Nashville, Tenn Newark, N. J ". Newburgh, N. Y Newbury port, Mass. New Haven, Conn.., New Orleans, La Newport, R. I Norfolk, Va Northampton, Mass.. Norwich, Conn Ogdensburg, N. Y... Omaha, Neb Philadelphia, Pa Pittsburg, Pa Pittsfield, Mass , Portland, Me Poughkeepsie, N. Y.. Providence, R. I Richmond, Va Rochester, N. Y , Sacramento, Cal St. Louis, Mo St. Paul, Minn Salt Lake City, Utah San Antonio, Tex.... San Francisco, Cal.., Savannah, Ga Springfield, 111 Springfield, Mass Syracuse, N. Y , Terre Haute, Ind . . . . , Toledo, O Trenton, N. J Troy, N. Y Utica. N. Y Vicksburg, Miss Washington, D. C Wheeling, W. Va.... Wilmington, Del Worcester, Mass Time when it is 12 noon at N. Y. II 48 10 a. m. og a. m. 59 a. m. 00 m. 12 p. m. 04 p. m. 56 a. m. 11 p. m. 51 a.m. 05 p. m. 07 p. m. 54 a. ffl. 32 a. m. 55 a. m. 36 a. m. 02 p. m. 15 p. m. 00 m. 10 p. m. 46 a. m. 43 a. m. 50 a. m 55 a. m. 44 a. m. 28 a. m. 23 a. m. 46 a. m. 3^ a. m. 58 a. m. 05 p. m. 51 a. m. 07 a. m. 22 a. m. 54 a. m. 58 a. m. 56 a. m. 53 a. m. a. m. 33 a. m. 54 a. m. 10 p. m. Distance by rail from N.Y. miles. 1056 1053 10 63 270 77 1377 185 372 156 140 374 1406 89 445 161 341 76 189 343 374 3183 1066 1322 2476 1952 3273 919 1032 139 293 899 706 58 15' 240 1287 228 5" 118 Mail time from N.Y, hours. 45 43 45 18 6 5 15 14 30 56 20 2 15 6 14 3 6 30 '3 10 146 IS 38 54 120 104 15' 39 42 30 4 30 8 30 32 24 I 30 4 20 7 30 63 30 3 7 15 R. R. fares from N.Y. $ cts. 32. QO 29-45 .20 I-4S 7.00 1-75 42.75 2.00 8.50 3-65 2.00 9.60 36.00 2.50 12.50 3-50 9.00 1 .46 5.00 >2.8s 7.70 136.00 24.25 3J-3S i'5,50 67.05 136.00 25.00 24.00 3-30 6.06 21.25 16.25 1-75 3->5 5.00 39-25 7-50 M-25 3.10 4-65 Note. —The mail time and passenger fares are to be taken as approximate. -^ MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 343 EXECUTIVE OFFICERS OF THE UNITED STATES FROM 1789 TO 1882. Date. April 30, 1789, to March 4, 1793.. March 4, 1793, to March 4, 1797 . March 4, 1797, to March 4, i8oi. March March March March March March March March March March March 4, 1801, 4, 1805, 4, 1809, 4i 1813, 4, 1S17, 4, 1821, 4, 1825, 4, 1829, 4, '833, 4, 1837, 4, 1841, to March to March to March to March to March to March to March to March to March to March to April 4, 1805. 4, 1809. 4, 1813. 4, 1817. 4, 1821. 4. 1825. 4, 1E29. 4, 1833. 4i 1837. 4, 1841. 4, 1841. April 4, 184 1, to March 4, 1845. March 4, 1845, to March 4, 1849. March 5, 1849, to July 9, 1850. July 9, 1850, to March 4, 1853. March 4, 1853, to March 4, 1857. March 4, 1857, to March 4, 1861 . March 4, 1861, to March 4, 1865. March 4, 1865, to April 15, if^Gs. April 15, 1865, to March 4, 1869. March 4, 1869, to March 4, 1873. March 4, 1873, to March 4, 1877. March 5, 1877, to March 4, 1881. March 4, 1881, to Sept. 19, 1881. Sept. 19, 1881, to President. George Washington, Va George Washington, Va John Adams, Massachusetts. Thomas Jefferson, Virginia. Thomas Jefferson, Virginia. James Madison, Virginia James Madison, Virginia James Monroe, Virginia James Monroe, Virginia John Q. Adams, ,Mass Andrew Jackson, Tennessee. Andrew Jackson, Tennessee. Martin Van Buren, N. Y Wm. H. Harrison, Ohio John Tyler, Virginia Vice-President. James K. Polk, Tennessee. . . Zachary Taylor, Louisiana. Millard Fillmore, N. Y Franklin Pierce, N. H James Buchanan, Penn Abraham Lincoln, Illinois. Abraham Lincoln, Illinois. Andrew Johnson, Tenn Ulysses S. Grant, Illinois. . . Ulysses S. Grant, Illinois. . . Rutherford B. Hayes, Ohio James A. Garfield, Ohio Chester A. Arthur, N. Y. . . John Adams, Massachusetts. John Adams, Massachusetts. Thomas Jeiferson, Vii^nia Aaron Burr, New York George Clinton, New York ♦George Clinton, New York .. . +Wm. H. Crawford, Georgia. . . ♦Elbridge Gerry, Massachusetts tjohn Gaillord, South Carolina. Daniel D. Tompkins, New York Daniel D. Tompkins, New York John C. Calhoun, S. Carolina... John C. Calhoun, S. Carolina... Martin Van Buren, New York. . Richard M. Johnson, Kentucky John Tyler, Virginia tSamuel L. Southard, N. Jersey tWillie P. Mangum, N. Car. . . Geo. M. Dallas, Pennsylvania. Millard Fillmore, New York... tWilliam R. King, Alabama . . , ♦William R. King, Alabama. . tD. R. Atchinson tj. D. Bright John C. Breckenbridge, Ky Hannibal Hamblin, Maine , Andrew Johnson, Tennesee tLafayette S. Foster, Conn tBenjamin F. Wade, Ohio Schuyler Colfax, Indiana ♦Henry M. Wilson, Mass tThos. W. Ferry, Mich Wm. A. Wheeler, New York. . . Chester A. Arthur, New York.. tThos. F. Bayard, Delaware... tDavid Davis, Illinois ♦Died. +President/ro tern of the Senate, Secretary of State. Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, September 26, 1789. Thomas Jefferson, reapjjointed. Edmund Randolph, Virginia, January 2, 1794. Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, Dec. 10, 1795 Timothy Pickering, reappointed. John Marshall, Virginia, May 13, 1800. James Madison, Virginia, March 5, 1801. James Madison, reappointed. Robert Smith, .^'aryland, March 6, 1809. James Monroe, Virginia, April 2, 181 1. James Monroe, reappointed. John Q. Adams, Massachusetts, March 5, 1817. John Q. Adams, reappointed. Henry Oay, Kentucky, March 7, 1825. Martin Van Buren, New York, March 6, 1829. Edward Livingston, Louisiana, May 24, 1831. Louis McLane, Delaware, May 29, 1833. John Forsyth, Geortria, June 27, 1834. John Forsyth, reappointed. Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, March 5, 1841. Hugh S. Legare, South Carolina, May 9, 1843. Abel P. Upshur, Virginia, July 24, 1843. John' Nelson, Maryland, (act) February 29, 1844. John C. Calhoun, South Carolina, March 6, 1844. James Buchanan, Pennsylvania, March 6, 1845. John M. Clayton, Delaware, March, 7, 1849. Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, July 22, 1850. Edward Everett. Massachusetts, Dec. 6, 1852. Wm. L. Marcy, New York, March 7, 1853. Lewis Cass, Michigan, March 6, 1857. Jeremiah S. Black, Pennsylvania, Dec. 17, i86o. William H Seward, New York, March 5, 1861. William H. Seward, reappointed. William H. Seward, continued. E. B. Wasbbume, Illinois, March 5, 1869. Hamilton Fish, New York, March n, 1869. Hamilton Fish, reappointed. Wm. M. Evarts, New York, March 12, 1877. James G. Blaine, Maine, March 5, 1881. T. F. Frelinghuysen, New Jersey, Dec. 12, i{ DATE OF BIRTH AND DEATH OF PRESIDENTS. Bom. Washington Feb. 22, 1732 J.Adams Oct. 19, 1735 Jefferson April 2, 1743 Madison Mar. 16, 1751 Monroe April 28, 1758 J.Q.Adams July u, 1767 Jackson Mar. 15, 1767 Van Buren Dec. 5, 1782 Harrison Feb. 9, 1773 Tyler Mar. 29, 1790 Died. Dec. 14, 1799 July 4> 1826 July 4. 1826 June 28, 1836 July 4i 1831 Feb. 23. 1848 June 8, •84s July 24. 1862 April 4, 1841 Jan. 17. 1862 Bom. Died. Polk Nov. 2, 179s Taylor. Nov. 24, 1784 Fillmore Jan. 7, 1800 Pierce Nov. 23, 1804 Buchanan April 23, 1791 Lincoln Feb. 12, 1809 Johnson Dec. 29, 1808 Grant April 25, 1822 Hayes • Oct. 4, 1822 Garfield Nov. 19, 1831 Sept. 19, 1881 June IS, ,849 July 9. 1850 Ma.-ch 8, 1874 Oct. 8, 1869 June I 1868 April 15, 1865 July 30. 187s 4- -^ 344 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. EXECUTIVE OFFICERS OF THE UNITED STATES FROM 1789 TO 1882.— Continued. Secretary of Treasury. Secretary of War. Secretary of the Navy. Alex. Hamilton, New York, September 12, 1789 Alex. Hamilton, reappointed. Oliver Wolcott, Connecticut, Feb. 2, 1795 Oliver Wolcott, reappointed Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, Jan. i, 1801 .... Samuel Dexter, reappointed Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania, May 14, 1801 . . . . Albert Gallatin, reappointed Albert Gallatin, reappointed G. W. Campbell, Tennesee, February 9, 1814... Alex. J. Dallas, Pennsylvania, Oct. 6, 1814 W. H. Crawford, Georgia, October, 22, 1816 W. H. Crawford, continued W. H. Crawford., reappointed Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, March 7, 1825 S. D. Ingham, Pennsylvania, March 6, 1829 Louis McLane, Delaware, August 8, 1831 Wm. J. Duane, Pennsylvania, May 29, 1833 Roger B. Taney, Marylannd, Sept. 23, 1833 L. Woodbury, New Hampshire, June 27, 1834. . Levi Woodbury, reappointed Thos. Ewing, Ohio, March 5, 1841 W. Forward, Pennsylvania, September 13, 1841 John C. Spencer, New York, March 3, 1843 George M. Bibb, Kentucky, June 15, 1844 R. J. Walker, Mississippi, March 6, 1845 W. M. Meredith, Pennsylvania, March 8, 1849 . Thos. Corwin, Ohio, July 23, 1850 fames Guthrie, Kentucky, March 7, 1853 iowell Cobb, Georgia, March 6, 1857 Philip H. Thomas, Maryland, Dec. 12, i860 John A. Dix, New York, January 1 1, i83t Salmon P. Chase, Ohio, March 5, i86i W. P. Fessenden, Maine, July i, 1864 H. McCulloch, Indiana, March 7, 1865 Hugh McCulloch, continued G. S. Boutwell, Massachusetts, March n, 1869. William A. Richardson, Mass., March 17, 1873 . B. H. Bristow, Kentucky, June 2, 1874 Lot M. Morrill, Maine, June 21, 1876 John Sherman, Ohio, March 8, 1877 Wm. Windom, Minnesota. March 5, 1881 Chas. J. Folger, New York, October 27, 1881 . . . Henry Knox, Massachusetts, Sept. 12. 1789. . . . Henry Knox, continued Tim. Pickering, Pennsylvania, Jan. 2, 1795 James McHenry, Maryland, Jan. 27, 1796". James McHenry, contmued Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, May 13, 1800.. Roger Griswold, Connecticut, Feb. 7, 1801 Hy. Dearborn, Massachusetts, March 5, 1801.. Henry Dearborn, reappointed Wm. Eustis, Massachusetts, March 7, 1809 John Armstrong, New York, January 13, 1813. James Monroe, Virginia, September 27, 1814. Wm. H. Crawford, Georgia. August i, 1815 . . George Graham, Virginia, April 7, 181 7 John C. Calhoun, South Carolina, Oct. 8, 1817. John C. Calhoun, reappointed James Barbour, Virginia. March 7, 1825. P. B. Porter, New York, May 26, 1828... J. H. Eaton, Tennessee, March 9, 1829.. Lewis Cass, Michigan, August i, 1831... Lewis Cass, reappointed B. F. Butler, March 3, 1837, acting J. R. Poinsett, South Carolina, March 6, 1837. . . John Bell, Tennessee, March s, 1841 John McLean, Ohio, September 13, 1841 J. C. Spencer, New York, October 12, 1841 James M. Porter, Pennsylvania, March 8, 1843. . Wm. Wilkins, Pennsylvania, February 75, 1844. Wm. L. Marcy, New York, March 6, 1845 Reverdy Johnson (act.), March 8, 1849 G. W. Crawford, Georgia, March 8, 1849 Winfield Scott (ad int)^ July 23, 1850 C. M. Conrad, Louisiana, August 15, 1850 Jeff Davis, Mississippi, March 7, 1853 John B. Floyd, Virgmia, March 6, 1857 Joseph Holt, Kentucky, January 18, 1861 Simon Cameron, Pennsylvania, March s, i86t . . . E. M. Stanton, Pennsylvania, January 15, 1862.. Edwin M. Stanton, reappointed , E. M. Stanton, suspended August 12, 1867 U. S. Grant {ad ini), August 1 2, 1867 E. M. Stanton, reinstated January 14, 1868 J. M. Schofield, May 28, j868 J. A. Rawlins, Illinois, March 11, 1869 Wm. T. Sherman {ad tnt), September 9, 1869... Wm. W. Belknap, Iowa, October 25, 1869 Wm. W. Belknap, reappointed G. M. Robeson (act.), March 2, 1876 Alfonzo Taft, Ohio, March 8, 1876 J. D. Cameron, Pennsylvania, May 22, 1876 G. W. McCrary, Iowa, March 12, T877 Alex. Ramsey, Minnesota, December 10, 1879. • • R. T. Lincoln, Illinois, March 5, 1881 The War Department had charge of Naval Af- fairs until April, 1798. ♦Geo. Cabot. Massachusetts, May 3, 1798. Benj. Stoddert, Maryland, May 21, 1798. Benj. Stoddert, reappointed. Benj. Stoddert, reappointed. Robert Smith, Maryland, July 15, 1801. J. Crowninshield, Massachusetts, May 3, 1805. Paul Hamilton, South Carolina, March 7, 1809. Wm. Jones, Pennsylvania, Jan. 12, 1813. B.,W. Crowninshield, Massachusetts, Dec. 19, '14. B. W. Crowninshield, reappointed. S. Thompson, New York, November 9, 1818 J. Rogers, Massachusetts. Sept. i, 1823, acting. S. L. Southard, New Jersey, September 16, 1823. S. L. Southard, reappointed. John Branch, North Carolina, March 9, 1829. L. Woodbury, New Hampshire, May 23, 1831. M. Dickerson, New Jersey, June 30, 1834. Mahlon Dickerson, reappointed. J. K. Paulding, New York. June 25, 1838. G. E. Badger, North Carolina, March 5, 1841. A. P. Upshur, Virginia, Sept. 13, 1841. D. Henshaw, Massachusetts, July 24, 1843. T. W. Gilmer, Virginia, February 15. 1844. John Y. Mason, Virginia, March 14, 1844. Geo. Bancroft, Massachusetts, March 10, 1845. J. Y. Mason, Virginia, September 9, 1846. Wm. B. Preston, Virginia, March 8, 1849. Wm. A. Graham, North Carolina, July 22, 1850. J. P. Kennedy, Maryland, July 22, 1852. James C. Dobbin, North Carolina, March 7, 1853.. Isaac Toucey, Connecticut, March 6, 1857. Gideon Welles, Connecticut, March 5, i86i. Gideon Welles, reappointed. Gideon Welles, continued. Adolph E. Borie, Pennsylvania, March 5, 1869. G. M. Robeson, New Jersey, June 25, 1869. Geo. M. Robeson, reappointed. R. W. Thompson, Indiana, March 12, 1877. Nathan Goff, West Virginia, Jan. 10, 1881. Wm. H. Hunt, Louisiana, March 5, 1881. ♦Declined. POPULATION OF EUROPEAN CAPITALS. kr- London (Great Britain) 3250000 Paris (France) '.".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.*.'.'.'.'. i',82s',ooo Constantinople (Turkey) i 075,000 Vienna (Austria) 833000 Berlin (Prussia) 825000 St. Petersburg (Russia) !.!.!.'.'.".'.'.'.!'.!".!'.!'.!'.!'.!'.!!.' 667'ooo Madrid (Spain) 332,000 Brussels (Belgium) 314,000 Rome (Italy) ... 24^ Lisbon ( Port ugal ) 224 ,000 Copenhagan (Denmark) 181 000 ^f^sden (Saxony) ; ; ;■.•;.■.■.■.■.■. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. i77;ooo Munich (Bavaria) 160000 Stockholm (Sweden and Norway) ' ' 1,6 ooo Stuttgart (Wurtemberg) oi'nor. The Hague (Netherlands) :;::": ^o'^ Brunswick (Brunswick) .. "' cs'ooo Athens (Greece) !!!!!!!."!!." 41 "000 Darmstadt (Hessen-Darmstadt) 39'ooo Carlsruhe (Baden) 36,000 Berne (Switzerland) ; . . 36,000 Schwerin (Mecklenburg-Schwerin) 26,000 Gotha (Saxe-Coburg-Gotha) 20,000 Altenburg (Saxe-Altenburg) 20,000 Weimar (Saxe- Weimar) 16,000 Dessau ( Anhalt) , 16,000 Grettz (Reuss-Greitz) ' 11,000 Oldenburg (Oldenburg) 8,000 Neu-Strelitz (Mecklenburg-Strelitz) 7,ooo Meiningen (Saxe-Meiningen) '. 7,000 Rudolstadt (Schwarzburg-Rudolstadf) 6,000 Sondershausen (Schwarzburg-Sondershausen) 6,000 Schleitz (Reuss-Schleitz) ■ S,ooo Buckeburg (Lippe-Schaumburg 4,000 Arolsen (Waldeck) 2,000 Monaco (Monaco) i ,900 Lichtenstein (Lichtenstein) 1,000 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 345 THE COPYRIGHT LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES. Every applicant for a copyright must state distinctly the name and residence of the claimant, and whether the right is claimed as author, designer, or proprietor. No affidavit or formal application is required. A printed copy of the title ot the book, map, chart, dramatic or musical compiosition, engraving, cut, print, or photograph, or a descrip- tion of the painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design for a work of the fine arts, for which copyright is desired, must be sent by mail or otherwise, prepaid, addressed "Librarian of Con- gress, Washington, D. C." This must be done before publication of the book or other article. A fee of -;o cents, for recording the title of each book or other article, must be inclosed with the title as above, and 50 cents in addition (one dollar in all) for each certificate of copyright under seal of the Librarian of Congress, which will be transmitted by return mail. Within ten days after publication of each book or other article, two complete copies must be sent prepaid, to perfect the copyright, with the address, " Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C. Without the deposit of copies above required the copyright is void, and a penalty of $25 is incurred. No copyright is valid unless notice is given by inserting in every copy published : " Entered according to act of Congress^ in the year , by , in the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington :'^ or, at the op- tion of the f)erson entering the copyright, the words : " Copyright^ 18 — , by . The law imposes a penalty of $100 upon any person who has not ob- tained copyright who shall insert the notice " Entered according to act of Congress^'' or " Copyright" or words of the same import, in or upon any IxKik or other article. Each copyright secures the exclusive right of publishing the book or article copyrighted for the term of twenty-eight years. Six months be- fore the end of that time the author or desigrer, or his widow or chil- dren, may secure a renewal for the further term of fourteen years, mak- ing forty-two years in all. Any copyright is assignable in law by any instrument of writing, but such assignment must be recorded in the office of the Librarian ofCon- gress within sixty days from its date. The fee for this record and cer- tificate is one dollar. A copy of the record (or duplicate certificate) of any copyright entry will be furnished, under seal, at the rate of 50 cents. Copyrights cannot be granted upon Trade-marks, nor upon Labels intencled to be used with any article of manufacture. If protection for such prints or labels is desired, application must be made to the Patent Office, where they are registered at a fee of $6 for labels and I25 for trade-marks. Note. — By decision of the Supreme Court of the United States, ren- dered November 17, 1870, the trade-mark law of July 8, 1870, by which Trade-marks were for the first time recognized and protected by act of Congress, was declared unconstitutional. The registry of Trade-marks at the Patent office is, however, continued to such as seek the benefit of a record without regard to the ultimate validity of the right. PRINCIPAL CEREAL PRODUCTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. States and Territories. Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Dakota Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island , South Carolina Tennessee : Texas Utah Vermont Viginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyominjr Total United States INDIAN CORN. Bushels. 251451,278 34,746 24,156,417 1,993,325 455,968 1,880,421 2,000,864 3,894,264 29,750 3,174,234 23,202,018 16,408 325,792,481 115,482,300 275,024,247 105,729,325 72,852,253 9,906,189 960,633 15,968,533 1,797,593 32,461,452 . 14,831,741 21,340,800 202,485,723 5,649 65,450,135 12,891 1,350,248 11,150,705 633,786 25,875,480 28,019,839 111,877,124 126,862 45,821,531 372,967 11,767,099 62,764,429 29,0^^5,172 163,342 2,014,271 29,106,661 39,183 14,090,609 34,23°,579 1,754,861,535 Bushels. Bushels. 1,529,657 136,427 1,269,730 29,017,707 1,425,014 38,742 2,830,289 1,175,272 6,402 422 3,159,771 540,589 51,110,502 47,284,853 31,154,205 17,324,141 11,356,113 5,034 665,714 8,004,864 15,768 35,532,543 34,601,030 218,890 24,966,627 469,688 13,847,007 69,298 i6j,3i6 1,901,739 706,641 11,587,766 3,397,393 46,014,869 7,480,010 19,462,405 240 962,358 7,331,353 2,567,760 1,169,199 337,257 7,822,504 1,921,322 4,001,711 24,884,689 4,674 459,479,505 3,039,639 564 2,219,822 1,341,271 640,900 1,009,706 2,217,132 378,508 7,440 468,112 5,548,743 462,236 63,189,200 15,599,518 50,610,591 8,180,385 4,580,738 229,840 2,265,575 1,794,872 645,159 18,190,793 23,382,158 1,959,620 20,670,958 900,915 6,555,875 186,860 1,017,620 3,710,573 156,527 37,575,506 3,838,068 28,664,505 4,385,650 33,841,439 159,339 2,715,505 4,722,190 4,893,359 418,082 3,742,282 5,333,i8i 1,571,706 1,908,505 32,905,320 22,512 407,858,999 Bushels. 5,281 239,051 1,952 12,579,561 107,116 12,286 277,424 523 210 18,662 274,750 1.229,523 382,835 4,022,588 300,273 486,326 242,185 6,097 80,128 1,204,316 2,972,965 348 123,031 39,970 1,744,686 513,470 77,877 4,091 50,053 7,792,062 2,421 1.707,129 920,977 438,100 17,783 16,257 30,019 7^786 217,140 267,625 14,223 566,537 9,740 5,043,118 buckwheat. Bushels. 20,402 22,387 181,681 19,465 370,733 24,359 5,953 3,704 2,965 101,716 4,341 3,121,785 303,105 1,518,605 413,181 668,050 1,013 26,398 288,067 213,716 294,918 215,245 5,134 535,426 430 424,348 ""34',638 949,064 240 2,634,690 285,160 389,221 13,305 3,683,621 12,997 27,049 156,419 25,399 9,605 71,733 324,431 7,124 113,181 2,298,513 78 19,831,595 Bushels^ 363 548 22,307 no 137,563 2,521 5,857 403 178,859 89,707 166,89s 24,421 9,942 382,701 136,667 67,117 413,062 41,756 57,640 437 17,562 94,090 460,414 4,461,200 44,668 280,229 6,2»5 3,593,326 1,254 33,434 535 356,618 136,004 2,498 285,298 299,107 4- 346 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. ESTIMATE OF VALUES OF FOREIGN COINS. As proclaimed by the Director of the Mint, January 2, 1882. Country. Austria Belgium Bolivia Brazil British Possessions in N. A Chili Cuba Denmark Ecuador Egypt France Great Britain Greece German Empire Hayti India Italy Japan Liberia Mexico Netherlands Norway Peru Portugal Russia Sandwich Islands Spain Sweden Switzerland Tripoli Turkey U.S. of Colombia Venezuela Monetary Unit, Florin Frjuic Boliviano Milreis of 1000 reis. . . . Dollar Peso Peso Crown Peso Piaster Franc Pound sterling Drachma Mark Gourde Rupee of 16 annas Lira Yen Dollar Dollar Florin Crown Sol Milreis of 1000 reis.... Rouble of 100 copecks. Dollar Peseta of 100 centimes, Crown Franc Mahbubof 20 piasters. Piaster Peso Bolivar Standard. Silver Gold and silver. Silver Gold Gold Gold and silver. Gold and silver, Gold Silver Gold Gold and silver Gold Gold and silver Gold Gold and silver Silver Gold and silver Silver Gold Silver : Gold and silver Gold Silver Gold Silver Gold Gold and silver Gold Gold and silver Silver Gold Silver Gold and silver Standard Coin. 5, 10 and 20 francs. Boliviano. Condor, doubloon and escudo. i/io, a, /i, )4y and 1 doubloon. 10 and 20 crowns. Peso. 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 piasters. 5, 10, and 20 francs. ^ sovereign and sovereign. 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 drachmas. 5, 10 and 20 marks. I, 2, 5 and 10 gourdes. 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 lire. 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 yen, gold and silver yen. Peso or dollar, 5, 10, 25 and 50 centavo. 10 and 20 crowns. Sol. 2, 5 and 10 milreis. X, }i and 1 rouble. 5, 10, 20, 50 and 1CX3 pesetas. 10 and 20 crowns. 5, 10 and 20 francs. 25, 50, 100, 250 and 500 piasters. Peso. 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 Bolivar. COMPARISON OF THE FAHRENHEIT, CENTIGRADE, AND REAUMUR THERMOMETERS. Fahrenheit. Centigrade. Reaumi 212 water boils. 100. 80. 200 93-33 74.66 180 82.22 65.77 160 71. II 56.88 140 60. 48. 120 48.88 39." lOO 37.77 30.22 88 26.66 21-33 Fahrenheit. Centigrade 60 50 40 32 water freezes 20 JS-5S 10. 4-44 0. - 6.66 10 — T2.22 - 17.77 Reaumur. — 5 33 — 9-77 — 14.22 A PERPETUAL CALENDAR. FOR 2000 YEARS AFTER CHRIST, Old Style, AND FROM 1500 TO 2000 A. D., New Style. TABLE I.— DOMINICAL LETTERS. Years in excess of Hundreds 1 100 Old Style. ■{ 700 800 . ( 1400 1500 New Sty - \ 1700 New Style. | c 28 s6 84 DC ED I 29 57 85 B C 2 30 S8 86 A B 3 31 .S9 87 G A 4 32 60 88 FE GK S 33 61 89 D E 6 34 62 90 C D 7 3'; 63 91 B C 8 36 64 92 AG BA 9 37 b^ 93 F G 10 3a 66 94 E K II 39 67 95 D E T2 40 68 96 CB DC 13 41 69 97 A B Centuries. 200 300 900 1000 1700 1600 1800 400 IlOO 1800 1500 1900 500 600 I2CX3 1300 1900 2000 1600 2000 E FE D C B AG F E D CB A G F ED C GF E D C BA G F E DC B A G FE D G AF F E D CB A G F ED C B A GF E A BA G F E DC B A G FE D C B AG F CB A G F ED C B A GF E D C BA G Years in excess of Hundreds. Old Style. New Style. o 100 700 800 1400 1500 1700 Centuries, 200 1600 300 1000 1700 400 1100 i8co 500 .1200 1900 6oa 1300 200a 1800 1500 1900 1600 2000 14 42 70 98 15 43 71 99 16 44 72 17 45 73 18 46 74 19 47 75 20 48 76 21 49 77 22 50 78 23 SI 79 24 52 80 25 53 81 26 54 82 27 55 83 G F ED C 3 A GF E D C BA G F E A G FE D C B AC F E D CB A G F B A GF E D C BA G F E DC B A G C B AG F E D CB A G F ED C B A D C BA G F E DC B A G FE D C B E D CB A G F ED C B A GF E D C F E DC B A G FE D C B AG F E D ^- MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 347 A PERPETUAL CALENDAR— Continued. DAYS OF THE MONTHS. TABLE n. ' February, March, " Dominical Letters. January, October. November. April, July. May. A B C D E F G I 8 15 22 29 5 12 19 26 2 9 10 23 30 7 14 21 28 Su. Sa. F. Th. W. Tu. M 2 9 i6 2J 30 6 13 20 27 3 10 »7 ^4 31 I 8 IS 22 29 M Su. Sa. F. Ih. W. Tu. 3 lo 17 24 31 7 14 21 28 4 II 18 2S 2 9 16 2j 30 Tu. M. Su. Sa. F. Th. VV. 4 II 18 =5 I 8 IS 22 29 5 12 19 26 3 10 17 24 31 W. 'lu. M. Su. Sa. F. "lb. 5 12 »<) 26 2 9 16 23 30 613 20 27 4 11 18 25 Th. W. Tu. M. Su. Sa. r. 6 13 20 27 1 10 17 24 31 7 14 21 28 5 12 19 26 F. "ih. W. Tu. M. Su. Sa. 7 I* 21 28 4 II 18 25 I 8 15 22 29 6 13 so 27 Sa. K Th. W. Tu. M. Su. DAYS OF THE MONTHS. Dominical 1 C D ^jtj. June. August. September, December. A B E F G 4 II lij =5 6 13 20 27 3 10 17 24 3 t Su. Sa. F. Th. W. Tu. M. S 12 19 26 7 14 21 28 4 II 18 2S M. Su. Sa. F. 'ih. W. Tu. 6 13 20 27 I 8 IS 22 29 5 12 19 26 Tu. M. Su. Sa. F. Th. W. 7 14 21 23 2 9 16 23 3° 6 13 20 27 W. Tu. M. Su. Sa. F. Th. I 8 15 22 29 3 10 17 24 31 7 14 21 28 Th. W. Tu. M. Su. Sa. F. a 9 16 23 30 4 II 18 25 t 8 IS 22 29 F. Th. W. Tu. M. Su. Sa. 3 10 17 24 5 12 19 26 3 9 16 23 30 Sa. F. Th. W. Tu. M. Su. Rule. — Find the Dommical Letter for the year, in the First Table ; and note, that in Leap Years there are two Dominical Letters, the first for January and February, the second for the other months ; then in this Second Table, the days of the week under the Dominical Letter will be those for the required year. N. B.— New Style commenced in Roman Catholic countries generally in 1582 ; but was not adopted in England till 1752. Old Style is still used in Russia. UNITED STATES POSTAL TABLE. /iaUs on aU MailabU Matter between Points in the United States. LETTEBS. Each Yi oz. Mail letters 3 cents. Drop letters at letter carrier offices 2 " Drop letters at NON-letter carrier offices i cent. Drawings, plans, designs, and all matter sealed against inspection, 3 cents for each }i oz. or fraction oz. Registered letters 10 cents in addition to the proper postage. NEWSPAPERS, BOOKS, MERCHANDISE, SEEDS, ETC. Newspapers and periodicals to regular subscribers, weekly or oftener, 2 cents a lb. Transient newspajjers, i cent each 2 02. Third Class Matter— Books (printed and blank), circulars, other printed matter, proof sheets, corrected proof sheets and manuscript copy accompanying the same, valentines, heliotypes. chromos, post- ers, lithographs, stereoscopic views, photographs, printed blanks, business cards, lags and tickets, i cent each 2 oz. Newspapers (except weekly to subscribers), circulars and periodicals, not 2 oz in weight, deposited in letter carrier offices for local de- livery, 1 cent each. . Fourth Class Matter. — Printed envelopes in quantity, blank bills, letter heads, blank cards, flexible patterns, plain envelopes and letter paper, sample cards, merchandise, models, sample ores, metals, miner- als, seeds, bulbs, cuttings, roots, not exceeding 4 lbs in weight, i cent each oz. or fraction of oz. Patterns and samples to Canada, 10 cents prepciid for each 8 oz. or frac- tion. First, third and fourth class matter may be registered at 10 cents each package in addition to the regular p>ostage. All matter not prepaid at letter rates must be so wrapped that it can be examined without destroying the wrapper, and can name contents, from whom, and address, and nothing more. A business card may be printed, impressed or pasted on the wrappers. Liquids, poisons, ex- plosives, and other dangerous matters are excluded. POSTAGE TO FOKEIGN COUNTRIES. Not exc. News- Letters. x^ oz. papers. Cents. Cents. Africa, west coast, British possessions . - . . *5 i Africa, west coast, except Liberia, British, French, Span- ish, and Portuguese possessions 15 .5 Aspinwall ' * ♦- j New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, via San Fraii- cisco ,2 J Australia, except ^bove places, via San Francisco 5 2 Austria *g , Belgium " . | .' •- ^ Bermuda, via New York *k i Brazil. .... '..'.'.'. *s 1 Canada, Nova Scotia, etc 3 i Newfoundland '.!".".!.*.'. *k i Cape Goot. Hope, British mail !!!!!.".!.!!! •le « Boltvia, via Aspinwall 17 4 Cbili, Ecuador, and Peru *5 i Not exc. News- Letters. M oz. pape tents. Ceni China — Amoy, Canton, Chee Foo, Hong Kong, Shanghai, via San Francisco *$ China, via England and Brindisi *i3 Cuba *s Denmark *s France and Colonies ♦$ Germany ♦$ Great Britain and Ireland ♦j Holland ♦s India, British, via Brindisi , *$ India, French and Portuguese Colonies ♦$ Italy *5 Japan and Trisum -po, Corea, via San Francisco ♦$ Liberia, via Southampton ♦$ Mexico ♦$ Natal, British mail *i5 New Zealand, via San Francisco *i2 ■ " " " Brindisi .. *is Norway and Sweden *$ Portugal *s Russia *5 Sandwich Islands, via San Francisco 6 Shanghai, via San Francisco 5 Spam *5 Switzerland ♦s Turkey— Europe and Asia *$ Venezuela ♦$ West Indies, direct 5 " " via St. Thomas 13 The asterisk (♦) indicates that the postage may be prepaid or not, at the option of the sender of the letter. International postal cards, price 2 cents, may be sent to any of the above-mentioned countries where the postage isdesignated'as 5 cents. MONEY ORDERS. No fractions of cents allowed in any money order. Rates on Money Orders in the United States : Not exceeding $is, ten cents • over $15 to $30, fifteen cents ; over $30 to $40, twenty cents ; over $40 to $50, twenty-five cents. Money Orders to Great Britain or Ireland: Not exceeding $10, twenty-five cents ; over $io to $20, fifty cents ; over $20 to $30, seventy cents ; over $30 to $40, eighty-five cents ; over $40 to $50, one dollar. Money Orders to German Empire, France, Italy, Canada, and Algeria : Not exceeding 8'o, fifteen cents ; over $10 to $20, thirty cents ; over $20 to $30, forty-five cents ; over $30 to I40, sixty cents ; over $40 to $50, seventy-five cents. Money Orders to Swiuerland : Not exceeding $10, twenty-five cents ; over $10 to $20, fifty cents ; over $20 to $30, seventy-five cents : over $30 to $40, one dollar ; over $40 to $50, one dollar and twenty-five cents. Money Orders can be made payable in Denmark, Sweden and Norway, Netherlands and Luxemburg, through Germany, at German rates. In Belgium, Austria and Hungary, through Switzerland, at Swiss rates. '^^ --^ r 348 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. ^ TABLES SHOWING THE HEIGHT OF THE MOUNTAINS, AND THE LENGTH OF THE CHIEF RIVERS OF THE GLOBE. PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS. Name. Aconcagua Ararat Ben Nevis Cervin or Materhorn . . Chimborazo Cotopaxi Dhawalagiri El-burz (Caucasus)... Etna Everest Finster-aar-horn Grimsel Pass Hekla Illimani Jungf rau Cunchinjinga Macgillicuddy's Reeks Mount Blanc Country. Chile Armenia Scotland . . . Switzerland Ecuador Ecuador India Russia Sicily India Switzerland Ditto Iceland Bolivia Switzerland India Ireland . . . Piedmont . . . Height. 23,910 17,260 4,368 14,837 18,17s 21,415 26,862 18,493 10,874 29,002 14,100 8,400 5,095 2i,:49 13,781 28,156 3,404 >5.744 Name. Mont Perdou Monte Rosa Niti Pass Ortler Spitz Pic de Nethou Popocatepetl Sahama St. Bernard (Great) Pass of St. Elias Scaw Fell Simplon, Pass of Skiddaw Snowdon Sorata Stelvio, Pass of Teneriffe, Peak of Vesuvius Country. Spain Switzerland India Tyrol Spain Mexico Bolivia Switzerland Russian America. England Switzerland England Wales Bolivia Tyrol Canary Island.... Italy Height. 994 284 814 ,852 ,426 773 .350 173 900 166 ,578 i023 571 ,286 1I77 ,236 932 PRINCIPAL RIVERS. River. Amazon Amoor Columbia Danube Dnieper Douro Elbe Euphrates Eraser Ganges Hoang-ho Indus Lawrence, St . . Lena Loire , Mississippi Niger Nile Obi Ohio Orinoco Parana Platte Po Potomac Rhine Rhone Scheldt Seine Senegal Shannon Susquehanna... Tagus Thames Tigris Vistula Volga Yang-tze-kiang Yenesei Mouth. Atlantic Ocean Pacific Ocean Pacific Ocean Black Sea ., Black Sea Atlantic Ocean North Sea , Persian Gulf Pacific Ocean Bengal Bay Pacific Ocean Indian Ocean Atlantic Ocean Arctic Sea Bay of Biscay , Mexico, Gulf Atlantic Ocean , Mediterranean Sea. , Arctic Ocean Mississippi River... Atlantic Ocean Plate River Atlantic Ocean Adriatic Sea Chesapeake Bay North Sea Mediterranean Sea. North Sea , . English Channel . . . Atlantic Ocean ... . Atlantic Ocean Atlantic Ocean Atlantic Ocean — North Sea Euphrates River . . . Baltic Sea Caspian Sea Pacific Ocean Arctic Ocean Course. South America Russia in Asia North America Germany and Hungary Russia Spain and Portugal Germany Turkey m Asia British Columbia Hindostan China Hindostan Canada Russia in Asia France United States Africa Abyssinia, Nubia and Egypt. Siberia United States South America South America South America . . Italy United States Germany Switzerland and France Belgium France Africa Ireland United States Spain and Portugal England Turkey in Asia Poland, Prussia Russia China Siberia Length in English Miles. ),9oo MOO 750 [,760 [,140 400 670 [,900 600 ",550 2,625 1,630 2,340 2,500 545 4,000 2 ,000 3,000 2,55° 1,188 1,480 1,500 2,130 410 410 8io 460 170 42s 950 200 620 2IS 1,000 640 2,03s 2,990 2,900 DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN LAKES. Name. Length. Mifes. Width. Miles. Depth. Feet. Elevation Ab've the Sea. Feet. Ontario 180 270 250 400 480 ^0 100 50 109 500 200 unknown. 900 231 565^ 6-8 618 Erie Huron Michigan Superior 641 DISTANCES SOUND MAY BE HEARD. Human voice 150 yards Rifle 5,300 " Militaryband 5,2oo Cannon 35,°°° -r^ MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 349 REDUCTION OF THE SCALE OF THE ENG- LISH BAROMETER TO FRENCH MILLI- METRES. Barometer, English. Barometer, English. Barometer, English. Inch. loths Millim'tr's Inch. loths Millim'tres. Inch. loths Millim'tres 34 60959 27 4 695.9s 30 703.82 I 612.13 698.49 I 706.07 3 614.67 6 701.03 2 708.33 3 617.31 7 703.57 3 710.59 4 619.75 8 706. n 4 712.84 622.29 9 708.65 5 715.10 6 624.83 28 711. 19 6 717-36 7 627.37 I 7'3.73 I 719.61 8 629.91 3 716.27 721.83 9 632-45 3 718.81 9 724.12 35 634.99 4 721.35 723.89 10 726.38 I 637-53 S II 728.63 3 640.07 6 726.43 27 730.89 3 642.61 I 728.97 I 733-15 4 645.15 731.51 3 735.40 5 647.69 9 734.05 3 737.66 6 650.23 39 736.59 4 739.91 I 652.77 I 739.13 5 742.17 655-31 3 741.67 6 744.42 9 657-85 3 744.21 I 746.68 ao 660.39 4 746.75 748.94 I 662.93 5 749.29 9 751.19 3 ^i'»7 6 751.83 10 753.4s 3 668.01 I 754.37 II 755.70 4 670.55 756.91 38 757.96 5 673-09 9 759-45 z 760.33 6 675.03 30 761.99 a 762.47 7 678.17 X 764-53 3 764.73 8 680.71 a 767.07 4 766.98 9 683.35 3 769.61 S 769.24 9- 685.79 4 772. IS 6 771.49 I 688., 3 690.87 5 774 69 I 773 75 3 6 777.33 776.01 ' 693 41 7 779-77 9 778.26 TEMPERATURES OF IMPORTANT PLACES IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD. Name of Place. London , Dublin Edinburgh Paris Vienna.... Berlin Copenhagen Stockholm St. Petersburg Moscow Naples . . . Rome Madrid Constantinople Jerusalem Calcutta Bombay Pekin Canton Hobart Town Auckland Cairo Cape of Good Hojje New York New Orleans Rio Janeiro Quebec Toronto Melbourne Sydney Jamaica Warsaw Latitude. N. S. N. S. N. S.^ N. 51 30 53 23 55 57 48 50 48 12 52 3' 55 4' 59 21 59 56 55 45 40 52 41 54 40 25 41 o 31 47 22 33 18 56 39 54 33 8 42 53 36 51 30 3 34 " 40 49 29 57 22 54 46 49 43 40 37 42 33 51 18 o 52 13 Mean Mean Summer Winter Temper- Temper- ature. ature. 63 39>^ 60 40 57 38 64 38 69 32 64 3» 62 3» 60 36 61 18 64 IS 75 48 74 47 76 43 7' 41 11 SO 73 83 77 75 38 82 54 63 42 67 SI 85 58 74 58 71 30 82 55 u 68 14 65 2S 65 48 74 55 81 76 63)^ 24>^ Annual Temper- ature. 51 50 47 S' 51 48 46 43 39 40 63 61 56 62 83 8x 53 69 52 59 72 66 51 69 73 41 45 65 78 44 LEADING AGRICULTURAL CROPS IN EUROPE. Coimtries. 1871 1873 1873 1873 1871 1870 1873 1873 1873 1867 1873 1873 1873 1873 1865 1877 1873 1870 1873 1873 1873 1868 1857 1872 1868 1868 1873 United States 1877 Austria Baden Bavaria Belgium Denmark Finland France Great Britain Ireland , Greece , Hesse- Darmstadt . Holland Hungary Italy Norway Portugal , Prussia Roumania Russia Saxe Altenburg . . Saxe- Weimar Saxony Servia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey WUrtemberg Date of Sta- tistics. Total Area. Acres. 74,180,173 3^774,358 19,360,648 7,278,873 9,448,691 93.371,255 130.7331S81 57,623,333 20,811,357 11,766,143 3,072,512 8,123,200 80,027,559 64,080,565 78,663,021 22,508,508 85,788,437 39,893,638 1,368 890,822 326,558 880,700 3'.704,o7o 10,762,876 125,223,666 110,629,417 10,234,802 89,957,183 4,803,571 2,184,000,000 Land under Tillage. Acres. 22,273,313 1,498,969 7,666,407 3,926,704 3r434,925 1,931,659 64,984,190 18,317,276 5,283,928 1,043,630 2,437,033 27,966,121 1,570,631 4,551,400 8,656,770 190,579 498,665 1,863,328 6,257,567 Wheat. Bushels. 35,945,699 4,347,248 31,626,587 24,682,369 53,922 237,998,066 104.512,354 3,871,032 5,102,894 278,138 5,238,650 107,381,080 5,684,696 73,731,406 221,714,919 425,019 792,611 4,086,720 117,563,372 2,455r429 2,145,528 40,867,200 7r274,i3S 364,194,186 Rye. Bushels. 74,407,428 1,263,478 24,550,562 13,367,392 9,024,840 58,971,844 1,779,426 178,510 123,009 3,259,660 8,i37r443 8,740,887 6,240,450 173,485,733 616,954,569 1,175,846 1,757,136 510,840 25,511,715 15,985,926 8,684,680 10,216,800 1,638,48s 21,170,100 Barley. Bushels. 46,234,017 3,343,164 17,501,814 3,565,090 4,994,880 53,163,763 91,513,013 8,385,154 2,059,506 3,179,908 4,699,546 13,321,218 1,985,663 86,742,609 124,255,047 886,818 1,989,665 3,065,040 58,471,962 12,574,379 1,430,352 35,542,000 5,358,653 Oats. Bushels. 91,486,937 3.188,777 25,897,914 21,777,248 27,564,583 4,852,980 192,677,482 123,248,64c 57,058,502 200,028 2,729,146 11,116,821 41,374,609 9,633,196 568v449 227v434,922 8,449,464 590,746,010 1,903,390 2,538,874 3,969,845 510,840 31,945.516 5,212,736 3,065,040 9,269,233 34,441,400 406,394,000 170,092,000 Potatoes. Bushels. 178,429,626 20,433,600 59,776,270 60,803,441 14,625,690 7,095,000 374,216,236 86,293,261 124,409,304 18,390 15,251,505 53,309,455 126,520,764 29,696,724 18,847,584 3,785,041 569,720,471 380,292 326,906,518 2,671,353 5,261,894 41,304,494 6,356,016 44,704,176 19,850,584 Average yield of Wheat per acre. Bushels. T56 16 9 29 2 27 9 17 8 17 1 29 9 23 13 5 39 o 24 8 12 6 23 3 13 2 17 6 138 28 7 17 2 37 ie'i 13 5 '^ 15° MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. DURATION OF LIFE. The following Table has been Constructed by Dr. Farr, F. R. S. i- Number of Persons Alive at Com- mencement of Year. Number of Persons Alive at Com- mencement of Year. Number of Persons alive at Com- mencement of year. •< No. Male. Female. • Total Deaths each Year. So No. < Male. Female. Total Deaths each Year. 73 74 No. Male. Female. Total Deaths each Year. o X X, 000,000 850,507 796,827 768,589 750,133 5",745 428,026 400,505 386,290 377,077 488,255 422,481 396,322 382,299 373.056 149,493 53,680 28,238 18,456 13,315 37 558,859 38 552,181 39 545,425 282,296 278,944 275,538 276,563 ^?3,237 269,887 6,678 6,756 6,841 191,956 176,487 91,149 83,416 100,807 93,071 15,469 15,363 77 78 79 161,124 145,988 ii6!88o 103,154 75,777 68,294 6l,02( 54,036 47,381 85,347 77,694 70,173 62,844 55,773 15,136 14,789 4 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 538,584 531.653 524,626 517,499 510,263 272,073 268,544 264,948 261,280 257,534 266,511 263,109 259,678 256,219 252,729 6,931 7,027 7,127 7,236 7,348 1 I 9 736,818 726,919 719.151 712,592 707,134 370,358 365,325 361,372 358,062 355,328 366,460 361,594 357,779 354,530 351,806 9,899 7,768 6,559 5,4S8 4,625 14,319 13,726 13,021 80 8i 82 ^3 84 90,133 77,919 66,599 56,241 46,869 41,115 35,283 29,922 25,060 20,711 49,oi£ 42,636 36,677 31,181 26,178 502,915 495,448 487,856 480,134 472,277 253,708 249,796 245,795 241,700 237,508 249,207 245,652 242,061 238,434 234,769 7,467 7,592 7,722 7,857 7,997 11,320 10,358 9,352 8,324 xo XI 702,509 698,481 694,844 691,413 688,031 353,031 351,048 349.272 347,606 345,969 349,478 347,433 345,572 343,807 342,062 4,028 3,637 3,431 3,382 3,468 13 14 85 86 89 38,565 31,265 24,967 19,621 15,162 16,877 13,549 10,709 8,325 6,360 21,688 17,716 14,258 11,296 8,802 50 51 52 53 54 464,280 456,139 447,725 439,135 430,374 233,216 228,821 224,195 219,437 214,552 231,064 227,318 223,530 219,698 215,822 8,141 8,414 9,259 7,300 6,298 5-346 4,459 3,653 15 i6 684,563 680,894 676,937 672,620 667,900 344,290 342,509 340,581 338,469 336,149 340,273 338,385 336,356 334,151 331,751 3.669 3,957 4,317 4,720 5,150 90 91 92 93 94 ¥ 99 100 101 102 103 104 11,509 8,576 6,266 4,485 3,142 4,770 3,510 2,531 1,787 1,234 6,739 5,066 3,735 2,698 1,908 19 55 56 11 59 60 6i, 62 64 421,115 4i'-532 401,623 391,378 380,785 209,539 204,395 199,114 193,686 188,102 211.576 207,137 202,509 197,692 192,683 9,583 9,909 10,245 10,593 10,958 2,933 2,310 1,781 1,343 989 20 21 662,750 657,167 651,499 645,751 639,931 333,608 330,844 328,043 325,207 322,339 329,142 326,323 323,456 320,544 317,592 5,583 5,668 5,748 5,820 5,886 23 24 2,153 1,440 940 598 370 833 548 352 220 134 1,320 892 588 378 236 369,827 358,489 346,752 334,603 322,031 182,350 176,421 170,303 163,989 157,474 187,477 182,068 176,449 170,614 164,557 11,338 11,737 12,149 12,572 13,002 713 500 26 27 28 634,045 628,095 622,086 616,021 609,900 319,442 316,516 313,562 310,581 307,572 314,603 3",579 308,524 305,44° 302,328 5,950 6,009 6,065 6,121 6,176 342 228 147 223 131 74 41 22 79 46 25 14 7 49 27 15 29 65 66 67 68 69 309,029 295599 281,753 267,509 252,902 150,754 143,833 136,718 129,421 121,963 158,275 151,766 145,035 138,088 130,939 13,430 13,846 14,244 14,607 14,925 57 30 31 32 33 34 603,724 597,493 591,206 584,863 578,459 304,534 301,466 298,366 295,232 292,061 299,190 296,027 292,840 289,631 286,398 6,231 6,287 6,343 6,404 6,466 33 19 10 106 X2 6 3 I 4 2 I 8 4 2 I 6 3 70 71 72 237.977 222,793 207,424 114,370 106,675 98,919 123,607 xi6,ii8 108,505 15,184 15,369 15,468 36 565,460 288.850 285,596 283,143 279,864 6,601 I Note.— The rate of mortality of males of all ages is i in 39.91, and of females, x in 41.85. EXPECTATION OF LIFE AT THE FOLLOWING AGES. Calculated in Years and Hundredths. By Dr. Farr, F. R. S. Age. Male. Female. Age. Male. Female. Age. Male. Female. Age. Male. Female. Age. Male. Female. X 2 3 4 39-91 46.65 48.83 49.61 49.81 41.8s 47.31 49.40 50.20 50.43 20 21 22 23 24 38. X3 37-46 3^-79 40.29 39.63 38.98 38.33 37.68 40 41 42 43 44 26.06 25 39 24-73 24.07 23.41 26.69 26.03 25.38 24.72 60 61 62 64 13.53 12.96 X2.41 11.87 11.34 14.34 13.75 13.17 12.60 12.05 80 81 82 84 4.66 4.41 4.17 3-95 5.26 4.98 4-71 4.45 4.21 I 9 49-71 49-39 48.92 48. 3f 47.74 50.33 50.00 49-53 48.98 48.35 26 27 28 29 36.13 35-44 34-77 34.10 33-43 37.0^ 36-39 35-75 35- 10 34 46 46 47 48 49 22.76 22.11 21.46 20.82 20.17 24 06 23.40 22.74 22.08 21.42 6S 66 67 68 69 10.82 10.32 9.83 9.36 8.90 11.51 10.98 10.47 9-97 9.48 85 86 II 89 3-73 3-53 3.34 3 16 3.00 •3.98 3.76 3.56 3.36 3.18 10 IX 12 13 14 47-05 46.31 45-54 44.70 43.97 47-67 46.95 46.20 45-44 44-66 43-00 43-14 42.40 41.67 40.97 30 31 32 33 34 32.76 32.09 31.42 30.74 30.07 33-81 33.17 32.53 31.88 31.23 30.59 29.94 29.29 28.64 27-99 50 51 52 53 54 19.54 18.90 18.28 17.67 17.06 20.75 20.09 19-42 1^:^ 70 71 72 73 74 8.45 8.03 7.62 7.22 6.85 9.02 8.57 • 8-13 7.71 7.31 90 93 93 94 "it 2.69 2-55 2.41 2.29 3.01 2.8s 2.70 2.55 2.42 IS 16 \l 19 43.18 42.40 41.64 40.90 40.17 li 37 38 39 29.40 28.73 28.06 27.39 26.72 55 56 57 58 59 16.45 15.86 15.26 14.68 14.10 17.43 16.79 16.17 15.55 14.94 79 6.49 6.15 5.82 5-51 5.21 6.93 6.56 6 21 5.88 5. 56 95 96 11 99 100 2.06 1-95 1.85 1.76 T.68 2.29 2.17 2.06 1.96 1.86 1.76 The mean lifetime of boys at birth is 39.91 years, and of girls, 41.85. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 351 AMERICA was known to the an- ^^ cient Northmen as early as the tenth century, but its true discovery dates from the voyage of Colum- bus, in 1492. Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, having en- listed the assistance of Isa- bella of Spain, sailed from the port of Palos, on the third day of August, 1492, on his voyage of discovery, with a fleet of three ves- sels, and a crew of one hundred and twenty men, and landed on the island of San Salvador on the twelfth of October of that year. 1493. — Having returned to Spain, where he gave an account of his discoveries to their majesties, Ferdinand and Isabella, Columbus sailed on the twenty-fifth of September, 1493, on his second voyage, in which he discovered more of the West India Islands. 1497. — Sebastian Cabot, who claims with Colum- bus to have been the first discoverer of the Western Continent, was a son of John Cabot, a Venetian, and a native of Bristol. He sailed in the spring of 1497, in search of the northwest passage to India, and dis- covered land, which he called Prima Vista, or New- foundland, after which he sailed along the coast of America as far as Chesapeake Bay, and then re- turned to England. 1498. — On the thirteenth day of May, 1498, Co- lumbus set out on his third voyage from the Bay of St. Lucas, and, after sighting some new islands, on the first of August he discovered the continent, but imagining it to be an island, he termed it Isla Santa. 1499. — Americus Vespucius, or Vespucci, from whom the Western Continent derives its name, was a native of Florence, and made four voyages to the New World from 1499 to 1503. After returning to Spain he was appointed by King Ferdinand to draw sea charts descriptive of the New World, from which circumstance the continent became known as America. 15 1 2. — Ponce de Leon, a native of Spain, dis- covered Florida on Easter Sunday {Fascua Florida, in Spanish), April 6, 15 12. 1 5 13. — On September 29, 15 13, Balboa, a Span- iard, crossed the Isthmus of Darien and discovered the Pacific Ocean. He took possession of all the lands it might touch in the name of the Spanish crown. J224. — Francis I., of France, ambitious of the glory of Charles V., supplied Verazzano, a noble Florentine, with four vessels to prosecute discoveries in America. After a severe voyage he came upon a coast supposed to be North Carolina. Sailing north he entered a spacious bay receiving a noble river — the Hudson — and following the coast he reached Martha's Vineyard and Boston. Proceeding further, first west and then north, he skirted Nova Scotia, 352 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. -^ %- discovered Cape Breton Island, and finally reached the land discovered by the Cabots, Newfoundland and Labrador. 1535, — Jacques Cartier, the discoverer of Canada, sailed from the port of St. Malo, France, and as- cended the riyer St. Lawrence in 1535, as far as the site of the present city of Montreal. 1538. — The career of Hernando de Soto is one of the most adventurous episodes in the history of American discovery. He accompanied Pizarro to America, and distinguished himself in the severe battle that took place between his chief and Alma- gro. Having returned to Spain, he was created Captain-General of Cuba and Florida, and sailed in command of a brilliant armament from San Lucar de Barrameda, April 6th, 1538, to undertake the conquest of Florida. He arrived at Cuba on the i st of May, sailed from Havana May 12, 1539, arrived at Espiritu Santo, Florida, on the 25th, and took formal possession of the country in the name of the Spanish Emperor. After being harassed by the Indians, he continued his route to the dominions of the caique Tuscaloosa, which comprised part of Alabama and Mississippi. Here he fought a dis- astrous battle on the site of the city of Mobile, and on the 1st of April, 1541, he came in sight of the Mississippi River, which he crossed. In the spring of 1542 De Soto returned to the Mississippi, where, after untold trials and disappointments, he suc- cumbed to fever and fatigue. His body was sunk in the river, lest the Indians should desecrate it. 1542. — Cabrillo made the first voyage along the Pacific coast, sailing as far north as the boundaries of Oregon. 1562. — Admiral Coligni, one of the Huguenot lead- ers in France, conceived the design of establishing a trans-atlantic settlement for the purpose of afford- ing an asylum to his Protestant brethren, and fitted out two vessels in 1562, which he placed under command of John Ribault, of Dieppe, a seaman of experience. The discoverers landed in Carolina, but the settlement did not ^p rove successful. 1564. — In 1564 Coligni fitted out three vessels, which he placed under the command of Laudonniere, an officer who had accompanied Ribault, which at- tempt, however, was no more successful than the first. In 1565 Ribault was sent with several ships to supersede Laudonniere, bringing with him large supplies, which induced the colonists to remain. 1565. — Melendez, a Spanish explorer, landed in Florida in 1565, and laid the foundations of a col- ony. It was named St. Augustine, and is the oldest town in the United States. 1576. — Frobisher, an English navigator, tried to find a northwest passage, entered Baffin Bay, and twice endeavored to found a colony in Labrador, but was unsuccessful. 1578. — Sir Francis Drake, a famous English cap- tain, from 1578 to '80 sailed through the Straits of Magellan and along the Pacific coast as far as Ore- gon, wintered in San Francisco harbor, and circum- navigated the globe. 1582. — In 1582 New Mexico was explored and named by the Spaniard Espejo, who founded Santa Fe, the second oldest city in the United States. 1584. — Sir Walter Raleigh is distinguished for having projected and established permanent British settlements in America. In April, 1584, he fitted out two ships, fully equipped and provisioned, under the command of Captain Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlow. Having arrived on the American coast, they entered into trade with the natives, and after a hasty examination of the country, returned to Eng- land, where they arrived in September. The coun- try which they discovered was named Virginia, by order of Queen Elizabeth, in allusion to her unmar- ried state of life. Sir Walter soon fitted out another fleet for America, under the command of Sir Rich- ard Grenville, Mr. Ralph Lane having been appoint- ed Chief Governor of the colony. The Governor retul-ned to England for supplies shortly afterward. Raleigh dispatched another colony under John White, who was appointed Governor. Governor White returned to England, and when he came back, three years later, he found that the entire colony had perished. It is asserted by Camden that tobacco was now for the first time introduced into England, and the potato into Ireland, from America. 1605. — De Monts, a native of France, received a grant of all the land lying between the fortieth and forty-sixth parallels of latitude. The tract was termed Acadia. With Champlain, he founded Port Royal, the first permanent French possession in America. 1606. — James I. of England granted the London Company a colony in Virginia in 1606. The expedi- tion reached America in 1607, and, ascending the James River, chose for their colony a spot which they called Jamestown. The colonists and their --^ A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 353 kr- posterity were declared English subjects, though they were invested with no political rights. The colonists suffered many severe hardships, and were saved from destruction mainly through the energy and sagacity of Captain John Smith, who had been installed as president. This was the first perma- nent English settlement in America. 1608. — The first permanent French settlement in Canada was established by Samuel de Champlain, who founded the city of Quebec in 1608. In the follow.ing year he discovered the beautiful lake which bears his name. He has been justly termed " The Father of New France," as the French possessions in America were named. 1609-10. — In the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Dutch and English directed their atten- tion to the discovery of a northwest passage to In- dia. After the failure of several navigators in this endeavor, it was resumed by Henry Hudson, a navi- gator in the Dutch service. Not succeeding, he proceeded to explore the American coast, and sailed up the river that now bears his name. In 1 6 10 he was sent by a Dutch company on another voyage, when he explored the great bay to which his name is attached. In virtue of Hudson's voyage, the Dutch claimed the country from the Delaware River to Cape Cod, and in 16 10 several stations were formed on the Island of Manhattan, the name then given to New York. In 16 13, a settlement was founded. The country was called New Netherlands, and a cluster of cottages, where New York now stands, was named New Amsterdam. 1 61 9. — The " first legislative body that ever as- sembled in America " was called at Jamestown by Governor Yeardly, July 30, 1619. Its laws were ratified by the company in England, but possessed no binding force unless subsequently ratified by the colonial assembly. These privileges were in 1621 embodied in a written constitution, " the first of its kind in America." 16 19. — Slavery was introduced into the United States in 16 19, by the captain of a Dutch trading vessel, who bought twenty negroes which he sold to the tobacco planters. Their labor being found prof- itable, a traffic in slaves soon sprung up. 1620. — After various abortive attempts to colonize New England, a tide of population poured into it from an unexpected quarter. The ** Pilgrim Fa- thers " — Puritans who had fled from England to Holland to escape the persecution of the established church — sailed for America in September, 1620, and arrived on the 9th of November, in view of Cape Cod. They settled on a spot which they named New Plymouth. After suffering untold privations, which reduced their numbers in the spring of 1621 to fifty or sixty persons, they persevered, and in the spring of 1624 they counted one hundred and eighty. Their numbers were increased in 1629, and in 1630, fifteen hundred settlers having arrived from England in the latter year. They soon became involved in war with the Indians, which checked the progress of the colony, but the nativeSwere finally subdued and dis- persed. In 1 692, Plymouth was united with Massachu- setts Bay Colony, under the name of Massachusetts. 1622. — On the 2 2d of March, 1622, occurred the In- dian Massacre of Virginia, when over three hundred men, women and children fell victims in a single day, 1630. — The first house erected in Boston, under Governor Winthrop, in July, 1630. Connecticut was settled at Windsor, Hartford and Wethersfield, in 1633-6. 1633. — Sir George Calvert, Secretary of State under James I., obtained from King Charles I. a large grant of land in America, which was named Maryland, in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria. Sir George, now created Lord Baltimore, died before the completion of the charter, and the establishment of the colony devolved accordingly on his son Cecil. The first emigrants, consisting of about two hundred persons, arrived in 1633. The colonists acted justly toward the natives, and the Maryland government was distinguished for proclaiming religious toleration to all. The Protestants having obtained a majority, deprived Catholics of their rights, and declared them outside the protection of the law. In 1691, Lord Baltimore was deprived of his proprietary rights, and Maryland became a royal province. In 17 15, under the fourth Lord Baltimore, the government was recovered and religious toleration was restored. 1636. — Rhode Island was settled at Providence in 16^6, by Roger Williams, who stamped upon the colonies the idea of religious toleration. In 1647, a set of laws guaranteeing freedom of worship were enacted — " the first legal declaration of liberty of conscience ever adopted in Europe or America." 1638. — The first permanent settlement in Dela- ware was made in 1638 by the Swedes, on a tract r 354 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ^ lying near Wilmington. The settlement was subse- quently conquered 'by the Dutch, and later still yielded to the English power. 1643. — ^^ ^643 too^ place the Union of the Col- onies, Massachusetts Bay, New Haven and Con- necticut, for the purpose of common defense against the Indians, and the encroachment of the French and Dutch settlers. 1646. — In 1646 Peter Stuyvesant was appointed Governor of the New Netherlands, which colony continued to thrive under his just and humane rule till its conquest by the English in 1664. 1660. — In 1660, the British Parliament enforced the Navigation Act, whereby the commerce of the colony of Virginia should be carried on in English vessels, and their tobacco shipped to England. 1663. — In 1663 Charles II. granted a vast tract of land south of Virginia to Lord Clarendon and other noblemen, which was termed Carolina in honor of the king. Two settlements were established, Albemarle Colony and Carteret Colony (1670). The two colonies separated in 1729. .1664. — In August, 1664, Sir Robert Nichols, who had been sent out by Charles II. to effect the con- quest of the Dutch possessions in America, arrived before New Amsterdam, having landed a portion of his troops on Long Island. The Governor, Peter Stuyvesant, was unable to offer any effective resist- ance, and the colony passed into the possession of the English. ^673. — The Jesuit Missionaries were the explorers of the Mississippi Valley. Father Marquette, in 1673, floated in a birch-bark canoe down the Wis- consin to the Mississippi, which he descended to the mouth of the Arkansas. La Salle, another Jesuit missionary, in 1682, made his way to the Gulf of Mexico, and named the coun- try bordering on the gulf Louisiana, in honor of Louis XIV., King of France. 1682. — The first settlement in Pennsylvania was established by William Penn, an English Quaker, in 1682. In the following year he purchased land of the Swedes, and laid out on it the city of Philadel- phia. He entered into a friendly treaty with the Indians, and the colony flourished apace. After his death, in 1718, his heirs ruled the colony until 1779, when their claims were bought out by the State for the sum of half a million dollars. 1689-1697. — King William's War. — In conse- quence of the war between England and France, in Europe, hostilities between their colonies broke out in America. The savage tribes took part on both sides. The war lasted eight years, during which time several horrible massacres and barbarities took place. 1692. — In 1692, the mania known as the Salem witchcraft broke out, and not till forty-five people had been tortured and twenty hung was it abated. 1702. — Queen Anne's War. — In this year, Eng- land having declared war against France and Spain, the colonies took up the contest. Hostilities con- tinued for eleven years, during which period sev- eral fruitless expeditions and horrible massacres took place. Peace was ratified by the treaty of Utrecht. 1733. — Georgia Founded. — The last of the thir- teen colonies was planned in 1732, and settled the following year by James Oglethorpe, an English offi- cer, who received a tract of land from George II., which he termed Georgia, in honor of the donor. Georgia became a royal colony in 1752, 1744. — King George's War. — France and Eng- land being once more at war, the colonies entered into hostilities also. The war lasted four years and was concluded by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1 754-1 763. — During this period the French and Indian \^;ar raged, having originated in the English and French laying claim to the territory west of the Alleghany Mountains. Peace was signed at Paris in 1763, whereby the English acquired all the terri- tory stretching from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. 1765. — The Stamp Act, which ordered that stamps purchased from the British Government should be placed on all legal documents, pamphlets, newspapers, etc., was passed in 1765. Resistance to the measure was threatened on all sides. Depu- ties from nine of the colonies assembled at New York and drew up a Declaration of Rights and a petition to the King and Parliament. The Act was repealed in 1 766, but the right to tax the colonies was still asserted. 1768. — In this year the " Mutiny Act " was passed, whereby soldiers were quartered on the inhabitants of the colonies, without the consent of the latter. 1770. — On March 5, 1770, occurred the "Boston Massacre." This was a fight between the soldiers sent by General Gage to quell the incipient resist- ance of the Bostonians to the " Mutiny Act," and -^ A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 355 -^ the citizens. Two of the latter were killed and three wounded. 1773- — On December i6, 1773, the climax of re- sistance to the principle of taxation without repre- sentation was reached by the colonists, who, dis- guised as Indians, boarded the vessels in Boston harbor and cast three hundred and forty-two chests of tea into the water. 1774. — The first Continental Congress met in Philadelphia, September 5, 1775. All the colonies, with the exception of Georgia, sent delegates thither. The Congress, by its resolutions, virtually raised the standard of rebellion, and arrayed the colonies against the mother country. 1775. — The battle of Lexington, the first of the Revolution, was fought on April 19, of this year. Seven Americans were killed. The British were as- sailed on all sides by the surrounding inhabitants, and before their retreat to Boston was completed they had lost three hundred men. 1775. — Bunker Hill, the first regular battle of the Revolution, was fought June 17, 1775, and resulted in a victory for the Americans, though they were forced to retire in the end, owing to the exhaustion of their ammunition. On this day General Warren fell. 1775. — Capture of Ticonderoga, May 10, by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold. By this surprise large stores of cannon and ammunition fell into the hands of the Americans. 1775. — O^ the loth of May, 1775, the second Continental Congress met at Philadelphia. It voted to raise twenty thousand men, and on the 15th of June unanimously elected George Washington com- mander-in-chief. 1775. — Invasion of Canada. — In September, 1775, Canada was invaded by the American forces under General Schuyler. General Schuyler, being taken ill, left the command in the hands of General Mont- gomery, who prosecuted the enterprise. He laid seige to Quebec, and on the morning of the 31st of December, endeavored to carry it by assault. He fell at the first fire. The assault was unsuccessful, and the Americans soon after retreated from Canada. 1776. — Evacuation of Boston. — The evacuation of Boston by the British troops, under' General Howe, took place on the 17th of March, 1776. On the following day Washington entered the city amid general rejoicing. 1776, — June 28. Attack on Fort Moultrie by an English fleet. The fleet was driven off in a badly shattered condition. Great rejoicing among the colonists, as this was their first encounter with the English navy. 1776. — Declaration of Independence. — On July 4th, 1776, the report of the committee appointed to draw up a Declaration of Independence was adopted. This Declaration was signed by each of the mem- bers of Congress, and by it the thirteen colonies cast off their allegiance to Great Britain and declared themselves an independent people. 1776. — Battle of Long Island. — On the 27th of August, the British Army, thirty thousand strong, under the command of Howe and Clinton, engaged the Americans, who numbered about nine thousand men, commanded by General Putnam, in Brooklyn, L. I, The Americans were defeated with a loss of two thousand men. 1776. — November 16. — Fort Washington captured by the Hessians, after a stubborn defense. 1776. — Battle of Trenton. — After the battle of Long Island, Washington retreated into New Jersey, to prevent the British from capturing Philadelphia. On Dec. 25, it being Christmas night, Washington surmised that the Hessians were not expecting an at- tack, and falling upon them in the midst of a plunging storm, surprised them in the height of their revelry, slew their leader. Rail, killed a thousand of their number, and effected his retreat back to camp with a loss of four men, two killed and two frozen. This de- feat of the enemy produced a marked effect through- out the colony. 1777. — January 3. Battle of Princeton. — In this battle Washington inflicted a serious defeat on the British troops. The Americans suffered severely also, losing one General, two Colonels, one Major and three Captains, killed. In this battle Colonel Monroe, who afterward became President of the United States, bore a conspicuous part. 1777. — Battle of Brandywine. — On September 11 the Americans, who had taken up a position at Chad's Ford, on the Brandywine, were attacked si- multaneously in front and rear by the British, and after performing prodigies of valor, were defeated. Philadelphia, in consequence, fell into the hands of the enemy. 1777. — Battle of Germantown, Oct. 4. 1777. — Battles of Saratoga. — On September ig, 35^ A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and October 7, of this year, were fought the battles of Saratoga between the forces of Generals Gates and Burgoyne. The latter was defeated on the 17th, and forced to capitulate, surrendering an army of nearly six thousand men, together with a splendid train of brass artillery, and all the arms and baggage of the troops. In consequence of this defeat, the British were unable to hold possession of the forts on the lakes, and retreated to Isle-aux-Noix and St. John's. 1778. — February 6, treaty with France signed at Paris. The chief articles of the treaty were, that if Britain, in consequence of the alliance, should be- gin hostilities against France, both countries should mutually assist each other, that the independence of America should be maintained, that if France should conquer any of the British West India Islands they should be deemed her property, that the contracting parties should not lay down their arms till the inde- pendence of America was formally acknowledged, and that neither of them should conclude peace without the consent of the other. 1778. — Battle of Monmouth, June 28. 1778. — The Wyoming Massacre. — On the ist of July, 1778, a band of fifteen hundred men, composed of Indians and Tories, under the command of Colonel John Butler, burst into the settlement of Wyoming in the Susquehanna Valley. The able- bodied men being for the most part in the field with the patriot army, there remained none save the old ■men and boys to make a defense. They were quickly defeated, and, with the women and children, were tomahawked or burned in the flames, after enduring the most savage tortures. The entire settlement was destroyed, and those who escaped the hatchet and the flames forced to fly into the depths of the wilderness. 1779. — Capture of Stony Point. — About midnight on the 15th of July, General Wayne, with a force of only eight hundred men, performed one of the most brilliant exploits of the war, in the capture of Stony Point. After encountering unexpected difficulties. General Wayne surprised the garrison and compelled them to surrender. The military stores in the fort were considerable. 1779.— On the 2 2d of August General Sullivan led an expedition into the Genesee Country, and on the 29th fought a battle, near the present town of Elmira, with the Indians and their Tory allies, defeated them, and then laid waste their towns and orchards, so that they might have no inducement again to settle so near the States. 1779. — September 23dJ^ capture of the Serapis by the Bon Homme Richard, under Captain Paul Jones, off the north-east coast of England. 1780. — Surrender of Charleston, May 12, to Gen- eral Clinton, after a siege of forty days. 1780. — Battle of Camden. — Aug. 16, General Gates having been appointed to take command of the troops of the South, marched to meet Cornwal- lis near Camden. The armies encountered one another unexpectedly ; the American troops were demoralized, defeated, and dispersed through the woods, marshes, and brushwood. By this disastrous defeat. South Carolina and Georgia were again laid prostrate at the feet of the royal army, and the hope of maintaining their independence seemed once more to vanish. 1780. — Arnold's Treason. — General Arnold, whose services at Quebec and Saratoga, were so con- spicuous, having deemed himself unjustly treated, entered into a plot with the British Major Andre to hand over West Point to the enemy. Andre ascended the Hudson, and went ashore on the night of Sept. 21st, but was captured at Tarry town on his return, condemned as a spy, and hanged. 1 78 1. — Battle of Cowpens. — General Tarleton having attacked General Morgan's forces, Jan. 17, at Cowpens, suffered a crushing defeat. Cornwallis set out on the news reaching him to punish the victors and retake the prisoners, but Morgan had meantime effected a retreat into Virginia, and after a close pursuit gained the fords of the Dan, 1 78 1. — Battle of Guilford House, March 15. 1781. — Battle of Eutaw Springs, Sept 8. 1781. — On the 4th of January, 1781, General Arnold, the traitor, who had been dispatched by Sir Henry Clinton to prosecute the war in that quarter, landed at Westover, 25 miles below Rich- mond, with 1,600 men and marched directly toward the city. He burned and destroyed all the property in his line of march, and acted with mingled hate and brutality. Cornwallis soon after took his place, and, after having destroyed ten million dollars worth of property, took up his position at Yorktown. 1 78 1. — August 30, the combined American and French armies entered Philadelphia. 1781. — Surrender of Yorktown. — On the 28th of September, 178J, the combined American and A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 357 French forces, twelve thousand strong, laid siege to Yorktown. The French fleet in the harbor co-oper- ated with the land forces. After a vain attempt to escape, Comwallis capitulated to the allied forces on the 19th of October. Exclusive of seamen, nearly 7,000 men surrendered. Seventy-five brass and sixty-nine iron cannons, with a large amount of ammunition and military stores, fell into the hands of the allies ; while one frigate, two ships of twenty guns, a number of transports and other vessels, with about 1,500 seamen, surrendered to the French Ad- miral, Count de Grasse. This virtually ended the war. 1783. — Peace Declared. — On Sept. 3d, 1783, a treaty of peace was signed at Paris, acknowledging the independence of the United States. 1783. — Savannah evacuated by the British, July II, 1783. 1783. — On November 25, 1783, the British evacu- ated New York, and an American detachment under General Knox took possession of the town. 1787. — Adoption of the Constitution. — A stronger national government than that which existed being needed and desired, a Convention was called in Philadelphia, Sept. 17, 1787, to revise the Articles of Confederation. Washington was chosen Presi- dent. After much deliberation an entirely new Constitution was adopted. During the year 1788, nine States, the number required to make it binding, had ratified the Constitution, and the same year the government was organized under the new instru- ment, and in 1789 it went into operation. 1789. — April 30. — Washington inaugurated first President of the United States. He took the oath to uphold the Constitution of the United States on the balcony of the old Federal Hall, in the city of New York, which was then the temporary capital. 1794. — Whiskey Rebellion in Western Pennsyl- vania. — The tax imposed on whiskey to restore the nation's shattered finances, provoked considerable opposition, and in Pennsylvania the rioters had to be subdued by the militia. No blood was shed, however. 1795. — j3-y's treaty with England ratified by the Senate June 24, 1795, after prolonged opposition. 1795. — Treaty with Spain, whereby the United States secured free navigation of the Mississippi, and the boundary of Florida was fixed. 1795. — Treaty with Algiers by which American captives were released and the Mediterranean com- merce was made free to American vessels. 4r- 1796. — Tennessee, the sixteenth State, was ad- mitted into the Union June ist, 1796. Two years previously it had been granted distinct territorial government. ^797- — On the 4th of March, 1797, John Adams was inaugurated second President of the United States. He was opposed by Thomas Jefferson, whom he defeated by two electoral votes. 1799. — Death of Washington. — On the 14th of December, 1799, George Washington died at Mount Vernon, his home, in Virginia, after a brief illness. 1800. — The capitol was removed to Washington in this year. 1 801. — Inauguration of Jefferson. — Thomas Jeff- erson was inaugurated third President of the United States March 4th, 1801. He was the chief author of the Declaration of Independence and the em- bodiment of the principles of Democracy. 1 801. — War Against Tripoli. — The Bashaw of Tripoli, who had been- accustomed to receive annual tribute from the United States for immunity from his piratical cruisers, declared war against the United States in this year. The United States dispatched a fleet thither in 1803, which bombarded the city of Tripoli, and compelled a treaty of peace in 1805. 1802. — Ohio, the seventeenth State, was admitted to the Union November 29, 1802. It was first ex- plored by the French, under La Salle, in the year 1680. 1803. — The Louisiana Purchase. — Louisiana Territory, embracing all the region west of the Mis- sissippi, and covering an area of over a million of square miles, was purchased from France, under Na- poleon, on the 30th April, 1803, for the sum of $15,- 000,000. 1804. — Death of Alexander Hamilton, who fell in a duel with Aaron Burr, at Weehawken, New Jersey, July II, 1804. 1807. — Robert Fulton's steamboat, the Clermont, made her memorable trip from New York to Albany, on September 14, 1807. This was the first steam vessel ever launched. 1807. — The American frigate Chesapeake was fired into by the British frigate Leopard off the coast of Virginia, June 22, 1807. This act was perpetrated in sustainment of a pretension of the English to the right of searching American vessels and impressing British subjects found therein into the English ser- vice. The immediate result of this outrage v/as an r 358 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. embargo laid on American ships by Congress and the suspension of all intercourse with England. 1809.— James Madison was inaugurated fourth President of the United States, March 4, 1809. 181 1. — Battle of Tippecanoe. — The battle of Tippecanoe was fought November 7, 181 1, between General Harrison and a confederacy of the Indian tribes under Tecumseh, a famous chief. The Indi- ans had been instigated to this war by British emis- saries. The Indians were defeated and dispersed. 1 81 2. — Louisiana, the eighteenth State, was re- ceived into the Union April 8, 181 2. The territory was so named in honor of Louis XIV., King of France. 1812. — War with Great Britain. — The British Government continued to seize American vessels and impress our seamen. On the 19th of June, 181 2, the United States declared war against Great Britain. On the 1 6th of May previous the Ameri- can frigate President having hailed the British sloop Little Belt was fired upon by the latter. A fight ensued, in which the British sloop was disabled. All hope of a peaceful termination of the difficulty was thereby rendered impossible. 181 2. — Canada was invaded by General Hull July 12, 181 2. On the approach of the British and In- dians he retreated to Detroit, which, with the whole of Michigan, he, in a most cowardly manner, sur- rendered to the enemy, August 16, with all its gar- rison and stores. 1812. — The battle of Queenstown Heights was fought October 13, 181 2. The English were dis- lodged and their general, Brock, killed, but not being sustained by the American militia, who refused to cross over from theif State, the Americans on the Canada side were compelled to surrender, after a heroic struggle. 181 2. — August 19, 181 2, the British frigate Guer- riere was captured, after a hard fight, by the United States frigate Constitution (Old Ironsides) off the coast of Massachusetts, Captain Hull commanding. 181 2. — October 13, capture of the English brig Frolic^ off the coast of North Carolina, by the American sloop of war Wasp. 1813. — September 10, 1813, was made memorable by Captain Perry's brilliant victory over the British on Lake Erie. The American flotilla consisted of nine vessels, carrying fifty-four guns ; that of the eneiLv six vessels and sixty-three guns. Perry's fa- mous message after the battle was : " We have met the enemy and they are ours." 18 13. — The American frigate C/^^.y^/^^^(? captured by the British ship Shannon, June i, 18 13. 1813. — Battle of the Thames, October 5. This battle was fought between the forces of General Harrison and the British under Proctor, and their Indian allies under the famous chief Tecumseh. The enemy were defeated, Tecumseh being among the slain. This victory, in connection with Perry's triumphs on Lake Erie, virtually decided the issue of the war. 1 8 14. — Massacre of Fort Mimms. — This deed was perpetrated by the Creek Indians, August 30, 18 14, who broke in upon the garrison and slew all, including women and children. General Jackson was sent with a force against the Indians, and fall- ing on them at Horseshoe Bend, slew six hundred of their number and compelled them to make peace. 1814. — Battle of Chippewa, July 5, gained by the Americans under General Scott. 1814. — Battle of Lundy's Lane, July 25. This battle resulted in a victory for the Americans. 1 8 14. — Battle of Lake Champlain, September 11, 1814. The American squadron, under the command of Commodore McDonough, almost wholly destroyed the British fleet in this conflict. Simultaneous with this signal victory, the American forces, numbering only fifteen hundred men, repelled the advance of General Prevost, the British commander in Platts- burg, at the head of twelve thousand veterans, who had served under Wellington. 1814. — ^Washington captured by the British, Au- gust 24, 1 8 14. The Capitol was burned, and the Congressional Library, together wi.th several public and private buildings, shared the same fate. 1814. — Treaty of peace with England, December 24, 1 814. The treaty was signed at Ghent. 1815. — Battle of New Orleans. Though a treaty of peace had been signed on the 24th of December, at Ghent, the intelligence had not yet arrived in America. On the 8th of January, General Packen- ham, with an army of twelve thousand veteran troops, sustained by a powerful fleet," marched to the attack of New Orleans. General Jackson, with a force of scarce half that number, mostly raw re- cruits, inflicted an overwhelming defeat on the invaders. General Packenham was slain, and while the British lost over two thousand of their number, -<^ A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 359 -^ the American loss was but seven killed and six wounded. 1 8 15. — In May, 18 15, Decatur was sent with a squadron to chastise the Algerines, who had renewed their piratical practices during our war with Eng- land. He obtained the liberation of all the Ameri- can prisoners held by the Barbary States, with com- plete indemnity for all losses inflicted. 1816. — Indian^ the nineteenth State, was admitted to the Union on December 11, 1816. 181 7. — James Munroe inaugurated fifth President of the United States, March 4, 181 7. 181 7. — Mississippi, the twentieth State, was re- ceived into the Union December 10, 1817. The State derived its title from the great river of that name. 1 81 8. — Illinois, the twenty-first State, was ad- mitted to the Union December 3, 1818. It derives its name from its greatest river, which signifies " The River of Men." 181 9. — Alabama, the twenty-second State, was admitted to the Union, December 14, 1819. It derives its name from the Indian phrase, signifying " Here we rest. " 1819. — Florida ceded by Spain to the United States, February 22, 1819. The • treaty was not signed by the King of Spain until October 20, 1820, and the United States did not enter into full pos- session until July 17, 182 1. 1820. — The Missouri Compromise passed March 3, 1820. This was the settlement of the difficulty that arose regarding the question of slavery, on the proposal of admitting Missouri into the Union. Through the efforts of Henry Clay, it was admitted as a slave State, under the compromise that slavery should be prohibited in all the other territories west of the Mississippi, and north of the southern bound- ary of Missouri. 1820. — Maine, the twenty-third State, was ad- mitted to the Union, March 15, 1820. 182 1. — Missouri, the twenty-fourth State, was ad- mitted to the Union, August 10, 182 1. It derives its name from its principal river, which signifies " Muddy water." 1824. — Lafayette's visit as " the Nation's guest,'' August 15, 1824. He was received with the most joyous welcome in all the States. 1825.— rjohn Quincy Adams inaugurated sixth President of the United States, March 4, 1825. Four candidates being in the field, and none of them obtaining a majority of votes, the election went to the House of Representatives. 1826. — Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, ex- Presidents, died July 4, 1826. 1829. — Andrew Jackson inaugurated seventh President of the United States, March 4, 1829. He was distinguished for his honesty, tenacity of purpose, and his thorough American spirit. 1832. — Nullification Ordinance, passed by South Carolina threatening secession from the Union, in the event of force being employed to collect the revenue at Charleston. A settlement was effected by the acceptance of Henry Clay's "Compromise Bill." 1832.— Black Hawk War. 1835. — The Florida War. A war with the Semi- nole Indians broke out this year. It arose from a refusal of the Indian chief Osceola, to move west of the Mississippi, in accordance with a treaty. He plotted a wholesale massacre of the whites. In which Major Dade and one hundred men were slain. The Indians retreated to the everglades of Florida, where they were pursued and defeated by Taylor, at the Battle of Okechobee, December 25, 1837. 1835. — Great fire in New York, Dec. 16, 1835. Six hundred stores burned. Loss $18,000,000. 1836. — Arkansas, the twenty-fifth State, was ad- mitted to the Union, June 15, 1836. Its name is derived from an extinct Indian tribe. 1837. — Michigan, the twenty-sixth State, was received into the Union, January 26, 1837. The name is Indian, signifying " Great Lake." 1837. — Martin Van Buren, the eighth President of the United States, inaugurated March 4, 1837. During his term of office a terrible financial crisis prevailed throughout the country. In two months alone in the city of New York the losses amounted to $100,000,000. 1 84 1. — Wm. H. Harrison inaugurated the ninth President of the United States, March 4, 1841. One month after, April 4, he died. 1 84 1. —John Tyler, the Vice-President, inaugu- rated tenth President of the United States, in ac- cordance with the Constitution of the United States, April 6, 1 841. 1842.— Ashburton treaty, by which the North- east boundary between Maine and New Brunswick was settled. The commissioners on each side were Lord Ashburton and Daniel Webster. 4r- ^ 360 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ■^ 1842. — Dorr's Rebellion, a difficulty which arose from the endeavor to secure a more liberal Constitu- tion in Rhode Island. This was secured in 1843. 1844. — Anti-Rent Rebellion in the State of New York. The occupants of the old "patroon " estates refused to comply with the feudal customs of the Patroon landlords, and resisted and killed the officers sent to serve warrants on them. The disturbances had to be quelled by the militia, and the allodial was substituted for the feudal tenure. 1845. — Florida, the twenty-seventh State, was ad- mitted to the Union, March 3d, 1845. 1845. — James K. Polk, inaugurated eleventh Pres- ident of the United States, March 4, 1845. 1845. — Joe Smith, the Mormon Prophet, killed, and the Mormons driven away from Nauvoo City, 111., by the mob. 1845. — Texas, which had wrested its independ- ence from Mexico, and applied for admission to the Union, was received into the family of States, De- cember 27, 1845. 1846. — Battle of Palo Alto. — The Texas boundary having given rise to a dispute between the United States and Mexico, Gen'l Taylor was ordered to oc- cupy the disputed territory with his troops. He was attacked by the Mexicans, with a superior force, May 8, at Palo Alto. The latter were defeated. Gen'l Taylor fought the battle of Resaca de la Palma, the following day, and gained a signal vic- tory. 1846. — War declared against Mexico by Congress, May II, 1846. 1846. — Capture of Monterey, with its garrison of ten thousand men, by Gen'l Taylor, with a force of six thousand, Sept. 24, 1846. 1846. — Iowa, the twenty-ninth State, was admitted to the Union December 28, 1846. 1846. — Conquest of New Mexico and CaHfornia, by Captain John C. Fremont, assisted by Commo- dores Sloat and Stockton, and General Kearney. 1847. — Battle of Buena Vista, fought between a portion of General Taylor's command, and twenty thousand Mexican troops, under Santa Anna, Feb. 23. After a desperate struggle, lasting the entire day, the American troops, though vastly outnumbered, were victorious. 1847. — Capture of Vera Cruz, by Gen'l Scott, after a furious bombardment of four days, March 29, 1847. V 1847. — Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18, 1847. • 1847. — Battle of Contreras, August 20. 1847. — Capture of Chapultepec, September 13. 1847. — Surrender of Mexico to the American army, September 14. 1848. — Treaty of Peace with Mexico, February 2, 1848. By this treaty the United States acquired the territory stretching south to the Gila, and to the Pacific on the west. 1848. — Gold was discovered in California in Feb- ruary, and soon attracted a tide of immigration from Europe, Asia, Australia, South America and all parts of the United States. Towns and settlements grew up as if by magic. More than one hundred thousand persons flocked to the mines from the United States within eighteen months after the discovery of the precious metal. 1849. — General Zachary Taylor, the twelfth President of the United States, was inaugurated March 5, 1849. 1850. — Death of President Taylor July 9, 1850. 1850. — Millard Fillmore, the Vice-President, in- augurated thirteenth President of the United States in accordance with the Constitution, July 16, 1850. 1850. — California, the thirty-first State, was ad- mitted to the Ujiion September 9, 1850. 1853. — Franklin Pierce, the fourteenth President of the United States, inaugurated March 4, 1853, 1854. — Kansas-Nebraska Bill passed. May 1854. This Bill was a virtual nullification of the Missouri Compromise Bill. It provided that the inhabitants of each Territory should decide Avhether the State should enter the Union as a free or slave State. 1854. — A Treaty with Japan was secured in May 1854, by Commodore Perry, whereby the United States were granted two ports of entry in that exclusive country. 1857. — James Buchanan, the fifteenth President of the United States, was inaugurated March 4, 1857. 1858. — Minnesota, the thirty-second State, was admitted to the Union, May 11, 1858. It derives its name from the Indian word, signifying " cloudy water." 1859. — Oregon, the thirty-third State, was re- ceived into the Union February 14, 1859. Its name is of Spanish origin. i860. — Secession of South Carolina. — On the election of Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency, the A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 361 -^ Southern leaders prepared to carry out their threats of secession from the Union. On December 20, South Carolina withdrew, and was soon followed by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas. The act of secession was the outcome of the question of State rights in regard to slavery, which had vexed the country almost from the for- mation of the Union, 1 86 1. — Kansas, the thirty-fourth State, was ad- mitted to the Union January 29, 1861. The name is derived from an Indian term, signifying '' smoky water." 1 86 1. — Southern Confederacy Inaugurated. — On the 4th of February, 1861, delegates from the se- ceded States met at Montgomery, Ala., and formed a government known as the " Confederate States of America." Jefferson Davis, formerly a United States Senator from Mississippi, was chosen Presi- dent, and Alex. H. Stevens, of Georgia, was chosen Vice-President. All the national property and mu- nitions of war belonging to the United States, sit- uated in the seceded States, were seized and held. 186 1. — Attack on Fort Sumter, April 12, 1861. — The Star of the West, an unarmed steamer, bearing supplies to Major Anderson's garrison in Fort Sum- ter, had been fired upon and driven back January 9, 1 86 1. At the same time the Southern leaders de- clared that any attempt to relieve Fort Sumter would be regarded as a declaration of war. At length Gen'l Beauregard opened fire on the fort on the morning of the 12 of April, and after a contest of thirty-seven hours the garrison surrendered. The garrison numbered only seventy men, while the be- sieging force was seven thousand. 1861.— Abraham Lincoln, the sixteenth Presi- dent of the United States, inaugurated March 4, 1861. 1 86 1. — Call for seventy-five thousand volun- teers by President Lincoln to suppress the rebellion, April 15, 1861. 1 86 1. — Seizure of Harper's Ferry by Confederate troops, April 18, 1 86 1. 1 86 1. — Seizure of the Norfolk Navy Yard by the Confederates, April 20, 1861. 1861. — Massachusetts troops attacked in the streets of Baltimore, April 19, 1861. First blood shed in the civil war on the anniversary of Con- cord and Lexington. 1861. — The Confederate Congress assembled at Richmond, Va., July 20, 1861. 1861.— Battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21, 1861.— The Federal troops having driven the enemy from the field after a sharp contest, were suddenly attacked in flank and thrown into a panic. The retreat was changed to a rout, arms and munitions being aban- doned, the fugitives flying in all directions. The effect of this battle was to convince the Northern people of the desperate nature of the great conflict that had just opened. Congress immediately voted $500,000,000 and 500,000 men to prosecute the war. 1862. — Capture of Fort Donelson with its garri- son of fifteen thousand men, by General Grant, Feb- ruary 16, 1862. 1862.— Battle of Shiloh (April 6 and 7) 1862. 1862. — Capture of New Orleans by Captain Far- ragut, April 25, 1862. 1862. — Battle of the Merrimac and Monitor, March 9, 1862. This was the first battle ever fought between turreted iron ships. 1862. — Invasion of Maryland by the Confederate forces under General Lee, September 5, 1862. 1862. — Battle of Antietam, September 17, 1862. This was one of the bloodiest conflicts of the war, and though the result could scarce be said to be de- cisive, the effect was a Federal victory. Lee was forced to retire across the Potomac, and Washing- ton was no longer threatened. 1862. — Battle of Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862 ; overwhelming defeat of Union troops ; Fed- eral loss twelve thousand. 1862. — While the civil war was at its height, the Sioux Indians took to the war path, and perpetrated horrible massacres in Minnesota, Iowa and Dakota. They were finally routed by Colonel Sibley, and sev- eral of their number taken prisoners and hanged. 1862. — Battle of Murfreesboro, December 31, and January 2, 1863. This was one of the fiercest bat- tles of the war, the loss being stated as one-fourth of the number engaged. The Confederates were compelled to retreat. 1863. — Emancipation Proclamation, declaring freedom to the slaves, issued by President Lincoln, January i, 1863. 1863. — Battle of Chancellorsville, Va., May 2-3, 1863. 1863. — West Virginia, the thirty-fifth State, was 4r- 362 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. •^ admitted to the Union, June 20, 1863. This por- tion of Virginia remained loyal to the Union during the war, and v/as accordingly incorporated into a separate State. 1863.— Battle of Gettysburg, Penn., July 1-3, 1863. This was the bloodiest and most desperately con- tested struggle of the war. The loss on both sides numbered about fifty thousand men. Lee was forced to retreat beyond the Potomac, and a North- ern invasion was no longer thought of. The back- bone of the rebellion was broken. 1863. — Surrender of Vicksburg with 37,000 pris- oners of war, July 4, 1863. This was one of the most important events of the war. By its capture the Confederacy was cut in two and the Mississippi opened to the Gulf. 1863. — Battle of Chickamauga, September 19-20, 1863. 1863. — Battle of Chattanooga, Tenn., November 24-25, 1863. 1864. — Battle of the Wilderness, May 5-6, 1864. 1864. — Battle of Spottsyivania, May 8-12, 1864. 1864. — Battle of Cold Harbor, June 3, 1864. Twenty minutes after the battle had opened, ten thousand Union soldiers had fallen. 1864. — Capture of Atlanta, Ga., by General Sher- man, September 2, 1864. 1864. — Nevada, the thirty-sixth State, was re- ceived into the Union, October 31, 1864. The name is of Spanish origin. 1864. — Battle of Nashville, December 15-16, 1864. 1865. — Capture of Petersburg and Richmond, April 2-3, 1865, by the forces of General Grant. 1865. — Surrender of General Lee, at Appomatox Court House, Va., April 9, 1865. This event brought the civil war to a close. 1865.-— Assassination of President Lincoln, April 14, 1865. This black deed was perpetrated in Ford's Theater, Washington, where the President occupied a box during the performance. It was the act of the crazed brain of one who, thinking he was rid- ding the country of a tyrant, struck an almost deadly blow at the now vanquished South, in the murder of her most powerful friend. 1865. — Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, inau- gurated seventeenth President of the United States, in accordance with the Constitution, April 15, 1865. 1865. — The Thirteenth Amendment, declaring the abolition of slavery, adopted as a part of the Constitution of the United States, December 18, 1865. 1867. — Nebraska, the thirty-seventh State, admit- ted to the Union, March i, 1867. 1867. — Death of Maximilian, so-called Emperor of Mexico, June 19, 1867. During the American civil war, Napoleon III. sought to found an empire in Mexico, and established Maximilian, of the house of Austria, emperor, with the aid of French troops. This the Americans regarded as a violation of the "Monroe Doctrine," and after the close of the war they compelled the French Emperor to withdraw his troops from the neighboring republic. Deprived of foreign aid, Maximilian's regime was overthrown by the Mexicans, and the unfortunate monarch shot. 1867. — Purchase of Alaska from Russia by the United States Government for the sum of $7,200,000 in gold. 1868. — Impeachment of President Johnson, Feb- ruary 24, 1868. The order to impeach the Presi- dent was made in consequence of the latter having attempted to remove the Secretary of War, a pro- ceeding which was held to be in violation of the Tenure-of-Ofiice Bill, which had some time previous been passed over the President's veto. After a pro- tracted trial. President Johnson was acquitted, hav- ing escaped conviction by one vote. 1868. — The Fourteenth Amendment, whereby equal civil rights were guaranteed to all, irrespective of race or color, was adopted by Congress, July 28, 1868. 1868. — Treaty between China and the United States, whereby valuable commercial privileges were acquired by the latter. 1869. — Ulysses Simpson Grant, the eighteenth President of the United States, inaugurated March 4, 1869. 1869. — Completion of the great trans-continental railroad from New York to San Francisco. 1870. — The Fifteenth Amendment, whereby the right of suffrage is guaranteed to all, regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, was formally announced as part of the Constitution, March 30, 1870. 1870. — The Treaty of Washington ratified, whereby Great Britain was compelled to pay the United States the sum of $15,500,000 in gold, in consideration of damages caused to American com- merce by the Alabama and other Confederate cruis- 4r- -each as a point of attachment for the canvas cushions described in Rule 3. The striker is left to follow his own fancy as to the length of his bat, and, so long as it is of wood, is not tied down by any regulation. Ash is, perhaps, the most generally service- able, but willow will be, perhaps, preferred by those who like a light bat. There is no rule as to the manner of handling of a bat, this also being left to the individual fancy of the player. The Game. — Each player counts one to the score every time he completes the circuit of the bases, and two if he makes an ace or rounder, that is, gets all round and home off one strike. The Field. — The nine fieldsmen are placed as follows, their names indicating their positions : the Catcher ox Back-stop, a few yards behind the striker, to catch or stop the ball ; the Pitcher, at the pitching-post, to serve the ball ; the Short-stop, about ten yards behind the pitcher, as a near field and general utility man inside the bases ; three Base-tenders, one for each base, whose duty it is, when a runner is making for a base, to stand with one foot on the cushion in readiness to catch the ball. The other three, called respectively Right-field, Center- field, and Left-field, stand well out in the positions their names indicate. The same qualities are required in a fieldsman for this game as in " Cricket : " great activity and alertness, a safe pair of hands for a catch, extreme dexterity in meeting and stop- ping a ball, and above all, without which the rest will be of little avail, perfect accuracy in returning it to the pitcher or base-tender as occasion may require. Further, an umpire and scorer are required, the former of whom must be thoroughly up in the rules of the game, and should see that they are rigidly enforced. ■^ ^ OUT-DOOR GAMES. zn GOOD game to get warm with when there is no time for any more set amusement. One player stands upon a mound or piece of rising ground, crying, " I am king of the castle," and the others try to pull him down and supplant him. Any agreement may be entered into previously as to what use of the hands, etc., shall be allowed. The game works better when nothing but pure pushing is allowed — no holding or dragging. The writer once saw a lot of lambs play this game in splen- did style, using a large stone about a yard in diameter as their castle. There must have been about forty of them, and they played the game just like a parcel of boys, showing a wonder- ful individuality of character amongst them — some very plucky and not to be denied, some making a great parade of charging, but doing next to nothing, and others merely pranc- ing and frisking about, and making no attempt to get on the stone at all. The wag of the party was a rather slightly built but wiry black lamb : he was here, there, and everywhere, all at once : at one moment gallantly storming the castle ; at another scouring madly off, with a lot after him in their usually gre- garious fashion ; then coming back equally suddenly, with a rush and a spring clean on to the stone, driving his head into the ribs of the unfortunate king, and sending him flying over and over. After this, perhaps, he would execute a war-dance on the stone in triumph, but it was equally likely that he would jump down again for another scamper, or would suddenly stand still in a meditative manner, and regard the prospect with an air of the most profound abstraction from all sub- lunary considerations. This game went on for weeks : the lambs never seemed to tire of it, and the black lamb kept up his spirits to the last. He went the way of most black lambs at last ; but he enjoyed life to the end, and what more could he desire ? 4r HIS game derives its title from the fact that it requires no court, and can be played on any lawn at a small cost for fittings. These consist of two poles, a net, and a few rackets and balls. The ground is set out as follows, the dimensions being those used at Lord's. These dimensions may be varied according to the size of the ground, providing that a due proportion be preserved. First, the two posts are set up, 24 ft. apart, and the net so hung that it is 5 ft. from the ground where it touches the poles, and 4 ft. in the middle. The form of the court is shown in the accompanying illustration : R COURT. g COURT. COURTS COURTS The rules of the game are briefly as follows : The players take their stand on opposite sides of this net. The player who " serves " — i. e., gives the first stroke — stands in one of the courts, with one foot beyond the base-line. He then strikes the ball over the net, so that it falls in the diago- nal court, and within the server's line. After it has touched the ground, the opponent tries to strike it over the net again. Should he fail, or send the ball beyond the base-line, the first player, or "hand-in," scores one point. Should he succeed, and " hand-in " fail to return it properly, the other player be- comes "hand-in." It will be seen, therefore, that only the " hand-in " can score, and that, in case of his failure, he and " hand-out " change places. It is not allowed to " volley " a ball— i. e., to strike it be^ fore it has touched the ground. The stroke is lost if a ball touch any part of a player or his clothes, or if it be struck more than once. Fifteen points constitute the game. 378 OUT-DOOR GAMES. -^ :^.^ FULL-SIZED croquet ground should measure " 40 yards by 30 yards. Its boundaries should be accurately defined. The Hoops should be of half-inch round iron, and should not be more than 6 inches in width, inside measurement. The crown of the hoop should be at least 12 inches clear of the ground. A hoop with the crown at right angles to the legs is to be preferred. The Pegs should be of uniform diameter of not less than i^ inch, and should stand at least 18 inches above the ground. The Balls should be of boxwood, and should not weigh less than 14 ounces each. The Four-Ball Game is recommended for adoption in pref- erence to any other. When odds are given, the Bisque is recommended. A bisque is an extra stroke which may be taken at any time during the game in continuation of the turn. A player re- ceiving a bisque cannot roquet a ball twice in the same turn without making an intermediate point. In other respects, a bisque confers all the advantages of an extra turn. A player receiving two or more bisques cannot take more than one in the same turn. Passing the boundary, or making a foul stroke, does not prevent the player taking a bisque. The following Settings are recommended : No. I. Eight-H:op Setting.— Distances on a full-sized ground : Pegs 3 yards from boundary ; first and correspond- ing hoon 5 yards from pegs ; center hoops midway between first and sixth hoops, and 5 yards from each other ; corner hoops 6 yards from end of ground, and 5 yards from side. Starting spot 2 feet in frqnt of first hoop, and opposite its center. No. 2. Seven-Hoop Setting.— Distances on a full-sized ground : Pegs in center line of ground 8 yards from nearest boundary. Hoops up center line of ground 6 yards from peg, and 6 yards apart ; comer hoops 7 yards from center, and in a line with pegs. Starting spot li yard from first hoop in center line of ground. No. 3. Six-Hoop Setting. — Distances on a full-sized ground as in No. 2, except the middle-line hoops 8 yards apart. Start- ing spot I foot from left-hand corner hoop, and opposite its center. It is essential to match play that bystanders should abstain from walking over the grounds, speaking to the players or the umpires, making remarks upon them aloud, or in any way dis- tracting their attention. DEFINITIONS. A Foint is made when a hoop is run, or a peg is hit, in order. %- The striker's hoop or peg in order is the one he has next to make. A Roquet is made when the striker's ball is caused by a blow of the mallet to hit another which it has not before hit in the same turn since making a point. The striker's ball is said to be in play until it roquets another. Having made roquet, it is in hand until croquet is taken. Cro quet is taken by placing the striker's ball in contact with the one roqueted, the striker then hitting his own ball with the mallet. The non-striker's ball, when moved by a croquet, is called the croqueted ball. A Rover is a ball that has made all its points in order except the winning peg. THE LAWS OF CROQUET. 1. Mallets. — There should be no restriction as to the number weight, size, shape, or material of the mallets ; nor as to the attitude or position of the striker ; nor as to the part, of the mallet held, provided the ball be not struck with the handle, nor the mace stroke used. 2. Size of Balls. — The balls used in match play shall be 3I inches in diameter. 3. Choice of Lead and of Balls. — It shall be decided by lot which side shall have choice of lead and of balls. In a succession of games the choice of lead shall be alternate, the sides keeping the same balls. 4. Commencement of Game. — In commencing, each ball shall be placed on the starting spot (see Settings). The striker's ball, when so placed and struck, is at once in play, and can roquet another, or be roqueted, whether it has made the first hoop or not. 5. Stroke, when taken. — A stroke is considered to be taken if a ball be moved in the act of striking ; but should a player, in taking aim, move his ball accidentally, it must be re- placed to the satisfaction of the adversary, and the stroke be then taken. If a ball be moved in taking aim, and then struck without being replaced, the stroke is foul (see Law 25). 6. Hoop, when run.—K ball has run its hoop when having passed through from the playing side and ceased to roll, it cannot be touched by a straight-edge placed against the wires on the side from which it was played. 7. Ball driven partly through Hoop. — A ball driven partly through its hoop from the non-playing side cannot run the hoop at its next stroke, if it can be touched by a straight-edge placed against the wires on the non-play- ing side. 8. Points counted to Non- Striker's Ball. — A ball driven through its hoop, or against the turning peg, by any stroke not foul, whether of its own or of the adverse side, counts the point so made. 9. Points made for Adversary's Ball. — If a point be made for . an adversary's ball, the striker must inform his adversary of it. Should the striker neglect to do so, and the adver- sary make the point again, he may continue his turn as though he had played for his right point. -<^ OUT-DOOR GAMES. 379 ^ lO. T/i£ Turn. — A player, when his turn comes round, may roquet each ball once, and may do this again after each point made. The player continues his turn so long as he makes a point or a roquet. I r. Croqtut imperative after Roquet. — A player who roquets a ball must take croquet, and in so doing must move both balls (see Law 25). In taking croquet, the striker is not allowed to place his foot on the ball. 12. Ball in hand after Roquet. — No point or roquet can be made by a ball which is in hand. If a ball in hand dis- place any other balls, they must remain where they are driven. Any point made in consequence of such dis- placement counts, notwithstanding that the ball displac- ing them is in hand. 13. Balls Roqtuted simultaneously. — When a player roquets two balls simultaneously, he may choose from which of them he will take croquet ; and a second roquet will be required before he can take croquet from the other ball. 14. Balls found Touching. — If at the commencement of a turn the striker's ball be found touching another, roquet is deemed to be made, and croquet must be taken at once. 15. Roquet and Hoop made by same Stroke. — Should a ball, in making its hoop, roquet another that lies beyond the hoop, and then pass through, the hoop counts as well as the ro- quet. A ball is deemed to be beyond the hoop if it lies so that it cannot be touched by a straight-edge placed against the wires on the playing side. Should any part of the ball that is roqueted be lying on the playing side of the hoop, the roquet counts, but not the hoop. 16. Begging out. — If a rover (except when in hand) be caused to hit the winning peg by any stroke of the same side, not foul, the rover is out of the game, and must be removed from the ground. A rover may similarly be pegged out by an adverse rover. 17. Rover pegged out by Roquet. — A player who pegs out a rover by a roquet loses the remainder of his turn. 18. Balls sent off the Ground. — A ball sent off the ground must at once be replaced 3 feet within the boundary, measured from the spot where it went off, and at right angles to the margin. If this spot be already occupied, the ball last sent off is to be placed anywhere in contact with the other, at the option of the player sending off the ball. 19. Ball sent off near Comer. — A ball sent off within 3 feet of a comer is to be replaced 3 feet from both boundaries. 20. Ball touching Boundary. — If the boundary be marked by a line on the turf, a ball touching the line is deemed to have been off the ground. If the boundary be raised, a ball touching the boundary is similarly deemed to have been off the ground. 21. Ball sent off and returning to Ground. — If a ball be sent off the ground, and return to it, the ball must be similarly replaced, measuring from the point of first contact with the boundary. 22. Ball sent -within "i feet of Boundar}!. — A ball sent within 3 feet of the boundary, but not off the ground, is to be replaced as though it had been sent off — except in the case of the striker's ball, when the striker has the option of bringing his ball in, or of playing from where it lies. 23. Boundary interfering with Stroke. — If it be found that the height of the boundary interferes with the stroke, the striker, with the sanction of the umpire, may bring in the balls a longer distance than 3 feet, so as to allow a free swing of the mallet. Balls so brought in must be moved in the line of aim. 24. Dead Boundary. — If, in taking croquet, the striker send his own ball, or the ball croqueted, off the ground, he loses the remainder of his turn ; bnt if by the same stroke he make a roquet, his ball, being in hand, may pass the boundary without penalty. Should either ball while roll- ing after a croquet be touched or diverted from its course by an opponent, the striker has the option given him by Law 26, and is not liable to lose his turn should the ball which has been touched or diverted pass the boundary. 25. Foul Strokes. — If a player make a foul stroke, he loses the remainder of his turn, and any point or roquet made by such stroke does not count. Balls moved by a foul stroke are to remain where they lie, or be replaced, at the option of the adversary. If the foul be made when tak- ing croquet, and the adversary elect to have the balls re- placed, they must be replaced in contact as they stood when the croquet was taken. The following are foul strokes : {a) To strike with the mallet another ball instead of or beside one's own in making the stroke. {b) To spoon, i. e., to push a ball without an audible knock. (c) To strike a ball twice in the same stroke. (d) To touch, stop, or divert the course of a ball when in play and rolling, whether this be done by the striker or his partner. (<») To allow a ball to touch the mallet in rebounding from a peg or wire. (/) To move a ball which lies close to a peg or wire by striking the peg or wire. {g) To press a ball round a peg or wire (crushing stroke). (h) To play a stroke after roquet without taking cro- quet. (/■) To fail to move both balls in taking croquet. {k) To croquet a ball which the striker is not entitled to croquet. 26. Balls touched by Adversary.— ShonlA. a ball when rolling, except it be in hand, be touched, stopped, or diverted from its course by an adversary, the striker may elect whether he will take the stroke again, or whether the ball shall remain where it stopped, or be placed where, in the judgment of the umpire, it would have rolled to. 27. Balls stopped or diverted by Umpire. — Should a ball be stopped or diverted from its course by an umpire, he is to place it where he considers it would have rolled to. 28. Flaying out of Turn, or -with the Wrong Ball. — If a player play out of turn, or with the wrong ball, the re- mainder of the turn is lost, and any point or roquet made after the mistake. The balls remain where they lie when -^ 3Bo OUT-DOOR GAMES. the penalty is claimed, or are replaced as theywere before the last stroke was made, at the option of the adversary. But if the adverse side play without claiming the penalty, the turn holds good, and any point or points made after the mistake are scored to the ball by which they have been made — that is, the ball is deemed to be for the point next in order to the last point made in the turn — except when the adversary's ball has been played with, in which case the points are scored to the ball which ought to have been played with. If more than one ball be played with during the turn, all points made during the turn, whether before or after the mistake, are scored to the ball last played with. Whether the penalty be claimed or not, the adversary may follow with either ball of his own side. 29. Playing for Wrong Point. — If a player make a wrong point it docs not count, and therefore — unless he have, by the same stroke, taken croquet, or made a roquet — all subsequent strokes are in error, the remainder of turn is lost, and any point or roquet made after the mistake. The balls remain where they lie when the penalty is claimed, or are replaced as they were before the last stroke was made, at the option of the adversary. But if the player make another point, or the adverse side play, before the penalty is claimed, the turn holds good ; and the player who made the mistake is deemed to be for the point next in order to that which he last made. 30. Information as to Score. — Every player is entitled to be informed which is the next point of any ball. 31. State of Game, if disputed. — When clips are used, their position, in case of dispute, shall be conclusive as to the position of the balls in the game. 32. Wires knocked out of Ground. — Should a player, in trying to run his hoop, knock a wire of that hoop out of the ground with his ball, the hoop does not count. The ball must be replaced, and the stroke taken again ; but if by the same stroke a roquet be made, the striker may elect whether he will claim the roquet or have the balls re- placed. 33' ^eg^ or Hoops not Upright. — Any player may set upright a peg or hoop, except the one next in order ; and that must not be altered except by the umpire. 34. Ball lying in a Hole or on Bad Ground. — A ball lying in a hole or on bad ground may be removed with the sanc- tion of the umpire. The ball must be put back — /. e., away from the object aimed at — and so as not to alter the line of aim. 35. Umpires.— Kx\. umpire shall not give his opinion, or no- tice any error that may be made, unless appealed to by one of the players. The decision of an umpire, when ap- pealed to, shall be final. The duties of an umpire are— (a) To decide matters in dispute during the game, if ap- pealed to. {b) To keep the score, and, if asked by a player, to dis- close the state of it. {c) To move the clips, or to see that they are properly moved. {d) To replace balls sent of! the ground, or to see that they are properly replaced. if) To adjust the hoops or pegs not upright, or to see that they are properly adjusted, 36. Absence of Umpire. — When there is no umpire present, permission to move a ball, or to set up a peg or hoop, or other indulgence for which an umpire would be appealed to. must be asked of the other side. 37. Appeal to Referee. — Should an umpire be unable to decide any point at issue, he may appeal to the referee, whose decision shall be final ; but no player may appeal to the referee from the decision of an umpire. ^HE Ball must weigh not less than 5|^oz.,nor more than 5I oz. It must measure not less than gi" inches in circumference. At the beginning of each innings either party may call for a new ball. The Bat must not exceed 4^ inches in the widest part ; it must not be more than 38 inches in length. 3. The Stumps must be three in number, 27 inches out of the ground ; the bails 8 inches in length ; the stumps of equal and sufficient thickness to prevent the ball from passing through. 4. The Bowling-crease must be in a line with the stumps, 6 feet 8 inches in length, the stumps in the center, with a return-crease at each end towards the bowler at riglit angles. 5. The Popping-crease must be 4 feet from the wicket, and parallel to it ; unlimited in length, but not shorter than the bowling-crease. 6. The Wickets must be pitched opposite to each other by the umpires, at the distance of 22 yards. 7. It shall not be lawful for either party, during a match, without the consent of the other, to alter the ground by rolling, watering, covering, mowing, or beating, except at the commencement of each innings, when the ground may be swept and rolled at the request of either party, such request to be made to one of the umpires within one min- ute after the conclusion of the former innings. This rule is not meant to prevent the striker from beating the ground with his bat near to the spot where he stands dur- ing the innings ; nor to prevent the bowler filling up holes with sawdust, etc., when the ground is wet. 8. After rain the wickets may be changed with the consent of both parties. g. The Bowler shall deliver the ball with one foot on the ground behind the bowling-crease and within the return-crease, and shall bowl four balls before he OUT-DOOR GAMES. 38 7^ change wickets, which he shall be permitted to do only once in the same innings. 10. The ball must be bowled. If thrown or jerked, the um- pire shall call " No ball." u. He may require the striker at the wicket from which he is bowling to stand on that side of it which he may direct. 12. If the bowler shall toss the ball over the striker's head, or bowl it so wide that in the opinion of the umpire it shall not be fairly within the reach of the batsman, he shall ad- judge one run to the party receiving the innings, either with or without an appeal, which shall be put down to the score of "wide balls." Such ball shall not be reck- oned as one of the four balls ; but if the batsman shall by any means bring himself within reach of the ball, the run shall not be adjudged. 13. If the bowler deliver a " no ball " or a " wide ball," the striker shall be allowed as many runs as he can get, and he shall not be put out, except by running out. In the event of no run being obtained by any other means, then one run shall be added to the score of no balls, or wide balls, as the case may be. All runs obtained for wide balls to be scored for wide balls. The names of the bowl- ers who bowl wide balls and no balls in future to be placed on the score, to show the parties by whom either score is made. If the ball shall first touch any part of the striker's dress or person, except his hands, the umpire shall call " leg-bye." 14. At the beginning of each innings the umpire shall call " Play ! " From that time to the end of each innings no trial ball shall be allowed to any bowler. 15. The Striker is cut if either of the bails be bowled off, or if a stump be bowled out of the ground ; 16. Or if the ball, from the stroke of the bat or hand, bat not the wrist, be held before it touch the ground, although it be hugged to the body of the catcher ; 17. Or if, in striking, or any other time while the ball shall be in play, both his feet shall be over the popping-crease and his wicket put down, except his bat be grounded within it ; 18. Or if, in striking at the ball, he hit down his wicket ; 19. Or if, under pretense of running or otherwise, either of the strikers prevent a ball from being caught, the striker of the ball is out ; 20. Or if the ball be struck and he wilfully strike it again ; 21. Or if, in running, the wicket be struck down by a throw, or by the hand or arm (with ball in hand), before his bat (in hand) or some part of his person be grounded over the popping-crease. But, if both the bails be off, a stump must be struck out of the ground ; 22. Or if any part of the striker's dress knock down the wicket ; 23. Or if the striker touch or take up the ball while in play, unless at the request of the opposite party ; 24. Or if with any part of his person he stop the ball, which, in the opinion of the umpire at the bowler's wicket, shall have been pitched in a straight line from it to the striker's wicket, and would have hit. 25. If the players have crossed each other, he that runs for the wicket which is put down is out. 26. A ball being caught, no run shall be reckoned. 27. A striker being out, that run which he and his partner were attempting shall not be reckoned. 28. If a lost ball be called, the striker shall be allowed six runs ; but if more than six shall have been called, then the striker shall have all that have been run. 2g. After the ball shall have been finally settled in the wick- et-keeper's or bowler's hands, it shall be considered dead ; but when the bowler is about to deliver the ball, if the striker at his wicket go outside the popping-crease before such actual delivery, the said bowler may put him out, unless (with reference to Law 21) his bat in hand, or some part of his person, be within the popping-crease. 30. The striker shall not retire from his wicket, and return to it to complete his innings, after another has been in, with- out the consent of the opposite party. 31. No substitute shall in any case be allowed to stand out or run between wickets for another person without the con- sent of the opposite party ; and in case any person shall be allowed to run for another, the striker shall be out if either he or his substitute be off the ground, in manner mentioned in Laws 17 and 2i, while the ball is in play. 32. In all cases where a substitute shall be allowed, the con- sent of the opposite party shall also be obtained as to the person to act as substitute, and the place in the field which he shall take. 33. If any fieldsman stop the ball with his hat, the ball shall be considered dead, and the opposite party shall add five runs to their score ; if any be run, they shall have five in all. 34. The ball having been hit, the striker may guard his wicket with his bat, or with any part of his body except his hands, that Law 23 may not be disobeyed. 35. The wicket-keeper shall not take the ball for the purpose of stumping until it shall have passed the wicket ; he shall not move until the ball be out of the bowler's hand ; he shall not by any noise incommode the striker ; and if any part of his person be over or before the wicket, although the ball hit it, the striker shall not be out 36. The umpires are the sole judges of fair or unfair play, and all disputes shall be determined by them, each at his own wicket ; but in case of a catch which the umpire at the wicket bowled from cannot see sufficiently to decide upon it, he may apply to the other umpire, whose decision shall be conclusive. 37. The umpires in all matches shall pitch fair wickets, and the parties shall toss up for choice of innings. The um- pires shall change wickets after each party has had one innings. 38. They shall allow two minutes for each striker to come in, and ten minutes between each innings, when the umpire shall call " play." The party refusing to play shall lose the match. 39. They are not to order a striker out, unless appealed to by the adversaries ; 40. But if one of the bowler's feet be not on the ground be* r 382 OUT-DOOR GAMES. hind the bowling-crease and within the return-crease when he shall deliver the ball, the umpire at his wicket, un- asked, must call " no ball." 41. If either of the strikers run a short run, the umpire must call "one short." 42. No umpire shall be allowed to bet. 43. No umpire is to be changed during a match, unless with the consent of both parties, except in case of violation of Law 42 ; then either party may dismiss the transgressor. 44. After the delivery of four balls the umpire must call " over," but not until the ball shall be finally settled in wicket-keeper's hands : the ball shall then be considered dead. Nevertheless, if an idea be entertained that either of the strikers is out, a question may be put previously to, but not after, the delivery of the next ball. 45. The umpire must take especial care to call " no ball" in- stantly upon delivery, and ' ' wide ball " as soon as it shall pass the striker. 46. The players who go in second shall follow their innings if they have obtained 80 runs less than their antagonists, except in all matches limited to only one day's play, when the number of runs shall be limited to 60 instead of 80. 47. When one of the strikers shall have been put out, the use of the bat shall not be allowed to any person until the next striker shall come in. THE LAWS OF SINGLE WICKET. 1. When there shall be less than five players on a side, bounds shall be placed 22 yards each in a line from the off and leg stump. 2. The ball must be hit before the bounds, to entitle the striker to run, which run cannot be obtained unless he touch the bowling-stump or crease in a line with his bat, or some part of his person, or go beyond them, returning to the popping-crease, as at double wicket, according to Law 21. 3. When the striker shall hit the ball, one of his feet must be on the ground and behind the popping-crease ; other- wise the umpire shall call "no hit." 4. When there shall be less than five players on a side, neither byes nor overthrows shall be allowed ; nor shall the striker be caught out behind the wicket, nor stumped out. 5. The fieldsman must return the ball so that it shall cross the play between the wicket and the bowling-stump, or between the bowling-stump and the bounds ; the striker may run till the ball be so returned. 6. After the striker shall have made one run, if he start again, he must touch the bowling-stump and turn before the ball cross the play, to entitle him to another. 7. The striker shall be entitled to three runs for lost ball, and the same number for ball stopped with bat, with ref- erence to Laws 28 and 23 of double wicket. 8. When there shall be more than four players on a side, there shall be no bounds. All hits, byes and overthrows shall then be allowed. g. The bowler is subject to the same laws as at double wicket. 10. Not more than one minute shall be allowed between each ball. OBSERVATIONS ON RULES. DOUBLE WICKET. Rules 3, 4 and 5. — The accompanying diagram will explain, better than many words, the arrangement and method of marking the various creases, which are usually marked out on the turf with a mixture of chalk or whiting and water. r. c s" s s s n " "^ L. if- 8 in. 3 A P G Unlimited. J J J, the Stumps (the three together forming the Wickef)- B. C the Bowling-crease ; r. c. the Returning-crease ; P. C. the Popping-crease. It is well to practice always with the creases duly marked, and in strict observance of all rules connected with them, as the mind thus forms a habit of unconscious conformity to them, and the player is not embarrassed, as too many are when they come to play in an actual match, by the necessity of keep- ing a watch over his feet as well as over the ball. Many a good bat, especially amongst boys, allows himself to be crp,mped in his play in this very unsatisfactory manner. The purposes of the several creases are as follows : The Bowling-crease marks the nearest spot to the striker from which the bowler may deliver the ball. The Return-crease prevents the bowler from delivering the ball at an unreasonable distance laterally from the wicket ; and the two together mark out within sufficiently exact limits the precise spot from which the striker may expect the ball. The Popping-crease, while giving the striker ample space to work in, puts a check upon any attempt to get unduly for- ward to meet the ball ; it forms, too, a distinct and convenient mark by which to judge of a man's being on his ground, and of his having run the requisite distance between wickets. It is unlimited, to avoid the confusion betwe^en strikers and fieldsmen, which must inevitably be of constant recurrence were the strikers required to run directly from wicket to wicket. Rule 13. — " All runs obtained from wide balls to be scored to wide balls." This does not include hits, as, by the latter part of Rule 12, " if the batsman bring himself within reach of the ball, the wide does not count." Hits, therefore, made off wide balls score to the striker. OUT-DOOR GAMES. 383 ^ Rule 17. — The popping-crease itself, it must be remembered, does not form part of the ground ; the bat or part of the body must, therefore, be inside it ; on it is not sufficient to meet the requirements of the rule : if the bat or some portion of the body be not on the ground inside the crease when the wickets are put down, the player is out. Rule 20. — The striker may block or knock the ball away from his wicket after he has played it, if that be necessary to keep it from the stumps. The rule only forbids striking it a second time with intent to make runs. SINGLE WICKET. The accompanying diagram shows the ground marked out for single wicket with less than five players on a side : b\ X 1:5 B \/ 11 Yds. \IV i ^, the Bowling-stump, Crease, &c.; fF. the Wickets, with Popping- crease, as in double wicket ; b 6, the Boundaries. Rule 2. — " Hit before the bounds " means that the ball, after leaving the bat, must first touch the ground in front of the line marked by the two bounds, which line, by the way, is, like the popping-crease, supposed to extend inimitably either way. Single wicket is chiefly valuable in dearth of sufficient play- ers to form an adequate field at double wicket. It is so infe- rior in interest to double wicket, that it is hardly ever played, unless when the latter is impracticable. A good game at single wicket, though, where only a few players have met for practice, is far better, and infinitely more improving, than any amount of the desultory knocking about which is usual on such occasions. For a player deficient in driv- ing and forward hitting of all kinds the practice it affords is in- valuable, and to such a good course of single wicket is strongly recommended. Implements. — A few words upon the choice of bats, balls, gloves, etc. Too much pains cannot be taken by a cricketer in thus providing his outfit. None but experienced hands <-a« estimate the vital importance of attention to all such details : that the bat is the right weight and size, and properly bal- anced ; that the gloves, shoes, pads, etc. , are perfect in their fit and appointments ; in fine, that the player stands at the wicket or in the field fully equipped for the fray, yet in nowise impeded or hindered by ill-fitting garments, clumsy shoes, or cumbersome pads. First, then, for the bat. This is limited in Rule 2 both as to length and width ; but the thickness and weight are left to the fancy and capacity of the player. In a general way, a tall man can use a heavier bat than a short one. About 2 pounds is a fair weight for a player of middle height and ordinary muscular development. Although it is a great mistake to play with too heavy a bat — for nothing so cramps the style, and so entirely does away with that beautiful wrist-play which is the ne plus ultra of good batting, as attempting to play with a bat of a weight above one's powers — yet extreme lightness is still more to be depre- cated : it is useless for hard hitting, and can therefore do little in the way of run-getting against a good field; "shooters," too, will be apt to force their Way past its impotent defense. The points most to be looked for in a bat are these : First, weight suited to the player. The young player should play with a heavier bat every year, until he attains to his full stat- ure. Don't let him think it " manly " to play with a full-sized bat before he is thoroughly up to the weight and size ; it is much more manly to make a good score. Secondly, good thickness of wood at the drive and lower end of the bat, i. e. , at the last six inches or so. Thirdly, balance. Badly balanced bats give a sensation as of a weight attached to them when they are wielded, while a well-balanced one plays easily in the hand. Experience alone can teach the right feel of a bat. The outward appearance of a bat must not always be taken as a certain indication of its inherent merits : varnish and careful getting up may hide many a defect. There are many fancies, too, in favor of different grains : a good knot or two near the lower end is generally a good sign ; but, after all, nothing but actual trial of each several "bit of willow" can decide its real merits or defects. Last, but not least, the handle is a very important consider- ation. Cane handles, pure and simple, or in composition with ash or other materials, arc the best : some prefer oval handles, some round. The handle should, at least, be as thick as the player can well grasp : a thick handle greatly adds to the driving power of the bat ; it is also naturally stronger, and therefore more lasting. A good youth's bat costs about eight shillings. It should be remembered that a good bat, like good wine, improves with keeping. In purchasing balls, wickets, and other needful "plant," it will be found better economy to pay a little more in the be- ginning, and thus get a good article. With reasonable care, such first-class goods will last out whole generations of the more cheaply got-up articles, and prove more satisfactory throughout into the bai^ain. In choosing wickets, attention must be paid to two points : first, that each stump be perfectly straight ; and, secondly, that it be free from flaws or knots. The least weakness is sure to be found out sooner or later. Great attention should be paid to the bails, that they are exactly of the right size, especially that they are not too long. The least projection beyond the groove in the stump may make all the difference between "out" and " not out" — ^be- tween, perhaps, winning a match and losing it. r 384 OUT-DOOR GAMES. kr Stumps and bails, with ordinary care, ought to last a very long time. The chief thing to guard against is their lying about in the wet, or being put away damp : moisture is very apt to warp them. So that the gloves and pads yf/, the player may be left pretty much to his own discretion in selecting a pattern. Vulcanized India-rubber is the best for gloves. Spiked or nailed shoes are a necessity. The player may please himself in the vexed question of spikes v. nails. Many players keep two pairs of shoes — with spikes for wet and slippery ground, with nails for dry ground. It is hardly worth while for a boy in the rapid-growing stage to set up a regularly built pair of cricketing-shoes : an admir- able substitute may be found, though, in the ordinary canvas shoes, as used for rackets, etc., price half-a-crown ; a few nails will make them answer all the purposes of the more legitimate article. Parents and guardians may be informed that a proper cos- tume of flannel and shoes is actually better economy than condemning a boy to play in his ordinary clothes ; and for this reason — flannels are made to suit the exigencies of the game : loose where they should be loose, and vice versd, with- out regard to the exigencies of fashion ; they are cheaper, and are, nevertheless, more lasting, than ordinary cloth clothes ; they never get shabby, will wash when dirty, and will carry a darn or patch without detriment to their dignity ; they are not injured by perspiration or wet ; and, above all, they are great preservatives against colds and other ailments. Shoes may put in much the same claim. Cricket is marvel- ously destructive to the ordinary walking-boot ; is it not, then, better to substitute a cheaper and more durable article ? In choosing spikes, care should be taken to obtain good length and small diameter ; a squat, clumsy spike is an awful nuisance. If nails be the choice, they should not be put much nearer than at intervals of an inch, otherwise they will be liable to clog. If men play cricket, let that cricket be their very best ; any little extra trouble at first will be more than repaid by the results. It is not given to every man to be a first-rate crick- eter ; but most men might play far better than they do, and many men, who now hardly deserve the name of players, might, with very little expenditure of trouble in their younger days, have been now men of mark in the cricketing world. Be it remembered, then, that there is a right way to per- form each function of cricket, and a wrong way, or perhaps I should rather have said, innumerable wrong ways. Now, this right way will hardly come of itself : cricket, by the light of nature only, would be a prodigy indeed. The beginner must, therefore, first ascertain what this nght way is, and thenceforth strive continually to practice and perfect him- self in it, whether it be in batting, bowling, or fielding, until habit has become a second nature. And not only must the learner cultivate good habits, he must diligently eschew all bad ones ; for bad habits are wonderfully easy of acquirement, but, once acquired, can hardly ever be completely shaken off. It is all very well to say, " I know the right way, and that is enough," and then, from sheer laziness or indifference, go the wrong ; but when it comes to the point of practical expe- rience, it will be found that the bad habit will have an un- comfortable knack of coming into play at critical moments, just when it is least desired. For cricket, it should be remembered, is a series of sur- prises. Give a man time to think, and he can decide between the right way and the wrong ; but tiine to think is just the very thing a man does not get at cricket : instant, unhesitat- ing action is his only chance. If he has habituated himself to one only method of action, he must, he can, only act in accordance with it ; but if there be several conflicting habits, who shall say which shall be the one that comes first to hand in an emergency ? Let the young cricketer, then — and the old one, too, for the matter of that — make this his rule and study, to make every ball he bowls, he bats, or he fields, one link more in the chain of good habits, one step farther on the road to success. 'P' in. f. P. t.m. s./. w W l.sl 1st. s.sj ^U. s.l. ARRANGEMENT OF THE FIELD FOR FAST BOWLING. I'f' ^ B^^ ^w.k. o/.st. W >d. In. m.n. s.s.l s.l. ARRANGEMENT OF THE FIELD FOR SLOW BOWLING. W W., wickets ; B., batsman ; <5., bowler ; w.k., wicket-keeper ; l.si., long-stop; s.l., slip; l.sl., long-slip; t.m., third man ; /., point; c./., cover-point ; tn./., m.n., mid-wicket, off and on ; /., long-field or cover- bowler ; I./. & l.n.. long-field, off and on ; s.l., square leg ; s.s.1., short square leg ; /./., long leg ; d., draw or short leg. OUT-DOOR GAMES. 385 ^ HEORY OF THE Game.— Football, like cricket, requires two opposing sides. It is played with a hollow ball, some eight or ten inches in diam- eter, of India-rubber (in former times a bladder) blown full of air, and protected by a leather case. The goals are placed at opposite ends of the field, each side defending its own, and trying to drive the ball through its opponents'. It is a game only suitable for cold weather, as cricket is for hot, for the exertion is not only very severe while it lasts, but the intervals of rest in a well-contested game are few and far between. RULES. 1. The length of the ground shall be not more than 150 yards, and the breadth 55 yards. The ground shall be marked out by posts, two at each end, parallel with the goal-posts, and 55 yards apart ; and by one at each side of the ground, half-way between the side-posts. 2. The goal shall consist of two uprights 15 feet apart, with a cross-bar 8 feet from the ground. 3. The choice of goal and kick-off shall be determined by tossing. 4. In a match, when half the time agreed upon has elapsed, the sides shall change goals the next time the ball is out of play. In ordinary games the change shall be made after every goal. 5. The heads of sides shall have the sole management of the game. 6. The ball shall be put in play as follows : (a) At the commencement of the game, and after every goal, by a place-kick 25 yards in advance of the goal, by either side alternately, each party being arrayed on its own ground, (i) If the ball have been played behind the goal-line (i) by the opposite party, the side owning the goal shall have a place-kick from behind the goal-line at their discretion ; (2) by the side owning the goal, whether by kicking or guiding, the opposite party shall have a place-kick from a spot 25 yards in front of the goal, at their discretion. (c) If the ball have been played across the side-lines, the player first touching it with the Aam/ shall have a place-kick from the point at which the ball crosssd the line. 7. In all the above cases the side starting the ball shall be cui of play until one of the opposite side has played it. 8. When a player has played the ball, any one of the same side who is nearer the opponents' goal-line on their ground is out of play, and may not touch the ball himself, or ob- struct any other player, until the ball be first played by one of the opposite side, or he have crossed into his own ground. No player shall carry the ball, hold it, throw it, pass it to another with his hands, or lift it from the ground with his hands, on any pretense whatever. 10. All charging is fair ; but holding, pushing with the elbows or hands, tripping up, and hacking are for- bidden. 11. No player may wear iron plates, projecting nails, or gutta percha on his boots or shoes. 12. A goal is gained when the ball is kicked from the front between the up- rights and beneath the cross-bar, or in any w^ay passed through from the front, by the side owning the goal. 13. In case of any distinct and willful violation of these rules of play by one of either side, the oppo- site side may claim a fresh kick-off. DEFINITION OF TERMS. A place-kick is a kick at the ball while at rest on the ground. The kicker may claim a free space of 3 yards in front ot the ball. Grotmd. — Each side claims as its owa that portion of the ground which lies between its goal and the center. Charging is bringing the body into collision with that of an opponent. The arms, and especially the elbows, must be kept well to the sides, not to violate Rule 10. Hacking is kicking an adversary intentionally. Tripping is throwing an adversary by placing the foot, leg, or any part of the body in the way of an adversary's legs, and thus causing him to fall or stumble. Vk 25 yds 5 yds 25 yds >^ 386 OUT-DOOR GAMES. THE BOW. ' ' OWS are of two kinds. The se/f bow consists either of one piece of wood, or of two dove- tailed together at the handle, in which latter case it is called a grafted bow ; by far the best material for a self bow is yew, although a variety of other woods, such as lancewood, hick- ory, &c., are used. As it is but very rarely that we are able to obtain a piece of yew long enough for a bow of equal quality throughout, the grafted bow was invented, in order that the two limbs, being formed by splitting one piece of wood into two strips, may be of exactly the same nature. The backed bow consists of two or more strips of wood glued together longitudinally and compressed so as to insure perfect union. The strips may be of the same or of different woods — for instance, of yew backed with yew, yew with hickory, lancewood, &c. ; but of all backed bows the yew-backed yew is far the best. It has been a great subject of controversy whether the self or the backed bow be the best for shooting purposes ; we most unhesitatingly decide in favor of the self, although many good authorities prefer the backed. HOW TO CHOOSE IT. In purchasing a bow, it is always better to go to a good maker ; the inferior makers, although they may sell their goods a trifle cheaper, are still not to be depended upon, and as a good deal concerning a bow has to be taken on trust — e. ^, whether the wood is properly seasoned, horns firmly fast- ened, &c. — a maker who has a reputation to loose always proves the cheapest in the end. Having selected a maker and determined on the price you are willing to give, you will pro- ceed to see that the bow tapers gradually from the handle to the horns ; that the wood is of straight, even grain, running longitudinally and free from knots and pins, or that, if there are any pins, they are rendered innocuous by having the wood left raised around them. The bow should be quite straight, or even follow the string (bend in the direction it will take when strung) a little. Beware of a bow which bends away from the string : it will jar your arms out of their sockets, and should the string break, there will be an end of it. See that both limbs are of equal strength, in which case they will de- scribe equal curves. The handle should not be quite in the middle of the bow, but the upper edge of it should be about an inch above the center, and above the handle a small piece of ivory or mother-of-pearl should be let in on the left side of the bow, in order to prevent the friction of the arrow wearing away the wood. See that there are no sharp edges to the nocks on the horns of the bow, for if they are not properly rounded off they will be continually cutting youY string. Lastly, make sure that your bow is not beyond your strength — ■ in other words, that you are not overbowed. It is a very com- mon thing for persons to choose very strong bows under the idea that it gives them the appearance of being perfect Sam- sons ; but their ungainly struggles to bend their weapon, and the utterly futile results of their endeavors, are, we think, any- thing but dignified. The weight of the bow should be such that it can be bent without straining, and held steadily during the time of taking aim. The strength of bows is calculated by their weight, which is stamped in pounds upon them, and which denotes the power which it takes to bend the bow until the center of the string is a certain distance (twenty-eight inches for a gentleman's, twenty-five inches for a lady's bow) from the handle. It is ascertained by suspending the bow by the handle from a steelyard whilst the string is drawn the re- quired distance. Gentlemen's bows generally range from 48 lbs. to 56 lbs., and ladies' from 20 lbs. to 32 lbs. HOW TO PRESERVE IT. Many things will spoil a bow which a little care and atten- tion would prevent. Amongst the most fatal enemies to the bow are chrysals, which, unless noticed in time, will surely end in a fracture. A chrysal .should at once be tightly lapped with fine string saturated with glue; this, if neatly done and then varnished, will interfere but little with the appearance of the bow. Care should be taken not to scratch or bruise the bow. When shooting in damp weather, the bow, especially if a backed one, should be kept well wiped, and perfectly dried with a waxed cloth before putting away. A backed bow is always the better for a little lapping round each end just by the horn, which prevents the bow from breaking if by any chance the glue is softened by damp. A bow should always be kept as dry as possible ; when going to shoot at a distance, a waterproof cover is advisable. Do not unstring the bow too often while shooting ; once in every six double ends is quite enough, unless there are many shooters. THE ARROW. Arrows are distinguished by weight in the same manner as bows, only in the former it is calculated as weighed against silver money, and arrov/s are known as of so many shillings' weight, &c. The lengths recommended by the best authori- ties are aslfollows : Length. For ladies 25 inches For Gentlemen - Bows of 50 lbs. and upwards, ") and 6 feet long, I Bows under 50 lbs. and not j exceeding 5 ft. 10 in. long, J 28 28 There are two kinds of arrows — self, made of one piece of wood, anA footed, having a piece of hard wood at the pile end. The latter are the best for several reasons, one being that they are not so likely to break if they strike anything hard. The best material for arrows is red deal footed with lancewood. 4r- r- OUT-DOOR GAMES. 387 HOW TO CHOOSE IT. The first thing to ascertain is whether it is quite straight, which is done by bringing the tips of the thumb and two first fingers of the left hand together and laying the arrow thereon, while it is turned round by the right hand. If it goes smoothly it is straight ; but if it jerks at all it is crooked. Then make sure that it is stiff enough to stand the force of the bow with- out bending, as, if too weak, it will never fly straight. The pile or point should be what is called the square-shouldered pile ; some prefer the sharp pile, but the other answers best for all purposes. The nock should be full and the notch pretty deep ; a piece of horn should be let in at the notch to prevent the string splitting the arrow. The feathers should be full sized, eVenly and well cut, and inserted at equal distances from each other. THE BOW-STRING. The string should be not too thin, or it will not last long ; in the selection of it, it is best to be guided by the size of the notch of your arrows. At one end of it a strong loop should be worked to go over the upper horn, the other end should be left free in order to be fixed on to the lower horn. When the lower end is fastened, the distance between it and the loop at the other end should be such, that when the loop is in its place (/.I?., the bow strung) the string is, in a gentleman's bow, six inches, in a lady's five inches, from the center of the bow. The string should be lapped for an inch above the nocking poirit, and five inches below it, with waxed thread and this again with floss silk — to such a thickness that it completely fills the notch of the arrow, but without being too tight, or it may split it. Never trust a worn string ; take it off and put on a new one — should it break, it will most probably snap your bow. THE BRACER. This is a guard for the left arm, to prevent its being abraded by the string when loosed ; it also has another object, viz., to confine the sleeve and keep it out of the way. It con- sists of an oblong piece of smooth leather, and is fastened to the arm by straps. The shooting-glove is used to protect the fingers of the right hand from abrasion by the string when loosing, and consists of three finger-guards, attached by strips of leather, passing down the back of the hand to a strap fastening round the wrist. THE QUIVER. The quiver is a tin case somewhat in the shape of the quiver usually represented as forming part of the equipment of Robin Hood and his band ; it is not now, however, used as part of the personal equipment of the archer, but is employed simply for the purpose of protecting the spare arrows. TARGETS. A target is made of straw bound with string into an even rope, which is twisted upon itself until it forms a flat disc, and then covered on one side with canvas painted in five con- centric rings, viz., gold or center, red, blue or inner white. black, and white. These rings should be all of exactly the same width, the target itself being four feet in diameter. In scoring, the following value is given to the rings : Gold 9 Red 7 Blue 5 Black 3 White I When an arrow strikes on the edge of two rings, the higher is counted, unless it is otherwise agreed upon. It is neces- sary to have two targets, one at each extremity of thr distance fixed upon — as it is not usual to shoot more than iAree arrows at each ' ' end," as it is called — walking over between each three to reclaim your arrows, and then shooting them back at the target you have just left. By this means a»-different set of muscles are called into play, those used in shooting are relaxed, and in addition, a great deal is added to the exercise which renders archery so healthy a pastime ; for example, in shoot- ing the national round the archer walks 3,920 yards, or nearly two miles and a quarter, between the ends. The stands for the targets are usually made of iron or wood, and somewhat resemble in shape an artist's easel. The legs should be pad- ded or wrapped round with straw, otherwise arrows striking them will be apt to break. Stringing the Bow. — In stringing the bow it is held by the handle in the right hand (flat part towards the body) with the lower horn resting on the ground against the hollow of the right foot. The left hand is then placed upon the upper part of the bow in such a manner that the base of the thumb rests upon the flat side of it, the thumb pointing upwards. The bow is then bent by the combined action of the two hands, the right pulling, the left pressing it ; at the same time the loop of the string is slipped into its place by the left thumb and forefinger. Position. — It is difficult to determine exactly what is the desf position for the archer. Every one naturally subsides into that which is most easy to him ; still there are certain funda- mental rules, which are given in almost every book on archery, by attention to which in the first place the shooter ultimately falls into the best position for himself. The left foot should point rather to the right of the mark, the right foot being nearly at right angles to it, the heels six or eight inches apart, in a straight line from target to target, both feet flat on the ground, knees straight, body erect but not too stiff, face turned towards the mark. The body must be carried as easily as possible on the hips, not too stiffly upright nor yet bending forward. Nothing looks worse than a stiff, constrained at- titude, except a loose, slouching one. Nocking. — Having mastered the position, the next thing to be looked to is the nocking: The bow being held by the handle in the left hand, let the arrow be placed with the right (over the string, not tender) on that part of the bow upon which it is to lie ; the thumb of the left hand, being then gently placed over it, will serve to hold it perfectly under command, and the forefinger and thumb of the right hand can then take hold of the nock end of the aiTow and manipulate it with the most perfect ease in any manner that may be required. 388 OUT-DOOR GAMES. When the arrow is nocked it should be at right angles with the string. Some archers are accustomed to try to alter the range of the arrow by heightening or lowering the nocking point, but this is a great mistake. Care must be taken that the whipped portion of the string exactly fits the notch of the arrow. If too large or too small, it will probably split it. Drawing. — Having nocked the arrow according to the foregoing direction, the next thing to proceed with is the drawing, which is managed as follows : Extend the left arm downwards until it is perfectly straight, the hand grasping the handle of the bow, the arrow being held by the nocking end by the two first fingers of the right hand passed over the string and on each side of the arrow, care being taken not to pass the fingers too far over the string, or the sharpness of the loose will be interfered with. This done, the left arm should be smoothly raised, still extended, until at right angles, or nearly so, with the body, the string being drawn at the same time with the right hand until the arrow is drawn about three-fourths of its length, when the right wrist and elbow should be at about the level of the shoulder. Hav- ing got it thus far a slight pause may be made before drawing the arrow to its full length (although we think it better to make it all one motion), which done, the archer must take his aim before loosing. By drawing the arrow below the level of the eye, the archer is enabled to look along it as he would along the barrel of a rifle. As regards the direction, the archer will find that it is but seldom he will be able to aim directly at the gold. He will almost always have to aim to one side or the other, to make allowance for wind, etc. This cannot be taught. The archer will soon learn by experience whereabouts on the target his proper point of sight lies, and will aim accordingly. He will also learn the degree of eleva- tion required by his bow at the various distances, which ele- vation he will always give by raising or lowering his left hand, and in no other way if he values success. Remember! the arrow must always be drawn to exactly the same spot. If possible, let the spot where the pile and stele join just reach the bow. Loosing. — Having drawn the arrow to its full extent, the next thing is to loose it properly, and this, although appa- rently a very simple thing, is by no means so easy as it looks. The great object to be attained in loosing is to remove the obstruction of the fingers from the string suddenly, and yet in such a manner that no jerk is given to the string (which would be fatal to the aim), and that the fingers do not follow the string, which would weaken the force of the shot. The string should lie across the fingers at an equal distance from the tip of each — not too near the joint nor too near the tip ; about midway between the tip and joint of the first finger, and on the others in proportion, will be found about the most convenient position for a good loose. The fingers must all be withdrawn at once, for should one be an instant behind the others, it would be fatal to the aim. ^>^Jh2^m5u^h^^^ ^"^♦^^^^O^J^^^^^S*^^ FGIN by putting out of your mind the notion of walking. Skaters place their feet fat on the ice so as to slide along it, but do not rise on the toe, as if they were walking. The best way to learn to advance on skates is follows: stand as if in the "third position" in dancing, but with the heel of the right foot a few inches away from the hollow of the left. Then, with the edge of the left foot press against the ice, so as to push the right forward. Bring up the left foot parallel with the right, and slide along until the impetus is exhausted. Do this with both feet alternately for some little time, and you will then be- gin to " feel your skates," as the saying is. After you have practiced these movements for some time, gradually increasing the length of each stroke, you will begin to find yourself skating on the " inside edge," a move- ment to which nine out of ten skaters restrict themselves. It is, however, an ungraceful plan, and is of little use except in racing, and, moreover, tires the ankle sooner than the " out- side edge " skating, which is the only mode worth practicing. The mode of learning this is very simple. Put a stone or stick on the ice, to act as a center for the circle you are about to describe. Now stand about three or four yards from the stone, with your right side towards it, and your head looking over your right shoulder at the stone. Press the outside edge of your right skate as firmly as you can into the ice, and with your left skate propel yourself round the stone, leaning as much inwards as you can. After a short time you will be able to lift the left foot ofT the ice for a short time, and as soon as you can do this, try how long you can keep the left foot in the air. Practice these movements with both feet alternately until you feel that you can confidently trust yourself to the outside edge. As soon as you are firm on the edge, try to describe a com- plete circle, taking care to keep the right knee quite straight and the left foot the least particle in advance of the right. When you can get completely round on either foot, combine the two circles, and you have the 8, which, with the 3, is at the bottom of all figure-skating. Now for the 3. Start forwards, as before, on the outside edge of the right foot, but leave the left foot vi^ell behind ihe right, the toe slightly behind the heel. Do not change the position of your feet, and you will find that when you have rather more than half completed your circle, you will spin round on the right foot and make half another circle (5cr/'wan/j. .The books on skating say that, in order to turn round, the skater ought to rise on his toe a little. I consider this advice as totally wrong. True, the rising on the toe does bring the r- OUT-DOOR GAMES. 589 ^ body round, but it gives an appearance of effort, which a good skater never shows. If you will only keep the off foot well behind the other, you mus^ come round at the proper spot, and without effort of any kind. In fact, in all outside edge skating you steer yourself by the foot which is off the ice, and on no consideration ought any of the work to be done by the foot which is on the ice. When you can cut the figure 3 equally well with either foot, combine them, passing from one foot to the other without jerking yourself. Practice this until you do it without any effort, the mere swing of the body at the time supplying just enough impetus to carry you round. The next thing to be done is to get on the outside edge backwards. This feat, difficult as it looks, and indeed is at the first attempt, in reality is easy enough. It all depends on the position of the feet. If you have kept your feet precisely in the attitude which has been described, the outside edge back- wards is a necessary corollary of the figure 3. After you have turned on your right foot and got partly round the lower half of the 3, simply put your left foot on the ice and lift your right foot. Don't be afraid of it. Press the outer edge of the left foot well into the ice, and you must com- plete the circle. Provided that you do not alter the position of your head, body, or limbs, it is the easiest thing in the world. Only dare to do it, and it will be done. When you have learned to shift in this way from one foot to the other with ease, you will soon attain to the summit of a skating ambition, the quadrille. We will end with a few cautions. Keep the knee of the acting leg perfectly rigid : a knee ever so slightly bent ruins the effect of the best skating. Never carry a stick. Never raise, bend, or fold your arms ; but let them hang easily by your side, and keep your hands out of your pockets. Keep the toe of the off foot within an inch of the ice, and the heel rather up. SLIDING. The only remark that need be made about sliding is that the feet should always be kept close together and parallel with the line of the slide. The sideways sliding adopted by many boys is altogether wrong, and is sure to lead to a nasty fall some time or other. Accustom yourself to put your weight on each foot alter- nately, so as to be able to lift the other off the slide, and with the off foot give a double stamp on the ice. This is called the "postman's knock." Keep the arms close to the body, and, as in skating, if you find yourself likely to fall, slip down and roll aside, so as to be out of the way of those who are follow- ing you. 390 PARLOR GAMES. -^ doi)^e^uei\de|^. ^^- This is a capital indoor table game, especially when there are some ten or a dozen players to keep the game alive. It is founded upon the absurd incongruities that result when a number of people combine together to make one connected sentence, each taking his own part irrespective of each and all of the others. Just as in the preceding game a connected drawing was made by uniting three several parts, each drawn in ignorance of the other two, so in this the several component parts of a sentence are written down by a number of players separately and without collusion, and then joined together in one. We will suppose eleven players are sitting round the table, severally provided with a pencil and a strip of paper. Each writes on the top of his paper one or more adjectives attribu- table to a man, folds his paper down over the writing, and passes it to his left-hand neighbor, receiving one in return from him on his right ; and proceeding in the same order he writes in succession, Adjectives suitable to a man, A man's name, Adjectives suitable to a woman, A woman's name, The name of a place. Some productions of ditto, A date, A short sentence suited to a man, A woman's reply, The consequences, and What the world said. As an example we will suppose the following to have been written down on one of the papers : The irascible and enthusiastic — Paul Pry — The pious and charitable — The Queen of the Cannibal Islands — Coney Island — Bloaters and ginger beer — Christmas Day, B.C. 450 — Have you seen Jumbo ? — Ask mamma — They both perished miserably — It always knew how it would be. When all have been filled up, the president takes the pa- pers and reads them out ; the one instanced above reading thus : The irascible and enthusiastic Paul Pry met the pious and charitable Queen of the Cannibal Islands at Coney Island, famous for its bloaters and ginger beer, on Christmas Day, B.C. 450. He ash'd her in tender strains, " Have you seen Jumbo?" 7^0 which she replied, with a modest blush, "Ask mamma." As a natural conseqtience they both perished mis- erably ; and the world said it always knew how it would be. This is also a very amusing game. One of . the players writes a letter, which of course he does not show, leaving a blank for every adjective. He then asks each player in turn round the table for an adjective, filling up the blank spaces with the adjectives as he receives them. The following short letter will explain the game better than a long description : My detestable Friend, In answer to your amiable letter, I am silly to inform you that the dirty and degraded Miss Jones sends you her most fallacious thanks for your kindness, and bids me tell you she will always think of you as the vainest and most adorable friend she ever had. As for that sagacious fellow, Smith, he is such a delightful ass, such a flthy and eminent mufi, you need not fear he will prove a very complicated rival. Believe me, my foolish iello-w , Yours, etc. (3.>- PARLOR GAMES. 391 This is a game only for those who have some facility in rhyming and versifying ; with half dozen such it will always afford unlimited amusement. It is played as follows : The players sit round the table, each with a pencil and two slips of paper ; on one he writes a question — any question that occurs to him, the quainter the better — and on the other, a noun. These slips are put into two separate baskets or hats, and shaken up well, so as to be thoroughly mixed. The hats or baskets are then passed round, and each player draws two slips at random, one from either basket, so that he has one slip with a question and one with a noun. The players thus furnished now proceed to write on a third slip each a practical answer to the question before him. The answer must consist of at least four lines, and must introduce the afore-mentioned noun. For instance, supposing a player to have drawn the ques- tion, fVko killed Cock Robin ? and the noun Jaw, he might answer it somewhat as follows ; " I, said the Sparrow, ^ With my bow and arrow, If you'd known him too You'd have wished him at Harrow ; With his cheek, and his jaw. And his dandy red vest, He became such a bore. Such a regular pest ! 'Twas really no joke : Such troublesome folk Must not be surprised if they're promptly suppressed." Or, as a more concise example, question asked. Do you bruise your oats ? Noun, Cheese. Answer, As I don't keep a steed, For oats I've no need ; For myself, when my own private taste I would please, I prefer wheaten bread to oat-cake with my cheese. Here is another example of veritable crambo rhymes. The question was, "Can you pronounce Llyndgynbwlch ? " and the noun '* Oil." Answer as follows : " Pronouncing Llyndgynbwlch My glottis will spoil, Unless lubricated With cocoa-nut oil." There happened to be cocoa-nut cakes on the table. These will be amply sufficient as guides to the method of playing the game. They are not offered as models of poetry or diction, but as just the sort of things anybody might write on the spur of the moment, and therefore better suited for our purpose than any more finished and elaborate productions. Of course this game can only be played by those who will take an interest in it, and who possess some little facility of versification. A player who, after half an hour or so spent in puzzling his brain and beating about for rhymes and sense, cannot succeed in turning out a few lines of doggerel, had better, for his own sake and that of others, turn his attention to other and less intellectual amusements. But we would not alarm any timid players — we have no wish to seem to require any great poetical gifts in the player, though, of course, the more witty and brilliant they are, the more delightful and interesting the game : the merest doggerel is quite sufficient for all purposes, and the facility of stringing verses together will be found to increase rapidly with every days' practice. None but a veritable dunce need despair of taking at least a creditable part in this very amusing game. The theory of this game is very simple, but the opening it gives for wi^,*r, V -,' V ^ v V V -^ V ^ w V -r V ," V V V / "r ,■ ^> ^ ^ V ,■ »r v .■*■. lis WHAT IS MY THOUGHT LIKE ? 11 K.-^k^v -rtv vT^ ^^ ^v w vfv^^:^^w/^ -nv^\vi v ^rvv^'*>S This game is somewhat like the last, only that the ques- tioner does not leave the room, and the onus of the game lies on the questioned, not on the questioner. The players being seated in a semicircle round the ques- tioner, he thinks of something or a person — it matters not what — and demands of each player, " What is my thought like ? " The answers, of course, being given without any clue to the word thought of, are of the most incongruous nature. This, however, is only the commencement of the fun. Having taken and noted each player's simile, the questioner now reveals the word he had thought of, and demands of each a verification of his simile under penalty of a forfeit. As the answer must be given promptly, without time to ar- range an elaborate defense, much quickness of wit and readi- ness of resource is required to avoid the forfeit for failure. If the whole party succeed in justifying their similes, the questioner pays a forfeit, and a new questioner is appointed. The decision as to an answer being satisfactory or not lies in disputed cases with the whole party of players. An illustration of the working of the game may be, per- haps, not out of place. We will suppose that Z, the questioner, has thought of a baby, and has asked the question, " What is my thought like?" all round, and received the following answers : A, "A lump of chalk ;"B, "Alexander the Great;" Q " The Great Eastern ;" D, "A gooseberry ;" E, "A fishing- rod ; " F, "A carpet bag ; " and so on. -3^ Q.>- PARLOR GAMES. 393 Z now tells them he thought of a baby, and calls upon them each severally to justify his simile. A, " It is like a lump of chalk because it is white." (Al- lowed.) B, " It is like Alexander because it cries for what it can't get." (Allowed.) C, "It is like the Great Eastern because it costs a great deal of money before it makes any returns." (Disputed as rather too fanciful, but finally allowed.) D, "It is like a gooseberry because it is soft and red." (Not allowed. It had previously been likened to chalk as being white ; red, therefore, cannot stand, and softness is not a sufficiently characteristic. Forfeit.) E, "It is like a fishing-rod because it has many joints." (Allowed by general acclaim.) F, "It is like a carpet bag because it has most elastic ca- pacities of stowage." (Allowed after some discussion.) Of course, it is easy enough in most cases to find some sort of justification of almost any simile if time be allowed, though even then one sometimes comes across one that would puzzle the most ingenious ; but in the actual game the explanation must be found on the spur of the moment, and herein consists half the fun. This game, like all others of its kind, is entertaining ex- actly in proportion to the wit and capacities of the players. Even the most witty and most learned may join in it without derogating from their dignity, and with a certainty of deriv- ing from it a fund of endless and highly intellectual amuse- meht. This is a very good mental exercise for all, and is capital fun even for adults ; indeed, the better educated and the more clever the players are the more fun is there to be got out of the game, as it gives ample occasion for the exercise of wit of the highest quality. One player goes out of the room, and the rest, being seated in a circle, fix upon a proverb, which should not be a very long one. The first player being now recalled, he begins at player number one in the circle and asks any question he likes: the answer must contain the first word of the proverb. He then tries the next, whose answer must contain the second word, and so on. He is allowed .to go completely round the circle if it be a large one, or twice if it be a small one, and then must either guess the proverb or go out again and try a new one. If he guess rightly, he has to declare the answer that gave him the clue, and the player who gave it has to go in his stead. In answering the questions much ingenuity may be exer- cised, and much amusement created in concealing the key- words of a proverb. For instance, in "Birds of a feather flock together " there are three dangerous words — birds, feather, and flock — all difficult to get into an ordinary sen- tence, and it requires much dexterity to keep them from being too prominent. Let us take this proverb as an example. A goes out, and " Birds of a feather flock together" is agreed upon. A asks of B, " Have you been out to-day ? " B, " No ; " but I sat at the window for a long time after sunset listening to the birds and watching the rabbits on the lawn ; you can't think what a lot there were," A is puzzled, he has so many words to pick from, and the word, which when expected seems so prominent, falls unnoticed upon his ear. He asks C, " And what have you been doing with yourself this evening?" C, " Oh, I have been sitting with B, looking out 0/ window too." Next comes D, who can have but little trouble in bringing in his word a, only let his answer be not too short. Then E has to bring in the word fcailur. A asks him, " What did you have for dinner to-day?" F, "Oh, roast beef, turkey, and plum pudding ; but the turkey was so badly plucked, it tasted of singed feathers, and we couldn't eat it." This, repeated rapidly, may deceive the questioner, who goes on to E : "I saw you with a fishing-rod to-day ; what did you catch ? " F — who is by no means required to adhere to absolute facts, and may draw upon his imagination to any extent — replies, " Well, to tell you the truth, I did not catch any ; for there was ^Jlock of sheep having their wool washed ready for shear- ing." F brings in the 'mooI to lead A off to the proverb " Great cry and little wool," as almost his only chance of con- cealing the real \iorA Jlock. A then demands of G, " Do you like walking ? " G, " I do if I have a companion. When Charlie and I go out together we always have lots of fun ; but Harry is such a duffer, it's awfully slow walking with him." If A is at all quick, he ought to have heard quite sufficient to know the proverb ; he may, however, be puzzled by the complicated sentences ; but after the second round at least, when the catch-words have been repeated, he must be slow indeed if he does not discover it. One of the party should be appointed umpire, to decide whether any answer is a fair one, and no one else should be allowed to interfere in any way ; nothing is so likely to give a clue to the questioner as a dispute whether a word has been fairly introduced or not. In cases of doubt the umpire may call for a fresh question and answer. There is no reason why the umpire, who should be one of the oldest play- ers for authority's sake, should not join in the game. He is appointed almost solely to prevent confusion, and his being a player or non-player can have no influence on his decisions. The answers should be made with decision, and as rapidly as is consistent with distinctness — a quality upon which the umpire should insist ; and the player should especially avoid giving short answers when he has a simple word, such as "of," "the," etc., and thus give the questioner the clue to the answer in which lie the catch-words, and thus aid him materially in his task. Of course, great pains must be taken not to lay any stress upon the word that has to be introduced, and not to make the answers unfairly long. Simultaneous Proverbs. — A very good modification of the above. No questions are asked ; but the players, one for each word of the proverb, stand or sit in a semicircle, and the 394 PARLOR GAMES. -^ player who has to discover the proverb stands in front of them. One of them, who is chosen leader, now gives the time, " One, two, three ; " at the word " three " they all call out simultaneously each his own word. This they may be requiied to repeat once or twice, according to previous ar- rangement, and then the guess must be made under the same conditions as above. A long proverb should be chosen for this, if there be enough players ; the greater the number of voices, of course, the more difficult it is to discover the proverb. This is a capital game, and, if well managed, will defy all detection. To do it well, however, requires some practice. Two persons assume respectively the roks of Professor of Mesmerism and Clairvoyant. The professor must have a ready wit and a good store of language, a plentiful vocabulary at his finger ends : whilst the clairvoyant must be quick of ob- servation and retentive of memory. A semicircle is formed by the spectators, and the clairvoyant is seated blindfold with his back to them ; and the professor, after going through the usual ceremony of mesmerizing him, leaves him and crosses to the spectators, asking them for any objects they may have about them for the clairvoyant to name and describe. If they are both well up to their work, the clairvoyant will appear to those who are not initiated into the secret to be able to see without his eyes, to their intense astonishment and ad- miration. The author once thus played clairvoyant to a friend's pro- fessor at a large charade party, and deluded the whole com- pany into a belief in the reality of the exhibition. Robert Houdin, the great French conjurer, and his little boy made this clairvoyance one of the leading features of his entertainment, and brought the art to a wonderful pitch of perfection. It would be impossible in the contracted space of one of these short notices to give full instructions how to produce this clever illusion ; a mere outline of the method of proced- ure is all that can be attempted. This, however, will be amply sufficient for a boy of any intelligence to grasp the idea of the leading principles : the mere details he will soon learn to work out for himself. If he should desire any further par- ticulars, he will find much interesting information in the "Memoirs" of Robert Houdin, which may now be procured at almost any library. The method of procedure is as follows : The clairvoyant makes it his business to observe narrowly — unostentatiously, of course — and to catalogue in his mind the persons present, any little peculiarities in their dress, ornaments, etc., the gen- eral arrangement of the room, and any little knickknackeries lying about. Practice only will enable him to do this to any considerable extent ; but if he have any talent for such men- tal exercise, and without it he will never make a clever clair- voyant, practice will soon enable him to observe almost at a glance and retain in his memory almost all the leading features of all around him, animate and inanimate. Robert Houdin trained his son and himself by walking rap- idly past various shops in the streets of Paris, and then writ- ing down on paper, after passing each shop, all the articles they could remember seeing in their transitory glimpse through the window : at first half a dozen or so was all they could manage, but they rapidly rose by practice to twenty or thirty, until the young Houdin, who quite outstripped his father, would tell almost the whole contents of a large window. Of course, such a wonderful pitch of perfection is scarcely attainable by an ordinary boy, and would not be worth his while if it were ; nor, indeed, is it, or anything like it, nec- essary ; but the instance may serve as an indication of the right method of procedure, to be worked out by each boy ac- cording to his individual bent and opportunities. It should be understood that all this preparation and prac- tice is not absolutely necessary before beginning to exhibit the trick. A very few rehearsals will suffice for a very respecta- ble performance ; only if anything like perfection be aimed at, some extra trouble must be taken to attain it. Of course, every exhibition will do its work of improvement. Meanwhile professor and patient must practice the code of signals by which the former conveys to the latter any neces- sary information about the objects to be described. These signs may be words or other sounds ; but great care must be taken with the latter, as they are more open to de- tection. The initial letter of the first, second, or last word in each sentence the professor addresses to the clairvoyant is the same as that of the object ; and as the number of objects likely to be offered for description is limited, a little practice will insure its instant recognition from the clue thus given. Some signal should be preconcerted by which the clairvoyant may be warned that the object presented is at all out of the common. If there be any difficulty in making out the object, the pro- fessor may, by a little ingenuity and assurance, spell out in successive sentences the name of the object in his hand. To cover this manauvre, he should pretend that the mesmeric influence is failing, and make "passes " at the patient, being careful, of course, not to go near him, and the clairvoyant must pretend to brighten up under their influence. In the instance above referred to in the author's own expe- rience, one of the company presented for description some- thing very much out of the common way, a nutmeg-grater or something similar, and the professor, with the greatest readi- ness and the coolest assurance, deliberately spelt its name through almost to the last letter without detection. The above, it is hoped, will be found sufficient to set the , young aspirant to mesmeric fame on the right track ; but an example of the actual working may, perhaps, prove more serviceable than much description. Suppose, for instance, the object be a coin — a shilling, say. PARLOR GAMES. 395 of George the Third, date 1800. The professor, who, by the way, should speak with as much rapidity as is compatible with distinctness, says sharply : Can you tell me what I have in my hand ? A coin. Modern OT ancient? Modern. English or foreign ? English. Give the reign. George the Third. But what value ? Shilling. ffow dated? iSoo. Thank you, sir ! Your shilling, I believe ? Right, is it not ? The first question, it will be seen, begins with c ; this, without further explanation, means coiti. The next two ex- plain themselves. The fourth begins with G for George, the only possible modem English reign ; and the next word be- ginning with / gives the clue to third. B at the beginning of the next stands for " bob" or shilling, when speaking of English coins. The guesser can't be far wrong in his date, knowing the reign. In enumeration the several digits are represented by the letters of the alphabet ; // is the eighth let- ter, and therefore stands for 1800. Any odd numbers might have been spelt out in similar fashion. Both professor and clairvoyant should speak rapidly and decisively to prevent detection, and should constantly change the key-word from first to last, and so on. A knowledge of French or some other language will be of great service in con- cealing the machinery. When a player has to pay a forfeit, he gives in pledge some piece of portable property, which he will afterwards, at the end of the game, have to redeem in due order. One player is declared judge, and, with eyes blindfold stands with his face to the wall, while another takes up the several pledges separately and asks, " Here is a pretty thing, and a very pretty thing ; what is to be done to the owner of this very pretty thing ? " Or, omittmg the formula, asks merely, " What is to be done to the owner of this ? " The blindfolded player, who, of course, does not know to whom each forfeit belongs, and therefore cannot be accused of unfairness, as- signs for each forfeit a task which must be fulfilled before the pledge can be reclaimed. This calling of the forfeits requires no little ingenuity, tact, and judgment, and the entire success depends upon the suitability of the penalties to the company and the circum- stances. The judge must take into consideration not only what pen- alties can be enforced, but what will afford the most fun, and at the same time must avoid the slightest shadow of offense. Where the party is composed entirely of boys with no great inequality of ages, the task is tolerably easy ; but where there is a mixed company of girls and boys, not only must the penalty attached to any forfeit be such as a girl could perform, but it must be such as no girl would object to per- form. In cases like this it is better to get an older person — a lady if possible — to cry the forfeits ; and where such is not forth- coming, it is better not to cry them at all ; or, if that be too hard a trial for the young players' philosophy, to cry the girls' and the boys' separately. As the penalties, therefore, must depend so entirely upon the special circumstances of each occasion on which they are imposed, it would be impossible for us to find space enough to give a list sufficiently comprehensive to be of any real serv- ice as a guide to the judge in all cases. The old stock forfeits are so well known and so stale that it would be mere waste of time and space to insert them here. We might certainly give a few new ones ; but the exigencies of space would, as we said above, prevent our giving more than a very few, and we therefore prefer to leave them en- tirely to the ingenuity and invention of the judge for the time being, who, if he will be worth his salt, with one glance of his eye round the group of expectant pledge owners gather more hints for penalties suited to the occasion than he would from whole pages of printed instructions. 4-- r 396 GAMES OF CARDS. Mf^isL " Troy owes to Homer what Whist owes to Hoyle." DMOND HOYLE, the great authority on Whist, pubHshed his treatise in 1743- ^ Of all card games, this is perhaps the most interesting ; and certainly, if such a term can be used in regard to any- thing in which mere chance is an element, the most scientific. " ' A clear fire, a clean hearth, and the rigor of the game.' This was the cele- brated toast of a lady, who, next to her devotions, loved a good game of Whist. " Man is a gaming animal, and his passion can scarcely be more safely expended than upon a game at cards with only a few cents for the stake." Now then for our first lesson on Whist. This game — Long Whist — is played by four persons, with a complete pack of cards, fifty-two in number. The four players divide them- selves into two parties, each player sitting opposite his partner. This division is usually accomplished by what is called cutting the cards, the two highest and the two lowest being partners ; or the partnership may be settled by each player drawing a card from the pack spread out on the table, or in any other way that may be decided on. The holder of the lowest card is the dealer. But previous to their being dealt, the cards are "made" — that is, shuffled — by the elder hand, and "cut" by the younger hand. The undermost card in the pack, after it has been shuffled and cut, is the " trump." The whole pack is now dealt out card by card, the dealer beginning with the player on his left, the elder hand. The last card — the trump — is then turned face upwards on the table, where it remains till the first trick is won, and turned. The deal completed, each player takes up his alloted thirteen, and arranges them in his hand according to the several suits — the Hearts, Clubs, Spades, and Diamonds by themselves in their regular order. The elder hand now leads or plays a card. His left-hand adversary follows, then his partner, and last of all his right-hand adversary. Each player must " fol- low suit," if he can, and the highest card of the suit led wins the " trick ;" or if either player cannot follow suit, he either passes the suitt-that is, plays some card of another suit, or trumps ; that is, plays a card of the same suit or denomina- tion as the turned-up card. Thus, we will suppose the first player leads a Nine of Spades, the second follows with a Ten, the third, who perhaps holds two high cards, plays a Queen, and the last a Two or a Three. The trick would then belong to the third player who won it with his Queen. The winner of the trick then leads off a card, and the others follow as beforfe, and so on till the thirteen tricks are played. A second deal then takes place as before, and so the game proceeds till one or the other side has obtained ten tricks, which is game. The order and value of the cards in Whist is as follows: — Ace is highest in play .ind lowest in cutting. Then follow King, Queen, Knave, Ten, Nine, Eight, Seven, Six, Five, Four, Three, Two, the lowest. But there are other ways of scoring points besides tricks. The four court cards of the trump suit are called honors ; and the holders of four score four towards the game ; the holders of three score two ; but if each player or each set of partners hold two, then honors are said to be divided, and no points are added to the game on either side. Thus, A and C -^ ■ Si^c. ■ JSfva . Co, J\l.y. ^ ■ or THE UNIVERSITY GAMES OF CARDS. 397 (partners) have between them the Ace, Knave, and Queen. At the end of the deal or round, they say and score Iroo by honors ; or, B and D hold Ace and King only, while A and B have Queen and Knave in their hands ; then the honors are divided. All tricks above six score to the game. All honors above two score in the way explained — t-iuo points for three honors, four points for four honors. There being thirteen tricks which must be made in each round or deal, it follows that seven points may be gained, which, with the four honors, would finish the game in a single deal. This stroke of good fortune is, however, seldom attained. It is much more likely that four or five deals are made before the game is won. As we have explained, ten points are game in Long Whist In Short Whist, which is the ordinary game cut in half, five points win. But if either side get up to iiine points, then the holding of honors is of no advantage. In the language of the Whist-table, at nine points honors do not count. But at eight points, the player who holds two honors in his hand has what is called the privilege of the call That is, he may ask his partner if he has an honor — "Can you one?" or "Have you an honor ?" If the partner asked does hold the requisite Court card, the honors may be shown, the points scored, and the game ended. But the inquiry must not be made by the player holding the two honors till it is his turn to play, nor must the holder of a single honor inquire of his partner if he has two. Nor does the holding of four honors entitle the partners to show them at any stage of the game except at eight points. To put the matter epigrammatically, at six or seven points, tricks count before honors ; at eight points, honors count before tricks. At nine points, honors do not count. It must be understood, however, that, in order to count honors at eight points, they must be shoiun before the first trick is turned, or they cannot be claimed till the round is completed. Thus it might happen that the partners at eight points, holding the honors between them, and neglecting to show them, would be beaten, even though the other side wanted three or four tricks for the game. A Single Game is won by the side which first obtains the ten points by a majority of one, two, three or four points. A Double Game is made when one side obtains ten points before the other has scored yfrr. A Lurch or Triplet is won by the obtainment of ten points to nothing on the other side. A Rubber is two games won out of three. The Points of a Rubber are reckoned thuswise : — For the single game, one point ; for the double, two points ; and for the rub, two points. Thus it is possible to obtain six points in one rubber — namely, two doubles and the rub. A Lurch or Triplet is in some companies reckoned for three points. Generally, however, a lurch is only counted as a double game where triplets are counted ; it is possible, there- fore, for the winners to obtain eight points. A Slant is when the whole thirteen tricks are won in a single hand. The game is usually marked on the table by coins or count- ers, or by the holes in a Cribbage-board. Many pretty little contrivances have been invented as Whist-markers ; but if coins be used, the following is the simplest way of arranging them in order to denote the score : — 123 4567 89 n on -^r^n O OO O OOO OO ^ O 00 000 QQ Q QQ3 O 00 g Or thus — a plan in which the unit above stands for three, or below ior five : — 45678 9 9 QQQ o o 00 000 oooo,,o^ TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN WHIST. Ace. — Highest in play, lowest in cutting Blue Peter. — A signal for trumps, allowable in modem play. This term is used when a high card is unnecessarily played in place of one of lower denomination, as a ten for a seven, a five for a deuce, etc. Bumper. — Two games won in succession before adversaries have won one ; that is, a rubber of full points — Five at Long Whist, Eight at Short. Cut. — Lifting the cards, when the uppermost portion (not fewer than three) is placed below the rest. The pack is then ready for the dealer. Cutting-in. — Deciding the deal by each player taking up not fewer than three cards, and the two highest and two lowest become partners. In case of ties, the cards must be cut again. Cuttin,^-out. — In case of other person or persons wishing to play, the cut is adopted as before, when the highest (or low- est, as may be agreed on) stands out of the game, and does not play. Call, the. — The privilege of the player at eight points asking his partner if he holds an honor — " Have you one ?" The partners having eight points are said to have the call. When each side stands at eight, the first player has the privilege. As explained in a previous page, no player can call till it is his turn to play. Deal. — The proper distribution of the cards, from left to right, face downwards. Deal, mis. — A misdeal is made by giving a card too many or two few to either player ; in which case the deal passes to the next hand. {Sec Laws.) Deal, fresh. — A fresh or new deal, rendered necessary by any violation of the laws, or by any accident to the cards or players. Double. — Ten points scored at Long Whist before adversaries have obtained five; or in Short Whist, five before three. Elder-hand. — The player to the left of the dealer. Faced Card. — A card improperly shown in process of dealing. 398 GAMES OF CARDS. ^ It is in the power of adversaries in such cases to demand a new deal. J^inessing. — A term used when a player endeavors to conceal his strength, as when, having the best and third best (as Ace and Queen), he plays the latter, and risks his adversary holding the second best (the King). If he succeed in win- ning with his Queen, he gains a clear trick, because, if his adversary throws away on the Queen, the Ace is certain of making a trick. The term finessing may be literally ex- plained by saying a player chances an inferior card to win a trick with while he holds the King card in liis hand. Forcing. — This term is employed when the player obliges his adversary or partner to play his trump or pass the trick. As, for instance, when the player holds the last two cards in a suit, and plays one of them. Hand. — The thirteen cards dealt to each player. Honors. — Ace, King, Queen, and Knave of trumps, reckoned in the order here given. Jack. — The Knave of any suit. ICing Card. — The highest unplayed card in any suit; the lead- ing or winning card. Lead, the. — The first player's card, or the card next played by the winner of the last trick. Long Trumps. — The last trump card in hand, one or more, when the rest are all played. It is important to retain a trump in an otherwise weak hand. Loose Cards. — A card of no value, which may be thrown away on any trick won by your partner or adversary. Longs. — Long Whist, as opposed to Short. Lurch. — The players who make the double point are said to have lurched their adversaries. Love. — No points to score. Nothing, Marking the Game. Making the score apparent, with coins, etc., as before explained. No Game. — A game at which the players make no score. Opposition. — Side against side. Points. — The score obtained by tricks and honors. The Avager- ing or winning periods of the game. Quarte. — Four cards in sequence. Quarte Major. — A sequence of Ace, King, Queen, and Knave. Quint. — Five successive cards in a suit; a sequence of five, as King. Queen, Knave, Ten, and Nine. Renounce. — Possessing no card of the suit led, and playing another which is not a trump. Revoke. — Playing a card different from the suit led, though the player can follow suit. The penalty for the error, whether made purposely or by accident, is the forfeiture of three tricks. {See Laws.) Rubber. — The best two of three games. Ruffing.— Another term for trumping a suit other than trumps. Sequence. — Cards following in their natural order, as Ace, King, Queen, Two, Three, Four, etc. There may, there- fore, be a sequence of Four, Five. Six. and so on. Aw^/^-.— Scoring, at Long Whist, ten tricks before your adver- saries have scored five. See-saw.— \N\\Qn each partner trumps a suit. For instance. A holds no Diamonds, and B no Hearts. When A plays Hearts, B trumps and returns a Diamond, which A trumps and returns a Heart, and so on. Score. — The points gained in a game or rubber. Slam. — Winning every trick in a round. Shorts. — Short Whist as opposed to Long. Tenace. — Holding the best and third best of any suit led when last player. Holding tenace, as King and Ten of Clubs. When your adversary leads that suit, you win two tricks perforce. [ Tenace minor means the second and fourth best of any suit.] Tieble. — Scoring five (at Short Whist) before your adversaries have marked one. Terce. — A sequence of three cards in any suit. Terce Major. — Ace, King, and Queen of any suit held in one hand. Tiicks. — The four cards played, including the lead. Trump. — The last card in the deal; the tum-up. Trumps. — Cards of the same suit as the turn-up. Ties. — Cards of like denomination, as two Kings, Queens, etc. Cards of the same number of pips. Trumping Suit. — Playing a trump to any other suit led. Underplay. — Playing to mislead your adversaries; as by lead- ing a small card though you hold the King card of the suit. Younger Hand. — The player to the right of the dealer. SHORT RULES. FOR FIRST HAND OR LEAD. 1. Lead from your strong suit, and be cautious how you change suits ; and keej) a commanding card to bring it in again. 2. Lead through the strong suit and up to the weak,but not in trumps, unless very strong in them. 3. Lead the highest of a sequence ; but if you have a quart or quint to a King, lead the lowest. 4. Lead through an honor, particularly if the game be much against you. 5. Lead your best trump, if the adversaries be eight, and you have no honor; but not if you have four trumps, unless you have a sequence. 6. Lead a trump if you have four or five, or a strong hand; but not if weak. 7. Having Ace, King, and two or three small cards, lead Ace and King, if weak in trumps, but a small one if strong in them. 8. If you have the last trump, with some winning cards, and one losing card only, lead the losing card. 9. Return your partner's lead, not the adversaries'; and if you have only three originally, play the best; but you need not return it immediately, when you win with the King, Queen, or Knave, and have only small ones, or when you have a good sequence, have a strong suit, or have five trumps. 10. Do not lead from Ace Queen, or Ace Knave. 11. Do not lead an Ace, unless you have a King. 12. Do not lead a thirteenth card, unless trumps be out. 13. Do not trump a thirteenth card, unless you be last player, or want the lead. 14. Keep a small card to return your partner's lead. -A GAMES OF CARDS. 399 'kr- 15. Be cautious in trumping a card when strong in trumps, particularly if you have a strong suit. 16. Having only a few small trumps, make them when you can. . 17. If your partner refuses to trump a suit, of which he knows you have not the best, lead your best trump. 18. When you hold all the remaining trumps play one, and then try to put the lead in' your partner's hand. 19. Remember how many of each suit are out, and what is the best card left in each hand. 20. Never force your partner if you are weak in trumps, un- less you have a renounce, or want the odd trick. 21. When playing for the odd trick, be cautious of trump- ing out, especially if your partner be likely to trump a suit; make all the tricks you can early, and avoid finessing. 22 If you take a trick, and liave a sequence, win with the lowest. FOR SECOND HAND. 23. With King, Queen, and small cards, play a small one, when not strong in trumps. But if weak, play the King. With Ace, King, Queen, or Knave, only, and a small card, play the small one. FOR THIRD HAND. 24. With Ace and Queen, play her Majesty, and, if she wins, return the Ace. In all other cases the third hand should ])lay his best card when his partner has led a low one. It is a safe rule for the third hand to play his highest! n FOR ALL THE PLAYERS. 25 Fail not, when in your power, to make the odd trick. 26. Attend to the game, and play accordingly. 27. Hold the turn-up card as long as possible, and so keep your adversaries from a knowledge of your strength. 28. Retain a high trump as long as you can. 29. When in doubt win the trick. 30. Play the game fairly and keep your temper. cutting in. 1. The two highest are partners against the two lowest. 2. Less than three cards is not a cut. [If fewer than three cards be cut od the pack, the player so cutting must replace the cards, and cut again.] 3. In cutting, the Ace is lowest. 4. Ties must cut again. 5. After the pack is cut, no fresh cards can be called for in that deal. 6. If a card be exposed, a new cut may be demanded. 7. All cutting-in and cutting-out must be by pairs. 8. The right-hand adversary cuts to the dealer. SHUFFLING. g. The cards must be shuffled above the table. 10. Each player has a right to shuffle the cards, the dealer last. DEALING. 11. The cards must be dealt one at a time, commencing with the player to the left of the dealer. 12. In case of a misdeal, the deal passes to the next player. [The following are misdeals :~A card too many or too few given to either player. An exposed card. Looking to the trump card before it is turned up in the regular order of play. Dealing the cards with the pack not having been cut. The trump card dropped out of turn. A faulty pack. In every case, except the last, the deal is lost if a fresh deal be claimed by opponents. A card faced by any other than the dealer is not subject to penalty.] 13. The dealer must not touch the cards after they have left his hand, but he is allowed to count those remaining un- dealt if he suspects he has made a misdeal. 14. The trump card must be left on the table, face upwards, till the first trick is turned. [If it is not then taken up, however, it can be treated as an exposed card, and called at any part of the game, provided that no revoke be made by playing it.] 15. One partner may not deal for another without the con- sent of opponents. THE GAME. 16. Any card played out of turn can be treated as an ex- posed card and called, provided no revoke be thereby caused. [Thus, a player who wins a trick plays another card before his partner plays to the trick. The second card becomes an exposed card.] 17. If the third player throws down his card before the second, the fourth player has a right also to play before the second; or, if the fourth hand play before the second or third, the cards so played must stand, and the second be compelled to win the trick if he can. 18. No player but he who made the last trick has a right to look at it after it has been turned. 19. A trump card played in error may be recalled before the trick is turned. [But if the playing of such trump cause the next player to expose a card, such last exposed card cannot be called.] 20. If two cards be played, or if the player play twice to the same trick, his opponents can elect which of the two .shall remain and belong to the trick. Provided, however, that no revoke be caused. [But if the trick should happen to be turned with five cards in it, ad- versaries may claim a fresh deal ] 21. A player, before he throws, may require his partner to " draw his card," or he may have each card in the trick claimed by the players before the trick is completed. [The proper way is to say, " Draw your cards," as then the chance of partner claiming the wrong one is lessened.] 22. If two players answer the lead together, the one whose turn it was to play can call the other card in the next or fol- lowing trick as an exposed card. 23. No player is allowed to transfer his hand to another without the consent of his adversaries. 24. A hand once abandoned and laid down on the table cannot be taken up again and played. 25. If a player announce that he can win every trick, ad- versaries may call his cards. THE REVOKE. 26. The penalty for a revoke is the forfeiture of three tricks. If a revoke be made, the adverse party may add three r 400 GAMES OF CARDS. -^ to their score by taking them from their opponents, or they may reduce your score by three. [In order to more fully explain the intent of a revoke : " If a suit is led, and any one of the players, having a card of the same suit, shall play another suit to it— that constitutes a revoke. But if the error be discovered before the trick is quitted, or before the party having so played a wrong suit, or his partner, shall play again, the penalty only amounts to the cards being treated as exposed, and being liable to be called."] 27. If a player revokes, and before the trick is turned dis- covers his error, adversaries may call on him to play his high- est or lowest card of the suit led, or they may call the card exposed at any time when such call will not lead to another revoke. 28. No revoke can be claimed till the trick is turned and quitted, or the revoker's partner has played again. 29. When a revoke is claimed, the cards must not be mixed, under forfeiture of the game. 30. The player or partners against whom a revoke is es- tablished cannot claim the game in that deal. 31. No revoke can be claimed after the cards are cut for the next game. 32. When a revoke has occurred on both sides, there must be a new deal. 33. The proof of a revoke is with the claimants, who may examine each trick on the completion of the round. CALLING HONORS. 34. Honors cannot be counted unless they are claimed be- fore the next deal. No omission to score them can be rectified after the cards are packed, but an overscore can be deducted. 35. Honors can only be called at eight points, and then only by the player whose turn it is to play. [It is quite usual to omit calling honors when the game is pretty cer- tain, but the shortest and fairest plan is for the player holding two honors to ask, " Can you one ? " when, if your partner holds one, the game is at an end.] 36. At nine points honors do not count. 37. Four honors in one or both partners' hands count four to the game ; three honors, two. Two honors on each side are not scored, but are said to be divided. THE SCORE. 38. If both partners score, and a discrepancy occur between them, adversaries may elect which score to retain. 39. The score cannot be amended after the game is won and the cards packed. INTIMATIONS BETWEEN PARTNERS. 40. A player may ask his partner, " What are trumps? " or, "Can you follow suit?" "Is there not a revoke?" Or he may tell him to draw his card. All other intimations are unfair. 41. Lookers-on must not interfere unless appealed to. BY-LAWS. These are all the laws of the game of Whist, but there are certain other rules or by-laws with which it is important the finished player should be acquainted. The penalties attached to a disregard of any of the following by-laws differ in differ- ent companies, and to some, which partake rather of the nature of maxims, there is no penalty at all. When the trump is turned, and taken into the player's hand, it cannot be demanded by either of the players. When a card is taken distinctly from the hand to which it belongs, it may be treated as an exposed card. Taking a trick belonging to your adversaries subjects you to no penalty, but it may be reclaimed at any time during the round. If a player throws up his hand, and the next player follows his example, the game must be considered at an end, and lost to the first player resigning. » Honors scored improperly are in some companies trans- ferred to adversaries. Approval or disapproval of a partner's play, or, in fact, any improprieties of speech or gesture, are not allowable. As soon as the lead is played to, it is complete. If a player announce that he can win all the remaining tricks, he may be required to face all his cards on the table. His partner's hand may also be so treated, and each card may be called separately. HINTS AND CAUTIONS FOR AMATEURS. Place each suit together, in the natural order of the cards ; but do not always put the trumps to the left, as thereby, your adversary is able to count them as you put them aside. Many good players do not sort their cards at all, but arrange them in the hand just as they fall on the table. Never dispute the score, unless you are pretty certain you are right ; nothing is so ungraceful as a disputatious player. Never hesitate long in playing, but if you have a bad hand, do your best and trust to your partner. Remember that no points can be marked if you neglect to score before the second trick of the succeeding round is played. Do not show honors after a trick is turned, as they may be called by your adversaries. At eight points, the elder hand asks the younger, and not the younger the elder. That is to say, the player with the two honors in hand asks, " Can you one ? " Remember the pood old maxim, " Second hand throws away, and third hand plays high." Always endeavor to retain a leading card or trump to nearly the end. Never throw a high card on a lost trick when a low one will suffice. Follow your partner's lead, and not your adversary's. When you suspect your partner to be strong in trumps, ruff when he leads a small card and return a little trump. WTienyour partner leads from an apparently good hand, do your best to assist him. Whist is a silent game ; therefore do not distract the at- tention of the players by idle conversation. Never interfere needlessly. Watch the style of your adversaries' play, and act in accord- ance with your own judgment. Make tricks when you can without injury to your partner',' hand. Accustom yourself to remember the cards that are played. A good memory is a wonderful assistant at Whist. GAMES OF CARDS. 401 GENERAL RULES. Be cautious how you change suits, and allow no artifice of your adversaries to induce you to do so, without your own hand warrants it. Keep a commanding card, to bring in your own strong suit when trumps are out, if your hand will permit. Never keep back your partner's suit in trumps, but return them at the first opportunity. With a strong suit and but few trumps, rather force your adversaries than lead trumps — unless it happens that you are strong in at least one other suit. Never neglect to make the odd trick when you have a chance. Look well to your own and your opponents' score, and shape your play by reference to them. In a backward game, it is sometimes wise to risk one trick in order to secure two ; but in a forward game, be more cau- tious. If you hold three cards of the suit led by your partner, re- turn his lead with your best. Remember what cards drop from each hand, how many of each suit are out, and the best remaining card in each . Seldom lead from Ace and Queen, Ace and Knave, or King and Knave, if you hold another moderate suit. If neither of your adversaries will lead from the above suits, you must do it yourself with a small card. You are strong in trumps with five small ones, or three small ones and one honor. Do not tmmp a card when you are strong in trumps, more especially if you hold any other strong suit. If you hold only a few small trumps, make them when you can. If your partner refuses to trump a suit of which he knows you have not the best, lead him your best trump as soon as you can. If your partner has trumped a suit, and refuses to play trumps, lead him that suit again. Never force your partner but when you are strong in trumps, unless you have a renounce yourself, or want only the odd trick. If the adversaries trump out, and your partner has a re- nounce, give him that suit when you get the lead, if you think he has a small trump left. Lead not from an Ace suit originally, if you hold four in number of another suit. When trumps are either returned by your partner, or led by your adversaries, you may finesse deeply in them ; keeping the command as long as you can in your own hand. If you lead the King of any suit, and make it, you must not thence cpnclude that your partner holds the Ace. It is sometimes proper to lead a thirteenth card, in order to force the adversary, and give your partner a chance of making a trick as last player. If weak in trumps, make your tricks soon ; but when strong in them, you may play a more backward game. With five small trumps and a good hand, lead trumps, and so exhaust the suit. With the lead, and three small trumps and the Ace, it is sometimes judicious to allow your adversaries to make two tricks in trumps with King and Queen, and on the third round play your Ace. You then secure the last trick with your little trump. With one strong suit, a moderate one, and a single card, it is good play to lead out one round from your strong suit, and then play your single card. Keep a small card of your partner's first lead, if possible, in order to return it when the trumps are out. Never force your adversary with your best card of a suit unless you have the second best also. In your partner's lead, endeavor to keep the command in his hand, rather than in your own. If you have see-saw, it is generally better to pursue it than to trump out, although you should be strong in trumps with a good suit. Keep the trump you turn up, as long as you properly can. When you hold all the remaining trumps, play one of them, to inform your partner ; and then put the lead into his hand. It is better to lead from Ace and Nine than from Ace and Ten. It is better to lead trumps through an Ace or King than through, a Queen or Knave. If you hold the last trump, some winning cards, and one losing card only, lead the losing card. When only your partner has trumps remaining, and leads a suit of which you hold none, if you have a good sequence of four, throw away the highest of it. If you have an Ace, with one small card of any suit, and several winning cards in other suits, rather throw away some winning card than that small one. If you hold only one honor with a small trump, and wish the trumps out, lead the honor first. If trumps have been led thrice, and there be two remaining in your adversaries' hands, endeavor to force them out. Never play the best card of your adversaries' lead at second hand, unless your partner has none of that suit. If you have four trumps, and the command of a suit where- of your partner has none, lead a small card, in order that he may trump it. With these general directions we may now proceed to con- sider each hand as analyzed by Hoyle and improved by modem players. The following are from the last and best edition of Hoyle ; the maxims have been adopted by Payne, Trebor, Carleton, Coelebs, Captain Crawley, and all the other writers on the game. THE LEAD— FIRST HAND. Begin with the suit of which you have the greatest number ; for, when trumps are out, you will probably make tricks in it. If you hold equal numbers in different suits, begin with the strongest ; it is the least liable to injure your partner. Sequences are always eligible leads ; they support youT partner's hand without injuring your own. Lead from King or Queen rather than from a single Ace ; :sir- r 402 GAMES OF CARDS. ^- for, since your opponents will lead from contrary suits, your Ace will be powerful against them. Lead from King rather than Queen, and from Queen rather than Knave ; for the stronger the suit, the less is your partner endangered. Do not lead from Ace Queen, or Ace Knave, till you are obliged ; for, if that suit be led by your opponents, you have a good chance of making two tricks in it. In sequences to a Queen, Knave, or Ten, begin with the highest, and so distress your left-hand adversary. With Ace, King, and Knave, lead the King ; if strong in trumps, you may wait the return of this suit, and finesse the Knave. "With Ace, Queen, and one small card, lead the small one ; by this lead, your partner has a chance of making the Knave. With Ace, King, and two or three small cards, play Ace and King if weak, but a small card if strong, in trumps ; when strong in trumps, you may give your partner the chance of making the first trick. With King, Queen, and one small card, play the small one ; for your partner has an equal chance to win, and there is little fear of your making King or Queen. With King, Queen, and two or three small cards, lead a small card if strong, and the King if weak, in trumps ; strength in trumps entitles you to play a backward game, and to give your partner a chance of winning the first trick. But if weak in trumps, lead the King and Queen, to secure a trick in that suit. With Ace, with four small cards, and no other good suit, play a small one if strong in trumps, and the Ace if weak ; strength in trumps may enable you to make one or two of the small cards, although your partner cannot support your lead. With King, Knave, and Ten, lead the Ten ; if your part- ner has the Ace, you may probably make three tricks, whether he pass the Ten or not. With King, Queen, and Ten, lead the King ; for, if it fail, by putting on the Ten, upon the return of the suit from your partner, you may make two tricks. With Queen, Knave, and Nine, lead the Queen ; upon the return of that suit from your partner, by putting on the Nine, you make the Knave, SECOND HAND, With Ace, King, and small ones, play a small card if strong in trumps, but the King if weak. Otherwise your Ace or King might be trumped in the latter case- Except in critical cases, no hazard should be run with few trumps. With Ace, Queen, and small cards, play a small one ; upon the return of that suit you may make two tricks. With Ace, Knave, and small cards, play a small one ; upon the return of that suit you may make two tricks. With Ten or Nine, with small cards, play a small one. By this plan you may make two tricks in the suit With King, Queen, Ten, and small cards, play the Queen. By playing the Ten on the return of the suit, you stand a good chance of making two tricks. With King, Queen^ and small cards, play a small card if srrong in trumps, but the Queen if weak in them ; for strength in trumps warrants a backward game. It is advantageous to keep back your adversaries' suit. With a sequence to your highest card in the suit, play the lowest of it, for by this means your partner is informed of your strength. With Queen, Knave, and small ones, play the Knave, be- cause you will probably secure a trick. With Queen, Ten, and small ones, play a small one, foi your partner has an equal chance to win. With either Ace, King, Queen, or Knave, with small cards, play a small one ; your partner has an equal chance to win the trick. With either Ace, King, Queen, or Knave, with one small card only, play the small one, for oherwise your adversary will finesse upon you. If a Queen of trumps be led, and you hold the King, put that on ; if your partner hold the Ace, you do no harm ; and if the King be taken, the adversaries have played two honors to one. If a Knave of trumps be led, and you hold the Queen, put it on ; for, at the worst, you bring down two honors for one. If a King be led, and you hold Ace, Knave, and small ones, play the Ace, which can only make one trick. THIRD HAND. The third hand plays high. With Ace and King, play the Ace and immediately return the King. It is not necessary that you should keep the com- mand of your partner's hand. With Ace and Queen, play the Ace and return the Queen. By this means you make a certain trick, though it is son.etimes policy to play the Queen. Your partner is, however, best supported by the old-fashioned method. With Ace and Knave, play the Ace and return the Knave, in order to strengthen your partner's hand. With King and Knave, play the King; and if it win, return the Knave. riay the best when your partner leads a small card, as it best supports him. If you hold Ace and one small card only, and your part- ner lead the King, put on the Ace, and return the small one ; for, otherwise, your Ace may be an obstruction to his suit. If you hold King and only one small card, and your part- ner lead the Ace, when the trumps are out, play the King ; for, by putting on the King, there will be no obstruction to the suit. FOURTH HAND. If a King be led, and you hold Ace, Knave, and a small card, play the small one ; for supposing the Queen to follow you will probably make both Ace and Knave. When the third hand is weak in his partner's lead, jou may often return that suit to gJeat advantage ; but this rule must not be applied to trumps, unless you are very strong indeed. Never neglect to secure ihe-trick if there is any doubt about the game. GAMES OF CARDS. 403 i If you hold the thirteenth trump, retain it to make a trick when your partner fails in his lead. If you stand in the nine holes, make all the tricks you can ; but at the same time be careful. Watch the game nar- rowly, and look well to your partner's lead. LEADING TRUMPS. Lead trumps from a strong hand, but never from a weak one ; by which means you will secure your good cards from being trumped. Never trump out with a bad hand, although you hold five small trumps ; for, since your cards are bad, you only bring out your adversaries' good ones. If you hold Ace, King, Knave, and three small trumps, play Ace and King ; for the probability of the Queen falling is in your favor. If you hold Ace, King, Knave, and one or two small trumps, play the King, and wait the return from your part- ner to put on the Knave. By this plan you may win the Queen. But if you have particular reasons to exhaust trumps, play two rounds, and then your strong suit. If you hold Ace, King, and two or three small trumps, lead a small one, with a view to let your partner win the first trick ; but if you have good leason for getting out trumps, play three rounds, or play Ace and King, and then your strong suit. If your adversaries are eight, and you hold no honor, throw off your best trump ; for, if your partner has not two honors, you lose the game. But if he should happen to hold two honors — as he probably would — you have a strong command- ing game. Holding Ace, Queen, Knave, and small trumps, play the Knave ; by this means, the King only can make against you. Holding Ace, Queen, Ten, and one or two small tnimps, lead a small one ; this will givje your partner a chance to win the first trick, and keep the command in your own hand. Holding King, Queen, Ten, and small trumps, lead the King ; for, if the King be lost, upon the return of trumps you may finesse the Ten. Holding King, Knave, Ten, and .small ones, lead the Knave; it will prevent the adversaries from making a small trump. Holding Queen, Knave, Nine, and small trumps, lead the Queen ; if your partner hold the Ace, you have a chance of making the whole suit. Holding Queen, Knave, and two or three small trumps, lead the Queen. Holding Knave, Ten, Eight, and small trumps, lead the Knave ; on the return of trumps you may finesse the Eight. Holding Knave, Ten, and three small trumps, lead the Knave ; this will most distress your adversaries, unless two honors are held on your right hand, the odds against which arc about three to one. Holding only small trumps, play the highest ; by which means you support your partner. Holding a sequence, begin with the highest ; thus your part- ner is instructed how to play his hand, and cannot be injured. If any honor be turned up on your left, and the game much against you, lead a trump as soon as you can. You may thus probably retrieve an almost lost game. In all other cases it is dangerous to lead through an honor without you are strong in trumps, or have an otherwise good hand. All the advantage of leading through an honor lies in your partner finessing. If the Queen be turned up on your right, and you hold Ace, King, and small ones, lead the King. Upon the return of trumps finesse, unless the Queen falls. Otherwise the Queen will make a trick. With the Knave turned up on your right, and you hold King, Queen, and Ten, the best play is to lead the Queen. Upon the return of trumps play the Ten. By this style of play you make the Ten. If the Knave turn up on your right, and you hold* King, Queen, and small ones, it is best to lead the King. If that comes home, you can play a small one, for the chance of your partner possessing the Ace. If Knave turn up on your right, and you have King, Queen, and Ten, with two small cards, lead a small one. Upon the return of trumps play the Ten. The chances are in favor of your partner holding an honor, and thus you make a trick. If an honor be turned up on your left, and you hold only one honor with a small trump, play out the honor, and then the small one. This will greatly strengthen your partner's hand, and cannot injure your own. . If an honor be turned up on the left, and you hold a sequence, lead the highest ; it will prevent the last hand from injuring your partner. If a Queen be turned up on the left and you hold Ace, King, and a small one, lead the small trump ; you have a chance for winning the Queen. If a Queen be turned up on your left, and you hold Knave, with small ones, lead the Knave ; for the Knave can be of no service, since the Queen is on your left. If an honor be turned up by your partner, and you are strong in trumps, lead a small one ; but if weak in them, lead the best you have. By this means the weakest hand supports the strongest. If an Ace be turned up on the right, and you hold King, Queen, and Knave, lead the Knave ; it is a secure lead. If an Ace be turned up on the right, and you hold King, Queen, and Ten, lead the King ; and upon the return of tramps play the Ten. By this means you show strength to your partner, and probably make two tricks. If a King be turned up on the right, and you hold Queen, Knave, and Nine, lead the Knave, and upon the return of trumps, play the Nine : it may prevent the Ten from making. If a King be turned up on your right, and you hold Knave, Ten and Nine, lead the Nine ; upon the return of trumps play the Ten. This will disclose your strength in trumps to your partner. If a Queen be tunied up on the right, and you have Ace, King, and Knave, lead the King. Upon the return of trumps play the Knave, which makes a certain trick. HOW TO PLAY WHEN YOU TURN UP AN HONOR. If you turn up an Ace, and hold only one small trump with it, if either adversary lead the King, put on the Ace. But if you turn up an Ace, and hold two or three small •^- 404 GAMES OF CARDS. trumps with it, and either adversary lead the King, put on a small one ; for, if you play the Ace, you give up the command in trumps. If you turn up a King and hold only one small trump with it, and your right-hand adversary lead a trump, play a small one. If you turn up a King, and hold two or three small trumps with it, if your right-hand adversary lead a trump, play a small one. If you turn up a Queen or Knave, and hold besides only small trumps, if your right-hand adversary lead a trump, put out a small one. If you hold a sequence to the honor turned up, play it last. HOW TO PLAY FOR THE ODD TRICK. Never trump out if you can avoid it, for you can hardly be sure of the other three hands. If your partner, by hoisting the Blue Peter, or by any other allowable intimation, shows that he has means of trumping any suit, be cautious how you trump out. Force your partner, if strong in trumps, and so make all the tricks you can. Make tricks early in the game, and be cautious in finessing. With a single card of any suit, and only two or three small trumps, lead the single card. RETURNING PARTNER'S LEAD. In the following cases it is best to teturtt your partner' s lead directly : — When you win with the Ace, and can return an honor ; for then it will greatly strengthen his hand. When he leads a trump, in which case return the best re- maining in your hand unless you hold four. An exception to this arises if the lead is through an honor. When your partner has trumped out ; for then it is evident he wants to make his strong suit. When you have no good card in any other suit ; for then you are entirely dependent on your partner. In the following instances it is proper that you should NOT re- turn your partner' s lead immediately: — When you win with the King, Queen, or Knave, and have only small cards remaining. The return of a small card will more distress than strengthen your partner's hand. When you hold a good sequence ; for then you may make tricks and not injure his hand. When you have a strong suit. Leading from a strong suit is a direction to your partner and cannot injure him. When you have a good hand ; for in this case you have a right to consult your own hand, and not your partner's. When you hold five trumps ; for then you are warranted to play trumps if you think it right. When, in fine, you can insure two or three tricks, play them, and then return the lead. With a leading hand, it is well to play your own game. THE FINISH. The most important part of a game at Whist is the Finish — the last two or three tricks. Be careful how you play, or ycu may make a bad ending to a good beginning. Loose Card. — If you hold three winning cards and a loose one, play the latter, and trust to your partner. Loose Trump and Tenace. — Holding these, play the loose trump. King and the Lead. — If you hold a King, and a loose card, the best plan is to play the last, so that your partner may lead up to your King. Long Trumps. — If you hold three it is best to lead the small- est ; by this means you give your partner a chance of making tricks, and still hold a commanding card in your own hand. It is not well to play out the King card. Third Hand with King, Gfc. — " Supposing," says Coelebs, " ten tricks being made, you remain with King, Ten, and another. If second hand plays an honor, cover it ; otherwise finesse the Ten for a certain trick. If you want two tricks play your King." Running a Card. — The same authority says — "With such cards as Knave, Nine, Eight, against Ten guarded, by ' run- ning' the Eight you make every trick." STRENGTH IN TRUMPS. The following hands are given by Hoyle to demonstrate what is known as being strong in trumps : — Ace. King, and three small trumps. King, Queen, and three small trumps. Queen, Ten, and three small trumps. Queen and four small trumps. Knave and four small trumps. Five trumps without an honor must win two tricks if led. FORCING YOUR PARTNER. You are justified in forcing your partner if you hold — Ace and three small trumps. King and three small trumps. Queen and three small trumps. Knave and four small trumps. Five trumps. CALCULATIONS FOR BETTING. At Long Whist, It is about five to four that your partner holds one card out of any two. Five to two that he holds one card out of any three. Two to one that he does not hold a certain named card. Three to one that he does not hold two out of three named cards in a suit. Three to two that he does not hold two cards out of ai.y four named. Five to one that your partner holds one winning card. Four to one that he holds two. Three to one that he holds three. Three to two that he holds four. Four to six that he holds five. BETTING THE ODDS. The odds on the rubber are five 10 two in favor of the deal- ers generally. GAMES OF CARDS. 405 With the first game secured, the odds on the rubber, with the deal, are — to love about 7 to 2 4 — I 9 — 2 5 — I 6 — I At any part of the game, except at the points of eight or nine, the odds are in proportion to the number of points required to make the ten required. Thus, if A wants four and B six of the game, the odds are six to four in favor of A. If A wants three and B five, the odds are seven to five on A win- ning the game. Against honors being divided, the odds are about three to two against either side, though the dealers have certainly the best chance. The following, calculated strictly, are the ODDS ON THE GAME WITH THE DEAL. I love is II to 10 4 to 3 is 7 to 6 2 love — 5 — 4 5 — 3 — 7 — 5 3 love — 3 — 2 6 — 3 — 7 — 4 4 love — 7 — 4 7 — 3 — 7 — 3 5 love — 2 — I 8 — 3 • — 7 — 2 6 love — S — 2 q — 3 — 3 — I 7 love love — 7 5 9 — 2 I R 9 love te I — 9 9 9 9 to 2 R 5 6 7 8 to 4 4 4 IS 6 6 2 to 5 4 T is I 2 3 7 6 5 — 4 — 3 — ~ I z ; — z 9 4 — 5 2 4 5 — I — 9 — 4 6 to 5 is 5 to 4 6 — I — 3 — I 7 — 5 — 5 — 3 7 — I — 9 — 2 8 — 5 — 5 — 2 8 to 2 — - 4 8 to I 7 3 9 5 — 2 I 1 is 4 — 2 4 7 8 to 6 6 IS 4 ? to 3 T s — 2 — 8 —^ 5 I 3 6 2 2 — 2 8 — 9 b ~ 7 4 ; 8 — 2 — 4 — I 8 to 7 IS 3 to 2 9 — 2 — 7 — 2 9 — 7 — 12 — 8 4- Honors counting at eight points and not at nine, the odds are slightly in favor of the players at eight. It is usual for the players at eight points, with the deal, to bet six to five on the game. It is about an even bet, if honors are not claimed at eight points, that the dealers win. As a disinterested piece of advice, however, let me add — Don^/ bet at all. AT SHORT WHIST. The foUoving are the generally-accepted odds, but it must be remembered that in respect of betting the chances in Short Whist do not greatly differ from those of the old and, as I think, much superior game. ON THE GAME WITH THE DEAL. At starting, the odds are about 11 to 10, or perhaps 21 to 20, in favor of the dealers. With an honor turned up, the odds are nearly a point greater in favor of the dealers. 1 to love is about 2 — 3 — 4 — 2 to I is about 3 — 2 — 3 — 3 — 4 — 3 — 10 to 8 5 — 3 3 — I 4 — I 5 to 4 2 — I 11 — 10 9—7 ON THE RUBBER WITH THE DEAL. 1 to love is about 2 — 3 — 4 — to 4 — I — 2 — I The following are given as mere matters of curiosity : It is 50 to I against the dealer holding 7 trumps, neither more nor less. 15 to I against his holding 6 trumps. 8 to I against his holding exactly 5. 3 to 2 against his holding exactly 4. 5 to 2 in favor of his holding 3 trumps or more trumps. II to 2 in favor of his holding 2 or more trumps. 30 to I against his holding only the i trump turned up. Against any non-dealer holding any specified number 0/ trumps. 100 to I against his holding exactly 7. 30 to I ** ** 6. 15 to I '• " 5. 5 to I •• " 4. 3 to 2 " " 3. 5 to 2 in favor of his holding 2 or more. 50 to I in favor of his holding i trump or more. Against the dealer holding 13 trumps it is calculated to be 158,753,389.89910 I. Against his holding 12 trumps, 338,493,367 to i. Against his holding 11 trumps, 3,^j better or calls him, he wins the pool and cannot be compelled to show his hand. Upon a show of hands, if a player miscall his hand, he does not losfe the pool for that reason, for every hand shows for itself. If a player pass or throw up his hand, he passes out of the game, and cannot, under any circumstances whatever, parti- cipate further in that game. Any player betting with more or less than five cards in his hand, loses the pool, unless his opponents all throw up their hands before discovering the foul hand. If only one player is betting against the foul hand, that player is entitled to the ante and all the money bet ; but if there are more than one betting against him, then the best hand among his opponents is entitled to the pool. If a player makes a bet, and an adversary raises him, and the player who made the previous bet has not money sufficient to see the raise, he can put up all the funds he may have and call for a show for that amount. None but the eldest hand (the Age) has the privilege of going a blind. The party next and to the left of the eldest hand may double the blind, and the next player straddle it, the next double the straddle, and so on, but the amount of the straddle, when made good, must not exceed the limit of the game. A player cannot straddle a blind and raise it at the same time, nor can any player raise a blind before the cards are dealt. If the player to the left of the Age decline to straddle a blind, he prevents any other player from doing so. JACK POT, This is played as follows : When all the players pass up to the blind hand, the latter allows his blind to remain in the pot, and each of the other players deposits a similar amount. The blind now deals, and any player in his regular turn may open or break the pot, provided he holds a pair of Jacks or better, but a player is not compelled to do so, this being en- tirely optional. Each player in turn, commencing with the one at the left of the dealer, declares whether he can and will open the pot. If no player opens the pot, then each player deposits in the pool the same amount that was previously contributed, and the deal passes to the next player. The same perform- ance or mode of action will continue until some player holds the necessary cards, and is willing to break the pot. A player may break the pot for any amount within the lim- its of the game, and each player in turn must make the bet good, raise it, or retire. After all the players who determine to go in have made good the bet of the player who opened the Jack Pot, and the hands have been filled, then the opener of the pot makes the first bet. If all pass up to the player who broke the pot, the latter takes the pool, and can only be compelled to show the Jacks, or better, necessary to break the pot. A player who breaks the pot on a pair, may split the pair in order to draw to a four flush or straight; but, if he does so, he must lay the discard to one side, separate from any other cards, so that after the result has been determined he may satisfy the other players that he broke the pot with a correct hand. If this precaution is not observed, and attention called to it, the delinquent is subject to deposit in the pool, as pen- alty, twice the amount of his original bet. If no player come in except the one who broke the pot on an insufficient hand, a new hand must be dealt, and the penalty added to the pot. STRAIGHT POKER. Straight Poker, which is sometimes called Bluff, is played with a pack of fifty-two cards. The same rules as those of GAMES OF CARDS. % 413 Draw Poker govern it. It differs from the latter game in the following particulars only: I. The winner of the pool has the deal. II. Each player antes before the cards are cut for the deal. III. Any player may pass with the privilege of coming in again, provided no player preceding him has made a bet. IV. No player is permitted to discard, or draw any cards. V. When all the players pass, the eldest hand deals, and each player deposits another ante in the pool, thus making what is termed a "double-header." When a misdeal occurs the rule is the same. WHISKEY POKER. Each player contributes one chip to make a pool, and the same rules govern as at Draw Poker, save that the strongest hand you can get is a straight flush. Five cards are dealt to each player, one at a time, and an extra hand is dealt on the table, which is called the " widow." The eldest hand then examines his cards, and if, in his judgment, his hand is suffi- ciently strong, he passes. The next player then has the pri- vilege of the widow, and, supposing him to take it, he then lays his discarded hand (that which he relinquishes for the widow) face up in the centre of the table, and the next player to the left selects from it that card which suits him best in filling his hand, and so on all around the board, each player discarding one card and picking up another, until some one is satisfied, which he signifies by knocking upon the table. When this occurs, all the players around to the satisfied party have the privilege of one more draw, when the hands are shown, and the strongest wins. If any player knocks before the widow is taken, the widow is then turned face up, and each player from him who knocks has but one more draw. Should no one take the widow, but all pass to the dealer, he then turns the widow, and all parties have the right to draw until some one is satisfied. STUD POKER is in all essential particulars like the other Poker games, and is subject to the same laws and mode of betting, passing, etc. MISTIGRIS is a variety of a game of Draw Poker, sometimes called Fifty- Three Deck Poker. Mistigris is a name given to the blank card accompanying every pack ; the player holding it can call it any card not already in his hand. h^ ■^ 414 GAMES OF SKILL. -% Cl\Q^^. Black. iSiB m • « « iMfvy|f|4T^v^j^^ tions and powers, and eight pawns, are allotted to each com- petitor. As a necessary distinction, each set is colored in a different way, one commonly being white, the other red or black. The pieces are named as follows : King. •mm k% Queen. Bishop. ■ iK night. Rook. Pawn. 4r- White. ORDER OF THE MEN ON THE BOARD. HESS is one of the most ancient of known games of skill. Various theories are advanced as to its origin. One ac- count states that the wife of Ravan, King of Ceylon, devised it in order to amuse her royal spouse with an image of war while his metropolis was closely be- sieged by Rama. We will now proceed to give the necessary directions for playing the game. The game is played on a board divided into sixty-four squares, colored alternately black and white. It is the same as that used at draughts. Eight pieces of different denomina- Every player, thepefore, is provided with one king, one queen, two bishops, two knights, and two rooks, besides the eight pawns. They are placed, at the beginning of each game, in the order shown at the head of this article. In placing the board, care must be taken that a while corner square be at the right hand of each player. It should also be observed that the queen must be placed upon a square of her own color. THE PIECES: THEIR POWERS AND MODE OF ACTION. The king can move in any direction — forward, backward, sideways, or diagonally, provided always, of course, that he does tiot move into check. The king possesses one great prerogative — that of never being taken ; but, by way of counter- balancing the advantage of this exemption, he is restrained from exposing himself to check. He can move only one square at a time, except when he castles, which he may do once during ea.ch game. He may then move two squares. He cannot castle when in check, nor after he has once moved, nor with a rook that has been moved, nor if any of the squares over which he has to move be commanded by an adverse piece. The queen can move either horizontally or diagonally. She -^ r- GAMES OF SKILL. 415 ^ combines the powers of the bishop and the rock. She can, at one move, pass along the whole length of the board, or, if moving diagonally, from comer to corner. Although she can move and take in the same manner as a bishop or as a rook, she must make the whole of one move in one direction, and cannot combine in one move the powers of these two pieces : in other words, she cannot move round a corner at one step. The rook (sometimes called the castle) may pass along the entire length of the board at one move. It may move back- wards, or forwards, or sideways — but always horizontally, never diagonally. The bishop can move only in a diagonal direction, but can go any number of squares, from one to eight, or as far as the space be open. The bishop can never change the color of his square. Thus, the white king's bishop being on a white square at the beginning, remains so throughout the game. This is a necessary consequence of his move being purely diagonal. The knight has a power of moving which is quite peculiar, and rather difficult to explain. He moves two squares at once in a direction partly diagonal and partly straight. He changes the color of his squares at every move. The knight is the only piece that possesses what is styled the " vaulting motion." He is not precluded from going to a square be- tween which and his own other pieces intervene. Thus, instead of moving your king's pawn two, as your first move, you might, if good play permitted it, move out either of your knights right over the row of pawns in front. This power is possessed by the knight alone, all the other pieces being obliged to wait until there is an opening in front of them before they can emerge. The pawn moves in a straight line towards the adverse party. It caAnot move out of its file except in capturing one of the opposing pawns or pieces, when it steps one square in a diagonal or slanting direction, and occupies the square of the captured piece. It can only be moved one square at a time, excepting in the first move, when the player has the option of advancing it two squares. The pawn is the only piece which cannot retreat, and which does not take in the direction in which it moves. For full explanations relative to "queening the pawn," and taking a pawn en passant, see instructions on those points. ABBREVIATIONS. The abbreviations which are invariably used in chess publi- cations are the following : K. for king, Q. for queen, B. for bishop, Kt. for knight, R. for rook, P. for pawn, Sq. for square, and Ch. for check. The pieces on one side of the board are distinguished from those on the other in the follow- ing manner : Those on the same side as the king are named after him, as K.'s B, (king's bishop), K.'s Kt. (king's knight), K.'s R. (king's rook) ; while those on the same side as the queen are named Q.'s B. (queen's bishop), Q.'s Kt. (queen's knight), Q.'s R. (queen's rook). The pawns are distinguished in like manner. The pawn occupying the square in front of the K.'s B. is called K.'s B.'s P. ; that in front of the K.'s Kt. is called K.'s Kt.'s P. ; that in front of the Q.'s R. the Q.'s R.'sP.,etc. CHESS NOTATION. It is very necessary that the beginner should thoroughly understand the system of notation which is invariably used throughout England, for without it he could never make any use of book games. The following diagram fully explains it. It will be seen that the moves are reckoned both for black and white. Black. Q.R.S. Q.Kt.8. •bs-aO Q.B.8. •zaO Q.B.7. •bs-O Q8. •bs-H K.8. •bsa^M K.B.8. bs-JMa K.Kt.8. bs"aM K.R.8. Q,R.7. O.Kt.7 ■zQ Q.7. •=M K.7. R.B.7. •=J»M K.Kt.7 •'"aH K.R.7. Q.R.6. Q.Kt.6. •e-aO Q.B.6. ■£•0 Q.6. .£•51 K.6. •£aM K.B.6. •e-JMJI K.Kt.6. •£•^•51 K.R.6. QR-5. Q.Kt.5. Q.B.5. Os. •t-3I K.5. •*a-M K.B.5. K.Kt.5. K.R.s. £^» KR.4. Q.R.4. Q.Kt.4. •s-aO Q.B.4. •so Q4- ■S^K K.4. K.B.4. K.Kt.4. •9H0 Q.R.3. •9JMC5 Q.Kt.3. •9aO Q.B.3. •90 Q-3. •9-M K.3. 9a-x j-9i5i-a K.B.3. K.Kt.3. 9"ax K.R.3. Q.R.2. Q.Kt.2. Q.B.2. Q.2. K.2. K.B 2. |K.Kt 2. K.R.2. 8"aO Q.Rsq. ■8JM0 Q.Kt.sq 8a Q.B.sq. •80 Q.sq. •8H K.sq. •8-a-X JS'IM-JI; -S-HX K.B.sq. K.KtsqK.R.sq. White. CHESS NOTATION FROM EACH END OF THE BOARD. Suppose the white queen's bishop moves one square, it is then said to stand on its second, which is the black queen's bishop's seventh. The white king's eighth is the black king's first, and vice versd all through the pieces. TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN THE GAME. The Move. — Whichever player opens the game by making the first move is said to have " the move." Check. — When your king is attacked by any piece, he is said to be "in check," and it is your opponent's duty to give you warning of such an event by crying " Check," when he makes the move. You must then put your king out of check by moving him, by taking the checking piece, or by interposing one of your own men between the checking piece and your king, thus " covering " check, as it is termed. Checkmate is the term used when the king is in inextricable check, i.e., when none of the above means avail to place him beyond the range of the attacking pieces. When a checkmate is obtained, the game is at an end, that being the sole object. Discovered Check is when the player moves a pawn or piece from before another piece, thereby opening or " discovering " check : 1?.^., the black rook may be on a line with the oppos- ing king, the only intervening piece being a black pawn. The removal of this pawn " discovers check." Double Check is when check is discovered as above, the king being^also attacked by the piece moved. Perpetual Check is when the king of one of the players can be checked almost at every move, and when he has little else -^ r 416 GAMES OF SKILL. -% to do but move out of check. When the game has reached this stage, the weaker player may demand that checkmate shall be given in a certain number of moves, in default of which it may be declared a drawn game. (See Rule 8.) Drawn Game. — A drawn game may arise from several causes : 1. As above. 2. Stalemate. (See "Stalemate.") 3. Equal play. " Between very good players," remarks Phillidor, " it sometimes happens that the equipoise in force and position is constantly sustained in the opening, in the in- termediate stages, and in the last result ; when either all the exchangeable pieces have been mutually taken, or the remain- ing forces are equal — as a queen against a queen, a rook against a rook, with no advantage in position, or the pawns are mu- tually blocked up." 4. Absence of mating power, I. ^., when neither player pos- sesses the force requisite to obtain a checkmate. (See " Mating Power.") 5. Unskillful use of a sufficiently strong force. If one player is superior in force to his adversary, and possesses the requisite mating power, the game may still be drawn by the unskillful use of that superiority. If he cannot effect a checkmate in fifty moves it may be declared a drawn game. Stalemate describes that state of the game when one of the players has nothing left but his king, which is so placed that, although not in check, he cannot move without going into check. Castling is a double operation, accomplished by moving the king and one of the rooks at the same time. When the re- moval of the bishop and the knight on the one side, or of the bishop, knight, and queen on the other, has cleared the inter- vening squares, the king may castle with either of his rooks. If it should be done on the king's side of the board, the king is to be placed on the knight's square, and the rook on the bishop's ; if in the queen's section, the king must be moved to the bishop's square, and the rook to the queen's. In other words, the king, in either case, must move two squares, and the rook be placed on the opposite side of him to that on which he stood before. En Prise. — A piece is said to be en piise when under attack. En Passant {in passing). — If your adversary has advanced one of his pawns to the fifth square, and you move one of your pawns in either of the adjoining files two squares, he is entitled to take your -^v^w, en passant, as though you had only moved it one square. This peculiar mode of capture can only be effected by pawns. Ranks and Files, — The lines of squares running from left to right are known as ranks, and those perpendicular to them, running from one player to the other, are called files. Passed and Isolated Pawns. — A pawn is said to be " passed " when it is so far advanced that no pawn of the adversary's can oppose it. An isolated pawn is one that stands alone and un- supported. Double Pawn. — Two pawns on the same file. " fadoube" (signifying I adjust or / arrange) is the ex- pression generally used when a player touches a piece to arrange it without the intention of making a move. Perhaps it is not absolutely necessary that he should say " jTadoube" but he must at any rate use an equivalent expression. To Interpose. — This term explains itself. If your king or one of your pieces is attacked, and you move another of your pieces between the attacking piece and the piece attacked, either for the purpose of covering check, or as a means of protection, or with any other object, you are said to " inter- pose." Winning the Exchange. — You arc said " to win the ex- change " when you gain a rook for a bishop, a bishop for a knight, or, in short, whenever you gain a superior piece by giving an inferior. Queening a Pawn. — You are said to " queen a pawn " when you advance it to the eighth square on the file. You may then claim a queen or any other piece in exchange for it. Formerly the rule was, that you might substitute for it any piece you had previously lost, but according to the modern game three or more rooks, or bishops, or knights may be obtained in this way. Gambit. — This term, which is derived from the Italian, de- scribes an opening in which a pawn is purposely sacrificed at an early stage of the game, in order subsequently to gain an advantage. Several gambits are distinguished by the names of their inventors, such as the Cochrane gambit, the Muzio gambit, the Salvio gambit, etc.; there are also the bishop's gambit, the queen's gambit, etc., etc. Mating Power. — The force requisite to bring about a check- mate : a king and queen against king and two bishops, king and two knights, king and bishop and knight, or against king and rook, can effect checkmate. King and two bishops can mate against king and bishop, or king and knight. King with two bishops and knight can mate against king and rook. King with rook and bishop can mate against rook and king. King can always draw against king and bishop, or king and knight. King and rook against either a king and bishop, or king and knight, makes a drawn game, etc. LAWS OF THE GAME. The following laws are in force in all the principal clubs in this country : r. If a player touch one of his men, unless for the purpose of adjusting it, when he must say ^' J^adoube " (see Law 4), or it being his turn to move, he must move the piece he has so touched. [Walker gives the following remarks on this law : "When you touch a piece with the bona fide intention of playing it. the saying J'adoube will not exonerate you from completing the move. A chess-player's meaning cannot be misunderstood on the point ; and were it otherwise, you might hold a man in your hand for five minutes, and then saying 'J'adoube,' re- place it, and move elsewhere."] 2. If the men are not placed properly at the beginning of the game, and this is discovered before four moves have been made on each side, the game must be recom- menced. If the mistake should not be found out till after four moves have been made, the game must be proceeded with. ^ GAMES OF SKILL. 417 3. Where the players are even, they must draw lots for the first move, after which they take the first move alternately. When a player gives odds, he has the option of making the first move, and the choice of men in every game. [In giving odds, should it be agreed upon to give a pawn, it is customary to take the K. B. P. If a piece is to be given, it may be taken from either the king's or queen's side.] 4. If a player should accidentally or otherwise move or touch one of his men without saying " J'adoube" V\% adversary may compel him to move either the man he has touched or his king, provided the latter is not in check. 5. When a player gives check, and fails to give notice by crying "Check," his adversary need not, unless he think proper, place his king out of check, nor cover. • [If it is discovered that the king is in check, and has been so for several moves past, the players must move the men back to the point at which they stood when check was given. If they cannot agree as to when check was first given, the player who is in check must retract his last move, and defend his king.] 6. The player who effects checkmate wins the game. 7. Stalemate constitutes a draw game. 8. So long as you retain your hold of a piece you may move it where you will. 9. Should you move one of your adversary's men instead of your own, he may compel you to take the piece you have touched, should it be en prise, or to replace it and move your king ; provided, of course, that you can do so without placing him in check. 10. Should you capture a man with one that cannot legally take it, your adversary may compel you either to take such piece (should it be en prise) with one that can le- gally take it, or to move the piece touched ; provided that by so doing you do not discover check, in which case you may be directed to move your king. 11. Should you move out of your turn, your adversary may compel you either to retract the move, or leave the piece where you placed it, as he may think most advan- tageous. 12. If you touch the king and rook, intending to castle, and have quitted hold of the one piece, you must complete the act of castling. If you retain your hold of both, your adversary may compel you to move either of them. 13. The game must be declared to be drawn should you fail to give checkmate in fifty moves, when you have King and pawn against king. King and two pawns " King and minor piece " King and queen against king. King and rook " King and two bishops " King, bishop, and kt. " 14. Drawn games of every description count for nothing. 15. Neither player may leave a game unfinished, nor leave the room without the permission of his adversary. 16. Lookers-on are not permitted to speak, nor in any way express their approbation or disapprobation while a game is pending. 17. In case a dispute should arise on any point not provided for by the laws, a third party must be appealed to, and his decision shall be final. HINTS FOR COMMENCING THE GAME. To open the game well, some of the pawns should be played out first. The royal pawns, particularly, should be advanced to their fourth square ; it is not often safe to advance them farther. The bishop's pawn should also be played out early in the game ; but it is not always well to advance the rook's and knight's pawns too hastily, as these afford an excellent protection to your king in case you should castle. Phillidor describes pawn-playing as the "the soul of chess." When they are not too far advanced, and are so placed as to be mu- tually supporting, they present a strong barrier to the advance of your adversary, and prevent him from taking up a com- manding position. If you play your pieces out too early, and advance too far, your adversary may oblige you to bring them back again by advancing his pawns upon them, and you thus lose time. Do not commence your attack until you are well prepared. A weak attack often results in disaster. If your attack is likely to prove successful, do not be diverted from it by any bait which your adversary may purposely put in your way. Pause, lest you fall into a snare. Beware of giving check uselessly — i, e., unless you have in view the obtaining of some advantage. A useless check is a move lost, which may, particularly between good players, de- cide the game. It is generally injudicious to make an exchange when your position is good, or when, by so doing, you bring one of your adversary's pieces into good play. Never make an exchange without considering the consequences. When your game is crowded and ill arranged and your position inferior, it is ad- vantageous to exchange. Sometimes also, when you are much superior in force, it is worth your while to make an equal exchange. The operation of castling often relieves a crowded game. A lost opportunity of castling, or castling at the wrong time, is a disadvantage which may be turned to account by your ad- versary. Never put your queen before your king in such a way that your adversary may bring forward a bishop or rook and attack her, and the king through her. In such a case, unless you can interpose another piece, you will inevitably lose your queen. It is good play to " double " your rooks — i. ijji HE game of dominoes is frequently looked upon as a trivial amusement, but those who are well acquainted with it agree that it affords room for much curi- ous calculation. It is by no means a mere game of chance. Let any ordinary player enter the lists against an old and ex- perienced hand, and he will soon discover that it requires something besides good weapons to come off victorious in this as in most other contests. In fact, it is as much a game of skill as any of the card games. A moderately good player can generally tell what his adversary has in his hand, by his style of play ; and by calculating two or three moves in advance, he may either block the game or leave it open, just as he finds it will suit his" purpose. The ordinary game — technically termed " double sixes " — is played with twenty-eight dominoes. In some parts of England — chiefly in the North — they use "double nines" and "double twelves." But it signifies little how many dominoes are used, the rules and principles of the game, as here laid down, will, in most cases, equally apply. HOW TO COMMENCE THE GAME. In the English game it is usual to play a rubber of three games ; but this, of course, is subject to arrangement. After the dominoes have been well shuffled, each player draws one, and he who draws the domino containing the smallest number of pips wins " the down ; " in plainer Eng- lish, he wins the privilege of playing first. Sometimes a dif- ferent method of deciding who shall have "the down" is adopted. One of the players draws a domino, and without showing it, asks if it is odd or even. If the adversary guesses right he wins " the down ;" if, on the contrary, he guesses wrong, he loses it. The latter method is the more common of the two. A third method is in use on the Continent. The person holding the highest double has the "pose," or " down," and he commences by playing that domino. If there should be no doubles, then the person holding the highest domino has the pose. However, it is quite immaterial which of these plans is adopted. The dominoes having been shuffled, each player takes six or seven, as may be agreed upon. If it is found that one of the players has drawn more than the number agreed upon, his adversary withdraws the extra number, and puts them back on the heap, keeping the face downwards, of course. Each player then takes up his dom- inoes, and the first player commences by putting down one of his dominoes, after which his adversary joins one to it, con- taining on one of its sections the same number of pips as are marked upon adjoining of the domino first played. They thus play alternately till the game may become so "blocked" that one of the players cannot " go." His adversary will then continue to play as long as there is an end open. If he .should succeed in getting rid of all his men he wins the game ; but if the game should be blocked at both ends before' either player has played out, they compare the aggregate number of pips on all the dominoes in each hand, and whoever has the smallest number wins the game. GENERAL MAXIMS. 1. Endeavor to play so as to keep both ends open, so that you may be sure of being able to "go " next time. 2. Play out your heavy dominoes first, because, if the game becomes blocked, j'ou will then have fewer pips to count. 3. Contrive to play so that the numbers at both ends shall' be those of which you hold the most. By this means you may often block your adversary till you are played out. 4. If you have made both ends alike, and your adversary plays, follow him at that end, as the chances are that he can- not go at the other, which you may keep open for yourself until you are able to play at his end. 5. It is sometimes an advantage to hold heavy dominoes as they not unfrequently enable you to obtain what is called a good " follow ; " and if your adversary should hold none but low dominoes, he would not be able to go, thus enabling you to play five or six times consecutively, or even to play out. 6. When you have sole command over both ends you are generally in a position to "block" the game or not, as you think most expedient for your own game. In such a case, you must be guided by the number of dominoes you hold com- pared with those in your adversary's hands ; and another ele- ment for your consideration would be whether yours are light or heavy. If they are light, and fewer in number than your adversary's, of course your best policy is to close the game at once and count. But in this you must learn to calculate from your adversary's style of play whether his hand is light or heavy. 7. At the commencement of the game it is better to have a variety in hand. 8. If you hold a "double," with two of the same number, it is better to play the double before either of the others. Sometimes you will be obliged to play one, in which case you must endeavor to force the double. 9. If you hold a double, and one other of the same num- ber, play both consecutively ; but if you are unable to do that, endeavor at any rate to let the double go first. -^ r- GAMES OF SKILL. 427 10. In playing against " the down," endeavor to deceive your opponent by playing a domino or two at each end indif- ferently. This is better than playing to his last domino, as it leads him to believe you cannot go at that end, while at the same time you may be simply keeping both ends open. 11. If your adversary has possession of one end, make the other of a number of which you hold several, with a view of forcing him to play at his end, and shutting it against the dominoes he was keeping it for. 12. If you hold several doubles, wait till your adversary makes the number for them in preference to making them for yourself ; otherwise, a good player will see what you are aim- ing at, and will block the double. But if you hold a double with several duplicates, and can bring that number at both ends, do so. 13. If your adversary cannot go at one end, and you hold the double of that end, it is better that you should play at the other as long as you can. When you are blocked at that end, you may then play your double, and your adversary will then in most cases be obliged to open the other end for you. 14. It is generally considered that a light hand, yet with no number missing, is the best for ordinary play. The follow- ing, for example, would be a very fine hand : f , ^, f , ^, %, §. An example of a bad hand would be : b> s. I. f » f . i I but the worst possible hand would be the following : ^, ^, J, §, |, -J^. The latter, however, would seldom occur in actual play. 15. It does not necessarily follow that because a hand is heavy it must therefore lose. Provided it is equally varied, it has an equal chance of success with a light hand. The dis- advantage of a heavy hand is shown when the game becomes blocked, and has to be decided by counting. 16. In leading "the down" from a hand consisting of a high double and several light dominoes, lead the double, and afterwards endeavor to obtain command of both ends. Sup- pose, for example, you hold the following hand : 5, |, f , f, 15, ^ ; it would be better to play the ^, as your other double can be forced by the aid of the f and |. 17. It will at all times be found a difficult thing, in an equal game and between equal players, for the second player to win. 18. Endeavor to bring both ends as often as you can to a number of which you have several duplicates, for by that means you may block your adversary. 19. In blocking the game, you must be cautious that you do not block it to yourself, and leave it open to your adversary. 20. During the game look over the dominoes which have been played, so that you may calculate what numbers are likely to be soon run out, and what numbers your opponent is likely to be short of. 21. Do not push the game to a block if you hold a heavy hand, but play out your heaviest first, and keep both ends open. 22. Use your judgment freely. It is not always the best policy to adhere too strictly to the rules laid down in books. In fact, a wily player will oftentimes find it expedient to play a speculative, eccentric game, apparently quite at variance with the ordinary ' ' laws. " 23. Keep perfectly quiet, attentively watch your opponent's moves, and prevent him, if you can, from obtaining an insight into your play. 24. Last (though not least), don't lose your temper. ALL FIVES. This game stands next in popularity to the preceding one. The same number of dominoes are taken, or as many as may be agreed upon, and in many points it is similar. The object of the game is to contrive so to play that the aggregate num- ber of pips on the dominoes at both ends shall number 5, 10, 15, or 20. If they number 5, the player who makes the point counts one ; if 10, two ; if 15, three ; if 20, four. In order to make our meaning clearer, we give an illus- tration. Suppose that at one end there is ^, and at the other a five. The next player then plays ^ to the single five, and scores two, because the aggregate number of pips on the dom- inoes at both ends is ten. If the opponent should follo',v up by playing the % to the oj he, of course, scores three. To give another illustration. Suppose at one end is §, and the next player places at the other end ^, he scores four fof making twenty. If the game becomes blocked, he who holds the least num- ber of pips counts one. The custom as to what number shall be "up," is different in different parts of the country. In some places it is ten ; in others fifteen ; in others again, twenty. The number ought to be agreed upon at the commencement of the game. In our opinion it adds to the interest of the game to select the lower numbers. Sometimes the game is so played that he who makes five counts five ; ten is made to count ten, and so on ; but in that case not fewer than 50, and not more than 100, points should constitute the game. As we have shown, the material point in which this game differs from the previous one is that you count the fives, from which circumstance it derives its name. The next best thing to making fives yourself is to prevent your adversary from doing so ; and when you do give him the opportunity of making a point it should only be in order that you may make two or three points yourself. When your adversary fails to avail himself of a good chance, you may presume that he does not hold such and such dom- inoes, and from that and like indications, which you must carefully store up in your memory, you will be able to form a tolerably accurate estimate of his hand. You should never omit to turn these indications to good account. There is only one domino in the whole pack which can be led without the next player being able to make a point from it — namely f . Always lead that if possible. If you must play one of two dominoes, either of which you fear your adversary will turn to his account, of course you must play that by which you think you will be likely to lose the least. It is good practice occasionally to take a survey of the game as far as it has gone, not only in order to refresh your memory as to what has been played, but also that you may form an opinion, if possible, of what your opponent's "little game" is. If there are good grounds for coming to the conclusion .4r- -^ -^ 428 GAMES OF SKILL. that he holds heavy numbers while you hold light ones, block up the game as speedily as you can, and proceed to count. To understand your opponent's hand is a most important matter, and we do not think we have insisted on it too much. Good players will tell you that they have won many games by watch- ing closely the opponent's moves, and drawing therefrom in- ferences respecting the dominoes he holds in hand. We need not add, the greatest caution must be used in forming these inferences. THE DRAWING GAME. The same number of dominoes are used, and the lead is drawn for in the same manner in this as in the previously described games. The difference is that when a player cannot go, he must draw a domino from the pack. If he cannot then go, he must draw another, and so on until he is able to continue the game. He who plays out first, or, in case the game becomes blocked, he who holds the smallest number of pips, wins. The French have a different way of playing this game. The player who holds the highest double, or, in the event of there being no double, the highest domino, has the pose or lead. The second player, should he be unable to go, may draw all the remaining dominoes except two, which must remain untaken. If he leave more than two, the first player, should he require them in order to continue the game, may appropri- ate the surplus, still leaving two on the table. If a player cannot go, it is compulsory that he draw till he gels hold of a domino that will enable him to continue the game. Each player may take the pose alternately, or the winner in the first instance may letain it, as agreed upon. The French method of counting is also different. When a player has played out, he counts the pips in his opponent's hand, and scores them to his own account. In case the game should become blocked, the player holding the fewest pips scores the number of pips in his adversary's hand to his own account, each pip counting one. A game consists of from 20 to 100 points, according to agreement. With respect to the English method of playing this game, the general instructions and maxims given on the other games apply equally to this. But a few words must be added with regard to the French play. He who has the highest double is compelled to play first, and cannot draw any more dominoes until it is his turn to play again, but his opponent may draw all but two, which two must remain untaken during that game. But the second player should not draw more than half the dominoes, unless really compelled by the badness of his hand, as by this means it will leave a chance of his opponent having as many to draw. A good player at times might be justified in taking all but two, for by the calculation and judgment obtained by having them, he might be enabled to play them all before his opponent could play his five or six dominoes, as the case may be. Should the second player hold a good hand, comprising dominoes of every denomination, he should not draw until compelled. If he should happen to draw high doubles, he ought to continue to draw until he holds several of that number. It is not always the player holding the greatest number who gets out first, because as he has some of almost every denomi- nation, his adversary will keep playing to him, and the odds are that he (the adversary) will be able to play out first. Still, in many games, (he one holding the largest number of dom- inoes possesses this advantage, that he has the power to keep both ends open to himself but closed to his opponent, and he may thus run out. In order to be able to play out first with the largest number (supposing that only two dominoes remain untaken), you should by all means, and in the first place, endeavor to ascer- tain what those two are. You may arrive at this in two ways. Suppose you hold so many of a particular number that with those already played they make six out of the seven of that denomination, you must by all means keep playing them. As an illustration, we will suppose you hold in your hand four threes, and that two other threes have already been played. Now, if you play your threes, and your adversary, not being able to play to them, becomes blocked, it is quite clear that one of the dominoes on the table is a three. Then, if those you hold in your hand are — f , |, \, and f , and you find among the dominoes played % and \, it is, of course, quite safe to conclude that the domino which is left is the %. The second plan is this. If during the course of the game you have given your opponent opportunities of playing a cer tain double which you do not yourself hold, you may be cer- tain that it is one of the left dominoes. A little experiment, in order to test the nature of your ad- versaiy's hand, so as, however, not materially to injure your own, would often be found more expedient than groping all the while, as it were, in the dark. By carefully looking over your own hand, you may judge pretty correctly as to whether your adversary's is light or heavy. It is only by taking into account all these and other nice points that a player can possibly be successful. Having formed an idea of your opponent's hand, you should make it an object to " run out," or play so that he may be blocked, or that he may be obliged to leave both ends open for you to play out. Having given some instructions to the player who holds the larger number of dominoes, we must now proceed to give a few hints to the lesser hand. If, holding the lesser hand, you can contrive to play a few moves at first without being blocked, you ought to be pretty sure of winning ; because, by that time, your hand will have become so disproportionately small, that your opponent will have some difficulty in preventing you from playing out with- out blocking himself. This, therefore, must be one of your main objects. If the game goes pretty equal, bring oyt your strong suits. Wherever you are short of a particular suit, if you find that many of that number have already been played, you need not fear that your adversary will be able to block you in regard to it, for you will, of course, infer that they are as scarce in his hand as in your own. Endeavor to bring these rules to bear, reserving to your discretion as to whether you should in any wise depart from them, or use such modifications as the con- tingencies of the moment require. -^ r- GAMES OF SKILL. 429 -% kr THE MATADORE GAME. This is a foreign game, and each player takes only three dominoes. You can only play when your domino, added to the one previously played, would make seven. Those dominoes which themselves make that number are termed "matadores," and may be played at any time, regardless of the numbers played to. The double blank is also a matadore. The mata- dores, therefore, are four in number, viz. : f , ^, ^, %. The highest domino leads, and if the next player cannot go, he must draw from the heap until he' can. He must cease, however, to draw when there are only two dominoes left. He who plays out first wins, and if the game is blocked, he who holds the least number of pips counts those held by his op- ponent, and scores them to his own game. The number of points constituting the game is subject to agreement ; it varies from 26 to 100. MAXIMS FOR PLAYING THE MATADORE GAME. This game differs widely from any of the other varieties of dominoes. The element of chance is more largely introduced. The player who happens to obtain more matadores than the other is almost certain of winning, provided the parties be pretty evenly balanced in skill and experience. The blanks are very valuable at this game — the double blank being the most valuable of all the matadores. It is impos- sible to make a seven against a blank, so that if you hold blanks you may easily block the game and count. When you have the worst of the game, and indeed at other times as well, guard against your adversary's blanks, and pre- vent him from making them ; which you may do by playing only those dominoes which fit with the blanks already down. Never play a blank at the J>ose unless you have a matadore or a corresponding blank. Keep back your double blank till your opponent makes it blanks all ; you can then force him to play a matadore, or compel him to draw till he obtains one. It is better to have a mixed hand. DOMINO POOL. This game is played either by partners or by separate play- ers. If played singly by three or four players, each must draw a domino, and he who draws the highest number of pips but one sits on the left of him who draws the highest, the next highest to the left of the second, and so on. If the game is played by partners, the two lowest are partners and the two highest. The partners must sit opposite to each other. The players must draw afresh at each game, and the stake to be played for, called the " pool," must be placed on the table. Each player takes five dominoes, and he who holds the high- est leads. When one player cannot go, the next in turn plays, and so on. The maxims given in reference to the English game apply equally to this. The game is scored in the following manner : When one player has played out, the one keeping the score counts the number of pips on each player's remaining dominoes, and puts down the number under each of their names or initials respec- tively. The same is done if a player cannot go. When the number of any one player reaches 40, 50, or 100, or any limit previously agreed upon, he is out of the game ; but he comes in again by what is called "starring." In other words, he must pay over again the amount he originally put into the pool. The method of " starring " is the same as at billiards, from which the game is taken. He who " stars " recommences at the number which the player holds who is in the worst position. Suppose, for example, there were three players — one at 20, one at 40, and the other at 60, 100 being up, the player who " stars " must recommence at 60. He can only "star" once," and that must be at the time he is out. Each player has the option of " starring," except the last two, who must divide the pool, or they may agree to play it out. Slill, unless an agreement to play out is made beforehand, the last two must divide. INSTRUCTIONS FOR PLAYING DOMINO POOL. When this game is played by separate players, and one be^ comes greatly ahead, the other three can combine, so as to render his chance of winning uncertain. The necessity of this combination is clear. If he is allowed to win, the competi- tion for that game is over ; but if, by combining, the other players can keep him back a little, they obtain for themselves a better chance of success. The player who is ahead will also do his best to throw obstacles in the way of the player in the next best position, as he becomes a dangerous competitor. The two in the worst position will in like manner combine against the two ahead. The necessity for this combination does not arise till the game is somewhat advanced, as at the beginning all the players are on a level ; and the relative posi- tion of the others is of no moment till the game becomes ad- vanced. It is of very little use for one player to attempt to stop the progress of another who is too far ahead, unless the others combine with him. If, through ignorance or anything else, they continue to play for their own hands, you must do likewise. Although, if you attempted by yourself to stop the player who was ahead of you, you might succeed, that success might be purchased at the risk of your own chance in the game. As in this game you have only five dominoes out of twenty, your power of influencing the game is very much diminished, and there is not quite so much scope for the exercise of your judgment as in other single games where you hold six dom- inoes out of twelve. Your opponents are sure to hold some of the remaining numbers in which you are strong ; so that the in- jury you can in other games inflict by having a preponderance of a particular number will be greatly diminished here. Therefore it is scarcely worth your while endeavoring to retard your opponent's game when you have three of a number, un- less some of that number have already been played ; because, if you keep those numbers until you are called upon to play them, you will do infinitely more towards crippling their game than if you were to lead from them. On the other hand, should you hold more than three of a particular number, do not wait for this chance, but lead it on the first opportunity. If you find that you and one of the other players hold nearly all of a particular number, combine with him, in order to exhaust the hands of the other two. In doing this you are of course only studying your own interest. It is better to adopt this plan when you have reasons to believe you are already on the safe side. If you hold one or two doubles, with duplicates of 430 GAMES OF SKILL. -% either, retain the latter until you first get rid of the doubles ; but if you hold three or four duplicates along with a double, play the duplicates at once, as you will be able by your own hand to force the double at any time. If you are short in any particular number, get rid of your heavy dominoes as quickly as possible. In playing off you may lead with a light domino, if you hold one or more of the number ; but if not, you must lead a higher domino, in order to diminish the number of pips in your hand. If you hold a heavy hand with high doubles, or a hand which admits of little or no variety, or without any particular preponderance, you must play a safe game, and sustain as little loss as you possibly can under the circum- stances. Endeavor to balance the inferiority of your hand by drawing the other players along with you. When there are only three players left, and one is greatly ahead, while another has starred, it should be the object of the third player to prolong the game as much as possible, as he still has a chance to star. When two players are in advance, the two behind must avoid embarrassing each other in their combinations against the other two. It is better for them to use their joint efforts against one at a time, as the attack, if concentrated in that way, would be stronger and more effectual. Should one of the. advanced players get embarrassed, endeavor to embarrass him still more, for you may be sure his competitor will not assist him. It will be perfectly understood, however, that, in playing with partners, the object of each partner will be to play as much as possible into his partner's hands and to cripple his opponents. If it is your lead and you have a good hand, you must try and win with it, regardless of your, partner's position. So, on the other hand, if it is your partner's down, and you have a bad hand, you must be content to sacrifice your own chance in order to increase his. In the partner's game it is generally good play to lead from a strong suit, for, as this is a generally understood rule, your partner will accept the hint, and will not fail to " return your lead," or, in other words, to play into your hands as much as possible. If you hold some doubles, with others of the same number, you may — contrary to the single game — play the latter first if it suits your hand, as your partner will be sure to assist in getting out your doubles. We might continue these directions and hints ad infinitum, but experience, after all, is the best teacher ; and — recom- mending the learner to practice assiduously and play carefully —we dismiss this portion of our subject. THE WHIST GAME. This game resembles in some points the game of cards from which it takes its name. It is played by four persons — two partners on each side. The partners, as usual, sit opposite to each other. The whole of the dominoes are taken — seven by each player. It is best to lead from your strongest suit. By this and such other indications you will enable your partner to form an opinion as to your hand, by which he will be guided very much in his play, and as the game proceeds each must tax his recollection as to who played such and such a dommo, and how the game stood at that particular time, so as to form a judgment as to the motive of such play, etc. The general in- structions given in previous chapters will apply in great measure to this game, particularly those given in reference to the Pool Game. THE FOUR GAME. In this game, which is played by four persons, each player takes seven dominoes ; and he who plays out first, or, if the game becomes blocked, holds the least number of pips, wins the hand, and draws a certain stake from the other three. Very little in the way of instruction is required in this game. If you have the pose, you should play out as far as possible, and then endeavor to block the game. , Endeavor to keep your hand even, so as to be ready at any number, or (and in this you must be guided by the nature of your hand) play to keep your strongest suit in hand until those of the same suit held by other players are out. By this means you may oftentimes be able to play out or shut the game, as you find most expedient. SEBASTOPOL GAME. This game is played by four players, each taking seven dom- inoes. The player holding the double six plays it, and takes the lead. Each player must play a six to it. He who cannot loses the turn. The dominoes are played in the form of a cross the first round, after which the players alternately play at either of the four ends. He who has the last domino, or, in the event of more than one player being left with dominoes when the game is shut, he who holds the greatest number of pips, pays a certain amount to the winners. Endeavor to get rid of your heavy dominoes, and put ob- stacles in the way of your adversaries running out. TIDDLE-A-WINK GAME. This is a very amusing game, and suitable for a round party. If six or more play, each takes three dominoes. The % is then called for, as in the French game, and the person holding it leads with it. If it is not out, the next highest double is called forth, and so on downwards until a start is made. In this game, he who plays a double, either at the lead or at any other part of the game, is entitled to play again if he can — thus obtaining two turns instead of one. The game then proceeds in the ordinary way, and he who plays out first cries " Tiddle-a-wink ! " having won. In the event of the game being blocked, he who holds the lowest number of pips wins. -^ PARLOR MAGIC. 431 -^ FEW preliminary hints are necessary in order to enable an amateur to perform the tricks he attempts with effect and success. A conjuror should always be able to " palm " well. That is done by holding a coin in the fingers, and by a quick move- ment passing it into the middle or palm of the hand, and, by contracting the muscles on each side of the hand, to retain it there, making the hand appear open and as though nothing were in it. After a lit- tle practice this will become comparatively easy, but it will require the exercise of great perseverance in order to become perfect. The pains, however, will be well bestowed, as this is one of the principal means by which prestidigitators deceive their audiences. MAKING THE PASS. In many of the tricks with cards it is necessary to "make the pass," as it is termed, which is a very neat and simple movement. The operator shows a card, which he wishes his audience to believe he can change by simply using the mysterious words " Presto, begone ! " While, however, he is saying these words, he gives a sharp blow on the pack he holds in his hand, and at the same time slips the card under the pack and t^kes off the top one, or vice versa. Prac- tice, in this as in other matters, will impart great dexterity to the operator ; and, as the hand can be trained to move more quickly than the eye can see, he will be able to go through the movement without it being perceived by his audience. The following mode of " making the pass " should be well studied : Hold the pack of cards in your right hand so that the palm of your hand may be under the cards ; place the thumb of that hand on one side of the pack, and the first, second, and third fingers on the other side, and your little finger between those cards that are to be brought to the top and the rest of the pack. Then place your left hand over the card in such a manner that the thumb may be at 5, the forefinger at 6, and the other fingers at 7, as in the accompanying figure : Right hand. Bottom. Little finger. The hands and the two portions of the pack being thus disposed, you draw off the lower cards confined by the little finger and the other parts of the right hand, and place them with an imperceptibly quick motion on top of the pack. But before you attempt any of the tricks that de- pend upon " making the pass " you must have great practice, and be able to perform it so dexterously and expeditiously that the eye cannot detect the movement of the hand, or you may, instead of deceiving others, expose yourself. FORCING A CARD. In card tricks it is frequently necessary to " force a card," by which you compel a person to take such 432 PARLOR MAGIC. -^ a card as you think fit, while he imagines he is taking one at haphazard. The following is, perhaps, the best method of performing this trick : Ascertain quietly, or whilst you are amusing your- self with the cards, what the card is which you are to force ; but either keep it in sight, or place the little finger of your left hand, in which you have the cards, upon it. Next, desire a person to select a card from the pack, for which purpose you must open them quick- ly from left to right, spreading the cards backwards and forwards so as to perplex him in making his choice, and when you see him about to take one, open the pack until you come to the one you intend him to take, and just at the moment his fingers are touching the pack let its corner project invitingly a little forward in front of the others. This will seem so fair that in nine cases out of ten he will take the one so offered, unless he is himself aware of the secret of forcing. Having by this method forced your card, you request him to examine it, and then give him the pack to shuffle, which he may do as often as he likes, for you are of course always aware what card he has taken. A perfect acquaintance with the art of forcing is indispensably necessary before you attempt any of the more difficult card tricks. THE "LONG CARD." Another stratagem connected with the perform- ance of many of the following tricks is what is termed the " long card," that is, a card a trifle longer or wider than the rest of the pack, so as not to be per- ceptible to the eye of the spectator, but easily dis- tinguished by the touch of the operator. Good operators sometimes have both cards in the pack. Any bookbinder will shave the edges of your pack so as to leave you a long and a wide card. Having laid down what we may be allowed to term the " leading principles " which rule the art of card conjuring, we now propose to explain the vari- ous tricks which may be performed with a pack of ordinary playing-cards. They depend to some ex- tent for success on manual dexterity, a knowledge of the science of numbers, and some simple appara- tus, easily procured or made by an ingenious youth. For instance, all the. court cards may be made to come together by relying upon the doctrine of chances. Thus : take the pack, separate all the kings, queens, and knaves, and place them all to- gether in any part of the pack you choose. There are five hundred chances to one that a stranger can- not in twelve cuts disturb the order in which they are placed. This trick is easy, and when success- fully carried out is amusing. It may be made more so by placing one-half of the above number of cards at the bottom of the pack and the other half at the top. Of a very similar character is the famous trick of GUESSING A CARD THOUGHT OF. To do this well you must attend to the following directions : Spread out the cards in your right hand in such a manner that, in showing them to the audience, not a single card is wholly exposed to view, with the exception of tlie king of spades, the upper part of which should be clearly seen with- out any obstruction either from the fingers or from the other cards. When you have thus spread them out, designedly in fact, but apparently at random, show them to one of the spectators, requesting him to think of a card, and at the same time take care to move the hand a little, so as to describe a segment of a circle, in order that the audience may catch sight of the king of spades without noticing that the other cards are all partially concealed. Then shuffle the cards, but in doing so you must not lose sight of the king of spades, which you will then lay on the table face downwards. You may then tell the person who has thought of a card that the one in his mind is on the table, and request him to name it. Should he name the king of spades, which he would be most likely to do, you will of course turn it up and show it to the company, who, if they are not acquainted with the trick, will be very much astonished. If, however, he should name some other card — say the queen of clubs — you must tell him that his memory is defective, and that that card could not have been the card he at first thought of. Whilst telling him this, which you must do at as great length as you can in order to gain time, shuffle the cards rapidly and apparently without any par- ticular purpose until your eye catches the card he has just named (the queen of clubs). Put it on the top of the pack, and, still appearing to be engrossed with other thoughts, go through the first false shuffle to make believe that you have no particular card in view. When you have done shuffling, take care to leave ihe queen of clubs on the top of the pack ; then take the pack in your left hand and the king of spades in your right, and while dexterously exchanging the queen of clubs for the king of spades, say, "What must I do, gentle- men, that my trick should not be a failure ? what card should I have in my right hand?" They will not fail to call out the queen of clubs, upon which you will turn it up, and they will see that you have been successful. This trick, when well executed, always has a good effect, whether the spectator thinks of the card you intended him to think of, or, from a desire to complicate matters, of some other. It requires considerable presence of mind, however, and the power of concealing from your audience what your real object is. . Another method of making the spectator think of any par- -<^ ^ PARLOR MAGIC. 433 ^ cicular card is the following : Pass several cards under the eye of the person selected, turning them over so rapidly that he sees the colors confusedly, without being able to distinguish their number or value. For this purpose take the pack in your left hand, and pass the upper part into your right, dis- playing the front of the cards to the audience, and conse- quently seeing only the backs yourself. Pass one over the other so rapidly that he will not be able to distinguish any one of them, until you come to the card which you desire to force — presuming, of course, that you have made yourself ac- quainted with its position. The card you select ought to be a bright-looking and easily distinguishable one, such as the king of hearts or the queen of clubs. Contrive to have this card a little longer before your audience than the rest, but avoid all appearance of effort, and let everything be done naturally. During the interval watch the countenance of the spectator, in order that you may be sure he notices the card you display before him. Having thus assured yourself that he has fixed upon the card you selected, and that he is not acquainted with the trick, you then proceed as before. Should you come to the conclusion that he has fixed upon some other card, you will then have recourse to the " ex- changed card " trick, as explained in the previous trick. TO TELL A CARD BY SMELLING IT. A very clever trick, and one which never fails to excite as- tonishment at an evening party, is to select all the court cards when blindfolded ; but before commencing it, you must take one of the party into your confidence, and get him to assist you. When all is arranged, you may talk of the strong sense of smell and touch which blind people are said to possess, and state that you could, when blindfolded, distinguish the court cards from the rest, and profess your willingness to attempt it. The process is this : After you have satisfied the company that your eyes are tightly bound, take the pack in your hands, and holding up one of the cards in view of the whole com- pany, feel the face of it with your fingers. If it is a court card, your confederate, who should be seated near to you, must tread on your toe. You then proclaim that it is a court card, and proceed to the next. Should you then turn up a common card your confederate takes no notice of it, and you inform the company accordingly ; and so on until you have convinced the company that you really possess the extraordi- nary power to which you laid claim. y TO TELL ALL THE CARDS WITHOUT SEEING THEM. Another good parlor trick is to tell the names of all the cards when their backs are turned towards you. Perhaps this is one of the best illusions that can be performed with cards, as it not only brings the whole pack into use, but can never fail in the hands of an ordinarily intelligent operator. This trick, which is founded on the science of numbers, enables you to tell every card after they have been cut as often as your audience please, although you only see the backs of them. It is thus performed : A pack of cards are distributed face up- permost on a table, and you pick them up in the following order — 6, 4, i, 7, 5, king, 8, 10, 3, knave, 9, 2, queen. Go 28 through this series until you have picked up the whole of the pack. It is not necessary that you should take up the whole of one suit before commencing another. In order that the above order may not be forgotten, the following words should be committed to memory : 641 75 The sixty-fourth regiment beats the seventy-fifth ; up starts king 8 10 3 knave 9 2 the king, with eight thousand and three men and ninety-two qtteen women. The cards being thus arranged, the cards must be handed to the company to cut. They may cut the cards as often as they like, but it must be understood that they do it whist fashion, that is, taking off a portion of the cards, and placing the lower division on what was formerly the upper one. You then take the pack in your hands, and, without letting your audience perceive, cast a glance at the bottom card. Having done this — which you may do without any apparent effort — you have the key of the whole trick. You then deal out the cards, in the ordinary way, in thirteen different sets, putting four cards to each set ; in other words, you deal out the first cards singly and separately, and then place the fourteenth card above the first set, the next upon the second set, and so on throughout, until you have exhausted the whole pack. You may be certain now that each one of these thirteen sets will contain four cards of the same denomination — thus, the four eights will be together, and so with the four queens, and every other denomination. The thirteenth, or last set, will be of the same denomination as the card at the bottom which you contrived to see, and as they will be placed exactly in the re- verse order of that in which you first of all picked them up, you may without difficulty calculate of what denomination each of the sets consists. For example, suppose an 8 was the bottom card, you would find, after a little calculation, that after being dealt out in the manner above described, they would be placed in the following order: king, 5, 7, i, 4, 6. queen, 2, 9, knave, 3, 10, 8 ; and repeating in your own mind the words which you have committed to memory, and reckon- ing the cards backwards, you would say — 8 10 3 knave 9 2 queen " Eight thousand and three men, and ninety-two women ; 641 75 sixty-fourth regiment beats the seventy-fifth ; up starts the king king with," etc., etc. You observe the same rule whatever the bottom card may f^^f^ TO TELL A CARD THOUGHT OF. By a certain prearranged combination of cards, the con- juror is enabled — apparently to guess, but really to calculate — not only the card that is thought of by any member of the company, but to tell its position in the pack. You take the pack and present it to one of those present, desiring him to shuffle the cards well, and after he is done, if he chooses, to hand them over to some one else to shuffle them a second time. You then cause the pack to be cut by several persons, after which you select one out of the company whom you re- -^ 434 PARLOR MAGIC. -^ quest to take the pack, think of a card, and fix in his memory not only the card he has thought of, but also its position in the pack, by counting i, 2, 3, 4, and so on, from the bottom of the pack, as far as, and including, the card thought of. You may offer to go into another room while this is being done, or remain with your eyes bandaged, assuring the com- pany that, if they desire it, you will announce beforehand the number at which the card thought of will be found. Now, supposing the person selecting the card stops at No. 13 from the bottom, and that this thirteenth card is the queen of hearts, and supposing also that the number you have put down beforehand is 24, you will return to the room or remove your handkerchief, as the case may be, and without putting any question to the person who has thought of a card, you ask for the pack, and rest your nose upon it, as if you would find out the secret by smelling. Then, putting your hands behind your back or under the table, so that they cannot be seen, you take away from the bottom of the pack twenty-three cards — that is, one fewer than the number you marked down before- hand — and place them on the top, taking great care not to put one more or less, as inaccuracy in this respect would cer- tainly cause the trick to fail. You then return the pack to the person who thought of the card, requesting him to count the cards from the top, beginning from the number of the card he thought of. For example, having selected the thir- teenth card, he will commence counting 14, 15, 16, and so on. When he has called 23, stop him, telling him that the number you marked down was 24, and that the twenty-fourth card which he is about to take up is the queen of hearts, which he will find to be correct. In performing this trick it is neces- sary to observe that the number you name must be greater than the number which your opponent gives you, describing its position in the pack. TO CHANGE A CARD BY WORD OF COMMAND. It at first sight seems singular that any one should be able even to appear to change a card by word of command ; yet it can easily be done, and under different titles, and with slight variations, the trick is constantly performed in public. To do it, you must have two cards alike in the pack — say, for ex- ample, a duplicate of the king of spades. Place one next to the bottom card, which we will suppose to be the seven of hearts, and the other at the top ; shuffle the cards without dis- placing these three, and then show one of the company that the bottom card is the seven of hearts. This card you dex- terously slip aside with your finger, so that it may not be per- ceived, and taking the king of spades from the bottom, which the person supposes to be the seven of hearts, lay it on the table, telling him to cover it with his hand. Shuffle the cards again without displacing the first and last cards, and shifting the other king of spades from the top to the bottom, show it to another person. You then contrive to remove the king of spades in the same manner as before, and taking the bottom card, which will then be the seven of hearts, but which the company will still suppose to be the king of spades, you lay that also on the table, and tell the second person to cover it with his hand. You then command the cards to change places, and when the two parties take off their hands, they will see, to their great astonishment, that your commands are obeyed. "TWIN CARD" TRICK. Another trick performed by means of "twin," or duplicate, cards, as in the previous case, is to show the same card appar- ently on the top and at the bottom of the pack. One of these duplicate cards may be easily obtained ; in fact, the pattern card, which accompanies every pack, may be made available for that purpose. Let us suppose, then, for a mo- ment, that you have a duplicate of the queen of clubs. You place both of them at the bottom of the pack, and make be- lieve to shuffle them, taking care, however, that these two keep their places. Then lay the pack upon the table, draw out the bottom card, show it, and p'lace it on the top. You then command the top card to pnss to the bottom, and, on the pack being turned up, the company will see with surprise that the card which they had just seen placed upon the top is now at the bottom. MAGIC TEA-CADDIES. This, like some of the tricks we have previously explained, requires suitable apparatus for its successful performance. Two cards, drawn by different persons, are put into separate tea-caddies, and locked up, and the object of the operator is to appear to change the cards without touching them. This may be done without the aid of a confederate. The caddies are made with a copper flap which has a hinge at the bottom and opens against the front, where it catches under the bolt of the lock, so that when the lid is shut and locked the flap will fall down upon the bottom. The operator places the two cards he intends to be chosen between the flap and the front, which may be handled without any suspicion ; he then re- quests one of the persons to put the card he has selected into one of the caddies, taking care that he puts it into the caddy into which you placed the other card ; the second person, of course, puts his card into the other caddy. The operator then desires them to lock the caddies, and in doing this the flap becomes unlocked, falls to the bottom, and covers the cards, and when opened, the caddies show apparently that the cards have been transposed. THE VANISHING CARD. Another good trick is thus performed : Divide the pack, placing one-half in the palm of the left hand, face downwards; and, taking the remainder of the pack in the right hand, hold them between the thumb and first three fingers, taking care to place the cards upright, so that the edges of those in your right hand may rest upon the back of those in the left, thus forming a right angle with them. In this way the four fingers of the left hand touch the last of the upright cards in your right hand. It is necessary that the cards should be placed in this position, and that once being attained, the rest of the trick is easy. These preliminaries having been gone through, one of the company, at your request, examines the top card of the half-pack that rests in the palm of your left hand, and then replaces it. Having done this, you request him to look at it again, and, to his astonishment, it will have vanished. ^ ■^^ PARLOR MAGIC. 435 4r- and another card will appear in its- place. In order to accom- plish this, having assumed the position already described, you must damp the tips of the four fingers that rest against the last card of the upright set in your right hand. When the person who has chosen a card replaces it, you must raise the upright cards in your right hand very quickly, and the card will then adhere to the damped fingers of your left hand. As you raise the upright cards, you must close your left hand skillfully, and you will thereby place the last of the upright cards — which, as we have explained, adheres to the fingers of your left hand — upon the top of the cards in the palm of your left hand, and when you request the person who first examined it to look at it again, he will observe that it has been changed. Rapidity and manual dexterity are required for the perform- ance of this capital sleight-of-hand trick. TO TELL THE NUMBER OF CARDS BY WEIGHT. The apparently marvelous gift of telling the number of cards by weight depends on the use of the long card. Take a portion of a pack of cards — say forty — and insert among them two long cards. Place the first — say fifteen from the top, and the other twenty-six. Make a feint of shuffling the cards, and cut at the first long card ; poise those you hold in your hand, and say, " There must be fifteen here ; " then cut at the second long card, and say, ** There are but eleven here ;" and poising the remainder, say, " And here are four- teen." The spectators, on counting them, will find that you have correctly estimated the numbers. TO PRODUCE A MOUSE FROM A PACK OF CARDS. Cards are sometimes fastened together like snuff-boxes. If you possess such a pack, or can procure one, you may, with- out difficulty, perform this feat. The cards are fastened to- gether at the edges, but the middles must be cut out, leaving a cavity in the pack resembling a box. A w/iok card is glued on to the top, and a number of loose ones are placed above it. They must be skillfully and carefully shuffled, so that your audience may be led to believe that it is an ordinary and per- fect pack. The card at the bottom of what we may term the " box" must likewise be a whole card, but must be glued to the box on one side only, so that it will yield immediately to internal pressure. This bottom card serves as the door through which you convey the mouse into the middle of the pack. Being thus prepared, and holding the bottom tight with your hand, request one of the company to place his open hands together, telling him you intend to produce something very marvelous from the pack. Place the pack in his hands, and whilst you engage his attention in conversation, affect to want something out of your bag, and at the same moment take the pack by the middle, and throw it into the bag, and the mouse, which you had previously placed in the box, will re- main in the hands of the person who holds the cards. TO SEND A CARD THROUGH A TABLE. Request one of the company to draw a card from the pack, examine it, and then return it. Then make the pass — or, if you cannot make the pass, make use of the long card — and bring the card chosen to the top of the pack, and shuffle by means of any of the false shuffles before described, without losing sight of the card. After shuffling the pack several times, bring the card to the top again. Then place the pack on the table, about two inches from the edge near which you are sitting, and having previously slightly dampened the back of your right hand, you strike the pack a sharp blow, and the card will adhere to it. You then put your right hand very rapidly underneath the table, and taking off with your left hand the card which has stuck to your right hand, you show it to your audience, who will at once recognize in it the card that was drawn at the commencement of the trick. You must be careful while performing this trick not to allow any of the spectators to get behind or at the side of the table, but keep them directly in front, otherwise the illusion would be dis- covered. TO KNOCK ALL THE CARDS FROM A PERSON'S HAND EXCEPT THE CHOSEN ONE. With a little care a novice may easily learn this trick. It is not new, and is called by some the " Nerve Trick," Force a card, and request the person who has taken it to return it to the pack and shuffle the cards. Then look at the card your- self, and place the card chosen at the bottom of the pack. Cut them in two, and give him the half containing his card at the bottom, and request him to hold it just at the comer be- tween his finger and thumb. After telling him to hold them tight, strike them sharply, and they will all fall to the ground except the bottom one, which is the card he has chosen. An improvement in this trick is to put the chosen card at the bottom of the pack and turn the face upwards, so that when you strike, the card remaining will stare the spectators in the face. ANOTHER CLEVER CARD TRICK. This trick, commonly called the " Turnover Feat," is easily performed, and yet is difficult of detection. Having forced a card, you contrive, after sundry shufflings, to convey it to the top of the pack. Make the rest of the cards perfectly even at the edges, but let the chosen card project a little over the others. Then, holding them between your finger and thumb, about two feet above the table, let them suddenly and quickly drop, and the projecting card in the course of its de- scent will be turned face uppermost by the force of the air, and exposed to the view of the whole company. TO TELL THE NAME OF A CARD THOUGHT OF. One of the company must, at your request, draw seven or eight cards promiscuously from the pack, and select one from among them as the card he desires to think of. He then re- turns them to the pack, and you, either by shuffling or in any other way which will not be noticed, contrive to pass the whole of them to the bottom oi the pack. You then take five or six cards off the top of the pack, and throw them on the table face upwards, asking if the card thought of is among them. Whilst the person is examining them you secretly take one card from the bottom of the pack and place it on the top ; and when he tells you that the card he thought of is not in the first parcel, throw him five or six more, including the card -^ ^ 436 PARLOR MAGIC. -y you have just taken from the bottom — the denomination and suit of which it is presumed you have taken the opportunity to ascertain — so that should be say that his card is in the sec- ond parcel, you will at once know which card is indicated, and in order to " bring it to light," you may make use either of the two foregoing tricks, or any other you think proper. TO TELL THE NAMES OF ALL THE CARDS BY THEIR WEIGHTS. The pack having been cut and shuffled to the entire satis- faction of the audience, the operator commences by stating that he undertakes, by poising each card for a moment on his fingers, to tell not only the color, but the suit and number of spots, and, if a court card, whether it be king, queen, or knave. For the accomplishment of this most amusing trick we recommend the following directions : You must have two packs of cards exactly alike. One of them we will suppose to have been in use during the evening for the performance of your tricks ; but in addition to this you must have a second pack in your pocket, which you must take care to arrange in the order hereinafter described. Previous to commencing the trick you must take the opportunity of exchanging these two packs, and bringing into use the prepared pack. This must be done in such a manner that your audience will believe that the pack you introduce is the same as the one you have been using all the evening, which they know has been well shuffled. The order in which the pack must be arranged will be best ascertained by committing the following lines — the words in italics forming the key : — Eight kings threa-ten'd to save, Eight, king, three, ten, two, seven. Nine fair ladies for one sick knave. Nine, Jive, queen, four, ace, six, knave. These lines thoroughly committed to memory will be of material assistance. The alliterative resemblance will in every instance be a sufficient guide to the card indicated. The order in which the suits should otherwise be committed to memory, — viz., hearts, spades, diamonds, clubs. Having sorted your cards in accordance with the above directions, your pack is " prepared " and ready for use ; and when you have successfully completed the exchange, you bring forward your prepared pack, and hand it round to be cut. The pack may be cut as often as the audience pleases, but always whist fashion, — i.e., the lower half of the pack must be placed upon the upper at each cut. You now only want to know the top card, and you will then have a clue to the rest. You therefore take off the top card, and holding it between your- self and the light, you see what it is, saying at the same time, by way of apology, that this is the old way of performing the trick, but that it is now superseded. Having once ascertained what the first is, which, for example, we will suppose to be the king of diamonds, you then take the next card on your finger, and poise it for a moment, as if you were going through a process of mental calculation. This pause will give you time to repeat to yourself the two lines given by which means you will know what card comes next. Thus : — " Eight kings threa-Z^-wV to," etc. ; it will be seen that the three comes next. THE QUEEN'S DIG FOR DIAMONDS. Taking the pack in your hands, you separate from it the four kings, queens, knaves, and aces, and also four common cards of each suit. Then laying the four queens, face up- wards, in a row on the table, you commence telling your story somewhat after this fashion : — " These four queens set out to seek for diamonds. \Here you place any four cards of the diamond suit half over the queens."] As they intend to dig for diamonds, they each take a spade. \^Here lay four common spades half over the diamonds^ The kings, their husbands, aware of the risk they run, send a guard of honor to protect them. [Place the four aces half over the spades.] But fearing the guard of honor might neglect their duty, the kings resolve to set out themselves. [Here lay the four kings half over the four aces.] Now, there were four robbers, who, being apprised of the queens' intentions, deter- mined to waylay and rob them as they returned with the dia- monds in their possession. [Lay the four knaves half over the four kings.] Each of these four robbers armed himself with a club [lay out four clubs half over the knaves] ; and as they do not know how the queens may be protected, it is necessary that each should carry a stout heart." [Lay out four hearts half over the knaves.] You have now exhausted the whole of the cards with which you commenced the game, and have placed them in four col- umns. You take the cards in the first of these columns, and pack them together, beginning at your left hand, and keeping them in the order in which you laid them out. Having done this, you place them on the table, face downwards. You pack up the second column in like manner, lay them on the first, and so on with the other two. The pack is then handed to the company, who cut them as often as they choose, provided always that they cut whist fashion. That done, you may give them what is termed a shuffle-cut ; that is, you appear to shuffle them, but in reality only give them a quick succession of cuts, taking care that when you are done a card of the heart suit remains at the bottom. You then begin to lay them out again as you did in the first instance, and it will be found that all the cards will come in their proper order. MYSTERIOUS DISAPPEARANCE OF THE KNAVE OF SPADES. Fixing your eye upon the stoutest-looking man in the room, you ask him if he can hold a card tightly. Of course he will answer in the affirmative ; but if he should not, you will have no difficulty in finding one who does. You then desire him to stand in the middle of the room, and holding up the pack of cards, you show him the bottom one, and request him to state what card it is. He will tell you that it is the knave of spades. You then tell him to hold the card tightly and look up at the ceiling. While he is looking up you ask him if he recollects his card ; and if he answer, as he will be sure to do, the knave of spades, you will reply that he must have made a mistake, for if he look at the card he will find it to be the knave of hearts, which will be the case. Then handing him the -^ PARLOR MAGIC. 437 pack, you tell him that if he will look over it, he will find his knave of spades somewhere in the middle of the pack. This trick is extremely simple and easy of accomplishment. You procure an extra knave of spades, and cut it in half, keeping the upper part, and throwing away the lower. Be- fore showing the bottom of the pack to the company, get the knave of hearts to the bottom, and lay over it, unperceived by the company, your half knave of spades ; and under pretense of holding the pack very tight, put your thumb across the middle, so that the joining may not be seen, the legs of the two knaves being so similar that detection is impossible. You then give him the lower part of the knave of hearts to hold, and when he has drawn the card away hold your hands so that the faces of the cards will be turned toward the floor. As early as possible you take an opportunity of removing the half knave. SLEIGHT-OF-HAND TRICKS, Etc. Having completed our catalogue of card feats, we now pro- ceed to give a short selection of other conjuring tricks. A CHEAP WAY OF BEING GENEROUS. You take a little common white or bees' wax, and stick it on your thumb. Then, speaking to a bystander, you show him sixpence, and tell him you will put the same into his hand ; press it down upon the palm of his hand with your waxed thumb, talking to him the while, and looking him in the face. Suddenly take away your thumb, and the coin will adhere to it ; then close his hand, and he will be under the impression that he holds the sixpence, as the sensation caused by the pressing still remains. You may tell him he is at liberty to keep the sixpence ; but on opening his hand to look at it he will find, to his astonishment, that it is gone. THE FAMOUS MOUNTEBANK TRICK. In the days when merry-andrews and mountebanks met with a hearty welcome on every English village green, no conjuring trick was more popular than this ; yet there are few that can be performed with less difficulty. You first of all procure a long strip of paper, or several smaller strips pasted together, two or three inches wide. Color the edges red and blue, and roll up the paper like a roll of ribbon. Before doing so, how- ever, securely paste a small piece of cotton at the end you begin to roll. Then, when the proper time has arrived, you take hold of this cotton, and begin to pull out a long roll which very much resembles "a barber's pole." In order to perform this trick with good effect, have before you some paper shavings, which may easily be procured at any book- binder's, and commence to appear to eat them. The chewed paper can be removed each time a fresh handful is put into the mouth ; and when the proper time and opportunity have arrived, put the roll into the mouth, and pull the bit of cotton, when a long roll comes out, as before described, to the as- tonishment of the audience. A more elegant but similar feat is the following, which we will style BRINGING COLORED RIBBONS FROM THE MOUTH. Heap a quantity of finely-carded cotton wool upon a plate, which place before you. At the bottom of this lint, and con- cealed from the company, you should have several narrow strips of colored ribbons, wound tightly into one roll, so as to occupy but little space. Now begin to appear to eat the lint by putting a handful in your mouth. The first handful can easily be removed and returned to the plate unobserved while the second is being "crammed in." In doing this, care should be taken not to use all the lint, but to leave sufficient to conceal the roll. At the last handful, take up the roll and push it into your mouth without any lint ; then appear to have had enough, and look in a very distressed state, as if you were full to suffocation ; then put your hands up to your mouth, get hold of the end of the ribbon, and draw, hand over hand, yards of ribbon as if from your stomach. The slower this is done, the better the effect. When one ribbon is off the roll your tongue will assist you in pushing another end ready for the hand. You will find you need not wet or damage the ribbons in the least. This is a trick which is frequently performed by one of the cleverest conjurers of the day. CATCHING MONEY FROM THE AIR. The following trick, which tells wonderfully well when skill- fully performed, is a great favorite with one of our best-known conjurers. So far as we are aware, it has not before been published. Have in readiness any number of silver coins, say thirty-four ; place all of them in the left hand, with the exception of four, which you must palm into the right hand, then, obtaining a hat from the audience, you quietly put the left hand with the silver inside ; and whilst playfully asking if it is a new hat, or with some such remark for the purpose of diverting attention, loose the silver, and at the same time take hold of the brim with the left hand, and hold it still so as not to shake the silver. Now address the audience, and in- form them that you are going to "catch money from the air." Ask some person to name any number of coins up t« ten, say eight. In the same way you go on asking various persons, and adding the numbers aloud till the total number named is nearly thirty ; then looking round as though some one had spoken another number, and knowing that you have only thirty-four coins, you must appear to have heard the numbei called which, with what has already been given, will make thirty-four ; say the last number you added made twenty-eight, then, as though you had heard some one say six, " and twenty- eight and six make thirty-four — Thank you, I think we have suflScient." Then, with the four coins palmed in your right hand, make a catch at the air, when they will chink. Look at them, and pretend to throw them into the hat, but instead of doing so palm them again ; but, in order to satisfy your audience that you really threw them into the hat, you must, when in the act of palming, hit the brim of the hat with the wrist of the right hand, which will make the coins in the hat chink as if they had just fallen from the right hand. Hav- ing repeated this process several times, say, "I suppose we have sufficient," empty them out on to a plate, and let one of the audience count them. It will be found that there are only thirty, but the number which you were to catch was thirty- four. You will therefore say, " Well, we are four short ; I must catch just four, neither more nor less." Then, still hav- r 43« PARLOR MAGIC. ing four coins palmed in your right hand, you catch again, and open your hands, saying to the audience, " Here they are." HOW TO FIRE A LOADED PISTOL AT THE HAND WITHOUT HURTING IT This extraordinary illusion is performed with real powder, real bullets, and a real pistol ; the instrument which effects the deception being the ramrod. This ramrod is made of polished iron, and on one end of it is very nicely fitted a tube, like a small telescope tube. When the tube is off the rod, there will, of course, appear a little projection. The other end of the rod must be made to resemble this exactly. The ramrod with the tube on being in your hand, you pass the pistol round to the audience to be examined, and request one of them to put in a little powder. Then take the pistol your- self, and put in a very small piece of wadding, and ram it down ; and in doing so you will leave the tube of the ramrod inside the barrel of the pistol. To allay any suspicion that might arise in the minds of your audience, you hand the ram- rod to them for their inspection. The ramrod being returned to you, you hand the pistol to some person in the audience, requesting him to insert a bullet, and to mark it in such a way that he would recognize it again. You then take the pistol back, and put in a little more wadding. In ramming it down, the rod slips into the tube, which now forms, as it were, an inner lining to the barrel, and into which the bullet has fallen ; the tube fitting tight on to the rod is now with- drawn along with it from the pistol, and the bullet is easily got into the hand by pulling off the tube from the rod while seeking a plate to "catch the bullets"; and the marksman receiving order to fire, you let the bullet fall from your closed hand into the plate just as the pistol goes off. CURIOUS WATCH TRICK. By means of this trick, if a person will tell you the hour at which he means to dine, you can tell him the hour at which he means to get up next morning. First ask a person to think of the hour he intends rising on the following morning. When he has done so, bid him place his finger on the hour, on the dial of your watch, at which he intends dining. Then— hav- ing requested him to remember the hour of which he first thought — you mentally add twelve to the hour upon which he has placed his finger, and request him to retrograde, counting the hours you mention, whatever that may be, but that he is to commence counting with the hour he thought of from the hour he points at. For example, suppose he thought of rising at eight, and places his finger on twelve as the hour at which he means to dine, you desire him to count back twenty-four hours ; beginning at twelve he counts eight, that being the hour he thought of rising, eleven he calls nine, ten he calls ten (mentally, but not aloud), and so on until he has counted twenty-four, at which point he will stop, which will be eight, and he will probably be surprised to find it is the hour he thought of rising at. THE FLYING QUARTER. This is a purely sleight of hand trick, but it does not require much practice to be able to do it well and cleverly. Take a quarter between the forefinger and thumb of the right hand ; then, by a rapid twist of the fingers, twirl the coin by the same motion that you would use to spin a teetotum. At the same time rapidly close your hand, and the coin will disappear up your coat sleeve. You may now open your hand, and, much to the astonishment of your audience, the coin will not be there. This capital trick may be varied in a hundred ways. One plan is to take three quarters, and concealing one in the palm of your left hand, place one of the others between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, and the thiid between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand. Then give the coin in the right hand the twist already described, and closing both hands quickly, it will disappear up your sleeve, and the left hand on being unclosed, will be found to contain two quarters. Thus you will make the surprised spectators believe that you conjured the coin from your right hand to the left. PLUMES FOR THE LADIES. The following very clever trick was a favorite with M. Hou- din, and was performed by him at St. James Theater, where it drew forth a good deal of admiration. When known, how- ever, it appears like a great many other tricks, extremely simple and easy. Procure two or three large plumes of feathers, or a lot tied together. Take off your coat, and hold one lot in each hand, so that the plumes will lie in a parallel line with the arms. Put your coat on again, and press the feathers into small com- pass. Ask some one to lend you a large silk handkerchief, throw it over one hand and part of the arm, and with the other quickly draw the feathers from that arm. The plumes, being released from their imprisonment, will spread out and resume their bulky appearance, and the onlookers will be completely baffled as to where they could have come from. Then repeat the process with the other arm. THE BORROWED QUARTER IN THE WORSTED BALL. This easily-performed trick should be in the repertoire of every amateur magician. A large ball of worsted is obtained, and a marked quarter having been borrowed from the audience, the worsted is unwound, and out falls the quarter which but a moment before was supposed to be in the hands of the opera- tor. It is done in this way : Procure a few skeins of thick worsted ; next, a piece of tin in the shape of a flat tube, large enough for the coin to pass through, and about four inches long. Then wind the worsted on one end of the tube to a good-sized ball, having a quarter of your own in your right hand. You may now show the trick. Place the worsted any- where out of sight, borrow a marked quarter, and taking it in your left hand, you put the one in your right hand on the end of the table farthest from the company. While so doing, drop the marked quarter into the tube, pull the tube out, and wind a little more worsted on in order to conceal the hole. Then put the ball into a tumbler, and taking the quarter you left on the table, show it to the company (who will imagine it to be the borrowed quarter), and say " Presto ! fly! pass !" Give the end of the ball to one of the audience and request him to un- wind it, and on that being done the money will fall out. PARLOR MAGIC. 439 -^ THE INK AND FISH TRICK. This trick, originally introduced by M. Houdin, has been performed by every wizard since. A large goblet is placed on the table, containing apparently several pints of ink. A small quantity of ink is taken out with a ladle, and being poured out into a plate, is handed round to the company to satisfy them that it really is ink. A handkerchief is then covered over the goblet, and upon being instantly withdrawn, reveals the glass now full of water, in which swim gold and silver fish. The trick is thus performed : a black silk lining is placed inside the goblet, and kept in its place by a wire ring. It thus forms a bag without a bottom, as it were, and when wet adheres close to the glass in which are the water and the fish. The next part of the deception is the ladle; which must be capable of contain- ing as much ink as will induce the audience to believe that it was got from the goblet before them. The ink must be con- cealed in the handle of the ladle, so that when it is lying on the table it will not be perceived ; but on being elevated, it must run into the ladle through a small aperture made for the purpose. The black silk is easily withdrawn by the thumb and finger at the time the handkerchief is removed. It must be concealed within the folds of the handkerchief. SILVER CHANGED TO GOLD— FLYING MONEY. Before commencing this trick you must provide yourself •with two quarters and a half eagle, and one of the quarters must be concealed in the right hand. Lay the other quarter and the half eagle on the table, in full view of the audience. Now ask for two handkerchiefs, then take the half eagle up and pretend to roll it in one of the handkerchiefs ; but instead of that roll up the quarter, which you had concealed in the right hand, and retain the half eagle. Then give the handker- chief to one of the company to hold. Now take the quarter off the table, and pretend to roll that up in the second hand- kerchief, but put up the half eagle instead. Give this hand- kerchief to a second person and bid him " hold it tight," while you command the half eagle and the quarter to change places. On the handkerchief being opened, the coins will appear to have obeyed your command. THE "TWENTY CENTS" TRICK. This trick may be performed with any number of either quarters, half eagles, or half dollars ; but, following the tradi- tional rule, we will suppose that you borrow at random twenty cents from the company and display them on a plate, having previously concealed five oiker cents in your left hand. You take the cents from the plate into the right hand, mix them with the concealed five, and then give them to one of the company to hold. You then ask the possessor to return five to you, which he will do, under the supposition that he only retains fifteen, while in reality he retains twenty. You must now have another cent palmed in your right hand, so that when you give the five cents to another person to hold, you add one to the number, and in reality put six in his hands. You then ask him, as in the previous case to return one to you, reminding him, as you receive it, that he has only four left. Then pretending to put the cent you have just received into your left hand, you strike the left hand with your magic wand, and bid the coin you are supposed to be holding to fly into the closed hand of the person holding five, or, as he supposes, four cents. On unclosing his hand he will find it to contain five cents, and he will believe that you transferred one of them thither. Now, taking the five cents, you must dexterously pass them into the left hand, and bid them fly into the closed hand of the person holding the supposed fifteen ; and he, in like manner, will be astonished to find, on unclosing his hand, that it con- tains twenty cents instead of, as he supposed, fifteen. THE MYSTERIOUS BAG. Mr. Philippe, when appearing before his wonder-struck au- diences, used to excite the most profound amazement by means of a mysterious bag, from which he produced nearly every conceivable thing, from a mouse-trap to a four-post bedstead ; and its capacity was so prodigious, that it swallowed even more than it produced. Similar but less pretending is the one which we give under the title of " The Mysterious Bag." Make two bags, each about a foot long and six inches wide, of some dark material, and sew them together at the edge, so that one may be inside the other. Next make a number of pock- ets, each with a cover to it, which may be fastened down by a slight elastic band. Place these about two inches apart, be- tween the two bags, sewing one side of the pocket to one bag and the other side to the other. Make slits through both bags about an inch long, just above the pockets, so that you can put your hand in the bags ; and by inserting your thumb and finger through these slits you may obtain entrance to the pock- ets, and bring out of them whatever they contain. It is, of course, necessary that a variety of articles should be put in the pockets. Before commencing the trick you may turn the bag inside out any number of times, so that your audience may conclude that it is quite empty. You can then cause to appear or disappear any number of articles of a light nature, much to the amusement of your audience. TO MAKE A DIME DISAPPEAR AT COMMAND. This simple and well-known but often amusing trick, en- ables the operator to cause a small coin to disappear after it has been wrapped up in a handkerchief. Borrow a dime or a small coin, or use one of your own, and secretly place a small piece of soft wax on one side of it ; then spread a pocket- handkerchief on a table, and taking up a coin, show it to your audience, being very carefulnot to expose the side that has the wax on it. Having done this, place the coin in the center of the handkerchief, so that the wax side will adhere. Then bring the corner of the handkerchief over, and com- pletely hide the coin from the view of the spectators. All this must be carefully done, or the company will perceive the wax on the back of the coin. You must now press very hard on the coin with your thumb, in order to make it adhere. When you have done this, fold over successively the other corners, repeating the operation a second time, and leaving the fourth corner open. Then take hold of the handkerchief with both hands at the open part, and sliding your finger along the -^ 440 PARLOR MAGIC. -^ 4r- edge of the same, it will become unfolded, and the coin ad- hering to the corner of the handkerchief will, of course, come into your right hand ; then detach the coin, shake out the handkerchief, and to the great astonishment of the company the coin will have disappeared. In order to convince your audience that the coin is still in the handkerchief after you have wrapped it up, you can drop it on the table, when it will sound. TO PRODUCE A CANNON-BALL FROM A HAT. This is a very old trick, though it still finds favor with most of the conjurors of the present day. You borrow a hat, and on taking it into your hands you ask a number of questions about it, or say it would be a pity for you to spoil so nice a hat, or make use of some such remark. This, however, is only a ruse for the purpose of diverting attention. Then passing round to the back of your table — (where, by the way, you have arranged on pegs a large wooden " cannon-ball," or a cab- bage, or a bi*dle of dolls, trinkets, etc., loosely tied together, so that they may be easily disengaged) — you wipe, in passing, one or other of these articles off the pegs, where they must be very slightly suspended, into the hat so rapidly as not to be observed. Returning to the gentleman from whom you received the hat, you say to him — "You are aware, sir, that your hat was not empty when you gave it to me " — at the same time empty- ing the contents in front of the audience. Supposing you have, in the first instance, introduced the dolls and trinkets, you may repeat the trick by wiping the " cannon-ball " or one of the other articles into the hat, and again advancing towards the gentleman from whom you received it, say, " Here is your hat ; thank you, sir." Then, just as you are about to give it to him, say, "Bless me, what have we here?" and turning the hat upside down, the large cannon-ball will fall out. EVANESCENT MONEY. " ' T is here, and 't is gone ! " This simple but effective trick is done in the following manner : Stick a small piece of white wax on the nail of your middle finger ; lay a dime on the palm of your hand, and state to the company that you will make it vanish at the word of command, at the same time observing that many perform the feat by letting the dime fall into their sleeve, but to convince them that you have not recourse to any such deception, turn up the cuffs of your sleeves. Then close your hand, and by bringing the waxed nail in contact with the dime, it will firmly adhere to it. Then blow upon your hand, and cry " Begone \" and sud- denly opening it and extending yonr palm, you show the dime has vanished. Care must be taken to remove the wax from the dime before you restore it to the owner. THE WINGED DIME. Take a dime with a hole in the edge, and attach it to a piece of white sewing-silk, at the end of which is a piece of elastic cord about twelve inches in length. Sew the cord to the lining of your left-hand coat sleeve, but be careful that the end of the cord to which the coin is attached should not ex- tend lower than within two inches of the end of the sleeve when the coat is on. Having done this, bring down the six- pence with the right hand, and place it between the thumb and under finger of the left hand, and showing it to the company, tell them you will give it to any one present who will not let it slip away. You must then select one of your audience, to whom you proffer the dime, and just as he is about to receive it you must let it slip from between your fingers, and the con- traction of the elastic cord will draw the coin up your sleeve, and its sudden disappearance will be likely to astonish the would-be recipient. This feat can be varied by pretending to wrap the coin in a piece of paper or a handkerchief. Great care should be taken not to let any part of the cord be seen, as that would be the means of discovering the trick. THE AERIAL COIN. The following will furnish the key to many of the stock tricks of professional conjurors. Having turned up the cuffs of your coat, begin by placing a cent on your elbow (your arm being bent by raising the hand toward the shoulder) and catching it in your hand — a feat of dexterity easily performed. Then say that you can catch even a smaller coin in a more difficult position. You must illustrate this by placing the dime half-way between the elbow and the wrist, and by suddenly bringing the hand down the dime will fall securely into the cuff, unseen by any one, and it will seem to have disappeared altogether. Take a drinking glass or tumbler, and bidding the spectators to look upwards, in- form them that the lost coin shall drop through the ceiling. By placing the glass at the side of your arm, and elevating your hand, the coin will fall from the cuff into the tumbler. THE TRAVERSING RING. Provide yourself with a silk handkerchief and a small ring. With a needleful of silk, doubled, sew the ring to the mid- dle of the handkerchief, but let it be suspended by the silk within an inch or two of the bottom of the handkerchief. When the handkerchief is held up by the two corners, the ring must always hang on the side facing the conjuror. The hand- kerchief may now be crumpled up to " show all fair." Obtain a ring from one of the company, and retain it in the hand with which you receive it, but pretend to pass it to the other. Then pretend to wrap it up in the handkerchief, and taking hold of the other ring through the folds, request some one to hold it. Ask them if they can feel it, and as soon as they are satisfied that this is the identical ring which you borrowed, you put a plate on the table, and request the person holding the hand- kerchief to place both it and the ring on the plate. You then inform the company that you will cause the ring to pass through the plate and table into a little box, which you show round, and which you will place under the table. You can easily slip the ring in as you are doing so. Then partly un- wrap the handkerchief, so that the ring will chink upon the plate, and with the words, " Quick ! change ! begone !" or some expressions of similar import, take the handkerchief by two corners, and put it in your pocket, saying, "It is now in -^ I PARLOR MAGIC. 441 -y the box." You then request some one to pick it up and take out the ring. THE COOKING HAT. Have cakes or pudding previously made, and procure a jar or doctor's gallipot, and a tin pot, made straight all the way up, with the bottom half way down, so that both ends contain exactly the same quantity. The ready-made pancakes are pre- viously put into the one end of this pot, which must be dex- trously slipped into the hat. Then take some milk, flour, eggs, &c., and mix them up in the jar. Having done so, de- liberately pour the mixture into the hat, taking care that the pot previously deposited there receives it. Put the jar down into the hat, press it on the tin pot, which exactly fits inside the jar, and brings away the pot containing the mixture, leav- ing the pancakes, which you pretend to fry over the candle, using the hat as a frying-pan. Then turn out the pudding or pancakes, show that the hat remains unsoiled, and restore it to its owner. AN AVIARY IN A HAT. This excellent, but well-known trick requires the assistance of a confederate. A hat is borrowed as before from one of the audience, and turned round and round to show there is nothing in it. It is then laid on the operator's table, behind a vase or some other bulky article ; after which, as if a new idea had occurred to you, perform some other trick, during which the confederate removes the borrowed hat, substituting one previously prepared. This substituted hat is filled with small pigeons, placed in a bag with a whalebone or an elastic mouth, which fits the inside of the hat. The bag containing the birds is covered with a piece of cloth, with a slit in the top. The operator, taking up the hat, puts his hands through the slit, and takes out the birds one by one, till all are free. The hat is then placed on the table, for the ostensible purpose of cleaning it before handing it back, and the confederate again changes the hats, having in the interim fitted the bor- rowed hat with a bag similar to the other, and also filled with pigeons. This having been done, you call out to your confederate, and request him, so that all your audience may hear, to " Take the gentleman's hat away, and clean it." He takes it up, ^nd peeps into it, saying, " You have not let all the birds away," upon which, to the surprise and amusement of the spectators, you produce another lot of birds as before. In brushing the hat previous to restoring it to the ownei-, the bag may be adroitly removed. A BANK-NOTE CONCEALED IN A CANDLE. Ask some, one to lend you a bank-note, and to notice the number, etc. You then walk up to the screen behind which your confederate is concealed, pass the note to him, and take a wax or composite candle. Then turning to the audience, you ask one of them — a boy would be preferred — to step up on the platform. At your request he must cut the candle into four equal parts. You then take three of them, and say you will perform the trick by means of them, passing the fourth piece to the other end of the table, where your confederate has already rolled up the note in a very small compass, and thrust it into a hollow bit of candle, previously made ready. You take up this piece, and, concealing it in your hand, you walk up to the boy, and appear accidentally to knock one of the bits of candle out of his hand, and while you are stooping to pick it up off the floor, you change it for the bit which con- tains the note. You then place it on the table, and say to the audience, " Which piece shall I take— right or left ? " If they select the one which contains the note, ask the boy to cut it carefully through the middle, and to mind that he does not cut the note. "When he has made a slight incision, tell him to break it, when the note will be found in the middle. If the audience select the piece which does not contain the note, you throw it aside, and say that the note will be found in the re- maining piece. When this is done with tact, the audience will naturally believe that they have really had the privilege of choosing. THE DOLL TRICK. The Doll Trick, although common in the streets of London and at every fair throughout the country, is without exception one of the best sleight-of-hand tricks that was ever performed, and must not be omitted here. The conjuror produces a wooden painted doll, about six inches long ; he then places it in a bag of very dark material, and tells his story. "The little traveler, ladies and gentle- men, you see before you, is a wonderful little man who has been all over the world ; but as he has grown older he has be- come very nervous. One evening lately, at a small cabaret in the south of France, he was stating how nervous he was and how much he dreaded being robbed, when a Jew who sat in a corner of the room undertook to impart to him the means of making himself invisible at any moment, for a sum to be agreed upon. The bargain was struck, the money paid, and the Jew placed at his disposal a small skull-cap, which, as soon as it was placed upon his head, rendered him at once in- visible ; and I will now show you, ladies and gentlemen, the power possessed by this cap." The doll is then introduced into the bag, which has a small opening at the smaller end sufficiently large to admit of the doll's head passing through it. When the head has been shown, the lower part of the bag is turned over the doll and its body shown, " so that there can be no deception ! " The conjuror then says (still holding the head above the top of the bag), " I will now show you the wonderful cap by which the old gentleman is at once rendered invisible ; " and producing it from his pocket, he places it upon the head of the doll for a moment, and then removes it ; the head then disappears in the bag, which is then turned in- side out, and no trace of the doll can be perceived, though the bag be thrown on the floor, stamped upon, etc. And now for the secret and the method of performing this really surprising though very simple trick. The head is re- movable and only fastened to the neck by a peg about three- quarters of an inch long ; the bag or dress is made full at the bottom, i. e. , about the size of a hat, and has an opening at the top just large enough to allow the doll's head to pass through it ; at the lower edge of this bag must be made a small pocket, just large enough to contain easily the doll, and on the ■^ f^ 442 PARLOR MAGIC. outside of the bag must be a red streak, by way of ornament, coming from the top directly down to the pocket, so that it may be seen exactly where the pocket is. This side of the bag must be held nearest to the performer. In performing the trick the doll is introduced at the bottom of the bag, and passed upwards until the head is shown through the opening at the top ; and when the performer says, " I will now show you the cap," he, holding the head of the doll in his left hand, quickly passes the body into his pocket, where he has the cap, which he produces, leaving the body in its place. He then for a moment places the cap on the doll's head, and replaces it in his pocket ; then placing his right hand in the bag, he slowly draws down the head, which he slips into the small pocket in the bag, and shows his hand open and empty. He then catches hold of the lower edge of the bag at the pocket, holding, of course, the head of the doll in his hand, and strikes the bag against the table, ground, etc , and says, " I told you the old gentleman would become invisi- ble." He then says, " I will try to bring him back again ;" and introducing his hand into the bag, he takes the head from the pocket and shows it through the opening at the top of the bag, and retaining it in his hand, he throws the b^g on the floor and tramples upon it. If well done, we consider this trick, though common, one of the best that is performed. It will be as well to have two dolls made exactly alike, one with the head fixed, to be handed round, and the other with the movable head to be used in the trick. We sometimes use a pocketless dress, and " palm " the head. TO PASS A DIME, OR OTHER SMALL ARTICLE, THROUGH A TABLE. This trick, like the preceding one, is very amusing, and if well, and what we may call cleanly done, is really very aston- ishing. The conjuror, seating himself at a table, borrows two articles of any kind sufficiently small to be concealed in the hands ; these he places on the edge of the table before him, and says, I take this one, as you see, in my right hand, and hold it at arm's length, and the other I take in my left hand — my hands never meet. I now place my left hand under the table and njy right hand above it, and upon my giving the word " Pass ! " the dime which you saw me take in my right hand will pass through the table to the ball of cotton in my left, which you see is the case. This trick is very easy of accomplishment, if but a little time and patience be bestowed upon it. The dime, piece of India-rubber, or any other small article must be placed on the edge of the table, and the fingers must be placed over it ex- actly the same way as if it were really desired to take it in the hand ; but instead of doing so the fingers merely push it over the edge of the table, and, the knees of the performer being closed, it falls into his lap. It is then picked up with the left hand, and the right hand being brought sharply upon the upper surface of the table, the dime appears to have passed through it. THE CUP AND CENT. This too, if well performed, is a most astounding trick. Three coins of one cent each are shown, and a small cap or cup. The cents are thrown on the table, picked up again, arranged one on the other, and the cap placed over them. A hat is then introduced, and shown to be empty ; this is then held in the left hand under the table, the cap removed with the right hand, the cents shown and recovered. The conjuror then says, " Pass !" when the cents are heard to fall in the hat ; the cap on the table is raised, and they are gone, and in their place a small die or three cent piece appears. The cents are then taken in the left hand, held under the table, and com- manded to pass ; and on raising the cap they again appear be- neath it. This trick is very simple though ingenious, and the solution of it is as follows : The cap is of leather or any similar stiff material, and made to fit over three coins of one cent each easily; and the "trick" cents are six riveted together, the upper one being entire, but the other five being turned out, leaving nothing but their outer rims. Three coins of one cent each are shown, as also the cap ; and after showing the cents, while gathering them in the hand, " palm" them and place the "trick" cents (inside of which is the die) on the table, and cover them with the cap. Then tak- ing the hat in the left hand, command the cents to pass, and at the word drop the genuine cents into the hat, at the same time raising the cap on the table, and by pinching the sides of it rather tightly the " trick " cents are raised with it, and the die or three cent-pieces appear, then covering the die or three cent-pieces with the cap and the '' trick " cents concealed in it, show the genuine cents in the hat, and command them to return ; and holding the genuine cents in the left hand, lift the cap, and the cents again appear. Then taking the cap in the right hand, adroitly drop the "trick" cents into it and tender the cap for scrutiny. The table-cloth should be a thick and soft one, to prevent the spectators from hearing the die fall as the "trick" cents are placed on the table. THE SHOWER OF SUGARPLUMS. This is a capital yf«rt'/(? to an evening's amusement, particu- larly with young children. A small bag, capable of holding about a pint, must be made of a piece of figured calico, of a conical shape, but open at the bottom or larger end, on each side of which must be inserted a flat thin piece of whalebone ; at the upper or smaller end must be a small hook made of wire — a lady's hair-pin will answer the purpose perfectly. The trick is performed in this way : — The bottom of the bag must be opened by pressing the op- posite ends of the two pieces of whalebone, when, of course, they will bend and divide, and the bag must then be filled with sugarplums, care being taken to put the small bonbons at the top of the bag, and the large ones at the bottom next the whalebone, which will prevent the small ones from falling out. The bag when filled must on the first opportunity be sus- pended by its hook at the back of a chair having a stuffed back, so that it cannot be seen. When the trick is to be performed, a large handkerchief must be shown, with a request that it may be examined. It r- PARLOR MAGIC. % 443 r is then laid over the back of the chair. A little girl must then be asked if she is afraid of being out in the rain, and on her answering in the negative she must be requested to kneel down in the middle of the room. The performer must then place his left hand on the handkerchief, and feeling the hook which supports the bag, he raises it with the handkerchief, and holds it above the little girl's head ; then passing his right hand from the fourth' finger and thumb of the left hand which hold the handkerchief and bag, downwards, he can easily feel the bottom of the bag, and on pressing the opposite ends of the whalebone, they bend and open, and the contents of the bag of course fall out in a shower, and a general scramble among the children takes place. TO REMOVE AN EGG FROM ONE WINE-GLASS TO ANOTHER WITHOUT TOUCHING EITHER THE EGG OR THE GLASSES. Place two wine-glasses touching each other and in a direct line from you, and in the one nearer to you must be placed an egg with its smaller end downwards. Then blow with the mouth suddenly and sharply and strongly against the side of the egg, but in a downward direction, when the egg will be lifted up, and falling over will lodge in the other glass. THE EGG IN THE BAG. This, too, is a capital trick, if quietly and neatly performed, and the more slowly the better. A small bag is produced, rather larger than a sheet of note- paper, into which an egg (or rather the shell of one out of which the contents have been blown) is dropped. The comer of the bag must then be squeezed round it to show that it is there, and it may be felt by any one present. The corner of the open end of the bag is then held by the finger and thumb of the left hand, and the right placed in the bag, which is then held open end downwards, and the right hand withdrawn empty. The bag is then seized by the right hand, and struck violently against the table, and then crumpled up in the hands. It is then held with the mouth upwards, the right hand is again placed in the bag, and the egg unbroken pro- duced. The trick is performed in this way : The bag is made dou- ble on one side, thus forming a second bag, the mouth of which is at the bottom of the other. After the egg has been dropped in the bag and felt to be there, it is held in the right hand, while the bag is held bottom upwards, and then dropped in the second bag. The right hand is then with- drawn. When the edge of the bag is seized by the right hand, the egg must be also held in the same hand in the bag, and it is thus preserved from being broken when the bag is struck against the table, etc. The mouth of the bag being then held upwards, the egg of course falls into the first bag, and is then taken out and shown. TO FIX A PENKNIFE BY ITS POINT IN THE CEIL- ING, AND AFTERWARD PLACE A QUARTER SO EXACTLY UNDER IT THAT WHEN DIS- LODGED BY STRIKING THE CEILING THE KNIFE SHALL FALL ON THE QUARTER. This is a most ingenious trick, and is done in this way. Mounting a table, stick the penknife by its point into the ceil- ing, but only sufficiently to support it. Then after a deal of examination of its position, etc., place a piece of brown papet on the floor, on which put the quarter, and then say you will undertake to place the quarter so exactly under it that, when dislodged, the knife shall fall upon it. When wonder is ex- cited, and it is declared to be impossible, call for a glass of water ; then mounting on the table, dip the penknife in the water and withdraw the glass ; a drop of water will soon fall on the paper, and on that very spot place the quarter. You then strike the ceiling with your fist, when the knife will fall, of course, on the quarter. The knife chosen for the purpose should be one having rather a heavy pointed handle, as the drop of water will then fall from the most central point. TO PRODUCE A CANNON-BALL FROM A HAT. A ball must be turned out of any kind of soft light wood, and must have a hole bored in it large enough to admit the middle finger, and it should be painted black. The trick is performed in this way : On the front of the conjuring table, i. e., the side next the spectators, should be placed a few layers of books, high enough to conceal from view the ball or any other apparatus with which it is intended to perform. On the side of the books next the performer the ball should be placed, with the hole in it towards him. The hat should be placed on the books on its side on the left-hand end of the table, with its crown next the spectators. When the trick is to be performed the hat should be shown to be entirely empty, and then re- turned to its position on the books ; then, having placed ^hat- brush or silk handkerchief at the right hand of the table, say, "This trick cannot be performed unless the hat is perfectly smooth," and while leaning to the right to reach the brush or handkerchief, which diverts attention to that end of the table, the middle finger of the left hand must be placed in the hole in the ball, which is thus slipped into the hat, which must then be carefully brushed and held crown uppermost. The brush should then be put down, and the right thumb placed on the rim of the hat, with the fingers extended underneath so as to support the ball in the hat, and the left hand should then be placed in the same position, and the hat, with the ball in it, carried and placed upon another table. A small ball must then be produced, and a boy asked if he thinks he can hold it in his mouth, and told to try. The ball is then taken in the right hand, pretended to be thrown against the hat, " palmed," and concealed in the pocket. The boy should then be asked if he will again take the ball in his mouth, and while opening it the cannon-ball is suddenly taken from under tlie hat and placed in front of his face. -^ 444 PHYSICS WITHOUT APPLIANCES. -^ \tAfAfAt/\tAtAt/\t/\f/WAtAt/WWAtAt/\tAtmAtAt/WAfmAtAt/W\t/\tAtAfAt/W/\tmAfAt^^^^ mstmmmmmmmms,msimmsmmmmmmimmimmmmmmmimimmmmm s.m kr A Cheap Magnifying Lamp — Measuring the Illuminat- ing Power of a Candle and an Argand Lamp. N ordinary looking-glass, a lighted taper, and a foot rule, or a measuring tape, are quite sufficient to demonstrate the simple geometrical laws of reflection ; for, with their aid, it is very easy to show that the image of the candle in the mirror is virtually situated at a distance behind the mir- ror equal to the actual distance of the candle front, and that, when a ray falls obliquely on the mir- ror, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. A teacher who wishes to go further into the matter, and to de- monstrate the laws of reflection at curved surfaces, usually provides himself with the appropriate silvered mirrors of convex and concave form. Failing these, the exterior and interior surfaces of the bowl of a bright silver spoon will probably be as satisfactory a substitute as any. We have found even a saucer of common glazed earthenware to form a very fair concave mirror, giving upon a small tissue paper screen a beautiful little inverted image of a distant gas flame. To illustrate the geometrical laws of refraction through lenses, a good reading- glass of large size is a desirable acquisition. Spectacle-lenses, though of a smaller size, and therefore admitting less light, are also of service. In the absence of any of these articles, it is generally possible to fall back upon a water decanter, provided one can be found of a good globular form, and not spoiled for optical purposes by having ornamental work cut upon the sides of the globe. It is held a few inches away from a white wall and a candle is placed at the opposite side, so that its light falls through the decanter on to the wall. The candle is moved toward or away from the decanter until the position is found in which its rays focus themselves upon the wall, giving a clear inverted image of the candle-flame upon the wall. The experiment may be varied by setting down the candle on the table, and then moving the decanter to and fro until a definite image is obtained. If a large hand-reading-glass be available, the image will be much clearer than with the improvised water- lens ; and a further improvement in the manner of experiment- mg may be made by using a screen of white paper or card instead of a whitened wall on which to receive the image. The first sheet of paper should be set up in simple fashion at one end of the table. The candle should be placed at the other end of the table, and the reading-lens moved about be- tween them until a point is found at which it throws upon the screen a good clear image of the candle. It will be found that there are two such points, one near the candle, the other near the screen. In each case the image of the candle will be inverted, but in the first case it will be a magnified and, in the second, a diminished image, the size of the image, as compared with that of the real flame, being proportional to their respect- ive distances from the lens. When the lens has been placed in a position of good focus, the candle may be removed and placed where the screen stood ; if now the screen is placed where the candle was, it will be found that the image is again visible on the screen, still in- verted, though altered in magnitude. This experiment, in fact, proves the law of conjugate foci. The young beginner in science who repeats these experi- ments for himself will begin to understand how it is that in the photographer's camera the image in the instrument is inverted, and how it can also be true that the images cast on the sensi- tive retina of the eye are also inverted. The retina at the back of the eyeball answers to the white screen on which the image is thrown by the lens in front of it. It is possible, indeed, to show in actual fact that the image in the eyeball is inverted ; the experiment is very simple, but we believe that this is the first time that it has been described in print. Take a candle, and hold it in your right hand as you stand opposite a looking-glass. Turn your head slightly to the left while you look at the image of yourself in the glass. Open your eyes very wide, and look carefully at the image of your left eye. Move the candle about gently, up, down, forward, etc., so that the light falls more or less obliquely on to the eyeball. You will presently notice a little patch of light in the extreme outer corner of the eye ; it is the image of the candle on the inside of the eyeball, which you see through the semi-transparent horny substance of the eye. If you move the candle up, the little image moves down, and if you succeed well, you will discern that it is an inverted image, the tip of the flame being downward. You thus prove to your own satisfaction that the image of the candle in your eyeball is really upside down. A magnifying-glass of very simple construction a few years ago found a great sale in the streets of London, at the price of one penny. A bulb blown at the end of a short glass tube is filled with water. When held in front of the eye, this forms a capital lens for examining objects of microscopic dimensions, which may be secured in place by a bit of wire twisted round the stem. -«^ ^ PHYSICS WITHOUT APPLIANCES. 445 The principle by which the intensity of two lights is com- pared in the photometer is very easily shown. We can measure by the following process, the relative brightness of an Argand oil-lamp, and of an ordinary candle. Both these lights are set upon the table, and are so arranged that each casts on to a screen of white paper a shadow of a tall, narrow object. The most handy object for this purpose is another candle unlighted. The Argand lamp, being the brighter light, will cast the deeper shadow of the two, unless it is placed farther away. The meas- ure of the brightness is obtained by moving the brighter light just so far off that the intensity of the two shadows is equal, for then we know that the relative intensities of the two lights are proportional to the squares of their distances from the photo- meter. All that remains, therefore, is to measure the distances and calculate out the intensities. If, for example, the distance of "hr the lamp is double that of the candle when the two shadows are equally dark, we know that the brightness of the lamp is four times as great as that of the candle. Many other facts in optics can be shown with no greater trouble than that entailed by such simple experiments as we have described. The pendant luster of a chandelier will pro- vide an excellent prism of glass for showing the dispersion of light into its component tints. A couple of spectacle glasses appropriately chosen will, when pressed together, afford capital "Newton's rings " at the point where they touch. Diffraction bands of gorgeous hue may be observed by looking at a distant gaslight, or at the point of light reflected by a silvered bead in sunshine, through a piece of fine gauze, or through a sparrow's feather held close in front of the eye. And yet more remark- able effects of diflfVaction are obtained if the point of light be looked at through substances of still finer structure, suc}\ as the preparations of woody structure, and of the eyes of insects which are sold as microscopic objects. But the explanation of these beautiful phenomena would lead us far beyond our subject Expansion of Air— To keep Hot and Cold Water APART. The science of heat constitutes one of those departments of physics in which both the uninitiated beginner and the advanced student can find food for thought. To follow out the theoretical teachings of the science of heat requires a knowl- edge of abstruse mathematical formulae ; but, on the other hand, a very large proportion of the fundamental facts of ex- periment upon which the science depends can be illustrated with the simplest means. The property possessed by almost all material bodies of expanding when they are warmed affords us the means of as- certaining the degree to which they are warmed. Thus the expansion of the quicksilver in the bulbs of our thermometers shows us the degree of temperature of the surrounding air. Again, the heat imparted to the air within a paper fire-balloon makes it expand and 1)ecome specifically lighter than the sur- rounding atmosphere through which it rises. In general it may be asserted that matter, in whichever state it may be — solid, liquid, or gaseous — expands when heat is imparted to it, and contracts when heat is taken from it. An empty wine bottle is placed with its mouth downward in a deep dish or jar con- taining water, the bottom of the bottle projecting over the side of the jar. Heat is then applied by means of a spirit- lamp ; or, if this is not available, by burning under it a piece of cotton-wool soaked in spirits and held on the end of a fork. The glass of the bottle becomes hot — if too hot it may crack — and the air inside shares its warmth and begins to expand. There being only a limited space in- side the bottle, some of the air will be forced out and will rise in bubbles through the water. If now the flame be removed, the reverse operation of contraction by cooling may be wit- nessed ; for, as the air inside the bottle cools, it will occupy a smaller and smaller amount of space, and the water will gradu- ally rise up in the bottle-neck. Of course, this is seen better with a bottle of clear glass than with one of dark or opaque tint. The contraction of a liquid on cooling can be even more simply shown. Take a common medicine bottle, warm it gently (by rinsing it out with a little hot water) so that it shall not crack by the sudden heating, and then fill it btimful of boiling water. Leave it to cool ; and in less than half an hour you will find that the water which you poured in to overflow- ing has shrunk down into the neck of the bottle, having con- tracted as it cools. It was mentioned above that the hot air in a fire balloon raises it, being lighter than the cold air. In the same way hot water will rise through cold, and float on the top of it, being specifically lighter. You may prove this in several ways. Fill a deep jar with water, and then, taking a red-hot poker, plunge about an inch of the tip of it into the surface of the water. Presently the whole of the water at the top will be boiling furiously ; but the water at the bottom will be just as cool as ^ 446 PHYSICS WITHOUT APPLIANCES. before, for the hotter water will not have gone down, but will have floated at the top, being lighter in consequence of expan- sion. The same thing can be shown very prettily by the following simple experiment : — Fill a wide and deep glass jar — the glass of a parlor aquarium will do excellently — to about half its depth with cold water. Provide yourself also with a kettleful of boiling water, a funnel, a bit of wood about three inches square, and with some ink — red ink if possible. Pour into the kettle enough of the ink to color it with a perceptible tint : this is simply that you may be able to distinguish between the colorless cold water and the colored hot water which you are going to cause to float at the top. The only difficulty of the experiment is how to pour out the hot water without letting it mix with the cold water. A bit of wood (or cardboard) is laid on the water as a float, and you must pour the hot water on to this to break the force of its fall. The funnel will also help to break the fall of the hot water, and will aid you to guide the stream on to the middle of the float. With these precautions you need not fear failure, and you will enjoy the spectacle so seldom seen, though so often actually occurring, of hot water floating on the top of cold water. SINGING AND SENSITIVE FLAMES. Much notice was attracted some years ago by the discovery of singing and sensitive flames. A sensitive flame is not easily made, unless where gas can be burned at a much higher pres- sure than is to be found in the case of the gas supplied by the companies for house-lighting. To make a singing-flame requires the proper glass tubes, and an apparatus for generating hydro- gen gas. The roaring-tube, which we are now about to de- scribe, is a good substitute, however, and is also due to the generation of very rapid vibrations, although in this case the way in which the heat sets up the vibrations cannot be very simply explained. Let a common paraffine lamp-chimney be chosen, and let us thrust up loosely into its wider or bulbous portion a piece of iron wire gauze such as is often employed for window-blinds. If this be not at hand, a few scraps of wire twisted together, or even a few hairpins, will suffice. The lamp chimney must then be held over the flame of a spirit- lamp, or other hot flame, until the wire gauze glows with a red heat. Now remove the lamp or lift the chimney off" it, so that the gauze may cool. It will emit a loud note like a powerful (though rather harsh) organ-pipe, lasting for about a quarter of a minute, or until the gauze has cooled. Tubes of different sizes produce different notes. It is now well known that the quality of different sounds depends upon the form or character of the invisible sound- waves, and that diff"erent instruments make sounds that have characters of their own, because their peculiar shapes throw the air into waves of particular kinds. The different vowel- sounds are caused by putting the mouth into particular shapes in order to produce waves of a particular quality. Take a jew's- harp and put it to the mouth as if you were going to play it. Shape the mouth as if you were going to say the vowel O, and on striking the harp you hear that sound. Alter the shape of the mouth to say A, and the harp sounds the vowel accordingly. The special forms of vibration corresponding to the different vowel-sounds can be rendered evident to the eye in a very beautiful way by the simplest conceivable means. A saucerful of soapy water (prepared from yellow kitchen soap and soft water, or with cold water that has previously been boiled), and a brass curtain-ring, is all that is needed. A film of soapy water shows, as all children know when they blow bubbles, the loveliest rainbow-tints when thin enough. A flat film can be made by dipping a brass curtain-ring into the soapy water, and then lifting it out. When the colors have begun to show on the edge of the film, sing any of the vowels, or the whole of them, one after the other, near the film. It will be thrown into beautiful rippling patterns of color, which differ with the diff"erent sounds. Instead of a curtain-ring, the ring made by closing together the tips of finger and thumb will answer the purpose of proving a frame on which to produce the phoneido- scopic film. TRANSMISSION OF SOUND. Acoustical experiments require, for the most part, the aid of some good instrument or valuable piece of apparatus. Never- theless, a few instructive illustrations of the principle of science can be improvised without difficulty. Firstly, there is the familiar experiment brought into fashion by Professor Tyndall, of setting a row of ivory billiard balls, or glass solitaire marbles, along a groove between two wooden boards, and showing how their elasticity enables them to transmit from one to another a wave of moving energy imparted to the first of the row, thus affording a type of the transmission of sound-waves from parti- cle to particle through elastic media. Then we may show how sounds travel through solid bodies by resting against a music-box, or other musical instrument, a broomstick, or any -^ PHYSICS WITHOUT APPLIANCES. 447 ^ convenient rod of wood, at the other end of which we place our ear. Another familiar illustration is afforded by means of threads : — A large spoon is tied to the middle of a thin silken or hempen thread, the ends of which are thrust into the ears upon the ends of the thumbs. If the spoon be dangled against the edge of the table it will resound, and the tones reach the ear like a loud church-bell. The thread telephone, or " lover's tele- graph," is upon the same principle, the thread transmitting the whispered words to a distance, without that loss — by spreading in all directions — which takes place in the open air. The discovery that a musical tone is the result of regularly recurring vibrations, the number of which determines the pitch of the tone, was made by Galileo without any more formal apparatus than a mill-edged coin along the rim of which he drew his thumbnail, and found it to produce a sound. We can show this better by taking a common toy gyroscope-top with a heavy leaden wheel, such as are sold at every toy shop. With a strong penknife or a file, cut a series of fine notches or grooves across the rim, so that it shall have a milled edge like a coin. Now spin it, and while it spins, gently hold against the revolving wheel the edge of a sheet of stiff writing-paper, or of ^ a very thin visiting card. A loud, clear note will be heard if the nicks have been evenly cut, which, beginning with a shrill pitch, will gradually fall with a dolorous cadence into the bass end of the scale, and finally die out in separately audible ticks. REGELATION DEMONSTRATED. If a piece of ice be placed on two chairs and a copper wire passed around it, with a weight to make it press on the ice, in the course of a few hours the weight will have dragged the wire through the ice, as if it were no harder than a piece of cheese, yet the ice has healed up as fast as the wire cut into it, and it is still one solid block. This is termed regelation, and the extraordinary fact can be accounted for in the following way : — In the neighborhood of the wire, where it passes through the ice, the pressures are not uniform, for just below the wire the portions of the ice are under pressure, owing to the pull of the heavy weight, while immediately above the wire the ice is sub- jected to a stress tending to draw the particles asunder, or, in other words, it is subjected to a pull or " negative pressure." The pressure on the ice under the wire lowers its melting point, and causes very small quantities of it to melt ; these liquid portions immediately are squeezed out, and find their way round the wire to the space above it, where, the pressure being reduced, they again freeze hard. TO LIFT A DECANTER WITH A STRAW. The following simple experiment illustrates the principle that a substance which is very weak in one direction may be very strong in another, the " strength " of the material (that is to say, the resistance it offers before it will break) depend- ing on the way in which a force is applied to it. It is possible to lift a decanter full of water by means of a single straw. To do this the straw must be bent, as shown in our illustration on page 228, so that the weight comes longitudinally upon the straw. The straw is a very weak thing if it has to resist a force applied laterally. Lay a single straw horizontally, so that the two ends are supported, and then hang weights on tc --^ ^ 448 PHYSICS WITHOUT APPLIANCES. -^ the middle of it — a very few ounces will break it across. But let the weights be fixed to one end of the straw, and the straw itself be hung downward so that the pull is exerted along it, and it will support one or two pounds at least. When bent, as in the figure inside the bottle, most of the weight is applied as a thrust against the end of the straw ; the bottle tilts slightly until the center of gravity of the whole is below the point from which it hangs between finger and thumb ; but in this position the sideway thrust against the middle of the straw is very small, and the material is strong enough to stand the strain to which it is subjected lengthways. MELTING LEAD ON A CARD. Twist up the edges of a common playing-card or other bit of cardboard, so as to fashion it into a light tray. On this tray place a layer of small shot or bits of lead, and heat it over the flames of a lamp. The lead will melt, but the card will not burn. It may be charred a little round the edges, but immediately below the lead it will not be burned, for here again the lead conducts off the heat on one side as fast as it is supplied on the other. Lastly, we give an experiment which, like the two preceding, proves that a good conduct- ing substance may protect a delicate fabric from burning by conducting away the heat rapidly from it. Lay a piece of muslin quite flat upon a piece of metal. A live coal placed on the muslin will not bum it, for the metal takes away the heat too fast. If the muslin is, however, laid On a bad conductor, such as a piece of wood, it will not be protected, and the live coal will kindle the muslin. A MINIATURE DIVING BELL. A wine-glass is turned mouth downward and plunged into a jar of water. The water rises tip only a very little way into the mouth of the wine-^lass, owing to the air which it con- tains. The deeper the wine-glass is plunged the more the air is compressed, and the higher does the water rise in the miniature bell. To compress the contained air into one-half of its orig- inal volume it would be necessary to plunge the wine glass about thirty-four feet deep into the water ; for to halve the volume of the air inside we must double the external pressure. The pressure of the air is already several pounds to each square inch of surface. A few flies or other insects may, with- out incurring the charge of cruelty to animals, be made to do duty as divers inside the diving bell during this experiment. EXPERIMENT WITH COIN. A simple experiment, depending partly upon the inertia of matter and partly upon elasticity, is often shown as an after- dinner trick. Upon a linen table-cloth is placed a five-cent piece, between two quarters, or larger and thicker coins. Over this an empty wine-glass is placed, and the puzzle is how to get out the smaller coin without touching the glass. The very simple operation of scratching with the finger-nail upon the cloth, as shown in our illustration, suffices to accomplish the trick, for the little coin is seen to advance gently toward the finger until it is carried forward beyond the glass. While the fibers are drawn forward slowly, they drag the coin with them to a minute distance ; but when the slip occurs and they fly backward, they do so very rapidly, and slip back under the coin before there is time for the energy of their movement to be imparted to the coin to set it in motion. So the coin is gradually worked toward the operator. ^ "^ ASTRONOMY. 449 -^ Astronomy (from the Greek, asfron, a star, and nomas, a law) is, comprehen- sively, that science which explains the nature and motions of the bodies fill- ing infinite space, including our own globe, in its character of a planet or mem- ber of the solar system. The science may be divided into two departments — i. Descriptive As- tronomy, or an account of the systems of bodies occupying space ; 2. Mechanical Astronomy, or an explanation of the physical laws which have pro- duced and which sustain the arrangements of the heavenly bodies, and of all the various results of the arrangement and relations of these bodies. Ura- nography is a subordinate department of the science, presenting an account of the arrangements which have been made by astronomers for delineating the starry heavens, and working the many mathematical problems of which they are the subject. DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY. The field contemplated by the astronomer is no less than INFINITE SPACE. So at least, he may well presume space to be, seeing that every fresh power which he adds to his tele- scope allows him to penetrate into remoter regions of it, and still there is no end. In this space, systems, consisting of suns and revolving planets, and other systems again, consist- ing of a numberless series of such lesser systems, are sus- pended by the influence of gravitation, operating from one to another, yet each body at such a distance from another, as, though the mind of man can in some instances measure, it can in none conceive. We begin with what is usually called the Solar System — that is, the particular solar system to which our earth belongs. THE SOLAR SYSTEM. The solar system, so named from sol (Latin), the sun, con- sists of the sun in the center, numerous planets, and an un- known number of bodies named comets. The word planet is from the Greek planao, to wander, because the few such bodies known to the ancients were chiefly remarkable in their eves on account of their constantly shifting their places with reference to the other luminaries of the sky. Comets are so named from coma (Latin), a head of hair, because they seem to consist of a bright spot, with a long brush streaming be- hind. Some of the planets have other planets moving round them as centers — the moon, for instance, round the earth. These are called secondary planets, moons or satellites ; while those that move round the sun are called primary planets. The primary planets consist — ist, of eight larger planets, including the Earth ; their names, in the order of their nearness to the sun, are — Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Herschel or Uranus, and Neptune. 2d. A group of small planets or planetoids, called also asteroids, considerable in num- ber. The discovery of a new asteroid by Professor Borelli, places the entire number of planets in the solar system at one hundred and eighteen, against six known in 1781, when Sir W. Herschel discovered Uranus. The planets move round the sun on nearly one level or plane, corresponding with the center of his body, and in one direction, from west to east. The secondaiy planets, in like manner, move in planes round the centers of their primaries, and in the same direction, from west to east. These are de- nominated revolutionary motions ; and it is to be observed that they are double in the case of the satellites, which have at once a revolution round the primary, and a revolution, in company with the primary, round the sun. The path de- scribed by a planet in its revolution is called its orbit. Each planet, secondary as well as primary, and the sun also, has a motion in its own body, like that of a bobbin upon a spindle. An imaginary line, forming, as it were, the spindle of the sun or planet, is denominated the axis, and the two ex- tremities of the axis are called the poles. The axes of the sun and planets are all nearly at a right angle with the plane of the revolutionary movements. The iriotion on the axis is called the rotatory motion, from rota, the Latin for a wheel. The sun, the primary planets, and the satellites, with the doubtful exception of two attending on Uranus, move on their axes in the same direction as the revolutionary movements, from west to east. The Sun is a sphere or globe of 882,000 miles in diameter, or 1,384,472 times the bulk of the earth, moving round its axis in 25 days. When viewed through a telescope, the surface appears intensely bright and luminous, as if giving out both heat and light to the surrounding planets. But on this sur- face there occasionally appear dark spots, generally surround- 4- -^ r- 450 ASTRONOMY. -^ ed with a border of less dark appearance ; some of which spots have been calculated to be no less than 45,000 miles in breadth, or nearly twice as much as the circumference of the earth. The region of the sun's body on which the spots ap- pear, is confined to a broad space engirdling his center. They are sometimes observed to come into sight at his western limb, to pass across his body in the course of twelve or thirteen days, and then disappear. They are sometimes observed to contract with great rapidity, and disappear like something melted and absorbed into a burning fluid. Upon the bright parts of the sun's body there are also sometimes observed streaks of unusual brightness, as if produced by the ridges of an agitated and luminous fluid. It has been surmised, that the sun is a dark body, enveloped in an atmosphere calculated for giving out heat and light, and that the spots are produced by slight breaks or openings in that atmosphere, showing the dark mass within. Though so much larger than the earth, the can only be seen occasionally in the morning or evening, as it never rises before, or sets after the sun, at a greater distance of time than i hour and 50 minutes. It appears to the naked eye as a small and brilliant star, but when observed through a telescope, is homed like the moon, because we only see a part of the surface which the sun is illuminating. Mountains of great height have been observed on the surface of this planet, particularly in its lower or southern hemisphere. One has been calculated at 104 miles in height, being about eight times higher, in proportion to the bulk of the planet, than the loftiest mountains upon earth. The matter of Mercury is of much greater density than that of the earth, equaling lead in weight ; so that a human being placed upon its surface would be so strongly drawn toward the ground as scarcely to be able to crawl. Venus is a globe of about 7,800 miles in diameter, or nearly the size of the earth, rotating on its axis in 23 hours, 21 min- Raie of movement 0/ the Planets in miles per minute. Mercury 1796 Venus 1334 Earth 1133 Mars 905 Vesta 905 Juno 90s Ceres 693 Pallas 693 Jupiter 490 Saturn 363 Uranus 253 Moon 38 Densities of Planets compared •with ivater, which is considered as one. The Sun 1, 2-i3ths. Mercury 9, i-6th. Venus 5,1 i-i5ths. Earth 4} Mars 3, 2-7ths. Jupiter I, i-24th. Saturn o, i3-32ds. Uranus o, 99-iooths. Inclinations of Orbits to the Ecliptic. Mercury. f o' 9" I. Venus. 3° 23' 28" s. Mars. 1° 51' 6" 2. Vesta. 7° S' 9" o. Juno. 13" 4' 9" 7- Ceres. 10" 37' 26" 2. Pallas. 34" 34' 55" o. Jupiter. 1° 18' 51" 3. Saturn. 2" 29' 3S" 7. Uranus, o" 46' 28" 4. THE SOLAR SYSTEM. i- matter of the sun is of only about a third of the density or conjpactness of that of our planet, or little more than the density of water. The sun is surrounded to a great distance by a faint light, or luminous matter 0/ extreme thinness, shaped like a lens or magnifying-glass, the body of the sun being in the center, and the luminous matter extending in the plane of the planetary revolutions, till it terminates in a point. At particular sea- sons, and in favorable states of the atmosphere, it may be ob- served before sunrise, or after sunset, in the form of a cone pointing obliquely above the place where the sun is either about to appear or which he has just left. It is termed the Zodiacal Light. Mercury, the nearest planet to the sun, is a globe of about 2,950 miles in diameter, rotating on its axis in 24 hours and 5^^ minutes, and revolving round the central luminary, at a dis- tance of 37,000,000 of miles in 88 days. From the earth it utes, and 19 seconds, and revolving round the sun, at the dis- tance of 68,000,000 of miles in 225 days. Like Mercury, it is visible to an observer on the earth only in the morning and evening, but for a greater space of time before sunrise and after sunset. It appears to us the most brilliant and beautiful of all the planetary and stellar bodies, occasionally giving so much light as to produce a sensible shadow. Observed through a telescope, it appears horned, on account of our seeing only a part of its luminous surface. The illuminated part of Venus occasionally presents slight spots. It has been ascertained that its surface is very unequal, the greatest mountains being in the southern hemisphere, as in the case of both Mercury and the Earth. The higher mountains in Venus range between 10 and 22 miles in altitude. The planet is also enveloped in an atmosphere like that by which animal and vegetable life is supported on earth, and it has consequently a twilight. Venus performs its revolution round the sun in 225 days. Mercury -^ ASTRONOMY. 451 ^ and Venus have been termed the Inferior Planets, as being placed within the orbit of the Earth, The Earth, the third planet in order, and one of the smaller size, though not the smallest, is impoitant to us, as the theater on which our race have been placed to "live, move, and have their being." It is 7,902 miles in mean diameter, rotating on its axis in 24 hours, at a mean distance of 95,000,000 of miles from the sun, round which it revolves in 365 days, 5 hours, 56 minutes, and 57 seconds. As a planet viewed from another of the planets, suppose the moon, " it would present a pretty, variegated, and sometimes a mottled appearance. The distinction between its seas, oceans, con- tinents, and islands, would be clearly marked ; they would appear like brighter and darker spots upon its disk. The con- tinents would appear bright, and the ocean of a darker hue, because water absorbs the greater part of the solar light that falls upon it. The level plains (excepting, perhaps, such re- gions as the Arabian deserts of sand) would appear of a some- what darker color than the more elevated and mountainous regions, as we find to be the case on the surface of the moon. The islands would appear like small bright specks on the darker surface of the ocean ; and the lakes and Mediter- ranean seas like darker spots on broad streaks intersecting the bright parts, or the land. By its revolution round the axis, successive portions of the surface would be brought into view, and present a different aspect from the parts which pre- ceded." The form of the earth, and probably that of every other planet, is not strictly spherical, but spheroidal ; that is flat- tened a little at the poles, or extremities of the axis. The diameter of the earth at the axis is 26 miles less than in the cross direction. This peculiarity of the form is a consequence of the rotatory motion, as will be afterward explained. The earth is attended by one satellite, the Moon, which is a globe of 2,160 miles in diameter, and consequently about a %r TELESCOPIC APPEARANCE OF THE MOON. 49th part of the bulk of the earth, revolving round its primary in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, and II seconds, at the distance of 240,000 miles. The moon is 400 times nearer the earth than the sun is ; but, its diameter being at the same time 400 times less than that of the sun, it appears to us of about the same size. The moon rotates on her axis in exactly the same time as she revolves round the earth. She consequently pre- sents at all times the same part of her surface toward the earth. Inspected through a telescope, her surface appears of unequal brightness and extremely rugged. The dark parts, however, are not seas, as has been supposed, but more like the beds of seas, or great alluvial plains. No appearance of water, or of clouds, or of an atmosphere, has been detected. The surface presents numerous mountains, some of them about a mile and three quarters in height, as has been ascertained by measurement of the shadows which they cast on the neigh- boring surface. The tops of the mountains of the moon are «• PHASES OF THE MOON. generally shaped like a cup or basin, with a small eminence rising from the center, like many volcanic hills on the earth. It has hence been surmised that the moon is in a volcanic state, as the earth appears to have been for many ages before the creation of man, and that it is perhaps undergoing pro- cesses calculated to make it a fit scene for animal and vege- table life. The moon turning on its axis once in a little more than 27 days, presents every part of its surface in succession to the sun in that time, as the earth does in 24 hours. The day of the moon is consequently nearly a fortnight long, and its nights of the same duration. The light of the sun, falling upon the moon, is partly absorbed into its body ; but a small portion is reflected or thrown back, and becomes what we call moonlight. The illuminated part from which we derive moon- light, is at all times increasing or diminishing in our eyes, as the moon proceeds in her revolution around our globe. When the satellite is at the greatest distance from the sun, we, being between the two, see the whole of the illuminated surface, which we accordingly term full moon. As the moon ad- vances in her course, the luminous side is gradually averted from us, and the moon is said to wane. At length, when the satellite has got between the earth and the sun, the luminous side is entirely lost sight of. The moon is then said to change. Proceeding in her revolution, she soon turns a bright edge toward us, which we call the new moon. This gradually increases in breadth, till a moiety of the circle is quite filled up ; it is then said to be half moon. The luminary, when on the increase from ne'cu to half, is termed a crescent, from crescens, Latin for increasing ; and this word has been ■^ 452 ASTRONOMY. -^ applied to other objects of the same shape— for instance, to a curved line of buildings- In the early days of the new moon, we usually see the dark part of the body faintly illuminated, an appearance termed the oM moon in Die new moons arms. This faint illumination is produced by the reflection of the sun's light from the earth, or what the inhabitants of the moon, if there were any, might be supposed to consider as moonlight. The earth, which occupies one invariable place in the sky of the moon, with a surface thirteen times larger than the apparent size of the moon in our eyes, is then at the full, shining with great luster on the sunless side of its satellite, and raceiving back a small portion of its own reflected light. The light, then, which makes the dark part of the moon visible to us, may be said to perform three journeys, first from the sun to the earth, then from the earth to the moon, and finally from the moon back to the earth, before our eyes are enabled to perceive this object. Mars, the fourth of the primary planets, is a globe of 4,189 miles in diameter, or little more than a half of that of the earth ; consequently, the bulk of this planet is only about a fifth of that of our globe. It performs a rotation on itsaxiff in 24 hours, 39 minutes, and 133 seconds, and revolves round the sun, at a distance of 142,000,000 of miles, in 686 days, 22 hours, and i8 seconds. Mars appears to the naked eye of a red color ; from which circumstance it was, probably, that the ancients bestowed upon it the name of the god of war. Inspected through a telescope, it is found to be occasionally marked by large spots and dull streaks, of various forms, and by an unusual brightness of the poles. As the bright polar parts sometimes project from the circular outline of the planet, it has been conjectured that these are masses of snow, similar to those which beset the poles of the earth. Vesta, Ceres, Pallas, and Juno are among the globes, re- volving between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, in paths near and crossing each other, and which are not only much more elliptical than the paths of the other planets, but also rise and sink much further from the plane of the general planetary rev- olutions. Vesta is of a bulk only I-15, 000th part of the bulk of the earth, with a surface not exceeding that of the kingdom of Spain. It revolves round the sun in 3 years, 66 days, and 4 hours, at a mean distance of 225,500,000 miles. Though the smallest of all the planets, it gives a very brilliant light, insomuch that it can be seen by the naked eye. Juno is 1,425 miles in diameter, and presents, 'when in- spected through the telescope, a white and well-defined ap- pearance. Its orbit is the most eccentric of all the planetary orbits, being 253,000,000 of miles from the sun at the greatest, and only 126,000,000, or less than one-half, at the least dis- tance. In the half of the course nearest to the sun, the motion of the planet is, by virtue of a natural law afterward to be explained, more than twice as rapid as in the other part. Ceres has been variously represented as of 1,624 and 160 miles in diameter. The astronomer who calculated its diameter at 1,624 miles, at the same time believed himself to have ascertained that it has a dense atmosphere, extending 675 miles from its surface. It is of a reddish color, and ap- pears about the size of a star of the eighth magnitude. Ceres revolves round the sun, at a distance of 260,000,000 of miles, in 4 years, 7 months, and 10 days. Pallas has been represented as of 2,099 miles in diameter, with an atmosphere extending 468 miles above its surface. Another astronomer has allowed it a diameter of only 80 miles. It revolves round the sun, at a mean distance of 266,- 000,000 of miles, in 4 years, 7 months, and 11 days. How- ever unimportant it may appear beside the large planets, it has a peculiar interest in the eyes of astronomers, on account of its orbit having a greater inclination to the plane of the ecliptic than those of all the larger planets put together. Jupiter is the largest of all the planets. Its diameter is nearly eleven times that of the earth, or 89,170 miles, and its volume or mass is consequently 1,281 times that of our globe. The density of Jupiter is only a fourth of that of the earth, or about the lightness of water ; and a human being, if transfer- red to it, would be able to leap with ease over a pretty large house. It performs a rotation on its axis in 9 hours, 55 minutes, and 33 seconds, or about two-fifths of our day. It revolves round the sun, at a distance of 490,000,000 of miles, in 4,330 days, 14 hours, and 39 minutes, or nearly twelve of our years. Viewed through a telescope, Jupiter appears sur- rounded by dark lines, or belts, which occasionally shift, melt into each other, or separate, but sometimes are observed with little variation for several months. These belts are generally near the equator of the planet, and of a broad and straight form ; but they have been observed over his whole surface, and of a lighter, narrower, and more streaky and wavy appear- ance. It is supposed that the dark parts are lines of the body of the planet, seen through openings in a bright, cloudy atmosphere. Jupiter is attended by four satellites, which revolve round it, in the same manner as the moon round our globe, keeping, like it, one face invariably presented to their primary. They are of about the same size, or a little larger diameter than our moon ; the first having a diameter of 2,508, the second of 2,068, the third^of 3,377, and the fourth of 2,890 miles. The first revolves round the primary planet in i day, 18 hours, 28 minutes ; the second in 3 days, 13 hours, 14 minutes ; the third in 7 days, 3 hours, 43 minutes ; and the fourth in t6 days, 16 hours, 32 minutes. These satellites frequently eclipse the sun to Jupiter ; they are also eclipsed by the primary planet, but never all at the same time, so that his dark side is never altogether without moonlight. Saturn, seen through a telescope, is the most remarkable of all the planets, being surrounded by a ring, and attended by seven satellites. In bulk this is the second of the planets, being 79,042 miles in diameter, or about 995 times the volume of the earth. Its surface appears slightly marked by belts like those of Jupiter. It performs a rotation on its axis in 10 hours, 16 minutes, and revolves round the sun, at a distance of 900,000,000 of miles, in 10,746 days, 19 hours, 16 minutes, or about 29!^ of our years. At such a distance from the sun, that luminary must be diminished to one-eightieth of the size he bears in our eyes, and the heat and light in the same pro- portion. The matter of Saturn is one-eighth of the density of our earth. -^ ASTRONOMY. 453 -^ The ring of Saturn surrounds the body of the planet in the plane of its equator. It is thin, like the rim of a spinning- wheel, and is always seen with its edge presented more or less directly toward us. It is luminous with the sun's light, and casts a shadow on the surface of the planet, the shadow of which is also sometimes seen falling on part of the ring. The distance of th^ inner edge from the planet is calculated at about I9,cxx> miles ; its entire breadth from the inner to the outer edge is 28,538 ; the thickness is not more than i. In certain positions of the planet we can see its surface at a con- siderable angle, and the openings or loops which it forms on the sides of the planet. At other times we see its dark side, or only its edge. From observations made upon it in favor- able circumstances, it is found to be apparently divided near the outer edge by a dark line of nearly 1,800 miles in breadth, as if it were divided into two concentric rings. From other appearances, it has been surmised to have other divisions, or to be a collection of several concentric rings. It is also occasionally marked by small spots. The ring of Saturn rotates on its own plane in 10 hours, 32 minutes, 15 seconds, and a part of a second, being about the same time with the rotation of the planet. The seven satellites of Saturn revolve around it, on the ex- terior of the ring, and almost all of them in nearly the same plane. They are so small as not to be visible without a power- ful telescope. The two inner ones are very near to the outer edge of the ring, and can only be discerned when that object is presented so exactly edgeways as to be almost invisible. They have then been seen passing like two small bright beads along the minute thread of light formed by the edge of the ring. The three next satellites are also very small ; the sixth is larger, and placed at a great interval from the rest. The seventh is the largest ; it is about the size of the planet Mars, and is situated at nearly thrice the distance of the sixth, or about 2,300,000 miles from the body of Saturn. The revolu- tions of these satellites range from i to 79 days ; and it has been ascertained of some of them that, according to the usual law of secondary planets, their rotations on their axes and their revolutions round their primary are performed in the same time, so that, like our moon, they always present the same face to the center of their system. The orbit of the seventh satellite is much inclined to the plane of Saturn's equator. Urattus, or Herschel, the remotest planet known in the solar system, is a globe of 35,112 miles in diameter, rotating on its axis in 7 hours, and performing a revolution round the sun, at a distance of 1,800,000,000 of miles, in 84 of our years. The sun to this remote planet must appear only a 400th part of the size which he bears in our eyes. Two satel- lites are known, and other four are suspected, to attend upon Uranus. The two which have been observed circulate round their primary in orbits almost perpendicular to the ecliptic, and are further supposed to move in a direction contrary to that of all the other planetary motions — namely, from east to west. Some idea may be obtained of the comparative size of the principal objects of the solar system, by supposing a globe of two feet diameter, placed in the center of a level plain, to represent the sun ; a grain of mustard-seed, placed on the circumference of a circle 164 feet in diameter, for Mercury ; a pea, on a circle of 284 feet, for Venus ; another pea, on a circle of 430 feet, for the Earth ; a large pin's head, on a circle of 654 feet, for Mars ; four minute grains of sand, in circles of from 1,000 to 1,200 feet, for Vesta, Ceres, Pallas, and Juno ; a moderate sized orange, on a circle of nearly half a mile in diameter, for Jupiter ; a small orange, on a circle 4- ORRERY. four-fifths of a mile in diameter, for Saturn ; and a small plum or full-sized cherry, on a circle of a mile and a half in diameter, for Uranus. It is calculated that the united mass of the whole of the planets is not above a 600th part of the mass of the sun. The sun and planets are represented, with an approximation to correctness, in philosophical toys termed orreries, of which the appearance is conveyed in the preced- ing engraving. COMETS. Comets are light vapory bodies, which move round the sun in orbits much less circular than those of the planets. Their orbits, in other words, are very long ellipses, or ovals, having the sun near one of the ends. Comets usually have two parts, a body or nucleus, and a tail ; but some have a body only. The body appears as a thin vapory, luminous mass, of globular form ; it is so thin, that, in some cases, the stars have been seen through it. The tail is a lighter or thinner luminous vapor surrounding the body, and streaming far out from it, in one direction. A vacant space has been observed between the body and the enveloping matter of the tail ; and it is equally remarkable that the tail has in some instances appeared less bright along the middle, immediately behind the nucleus, as if it were a stream which that nucleus had in some measure parted into two. Out of the great multitude — certainly not less than 1,000 — which are supposed to exist, about 150 have been made the subject of scientific observation. Instead of revolving, like the planets, nearly on the plane of the sun's equator, it is found that they approach his body from all parts of surround- ing space. At first, they are seen slowly advancing, with a comparatively faint appearance. As they approach the sun, the motion becomes quicker, and at length they pass round 454 ASTRONOMY. kr- him with very great rapidity, and at a comparatively small distance from his body. The comet of 1680 approached within one-sixth of his diameter. After passing, they are seen to emerge from his rays, with an immense increase to their former brilliancy and to the length of their tails. Their motion then becomes gradually slower, and their brilliancy diminishes, and at length they are lost in distance. It has been ascertained that their movement round the sun is in accordance with the same law which regulates the planetary movements, being always the quicker the nearer to his body, and the slower the more distant. In the remote parts of space their motions must be extremely slow. Three comets have been observed to return, and their periods of revolution have been calculated. The most re- markable of these is one usually denominated Halley's Comet, from the astronomer who first calculated its period. It revolves round the sun in about seventy-five years, its last appearance being at the close of 1835. Another, called Enke's Comet, from Professor Enke, of Berlin, has been found to revolve once in 1,207 days, or 3^ years ; but, in this case, the revolving body is found at each successive approach to the sun, to be a little earlier than on the previous occasion, showing that its orbit is gradually lessening, so that it may be expected ulti- mately to fall into the sun. This fact has suggested that some part of that space through which the comet passes, must be occupied by a matter presenting some resistance to the move- ment of any denser body ; arid it is supposed that this matter may prove to be the same which has been described as con- stituting the zodiacal light. It is called a resisting medium j- and future observations upon it are expected to be attended with results of a most important nature, seeing that, if there be such a matter extending beyond the orbit of the earth, that planet, in whose welfare we are so much interested, will be exposed to the same ultimate fate with Enke's Comet. The third, named Beila's Comet, from M. Beila, of Joseph- stadt, revolves round the sun in 64 years. It is very small, and has no tail. In 1832, this comet passed through the earth's path about a month before the arrival of our planet at the same point. If the earth had been a month earlier at that point, or the comet a month later in crossing it, the two bodies would have been brought together, and the earth, in all probability, would have instantly become unfit for the existence of the human family. Comets often pass unobserved, in consequence of the part of the heavens in which they move being then under daylight. During a total eclipse of the sun, which happened sixty years before Christ, a large comet, not formerly seen, became visi- ble, near the body of the obscured luminary. On many occa- sions, their smallness and distance render them visible only by the aid of the telescope. On other occasions, they are of vast size. The comet now called Halley's, at its appearance in 1456, covered a sixth part of the visible extent of the heavens, and was likened to a Turkish scimitar. That of 1680, which was observed by Sir Isaac Newton, had a tail calculated to be 123,000,000 of miles in length, a space greater than the distance of the earth from the sun. There was a comet in 1744, which had six tails, spread out like a fan across a large space in the heavens. The tails of comets usually stretch in the direction opposite to the sun, both in advancing and retiring, and with a slight wave at the outer extremity, as if that part experienced some resistance. THE STARS. The idea at which astronomers have arrived respecting the stars, is, that they are all of them suns, resembling our own, but diminished to the appearance of mere specks of light by the great distance at which they are placed. As a necessary consequence to this supposition, it may be presumed that they are centers of light and heat to systems of revolving planets, each of which may be further presumed to be the theater of forms of beings, bearing some analogy to those which exist upon earth. The stars, seen by the naked eye on a clear night, are about two thousand in number. This, allowing a like number for the half of the sky not seen, gives about four thousand, in all, of visible stars. These are of different degrees of brilliancy, probably in the main in proportion to their respective dis- tances from our system, but also perhaps in some measure in proportion to their respective actual sizes. Astronomers class the stars under different magnitudes, not with regard to ap- parent size, for none of them present a measurable disk, but with a regard to the various quantities of light flowing round them ; thus, there are stars of the first magnitude, the second magnitude, and so on. Only six or seven varieties of magni- tude are within our natural vision ; but with the telescope vast numbers of more distant stars are brought into view ; and the magnitudes are now extended by astronomers to at least sixteen. The stars are at a distance from our system so very great, that the mind can form no idea of it. The brilliant one called Sirius or the Dog-star, which is supposed to be the nearest, merely because it is the most luminous, has been reckoned by tolerably clear calculation to give only i-20,ooo,oooth part of the light of the sun ; hence, supposing it to be of the same size, and every other way alike, it should be distant from our earth not less than 1,960,000,000,000,000,000 miles. An at- tempt has been made to calculate the distance of Sirius by a trigonometrical problem. It may be readily supposed that the position of a spectator upon the earth with respect to celestial objects must vary considerably at different parts of the year : for instance, on the 2ist of June, he must be in ex- actly the opposite part of the orbit from what he was on the 2ist of December — indeed, no less than 190,000,000 of miles from it, or twice the distance of the earth from the sun. This change of position with relation to celestial objects is called parallax. Now, it has been found that Sirius is so distant, that an angle formed between it and the two extremities of the earth's orbit is too small to be appreciated. Were it so much as one second, or the 3,600th part of a degree, it could be appreciated by the nice instruments we now possess ; but it is not even this. It is hence concluded that Sirius must be at least 19,200,000,000 of miles distant, however much more ! Supposing this to be its distance, its light would take three years to reach us, though traveling, as it does, at the rate of 192,000 miles in a second of time ! -^ THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE. % 4SS $f THE RULES OF DEBi^TE, ^^1 AND F)QW TO CONDUCT ONE, j ^^ ,^M PUBLIC MEETINGS. PUBLIC meeting is the assemblage of a portion of the people, for the expression of opinion upon matters of local or gen- eral concern. The proceedings are but few and simple ; yet, to preserve order during its session, and to give effect to its action, the meeting has to be guided by defined rules from the time of its projection to the moment of its close. A DEMOCRATIC MEETING 1 The citizens of Blank, in favor of the policy of the Demo- cratic party, are requested to meet on Saturday Evening, Sep- tember gth, at the house of Jasper Clyde, Bridge Street, at 7 o'clock, to take such measures as are deemed advisable to pro- mote the success of the party in the coming election. The notice is also published in the county newspaper, should there be one. Meanwhile, the proposers of the affair, either after a caucus or individually, obtain the consent of some speaker, say a Mr. Joseph Becker, to be present and give his views on public topics. In that case, the advertisement closes with an an- nouncement like this : "A. B., Esq., has accepted an invitation to address the meeting. " The projectors meanwhile meet in caucus, and agree upon officers. They select for chairman Mr. Charles Kendrick, an old resident and a man of standing, and Mr. John Travers, to act as secretary, and these gentlemen consent to take the posi- tions assigned them. When the evening comes, and the meeting has assembled, no business is begun until half an hour after the hour named. This interval is called " thirty minutes' grace," and is always allowed, through custom, for the difiference in watches. At yi o'clock, Mr. William Irwin steps forward and says : "The meeting will please come to order." Every one hereupon suspends conversation, and, so soon as all is quiet, Mr. Irwin continues : "I move that Mr. Charles Kendrick act as President of this meeting." Mr. Parke Neville says : " I second the motion." Then Mr. Irwin puts the question thus : " It has been moved and seconded that Mr. Charles Kendrick act as president of this meeting. So many as are in favor of the motion will signify their assent by saying ' aye ! ' " As soon as those in the affirmative have voted, he will say : " Those who are opposed, will say 'no ! ' " If there are more ayes than noes, as there will be, unless Mr. Kendrick be very unpopular indeed, he will say : " The ayes have it. The motion is carried. Mr. Kendrick will take the chair." If, on the contrary, the noes prevail, he will say : " The noes have it. The motion is lost." Thereupon he will nominate some other, or put the ques- tion upon other nominations. As soon as a chairman is chosen, he will take his place. Mr. Thomas Turbot then says : " I move that Mr. John Travers act as secretary of this meeting. " This motion is seconded, and the chairman puts the ques- tion and declares the result. The form of putting the question to the chairman may be simplified thus : ' ' Mr. Charles Kendrick has been nominated as president of this meeting. Those in favor, will say ' aye ! ' — Contrary opinion, 'no ! '" The meeting is now organized. The chairman will direct the secretary to read the call. When that has been done, he will say : " You have heard the call under which we have assembled ; what is your further pleasure ? " Hereupon, Mr. John Smith says : " I move that a committee of three be appointed to draft resolutions expressive of the sense of this meeting." This is seconded. - £ifcr/^o rY?T£/^