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T no period in the history of the United States has the necessity
for a cheap but perfect Cyclopedia of Useful Knowledge been
so imperative.

So keen is the competitive spirit of the age, that the advan-
tage of knowledge in the struggle for advancement is apparent
to all.

A good education is the best legacy we can leave to our children.
It is the best investment we can make for ourselves. The educated man, in every
walk of life, carries with him his own capital — a capital unaffected by monetary
crises — an investment whose interest is not regulated by the success of specula-
tion — a legacy which none can dispute, and of which none can deprive him.

This is essentially a practical book. Its aim and object is to enable people
to educate themselves. The ambition of the Publisher is to place in every
American home this treasury of knowledge, invaluable as a manual of study and
a work of reference ; and while it is simple, progressive and interesting in style,
is a veritable power, from the manner in which it enforces education. A reference
to the list of contents will show, that under various heads are included those
numerous branches of study essential to the varied walks of life, while its social
forms convey those instructions which so qualify persons of both sexes for appear-
ing to the highest advantage in society.

Collier's Cyclopedia and Veritable Treasury of Knowledge contains a
complete digest of Mercantile Law, together with forms of Legal Documents,
Government Bonds, and a dictionary of law terms, enabling every man to become
his own lawyer. The newest and best system of Phonography is copiously
illustrated. Bookkeeping in all its branches ; arithmetic and algebra, together
with a lightning calculator, form prominent features in this invaluable work.

< \

'(\

^ %

^ PREFACE. ^

The Complete Letter Writer is a gem in its way ; and the selections of English
prose and verse, from the works of the most renowned authors, are as chaste
as they are elegant and classical. A very important section in this Treasury of
Knowledge is the self teaching of French and German, and the self instructor —
illustrated — for the Piano and the singing voice.

The Golden Rules of Etiquette will prove invaluable to those desirous of
entering into, and shining in society ; and the indoor games, parlor magic, etc.,
will serve to render the winter nights "bright as day;" while the outdoor, com-
prising gymnastics, riding, driving, etc., cannot fail to work the most beneficial
and healthful results to those who are enabled to profit by the instruction.

The laws of health also form a portion of the Cyclopedia ; nor have the all
important items of agriculture or gardening been omitted. A glance at the Index
will convey some slight idea of the numerous and varied subjects which the
compiler has dealt with.

Never within the scope of any one volume have so many subjects been so
skilfully compressed, each of which is handled in so able a manner as to render
its study a source of intense enjoyment, while affording the most advanced
information.

The Publisher has spared no expense in editing and illustrating, while the
volume, for beauty, finish and cheapness, is a marvel of taste and progress.

S3fe -<^

PAGB.

Grammar '. . i

A Compendious English Grammar 7

Synonyms of Words in General Use 33

Select Short Prose Quotations 52

Poetical Quotations 69

French, Self-Taught 96

German, Self-Taught 113

A Guide for the Piano-Forte Player 127

A Practical Guide for Singers 154

Hints to Stammerers - • • 165

Penmanship 167

Phonography, or Short Hand 176

Languages l8l

The Letter Writer 183

Various Forms of Invitations 195

Speeches 200

Toasts and Sentiments 203

Bookkeeping 207

Arithmetic 221

Arithmetical Amusements 228

The Lightning Calculator 234

Algebra 242

Gymnastics '. 249

Riding 262

Driving 268

Lessons in Bicycle Riding 272

Swimming , 277

Drowning 281

Rowing 283

Mercantile Law 288

Forms of Legal Documents 3^4

Government Bonds 314

Dictionary of Law Terms 317

PAGB.

Miscellaneous Tables 330

Brief History of the United States 351

Declaration of Independence 366

Constitution of the United States 368

Out-Door Games 375

Parlor Games 390

Games of Cards 391

Games of Skill 414

Parlor Magic 431

Physics without Appliances 444

Astronomy 449

The Rules of Debate and How to Conduct One 455

Phrenology 471

Knots and Splices 477

A Full Rigged Ship 482

Home Studies for Young Ladies 483

Architecture 488

The Atmosphere 495

How to get up a Fair 497

Proverbs and Old Sayings 509

Agriculture 525

Cattle 541

The Horse 545

Poultry 563

The Cultivation of Fruit 577

Carving • 585

Etiquette for Ladies 589

Etiquette for Gentlemen 597

Etiquette for Party and Ball-room 604

Etiquette of Courtship and Matrimony 617

Etiquette of Mourning 627

Golden Rules 631

The Language of Flowers 636

How to Preserve your Health 645

4r-

Sfe-

M!iiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiitf|^^^^|iii|toiiiiiiiiii|iiiii'i

GRAMMAR.

RAMMAR is the sci-
ence of language, and
its principal use is to en-
able those who study it
to express their thoughts
with correctness and
propriety, so as to be under-
stood by those whom they
address.

It must always be remem-
bered that grammars can
only define, but cannot de-
termine, the correct use of
language. This depends, in
every instance, upon the
forms of thought and meaning to be conveyed ;
and in all languages was settled and employed
long before the studies of grammarians commenced.
And at this very time it may be seen how com-
pletely powerless are all the grammatical treatises
on our own tongue, now existing, to prevent such
changes as the disuse of the subjunctive mood of
verbs, etc., from being made in the forms of the
English language ; by which the power of express-
ing some finer shades of meaning must be greatly
circumscribed, if not entirely lost.

The best method, therefore, to be pursued by
any one who desires to become practically and thor-
oughly acquainted with his mother-tongue, is care-
fully to read some select works of our best authors,
in the manner now to be described, with the help of
such a compendious grammar as that contained in
the following pages. This method, by the peculiar
interest it excites, relieves the study of all drudg-
ery ; and at the same time furnishes one of the most
satisfactory means of intellectual training, and an
available introduction to the study of any other

language to which the attention may afterward be
directed.

2. The following paragraphs form the commence-
ment of Lord Bacon's Essay,

"OF STUDIES.

" I. Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and
for ability.

" II. Their chief use for delight is in privateness
and retiring ; for ornament, is in discourse ; and foi
ability, is in the judgment and disposition of busi-
ness.

" III. For expert men can execute and perhaps
judge of particulars, one by one ; but the general
counsels and the plots, and marshaling of affairs,
come best from those that are learned.

*' IV. To spend too much time in studies is sloth ;
to use them too much for ornament is affectation ;
to make judgment only by their rules is the humor of
a scholar.

"V. They perfect nature, and are perfected by
experience ; for natural abilities are like natural
plants, that need pruning by study, and studies them-
selves do give forth directions too much at large,
except they be bounded in by experience.

" VI. Crafty men contemn studies; simple men ad-
mire them ; and wise men use them, for they teach
not their own use ; but that is a wisdom without
them and above them, won by observation.

"VII. Read not to contradict and confute; nor to
believe and take for granted ; nor to find talk and
discourse; but to weigh and consider."

3. In the first paragraph we find something spoken
of, " studies," and something said about \\\&a\,\\z., that
they " serve " for certain purposes, as " for delight,"

-^^

^§^
^

GRAMMAR.

" ornament," and " ability." The several parts may
be arranged thus :

Studies serve.

for delight,
for ornsunent
and
for ability.

They are thus distinguished according to their
offices in the paragraph, which can readily be no-
ticed, when thus arranged, without the employment
of any names for them.

4. The paragraph numbered (2) may be arranged
in this manner : —

i( privateness
for delight is in-< and
( retiring ;
for ornament . . is in discourse ;
and (judgment ) „,

'°^^''"^^ ^"-"^^'idis^sttion^usriess.

Here the three purposes mentioned in the former
paragraph are the things spoken of j and certain
things are said about each of them, though not ex-
actly in the same manner as those purposes were
said to be answered by " studies," above. These
two parts, therefore — something spoken of, and some-
thing said about it — we may note as essential to a
complete and intelligible sentence of the kind before
us ; and we may adopt the names given to them by
grammarians — subject and predicate; which,
signifying precisely what has just been said, require
no further explanation.

5 . Paragraph (3) we arrange thus :

( execute | J particulars,
For . . . expert men . . .can •< and \ ■•{ one by one,

(judge of) perhaps;

but..

the general counsels 1

and ( _„_- J from those that are

( plots ) f • • • <=»•"« • • • 1 learned best,

the -< and V of affairs J

( marshaling |

4r-

Both subjects and predicates here are somewhat
complex, " Expert " is prefixed to " men ; " " gen-
eral " to " counsels ; " and to " the plots and mar-
shalling " are appended the words " of affairs ; " just
as in paragraph (2) "chief " was prefixed to " use,"
and " for delight, for ornament, and for ability "
added to the same word, with the evident intention
of circumscribing and defining it. And with a simi-
lar intention, the meaning of " can execute and
judge of " is carried out and completed by " particu-
lars " and " one by one ; " and that of the latter
predicate, "can judge of," is further limited by the
word " perhaps " being attached to it. In the sec-
ond part of the paragraph, also, " from those that are

learned," and " best," are appended to the predicate
" come." And so in paragraph (i), " for delight, for
ornament, and for ability," follow the word " serve ; "
and in paragraph (2), after " is," comes "in private-
ness and retiring, in discourse," etc.

It is evident that these appended words and
phrases, although they are of the highest moment to
the full and precise expression of the thoughts,
when regard is had to the structure of the sentences
alone, are not essential, but subordinate parts there-
of. And they have accordingly received from gram-
marians distinct names ; those employed to describe
and define subjects being designated attributives ;
and those employed with predicates, for the purpose
of modifying and supplementing their meaning —
objects ; which terms we will use for the future, to
avoid trouble and confusion.

6. But we may observe further, that the attribu-
tives, which have occurred in these paragraphs, are
of two kinds. One kind (like the subjects) consists
of names of things, called by grammarians nouns ;
as "delight," "ornament," "ability," "business,"
" affairs ; " and these have before them the little
words " of " and " for," which are known as prepo-
sitions, to attach them to the subjects. The other
kind consists of epithets merely, and not of names,
as "chief," "expert," "general;" and they are
called adjectives.

In paragraph (3) we find another word, " the,"
used very much in the same way as adjectives are
used ; except that its sole force is to point to the
subject particularly spoken of ; whence it has been
named the demonstrative. And in paragraph (2)
there is a word, " their," in form closely resembling
it ; but (in this instance) meaning, "of studies." It
is plainly an adjective ; but it is also called a pro-
noun, from its being thus used instead of a noun.

One other word, "and," which occurs in the sub-
jects of these paragraphs, requires a passing glance.
Its use is obvious ; it connects certain parts of sen-
tences together, so as to save much repetition, and
the inconveniences that must result from it, and it is
designated a conjunction.

7. Before we speak of the different kinds of object-
ive words and phrases which we meet with in these
paragraphs, some further notice should be taken of
the predicates. In paragraph (i), and in the second
example in paragraph (3), they are perfectly simple,
consisting of the words " serve " and " come " alone ;

GRAMMAR.

words which convey assertions, and speak of some
sort of action, and are called verbs. " Can execute
and judge of " (observe the use of the conjunction)
are also verbs, but the latter has a preposition at-
tached to it, to bring it into a particular relation
with the objects that follow ; and to both of them is
prefixed the word ** can," which alters their force
from the assertion of action to the assertion of the
mere capability of it. In paragraph (2), again, we
have for predicates, " in privateness and retiring,"
in " discourse," etc., — which are plainly nouns with
prepositions ; and the quality of predicates is given
to them by the employment of the word " is " with
each, which changes them from attributives into as-
sertions. " Is " must consequently be called a verb,
although it only expresses being and not action.
The complex character of these predicates must be
observed ; and the conjunctions, the demonstrative,
and the addition of the attributive, " of business," to
one of them (which happens because they are actu-
ally nouns) carefully noted.

8. Turning now to the objects, we see in para-
graph ( I ) that they indicate the purpose or effect of _
the action expressed by the verb ; and, in this ex-
ample, are nouns attached to the verb by the help of
prepositions, — " for delight," " for ornament," etc.
In paragraph (3) the first object, "particulars,"
which is also a noun, indicates that on which the
action represented by the verbs " execute and judge
of," takes effect. Observe, also, that just as in the
words " studies," " plots," and " affairs," the fact
that more than one of the kind is meant, is shown
by the addition of the letter " s " to the ordinary
word ; whilst in the instance of " men," the same
fact is indicated by the change of the vowel sound
from " a " in man.

The second object, " one by one," is of a dif-
ferent kind. It indicates the manner of execution
and judgment ; and consists of a word signifying
number, called a numeral, repeated, with a preposi-
tion. '* Perhaps," which is the third object, belongs
to the predicate, "judge of," only ; and is inserted
for the purpose of lessening the strength of the
assertion conveyed by the predicate. Words like it
are called by grammarians adverbs. The second
object in the other example contained in this para-
graph, " best," is of the same class of words ; but,
instead of lessening the force of the predicate, it is
employed to intensify it.

9. " From those that are learned," is a very re-
markable kind of object ; for it contains a complete
sentence in itself. The actual object is " those,"
attached to the predicate by the preposition
" from ; " and indicating the source and origin of
the action expressed by the verb. " Those " is not,
however, the name of anything ; but it stands here
for " those men ; " and thus partakes of the nature
of pronouns, while it also serves demonstratively
to point out the specific description of men spoken
of. In consequence of its being in part a pronoun,
it can liave an attributive attached to it, and the
sentence, " that are learned," serves as an attribu-
tive, to define and describe the '* men " particularly
intended.

The predicate of this sentence, " are learned,"
is of the same kind as those in paragraph (2), only
an adjective takes the place of the nouns there
used. The subject is neither a name nor an epi-
thet, but a kind of pronoun, since it stands for
" men," and plainly for the same men as " those "
did ; and, from its having relation thus to a noun
already known, is called a relative pronoun. Sen-
tences used in this manner are called accessory
sentences, to mark their subordinate character,
and their connection with the sentences of which
they form parts, distinguished as principal sen-
tences.

Only two words remain to be spoken of. "For,"
at the commencement of this paragraph, shows its
connection in meaning with the preceding para-
graph ; or, more correctly, with the last sentence in
it ; for which it assigns a reason. " But," on the
other hand, separates the two parts of this para-
graph, by way of contrast ; so that it is manifest
that not the first, but the second part of it, contains
the reason for the assertion made in the foregoing
paragraph. Both words are called conjunctions,
from their thus serving to connect otherwise dis-
joined and independent sentences together ; yet it
is evident that they are not conjunctions of the
same nature as " and."

10. Paragraph (4) contains the principal sen
tences :

„ , ) too much time

To spend .... -j in studies

i them ]

< for ornament, >• — is .

I too much )

i'udgmeat
ly their rules

to use

iiudgt
. . ■< by thi
(only

[....
[....

[.........

sloth ;
affectation ;

the humor of a scholar

GRAMMAR.

Of these predicates, since they so nearly resemble
those of paragraph (2), we only need to observe,
that the nouns are used without prepositions to
modify their meaning ; and the word "a." (before
" scholar "), contracted from "an," is a numeral,
and merely means " one," but in what we may call a
somewhat general way.

The remarkable character of these sentences
lies in the subjects, which, as we can perceive at
the first glance, are verbs with objects, — and yet
are not accessory sentences, since no assertions are
made. This form of the verb, with the preposi-
tion " to " prefixed, differs entirely from the forms
we have seen employed in the predicates. Gram-
marians distinguish all verbs used in this last-named
way, as being in the indicative mood ; and those
with " to " before them as being in the infinitive
mood. They are, in fact, as we see, used like
nouns, only, being verbs, instead of attributives
to define them, they have objects to complete
them.

II. Some of these objects are in forms which
we have already noticed ; " time " and " judgment ''
are like " particulars " in paragraph (3), the direct
objects of the action of the verbs they follow ;
" in studies " represents, by a very natural metaphor,
that of place, the peculiar circumstances of the ac-
tion spoken of ; "for ornament " precisely resembles
the "for delight," &c., of paragraph (i) ; but the
object, "by their rules," expresses the means by
which the action of the verb is accomplished.
" Them," we see, is a pronoun, as it stands for the
word " studies ; " and it is the direct object of the
verb " use ; " it is one of the very few words in
our language which have two forms, one employed
when it is a subject, "they," and another when it
is an object, as we find it here, " them." Here are
also two objects belonging to the class of words
called adverbs, " much " and " only," both of them
expressive of the manner in which the action of the
verbs they follow is performed ; and the first of
them has the adverb " too " prefixed, for the purpose
of intensifying the meaning of "much,"

The first object has the words " too much "
prefixed, as an attributive ; " too " being here, as in
the instance last noted, an adverb expressive of
intensity ; but " much," what is termed an indefinite
numeral, expressing quantity merely in a general
way. There is another of the series with an attribu-

tive prefixed, " their rules ; " but of this we have
spoken in connexion with paragraph (2).

12. We find the next paragraph (5) rather com-
plex, as this arrangement of it shows :

I perfect nature,

They....-< and

r are perfected, .by experience;

(natural abilities .are . . like
and
studies themselves, .do give.

[by study ;

natural plants, .that, .need . .pruning

'directions

forth,

too much at large, | in by

.except.they.be bounded. ■< experi-
( ence.

In the first part of this paragraph we find the same
pronoun used as a subject, which we have just seen
in its objective form. Grammarians call these dif-
ferent forms cases ; and that now before us, the
nominative or subjective case ; that in the last para-
graph, the accusative or objective case.

13. The first predicate and object are in the
same form as several we have seen above ; but the
second predicate is quite new to us. It signifies
that "experience perfects studies," just as "they
perfect nature ; " but we find what should be the
subject following the predicate, and the real object
in the place appropriated to the subject ; the form
of the predicate, too, is changed, and a preposition
is inserted between it and the word " experience."
We must admit, however, that the passage would
lose immensely in compactness, vivacity, and force
if it were written thus: " They perfect nature, and
experience perfects them ; " so that the reason for
using this peculiar form is manifest.

It is distinguished by grammarians thus : When
the agent of the verb is the subject, the verbal form
employed is called active ; but when the immediate
object of the verb is the agent, the form employed is
called passive. And in our tongue all passive forms,
just as in this instance, consist of that form of the
verb which grammarians call the perfect participle —
a form resembling an adjective in this, that it can
be used as an attributive ; but also partaking of the
nature of a verb, inasmuch as the notion it conveys
is modified so as to express the completeness of the
action. The object following this verb here ex-
presses the means by which what is spoken of the
subject is effected ; as we have seen before. How
the two sentences are combined by the conjunc-
tion, so that one subject serves for both, we need
not more particularly point out.

14. " For," prefixed to the second part of the

hr-

GRAMMAR.

paragraph, introduces two reasons for the last asser-
tion respecting the influence of *' experience " upon
" studies ; " as was seen in paragraph (3). Of the
first reason, we have only to say, that the real
predicate of the sentence is " like," to which the
words, "natural plants," are added as an object ; and
that in the accessory sentence, added as a second
attributive to " plants," whilst *' pruning " is the im-
mediate object of the verb "need ; " " by study " is
an object annexed to "pruning." For this last word
is another of the participles, properly the imperfect
one, which, like the verb, at times requires some
attempering object, as we see here.

In the second reason, we must notice, first, an
attributive attached to the subject, which we have
not met with before, — " themselves." It is un-
doubtedly a pronoun, and it is here used as a most
emphatic demonstrative. The objective form of one
part of it, " them," does not concern us here. Next,
we notice the predicate, which is in a form we have
not before seen ; but which is only equivalent to the
word " give," alone, except that it is rather more
emphatic. Grammarians call these words, "do,"
" can," " are," &c., when employed as in this case,
auxiliary, or helping verbs. The first and second
objects to this sentence do not require particular
notice ; and in the third, " too much at large," it is
only needful to observe the use of an adjective pre-
ceded by a preposition, and having an adverbial
phrase, which we have met with, before it, to express
the manner of the action.

Of the third object, which is an accessory sen-
tence, more is to be said. It is annexed to the prin-
cipal sentence by means of a conjunction, " except,"
which implies some limitation to the meaning of the
predicate and the preceding objects ; but the form
of its own predicate is different from any we have
yet seen. Comparing it with the second predicate
in this paragraph, "are perfected," we find that it is
a passive form ; but the employment of " be " in-
stead of " are," shows that the limitation hinges
upon the effect of " experience " upon the " studies "
spoken of. The forms of verbs which are thus used,
to express contingency, have been called by gramma-
rians the subjunctive mood ; they are far more rarely
used now than they once were, and have, indeed,
almost entirely disappeared from our spoken language.

15. Paragraph (6) affords us an opportunity of
remarking some other facts in English Grammar :

for

Crafty men
simple men
and
wise men

Uiey

contemn
admire

use
teach

studies ;
them;

them;

their own use ;

not;

f without them.

''"^ •• "^^ '« •• ^^»«»°'° abSvethem,

twon by observation.

In the first three sentences there is nothing new to
observe, except the use of the conjunction "and,"
without any abbreviation or condensation ; it here
serves only to combine all three assertions together,
so that the reasons assigned in the remainder of the
paragraph are seen to apply equally to all. We may,
however, notice the fact, that the association of the
several attributives with their objects is effected en-
tirely by juxtaposition ; there being nothing in the
forms of the words specially to indicate their relation
to the words they belong to. But the relation of the
predicates to their subjects is shown by the agree-
ment of their forms in one essential particular, called
by grammarians number. Thus in paragraph (2)
the noun " use," which is the subject, expresses but
one thing ; and the form of the verb, " is," applies
to no more than one ; whilst in paragraph (5),
"they" (which is equivalent to "studies") and
" abilities," referring to more things than one, have
the form of the verb " are," which also applies to
more than one, in the predicates following them.
And similarly here, the subjects being in the plural
number, " men," the verbs in the predicates are also
in the plural, "contemn," "admire," "use."

In like manner the place occupied by the word
"studies," shows it to be the object of the verb
" contemn ; " but the relation of the objects to the
predicates in the other two sentences is indicated
not only by their position, but (as we have before
observed) also, and more certainly, by the form em-
ployed, "them."

16. Little needs to be said respecting the first sen-
tence, which is introduced by the conjunction "for,"
most of its forms being familiar ; but we may note
the use of the word " own," an adjective rendering
the pronoun, " their," emphatic. In the last sentence
the subject is not a relative, but a demonstrative
pronoun, and its reference to the "use" of "stud-
ies " is shown by the order of the words, or, as the
grammarians say, by the construction. Besides this,
only the attributives to the predicate, which is here a
noun, require remark ; for two of them, " without
them, and above them," are pronouns attached by

GRAMMAR.

prepositions, exactly as we have seen nouns attached,
in paragraphs (2), (3), and (4), but showing their
subordinate position to the subject, by being in the
objective or accusative case ; and the third, " won
by observation," is a participle with an object ex-
pressive of means.

This participle is not formed in the same way as
those were formed which we have before met with.
" Perfect-ed " and " bound-ed " have been made by
the addition of the final syllable ; but ** won " is
formed by the change of the vowel in the verb " win."

17. The last paragraph (7) we thus arrange :

( contradict

not to ■< and

( confute ;

Read

(1
to -I:

believe
and

take for granted ;
( tall£

nor to find < and

( discourse ;
( weigh

.but to •< and

/ consider.

Here we have a predicate "read," and a consider-
able number of objects, but there is no subject ; yet
the sense is complete. There is, however, no assertion
made by the verb ; on the contrary, it conveys a
command ; and the subject, if expressed, would not
occupy the customary place to the left of the predi-
cate, but would come between it and the objects.
Grammarians distinguish the forms of verbs which
signify commands as the imperative mood. The
four principal groups of objects belong to one and
the same class, that which expresses the purpose or
design of the action ; and they are so combined by
the conjunctions, "nor" and "but," as to enable a
single verb to act as predicate to them all. The
conjunction, "nor," serves to give to the second and
third groups the same negative character that is im-
parted to the first by the negative object " not ; "
and the fourth is contrasted with all the preceding
groups, as stating the design that should be kept in
view in reading, by the use of " but."

In the expression, "to take for granted," we
have a participle attached to a verb by means of a
preposition, as an object needful to complete it ; and
the next group shows two nouns, " talk and dis-
course," combined by the conjunction "and," so as
to spare the repetition of the verb " to find," to
which they both serve as " objects."

18. From this illustration, extending only to
seven paragraphs — and those neither long nor very
greatly complicated — may be seen, both what Eng-
lish grammar actually is, and what a large and clear
knowledge of its facts and laws may be attained by
the plan of study which we have recommended. It
may also be seen how completely language is the
product and representation of the thought or mean-
ing of those who speak or write ; and how subordi-
nate is the office of the grammarian — limited, in fact,
to the elucidation and interpretation of the forms
and principles of language, by the most general laws
and forms of thought. For not only cannot the
grammarian determine what forms shall be used, and
what discountenanced and avoided ; but he cannot
possibly frame his declensions and conjugations, his
concords and governments, so as to provide a place
for every combination and inflexion and mode of
giving expression to the infinitely diversified shades
of meaning, even in the language of common life.

19. The following example will show how easy
it is to analyze and arrange the most complicated
paragraphs, so as to exhibit, without the employ-
ment of a single technical term, every fact both of
Etymology and Syntax contained in it. The pas-
sage is from Locke's " Essay concerning Human
Understanding." Book iv., chap, i., § i.

" God, having designed man for a sociable creat-
ure, made him not only with an inclination, and
under a necessity, to have fellowship with those of
his own kind, but furnished him also with language,
which was to be the great instrument and common
tie of society."

maH» ^ J with an inclination,

™^* land

Qod .. -I L under a necessity

but also [ having designed { for" sociable creature,

furnished ... I*^*?. , ... , ^

I with language, . . . which . . . was to be

""^'L^ho^- (fellowship

po nave ^^jjjj tijogg <,£ ijj;, q^q kind,

( instrument
thcK and

( common tie

society.

or THE ^ ^\

VNIYER8ITY )

GRAMMAR.

^''^^^^^,

%pet\A^°

RAM MAR is divided into two parts —
one which treats of the classification,
formation, derivation, and inflection of
words by themselves, and is called Ety-
mology ; — and another, which treats of the
combination of words into sentences, &c.,
and is called Syntax.
When languages are analyzed in any state already
reached, and not in a state of transition, they be-
come the subject of special grammar belonging to
the province of linguistics. Comparative grammar
seeks, by comparing the grammars of several lan-
guages, to reach the laws of inflection and construc-
tion common to them, and finally to all languages.
General or historic grammar attempts to explain the
growth of language within a specified group.

In this short treatise the formation and derivation
of words are not included under Etymology, but are
added by way of illustration to the concise History
of the English Language, which forms the conclud-
ing portion of it. By this means, not only is some
repetition spared, but, being disencumbered of that
which is rather curious than useful, this Etymology
is rendered more serviceable to those for whom it is
specially intended.

Both Etymology and Syntax, it must be ob-
served, are arranged, in the first place, with a view
to assist in a study of the English language ; and
next, to present such an elucidation of its principal
facts, and such an interpretation of its most impor-
tant laws, as .shall give to those who consider them
attentively, some real and practical knowledge of
their own tongue. And with the same intent, those
technicalities only have been introduced, and those
examples selected, which might be expected to aid
in the simplification and explanation of the subject.

LETTERS, ETC.

2. There are twenty-six letters in the English Al-
phabet ; which have always been arranged in the
following order, and are of these forms in Roman
type : A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f , G g, H h, I i,
J j, K k, L 1, M m, N n, O o, P p, Q q, R r, S s,
T t, U u, V v, W w, X X, Y y, Z z.

The number of sounds to be represented by these
letters is estimated at about forty ; and, in conse-
quence, several of them have to stand for more
sounds than one. It is somewhat remarkable that
since this is the case, the letters c, q, and x should
be superfluous ; the two sounds of c being repre-
sented by s and k, as in c&\\, stW ; calends, kalends ;
q, being always followed by «, with the sound ex-
pressible by kw J and the sounds of .r differing in no
respect from those of ks, gz, and z (in some words
borrowed from the French). It would be of con-
siderable advantage, if symbols for the sounds repre-
sented now by the combinations of letters, ch, sh, ih,
ng, &c., could be devised and introduced ; but this
is a matter of such great difficulty, as to be almost
impossible.

3. The twenty-six letters are divided into
two classes — Vowels and Consonants. The vowels
are, a, e, /, o, u j and with them w and^ ought to be
placed. They represent the sounds which are pro-
duced by the transmission of the voice through the
mouth, whilst the cavity is more or less enlarged in
different directions. All the rest are named con-

^
-<^

GRAMMAR.

sonants, and represent the sounds produced when
the voice is interrupted by the voluntary action of
the throat, tongue, palate, nose, teeth, and lips.

Our vowel sounds differ from those of all other
languages of Europe ; one of the sounds which we
express by a, they express by e y where we write e,
they write i; where we use t, they employ et j and
our u corresponds with their eu. The natural series
of vowel sounds, expressed in letters of our alpha-
bet, is

ee, ay, ah, oh, oo.

The combinations of vowel sounds, called diph-
thongs and triphthongs, such as ae, ai, au, ei, ie, oe, oi,
ou, eau^ &c. , express the intermediate sounds of this
series, but they also do not correspond with those of
the other European languages,

4. Consonants are divided into three orders,
Mutes, Sibilants and Liquids ; and these are further
subdivided according to the organs employed in
giving utterance to them. Thus the mutes are
classified first as Smooth or Aspirated, and next in
the following manner ; the sounds for which we
have no symbols being inserted in their proper
places : —

Smooth. Aspirated.

Sudden. Gradual Sudden. Gradual.

Guttural k,c, q g ch (not English) gh (not English)

Dental t d M(in) M(ine)

Labial / b fi/>^ "v

The ch here is the terminal sound of the Scotch
word " loch ;" and the gh^ that of the Irish word
" lough. " The letter h finds no place in this scheme,
because it is, in fact, nothing but a sign of the
transmission of the breath called "aspiration," and
not of a sound at all.

The sibilants may be classified thus : —

Gradual.
Dental

Dental and Palatal
Dental and Guttural

Sudden,
s, c
sk

(a)0(ure)

<rA(est)
J

And the liquids may be arranged in this manner:

c:...^!.. i Guttural
Simple •{ Palatal

Nasal

( Guttural
< Dental
/ Labial

Qsi)ng

The letter x represents the sounds of ks, gs, and
sometimes of z.

5. Of the sounds expressed by the composition
of various letters, both vowels and consonants,
nothing more can be said, than that some of them
axe identical with sounds treated of above ; and

others are compounded of such sounds. Thus the
sound of the word l>uqy is identical with that of 6qy ;
and in " adhesive," the sound d is pronounced dis-
tinctly, and followed by the aspirate, or hard breath-
ing h

DERIVATION AND FORMA-
TION OF W^ORDS.

With the History of our Tongue, which follows
this Grammar, the subject is illustrated so as to show
the relation of the English language to other lan-
guages, which have formerly existed, or are spoken
at the present day. Here only the " internal rela-
tions " of words are regarded ; and the sole purpose
is the illustration of the manner in which, from the
radical words, wherein may be traced the ethnologi-
cal connections of the English race, other words
have in various ways been formed by the natural vi-
tality and power of the language.

7. Radical words (called by etymologists
" roots," simply) are either nouns, verbs, adjectives,
or pronouns ; expressive of common things, condi-
tions, actions, &c., &c. Primary Derivatives are
constructed by slight changes in the vowel sounds,
or in the consonants or in both ; and are sometimes
designated "stems." Secondary Derivatives are
formed by means of prefixes and affixes, from both
roots and primary derivatives. Ex. —

Roots.

Prim. Deriv.

Second. Deriv,

Bake

batch

baker, baxter

Bear

bier, birth

barrow, forbear

Bind

band, bond, bound

bandage, bondage, bundle

Bite

bit

biter

Bless

bliss

blessing

Blood

bleed

bloody

Brood

breed

Child

childish

Choose

choice

Chop

chip

Deal

dole

Die

dead, death

deadly

Drive

drove

drover

Duck

duckling

Fall

fell, foal

(De)file

foul, filth

filthy, fulsome

Find

foundling

Flee

fleet, fly, flight

Flow

flood

Forth

further, furtherance

Gape

gap

Gird

girder, girdle

Gold

gild, gilt

golden, gilding

Good

God

goodness, godJy, godliness

Guile

guilt

guilty

YiG2L\(io cover othide)h.A\ hole, hale, health

hellish, hollow, healer

Lead

lode

leader, mislead

--^

GRAMMAR.

Roots.

Prim. Z)er«Jk

Second. Deriv.

Lend

loan

Lie

lay, law

lien, lawyer, layer

Lose

loss, loose

loser, unloose

Man

mannikin, manhood

Milk

milch

pen, pound

Pride

proud

(Be)reave

raven

ravenous

Rise

raise, rouse

arise, arouse

See

sight

sightly

Shake

shock

shocking

Sing

song

singer, songster

Sit

set, seat

settle, settler

Speak

speech

speaker, bespeak

Stick

stake, stitch

Strike

stroke

Strong

strength

Tell

tale

Trow

truth

truthfulness

Wake

watch

waken, watchful

Weave

woof, web

weaver, webster

Win

winsome

Work

Wright

Wring

wrench, wrong

wrongful

Wry

writhe, wreath

8. Derivative words are also formed by composi-
tion ; that is, by the construction of a single word
out of two or more words, each capable of being
used independently. These compounds differ en-
tirely from the secondary derivatives, and are found
in every class of English words. They are not,
however, so numerous in our tongue as in the Ger-
man ; and in that they are less common than in the
Greek language. Ex. Sunshine, fairhaired, thun-
derstorm, harvestman, daybreak, nevertheless, therefore,
into, everlasting, midnight, noontime, elsewhere, how-
ever, undersell, overturn, because, hedgerow, ware-
houseman, earthquake, steamengine, railroad.

CLASSES OF W^ORDS.

9. The classification of words depends upon their
signification as parts of sentences, which will be
treated of under the head of " Syntax. " The fol-
lowing will, however, suffice as an introduction to
this part of the Grammar ; and the nature of Sub-
jects and Predicates, Attributives and Objects, with
the various means of expressing the relations between
them, will be treated of in the succeeding division.

Names of things, persons, and of whatever exists,
even in imagination, are called Nouns, and sometimes
Substantives. Ex. Tree, stone j man, boy ; Ccesar,
Wellington ; virtue, hope.

Words expressing an assertion respecting an ac-
tion or condition, or the reception of the conse-
quences of an action, or simply respecting existence,

are called Verbs. Ex. To run; to strike; to sleep ;
to be; to be beaten.

Attributives which can only in figurative language
be used without a noun (which they qualify in some
way) are called Adjectives. Ex. Good, bad, green,
high, everlasting.

These are the three principal classes of words,
which represent distinct notions of things, persons,
actions, qualities, &c., &c., formed in the mind.
Other words express not so much the notions we
have formed, as the connection of those notions
with each other, or their relations to us, or some of
the infinitely various associations of thoughts.

10. Pronouns serve not only to prevent the too
frequent repetition of the same nouns, but yet more
to indicate the relation of the persons or things
spoken of to the speaker. Such are the Personal
Pronouns. Others are used as attributives, but they
also show the relations of the subjects they charac-
terize to the speaker. Ex. /, thou, he, they; mine,
thine; this, those; whom, what.

Whatever exists, or acts, or is acted upon, is re-
garded as being, or acting, or being acted on, in
some particular time, place, manner, &c. ; and these
modifications of the simple notions indicated by the
verb are expressed by a class of words called Ad-
verbs. Ex. Now, where, so, seldom, perhaps.

Many of the relations of notions one to another,
also, are those of place, time, manner, means. &c.;
and these are expressed by words called Preposi-
tions, which serve to connect nouns and pronouns
with other nouns and pronouns, and with verbs. Ex.
From, by, of, to, after.

The connection of things, &c., with each other,
and of thoughts with other thoughts, is shown by
means of Conjunctions. Ex. And, or, but, though,
for.

Numerals are in part names, and in part attribu-
tives and adverbs; and therefore do not properly
form a class by themselves. Ex. Two, four, six;
first, tenth, hundredth; firstly, secondly, lastly.

Interjections, which are expressions of emotion,
such as fear, joy, pain, wonder, &c., and not of
thought, and the greater number of wliich are rather
sounds than words, cannot be noticed in a grammar ;
although it is convenient to have such a class to
which certain expressions which occur in the Dic-
tionary may be referred. Ex. Ah ! O ! Ha !

11. Nouns. The Gender of Nouns is determined

GRAMMAR.

by the sex of the persons or beings they represent,
being called Masculine or Feminine, as they are the
names of males or females. Beings without natural
sex, things without life, and abstractions are called
Neuter.

Figuratively, sex is attributed to many beings
naturally having no such distinction, and to abstrac-
tions. Ex. The sun, he is setting ; the moon, she is
rising ; Charity, she is the child of heaven. Very
small beings, whatever sex they may be of, and those
whose sex is not their distinctive characteristic, are
spoken of as neuter. Ex. The ant, // is a patron of
foresight and prudence ; the child, it knows not
what it does.

Very few words, in English, have terminations, or
other specialties of form, indicative of their gender ;
the following are examples of the only kinds, and
they are not numerous. Ex. Arbiter, Arbitress;
Prosecutor, Prosecutrix ; Margrave, Margravine ;
he-bear, she-bears Man-servant, Maid-servant. In
other instances different words are appropriated to
the two sexes, but without any peculiarity of termin-
ation. Ex. Brother, Sister; Horse, Mare; King,
Queen.

12. The only distinction of Number is that be-
tween one and more than one ; the ordinary forms
expressing the former, and being called Singular ;
and special forms being used for the latter, called
Plural.

Most commonly, s or (when it ends in a sibilant
or x) es is added to the singular. Ex. Sword,
swords J fish, fishes. Words ending in /or fe gen-
erally make their plurals in ves. Ex. Calf, calves;
life, lives. But all words ending in^, except staff,
staves, and several words in f or fe, add s without
any change of letters for the plural. Ex. Whiff,
whiffs ; grief, griefs ; fife, fifes. Those ending in
o, preceded by a vowel, add s only ; but if a conso-
nant precede the o, s or es is added. Ex. Cameo, cameos;
ratio, ratios; cargo, cargoes; volcano, volcanoes; por-
tico^ porticoes; solo, solos. Words ending in y after a
consonant have ies in the plural. Ex. fly, flies;
history, histories.

A very few change the vowel sound of the singu-
lar. Ex. Poot, feet ; goose, geese ; tooth, teeth ; woman,
women (pronounced wimmen). One adds en to the
singular — ox, oxen. One both changes the vowel
and adds en — brother, brethren.

Besides these, the following must be noted : Child

makes children in the plural. Mouse has mice, and
louse, lice; but it is the spelling only which is pecul-
iar. Penny has two plurals ; when coins are meant,
pennies, but when money is spoken oi, pence. In like
manner die, signifying a stamp for coining, has dies;
but when it means a cube used in play, dice. Pea
has peas and pease, the latter signifying peas collect-
ively, or used for food. Kin£ is sometimes used as
a plural to cow.

Deer, sheep, swine, are used in both numbers ; and
(when spoken of as food) fish, cod, salmon, ^'c.
The names of metals are made plural only when
employed to signify some particular things composed
of them. Ex. Irons, coppers, brasses. Articles of
trade and commerce which, in ordinary language,
are never used in the plural form, have plural forms
in the market. Ex. Cloth, oil, sugar, tea, ^'c. On
the other hand, beast, which has a regular and com-
monly used plural, is employed in the singular form
alone by Smithfield salesmen. Words signifying
abstract qualities seldom take the plural form, be-
cause they cannot have a plural meaning, except
when used figuratively. Ex. The honors of the
world ; the decencies of life. Names of measures,
weights, of some numbers, and of terms employed
numerically, are in some instances used in the singu-
lar form, with a plural meaning. Ex. A X.QX\.-pound
note, eighteen hundred and fifty-eight, an army of
eighty thousand men, twelve dozen of wine, three
brace of dogs, a fleet of twenty sail, twelve thousand
foot and three thousand horse, fifteen thousand stand
of arms, a hundred head of cattle, each weighing
thirty stone.

Alms, means, news, pains, and riches, which are
plural in form, are used both as singulars and as
plurals. Ashes, bellows, breeches, cates, dregs, gallows,
pincers, scissors, and tongs, have no singulars, either
in form or meaning. The names of some sciences,
derived from the Greek language, are plural in form,
but in meaning singular. Ex. Ethics, hydrostatics,
mathematics, mechanics, politics. And so is the term
morals. Suds, and wages, plural in form, are singu-
lar in signification ; and pulse (leguminous seeds),
also plural in form, is simply collective in its mean-
ing.

13. Almost all nouns, which have been simply
adopted from foreign languages, retain their original
plurals ; but some have also plurals formed in the
English fashion, and in a few instances with a dif-

GRAMMAR.

ferent meaning. The following is nearly a complete
list of these words : —

Singula*

Plural.

Abacus,

abaci.

Acroterion (not used).

acroteria.

Addendum,

addenda.

Alluvion, alluvium.

alluvia.

Alto-relievo,

alti-relievi.

Alumnus,

alumni.

Amanuensis,

amanuenses.

Amphibium (not used),

amphibia.

Amphora,

amphorae.

Analysis,

analyses.

Animalculum (not used),

animalcula.

Antenna,

antennae.

Anthropophagus (not used),

anthropophagi.

Antithesis,

antitheses.

Apex,

apices.

Aphelion,

aphelia.

Aphis,

aphides.

Apparatus (« short).

apparatus (a long), apparatuses

Appendix,

appendices, appendixes.

Aquarium,

aquaria, aquariums.

Arcanum,

arcana.

Asylum,

asyla, asylums.

Automaton,

automata, automatons.

Axis,

axes.

Bandit,

banditti.

Basis,

bases.

Basso-relievo,

bassi-relievi.

Beau,

beaux.

Bonvlvant,

bonsvivans.

Calculus,

calculi.

Calx,

calces.

Candelabrum,

candelabra.

Catachresis,

catachreses.

Census (a short).

census (a long), censuses.

Chateau,

chateaux.

Cherub,

cherubim, cherubs.

Cheval-de-frise,

chevaux-de-frise.

Chrysalis,

chrysalides, chrysalises.

Cicerone,

ciceroni.

Cilium,

cilia.

Colossus,

colossi.

Convolvulus,

convolvuli.

Corps,

corps,

Crisis,

crises.

Criterion.

criteria.

Datum,

data.

Desideratum,

desiderata.

Diaeresis,

diaereses.

Dictum,

dicta.

Dilettante,

dilettanti.

Dogma,

dogmata, dogmas.

Effluvium,

effluvia.

Ellipsis,

ellipses.

Emphasis,

emphases.

Emporium,

emporia, emporiums.

Encomium,

encomia, encomiums.

Ephemeris,

ephemerides.

Erratum,

errata.

Eulogium,

eulogia, eulogiums.

Fasciculus,

fasciculi.

Flambeau,

flambeaux.

Focus,

foci, focuses.

Foramen,

foramina.

Formula,

formulae, formulas.

Forum,

fora.

Fungus,

fungi, funguses.-

Singular,
Fulcrum,

Genius,

Genus,

Gymnasium,

Hiatus (« short\

Hippof>otamus,

Hypothesis,

Inamorato,

Ignis-fatuus,

Incubus,

Index,

Improvisatore,

Jeu-d'esprit,

Lamina,

Larva,

Lusus- (» short) naturae,

Lyceum,

Macula,

Madame (not used),

Magus,

Mausoleum,

Medium,

Memorandum,

Memorabile (not used).

Menstruum,

Mephitis,

Metamorphosis,

Miasma,

Millennium,

Minutia (not used).

Momentum,

Morceau,

Monsieur,

Narcissus,

Nautilus,

Nebula,

Nidus,

Nimbus,

Nostrum,

Novus homo.

Nucleus,

Oasis,

Orchis,

Ovum,

Parenthesis,

Parhelion.

Perihelion,

Phasis,

Phenomenon,

Polypus,

Premium,

Proboscis,

Prima donna,

Radius,

Ranunculus,

Regale (not used).

Rhombus.

Sarcophagus,

Savant,

Scholium,

Scoria^

Seraph,

Series,

Species.

Spectrum,

Si)eculum.

Sphinx,

Spicula,

Plural.
fulcra.

{genii, aerial beings.
geniuses, /«-jo«j of genius.

genera.

gymnasia.

hiatus (a long).

hippopotami.

hypotheses.

inamorati.

ignes-fatui.

incubi.
j indices, algebraic exponents.
\ indexes, pointers, tables of contents.

improvisatori.

ieux-d' esprit.

aminse.

arvae.

usus- (a long), naturae.

ycea, lyceums.

maculae.

mesdames.

magi.

mausolea.

media.

memoranda, memorandums.

memorabilia.

menstrua.

mephites.

metamorphoses.

miasmata.

millennia.

minutiae.

momenta.

morceaux,

messieurs.

narcissi.

nautili.

nebulae.

nidi.

nimbi.

nostra.

novi homines.

nuclei.

oases.

orchides, orchises.

ova.

parentheses.

parhelia.

perihelia.

phases.

phenomena.

polypi.

premia, premiums.

proboscides.

prime donne.

radii.

ranunculi, ranunculuses.

reg^ia.

rhombi.

sarcophagi.

savans.

scholia.

scoriae.

seraphim, ser^hs.

series.

species.

spectra.

specula.

{sphinges, hawk-ntoths.
sphinxes, in mythology.
spiculae.

GRAMMAR.

Singular.
Stadium,

Stamen,

Plural.
stadia.

( stamens, /ar/j of flowers.
< stamina, the solids of the human
( body.

^ stigmata, in botany and surgery.
stigmas, marks 0/ reproach.
stimuli,
strata,
striae.

succedanea.
symposia,
synopses,
syntheses,
tableaux,
termini,
theses.

triumviri, triumvirs,
tumuli.
vertebrae,
vertices,
virtuosi,
viscera,
vortices.

4r-

Stigma,

Stimulus,

Stratum,

Stria.

Succedaneum,

Symposium,

Synopsis,

Synthesis,

Tableau,

Terminus,

Thesis,

Triumvir,

Tumulus,

Vertebra,

Vertex,

Virtuoso,

Viscus,

Vortex,

14. When a noun is the subject of a sentence it
is said to be in the nominative case, and when it
immediately follows a verb or a preposition it is said
to be in the objective case, but its form is precisely
the same in both cases. Ex. Nom. The man
walks; trees grow. Obj. I pity the man j he fells
the trees ; — with the man ; under the trees.

When one noun, in either the singular or plural
number, is used along with another attributively, and
indicating its possessor or origin, 's (with an apos-
trophe before it, which shows that a vowel sound
has been dropped) is added to the former, except
when it ends in a sibilant, when most frequently only
the apostrophe is added. Ex. A soldier's life; the sol-
diers' friend ; the jury's verdict ; the judges' sen-
tence.; Thomas's horse (read "Thomases"); the
fox' (read " foxes ") brush ; " He that despised Mo-
ses' law, died ; " " If ye suffer for righteousness' sake,

happy are ye."

Declension of a Noun.

Singular. Plural.

Nominative Case. \ zr: t^:„~o

Objective Case, \ K'"^' K'"&^-

Possessive Case. King's, Kings'.

15. In order to individualize the application of
common nouns, two words usually designated arti-
cles, one a demonstrative pronoun, the, the other a
numeral, an (or, as abbreviated before a consonant
sound, a), almost universally precede them. The
former, which is called the definite article, is used
before nouns of both numbers. Ex. The man, the
men ; the horse, the horses. The latter is called the
indefinite article, and is used before nouns in the
singular number only. Ex. A man^ an hour, a tree,
an enemy.

Proper names, abstract nouns, names of mate-
rials, and some other classes of nouns, take the ar-
ticles only when they are used as common nouns.
Ex. Solon, Brutus, hope., fear, water, wood ; the Solon
of his country ; he is a Brutus ; the hopes and fears
of youth ; the water s edge ; the wood of the ark.

16. Verbs. When the action signified by a verb
takes effect immediately on any person or thing as its
object, the verb is called transitive or active ; but
when the action is completely described by the verb
itself, or when the verb signifies a condition, it is
called intransitive or neuter. Ex. We suspect deceit,
he loves truth j I walk or run, they sleep, you stand.
Many verbs, as may be seen in the EngHsh Diction-
ary, are both active and neuter. Ex. To abate a nui-
sance, the storm abated j to account a man wise, to
account for one's conduct.

Transitive verbs are conjugated in two ways:
one form, called active, is used when the agent is
the subject of the verb. Ex. / esteem him ; they
speak both French and German ; the Allies defeated
the Russians. The other is used when the agent is
the immediate object of the verb, and is called pas-
sive. Ex. He is esteemed by me j both French and
German are spoken by them ; the Russians were de-
feated by the Allies.

In the conjugation of verbs, four moods are dis-
tinguished—the indicative, the subjunctive, the im-
perative, and the infinitive — and another class of
forms, called participles. The indicative is used
when the speaker asserts something as actually ex-
isting or acting. Ex. He reads, we walked, they will
consent, thou art punished, I was exalted, you will be
confounded. The subjunctive is used when some
possible or probable action or state of being is
spoken of. Ex. " 7/" / be 2. father, where is mine
honor ? " ^^ Though thou detain me, I will not eat ; "
''7/" he were a prophet, he would have known who
touched him ; " ^''Though these three men were in it,
they should deliver neither son nor daughter."
When a command is given, the imperative is em-
ployed. Ex. ^^Honor all men. Love the brother-
hood. Fear God. Honor the king." The infini-
tive mood consists of the substantive forms, and the
participles of the attributive forms, of the verb to
which they belong. The preposition to is prefixed
to all infinitives, except those which follow auxiliary
verbs, and such verbs as see, hear, etc., in the active
voice. Ex. "71? err is human ; to forgive, divine ; "

GRAMMAR.

to have praised, to have been blamed ; I saw him weep,
he was seen to weep; erring, forgiven; " having noth-
ing, and ytt. possessing all things."

17. The three tenses of verbs, or the times
in which an action or event may be said to take
place, are the present, the past, and the future ; and
in each of them, it may be considered as indefinite-
ly, or imperfectly, or perfectly accomplished. Ex.
(Indef. pres.) / read, (imperf. pres.) / am reading,
(perf. pres.) I have read ; (indef. past) I read, (im-
perf. past) / was reading, (perf. past) / had read;
(indef. fut.) I shall read, (ym^t\i.l\x\.?) I shall be read-
ing, (perf. fut.) / shall have read. In the subjunc-
tive mood, the tense forms express the probability
or improbability of the event or action spoken of.
Ex. (Prob.) "What matter where, if I be still the
same ? " " Though thou detain me, I will not eat."
(Improb.) ^' If ye were of the world, the world
would love his own." "If ye loved me, ye would re-
joice."

The imperative mood admits of no distinctions of
time, but only of the completeness or incomplete-
ness of the action commanded. Ex. (Imperf.) Read
thou, (perf.) Have done !

In the infinitive mood the only tense is the pres-
ent. Ex. (Indef. pres.) to read, (imperf. pres.) to
be reading, (perf. pres.) to have read. And the par-
ticiples admit only of the distinctions of complete-
ness and incompleness of the action spoken of. Ex.
(Imperf.) reading, (perf.) read.

18. By means of a class of verbs, called Auxiliary
verbs, the capability of expressing the several rela-
tions of mood, tense, etc., is greatly extended and
refined. Those tenses which are formed without
the assistance of auxiliaries are called simple tenses,
and the others, compound. Ex. We hope, you fear,
they fled; I am hoping, thou hast feared, he has fled,
we shall learn.

The auxiliary verbs of mood are such as may and
can, which express possibility; must, ought, and shall,
which express obligation; shall diXidi will, expressing
determination of will ; might, could, and would, ex-
pressing desire ; let and may, implying permission ;
do, which adds emphasis to assertion, and is em-
ployed in negatives and questions, etc., etc. Ex. It
may be so, he can do it, you must see that you should
obey, " these things ought not so to be," we shall see to
that, / will be heard, might it but be so ! could we but
know it, would he iv€re here ! lei him do what he will,

you may do as you please, we ^<? ///^^ simplicity, it does
not signify, do you see the meaning ?

The auxiliary verbs of tense are such as be, be
about, be going, begin, do, have, keep, shall, will, etc.
Ex. You are chosen, they were laughing, we are about
to depart, we are going to learn French, / did once
think, he has seen too much, they kept expecting what
was impossible, he would dance and sing the whole
day long.

All the moods, tenses, etc., of the passive forms of
verbs are made by the help of the verb be. Ex. /
am praised, we were lotted, they shall be beaten, to be
afflicted, having been disappointed.

19. The only distinctive personal forms are those
of the second and third persons singular of the pres-
ent indefinite tense, and the second person singular
of the past indefinite ; all the other persons in each
of the simple tenses are alike. Ex. I lead, thoulead-
est, he leads {leadeth), we lead, you lead, they lead. I
led, thou leddest, he led, we led, you led, they led.

Impersonal Verbs, of which there are but two
in our language (strictly so to be called), are found
only in the third person singular. Ex. "Meseems I
hear her singing loud," meseemed ; " methinks he
breaks it," " methought I saw my late espoused wife."
But other verbs are often used impersonally. Ex.
// rained last night, // liked him well, // behoved him
to do the same.

20. By far the greater number of English verbs,
including all that have been recently introduced,
and almost all derivatives, are of the class called
weak verbs, that is, they form their past indefinite
tenses, and their perfect participles, by the addition
of d (or t) to the present, or ed when the present
ends in d or t. Ex. Hope, hoped; light, lighted.
But it must be observed, there is a great difference
between our spoken and our written language in
this particular ; the forms of the latter having de-
parted widely from the sounds of the former. Ex.
Walk, walked (pron. tvalkd); step, stepped (pron.
slept); stab, stabbed {^xon. stabd)', bar, barred {pron.
bard).

The remainder form their past indefinite tenses
and perfect participles either by modifying the ver-
bal sound, and adding n or (en) for the participle
(being of the class called strong verbs) ; by modify-
ing the vowel, and adding t for the participle ; by
changing the terminal d into t; or by retaining the
present form for both the tense and the participle.

GRAMMAR.

But the tendency to uniformity is so strong that
many of these verbs have lost one or both of their
peculiar forms, and others have two forms for the
past indefinite and perfect participle.

21. The following is a complete list of these verbs,
classified mainly by their present forms, yet not with-
out regard to their original forms in the Anglo-Sax-
on, It must be observed that the original forms
of many of these verbs are obsolete, or preserved in
provincial usage only (and such forms are enclosed
in parentheses) ; and that sometimes the past tense
is used for the participle, and sometimes the termi-
nal n or en has been dropped.

First Division. Verbs which change their vowel
sounds, and form their perfect participles by adding
£n or «, or strong verbs.

ist Class. Vowels e and a, becoming e, a, or o.

Present Indef. Tense. Pastlndef. Tense.

Perfect Participle.

Delve

(dolve, dalf) delved

delved

Get

got (gat)

(gotten) got

Help

(holp, halp) helped

(holpen) helped

Melt

(molt) melted

molten, melted

Sweat

1 (swote, swat) sweat,
■ sweated

(sweaten) sweated

Swell

(swoll) swelled

swollen, swelled

Yell

(yoll) yelled

yelled

Burst

(brast) burst

(borsten) burst

Beat

beat

beaten, beat

Eat

eat, ate

eaten, eat

Bear {bring forth)

bore (bare)

bom

Bear (carry)

bore (bare)

borne

Break

broke (brake)

broken, broke

Cleave {adhere)

(clave) cleaved

cleaved

Cleave {split)

(clove, clave) cleft

cloven, cleft

Creep

(crope) crept

crept

(Falde) fold

folded

(folden) folded

Freeze

froze

frozen

Heave

(hove) heaved

(hoven) heaved

(Queath)

quoth

Lead

(lode, lad) led

led

Leap

(lope) leapt, leaped

leapt, leaped

Seethe

(soth) sod, seethed

sodden

Shear

(shore) sheared

shorn

Speak

spoke (spake)

spoken

Steal

stole (stale)

stolen

Swear

swore (sware)

sworn

Tear

tore (tare)

torn

Tread

trode, trod, (trade)

, trodden, trod

Wear

wore (ware)

worn

Weave

wove

woven

Weep

(wope) wept

wept

Wreak

(wroke) wreaked

(wroken) wreaked

Wreathe

wreathed

wreathen, wreathed

Yield

(yolde) yielded

yielded

(Be)

been

See

saw

seen

Awake, wake

awoke

awaked

Bake

(boke) baked

(baken) baked

Forsake

forsook

forsaken

Grave

(grove) graved

graven, graved

Lade

(lode) laded

laden, loadeu

Shake

shook, shaked

shaken, shaked

Present Indefinite Past Indefinite
Tense.
Shape
Shave
Stave
Take

Stand
Wax

2</ Class.

Begin

Cling

Dig

Drink

Fling

Hang (hing)

Ring

Run (rin)

Shrink

Sing

Sink

Sling

Slink

Spin

Spring

Stick

Sting

Stink

String

Swim

Swing

Swink

Win

Wring

Bid
Give

Sit
Slit
Spit

Betide
Hide
Light
Slide

Abide, bide

Arise, rise

Bite

Chide

Climb

Dive

Drive

Glide

Hight

Lie

Ride

Rive

Shrive

Smite

Stride

Strive

Thrive

Write

Writhe

Shine
Wit (wite)

Strike

Bind
Fight

Tense.

Perfect Participle.

(shope) shaped

shapen, shaped

shaved

shaven, shaved

stove

took

taken

stood

(wox, wex) waxed

(waxen) waxed

Vowel i, becoming a

, 0, u, or ou.

began (begon)

begun

clung (clong)

clung

dug, digged

drank (drunk, dronk)

drunken, drunk

flung (flang, flong)

flung

hung, hanged

rang, rung (rong)

rung

ran

run

shrank, shrunk (shronk) shrunken, shrunk

sang, sung (song)

sung

sank, sunk (sonk)

sunken, sunk

(slang) slung (slong)

slung

(slank) slunk (slonk)

slunk

(span) spun (spon)

spun

sprang, sprung (sprong) sprung

stuck (stoke)

stuck

(stang) stung (stong)

stung

stank, stunk (stonk)

stunk

(Strang) strung

strung

swam, swum (sworn)

swum

(swang) swung (swong) swung

(swank, swonk) swink

(swonk) swinkt

(wan) won

won

wrung, wringeu

wrung

bade (bode), bid

bidden, bid

gave (gove)

given

sate

sitten, sate

(slat) slit, sHtted

slitten, slit, slitted

spat, spit

spitten, spit, spat

betid

hid

hidden, hid

lit, lighted

slid

slidden, slid

abode

arose (aris)

arisen

(bote, bat) bit

bitten, bit

(chode) chid

chidden, chid

(clomb, clamb) climbed climbed

(dove) dived

dived

drove (drave)

driven

(glode, glid) glided

glided

(bote, hete)

lay

lien, lain

rode, rid

ridden, rid

(rove) rived

riven

(shrove) shrived

shriven

smote (smate), smit

smitten, smit

strode, strid

stridden

strove

striven

throve, thrived

thriven

wrote (wrate) writ

written, writ, wrote

writhed

writhen, writhed

shone, shined

(wote) wot

(stroke) struck

stricken, struck

bound (bond)

bounden, bound

fought

foughten, fought

4r-

GRAMMAR.

Present Indefinite

Past Indefinite

"id Class. Vowels, a, e, i, and o, changed into o, au, ou.

Tense.

Perfect Participle.

Find
Grind

(fand, fond) found
ground

found
ground

Present Indefinite Past Indefinite
Tense. Tense.

Perfect Participle.

Wind

wound (wond), winded wound

SeU

sold

Tell

told

3</ Class.

Vowel 0, becoming e in past tense-

Catch

caught, catched

Draw

drew

drawn

Reach

(raught) reached

Fall

fell

fallen

Stretch

(s t r a u g h t, streight) stretched

Saw

sawed

sawn, sawed

stretched

Wash

(wesh) washed

washen, washed

Teach

taught

Blow

blew

blown

Distract

distracted

(distraught) distracted

Crow

crew, crowed

crowed

Freight

freighted

fraught, freighted

Fly

flew

flown

Shall

should

Grow

grew

grown

Will

would (woU) .

•

Hew

hewed

hewn, hewed

Hold

held

holden, held

May

(mought) might

Know

knew

known

Beseech

besought

Mow

(mew) mowed

mown, mowed

Bring

brought

Show

(shew) showed

shown, showed

Buy

bought

Snow

(snew) snowed

snowed

Own

ought, owed

owed

Sow

(sew) sowed

sown, sowed

Seek

sought

Strow, strew (straw)

strewed, strowed

strewn, strown, strewed

Think

thought

Throw

threw

thrown

Work

wrought, worked

Let (late)

let

JVi»/^, thatthe>'in'

^y-cUpt " is the old participial prefix, of which only

Slay

slew

slain

one other instance re

mains in occasional use i

n our languaere, " r-c/a*^."

Laugh

Choose

chos

Lose

lost

Shoot

shot

did

(loghe, leugh) laughed laughed

4/A Class. Vowel 0, shortened.

.se) chosen

gone

(lorn) lost
shotten, shot
done

5M Class.
Come came come

Note., that the participle " sawn " seems to have been formed analog-
ically after " drawn ; " also, that the word did is a contracted form ;
and the vowel i does not represent the o of the present, but is the short
vowel sound of a reduplication of the d. It is the only instance in our
language.

22. Second Division. Verbs which change their vowel sound, but
form their perfect participles vxdor t : and are therefore weak verbs.

\st Class. Vowels shortened.

Bleed

bled

Breed

bred

Feed

fed

Meet

met

Read

read

Speed

sped

Bereave, reave

bereft.

bereaved

bereft, bereaved

(Clepe)

y-clept

Deal

dealt

Deem

(dempt) deemed

deemed

Dream

dreamt

, dreamed

dreamt, dreamed

Feel

felt

Flee

fled

Hear

heard

Keep

kept

Kneel

knelt.

Imeeled

knelt, kneeled

Lean

leant, leaned

Mean

meant

Sleep

slept

Sweep

swept

Shoe

shod

4r-

Note., also, that both " distraught" and '■'■ /raught" are formed from
words derived from other languages.

23. Third Division. Contracted Weak Verbs.

Have

Make

Lay

Pay

Say

Dwell

Pen

Spill

(Wis)

Bend

Build

Gild

Gird

Lend

Rend

Send

Shend

Spend

(Wend)

Cast

Cost

Cut

Hit

Hurt

Knit

Lift

Put

Quit

Rid

Roast

Set

Shed

Shred

Shut

Split

Spread

Thrust

Wet

had

made

laid

paid

said

dwelt, dwelled

penned

spilt, spilled

(wist)

bent, bended

built, builded

gilt, gilded

girt, girded

lent

rent

sent

shent

vpexA

went

cast

cost

cat

hit

hurt

knit, knitted

lift, lifted

put

quit, quitted

rid

roasted

set

shed

shred

shut

split, splitted

spread

thrust

wet, wetted

had

made

laid

paid

said

dwelt, dwelled

pent, penned

spilt, spilled

bent, bended

built, builded

gilt, gilded

girt, girded

lent

rent

sent

shent

spent

cast
cost
cut

hit

hurt

knit, knitted

lift, lifted

put

quit, quitted

rid

roast, roasted

set

shed

shred

shut

split, splitted

spread

thrust

wet, wetted

GRAMMAR.

24. Defective Verbs.
Present Indefinite Past Indefinite

Tense.

Perfect Participle

was

been

Clothe

clad, clothed

(y-clad) clothed

went

gone

In the first of these, each part belongs to a differ-
ent verb ; in the second, ''^ clad'' and ^''y-clad"
are derived from some word not greatly unlike
" clothe; " and both forms in this kind have appeared
in the preceding lists.

25. Irregular Verbs.

Can

could

Dare, durst

durst

It is the introduction of the / into ^^ could,'' which
makes the former of these irregular. The other
appears to have adopted its original past tense
as an additional form for the present ; when used
transitively, in the meaning of " to challenge or pro-
voke," its past tense and perfect participles are
" dared. "

26. Conjugation of Auxiliary Verbs.
1. To Be.

Indicative Mood. Present Indefinite Tense,
Sing. I. I am, 2. Thou art, 3. He is,

Plur. I. We are, 2. You are, 3. They are.

Past Indefinite Tense. •

Sing. 1. I was, 2. Thou wast, 3. He was,

JPlur. 1. We were, 2. You were, 3. They were.

Subjunctive Mood. Form implying probability.
Sing, and plur. (If) I, thou, he, we, you, they be.

Porm implying improbability.

Sing and plur. (If) I wert ; thou wert ; he, we, you, they

were.

Imperative Mood.
Sing. Be thou. Plur. Be ye.

Infinitive Mood. Present Indefinite Tense.
To be.

Participles.
Imperfect. Being. Perfect. Been.

2. To Have.

Indicative Mood. Present Indefinite Tense.
Sing. I. I have, 2. Thou hast, 3. He hath or has,

Plur. I. We have, 2. You have, 3. They have.

Past Indefinite Tense.
Sing. I. I had, 2. Thou hadst, 3. He had,

Plur. I. We had, 2. You had, 3. They had.

Subjunctive Mood. Probable form.
Sing, and plur. (If) I, thou, he, we, you, they have.

Improbable form.
Sing, and plur. (If) I fiad ; thou hadst ; he, we, you, they had.

Infinitive Mood. Preient Indefinite Tense.
To have.

Participles.

Imperfect. Having. Perfect. Had.

3. To Do.

Indicative Mood. Present Indefinite Tense.
Sing. I. I do, 2. Thou dost, 3. He doth or does,

Plur. I. We do, 2. You do, 3- They do.

Past Indefinite Tense.
Sing. 1. I did, 2. Thoudiddestordidst, 3. Hedid,

Plur. I. We did, 2. You did, 3. Xhey did.

Subjunctive Mood. Probable form.
Sing and plur. (If) I, thou, he, we, you, they do.

Improbable form.
Sing, and plur. (If) I did ; thou didst ; he, we, you, they did.

Infinitive Mood. Present Indefinite.
To do

Participles.
Imperfect. Doing. Perfect. Done.

In the auxiliaries, may, can, shall, will, the only
change of form is in the second person singular,
which are mayest, mightest ; canst, couldst j shalt,
shouldst J wilt, wouldst J in the present and past
tenses respectively. Let and must have no inflexions,
and ought (which admits of no distinction of time)
has oughtest in the second person singular.

Perfect Tense.

Singular. Plural.

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, or should

be, be.

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or- Ye or you might, could, would, or

shouldst be, should be.

He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would, <>r should

be. be.

Pluperfect.

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, <7r should

have been, have been,

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could, would, or

shouldst have been, should have been,

He might, could would, (jr should They might, could, would, or

have been. should have been.

Perfect Tense.

Singular. Plural.

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, or

have, should have.

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst Ye or you might, could, would,

or shouldst have, or should have.

He might, could, would, or They might, could, would, or

should have. should have.

Pluperfect.

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would. <7r should

have had, have had.

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst. Ye t>r you might, could, would, <?r

or shouldst have had, should have had.

He might, could, would, <>r should They might, could, woiikJ, or

have had. should have had.

■^

GRAMMAR.

«r

Hi:

Indefinite.

5'i«^. Plur.

I see, We see,

Thou seest. You see.

He seeth, or sees. They see.

I saw,

Thou sawest.
He saw.

We saw.
You saw,
They saw.

I shall see. We shall see,

Thou Shalt see, You shall see.

He shall see. They shall see.

(If) I see. We see,

(If) Thou see. You see,

(If) He see. They see.

(If) I saw. We saw,

(If) Thou sawest. You saw,

(If) He saw. They saw.

Imperative. See thou. See you.

Infinitive Present. To see.
Participle.

27. Conjugation of the Verb, To See.
ACTIVE FORMS.

Imperfect.

I am seeing,
Thou art seeing.
He is seeing.

I was seeing
Thou wast seeing.
He was seeing.

Plur.
We are seeing.
You are seeing.
They are seeing.

We were seeing.
You were seeing.
They were seeing.

I shall be seeing. We shall be seeing.

Thou shalt be seeing. You shall be seeing.
He shall be seeing. They shall be seeing.

(If) I be seeing. We be seeing,

(If) Thou be seeing, You be seeing,
(If) He be seeing. They be seeing.

(If) I were seeing. We were seeing,

(If) Thou wert seeing, You were seeing,
(If) He were seeing. They were seeing.

Be thou seeing. Be ye seeing.

To be seeing.
Seeing.

Perfect.

Sing:.
I have seen,
Thou hast seen.
He has seen.

I had seen.
Thou hadst seen,
He had seen.

I shall have seen,
Thou shalt have seen.
He shall have seen.

(If) I have seen,
(If) Thou have seen,
(If) He have seen.

(If) I had seen,

(If) Thou hadst seen,

(If) He bad seen.

Plur.
We have seen.
You have seen.
They have seen.

We had seen.
You had seen.
They had seen.

We shall have seen.
You shall have seen.
They shall have seen

We have seen.
You have seen.
They have seen.

We had seen.
You had seen.
They had seen.

To have seen.
Seen.

PASSIVE FORMS.

Indefinite.

Sing.

am seen.
Thou art seen.
He is seen.

was seen.
Thou wast seen.
He was seen.

I shall be seen.
Thou shalt be seen.
He suall be seen.

(If) I be seen,
(If) Thou be seen,
(If) Hebe seen.

(If) I were seen,
(If) Thou wert seen,
(If) He were seen.

Plur.
We are seen.
You are seen.
They are seen.

We were seen.
You were seen.
They were seen.

We shall be seen.
You shall be seen.
They shall be seen.

We be seen,
You be seen.
They be seen.

We were seen.
You were seen.
They were seen.

Perfect.

Sing.
I have been seen.
Thou hast been seen,
He has been seen.

I had been seen.
Thou hadst been seen.
He had been seen.

I shall have been seen,
Thou shalt have been seen,
He shall have been seen.

(If) I have been seen,
(If) Thou have been seen,
(If) He have been seen.

(If) I had been seen,

(If) Thou hadst been seen,

(If) He bad been seen.

Plur.
We have been seen.
You have been seen.
They have been seen.

We had been seen,
You had been seen.
They had been seen.

We shall have been seen.
You shall have been seen.
They shall have been seen.

We have been seen.
You have been seen.
They have been seen.

We had been seen,
You had been seen,
Tbey had been seen.

Imperative.
Infinitive Present.
Participle.

Be thou seen. Be ye seen.

To be seen.
Being seen.

To have been seen.
Having been seen.

Note. That by means of the various auxiliaries a
great number of additional tenses, in all the moods,
might be formed.

Hote also, that in the passive, the imperfect tenses
cannot be formed except for a few verbs, and then
only in the past and present, and in two ways — " the
house is building," or "M(f house is being built;" *^the
books 7vere printing," ox ^^ were being printed." For-
merly the first of these forms was different. Ex.
The ark was a-preparing.

28. Adjectives. — There are no changes of forms
in the adjectives, to show their relations to the
nouns they qualify, as to gender, number or case.
Ex. A wise tnan, wise men; a tall man, a tall woman,

a tall tree; they saw the powerful king's golden
crown; he defeated three great emperors' vast armies.
But the degree of intensity in which any quality is
regarded as characterizing one or more persons or
things, when compared with others, is expressed by
the addition of er (or r) and est (or st) to the simple
(or positive) form of the adjective; — the former
(called the comparative degree) being employed
where only two subjects are compared, the latter
(named the superlative) when a subject is compared
with more than one other in respect of the same
quality. Ex. This tree is taller than that, but the
next is the tallest of the three, and those trees are
the tallest in the wood ; this man is wiser than those

--^

-J^

GRAMMAR.

and those men are the wisesr in our country ; pla-
tinum is the heaviest metal, or platinum is heavier
than any other metal. .

Instead of using these inflexions, with adjectives
of more than one syllable, the comparative is fre-
quently formed by prefixing more, and the superla-
tive by prefixing most, to the simple form. Ex. A
more prudent man, the most prudent conduct ; more
seasonable weather, most unseasonable importunities.

29. Some adjectives are defective, or have com-
paratives and superlatives formed from other words ;
and some do not form them according to the common
rule. The following are the principal adjectives to
which these remarks apply: —

Bad

worse (worser)

worst

Far

farther

farthest

Fore

further

furthest, first

Good

better

best

Late

later, latter

latest, last

Little

less, lesser

least

Much,

many

most

Near,

nigh

nearer, nigher

nearest, next

Old

older, elder

oldest, eldest.

Another class of adjectives differ from the com-
mon rule in having a positive signification with the
comparative form (as is the case with the compara-
tives, superior, inferior, exterior, and interior, bor-
rowed from the Latin), and only a superlative degree
of comparison beside. Ex. Former, foremost;
hinder, hindmost, and hindermostj hither, hithermost;
inner, inmost, and innermost; nether, nethermost;
outer, outmost, and outermost; under, undermost;
upper, upmost, and uppermost; utter, utmost, and ut-
termost. The following superlatives also occur:
midmost for midst, 7iothernmost and southernmost.

Different degrees of intensity are also more gener-
ally expressed by the use of some adverbs. Ex.
Too hot, very cold, exceedingly angry. ''''Less " and
"least " are employed when the comparison regards
lower degrees of intensity. Ex. Zess scrupulous,
least scrupulous.

50. Numerals, — When the cardinal numerals are
employed to signify abstract numbers, they are
nouns. Ex. Four and three are seven, two and one
are three. But when used to express concrete quanti-
ties they are adjectives. Ex. Four horses, ten men,
a hundred pounds.

The ordinal numerals (which signify position in a
series) are most frequently adjectives. Ex. The

first man, the tenth sheep, the thirtieth day. But
they are sometimes used objectively, and then are
adverbs. Ex. He stands first, I am tenth on the
list. There are also the regularly formed adverbial
ordinal numerals, firstly, secondly^ thirdly, d^c.

Fractional numerals are the same as ordinals, but
they are nouns, and are so because they are
abbreviations. Ex. Ont-third (for ** one third part ")
thrtQ-fourths (for " three fourth parts "), ionr-fifths,
two-tenths of an inch. In this series ^/^rj-/ is omitted,
half is used for second, and quarter is often substi-
tuted iox fourth.

Beside these there are the reiterative numerals,
once, twice, thrice, four times, &'c.; the multiplica-
tives, single, double or two-fold, triple or three-fold,
quadruple or four-fold, &'c.; — the distributives,
singly or one by one, two by two, dr'c; and other
classes.

The words neither, either, other, both, next, again,
then, and some others, which are also called pronouns,
are frequently employed as numerals, to signify not
one, one, second, two, secondly, dr'c.

Indeterminate numerals express number and quan-
tity, but not definitely. They are such words as
more, some, none, few, many, several, much, all, ^c.

31. Pronouns. — Those which are used as nouns
only, are the personal pronouns, /, thou, he, she, it,
and their plurals. They are thus declined.

First Person.
Plur.

Second Person.

Sing. Plur. Sing.
Nominative Case, I we thou

Objective Case, me us thee

Possessive Case, my, mine our, ours thy, thine

Third Person.
Sing.
Masc. Fern. Neut.

Nominative Case, he she it

Objective Case, him her it

Possessive Case, his her, hers its

Plur.
you, ye
you, ye
your, yours

Plur.
All genders.
they
them
their, theirs.

The possessive cases of these pronouns are some-
times spoken of as a class by themselves, and called
possessive (adjective) pronouns. In the first and
second persons, the possessive cases, and in the third
person, the objective cases, with self ox selves affixed,
constitute the reflective pronouns. Ex. Know thy-
self, he loves himself, they were ashamed of them-
selves. And these and the possessives are rendered
emphatic by the insertion of own. Ex. " I scarcely
coveted what was my own ;' " Thou owest unto me
even thine own self."

4—

-A

GRAMMAR.

12. The demonstrative pronouns are this sind that,
with the plurals these and those; such, the same, yon
and yonder, here, there, hetue, thence, then, ^rc, most of
which are adverbs. Ex. " This same shall comfort
us," " after this or that determinate manner," " it
makes a greater show in these months than in those,"
" such are the cold Riphean race, and such the savage
Scythian," " darkness there might well seem twilight
here," " now shaves with level wing the deep, then
soars," " useless and thence ridiculous," ^^ yon flower-
ing arbors, yonder alleys green." The, commonly
called the definite article, is properly a demon-
strative pronoun.

Pronouns used in questions, called interrogative,
and those used in subjective and adjective acces-
sory sentences, called relative, are who (in the ob-
jective whom, and the possessive whose, in both
numbers), which (occasionally with a possessive case,
whose) what, where, whither, whence, when, how ;
some of them being adverbs. Ex. Who art thou ?
Which is it ? What do you mean ? " Whose dog are
you ? " " Whom dost thou serve ? " Whence come
you ? " Whither goest thou ? " "ITow can these
things be ? " " The son of Duncan, from whom the
tyrant holds the due of birth, lives in the English
court," " The handsel or earnest of that which is to
come." . " See what natures accompany the several
colors." " In Lydia bom, where plenteous harvests
the fat fields adorn." " Grateful t'acknowledge whence
his good descends." " I strayed I knew not whither."
Note, that the relative pronoun what is in significa-
tion equivalent to the, that, or those which.

■^T^. Whoever, whosoever (and whomsoever, whose-
soever) whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever,
wherever, whencesoever, however, herein, therein,
therefore, wherefore, whereof, whereas, &'c., are
compounded or contracted pronouns and pronomi-
nal phrases. Ex. " I will follow thee whithersoever
thou goest." " I think myself beholden, whoever shows
me my mistakes." " Whomsoever else they visit, with
the diligent only do they stay." " \n whatsoever ^z.'^t.
he lurk, I'll know." "Thy very stones prate of my
whereabout." "You do take the means whereby I
live." " Herein is a wonderful thing." ^^Howbeit, this
wisdom saved them not."

In addition to these various classes of pronouns,
there are some which are called indefinite, such as
one, aught, nxiught, (sometimes spelt ought, nought),
each, every, either, neither, any, other (which has a

plural when used as a noun, but not when used at-
tributively), they (when used to signify " people in
general "), ^c. Ex, " One may be little the wiser
for reading," " for aught that I can understand," " it
Cometh to naught." "are there awywith you ?" "the
virtue and force of every of these three is shrewdly
allayed," ^^ they say that he has died immensely rich."

34. Adverbs.— These words do not admit of inflex-
ion, and of them some are found only in the adverbial
form, others are used as prepositions or conjunctions
also ; some are pronouns or adjectives ; and many
are derived from adjectives and even from substan-
tives.

They are employed to express the relations of
place — as here, there, where, hither, thither, whither,
hence, thence, whence, above, below, before, behind, in,
out, off, on, near, afar, backwards, forwards, aside,
b^c, — of time, as, then, when, now, after, before, still,
soon, already, lately, daily, hitherto, ^'c, — of manner, as
Jum), thtis, so, as, otherwise, well, fluently, kindly, blind-
ly, lovingly, bravely, brightly, &fc., — of mood, as yes,
no, 7wt, if , perhaps, probably, possibly, likely, really, ^c,
— of degree or intensity, as frequently, seldom, often,
again, very, quite, even, nearly, only, too, almost, much,
rather, once, tivice, thrice, ^c, — of causality, a.^ where-
fore, therefore, however, nevertheless, ^fc.

Some of those of manner, degree, and mood, ad-
mit of degrees of comparison, which they form after
the manner of adjectives. Ex. Soon, sooner, soonest,
bravely, more bravely, most bravely.

35. Prepositions. — These also are uninflected
words, and besides the prepositions, properly so-
called, nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, and ad-
verbs, and even combinations of words, are employed
as prepositions. Almost all the real prepositions ad-
mit of being used to express every variety of rela-
tion between the predicate and its objects, and be-
tween a subject and its attributes ; but originally
they all expressed the relation of place alone.

The prepositions, properly so called, and other
words used for prepositions, are such as above, about,
across, after, against, along, among, at, before, behind,
beside, between, beyond, by, concerning, down, during,
from, in, into, of, off, on, over, save, since, through, till,
to, towards, up, upon, with, &'c.

The following are some of the combinations of
words used as prepositions : — because of by means of,
on account of, in behalf of, instead of, according to, ad-
jacent to, contrary to, with respect to, ^-c.

GRAMMAR.

Verbs frequently have prepositions as affixes, to
modify their signification ; and sometimes preposi-
tions are used as adverbial objects in our language,
which in other tongues are compounded with the
verb. Ex. He undertook that business willingly ;
they have overcome their enemies ; what would I not
undergo for you ? " they went over to the enemy ; "
" the i^oqX passes it over as hastily as he can ; " "to
set forth great things by small ; " "I shall set out for
London to-morrow."

36. Conjunctions, like adverbs and prepositions,
are indeclinable words. Some words are used only
as conjunctions, and are called conjunctions proper ;
others are really pronouns, adverbs, &c.

Coordinative conjunctions are simply copulative,
as, and, also, besides, moreover, too, not only — but also,
both — and, as well as, neither^nor, then, 6^<:. ; adver-
sative, as, else, either — or, not — but, on the contrary,
still, nevertheless, dr'c.j or causative, as, therefore,
hence, so, consequently, for, accordingly. Subordina-
tive conjunctions connect adverbial and subjective
accessory sentences with their principal sentences ;
and are such as, that, but that, but, whether, if, since,
although, unless, so, when, while, whilst, where, whence,
b^c.

37. Amongst these indeclinable classes of words
may be found many very interesting examples of
ancient forms and inflexions of the English lan-
guage, some of which have been lost in all but these
instances, and in these the original signification is no
longer preserved. Ex. Possessive cases, else, una-
wares, needs ; dative cases, seldom, whilom; neuter
objective cases, little, less, well, nigh, athwart j com-
parative degrees, after, yonder, over, ere; superlative
degrees, erst, next, almost.

Note, that indeclinable words, which are used only
as adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjec-
tions, are frequently called particles — and also, that
the direct affirmative, yes, and the direct negative,
no, are by some grammarians placed in a distinct
class, as not being properly adverbs.

The great cause of the varied appearances or pro-
nunciations of words originally the same in the speech
of several races, is loss of care in utterance. The
reasons for preferring one form to another are not
always exactly definable, but as a rule the linguistic
laws of phonetic alteration conform to the physical
laws of articulation. Loss of care in utterance is
ever to be avoided.

38. For the purpose of rendering this compen-
dium of English Grammar more serviceable in such
a study as that recommended in the first part, the
examples in illustration of the Syntax are taken from
casually opened pages of the English Bible, Shake-
speare, the quotations in Dr. Johnson's English Dic-
tionary, and one or two other books. In the same
manner, the student should select examples by way
of exercise, and to demonstrate to himself that he un-
derstands the grammatical principles exhibited here.

Words are combined in the formation of sentences
in three ways ; as subjects and predicates, as attrib-
utives to sulDJects, and as objects to predicates. And
sentences are combined coordinately, or subordi-
nately ; subordinate or accessory sentences occupy-
ing the positions of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs,
in the principal sentences of which they form part.

39. Subject and Predicate. — In every sen-
tence of perfectly expressed thought, these two ele-
ments are absolutely requisite — some person or thing
spoken of, or a subject ; and something asserted re-
specting it, or a predicate. If either subject or
predicate be wanting, the expression in itself is un-
intelligible.

For subjects, nouns (which stand for persons or
things) or pronouns (used in the place of nouns, and
always in the nominative case), adjectives, participles
or infinitive moods (representing qualities, actions,
&c.), single words or letters (in which the thing and
the name are identical), or subjective accessory sen-
tences, may be used. Ex. "All tongues speak of
him;" ^^ action is eloquence; " ^^vay praises made the
first a soldier;" ''younreo. traitor;" " here >^<? comes;"
^^ they say, she's mad; " "the dead shall rise and live
again;" "the 7m'se shall inherit glory;" "in him spar-
ing would show a worse sin than its doctrine;" "to
err is human, to forgive, divine;" "7jvho is now used
in relation to persons, and which to things; " "A has,
in the English language, three different sounds;"
" thut you have wronged me, doth appear in this;"
"who steals my purse, steals trash; " "for a holy per-
son to be humble is as hard as for a prince to submit
himself to tutors."

4r-

GRAMMAR.

21 ^

The strictly impersonal verbs have no subject ex-
pressed. Ex. " Met/links already I your tears sur-
vey," '''' niethought I saw the grave where Laura lay."
Actions or conditions which are not assignable to
any subject, have the pronoun //, as a formal sub-
ject. Ex. "// thunders, it lightens," "// snows at
the top of them, oftener than // rains,"- "// was
freezing," "// is very cold," "// is hot to-day," "//
seems." And similarly, for the sake of emphasis or
animation, it and there are used formally as subjects,
the real subjects being placed after their predicates.
Ex. " // is excellent to have a giant's strength j but //
is tyrannous to use it as a giant," " it is good to be
here" "it is /," "it was you who did this," "/'/ be-
hoved him to suffer," '^ it is said that parliament is
dissolved," " it repented the Lord that he had made
man," " /*/ doth not yet appear what we shall be,"
'^'^ there be many tliat say," "there was in a city a
fudge," " once upon a time there lived a man," " there
arose a mighty /amine in that land," " there were that
thought it a part of Christian charity to instruct them."
40. The essential characteristic of the predicate
being assertion, a verb is indispensable in this part
of a sentence. But besides verbs of all kinds, the
verb to be, with nouns or pronouns (and that not only
in the nominative case, but in the possessive also,
and in the objective with a preposition), adjectives,
participles, the infinitive mood, adverbs (and adverbs
with prepositions), single words or letters, and acces-
sory sentences, may be used as predicates. In the
latter cases, the form of the verb to be, which is em-
ployed, is called the copula, or link, which unites
the predicate to the subject. Ex. "He ran this
way, and leaped ihxs orchard wall," "he hath hidhim-
self among those trees," "I 'II believe thee," "Juliet
is the sun," "I am a villain," "you 'II be the bear,"
" her mother is the lady of the house," " ye are Christ's,
and Christ is Gods," " oh, he is even in my mistress'
case, just in her case," " the haughty prelate, with
many more confederates are in arms" " of noble race
was Shenkin," " they 7vere to the number of three
hundred horse," " they shall be mine," " you shall be
ours" "he is mt of us," " the sky is red," "you are
meek," "you are excused," " t\vty are running this
way," " you are not to be taught," " the holy treasure
was to be reserved," " the woman will be out," " ye are
from beneath," "the preterit of creep is crept," "the
ending pf the genitive case is s," " this is what I
said," " thou art whom I fear," " men should be what'

they seem." Nevertheless, in poetry and oratory,
when peculiar emphasis or effect is desired, the cop-
ula is omitted, and the other predicative word placed
before the subject. Ex. " Vain, all in vain, the
weary search " " sweet the moments, rich in blessing.

The connection between the predicate and the sub-
ject in a sentence is shown by the predicate being
in the same number as the subject. Ex. He loves,
they love, the tree falls, trees grow, I am afraid, we
are satisfied. Two or more singular subjects con-
nected by the conjunction "and" (which, however,
is often omitted), so as to form either a compound
or a single subject, have their predicate in the plural.
Ex. " Bacon and Shakespeare are the greatest gen-
iuses that England has produced; " " now abide faith,
hope, charity j " one and one are two. " And similarly,
collective nouns have their predicates in the singular
when they are thought of in the aggregate, but the
plural when their component parts are most regarded.
Ex. " Parliament is sitting," "a cluster of mob were
making themselves merry with their betters," "the
people are the city," " my people doth not consider."
But when the predicate is a singular noun, the copula
is often singular. Ex. " Bread and cheese is fit diet
for a prince." And when the conjunction or or nor
is used, unless the last subject be plural, the predi-
cate is singular. Ex. " Either you or your brother has
deceived me," " neither shall the sun light on them,
nor any heat" " either he or they have carried her
off."

41. When the speaker makes the assertion re-
specting himself, the subject is a personal pro-
noun of the first person, and the verb is also in
the first person ; when the assertion is addressed to
him respecting whom it is made, the personal pro-
noun of the second person, and the form of the verb
to correspond with it, are employed ; and when it
relates to any other person or thing, the third person
of the verb (with the pronoun to correspond, if re-
quisite), is used. Ex. "/, that speak unto thee, atn
he," " I know in whom J have believed," "we speak
that we do know," " thou art the man," " thou knezvest
that I was an austere man," "ye believe not, because
ye are not of my sheep." " Hamlet, thou hast thy
father much offended. — Mother, you have my father
much offended." " He planteth an ash, and the rain
doth nourish it," " he drinketh no water, and is faint,"
"the great duke came to the bar," "gentlemen, the
penance lies on you," " heavenly blessings follow such

GRAMMAR.

creatures," " the hearts of princes kiss obedience, so
much they love it." In commands, the subject is
very commonly omitted. Ex. " Observe, absence, he
is moody," " believe it, this is true," " pray /^<?ar me."
The subject is also very frequently omitted in ani-
mated discourse, before the verbs pray, please, &c.,
when used in accessory sentences. Ex. ''''Pray hear
me," " give it me, please"

42. When the assertion is general, or refers to the
time at which it is made generally, the present indefi-
nite sense is used. Ex. " Man wants but little here
below." " I am the most unhappy woman living."
" My lords, you speak your pleasures. What he de-
serves of you and me, I know ; what we cati do to
him (though now the time gives way to us) I much
fear." When it refers to the actual point of time at
which the assertion is made, the present imperfect is
used. Ex. "The duke is coming," "his grace is
enterifig," " from all parts they are coming," " Eng-
land is not wanting in a learned nobility."
And when it is made respecting an action re-
garded at the time as completed, the present perfect
is employed. Ex. " / have heard one of the greatest
geniuses this age has produced," " the gods have
placed labor before interest," " this observation we
have made on man." The present perfect sometimes
appears with a different auxiliary. Ex. " / am cofne,
they are gone." " Cardinal Campeius is stolen away to
Rome." The indefinite tense is frequently used in-
stead of the imperfect. Ex. He bites his lip, and
starts, stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground."
And the present perfect is sometimes employed to
indicate past time, or in a sense equivalent to that of
the past indefinite tense. Ex. " We have done that
which it was our duty to do," " we have heard with
our ears, and our fathers have declared unto us the
noble works thou didst in their days."

In animated historical narrative, and in narrative
poetry, the present indefinite is often employed.
Ex. " The boy starts to his feet, and his keen eye
looks along the ready rifle . . . . Lo ! a deer from
Dalness, hound-driven, or sullenly astray, slowing,
bearing his antlers up the glen, then stopping for a
moment to snuff the air, then away — away ! The
rifle-shot rings dully from the scarce echoing snow-
cliff, and the animal leaps aloft struck by a certain
but not sudden death-wound."

Her lover sinks — she skeds no ill-timed tears
Her chief is slain — she Jills his fatal post ;

Her fellows Jlee — she checks their base career ;
Her foe retires — she heads the sallying host.

" My General descends to the outer staircase, and harangues;
once more in vain. . . Lafayette mounts the white charger ; and
again harangues, and reharangues, . . .so lasts it, hour afte^
hour, for the space of half a day."

43. In like manner, actions, &c., are referred to
the past generally, or as proceeding and incomplete,
or as completed, by the use of the past indefinite,
imperfect, and perfect tenses. Ex. " My father
loved you, he said he did," " / thx'icQ presented him a
kingly crown," '^you wronged yourself ; " — " they of
Bethshemesh were reaping," "Israel 7vere fighting
with the Philistines," "they were eating, and drink-
ing, and dancing;" — "when Boaz had eaten and
drunk, he went to lie down," " Elihu had waited till
Job had spoken." The emphatic form is commonly
used interchangeably with the indefinite. Ex.
" Thus did my master bid me kneel, and thus he bade
me say." The indefinite is often employed definitely
when any particular past time is indicated in the
sentence. Ex. " / saiv him yesterday. "

And in the same way actions, &c., in time become
discriminated by the employment of the future in-
definite, imperfect, and perfect tenses. Ex. " A
weighty secret 7iiill work a hole through them," " he
7vill not. stoop till he falls," " I shall never forget ; " —
"thy ^eo^\e. shall be tvilling in the day of thy power,"
" they will be si\\\ praising thee ; " — " v/e shall have
co?npleted our task before you commence yours,"
" then Cometh the end, when he shall have delivered
up the kingdom to God." Instead of the future, the
indefinite present is often used. Ex. / leave Eng-
land to-morrow, we sail next week. Other forms
for expressing future time are mentioned above.
Ex. " We are going to spend some time on the conti-
nent," " / was about to write."

44. When simple assertion, or denial, is in-
tended, the predicate is always in the indicative
mood. Ex. ''''I am glad to see your lordship abroad,"
" the mouse gnawed the threads to pieces, and set the
lioii at liberty," " he goeth in company with the
workers of iniquity, and tvalketh with wicked men,"
^' you did wish that I would wake her then," " she
may go \.o bed when she list; all is as she will,"
" thoit must run to him," ''^flatter Jiim it may, I con-
fess."

In principal sentences, when a wish is to be ex-
pressed, or a concession to be made for the sake of

4r-

GRAMMAR.

argument, the subjunctive mood is used. Ex. " Now,
all my joy trace the conjunction ! " " the Lord for-
bidl" the Lord increase this business ! " ^^ be ii so,
my argument remains unshaken."

Commands are conveyed by means of the impera-
tive mood. Ex. "Ktunu thyself," "folloiv thou me,"
^^cease to do evil, learn to do well," " rejoice, you men
of Angiers, ring your bells." The auxiliary let is
employed for the first and third persons. Ex, "Ac-
knowledge then the king, and let me in," " let none
of them escape,'* "rise, let us go," "let the soldiers
seise him," "let Euclid rest, and Archimedes /a«.f<»,"
"let him be knoivn among the heathens."

45. The distinction between the use of the active
and the passive forms of verbs has been pointed out
and illustrated above (p. 11); and from that it will
appear that whatever has been said here respecting
predicates applies as much to the latter as to the for-
mer, with this exception — there being no (or but few)
imperfect tenses in the passive, the indefinite tenses
are in all cases (except the few referred to) used to
express actions still in progress, or incomplete. Ex.
" The colors are changed by viewing them at differ-
ent obliquities," "I am determined to ^xowt a. wiWam,"
*^ you shall be new christened in the town," "to that
<weet region was our voyage bent," " Hector was
dragged about the walls of Troy," " the Irish horse-
boys should be cut off," " after all that can be said
against it, this remains true," " // may be occasioned
thus," " it shall be reported to the king," "the Pres-
byterian sect 7vas established in all its forms," "it was
said, that the elder should serve the younger."

46. In questions the same grammatical forms are
employed as in assertions ; but the order of the
words is generally inverted, and when compound
tenses are used (as they most frequently are), the
subject follows the auxiliary, whilst the verb itself
occupies its usual place. Interrogative pronouns
are put at the beginning of questions. Ex. " Where
is he ? ' " Shall /live in hope ? " " What, do you tremble,
are you all afraid," "Sa7v you the king to-day ? "
" When have I injured thee ? " " Why look you so
pale ? " " Who hath believed our report .'' " " To whom
will ye liken God ? " " Lucentio is your name ? "
" What, you mean my face ? " " You saw this and op-
posed it not ? "

The grammatical construction of negative sen-
tences differs not at all from that of affirmative ones,
such as have been chiefly selected for examples ;

the relation of the negative words no, not. Sec, being
either that of the attributive to its subject, or of the
object of manner to its predicate, as may be seen
below.

47. Subject and Attributive. In order to de-
scribe the subjects respecting which assertions are
made in sentences, more accurately than their n\ere
names are sufficient to do ; and to define them, so
that the assertions may not become ambiguous by
reason of the vagueness of the subjects they relate
to, words, phrases, and accessory sentences are em-
ployed, which are called attributives.

The commonest attributives are adjectives ; with
which may be included participles (which are the
adjective forms of verbs), numerals, some kinds of
pronouns, nouns used as adjectives, and a few ad-
verbs, which are also occasionally used attributively.
The only sign of the relation between these attribu-
tives and their subjects is their position, which is im-
mediately before the words they refer to, except in
cases where peculiar emphasis or animation is aimed
at, when they immediately follow their subjects,
Ex. "The wierd sisters," "my dread exploits,"
"from this moment," " i7iy dearest coz," " my pretty
cousin," " to offer up a weak, poor, innocent lamb,"
" O nation miserable ! " " a most miraculous work in
this good king," " thy royal iatiieT was a more sainted
king," " each several crime," " many ways," "the heal-
ing benediction," "all my pretty chickens," " an ac-
customed action," " curses, not loud, but deep," "those
linen cheeks of thine are counsellors to fear," " a
rooted sorrow," "the written troubles of the brain,"
" what wood is this," " within this three mile," "a
moving grove," " lead our jirst battle, " hateful to
mine ear," " thou shalt have none assurance of thy
life," " there was no day like that before," " it is no
good report that I hear," " in that very day his
thoughts perish," " to poor we thine enmity's most
capital," " a hundred altars in her temples smoke, a
thousand bleeding hearts her power invoke, " " sojne
men with swords may reap the field," " see where
the victor victim bleeds," " his knowledge of good
lost," " man's jirst disobedience," " these are the
martyr spirits of mankind," " which way went he ?"
"what man is he?" "on the hither side," "yon
flowery avhors, yonder alleys green," "in russet gear
and honest kersey hose," " a hundred upon poor four
us ! " " an everlasting now."

In some cases where a noun is compounded with

GRAMMAR.

an attributive word, in the plural number, the noun
assumes the plural form. Ex. Attorney general,
Attorneys general; Lord lieutenant, Zf^r^j- lieutenant.
But where the compound word expresses an insepa-
rable notion the plural ending is added to the at-
tributive, if that is the second element in the word.
Ex. Two spoonfuls.

48. Nouns and pronouns in the possessive case
are exceedingly common as attributives. But it
must be noted that there is no distinction between
the possessive cases of personal pronouns, and cer-
tain adjective pronouns called possessive ; examples
of which are given in the preceding paragraph.
Sometimes the subject to these attributives is omitted;
and frequently the preposition of is inserted before
the possessive case. Ex. I am not yet of Percy's
mind," " the roaring of the //^/zV whelp," ^^ z. herald's
coat without sleeves," " hearts no bigger than pins'
heads," " I did pluck allegiance from men's hearts,"
" a fair queen in a summer s bower," " I must to the
barber's^ monsieur," " the knight came to the tailor's"
'* I saw thee late at the Count Orsino's," "which is
the way to Master Jew's ? " " let ours also learn to
maintain good works," " I seek not yours but you,"
" the king is now in progress towards St. Albans,"
"a friend <?/" mine on his journey," "if e'er those
eyes of yours behold another day," "a seal ring of
my grandfather's," '' this dotage of our general's
o'erflows the measure."

49. The objective case of nouns and pronouns,
with various prepositions, but especially with the
preposition of (which combination is equivalent to
the possessive case), is used attributively. Ex. " I
speak in behalf of my daughter, in the minority of
them both," " the wicked ministry of ar?ns," " the in-
strument of Providence," "the customs^ the /m-^,"
"thou art a soul in bliss," "a wholesome law time
out of mind," ' compassion on the king commands
me stoop," " travels by sea and land," " the mes-
senger /r^//? our sister," "our duty to God," "sons
to Cymbeline,'' "four rogues inbuckra?n." Imperfect
participles are also employed with the preposition pf
as attributives. Ex. " A famine of hearing the word
of the Lord," "he hath a bad habit 0/ frowning,"
"the greatest care of fulfilling the Divine will."
Another attributive use of this preposition (with one or
two others) with nouns and pronouns is called parti-
tive, from its evident force and signification. Ex.
" The most diminutive of birds" " I have peppered

two of them," "seven of the eleven, I paid," "every
one of them," " all of us," " it contained the whole
of religion," "for which of these works do ye stone
me ? " " one amongst a thousand."

50. Subjects are further defined and described by
means of the words expressing subjects, in the same
number, and immediately preceding or following
them, and said to be in apposition with them. Ex.
"Fulvia thy wife came first into the field, against
my brother Lucius," " the false house-wife Fortune,"
" thou, my brother, my competitor, my mate in empire,
friend and companion in the part of war," ''''King Co-
phetua wooed the beggar maid," " Hamlet, Prince of
Denmark," His royal highness, Prince Albert ; Lord
John Russell, Mr. Smith. When several persons of
the same name are spoken of, or addressed by letter,
the honorary title is put in the plural, whilst the
name is in the singular number. Ex. Messieurs
Smith, Cheeryble Brothers, the Mesdames Robinson.

In some cases the noun in apposition is connected
by means of the preposition of. Ex. The empire of
Russia, the city of St. Petersburg, the university of
Cambridge, the county of Kent, the port of London,
the month of July, the province of Judea.

When two nouns in apposition are attributives to
another, the latter only is put into the possessive case.
Ex. " Our neighbor Shepherd's son," " King Henry's
head," "Z>r. Johnson^s Dictionary," ^^ Duke Hum-
phrey's deeds," " The Lord Protector's wife," " my
Lord Cardinal's man," " Saint Albans shrine."

Accessory sentences are employed as attribu-
tives. Ex. " Whose hand is that the forest bear doth
lick? Not hi?, that spoils her young before her face,"
" a day will come, whe?t York shall claim his own,"
" in that chair, where kings and queens are crowned."

51. Many of the illustrations given above show
how common it is for a single subject to be described
and defined by means of many attributives. The fol-
lowing examples will show some of the ways in which
the repetition of the same word as subject to several
attributives, or as attributive to several subjects, is
prevented. Ex. " I thought the king had more af-
fected the Duke of Albany than Cornwall," " the
princes, France and Burgnndy," " here I disclaim all

. , . propinquity and property of blood, and as a
stranger to my heart and me, hold thee," " we still re-
tain the name and all the additions to a king," "thy
dowerless daughter is queen of us, of ours, and our
fair France," " he wrote this but as an essay or taste

4r-

-A

GRAMMAR.

of my virtue; " " menaces and maledictions against king
and nobles; " " the marks of sovereignty, knowledge, and
reason; " " my train are men of choice and rarest
parts; " " the messengers from our sister and the king;"
" he, the sacred honor of himself, his queen's, his
hopeful son's, his babe's betrays to slander; " " uftcles
of Gloster and of Winchester; " " the Dukes of Or-
leans, Calaber, Bretaigne, and Alengon."

52. Predicate and Object. — The signification
of predicates is modified or completed by means of
words, phrases, and accessory sentences, which are
called objects. And not only are all parts of verbs
followed by these adjuncts, but adjectives also fre-
quently require them.

Objects which complete or supplement the mean-
ing of their predicates are of three kinds : — (i.) The
immediate or direct object of the predicate ; (2.)
the remoter, or mediate and indirect object ; (3.)
the remotest object, or that which indicates the ef-
fect or result of what is asserted in the predicate.
Ex.

1st obj. 2d obj. 3d obj.

"I will take you tome for a people."

2d obj. 1st obj. 3d obj.

" This opinion gave them courage to all adventures."

Those which modify or attemper the signification
of their predicates are six in number : — (i.) Those
which indicate the cause or origin of whatever is as-
serted in the predicate ; (2.) those which tell its de-
sign or purpose ; (3.) those which declare the means
by which it is brought about ; (4.) those which show
the manner of its existence or action ; (5.) and (6.)
those indicating the time and place of its occurrence.
It must, however, be observed, that it is not easy in
all instances to determine to which class an object
belongs — those expressing cause, purpose, or means
frequently being distinguishable by exceedingly
evanescent characteristics. But this is not, practi-
cally, either inconvenient or productive of ambi-
guity ; as may be seen in the examples of these and
other kinds of objects. Ex. (i.) "My soul grows
sad with troubles ; " " by that sin fell the angels." (2.)
"She went to glean Palcemon's fields;" "one man
pursues power in order to wealth, and another wealth
in order to poiver." (3.) "Judge the event by what
has passed;" "the strong through pleasure falls
soonest." (4.) " They act ay/j^^y " " beware and gov-
ern w<?// thy appetite." (5.) "We lacked your coun-
sel and your help to-night; " " it hath been sung at

festivals, on ember eves, and holy ales. " (6.) " The
lion's foe lies prostrate on the plain; " " I am with
thee, by and before, about and in thee, too."

53. Nouns, pronouns, and other words used as
nouns, — such as the infinitive mood of verbs, and
participles, — most commonly without, but also with
prepositions before them, serve as immediate ob-
jects of predicates ; and also of the infinitive mood
of verbs, and participles, and of adjectives, when
they are not the predicates of sentences. And the
personal pronouns, whether with or without preposi-
tions, are in the objective case. Ex. " Do you not
hear him 2" "you mar our labor;" "keep your
cabins ;" "you do assist the storm;" " 't is time I
should inform thee further ; " " wipe thou thine eyes ;
have comfort ; " " you have often begun to tell me
what I am, but stopped, and left me to a bootless in-
quisition ;" " he whom, next thyself, of all the world
I loved, and to him put the manage of my state ; "
" the government I cast upon my brother ; " " the ivy
which had hid my princely trunk, and sucked the
verdure out on't ; " " triumphing over death, and
chance, and time;" " on mine arm shall they trust • "
" victorious over temptation."

The common exclamations, " ah me !" and " woe
is me I " are contractions ; the latter was originally,
"woe becomes or befits me," and the former is equiv-
alent to it in meaning, and may have been derived
from it.

54. The more remote object is also expressed
by nouns, and most commonly preceded by the
preposition to ; but this is often omitted ; and there
are other prepositions which serve to connect this
object with its predicate. Whenever the remoter ob-
ject is expressed, but the immediate object left out,
the sense is imperfect. The personal pronouns, as
in the last, are always in the objective case. Ex.
" Three great ones of the city oft capp'd to him; "
" whip me such honest knaves ; " " throwing but
shows of service on their lords, do themselves hom-
age ; " "I am beholden to you ; " " forgive us our
trespasses ; " " he makes a supper, and a great one, to
many lords and ladies ;" "I need not add more fuel
to your fire ; " "comparing spiritual things with spir-
itual ; " " I have charged thee not to haunt about my
doors ; " " fetch me an iron crow ; " " O continue
thy loving-kindness ««/<? me ; " " the services, which
I have done the signiory ; " " the goodness of the
night upon you, friends; " "I'll refer me to all things

GRAMMAR.

of sense J ^' "good-night to every one!" "it cannot
be that Desdemona should long continue her love to
the Moor ^ nor he his to her; " " I have told thee often,
and I re-tell thee sigain and again, I hate the Moor."

55. For the remotest object, which expresses
the result or effect of the predicate, nouns (with or
without prepositions, or preceded by the conjunction
as), pronouns, adjectives, participles, the infinitive
mood of verbs, and to be with nouns, adjectives, and
adverbs, are employed. Ex. " He, in good time,
must his lieutenant be, and I, his Moorshifs ancient j "
"the king, your father, was reputed y<?r a prince most
prudent;" "whom I hold my most malicious foe,
and think not at all a friend to truth; bade me enjoy
it ; " " man became a living soul; " " why should
damage grow to the hurt of the king ? " " they looked
upon themselves as the happiest people of the uni-
verse; " " things were just ripe for a ivar;" "those
pearls of dew she wears prove to be presaging tears;"
" his servants ye are to whom ye obey, whether of
sin unto death, or of obedience unto righteousness ; "
"we take a falling raoX-eox for a star; " " it were not
for your quiet, fior your good, nor for my manhood,
honesty, ana wisdom, to let you know my thoughts ; "
" I believe him to be a very honest man; " " whom do
you suppose it to be ? "

56. Of the objects which modify the meaning
of the predicate, those which do so by indicating its
origin or cause are expressed by nouns (and all
words and combinations of words that can be used
instead of them), preceded by certain prepositions,
and by some adverbs. Oaths are included under
this head, as indicating the ground of the assertion,
though not of what is asserted. Ex. " I would not
follow him then; " " therefore to our best mercy
give yourselves ; " " whom from the flow of gall I
name not, but from sincere motions ;" "you lost
your office on the complaiftt of the tenants ; " " men
are pleased with variety; " " astonished at the voice,
he stood ; " " they were jealous of her beauty; "
" guilty of high treason; " " I can tell you why; "
" thou hast forced me out of thy honest truth to play
the woman ; " " they boast themselves of idols ; "
" Sempronius gives no thanks on this account;"
" you are good, but from a nobler cause, from your
own knowledge, not from nature's laws; " ^^ by the
faith of a man, I know my prince ; " " ^ heaven, I
rather would have been his hangman ; " " on my
honor, it is so."

57. Those objects which point out the design and
purpose of the predicate are expressed by the infini-
tive mood of verbs, most commonly, and also by
nouns, &c., with prepositions. Ex. " I follow him
to serve my turn upon him; " " wears out his time
for nought but provender; " "in following him, I
follow but myself, not \ for love and duty, but seem-
ing so, for my peculiar end; " "I come to bury Cce-
sar, not to praise him ; " " fee traveled the world,
on purpose to converse with the most learned men; "
" with this design I have visited all the most cele-
brated schools in Europe ; " " he writes not for
money ndr for praise; " " there is a time to weep,
and a time to laugh; " "be swift to hear, slow to
speak; " " one man pursues power in order to wealth,
and another wealth in order to power; " " thou art
not able to go against this Philistine to fight with
him."

58. Objects by which the means employed in pro-
ducing any result are declared are generally ex-
pressed by nouns, &c., with prepositions. Ex. " I
must be be-lee'd and calm'd by debtor and creditor,
this countercaster;" "preferment goes by letter and
affection, not by the old gradation ;" " plague him
with flies; " " we may outrun by violent swiftness that
which we run at, and lose by overrunning ; " " my
soul grows sad with troubles ;" "the strong through

pleasure soonest falls, the weak through smart;"
" you must think we hope to gain by you; " " thus,
by the music we may know when noble wits a-hunting
go ; " " you absolved him with an axe ; " " some he
killed with his gun, others by poison."

59. Manner is expressed by adjectives, partici-
ples, adverbs, and nouns, &c., with prepositions or
the conjunction as. Ex. " He, as loving his own
pride and purposes, evades them, with a bombast cir-
cumstance ; " " wears out his time, much like his mas-
ter s ass;" ^^ wide was spread their fame in ages
past ; " " in madness, being full of supper and distem-
pering draughts, dost thou come to start my quiet; "

" he, with his father, is going home;" "a Puritan
amongst them sings psalms to hornpipes; " " we are
not to stay all together, but to come by him, where
he stands, by ones, by twos, and by threes; " " seize
her by force, and bear her hence unheard;" ^^ so
frown'd the mighty combatants ; " " thus he spake ; "
" quit yourselves like men; " " ye shall be as gods; "
"come quickly;" "he answered well;" "they
that sow in tears shall reap in joy ; " " he that goeth

GRAMMAR.

forth weepings bearing precious seed, shall doubtless
come again with rejoicing, bringing his sheaves with
him J " " they act wisely."

60. All the various ways in which objects indicate
the time of an action, &c., are expressed by nouns,
&c., with or without prepositions, adjectives, parti-
ciples, and adverbs. Ex. " He in good time must
his lieutenant be ; " "we rose both at an instant,
and fought a long hour by Shrewsbury clock; " " then
have sat the livelong day; " " he came by night; "
" doomed /or a certain time to walk the night, and

for the day confined to fast in fires ;"" he did them
meditate all his life long; " " till then, who knew the
force of those dire arms ? " "I have not wept this
forty years;" ''''morning by morning shall it pass
over ; " " yet in her sanguine gown by night and day; "
" depart immediately ; " " I was never pleased ; " " thy
servants' trade hath been about cattle from our youth
even until turw ; " "sometimes walking ; " " now is the
time."

61. Place where, and direction whence and
whither, are expressed by nouns, &c., with or with-
out prepositions, and by adverbs. Ex. " I will wear
my heart upon my sleeve; " " his eyes had seen the
proof at Rhodes, at Cyprus, and on other grounds; "
" proclaim him in the streets; " " I, upon my frontiers
here, keep residence ; " "I saw hereabout nothing
remarkable ; " " let them hence away; " " a puissant
and mighty power is marching hitherward in proud
array ; " " if they come to sojourn at my house, I'll
not be there ; " " darkness there might well seem
twilight ^^r^y"**ah! where was Eloise ? " "the
good man is gone a long journey ; " " come a little
nearer this way; " " the eyes of the Lord are in every
place ; " " we must measure twenty miles to-day ; "

" he looked this way and that way ; " " come hither,
child, to me."

62. Accessory sentences are sentences com-
plete in themselves as to syntax, but occupying sub-
ordinate places in other sentences, which stand to
them in the relation of principals. They are of three
kinds, named (after the offices they discharge in
their principal sentences) subjective, attributive, and
objective sentences. Their relation to their princi-
pals is shown by their position, and by the use of
relative pronouns and certain conjunctions, and in
many cases by the employment of the subjunctive
mood.

63. Subjective accessory sentences are found

in every relation in which a noun could stand ;
and may be either subjects, predicates (both of
which have been illustrated above), or completing
objects to predicates (with or without prepositions);
but being equivalent to nouns, they are named after
that part of the sentence which is especially taken
by the noun. Ex. '* See that tJwu do it; " " I take
it much unkindly, that thou, lago, shouldst kno7v of
this;" "thou toldst me, thou didst hold him in thy
hate ; " " be judge yourself, whetJur I in any just term
am affined to love the Moor; " " right glad I am, he
was not in this fray; " " I have forgot why I did call
thee back; " " what you would work me to I have some
aim ; " " mark me with what violence she loved the
Moor; " "I could well wish courtesy would invent
some other custom of entertainment ;" " you must nq^
think, then, that I am drunk; " " what you can make
her do, I am content to look on ; what to speak, I
am content to hear ; " " vodsYwhat it is his mind aims
at in the question, and not what words he expresses; "
" she said, Say on ; " " as when we say, Plato was
no fool."

64. Attributive accessory sentences occur
wherever adjectives might be used as attributives.
The relation between these sentences and their sub-
jects is shown by their position, by their predicates
assuming the same personal forms as those of their
subjects, and by the employment of the relative
pronouns who, which, and that, in them. Where no
confusion is possible, these pronouns may be omit-
ted. Ex. "Thou, lago, who. hast had my purse; " " a
fellow that never set a squadron in the field, nor the
division of a battle knows, more than a spinster; " " I
hold him to be unworthy of his place that does tJwse
things y " " I fear the trust Othello puts him in will
shake this island ; " " honest lago, that lookst dead
with grieving ; " " every one hears that, which can dis-
tinguish sound ; " "that forbidden tree, whose mortal
taste brought death into the world; " " the son of Dun-
can, from 7vhom this tyrant holds the due of birth; "
"fruits that blossom first, will first be ripe ; " "he
that is of God, heareth God's words ;" "unto me,
who am less than the least of all saints; " " thinkest
thou this, O man, that judgest them which do such
things, and doest the same, that thou shalt escape the
judgment of God ? " " /, that speak unto thee, am
he."

Note, that whether the relative be subject, attrib-
utive, or object, in its own sentence, it is always

-<^

1 28

GRAMMAR.

4r-

placed at the very commencement of it, because it
has so few inflexions, that otherwise its connection
with the subject (or antecedent) it refers to might
be obscure.

These sentences frequently stand as attributives
to other sentences, which are related to them as
subjects. Ex. " They shall obey, unless they seek
for hatred at my hands, which if they do, they shall
feel the vengeance of my wrath ; " " he was unsat-
isfied in getting, which wets a sin; " " as he spoke, a
braying ass did sing most loud and clear, whereat
his horse did start"

65. Objective accessory sentences are those
which serve instead of objects of cause, purpose,
means, manner (including degree or intensity), time,
and place ; and those expressing a condition or con-
cession, which are distinguished by the employment
of the probable or improbable forms of the subjunc-
tive mood, according to the amount of contingency
affecting the condition or concession, and generally
after certain conjunctions. The indicative' mood is,
however, now very commonly used instead ; always,
indeed, where no contingency or uncertainty is to be
expressed. Ex. " Because we come to do you service,
you think we are ruffians ; " ''^ since neither love, nor
sense of pain, nor force of reason can persuade, then
let example be obeyed ; " " be ye steadfast, immov-
able, . . . forasmuch as ye know that your labor is not in
vain in the Lord ; " " he makes it his care both to
•write and to speak plainly, so that he may be under-
stood ;" "treat it kindly, that it may wish, at least,
with us to stay j " *' judge not, that ye be not judged; "
" as will appear by 7vhat follows; " ^^from tuhat
has been said, you may perceive the hopelessness of
your undertaking ; " " be taught by what I am suffer-
ing; " " who, he knew, would be willing ; '" " thou
hast used my purse, as if the strings were thine; "
" it is as sure as you are Roderigo; " " throw such
changes of vexation on't, as it may lose some color; "
" the longer I am acquainted with him, the more I like
him ; " ^' so great was the cold, that the deepest rivers
were frozen;" " he is as merry as the day is long; "
" I'll see, before I doubt; " " kings may take their
advantage, rvhen and how they list;" "use physic, or
ever thou be sick; " " while I was protector, pity was
all the fault that was in me ; " " he is the most im-
proved mind, since you saw him, that ever was ; "
^^ where your treasure is, there will your heart be
also ; " '* I will follow thee whithersoever thou goest ; "

" I have shown whence the understanding may get all
the ideas it has; " " the noise pursues me, whereso-
eer I go;" " despise me, if I do not;" " were I the
Moor, I would not be lago ; " " you will not serve
God, if the devil bid you ! " " think we, or think we
not, time hurries on ; " " thou dost conspire against
thy friend, if thou but thinkst him wronged, and makest
his ear a stranger to thy thoughts; " '''^ though thou de-
tain me, I will not eat ; " " wert thou an oracle to tell
me so, I'd not believe it ; " " had fate so pleased, I
had been eldest born ; " "I had been happy, so I
had nothing known ;" " unless I look on Sylvia in the
day, there is no day for me to look upon ; " " though
he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor ; "
" many things are believed, although they be intricate^
obscure, and dark."

66. Contracted and compound sentences. —
Two or more sentences having the same subjects, or
the same predicates or objects, and two or more sub-
jects having the same attributives, or viceversd, are fre-
quently contracted into one compound sentence, or
phrase, by the use of conjunctions. Examples of sev-
eral kinds may be found in the former parts of this
Compendium ; others are such as these : Ex. " With
fairest flowers, whilst summer lasts, and I live here,
Fidele, I'll sweeten thy sad grave ; " " his honesty
got him small gains, but shameless flattery, and filthy
beverage, and unseemly thrift, and borrow base, and
some good lady's gift ; " " it shall ever be my study
to make discoveries of this nature in human life,
and to settle the proper distinctions between the vir-
tues and perfections of mankind, and those false
colors and resemblances of them, that shine alike in
the eyes of the vulgar."

In contracted sentences, where a comparison is
expressed, care should be taken to avoid ambiguity.
Ex. " He would make a better soldier than scholar,"
expresses the greater aptitude of the person spoken
of for the arts of war, than for the pursuit of learn-
ing. " He would make a better soldier than a scholar,"
expresses that the person spoken of displays greater
aptitude for war than a student would. " He likes
them better than I," signifies that his liking for the
persons spoken of is greater than my liking for
them ; whilst " he likes them better than me " signi-
fies that his liking for them is greater than his liking
for me.

Similarly, wherever two or more subjects are dis-
tinguished by the attributive adjectives only, unless

GRAMMAR.

in cases where no ambiguity can arise, they should
be distinguished by the repetition of the demonstra-
tive. Ex. '''^ The red and blue vestments were most
admired," should be, ^' the red and the blue vest-
ments," if two kinds are intended. But we may say,
"/^? Lords Spiritual and Temporal^ because the at-
tributives are incompatible in their signification.

67. Construction is the arrangement of words in
sentences, and of sentences in relation to each other,
so as to indicate the subordination of the several
parts, and their connection and union; and the uni-
versal rule is to place the subordinate words, or
phrases, before the principal ones. Yet for the sake
of imparting special significance to some words or
sentences, the form of this rule is often violated, and
particularly in poetry. This is called inverted con-
struction, to distinguish it from the ordinary arrange-
ment, which is designated direct.

Ex. Direct. " The orator had the honor of ha-
ranguing Pope Clement the Sixth, and the satisfac-
tion of conversing with Petrarch, a congenial mind ;
but his aspiring hopes were chilled by disgrace and
poverty ; and the patriot was reduced to a single
garment, and the charity of an hospital ! " " The
apartments, porticoes, and the courts of the Lateran
were spread with innumerable tables for either sex,
and every condition ; a stream of wine flowed from
the nostrils of Constantine's brazen horse ; no com-
plaint, except the scarcity of water, could be heard ;
and the licentiousness of the multitude was curbed
by discipline and fear."

Inverted. *' At last, after much fatigue, through
dull roads, and bad weather, we came, with no small
difficulty, to our journey's end." " Unto the French,
the dreadful judgment-day so dreadful will not be,
as was his sight." " So shaken as we are, so wan
with care, find we a time for frighted peace to pant."
" Great is Diana of the Ephesians ! " " Fallen, fallen
is Babylon, that great city ! " " Silver and gold have
I none; but such as I have, give I unto thee." " Go
I must, whatever may ensue." "Up rose the sun,
and up rose Emily."

68. Accentuation. — In order to show the subor-
dination of the less important phrases in sentences, to
the principal ones in each of the several combina-
tions treated of above, and to give prominence to
the most important elements in words, a particular
stress of voice (called accent) is customarily laid
upon the radical part of all inflected words, and

upon the principal words or phrases in each of those
combinations. Ex. Golden, disgraceful, gratitude,
kingdom, tnithfulness, wdkeful ; they read ; the men
were astonished, my suspicions were correct ; the se
crets of the grdve this viperous slander enters ; the
mighty dead ; dll his golden words are spent ; king
David ; here is one Lucianus, nephew to the king ;
the kingdom of England ; the world hateth you ; I
joy to meet thee ; give the book to m^; I crave your
pardon.

69. Emphasis is distinguished from accent by
this ; the latter serves to indicate the connection of
the words, &c., and to give unity to the meanings of
the several parts which enter into the different com-
binations that make up sentences, &c. ; whilst em-
phasis shows some special meaning which the speaker
desires to give to his words, and which they would
not ordinarily bear. Ex, " They read, w^ write ;
the men were astonished, and the woman fled ; my
suspicions were correct, but my knowledge was no
more than yours ; the kingdom of England, not that
of Scotland ; no, sir, I do not bite my thumb at
yod, sir ; but I bite my thilmb, sir ; be not afraid,
she shall not harm thee ; I' scorn you not, it seems
that you scorn m^."

70. Punctuation. — The pauses which, in speak-
ing, are used to impart greater accuracy and clear-
ness to our expressions, in writing are represented
by characters called stops ; and the notes of interro-
gation and admiration, the parenthesis and the dash^^
as well as the breaking up of composition into para-
graphs, are employed for similar purposes. In poe-
try they are more used than in prose ; and the fewest
number possible should always be employed.

The full point, or period, indicates the termina-
tion of a passage which is complete both in meaning
and in syntax. The colon marks the end of a gram-
matical combination, but shows that what follows is
required to complete the meaning. The semicolon
shows that, both in meaning and in syntax, the ex-
pression it follows is incomplete. And the comma
is used to distinguish, rather than to divide, the parts
of grammatical combinations, so that the connection
between them, and their signification when combined,
may be more clear. But where the passages are not
very long, and no mistake would arise, the comma is
used for the semicolon, and even for the colon; and
the semicolon is employed instead of the colon.
The period is frequently employed, also, where we

GRAMMAR.

-y

should expect only the colon. Ex. "The Roman
senators conspired against Julius Caesar to kill him :
that very next morning Artemidorus, Caesar's friend,
delivered him a paper (desiring him to peruse it)
wherein the whole plot was discovered : but Caesar
complimented his life away, being so taken up to
return the salutations of such people as met him in
the way, that he pocketed the paper, among other
petitions, as unconcerned therein ; and so, going to
the Senate-house, he was slain."

" The noble Brutus
Hath told you, Caesar was ambitious :
If it were so, it was a grievous fault ;
And grievously has Caesar answered it."

71. Parentheses indicate either an explanatory re-
mark, or a thought related to what has been said,
which is noted but not pursued ; and instead of the
common sign, two commas, or two semicolons, or
two dashes, are often employed. Ex. "Traveling
on the plain (which notwithstanding hath its risings
and fallings), I discovered Salisbury steeple many
miles off." "I find two (husband and wife), both
stealing, and but one of them guilty of felony."
"Spill not the morning (the quintessence of the
day !) in recreation." " Raleigh had (besides his
own merits) two good friends."

In general the dash is used to show that a pause
should be made, because the sense is broken off
abruptly ; or whilst the sense is not interrupted,
"something unexpected follows ; or to call for greater
attention to what is about to be said. Ex.

" To die, — to sleep, —
No more ; — and, by a sleep, to say we end
The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to, — 'tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wished."

" O thou invisible spirit of wine, if thou hast no name to be
known by, let us call thee — devil ! "

" * Thou art a villain.'
' You are — a senator.' "

" Some people, handsome by nature, have willfully
deformed themselves ; — such as wear Bacchus' col-
ors in their faces, arising not from ha-^ing — but be-
ing — bad livers."

" Romeo, the hate I bear thee can afford
No better term than this — Thou art a villain."

Other artifices are employed, such as italics and
SMALL CAPITALS, in typography to represent some
of the effects of the tones and inflexions of the voice.

,;ntt£Topic, 1

72. Some modes of expression, called tropical, or
figurative, which are strictly amongst the matters re-
specting which rhetoric is conversant, should be
noticed here ; as they serve to account for some of
the forms which have been noticed above.

Personification, or prosopopoeia, is the treating
of things and subjects without life, even abstrac-
tions, as though they were living persons. Ex.
" Confusion heard his voice." " I have no spur to
prick the sides of my intent, but only vaulting ambi-
tion, which o'erleaps itself." *' Doth not wisdom cry,
and understanding put forth her voice ? " " Make
temperance thy companion, so shall health sit on thy
brow."

Hllipsis, or omission, is the suppression of some
word, which from the nature of what is spoken of,
or from the context, can be readily supplied. Ex.
" All in vain [is] my frantic calling, all in vain [are]
my falling tears ! " " [There is] no way to fly, nor
strength to hold out flight ! " " The lyiight came to
the tailor's [shop]." " Are you going to the House
{of Parliament] ? "

Pleonasm, or redundancy, is the introduction of
some words not actually required, but often exceed-
ingly effective, as a means of giving peculiar empha-
sis, or expressing a particular feeling. Ex. " The
skipping king, he ambled up and down." " They
returned back again to the same city from whence
they came forth." " The dawn is overcast, the morn-
ing lowers, and heavily with clouds brings on the day."

Zeugma, or syllepsis, is the suppression of a
verb or a noun, in positions in which it will readily
be suggested by another verb or noun, which is ex-
pressed ; and with which the object, or attributive
belonging to the suppressed words, appears to be
connected. Ex. " And his mouth was opened im-
mediately, and his tongue [loosed] ; " " forbidding
to marry, and [commanding] to abstain from
meats ; " " my paternal house is desolate, and he
himself [my father] destitute and in exile."

These examples illustrate the working of the
zeugma, or syllepsis.

4r-

GRAMMAR.

4r-

73. Prosody treats of the laws of metrical compo-
sitions, regarding accent, quantity, rhythm, rhyme,
alliteration, &c., &c.

Accent is the stress laid upon one or more sylla-
bles of a word. Monosyllables are capable of ac-
cents only when they are uttered with other words.
Ex. Father, industry, nightingale, himself, dissever,
exquisitely, whatsoever, voliiptuous ; — " there is that
in his face which leads one to tnist him."

Quantity is the time required to pronounce
a syllable, and is either long, marked (-), or short,
marked ("). Seeing, upright, pSrsonSblS, tutSlary,
peerage, trSnslatidn, not, note, St, ate, ten, tSnd, full,
cull.

Rhythm is the harmonious arrangement of words
in lines of various definite lengths ; and is one of
the chief elements of metre. Ex.

' The poetry of earth is never dead."

" The willow leaves that danced in the breeze."

" Full many a glorious morning have I seen
Flatter the mountain-tops with sovereign eye."

"See the day begins to break."

" Lessons sweet of spring returning."

" At the close of the day, when the hamlet is still."

74. Rhyme is the correspondence of the final
sound in a metrical line, with those of one or more
other lines preceding or following, immediately or
alternately. It is distinguished into assonance and
consonance ; the former being the correspondence
of the vowel sounds alone, the latter of both vowels
and consonants. Ex.

" The baron he stroakt his dark-brown ch^^ke.
And turned his heade asyde;
To whipe away the starting teare
He proudly strave to hyde."
" Have owre, have owre to Aberd^wr,
It's fiftie f adorn d«p,
And thair lies guid Sir Patrick Spence,
Wi' the Scots lords at his ieii."
" My cloake it was a very good cbrtke,
It hath been alwayes true to the weare
But now it is not worth a gr^at ;

I have had it four- and-t wen tyj^^r^."

Single and double rhymes are also to be distin-
guished. Ex.

" The Abbot had preached for xa.2ci\y years.

With clear articu^/z^w,
As ever was heard in the House of Peers

Against Emanci/a//i7«.
His words had made battalions quake.

Had roused the zeal of martyrs;
Had kept the Court an hour 2t.wake,

And the king himself i\iTte-quarters."

Alliteration is the commencement of two or
more words, in the same or adjoining lines, with the
same or closely allied sounds. Ex.

" The parted bosom dings to wonted ^ome,

If aught that's /kindred cheer the welcome dearth ;

Hq that is /onely, Either /et him roam,

And gaze r^^wplacent on t<7«genial earth,

Greece is no /ightsome /and of social mirth :

But h& whom badness .rootheth may abide.

And scarce regret the region of his birth,

When wandering slow by Delphi's jacred jide,

Or gazing o'er the/lains, where G^reek and /'ersian died."

75. Specimens of the principal English me-
ters. — In order to distinguish the different kinds of
metre, certain names are borrowed from the prosody
of Latin and Greek. Thus, an accented syllable
preceded by one unaccented is regarded as equiva-
lent to a long syllable following a short one, and is
called an Iambic. Ex. " Awdy, or Sway ; rejoice,
or rdjoice." An accented or long syllable before an
accented or short one, is called a Trochee. Ex.
** Wretched, or wretched; rising, or rising." An
accented syllable followed by two unaccented is
called a Dactyl. Ex. " I'ndustry, or industry ; ex-
quisite, or exquisite." An accented syllable follow-
ing two unaccented is called an Anapest. Ex.
" Lochinvar' or Lochlnvar ; cavalier, or cSvaiier."

The most common metres are varieties of the
Iambic, the Trochaic, and the Anapestic ; the dif-
ferences consisting in the number of Iambics, &c.,
in each line. Further differences arise out of the
various kinds of lines, and the manner in which
they are grouped so as to form the stanzas. Our
examples principally illustrate the composition of
single lines.

I. Iambic meter. Four syllables.

" With rdvisht ^ars,
The minarch h&irs ;
Assiimes the g6d,
Affdcts the n6d."

GRAMMAR.

Six syllables,
" What th6ugh light Phoe'bus' bedms
Refresh the southern gr6und,
And th6ugh the princely thrdnes
With b^uteous ny'mphs ab6und."

Eight syllables.
" And mdy at Idst my w^ary dge
Find oiit the peaceful h^rmitdge.
The hdiry g6wn and mdssy rfU."

Ten syllables. (Heroic.)
" Such sw^et compulsion d6th in music He,
To lull the daughter 6f necessity,
And k^ep unsttedy ndture t6 her Idw,
And the slow world in measured m6tion drdw."

Twelve syllables. (Alexandrine.)
" A c6nstant miiden still she 6nly did remdin,
The Idst her genuine Idws which stoutly did retdin."

Fourteen syllables.
"^ As wh^n aboiit the silver m6on, when afr is frte from wind,
And stdrs shine cl6ar : to wh6se sweet bdams, high prdspects, dnd the

br6ws
Of ill steep hflls and pinnacles, thrust lip themselves for shdws."

The most frequent combinations of Iambic meters
are those exemplified in the following stanzas :

I. Short.
" Thou kn6w'st that twice a ddy
I've brdught thee, fn this cdn,
Fresh wdter fr6m the running bro6k,
As cledr as ^ver rdn."

2. Common.
" Of d' the dirts the wind can bldw,
I ddarly like the wdst ;
For thdre the b6nnie Idssie lives.
The Idssie I' lo'e best."

3. Long.
" O thoii by wh6se expressive drt
Her perfect image ndture se^s.
In linion with the Grdces stdrt.
And sweater by' reflection pledse."

a. Trochaic meter. Three syllables.
" Here we mdy
Think and prdy
Before dedth
St6ps our bredth."

Four syllables.
" Rich the tredsure,
Sweet the pledsure."

Five and six syllables.
" Fill the biimper fdir,

E'very dr6p we sprinkle
O'n the br6w of cdre,
Smodthes awdy a wrinkle."

Seven syllables.
" L6ve is hiirt with jdr and fret,
L6ve is mdde a vdin regret.
Eyes with idle tedrs are wet.
I'dle hdbit links us yet."

Eight syllables.
" Bind the sea to slumber stilly.
Bind its 6dor t6 the lily.
Bind the aspen ne'er to quiver,
Then bind L6ve to Idst for ever."

The most common use of this meter is in qua-
trains (or stanzas of four lines) of seven syllables.

There is an almost infinite variety of meters and
of stanzas, produced by the intermixture of Iambics
and Trochees, and of Iambic with Trochaic metres.

3. Dactylic meter. — The following specimen
will suffice for the illustration of the varieties of
this meter.

" Hdd I a cdve on some wild distant sh6re.

Where the winds h6wl to the wdves' dashing rodr;

There would I weep my woes.

There seek my 16st repose.

Till grief my eyes should close.

Ne'er to wake m6re."

4. Anapestic meter. — The effect of this meter
can be learned from this illustration :

" I have Idst for that faith more than th ou canst best6w.
As the G6d who permits thee to pr6sper doth kn6w
In his hdnd is my hedrt and my h6pe ; and in thine,

The Idnd and the life which for him I resign."

•

Of the imitations of classical meters little needs to
be said, except that they are not adapted to the
genius of our language. Many attempts have been
made to render them acceptable, some with consid-
erable success ; but the great number of our mono-
syllables will always prevent them from coming into
general use or favor.

76. Beside the kinds of stanza given already,
which are principally used in Divine service, some
other kinds may be exemplified here.

I. Elegiac.
" Here rests his head up6n the Idp of edrth,
A youth to fortune dnd to fdme unkn6wn ;
Fair science smiled not 6n his hiimble birth.
And meianch61y mdrk'd him f6r her 6wn."
2. Ottava rima.
" 'Tis sweet to hedr the wdtchdog's h6nest bdrk

Bay deep-mouth'd welcome ds we drdw near h6me ;
'Tis sweet to kn6w there is an eye will mdrk

Our c6ming, dnd look brighter when we c6me ;
'Tis sweet to be awdkened by' the Idrk, •

Or lull'd by fdlling wdters ; sweet the hiim
Of bees, the voice of girls, the s<Sng of birds,
The lisp of children dnd their edrliest w6rds."
3. Spenserian.
*' The Niobe of ndtions ; there she stdnds,

Childless and crownless, in her voiceless w6e 1
An empty urn within her wither' d hdnds,

Whose h6ly diist was scdtter'd 16ng ag6 ;
Her Scipio's tdmb contains no dshes ndw ;

Her very sepulchres lie tenantiess
Of their her6ic dwellers : d6st thou fl6w.
Old Tiber, thr6ugh a mdrble wilderness ?
Rise, with thy yellow wdves, and mdntle her distress ! "

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

<% \ % 'i. \ %. <), % ^ ^k. 'i >>, \ \ \ % \ % \ % f^ ^ % % % !% % ^ \ % •% % % t% % 1^ -% ^^ % ^. % •% t, % ^ ^ -%ll

Synonvme is a term applied to different words, whose meaning is so
nearly the same, that the one may be substituted for the other, without
altering the sense of the sentence, in order to avoid the inelegant repe-
tition of the same word :

^BANDON, leave, forsake, desert, renounce, relinquish,
quit,*forego, let go, waive.
Abandoned, wicked, reprobate, dissolute, profligate,

flagitious, corrupt, depraved, vicious.
Abandonment, leaving, desertion, dereliction, renun-
ciation, defection.
Abasement, degradation, fall, degeneracy, humilia-
tion, abjection, debasement, servility.
Abash, bewilder, disconcert, discompose, confound,
confuse, shame.
Abbreviate, shorten, abridge, condense, contract, curtail,
reduce.
Abdicate, give up, resign, renounce, abandon, forsake, relinquish, quit,

forego.
Abet, help, encourage, instigate, incite, stimulate, aid, assist.
Abettor, assistant, accessory, accomplice, promoter, instigator, /ar^/-

ce/s criminis, coadjutor, associate, companion, cooperator.
Abhor, dislike intensely, view with horror, hate, detest, abominate,

loathe, nauseate.
Ability, capability, talent, faculty, capacity, qualification, aptitude, apt-
ness, expertness, skill, efficiency, accomplishment, attainment.
Abject, grovelling, low, mean, base, ignoble, worthless, despicable,

vile, servile, contemptible.
Abjure, recant, forswear, disclaim, recall, revoke, retract, renounce.
Able, strong, powerful, musculfir, stalwart, vigorous, athletic, robust,
brawny, skillful, adroit, competent, efficient, capable, clever, self-
qualified, telling, fitted.
Abode, residence, habitation, dwelling, domicile, home, quarters,

lodging.
Abolish, quash, destroy, revoke, abrogate, annul, cancel, annihilate,

extinguish, vitiate, invalidate, nullify.
Abominable, hateful, detestable, odious, vile, execrable.
Abortive, fruitless, ineffectual, idle, inoperative, vain, futile.
About, concerning, regarding, relative to, with regard to, as to, respect-
ing, with respect to, referring to, around, nearly, approximately.
Abscond, run off, steal away, decamp, bolt.

Absent, a., inattentive, abstracted, not attending to, listless, dreamy.
Absolute, entire, complete, unconditional, unqualified, unrestricted,
despotic, arbitrary, tyrannous, imperative, authoritative, imp>erious.
Absolve, set free, loose, clear, acquit, liberate, release, forgive.
Absorb, engross, swallow up, engulf, imbibe, consume, merge, fuse.
Absurd, silly, foolish, preposterous, ridiculous, irrational, unreasona-
ble, nonsensical, inconsistent.
Abuse, v., asperse, revile, vilify, reproach, calumniate, defame, slander,

scandalize, malign, traduce, disparage, depreciate, ill-use.
Abuse, »., scurrility, ribaldry, contumely, obloquy, opprobrium, foul

invective, vituperation.
Accede, assent to, consent, acquiesce, comply with, agfree, coincide,
concur, approve.

Accelerate, hasten, hurry, expedite, forward, quicken, despatch.

Accept, receive, take, admit.

Acceptable, agreeable, pleasing, pleasurable, gratifying, welcome.

Accident, casucdty, incident, contingency, adventure, chance.

Acclamation, applause, plaudit, exultation, joy, shouting, cheering,
triumph, jubilation.

Accommodate, adapt, adjust, fit, suit, serve, supply, furnish.

Accomplice, confederate, accessory, abettor, coadjutor, assistant, ally,
associate, particefs crintinis.

Accomplish, do, effect, finish, execute, achieve, complete, perfect, con-
summate.

Accomplishment, attainment, qualification, acquirement.

Accord, grant, allow, admit, concede.

Accost, salute, address, speak to, stop, greet.

Account, z'., assign, adduce, reckon, compute, calculate, estimate.

Account, »., narrative, description, narration, relation, detail, recital,
moneys, reckoning, bill, charge.

Accountable, punishable, answerable, amenable, responsible, liable.

Accredited, authorized, commissioned, empowered, intrusted.

Accumulate, bring together, amass, collect, gather.

Accumulation, collection, store, mass, congeries, concentration.

Accurate, correct, exact, precise, nice, truthful.

Achieve, do, accomplish, effect, fulfill, execute, gain, win.

Achievement, feat, exploit, accomplishment, attainment, perform-
ance, acquirement, gain.

Acknowledge, admit, confess, own, avow, grant, recognize, allow, con-
cede.

Acquaint, inform, enlighten, apprise, make aware, make known, no-
tify, communicate.

Acquaintance, familiarity, intimacy, cognizance, fellowship, compan-
ionship, knowledge.

Acquiesce, agree, accede, assent, comply, consent, give way, coincide
with.

Acquit, pardon, forgive, discharge, set free, clear, absolve.

Act, do, operate, make, perform, play, enact.

Action, deed, achievement, feat, exploit, accomplishment, battle, en-
gagement, agency, instrumentality.

Active, lively, sprightly, alert, agile, nimble, brisk, quick, supple,
prompt, vigilant, laborious, industrious.

Actual, real, positive, genuine, certain.

Acute, shrewd, intelligent, penetrating, piercing, keen.

Adapt, accommodate, suit, fit, conform.

Addicted, devoted, wedded, attached, given up to, dedicated.

Addition, increase, accession, augmentation, reinforcement.

Address, tact, skill, ability, dexterity, deportment, demeanor.

Adhesion, adherence, attachment, fidelity, devotion.

Adjacent, near to, adjoining, contiguous, conterminous, bordering,
neighboring.

Adjourn, defer, prorogue, postpone, delay.

Adjunct, appendage, appurtenance, app>endency, dependency.

Adjust, set right, fit, accommodate, adapt, arrange, settle, regulate, or-
ganize.

Admirable, striking, surprising, wonderful, astonishing-.

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

Admonition, warning, notice, caution;

Adopt, take, assume, appropriate, choose.

Adorn, beautify, decorate, embellish, ornament.

Adroit, skillful, clever, dexterous, expert.

Advance, bring forward, adduce, assign, allege.

Advancement, preferment, promotion, progress.

Advantage, benefit, good, profit, avail, utility, service.

Advantageous, beneficial, profitable, salutary.

Adventure, incident, occurrence, casualty, contingency, accident,
event.

Adventurous, bold, enterprising, daring, chivalrous, rash, precipitate,
foolhardy.

Adversary, opponent, antagonist, enemy, foe.

Adverse, opposed to, contrary, opposite, counteractive, hostile, re-
pugnant.

Adversity, misfortune, affliction, calamity, disaster.

Advertise, publish, announce, proclaim, promulgate.

Advice, warning, counsel, instruction, information, deliberation, con-
sultation, reflection, consideration.

Advise, acquaint, inform, communicate, notify, tell.

Advocate, counsel, defender, upholder.

Affability, courteousness, courtesy, urbanity, politeness.

Affect, influence, act upon, interfere with, feign, pretend, assume.

Affecting, touching, pathetic, melting, moving.

Affection, fondness, attachment, kindness, love, tenderness, endear^
ment.

Affectionate, loving, attached to, fond, kind, tender, filial.

Affinity, relationship, alliance, union, kin, kindred, relation.

Affirm, swear, assert, asseverate, declare, aver, protest.

Affirmation, asseveration, protestation, declaration.

Affix, attach, annex, subjoin, connect, adjoin.

Afflict, grieve, give pain, distress, trouble, torment, agonize.

Afflicting, grievous, unhappy, painful, disastrous, calamitous.

Affluence, opulence, w^ealth, riches, abundance, luxuriance.

Afford, give, impart, communicate, produce, bestow, grant, confer,
spare.

Affright, frighten, terrify, appall, overawe, dismay, scare, daunt, cow.

Affront, injury, wrong, insult, offence, outrage.

Afraid, timid, fearful, timorous, faint-hearted.

Age, period, time, date, generation, era, epoch, decade, century,
• Agency, instrumentality, influence, operation, management.

Aggrandize, exalt, promote, prefer, advance, elevate.

Aggravate, tantalize, irritate, inflame, provoke, chafe, nettle, embitter,
exasperate, increase, enhance, heighten, make worse.

Aggregate, «., total, entire, complete, the whole.

Aggregate, z»., heap up, amass, accumulate, get together.

Agitate, convulse, disturb, stir, move, shake, oscillate, toss, upheave.

Agitation, perturbation, emotion, trepidation, throb, thrill, tremor.

Agonize, distress, rack, torture, writhe, excruciate, pain.

Agony, anguish, pang, throe, pain, distress, suffering, woe.

Agree, consent, assent, accede, acquiesce, comply, coincide, tally.

Aid, »., assistance, support, sustenance, succor, relief, help, coopera-
tion.

Ailing, unwell, sickly, diseased, ill.

Aim, v., direct, point, level, endeavor to attain.

Aim, «., end, purpose, object, drift, scope, design, intent, intention,
tendency.

Alarm, terror, fright, affright, dismay, consternation, disquietude.

Alienate, estrange, take off, withdraw from, transfer, assign, convey.

Allay, appease, assuage, mitigate, soothe, alleviate, solace, compose,
calm, pacify, tranquilize, repress.

Allege, affirm, declare, maintain, adduce, advance, assign.

Alleviate, assuage, mitigate, soothe, solace, relieve, abate, allay, di-
minish, extenuate, soften.

Alliance, affinity, union, connection, relation, confederacy, combina-
tion, coalition, league, confederation.

Allot, assign, apportion, appropriate, appoint, distribute.

Allow, admit, concede, yield, grant, give, permit, tolerate, suffer, sanc-
tion, authorize.

Allude, hint, refer, insinuate, imply, glance at, intimate, suggest.

Allure, entice, attract, decoy, tempt, seduce, abduce.

Alteration, change, variation, shifting, transition, changeableness, mu
tability.

Altercation, contention, dispute, dissension,, variance, affray, brawl,
feud, quarrel.

Altitude, height, elevation, ascendant.

Always, continually, ever, perpetually, constantly, incessantly, un-
ceasingly, forever, eternally.

Amass, accumulate, collect, gather, heap up, pile up, hoard, store up.

Amazing, astonishing, wondrous, surprising, marvelous, stupendous.

Ameliorate, improve, amend, better.

Amend, mend, better, improve, correct, rectify, ameliorate.

Amends, compensation, recompense, restoration, reparation, atonement.

Amicable, friendly, social, sociable.

Ample, complete, full, wide, spacious, capacious, extensive, liberal, ex-
pansive, diffusive.

Amplification, enlargement, exegesis, expansion, development.

Amusement, recreation, pastime, entertainment, diversion, sport.

Ancient, old-fashioned, old, antique, antiquated, obsolete.

Anger, v., vex, exasperate, enrage, inflame, irritate, kindle, provoke,
imbitter, incense.

Anger, «., wrath, -passion, rage, fury, indignation, ire, choler, bile, ex-
asperation, irritation, resentment, incensement, pique, displeasure.

Angry, passionate, irascible, choleric, touchy, hasty, hot, sullen, moody,
incensed, irritated, enraged, provoke^ galled, chafed, nettled,
piqued, exasperated, wrathful.

Anguish, woe, agony, pain, distress, suffering.

Animosity, enmity, feeling against, malignity, hostility, antagonism.

Annex, add, attach, affix, append, subjoin, adjoin.

Annihilate, destroy, annul, extinguish, nullify.

Announce, make known, publish, advertise, proclaim, report, notify,
give out.

Annoy, vex, tease, chafe, molest, incommode, discommode, inconveni-
ence, disaccommodate.

Annoyance, trouble, uneasiness, discomfort.

Annul, revoke, abolish, abrogate, repeal, cancel, destroy, extinguish,
quash, nullify.

Answerable, responsible, accountable, amenable, suitable.

Anterior, preceding, antecedent, previous, prior, foregoing, former.

Anticipate, forestall, foretaste, prejudge.

Antipathy, dislike, aversion, repugnance, contrariety, opposition,
hatred, antagonism, hostility, feeling against.

Antithesis, contrast, opposition.

Anxiety, care, solicitude, attention, intentness, eagerness.

Apathetic, insensible, impassive, insensitive, indifferent.

Apocryphal, uncertain, unauthentic, legendary.

Appall, affright, dismay, terrify, frighten, scare, daunt, cow.

Apparent, easily seen, visible, palpable, clear, plain, transparent, un-
mistakable, unambiguous, evident, manifest, distinct, self-evident.

Appease, pacify, quiet, calm, compose, sooth, tranquilize, assuage.

Appellation, name, denomination, cognomen.

Applaud, praise, extol, commend, approve.

Appoint, assign, allot, ordain, depute, order, prescribe, constitute,
settle, determine.

Apportion, distribute, allot, appropriate.

Apprehend, take, arrest, seize, think, feel, conceive, imagine, fancy,
anticipate, fear, dread, understand.

Apprise, make known, acquaint, notify, inform, make aware, make
cognizant, disclose, communicate.

Appropriate, »., take to, adopt, assume, arrogate, usurp, allot, assign.

Approval, assent, approbation, concurrence, consent.

Apt, fit, meet, suitable, pertinent, prompt, ready, quick, dexterous, ap-
propriate.

Arbitrary, despotic, imperious, domineering, tyrannous, tynmnical.

Arbitrator, arbiter, judge, umpire, referee.

Ardent, eager, fervid, hot, fiery, glowing, passionate.

Arrange, put in order, place, assort, classify, regulate, dispose, adjust.

Arrest, stop, apprehend, withhold, keep back, restrain.

Arrogance, assumption, haughtiness, pride, loftiness.

Art, skill, tact, aptitude, adroitness, expertness, cunning, subtilty.

Artifice, trick, stratagem, machination, deception, cheat, imposture
delusion.

■^

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

Artless, fair, honest, ingenuous, frank, candid, unsophisticated, open.

Ascendency, superiority, influence, authority, sway, mastery.

Ask, request, entreat, solicit, beg, claim, demand, invite, question.

Aspect, light, view, appearance, complexion, feature, lineament, air,
look, mien, countenance.

Asperity, acrimony, acerbity, harshness, smartness, pungency, poign-
ancy, tartness, roughness.

Asperse, accuse falsely, malign, slander, traduce, defame, scandalize,
disparage, depreciate.

Assault, v., assail, attack, invade, encounter, storm.

Assemble, congregate, collect, gather, muster, bring together.

Assembly, assemblage, collection, group, company, muster, congrega-
tion, convention, congress, diet, council, convocation, conclave,
synod, meeting, auditory, audience.

Assert, affirm, declare, aver, protest, maintain, vindicate, defend.

Assign adduce, allege, advance, bring forward, appoint, allot, appro-
priate, apportion.

Associate, colleague, ally, partner, coadjutor, comrade, companion.

Association, company, society, confederacy, union, partnership, fellow-
ship, companionship.

Assuage, compose, calm, pacify, allay, soothe, conciliate, appease,
tranquilize, mitigate, alleviate, palliate, mollify.

Assume, pretend to, arrogate, usurp, appropriate, affect.

Assurance, confidence, certainty, consciousness, conviction, effrontery,
impudence.

Athletic, stalwart, powerful, brawny, muscular, robust, able-bodied.

Atrocious, heinous, enormous, flagrant, villainous, notorious, mon-
strous, inhuman.

Attach, affix, append, subjoin, annex, adjoin, connect, stick, distrain.

Attachment, affection, devotedness, devotion, fondness, love, endear-
ment.

Attain, gain, get, procure, reach, arrive at, acquire, win, obtain.

Attempt, effort, exertion, endeavor, essay, trial, experiment.

Attend, go with, accompany, escort, wait on, listen, nearken, heed.

Attest, testify, witness, prove.

Attire, »., dress, apparel, garments, clothes, habiliments.

Attitude, posture, gesture, gesticulation, action.

Attract, draw to, allure, entice, charm, wheedle.

Attribute, quality, property, grace, accomplishment, attainment.

Audacious, assuming, forward, presumptuous.

Augment, increase, enlarge, extend, stretch out, spread out.

Auspicious, fortunate, favorable, propitious, prosperous, lucky,
happy.

Austere, rigid, severe, rigorous, stern, harsh.

Authoritative, commanding, swaying, imperative, imperious.

Auxiliary, assistant, helping, conducive, furthering, instrumental.

Avail, advantage, profit, use, benefit, service, utility.

Available, profitable, advantageous, useful, beneficial.

Avarice, covetousness, cupidity, greediness.

Averse, adverse, hostile, reluctant, unwilling, backward.

Aversion, dislike, antipathy, hatred, repugnance, distaste.

Avocation, employment, calling, business, occupation, office, engage-
ment, function, profession, trade.

Award, adjudge, adjudicate, judge, determine.

Awkward, rough, clumsy, unpolished, untoward, backward.

Awry, crooked, wry, bent, curved, inflected, oblique.

BAD, wicked, evil, unsound, unwholesome, baneful, deleterious, per-
nicious, noisome, noxious.

Baffle, defeat, discomfit, bewilder.

Balance, poise, weigh, neutralize, counteract, equalize.

Balmy, fragrant, sweet-scented, odoriferous, odorous, perfumed.

Baneful, hurtful, destructive, pernicious, noxious, deleterious.

Barbarous, savage, brutal, cruel, inhuman, ruthless, merciless, re-
morseless, unrelenting, uncivilized.

Bargain, agreement, convention, compact, stipulation, covenant, con-
tract.

Base, bad, low, mean, sordid, grovelling, ignoble, ignominious, dis-
honorable, vile, counterfeit.

Battle, combat, engagement, action, conflict, contesi, fight.

Bear, hold up, sustain, support, endure, carry, maintain, convey, trans-
port, waft, suffer, tolerate, tmdergo, put up witJa.

Bearing, manner, deportment, demeanor, behavior, conduct.

Beat, strike, knock, hit, belabor, thump, dash, vanquish, overpower,

conquer, defeat.
Beau, sweetheart, wooer, lover, suitor, fop, dandy, coxcomb.
Beaytiful, elegant, beauteous, handsome, fair, pretty.
Beautify, adorn, decorate, embellish, deck, ornament.
Becoming, befitting, comely, decent, fit, proper, suitable.
Beg, ask, entreat, crave, solicit, beseech, implore, supplicate.
Beguile, amuse, entertain, deceive, mislead, impose upon.
Belief, faith, credence, credit, trust, confidence, reliance, conviction.

persuasion.
Below, underneath, beneath, under, lower, inferior, subordinate.
Bend, lean, incline, distort, stoop, descend, condescend.
Beneficent, benevolent, bountiial, bounteous, munificent, liberal, gen-
erous.
Benefit, advantage, good, pwofit, service, ability, avail, use.
Benevolence, beneficence, benignity, kindness, generosity.
Benign, benignant, benevolent, kind, gracious, bland, tender, good.
Bent, «., inclination, disp>osition, tendency, bias, prepossession, pro-

pensity, predilection, proneness.
Bereave, deprive, strip, dispossess, disarm, divest.
Better, improve, amend, ameliorate, reform, rectify.
Bewail, wail, bemoan, lament, mourn over.
Bewilder, confound, perplex, embarrass, entangle, puzzle.
Bewitch, entrance, enchain, fascinate, charm, enchant, enrapture, ca{>-

tivate, enamor.
Bias, bent, inclination, predilection, tendency, partiality, prejudice.
Bid, offer, proffer, tender, prop>ose, call, invite, summon.
Bind, tie, restrain, restrict, connect, link, engage, oblige.
Binding, astringent, costive, valid, obligatory, stringent, constrain-
ing.
Bitter, harsh, pungent, poignant, stinging.
Black, dark, murky, pitchy, inky, Cimmerian.
Blacken, defame, calumniate, slander, scandalize, asperse.
Blamable, culpable, censurable, reprehensible, reprovable.
Blame, reprove, reprehend, censure, condemn, reprobate, reproach.
Blameless, inculpable, guiltless, sinless, innocent, immaculate, un«

sullied, unblemished, spotless.
Bland, soft, gentle, mild, kind, gracious, benign, benignant.
Blast, v., blight, wither, shrivel, destroy.
Blatant, noisy, clamorous, braying, bellowing, vociferous.
Blemish, v., stain, blur, sully, sjjot, obscure, dim, ruin, spxiil, mar.
Blemish, «., flaw, si>eck, spiot, blur, defect, imi)erfection, fault.
Bliss, ecstacy, felicity, blessedness, blissfulness.
Bloodshed, carnage, slaughter, butchery, massacre.
Bloody, gory, sanguinary, ensanguined, murderous.
Bloom, blossom, bud, sprout, germinate, shoot forth.
Blot, stain, blur, speck, flaw, blemish, defect.
Blot out, Yfipe out, erase, expunge, delete, obliterate, cancel, efface.

annihilate.
Bluff, blustering, burly, swaggering, hectoring, bullying.
Blunt, pointless, obtuse, edgeless, unpolite, rough, rude.
Boast, glory, triumph, vaunt, brag.
Boisterous, violent, furious, impassioned, impetuous, vehement,

stormy, turbulent.
Bold, fearless, undaunted, dauntless, braVe, daring, adventurous, in-
trepid, audacious, impudent, contumacious.
Bondage, slavery, thraldom, vassalage, servitude, serfdom, capthrity

imprisonment, confinement.
Bound, limit, circumscribe, confine, restrict, restrain, terminate.
Boundless, unlimited, unbounded, infinite, interminable.
Bounty, munificence, liberality, generosity, benevolence, beneficence,

charity, benignity, humanity.
Brand, stigmatize, denounce, mark.
Brave, courageous, gallant, chivalrous, daring, adventurous, valorous,

heroic, valiant, bold, dauntless, intrepid, magnanimous, fearless.
Brawny, muscular, athletic, sinewy, powerful, robust, stalwart, able-
bodied, strong.
Break, burst, rend, rack, violate, infringe, transgress, demolish, de-
stroy.
Breed, hatch, brood, incubate, beget, engender, generate, produce.
Brevity, shortness, conciseness, succinctness.

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

Brief, short, concise, compendious, succinct, summary.

Bright clear, lucid, transparent, limpid, lustrous, translucent, shining,
brilliant, luminous, radiant, gleaming.

Brisk, active, agile, nimble, lively, quick, sprightly, prompt, alert, as-
siduous, vigorous, vigilant.

Broad, wide, large, ample, expanded, extensive.

Brotherly, fraternal, affectionate, kind.

Bruise, break, crush, squeeze, pulverize, levigate, triturate.

Brutality, savageness, ferocity, barbarity.

Brutish, cruel, inhuman, merciless, ferocious, remorseless, ruthless,
barbarous, savage, irrational, sensual.

Bud, sprout, germinate, blossom, bloom, shoot forth.

Build, erect, construct, raise, found.

Bulk, siiie, dimension, magnitude, greatness, bulkiness, bigness, large-
ness, massiveness.

Buoyancy, lightness, elasticity, animation, spirit, vivacity.

Burst, break, crack, split, rend. ■

Bury, inter, inhume, entomb, immure.

Bystander, onlooker, spectator, beholder, observer.

CAJOLE, coax, wheedle, flatter, fawn.

Calamitous, disastrous, fatal, unfortunate, unlucky, hapless, luckless,
ill-fated, ill-starred.

Calculate, reckon, guess, suppose, compute, estimate.

Call together, convene, convoke, assemble, muster, collect, gather.

Called, named, termed, designated, denominated, ycleped.

Calling, «., employment, business, avocation, vocation, pursuit,
engagement, occupation, trade, profession, office, duty, func-
tion.

Callous, hard, obdurate, impenitent, unfeeling, insensible, insensitive,
unsusceptible.

Calm, v.^ tranquillize, allay, appease, quiet, hush, pacify, assuage,
soothe, compose.

Calm, a., quiet, undisturbed, serene, placid, composed, collected, im-
perturbable, tranquil, pacific, unruffled, still.

Calumniate, vilify, revile, accuse falsely, asperse, traduce, malign,
slander, defame, scandalize, disparage.

Calumny, slander, false accusation, aspersion, defamation.

Cancel, blot out, obliterate, expunge, efface, wipe out, rub out, erase,
quash, abolish, annul, repeal, abrogate, revoke, destroy, invalidate,
nullify.

Candid, fair, sincere, honest, open, artless, ingenuous, frank, plain.

Canvass, discuss, dispute, contest, controvert, sift, examine, solicit,
apply for.

Capable, able, qualified, competent, efficient, fitted, susceptible, clever,
skillful.

Capacious, roomy, ample, spacious.

Capacity, capability, skill, ability, faculty, power, talent, efficiency.

Caprice, freak, whim, humor, crotchet, fancy.

Captious, touchy, testy, cross, petulant, peevish, fretful.

Captivate, charm, enchant, fascinate, enrapture, bewitch, entrance
enchain, enamor, confine, imprison.

Captivity, imprisonment, confinement, bondage, slavery, thraldom
servitude, serfdom.

Care, anxiety, solicitude, concern, attention, regard, circumspection,
caution.

Career, history, course, race, passage, life.

Careful, attentive, anxious, solicitous, heedful, provident, circum-
spect.

Careless, negligent, heedless, supine, inattentive, incautious, thought-
less, remiss, indolent, listless.

Caress, fondle, hug, embrace.

Carnage, butchery, bloodshed, slaughter, massacre.

Carnal, fleshly, sensual, voluptuous, luxurious, secular, worldly.

Carry, bear, sustain, convey, transport.

Casualty, accident, contingency, incident, occurrence, event, adven-
ture.

Catch, overtake lay hold on, grasp, seize, capture, grip, clutch, snatch,
arrest, apprehend.

Catching, infectious, contagious, pestilential, miasmatic, insidious.

Cause, «., motive, reason, incentive, inducement, incitement, impulse,
effort, work, operation.

Cause, »., occasion, make, induce, originate, give rise to, evoke, ptxx^

voke, incite.
Caution, care, vigilance, circumspection, admonition, warning, notice.
Cautious, careful, watchful, prudent, wary, vigilant, circumspect.

Celebrate, commend, applaud, laud, extol, magnify, glorify.

Celebrated, famous, renowned, far-famed, illustrious, glorious.

Celerity, quickness, speed, rapidity, velocity, swiftness, fleetness.

Celestial, heavenly, divine, godlike, seraphic, angelic.

Censure, »., blame, reprove, reprehend, reprobate, condemn, upbraid.

Ceremony, form, observance, rite, solemnity.

Certain, sure, indubitable, unquestionable, unfailing, secure, real,
actual, positive.

Certify, testify, vouch, declare. .

Cessation, intermission, rest, pause, discontinuance.

Champion, leader, chieftain, head.

Chance, accident, fortune, casualty, hazard, luck.

Change, z/., alter, vary, transform, exchange, barter.

Change, «., variety, alteration, alternation, vicissitude.

Changeable, variable, unsteady, undecided, wavering, hesitating, vac-
illating, fluctuating, inconstant, unsteadfast, unstable, fickle, ver-
satile, restless, fitful, capricious.

Character", cast, turn, tone, description, nature, disposition, reputa-
tion.

Charge, z/., accuse, impeach, arraign, inculpate.

Charge, «., care, custody, ward, trust, management, cost, price, ex-
pense, account, fee, bill, assault, shock, onset, attack, accusation,
impeachment, imputation.

Charity, kindness, benig^nity, beneficence, benevolence, tenderness.

Charm, enchant, fascinate, bewitch, enrapture, captivate, enamor.

Chat, chatter, prattle, prate, babble, gossip.

Cheat, z;., defraud, gull, dupe, trick, beguile, deceive, delude, hood-
wink.

Cheat, «., deception, imposture, fraud, delusion, artifice, deceit, trick,
imposition.

Check, curb, restrain, repress, control, counteract, chide, reprimand,
reprove, rebuke.

Cheer, exhilarate, animate, inspirit, inspire, enliven, gladden, comfort,
solace.

Cheerfulness, gayety, sprightliness, merriment, mirth, liveliness, vi-
. vaclty, joviality.

Cheerless, broken-hearted, comfortless, disconsolate, inconsolable, des-
olate, forlorn.

Cherish, nourish, nurture, nurse, foster, sustain.

Choose, prefer, select, elect, call, pick.

Circuitous, roundabout, tortuous, flexuous, tiresome.

Circulate, spread, diffuse, disseminate, propagate.

Circumspection, caution, watchfulness, vigilance, deliberation,
though tfulness, wariness.

Circumstance, situation, condition, position, fact, incident.

Cite, quote, adduce, summon, call.

Civil, polite, complaisant, affable, courteous, obliging, urbane, well-
bred.

Claim, v.y ask, demand, challenge, call for, plead.

Clamor, outcry, fuss, noise, hubbub, uproar.

Clandestine, hidden, secret, private.

Class, «., order, rank, degree, grade, category, caste, tribe.

Clause, stipulation, proviso, term, article.

Clean, v., cleanse, clarify, purify.

Clear, z/., absolve, acquit, liberate, deliver, release, set free, unbind.

Clear, a., apparent, palpable, visible, obvious, plain, evident, manifest,
unmistakable, distinct, intelligible, lucid, transparent, limpid.

Clemency, leniency, mercy, mildness, mitigation.

Clever, skillful, expert, dexterous, adroit.

Cling, hold, stick, adhere, attach.

Close, z*., conclude, shut, end, terminate, finish.

Close, «., compact, solid, firm, dense.

Clothes, garments, vestments, dress, habiliments, apparel, attire, array,
raiment, vesture, drapery.

Cloudy, dim, obscure, dark, dusky, murky, indistinct, shadowy, mjrs-
terious.

Clumsy, awkward, unpolished, uncourtly, ponderous.

Clutch, grasp, lay hold on, catch, seize, grip.

^
-<%,

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

Coalition, imion, alliance, confederacy, league, combination.

Coarse, rough, rude, rugged, gruff, harsh.

Coeval, contemporaneous, cotempwrary, contemporary.

Cogent, forcible, strong, valid, irresistible, resistless.

Colleague, fellow, compeer, companion.

Collect, z/., gather, assemble, muster, congregate, accumulate, hoard.

Colossal, large, gigantic, huge, enormous, immense, vast.

Color, hue, tint, tinge, complexion.

Combat, «., engagement, conflict, contest, fight, action, battle.

Combat, v., oppose, resist, withstand, thwart.

Combination, alliance, union, league, confederacy, coalition, con-
spiracy.

Comfort, solace, console, encouraj^, revive.

Comfortless, cheerless, forlorn, disconsolate, inconsolable, desolate,
wretched.

Comic, funny, laughable, droll, ludicrous.

Command, «., order, decree, injunction, mandate, precept, behest.

Commence, begin, enter upon.

Commend, z/., praise, applaud, extol, eulogize, recommend.

Comment, observation, remark, annotation, elucidation.

Commerce, dealing, trade, trafQc, intercourse, interchange, reciproc-

ity.

Commit, perpetrate, do, intrust, confide, consign.

Commodious, convenient, useful, suitable.

Common, vulgar, low, mean, frequent, ordinary, usual, general.

Communicate, make known, divulge, disclose, reveal, impart.

Communication, intercourse, correspondence, commerce, inter-
change.

Community, society, commonwealth, social state.

Commute, change, alter, exchange, barter.

Companion, comrade, coadjutor, partner, ally, associate, confederate,
fellow, colleague.

Company, association, society, assemble, assemblage, audience, audi-
tory, corporation, body, troop, horde, crew.

Comparison, simile, similitude, illustration.

Compassion, pity, commiseration, sympathy, condolence.

Compatible, consistent, consonant, accordant.

Compel, force, constrain, coerce, enforce, oblige, necessitate.

Compendious, brief, short, succinct, concise.

Compensate, recompense, make amends, remimerate, requite.

Competent, able, capable, efficient, qualified, fitted, clever, skillful,
sufficient, adequate.

Complete, v., accomplish, fulfil, realize, execute, effect, achieve, con-
clude, consummate, finish, end, fill up, terminate.

Complexion, aspect, appearance, feature, lineament, look.

Complicated, complex, compound, involved, intricate.

Compliment, praise, flatter, adulate, applaud.

Comply, yield, accede, assent, consent, acquiesce.

Compose, form, compound, put together, constitute, soothe, calm, quiet,
lull, hush, frame, indite.

Composed, serene, placid, calm, collected.

Comprehend, comprise, take in, embrace, contain, embody, include,
conceive, imagine, apprehend, understand.

Comprehension, capacity, capability, knowledge. Intelligence, under-
standing.

Compress, condense, press, squeeze.

Comprise, contain, include, compa-ehend, embody.

Compromise, concede, implicate, involve, entangle, embarrass.

Cempulsion, constraint, force, coercion.

Compute, calculate, count, sum, number, account, reckon, estimate,
rate,jneasure.

Comrade, associate, companion, ally.

Conceal, hide, secrete, disguise, dissemble.

Concede, give up, deliver, yield, compromise, allow, grant, admit.

Conceited, proud, vain, egotistical.

Conceive, think of, imagine, suppose, comprehend, understand.

Concern, affair, business, matter, care, regard, interest.

Concerted, joint, cooperative, designed, wrought out, studied, elabo-
rate.

Concise, brief, short, succinct.

Conclude, end, close, finish, terminate.

Conclusion, end, upshot, event, inference, deduction.

Concord, concert, chorus, harmony, unity.

Concourse, crowd, confluence, conflux.

Concur, acquiesce, agree, coincide.

Condemn, blame, reprobate, reprove, reproach, upbraid, censure, rep-
rehend, doom, sentence.

Condense, compress, press, squeeze, concentrate, epitomize.

Condition, state, plight, case, predicament, category, stipulation, cove-
nant, article, term.

Condolence, sympathy, commiseration, compassion.

Conduce, contribute, subserve, lead, tend, incline.

Conduct, «., behavior, demeanor, carriage, walk, deportment.

Conduct, v., guide, lead, direct, manage.

Confer, bestow, give, discourse, converse.

Conference, meeting, conversation, talk, colloquy, dialogue, parley.

Confess, acknowledge, avow, own, recognize.

Confide, trust, repose, depend, rely.

Confidence, assurance, trust, faith, reliance, hope.

Confident, dogmatical, positive, absolute, bold, presumptuous, san-
guine.

Confine, limit, bound, circtimscribe, restrict, restrain, shut up.

Confirm, ratify, establish, substantiate, corroborate, settle.

Conflicting, jarring, discordant, irreconcilable.

Confused, muddled, mixed, promiscuous, indistinct, deranged, disor-
dered, disorganized, bewildered.

Confusion, disorder, derangement, disorganization, chaos, anarchy,
misrule.

Confute, refute, disprove, belie.

Conjure, v., adjure, beseech, entreat, implore.

Connect, join, link, bind.

Connection, union, alliance, coalition, junction, intercourse, com-
merce, affinity, relationship.

Conquer, vanquish, subdue, overcome, subjugate, surmount.

Consecrate, sanctify, hallow, devote, dedicate.

Consent, «., assent, acquiescence, concurrence, approval.

Consequence, effect, result, event, issue, sequence.

Consider, reflect, regard, weigh, ponder, deliberate.

Consistent, consonant, compatible accordant.
Console, solace, comfort, soothe.

Conspicuous, distinguished, noted, marked, prominent, eminent, pre-
eminent, illustrious, famed.
Constancy, firmness, stability, steadiness.

Constantly, ever, always, continually, j)erpetually, incessantly, ever-
lastingly.
Constitute, make, form, compose, mould.

Constitutional, legal, regulated, organized, radical, rooted, funda-
mental.
Consult, advise with, take counsel, deliberate, debate.
Ccosume, bum, absorb, spend, swallow, imbibe, engulf, devour.
Consumption, decay, decline, waste.
Contagious, infectious, pestilential, miasmatic.
Contain, comprise, comprehend, include, embrace, bold, incorporate,

embody.
Contemplate, meditate, muse, think.
Contemporary, contemporaneous, coeval, simultaneous.
Contemptible, mean, vile, despicable, pitiful, paltry.
Contend, contest, debate, argue, dispute, cope, strive, vie.
Contingency, casualty, accident, incident, occurrence, adventure,

event.
Continual, imceasing, incessant, continuous, perpetual, uninterrupted,

unremitting, endless, everlasting.
Contort, distort, twist, writhe, wrest, wrench.
Contract, v., abbreviate, curtail, shorten, condense, abridge, retrench,

reduce.
Contract, «., agreement, compact, bargain, stipulation, covenant.
Contradict, oppose, deny, gainsay, controvert.
Contrary, adverse, opposite, antagonistic, repugnant, hostile.
Contribute, give to, cooperate, conspire.
Contrition, repentance, j>enitence, remorse.
Control, check, curb, repress, restrain, govern.
Convene, call together, bring together, convoke, assemble, congregate,

muster.
Convention, assembly, meeting, convocation, company.

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

kr^

Conventional, usual, ordinary, fashionable.

Conversant, acquainted with, familiar, relating to, concerning.

Converse, v., speak, talk, discourse, commune.

Convert, change, turn, transform.

Convey, carry, transport, bear, take, waft.

Convivial, joyous, festal, soci&l, sociable.

Convulse, upheave, upturn, shake.

Cool, cold, frigid, dispassionate, unimpassioned, calm, undisturbed,
composed.

Co-operate, work with, conspire, conduce, contribute.

Copious, ample, abundant, rich, afHuent, exuberant, plentiful, plente-
ous, full.

Corpulent, portly, stout, lusty, plethoric.

Correct, v., put right, mend, amend, rectify, better, reform, improve.

Correct, a., accurate, exact, precise, proper, faultless, punctual, strict.

Corrupt, »., contaminate, defile, taint, pollute, infect, adulterate, demor-
alize, deprave.

Corrupt, a., depraved, debased, vitiated, demoralized, profligate.

Corruption, defilement, contamination, pollution, infection, adultera-
tion, vice, depravity, corruptness.

Cost, price, charge, expense.

Costly, expensive, valuable, precious, sumptuous.

Council, assembly, company, congress, meeting, diet, convocation.

Counsel, advice, instruction, intelligence, consultation, deliberation.

Count, calculate, compute, reckon, number, sum, estimate, rate.

Counterfeit, spurious, forged, imitated, suppositious, false.

Counterpart, converse, reverse, correlative, correspondent, answer-
able.

Countless, innumerable, numberless, incalculable, unnumbered.

Courage, resolution, fortitude, fearlessness, prowess, bravery, chivalry,
intrepidity, boldness, firmness.

Courteous, affable, urbane, conciliating, kind.

Covenant, agreement, contract, bargain, stipulation.

Cover, shelter, screen, hide, overspread, overshadow.

Covert, secret, clandestine, concealed, hidden, latent, cabalistic, mys-
terious.

Crafty, cunning, artful, sly, subtle, wily.

Crazy, crack-brained, imbecile, foolish, brainless.

Create, make, form, cause, produce, generate, engender.

Credence, belief, faith, confidence.

Credit, belief, trustworthiness, reputation, security, honor, praise.

Credulity, gullibility, simplicity.

Crime, offence, misdeed, misdemeanor, felony.

Cripple, weaken, impair, curtail, cramp.

Criterion, test, touchstone, proof.

Critical, nice, exact, fastidious, precarious, ticklish, crucial, important,
hazardous.

Criticise, examine, scan, analyze, discuss, anatomize.

Cross, ill-tempered, fretful, ill-humored, crusty, peevish, fractious.

Crude, raw, undigested, unconsidered, half-studied, harsh, unshaped,
unfinished, unrefined, ill prepared.

Curb, restrain, hold, check, moderate.

Curiosity, inquisitiveness, interest, rarity, celebrity, oddity, lion.

Curious, inquiring, inquisitive, searching, interrogative, prying, peep-
ing, peering, rare, odd.

Curse, malediction, anathema, bane, blight.

Cursory, summary, rapid, superficial.

Custody, keeping, guardianship, conservation, care.

Custom, manner, habit, use, prescription.

Cut, sever, slice, sunder, avoid, elude.

Cynical, sarcastic, snarling, sneering, cross-grained,

DAINTY, choice, rare, refined, tasty, exquisite, luxurious, epicurean,
fcistidious.

Danger, peril, hazard, risk, jeopardy.

Dare, venture, face, brave, hazard, risk, defy.

Dark, black, dusky, sable, swarthy, opaque, obscure, abstruse, unin-
telligible, blind, ignorant, shadowy, dim, sombre, joyless, mourn-
ful, sorrowful.

Dash, hurl, cast, throw, drive, rush, send, fly, speed, course.

Dead, defunct, deceased, departed, gone, inanimate, lifeless, insensible,
heavy, unconscious, dull, spiritless.

Death, departure, demise, decease, dissolution, mortality, expiration.

Debase, degrade, lower, depress, deprave, deteriorate, corrupt, alloy.

Debate, contend, dispute, argue, discuss, deliberate, question, ven-
tilate.

Debility, weakness, feebleness, lassitude, languor.

Decay, decline, wane, dwindle, waste, ebb, decrease.

Decayed, rotten, corrupt, unsound, decomposed, faded, unprosperous,
impoverished.

Deceit, cheat, imjyosition, trick, delusion, guile, beg^ilement, treach-
ery, sham.

Decide, determine, settle, adjudicate, terminate, resolve.

Decipher, read, spell, interpret, solve.

Decision, determination, conclusion, resolution, firmness.

Declamation, oratory, elocution, harangue, effusion, debate.

Declaration, avowal, manifestation, statement, profession.

Decrease, diminish, lessen, wane, decline, retrench, curtail, reduce.

Dedicate, devote, consecrate, offer, set, apportion, assign, apply, sepa
rate.

Deed, act, action, commission, achievement, instrument, document
muniment.

Deem, judge, estimate, consider, think, suppose, conceive.

Deep, profound, subterranean, submerged, designing, abstruse, learned

Deface, mar, spoil, injure, disfigure.

Default, lapse, forfeit, omission, absence, want, failure.

Defect, imperfection, flaw, fault, blemish.

Defence, excuse, plea, vindication, bulwark, rampart.

Defend, guard, protect, justify.

Defer, delay, postpone, put off, prorogue, adjourn.

Deficient, short, wanting, inadequate, scanty, incomplete.

Defile, v., pollute, corrupt, sully.

Define, fix, settle, determine, limit.

Defray, meet, liquidate, pay, discharge, quit.

Degree, grade, extent, measure, mark, range, quantity, amoimt, limit.

Deliberate, v., consider, meditate, consult, ponder, debate.

Deliberate, a., purposed, intentional, designed, determined.

Delicacy, nicety, dainty, refinement, tact, softness, modesty.

Delight, enjoyment, pleasure, happiness, transport, ecstacy, gladness,
rapture, bliss.

Deliver, liberate, free, rescue, pronounce, hand to, give.

Demonstrate, prove, show, exhibit, illustrate.

Depart, leave, quit, go, decamp, start, sally, retire, withdraw, remove,
vanish.

Deprive, strip, bereave, despoil, rob, divest.

Depute, appoint, commission, charge, intrust, delegate, authorize, ac-
credit.

Derision, scorn, contempt, contumely, disrespect.

Derivation, origin, source, beginning, cause, etymology, root, spring,
analysis.

Describe, draw, delineate, portray, explain, illustrate, define, picture.

Desecrate, profane, secularize, misuse, abuse, pollute. .

Deserve, merit, earn, justify, win.

Design, «., delineation, sketch, drawing, cunning, artfulness, contriv-
ance.

Desirable, expedient, advisable, valuable, acceptable, proper, judicious,
beneficial, profitable, good.

Desire, «., longing, affection, craving.

Desist, cease, stop, discontinue, drop, abstain, forbear.

Desolate, bereaved, forlorn, forsaken, deserted, wild, waste, bare,
bleak, lonely.

Desperate, wild, daring, audacious, determined, reckless.

Destination, purpose, intention, design, consignment, object, end, fate,
doom, use, scope, goal, aim.

Destiny, fate, decree, doom, end.

Destructive, detrimental, hurtful, noxious, injurious, deleterious, bale-
ful, baneful, subversive.

Desultory, rambling, discursive, loose, unmethodical, superficial, un-
settled, erratic, fitful.

Detail, particularize, enumerate, specify.

Deter, warn, stop, dissuade, dispirit, discourage, dishearten, terrify,
scare.

Detriment, loss, harm, injury, deterioration.

Develop, enunciate, amplify, expand, enlarge.

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

Device, «., artifice, expedient, contrivance.

Devoid, void, wanting, destitute, unendowed, unprovided.

Devolve, impose, place, charge, commission, befall, fall on.

Devoted, attached, fond, absorbed, dedicated, given, abandoned.

Dictate, prompt, suggest, enjoin, order, command.

Dictatorial, imperative, imperious, domineering, arbitrary, tyrannical,
overbearing.

Die, expire, depart, perish, decline, languish, wane, sink, fade, decay.

Diet, food, victuals, nourishment, nutriment, sustenance, fare, cheer,
regimen.

Difference, separation, disagreement, discord, dissent, estrangement,
variety.

Difficult, hard, intricate, involved, perplexing, obscure, unmanage-
able.

Diffuse, discursive, prolix, diluted, copious.

Dignify, agrandize, elevate, invest, exalt, advance, promote, honor.

Dilate, stretch, widen, expand, swell, distend, enlarge, descant, ex-
patiate.

Dilatory, tardy, procrastinating, behindhand, lagging, dawdling.

Diligence, care, assiduity, attention, heed, industry.

Diminish, lessen, reduce, contract, curtail, retrench.

Diplomatic, judicious, knowing, wise, prudent, sagacious.

Disability, unfitness, incapacity.

Discern, descry, observe, recognize, see, discriminate, separate, per-
ceive.

Discernible, visible, conspicuous, manifest, palpable.

Discernment, discrimination, far-sightedness, clear-sightedness, pene-
tration, observation, sagacity.

Discipline, order, strictness, training, coercion, punishment, organiza-
tion.

Disclose, discover, reveal, confess, detect.

Disconcert, abash, confuse, confound, upset, baffle, derange, discom-
pose, frustrate, discomfit.

Discover, make known, find, invent, contrive, expose, reveal.

Discreditable, shameful, disgraceful, scandalous, disreputable.

Discreet, cautious, prudent, wary, judicious.

Discrepancy, disagreement, difference, variance.

Discrimination, acuteness, discernment, judgment, caution.

Disdain, contempt, scorn, haughtiness, disregard.

Disease, complaint, malady, disorder, ailment, sickness.

Disgrace, «., disrepute, reproach, dishonor, shame, odium.

Disgrace, z/., debase, degrade, defame, discredit.

Disgust, dislike, distaste, loathing-, abomination, abhorrence.

Dishonest, unjust, fraudulent, unfair, deceitful, cheating, deceptive,
wrongful.

Dishonor, &., disgrace, shame, degrade, ravish, pollute.

Dismay, v., terrify, frighten, scare, daunt, appall, dishearten.

Dismay, «., terror, dread, fear, fright.

Dismiss, send off, discharge, discard, banish.

Disorderly, irregular, confused, lawless, unruly.

Dispel, scatter, drive away, disperse, dissipate.

Display, show, spread out, exhibit, expose.

Displease, offend, vex, anger, provoke, irritate.

Dispose, arrange, place, order, give, bestow.

Dispute, w., argue, contest, contend, question, impugn.

Dispute, «., argument, debate, controversy, quarrel, disagreement.

Disregard, z/., slight, neglect, despise, disparage.

Dissent, disagree, differ, vary.

Distinct, clear, plain, obvious, different, separate.

Distinguish, perceive, discern, mark out, divide, discriminate.

Distinguished, famous, glorious, far-famed, noted, illustrious, eminent,
celebrated.

Distract, perplex, bewilder, madden.

Distribute, allot, share, dispense, apportion, deal.

Disturb, derange, discompose, agitate, rouse, interrupt, confuse, an-
noy, trouble, vex, worry.
Divide, part, separate, distribute, deal out, sever, sunder.
Divine, godlike, holy, heavenly, sacred, a parson, clergyman, minister.
Do, effect, make, perform, accomplish, finish, transact.
Docile, tractable, teachable, compliant, tame.
Doctrine, tenet, articles of belief, creed, dogma, teaching.
Doleful, dolorous, woe-begone, rueful, dismal, piteous.

Doom, n., sentence, verdict, judgment, fate, lot, destiny.

Doubt, «., uncertainty, suspense, hesitation, scruple, ambiguity.

Draw, pull, haul, drag, attract, inhale, sketch, describe.

Dread, «., fear, horror, terror, alarm, dismay, awe.

Dreadful, fearful, frightful, shocking, awful, horrible, horrid, terrific.

Dress, «., clothing, attire, apparel, garments, costume, garb,'livery.

Drift, purpose, meaning, scope, aim, tendency, direction.

Droll, funny, laughable, comic, whimsical, queer, amusing.

Drown, inundate, swamp, submerge, overwhelm, engulf.

Dry, a., arid, parched, lifeless, dull, tedious, uninteresting, meagre.

Due, owing to, attributable to, just, fair, proper, debt, right.

Dull, stupid, gloomy, sad, dismal, commonplace.

Durable, lasting, permanent, abiding, continuing.

Dwell, stay, stop, abide, sojourn, linger, tarry.

Dwindle, pine, waste, diminish, decrease, fall off.

EAGER, hot, ardent, impassioned, forward, impatient.

Earn, acquire, obtain, win, gain, achieve.

Earnest, ardent, serious, grave, solemn, warm, pledge.

Ease, v., calm, alleviate, allay, mitigate, appease, assuage, pacify, dis-
burden, rid.

Eccentric, irregular, anomalous, singular, odd, abnormal, wayward,
particular, strange.

Economical, sparing, saving, provident, thrifty, frugal, careful, nig-
gardly.

Edge, border, brink, rim, brim, margin, verge.

Efface, blot out, expunge, obliterate, wipe out, cancel, erase.

Effect, »., consequence, result, issue, event, execution, operation.

Effect, v., accomplish, fulfill, realize, achieve, execute, operate, com-
plete.

Effective, efficient, operative, serviceable.

Efficacy, efficiency, energy, agency, instrumentality.

Efficient, effectual, effective, competent, capable, able, fitted.

Eliminate, drive out, expel, thrust out, eject, cast out, oust, dislodge,
banish, proscribe.

Eloquence, oratory, rhetoric, declamation.

Elucidate, make plain, explain, clear up, illustrate.

Elude, evade, escape, avoid, shun.

Embarrass, perplex, eniangle, distress, trouble.

Embellish, adorn, decorate, bedeck, beautify, deck, illustrate.

Embolden, inspirit, animate, encourage, cheer, urge, impel, stimulate.

Eminent, distinguished, signal, conspicuous, noted, prominent, ele-
vated, renowned, famous, glorious, illustrious.

Emit, g^ve out, throw out, exhale, discharge, vent.

Emotion, perturbation, agitation, trepidation, tremor, mental conflict.

Employ, occupy, busy, take up with, engross.

Employment, business, avocation, engagement, office, function, trade,
profession, occupation, calling, vocation. *

Encircle, enclose, embrace, encompass, surrotmd, gird, begird, engird,
environ, beset.

Enclose, v., fence in, confine, circumscribe.

Encompass, v., encircle, surround, gird, begird, environ, beset, in-
vest.

Encounter, attack, conflict, combat, assault, onset, engagement, battle,
action.

Encourage, countenance, sanction, support, foster, cherish, inspirit,
embolden, animate, cheer, incite, urge, impel, stimulate.

End, «., aim, object, purpose, result, conclusion, upshot, close, expira-
tion, termination, extremity, sequel.

Endeavor, attempt, try, essay, strive, aim.

Endorse, superscribe, ratify, confirm.

Endurance, continuation, duration, fortitude, patience, resignation.

Endure, z/., last, continue, support, bear, sustain, suffer, brook, submit
to, undergo.

Enemy, foe, antagonist, adversary, opponent.

Energetic, effectual, efficacious, powerful, energetic, binding, strin-
gent, forcible, nervous.

Engage, employ, busy, occupy, attract, invite, allure, entertain, en-
gross, take up, enlist.

Engross, absorb, take up, busy, occupy, engage, monopolize.

Engulf, swallow up, absorb, imbibe, drown, submerge, bury, entomb^
overwhelm.

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

Enlarge, increase, extend, augment, broaden, swell.

Enlighten, illumine, illuminate, instruct, inform.

Enliven, cheer, vivify, stir up, animate, inspire, exhilarate.

Enormous, gigantic, colossal, huge, vast, immense, prodigious.

Enraged, infuriated, raging, wrathful.

Enrapture, enchant, fascinate, charm, captivate, bewitch.

Entangle,* perplex, embarrass, inveigle, implicate, involve, compro-
mise, ensnare, entrap.

Entertainment, amusement, divertisement, diversion, recreation, pi.s-
time, sport, feast, fete, banquet, treat.

Enthusiasm, zeal, ardor, fervor, warmth, fervency.

Entice, allure, attract, decoy, lure, tempt.

Entire, whole, complete, perfect, total.

Entrance, «., entry, inlet, ingress, porch, portal.

Entrance, z/., charm, enchant, fascinate, bewitch, enrapture, captivate.

Entreat, beg, crave, solicit, beseech, implore, supplicate.

Enumerate, tell over, relate, narrate, recount.

Epitome, abridgment, compendium, abstract, summary.

Equitable, just, fair, even-handed, honest, impartial, upright, reason-
able.

Erase, scratch out, blot out, expunge, efface, cancel.

Erect, set up, raise, elevate, construct, establish, institute, found.

Erring, misguided, misled.

Error, mistake, fallacy, blunder, hallucination, fault.

Essay, «., attempt, trial, endeavor, effort, tract, treatise.

Essential, necessary, indispensable, requisite, vital.

Establish, v,^ institute, found, organize, confirm, fix, settle.

Esteem, prize, value, appreciate, respect, regard, reverence, venerate,
revere.

Estimate, value, measure, compute, calculate, appraise.

Eternal, everlasting, endless, infinite, perpetual, deathless, immortal,
undying, never-dying, ever-living, imperishable.

Event, incident, occurrence, accident, adventure, issue, result, copse-
quence.

Ever, always, eternally, everlastingly, evermore, aye, forever, perpet-
ually, continually, incessantly.

Evidence, «., testimony, deposition, proof, declaration.

Evidence, »., manifest, prove, evince, demonstrate, exemplify.

Evident, clear, plain, manifest, apparent, obvious, visible, palpable.

Evince, show, argue, prove, evidence, demonstrate, manifest.

Evoke, call out, invite, summon, challenge.

Exact, a., accurate, correct, definite, precise, literal, nice.

Exaggerated, overstated, heightened, amplified, enlarged.

Exalt, raise, elevate, erect, lift up, dignify, ennoble.

Examination, search, inquiry, research, scrutiny, investigation.

Example, pattern, sample, model, specimen, copy, instance.

Exasperate, irritate, inflame, incense, enkindle, envenom, nettle, pro-
voke, chafe.

Except, unless, save, saving, but.

Excessive, exorbitant, extortionate, unreasonable, immoderate, inordi-
nate, extravagant.

Exchange, w., change, barter, truck, commute, interchange, recipro-
cate.

Exchange, »., barter, dealing, trade, traffic.

Excite, incite, arouse, awaken, stir up, disquiet, disturb, agitate, pro-
voke, irritate.

Exclude, shut out, debar, preclude, seclude.

Excuse, z;., palliate, mitigate, acquit, justify, absolve, disp>ense, ex-
empt.

Excuse, «., plea, justification, pretence, pretext, pretension.

Execrable, abominable, detestable, hateful, accursed, cursed, con-
founded.

Execute, accomplish, effectuate, fulfil, effect, realize, achieve, com-
plete, finish.

Exemption, freedom, immunity, privilege.
Exhale, emit, give out, smoke, steam.
Exhaust, spend, drain, empty, debilitate.

Exile, banishment, deportation, expatriation, expulsion, proscription.
Exonerate, clear, acquit, discharge, absolve, relieve, justify.
Exorbitant, excessive, extortionate, unreasoxable, immoderate.
Expand, spread, diffuse, dilate, extend, enlarge, amplify, unfold, de-
velop.

Expedient, fit, necessary, essential, requisite.

Expedite, accelerate, quicken, hasten, facilitate, forward, advance.

Expel, drive out, eject, dispossess, dislodge, oust.

Expensive, costly, dear, valuable, sumptuous.

Expert, a., clever, dexterous, adroit, skilful.

Expiration, end, completion, close, termination.

Explicit, express, plain, definitive, positive, determinate.

Exploit, achievement, feat, deed, accomplishment.

Expound, explain, interpret, unfold, elucidate, clear up.

Express, «., explicit, plain, positive, definite, determinate, categorical.

Express, j»., declare, enunciate, pronounce, articulate, denote, utter,

signify, testify, intimate.
Expressive, significant, energetic, emphatic.
Extend, enlarge, amplify, expand, increase, stretch out, spread out,

make larger, augment.
Exterior, outward, outer, external.
Exterminate, eradicate, root out, annihilate, extinguish.
Extort, exact, wrest, wring, draw from.
Extraordinary, remarkable, signal, eminent, uncommon.
Extravagant, prodigal, lavish, profuse, excessive.
Extricate, free, disengage, disentangle, disembarrass, liberate.
Exuberant, plenteous, plentiful, luxuriant, abundant, profuse, rich,

FABRIC, edifice, structure, pile.

Fabricate, invent, frame, feign, forge, coin.

Facetious, jocose, jocular, pleasant.

Facile, easy, pliable, flexible.

Faculty, ability, gift, talent, endowment.

Failing, imperfection, weakness, frailty, foible, miscarriage, mishap.

Faint, languid, weak, low.

Faith, belief, assurance, confidence, trust, credence, credit, fidelity.

Faithless, unfaithful, false-hearted, treacherous.

Fallacious, deceptive, illusive, fraudulent, deceitful, delusive.

Falsehood, untruth, story, lie, fabrication, fib, falsity.

Falter, halt, stammer, stutter, hesitate.

Fame, reputation, glory, renown, celebrity, honor, credit.

Famed, famous, far-famed, renowned, celebrated, illustrious, surpass-
ing, eminent, distinguished.

Familiar, free, frank, affable, conversant, intimate.

Familiarity, acquaintance, intimacy, courtesy, affability, fellowship.

Fanciful, imaginative, ideal, fantastical, whimsical, capricious.

Fancy, imagination, notion, conceit, vagary, frolic, inclination, liking,
humor.

Farthest, most distant, extreme, remotest, utmost, uttermost.

Fascinate, charm, enchant, bewitch, enrapture, captivate, entrance.

Fast, firm, solid, constant, steadfast, staunch, stable, steady, unyield-
ing, inflexible, unswerving, gay, wild, dissipated.

Fasten, v., fix, tie, link, stick, hold, affix, attach, annex.

Fatal, deadly, mortal, lethal, inevitable.

Fatigue, weariness, lassitude, languor, enervation, exhaustion.

Fault, blemish, defect, imperfection, vice, failure, omission.

Favor, benefit, kindness, civility, grace.

Fear, fright, terror, dismay, alarm, dread, trepidation, consternation,
apprehension.

Fearless, brave, bold, intrepid, courageous, undaunted, dauntless, dar-
ing, gallant, valorous, valiant.

Fearful, afraid, timid, nervous, timorous, terrific, dreadful, awful,
frightful, horrible, distressing, shocking.

Feast, fete, banquet, treat, entertainment, festival.

Feeble, weak, infirm, nerveless, forceless, failing, frail, enfeebled, de-
bilitated, enervated, impotent, paralyzed, palsied.

Feeling, emotion, sentiment, impression, sensation, consciousness, sen-
sibility.

Feign, pretend, simulate, dissemble, invent, forge, devise.

Felicity, happiness, bliss, blessedness, beatitude, blissfulness.

Ferocious, fierce, savage, ravenous, voracious, cruel, inhuman, fell,
barbarous.

Fertile, fruitful, prolific, teeming, pregnant, productive, rich, luxu-
riant.

Fervid, growing, ardent, impassioned, fervent, warm.

Festivity, hilarity, joviality, jovialness, gayety.

Fickle, unstable, inconstant, restless, fitful, variable, changeable.

-<^

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

Fiction, romance, invention, falsehood, fabrication.

Fidelity, faithfiUness, honesty, integrity.

Fiendish, diabolic, demoniacal, devilish.
Fierce, furious, violent, ferocious, savage.

Fiery, hot, glowing, ardent, fervid, impassioned, passionate, imp>assion-
ate, fervent, vehement.

Fight, battle, action, engagement, combat, conflict, contest, encounter,
contention, struggle.

Fill, satisfy, content, store, replenish, glut, gorge, stuff.

Filthy, dirty, dingy, unclean, gross.

Final, ending, ultimate, last, latest, conclusive, decisive.

Fine, a., refined, delicate, pure, nice, handsome, pretty, beautiful, ele-
gant, showy.

Firm, strong, robust, sturdy, fast, steadfast, stable, solid.

Fit, »., suit, adapt, adjust, equip, prepare, qualify.

Fit, a., apt, suitable, meet, befitting, becoming, decent, decorous, ex-
pedient.

Fix, zr., fasten, tie, link, enlink, attach, stick, settle, establish, deter-
mine, define.

Flat, level, horizontal, even, downright, absolute, insipid, mawkish,
dull, spiritless, tasteless, lifeless.

Flattery, adulation, servility, cajolery.

Flaw, blemish, spot, blur, speck, defect, crack.

Fleeting, tempwrary, transient, transitory, short-lived.

Fling, cast, throw, hurl, toss.

Flippancy, pertness, sauciness, lightness.

Flock, throng, crowd, multitude, swarm, shoal.

Flourish, thrive, prosper, wave, brandish.

Fluctuate, waver, hesitate, oscillate, vacillate, scruple, change.

Fluent, flowing, glib, voluble, unembarrassed, ready.

Folks, persons, people, individuals, fellows.

Follow, succeed, ensue, imitate, copy, pursue.

Follower, partisan, disciple, adherent, retainer, pursuer, successor.

Folly, silliness, foolishness, imbecility, weakness.

Fond, enamored, attached, affectionate.

Fondness, affection, attachment, kindness, love.

Foolhardy, venturesome, incautious, hasty, adventurous, rash.

Foolish, simple, silly, irrational, brainless, imbecile, crazy, abstird,
preposterous, ridiculous, nonsensical.

Fop, dandy, beau, coxcomb, puppy, jackanapes.

Forbear, abstain, refrain, withhold.

Force, «., strength, vigor, dint, might, energy, power, violence, army,
host.

Forecast, forethought, foresight, premeditation, prognostication.

Forego, quit, relinquish, let go, waive.

Foregoing, antecedent, anterior, preceding, previous, prior former.

Forerunner, herald, harbinger, percursor, omen.

Foresight, forethought, forecast, premeditation.

Forge, coin, invent, frame, feign, fabricate, counterfeit.

Forgive, pardon, remit, absolve, acquit, excuse, except.

Forlorn, forsaken, abandoned, deserted, desolate, lone, lonesome.

Form, «., ceremony, solemnity, observance, rite, figure, shape, confor-
mation, fashion, appearance, representation, semblance.

Form, v., make, create, produce, constitute, arrange, fashion, mould,
shape.

Formal, ceremonious, precise, exact, stiff, methodical, affected.

Former, antecedent, anterior, previous, prior, preceding, foregoing.

Forsaken, abandon, forlorn, deserted, desolate, lone, lonesome.

Forthwith, immediately, directly, instantly, instantaneously.

Fortitude, endurance, resolution, fearlessness, dauntlessness.

Fortunate, lucky, happy, auspicious, prosperous, successful.

Fortune, chance, fate, luck, doom, destiny, property, {>ossession,
riches.

Foster, cherish, nurse, tend, harbor, nurture.

Foul, impure, nasty, filthy, dirty, unclean, defiled.

Fractious, cross, captious, petulant, touchy, testy, peevich, fr«tftil,
splenetic.

Fragile, brittle, frail, delicate, feeble.

Fragments, pieces, scraps, chips, leavings, remains, remnants.

Frailty, weakness, failing, foible, imperfection, fault, blemish.

Frame, v. , construct, invent, coin, fabricate, forge, mould, feign, make,
compose.

Franchise, right, exemption, immunity, privilege, freedom, suffrage.

Frank, artless, candid, sincere, free, easy, familiar, open, ingenuous,
plain.

Frantic, distracted, mad, furious, raving, frenzied.

Fraternize, cooperate, consort, associate with.

Fraud, deceit, deception, duplicity, guile, cheat, imposition.

Free, «., liberal, generous, bountiful, bounteous, munificent, frank, art-
less, candid, familiar, open, unconfined, unreserved, unrestricted,
exempt, clear, loose, easy, careless.

Free, v., release, set free, deliver, rescue, liberate, enfranchise, affran-
chise, emancipate, exempt.

Freedom, liberty, independence, unrestraint, familiarity, license,
franchise, exemption, privilege.

Frequent, often, common, usual, general.

Fret, gall, chafe, agitate, irritate, vex.

Friendly, amicable, social, sociable.

Frightful, fearful, dreadful, dire, direful, terrific, awful, horrible,
horrid.

Frivolous, trifling, trivial, petty.

Frugal, provident, economical, saving.

Fruitful, fertile, prolific, productive^ abundant, plentiful, plenteous.

Fruitless, vain, useless, idle, abortive, bootless, unavailing, without
avail.

Frustrate, defeat, foil, balk, disappoint.

Fulfil, accomplish, effect, complete.

Fully, completely, abundantly, perfectly.

Fulsome, coarse, gross, sickening, offensive, rank, obscene.

Furious, violent, boisterous, vehement, dashing, sweeping, rolling,
impetuous, frantic, distracted, stormy, angry, raging, fierce.

Futile, trifling-, trivial, frivolous, useless.

GAIN, «., profit, emolument, advantage, benefit, winnings, earnings.
Gain, v., get, acquire, obtain, attain, procure, earn, win, achieve, reap,

realize, reach.
Gallant, brave, bold, courageous, gay, fine, showy, intrepid, fearless,

heroic.
Galling, chafing, irritating, vexing.
Game, play, pastime, diversion, sport, amusement.
Gang, band, horde, comp)any, troop, crew.
Gap, breach, chasm, hollow, cavity, cleft, crevice, rift, chink.
Garnish, embellish, adorn, beautify, deck, decorate.
Gather, pick, cull, assemble, muster, infer, collect.
Gaudy, showy, tawdry, gay, glittering, bespangled.
Gaunt, emaciated, scraggy, skinny, meagre, lank, attenuated, spare,

lean, thin.
Gay, cheerful, merry, lively, jolly, sprightly, blithe.
Generate, form, make, beget, produce.
Generation, formation, race, breed, stock, kind, age, era.
Generous, beneficent, noble, honorable, bountiful, liberal, free.
Genial, cordial, hearty, festive, joyous.

Genius, intellect, invention, talent, taste, nature, character, adept.
Genteel, refined, polished, fashionable, polite, well-bred.
Gentle, placid, mild, bland, meek, tame, docile.
Genuine, real, true, unaffected, sincere.
Gesture, attitude, action, posture.
Get, obtain, earn, gain, attain, procure, achieve.
Ghastly, pallid, wan, hideous, grim, shocking.
Ghost, spectre, spright, sprite, apparition, shade, phantom.
Gibe, scoff, sneer, flout, jeer, mock, taunt, deride.
Giddy, unsteady, flighty, thoughtless.
Gift, donation, benefaction, grant, alms, gratuity, boon, present, £ac

ulty, talent.
Gigantic, colossal, huge, enormous, vast, prodigious, immense.
Give, grant, bestow, confer, yield, impart.
Glad, pleased, cheerful, joyful, gladsome, gratified, cheering.
Gleam, glimmer, glance, .glitter, shine, flash.
Glee, gayety, merriment, mirth, jovially, jovialness, catch.
Glide, slip slide, run, roll on.
Glimmer, v., gleam, flicker, glitter.
Glimpse, glance, look, glint.
Glitter, gleam, shine, glisten, glister, radiate.
Gloom, cloud, darkness, dimness, blackness, dulness, sadness.

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

Glorious, famous, renowned, celebrated, illustrious, distinguished,
conspicuous, noble, exalted, grand.

Glory, honor, fame, renown, splendor, grandeur.

Glowing, hot, intense, fervid, cirdent, fervent, fiery.

Glut, gorge, stuff, cram, cloy, satiate, block up, fill to repletion, inun-
date.

Good, a., virtuous, righteous, upright, just, true.

Gorgeous, superb, grand, magnificent, splendid.

Govern, rule, direct, manage, command.

Government, rule, administration, cabinet, constitution, state, control,
sway.

Graceful, becoming, comely, elegant, beautiful.

Gracious, merciful, kindly, beneficent, courteous, civil.

Gradual, slow, progressive.

Grand, majestic, stately, dignified, lofty, elevated, exalted, splendid,
gorgeous, superb, magnificent, sublime, pompous.

Grant, v., bestow, impart, give, yield, cede, allow, confer, invest.

Grant, «., pay, wages, salary, stipend, gift, boon, donation.

Graphic, forcible, telling, picturesque, vivid, pictorial.

Gratification, enjoyment, pleasure, delight, reward.

Grave, a., serious, sedate, thoughtful, solemn, sober, important,
weighty, pressing, heavy.

Gravity, weight, heaviness, importance, moment, seriousness.

Grief, affliction, sorrow, trial, woe, tribulation.

Grieve, motu^, lament, sorrow, pain, hurt, wound, bewail.

Gross, coarse, outrageous, unseemly, shameful, indelicate.

Ground, v., found, rest, base, establish.

Groundless, unfoimded, baseless, ungrounded, gratuitous.

Group, assembly, assemblage, cluster, collection, clump, order, class.

Grow, increase, vegetate, expand, advance.

Grudge, malice, rancor, spite, pique, hatred, aversion.

Gruff, rough, rugged, blunt, rude, harsh, surly, bearish.

Guard, v., protect, defend, shield, keep, watch.

Guard, «., shield, fence, security, defence, sentinel, sentry, watchman,
conductor.

Guardian, protector, conservator, preserver, custodian, warder.

Guess, conjecture, divine, surmise, reckon, fancy, suppose.

Guide, v., lead, conduct, direct, regulate, manage, superintend.

Guile, deceit, fraud, artifice, trickery.

Guilt, crime, sin, offence.

Gull, dupe, cheat, trick, cozen, deceive, beguile, delude.

Gush, stream, flow, rush, spout.

HABILIMENTS, clothes, dress, garb, apparel, vestments.

Habit, manner, custom, usage, way.

Habitation, dwelling, residence, abode, domicile.

Habitual, usual, customary, accustomed, wonted, regular, ordinary.

Hale, hearty, robust, sound, healthy, strong.

Hallow, consecrate, sanctify, venerate, dedicate, enshrine.

Handsome, pretty, elegant, graceful, ample, beautiful, fine.

Hapless, luckless, unlucky, unhappy, unfortunate.

Happiness, felicity, bliss, prosperity, contentment, well-being, wel-
fare.

Harass, distress, perplex, weary, tire out, worry, vex, fatigue.

Hard, firm, solid, flinty, unfeeling, harsh, cruel, difficult, arduous.

Hardihood, audacity, imprudence, effrontery.

Hardy, manly, manful, masculine, vigorous, courageous, brave, he-
roic, intrepid, stout, strong, firm.

Harm, evil, ill, misfortune, mischief, mishap, injury, hurt.

Harmonious, symphonious, consonous, accordant.

Harsh, rough, severe, rigorous, gruff, rugged, blunt, grating, jarring,
sour.

Hasty, quick, precipitate, rash, excitable, hot, fiery, passionate, angary,
cursory, slight.

Hate, detest, abominate, abhor, loathe, dislike.

Hateful, odious, detestable, execrable, abominable, loathsome, repul-
sive.

Haughtiness, arrogance, vanity, pride.

Hazard, v., f)eril, imperil, jeopardize, risk, dare, adventure, conjecture.

Headstrong, obstinate, dogged, stubborn, forward, venturesome.

Heal, cure, remedy, reconcile.

Healthy, hearty, hale, soimd, strong, wholesome.

Heap, pile, amass, accumulate.

Hearty, hale, healthy, sound, strong, heart-felt, warm, cordial, sincerOi

Heavenly, celestial, divine, seraphic, angelic.

Heavy, weighty, massive, dull, drowsy, insipid.

Height, top, crisis, acme, apex, climax, zenith.

Heighten, amplify, exaggerate, raise, enhance, increase.

Help, v., aid, assist, cooperate, succor, relieve, serve.

Hesitate, falter, pause, demur, scruple.

Hide, ?'., conceal, disguise, secete, cover, screen.

Hide, «., skin, rind, peel, bark.

Hideous, ghastly, grim, grisly, frightful, horrible, ugly.

High, tall, lofty, elevated, proud, conceited.

Highly, greatly, exceedingly, immeasurably, preeminently.

Hilarity, mirth, glee, jollity, merriment, joviality.

Hinder, thwart, retard, stop, prevent, impede, obstruct.

Hint, v., suggest, allude to, refer to, glance at, intimate, insinuate.

Hit, strike, dash, beat, thump.

Hold, have, possess, keep, detain, retain.

Holy, sacred, pious, devout, religious, divine.

Homage, respect, deference, honor, veneration.

Home, dwelling, house, domicile, residence, abode.

Honest, upright, honorable, conscientious, virtuous.

Honesty, integrity, purity, probity, sincerity, veracity, virtue, justice.

Honor, v., reverence, revere, venerate, respect, dignify, exalt.

Horrible, fearful, dreadful, dire, direful, frightful, terrible, terrific,
horrid.

Hot, ardent, fervent, fiery, burning, glowing, intense, passionate.

Huge, vast, enormous, large, great, prodigious, immense, gigantic,
colossal.

Humanity, kindness, benevolence, philanthropy, tenderness, sensi-
bility.

Humble, v., lower, debase, degrade, disgrace, humiliate.

Humble, «., lowly, modest, submissive, unpretending, unassuming.

Humiliation, fall, abasement, degradation, degeneracy.

Hurry, v., hasten, speed, expedite, precipitate.

Hurt, «., harm, injury, damage, mischief.

Hurt, v., annoy, grieve, vex, wound.

Hurtful, pernicious, baneful, deleterious, noxious, detrimental, preju-
dicial.

IDEA, imagination, conception, notion, thought, sentiment, impression.

Ideal, fanciful, imaginary, imaginative.

Identical, same, self-same, particular.

Idle, lazy, indolent, inactive, unemployed.

Ignorant, unlearned, illiterate, unlettered, uninformed, uneducated.

Ill, «., evil, wickedness, misfortune, mischief, harm. •

111, a., sick, indisposed, unwell, diseased.

Illimitable, boundless, limitless, measureless, immeasurable, unlimited,

infinite.
Illiterate, unlettered, unlearned, untaught, uninstructed.
Illness, sickness, indisposition, disease, disorder, malady, ailment.
Illusion, fallacy, deception, phantasm.
Illustrate, explain, elucidate, clear.
Illustrious, celebrated, glorious, noble, eminent, distinguished, famous,

renowned.
Imbibe, absorb, swallow up, take in, engulf, consume.
Imbolden, inspirit, animate, encourage, incite.
Imitate, copy, ape, mimic, mock, counterfeit.
Immediately, instantly, forthwith, directly, instanter, presently,

straightway.
Immense, vast, enormous, huge, prodigious, monstrous, immeasurable.
Immunity, privilege, perogative, exemption.
Immure, confine, shut up, imprison.
Impair, injure, diminish, decrease.
Impart, communicate, reveal, divulge, disclose, discover, give, bestow,

afford.
Impeach, accuse, charge, arraign, censure.
Impede, hinder, retard, obstruct, prevent.
Impel, animate, actuate, induce, move, incite, inspirit, instigate, en*

courage, imbolden.
Imperative, commanding, dictatorial, authoritative, despotic, p>ep

emptory.

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

■^

4r-

Imperil, peril, endang-er, hazard, jeopardize.

Imperious, commanding, dictatorial, authoritative, imperative, lordly,
overbearing-, domineering.

Impertinent, intrusive, meddling, officious, rude, saucy, impudent, in-
solent.

Impervious, unpassable, impassable, inaccessible, impenetrable.

Impetuous, violent, boisterous, furious, vehement, rapid.

Impious, profane, irreligious, godless.

Implicate, involve, entangle, embarrass, compromise.

Imply, involve, comprise, infold, import, denote, signify.

Importance, signification, significance, avail, consequence, weight,
gravity, moment.

Impose, put, place, set, fix, lay.

Imposing, impressive, striking, majestic, august, noble, grand.

Impotence, weakness, incapacity, infirmity, frailty, feebleness.

Impotent, weak, feeble, helpless, enfeebled, nerveless, infirm.

Impress, »., engrave, stamp, print, fix, instil, inculcate.

Impression, feeling, sentiment, sensation, susceptibility, stamp, edi-
tion.

Impressive, stirring, fercible, exciting, affecting, moving.

Imprison, incarcerate, shut up, immure, confine.

Imprisonment, incarceration, captivity, durance, confinement.

Improve, amend, better, mend, reform, rectify, ameliorate, apply, use,
employ.

Improvident, careless, incautious, imprudent, prodigal, wasteful, reck-
less, rash.

Impudence, assurance, impertinence, confidence, insolence, rudeness.

Impudent, saucy, brazen, bold, impertinent, forward, rude, insolent,
immodest, shameless.

Impugn, gainsay, oppose, attack, assail.

Impulse, incentive, incitement, motive, instigation.

Impulsive, rash, hasty, forcible, violent.

Imputation, blame, censure, reproach, charge, accusation.

Inability, weakness, impotence, incapacity, incapability.

Inadvertency, error, oversight, blunder, inattention, carelessness,
negligence.

Incapable, unable, inadequate, incompetent, insufficient, unfit.

Incapacity, disability, incapability, inability, incompetency.

Incentive, motive, inducement, impulse.

Incite, instigate, excite, provoke, stimulate, encourage, iirge, impel.

Inclination, leaning, slope, disposition, tendency, bent, bias, affection,
attachment, wish, liking, desire.

Incline, z/., slope, lean, slant, tend, bend, turn, bias, dispose.

Inclose, surround, shut in, fence in, cover, wrap.

Include, comprehend, comprise, contain, embrace, take in, hold.

Incommode, annoy, plague, molest, disturb, inconvenience, trouble.

Incompetent, incapable, imable, inadequate, insufficient.

Increase, i/., extend, enlarge, augment, dilate, expand, amplify, raise,
enhance, aggravate, magnify, grow.

Increase, «., augmentation, accession, addition, enlargement, exten-
sion.

Incumbent, obligatory, morally necessitated.

Indefinite, vague, uncertain, unsettled, loose, lax.

Indicate, point out, show, mark.

Indifference, apathy, carelessness, listlessness, insensibility.

Indigence, want, neediness, penury, poverty, destitution, privation.

Indignation, anger, wrath, ire, resentment.

Indignity, insult, affront, outrage, obloquy, opprobrium, reproach,
ignominy.

Indiscriminate, promiscuous, chance, indistinct, confused.

Indispensable, essential, necessary, requisite, expedient.

Indisputable, undeniable, undoubted, incontestable, indubitable, un-
questionable, sure, infallible.

Indulge, foster, cherish, fondle.

Ineffectual, vain, useless, unavailing, fruitless, abortive, ineffective,
inoperative.

Inequality, disparity, disproportion, dissimilarity, unevenness, protu-
, berance, prominence.

Inevitable, unavbidable, not to be avoided, certain.

Infamous, scandalous, shameful, ignominious, opprobrious, dis-
graceful.

Inference, deduction, corollary, conclusion, consequence.

Infernal, diabolical, fiendish, devilish, hellish.

Infest, annoy, plague, harass, disturb.

Infirm, weak, feeble, enfeebled.

Inflame, anger, irritate, enrage, chafe, incense, nettle, aggravate, im.
bitter, exasperate.

Influence, z/., bias, sway, prejudice, prepossess.

Influence, «., credit, favor, reputation, character, weight, authority,
sway, ascendency.

Infraction, infringement, encroachment, invasion, intrusion, contra-
vention, breach.

Infringe, invade, intrude, contravene, break, transgress, violate.

Ingenuous, artless, candid, generous, open, frank, plain, sincere.

Inhuman, cruel, brutal, savage, barbarous, ruthless, merciless, fero-
cious.

Iniquity, injustice, wrong, grievance.

Injure, damage, hurt, deteriorate, wrong, aggrieve, harm, spoil, mar,
sully.

Injurious, hurtful, baneful, pernicious, deleterious, noxious, prejudi-
cial, wrongful, damaging.

Injustice, wrong, iniquity, grievance.

Inlet, entrance, entry, ingress.

Innocent, guiltless, sinless, harmless, inoffensive, innoxious.

Inordinate, intemperate, irregular, disorderly, excessive, immoderate.

Inquiry, investigation, examination, research, scrutiny, disquisition,
question, query, interrogation.

Inquisitive, prying, peeping, curious, peering.

Insane, mad, deranged, delirious, demented.

Insanity, madness, mental aberration, lunacy, delirium.

Insinuate, hint, intimate, suggest, infuse, introduce, ingratiate.

Insipid, dull, flat, mawkish, tasteless, vapid, inanimate, lifeless.

Insnare, entrap, decoy, allure, net, enmesh, entoil, entangle, inveigle.

Insolent, rude, saucy, pert, impertinent, abusive, scurrilous, opprobri-
ous, insulting, offensive, outrageous.

Inspire, animate, exhilarate, enliven, cheer, breathe, inhale.

Instability, mutability, fickleness, mutableness, wavering.

Instigate, stir up, persuade, animate, incite, urge, stimulate, en-
courage.

Instil, implant, inculcate, infuse, insinuate.

Institute, establish, found, erect, begin, form, organize, prescribe.

Instruct, inform, teach, educate, enlighten, initiate.

Instrumental, conducive, assistant, helping, ministerial.

Insufficiency, inadequacy, incompetency, incapability, deficiency,
lack.

Insult, affront, outrage, indignity, blasphemy.

Insulting, insolent, rude, saucy, impertinent, impudent, abusive.

Integrity, uprightness, honesty, probity, entirety, entireness, com-
pleteness, rectitude, purity.

Intellect, understanding, sense, brains, mind, intelligence, ability,
talent, genius.

Intellectual, mental, ideal, metaphysical.

Intelligible, clear, obvious, plain, distinct.

Intemperate, immoderate, excessive, drunken, nimious, inordinate.

Intense, ardent, earnest, glowing, fervid, burning, vehement, strained,
forced, excessive, extreme.

Intent, design, purpose, intention, drift, view, aim, purport, meaning.

Intercourse, commerce, connection, intimacy, acquaintance.

Interdict, forbid, prohibit, inhibit, proscribe, debar, restrain from.

Interfere, meddle, intermeddle, interpose.

Interminable, endless, interminate, infinite, unlimited, 'illimitable,
boundless, limitless.

Interpose, intercede, arbitrate, mediate, interfere, meddle.

Interpret, explain, exjwund, elucidate, unfold, decipher.

Intimate, hint, suggest, insinuate, express, signify, impart, tell.

Intimidate, dishearten, alarm, frighten, affright, scare, appall, daunt,
cow, quail, browbeat.

Intolerable, insufferable, unbearable, insupportable, unendurable.

Intrepid, bold, brave, daring, fearless, dauntless, undaunted, courage
ous, valorous, valiant, heroic, gallant, chivalrous, doughty.

Intrigue, plot, conspiracy, combination, artifice, ruse, amour.

Intrinsic, real, true, genuine, sterling, native, natural.

Inure, habituate, use, train, accustom, familiarize.

Invalidate, quash, cancel, overthrow, vacate, nullify, annul.

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

-y

Invective, abuse, reproach, railing, censure, sarcasm, satire.

Inveterate, confirmed, chronic, malignant.

Invidious, envious, hateful, odious, malignant.

Invincible, unconquerable, impregnable, insuperable, insurmountable.

Invisible, unseen, imperceptible, impalpable, unperceivable.

Involve, implicate, entangle, compromise, envelop.

Ire, rage, anger, wrath, indignation, passion.

Irksome, wearisome, burdensome, tiresome, tedious, troublesome, vex-
atious, annoying.

Irony, sarcasm, satire, ridicule, raillery.

Irrational, foolish, silly, imbecile, brutish, unreasonable, absurd, I)r6-
posterous, ridiculous.

Irreligious, profane, godless ^ impious, sacrilegious, desecrating.

Irreproachable, blameless, spotless, irreprovable, unblemished.

Irresistible, resistless, opposeless, irrepressible.

Irresolute, wavering, undetermined, undecided, vacillating.

Irritable, excitable, irascible, susceptible, sensitive.

Irritate, aggravate, worry, provoke, im bitter, madden, exasperate, dis-
please.

Issue, «., end, conclusion, upshot, effect, consequence, result, offspring,
progeny, children.

JARRING, conflicting, discordant, inconsonant, irreconcilable, incon-
sistent, incompatible.

Jeer, sneer, scoff, mock.

Jeopardize, imperil, hazard, endanger.

Jocose, jocular, jolly, facetious, witty, pleasant.

Join, accompany, go with, add, unite, append, adjoin, combine, confed-
erate, league, band.

Journey, travel, tour, trip, excursion, voyage.

Joy, delight, gladness, charm, pleasure, ecstacy, rapture, transport.

Judgment, discernment, discrimination, sagacity, intelligence, sen-
tence, decision, order, award.

Juicy, succulent, bibulous, spongy.

Junction, union, alliance, connection, confederacy, combination.

Juncture, contact, touch, conjuncture, crisis.

Just, right, proper, fare, equitable, impartial.

Justify, excuse, clear, exonerate, defend, absolve.

Juvenile, yoimg, youthful, boyish, infantile, childish.

KEEN, sharp, acute, penetrating, cutting, biting, stinging, sarcastic,

satirical.
Keep, retain, hold, detain, preserve, maintain, sustain, hinder.
Kill, murder, assassinate, slay, massacre, butcher.
Kind, fl., thoughtful, affable, gentle, meek, tender, good, gracious,

compassionate, indulgent, forbearing.
Kindle, ignite, enkindle, awaken, arouse, stir up, excite.
Kingly, royal, imperial, regal, sovereign.
Knowledge, learning, scholarship, acquirements, attainments.

LABOR, work, task, toil, exertion.
Labored, elaborate, hard-wrought, studied.

Laborious, hard-working, industrious, diligent, assiduous, active, toil-
some, wearisome.
Lack, want, need, require.
Laconic, short, brief, concise, curt.

Lament, grieve, mourn, regret, bewail, deplore, bemoan.
Language, speech, tongue, dialect, phraseologry.
Languid, weak, faint, drooping, pining.
Lank, lean, thin, skinny, meagre, scraggy.
Lassitude, weariness, fatigue, languor.
Lasting, durable, abiding, permanent, perpetual.
Latent, hidden, secret, occult, inscrutable.
Laud, praise, command, applaud, extol, magnify, eulogize.
Lavish, profuse, extravagant, prodigal.
Lax, loose, vague, dissolute, licentious.
Lazy, idle, indolent, slothful, sluggish, inactive.
Lead, conduct, guide, direct, induce, persuade, influence.
Leader, chief, director, head, guide.
Lean, a., thin, scraggy, lank, skinny.
Lean, v., incline, tend, bend, slope.
Leave, v., quit, relinquish, renounce, give up, retire.

Legend, fable, myth, memoir, annal, chronicle.

Legitimate, legal, lawful, genuine, fair.

Lengthen, extend, elongate, protract, prolong.

Lessen, abate, diminish, decrease, lower, subside.

Level, even, plain, smooth, flat.

Levity, giddiness, lightness, flightiness.

Liberal, generous, bountiful, bounteous, munificent, plentiful.

Liberty, leave, license, permission, freedom.

Licentious, loose, lax, dissolute, rakish, unbridled.

Lie, untruth, falsehood, falsity, fabrication, fiction, invention, story.

Life, animation, vivacity, buoyancy, spirits, history, career, existence.

Likelihood, probability, appearance.

Likeness, picture, image, effigy, carie de visite, resemblance, similar*
ity, representation, similitude.

Limit, «., extent, boundary, bound, border.

Limp;ci, ciear, transparent. ^

Linger, tarry, loiter, wait, lag, saunter.

Link, tie, bind, join, chain.

l^iquidate, clear off, extinguish, pay off, lessen, discharge.

List, roll, roster, catalogue, register, inventory.

Listless, indifferent, indolent, careless.

Literal, actual, real, positive, true.

Little, small, diminutive, dwarf.

Lively, active, brisk, quick, sprightly, prompt, buoyant, racy, viva-
cious.

Loathe, dislike, nauseate, abhor, detest, abominate.

Lofty, high, tall, elevated, exalted.

Loiter, wait, linger, tarry, saunter.

Look, «., manner, appearance, aspect, feature, glance, peep.

Look, v., see, witness, view, eye, inspect.

Loquacity, talkativeness, volubility, glibness, babbling.

Lot,' destiny, fate, future, doom.

Loud, noisy, clamorous, vociferous, blustering, riotous, turbulent,
tumultuous.

Love, endearment, affection, attachment, fondness.

Lovely, charming, amiable, delightful.

Lover, suitor, wooer, sweetheart.

Loyalty, allegiance, fealty. ,

Luck, chance, fortune, accident.

Luckless, hapless, unlucky, unprosperous, unfortunate.

Lucre, gain, profit, emolument, money.

Ludicrous, laughable, ridiculous, comic, droll, odd, silly.

Lurid, gloomy, murky, lowering.

Luscious, honeyed, sweet, mellifluous.

Lustre, splendor, brightness, brilliancy, effulgence, refulgence.

Lusty, stout, strong, able-bodied, stalwart, robust, muscular, brawny.

Luxuriant, overflowing, exuberant, superfluous, redundant, abundant.

MACHINATION, stratagem, cheat, imposture, fraud, trick.

Mad, wild, frantic, distracted, furious, rabid.

Madden, irritate, enrage, exasperate.

Madness, mental aberration, insanity, lunacy, mania, frenzy, rage.

fury.
Magnanimous, august, dignified, noble, exalted, lofty.
Magnificence, splendor, grandeur, gorgeousness, pomp.
Magnify, enlarge, extol, applaud, laud.
Magnitude, greatness, bigness, size, bulk.
Main, chief, principal, leading, first.
Maintain, assert, vindicate, hold, support, sustain.
Majestic, dignified, noble, stately, pompous, splendid, grand.
Make, create, form, produce, mould, shape.
Malediction, curse, imprecation, denunciation, anathema.
Malefactor, criminal, culprit, felon, convict.

Malice, spite, rancor, ill-feeling, grudge, pique, animosity, ill-will.
Malicious, virulent, malignant, wicked.
Manage, contrive, concert, direct.

Management, direction, super ihtendence, care, economy.
Mangle, tear, lacerate, mutilate, cripple, maim.
Manifest, v., reveal, prove, evince, exhibit, display, show.
Manifest, a., clear, plain, evident, open, apparent, visible, obvious.
Manly, masculine, hardy, vigorous, courageous, brave, heroic, fearlesa
Manners, morals, habits, behavior, carriage.

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

Many, numerous, several, sundry, divers, various, manifold

Mar, spoil, ruin, disfigure.

March, tramp, tread, walk, step, space.

Margin, edge, rim, border, brink, verge.

Mark, «., sign, note, symptom, token, indication, trace, vestige, track,
badge, brand.

Mark, v., impress, print, stamp, engrave, note, notice, remark, show,
point out, indicate.

Marriage, wedding, nuptials, matrimony, wedlock.

Martial, military, warlike, soldier-like.

Marvel, wonder, miracle, prodigy.

Marvellous, wondrous, wonderful, amazing, miraculous.

Masculine, manly, virile, hardy, vigorous, brave, courageous.

Massive, massy, bulky, heavy, weighty, p>onderous.

Masterly, skilful, clever, expert, dexterous, adroit.

Masterly, dominion, rule, sway, ascendency, supremacy.

Matchless, unrivalled, unequalled, unparalleled, peerless, incompara-
ble, inimitable, surpassing, unique.

Material, a., corporeal, bodily, physical, temporal, momentous.

Matrimony, marriage, wedlock, wedding, nuptials, espousals.

Mature, ripe, ready, mellow, perfect, fit.

Maxim, adage, apophthegm, proverb, saying, by-word, saw.

Meagre, poor, lank, emaciated, barren, dry, uninteresting.

Mean, a., stingy, niggardly, low, abject, vile, ignoble, degraded, con-
temptible, vulgar, despicable.

Mean, z/., design, purpose, intent, contemplate, signify, denote, indi-
cate.

Meaning, signification, import, acceptation, sense, purport.

Medium, mediocrity, organ, channel, instrument, means.

Medley, mixture, variety, diversity, miscellany.

Meek, unassuming, mild, gentle.

Melancholy, low-spirited, dispirited, dreamy, sad.

Mellow, ripe, mature, soft.

Melodious, tuneful, musical, silver, dulcet, sweet.

Melt, liquefy, fuse, dissolve, moisten.

Memoir, narrative, chronicle, legend, life, history.

Memorable, signal, distinguished, marked.

Memorial, monument, memento, commemoration.

Memory, remembrance, recollection.

Menace, «., threat, threatening, commination.

Mend, amend, correct, better, ameliorate, improve, rectify.

Mention, tell, name, communicate, impart, divulge, reveal, disclose,
inform, acquaint.

Merchandise, goods, wares, commerce, traffic.

Merciful, compassionate, lenient, clement, tender, gracious, kind.

Merciless, hard-hearted, cruel, unmerciful, pitiless, remorseless, unre-
lenting.

Mercy, lenity, mildness, clemency, compassion, pity.

Merited, deserved, condign, suitable, adequate, prop>er.

Merriment, mirth, joviality, jollity, hilarity.

Merry, cheerful, mirthful, joyous, gay, lively, sprightly, hilarious,
blithe, blithesome, jovial, sportive, jolly.

Metaphorical, figurative, allegorical, symbolical.

Method, way, manner, mode, process, order, rule, regularity, system.

Mien, air, look, manner, aspect, appearance.

Migratory, roving, strolling, wandering, vagrant.

Mimic, imitate, ape, mock.

Mindful, observant, attentive, heedful, thoughtful.

Mingle, mix, blend, comiX)und, amalgamate.

Minute, circumstantial, particular.

Mirth, joy, merriment, gladness, festivity, joviality, hilarity, cheerfuU
ness, vivacity, gayety, fun, jollity.

Misapprehension, misconception, misunderstanding, mistake, error.

Miscellaneous, promiscuous, indiscriminate, mixed.

Miscellany, medley, diversity, variety, mixture, hotchpotch.

Mischief, injury, harm, damage, hurt, evil, ill.

Misconception, misapprehension, misunderstanding, mistake.

Miscreant, caitiff, villain, ruffian.

Miserable, unhappy, wretched, distressed, afBicted.

Miserly, stingy, niggardly, avaricious, griping.

Misery, wretchedness, woe, destitution, penury, privation, beggjary.

Misfortune, calamity, disaster, mishap, catastrophe.

Misguide, mislead, dazzle, beguile, deceive.

Miss, omit, lose, fail, miscarry.

Mistake, «., error, blunder, delusion, misapprehension, misunderstand-
ing.

Misuse, «., abuse, perversion, maltreatment.

Mitigate, alleviate, relieve, abate, diminish.

Moderate, temperate, abstemious, sober, abstinent.

Moderation, temperance, sobriety, abstemiousness.

Modest, chaste, virtuous, bashful, reserved.

Moist, wet, damp, dank, humid.

■Molest, annoy, incommode, discommode, incommodate, vex, tease, dis-
turb.

Momentous, important, significant, weighty.

Monotonous, unvaried, dull, tiresome, undiversified.

Monstrous, shocking, dreadful, horrible, huge, immense.

Monument, memorial, record, remembrancer, cenotaph.

Mood, humor, disposition, vein, temper.

Morass, bog, quagmire, slough, marsh, fen, swamp.

Morbid, sick, ailing, sickly, diseased, corrupted.

Morose, gloomy, sullen, surly, fretful, crabbed, crusty.

Mortify, vex, chagrin, grieve, hurt, afilict, annoy.

Motion, proposition, proposal, movement, change, action.

Motionless, still, stationary, torpid, stagnant.

Motive, cause, reason, principle, inducement, incentive, impulse, spur,
stimulus.

Mount, arise, rise, ascend, soar, tower, climb, scale, embellish.

Mournful, sad, sorrowful, lugubrious, g^rievous, doleful, heavy.

Move, actuate, impel, induce, prompt, instigate, persuade, stir, agitate,
propel, push.

Moving, affecting, touching, pathetic, melting.

Multifarious, divers, many, manifold.

Multitude, crowd, throng, host, mob, swarm.

Munificent, bounteous, bountiful, generous, liberal.

Murder, v., kill, assassinate, slay, massacre, despatch.

Murky, dark, dusky, dim, cloudy, misty, shadowy.

Muse, v., meditate, contemplate, think, reflect, cogitate, ponder.

Music, harmony, melody, symphony.

Musical, tuneful, melodious, harmonious, dulcet, sweet.

Musty, stale, sour, fetid.

Mutable, inconstant, unsteadfast, unstable, fickle, alterable, restless,
fitful, variable, changeable, unsteady, undecided.

Mute, dumb, silent, speechless.

Mutilate, maim, cripple, disable, disfigure.

Mutinous, insurgent, seditious, tumultuous,*turbulent, riotous.

Mysterious, dark, obscure, hidden, secret, dim, mystic, enigmatical,
unaccountable.

Mystify, confuse, perplex, puzzle.

NAKED, nude, bare, uncovered, unclothed, rough, rude, simple.
Name, z;., denominate, entitle, intitule, style, designate, term, call,

christen, specify.
Name, «., appellation, designation, denomination, title, cognomen,"

reputation, character, fame, credit, repute.
Narrate, tell, relate, detail, recount, describe, enumerate, rehearse,

recite.
Nasty, filthy, foul, dirty, unclean, impure, indecent, gross, vile.
Nation, people, community, realm, state.
Native, real, genuine, indigenous, vernacular, mother.
Natural, original, regular, normal, bastard.
Near, nigh, neighboring, close, adjacent, contiguous, intimate.
Necessary, needful, expedient, essential, requisite, indispensable.
Necessitate, v., compel, force, oblige.

Necessity, need, occasion, exigency, emergency, urgency, requisite.
Need, «., necessity, distress, poverty, indigence, want, penury.
Need, z/., require, want, lack.
Neglect, z/., disregard, slight, omit, overlook.
Neglect, «., omission, failure, default, negligence, remissness, carOi

lessness, slight.
Neighborhood, environs, vicinity, nearness, adjacency, proximity.
Nerveless, feeble, impuissant, weak, forceless, enfeebled, debilitated

enervated, impotent, paralyzed, palsied.
Nervous, timid, timorous, shaky.

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

-y

Neutralize, counterbalance, counteract.

News, tidings, intelligence, information.

Nice, exact, accurate, good, particular, precise, fine, delicate.

Niggardly, miserly, griping, stingy, penurious, saving, greedy.

Nimble, active, brisk, lively, alert, quick, agile, prompt, sprightly.

Noble, exalted, elevated, dignified, illustrious, great, grand, stately,
lofty.

Nocturnal, nightly, gloomy, dark.

Noise, cry, outcry, clamor, row, din, uproar, tumult.

Nonsensical, irrational, absurd, preposterous, silly, foolish.

Notable, plain, evident, remarkable, signal, memorable, striking, rare.

Note, »., token, symbol, mark, sign, indication, remark, observation,
comment, memorandum.

Noted, distinguished, remarkable, eminent, celebrated, renowned, well
known, famous.

Notice, «., advice, notification, intelligence, information, warning.

Notice, »., mark, note, observe, attend to, regard, heed.

Noticeable, striking, observable, remarkable.

Notification, notice, declaration, publication, intelligence, informa-
tion.

Notify, publish, acquaint, communicate, apprise, inform, declare.

Notion, conception, idea, belief, opinion, sentiment, impression, con-
viction.

Notorious, noted, well known, renowned, famous.

Novel, modern, new, fresh, recent, unused, strange, uncommon, rare.

Noxious, hurtful, deadly, poisonous, deleterious, baneful.

Nullify, annul, vacate, invalidate, quash, cancel, repeal.

Number, z/., calculate, compute, estimate, reckon, count, enumerate.

Number, «., multitude, many, throng, crowd, swarm, host, figure,
numeral.

Numerous, many, sundry, various, several.

Nurture, nurse, cherish, nourish, foster, supply.

Nutrition, food, diet, nutriment, nourishment.

OBDURATE, hard, callous, hardened, unbending, graceless, unfeel-
ing, insensible, insusceptible.

Obedient, compliant, submissive, dutiful, respectful.

Obese, corpulent, fat, adipose, fleshy.

Object, «., aim, end, purpose, design, mark, butt.

Object, v., oppose, except to, contravene, impeach, deprecate.

Oblige, compel, bind, engage, coerce, constrain, force, impel, accom-
modate.

Obliterate, erase, blot out, expunge, efface.

Obloquy, odium, reproach, censure, abuse, scurrility, opprobrium,
shame.

Obnoxious, hateful, offensive, liable, exposed, unpopular.

Obscure, a., dim, misty, cloudy, shadowy, dusky, dark, gloomy, in-
distinct, unknown, humble, unintelligible.

Observance, form, etiquette, ceremony, solemnity, rite, celebration.

Observant, watchful, mindful, attentive, heedful.

Observe, keep, fulfil, heed, obey, perform, notice, remark, watch.

Obsolete, disused, antiquated, old-fashioned, ancient, old, neglected.

Obstacle, difficulty, impediment, stumbling-block, barrier, hindrance,
obstruction.

Obstruct, hinder, prevent, impede, bar, clog, barricade, choke, inter-
rupt.

Obtain, acquire, attain, secure, achieve, gain, get, procure, win, earn.

Obtuse, stolid, heavy-headed, dull, stupid, unintelligent.

Obviate, prevent, preclude, hinder, provide against.

Obvious^ clear, plain, evident, manifest, open, apparent, visible,
patent.

Occult, secret, hidden, unknown, invisible, dark, mysterious.

Occupation, occupancy, profession, holding, tenure, business, trade,
avocation, calling, engagement, office, pursuit.

Odd, singular, eccentric, strange, extraordinary, whimsical, comical,
droll, uneven.

Odious, hateful, loathsome, execrable, detestable, abominable, disgust-
ing, repvilsive.

Odor, smell, scent, perfume, fragrance.

Offence, affront, insult, outrage, indignity, misdeed, trespass, trans-
gression, wrong, misdemeanor, injustice.

Offend, displease, vex, nettle, irritate, shock, transgress, err.

Offensive, insulting, rude, saucy, impertinent, distasteful, obnoxious^

opprobrious.
Offer, present, bid, tender, proffer, extend, propose, volunteer.
Officious, obtrusive, busy, interfering, meddling.
Offspring, issue, progeny, descendants, children.
Old, aged, elderly, senile, ancient, antique, antiquated, obsolete.
Omission, oversight, failure, neglect, default.
Omit, leave out, miss, overlook.
Onerous, responsible, burdensome, heavy, laborious, oppressive, toil.

some.
Only, singly, alone, solely, merely, barely, simply, exclusively.
Opaque, untransparent, dull, dark, cloudy.
Open, a., candid, frank, unreserved, free, ingenuous, sincere, unaffected,

genuine, undisguised, unfolded.
Open, z/., unclose, unlock, unseal, exhibit, dissolve, spread, expand,

begin.
Operate, act, do, make, work, labor.

Operation, action, agency, instrumentality, force, effort, enterprise.
Operative, stringent, effective, serviceable, binding.
Opportunity, occasion, chance, fit opening.
Oppose, combat, bar, hinder, resist, withstand, contradict.
Opposite, adverse, diverse, contrary, hostile, antagonistic, repugnant,

incompatible, inconsistent, paradoxical, facing.
Opprobrious, abusive, scurrilous, insulting, offensive, outrageous,

shameful.
Opprobrium, disgfrace, odium, infamy, ignominy, obloquy.
Option, choice, preference, election.
Opulent, wealthy, rich, afiluent, moneyed.
Oral, verbal, spoken, parole.
Oration, address, speech, harangue, discourse.

Orderly, regular, systematic, methodic, methodical, quiet, peaceable.
Ordinance, decree, law, statute, edict, regulation.
Ordinary, common, vulgar, plain, customary, settled, wonted, conven-
tional, habitual, usual.
Organization, structure, form, instrumentality, construction.
Origin, commencement, original, beginning, rise, source, spring

cause.
Original, first, primary, pristine, primeval, peculiar, odd.
Originate, create, form, spring, ooze, issue, proceed, begin.
Ornament, «., embellishment, adornment, decoration.
Over, above, upon, across, more than.
Overawe, daunt, intimidate, affright, cow.

Overbearing, bullying, blustering, imperious, lordly, domineering.
Overcharge, oppress, overload, surcharge, surfeit.
Overlook, inspect, survey, excuse, forgive, pardon, neglect, miss.
Overplus, excess, surplus, surplusage.

Overreach, cheat, outwit, circumvent, cozen, gull, dupe, defraud.
Oversight, inadvertence, inattention, neglect, mistake, error, omission,

inspection, superintendence.
Overt, open, public, notorious, manifest, patent.
Overture, praposal, offer, invitation, resolution.
Own, z/., acknowledge, admit, confess, recognize, have, possess.
Owner, proprietor, possessor, master, holder.

PACIFIC, peaceful, peaceable, mild, gentle, calm, quiet, conciliatory.

Pacify, appease, calm, quiet, still.

Pain, ft., anguish, agony, distress, suffering, pang, grief.

Pain, v., agonize, rack, torment, torture.

Painful, afflicting, grievous, torturing.

Pair, two, couple, brace.

Palatable, tasteful, savory, appetizing.

Palate, taste, relish.

Pale, a., pallid, wan, whitish, sallow, faint.

Palliate, extenuate, varnish, cover, allay, soothe, soften.

Palpable, clear, distinct, plain, obvious, evident.

Paltry, contemptible, pitiful, mean, sorry, despicable, shabby, beg.,

garly.
Panegyric, eulogy, encomium, eulogium, praise.
Pang, throe, twinge, agony, anguish, pain, distress.
Paramount, supreme, principal, chief.
Pardon, forgive, absolve, overlook, excuse, remit, acquit, discharge,

set free, clear, liberate.

kr-

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

Parsimonious, stingy, niggardly, miserly.

Partial, biassed, prejudiced, limited, incomplete.

Participate, share, partake, join in.

Particle, jot, tittle, grain, atom.

Partition, v., parcel, divide, apportion, distribute.

Partner, colleague, coadjutor, associate, sharer, confederate, spouse.

Partnership, union, connection, firm, house, association, company,
companionship, society.

Party, faction, confederacy, combination, detachment, clique, league.

Passion, anger, rage, fury, vehemence, imjjetuosity, love, affection.

Passionate, h6t, hasty, irritable, angry, excitable, fiery, vehement, im-
petuous, glowing, burning, ardent.

Passive, unresisting, unopposing, submissive, enduring, patient.

Pathetic, moving, touching, affecting, melting, tender.

Patience, resignation, endurance, fortitude.

Peculator, defaulter, delinquent, offender, thief.

Peculiar, appropriate, particular, exclusive, remarkable, sig^nal, special,
singular, uncommon.

Peevish, ill-natured, touchy, testy, captious, fractious, cross, fretful,
petulant, cynical, irascible.

Pellucid, translucent, lucid, limpid, transparent, clear.

Penetrate, pierce, perforate, bore, fathom, reach.

Penetration, insight, sharpness, acuteness, sagacity, discernment, dis-
crimination.

Penitence, contrition, repentance, remorse.

People, commonalty, populace, mob, mobility, nation, tribe, race.

Perception, seeing, sense, taste, perceptibility, sensibility, susceptibil-
ity, sensation, apprehension, conviction.

Percolate, filtrate, strain, filter, ooze.

Peremptory, absolute, positive, arbitrary, desfXJtic, decisive, impera-
tive.

Perennial, impterishable, undying, immortal, deathless, enduring, per-
petual.

Perfect, complete, whole, entire, finished, unbroken, thorough, mature,
ripe.

Perfume, odor, scent, fragrance, aioma, smell, incense.

Perhaps, perchance, possibly, peradventure.

Perish, decay, die, expire, dissolve.

Permanent, durable, abiding, enduring, lasting, fixed, stable, stead-
fast, constant.

Permission, permit, leave, liberty, license.

Permit, v., admit, allow, let, consent, suffer, tolerate, license, warrant.

Pernicious, destructive, ruinous, baneful, deleterious, hurtful.

Perpetual, constant, continual, continuous, endless, eternal, lasting,
incessant, ceaseless, unceasing, uninterrupted.

Perplex, embarrass, harass, confuse, bewilder, entangle, involve,
puzzle.

Pestilential, contagious, infectious, epidemical, mischievous, perni-
cious, nocent, noxious, baneful, destructive, p)estiferous, f^tal,
deadly.

Petition, prayer, supplication, entreaty, request, suit, appeal.

Petty, trifling, trivial, frivolous, insignificant, small, little.

Petulant, captious, fractious, cross, peevish, fretful, splenetic, excita-
ble, ill-humored.

Philanthropic, charitable, kind, benevolent, gracious, benignant.

Phlegmatic, frigid, cold, heavy, unfeeling, apathetic.

Phrase, term, style, sentence, proposition, period, phraseology, dic-
tion.

Piercing, thrilling, ringing, clangous.

Piety, religion, sanctity, holiness, devotion, grace, godliness.

Pile, v., heap, accumulate, hoard, amass, collect.

Pine, v., flag, droop, languish, sink, fade, wither, decay, decline.

Pious, holy, godly, saintly, devout, religious.

Piquant, pungent, acrid, smart, keen, biting, harsh, stinging, cutting,
racy.

Pique, spite, grude, umbrage, resentment.

Pithy, terse, concise, forcible, strong.

Pitiful, mean, paltry, sordid, contemptible, despicable.

Pity, »., compassion, sympathy, condolence, mercy.

Plea, apology, defence, vindication, entreaty.

Plead, defend, vindicate, exonerate, justify, exculpate, excuse.

Pleasant, pleasing, agreeable, gratifying, satisfactory, delicious, ex-

quisite, delightful, pleasurable, jocular, jocose, witty, smiling,
laughing.

Please, gratify, satisfy, content, delight, fascinate, indulge.

Pleasure, comfort, enjoyment, gratification, joy, delight, rapture,
charm, wish.

Plight, v., pledge, hypothecate, vow.

Plot, v., concoct, hatch, frame, contrive, conspire.

Pluck, courage, mettl^, spirit, nerve.

Plump, fleshy, round, fat, full, chubby.

Polite, refined, genteel, civil, accomplished, well-bred.

Politeness, gentility, civility, urbanity, courteousness, courtesy, affa-
bility.

Politic, political, civil, judicious, prudential.

Pomp, parade, display, gorgeousness, splendor, grandeur, pageantry,
show, state.

Pompous, majestic, stately, grand, august, dignified, lofty, inflated,
bombastic.

Portray, draw, sketch, paint, depict, delineate, represent, describe.

Praise, «., approval, eulogy, commendation, applause, exaltation,
honor.

Praise, z/., commend, extol, eulogize, panegyrize, laud, applaud, glorify.

Praiseworthy, laudable, honorable, commendable, meritorious,
worthy.

Prank, frolic, gambol, freak, trick, escapade.

Precious, valuable, costly, dear, estimable.

Precipice, cliff, crag.

Precipitate, v., hurry, hasten, cast down, expedite.

Precipitate, a., hasty, hurried, rash, premature.

Predicament, situation, condition, state, plight, dilemma.

Predict, v., foretell, prognosticate, prophesy, foreshadow.

Predilection, preference, partiality, bias, prejudice.

Predominant, prevailing, prevalent, ascendant, overruling.

Pregnant, prolific, teeming, replete, enceinte.

Prejudice, prepossession, bias, partiality, detriment, harm, hurt,
damage.

Preliminary, prefatory, introductory, anterior, previous, antecedent.

Preponderate, !»., predominate, prevail, overbalance, outweigh, out-
balance.

Prepossessing, charming, engaging, taking, attractive, winning.

Preposterous, irrational, foolish, absurd, ridiculous.

Prerogative, privilege, immunity, right, exemption.

Presage, foresee, predict, portend, augtir, forebode, prognosticate, be-
token, threaten.

Prescribe, appoint, ordain, dictate, decree, enjoin, impose, order.

Presumptuous, presuming, over-confident, forward, arrogan^, bold,
rash, foolhardy.

Pretence, cloak, mask, garb, pretext, excuse, plea.

Pretend, feign, affect, simulate, profess.

Pride, arrogance, haughtiness, vanity, self-esteem, lordliness, conceit,
loftiness, vainglory.

Principally, chiefly, essentially, mainly.

Principle, ground, reason, motive, impulse, maxim, rule, rectitude, in-
tegrity.

Print, v., mark, impress, stamp, imprint.

Privilege, immunity, advantage, favor, prerogative, exemption, right,
claim.

Probity, rectitude, uprightness, honesty. Integrity, sincerity, sound-
ness.

Problematical, uncertain, doubtful, dubious, questionable, disputable,
suspicious.

Prodigious, huge, enormous, vast, amazing, astonishing, astounding,
surprising, remarkable, wonderful, f)ortentous.

Profession, business, trade, occupation, vocation, office, employment,
engagement, avowal.

Proffer, volimteer, offer, propose, tender.

Profligate, abandoned, dissolute, depraved, vicious, degenerate, cor-
rupt, demoralized.

Profound, deep, fathomless, penetrating, solemn, abstruse, recondite.

Profuse, extravagant, prodigal, lavish, improvident, excessive, copi-
ous, plentiful.

Project, shoot, discharge, throw, hurl, jut, protrude, bulge.

Prolific, productive, generative, fertile, fruitful, teeming.

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

Prolix, diffuse, long, prolonged, tedious, tiresome, wordy, verbose,
prosaic.

Prominent, eminent, conspicuous, marked, jutting, important, leading.

Promiscuous, mixed, unarranged, mingled, indiscriminate.

Prop, t/., maintain, sustain, support, stay.

Propagate, spread, circulate, diffuse, disseminate, extend, breed, in-
crease.

Propensity, inclination, disposition, bias, proneness, tendency, bent,
predilection, proclivity.

Proper, legitimate, right, just, fair, equitable, honest, suitable, fit,
adapted, meet, becoming, befitting, decent, pertinent, appropriate.

Prosper, flourish, succeed, grow rich, thrive, advance.

Prosperity, well-being, weal, welfare, happiness, good luck.

Prostrate, oppressed, trampled on, abject, paralyzed.

Proverb, adage, maxim, aphorism, saying, byword, saw.

Proximate, next, immediate, nearest, closest.

Proximity, nearness, vicinity, neighborhood.

Proxy, agent, representative, substitute, delegate, deputy.

Prudence, carefulness, judgment, discretion, wisdom.

Prurient, itching, craving, hankering, longing.

Puerile, youthful, juvenile, boyish, childish, infantile, trifling, weak
silly.

Punctilious, trifling, nice, particular, formal, precise.

Punctual, exact, precise, nice, particular, prompt, timely.

Pungent, acrid, acrimonious, piquant, smart, keen, stinging.

Putrefy, rot, decompose, corrupt, decay.

Puzzle, w., perplex, confound, embarrass, bewilder, confuse, pose,
mystify.

QUACK, impostor, pretender, charlatan, empiric, mountebank.

Quaint, artful, curious, far-fetched, fanciful, odd, singular.

Querulous, complaining, fretting, repining.

Query, question, inquiry, interrogatory.

Quibble, cavil, evade, equivocate, shufile, prevaricate.

Quick, lively, ready, prompt, alert, nimble, agile, active, brisk, expe-
ditious, adroit, fleet, rapid, swift, impetuous, sweeping, dashing,
clever, sharp.

Quote, note, repeat, cite, adduce.

RABID, mad, furious, raging, frantic.

Race, course, match, pursuit, career, family, clan, house, ancestry,
lineage, pedigree.

Rack, agonize, wring, torture, excruciate, distress, harass.

Racy, spicy, pungent, smart, spirited, lively, vivacious.

Radiance, splendor, brightness, brilliance, brilliancy, lustre, glare.

Radical, organic, innate, fundamental, original, constitutional, inher.
ent, complete, entire.

Rancid, fetid, rank, stinking, sour, tainted, reasty.

Rancor, malignity, hatred, hostility, antipathy, animosity, enmity, ill-
will, spite.

Range, z'., arrange, class, place, rank, wander, stroll, roam, ramble,
rove, expatiate.

Rapacious, ravenous, voracious, greedy, grasping.

Rapidity, quickness, swiftness, speed, velocity, celerity, fleetness, ac-
tivity, exf)edition, despatch.

Rapture, ecstacy, transport, delight, bliss.

Rational, reasonable, sagacious, judicious, wise, intellectual, sensible,
sane, sound.

Raze, demolish, destroy, overthrow, ruin, dismantle.

Realize, accomplish, achieve, effect, gain, get, acquire.

Reciprocal, mutual, alternate, interchangeable.

Recompense, «., indemnity, compensation, remuneration, requital,
satisfaction, reward.

Record, «., chronicle,register, note, trace,vestige,minute, memorandum.

Rectitude, justice, uprightness, integrity, virtue, equity.

Redundant, superfluous, unnecessary, excessive, luxuriant.

Refer, appeal, allude, advert, relate, belong.

Reformation, improvement, reform, amendment.

Refractory, unruly, jjerverse, ungovernable, obstinate, stubborn.

Regret, «., grief, sorrow, lamentation, repentance, remorse.

Regular, orderly, methodic, systematical, uniform, unvaried, custom-
ary, ordinary, stated, periodical.

Reimburse, refund, repay, satisfy, indemnify.

Reiterate, repeat, reproduce, renew.

Relevant, fit, proper, suitable, appropriate, pertinent, apt.

Reliance, trust, hope, dependence, confidence.

Relief, succor, aid, help, redress, alleviation.

Relinquish, give up, forsake, resign, surrender, quit, leave, forego.

Remedial, healing, curative, mitigating, sanitary.

Remedy, help, relief, redress, cure, specific, reparation.

Rem'orseless, pitiless, relentless, cruel, ruthless, merciless, barbarous

Remote, distant, far, secluded, indirect.

Renown, distinction, reputation, fame, glory, celebrity.

Reproduce, propagate, imitate, represent, copy.

Reprove, chide, rebuke, reprimand, scold.

Repudiate, disown, discord, disavow, renounce, disclaim.

Repugnant, antagonistic, averse, adverse, hostile, unwilling.

Repulsive, forbidding, odious, ugly, disagreeable, revolting.

Reputable, creditable, estimable, honorable, respectable.

Respite, reprieve, interval, stop, pause.

Revel, feast, carouse, luxuriate, banquet, wallow.

Revenge, vengeance, retaliation, requital, retribution.

Revenue, produce, income, fruits, proceeds, wealth.

Reverence, »., honor, respect, awe, veneration, deference, worship,
homage.

Revise, review, reconsider.

Revive, refresh, renew, renovate, animate, resuscitate, vivify, cheer,
comfort.

Rich, wealthy, affluent, opulent, copious, ample, abundant, exuberant,
plentiful, fertile, fruitful, superb, gorgeous.

Rival, «., antagonist, opponent, competitor.

Road, way, highway, route, course, path, pathway, anchorage.

Roam, ramble, rove, wander, stray, stroll.

Robust, strong, lusty, vigorous, sinewy, stout, sturdy, stalwart, able-
bodied.

Rout, v., discomfit, beat, defeat, overthrow, scatter.

Route, road, course, march, way, journey, path, direction.

Rude, rugged, rough, uncouth, unpolished, harsh, gruff, impertinent,
saucy, flippant, impudent, insolent, churlish.

Ruinous, destructive, hurtful, deleterious, baneful, wasteful.

Rule, sway, method, system, law, maxim, precept, guide, formula, reg-
ulation, government, standard, test.

Rumor, hearsay, talk, fame, report, bruit.

Ruthless, cruel, savage, barbarous, inhuman, merciless, remorseless,
relentless, unrelenting.

SACRED, holy, hallowed, divine, consecrated, dedicated, devoted.

Sanction, confirm, countenance, encourage, support, ratify, authorize.

Sapient, sagacious, discerning, knowing, sage, wise.

Saturate, steep, soak, imbue.

Saucy, impertinent, rude, impudent, insolent, flippant, forward.

Savory, tasty, piquant, tasteful, palatable.

Scandalize, shock, disgust, offend, calumniate, vilify, revile, malign,

traduce, defame, slander.
Scanty, bare, pinched, insufficient, slender, meagre.
Scatter, strew, spread, fling around, disseminate, disperse, dissipate,

dispel.
Secret, clandestine, concealed, hidden, sly, underhand, latent, private.
Secular, worldly, temporal, civil, lay, profane.

Seditious, factious, tumultuous, turbulent, insurgent, mutinous, rebel-
lious, incendiary.
Seduce, allure, attract, decoy, entice, abduct, inveigle, deprave.
Sensation, perception, apprehension, sentiment, feeling, impression.
Sense, discernment, appreciation, view, opinion, feeling, perception,

sensibility, susceptibility, thought, judgment, signification, import,

significance, meaning, purport, wisdom.
Sensibility, feeling, perception, sensitiveness, susceptibility.
Sensible, a., wise, intelligent, reasonable, sober, sound, conscious,

aware.
Sensual, carnal, fleshly, voluptuous, animal.
Set, put, place, lay, arrange.
Settle, arrange, adjust, regulate, organize, conclude, determine, fix,

ratify, confirm.
Sever, break, disconnect, dissever, separate detach.

kr-

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

Share, portion, lot, division, quantity, quota, contingent.

Shock, »., offend, disgiist, appall, dismay, scare, stun, terrify.

Shudder, shake, tremble, quake, quiver.

Signalize, distinguish, exalt, dignify, immortalize.

Significant, expressive, indicative, important, momentous, weighty.

Signify, express, declare, intimate, imply, denote, mean.

Simple, silly, imbecile, foolish, elementary, unmixed, mere, plain,
frank, open, shallow.

Sin, wrong, wickedness, iniquity, crime, ungodliness, evil.

Sincere, unvarnished, genuine, honest, unaffected, upright, true, plain,
frank, candid, cordial.

Sinister, imfair, disingenuous, dishonest, bad, evil, left, unlucky.

Skulk, sneak, hide, cover, slink, shroud, shelter, veil.

Slight, K., neglect, contempt, scorn, disdain.

Slippery, smooth, glossy, unsafe, deceptive, evasive.

Sly, cunning, astute, crafty, artful, subtle, wily, underhand.

Small, little, diminutive, minute, slight, trivial, slender.

Smart, quick, keen, brisk, sharp, caustic, severe, clever, witty, showy,
spruce.

Smartness, acuteness, keenness, liveliness, dexterity, cleverness.

Sneer, «., scoff, taunt, gibe, mock.

Snub, rebuke, reprimand, humiliate, nip, clip, dock.

Snug, close, compact, concealed, comfortable.

Solemn, grave, impressive, serious, formal, sacred, religious, devo-
tional.

Solicitude, carefulness, concern, trouble, anxiety, care.

Soothe, soften, allay, appease, relieve, assuage, compose, calm, quiet,
still, hush, lull, pacify, mitigfate.

Sordid, earthly, selfish, mean, covetous, niggardly, greedy, close,
dirty, foul, gross, vile, base.

Sorrow, affliction, distress, grief, trouble, sadness, mourning.

Speak, converse, say, tell, talk, discoxirse, utter, express.

Special, exceptionable, peculiar, specific, particular, distinctive.

Specify, particularize, state, designate, mention.

Spite, rancor, spleen, malice, malevolence, ill-will, grudge, pique, vin-
dictiveness.

Splendid, magnificent, grand, brilliant, showy, superb, sumptuous,
pompous, glorious, illustrious, signal.

Spread, extend, disperse, expand, diffuse, distribute, circulate, propa-
gate, disseminate, unfurl.

Stable, a., firm, established, solid, substantial, constant, staunch, stead-
fast, steady, fast, standing, permanent, perpetual.

Staff, mark, impress, impression, print, genus, kind, description, make,
mould, type.

Station, standing, position, post, office, situation, state, rank, location.

Sterling, genuine, pure, unalloyed, unadulterated, sound, substantial.

Stimulate, spur, goad, animate, incite, encourage, impel, prompt,
arouse, rouse.

Stingy, close, mean, niggardly, sparing.

Stipend, remuneration, allowance, pay, wages, salary, hire.

Stipulate, bargain, contract, agree on, engage, covenant.

Strengthen, fortify, reinforce, invigorate, consolidate, establish,
substantiate.

Strenuous, vigorous, zealous, vehement, bold, ardent, strong, resolute.

Strong, forcible, cogent, powerful, fortified, potent, sturdy, stalwart,
hale, robust, brawny, sinewy, athletic, hardy, firm.

Studious, diligent, thoughtful, careful, attentive, mindful.

Sturdy, robust, strong, stalwart, brawny, muscular.

Suavity, mildness, gentleness, urbanity, sweetness, pleasantness.

Subterfuge, evasion, shift, quirk, subtlety, artifice, dodge.

Subtile, fine, thin, rare, delicate, nice, acute, refined.

Subtle, cunning, crafty, astute, sly, wily, artful, shrewd.

Succumb, yield, submit, comply, resign, surrender, give in.

Suffrage, vote, voice.

Suggest, hint, allude, refer, intimate, insinuate, propose.

Sully, stain, tarnish, soil, spoil, blemish, mar, bedim, disgrace, dis-
honor.

Superficial, shallow, flimsy, slight, imperfect, external, outer.

Supine, indolent, sluggish, lazy, listless, dull, apathetic, torpid| inac-
tive, careless.

Supple, lithe, flexible, pliant, bending, jrielding, compliant.

Support, z;., sustain, prop, uphold, upbear, maintain, help, befriend, as-

sist, countenance, patronize, favor, second, further, forward, pro-
mote, nurture, nourish, foster, cherish, endure, suffer.

Sure, infallible, certain, indisputable, unmistakable, doubtless, firm,
safe, secure, confldent, positive, assured.

Surmise, v., presume, conjecture, guess, suppose, suspect.

Surmount, overcome, subdue, vanquish, conquer, surpass, exceed

Surreptitious, underhand, furtive, stealthy, clandestine.

Susceptible, sensible, sensitive, excitable, tender.

Swear, declare, affirm, depose, testify, curse, blaspheme.

Symbol, representation, sign, token, emblem, figure, type.

Sympathy, commiseration, condolence, pity, compassion, ag^reement,
fellow-feeling, union, concert.

Synonymous, like, equivalent, interchangeable, identical, tantamount.

Synopsis, epitome, syllabus.

System, method, arrangement, regularity, order, rule, plan, scheme.

TALE, anecdote, story, fable, legend, memoir, noyel, narrative, inci'
dent, romance.

Talent, ability, faculty, genius, cleverness," capability, gift, endow
ment.

Talk, conversation, chat, gossip, dialogue, discourse, report, rumor.

Tantamount, equivalent, synonymous, equal to.

Tardy, slow, dilatory, tedious, sluggish.

Tarnish, v., stain, blemish, sully y' soil, dim, darken, obscure, taint.

Tarry, await, stay, remain, continue, linger, lag, loiter, abide, lodge,
dwell.

Tart, sour, acid, sharp, keen, acrid, bitter, caustic, acrimonious.

Taste, judgment, discernment, perception, sensibility, relish, gusto,
zest, nicety, elegance, refinement.

Tautology, verbosity, repetition, reiteration.

Tear, rend, break, lacerate, sever, sunder.

Tease, v., vex, plague, torment, irritate, disturb, provoke.

Tedious, slow, dilatory, tardy, wearisome, irksome, dreary, tiresome,
prosy, sluggish.

Tell, number, enumerate, count, state, mention, communicate, apprise,
impart, reveal, inform, ascertain, signify, acquaint, notify, intimate,
report.

Temporary. — See Temporal.

Temporize, fence, manoeuvre, procrastinate.

Tempt, allure, try, test, prove, draw, attract, decoy, entice, seduce.

Tenacity, retentiveness, fixity, stubbornness.

Tendency, inclination, leaning, propensity, proclivity, proneness, pre-
disposition, scof>e, direction, bent, drift, aim, bias.

Tenderaess, delicacy, softness, beneficence, benignity, humanity, sen-
sibility, benevolence, kindness, pity, clemency.

Testify, depose, declare, swear, attest, witness, prove, certify, confirm.

Testimony, witness, confirmation, attestation, proof, evidence, corrob-
oration.

Theme, subject, topic, text, essay.

Theory, speculation, scheme, plea, hjrpothesis, conjecture.

Thought, idea, conception, imagination, fancy, conceit, notion, suppo-
sition, care, provision, consideration, opinion, view, sentiment, re-
flection, deliberation.

Thraldom, slavery, enslavement, servitude, bondage, vassalage, serf-
ism, captivity.

Throb, palpitate, heave, beat.

Throng, concourse, host, multitude, crowd, swarm, horde, shoal,
myriad.

Tie, v., bind, restrain, restrict, oblige, secure, unife, join.

Tie, «., band, ligament, ligature.

Time, duration, season, period, era, age, date, span, spell.

Tipsy, drunk, intoxicated, inebriated, fuddled.

Tolerate, allow, admit, receive, suffer, permit, let, endure, abide.

Tongue, speech, language, idiom, dialect, talk, discourse.

Top, summit, apex, head, crown, surface.

Torpid, benumbed, numb, dull, stupid, sluggish, inert.

Torrid, burning, hot, parching, scorching, sultry.

Tortuous, twisted, winding, crooked, indirect.

Torture, torment, anguish, agony.

Touching, tender, affecting, moving, pathetic.

Tractable, docile, manageable, amenable.

Trade, traffic, commerce, dealing, occupation, employment, office.

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

Traditional, oral, uncertain, transmitted.

Traffic, trade, exchange, commerce, intercourse.

Trammel, «., fetter, shackle, clog, bond, chain, impediment, hinder-
ance.

Tranquil, still, unruffled, peaceful, quiet, hushed.

Transaction, negotiation, occurrence, proceeding, affair.

Transgress, pass, exceed, violate, infringe, contravene, offend, tres-
pass.

Trash, nonsense, twaddle, trifles, dross.

Travel, trip, ramble, peregrination, excursion, journey, tour, voyage.

Traverse, cross, pass, thwart, obstruct.

Treacherous, traitorous, disloyal, treasonable, faithless, false-hearted,
perfidious, sly, false.

Trenchant, cutting, sharp, severe, sarcastic.

Trite, stale, old, ordinary, commonplace, hackneyed.

Triumph, achievement, ovation, victory, conquest, jubilation.

Trivial, trifling, petty, small, frivolous, unimportant, insignificant.

Truculent, fierce, savage, barbarous, cruel, ruthless.

True, genuine, actual, sincere, unaffected, true-hearted, honest, up-
right, veritable, real, veracious, authentic, exact, accurate, correct.

Tumult, ferment, outbreak, brawl, fray, turbulence, uproar, commo-
tion, hubbub, disturbance, riot.

Tumultuous, turbulent, riotous, disorderly, disturbed, confused, un-
ruly.

Tune, tone, air, melody, strain.

Turbid, foul, thick, muddy, impure, unsettled.

Turpitude, depravity, vileness, baseness, wickedness, sin.

Tutor, teacher, preceptor, instructor, guardian, governor.

Twit, taint, mock, jeer, gibe, sneer, scoff.

Type, emblem, symbol, figure, sign, kind, sort, letter.

Tyro, novice, beginner, learner.

UGLY, unsightly, plain, homely, ill-favored, hideous.

Ultimate, farthest, last, latest, final, eventual.

Umbrage, offence, dissatisfaction, displeasure, resentment.

Umpire, referee, arbitrator, judge, arbiter.

Unanimity, accord, agreement, unity, concord.

Unadvised, thoughtless, indiscreet, imprudent.

Unanimous, agreeing, like-minded.

Unblemished, pure, spotless, unspotted, unsullied.

Unbridled, wanton, licentious, dissolute, loose, lax.

Uncertain, doubtful, dubious, questionable, fitful, equivocal, ambigu-
ous, indistinct, variable, fluctuating.

Uncivil, rude, discourteous, disrespectful, disobliging.

Unclean, dirty, foul, filthy, sullied.

Uncommon, rare, strange, scarce, singular, choice, unique, unusual.

Unconcerned, careless, indifferent, apathetic.

Uncouth, strange, odd, clumsy, ungainly.

Uncover, reveal, strip, expose, lay bare, divest. ,

Under, below, underneath, beneath, subordinate, lower, inferior.

Undergo, bear, suffer, endure, sustain, experience.

Understanding, knowledge, intellect, intelligence, faculty, comprehen-
sion, mind, reason, brains.

Undertake, engage in, embark in, agree, promise.

Undo, annul, frustrate, untie, unfasten, destroy.

Uneasy, restless, disturbed, unquiet, stiff, awkward.

Unfair, wrongful, dishonest, unjust.

Unfit, a., improper, unsuitable, inconsistent, untimely, incompetent.

Unfortunate, calamitous, ill-fated, unlucky, wretched, unhappy, mis-
erable.

Unfounded, false, groundless, baseless.

Uniform, regular, symmetrical, equal, even, alike, unvaried.

Uninterrupted, continuous, perpetual, unceasing, incessant, endless.

Union, junction, combination, alliance, confederacy, league, coalition,
agreement, concert.

Unique, unequalled, uncommon, rare, choice, matchless.

Unison, harmony, concord, agreement, union.

Unity, oneness, accord, uniformity, agreement.

Universal, general, all, entire, total, catholic.

Unlimited, absolute, undefined, boundless, infinite.

Unreasonable, foolish, silly, absurd, preposterous, ridiculous.

Unrivalled, unequalled, unique, unexampled, incomparable, matchless.

Unroll, unfold, open, discover.

Unruly, ungovernable, unmanageable, refractory.

Unusual, rare, unwonted, singular, uncommon, remarkable, strangv^
extraordinary.

Upbraid, blame, reproach, taunt, reprove, rebuke, chide, censure.

Uphold, maintain, defend, sustain, support, vindicate.

Upright, vertical, perpendicular, erect, just, equitable, fair, pure, hon-
orable.

Uprightness, honesty, integrity, fairness, goodness, probity, virtue,
honor.

Uproot, eradicate, exterminate, weed out.

Urge, incite, impel, push, drive, instigate, stimulate, press, induce, so
licit.

Urgent, pressing, important, imperative, immediate, serious, wanted.

Usage, custom, fashion, practice, prescription.

Use, «., usage, practice, habit, custom, avail, advantage, utility, bene-
fit, application.

Use, z/., employ, exercise, occupy, practise, accustom, inure.

Useful, advantageous, serviceable, available, helpful, beneficial, good.

Useless, unserviceable, fruitless, idle, profitless.

Usual, ordinary, common, accustomed, habitual, wonted, customary,
general.

Usurp, arrogate, seize, appropriate, assume.

Utility, benefit, advantage, profit, service, avail, usefulness.

Utmost, farthest, remotest, uttermost, greatest.

Utter, a., extreme, excessive, sheer, mere, pure.

Utter, z/., speak, articulate, pronounce, express, issue.

Utterly, totally, completely, wholly, quite, altogether, entirely.

VACANT, empty, unfilled, unoccupied, thoughtless, unthinking.

Vagrant, «., wanderer, beggar, tramp, vagabond, rogue.

Vague, unsettled, undetermined, uncertain, pointless, indefinite.

Vain, useless, fruitless, empty, worthless, inflated, proud, unreal, un-
availing.

Valiant, brave, bold, valorous, courageous, gallant.

Valid, weighty, strong, powerful, sound, binding, efficient.

Valor, courage, gallantry, boldness, bravery, heroism.

Value, z/., appraise, assess, reckon, appreciate, estimate, prize, esteem,
treasure.

Vanish, disappear, fade, melt, dissolve.

Vanity, emptiness, conceit, self-conceit, affectedness.

Vapid, dull, flat, insipid, stale, tame.

Vapor, fume, smoke, mist, fog, steam.

Variable, changeable, unsteady, inconstant, shifting, wavering, fickle,
restless, fitful.

Variety, difference, diversity, change, diversification, mixture, medley,
miscellany.

Vast, spacious, boundless, mighty, enormous, immense, colossal,
gigantic, huge, prodigious.

Vaunt, boast, brag, puff, hawk, advertise, flourish, parade.

Vend, sell, retail, dispose of, hawk.

Venerable, grave, sage, wise, old, reverend.

Venial, pardonable, excusable, justifiable.

Venom, poison, virus, spite, malice, malignity.

Vent, opening, touch-hole, outlet, utterance.

Venture, «., speculation, chance, peril, stake.

Venture, »., dare, adventure, risk, hazard, jeopardize.

Veracity, truth, truthfulness, credibility, accuracy.

Verbal, oral, spoken, literal, parole, unwritten.

Verdict, judgment, finding, decision, answer.

Versatile, unsteady, changeable, unfixed, wavering, vacillating, oscil-
lating, fluctuating, inconstant, fickle, restless, manifold.

Versed, skilled, practised, conversant, clever, proficient.

Vice, «., vileness, corruption, depravity, pollution, immorality, wick-
edness, guilt, iniquity, crime, fault, defect, blemish.

Vigilant, circumspect, watchful, wakeful, observant, cautious, careful.

Vigorous, healthy, strong, powerful, energetic, stalwart, robust, hardy i
firm, spirited, determined.

Vile, ignoble, base, low, worthless, abject, sordid, mean, dishonorable,
sinful, wicked, vicious.

Vilify, debase, degrade, slander, decry, defame, scandalize, upbraid,
brand, stigmatize, denounce.

SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE.

Vindictive, spiteful, resentful, revengeful, unforgiving.

Virtuous, just, upright, moral, chaste, pure.

Visible, apparent, obvious, clear, plain, evident, manifest, distinct, pal-
pable, patent.

Vivid, lively, clear, lucid, bright, sunny, glowing, graphic.

Vocation, profession, calling, trade, business, employment, office, mis-
sion.

Vogue, usage, way, custom, fashion, use, practice.

Void, null, invalid, unfilled, empty, hollow, useless, nugatory.

■WAFT, transport, bear, convey.

■Wage, make, carry on, engage in, undertake.

■Wages, salary, hire, allowance, stipend, pay, remuneration, earnings.

Waggish, frolicsome, furmy, jocular, sportive, merry, wanton.

Wait, await, abide, bide, stay, remain, tarry.

■Waive, forego, relinquish, let go.

■Wanton, licentious, libertine, unrestrained, unbridled, uncurbed, dis-
solute, loose, lax.

■Ward, f., avert, parry, fend, repel, turn aside, guard, defend.

■Warlike, bellicose, martial, military, soldier like.

■Warm, affectionate, attached, devoted, ardent, fervent, fervid, glow-
ing.

Warmth, ardor, fervency, fervor, cordiality, vehemence-, heat, fervid-
ness, glow.

■Wary, careful, cautious, circumspect, guarded, Mratchful, heedful, pru-
dent, vigilant.

Wash, clean, rinse, wet, moisten, stain, tint.

■Waste, v., squander, dissipate, lavish, destroy, decay, dwindle, wither.

■Way, method, plan, system, means, manner, mode, form, fashion,
course, process, road, route, track, path, habit, practice.

■Wayward, forward, obstinate, stubborn, unruly, perverse, disobedient.

■Weak, feeble, infirm, enfeebled, debilitated, powerless, helpless, ema-
ciated, prostrate, thin, watery, diluted, flimsy, slight, j)oor, silly,
defenceless.

Weal, prosperity, welfare, advantage, well-being, happiness.

■Wealth, riches, opulence, affluence, plenty, mammon.

■Welfare, good fortune, well-being, prosperity, happiness, success.

■Wheedle, coax, cajole, flatter, entice, decoy, humor, court.

White, snowy, pure, sjwtless, unspotted, unblemished, stainless, clean.

Whole, sound, healthy, well, total, all, entire, perfect, complete, in-
tegral, aggregate, undivided.

Wholesome, nutritious, healthy, salubrious, healing, salutary.

Wholly, entirely, totally, altogether, quite, perfectly, completely, ut-
terly.

■Wicked, bad, ill, unjust, irreligious, ungodly, godless, profane, impi-
ous, unhallowed, black, dark, foul, atrocious, villanous, enormous,
monstrous, outrageous, profligate, abandoned.

Wide, broad, ample, large, expanded, diffuse, extensive.

■Wild, savage, uncivilized, loose, irregular, disorderly, untamed, un-
domesticaited, unruly.

Wilful, perverse, stubborn, self-willed, headstrong, obstinate.

■Wilfully, designedly, purposely, intentionally.

■Willingly, voluntarily, spontaneously, gratuitously.

■Win, get, obtain, gain, procure, effect, realize, accomplish, achieve.

■Wind, v., coil, twine, wreathe, turn, bend, curve, twist, wriggle.

■Wing, v., fly, mount, ascend, soar, tower.

■Wisdom, sense, knowledge, learning, prudence, judgment, intelli-
gence, sagacity.

■Wise, intelligent, learned, skilled, judicious, rational, discreet, pru-
dent.

^Vish, desire, long for, yearn, banker, covet.

■Wit, mind, intellect, understanding, genius, imagination, humor, sa-
tire, irony, mirth.

Woe, distress, sorrow, affliction, disaster, trouble.

■Wonder, amazement, surprise, astonishment, admiration, miracle,
marvel, prodigy, curiosity, rarity.

■Wonderful, marvellous, wondrous, amazing, astonishing, striking, sur-
prising, admirable.

■Wondrous, wonderful, amazing, marvellous, stupendous, miraculous.

■Word, term, expression, accent, promise, engagement, account, tidings,
message, order, command, signal.

Worldly, terrestrial, mundane, temporal, secular, carnal, earthly.

W^orry, plague, tease, torment, vex, annoy, irritate, fret.

■Worth, price, value, rate, desert, merit, virtue, excellence.

■Worthless, i^seless, valueless, frivolous, corrupt, libertine, dissolute,
licentious, profligate.

■Worthy, excellent, deserving, eligible, preferable, meritorious, esti-
mable, commendable, laudable, praiseworthy.

■Wrap, muffle, envelop, fold, encase.

■Wreathe, v., turn, twist, interweave, enfold.

■Wreck, ddbris, ruins, havoc, rubbish.

■Wretched, deplorable, miserable, unhappy, distressed, afflicted, un-
fortunate, afflicting, disastrous, calamitous, drear, dismal.

■Wring, v., twist, wrench, wrest, distort, squeeze.

Wrong, v., abuse, injure, maltreat, oppress, aggrieve.

■Wrong, a., bad, evil, incorrect, erroneous, unsuitable, improper, un-
just.

■Wry, twisted, distorted, awry, crooked.

■YEARN, hanker after, long for, desire, crave.

Yield, bear, give, afford, impart, communicate, confer, bestow, give up,
abdicate, resign, cede, surrender, relinquish, relax, quit, forego, let
go, waive, comply, conform, accede, assent, acquiesce, succumb,
sink, submit.

Yoke, z/., couple, link, connect.

Youth, boy, lad, minority, adolescence, juvenility.

Youthful, young, juvenile, boyish, girlish, puerile.

ZEAL, energy, fervor, ardor, earnestness, enthusiasm, eagerness.
Zest, relish gusto, flavor.

SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS.

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BSENCE destroys trifling intimacies, but it
invigorates strong ones. — Rochefoucauld.

Actions are of so mixed a nature, that as
men pry into them, or observe some parts
more than others, they take different hues,
and put contrary interpretations on them. —
Addison.
Hurry and cunning are the two apprentices of dis-
patch and skill, but neither of them ever learned their mas-
ter's trade. — CoLTON.

Admiration is a short-lived passion, that immediately
decays upon growing familiar with its object, unless it still
be fed with fresh discoveries. — Addison.

He that hath never known adversity is but half acquainted
with others, or with himself. — Atterbury.

Adversity borrows its sharpest sting from our impatience.
— Home.

Let no man presume to give advice to others that has not
at first given good counsel to himself. — Seneca.

Affection is still a bribe of judgment, and it is hard for a
man to admit a reason against the thing he loves, or to con-
fess the force of an argument against an intent. — South,

The furnace of affliction refines us from earthly drowsi-
ness, and softens us for the impression of God's own stamp.
— Boyle.

Age makes us most fondly hug and retain the good things
of this life, when we have the least prospect of enjoying
them. — Atterbury.

Providence gives us notice by sensible declensions that we
may disengage from the world by degrees. — Collier,

It is proper that alms should come out of a little purse as
well as out of a great sack ; but surely when there is plenty,
charity is a duty, not a courtesy ; it is a tribute imposed by
Heaven upon us, and he is not a good subject who refuses to
pay it. — Feltham.

Ambition sufficiently plagues her proselytes by keeping
them always in show, like the statues in a public place. —
Montagne.

Ambition breaks the ties of blood and forgets the obliga-
tions of gratitude. — ScoTT.

Title and ancestry render a good name illustrious, but an
ill one more contemptible. — Addison.

The man who has not anything to boast of but his illustri-
ous ancestors is like a potato — the only good belonging to
him is underground. — Overbury.

When anger arises, think of the consequences. — Confu-
cius.

Anger is a transient hatred, or at least, very like it. — South.

Anxiety is the passion of human life. — Addison,

According to the stories, apathy meant the extinction of
the passions by the ascendancy of reason. — Fleming.

Passionate expressions and vehement* assertions are no
arguments, unless it be of the weakness of the cause that is
defended by them, or of the man who defends it. — Chilling-
worth.

If your arguments be rational, offer them in as moving a
manner as the nature of the subject will admit ; but beware
if the pathetic part swallow up the rational. — Swift.

The enemy of art is the enemy of nature. Art is nothing
but the highest sagacity and exertion of human nature ; and
what nature will he honor who honors not the human ? —
Lavater.

No atheist, as such, can be a true friend, an affectionate
relative, or a loyal subject. — Bently.

Men are atheistical because they are at first vicious ; and
question the truth of Christianity because they hate the prac-
tice. — South.

By attention ideas are registered in the memory. — Locke.

I never knew any man cured of inattention. — ^SwiFT.

The practice of all ages and all countries hath been to do
honor to those who are invested with public authority. — ■
Addison,

" or THE

V/N/VER8fTy

SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS.

■^

There is no vice which mankind carries to such wild ex-
tremities as that of avarice. — Seneca.

Poverty is in want of much, but avarice of everytliing. —
Lyons.

Beauty is nothing else but a just accord and mutual har-
mony of the members, animated by a healthful constitution.
^Dryden.

No better cosmetics than a severe temperance and purity,
modesty and humility, a gracious temper and calmness of
spirit ; no true beauty without the signature of these graces
in the very countenance. — Ray.

Rare benevolence, the minister of God. — Carlyle,

A man must be exceedingly stupid, as well as uncharitable,
who believes there is no virtue but on his own side. — Addison
an Bigotry.

The blessings of fortune are the lowest ; the next are the
bodily advantages of strength and health ; but the superlative
blessings, in fine, are those of the mind. — L'Estrange.

The bold and sufficient pursue their game with more pas-
sion, endeavor and application, and therefore often succeed. —
Temple.

Every good book is an action, and every great action is a
book. — Luther.

We ought to regard books as we do sweetmeats, not wholly
to aim at the pleasantest, but chiefly to respect the wholesom-
est ; not forbidding either, but approving the latter most.
— Plutarch.

In some calamities we can have no relief but from God
alone ; and what would men do in such a case if it were not
for God ? — TiLLOTSON.

As the calling dignifies the man, so the man much more
advances his calling. — South.

If the calumniator bespatters and belies me, I will en-
deavor to convince him by my life and manners, but not by
being like himself. — South.

A man should never be ashamed to own he has been in the
wrong, which is but saying in other words that he is wiser to-
day than he was yesterday. — Pope on Candor.

Speech of touch towards others should be sparingly used ;
but discourse ought to be as a field, without coming home to
any man.- — BACON on Censoriousness.

Chance is but the pseudonym of God for these particular
cases which He does not choose to subscribe openly with his
own sign-manual. — Coleridge.

The opposites of apparent chance are constancy and sensible
inte rposition. — P aley.

These two things, contradictory as they may seem, must go
together, manly dependence and manly independence, manly
reliance and manly self-reliance. — Wadsworth on Char-
acter.

The smallest act of charity shall stand us in great stead. —
Atterbury.

Charity is made the constant companion and perfection of
all virtues ; and well it is for that virtue where it most enters
and longest stays. — Sprat.

To be pure-minded and cheerfully disposed at hours of meat,
sleep and exercise, is one of the best precepts of long last-
ing. — Bacon.

The cheerful man, truly wise, creams off nature, leaving
the sour and the dregs for philosophy and reason to lap on. —
Swift.

I love little children ; and it is not a slight thing when
they, who are fresh from God, love us. — Dickens.

Children are travelers newly arrived in a strange country ;
we should therefore make conscience not to mislead them. —
Locke.

I seem, for my own part, to see the benevolence of the
Deity m«re clearly in the presence of very young children
than in anything in the world. — Paley.

There never was law, or sect, or opinion did so much mag-
nify goodness as the Christian religion doth. — Bacon.

Christianity, which is always true to the heart, knows no
abstract virtues, but virtues resulting from our wants and use-
ful to all. — Charnock.

Everywhere throughout all generations and ages of the Chris-
tian world, no Church ever perceived the Word of God to be
against it. — Hooker.

It seems to be in the power ©f a reasonable clergfyman to
make the most ignorant man comprehend his duty. — Swift.

Comedy is a representation of common life in low subjects.
— Dryden.

Common sense is a phrase employed to denote that degree
of intelligence, sagacity, and prudence which is common to
all men. — Fleming.

A crowd is not company, and faces are but a gallery of
pictures, where there is no love. — Bacon.

Bad company is like a nail driven into a post, which after
the first or second blow may be drawn out with little difficulty ;
but being once driven up to the head, the pincers cannot
take hold to draw it out, but which can only be done by the
destruction of the wood. — St. Augustine.

Long sentences in a short composition are like large
rooms in a little house- — Shenstone.

Too great confidence in success is the likeliest to prevent
it ; because it hinders us from making the best use of the ad-
vantages which we enjoy. — Atterbury.

Confidence is a plant of slow growth in an aged bosom. —
Chatham.

Conscience is the great ledger-book in which all our offences
are written and registered. — Burton.

The authority of conscience stands founded upon its vice-
regency and deputation under God. — South.

The last and crowning privilege, or rather property of
friendship is constancy. — South.

It is often more necessary to conceal contempt than resent-
ment ; the former being never foi^iven, but the latter some-
times forgot. — Chesterfield.

The highest point outward things can bring me into is the
contentment of the mind, with which no state is miser-
able. — Sidney.

The advantage of conversation is such that, for want of
company, a man had better talk to a post than let his thoughts
lie smoking and smothering. — Collier.

'f-

SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS.

Conversa.tion warms the mind, enlivens the imagination,
and is continually starting fresh game that is immediately pur-
sued and taken, and which would never have occurred in the
dull intercourse of epistolary correspondence. — Franklin.

The first ingredient in conversation is truth ; the next,
good sense ; the third, good humor ; and the fourth, wit. —
Temple.

Dangers are light, if they once seem light ; and more
dangers have deceived men than forced them. — Bacon on
Courage.

Courtship consists in a number of quiet attentions, not so
pointed as to alarm, nor so vague as not to be understood. —
Sterne.

The covetous man heaps up riches, not to enjoy them, but
to have them. — Tillotson.

Cunning pays no regard to virtue, and is but the low mimic
of wisdom. — Bolingbroke.

Cunning leads to knavery ; it is but a step from one to the
other, and that very slippery ; lying only makes the difference ;
add that to cunning, and it is knavery. — La Bruyere.

Curiosity in children, nature has provided to remove that
ignorance they were bom with. — Locke.

A person who is too nice an observer of the kings of the
council, like one who is too curious in observing the labors of
the bees, will often be stung for his curiosity. — Pope.

By custom, practice and patience, all difficulties and hard-
ships, whether of body or of fortune, are made easy. — L'Es-
trange.

Custom has an ascendency over the understanding. —
Watts.

Death is the liberator of him whom pardon cannot release,
the physician of him who cannot cure, and the comforter of
him whom time cannot console. — Colton.

The thought of being nothing after death is a burden un-
supportable to a virtuous man. — Dryden.

The darkness of death is like the evening twilight ; it
makes all objects appear more lovely to the dying. — RiCHTER.

All deception in the course of life is, indeed, nothing else
but a lie reduced to practice, and falsehood passing from words
to things. — South.

Despair is the thought of the unattainableness of any good,
which works differently in men's minds, sometimes producing
uneasiness or pain, sometimes rest and indolency. — Locke.

Despotism can no more exist in a nation until the liberty
of the press is destroyed than the night can happen before the
sun is set. — CoLTON.

To reprove discontent, the ancients feigned that on a hill
stood a man twisting a rope of hay ; and still he twisted on,
suffering an ass to eat up all that was finished. — Taylor. ^

Discretion is the perfection of reason, and a guide to win
all the duties of life. — Addison.

The greatest facts, without discretion, may be fatal to their
owner. — Hume.

Men love to hear of their power, but have an extreme dis-
relish to be told their duty. — Burke.

There is not a moment without some duty. — Cicero.
What it is our duty to do we must do because it is right,
not because any one can demand it of us. — Whemle.

Beware of little expenses ; a small leak will sink a great
ship. — Franklin on Economy.

Frugality may be termed the daughter of prudence, the
sister of temperance, and the parent of liberty. — Johnson on
Economy.

Education begins the gentleman, but reading, good com-
pany and reflection must finish him. — Locke.

Education, in the more extensive sense of the word, may
comprehend every preparation that is made in our youth for
the sequel of our lives. — Paley.

Eloquence is the language of nature, and cannot be learnt
in the schools. — CoLTON.

False eloquence passeth only where true is not understood.
— TiLTON.

Eloquence comes, if it comes at all, like the outbreaking
of a fountain from the earth. — Webster.

Employment, which Galen calls " nature's physician," is
so essential to human happiness that indolence is justly con-
sidered the mother of misery. — Burton.

He who would do some great thing in this short life must
apply himself to the work with such a concentration of his
forces as, to idle spectators, who live only to amuse them-
selves, looks like insanity. — Foster on Energy.

Is there one whom difficulties dishearten — who bends to the
storm ? He will do little. Is there one who wi'U conquer ?
That kind of man never fails. — Hunter on Energy.

Envy, like a cold poison, numbs and stupefies ; and, con-
scious of its own impotence, folds its arms in despair. — Col-
lier.

We ought to be guarded against any appearance of envy,
as a passion that always implies inferiority wherever it resides.
— Pliny.

How ready is envy to mingle with the notices which we
take of other persons. — Watts.

To be indifferent whether we embrace falsehood or truth is
the great road to error. — Locke.

Every absurdity hath a champion to defend it, for error is
always talkative. — Goldsmith.

Not one false man but does unaccountable evil. — Carlyle.

The doing evil to avoid an evil cannot be good. — Cole-
ridge.

The innocence of the intention abates nothing of the mis-
chief of the example. — Hall.

People seldom improve when they have no model but them-
selves to copy after. — Goldsmith on Example."

All is but lip-wisdom which wants experience. — Sidney.

The knowledge drawn from experience is quite of another
kind from that which flows from speculation or discourse. —
South.

He that is extravagant will quickly become poor , and
poverty will enforce dependence and invite corruption, —
Johnson.

SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS.

A miser grows rich by seeming poor ; an extravagant man
grows poor by seeming rich. — Shenstone.

Faith believes the revelations of God ; hope expects His
promises ; charity loves His excellencies and mercies. —
Taylor,

- The faith which is required of us is then perfect when it
produces in us a fiduciary assent to whatever the gospel has
revealed. — Wake.

False men are not to be taken into confidence, nor fearful
men into a post that requires resolution. — L'Estrange.

Falsehood is never so successful as when she baits her
hook with truth. — CoLTON.

The desire for fame betrays an ambitious man into inde-
cencies that lessen his reputation ; he is still afraid lest any of
his actions should be thrown away in private. — Addison.

Fame is an undertaker ; it pays but little attention to the
living, but bedizens the dead, furnishes out their funerals, and
follows them to the grave. — C«lton.

A regard for fame becomes a man more toward the exit than
at his entrance into life. — Swift.

However strict a hand is kept upon all the desires of fancy,
yet in recreation fancy must be permitted to speak. —
Locke.

All things are in fate, yet all things are not decided by
fate. — Plato.

God overrules all mutinous accidents, brings them under His
laws of fate, and makes them all serviceable to His purpose. —
Antoninus.

What can a man fear who takes care to please a Being that
is able to crush all his adversaries. — Addison.

Fear is far more painful to cowardice than death to true
courage — Sidney.

Flattery corrupts both the receiver and the giver ; and ad-
ulation is not of more service to the people than to kings. —
Burke.

He that is much flattered soon learns to flatter himself. —
Johnson.

Men find it more easy to flatter than to praise. — Richter.

Folly consists in the drawing of false conclusions from just
principles, by which it is distinguished from madness, which
draws just conclusions from false principles. — LocKE.

Of all thieves fools are the worst ; they rob you of time and
temper. — Goethe.

Foppery is never cured ; it is the bad stamina of the mind,
which, like those of the body, are never rectified ; once a cox-
comb always a coxcomb. — Johnson.

Humanity is never so beautiful as when praying for for-
giveness, or else forgiving another. — Richter.

You should forgive many things in others, but nothing in
yourself. — Ansonius.

Fortune is but a synonymous word for nature and neces-
sity. — Bently.

Every man is the maker of his own fortune, and must be,
in some measure, the trumpet of his fame. — Dryden.

It is madness to make fortune the mistress of events, be-

cause in herself she is nothing, but is ruled by prudence.—
Dryden.

Ill fortune never crushed the man whom good fortune de-
ceived not. JONSON.

We are sure to get the better of fortune if we do but grap-
ple with her. — Seneca.

Friendship is a strong and habitual inclination in two per-
sons to furnish the good and happiness of each other. — Ad-
dison.

A long noviciate of acquaintance should precede the vows
of friendship. — Bolingbroke.

Friendship ought not to be unripped but unstitched. —
Cato.

A man should keep his friendship in constant repair. —
Johnson.

Genius always gives its best at first, prudence at last. —
Lavater.

Genius without religion is only a lamp in the outer gates
of the palace. It may seem to cast a gleam of light on those
that are without, while the inhabitant sits in darkness. — H.
More.

True glory takes root, and ever spreads ; all false pre-
tences, like flowers, fall to the ground, nor can any counter-
feit last long. — Cicero.

There are two things which ought to teach us to think but
meanly of human glory ; the very best have had their calum-
niators, the very worst their panegyrists. — CoLTON.

To an honest mind the best perquisites of a place are the ad-
vant^es it gives a man of doing good. — Addison.

He who receives a good turn should never forget it ; he
who does one should never remember it. — Charron.

A man's own good breeding is the best security against
other people's ill manners. — Chesterfield.

Honest good humor is the oil and wine of a merry meet^
ing, and there is no jovial companionship equal to that when
the jokes are rather small and the laughter abundant. — Irving.

Men naturally warm and heady are transported into the
greatest flush of good nature. — Addison.

Persons lightly dipped not grained in generous honesty, are
but pale in goodness. — Browne.

Forever all goodness will be most charming ; forever all
wickedness will be most odious. — Sprat.

Government mitigates the inequality of power, and makes
an innocent man, though of lowest rank, a match for the
mightiest of his fellow subjects. — Addison.

Few consider how much we are indebted to government,
because few can represent how wretched mankind would be
without it. — Atterbury.

Of governments, that of the mob is the most sanguinary ;
that of the soldiers the most expensive, and that of civilians
the most vexatious. — Colton.

Grace is to the body what good sense is to the mind. —
Rochefoucauld.

Gratitude consists adequately in these two things : first,
that it is a debt ; and secondly, that it is such a debt as is left

SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS.

to every man's ingenuity, whether he will pay or no. —
South.

There is selfishness even in gratitude when it is too pro-
fuse ; to be unthankful for one favor is in effect to lay out
another. — Cumberland.

A solid and substantial greatness of soul looks down with
neglect on the censures and applauses of the multitude. — Ad-
dison.

'Tis highly imprudent in the greatest of men to unnecessa-
rily provoke the meanest. — L'Estrange.

Reproach is concomitant to greatness. — South.

In the loss of an object we do not proportion our grief to
its real value, but to the value our fancies set upon it. — Ad-
dison.

It will appear how unfortunate that grief was which served
no end in life. — Taylor.

In the great majority of things habit is a greater plague
than ever afflicted Egypt ; in religious character it is a grand
felicity. — Foster.

Habit, if wisely and skillfully formed, becomes truly a
second nature, as the common saying is ; but unskillfully and
unmethodically directed it will be as it were the ape of nature,
which imitates nothing to the life, but only clumsily and awk-
wardly. — Bacon.

Habit is the deepest law of human nature. — Carlyle.

Comparison, more than reality, makes man happy, and can
make them wretched. — Feltham.

There are two ways of being happy — we may either diminish
our wants, or augment our means ; either will do — the result
is the same ; and it is for each man to decide for himself, and
do that which happens to be the easiest. If you are idle, or
sick, or poor, however hard it may be to diminish your wants,
it will be harder to augment your means. If you are active
and prosperous, or young, o\ in good health, it may be easier
for you to augment your means than to diminish your] wants.
But if you are wise you will do both at the same time, young
or old, rich or poor, sick or well ; and if you are very wise you
will do both in such a way as to augment the general happi-
ness of society. — Benjamin Franklin.

False happiness renders men stern and proud, and that
happiness is never communicated ; true happiness renders
them kind and sensible, and that happiness is always shared. —
MontesquieUc

Health is, indeed, so necessary to all the duties as well as
pleasures of life, that the crime of squandering it is equal to
the folly ; and he that for a short gratification brings weak-
ness and diseases upon himself, and for the pleasure of a few
years passed in the tumults of diversion and clamors of mer-
riment condemns the maturer and more experienced part of
his life to the chamber and the couch, may be justly re-
proached, not only as a spendthrift of his happiness, but as a
robber of the public ; as a wretch that has voluntarily disqual-
ified himself for the business of his station, and refused that
part which Providence assigns him in the general task of
human nature. — ^Johnson.

Be sober and temperate and you will be healthy. — R
Franklin.

Preserving the health of too strict a regimen is a weari-
some malady. — ROCHEFOUCAULD.

Perfect purity, fulness of joy, everlasting freedom, perfect
rest, health and fruition, complete security, substantial arid
eternal good. — HANNAH More on Heaven.

Think of heaven with hearty purposes and peremptory de-
signs to get thither. — Taylor.

Many might go to heaven with half the labor they go to
hell, if they would venture their industry the right way.--JoN-
son.

If shame superadded to loss, and both met together, as the
sinner's portion here, perfectly prefiguring the two saddest in-
gredients in hell — deprivation of the blissful vision, and
confusion of face — cannot prove efficacious to the mortify-
ing of vice, the church doth give over the patient. — Ham-
mond.

When the historian cannot give patterns to imitate, he must
give examples to deter. — ^Junius.

The perfect historian is he in whose work the character
and spirit of an age is exhibited in miniature. He relates no
fact, he attributes no expression to his characters, which is not
authenticated by sufficient testimony. But, by judicious se-
lection, rejection, and arrangement, he gives to truth those
attractions which have been usurped by fiction. In his narra-
tive a due subordination is observed ; some transactions are
prominent ; others retire. But the scale on which he repre-
sents them is increased or diminished, not according to the
dignity of the persons concerned in them, but according to the
degree in which they elucidate the condition of society and the
nature of man. He shows us the court, the camp, and the
senate. But he shows us also the nation. He considers no
anecdote, no peculiarity of manner, no familiar saying, as too
insignificant for his notice which is not too insignificant to il-
lustrate the operation of laws, of religion, and of education,
and to mark the progress of the human mind. Men will not
merely be described, but will be made intimately known to
us. The changes of manners will be indicated, not merely
by a few general phrases or a few extracts from statistical
documents, but by appropriate images presented in every
line.

If a man, such as we are supposing, should write the history
of England, he would assuredly not omit the battles, the
sieges, the negotiations, the seditions, the ministerial changes.
But with these he would intersperse the details which are the
charm of historical romances. — Lord Macaulay.

Blessed is the memory of those who have kept themselves
unspotted from the world ! Yet more blessed and wise the
memory of those who have kept themselves unspotted in the
world. — William Jameson on Holiness.

It was the policy of the good old gentleman to make his
children feel that home was the happiest place in the world ;
and I value this delicious home feeling as one of the choicest
gifts a parent can bestow. — Washington Irving.

The maxim that " Honesty is the best policy " is one which,
perhaps, no one is ever habitually guided by in practice. An

SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS.

honest man is always before it, and a knave is generally be-
hind it. — Whately.

Wisdom without honesty is mere craft and cozenage ; and,
therefore, the reputation of honesty must first be gotten,
which cannot be but by living well ; a good life is a main
argument. — Ben Jonson.

A principle of honor, as long as it is connected with virtue,
adds no small efficacy to its operation, and no small brilliancy
and luster to its appearance ; but honor, the moment that it
becomes unconnected with the duties of official function with
the relations of life and the eternal and immutable laws of
morality, and appears in its substance alien to them, changes
its nature, and, instead of justifying a breach of duty, aggra-
vates all its mischiefs to an almost infinite degree : by the ap-
parent lustre of the surface it hides from you the baseness and
deformity of the ground. — BuRKE.

When honors come to us, rather than we to them ; when
they meet us, as it were, in the vestibule of life, it is well if
our enemies can say no more against us than that we are too
young for our dignities ; it would be much worse for us if they
could say that we are too old for them. Time will destroy the
first objection, but confirm the second. — COLTON.

The law of honor is a system of rules constructed by people
of fashion, and calculated to facilitate their intercourse with
one another. — Paley.

Hope is a prodigal young heir, and experience is his banker ;
but his drafts are seldom honored, since there is often a heavy
balance against him, because he draws largely upon a small
capital, is not yet in possession, and if he were, would die. —
COLTON.

That vain and foolish hope, which is misemployed on tem-
poral objects, produces many sorrows. — Addison.

Hope thinks nothing difficult ; despair tells us that difficulty
is insurmountable. — Watts.

If we hope for what we are not likely to possess, we act
and think in vain, and make life a greater dream and shadow
than it really is.- -Addison.

Hospitality to th*^ better sort, and charity to the poor —
two virtues that are never exercised so well as when they ac-
company each other. — Atterbury.

Hospitality sometimes degenerates into profuseness, and
ends in madness and folly. — Atterbury.

Humility and resignation are our prime virtues. — Dry-
den.

Humility in a man consists not in denying any gift that is
in him, but a just valuation of it ; rather thinking too meanly
than too highly. — Ray.

Humility leads to the highest distinction, because it leads
to self-improvement. Study your own characters ; endeavor
to learn and supply your own deficiencies ; never assume to
yourselves qualities which you do not possess ; combine all this
with energy and activity, and you cannot predicate of your-
selves, nor can others predicate of you, at what point you may
arrive at last. — Brodie.

I shall set down at length the genealogical table of false
humor, and, at the same time, place under it the genealogy of
true humor, that the reader may at one view behold their dif-
ferent pedigrees and relations :

Falsehood.

Nonsense.

Frenzy. — Laughter.

False Humor.

Truth.

Good Sense.

Wit. — Mirth.

Humor.

— Addison.
There are more faults in humor than in the mind. — Ad-
dison.

dleness is a constant sin, and labor is a duty. Idleness
is but the devil's home for temptation, and unprofitable, dis-
tracting musings. — Baxter.

The idle, who are neither wise for this world nor the next,
are emphatically fools at large. — Tillotson.

Idleness is the badge of gentry, the bane of body and
mind, the nurse of naughtiness, the stepmother of discipline,
the chief author of all mischief, one of the seven deadly sins,
the cushion upon which the devil chiefly reposes, and a great
cause not only of melancholy, but of many other diseases, for
the mind is naturally active, and if it be not occupied about
some honest business, it rushes into mischief or sinks into
melancholy. — Robert Burton.

If you have but an hour, will you improve that hour instead
of idling it away ? — Chesterfield.

Idolatry is certainly the first bom of folly, the great and
leading paradox : nay, the very abridgment and sum total of
all absurdities. — South.

There is not so contemptible a plant or animal that does
not confound the most enlarged understanding. — Locke.

But the greatest part of those who set mankind at defiance
by hourly irritation, and who live but to infuse malignity and
multiply enemies, have no hopes to foster, no designs to pro-
mote, nor any expectations of attaining power by insolence, or
of climbing to greatness by trampling on others. They give
up all the sweets of kindness for the sake of peevishness, petu-
lance or gloom, and alienate the world by neglect of the com-
mon forms of civility, and breach of the established laws of
conversation. — Johnson on 111 Nature.

Ill Nature consists of a proneness to do ill turns, attended
with a secret joy upon the sight of any mischief that befalls
another, and of an utter insensibility of any kindness done
him. — South.

If we will stand boggling at imaginary evils, let us never
blame a horse for starting at a shadow. — L'Estrange.

By imagination a man in a dungeon is capable of entertain-
ing himself with scenes and landscapes more beautiful than
any that can be found in the whole compass of nature. — Ad-
dison.

Besides the ideas, with their annexed pains and pleasures,
which are presented by the sense, the mind of man possesses
a sort of creative power of its own, either in representing at
pleasure the images of things in the order and manner in which
they were received by the senses, or in combining those images

4r-

SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS.

in a new manner, and according to a different order. This
power is called imagination ; and to this belongs whatever is
called wit, fancy, invention, and the like. But it must be ob-
served that this power of the imagination is incapable of pro-
ducing anything absolutely new ; it can only vary the disposi-
tion of these ideas which it has received from the senses. Now
the imagination is the most extensive province of pleasure and
pain, as it is the region of our fears and our hopes, and of all
our passions that are connected with them ; and whatever is
calculated to affect the imagination with these commanding
ideas, by force of any original natural impression, must have
the same power pretty equally over all men. For since the
imagination is only the representation of the senses, it can
only be pleased or displeased with the images, from the same
principle on which the sense is pleased or displeased with the
realities ; and consequently there must be just as close an
agreement in the imaginations as in the senses of men. A
little attention will convince us that this must of necessity be
the case. — Burke.

Those are carried above sense, and aspire after,immortal-
ity, who believe the perpetual duration of the soul. — TlLLOT-
SON.

Almost every one has a predominant inclination to which
his other desires and inclinations submit, and which governs
him, though perhaps with some intervals, through the whole
course of his life. — Hume.

Mutability of temper and inconsistency with ourselves is
the greatest weakness of human nature. — Addison.

I look upon indolence as a sort of suicide ; for the man is
effectually destroyed, though the appetite of the brute may
serve. — Chesterfield.

The desire of leisure is much more natural than that of
business or care. — Temple.

Lives spent in indolence and therefore sad. — CowPER.
I persuade myself that the bountiful and gracious Author of
man's being and faculties, and all things else, delights in the
beauty of his creation, and is well pleased with the industry
of man in adorning the earth with beautiful cities and castles,
with pleasant villages and country houses, with regular gar-
dens and orchards, and plantations of all sorts of shrubs, and
herbs, and fruits, for meat, medicine, or moderate delight;
with shady woods and groves, and walks set with rows of ele-
gant trees ; with pastures clothed with flocks, and valleys cov-
ered over with corn, and meadows burthened with grass, and
whatever else differenceth a civil and well-cultivated region
from a barren and desolate wilderness. — Ray.

A man who gives his children habits of industry provides
for them better than by giving them a fortune. — Whately.

There is no art or science that is too difficult for industry
to attain to ; it is the gift of tongues, and makes a man un-
derstood and valued in all countries and by all nations. It is
the philosopher's stone that turns all metals, and even stones,
into gold, and suffers no want to break into its dwelling. It
is the northwest passage that brings the merchant's ships as
soon to him as he can desire. In a word, it conquers all ene-
mies, and makes fortune itself pay contribution. — Claren-
don.

When once infidelity can persuade men that they shall die

like beasts, they will soon be brought to live like beasts. — •
South .

Men always grow vicious before they become unbelievers ;
but if you would once convince profligates by topics drawn
from the view of their own quiet, reputation, and health, their
infidelity would soon drop off. — Sv^^ift.

Every man, however humble his station or public his powers,
exercises some influence on those who are about him for good
or for evil. — Sedgwick.

Ingratitude is abhorred by God and man. — L'Estrange.
We seldom find people ungrateful as long as we are in a
condition to render them services. — Rochefoucauld.

There is not any one vice incident to the mind of man
against which the world has raised such a loud and universal
outcry as against ingratitude. — South.

One ungrateful man does an injury to all who stand in need
of aid. — PuBLius Syrus.

Injustice arises either from precipitation or indolence, or
from a mixture of both. The rapid and the slow are seldom
just ; the unjust wait either not at all, or wait too long. —
Lavater.

With more patience men endure the losses that befall them
by mere casualty than the damages which they sustain by in-
justice. — Sir W. Raleigh, Essays.

To dread no eye, and to suspect no tongue, is the great pre-
rogative of innocence : an exemption granted only to invari-
able virtue . But guilt has always its horrors and solicitudes ;
and, to make it yet more shameful and detestable, it is doomed
often to stand in awe of those to whom nothing could give in-
fluence or weight, but their power of betraying. — Dr. S.
Johnson.

How many bitter thoughts does the innocent man avoid !
Serenity and cheerfulness are his portion. Hope is contin-
ually pouring its balm into his soul. His heart is at rest,
whilst others are goaded and tortured by the stings of a
wounded conscience, the remonstrances and risings up of
principles which they cannot forget ; perpetually teased by
returning temptations, perpetually lamenting defeated resolu-
tions. — Paley.

An innocent nature could hate nothing" that was inno-
cent ; in a word, so great is the commutation that the soul
then hated only that which now only it loves, i. <?., sin. —
South.

An instinct is an agent which performs blindly and
ignorantly a work of intelligence and knowledge. — Hamil-
ton.

An instinct is a propensity prior to experience and inde-
pendent of instruction. — Paley.

An instinct is a blind tendency to some mode of action, in-
dependent of any consideration, on the part of the agent, of
the end to which the action leads. — Whately.

God has placed no limits to the exercise of the intellect he
has given us, on this side of the grave. — Lord Bacon.

Times of general calamity and confusion have ever been
productive to the greatest minds. The purest ore is produced
from the hottest furnace, and the brightest thunderbolt is elic-
ited from the darkest storm. — Colton.

The term intellect includes all those powers by which we

SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS.

acquire, retain, and extend our knowledge, as perception,
memory, imagination, judgment, &c. — Fleming.

Intemperance is a dangerous companion. It throws peo-
ple ofif their guard; betrays them to a great many indecencies,
to ruinous passions, to disadvantages in fortune; makes them
discover secrets, drive foolish bargains, engage in play. —
Jeremy Collier.

It is little the sign of a wise man to suffer temperance to be
transgressed in order to purchase the repute of a generous
entertainer. — Atterbury on Intemperance.

Drunkenness is a flattering devil, a sweet poison, a pleasant
sin, which whosoever hath, hath not himself ; which whosoever
doth commit doth not commit sin, but he himself is wholly
sin. — St. Augustine on Intemperance.

Intemperance is a great decayer of beauty. — Junius.

No man's reason did ever dictate to him that it is reasonable
for him to debauch himself by intemperance and brutish
sensuality. — Tillotson.

Whatever praises may be given to works of judgment, there
is not even a single beauty in them to which the invention
must not contribute. — Pope.

Invention, strictly speaking, is little more than a combina-
tion of those images which have been previously gathered and
deposited in the memory. Nothing can be made of nothing ;
he who has laid up no materials can produce no combinations.
— Reynolds.

It appears, therefore, that improvements in the arts are
properly called inventions. — Stewart.

Irreverence is a kind of taking God's name in vain to
debase religion with such frivolous disputes. — Hooker.

To call God to witness truth, or a lie, perhaps ; or to appeal
to Him on every trivial occasion, in common discourse, cus-
tomarily without consideration, is one of the highest indignities
and affronts that can be offered Him. — Ray on Irreve-
rence.

We must take heed how we accustom ourselves to a slight
and irreverent use of the name of God, and of the phrases
and expressions of the Holy Bible, which ought not to be ap-
plied upon every slight occasion. — Tillotson.

The jealous man wishes himself a kind of deity to the per-
son he loves ; he would be the only person in her thoughts. —
Addison.

Of all the passions, jealousy is that which exacts the hardest
service and pays the littlest wages. Its service is, to watch
the success of our enemy ; its wages, to be sure of it. — Col-
ton.

Jealousy is the apprehension of superiority. — Shenstone.

Take heed of jesting ; many have been ruined by it. It is
hard to jest and not sometimes jeer too, which oftentimes
sinks deeper than was intended or expected. — Fuller.

If in company you offer something for a jest, and nobody
seconds you on your own laughter, you may condemn their
taste and appeal to better judgments ; but in the meantime
you make a very indifferent figure. — Swift.

Joy causeth a cheerfulness and vigor in the eyes ; singing.

leaping, dancing, and sometimes tears ; all these are the effects
of the dilatation and coming forth of the spirits into the out-
ward parts. — Lord Bacon.

Joy is a delight of the mind, from the commendation of the
present or assured approaching possession of good. — Locke.

If we are not extremely foolish, thankless or senseless, a
great joy is more apt to cure sorrow than a great trouble is.
— ^Jeremy Taylor.

Judgment without vivacity or imagination is too heavy, and
like dress without fancy, or the last without the first, is too
gay, and all but trimming. — South.

Affection blinds the judgment, and we cannot expect an
equitable award when the judge is made a party. — Glan-
VILLE.

A judgment is a mental act by which one thing is affirmed
or denied of another. — Hamilton.

Judgment is that whereby one joins ideas together by
affirmation or negation. — Watts.

The maxims of natural justice are few and evident. —
Paley.

Sound policy is never at variance with substantial justice.
— Parr.

The surest and most pleasant path to universal esteem and
true popularity is to be just, for all men esteem him most who
secures most their private interest and protects best their in-
nocence ; and all who have any notion of a Deity believe that
justice is one of His chief attributes, and that, therefore,
whoever is just is next in nature to Him, and the best picture
of Him, and to be reverenced and loved. — Mackenzie.

The virtue of justice consists in moderation, as regulated
bv wisdom. — ARISTOTLE.

Knowledge is that which, next to virtue, truly and essen-
tially raises one man above another. — Addison.

KnoTvledge will ever be a wandering and indigested thing
if it be but a commixture of a few notions that are at hand
and occur, and not excited from a sufficient number of in-
stances, and those well collated. — Bacon.

He that would make a real progress in knovrledge must
dedicate his age as well as youth — the latter growth as well as
the first fruits — at the altar of truth. — Berkeley.

Study rather to fill your mind than your coffers ; knowing
that gold and silver were originally mingled with dirt, until
avarice and ambition parted them. — Seneca on KnoTvledge.

The knowledge of what is good and what is evil, what
ought and what ought not to be done, is a thing too large to
be compassed and too hard to be mastered without brains and
study, parts and contemplation. — South.

Where a long course of piety has purged the heart and
rectified the will, know^ledge will break in upon such a soul
like the sun shining in its full might. — South.

If God gives grace, knowledge will not stay long behind;
since it is the same spirit and principle that purifies the heart
and clarifies the understanding. — South.

In a seeing age, the very know^ledge of former times passes
for ignorance in a be**er dress. — South.

SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS.

Labor ferments the humors, casts them into their proper
channels, and throws off redundancies. — Addison.

Alexander the Great, reflecting on his friends degenerating
into sloth and luxury, told them that it was a most slavish
thing to luxuriate, and a most royal thing to labor. — Bar-
row.

Mankind have a great aversion to intellectual labor. —
Johnson.

Excellence is never granted to man but as the reward of
labor. It argues, indeed, no small strength of mind to per-
severe in the habits of industry without the pleasure of per-
ceiving those advantages which, like the hands of a clock,
whilst they make hourly approaches to their point, yet pro-
ceed so slowly as to escape observation. — Reynolds.

If we were to be worded to death, Italian is the fittest lan-
guage.

Languages, like our bodies, are in perpetual flux, and
stand in need of recruits to supply those words that are con-
tinually falling through disuse. — Felton.

The Latin, a most severe and compendious language, often
expresses that in one word which, with the barbarity or the nar-
rowness of modern tongues, cannot supply in more. — Dryden.

Language being the conduit whereby men convey their
knowledge, he that makes an ill use of it, though he does not
corrupt the fountains of knowledge, which are in things, yet
he stops the pipes. — Locke.

Laughter, while it lasts, slackens and unbraces the mind,
weakens the faculties, and causes a kind of remissness and dis-
solution in all the powers of the soul ; and thus far it may be
looked upon as a weakness in the composition of human nature.
But if we consider the frequent reliefs we receive from it,
and how often it breaks the gloom which is apt to depress the
mind and damp our spirits, with transient, unexpected gleams
of joy, one would take care not to grow too wise for so great a
pleasure of life. — Addison.

It is a good thing to laugh at any rate ; and if a straw can
tickle a man, it is an instrument of happiness. — Dryden.

Laws were made to restrain and punish the wicked ; the
wise and good do not need them as a guide, but only as a shield
against rapine and oppression; they can live civilly and or-
derly though there were no law in the world. — Feltham.

I knew a very wise man that believed that if a man were
permitted to make all the ballads, he need not care who should
make the laws of a nation. — Fletcher 0/ Saltoun.

It is impossible to enact ignorance of law, or to repeal by
legislative authority the dictates of reason and the light of
science. — Robert Hall.

Human laws may debase Christianity, but can never im-
prove it ; and being able to add nothing to its evidence, they
can add nothing to its force. — Hall.

Law is the science in which the greatest powers of the
understanding are applied to the greatest number of facts. —
Johnson.

The law of England has been chiefly formed ©ut of the sim-
ple principles of natural justice by along series of judicial de-
cisions. — Mackintosh.

When the State is most corrupt, then laws are most multi-
plied. — Tacitus.

Every artifice and profession endeavors to make the thing
fit and to answer the end for which it is intended . Those that
till the ground, or that break in horses, or train dogs, their
business is to make the most of things, and drive them up to
the top of their kind ; and what other view has learning and
education but to improve the faculties, and to set them the
right way to work ? — Antoninus.

To be proud of learning is the greatest ignorance. — Tay-
lor.

No circumstances are likely to contribute more to the ad-
vancement of learning than exact temperature, great pureness
of air, equality of climate and long tranquillity of government. —
Temple.

To do what we will is natural liberty ; to do what we will
consistently with the interests of the community to which we
belong, is civil liberty ; that is to say, the only liberty to be
desired in a state of civil society.

I should wish to act, no doubt, in every instance as I
pleased ; but I reflect that the rest also of mankind would
then do the same ; to which state of universal independence
and self-direction I should meet with so many checks and ob-
stacles to my own will, from the opposition and interference
of other men's, that not only my happiness but my liberty
would be less than whilst the whole community were subject
to the domination of equal laws. The boasted liberty of a
state of nature exists only in a state of solitude. In every
kind and degree of union and intercourse with his species it is
possible that the liberty of the individual may be augmented
by the very laws which restrain it ; because he may gain more
from the limitation of other men's freedom than he suffers from
the diminution of his own.

Natural liberty is the right of common upon a waste ; civil
liberty is the safe, exclusive, unmolested enjoyment of a cul-
tivated enclosure. — Paley,

Our country cannot well subsist without liberty, nor liberty
without virtue. — Rousseau.

A people long used to hardships lose by degrees the very
notions of liberty ; they look upon themselves as at mercy. —
Swift.

As we advance from youth to middle age, a new field of
action opens, and a different character is required. The flow
of gay, impetuous spirits begins to subside ; life gradually as-
sumes a graver cast ; the mind a more sedate and^ thoughtful
turn. The attention is now transferred from pleasure to in-
terest ; that is, to pleasure diffused over a wider extent and
measured by a larger scale. Formerly the enjoyment of the
present moment occupied the whole attention ; now no action
terminates ultimately in itself, but refers to some more distant
aim . Wealth and power, the instruments of lasting gratifica-
tion, are now coveted more than any single pleasure ; prudence
and foresight lay their plan; industry carries on its patient
efforts; activity pushes forward; address winds around; here
an enemy is to be overcome, there a rival to be displaced;
competition warms, and the strife of the world thickens on
every side. — Blair.

Life is made up, not of great sacrifices or duties, but of

^§^
^

SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS.

4r-

little things, in which smiles and kindnesses, and small obli-
gations, given habitually, are what win and preserve the heart,
and secure comfort. — SiR H. Davy.

To live long, it is necessary to live slowly. — Cicero.

They who are most weary of life, and yet are most unwil-
ling to die, are such who have lived to no purpose — who have
rather breathed than lived. — Clarendon.

Life's evening, we may rest assured, will take its character
from' the day which has preceded it ; and if we would close
our career in the comfort of religious hope, we must prepare
for it by early and continuous religious habits. — Shuttle-
worth.

We talk of human life as a journey ; but how variously is
that journey performed ! There are those who come forth
girt, and shod, and mantled, to walk on velvet lawns and
smooth terraces, where every gale is arrested and every beam
is tempered. There are others who walk on the Alpine paths
of life, against driving misery, and through stormy sorrows,
over sharp afflictions ; walk with bare feet and naked breast,
jaded, mangled, and chilled. — Sydney Smith.

The end of life is to be like unto God ; and the soul fol-
lowing God will be like unto Him ; He being the beginning,
middle, and end of all things. — Socrates.

A man's life is an appendix to his heart. — SouTH.

Literature is the grindstone to sharpen the cultus, and to
whet their natural faculties. — Hammond.

There be none of the passions that have been noted to fasci-
nate or bewitch but love and envy. — Bacon.

Love doth seldom suffer itself to be confined by other
matches than those of its own making. — Boyle.

The consciousness of being loved softens the keenest pang,
even at the moment of parting ; yea, even the eternal farewell
is robbed of half its "bitterness when uttered in accents that
breathe love to the last sigh. — Addison.

Oh, how beautiful it is to love ! Even thou that sneerest
and laughest in cold indifference or scorn if others are near
thee— thou too, must acknowledge its truth when thou art
alone, and confess that a foolish world is prone to laugh in
public at what in private it reveres as one of the highest im-
pulses of our nature ; namely, love. — Longfellow.

Oh, there is nothing holier in this life of ours than the first
consciousness of love — the first fluttering of its silken wings —
the first rising sound and breath of that wind which is so soon
to sweep through the soul, to purify or to destroy ! — Long-
fellow.

A lover's hope resembles the bean in the nursery-tale : let
it once take root, and it will grow so rapidly that in the course
of a few hours the giant Imagination builds a castle on the
top, and by-and-by comes Disappointment with the curtal-
axe, and hews down both the plant and the superstructure. —
Scott.

Thou demandest, What is love ? It is that powerful at-
traction towards all that we conceive, or fear, or hope beyond
ourselves, when we find within our own thoughts the chasm of
an insufficient void, and seek to awaken in all things that are,
a community with what we experience within ourselves. If
we reason, we would be understood ; if we imagine, we would
that the airy children of our brain were bom anew within

another's ; if we feel, we would that another's nerves should
vibrate to our own ; that lips of motionless ice should not
reply to lips quivering and burning with the heart's best blood.
This is love. This is the bond and the sanction which con-
nects not only man with man, but with everything which ex-
ists. We are born into the world, and there is something
within us which, from the instant that we live, more and more
thirsts after its likeness. — Shelley.

Love is better than spectacles to make everything seem
great. — Sidney.

The passion of love generally appears to everybody but the
man who feels it entirely disproportionate to the value of the
object ; and though love is pardoned in a certain age, because
we know it is natural, having violently seized the imagination,
yet it is always laughed at, because we cannot enter into it;
and all serious and strong expressions of it appear ridiculous
to a third person ; and though a lover is good company to his
mistress, he is so to nobody else. — Adam Smith.

By luxury we condemn ourselves to greater torments than
have yet been invented by anger or remorse, or inflicted by the
greatest tyrants upon the worst of men. — Temple.

Liars are the cause of all the sins and crimes in the world. —
Epictetus.

When first found in a lie, talk to him of it as a strange,
monstrous matter, and so shame him out of it. — Locke.

A lie is like a vizard, that may cover the face indeed, but
can never become it. — South.

A lie should be trampled on and extinguished wherever
found ; I am for fumigating the atmosphere when I suspect
that falsehood, like pestilence, breathes around me. — Car-
lyle.

I really know nothing more criminal, more mean, and more
ridiculous, than lying. It is the production either of malice,
cowardice, or vanity ; and generally misses of its aim in every
one of these views ; for lies are always detected, sooner or
later. If I tell a malicious lie, in order to affect any man's
fortune or character, I may indeed injure him for some time ;
but I shall be sure to be the greatest sufferer myself at last ;
for as soon as ever I am detected (and detected I most cer-
tainly shall be) I am blasted for the infamous attempt ; and
whatever is said afterwards to the disadvantage of that person,
however true, passes for calumny. If I lie, or equivocate —
for it is the same thing — in order to excuse myself for some-
thing that I have said or done, and to avoid the danger or
the shame that I apprehend from it, I discover at once
my fear, as well as my falsehood ; and only increase, in-
stead of avoiding, the danger and the shame : I show my-
self to be the lowest and the meanest of mankind, and
am sure to be always treated as such. — Lord Chester-
field.

Man, the noblest creature upon the earth, hath a beginning.
No man in the world but was some years ago no man. If
every man we see had a beginning, then the first man also had
a beginning, then the world had a be~'nning : for the earth.

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which was made for the use of man, had wanted that end for
which it was made. We must pitch upon some one man that
was unborn ; that first man must either be eternal ; that can-
not be, for he that hath no beginning hath no end ; or must
spring out of the earth as plants and trees do ; that cannot be :
why should not the earth produce men to this day, as it doth
plants and trees ? He was therefore made ; and whatsoever
is made hath some cause that made it, which is God. — Char-
nock

Not the least transaction of sense and motion in man but
philosophers are at a loss to comprehend. — South.

Good manners are a part of good morals ; and when form
is too much neglected, true politeness suffers diminution : then
we are obliged to bring some back ; or we find the want of
them. . . . The opposite extreme of substituting the ex-
ternal form for the thing signified is not more dangerous or
more common than the neglect of that form. It is all very
well to say, " There is no use in bidding Good-morrow, or
Good-night, to those who know I wish it ; of sending one's
love, in a letter, to those who do not doubt it," etc. All this
sounds very well in theory, but it will not do for practice.
Scarce any friendship, or any politeness, is so strong as to be
able to subsist without any external supports of this kind; and
it is even better to have too much form than too little. —
Whately.

Marriage is a feast where the grace is sometimes better
than the dinner. — CoLTON.

Marriage, indeed, may qualify the fury of his passions ;
but it very raiely mends a man's manners. — Congreve.

Though matrimony may have some pains, celibacy has few
pleasures. — Johnson.

Marriage is the best state for man in general ; and every
man is a worse man in proportion as he is unfit for the mar-
ried state. — Johnson.

Marriage is an institution calculated for a constant scene
of as much delight as our being is capable of. Two persons
who have chosen each other out of all the species, with de-
signs to be each other's mutual comfort and entertainment,
have in that action bound themselves to be good-humored, af-
fable, discreet, forgiving, patient, and joyful, with respect to
other's frailties and perfections, to the end of their lives. The
wiser of the two (and it always happens one of them is such)
will, for her or his own sake, keep things from outrage with
the utmost sanctity. When this union is thus preserved (as I
have often said), the most indifferent circumstance administers
delight. Their condition is an endless source of new gratifi-
cations. — Steele.

W^ere not a man to marry a second time, it might be con-
cluded that his first wife had given him a disgust to mar-
riage ; but by taking a second wife he pays the highest com-
pliment to the first, by showing that she made him so happy
as a married man that he wishes to be so a second time. — Dr.
S. Johnson.

We should not sadden the harmless mirth of others by
suffering our own melancholy to be seen ; and this species
of exertion is, like virtue, its own reward ; for the good
spirits which are at first simulated become at length real. —
Scott.

Imaginary evils soon become real ones by indulging our re-
flections on them. — Swift.

'Tis memory alone that enriches the mind by preserving
what our labor and industry daily collect. — Watts.

A mind which is ever crowding its memory with things that
it learns may cramp the invention itself. — Watts.

Memory is the only paradise out of which we cannot be
driven away. — Richter.

Memory is the power to revive again in our minds those
ideas which, after imprinting, have disappeared, or have been
laid aside out of sight. — Locke.

Toil of the mind destroys health by attracting the spirits
from their task of concoction to the brain, whither they carry
along with them clouds of vapor and excrementitious humors.
— Harvey.

The truly strong and sound mind is the mind that can
embrace equally great things and small. I would have a man
great in great things and elegant in little things. — Johnson.

The mind and memory are more sharply exercised in com-
prehending another man's things than our own. — Ben Jon-
son.

The mind is not always in the same state, being at times
cheerful, melancholy, severe, peevish. These different states
may not improperly be denominated tones. — Kames.

Misery is caused for the most part not by a heavy crush of
disaster, but by the corrosion of less visible evils, which
canker enjoyments and undermine society. —Johnson.

Modesty is a kind of shame or bashfulness proceeding from
the sense of a man of his own defects compared with the per-
fection of him whom he comes before. — South.

It is to be noted that modesty in a man is never to be al-
lowed as a good quality, but a weakness, if it suppresses his
virtue and hides it from the world, when he has at the same
time a mind to exert himself. A French author says, very
justly, that modesty is to the other virtues in a man what shade
in a picture is to the parts of the thing represented ; it makes
all the other beauties conspicuous, which would otherwise be
but a wild heap of colors. This shade in our actions must,
therefore, be very justly applied, for if there be too much, it
hides our good qualities instead of showing them to advantage.
— Steele.

Money does all things ; if it gives out, it takes away ; it
makes honest men and knaves ; fools and philosophers; and
so, forward, mutatis mutandis, to the end of the chapter. —
L'Estrange.

A wise man should have money in his head, but not in his
heart. — SwiFT.

The morality of an action is founded in the freedom of
that principle by virtue of which it is in the agent's power,
having all things ready and requisite to the performance of an
action, either to perform or not perform it. — South.

It is found by experience that those men who set up for
morality without regard to religion are generally but virtuous
in part. — Swift.

The love of a mother is never exhausted ; it never changes,
it never tires. A father may turn his back on his child, brothers
and sisters may become inveterate enemies, husbands may de-
sert their wives, wives their husbands, but a mother's love

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endures through all ; in good repute, in bad repute, in the
face of the world's condemnation, a mother still loves on, and
still hopes that her child may turn from his evil ways and re-
pent ; still she remembers the infant smiles that once filled her
bosom with rapture, the merry laugh, the joyful shout of his
childhood, the opening promise of his youth, and she can
never be brought to think him all unworthy. — WASHINGTON
Irving.

Even He that died for us upon the cross, in the last hour, in
the unutterable agony of death, was mindful of His mother,
as if to teach us that this holy love should be our last worldly
thought — the last point of earth from which the soul should
take its flight for heaven. — Longfellow.

To be impatient at the death of a person concerning whom
it was certain that he must die is to mourn because thy friend
was not bom an angel. — Taylor.

Excess of grief for the deceased is madness, for it is an in-
jury to the living, and the dead know it not. — Xenophon on
Mourning.

Of all the liberal arts, music has the greatest influence over
the passions, and it is that to which the legislator ought to
give the greatest encouragement. A well-composed song strikes
and softens the mind, and produces a greater effect than a
moral work, which convinces our reason but does not warm
our feelings nor effect the slightest alteration in our habits. —
Napoleon I.

The works of nature will bear a thousand views and re-
views ; the more frequently and narrowly we look into them
the more occasion we shall have to admire their beauty. — At-

TERBURY.

Nature, the handmaid of God Almighty, doth nothing but
with good advice, if we make researches into the true reason
of things. — James Howell.

It is a great mortification to the vanity of man that his ut-
most art and industry can never equal the meanest of nature's
productions either for beauty or value. — Hume.

Novelty is the great-parent of pleasure. — South.

Novelty has charms that our minds can hardly withstand.
— Thackeray.

Obstinacy in opinions holds the dogmatist in the chains of
error, without hope of emancipation. — Glanville.

No liberal man would ever impute a charge of unsteadi-
ness to another for having changed his opinion. — Cicero.

Opinion is, when the assent of the understanding is so far
gained by evidence of probability that it rather inclines to one
persuasion than to another, yet not altogether without a mix-
ture of uncertainty or doubting. — Hale.

Opportunity is, in respect to time, in some sense as time
is in respect to eternity ; it is the small moment, the exact
point, the critical minute on which every good work so much
depends. — Sprat.

Scaliger, in comparing the two orators, says that nothing
can be taken from Demosthenes nor added to Tully. — Denham.

In oratory affectation must be avoided, it being better for
a man by a native and clear eloquence to express himself than
by those words which may smell either of lamp or of inkhom.
— Cherbury.

The poet is the nearest border upon the orator. — Jonson.

Good order is the foundation of all good things. — Burke.

Order is the sanity of the mind, the health of the body, the
peace of the city, the security of the State ; as the beams to a
house, as the bones to the microcosm of a man, so is order to
all things. — SOUTHEY.

People are always talking about originality, but what do
they mean ? As soon as we are born the world begins to work
upon us, and this goes i)n to the end. And, after all, what
can we call our own, except energy, strength and will ? If I
could give an account of all that I owe to great predecessors
and contemporaries, there would be but a small balance in my
favor. — Goethe.

Pain itself is not without its alleviations. It may be violent
and frequent, but it is seldom both violent and long-continued,
and its pauses and intermissions become positive pleasures. It
has the power of shedding a satisfaction over intervals of ease
which, I believe, few enjoyments exceed. — Paley.

Let parents choose between the vocations and courses they
mean their children should take, for then they are most flexible;
and let them not too much apply themselves to the disposition
of their children, as thinking they will take best to that which
they have most mind to. It is true that if the affection or
aptness of the children be extraordinary, then it is good not to
cross it ; but generally the precept is good, " Optimum elige-
suave et facile illud faciei constietudo." — Lord Bacon.

No sophism is too gross to delude minds distempered by
party spirit. — Macaulay.

Outrageous party writers are like a couple of make bates,
who inflame small quarrels by a thousand stories. — SwiFT.

Passion transforms us into a kind of savage, and makes us
brutal and sanguinary. — Browne.

The mind hath but reason to remember that passions
ought to be her vassals, not her masters. — Raleigh.

If we give way to our passions we do but gratify ourselves
for the present in order to our future disquiet. — TiLLOTSON.

He surely is most in want of another's patience who has
none of his own. — Lavater.

There is a limit at which forbearance ceases to be a virtue.

Impatience turns an ague into a fever, a fever to the plague,
fear into despair, anger into rage, loss into madness, and sor-
row into amazement. — TAYLOR.

Patriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel. — Johnson.

Our country is wherever we are well off. — Milton.

Patriotism is a blind and irrational impulse unless it is
founded on a knowledge of the blessings we are called to
secure and the privileges we purpose to defend. — HiLL.

We should avoid the vexation and impertinence of pedants,
who affect to talk in a language not to be understood. — Swift.

Perception is only a special kind of knowledge, and sensa-
tion a special kind of feeling. . . . Knowledge and feel-

SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS.

■^

ing, perception and sensation, though always coexisting, are
always in the inverse ratio of each other. — Locke.

Great effects come of industry and perseverance, for au-
dacity doth almost bind and mate the weaker sort of minds.
— Lord Bacon.

Let us only suffer any person to tell us his story, morning
and evening, but for one twelve-month, and he will become
our master.— Burke on Perseverance.

There is no creature so contemptible but by resolution may
gain his point. — L'EsTRANGE on Perseverance.

Philosophy has been defined: The science of things, di-
vine and human, and the causes in which they are contained;
the science of effects by their causes ; the science of sufficient
reasons ; the science of things possible, inasmuch as they are
possible ; the science of things evidently deducted from their
first principles ; the science of truths sensible and abstract ; the
application of reason to its legitimate objects ; the science of
the relations of all knowledge to the necessary ends of human
reason ; the science of the original form of the ego, or mental
self ; the science of science ; the science of the absolute ; the
science of the absolute indifference of the ideal and real. —
Hamilton.

The desiring of what is true, and the practice of that which
is good, are the two most important objects of philosophy. —
Voltaire.

Cicero doubts whether it were possible for a community to
exist that had not a prevailing mixture of piety in its consti-
tution. — Addison.

As the practice of piety and virtue is agreeable to our reason,
so it is likewise the intent both of private persons and of pub-
lic societies. — TiLLOTSON.

If there be more pleasure in abundance, there is more se-
curity in a mean estate. — HALL.

Yielding to immoral pleasures corrupts the mind ; living
to animal and trifling ones debases it. — Johnson.

Pleasure, in general, is the consequent apprehension of a
suitable object suitably applied to a rightly disposed faculty.
— South.

He who would have the perfection of pleasure must be
moderate in the use of it. — Whichcote.

The art of poetry is to touch the passions, and its duty to
lead them on the side of virtue.- Cowper.

A poem is not alone any work or composition of the poets
in many or few verses, but even one verse alone sometimes
makes a perfect poem. — JoNSON.

Poetry is the blossom and the fragrance of all human
knowledge, human thoughts, human passions, emotions, lan-
guage. — Coleridge.

In politics, what begins in fear usually ends in folly. —
— Coleridge.

How many thousands pronounce boldly on the affairs of the
public whom God nor men never qualified for such judgment !
— Watts.

A usurping populace is its own dupe, a mere underworker,
and a purchaser in trust for some single tyrant. — Swift.

The mob is a monster with the hands of Briareus, but the
head of Polyphemus, strong to execute but blind to perceive.
— Colton.

If rich, it is easy enough to conceal our wealth, but if poor,
it is not quite so easy to conceal our poverty. We shall find
it is less difficult to hide a thousand guineas than one hole in
our coat. — CoLTON.

It is the care of a very great part of mankind to conceal
their indigence from the rest. — Johnson on Poverty.

That man is to be accounted poor, of whatever rank he
be, and suffers the i)ains of poverty whose expenses exceed
his resources ; and no man is, properly speaking, poor but he.
— Paley.

Povp^er, when employed to relieve the oppressed and punish
the oppressor, becomes a great blessing. — SwiFT.

Power will intoxicate the best hearts, as wine the strongest
heads. No man is wise enough, nor good enough, to be
trusted with unlimited power ; for whatever qualifications hs
may have evinced to entitle him to the possession of so dan-
gerous a privilege, yet when possessed others can no longer
answer for him, because he can no longer answer for himself.
— Colton.

Praise has different effects, according to the mind it meets
with ; it makes a wise man modest, but a fool more arrogant,
turning his weak brain giddy. — Feltham.

Allow no man to be so familiar with you as to praise you
to your face. — Steele.

What signifies the sound of words in prayer without the
affection of the heart, and a sedulous application of the proper
means that may naturally lead us to such an end ? — L'Es-
TRANGE.

But whatever may be the fortune of our lives, one great ex-
tremity at least, the hour of approaching death, is certainly to
be passed through. What ought then to occupy us? What
can then support us ? Prayer. Prayer.— Paley.

It is a fault with a multitude of preachers that they utterly
neglect method in their harangues. — Watts.

In preaching, no men succeed better than those who trust
to the fund of their own reason, advanced, but not overlaid,
by their commerce with books. — Swift.

Prejudice and self-sufficiency naturally proceed from inex-
perience with the world and ignorance of mankind. — Addison.

A snob is that man or woman who is always pretending to
be something better — especially richer or more fashionable —
than they are. — Thackeray.

Some pretences daunt and discourage us, while others
raise us to a brisk assurance. — Glanvill.

Pride goes hated, cursed, and abominated by all. — Ham-
mond.

Pride that dines on vanity sups on contempt. — Franklin.

Pride is as loud a beggar as want, and a great deal more
saucy. When you have bought one fine thing you must buy
ten more, that your appearance may be all of a piece; but it
is easier to suppress the first desire than to satisfy all that fol-
lows it. — B. Franklin.

Probability is the appearance of the agreement or disa-
greement of two ideas by the intervention of proofs whose
connection is not constant, but appears for the most part to be
so. — Locke.

There is no moment like the present ; not only so, but,
moreover, there is no moment at all, that is, no instant force

4r-

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f>5

and energy, but in the present. The man who will not execute
his resolutions when they are fresh upon hini can have no hope
from them afterwards ; they will be dissipated, lost, and perish
in the hurry and skurry of the world, or sunk in the slough
of indolence. — Maria Edgeworth on Procrastination.

None so nearly disposed to scoffing at religion as those who
have accustomed themselves to swear on trifling occasions. —
TiLLOTSON on Profanity.

Is not the separate property of a thing the great cause of
its endearment amongst all mankind?— South.

Property communicates a charm to whatever is the object
of it. It is the first of our abstract ideas ; it cleaves to us the
closest and the longest. It endears to the child its plaything,
to the peasant his cottage, to the landlord his estate. It sup-
plies the place of prospect and scenery. Instead of coveting
the beauty of distant situations, it teaches every man to find
it in his own. It gives boldness and grandeur to plains and
fens, tinge and coloring to clays and fallows. — Paley.

The temptations of prosperity insinuate themselves after a
gentle, but very powerful manner, so that we are but little
aware of them, and less able to withstand them. — Atterbury.

To speak in a measure, the virtue of prosperity is temper-
ance ; the virtue of adversity is fortitude. — Bacon.

Happy it were for all of us if we bore prosperity as well
and wisely as we endure adverse fortune. — Southey.

A proverb is the wit of one, and the wisdom of many. —
Russell.

Providence is an intellectual knowledge, both foreseeing,
caring for, and ordering all things, and doth not only behold
all past, all present, and all to come, but is the cause of their
being so provided, which prescience is not. — Raleigh.

Good Providence ! that curbs the raging of proud mon-
archs, as well as of mad multitudes. — Milton.

We are to vindicate the just providence of God in the
government of the world, and to endeavor, as well as we can
upon an imperfect view of things, to make out the beauty and
harmony of all the seeming discords and irregularities of the
divine administration. — TiLLOTSON.

Prudence is one of the virtues which were called cardinal
by the ancient ethical writers. — Fleming.

The great end of prudence is to give cheerfulness to those
hours which splendor cannot gild, and acclamation cannot ex-
hilarate ; those soft intervals of unbended amusement, in
which a man shrinks to his natural dimensions, and throws
aside the ornaments or disguises which he feels in privacy to
be useless encumbrances, and to lose all effect when they be-
come familiar. — Johnson.

'Tis a rule that goes a great way in the government of a
sober man's life, not to put anything to hazard that may be
secured by industry, consideration, or circumspection. — L'Es-
trange.

Prudence is principally in reference to actions to be done,
and due means, order, reason, and method of doing or not
doing. — Hale.

Horace Has enticed me into the pedantry of quotation. —
Cowley.

He that has ever so little examined the citations of writers
cannot doubt how little credit the quotations deserve when
the originals are wanting. — Locke.

Force yourself to reflect on what you read, paragraph bv
paragraph. — Coleridge.

A man may as well expect to grow stronger by always eat-
ing as wiser by always reading. Too much overcharges
nature, and turns more into disease than nourishment. —
Collier.

For general improvement a man should read whatever his
immediate inclination prompts him to ; though, to be sure, if
a man has a science to learn, he must regularly and resolutely
advance. What we read with inclination makes a much
stronger impression. If we read without inclination, half the
mind is employed in fixing the attention, so there is but one-
half to be employed on what we read. If a man begins to
read in the middle of a book, and feels an inclination to go
on, let him not quit it to go to the beginning. He may, per-
haps, not feel again the inclination. — Johnson.

Reason is always striving and always at a loss while it is
exercised about that which is not its proper object. — Dryden.

There is no opposing brutal force to the stratagems of
human reason. — L'Estrange.

Pure reason or intuition holds a similar relation to the
understanding that perception holds to sensation. — Locke.

Reason cannot show itself more reasonable than to leave
reasoning on things above reason, — Sidney.

He that will make a good use of any part of his life must
allow a large portion of it to recreation. — Locke.

There is an art of which every man should be master, the
art of reflection. — Coleridge.

Lukewarm persons think they may accommodate points of
religion by middle ways and witty reconcilements ; as if
they would make an arbitrament between God and man. —
Bacon.

Religion is for the man in humble life, and to raise his
nature, and to put him in mind of a state in which the priv-
ileges of opulence will cease, when he will be equal, and may
be more than equal by virtue. — Burke.

Religion receives man into a covenant of grace, where there
is a pardon reached out to all truly penitent sinners, and as-
sistance promised, and engaged, and bestowed, upon very easy
conditions ; viz. : humility, prayer, and affiance in him. —
Hammond.

Remorse of conscience is like an old wound ; a man is
under no condition to fight under such circumstances. The
pain abates his vigor, and takes up too much of his attention.
—Collier.

A man's first care should be to avoid the reproaches of
his own heart ; his next, to escape the censures of the world. ^
Addison.

Sins may be forgiven through repentance, but no act of
art will ever justify them. — Sherlock.

Repentance so altereth and changeth a man through the
mercy of God, be he ever so defiled, that it maketh him pure
and clean. — Whitgift.

■^

SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS.

hr-

A man's reputation draws eyes upon him that will nar-
rowly inspect every part of him. — ^Addison.

To be desirous of a good name, and careful to do every-
thing that we innocently may to obtain it, is so far from being
a fault, even in private persons, that it is their great and in-
dispensable duty. — Atterbury.

True resignation, which always brings with it the confi-
dence that unchangeable goodness will make even the disap-
pointment of our hopes and the contradictions of life condu-
cive to some benefit, casts a grave but tranquil light over the
prospects of even a toilsome and troubled life. — Humboldt.

A man that studieth revenge keepeth his own wounds
green, which otherwise would heal and do well. — Bacon.

The indulgence of revenge tends to make man more cruel
and savage. — Kames.

A pure and simple revenge does in no way restore man
towards the felicity which the injury did interrupt. For re-
venge is but doing a simple evil, and does not, in its formal-
ity, imply reparation ; for the mere repeating of our own right
is permitted to them that will do it by charitable instruments.
All the evils of human felicity are secured without revenge,
for without it we are permitted to restore ourselves ; and there-
fore it is against natural reason to do an evil that no way co-
operates the proper and perfective end of human nature. And
he is a miserable person whose good is the evil of his neigh-
bor ; and he that revenges, in many cases, does worse than
he that did the injury ; in all cases as bad. — Jeremy Tay-
lor.

Riches expose a man to pride and luxury, and foolish ela-
tion of heart. — Addison.

Riches do not consist in having more gold and silver, but
in having more in proportion than our neighbors. — Locke.

Nothing is so hard for those who abound in riches, as to
conceive how others can be in want.— Swift.

It is easy to run into ridicule the best descriptions when
once a man is in the humor of laughing till he wheezes at his
own dull jest. — Dryden.

Derision is never so agonizing as when it pounces on the
wanderings of misguided sensibility. — Lord Jeffrey.

If ridicule were employed to laugh men out of vice and
folly, it might be of some use ; but it is made use of to laugh
men out of virtue and good sense, by attacking everything
solemn and virtuous. — Addison.

Nothing the united voice of all history proclaims so loud, as
the certain unfailing curse that has pursued and overtaken
sacrilege. — South.

Satire is a sort of glass, wherein beholders generally dis-
cover everybody's face but their own ; which is the chief rea-
son for that kind of reception it meets in the world, and that
so few are offended with it. — SwiFT.

A satire should expose nothing but what is corrigible, and
make a due discrimination between those that are and those
that are not the proper objects of it. — Addison.

Science is knowledge certain and evident in^ itself, or by
the principles from which it is deduced or with which it is
certainly connected. It is subjective, as existing in the mind;

objective, as embodied in truths ; speculative, as leading to
do something, as in practical science. — Fleming.

Self-denial is a kind of holy association with God ; and
by making you his partner, interests you in all his happiness. —
Boyle.

Teach self-denial, and make its practice pleasurable, and
you create for the world a destiny more sublime than ever is-
sued from the brain of the wildest dreamer. — Scott.

It is the nature of extreme self-lovers, as they will set an
house on fire and it were but to roast their eggs. — Bacon.

The reverence of a man self is not religion, the chiefe^
bridle of all vices. — Bacon.

The weakness of social affections and the strength of pri-
vate desires constitute selfishness.

Shame is a painful sensation occasioned by the quick ap.
prehension that reputation and character are in danger, or by
the perception that they are lost. — Cogan.

Where there is shame there may yet be virtue. ^Johnson.

Is there anything that more embitters the enjoyments o!
this life than shame ?

Sickness is early old age ; it teaches us diffidence in oui
earthly state, and inspires us with thoughts of a future. —
Pope.

Simplicity is that grace which frees the soul from all un-
necessary reflections upon itself. — Fenelon.

There is a majesty in simplicity which is far above the
quaintness of wit. — PoPE.

Use sin as it will use you ; spare it not, for it will not spare
you : it is your murderer, and the murderer of the world ; use
it, therefore, as a murderer should be used. Kill it before it
kills you ; and though it kill your bodies, it shall not be able
to kill your souls ; and though it bring you to the grave, as it
did your Head, it shall not be able to keep you there. —
Baxter.

Sin is the contrariety to the will of God, and if all things
be preordained by God, and so demonstrated to be willed by
him, it remains there is no such thing as sin. — Hammond.

Sincerity is the most compendious wisdom, and an excel-
lent instrument for the speedy dispatch of business ; it creates
confidence in those we have to deal with, saves the labor of
many inquiries, and brings things to an issue in few words.
It is like traveling in a plain beaten road, which commonly
brings a man sooner to his journey's end than by-ways, in
which men often lose themselves. In a word, whatsoever
convenience may be thought to be in falsehood and dissimula-
tion, it is soon over ; but the inconvenience of it is perpetual,
because it brings a man under an everlasting jealousy and sus-
picion, so that he is not believed when he speaks truth, nor
trusted when perhaps he means honestly. When a man has
once forfeited the reputation of his integrity, he is set fast;
and nothing then will serve his turn, neither truth nor false-
hood. — TiLLOTSON.

Slander is a complication, a comprisal and sum of all wick-
edness. — Barrow.

The worthiest people are the most injured by slander, as
we usually find that to be the best fruit which the birds have
been pecking at. — Swift.

Now blessings light on him that first invented sleep ! it

^
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)^^
^

SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS.

covers a man all over, thoughts and all, like a cloak; it is
meat for the hungry, drink for the thirsty, heat for the cold,
and cold for the hot. — Cervantes.

Sleep death's beautiful brother — fairest phenemenon —
poetical reality, — thou sweet collapsing of the weary spirit;
thou mystery that every one knows ; thou remnant of primeval
innocence and bliss : for Adam slept in Paradise. To sleep
— there's a drowsy mellifluence in the very word that would
almost serve to interpret its meaning — to shut up the senses
and hoodwink the soul ; to dismiss the world ; to escape from
one's self ; to be in ignorance of our own existence ; to stag-
nate upon the earth, just breathing out the hours, not living
them — "Doing no mischief, only dreaming of it;" neither
merry nor melancholy, something between both, and better
than either. Best friend of frail humanity, and, like all other
friends, best estimated in its loss. — Longfellow.

SorrOAV is uneasiness in the mind upon the thought of a
good lost which might have been enjoyed longer ; or the
sense of a present evil. — Locke.

Sorrow being the natural and direct offspring of sin, that
which first brought sin into the world must, by necessary con-
sequence, bring in sorrov? too. — South.

He that studies books alone will know how things ought to
be ; and he that studies men will know how things are. —
COLTON.

The intellectual husbandry is a goodly field, and it is the
worst husbandry in the world to sow it with trifles. — Hall.

The talent of success is nothing more than doing what you
can do well, and doing well whatever you do, without a
thought of fame. — Longfellow.

He that would relish success to purpose should keep his
passion cool, and his expectation low. — Collier.

If you wish success in life, make perseverance your bosom
friend, experience your wise counsellor, caution your elder
brother, and hope your guardian genius. — Addison.

Suicide sometimes proceeds from cowardice, but not always ;
for cowardice sometimes prevents it ; since as many live be-
cause they are afraid to die, as die because they are afraid to
live. — Colton.

By all human laws as well as divine, self-murder has ever
been agreed on as the greatest crime. — Temple.

Superstition renders a man a fool, and scepticism makes
him mad. — Fielding.

The child taught to believe any occurrence a good or evil
omen, or any day of the week lucky, hath a wide inroad made
upon the soundness of his understanding. — Watts.

Suspiciousness is as great an enemy to wisdom as too
much credulity. — Fuller.

Nature itself, after it has done an injury will ever be sus-
picious : and no man can love the person he suspects. —
South.

Let us cherish sympathy. By attention and exercise it may
be improved in every man. It prepares the mind for receiv-
ing the impressions of virtue ; and without it there can be no
true politeness. Nothing is more odious than that insensi-
bility which wraps a man up in himself and his own concerns,
and prevents his being moved with either the joys or the sor-
rows of another. — Beattie.

Temperance gives nature her full play and enables her to
exert herself in all her force and vigor. — Addison.

Temperance, that virtue without pride, and fortune with-
out envy, that gives indolence of body with an equality of
mind ; the best guardian of youth and support of old age ; the
precept of reason as well as religion, and physician of the soul
as well as the body ; the tutelar godess of health and universal
medicine of life. — Temple.

Every Christian is endowed with a power whereby he is en-
abled to resist and conquer temptation. — TiLLOTSON.

Reflect upon a clear, unblotted, acquitted conscience, and
feed upon the ineffable comforts of the memorial of a con-
quered temptation. — South.

Time is the surest judge of truth ; I am not vain enough
to think I have no faults in this, which that touchstone will not
discover. — Dryden.

One of the commonest errors is to regard time as an agent.
But in reality time does nothing and is nothing. We use it as
a compendious expression for all those causes which operate
slowly and imperceptibly ; but, unless some positive cause is
in action, no change takes place in the lapse of a thousand
years. — Coplestone.

The greatest friend of truth is time, her greatest enemy is
prejudice, and her constant companion is humility. — CoLTON.

Truth is the object of our understanding, as good is of the
will. — Dryden.

Truth and reason constitute that intellectual gold that de-
fies destruction. — ^Johnson.

The law of Christianity is eminently and transcendently
called the word of truth. — South.

By understanding I mean that faculty whereby we are en-
abled to apprehend the objects of knowledge, generals as well
as particulars, absent things as well as present, and to judge
of their truth or falsehood, good or evil. — Wilkins.

Every man has just as much vanity as he wants understand-
ing. — Pope.

Vanity is the production of the most ridiculous and con-
temptible vices — the vices of affectation and common lying. —
Adam Smith.

In a vain man the smallest spark may kindle into the great-
est flame, because the materials are always prepared for it. — ■
Hume.

Vice incapacitates a man from all public duty ; it withers
. the powers of his understanding, and makes his mind paralytic.
— Burke.

Vice stings us even in our pleasures, but virtue consoles us
even in our pain. — CoLTON.

It will be found a work of no small difficulty to dispossess
vice from the heart, when long possession begins to plead
prescription. — BACON.

Virtue is like a rich stone, best plain set ; and surely virtue
is best in a body that is comely, though not of delicate features ;

)^ —

SELECT SHORT PROSE QUOTATIONS.

4r-

and that hath rather dignity of presence than beauty of aspect ;
neither is it almost seen that very beautiful persons are other-
wise of great virtue ; as if nature were rather busy not to err,
than in labor to produce excellency ; and therefore they prove
accomplished but not of great spirit ; and study rather be-
havior than virtue. But this holds not always. — Bacon.

The four cardinal virtues are prudence, fortitude, temper-
ance and justice. — Paley.

The felicity and beatitude that glitter in virtue shines
throughout all her apartments and avenues, even to the first
entry, and utmost pale and limits. Now of all the benefits
that virtue confers upon us the contempt of death is one of the
greatest, as the means that accommodates human life with a soft
and easy tranquillity, and gives us a pure and pleasant taste of
living, without which all other pleasure would be extinct ;
and which is the reason why all the rules by which we are to
live, centre and concur in this one article. — Montaigne.

Mad wars destroy in one year the works of many years of
peace. — Franklin.

The bodies of men, munition and money may justly be called
the sinews of war. — Raleigh.

The way to wealth is as plain as the way to market. It
depends chiefly on two words — industry and frugality. —
Franklin.

When, therefore, the desire of wealth is taking hold of the
heart, let us look round and see how it operates upon those
whose industry or whose fortune has obtained it. When we
find them oppressed with their own abundance, luxurious
without pleasure, idle without ease, impatient and querulous
in themselves, and despised or hated by the rest of mankind,
we shall soon be convinced that, if the real wants of our con-
dition are satisfied, there remains little to be sought with
solicitude or desired with eagerness. — Dr. S. Johnson.

Wickedness may prosper for a while, but at the long run
he that sets all knaves at work will pay them. — L'EsTRANOE.

No one kind of true peace is consistent with any sort of
prevailing wickedness. — Stillingfleet.

Common sense in an uncommon degree is what the world
calls wisdom. — Coleridge.

Wisdom groundeth her laws upon an infallible ruling of
comparison. — Hooker.

Human vvisdom is the aggregate of all human experience,
constantly accumulating, and selecting and reorganizing its
own materials — Story.

Wisdom is that which makes men judge what are the best
ends, and what the best means to attain them, and gives a man
advantage of counsel and direction. — Temple.

Strong and sharp as our wit may be, it is not so strong as
the memory of fools, nor so keen as their resentment : he that
has not strength of mind to forgive, is by no means so weak as
to forget ; and it is much more easy to do a cruel thing than to
say a severe one. — CoLTON.

Wit is not the jerk or sting of an epigram, nor the seeming
contradiction of a poor antithesis ; neither is it so much the
morality of a grave sentence, affected by Lucan, but more
sparingly used by Virgil. — Dryden.

Intemperate vrits will spare neither friend nor foe, and
make themselves the common enemies of mankind. — L'Es-
TRANGE.

I am married, and have no other concern but to please the
man I love ; he is the end of every care I have ! if I dress,
it is for him ; if I read a poem, or a play, it is to qualify my-
self for a conversation agreeable to his taste ; he is almost the
end of my devotions ; half my prayers are for his happiness. —
Steele on wives.

Women have, in general, but one object, which is their
beauty ; upon which scarce any flattery is too gross for them.
Nature has hardly formed a woman ugly enough to be insen-
sible to flattery upon her person ; if her face is so shocking that
she must in some degree be conscious of it, her figure and her
air, she trusts, make ample amends for it. If her figure is de-
formed, her face, she thinks, counterbalances it. If they are
both bad, she comforts herself that she has graces ; a certain
manner ; a je ne scais quoi, still more engaging than beauty.
This truth is evident from the studied dress of the ugliest
women in the world. An undoubted, uncontested, conscious
beauty is, of all women, the least sensible of flattery upon that
head ; she knows it is her due, and is therefore obliged to
nobody for giving it her. She must be flattered upon her un-
derstanding ; which, though she may possibly not doubt of
herself, yet she suspects that men may distrust — Lord Ches-
terfield.

Women generally consider consequences in love, seldom in
resentment. — Colton.

There is in every, true vyoman's heart a spark of heavenly
fire which beams and blazes in the dark hours of adversity. —
Irving.

Youth is the time of enterprise and hope ; having yet no
occasion of comparing our force with any opposing power, we
naturally form presumptions in our own favor, and imagine
that obstruction and impediment will give way before us.
The first repulses rather inflame vehemence than teach prud-
ence ; a brave and generous mind is long before it suspects its
own weakness, or submits to sap the difficulties which it ex-
pected to subdue by storm. Before disappointments have en-
forced the dictates of philosophy we believe it in our power to
shorten the interval between the first cause and the last effect ;
we laugh at the timorous delays of plodding industry, and
fancy that by increasing the fire we can at pleasure accelerate
the projection. — Dr. S. Johnson.

Youth is not like a new garment, which we can keep fresh
and fair by wearing sparingly. Youth, while we have it, we
mustvicdit daily, and it tw7/fast wear away. — Foster.

True zeal is not any one single affection of the soul, but a
strong mixture of many holy affections, filling the heart with
all pious intentions ; all, not only uncounterfeit, but most
fervent. — Sprat.

Nothing hath wrought more prejudice to religion, or brought
more disparagement upon truth, than boisterous and unseason-
able zeal. — Barrow.

«T

'v^*"V£«8(Ty

T^crd,

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

BSENCE.

What ? keep a week away ?

nights ?
Eight score eight hours ? and lovers' absent

hours,
More tedious than the dial eight score times ?
O weary reckoning ! — Shaks. Othello.

Call thou me home ! from thee apart
Faintly and low my pulses beat,

As if the life-blood of my heart
Within thine own heart holds its seat,
And flowetR only where thou art :

Oh ! call me home.
— Mrs. E. Oakes Smith.

As slow our ship her foamy track

Against the wind was cleaving,
Her trembling pennant still look'd back

To that dear isle 'twas leaving.
So loath we part from all we love.

From all the links that bind us ;
So turn our hearts, where'er we rove,

To those we've left behind us. — T. MoORE.

Accomplishments.

Accomplishments were native to her mind.

Like precious pearls within a clasping shell.
And winning grace her every act refined,
Like sunshine shedding beauty where it fell.

— Mrs. Hale.
Her even carriage is as far from coyness
As from immodesty ; — in play, in dancing.
In suffering courtship, in requiting kindness.
In use of places-r-hours — and compani©ns.
Free as the sun, and nothing more corrupted ;
As circumspect as Cynthia in her vows.
And constant as the centre to observe them.

— George Chapman.

Accusation.

Give me good proofs of what you have alleged :
'Tis not enough to say— in such a bush
There lies a thief — in such a cave a beast. —
But you must show him to me ere I shoot.
Else I may kill one of my straggling sheep ;
I'm fond of no man's person but his virtue.

Crown's \st part of Henry VI.

Actions.

Be just in all thy actions, and if join'd

With those that are not, never change thy mind ;

If aught obstruct thy course, yet stand not still.

But wind about till the mast topp'd the hill. — Denham.

Actions rare and sudden, do commonly
Proceed from fierce necessity ; or else
From some oblique design, which is ashamed
To show itself in the public road.

— Sir William Davenant.

Activity.

Let's take the instant by the forward top.

For we are old, and on our quick'st decrees,

The inaudible and noiseless foot of time

Steals, ere we can effect them. — Shaks. AlFs Well.

Lives of great men all remind us.

We can make our lives sublime,
And, departing, leave behind us

Footprints on the sands of time. — Longfellow.

Adversity.

Sweet are the uses of adversity ;

Which, like the toad, ugly and venemous,

Wears yet a precious jewel in her head :

And this our life, exempt from public haunt.

Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks.

Sermons in stones, and good in every thing.

— Shaks. As You Like It

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Affliction is the wholesome soil of virtue :
Where patience, honor, sweet humanity.
Calm fortitude, take root, and strongly flourish.

— Alfred.
Adversity's cold frosts will soon be o'er ;
It heralds brighter days : — the joyous Spring
Is cradled on the Winter's icy breast.
And yet comes flushed in beauty. — Mrs. Hemans.
Advice.

Learn to dissemble wrongs, to smile at injuries,

And suffer crimes thou want'st the power to punish ;

Be easy, affable, familiar, friendly :

Search and know all mankind's mysterious ways,

But trust the secret of thy soul to none :

This is the way.

This only, to be safe in such a world as this is.

— Rowe's Ulysses.
Aye free, off han', your story tell

When wi' a bosom crony ;
But still keep something to yoursel'

Ye scarcely tell to ony.
Conceal yoursel' as weel's ye can

Frae critical dissection ;
But keek thro' ev'ry other man,
Wi' sharpen'd shy inspection.

— Burns' Epistle to a Young Ft tend.
Adieu.

Then comes the parting hour, and what arise
When lovers part — expressive looks, and eyes
Tender and tearful — many a fond adieu,
And many a call the sorrow to renew. — Crabbe.

We part —
But this shall be a token — thou hast been
A friend to him who pluck'd these lovely flowers,
And sent them as a tribute to a friend.
And a remembrance of the few kind hours
Which lightened on the darkness of my path.

— Percival.
Affection.

O ! there is one affection which no stain

Of earth can never darken ; — when two find,

The softer and the manlier, that a chain

Of kindred taste has fastended mind to mind,

'Tis an attraction from all sense refined ;

The good can only know it ; 'tis not blind.

As love is unto baseness ; its desire

Is but with hands entwined to lift our being higher.

— Percival.
Ah ! could you look into my heart,

And watch your image there !
You would own the sunny loveliness

Affection makes it wear. — Mrs. Osgood.
Age.

Thus aged men, full loth and slow,
The vanities of life forego.
And count their youthful follies o'er.
Till memory lends her light no more.

—Scott's Rokeby.

Age sits with decent grace upon his visage,
And worthily becomes his silver locks ;
He wears the marks of many years w^ spent,
Of virtue, truth well tried, and wise experience.

— Rowe's Jane Shore.
True, time will sear and blanch my brow ;

Well — I shall sit with aged men.
And my good glass will tell me how

A grisly beard becomes me then.
And should no foul dishonor lie

Upon my head when I am grey,
Love yet may search my fading eye.

And smooth the path of my decay. — Bryant.
Ambition.

Cromwell, I charge thee, fling away ambition ;
By that sin fell the angels ; how can man tken,
The image of his Maker, hope to win by't ?

— Shaks. Henry VIII.

I have ventured.
Like little wanton boys that swim on bladders,
This many summers in a sea of glory :
But far beyond my depth : my high-blown pride
At length broke under me ; and now has left me.
Weary, and old with service, to the mercy
Of a rude stream, that must forever hide me.

— Shaks. Henry VIII.

What is ambition ? 'Tis a glorious cheat !
Angels of light walk not so dazzlingly

The sapphire walls of Heaven.

The flow
Of life-time is a graduated scale ;
And deeper than the vaijities of power.
Or the vain pomp of glory, there is writ
A standard measuring its worth for heaven.

— WiLLli

America.

Land of the West ! though passing brief

The record of thine age.
Thou hast a name that darkens all

On History's wide page !
Let all the blasts of fame ring out —

Thine shall be loudest far :
Let others boast their satellites —

Thou hast the morning star.
Thou hast a name whose characters

Of light shall ne'er depart ;
'Tis stamped upon the dullest brain.

And warms the coldest heart ;
A war-cry fit for any land,

Where Freedom's to be won :
Land of the West ! it stands alone —

It is thy Washington. — Eliza Cook.
Land of the forest and the rock.

Of dark blue lake and mighty river.
Of mountains reared on high to mock
The storm's career and lightning's shock.

My own green Land forever !

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Oh ! never may a son of thine,

Where'er his wandering feet incline,

Forget the sky that bent above

His childhood like a dream of love ! — Whittier.

I see the living tide roll on.

It crowns with fiery towers
The icy capes of Labrador,

The Spaniard's " land of flowers ! "
It streams beyond the splintered ridge.

That parts the northern showers,
From eastern rock to sunset wave,
The Continent is ours. — O. W. Holmes.
America ! the sound is like a sword
To smite th' oppressor ! like a loving word
To cheer the suffering people, while they pray
That God would hasten on the promised day.
When earth shall be like heaven, and men shall stand.
Like brothers round an altar, hand in hand.
O ! ever thus, America, be strong, —
Like cataract's thunder pour the Freeman's song.
Till struggling Europe joins the grand refrain ;
And startled Asia bursts the despot's chain ;
And Afric's manumitted sons, from thee
To their own Fatherland shall bear the song,
— Worth all their toils and tears — of Liberty :
For these good deeds, America, be strong ! — Mrs. Hale.
Ancestors.

They that on glorious ancestors enlarge.
Produce their debt, instead of their discharge. — Young.
I am one.
Who finds within me a nobility
That spurns the idle pratings of the great.
And their mean boast of what their fathers were ;
While they themselves are fools effeminate,
The scorn of all who know the worth of mind
And virtue. — Percival,
Anger.

Not youthful kings in battle seized alive.
Not scornful virgins who their charms survive,
Not ardent lovers robb'd of all their bliss,
Not ancient ladies when refused a kiss,
Not tyrants fierce that unrepenting die,
Not Cynthia when her mantua's pinn'd awry,
E'er felt such rage. — Pope's J^ape of the Lock.
The wildest ills that darken life,
Are rapture to the bosom's strife ;
The tempest, in its blackest form,
Is beauty to the bosom's storm ;
The ocean, lash'd to fury loud.
Its high wave mingling with the cloud.
Is peaceful sweet serenity,
To anger's dark and stormy sea.

— J. W. Eastburn.
Apparel.

Costly tjiy habit as thy pursee an buy,

But not expressed in fancy ; rich, not gaudy ;

For the apparel oft proclaims the man.

— Shakespeare's Hamlet.

Applause.

At which the universal host up sent

A shout that tore hell's concave, and beyond

Frighted the reign of chaos and old night.

— Milton's Paradise Lost.
Argument.

In arguing, too, the parson owned his skill.
For ev'n tho' vanquish'd, he could argue still.

—Goldsmith's Deserted Village.

A man convinced against his will
Is of the same opinion still.

—Butler's Hudibras.
Art.

Art became the shadow
Of the dear star-light of thy haunting eyes !
They call'd me vain, some mad — I heeded not,
But still toil'd on, hoped on, for it was surest.
If not to win, to feel more worthy thee.

— Bulwer's Lady of Lyons.

Immortal art ! where'er the rounded sky
Bends o'er the cradle where thy children lie,
Their home is earth, their herald every tongue.

— O. W. Holmes.
Authority.

Man, proud man,
Drest in a little brief authority,
Most ignorant of what he's most assur'd,
His glassy essence — like an angry ape.
Plays such fantastic tricks before high heaven
As make the angels weep.

— Shakespeare's Measure for Measure.

Authority intoxicates.
And makes mere sots of magistrates,
The fumes of it invade the brain.
And make men giddy, proud, and vain.
By this the fool commands the wise.
The noble with the base complies.
The sot assumes the rule of wit,
And cowards make the base submit.

— Butler's Hudibras
Autumn.

The year growing ancient.

Not yet on summer's death, nor on the birth

Of trembling winter.

— Shakespeare's Winter's Tale.

Thrice happy time.
Best portion of the various year, in which
Nature rejoiceth, smiling on her works,
Lovely to full perfection wrought. — Philip's Cider.

Avarice.

The love of gold, that meanest rage,
And latest folly of man's sinking age,
Which, rarely venturing in the van of life.
While nobler passions wage their heated strife.
Comes sculking last with selfishness' and fear.
And dies collecting lumber in the rear ! — MooRE.

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

O cursed love of gold ; when for thy sake
The fool throws up his interest in both worlds,
First starv'd in this, then damn'd in that to come.

— Blair's Grave
Battle.

The combat deepens. On, ye brave,
"Who rush to glory or the grave !
Wave, Munich ! all thy banners wave !
And charge with all thy chivalry !
Few, few shall part where many meet !
The snow shall be their winding-sheet,
And every turf beneath their feet
Shall be a soldier's sepulchre.

— Campbell's Hohenlinden.
Our bugles sang truce — for the night-cloud had lower'd,
And the sentinel stars set their watch in the sky ;
And thousands had sunk on the ground overpower'd.
The weary to sleep and the wounded to die.

— Campbell's Soldier's Dream.
Did ye not hear it ? — No : 't was but the wind.
Or the car rattling o'er the stony street ;
On with the dance ! let joy be unconfined ;
No sleep till morn, when youth and pleasure meet,
To chase the glowing hours with flying feet, —
But hark ! — that heavy sound breaks in once more,
As if the clouds its echo would repeat ;
And nearer, clearer, deadlier than before !
Arm ! arm ! it is — it is — the cannon's opening roar !

Byron's Child Harold.
Point to the summits where the brave had bled,
Where every village claims its glorious dead ;
Say, where their bosoms met the bayonet's shock,
Their only corslet was the rustic frock ;
Say, when they mustered to the gathering horn,
The titled chieftain curled his lip in scorn ;
Yet, when their leader bade his lines advance.
No musket wavered in the lion's glance ;
Say, when they fainted in their forced retreat.
They tracked the snow-drifts with their bleeding feet ;
Yet still their banners, tossing in the blast,
Bore Ever Ready, faithful to the last.
Through storm and battle, till they waved again
On Yorktown's hills and Saratoga's plain.

— O. W. Holmes.
Beauty.

Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale
Her infinite variety ; other women cloy
The appetites they feed ; but she makes hungry,
Where most she satisfies. — Shaks. Anthony and Cleopatra.
Beauty is a witch.
Against whose charms faith melteth into blood.

— Shaks. Much Ado.
'Tis beauty truly blent, whose red and white
Nature's own sweet and cunning hand laid on.

—Shaks. Twelfth Night.
Beauty is but a vain and doubtful good,
A shining gloss that fadeth suddenly,
A flower that dies when first it 'gins to bud,
A brittle glass that's broken presently

A doubtful good, a glass, a flower.

Lost, faded, broken, dead within an hour.

— Shakespeare,
Her cheek had the pale pearly pink
Of sea-shells, the world's sweetest tint, as though
She lived, one half might deem, on roses sopp'd
In silver dew. — Bailey's Festus.
An eye's an eye, and whether black or blue.
Is no great matter, so 'tis in request,
'Tis nonsense to dispute about a hue, —
The kindest may be taken as a test.
The fair sex should be always fair ; and no man.
Till thirty, should perceive there's a plain woman.

— Byron's Don Juan.
A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. — Keats.

Beauty gives
The features perfectness, and to the form.
Its delicate proportions : she may stain
The eye with a celestial blue — the cheek
With carmine of the sunset ; she may breathe
Grace into every motion, like the play
Of the least visible tissue of a cloud :
She may give all that is within her own
Bright cestus — and one glance of intellect.
Like stronger magic, will outshine it all. — WILLIS.
Beggar.

Beggar ? the only free men of our commonwealth.
Free above scot-free, that observe no laws.
Obey no governor, use no religion,
But what they draw from their own ancient custom,
Or constitute themselves, yet are no rebels; — Brome.
Birds.

Every copse
Deep tangled, tree irregular, and bush,
Bending with dewy moisture, o'er the heads
Of the coy quiristers that lodge within.
Are prodigal of harmony. The thrush
And wood-lark, o'er the kind contending throng,
Superior heard, run through the sweetest length
Of notes ; when listening Philomela deigns
To let them joy, and purposes in thought
Elate, to make her night excel the day.

— Thomson's Seasons.
Birthday.

Yet all I've learnt from hours rife

With painful brooding here.

Is, that amid this mortal strife.

The lapse of every year

But takes away a hope from life.

And adds to death a fear, — Hoffman.

Why should we count our life by years.

Since years are short and pass away !

Or, why by fortune's smiles or tears.

Since tears are vain and smiles decay !

O ! count by virtues — these shall last

When life's lame-footed race is o'er ;

And these, when earthly joys are past.

May cheer us on a brighter shore. — Mrs. Hale.

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Bluntness.

I have neither wit, nor words, nor worth.

Nor actions, nor utterance, nor the power of speech.

To stir men's blood : I only speak right on.

— Shaks. Julius CcEsar.
Blush.

From every blush that kindles in thy cheeks,
Ten thousand little loves and graces spring
To revel in the roses. — Rowe's Tamerlane.
Confound me not with shame, nor call up all
The blood that warms my trembling heart.
To fill my cheeks with blushes. — Trap's Albramule.
Books.

Books should to one of these four ends conduce.
For wisdom, piety, delight, or use. — Denham.
Books are a part of man's prerogative,
In formal ink they thought and voices hold,
That we to them our solitude may give,
And make time present travel that of old.
Our life, fame pieceth longer at the end.
And books it farther backward doth extend.

— Sir Thomas Overbury.
Brevity.

Since brevity is the soul of wit.
And tediousness the limbs and outward flourishes,
I will be brief. — Shaks. Hamlet.
Calamity.

Do not insult calamity :
It is a barb'rous grossness, to lay on
The weight of scorn, where heavy misery
Too much already weighs men's fortunes down.

— Daniel's Philotas.
Calm.

How calm, — how beautiful comes on
The stilly hour, when storms are gone.
When warring winds have died away.
And clouds, beneath the glancing ray
Melt off and leave the land and sea.
Sleeping in bright tranquillity ; —
When the blue waters rise and fall.
In sleepy sunshine mantling all ;
And ev'n that swell the tempest leaves.
Is like the full and silent heaves
Of lovers' hearts, when newly blest,
Too newly to be quite at rest !

— Moore's Lalla Rookh.
Caution.

Trust none ;
For oaths are straws, men's faiths are wafer cakes.
And hold-fast is the only dog. — Shaks. Henry V.
Man's caution often into danger turns.
And his guard falling, crushes him to death.

— Young's Night Thoughts.
He knows the compass, sail, and oar.
Or never launches from the shore ;
Before he builds, computes the cost,
And in no proud pursuit is lost. — Gay's Fables.
All's to be fear'd where all is to be lost. — Byron.

%r-

Let no man know thy business save some friend,
A man of mind. — Bailey.
Change.

I ask not what change

Has come over thy heart,
I seek not what chances

Have doomed us to part ;
I know thou hast told me

To love thee no more,
And I still must obey

Where I once did adore. — Hoffman.
Not in vain the distance beckons,

Forward, forward, let us range ;
Let the peoples spin forever
Down the ringing grooves of change. — Tennyson.
Charity.

Then gently scan your brother man.

Still gentler sister woman.
Though both may gang a kennie wrang.

To step aside is human. — Burns.
O, rich man's son ! there is a toil.

That with all others level stands ;
Large charity doth never soil,

But only whitens soft white hands ; —
This is the best crop for thy lands ;
A heritage, it seems to me,

Woith being rich to hold in fee. — J. R. Lowell.
True charity, a plant divinely nurs'd.
Fed by the love, from which it rose at first,
Thrives against hope, and in the rudest scene.
Storms but enliven its unfading green ;
Exuberant is the shadow it supplies.
Its fruit on earth, its growth above the skies,

— Cowper's Charity,
Chastity.

So dear to heav'n is saintly chastity.
That when a soul is found sincerely so,
A thousand liv'ry'd angels lackey her.
Driving far off each thing of sin and guilt.

— Milton's Comus.
When lovely woman stoops to folly,

And finds too late that men betray,
What charm can soothe her melancholy ?

What art can wash her guilt away ?
The only art her guilt to cover.

And hide her shame from every eye.
And give repentance to her lover,

And wring his bosom is — to die. — GOLDSMITH.
Childhood.

Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought,
To teach the young idea how to shoot.
To pour the fresh instruction o'er the mind,
To breathe the enlivening spirit and to fix
The generous purpose in the glowing breast !

— Thomson's Seasons.
I know he's coming by this sign.

That baby's almost wild ;
See how he laughs, and crows, and starts, —

Heaven bless the merry child !

■^

)^ —

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

He's father's self in face and limb,
And father's heart is strong in him.
Shout, baby, shout ! and clap thy hands,
For father on the threshold stands. — Mary Howitt.
Of all the joys that brighten suffering earth,
What joy is welcom'd like a new-bom child !

— Mrs. Norton.
Sleep, little baby ! sleep !

Not in thy cradle bed,
Not on thy mother's breast —

But with the quiet dead. — Mrs. Southey.
Churchman.

I like a church, I like a cowl,

I love a prophet of the soul,

And on my heart monastic aisles

Fall like sweet strains or pensive smiles.

Yet not for all his faith can see.

Would I that cowled churchman be.

— Ralph Waldo Emerson.

By the white neck-cloth, with its straiten'd tie,
The sober hat, the Sabbath-speaking eye,
Severe and smileless, he that runs may read
The stern disciple of Geneva's creed. — O. W. HOLMES.
City.

I dwell amid the city.
And hear the flow of souls !

I do not hear the several contraries,

I do not hear the separate tone that rolls,
In art or speech.

For pomp or trade, for merrymake or folly,

I hear the confluence and sum of each.
And that is melancholy ! —

Thy voice is a complaint, O crowned city.

The blue sky covering thee, like God's great pity.

— Miss Barrett.

Come out, love — the night is enchanting !

The moon hangs just over Broadway ;
The stars are all lighted and panting —

(Hot weather up there, I dare say !)
*Tis seldom that "coolness" entices.

And love is no better for chilling —
Yet come up to Thompson's for ices

And cool your warm heart for a shilling !

— N. P. Willis.

Clouds.

Ye clouds, that are the ornament of heaven,
Who give to it its gayest shadowings
And its most awful glories ; ye who roll
In the dark tempest, or at dewy evening
Bow low in tenderest beauty ; — ye are to us
A volume full of wisdom. — Percival's Poems,
Conscience.

It is a dangerous
Thing, it makes a man a coward : a man
Cannot steal but it accuseth him ; a man
Cannot swear, but it checks him.

'Tis a blushing shame-fac'd spirit, that
Mutinies in a man's bosom ; it fills
One full of obstacles. It made me once
Restore a purse of gold, that by chance I
Found. It beggars any man that keeps it.
It is turn'd out of towns and cities for
A dang'rous thing ; and every man that means
To live well, endeavors to trust to himself.
And live without it. — Shaks. Richard III.

Thus conscience does makes cowards of us all,
And thus the native hue of resolution
Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought;
And enterprises of great pith and moment.
With this regard, their currents turn away.
And lose the name of action. — Shaks. Hamlet.
There is no power in holy men,
Nor charms in prayer — nor purifying form
Of penitence — nor outward look — nor fast —
Nor agony — nor, greater than all these, •
The innate tortures of that deep despair.
Which is remorse without the fear of hell,
But all in all sufficient to itself.
Would make a hell of heaven — can exercise.
From out the unbounded spirit, the quick sense
Of its own sins, wrongs, sufferance, and revenge
Upon itself. — Byron's Manfred.
Constancy.

I am constant as the northern star;
Of whose true, fix'd and resting quality
There is no fellow in the firmament.

— Shaks. yulius Ccesar.
I have won
Thy heart, my gentle girl ! but it hath been
When that soft eye was on me ; and the love
I told beneath the evening influence,
Shall be as constant as its gentle star. — Willis.
Content.

O grant me, heav'n, a middle state.

Neither too humble nor too great ;

More than enough for nature's ends.

With something left to treat my friends. — MallEt.

Unfit for greatness, I her snares defy.

And look on riches with untainted eye.

To others let the glitt'ring baubles fall.

Content shall place us far above them all.

—Churchill.
Coquette.

Would you teach her to love ?
For a time seem to rove ;

At first she may frown in a pet;
But leave her awhile.
She shortly will smile,

And then you may win your coquette. — Byron.
Can I again that look recall,
That once could make me die for thee ? —
No, no ! — the eye that beams on all,
Shall never more be priz'd by me. — Moore.

^
--^

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Country Life.

Your love in a cottage is hungry,

Your vine is a nest for flies—
Your milkmaid shocks the graces,

And simplicity talks of pies !
You lie down to your shady slumber.
And wake with a bug in your ear,
And your damsel that walks in the morning
Is shod like a mountaineer. — ^Willis.
Courage.

Ah, never shall the land forget

How gush'd the life-blood of the brave,
Gush'd warm with hope and courage yet,

Upon the soil they fought to save ! — BRYANT.
Her look compos'd, and steady eye.
Bespoke a matchless constancy. — Scott's Marmion,
True courage scorns
To vent her prowess in a storm of words :
And to the valiant action speaks alone.

— Smollett's Regicide.
Courtship.

And otherwhyles with amorous delights

And pleasing toyes he would her entertaine,

Now singing sweetly to surprise her sprights.

Now making layes of love and lover's paine,

Bransles, ballads, virelayes, and verses vaine ;

Oft purposes, oft riddles, he devys'd ;

And thousands like which flowed into his braine.

With which he fed her fancy, and entys'd

To take to his new love, and leave her old despys'd.

— Spenser's Fairy Queen.
Thou hast by moonlight at her window sung,
With feigning voice, verses of feigning love ;
And stol'n the impression of her fantasy
With bracelets of thy hair, rings, gauds, conceits.
Knacks, trifles, nosegays, sweet-meats ; messengers.
Of strong prevailment in unharden'd youth.

— Shaks. Alidsummer Night's Dream.
O days remember'd well ! remember'd all !
The bitter sweet, the honey and the gall ;
Those garden rambles in the silent night.
Those trees so shady, and that moon so bright.
That thickset alley by the arbor clos'd.
That woodbine seat where we at last repps'd ;
And then the hopes that came and then were gone
Quick as the clouds beneath the moon past on. — Crabbe.
Woe to the man who ventures a rebuke,
'Twill but precipitate a situation
Extremely disagreeable, but common
To calculators when they count on woman. — Byron.
Learn to win a lady's faith

Nobly as the thing is high ;
Bravely, as for life and death

With a loyal gravity.
Lead her from the festive boards.

Point her to the starry skies.
Guard her by your truthful words.
Pure from courtship's flatteries.

— Miss Barrett's Poems.

4r-

Coward.

Am I a coward?
Who calls me villain ? breaks my pate across ?
Plucks off my beard and blows it in my face ?
Tweaks me by the nose ? gives me the lie i' the throat.
As deep as to the lungs ? who does me this ?
Ha ! why, I should take it ; for it cannot be.
But I am pigeon-liver'd, and lack gall
To make oppression bitter ; or, ere this
I should have fatted all the region kites
With this slave's off^al. — Shaks. Hamlet.
Go — let thy less than woman's hand
Assume the distaff — not the brand.

— Byron's Bride of Abydos.
Curiosity.

Conceal yersel' as weel's ye can

Fra' critical dissection ;
But keek thro' every other man

With lengthen'd, sly inspection. — Burns.
Eve,
With all the fruits of Eden blest.

Save only one, rather than leave
That one unknown, lost all the rest. — Moore.
Custom.

That monster, custom, who all sense doth eat
Of habits evil, is angel yet in this ;
That to' the use of actions fair and good,
He likewise gives a frock, or livery.
That aptly is put on : refrain to-night ;
And that shall lend a kind of easiness
To the next abstinence ; the next, more easy ;
For use can almost change the stamp of nature.
And master ev'n the devil, or throw him out.
With wondrous potency. — Shaks. Hamlet.
Dancing.

A thousand hearts beat happily ; and when
Music arose with its voluptuous swell.
Soft eyes look'd love to eyes which spake again.
And all went merry as a marriage-bell.

— Byron's Childe Harold
I gaz'd upon the dance, where ladies hight.

Were moving in the light
Of mirrors and of lamps. With music and with flowers,
Danced on the joyous hours ;
And fairest bosoms
Heaved happily beneath the winter roses' blossoms
And it is well ;
Youth hath its time.
Merry hearts will merrily chime. — C. P. Cranch.
Death.

For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,
The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely,
The pangs of despis'd love, the law's delay.
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes,
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin ? who would fardels bear.
To grunt and sweat under a weary life ;

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

But that the dread of something " death —
The undiscover'd country, from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will ;
And makes us rather bear those ills we have.
Than fly to others that we know not of ?

— Shaks. Hamlet.

Why am I mock'd with death, lengthened out
To deathless pain ? how gladly would I meet
Mortality my sentence, and be earth
Insensible, how glad would lay me down,
As in my mother's lap ; there I should rest
And sleep secure. — Milton's Paradise Lost,

Death is the crown of life :
Were death deny'd, poor men would live in vain ;
Were death deny'd, to live would not be life :
Were death deny'd, ev'n fools would wish to die.

— Young's Night Thoughts.

All flesh is grass, and all its glory fades.
Like the fair flow'r dishevell'd in the wind ;
Riches have wings, and grandeur is a dream ;
The man we celebrate must find a tomb,
And we that worship him ignoble graves.

— Cowper's Task.

Death should come
Gently to one of gentle mould, like thee, '

As light winds, wandering through groves of bloom.
Detach the delicate blossoms from the tree.
Close thy sweet eyes calmly, and without pain,
And we will trust in God to see thee yet again.

— Bryant.
Deceit.

O what a tangled web we weave,
When first we practice to deceive !

— Scott's Marmion.
Defiance.

Whence and what art thou, execrable shape,
That dar'st though grim and terrible, advance
Thy miscreated front athwart my way
To yonder gates ? through them I mean to pass !
That be-assur'd, without leave ask'd of thee.
Retire or taste thy folly, and learn by proof.
Hell-bom, not to contend with spirits of heaven.

— Milton's Paradise Lost.

Stand ! the ground's your own my braves?
Will ye give it up to slaves ?
Will ye look for greener graves ?

Hope ye mercy still ?
What's the mercy despots feel?
Hear it in yon cannon's peal.
See it on yon bristling steel,

Ask it ye who will ! — Pierpont.

Delay.

4r-

Be wise to-day, 't is madness to defer ;
Next day the fatal precedent will plead
Thus on, till wisdom is push'd out of life.

— Young's Night Thoughts.

Despair.

My loss is such as cannot be repair'd ;
And to the wretched, life can be no mercy.

Dryden's Marriage h la Mode.
One fatal remembrance, one sorrow which throws
Its bleak shade alike o'er our joys and our woes.
To which life nothing darker or brighter can bring.
For which joy has no balm and affliction no sting.

— MOORE.

Discontent.

Man hath a weary pilgrimage.

As through the world he wends,
On every stage, from youth to age,
Still discontent attends. — SouTHEY.
Doubt.

Our doubts are traitors.
And make us lose the good we oft might win,
By fearing to attempt.

— Shakespeare's Measure for Measure.
Yet do not think I doubt thee,

I know thy truth remains ;
I would not live without thee,

For all the world contains. — G. P. MORRia
Dreams.

Dreams are the children of an idle brain,
Begot of nothing but vain fantasy ;
Which is as thin of substance as the air;
And more inconstant than the wind.

Shakespeare's Romeo and yuliet.
Lightly he dreamt as youth will dream.
Of sport by thicket, or by stream,
Of hawk, of hound, of ring, of glove.
Or lighter yet — of lady's love. — Scott's Marmion
Duty.

Rugged strength and radiant beauty —

These were one in nature's plan ;
Humble toil and heavenward duty —

These will form the perfect man. — Mrs.Hall.
Eloquence.

There's a charm in deliv'ry, a magical art,

That thrills like a kiss from the lips to the heart ;

'Tis the glance — the expression — the well-chosen word —

By whose magic the depths of the spirit are stirr'd.

The lip's soft persuasion — its musical tone ;

Oh ! such were the charms of that eloquent one !

— Mrs. Welby.
Oh ! as the bee upon the flower, I hang
Upon the honey of thy eloquent tongue.

Bulwer's Lady of Lyons
Her tears her only eloquence. — Rogers' Jacqueline.
Emigration.

I hear the tread of pioneers

Of nations yet to be.
The first low wash of waves where soon
Shall roll a human sea. — Whittier.
The emigrant's way o'er the Western desert is mark'd by
Camp-fires long consum'd, and bones that bleach in the sun-
shine. — Longfellow's Evangelim.

-<^

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Enthusiasm.

Methinks we must have known some former state
More glorious than our present, and the heart
Is haunted with dim memories, shadows left
. By past magnificence ; and hence we pine
With vain enthusiastic hopes that fill
The eyes with tears for their own vanity.

— Miss Landon.
Envy.

Base envy withers at another's joy.

And hates that excellence it cannot reach.

— Thomson's Seasons.
Envy dogs success
And every victor's crown is lin'd with thorns.
And worn 'mid scoffs. — Miss Landon.
Equality.

Children of wealth or want, to each is given
One spot of green, and all the blue of heaven !

— O. W. Holmes.
Evening.

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea,
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way.
And leaves the world to darkness and to me.
Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight.
And all the air a solemn stillness holds.
Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight,
And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds.
Save that from yonder ivy-mantled tower.
The moping owl does to the moon complain
Of such as, wandering near her secret bower,
Molest her ancient solitary reign.

— Gray's Church-Yard.
Ave Maria ! blessed be the hour !
The time, the clime, the spot where I so oft
Have felt that moment in its fullest power
Sink o'er the earth so beautiful and soft,
While swung the deep bell in the distan* tower,
Or the faint dying day-hymn stole aloft.
And not a breath crept through the rosy air.
And yet the forest leaves seem'd stirr'd with prayer.
Soft hour ! which makes the wish and melts the heart
Of those who sail the seas, on the first day ;
When they from their sweet friends are torn apart ;
Or fills with love the pilgrim on his way.
As the far bell of vesper makes him start.
Seeming to weep the dying day's decay ;
Is this a fancy which our reason scorns?
Ah ! surely nothing dies but something mourns ?

— Byron.
The summer day has clos'd — the sun is set :
Well have they done their office, those bright hours.
The latest of whose train goes softly out
In the red west. — Bryant.

Example.

For as the light
Not only serves to show, but render us
Mutually profitable ; so our lives.

In acts exemplary, not only win
Ourselves good names, but do to others give
Matter for virtuous deeds, by which we live.

— Chapman.
Exile.

But me, not destined such delights to share.
My prime of life in wandering spent and care ;
Impell'd, with steps unceasing, to pursue
Some fleeting good, that mocks me with the view ;
That, like the circle bounding earth and skies.
Allures from far, yet, as I follow, flies ;
My fortune leads to traverse realms alone.
And find no spot of all the world my own.

— Goldsmith's Traveller.
Beloved country ! banish 'd from thy shore,
A stranger in this prison-house of clay,
The exil'd spirit weeps and sighs for thee !
Heavenward the bright perfections I adore direct.

— Longfellow.
Experience.

A thousand volumes in a thousand tongues, enshrine the les-
sons of Experience ;
Yet a man shall read them all, and go forth none the wiser ;
If self-love lendeth him a glass, to color all he conneth.
Lest in the features of another he find his own complexion.

— Topper's Proverbial Philosophy.
Expectation.

Oft expectation fails, and most oft there
Where most it promises : and oft it hits
Where hope is coldest, and despair most sits.

— Shakespeare's AlFs Will.
Eyes.

Her eye (I'm very fond of handsome eyes)
Was large and dark, suppressing half its fire
Until she spoke ; then, through its soft disguise,
Flash'd an expression more of pride than ire.
And love than either. — Byron.
And then her look — Oh, where's the heart so wise
Could, unbewilder'd, meet those matchless eyes ?
Quick, restless, strange, but exquisite withal,
Like those of angels. — Moore.

I never saw an eye so bright,

And yet so soft as hers ;
It sometimes swam in liquid light.
And sometimes swam in tears ;
It seem'd a beauty set apart

For softness and for signs. — MRS. Welby.
Those laughing orbs, that borrow

From azure skies the light they wear,
Are like heaven — no sorrow

Can float o'er hues so fair. — Mrs. Osgood.
Those eyes,
Soft and capacious as a cloudless sky,
Whose azure depths their colour emulates,
Must needs be conversant with upward looks.
Prayer's voiceless service. — WoRDSWORTH.
Falsehood.

You told a lie ; an odious, damned lie ;

Upon my soul a lie ; a wicked lie. — Shaks. Othello.

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

O agony ! keen agony,

For trusting heart to find
That vows believed, were vows conceived
As ligVit as summer wind. — Motherwell.
I live among the cold, the false.
And I must seem like them ;
And such I am, for I am false

As those I most condemn. — Miss Lanuon.
Farewell.

So fare thee well, — and may th' indulgent gods
* * * grant thee every wish
Thy soul can form ! Once more, farewell.

— Sophocles.
And farewell goes out sighing.

Shaks. Troilus and Cressida.
Farewell ; thou canst not teach me to forget.

— Shaks. Romeo and Juliet.
Farewell ! I will omit no opportunity
That may convey my greetings, love, to thee.

— Shaks. Romeo and yuliet.
Farewell — thou hast trampled love's faith in the dust,
Thou hast torn from my bosom its hope and its trust ';
Yet, if thy life's current with bliss it would swell,
I would pour out my own in this last fond farewell.

— Hoffman.
And, like some low and mournful spell.
To whisper but one word — farewell !

— Park Benjamin.
Fate.

What fates impose, that men must needs abide ;
It boots not to resist both wind and tide.

—Shaks. Henry VI. Part III.
But Fate whirls on the bark,
And the rough gale sweeps from the rising tide,
The lazy calm of thought. — BuLWER^ Lytton.
Fear.

But that I am forbid
To tell the secrets of my prison-house,
I. could a tale unfold, whose lightest word
Would harrow up thy soul ; freeze thy young blood ;
Make thy two eyes, like stars, start from their spheres ;
Thy knotted and combined locks to part,
And each particular hair to stand on end.
Like quills upon the fretful porcupine. — Shaks. Hamlet.
Like one, that on a lonesome road

Doth walk in fear and dread,
And having once turn'd round walks on,

And turns no more his head ;

Because he knows a frightful fiend

Doth close behind him tread.

_ — Coleridge's Ancient Mariner.
Fame.

Death makes no conquest of this conqueror ;
For now he lives in fame though not in life.

— Shaks. Richard III.
The evil that men do, lives after them ;
The good is often interred with their bones.

Shaks. Julius Ccesar.

Men's evil manners live in brass : their virtues
We write in water. — Shaks. Henry VIII.
The fame that a man wins himself is best ;
That he may call his own : honors put on him
Make him no more a man than his clothes do,
Which are as soon ta'en off ; for in the warmth
The heat comes from the body not the weeds ;
So man's true fame must strike from his own deeds.

— Middleton
What so foolish as the chase of fame ?
How vain the prize ! how impotent our aim !
For what are men who grasp at praise sublime.
But bubbles on the rapid stream of time,
That rise and fall, that swell, and are no more.
Born and forgot, ten thousand in an hour.

— Young's Love of Fame-
Nor let thy noble spirit grieve,
Its life of glorious fame to leave ; —
V life of honor and of worth
Has no eternity on earth. — Longfellow.
Fancy.

Tell me, where is fancy bred ;
Or in the heart, or in the head ?
How begot, how nourished ?
It is engendered in the eyes.
With gazing fed : and fancy dies,
In the cradle where it lies.

— Shaks. Merchant of Venice.
Woe to the youth whom Fancy gains,
Winning from reason's hand the reins.

— Scott's Rokeby.
Fidelity.

He that can endure
To follow with allegiance a fallen lord.
Doth conquer him that did his master conquer.
And earns a place i' the story.

— Shaks. Antony and Cleopatra,

Mark me, Clotilda,
And mark me well ; I am no desperate wretch.
Who borrows an excuse from shameful passion
To make its shame more vile —
I am a wretched, but a spotless wife.

— Maturin's Bertram.

Though human, thou didst not deceive me.

Though woman, thou didst not forsake,
Though loved, thou forebodst to grieve me,

Though slander'd, thou never could'st shake,
Though trusted, thou didst not disclaim me,

Though parted, it was not to fly,
Though watchful, 't was not to defame me,

Nor, mute, that the world might belie. — Byron.

Within her heart was his image,

Cloth'd in the beauty of love and youth, as last she beheld
him,

Only more beautiful made by his death-like silence and ab-
sence. — Longfellow's Evangeline.

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Flattery.

You play the spaniel,
And think with wagging of your tongue to win me.

— Shaks. Henry VIII.
'Tis an old maxim in the schools,
That flattery's the food of fools,
Yet now and then you men of wit
Will condescend to take a bit.

— Swift's Cadenus and Vanessa,
O flatt'ry !
How soon thy smooth insinuating oil
Supples the toughest fool ! — Fenton's Mariamne.
Flowers.

There is to me
A daintiness about these early flowers.
That touches me like poetry. They blow out
With such a simple loveliness among
The common herbs of pasture, and they breathe
Their lives so unobtrusively, like hearts
Whose beatings are too gentle for the world.

— ^Willis's Poems.
In Eastern lands they talk in flowers.
And they tell in a garland their loves and cares ;
Each blossom that blooms in their garden bowers,
On its leaves a mystic language bears ;
Then gather a wreath from the garden bowers.
And tell the wish of thy heart in flowers. — Percival.
Oh ! what tender thoughts beneath
Those silent flowers are lying.
Hid within the mystic wreath
My love hath kiss'd in tying. — Moore.
A violet by a mossy stone.

Half hidden from the eye,
Fair as a star, when only one

Is shining in the sky. — Wordsworth.
Forgetfulness.

When I forget that the stars shine in air —
When I forget that beauty is in stars —
When I forget that love with beauty is —
Will I forget thee : till then all things else.

— Bailey's Festus.
Forgiveness.

He added not, and from her tum'd ; but Eve
Not so repuls'd, with tears that ceas'd not flowing,
And tresses all disorder'd, at his feet
Fell humble, and embracing them, besought
His peace. — Milton's Paradise Lost.

'Tis easier for the generous to forgive,
Than for offence to ask it.

— Thomson's Edmund and Eleanora.
Young men soon give, and soon forget affronts ;
Old age is slow in both. — Addison's Cato.
Fortitude.

Fortitude is not the appetite
Of formidable things, nor inconsult
Rashness : but virtue fighting for a truth ;
Deriv'd from knowledge of distinguishing
Good or bad causes. — N abb's Covent Garden.

— Gird our hearts with silent fortitude,
Suffering yet hoping all things. — Mrs. Hemans.
Fortune.

Since you will buckle fortune on my back.
To bear her burden whe'r I will or no,
I must have patience to endure the load.

— Shakespeare's Richard III.
To catch dame fortune's golden smile,

Assiduous wait upon her ;
And gather gear by every wile

That's justified by honor.
Not for to hide it in a hedge.
Nor for a train attendant ;
But for the glorious privilege
Of being independent. — BURNS.
Freedom.

For freedom's battle oft begun,
Bequeath'd from bleeding sire to son,
Though baffled oft, is ever won.

— Byron's Giaour.
Better to dwell in freedom's hall,
With a cold damp floor and mouldering wall.
Than bow the head and bend the knee
In the proudest palace of slaverie. — Moore.
Oh ; not yet
May'st thou unbrace thy corslet, nor lay by
Thy sword, nor yet, O Freedom ! close thy lids
In slumber ; for thine enemy never sleeps.
And thou must watch and combat, till the day
Of the new Earth and Heaven.— Bryant.
Freedom's soil hath only place
For a free and fearless race. — Whittier,
When freedom, on her natal day.
Within her war-rock'd cradle lay.
An iron race around her stood,
Baptiz'd her infant brow in bloor.,
And through the storm that round her swept.
Their constant ward and watching kept.

— Whittier
Friendship.

Friendship is the cement of two minds,
As of one man the soul and body is ;
Of which one cannot sever but the other
Suffers a needful separation.

— Chapman's Revenge.
Friendship has a power
To soothe affliction in her darkest hour.

— H. K. White.
Friend after friend departs ; —
WTio hath not lost a friend ?
There is no union here of hearts

That hath not here its end.— MONTGOMERY.
Friendship is no plant of hasty growth ;
Tho' planted in esteem's deep fixed soil.
The gradual culture of kind intercourse
Must bring to it perfection.

— Joanna Bailie's De Montfort

\ 80

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Futurity.

O, that a man might know
The end of this day's business, ere it come !
But it sufficeth that the day will end,
And then the end is known.

— Shakespeare's Julius Ccesar.

Eternity, thou pleasing — dreadful thought !
Thro' what variety of untry'd beings,
Thro' what new scenes and changes must we pass ;
The wide, the unbounded prospect lies before me ;
But shadows, clouds, and darkness rest upon it.

Addison's Cato.

There is no hope — the future will but turn
The old sands in the failing glass of time !

— R. H. Stoddard.
Generosity.

An act that does deserve requital.

Pay first themselves the stock of such content.

— Sir Robert Howard.

God blesses still the generous thought,

And still the fitting word He speeds,
And truth at His requiring taught,

He quickens into deeds. — Whittier.
Gentleman.

Who misses or who wins the prize ?

Go, lose or conquer as you can ;
But if you fail, or if you rise,

Be each, pray God, a gentleman. — Anon.

Whom do we dub as gentlemen ? The knave, the fool, the

brute —
If they but own full tithe of gold and wear a courtly suit !
The parchment scroll of titled line, the riband at the knee,
Can still suffice to ratify and grant a high degree.

— Eliza Cook.
Gifts.

Win her with gifts, if she respect not words ;

Dumb jewels often, in their silent kind.

More quick than words do move a woman's mind.

— Shakespeare's Two Gentlemen of Verona,
Glory.

Glory is like a circle in the water,

Which never ceaseth to enlarge itself.

Till by broad spreading, it disperse to naught.

— Shakespeare's Henry VI, Part I.

Glories, like glow-worms, afar off shine bright ;
But look'd too near, have neither heat nor light.

—Webster's Dwhess of Malfy.

What is glory ? What is fame ?
The echo of a long-lost name ;
A breath, an idle hour's brief talk ;
The shadow of an arrant naught ;
A flower that blossoms for a day,

Dying next morrow ;
A stream that hurries on its way.

Singing of sorrow. — Motherwell

Gold.

There is thy gold ; whose poison to men's souls,
Doing more murders in this loathsome world
Than these poor compounds that thou may'st not sell :
I sell thee poison, thou hast sold me none.

Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet.

For gold the merchant ploughs the main.
The farmer ploughs the manor. — Burns.

Thou more than stone of the philosopher !
Thou touchstone of philosophy herself !
Thou bright eye of the mine ! Thou load star of
The soul ! Thou true magnetic pole, to which
All hearts point duly north, like trembling needles.

— Byron.
Grace.

Grace was in all her steps, heaven in her eye.
In every gesture dignity and love.

Milton's Paradise Lost.

Gratitude.

A grateful mind
By owing owes not, but still pays, at once
Indebted and discharg'd. — Milton's Paradise Lost.
I've heard of hearts unkind, kind deeds

With coldness still returning ;
Alas ! the gratitude of men

Hath of tener left me mourning. — Wordsworth.

Grave.

Our lives are rivers, gliding free
In that unfathom'd, boundless sea.

The silent grave !
Thither all earthly pomp and boast
Roll, to be swallowed up and lost

In one dark wave. — Longfellow

I gazed upon the glorious sky

And the green mountains round ;
And thought that when I came to lie

Within the silent ground,
'Twere pleasant, that in flowery June,
Where brooks sent up a cheerful tune.

And groves a joyous sound,
The sexton's hand, my grave to make.
The rich green mountain turf should break.

— Bryant

Grief.

O that this too, too solid flesh would melt,

Thaw, and resolve itself into a dew !

Or that the everlasting had not fix'd

His cannon 'gainst self slaughter ! O God ! O God I

How weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable

Seem to me all the uses of this world !

Fie on't ! O fie : 'tis an unweeded garden.

That grows to seed : things rank and gross in nature

Possess it merely. — Shakespeare's Hamlet.

Some grief shows much of love ;
But much of grief shows still some want of wit.

Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet.

4r-

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

sir-

Half of the ills we hoard within our hearts.
Are ills because we hoard them.

— Proctor's Mirandole.

We look before and after,

And pine for what is not ;
Our sincerest laughter

With some pain is fraught. — Shelley.

Thine is a grief that wastes the heart,

Like mildew on a tulip's dyes —
When hope, deferr'd but to depart.
Loses its smiles but keeps its sighs.

— Miss Landon.
Guilt.

God hath yok'd to guilt
Her pale tormentor — misery. — Bryant.
O what a state is guilt ! how wild ! how wretched 1
When apprehension can form nought but fears,
And we distrust security herself. — Havard's Regulus.

Hand.

Her hand
In whose comparison, all whites are ink
Writing their own reproach, to whose soft seizure
The cygnet's down is harsh, and spirit of sense
Hard as the palm of ploughman !

— Shaks. Troilus and Cressida.

I love a hand that meets mine own
With grasp that causes some sensation.

—Mrs. Osgood.

Happiness.

O how bitter a thing it is to look

Into happiness through another man's eyes !

— Shaks. As You Like It.

Beware what earth calls happiness ; beware
All joys, but joys that never can expire ;
Who builds on less than an immortal base,
Fond as he seems, condemns his joy to death.

— Young's Night Thoughts.
There is a gentle element, and man
May breathe it with a calm unruffled soul.
And drink its living waters, till his heart
Is pure, and this is human happiness. — Willis.

Hate.

It is the wit, the policy of sin,

To hate those men we have abused.

— Sir W. Davenant's Just Italian.
They did not know how hate can bum.
In hearts once changed from soft to stem;
Nor all the false and fatal zeal
The convert of revenge can feel.

— Byron's Siege of Corinth.

Health.

The surest road to health, say what they will

Is never to suppose we shall be ill.

Most of those evils we poor mortals know

From doctors and imagination flow. — CHURCHILL.

Heart.

The heart is like the sky a part of heaven,

But changes, night and day, too, like the sky;
Now o'er it clouds and thunder must be driven.

And darkness and destruction, as on high ;
But when it hath been scorch'd, and pierc'd, and riven,

Its storms expire in water-drops ; the eye
Pours forth, at last, the heart's blood turned to tears.

— Byron.
The flush of youth soon passes from the face.
The spells of fancy from the mind depart ;
The form may lose its symmetry, its grace,
But time can claim no victory o'er the heart.

— Mrs. Drimes.
A young maiden's heart
Is a rich soil, wherein lie many germs
Hid by the cunning hand of nature there
To put forth blossoms in their fittest season ;
And though the love of home first breaks the soil.
With its embracing tendrils clasping it.
Other affections strong and warm will grow.
While that one fades, as summer's flush of bloom
Succeeds the gentle budding of the spring.

— Mrs. Francis K. Butler.

Home.

Home is the resort
Of love, of joy, of peace and plenty, where
Supporting and supported, polish'd friends
And dear relations mingle into bliss.

— Thomson's Seasons.
At length his lonely cot appears in view.
Beneath the shelter of an aged tree ;
Th' expectant wee things, todlin stacher through
To meet their dad, wi' flichtering noise and glee ;
His wee-bit ingle blinkin bonnilie.
His clean hearth-stane, his thrifty wifie's smile.
The lisping infant prattling on his knee,
Does a' his weary kiaugh and care beguile.
And makes him quite forget his labor and his toil.

— Burns' Cotter's Saturday Night.

Leans o'er his humble gate and thinks the while —
Oh ! that for me some home like this would smile,
Some hamlet shade, to yield my sickly form.
Health in the breeze, and shelter in the storm.

— Campbell's Pleasures of Hope,

'Tis sweet to hear the watch-dog's honest bark.

Bay deep-mouth'd welcome as we draw near Home ;

'Tis sweet to know there is an eye will mark

Our coming, and look brighter when we come.— Byron.

O, it was pitiful !

Near a whole city full.

Home she had none. — Thomas Hood.

My son — thou wilt dream the world is fair,

And thy spirit will sigh to roam.
And thou must go ; — but never, when there.

Forget the light of home. — Mrs. Hale.

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

4r-

Honest.

Ay, sir ; to be honest as this world goes.
Is to be one pick'd out of ten thousand.

— Shak?. Hamlet.
Take heed what you say, sir !
An hundred honest men ! why if there were
So many i' th' city, 't were enough to forfeit
Their charter. — Shirley's Gamester.
Honor.

Mine honor is my life ; both grow in one ;
Take honor from me, and my life is done.

— Shaks. Richard II.
Honor is
Virtue's allowed ascent : honor that clasps
All perfect justice in her arms ; that craves
No more respect than what she ^ives ; that does
Nothing but what she'll suffer.

— Massinger's Very Woman.
The noblest spur unto the sons of fame
Is thirst of honor. — John Hall.
Better to die ten thousand deaths
Than wound my honor. — Addison'S Caio.
A life of honor and of worth
Has no eternity on earth, —

'Tis but a name —
And yet its glory far exceeds
That base and sensual life which leads
To want and shame. — Longfellow.
Hope.

The miserable hath no other medicine
But only hope. — Shaks. Measure for Measure.
Hope ! fortune's cheating lottery !
Where for one prize an hundred blanks there be ;
Fond archer, hope ! who tak'st thy aim so far,
That still, or short, or wide, thine arrows are ! — CoWLEY.
Unfading hope ! when life's last embers bum.
When soul to soul, and dust to dust return !
Heaven to thy charge resigns the awful hour !
Oh ! then thy kingdom comes ! immortal power,
What though each spark of earth-bom rapture fly,
The quivering lip, pale cheek, and closing eye !
Bright to the soul thy seraph hands convey
The morning dream of life's eternal day —
Then, then, the triumph and the trance begin !
And all the phoenix spirit bums within !

Campbell's Pleasures of Hope.
White as a white sail on a dusty sea.
When half the horizon's clouded and half free,
Fluttering between the dun wave and the sky,
Is hope's last gleam in man's extremity.

— Byron's Island.
Humility.

Humility is eldest-bom of virtue.

And claims the birth-right at the throne of heav'n.

— Murphy's Zobeide.
The meek mountain daisy, with delicate crest.
And the violet whose eye told the heaven of her breast.

— Mrs. Sigourney.

Husbands.

Look here upon this picture, and on this :
The counterfeit presentment of two brothers :
See, what a grace was seated on this brow ;
Hyperion's curls ; the front of Jove himself ;
An eye, like Mars, to threaten or command ;
A station, like the herald Mercury,
New lighted on a heaven kissing hill ;
A combination, and a form indeed,
Where every god did seem to set his seal.
To give the world assurance of a man !
This was your husband. — Look you now what follows ;
There is your husband — like a mildew'd ear
Blasting his wholesome brother. — Shaks. Hamlet.
Marry ! no, faith ; husbaj;ids are like lots in
The lottery, you may draw forty blanks
Before you find one that has any prize
In him ; a husband generally is a
Careless domineering thing, that grows like
Coral ; which as long as it is under water
Is soft and tender ; but as soon
As it has got its branch above the waves
Is presently hard, stiff, not to be bow'd. — Marston.
Hypocrisy.

How many cowards, whose hearts are all as false
As stairs of sand, wear upon their chins
The beard of Hercules, and frowning Mars,
Who, inward search'd, have livers white as milk ?

Shaks. Merchant of Venice.
Bartering his venal wit for sums of gold,
He cast himself into the saint-like mould ;
Groan'd, sigh'd, and pray'd, while godliness was gain.
The loudest bag-pipe of the squeaking train. — Dryden.
Few men dare show their thoughts of worst or best ;
Dissimulation always sets apart
A comer for herself ; and therefore Fiction
Is that which passes with least contradiction. — Byron.
Idleness.

From worldly cares himself he did esloin,

And greatly shunned manly exercise ;

From every work he challenged essoin.

For contemplation sake : yet otherwise.

His life he led in lawless riotise

By which he grew to grievous malady,

For in his lustless limbs through evil guise,

A shaking fever reign'd continually ;

Such one was Idleness. — Spenser's Fairy Queen,

Leisure is pain ; takes off our chariot wheels ;

How heavily we drag the load of life ;

Blest leisure is our curse ; like that of Cain,

It makes us wander : wander earth around

To fly that tyrant thought. As Atlas groan'd

The world beneath, we groan beneath an hour.

— Young's Night Thoughts.
When you have found a day to be idle, be idle for a day.
When you have met with three cups to drmk, drink your three
cups.— Chinese Poet.

■^

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Idleness is sweet and sacred.

— Walter Savage Landor.
I would not waste my spring of youth
In idle dalliance : I would plant rich seeds,
To blossom in my manhood, and bear fruit
When I am old. — HiLLHOUSE.

Ignorance. -,

Where ignorance is bliss,
'Tis folly to be wise.— Gray.
By ignorance is pride increas'd ;
They most assume who know the least.

— Gray's Fables.
Imagination.

My brain, methinks, is like an hour-glass.
Wherein m' imaginations run like sands,
Filling up time ; but then are tum'd and turn'd,
So that I know not what to stay upon,
And less to put in art.

— Jonson's Every Man in his Humor.
'Mid earthly scenes forgotten or unknown.
Lives in ideal worlds, and wanders there alone.

— Carlos Wilcox.
Immortal.

Can it be ?
Matter immortal ? and shall spirit die ?
Above the nobler, shall less nobler rise ?
Shall man alone, for whom all else revives,
No resurrection know ? Shall man alone,
Imperial man ! be sown in barren ground.
Less privileg'd than grain, on which he feeds ?

— Young's Night Thoughts.
Love, which proclaims the human, bids thee know
A truth more lofty in thy lowliest hour
Than shallow glory taught to human power —
" What's human is immortal ! "— Bulwer's Poems.
Inconstancy.

How long must women wish in vain

A constant love to find ?
No art can fickle man retain,

Or fix a roving mind.
Yet fondly we ourselves deceive.

And empty hopes pursue ;
Though false to others we believe

They will to us prove true. — Thomas Shadwell.
Three things a wise man will not trust.
The wind, the sunshine of an April day.
And woman's plighted faith. I have beheld
The weathercock upon the steeple point
Steady from morn till eve, and I have seen
The bees go forth upon an April mom.
Secure the sunshine will not end in showers :
But when was woman true ? — Southey's Madoc^
Industry.

Industry —
To meditate, to plan, resolve, perform,
Which in itself is good — as surely brings
Reward of good, no matter what be done.

Pollock's Course of lime.

Behold .-
The ruddy damsel singeth at her wheel.
While by her side the rustic lover sits.
Perchance his shrewd eye secretly doth count
The mass of skeins, which, hanging on the wall,
Increaseth day by day. Perchance his thoughts,
(For men have deeper minds than women — sure !)
Are calculating what a thrifty wife
The maid will make. — MRS. Sigourney.
Infidelity.

Why, she would hang on him

As if increase of appetite had grown

By what it fed on ; and yet within a month —

Let me not think on 't ; — Frailty, thy name is woman •

— Shaks. Hamlet
O wretched is the dame, to whom the sound,
* ' Your lord will soon return " no pleasure brings.

— Maturin's Bertram.
Ingratitude.

For vicious natures, when they once begin
To take distaste, and purpose no requital ;
The greater debt they owe, the more they hate.

— May's Agrippina,
Ingratitude is a monster —
To be strangled in the birth ; not to be cherish'd.

— Massinger.
If there be a crime
Of deeper dye than all the guilty train
Of human vices, tis ingratitude.

— Brooke's Earl of Warwick.
Innocence.

I have mark'd
A thousand blushing apparitions start
Into her face ; a thousand innocent shames
In angel whiteness bear away those blushes ;
And in her eye there hath appear'd a fire.
To bum the errors that these princes hold
Against her maiden tmth.

— Shaks. Much Ado about Nothing.

Innocent maid, and snow-white flower.
Well are ye pair'd in your opening hour ;
Thus should the pure and lovely meet.
Stainless with stainless, and sweet with sweet.
Throw it aside in thy weary hour ;
Throw it to the ground the fair white flower.
Yet as thy smiling years depart.
Keep that white and innocent heart. — Bryant.
Instinct.

Reason raise o'er instinct as you can.
In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man. — POPB.
Jealousy.

O, beware, my lord, of jealousy ;
It is the green-ey'd monster which doth mock
The meat it feeds on ; that cuckold lives in bliss
Who, certain of his fate, loves not his wronger ;
But, O, what damned minutes tells he o'er.
Who dotes, yet doubts ; suspects, yet strongly loves.

— Shakespeare's OtheUiK

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Joy-

All other passions have their hour of thinking,
And hear the voice of reasoning. This alone
Breaks at the first suspicion into phrenzy,
And sweeps the soul in tempests.

— Francis's Constantine.

Yet he was jealous, though he did not show it,

For jealousy dislikes the world to know it. — Byron.

True joy is only hope put out of fear ;
And honor hideth error ev'ry where.

Lord Brooke's Alaham.

Joy kneels, at morning's rosy prime.
In worship to the rising sun.

— James G. Brooks.
Joy for the present moment ! Joy to-day !

Why look we to the morrow ?
Mingle me bitters to drive care away;
Nothing on earth can be for ever gay.
And free from sorrow. — Epes Sargent.
Her world was ever joyous —

She thought of grief and pain
As giants in the olden time
That ne'er would come again.

— Mrs. Hale's Alice Ray.
Justice.

Justice, when equal scales she holds, is blind,

Nor cruelty, nor mercy, change her mind ;

When some escape for that which others die,

Mercy to those, to these is cruelty ;

A fine and slender net the spider weaves

Which little and slight animals receives ;

And if she catch a summer bee or fly.

They with a piteous groan and murmur die ;

But if a wasp or hornet she entrap.

They tear her cords, like Samson, and escape :

So like a fly, the poor offender dies ;

But like the wasp the rich escapes and flies.

— Denham.

Justice, while she winks at crimes,

Stumbles on innocence sometimes.

— Butler's Hudibras.

A happy lot be thine, and larger light

Await thee there ; for thou hast bound thy will.
In cheerful homage to the rule of right,
And lovest all, and doest good for ill. — Bryant.
Man is unjust, but God is just ; and finally justice
Triumphs. — Longfellow's Evangeline. ■
Kindness.

Kindness in woman, not their beauteous looks.
Shall win my love.

— Shakespeare's Taming the Shrew.
Kindness by secret sympathy is tied ;
For noble souls in nature are allied. — Dryden.
If a soul thou wouldst redeem,

And lead a lost one back to God ; —
Wouldst thou a guardian-angel seem
To one who long in guilt hatb trod, —

Go kindly to him — take his hand

With gentlest words within thine own.

And by his side a brother stand.
Till all the demons thou dethrone.

— Mrs. C. M. Sawyer.
King.

He's a king,
A true, right king, that dares do aught, save wrong;
Fears nothing mortal, but to be unjust;
Who is not blown up with the flattering puffs
Of spongy sycophants ; who stands unmov'd.
Despite the jostling of opinion.

Kiss.

— Marston's Antonio and Mellida. Part J.

O, a kiss

Long as my exile, sweet as my revenge !
Now, by the jealous queen of heaven, that kiss,
I carried from thee, dear ; and my true lip
Hath virgin'd it o'er since.

— Shakespeare's Coriolanus.
Teach not thy lip such scorn ; for it was made
For kissing, lady, not for such contempt. •

— Shakespeare's Ricliard III,
Oh ! could I give the world ;
One kiss of thine, but thus to touch thy lips,
I were a gainer by the vast exchange.
The fragrant infancy of opening flowers
Flow 'd to my senses in that melting kiss.

— Southern's Disappointment.

The kiss you take is paid by that you give ;
The joy is mutual, and I'm still in debt.

— Lord Lansdown's Heroic Love.
Soft child of love — thou balmy bliss.
Inform me, O delicious kiss !
Why thou so suddenly art gone,
Lost in the moment thou art won ?

— Dr. WoLcxyr.
Knowledge.

Through knowledge we behold the world's creation.
How in his cradle first he fostered was ;
And judge of nature's cunning operation,
How things she formed of a formless mass :
By knowledge do we learn ourselves to know ;
And what to man and what to God we owe. — Spencer.
Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers.

And I linger more and more.
And the individual withers.

And the world is more and more. — TENNYSON.
O fear not in a world like this.

And thou shall know ere long.
Know how sublime a thing it is
To suffer and be strong. — LONGFELLOW.
Labor.

" Labor is worship " — the robin is singing ;
" Labor is worship " — the wild bee is ringing.
Listen ; that eloquent whisper upspringing.
Speaks to the soul out of nature's great heart.

Mrs. Osgood

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Let us, then, be up and doing.

With a heart for any fate ;
Still achieving, still pursuing,

Learn to labor and to wait. — LONGFELLOW.
Law.

The hungry judges soon the sentence sign.
And wretches hang that jurymen may dine.

Pope's Rape of the Lock.
Let the laws of your own land,
Good or ill between you stand.
Hand to hand, and foot to foot,

Arbiters of the dispute. — Shelley's Liberty.
Learning.

A little learning is a dang'rous thing,
Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring :
There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain,
And drinking largely sobers us again.

— Pope's Essay on Ctiticism.
Liberty.

Oh ! give me liberty !
For were ev'n paradise my prison.
Still I should long to leap the crystal walls.

— Dryden's Don Sebastian.
O liberty.
Parent of happiness, celestial-born ;
When the first man became a living soul,
His sacred genius thou. — Dyer's Ruins of Rome.
What are fifty, what a thousand slaves,
Match'd to the sinew of a single arm
That strikes for liberty ? — Brooke's Gustavus Vasa.
There is a spirit working in the world
Like to a silent, subterranean fire ;
Yet ever and anon some monarch hurl'd
Aghast and pale, attests its fearful ire :
The dungeon 'd nations now once more respire

The keen and stirring air of Liberty. — George Hill.

Life.

Out, out, brief candle !
Life's but a walking shadow ; a poor player.
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,
And then is heard no more : it is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury.
Signifying nothing. — Shaks. Macbeth.
The cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces.
The solemn temples, the great globe itself,
Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve,
And, like this unsubstantial pageant faded,
Leave not a rack behind : we are such stuff
As dreams are made of, and our little life
Is rounded with a sleep. — Shaks. Tempest.
Farewell, a long farewell, to all my greatness !
This is the state of man : to-day he puts forth
The tender leaves of hope, to-morrow blossoms.
And bears his blushing honors thick upon him :
The third day comes a frost, a killing frost ;
And — ;when he thinks, good easy man, full surely
His greatness is a-ripening — nips his root,
. And then he falls, as I do. — Shaks. Henry VIII.

Life is a weary interlude —

Which doth short joys, long woes include :

The world the stage, the prologue tears ;

The acts vain hopes and varied fears ;

The scene shuts up with loss of breath.

And leaves no epilogue but death. — Bishop King.

To-day is like yesterday, it cheats ;
We take the lying sister for the same ;
Life glides away, Lorenzo, like a brook ;
For ever changing, unperceiv'd the change.

— Young's Night Thoughts

Be wise with speed ;
A fool at forty is a fool indeed.

— Young's Love of Fame

What is life ?
A gulf of troubled waters — where the . . . .?
Like a vex'd bark, is tossed upon the waves
Of pain and pleasure by the wavering breath
Of passions. — Miss Landon.

Life is real, life is earnest ;

And the grave is not its goal ;
Dust thou art, to dust retumest.

Was not spoken of the soul. — Longfellow.

Thus bravely live heroic men,

A consecrated band ;
Life is to them a battle-field.

Their hearts a holy land. — Tuckerman.

Love.

Love is life's end ; an end but never ending ;

All joys, all sweets, all happiness, awarding ;

Love is life's wealth (ne'er spent but ever spending),

More rich by giving, taking by discarding.

Love 's life's reward, rewarded in rewarding ;

Then from thy wretched heart fond care remove.

Ah ! should'st thou live but once love's sweets to prove.

Thou wilt not love to live, unless thou live to love.

— Spenser's Britain's Ida.

The more thou damm'st it up, the more it bums.

The current that with gentle murmur glides.

Thou know'st, being stopp'd, impatiently doth rage ;

But when his fair course is not hindered,

He makes sweet music with the enamel'd stones,

Giving a gentle kiss to every sedge

He overtaketh in his pilgrimage.

— Shaks. Two Gentlemen of Verona,

Fantastic tyrant of the amorous heart.
How hard thy yoke ! how cruel is thy dart !
Those 'scape thy anger who refuse thy sway.
And those are punish'd most who most obey.

— Prior's Solomon,

The maid that loves
Goes out to sea upon a shattered plank.
And puts her trust in miracles for safety.

— Young's Revenge.

■^

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Love, strong in wish, is weak in reason, still
Forming a thousand ills, which ne'er shall be,
And, -like a coward, kills itself to-day,
With fancied grief for fear it die to-n\orrow.

— Sewell's Sir W. Raleigh.
O magic of love I unembellish'd by you
Has the garden a blush or the herbage a hue.
Or blooms there a prospect in nature or art.
Like the vista that shines through the eye to the heart ?

— Moore.
Man's love is of man's life a thing, a part,
'Tis a woman's whole existence ; man may range
The court, the camp, church, vessel and the mart.
Sword, gown, gain, glory, offer in exchange ;
Pride, fame, ambition, to fill up his heart ;
And few there are whom these can not estrange ;
Men have all these resources, we but one —
To love again, and be again undone. — Byron.

Love's reign is eternal.

The heart is his throne,
And he has all seasons

Of life for his own. — G. P. Morris.
Lovers.

Then, the lover,
Sighing like furnace, with a woful ballad
Made to his mistress' eye-brow.

— Shaks. As You Like It,
They parted as all lovers part ; —
She with her wrong'd and breaking heart ;
But he rejoicing to be free.

Bounds like a captive from his chain.
And wilfully believing she

Hath found her liberty again ;
Or if dark thoughts will cross his mind,
They are but clouds before the wind.

— Miss Landon.
Never thread was spun so fine,
Never spider stretch'd the line,
Would not hold the lovers true
That would really swing for you. — O. W. Holmes.

Madness.

Alas ! how is 't with you ?
That you do bend your eyes on vacancy.
And with the incorporeal air do hold discourse ?

—Shaks. Hamlet.
His brain is wrecked —
For ever in the pauses of his speech
His lip doth work with inward mutterings
And his fixed eye is riveted fearfully
On something that no other site can spy.

— Maturin's Bertram.

Man.

Man is supreme lord and master
Of his own ruin and disaster ;
Controls his fate, but nothing less
In ord'ring his own happiness :

For all his care and providence
Is too, too feeble a defence
To render it secure and certain
Against the injuries of fortune ;
And oft, in spite of all his wit,
Is lost with one unlucky hit.
And ruin'd with a circumstance,
And mere punctilio of chance.

— Massinger's Guardian.

Know then thyself, presume not God to scan :
The proper study of mankind is man.
Plac'd on this isthmus of a middle state,
A being darkly wise and rudely great.
With too much knowledge for the skeptic's side,
With too much weakness for the stoic's pride.
He hangs between, in doubt to act or rest ;
In doubt to deem himself a god or beast.

— Pope's Essay on Man.

All that hath been majestical

In life or death since time began,

Is native in the simple heart of all.
The angel-heart of man.

— James Russell Lowell.

Marriage.

Nothing shall assuage
Your love but marriage : for such is
The tying of two in wedlock, as is
The tuning of two lutes in one key : for
Striking the strings of the one, straws will stir
Upon the strings of the other ; and in
Two minds link'd in love, one cannot be
Delighted but the other rejoiceth.

— Lilly's Sappho and Phacn.

O marriage ! marriage ! what a curse is thine,
Where hands alone consent and hearts abhor.

— Hill's Alzira.

While other doublets deviate here and there
What secret handcuff binds that pretty pair ?
Compactest couple ! pressing side to side, —
Ah ! the white bonnet — that reveals the bride !

— O. W. Holmes.

I saw her, and I lov'd her,

I sought her, and I won ;
A dozen pleasant summers.

And more, since then, have run.
And half as many voices

Now prattling by her side.
Remind me of the autumn.

When she became my bride.

— Thomas Mackay,

Meeting.

Ah me !
The world is full of meetings such as this —
A thrill, a voiceless challenge and reply —
And sudden partings after ! — WllXIS.

•'•il

''t

.cJl^^fTy

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

£5VIA

I have said I would not meet him —

Have I said the words in vain ?
Sunset bums along the hill-tops,

And I'm waiting here again :
But my promise is not broken,

Though I stand where once we met ;
When I hear his coming footsteps,

I can fly him even yet. — Phcebe Carey.
Melancholy.

Melancholy is a fearful gift,
What is it but the telescope of truth ?
Which strips the distance of its phantasies.
And brings life near in utter darkness.
Making the cold reality too real. — Byron.
Go, you may call it madness, folly, —

You shall not chase my gloom away ;
There's such a charm in melancholy,

I would not, if I could, be gay. — ROGERS.
Ah, there are moments for us here, when, seeing
Life's inequalities, and woe, and care.
The burdens laid upon our mortal being
Seem heavier than the human heart can bear.

— Phcebe Carey.
Memory.

O memory ! thou fond deceiver.

Still importunate and vain,
To former joys recurring ever.

And turning all the past to pain;
Thou, like the world, th' opprest oppressing, ^

Thy smiles increase the wretch's woe !
And he who wants each other blessing
In thee must ever find a foe. — Goldsmith.

Through the shadowy past.
Like a tomb-searcher, memory ran.
Lifting each shroud that time had cast
O'er buried hopes. — Moore's Loves of the Angels.
Lull'd in the countless chambers of the brain.
Our thoughts are linked by many a hidden chain.
Awake but one, and lo, what myriads rise !
Each stamps its image as the other flies !

— Rogers' Pleasures of Memory.
Mercj.

The quality of mercy is not strain 'd ;
It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven
Upon the place beneath : it is twice bless'd ;
It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes ;
*Tis mightiest in the mighty ; it becomes
The throned monarch better than his crown.

— Shaks. Merchant of Venice.
Hate shuts her soul when dove-eyed Mercy pleads.

— Sprague.
Man may dismiss compassion from his heart,
But God will never, — Cowper's Tctsk.
Merit.

There's a proud modesty in merit !

Averse from asking, and resolv'd to pay

Ten times the gifts it aslas. — Dryden's Cleomenes.

Mind.

The mind doth shape itself to its own wants.

And can bear all things. — Joanna Baillie's Raytter.

The mind
Forges from knowledge the archangel's spear.
And with the spirits that compel the world.
Conflicts for empire. — Willis.

Mirth.

'Tis ever common.
That men are merriest when they are from home.

— Shaks. Henry V.
A little of thy merriment.
Of thy sparkling, light content.

Give me, my cheerful brook, —
That I may still be full of glee
And gladsomeness where'er I be.
Though fickle fate hath prison'd me
In some neglected nook.

— ^James Russell Lowell.
Misfortune.

Misfortune brings
Sorrow enough : 'tis envy to ourselves,
To augment it by prediction.

— Habbington's Queen of Arragon.

The furrows of long thought dried lip in tears.

— Byron's Childe Harold
Modesty.

Her looks did ai^e her replete with modesty. — Shaks.
The blushing beauties of a modest maid. — Dryden's Oma.
Methinks the rose * * * *
Is the very emblem of a maid ;
For when the west wind courts her gently,
How modestly she blows, and paints the sun
With her chaste blushes ; when the north come near her,
Rude and impatient, then like chastity
She locks her beauties in her bud again.
And leaves him to base briars.

— Rowley's Two Noble Kinsmen.

Morning.

The glow-worm shows the matin to be near.
And 'gins to pale his ineffectual fire. — Shaks. Hamlet.
At length the world, renew'd by calm repose.
Was strong for toil, the dappled mom arose.

— Parnell's Hermit,

Day takes his daily turn,
Rising between the gulfy dells of night.
Like whiten'd billows on the gloomy sea.

— Joanna Baillie's Orra.

Day glimmered in the east, and the white moon
Hung like a vapour in the cloudless sky.

— Rogers' Italy.

Day dawns, the twilight gleam dilates.
The sun comes forth, and, like a god.
Rides through rejoicing heaven. — Southey's Thalaba

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Mother.

The mother, in her office, holds the key

Of the soul ; and she it is who stamps the coin

Of character, and makes the being who would be a savage,

But for her gentle cares, a Christian man,

Then crown her Queen o' the world. — Wych.

My mother ! — manhood's anxious brow
And sterner cares have long been mine,

Yet turn I to thee fondly now,
As when upon thy bosom's shrine

My infant griefs were gently hush'd to rest.

And thy low whisper'd prayers my slumber bless'd.

— George W. Bethune.

A mother's love — how sweet the name —

What is a mother's love ? —
A noble, pure and tender flame

Enkindled from above.
To bless a heart of earthly mould ;
The warmest love that can grow cold ;

This is a mother's love. — James Montgomery.

There are smiles and tears in my mother's eyes,
For her new-born babe beside her lies ;
Oh, heaven of bliss ! when the heart o'erflows
With the rapture a mother only knows !

— Henry Ware, Jr.
And while my soul retains the power

To think upon each faded year.
In every bright or shadow'd hour.

My heart shall hold my mother dear.
The hills may tower — the waves may rise.

And roll between my home and me ;
Yet shall my quenchless memories
Turn with undying love to thee.

— Willis Gaylord Clark.

Music.

If music be the food of love, play on;
Give me excess of it ; that, surfeiting.
The appetite may sicken, and so die.

— Shakespeare's Twelfth Night.

To hear him, you'd believe
An ass was practising recitative. — Byron.

Music, where soft voices die,
Vibrates in the memory. — Shelley.

There's music in the forest leaves,

When summer winds are there.
And in the laugh of forest girls.

That braid their sunny hair.
The first wild bird that drinks the dew,

From violets of the spring.
Has music in his song, and in

The fluttering of his wing. — Halleck.

Name.

Good name in man or woman dear —
Is the immediate jewel of their souls.

— Shakespeare's Othello.

Nature.

Nature ! great parent ! whose unceasing hand
Rolls round the seasons of the changeful year,
How mighty, how majestic, are thy works !
With what a pleasing dread they swell the soul !
That sees astonish'd ! and astonish'd sings !

— Thomson's Seasons
Nature — faint emblem of Omnipotence ! —
Shap'd by His hand — the shadow of His light —
The veil in which He wraps His majesty,
And through whose mantling folds He deigns to show.
Of His mysterious, awful attributes
And dazzling splendours, all man's feeble thought
Can grasp uncrush'd, or vision bear unquench'd.

— Street.
Necessity.

When fear admits no hope of safety, then
Necessity makes dastards valiant men. — Herrick.
Between you and your best intent

Necessity her brazen bar
Will often interpose, as sent
Your pure benevolence to mar.

— R. M. Milnes.
Necessity, like electricity,
Is in ourselves and all things, and no more
Without us than within us. — Bailey's Festus.
Night,

Fair oldest child of love, thou spotless night !
Empress of silence, and the queen of sleep ;
Who, with thy black cheek's pure complexion,
Mak'st lovers' eyes enamor'd of thy beauty. — Marlovv^.
The midnight bell
Did with his iron tongue and brazen mouth
Sound one unto the drowsy race of night.

— Shakespeare's King John.
In sable pomp, with all her starry train,
The night resum'd her throne. — Glover.
The night has come, but not too soon ;

And sinking silently.
All silently, the little moon

Drops down behind the sky. — LONGFELLOW.
Nobility.

There's no power
In ancestry to make the foolish wise.
The ignorant learn 'd, the cowardly and base
Deserving our respect as brave and good.
All men feel this : nor dares the despot say
His fiat can endow with truth the soul.
Or like a pension, on the heart bestow
The virtues current in the realms above.
Hence man's best riches must be gain'd — not given ;
His noblest name deserv'd, and not deriv'd.

Mrs. Hale's Omiond Grosvevor.
Novelty.

Of all the passions that possess mankind.

The love of novelty rules most the mind ;

In search of this, from realm to realm we roam,

Our fleets come fraught with ev'ry folly home. — FOOTK.

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Oaths.

Tis not the many oaths that make the truth ;
But the plain single vow, that is vowed true.

Shakespeare's A/Ps Well.
Ocean.

Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean — roll I

Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain ;

Man marks the earth with ruin — his control

Stops with the shore ; — upon the watery plain

The wrecks are all thy deed, nor doth remain

A shadow of man's ravage, save his own,

When, for a moment, like a drop of rain,

He sinks into thy depths with bubbling groan,

Without a grave, unknell'd, uncoffin'd, and unknown.

Byron's Childe Harold.
The sea ! the sea ! the open sea !
The blue, the fresh, the ever free !
Without a mark, without a bound.
It runneth the earth's wide regions round ;
It plays with the clouds ; it mocks the skies,
Or like a cradled creature lies. — Bryan W. Proctor.
Look how the grey old ocean.
From the depth of his heart rejoices,
Heaving with a gentle motion.
When he hears our restful voices ;
List, how he sings in an undertone.
Chiming with our melody ;
And there, where the smooth, wet pebbles be.
The waters gurgle longingly,
As if they fain would seek the shore.
To be at rest from the ceaseless roar,
To be at rest for ever more.

—J. R. Lowell — The Syrens.
Opinion.

Opinion's but a fool that makes us scan
The outward habit by the inward man.

—Shakespeare's Pericles.
Yet in opinions look not always back ;
Your wake is nothing, mind the coming track ;
Leave what you've done for what you have to do,
Don't be "consistent," but be simply true.

— O. W. Holmes.
Opportunity.

There is a tide in the affairs of men,

Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune ;

Omitted, all the voyage of-their life

Is bound in shallows and in miseries.

On such a full sea we are now afloat,

And we must take the current when it serves,

Or lose our ventures. — Shakespeare's yulius Casar.

Our hands are full of business ; let's away ;

Advantage feeds them fat, while men delay.

— Shakespeare's Henry IV. Part I.

Pain.

%c-

Again the play of pain
Shoots o'er his features as the sudden gust
Crisps the reluctant lake, that lay so calm
Beneath the mountain shadow. — Byron.

They talk of short-liv'd pleasure — be it so —
Pain dies as quickly ; stern, hard-featured pain

Expires, and lets her weary prisoner go.

The fiercest agonies have shortest reign. — Bryant.

Parting.

All she did, was but to wear out day.
Full oftentimes she leave of him did take ;
And oft again devis'd somewhat to say,
Which she forgot ; whereby excuse to make.
So loath was she his company for to forsake.

— Spenser's Fairy Queen.

Good night, good night ! parting is such sweet sorrow,
That I shall say good night, till it be morrow.

Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet.

Have not all past human beings parted,
. And must not all the present one day part ?

Byron's Sardanapalus.
Passions.

Exalted souls
Have passions in proportion violent,
Resistless, and tormenting ; they're a tax
Impos'd by nature on pre-eminence :
And fortitude and wisdom must support them.

— Lillo's Elmerick.

Oh, how the passions, insolent and strong.

Bear our weak minds their rapid course along ;

Make us the madness of their will obey ;

Then die, and leave us to our griefs a prey. — Crabbe.

Patience in cowards is tame, hopeless fear ;
But in brave minds, a scorn of what they bear.

Sir R. Howard's Indian Queen.

He is a coward who would borrow
A charm against the present sorrow.
From the vague Future's promise of delight !
As life's alarums nearer roll,
The ancestral buckler calls.
Self-clanging from the walls
In the high temple of the soul ;
Where are most sorrows, there the poet's sphere is
To feed the soul with patience,
To heal its desolations,
With words of unshorn truth, with love that never wearies.

James R. Lowell.

Patriotism.

To fight.
In a just cause, and for our country's glory.
Is the best office of the best of men ;
And to decline when these motives urge.
Is infamy beneath a coward's baseness.

— Ha yard's Regulus.

Our country ! — 't is a glorious land !

With broad arms stretch 'd from shore to shore.
The proud Pacific chafes her strand,

She hears the dark Atlantic roar ;

)^ —

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

And nurtured on her ample breast,

How many a goodly prospect lies
In Nature's wildest grandeur drest,

Enamell'd with the loveliest dyes.

— William Jewett Pabodie.

Peace.

A peace is of the nature of a conquest ;

For then both parties nobly are subdued,

And neither party loser. — Shaks. J/^nty IV. Part II.

Oh first of human blessings ! and supreme !
Fair peace ! how lovely, how delightful thou !
By whose wide tie the kindred sons of men
Live brothers like, in amity combin'd,
And unsuspicious faith ; while honest toil
Gives every joy, and to those joys a right,
Which idle, barbarous rapine but usurps.

— Thomson's Biitannia.

Down the dark future, through long generations,
The echoing sounds grow fainter and then cease.

And like a bell, with solemn, sweet vibrations,

I hear once more the voice of Christ say — " Peace."

— Longfellow.

Pen.

Oh ! nature's noblest gift — my grey goose quill,
Slave of my thoughts, obedient to my will,
Torn from thy parent bird to form a pen.
That mighty instrument of little men !

— Byron's English Bards and Scotch Reviewers.

Perfection.

To gild refined gold, to paint the lily,

To throw a perfume on the violet,

To smooth the ice, or add another hue

Unto the rainbow, or with taper light

To seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish,

Is wasteful and ridiculous excess.

— Shaks, King John.

Philosophy.

Philosophy consists not
In airy schemes, or idle speculations :
The rule and conduct of all social life
Is her great province. Not in lonely cells
Obscure she lurks, but holds her heavenly light
To senates and to kings, to guide their councils,
And teach them to reform and bless mankind.

— Thomson's Coriolanus.

Perseverance.

Perseverance is a Roman virtue,
That wins each god-like act, and plucks success
E'en from the spear-proof crest of rugged danger.

— Ha yard's Regulus.

Stick to your aim ; the mongrel's hold will slip,
But only crow-bars loose the bull-dog's lip ;
Small as he looks, the jaw that never yields
Drags down the bellowing monarch of the fields.

— O. W. Holmes.

Physic.

Throw physic to the dogs, I'll none of it.

—Shaks. Macbeth

For men are brought to worse distresses

By taking physic than diseases ;

And therefore commonly recover

As soon as doctors give them over. — BuTLERIANA.

Pity.

If ever you have look'd on better days ;

If ever been where bells have knoll 'd to church ;

If ever sat at any good man's feast ;

If ever from your eyelids wip'd a tear,

And know what 'tis to pity and be pitied,

Let gentleness my strong enforcement be.

— Shaks. As You Like It

Pleasure.

Pleasure ! thou only good on earth !
One little hour resigned to thee —
O ! by my Lais' lip, 't is worth
The sage's immortality. — Moore.

Pleasures are like poppies spread,

You seize the flower, its bloom is shed ;

Or like the snow-falls in the river,

A moment white, then melts forever ;

Or like the borealis race,

That flits ere you can point their place ;

Or like the rainbow's lovely form

Evanishing amid the storm —

Nae man can tether time or tide. — Burns.

Poets.

A drainless renown
Of light is Poesy : *Tis the supreme of power :
The night half slumbering on its own right arm.

— John Keats
Love well
The poet who may sow your grave with flowers,
The traveler to the far land of the past. — Willis.

Poverty.

She, wretched matron, forced in age, for bread.
To strip the brook with mantling cresses spread.
To pick her wintry faggot from the thorn.
To seek her nightly shed, and weep till morn.

— Goldsmith's Deserted Village.

Burns o'er the plough sung sweet his wood-notes wild ;
And richest Shakespeare was a poor man's child.

— Ebenezer Elliott

What doth the poor man's son inherit ?

Stout muscles and a sinewy heart,
A hardy frame, a hardier spirit ;

King of two hands, he does his part

In every useful toil and art ;
A heritage, it seems to me,
A king might wish to hold in fee.

— James R. Lowell.

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Prayer.

A good man's prayers
Will from the deepest dungeon climb to heaven's height,
And bring a blessing down. — Joanna Baillie's Ethwald.

Our little babe ! our bright-eyed one !

Our youngest, darling joy,
We teach, at evening hour, to kneel

Beside our little boy ;
And though she cannot lisp a word

Nor breathe a simple prayer,
We know her Maker blesseth her

The while she kneeleth there.

— RiCHAiU) CoE, Jr.

Pride.

What is pride ? a whizzing rocket

That would emulate a star. — Wordsworth.

Oh ! ask not a home in the mansions of pride,
Where marble shines out in the pillars and walls ;

Though the roof be of gold it is brilliantly cold.
And joy may not be found in its torch-lighted halls.

— Eliza Cook.
Promises.

A promise may be broke ;
Nay, start not at it — 'Tis an hourly practice.
The trader breaks it, yet is counted honest.
The courtier keeps it not — yet keeps his honor.
Husband and wife in marriage promise much,
Yet follow separate pleasure, and are — virtuous.
The churchmen promise, too, but wisely they
To a long payment stretch the crafty bill,
And draw upon futurity. — Havard's King Charles I.

When wicked men make promises of truth,
'Tis weakness to believe 'em.

— Havard's Scanderberg.
Prosperity.

Prosperity doth bewitch men, seeming clear ;

But seas do laugh, show white, when rocks are near.

— Webster's White Devil.

Prosperity puts out unnumbered thoughts.
Of import high, and light divine, to man. — Young.
Providence.

O, all-preparing Providence divine !
In thy large book what secrets are enrolled !
What sundry helps doth thy great power assig^n.
To prop the course which thou intend'st to hold?
What mortal sense is able to define
Thy mysteries, thy counsels manifold ?
It is thy wisdom strangely that extends
Obscure proceedings to apparent ends.

— Drayton's Baron's Wars.
Prudence.

Consult your means, avoid the tempter's wiles.
Shun grinning hosts of unreceipted files.
Let Heayen-ey'd prudence battle with desire.
And win the victory, though it be through fire.

— James T. Fields.

Purity.

Let me be pure !
Oh ! I wish I was a pure child again.
When life was calm as is a sister's kiss.

— Bailey's Festus.
Be purity of life the test —
Leave to the heart, to heaven, the rest.

— Sprague
Reason.

Thought
Precedes the will to think, and error lives
Ere reason can be bom. Reason, the power
To guess at right and wrong, the twinkling lamp
Of wand'ring life, that winks and wakes by turns.
Fooling the follower betwixt shade and shining.

— Congreve.
Within the brain's most secret cells,
. A certain lord chief justice dwells.
Of sovereign power, whjm one and all.
With common voice we reason call. — Churchill.
Rebellion.

For forms of government let fools contest,
Whate'er is best administer'd is best.

— Pope's Essay on Man.
The state is out of time ; distracting fears
And jealous doubts jar in our public counsels ;
Amidst the wealthy city, murmurs rise,
Loud railings, and reproach, on those that rule.
With open scorn of government ; hence credit
And public trust 'twixt man and man are broke.
The golden streams of commerce are withheld
Which fed the wants of needy hinds, and artisans,
Who therefore curse the great, and threat rebellion.

— RowES Jane Shore.
Religion.

He wears his faith but as the fashion of
His hat ; it ever changes with the next block.

— Shaks. Much Ado.

Slave to no sect, who takes no private road.
But looks through nature up to nature's God.

— Pope's Essay on Man.

True religion
Is always mild, propitious, and humble,
Plays not the tyrant, plants no faith in blood ;
Nor bears destruction on her chariot-wheels ;
But stoops to polish, succor, and redress.
And builds her grandeur on the public good.

— Miller's Mahomet
Remembrance.

Remember thee ?
Yea, from the table of my memory
I'll wipe away all trivial fond records.
All saws of books, all forms, all pressures past.
That youth and observation copied there ;
And thy commandment all alone shall live
Within the book and volume of my brain,
Unmixed with baser matter. — Shaks. Hamlet.

%r-

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

When shall we come to that delightful day,

When each can say to each, " Dost thou remember?"

Let us fill urns with rose-leaves in our May,

And hive the thrifty sweetness for December ! — Bulwer.

Repentance.

Come, fair repentance, daughter of the skies !
Soft harbinger of soon returning virtue !
The weeping messenger of grace from heav'n.

— Brown's Athelstan.

Repentance often finds too late,

To wound us is to harden ;
And Love is on the verge of Hate,

Each time it stoops for pardon. — Bulwer.
Reputation.

reputation ! dearer far than life.

Thou precious balsam, lovely, sweet of smell,
Whose cordial drops once spilt by some rash hand.
Not all the owner's care, nor the repenting toil
Of the rude spiller, ever can collect
To its first purity and native sweetness.

— Sewell's Sir Walter Raleigh.
Resolution.

Press on ! there's no such word as fail ;

Press nobly on ! the goal is near —
Ascend the mountain ! breast the gale !
Look upward, onward — never fear !
Why should'st thou faint ? Heaven smiles above.

Though storm and vapor intervene ;

That sun shines on, whose name is Love,

Serenely o'er life's shadow'd scene.

— Park Benjamin.
Revenge.

The best revenge is to reform our crimes ;

Then time crowns sorrows, sorrows sweeten times.

— MiDDLETON and Rowley's Spanish Gipsey.

Revenge at first though sweet,
Bitter ere long, back on itself recoils.

— Milton's Paradise Lost.
Satire.

Satire's my weapon, but I'm too discreet
To run a-muck and tilt at all I meet ;

1 only wear it in a land of Hectors,

Thieves, supercargoes, sharpers, and directors. — Pope.

Say, shall I wound with satire's rankling spear
The pure, warm hearts that bid me welcome here ?

— O. W. Holmes.
Scorn.

He hears
On all sides, from innumerable tongues,
A dismal universal hiss, the sound
Of public scorn.

— Milton's Paradise Lost.

Infamous wretch !
So much below my scorn, I dare not kill thee.

— Dryden's Duke of Guise.

Secrecy.

He deserves small trust.
Who is not privy counsellor to himself.

— ^JoHN Forde's Broken Heart

A secret in his mouth
Is like a wild bird put into a cage ;
Whose door no sooner opens, but 'tis out,

— ^Jonson's Case is Altered.

Selfishness.

The craven's fear is but selfishness,
Like his merriment. — Whittier.

Ship.

How gloriously her gallant course she goes !

Her white wings flying — never from her foes ;

She walks the waters like a thing of life.

And seems to dare the elements to strife.

Who would not brave the battle-fire — the wreck —

To move the monarch of her peopled deck ?

— Byron's Corsair.

Silence.

Silence ! coeval with eternity ;
Thou wert, ere nature's self began to be ;
'Twas one vast nothing all, and all slept fast in thee.

— Pope.
Sin.

Sin hath broke the world's sweet peace — unstrung
Th' harmonious chords to which the angels sung.

— Dana's Buccaneer.
Sincerity.

Sincerity,
Thou first of virtues, let no mortal leave
Thy onward path, although the earth should gape
And from the gulf of hell destruction rise, —
To take dissimulation's winding way.

— Home's Douglasa.

Slander.

There is a lust in man no charm can tame.
Of loudly publishing his neighbor's shame ;
On eagles' wings immortal scandals fly ;
While virtuous actions are but bom and die.

— Harvey.

Soft buzzing slander ; silky moths, that eat
An honest name. — Thomson's Liberty.

Sleep.

Sleep, that knits up the ravell'd sleeve of care,
The death of each day's life, sore labor's bath,
Balm of hurt minds, great nature's second course.
Chief nourisher in life's feast ! — Shaks. Macbeth.

Tir'd nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep !
He, like the world, his ready visit pays
Where fortune smiles ; the wretched he forsakes :
Swift on his downy pinions flies from woe.
And lights on lids unsullied with a tear.

— Young's Night Thoughts.

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

93 ■

Soldier.

Each soldier's name
Shall shine untarnish'd on the rolls of fame.
And stand the example of each distant age,
And add new lustre to the historic page.

— David Humphreys.
Solitude.

solitude ! where are the charms
That sages have seen in thy face ?

Better dwell in the midst of alarms,
Than reign in this horrible place.

1 am out of humanity's reach,

I must finish my journey alone.
Never hear the sweet music of speech,

I start at the sound of my own.— COWPKR.
If from society we leam to live,

'Tis solitude should teach us how to die ;
It hath no flatterers ; vanity can give
No hollow aid ; alone — man with his God must strive.

— Byron.
Sorrow.

There's no way to make sorrow light

But in the noble bearing ; be content ;

Blows given from heaven are our due punishment ;

All shipwrecks are not drownings ; you see buildings

Made fairer from their ruins.

— W. Rowley's JVew Wonder.
What bliss is bom of sorrow !

'Tis never sent in vain —
The heavenly Surgeon maims to save,
He gives no useless pain. — Thomas Ware.
Soul.

The soul, of origin divine,

God's glorious image, freed from clay.
In heaven's eternal sphere shall shine

A star of day !
The sun is but a spark of fire,

A transient meteor in the sky,
The soul, immortal as its sire.
Shall never die. — Montgomery.
Spring.

In these green days.
Reviving sickness lifts her languid head ;
Life flows afresh ; and young-ey'd health exalts
The whole creation round. Contentment walks
The sunny glade, and feels an inward bliss
Spring o'er his mind, beyond the power of kings
To purchase. — Thomson's Seasons.

Come, gentle spring, ethereal mildness, come,
And from the bosom of yon dropping cloud.
While music wakes around, veil'd in a shower
Of shadowing roses, on our plains descend.

— Thomson's Seasons.
When the warm sun that brings

Seed-time and harvest, has retum'd again
Tis sweet to visit the still wood, where springs

The first flower of the plain. — LONGFELLOW.

Statesmen.

Thus the court-wheel goes round like fortune's ball ;
One statesman rising on another's fall.

— Richard Brome's Queen's Exchange.
Suicide.

Fear, guilt, despair, and moon -struck frenzy rush

On voluntary death : the wise, the brave.

When the fierce storms of fortune round 'em roar .

Combat the billows with redoubled force :

Then, if they perish ere the port is gain'd.

They sink with decent pride ; and from the deep

Honor retrieves them bright as rising stars.

— Fenton's Mariamne.
Our time is set and fix'd ; our days are told ;
And no man knows the limit of his life ;
This minute may be mine, the next another's ;
But still all mortals ought to wait the sumnions,
And not usurp on the decrees of fate,
By hastening their own ends.

— Smith's Princess of Parma.
Summer.

Then came the jolly summer, being dight
In a thin silken cassock color'd green,
That was unlined all, to be more light.
And on his head a garland well beseene
He wore, from which, as he had chaffed been,
The sweat did drop, and in his hand he bore
A bow and shafts, as he in forest green
Had hunted late the libbard or the bore.
And now would bathe his limbs, with labor heated sor^
— Spenser's Fairy Queen
Now comes thy glory in the summer months,
. With light and heat refulgent. — THOMSON.

The spring's gay promise melted into thee,
Fair summer ! and thy gentle reign is here ;

Thy emerald robes are on each leafy tree ;
In the blue sky thy voice is rich and clear ;

And the free brooks have songs to bless thy reign —

They leap in music 'midst thy bright domain.

— Willis G. Clark.

Sunshine.

The sunshine is a glorious birth, —
And yet I know, where'er I go,
That there hath passed away a glory from the earth.

— Wordsworth

Sympathy.

Love's soft s)rmpathy imparts
That tender transport of delight
That beats in undivided hearts. — Cartwright.

It is the secret sympathy,
The silver link, the silken tie,
Which heart to heart, and mind to mind,
In body and in soul can bind. — ScOTT.
Tears.

Believe these tears, which from my wounded heart,
Bleed at my eyes. — Dryden's Spanish Friar.

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Tears ! what are tears ? The babe weeps in his cot.
The mother singing ; at the marriage bell,
The bride weeps : and before the oracle
Of high-fam'd hills, the poet hath forgot
The moisture on his cheeks. — Miss Barrett.
Give our tears to the dead ! For humanity's claim
From its silence and darkness is ever the same ;
. The hope of the world whose existence is bliss.
May not stifle the tears of the mourners of this.

— Whittier.
Temptation.

What ! do I love her,
That I desire to speak to her again ?
And feast upon her eyes ? what is 't I dream on ?
O cunning enemy, that to catch a saint
With saints dost bait thy hook ! most dangerous
Is that temptation that doth goad us on
To sin, in loving virtue. — Shaks. Measure for Measure.
And while in peace abiding
Within a shelter'd home,
We feel as sin and evil

Could never, never come ;
But let the strong temptation rise.
As whirlwinds sweep the sea —
We find no strength to 'scape the wreck,
Save, pitying God, in Thee.

— Mrs. Hale's Alice Ray.
To me the meanest flower that blows can give
Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears.

— Wordsworth.
Fine thoughts are wealth, for the right use of which
Men are, or ought to be, accountable. — Bailey's Festus.

All the past of Time reveals

A bridal dawn of thunder-peals.
Whenever Thought hath wedded Fact. — Tennyson.

Time.

Time, the prime minister of death,
There's nought can bribe his honest will ;
He stops the richest tyrant's breath.
And lays his mischief still. — Marvell.
Art is long and Time is fleeting.

And our hearts, though strong and brave,
Still like muffled drums are beating
Funeral marches to the grave.

— Longfellow's Psalm of Life,
Remorseless Time !
Fierce spirit of the glass and scythe — what power
Can stay him in his silent course, or melt
His iron heart with pity ! — George D. Prentice.
Truth.

All truth is precious, if not all divine.

And what dilates the powers must needs refine.

— Cowper.
The sages say dame truth delights to dwell.
Strange mansion ! in the bottom of a well.
Questions are, then, the windlass and the rope
That pulls the grave old gentlewoman up.

— Dr. Wolcott's Peter Pindar.

No soul can soar too loftily whose aim

Is God-given truth and brother love of man.

— J. Bayard Taylor.
Vanity.

Light vanity, insatiate cormorant.
Consuming means, soon preys upon itself.

— Shaks. Richard III.

Vice.

It is the intensest vanity alone

That makes us bear with life. — Bailey's ivrj/«j.

Not all that heralds rak'd from coffin'd clay,
Nor florid prose, nor honied lies of rhyme.
Can blazon evil deeds, or consecrate a crime.

— Byron's Childe Harold.

There dwelleth in the sinlessness of youth
A sweet rebuke that vice may not endure.

— Mrs. Embury.
Virtue.

Virtue may be assail'd, but never hurt ;
Surpris'd by unjust force, and not enthrall'd ;
Yea, even that which mischief meant most harm.
Shall in the happy trial prove most glory ;
But evil on itself shall back recoil. — Milton.

A virtuous deed sheuld never be delay'd.

The impulse comes from heav'n, and he who strives

A moment to repress it, disobeys

The god within his mind. — Dowe's Sethcna.

Virtue in itself commands its happiness.
Of every outward object independent.

— Francis's Eugenia.
War.

O war ! begot in pride and luxury.

The child of malice and revengeful hate ;

Thou impious good, and good impiety !

Thou art the foul refiner of a state,

Unjust scourge of men's iniquity,

Sharp easer of corruptions desperate !

Is there no means but that a sin-sick land

Must be let blood with such a boist'rous hand ?

— Daniel's Civil War.
More soluble is this knot.
Like almost all the rest, if men were wise,
By gentleness than war. — Tennyson's Princess.
Wealth.

Wealth in the gross is death, but life diffus'd ;
As poison heals in just proportions us'd ;
In heaps, like ambergris, a stink it lies.
But well dispers'd is incense to the skies. — Pope.
Can wealth give happiness? look round, and see
What gay distress ! what splendid misery !
Whatever fortune lavishly can pour.
The mind annihilates, and calls for more.

— Young's Love of Fame.

Wealth hath never given happiness, but often hasten'd misery.

Tupper's Proverbial Philosophy,

^
--^

POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

95 ^

If all were rich, gold would be penniless.

— Bailey's Festus.
Wife.

She is mine own ;
And I as rich in having such a jewel.
As twenty seas, if all their sand were pearl,
The water nectar, and the rocks pure gold.

— Shakespeare's Two Gentlemen of Verona.
Husband, husband, cease your strife,

Nor longer idly rave, sir ;
Tho' I'm your wedded wife.

Yet I am not your slave, sir. — Burns.
Thou wast my nurse in sickness, and my comforter in health ;
So gentle and so constant, when our love was all our wealth ;
Thy voice of music sooth'd me, love, in each desponding hour,
As heaven's honey-dew consoles the bruis'd and broken flower.

— Albert Pike.
Wine.

O when we swallow down
Intoxicating wine, we drink damnation ;
Naked we stand the sport of mocking friends
Who grin to see our noble nature vanquish'd,
Subdued to beasts. — C. Johnson.
Wine — bring wine

Flushing high with its growth divine,
In the crystal depth of my soul to shine :
Whose glow was caught

From the warmth which fancy's summer brought
To the vintage fields in the Land of Thought !

— ^J. Bayard Taylor.
Wisdom.

O wisdom ! if thy soft control
Can soothe the sickness of the soul.
Can bid the warring passions cease.
And breathe the calm of tender peace ;
Wisdom ! I bless thy gentle sway.
And ever, ever will obey. — Mrs. Barbauld.
The bearing and the training of a child
Is woman's wisdom. — Tennyson's Princess.
Wit.

As in smooth oil the razor best is whet.

So wit is by politeness sharpest set,

Their want of edge from their offence is seen.

Both pain us least when exquisitely keen ;

The fame men give us for the joy they fiad ;

Dull is the jester when the joke's unkind.

— Young's Love of Fame.
Woman.

O women, men's subduers !

Nature's extremes, no mean is to be had.

Excellently good or infinitely bad.

— Davenport's King John and Matilda.
Whence love once pleads admission to our hearts,
In spite of all the virtue we can boast,
The woman that deliberates is lost. — Addison's Cato.
The world was sad ! — the garden was a wild !
And man, the hermit, sigh'd — till woman smil'd.

— Campbell's Pleasures of Hope.

O woman ! in our hours of ease

Uncertain, coy and hard to please.

And variable as the shade

By the light quivering aspen made ;

When pain and anguish wring the brow,

A ministering angel thou. — Scott's Marmion.

World.

All the world's a stage.
And all the men and women merely players :
They have their exits and their entrances ;
And one man in his time plays many parts.

— Shaks. As You Like It.

'Tis a harsh world in which affection knows
No place to treasure up its lov'd and lost
But the lone grave. — Willis.

We know the world is dark and rough.

But time betrays that soon enough. — Eliza Cook.

Through the shadow of the world we sweep into the younger

day : ,

Better fifty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay.

— Tennyson.

Youth.

Youth is a bubble blown up with the breath.
Whose wit is weakness, whose wage is death.
Whose way is wilderness, whose inn is penance.
And stoop gallant age, the host of grievance.

— Spenser's Shepherd's Calendar.

Promise of youth ! fair as the form
Of Heaven's benign and golden bow.

Thy smiling arch begirds the storm,
And sheds a light on every woe.

— James G. Brooks.

I feel the rush of waves that round me rise —
The tossing of my boat upon the sea ;

Few sunbeams linger in the stormy skies,

And youth's bright shore is lessening on the lee !

— J. Bayard Taylor.

Youth, that pursuest, with such eager pace,

That even way,
Thou pantest on to win a mournful race :

Then stay! oh, stay. — R. M. Milnes.

Alas ! that youth's fond hopes should fade,

And love be but a name.
While its rainbows, follow'd e'er so fast.

Are distant still the same. — Dawes.

Zeal.

Zeal and duty are not slow ;
But on occasion's forelock watchful wait.

— Milton's Paradise Pegained

Press bravely onward ! — not in vain

Your generous trust in human kind ;
The good which bloodshed could not gain.

Your peaceful zeal shall find. — Whittikr.

FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT.

S^ISIF""^ why not teach yourself FRENCH ? '

^LPH>VBET /ND pRONUJ^CIy\TIOJ^.

S many languages as a man knows, so
many times is he a man. This system of
self-teaching has been devised for the
purpose of inducting the beginner me-
thodically. He has but to apply himself,
and the language will come to him by de-
lightfully imperceptible degrees. Let him try
it at all events !

The French Alphabet consists of twenty-five letters, as
follows :

French '
Alphabet.

Name.

A a

B b

bay

C c

say

D d

day

E e

eff

jay

H h

aash

I i

J J

)ee

K k

kah

L I

N n

pay

R r

air

S s

ess

T t

tay

U u

eeyu

V V

vay

X X

eeks

egrec

zed

Pronunciation.

is pronounced like a in the English word
" father."

as in English.

c before e and i, is pronounced like j ; be-
fore a, 0, u, and before a consonant c
sounds like k.

as in English.

e, <?, ai, ei, are pronounced like a in the
English word care.

as in English.

before e and i it sounds likey.

is generally silent.

pronounced like e in the English word me.

s pronounced like s in the v/oxA pleasure,

as in English.

o, au, eau, are pronounced like 0,

like the English, but is often mute at the
end of words.

is pronounced like/^.

is like the English rin run.

sounds like the English j, sometimes like z.

is like the t in the English word tent.

is pronounced like " eeyu ; " it must be heard
from a Frenchman. £u, oeu, are pro-
nounced like u in much.

is like the English v.

is pronounced as in English.

is pronounced like e in the English word
me.

is pronounced like a soft s.

ACCENTS.

The French language has three accents ; the acute, thus d ;
the grave, thus } j and the circumflex, e. The circumjlex
accent simply denotes the elision of a silent (generally an " j ")
after it, thus tele, originally written teste; ddpSt for depost, etc.
The acute and grave accents belong exclusively to the letter
" <• " ; an accented e must have the acute accent, if at the end
of word, as cafd; or followed by a pronounced syllable, as
indtal; a grave accent when followed by a silent syllable, as
mere, lievre.

The grave accent is used on the a of the adverb la {there
and its compounds voila, etc. ; but it is thus employed merely
to distinguish it from the article la {the), and not for any effect
in pronunciation.

VOWELS.

The pronunciation of the following vowels requires most
care:

ou, is pronounced like 00 in the English word look.

o, au, eau, are pronounced like o.

a, is pronounced like a in the word father.

e is pronounced like e in the word better. Before mm or nn,

it is pronounced like ah ; as fetnme, pronounced fahm ;

solennel, solahnell, etc.
u is the most difficult letter to pronounce, for there is no

corresponding sound in the English language ; it sounds like

the German «, like eeyu, and it ought to be carefully imitated

from a French person.
eu, (Kzi, are pronounced like u in the English word much,
d, }, ai, ei, are pronounced like a in the English word care.
i,y, are pronounced like e in the English word me.

The nasal sounds, am, an, em, en, un, oin, are equally dif
ficult to pronounce, and these ought to be heard and imitated
from a Frenchman.

RULE.

As every educated person knows French, those who study
without a master, ought, when an opportunity occurs, to ask
the pronunciation of a difficult word ; by such means, the
learner will arrive at the correct pronunciation, which no de-
scription in words is capable of conveying.

FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT.

— ^

97 r

The definite Article is " /e " before a masculine noun, and
" /a " before a feminine noun ; they are both written " r "
before a noun commencing with a vowel or silent " A." The
indefinite Article is " un " masculine, and " une" feminine.

English.

The Universe.

French.

God

Dieu

the world

le monde

the sky

U del

the sun

le soleil

the moon

la lune

a star

une ^toile

the air

Pair

the earth

la terre

the water

Teau

the fire

lefeu

the sea

la mer

an island

une tie

a lake

un lac

a stream

un Jl^uve

a river

une riviire

the animals

les animaux

the metals

les ni^taux

the gold

For

the silver

Fargent
lefer

the iron

the steel

Vacier

the copper

le cuivre

the tin

retain

Man and the Pari

man

Tlwtnme

the body

le corps

the head

la tite

the face

le visage

the fotehead

le front

the eye

ronl

the eyes

les'^yeux

the nose

le nez

the ears

les oreilles

the chin

le menton

the beard

la -barbe

the mouth

la bouche

the lips

les Ihvres

the tooth

la dent

the tongue

la langtie

the neck

lecou

the shoulders

les'^/paules

the arm

le bras

the hand

la main

the fingers

les doigts

the nails

les^^ongles

the chest

lapoitrinl

the heart

le ca'ur

the knee

legenou

the leg

la jambe

the foot

lepied

the bones

Uir-os

Pronunciation.

Deeyu
leh maund
leh seeyel
leh sohleyl
lah lune
une aitoahl
I'air
lah tayr
I'o

leh feuh
lah mare
une eel
ung lahc
ung fleuhv
une reeveeare
laiz aneemo
lai maito
I'orr
I'arjang
leh fayr
I'asseay
leh cweevr
I'aitang

I'omm
leh cor

lah tait
leh veesaje
leh frong
File

laiz eeyeu
leh nay
laiz ohraill
leh mauntong
lah barb
lah boosh
lai layvr
lah dong
lah laungh
leh coo
laiz aipole
leh brah
lah mang
lai donah
laiz aungl
lah pouahtreen
leh keuhr
leh jenoo
lah jahmb
leh peeay
laiz a

Food and Drink.

English.

French.

Pronunciation.

the bread

le pain

leh pang

the flour

la farine

lah fareen

meat

de la viande

de la veeaund

roast meat

du rSli

du rotee

beef

dn ba'uf

du beuhf

veal

du veau

du vo

mutton

du mouton

du mootong

lamb

de Fagneau

deh I'anyo

pork

du po7-c

du pork
dn far

bacon

du lard

ham

dujanibon

du jahmbong

the soup

la soupe

lah soop

rice

du riz

du ree

eggs

des^ceiifs

daiz euh

salad

de la salade

deh lah salade

mustard

de la moutarde

deh lah mootard

salt

du sel

oil

de Fhuile

deh I'weel

vinegar

du vinaigre

du veenaigr

pepper

du poivre

du pouahvr

butter

du beurre

du beuhr

cheese

du fromage

du fromahje

the breakfast

le dejeuner

leh dayjeuhnai

the dinner

le diner

leh deenai

the supper

le sotiper

leh soopai

hunger

la faitn

la fahng

thirst

la soif

lah souaf

water

de Fcau

deh I'o

wine

du vin

du vang

beer

de la biire

deh lah beeair

milk

du lait

du lay

tea

duth/

du tay

gin

du genihyre

du jenyavr

brandy

de Feau de vie
The Dress.

deh lo deh vee

a coat

un surtout

ung syuretoo

a cloak

un manteau

ung maunto

a waistcoat

un gilet

ung jeelay

the trousers

la culotte

la kyulot

the braces

les bretelles

lai bretell

the cap

le bonnet

leh bonnay

the hat

le chapeau

leh shapo

the comb

le p eigne

leh peine

gloves

des gants

dai gang

a ring

une bague

une baag

a watch

une montre

une mongtre

the stocking

le bas

leh bah

the boots

les bottes

lai bot

the bootjack

le tire-boite

leh teer bot

the slippers

les panioufles

lai pauntoofl

the shoes

les souliers

lai soolyai

a shirt

une chemise

une shemeeze

a pocket handker-

chief

un mouchoir

ung mooshouah

the clothes brush

la brosse

lah bross

the umbrella

le parapluie

leh paraplwee

the parasol

le parasol

leh parasol

House Utensils.

a table

une table

une tahbl

a chair

une chaise

une shayse

an arm-chair

un fatiteuil

ung fotayle

a looking-glass

un miroir

ung meerouahr

a clock

une horloge

une orloje

a trunk

un coffre

ung cofr

a box

une boite

une bouahf

the bed

le lit

leh lee

FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT.

English.

French.

Pronunciation.

The House.

the counterpane
a pillow

la couverture
un oreiller

lah coovairtyure
un oraylyai

English.

French.

Pronunciation.

the sheets

Us drops de lit

lai drah deh lee

the house

la maison

lah maysong

the mattress

le ttiatelas

leh matlah

the door

laporte

lah port

the plate

rassiette

I'assyet

the lock

la serrure

lah serrure

the candlestick

un chandelier

ung shaundelyai

the key

la clef

lah clay

the lamp

une latiipe

une laump

the bell

la sonnet te

lah sonnet

a spoon

une cuiller

une cweelyair

the staircase

Pescalier

I'escallyai

a fork

une fourchette

und forrshet

the drawing-room la salle

lah sal

a knife

un couteau

ung cooto

the dining-room

la salle-a-manger

lah sal-ah-monjai

a cup

une tasse

une tass

the room

la chambre

lah shaumbr

a saucer

la soucoupe

lah soocoop

the bed.room

la chambre-h-coucher lah shaumbr-ah-coo

the tablecloth

la nappe

lah nap

shai

the towel

un essuie-main

ung esswee mang

the window

la fenitre

lah fennaitr

a glass

un verre

ung vair

the wall

la paroi

lah pahrouah

the tea-pot

la thtfi^re

lah taiyare

the kitchen

la cuisine

lah cweezeen

the roof

le toit

leh touah

Relations.

the cellar

la cave

lah caav

the garden

lejardin

leh jardang

ilie family

la famille

lah fameel

the husband
the wife

le mari
la Jemnte

leh maree
lah fam

Animals.

the father

le pere

leh pare

an animal

un animal

un aneemal

the mother

la mhre

lah mare

a horse

U7i cJieval

ung sheval

the child

Venfant

I'ongfong

a donkey

un dne

ung ahn

the son

le fils

leh feess

the dog

le chien

leh sheeang

the daughter

lafille

lah feel

the cat

le chat

leh shah

the brother

lefrhre

leh frare

the rat

le rat

leh rah

the sister

la sceur

lah seuhr

the mouse

la souris

lah sooree

the uncle

Poncle

I'oncle

an ox

tin bceuf

ung beuh

the aunt

la iante

lah taunte

a cow

une vache

une vash

the cousin

le cousin

leh coosang

a calf

un veau

ung vo

the marriage

le mafiage

leh mareeahje

a sheep

une brebis

une brebbee

a lamb

un agneau

un anyo

Occupations.

a pig

un cochon

un coshong

the hare

le lihvre

leh leeayvr

an occupation

un metier

ung maytyai

a monkey

un sins^e

ung sangj
ung loo
un oors

a workman
a baker

un artisan
un boulanger

ung arteesong
ung boolongjai

a wolf
a bear

un loup
un ours

a miller
a butcher
a brewer
a tailor

un metmier
un boucher
un brasseur
un tailleur

ung meuhnyai
ung booshai
ung brasseuhr
ung talyure

a lion

an elephant

a tiger

un lion
un /Uphant
un iigre

ung leeong
un aylayfong
ung teegr

a shoemaker
a smith

un cordonnief
un forgeron

ung cordonyai
ung forjehrong

Birds.

a saddler

un sellier

ung selyai

a bird

un oiseau

un woiso

a carpenter

un inenuisier

ung mennweesyai

a cock

un coq

un cock

a mason

un tna^on

ung massong

a hen

unepoule

une pool

a bookbinder

un relieur

ung relleeuhr

a chicken

, unpoulet

ung poolay

a swan

tin eigne

ung seen

The Town.

a goose

une oie

une ouah

a duck

un canard

ung canar
une allooet
ung rosseenyol
I'eerongdel
leh mouano
leh corbo
lah cornayl
leh perrokay
I'aygl

the town
the bridge
the tower

la ville
le pont
la tour

lah veel
leh pong
lah toor

a lark

a nightingale

the swallow'

une alouette
un rossignol
r/iirondelle

the gate
the street
the market
the building
the townhouse
the theatre

la parte
la rue
le march/
le hdtiment
rhStel de ville
le t/iMtre

lah port

lah ru

leh marshay

leh bahteemong

I'otel deh veel

leh tayahtr

the sparrow
the raven
the crow
the parrot
the eagle

le moineau
le corbeau
la corneille
le perroquet
Vaigle

the post-office
the church

la paste
Veglise

lah post
I'aygleeze

Fishes and. Insects.

the cathedral

la cath/drale

lah cataydral

a fish

un poisson

ung pouassong

the school

Ptfcole

I'aycol

a pike

un brochet

ung broshay

the prison

la prison

lah preesong

a salmon

un saumon

ung somong

the exchange

la bourse

lah boorse

a carp

une caipe

une carp

the palace

le palais

leh pallay

an eel

une anguille

une onggheel

the hotel

rh$tel

I'otel

a trout

tin truite

une trweet

the inn

Pauberge

I'obayrje

a herring

un hareng

ung harrong

the public house

le cabaret

leh cabbaray

oysters

des hut t res

daiz weetr

the coffee room

le caftf

leh caffay

a crab

tine e'crevisse

une aycreveece
<

FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT.

English.

French.

Pronunciation.

English.

French.

Pronunciation.

a turtle

une toriue

une tortyu

a quarter of an hour un quart-d' heure

ung kar d'eur

a whale

une baleine

une ballayn

half an hour

une demie-heure

une demmy eur

a serpent

un serpent

ung sairpong

the day

le jour

leh joor

a frog

une grenouille

une grenooeel

the morning

le matin

leh mattang

a worm

un ver

un vair

noon

le midi

leh meedee

an insect

un insecte

un angsect

the afternoon

Fapres-midi

I'apray meedee

a spider

une araign/e

une arraynyai

the evening

le soir

leh souahr

a moth

une teigne

ung taine

the night

la ntiit

lah nwee

a fly

une mouclie

une moosh

a year

unan

un ong

a gnat

un viotuheron

ung rooosherong

a month

un mois

ung mouah

a bee

une abeille

une abbail

January

Janvier

jongveeay

the honey

le miel

leh meeyel

February

f/vrier

fayvreeay

a wasp

une gulpe

une gape

March

mars

marse

a butterfly

un papillon

ung pappillyong

April

avril

avreel

May

mat

may

Vegetables.

June

juin

jyuang

beans

des fh)es
des pois
des choux

day faive
dai pouah
dai shoo

July

juillet

jweelyai

peas
cabbage

August
September

aotit
septcmbre

oo
septaumbr

cauliflower

des choiix-Jleurs
des belteraves

dai shoo-fleuhr

October

octobre

octobr

carrots

dai betrahve

November

novembre

novaumbr

asparagus

des aspcrges

daiz aspairj

December
a week
a fortnight

dkembre

daysaumbr

spinach

des ^inards

daiz aipeenar

une semaine

une semmane

radishes

des radis

dai raddee

quinze jours

kanze joor

celery
a melon
cucumber

du cMeri

du selree

Monday

lundi

Ivingdee

un melon
des concovtbres

ung mellong
dai congcongbr

Tuesday
Wednesday

inardi
mercredi

mardee
may re re dee

Thursday

jeudi

jeuhdee

Trees and Flo^A/•e^s.

Friday
Saturday

vendrcdi
samedi

vongdredee
samdee

a tree

un arbre

un arbr

Sunday

dimanche

deemaunshe

a branch

une branche

une braungsh

spring

le printemps

leh prangtong

a leaf

une fetiille

une file

summer

P<fttf

I'aytay

an apple

une pomme

une pomm

autumn

Pautomne

I'otonn

a pear

une poire

une pouar

winter

Phiver

I'eevare

a plum

une prune

une pryun

a cherry

une cerise

une serreeze

The Country

a nut

une noix

une nouah

a currant

de la groseille

de lah grozale

the country

la campagne

lah caumpaine

a gooseberry

de la groseille verte

deh lah grozale verte

the village

le village

leh veelaj

a strawberry

une /raise

une f raize

the hut

la cabane

lah caban

a chestnut

un viarron

ung marrong

the soil

le sol

leh sol

the oak-tree

le chene

leh shane

the meadow

le pre'

leh pray

the fir-tree

le pin

leli pang

the barn

la grange

leh graunj

the birch

le bouleau

leh boolo

the mill

le moulin

leh moolang

the willow

le saule

leh sole

the cattle

le b<!tail

leh baytale

a flower

une Jleur

une fleuhr

the herds

le troupeau

leh troopo

a rose

une rose

the shepherd

le berger

leh bayrjay

a pink

un ceillet

un ileyai

the mountain

la montagne

lah montaine

a tulip

une iulipe

une tyuleep

the hill

la colline

la colleen

a lily

tin lis

ung lee

the dale

la valUe

lah vallay

a violet

une violette

une veeolet

the wood

le bois

leh bouah

a bouquet

un bouquet

ung bookay

the forest

laforet

lah forray

the road

le chemin

leh shemmang

The School.

the high-road

le grand-chemin

leh grong shemmang

a school

fe'cole

I'aycol

the rail-road

le chemin de fer

leh shemmang deh

the teacher

le matlre

leh maytr

fare

the book

le livre

leh leevr

a mile

une mille

une meel

the paper

a pen

an inkstand

le papier
une plume
une encrier

leh papyai
une plyume
un ongereeai

the waterfall

la cascade

la cascad

the fisherman

le pecheur

leh paysheur

the huntsman

le chasseur

leh shasseuhr

the ink

Pencre

I'ongkr

the pencil

le crayon

le crayong

Nations.

a letter

une lettre

une lettr

an envelope

une enveloppe

une ongvellope

an American
a German

un Am/ricain
un Allemand

un Amayreecang
un Almaung

Time and Seasons.

Germany
a Dutchman

V Allemagne f.
un Hollandais

I'Almaine

ung Hollaunday

the time

le temps

le long

Holland

la Hollande

lah Hollaund

a minute

la minute

lah meenyute

a Belgian

un Beige

ung Belj

an hour

une heure

une eur

Belgium

la Belgique

lah Beljeek

lOO

FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT.

English.

a Swiss

Switzerland

an Hungarian

Hungary

an Englishman

England

an Irishman

Ireland

a Scotchman

Scotland

a Dane

Denmark

a Swede

Sweden

a Russian

Russia

a Spaniard

Spain

a Frenchman

France

an Italian

Italy

poor

rich

clever

stupid

sharp

blunt

clean

dirty

hard

soft

strong

weak

well

ill

lean

thick

fat

thin

polite

impolite

false

deep

wide

narrow

round

square

short

long

flat

warm

cold

fresh

ripe

dry

sour

sweet

bitter

hungry

thirsty

heavy

light

wet

content

happy

gay

sad
useful

4r-

French.

un Suisse
la Suisse
un Hongrois
la Hongrie
un Anglais
FAngleterre f.
un Irlandais
rirlande f.
un Ecossais
PEcosset
un Danois
le Danemarc
un Su/dois
la Sukde
un Russe
la Russie
un Espagnol
I'Espagne f.
un Eranfais
la France
un Italien
ritalie f.

Adjectives.
pauvre
riche
prudent
stupide
aigu
obtus
piopre
sate
dur
mou
fort
faible
sain
malade
tnaigre
gros
gras
mince
poli

malhonnite
faux
profond
large
/troit
rond
carr/
court
long
plat
ckaud
froid
frais
tnUr
sec
aigre
doux
amer
affami
altM
pesant
Uger
humide
content
heureux
gai
triste
utile

Pronimciation.

ung Sweess
lah Sweess
ung Hongrwah
la Hongree
un Aunglay
I'Aungltare
un Eerlaunday
I'Eerlaund
un Aycossay
I'Aycoss
ung Danouah
leh Danmark
ung Swaydwah
lah Swayde
ung Russe
lah Russee
un Espanyol
I'Espaine
ung Fraungsay
lah Fraungse
un Eetalyang
I'Eetalee

pohvr

reesh

prudong

stupeed

aygu

obtu

propr

saal

dure

moo

fore

fabl

sang

mallad

maygr

gro

gra

mangce

polee

mallonnate

prolong

larj

aytrouah

rong

carray

coor

long

pla

sho

frouah

fray

mure

sec

aygr

doo

amare

affammay

alt ay ray

pezong

layjai

umeed

congtong

eureu

gay

treest

uteel

English.

strange

pretty

ugly

dark

open

disagreeable

proud

arrogant

cowardly

courageous

faithless

innocent

French.

Strange
joli
laid
sombre
ouvert
dhagr^able
fier

arrogant
Idche

courageux
perfide
innocent

to eat

to drink

to be thirsty

to be hungry

to breakfast

to dine

to sup

to lay the tablecloth

to serve

to carve

to smoke

to sneeze

to cough

to think
to reflect
to speak
to say
to repeat
to explain
to be quiet
to chat
to tell
to ask
to answer
to reply
to be mistaken
to object
to doubt
to affirm
to prove
to assure
to deny
to maintain
to dispute
to consent
to approve
to praise
to admire •
to blame
to believe
to know
not to know
to imagine
to compare
to imitate
to forget
to remember

Verbs.

manger

boire

avoir soif

avoir f aim

d^jeiiner

diner

souper

metire le couvert

servir

trancher

fumer

dtemuer

tousser

penser

rijlichir

parler

dire

r/p/ler

declarer

se taire

causer

raconter

demander

r/pondre

r?pliquer

se iromper

objecter

douter

affirmer

prouver

assurer

nier

soutenir

disputer

consentir

approuver

louer

admirer

bldmer

croire

s avoir

ignorer

imaginer

comparer

imiter

oublier

se souvenir

to wish, to will
to desire
to wish
to love
to flatter
to embrace
to hope
to rejoice

vouloir

d/sirer

souhaiier

aimer

flatter

embrasser

esp&er

r/jouir

Pronunciation.

aytraunj

jolee

lay

sombr

oovare

dayzagrayabl

feeare

arrogong

lahsh

coorrajeu

pair feed

innosong

maunjai

bouahr

avouahr souaf

avouahr fang

dayjeunai

deenai

soopai

metr leh coovare

sareveer

traunshai

fumai

aytairnuai

toossai

paungsai

rayflaysheer

parlai

deer

raypaytai

dayclarrai

seh tare

cosay

raccongtai

demaundai

raypongdr

raypleekai

seh trompai

objectai

dootai

affeermai

proovai

assurai

neeai

sooteneer

disputai

congsaunteer

approovai

looai

admeerai

blahmai

crouahr

savouahr

eenyorai

eemajeenai

compahrai

eemeetai

oobleeai

seh soovenneer

voulouahr

dayseerai

sooaytai

aimai

flattai

aumbrassai

espayrai

rayjooeer

FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT.

lOl ^

English.

to give
to thank
to esteem
to honor
to despise
to hate
to offend
to insult
to quarrel
to swear
to punish
to beat
to weep
to sigh
to regret
to repent
to excuse
to pardon
to revenge
to joke
to laugh

to live
to feel
to touch
to taste
to see
to hear
to grow
to go
to go out
to return
to meet
to follow
to run
to jump
to fall
to dance
to play
to ascend
to descend
to sit down
to lie down
to rest
to sleep
to dream
to awake
to get up
to dress

to draw

to show

to present

to take

to accept

to refuse

to receive

to spoil

to throw

to lose

to look for

to find

to hide

to cover

to uncover

to carry

to bring

to travel

to depart

to arrive

to ring the bell

French.

donner

remercier

estimer

honorer

ni^priser

hair

offense r

insuller

quereller

jurer

punir

battre

pleurer

soupirer

regretter

se repentir

excuser

pardonner

vender

railler

fire

vivre

sentir

toucher

goUter

voir

entendre

crottre

aller

sortir

retoumer

rencontrer

suivre

courir

sauter

toniber

danser

jouer

nionter

descendre

s^asseoir

se coucher

se reposer

domtir

river

s'eveiller

se lever

s'habiller

tirer

montrer

presenter

prendre

accepter
refuser
recevoir

gdter

Jeter

perdre

chercher

trouver

cacher

couvrir

d/couvrtr

porter

apporter

voyager

partir

arriver

sonner

Pronunciation.

donnai

remmairceeai

esteemai

onorai

maypreezai

haheer

offongsai

angsuhltai

kerrellai

jural

puneer

batre

pleuhrai

sooperai

regret tai

seh repaunteer

excusai

pardonnai

vaungjai

rasellyai

reer

veevr

saunteer

tooshai

gootai

vouahr

auntaundr

crouahtr

allai

sorteer

retoomai

rauncongtrai

sweevr

coo reer

sotai

tombai

daungsai

jooai

mongtai

dessaundr

sassouahr

seh cooshai

seh repozai

dormeer

rayvai

sayvailyai

seh levvai

s'abbeelyai

teerai

mongtrai

praysauntai

praundr

acceptai

reffusai

ressevouahr

gahtai

jettai

pairdr

shairshai

troovai

cashai

coovreer

daycoovreer

portai

apportai

vwoiajai

parteer

arreevai

English.

to open
to go in

to buy
to sell
to pay
to lend
to borrow
to return
to repay
to exchange
to pack up
to unpack
to steal

to study
to learn
to read
to calculate
to write
to sign
to seal
to explain
to translate
to begin
to continue
to finish
to work
to paint
to draw

to stitch
to spin
to wash
to cook
to roast
to boil
to weigh
to build
to sow
to pluck
to plant
to reap

at first

previously

afterwards

together

at last

where

here

there

elsewhere

above

below

within

without

everywhere

nowhere

down

anywhere

already

often

sometimes

in future

always

never

soon

French.

ouvrir
entrer

acheter

vendre

payer

prlter

etnpruuter

rendre

rembourscf

changer

empaqueter

d^aqueter

voter

tiudier

apprendre

lite

compter

/crire

signer

ccuheter

expliquer

traduire

conimencer

continuer

Jinir

travailler

peindre

dessiner

coudre

filer

laver

cuire

rStir

bouillir

peser

bdtir

semer

cueillir

planter

moissonner

Adverbs.

ttabord
auparavant
ensuite
ensemble
enfin
oii
ici
Vk

ailleurs
dessus
dessous
dedans
dehors
partout
nulle part
en haul
en bas
que Ique part
dtfja
souvent
quelquefois
h Tavenir
toujours
\ jamais
bientdt

Pronunoatloo.

oovreer
auntrai

ashtai

vaundr

paiyai

praytai

aumpruntai

raundr

raumboorsai

chaungjai

aumpacktai

daypacktai

volai

aytudeeai

appraundr

leer

congtai

aycreer

seenyai

cashtai

expleekai

tradweer

commaunsai

congteenuai

feeneer

travvaeelyai

pahndr

desseenai

coodr

feelai

lavai

cweer

roteer

booeelyeer

pezai

bahteer

semmai

kileyeer

plauntai

mouahssonnai

d'abor

oparravang

aunsweet

aunsaumbl

aunfang

eesee

lah

aeellyure

dessu

dessoo

deddong

dehor

partoo

nule par

aung ho

aung bah

kelkeh par

dayjah

souvong

kelkehfouah

ah Tavneer

toojoor

jammay

beeangto

I02

FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT.

English.

immediately

late

early

at present

quickly

at once

afterwards

yesterday

yesterday evening

to-day

to-morrow

to-morrow morning

to-morrow evening

the day after tO'

morrow
enough
too much
little
much
very
more
less

at least
thus
nearly
about
all

altogether
only
well
better

so much the better
bad
worse
rather

without doubt
indeed

on the contrary
scarcely
perhaps
all at once
not at all
not yet
nothing
nothing at all
with, near
near

in, within
before
behind
below
over
against
far from
on the side of
opposite
round about
instead of
in the midst of
on this side
on the opposite side
out of
after
with
since
between
without
for

through, by
against
during

French.

aussitSt
tard
idt

h pr/sent
vite

tout de suite
puis
hier

hier au soir
aujourd'/iui
detnain
demain matin
demain soir
. aprh-de7nain

assez

trap

pen

beaticoup

trh, fort

phis

moins

au moins

presque

environ

tout

teut-h-fait

seulement

Hen

mieux

tant-mieux

vial

pis

plutSt

sans doute

en effct

au contraire

h peine

peut-ctre

touf-a-coup

point dii tout

pas encore

rien

rien du tout

chez, auprh

prifs

dans, en

avant

derriere

sous

sur

vers

loin de

h cdt^ de

vis-h-vis

autour de

au lieu de

au milieu de

en defa de

au-dela de

hors

aprhs

avec

dcpuis

entre, partni

sans

pour

par

contre

pendant

Pronunciation,

osito

tar

ah praysong

veet

too deh sweet

pwee

yare

yare o souahr

ojoordwee

demmang

demmang mattang

demmang souahr

appray demmang

assay

tro

peuh

bocoo

tray, fore

plu

mouang

o mouang

see

pressk

aungveerong

too

toot-ah-fay

seuhlmong

beeang

meeyw

tong meeyw

mal

pee

pluto

song doot

aun effay

o congtrare

ah pane

put-aitr

toot-ah-coo

pouang du too

paz auncore

reeang

reeang dee too

shay, opray

pray

dong, aung

avvong

derreeare

soo

sure

vare

louang deh

ah cotay deh

veez-ah-vee"'

otoor deh

o leeyu deh

o miilyu de

aung-dessah de

o-dellah-deh

hor

appray

avvec

deppwee

aungtr, parmee

song

poor

par

congtr

paundong

Conjunctions.

English.

either — or

neither — nor

also

but

however

yet

if not

if only

even if

although

that is

except that

for

because

why

and

therefore

consequently

French.

Pronunciation.

ou — ou

oo — oo

nt — ni

nee — nee

aussi

ossi

mats

cependant

pourtant

may

seppaundong

poortong

see

St non

see nong

pourvu que
quand mane
quoique \
c'est-a-dire

poorvu keh
kaung meym
couak
sait-ah-deer

comme

comm

outre que

ootr keh

car

parccque
pourquoi
et

parsk

poorkouah

atnst

par consequent

angsee

par congsaycong

The definite Article is rendered by " le " before a masculina
noun, and by " /a " before a feminine noun, as. le pere, the
father ; la viire, the mother. The plural for both genders is
" Us" as : les plres, the fathers ; les meres, the mothers.

MASCULINE.

Singular. Plural.

Nom. le (leh) pere, the father les (lay) pcres, the fathers

Gen. fl?M(du)/^r^, of the father f/<?J (day) /^r^j, of the fathers

Dat. au \n)pere, to the father aux (p)p(!res, to the fathers

Ace. Z^' (leh) /^r(?, the father les {[ay) peres , the fathers

FEMININE.

Nom. la mhre, the mother les meres.

Gen. de la vibre, of the mother des meres,

Dat. ci la mere, to the mother aux mires.

Ace, la mere, the mother les mires.

the mothers
of the mothers
to the mother.''
the mothers

Declension

of a word beginning with a vowel or a silent " k."
Singular. Plural.

Nom. rhomme, the man les homnies, the men

Gen. de Thomme, of the man dcs hommes, of the men

Dat. h I homme, to the man aux hotnmes, to the men

Ace. I' homme, the man les hommes, the men

FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT.

[03

Indefinite Article.
Masculine. Feminine.

Nom. unj'ardin, a garden une villt.

Gen. cTun jardin, of a garden d'une ville,

Dat, h tin jardin, to a garden a une ville,

Ace. un jardin, a garden une ville.

Declension of

Proper

Nom

Paris,

Paris

Louise,

Gen.

de Paris,

of Paris

de Louise,

Dat.

a Paris,

to Paris

A Louise,

Ace.

Paris,

Paris

Louise,

a town
of a town
to a town
a town

Louisa
of Louisa
to Louisa
Louisa

Adjectives.

The French adjectives are placed either before or after the
noun, as :

le lion pcre, the good father — la bonne mere, the good mother
un bon garcon, a good boy — une jeune jille, a young ^ii\
une table ronde, a round table — du lait chaud, warm milk

Comparison of Adjectives.

grand, great —plus grand, grta^ter—le plus grand, the greatest
petit, small —plus petit, smaller — le phts petit, the smallest
bon, good — meilleur, better — le meilleur, the best
viau-jais, bad — pire, worse — le pire, the worst

petit, little — tnoindre, less — le inoindre, the least

Obs. "Than" following the comparative is always translated
by "?«<?."
II est pluspoli que son frkre — he is more polite than his brother

Numeral Adjectives.

Pronunciation.

one, un

ung

two, deux

deuh

3 trois

trouah

4 qtiatre

kahtr

5 cmq

sahnk

6 SIX

seece

-J sept

set

8 huit

wheel

9 neuf

neuf

10 dix

deece

11 onze

ongz

12 dome

dooze

13 treize

trayz

14 quatorze

katorz

15 qtiinze

kangz

16 seize

sayz

17 dix-sept

dee-set

18 dix- huit

deez-wheet

19 dix-neuf

deez-neuf

20 vingt

vahng

21 vingt-et-un

vahnt-eh-ung

22 viii'^t-deux

23 vingt-trois

24 vingi-quatre

25 vingt-cinq

26 vmgt-six

27 vingt-sept

28 vingt-huit

Pronunciation.

29 vingt-neuf

30 trente traunt
40 quarante karaunt
50 cinquante sahnkaunt
60 soixante soassaunt

70 soixante-dix

71 soixante-et-onze

72 soixante-douze

73 soixante-treize

74 soixante-qualorze

75 soixante -qtiinze

76 soixante-seize

77 soixante-dix-sept

78 soixante-dix-huit

79 soixante-dix-neuf

80 quatre-vingt katr- vahng

81 quatre-vingt-tin

katr-vahntung

82 quatre-vingt-detix

83 quatre-vingt-trois

84 qtiatre-vingt-qtiatre

85 qtiatre-vingt-cijuj

86 qtiatre-vingt-six

87 qziatre-vingt-sept

88 qiiatre-vingt-huit
8g qtiatre -vingt -neuf

90 qtiatre-vingt-dix

91 quatre-vingt-onze

Pronunciation.

92 quatre-vingt-douze

93 quatre-vingt-treize

94 quatre-vingt -quatorze

95 qtiatre-vingt-qtiinze

96 quatre-vingt-seize

97 qtiatre-vingt-dix-sept

98 qtiatre-vingt-dix-htiit

99 quatre-vingt-dix-neuf
ICX) ««/ saung

lOi cent-et-un saunt-eh-ung
1 10 f«;/ rtVjT saung-deece
120 r«// !//«_§'/ saung- vahng
130 r^;// /r^«^
200 aVwx f<f«/j

Pronunciation.
300 /rc^/j f(r«/'j
400 quatre cents

500 «'«^ CfM/j

600 j/jr f^«/j
700 j<»// <r<fM/j
800 //kjV f^«/j
900 ««</ r(?7;/j
1000 /«?//</ meel
2000 rtifi/jr /«///(?
3000 //-^zj w«Y/^
10,000 fl'/jr ««■//<•
20,000 vingt inille
a million, «« million

ung meelyong

Ordinal Numbers.

the first,
" second,
" third,
" fourth,
" 5th,
" 6th,
" 7th,
" 8th,
" 9th,
" lOth,
" inh,
" I2th,
" 13th,
" Mth,
" I5ih,
'• i6th,
" 17th,
" i8th,
" 19th,
" 20th,

" 2ISt,

" 30th,
" 40th,
" 50th,
" 60th,
" 70th,

le premier

le second

le troisihne

le quatrieme

le cinquieme

le sixieine

le septihne

le huitihne

le nettvihne

le dixieme

le onzihne

le douzihne

le treizieme

le qtiatorzihne

le quinzicme

le seizieme

le dix-septihne

le dix-huitihne

le dix-neuvihne

le vingtieme

le vingt-et-unieme

le trenticme

le quarantieme

le cinquaniihne

le soixantieme

le soixante-dixihne

" 80th, le quatre-vingtihne

" 90th, le quatre-vingt-dixihne

" looih, le centihne

" loooth, le inillihne

the last, le dernier

leh premyai
leh zeggong
leh trouazzeeame
leh kaltreeame
leh sahnkeeame
leh seeceeame
leh setteeame
leh wheeteeame
leh neuveeame
leh deezeeame
leh ongzeeame
leh doozeeame
leh trayzeeame
leh kattorzeeame
leh kahngzeeame
leh sayzeeame
leh deessettiame
leh deez-wheeteeame
leh deezneuveeame
leh vahnteeame
leh vahng-eh-uneeame
leh traunteeame
leh karaunteeame
leh sahnkaunteeame
leh souahssaunteeame
leh souuhssaunt-deezee

ame
leh kattr-vaunteeame

leh saunteeame
leh milleeame
leh dareneeay .

Pronouns.

7'
tu
te
il

elle

Mas.
Fem,
Mas.
Fem

qui

quoi

quel

(jeh)

(tu)

(teh)

(eel)

(el)

thou
thee
he
she

Nous

votts

vous

ils

elles

(noo)
(voo)
(voo)
(eel)
(el)

mot

toi

mon

ton

son

notre (notr)

voire (votr)

lettr (leur)

(kee)

(couah)

(mouah) me
(touah) thee
(mong) my
(mah) my
(tong) I ,

(tah) \ ";y

(song)^ his
(sah) J her

you
you
they
they

nous (noo) us
lui (hvee) him

Plural > vies (may) my

your

their "

who, which, that
what, that

tes

ses

nos
vos
leurs

(tay) thy

(say) his, hei

(no) our

(vo) your

(Icur) their

(kel), le quel? which ?

que (keh) what

T04

FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT.

avoir — to have
INFINITIVE MOOD,

Present. Past.

Avoir, to have ; avoir eu to have had.

PARTICIPLES.

Ayanty having ;

I have
thou hast
he has
she has
we have
you have
they have

I had
thou hadst
he had
we had
you had
they had

I have had
thou hast had
he has had
she has had
we have had
you have had
they have had

I had ha^,
thou hadst had
he had had
we liad had
you had had
they had had

I had had
thou hadst had
he had liad
we had had
you had had
they had had

eu, had

ayant eu, having had

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present.

tu tu

ila

ellea

Jay,

tu an

eel ah

el ah

nous avons
vous avez
Us {elles) ont

nooz avong
vooz avai
eels ont

Imperfect.

J'avais

Javay

tu avais

tu avay

il avait

eel avay

nous avians

nooz aveeong

vous aviez

vooz aveeay

Us avaient

eels avay

Past definite.

feus

Je^

tu eus

tu evr

il eut

eel ew

nous eilmes

nooz eum

vous edtes

vooz eut

Us eurent

eels eur

Perfect.

fai eu
tu as eu
ila eu
elle a eu
nous avons eu
vous avez eu
Us {elles) ont eu

'Pluperfect.

f avais eu
tu avais eu
il avait eu
nous avians eu
vans aviez eu
Us avaient eu

Past anterior,

feus eu
tu ens eu
il eut eu
nous cHines eu
vous elites eu
Us eurent eu

Jay ew
tu ahz ew
eel all ew
el ah ew
nooz avongz ew
vooz avayze ew
eels ont ew

Javayz ew
tu avayz ew
eel avait ew
nooz aveeongz ew
vooz aveeayze ew
eels avait ew

Jeus ew
tu eus ew
eel eut ew
nooz eums eW
vooz cuts ew
eels eurt ew

I shall have
thou shall have
he shall have
we shall have
you shall have
they shall have

Future.

faurai
tu auras
ilaura
nous aurons
vous aurez
Us auront

Future anterior.
I shall have had faurai eu
thou shall have had tu auras eu
he shall have had it aura eu
we shall have had nous aurons eu
you shall have had vous aurez eu
they shall have had Us auront eu

Joray
tu orah
eel orah
nooz orong
vooz oray
eels orong

Joray ew
tu orahs ew
eel orah ew
nooz orongz ew
vooz orayze ew
eels oront ew

I should have
thou shouldst have
he should have
we should have
you should have
they should have

Conditional. Present.

faurais
tu aurais
il aurait
nous atcrions
vous auriez
Us auraient

Joray
tu oray
eel oray
nooz oreeong
vooz oreeay
eels oray

Conditional. Past.

I should have had faurais eu
thou shouldst have tti aurais eu

had
he should have had il auiait eu
we should have had noiis aurions eu
you should have had voits auriez eu
they should have had Us auraient eu

Jorays ew
tu orays ew

eel orait ew
nooz areeongz ew
vooz oreeayze ew
eels orait ew

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Have aie

let us have ayons

have (ye) ayez

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present.

That I may have Que/ aie
that thou mayst have que tu aies
that he may have quHl ait
that we may have que nous ayons
that you may have que vous ayez
that they may have quHls aient

Imperfect.

That I might have Que feusse
that thou, mightst que tu eusses

have
that he might have qtiil eiit
that we might have que nous eussions
that you might have que vous eussiez
that they might have qu'ils eussent

Perfect.

That I may have had Que f aie eu
that thou mayst have que tu aies eu

had
that he may have had qu'il ait eu
that we may have que nous ayons eu

had
that you may have que vous ayez eu

had
that they may have qtCils aient eu

had

ayong

ayay

keh jai

keh tu ai
keel ai

keh nooz ayong
keh vooz ayay
keels ai

keh jeuss
keh tu euss

keel eu

keh nooz eussyong
keh vooz eussyay
keels euss

keh jai ew
keh tu aiz ew

keel ait ew

keh nooz ayongz ew

keh vooz ayayz ew

keels ait ew

FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT.

Pluperfect,

Pcut anterior.

That I might have

Que feusse eu

keh jeuss ew

I had been

J'eus ///

Jeuz ettay

had

thou hadst been

tu eus d(f

tu euz ettay

that thou mightst (/ue tu eusses eu

keh tu euss ew

he had been

ileuteV

eel eut ettay

have had

we had been

nous eHines ///

nooz eums ettay

that he might have

- i/u'i/ eilt eu

keel eut ew

you had been

vous elites ///

vooz eutes ettay

had

they had been

ils eurcnt ///

eels eurt etay

that we might have

que nous eussions eu

keh nooz eussyongs

had

Future.

that you might have

' que vous eussiez eu

keh vooz eusseyaz ew

had

I shall be

Je serai

Je serray

that they might have

qu'ils eussent eu

keels eusst ew

thou shalt be

tu seras

tu serrah

had

he shall be

il sera

eel serrah

we shall be
you shall be

nous serons
vous serez

noo serrong

voo serray

The Auxiliary Verb " etre," to be.

they shall be

ils seront

eel serong

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Future anterior

Present.

Past.

I shall have been

Vaurai ///

Joray ettay

itre (aitr) — to be ; avoir e'tS (avoahr

ettay) — to have been

thou shalt have been tu auras /;/

tu orahs ettay

he shall have been

»/ aura ete

eel orah ettay

Partichles.

we shall have been

nous aurons M

nooz orongz ettay

/tant (ettang)— being ; ///(ettay)

— been

you shall have been
they shall have been

vous aurez ///
ils auront ///

vooz orayz ettay
eels oront.ettay

ayant /// (ayaunt

ettay) — having been

Conditional. Present.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PfCSCtttu

I should be

Je serais

Je serray

thou shouldst be

tu serais

tu serray

I am •

Je suis

Jeh swee

he should be

il serait

eel serray

thou art

tues

tu ay

we should be

nous serions

noo serreeong

he is

il est

eel ay

you should be

vous seriez

voo serreeay

she is

elle est

el ay

they should be

ils seraient

eel serray

we are

nous sotnmes

noo som

you are

vous ties

vooz ait

they are

ils {elles) sont

eel song

Conditional. Past.

Imperfect.

I should have been

J'aurais ///

Jorays ettay

thou shouldst have

tu aurais ///

tu orays ettay

I was

fdlais

Jettay

been

thou wast

tu tftais

tu ettay

he should have been

il aurait ///

eel orait ettay

he was

il /tail

il ettay

we should have been nous aurions ^te

nooz oreeong''. ettay

we were

nous dtions

nooz ettyong

you should have been vous auriez ///

vooz oreeayz ettay

you were

vous e'tiez

vooz ettyay

they should have

ils auraient etS

eels orait ettay

they were

ils ^talent

eels ettay

been

Past definite.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

I was
thou wast

Jefus
tu fus

Jefu
tu fu

— sois

souah

he was

ilfut

eelfu

let us
be (ye'

be — soyons

swoiyong

we were

nous fiimes

noo fume

— soyez

swoiyay

you were

vous fiites

voo fate

they were

ils furent

eel fure

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Perfect.

Present.

I have been
thou hast been
he has been
she has been

fai /t/
tu as /t(f
ila et<f
elle a ite

Jai ettay
tu ah ettay
eel ah ettay
el ah ettay

That I may be
that thou mayst be
that he may be
that we may be

Que je sois
que tu sois
qu'il soil
que nous soyons

Keh jeh souah
keh tu souah
keel souah
keh noo swoiyong

we have been
you have been
they have been

nous avons/t^
vous avez e't/
ils (elles) ont /t/

Pluperfect.

nooz avongz ettay
vous avayze ettay
eels ont ettay

that you may be
that they may be

que vous soyez
qu'ils soient

Imperfect.

keh voo swoiyay
keel souah

I had been

J'avais ///

Javayz ettay

That I might be

Queje fusse

Keh jeh fusse

thou hadst been

til avals e't^

tu avayz ettay

that thou mightst be

que tu fusses

keh tu fusse

he had been

il avail ///

eel avait ettay

that he migiit be

quil flit

keel fu

we had been

nous avians ///

nooz avyons ettay

that we might be

que nous fissions

keh noo fnssyong

you had been

vous aviez ///

vooz avyayz ettay

that you might be

que vous fussiez

keh voo fussyay

they had been

ils avaient e'td

eels avait ettay

that they might be

qu'ils fussent

keel fusse

FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT.

Per/eci.

That I may have Que faie /(/ Keh j'ai ettay

been
that thou mayst have (jue tu aies //</ keh tu aiz ettay

been
that he may have qu'il ait /// keel ait ettay

been
that we may have que nous ayons /// keh noo zayongz

been
that you may have que vous ayez ///

been
that they may have qu'ils aient ///

been

ettay
keh voo ayayz ettay

keels ait ettay

Pluperfect.

That I might have Que feusse M

been
that thou mightst que tu eusses ///

have been
that he might have quil eilt e'l^

been
that we might haye que nous eussions /te']x.Q]x nooz eussyons

been ettay

that you might have que vous eussiez dtS keh vooz eussyaze

been ettay

that they might have qu'ils eussent /// keels eussent ettay

been

Keh jeuss ettay
keh tu euss ettay
keel eut ettay

Regular Verbs.

The Infinitives of verbs in the French language have the four
following terminations :

er — as in : donner, to give,

ir — as in : finir, to finish,

oir — as in : recevoir, to receive,

re — as in : vendre, to sell.

All that precedes this infinitive termination is called the " root"
of the verb.

Verbs which only change their terminations and not their
roots are called " regular Verbs," those which change their roots
"irregular Verbs."

The Verbs ending in " oir" are all irregular, and the French
language, ther-fore, has in reality only three regular Conjuga-
tions.

The first Conjugation ends in " er."
The second Conjugation ends in " ir"
The third Conjugation ends in "oir."
The fourth Conjugation ends in "^ re."

The past Participle is formed by adding to the root of the
first Conjugation an "<?'," to that of the second an "»," to the
fourth an " «, as: ^

Donn-er, to give — donne', given.
Fin-ir, to finish — fini, finished.
Vend-re, to sell — vendu, sold.

The Four Conjugations.
FIRST CONJUGATION.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Present. Past.

Donner (donnay), to give avoir donn/, to have given

Participlei.

Donnant (donnong), giving

donn/, given

ay ant donn/, having given

SIMPLE TENSES.
Absolu.
I give
Je donne
tu donnes
il donne
nous donnons
vous donnez
Us donnent

Imperfect,
I gave
Je donnais
tu donnais
il donnait
nous do7inions
vous donniez
Us donnaient

Past definite.
I gave
Je donnai
tu donnas
il donna
nous donndmes
vous donndtes
Us donnkrent

Future.
I shall give
Je donnerai
tu donneras
il donnera
nous donnerons
vous donnerez
Us dontieront

Present.
I should give
Je donnerais
tu donnerais
il donnerait
nous donnerions
vous donneiiez
Us donneraient

Present.
That I may give

Queje donne
que tu donnes
qu'il donne
que nous donnions
que vozis donniez
qu'ils donnent

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present.

Jeh don
tu don
eel don
noo donnong
voo donnay
eel don

Descriptive,

Jeh donnay
tu donnay
eel donnay
noo donnyong
voo donnyay
eel donnay

Narrative.

Jeh Qonnay
tu donna
eel donna
noo donnahme
voo donnahte
eel donnaire

Future.

Jeh donnerai
tu donnera
eel donnera
noo donnerong
voo donneray
eel donnerong

Conditional.

COMPOUND TENSES.
Anttfrieur.
I have given
J'ai donn/
tu as donne'
il a donne
nous avons donn/
vous avez donn/
Us ont donne

Pluperfect.
I had given.
J^avais donn/
tu avals donn/
il avail donn/
nous avians donn/
vousaviez donn/
Us avaient donn/

Past anterior.

I had given
J^eus donne
tu eus donn/
il eut donne
nous eiiines donne
vous elites donn/
Us eurent don?t/

Future anterior.
I shall have given
J'aurai donn/
tu auras donn/
il aura don7t/
nous aurons donn/
vous aurez donn/
Us auront donn/

Jeh donneray
tu donneray
eel donneray
noo donnereeong
voo donnereeay
eel donneray

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Past.
I should have given
J'anrais donn/
tu aurais donn/
il aurait donn/
nous aurions donn/
vous auriez donne
Us auraient donne

Keh jeh don
keh tu don
keel don

keh noo donnyong
keh voo donnyay
keel don

Past.

That I may have

given.

Que fate donne
que tu aies donn/
qu'il ait donn/
que nous ayons donne
que vous ayez donn/
qu'ils ayent donn/

FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT.

— ^

107

Imperfect.
That I might give

Que je donnasse
que tu donnasses
qu'il donndt
que nous donnassions

gue vous donnassiez

qu'ils donnassent

Keh jeh donnass
keh tu donnass
keel donnah

Pluperfect.

That I might have

given
Que feusse donn^
que tu eusses donn^
qu'il eAt donn^

keh noo donnass- que nous eussions

yong donnd

keh voo donnassyay que vous eussiez

donn^
keel donnass qu'ils eussent donn/

IMERATIVE MOOD.

Donne (don) give thou donnons (donnong) let us give

donnez (donnay), give ye
qu'il donne (keel don), qu'ils donnent (keel don),

let him give let them give

SECOND CONJUGATION.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Present. Past.

finir (feeneer), to finish avoir fini (feenee), to have fin-

ished
Participles.

finissant (feeneesong), finishing fini, finished

ay ant fini, having finished

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.

SIMPLE TENSES.

Absolu.

I finish
Je finis
tu finis
ilfinit

nous finis sons
vous fnissez
ils finissent

Imperfect.

I finished
Je fnissais
tu fnissais
il finissait
nous finissions
vous finissiez
ils finissaient

Past definite.
I finished
Je finis
tu finis
il finit
nous fintmes
vous finites
ils finirent

Je feenee
tu feenee
eel feenee
noo feeneessong
voo feeneessay
eel feeneess

Descriptive.

Jeh feeneessay
tu feeneessay
eel feeneessay
noo feeneessyong
voo feeneessyay
eel feeneessay

Narrative.

Jeh feenee
tu feenee
eel feenee
noo feeneem
voo feeneet
eel feeneer

COMPOUND TENSES.
Anttfrieur.
I have finished
J'ai fini
tu as fini
il a fini
nous avons fini
vous avez fini
ils ont fini

Pluperfect.
I had finished
J' avals fini
tu avais fini
il avail fini
nous avions fini
vous aviez fini
ils avaient fini

Past anterior.

I had finished
J^eus fini
tu eusfini
ileut fini
nous edmesfim
vous eiites fini
ils eurent fini

Future.
I shall finish
Je finirai
tu finiras
il finira
nous finirons
vous finirez
ils finiront

Present.
I should finish

Je finirai s
tu finirais
il finirait
nous finit ions
vous finiriez
ils finiraient

Future.

Jeh feeneeray
tu feeneera
eel feeneera
noo feeneerong
voo feeneeray
eel feeneerong

Conditional.

Future anterior.
I shall have finished
J'aurai fini
tu auras fini
il aura fini
nous aurons fini
vous aurez fini
ils auront fini

Jeh feeneeray
tu feeneeray
eel feeneeray
noo feeneereeong
voo feeneereeay
eel feeneeray

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Past.
I should have

ished
Jaurais fini
tu aurais fini
il aurait fini
nous aurions fini
vous autiez fini
ils auraint fini

fin-

Present.
That I may finish

Que je finis se
que tufinisses
qu'il finisse
que nous finissions

que vous finissiez
qu'ils finissent

Imperfect.
That I might finish

Que je finisse
que tu finisses
qu'il finit
que nous finissions

que vous finissiez
qu'ils finissent

Past.

That I may have fin-
ished.

Que j'aie fini

que tu aiesfini

qu'il ait fini

Finis (feenee), finish

qu'il finisse (keel feeneess),
let him finish

Keh jeh feeneess

keh tu feeneess

keel feeneess

keh noo feeneessee- que nous ayons fini

ong
keh voo feeneesseeay que vous ay ez fini
keel feeneess qu'ils aientfini

Pluperfect.

That I might have

finished

Keh jeh feeneess Que j'eusse fini
keh tu feeneess que tu eusses fini

keel feenee qu'il etit fini

keh noo feeneess- qtie nous eussions fini

yong
keh voo feeneessyay qiu vous eussiez fini
keel feeneess qu'ils eussent fini

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

finissons (feeneessong),

let us finish
yfwm^z (feeneessay), finish ye
qu'ils finissent (keel feeneess),
let them finish

THIRD CONJUGATION.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Present.

Recevoir (ressevouahr),

to receive

Past,
avoir refu, to have received

Participle.

Recevant (ressevong), receiving re<;u (ressu), received

ayant re(u, having received

io8

FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT.

SIMPLE TENSES.
Absolu.
I receive
Je refois
iu I'efois
il revolt
ttous recevons
vous recevez
lis re^oivent

Imperfect.

I received
Je recevais
tu recevais
il recevait
nous recevions
vous receviez
Us recevaient

Past definite.
I received
Je refus
tu refus
il refut
nous re^dmes
vous re^iites
Us regurent

Future.
I shall receive
Je recevrai
tu recevras
il recevra
nous recevrons
vous recevrez
Us recevront '

Present.
I should receive

Je recevrai s
tu recevrais
il recevrait
nous recevrions
vous recevriez
Us recevraient

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present,

Jeh ressouah
tu ressouah
eel ressouah
noo ressevong
voo ressevay
leel ressouahve

Descriptive.

Jeh ressevay
tu ressevay
eel ressevay
noo ressevyong
voo ressevayy
eel ressevay

Narrative.

Jeh ressu
tu ressu
eel ressu
noo ressume
voo ressute
eel ressure

Future.

Jeh ressvray
tu ressvrah
eel ressvrah
noo ressvrong
voo ressvray
eel ressvrong

Conditional.

Jeh ressvray
tu ressvray
eel ressvray
noo ressvreeong
voo ressvreeay
eel ressvray

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

COMPOUND TENSES.

Ant^rieur.

I have received

J^ai refu
tu as refu
il a refu
nous avons re^u
vous avez refu
Us ont refu

Pluperfect.
I had received
J'avais re^u
tu avais refu
il avail re^u
nous avians refu
vous aviez refu
Us avaient re^u

Past anterior.
I had received

J^eus re^u
tu eus refu
il eut refu
nous eilmes re(u
vous elites re^u
Us eurent re^u

Future anterior.
I shall have received
J'aurai regu
tu auras re(u
il aura refU
nous aurons, regu
vous aurez regu
Us auront refU

Past.
I should have re-
ceived
J'aurais re(U
tu aurais regu
il aurait refu
nous aurions refu
vous auriez refu
Us auraient regu

Present,
That I may receive

Qtieje refoive
que tu regoives
qu'il refoive
que nous recevions
que vous receviez
quHls refoivent

Keh jeh ressouahve
keh tu ressouahve
keel ressouahve
keh noo ressvyong
keh voo ressvyay
keel ressouahve

That

Past.
I might
received

have

Que faie regu
que tu aies regu
qu'il ait regu
que nous ayons regu
que vous ayez refu
qu'ils aient regu

Imperfect.
That I might receive

Que je regusse
que tu regusses
qu'il re(iit
que nous refussions

que vous recussiez
qu'ils reftissent

Keh jeh ressuce
keh tu ressuce
keel ressu
keh noo ressussyong

keh voo ressussyay
keel ressusse

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Pluperfect.
That I might have

received
Quefeusse regu
que tu eusses regu
quit edt regu
que nous eussions

refu
que vous eussiez re(u
quits eussent regu

Refois (ressouah), receive thou Recevons (ressevong),

let us receive
recevez (ressevay), receive ye
qu'il regoive (keel ressouahve), qu'ils refoiveni (keel res-
let him receive souahve), let them receive

FOURTH CONJUGATION.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Present. Past.

Vendre (vaundr), to sell. Avoir vendu, to have sold

Participle.

Vendant (vau- -dong) selling Vendu (vaundu), sold

ayant vendu, having sold

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SIMPLE TENSES.
Absolu.
I sell
Je vends
tu vends
il vend
nous vendons
vous vendez
Us vendent

Imperfect.
Isold
Je vendais
tu vendais
il vendait
nous vendions
vous vendiez
Us vendaient

Past definite.
I sold
Je vendis
tu vendis
il vendit
nous vendtmes
vous vendttes
Us vendirent

Present.

Je vong
tu vong
eel vong
noo vaundong
voo vaunday
eel vaund

Descriptive.

Jeh vaunday
tu vaunday
eel vaunday
noo vaundyong
voo vaundyai
eel vaunday

Narrative.

Jeh vaundee
tu vaundee
eel vaundee
noo vaundeem
voo vaundeet
eel vaundeer

COMPOUND TENSES.
• Antdrieur.
I have sold
J'ai vendu
tu as vendu
il a vendu
nous avons vendu
vous avez vendu
Us ont vendu

Pluperfect.

I had sold
J'avais vendu
tu avais vendu
il avail vendu
nous avions vendu
vous aviez vendu
Us avaient vendu.

Past anterior.
I had sold

y^«j vendu
tu eus vendu
il eut vendu
nous eAmes vendu
vous eUtes vendu
Us eurent vendu

FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT

109

-y

Future.
I shall sell
Je vendrai
tu vendras
il vendra
nous vendrons
vous vendrez
Us vendront

Present.
I should sell
Je vendrais
tu vendrais
il vend rait
nous vendrions
vous vendriez
Us vendraient

Present.
That I may sell
Que je vende
que tu vendes
qu'il vende
que nous vendions
que vous vendiez
qu'ils vendent

Imperfect.
That I might sell

Future.

Jeh vaundray
tu vaundrah
eel vaundrah
noo vaundrong
voo vaundray
eel vaundrong

Conditional.

Past.
I should have sold
J^aurai vendu
tu auras vendu
il aura vendu
nous aurons vendu
vous aurez vendu
Us auront vendu

Jeh vaundray
tu vaundrah
eel vaundrah
noo vaundrong
voo vaundreeay
eel vaundray

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Past.
I should have sold
J'aurais vendu
tu aurais vendu
il aurait vendu
nous aurions vendu
vous auries vendu
Us auraient vendu

Keh jeh vaund
keh tu vaund
keel vaund
keh noo vaundyong
keh voo vaundyay
keel vaund

Que je vendisse Keh jeh vaundeess

que tu vendisses keh tu vaundeess

qu'il vendit keel vaundee

que nous vendissions keh noo vaundeess-

yong
que vous vendissiez keh voo vaundeess-

quils vendissent keel vauneess

Past.
That I may have sold
Que faie vendu
que tu aies vendu
qu'il ait vendu
que nous ayons vendu
que vous ayez vendu
qu'ils aient vendu

Pluperfect.
That I might have

sold
Que j'eusse vendu
que tu eusses vendu
qu'il eUt vendu
que nous eussions

vendu
que vous eussiez

vendu
qu'ils eusscnt vendu

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Vends (vong), sell thou

quHl vende (keel vaunde),

let him sell

vendons (vaundong), let us sell
veitdez (vaunday), sell ye
qu'ils vendent (keel vaund),

let them sell

English.

Tell me

If you please

Have the goodness

Yes, Sir

Yes, Madam

Yes, Miss

No, Sir

French.

Dites-moi
S'il vous plait
Ayez la bont/
Oui, Monsieur
Out, Madame
Oui, Mademoiselle
Non, Monsieur

Pronunciation.

Deet mouah
See voo play
Aiyai lah bongtai
Wee, Mosseeu
Wee, Madamm
Wee, Madmouazel
Nong, Mosseeu

English.

No, Madam
No, Miss
Will you

tell me
I thank you
Do you speak

English ?

French ?
I do not speak

French
I speak it a little
I understand
I do not understand

French.

Non, Madame
Non, Mademoiselle
Voulez-vous
me dire
Je vous remercie
Parlez-vous

anglais ?

fran^ais ?
Je ne parle pas fran-

^ais
Je le parle un peu
Je comprends
Je ne comprends pas

Do you understand

Give me

some bread
some meat
some wine
some beer

Bring me

some coffee
some tea
some milk
some butter
some cheese

Thank you

? Comprenez-vous i
Donnez-moi

du pain

de la viande

du vin

de la bi}re
Apportez-moi

du cafe

du th^

du lait

du beurre

du fromage
Merci

Pronunciation .

Nong, Madamm
Nong, Madmouazel
Voolai voo

nieh deer
Jeh voo remmairsee
Parlai-voo

aunglai ?

fraunsai ?
Jeh neh pari pah

fraunsai
Jeh leh pari ungpeuh
Jeh comprong
Jeh neh comprong

pah
Comprennai-voo
Donnai-mouah

du pang

de lah veeaund

du vang

de la beeare
Apportai-mouah

du cafTay

du tay

du lay

du beur

du fromaje
Mairsee

Good morning
How do you do ?

Very well

I am very well

How is your father ?

Ho w is your mother ?

She is not well

She is ill
He is very ill
She has a cold
I must go
Good bye
Farewell
Your servant
I wish you a good

morning
Good evening
Good night
I wish you good

night.
My compliments to

your father
I will not fail

Meeting.

Bon jour Bong joor

Comment vous portez- Commong voo por-

vous ? taivoo

Trh-bien Tray beeang

Je me porte fort bien Jeh meh port fore

beeang
Comment se porte Commong seh port

Monsieur voire mosseeu votr

phe? pare ?

Comment se porte Commong sell port

Madame voire Maddam votr

mere ? mare ?

File ne se porte pas El neh seh port pah

bien beeang

File est malade El ai mallad

// est bien malade Eel ai beeang mallad
File est^' enrhume'e EI ai taunreemay

Jl faut partir
Auplaisir
Adieu
Voire serviteur

Eel fo parteer

O playzeer

Adieu

Votr sairveeture

Je vous souhaite /<? Jeh voo sooate leh

bon jour bong joor

Bon soir Bong souar

Bonne nuit Bon nwee

Je vous souhaite une Jeh voo sooate une

bonne nuit bon nwee

Saluez Monsieur vo- Salluai mosseeu votr

ire perede ma part pare deh mah par
Je n'y manque7-ai']eh. nee maunkrai

pas pah

Visits.

There is a knock On frafpe Ong frap

It is Mrs B. Cest Madame B. Sai Maddam B.

I am very glad to see Je suis charm/ de Je swee sharmai
you vous voir deh voo vouahr

FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT.

English.
Pray, be seated

French.

Pronunciation.

Asseyez-vous, je vous Asspyai voo jeh voo
prie pree

What news is there? Que dit-on de nou- Keh deet-ong deh
veau ? noovo ?

De bonnes nouvelles Deh bon noovel
Le croyez-vous ? Leh crwoyai voo?

Je le crois Jeh leh croua

Je n'en crois pas un Jeh nong croua paz

mot ung mo

Je crois que oui Je croua queh wee

Je crois que non Je croua queh nong

Qui vous Ca dit? Kee voo lah dee?
// n'en est rien

Good news

Do you believe it ?

I believe it

I don't believe a

word of it
I think so
I think not
Who told you ?
It is no such thing

Eel non ai reeang

Have you heard from Avez-vous re(u des Avai voo ressu dai
home ? nouvelles de chez- noovel deh shai

vous ? voo ?

Le facteur m'appor- Leh facter mappor-
ta une lettre ce tah une lettr seh
matin mattang

They write sad news On vi'^crit de mau- Ong maycree deh
vaises nouvelles movaze noovel

Voulez-vous rester a Voolai voo restai ah
diner avec nous? deenai avec noo?
Merci Mairsee

Je ne peux pas res- Jeh neh peuh pah

tcr restai

II faut que je nCen Eel fo keh jeh mon

aille aheel

Vous ites bien pres- Vooz ait beeang pres-
j/ sai

I have a great deal J'ai bien des choses a Jay beeang dai shoez
to do. faire ah fare

The postman

brought me a let-
ter this morning

Will you stay and

dine with us ?
No, thank you
I cannot stay

I must go

You are
hurry

great

Expressions of Surprise.

What!

Is it possible ?

Who would have

believed it !
Indeed

It is impossible
That cannot be

Comment !
Serait-il possible ?
Qui Vaurait cru !

Commong !
Serrait-eel posseebl ?
Kee loray cru !

En v^rit^ Ong vereetay

Cela est impossible Slah ait amposseebl
Cela ne se peutpas Slah neh seh peu pah
I am astonished at \tjen suis bien e'tonn^ Jong swee beean

aitonnai
Voo meh surepren-

nay
Cest incroyable Sait angcrwoyable

Cela est inoui Slah ait inwee

J' en suis fdche' Jong swee fashai

Jen suis ddsol^ Jong swee daizolai

You surprise me Vous me surprenez

It is incredible
It is unheard of
I am sorry for it
I am quite vexed

about it
What a pity !
It is a great pity
It is a sad thing

Quel dommage !
Cest bien dommage
Cela est bien fdcheux

It is a great misfor- Cest un grand mal-

tune heur

I am very glad Je suis bien aise

I am very glad of it J' en suis fort aise
It gives me great }oyJ'en ai bien de lajoie

How happy I am Que je suis heureux

I wish you joy Je vous felicite

I congratulate you Je vous en fais mon
on it compliment

Kel dommaje

Say beeang dommaje

Slah ah beeang fa-

sheu
Sait ung grong mai-
ler
Je swee beean aze
Jong swee fort aze
Jon ay beeang deh

lah jouah
Keh jeh sweeze heu-

reu
Jeh voo faileeseet
Jeh vooze ong fay
mong complee-
mong

Anger and Blame.

English. French. Pronunciation.

He is very angry // est bien en colere Eel ai beean ong col-

lare
I am in a bad temper yif suis de mauvaise Jeh swee deh movaze
humeur humeure

Elle en est futieuse El on ai fureeuze

She is furious about

Hold your tongue
You are very wrong

What a shame !
How could you do

so ?
I am ashamed of you
For shame !
You are very much

to blame
His patience is tired

out
Don't answer

Taisez-vous

Vous avez bien tort

Quelle honte !
Comment avez-vous

pu faire cela ?
Vous mefaites honte
Fi done !
Vous Hes bien a bld-

mer
La patience lui

/c/iappe
Ne repliquez pas

Taizay voo
Vooze avai beeang

tor
Kel haunt !
Commont avai voo

pu fare sla ?
Voo meh fate haunt
Fee don !
Vooze ait beean ah

blahmai
Lah passyaunce Iwee

aishap
Neh raipleekai pah

Age.

How old are you ? Quel dge avez-vous ?
I am twenty-two J'ai vingt-deux ans
I shall soon be thirty y^'rti bientdt trente

ans
He looks older

I did not think you

were so old
She is at least sixty

How old is your un-
cle?

He is nearly eighty

Is he so old ?

It is a great age

He begins to grow
old

II parait plus dg/

Je ne vour croyais

pas si dge
Elle a au mains soi-

xante ans
Quel dge peut avoir

Monsieur voire

oncle ?
II a a peu pres qua-

tre-vingt ans
Est-il si dg^ que

cela ?
Cest tin grand dge

II commence h vieil-
lir

Kel ahje avai voo?-
Jay vahng-deuh ong
Jay beeangto traunt

ong
Eel paray pluze

ahjai
Jeh neh voo crwoyai

pah see ahjai
El a o mooang soo-

assauntong
Kel ahje peutavouar

Mosseeu votr auncl

Eel ah ah peu pray

kahtr vangs ong
Ait eel see ahjai keh

sla
Sait ung graund

ahje
Eel commaunce ah

veeailyeer

To ask Questions.

What do you say ?
Do you hear me ?
I don't speak to you

Do you understand

me?
Listen
Come here

What is that?
Why don't you an-
swer?
What do you mean ?

Don't you
French ?
Very little, sir

speak

Que dites-vous ?
M' entendez-vous ?
Ce nest pas a vous

que je parte
Me comprenez-vous ?

Ecoutez

Approchez — venez

ici
Qu'est-ce que cela ?
Pourquoi ne r/pon-

dez-vous pas ?
Que voulez-vous

dire ?
Ne parlez-vous pas

fran^ais ?
Bien peu. Monsieur

Ke deet voo?
Mauntaundai-voo ?
Snay paz ah voo keh

jeh pari
Meh comprenay

voo?
Aicootai
Aproshai — Vennayz-

eesee
Case keh sla ?
Poorcouah neh rai-

pondai voo pah ?
Keh voolai voo deer?

Neh parlai voo pah
Fraunsay ?

Beeang peuh, mos-
seeu

FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT.

Ill

English.
Do you know

French.

Pronunciation.

Connaissez-vous
Mr. H ? Monsieur H. ?

I know him by sight Je le connais de vue

Connaissai voo mos-

seeu H.
Jeh leh connay deh

vu
I know him by name yi? le connais de nom Jeh leh connay deh

nong
Comment applai voo

sla?
Case keh sla veuh

deer?
cela esi-il Ah. couah sla ait eel

bong?

What do

that?
What does

mean ?

you

call Comment appelez-
vous cela ?
hat Qu'est-ce que cela
veut dire ?

What is that good A quoi
for? ban ?

Morning.

What o'clock is it ? Quelle heure est-il? Kel eur ait-eel ?

It is near eight // est prh de huit Eel ai pray deh weet

heure s eur

Light the fire Faites du feu Fate du feuh

I am going to get vco Je vais me lever Jeh vay meh levvay
Get me some \iO\.Allez me chercher de NX[2i\rs\^'^^\x?,\\3S.

water Feau chaude de lo shode

Make haste Ne soyez pas long- Neh swoyai pah

temps longtong

How have you slept ? Co7nment avez-vous Commont avai-voo

dormi ? dormee ?

Did you sleep well ? Avez vous bien dor- Avay-voo beeang

mi ? dormee

Very well, thank you Tres-bien, je vous Tray beeang, jeh voo

remercie remmairsee

Not very well Pas tres-bien Pah tray beeang

I never woke all ya? a'<?rwt /(7«^ ^«« Jay dormee too dong

night somme som

T could not sleep Je n'ai pas pu dor- Jeh nai pah pu dor-

mir meer

I never closed Tay Je n'ai fas ferm/^eh. nai pah fairmay

eyes ronl lile

I have been up this II y a une heure que Eel ee ah une eur
hour je me suis levS keh jeh meh swee

levai
You are an early Vous ites matinal Vooz ait matteenal

riser
I generally rise early yi? me live ordinaire- Jeh meh lave ordee-

ment de bonne naremongdeh bon

heure eur

Breakfast.

Breakfast is ready Le dejeAner est prH

Is breakfast ready?

Come to breakfast
Does the water boil?
This water has not

boiled
Is the tea made ?
Shall I put some

green tea in the

tea-pot
Very little

That is enough •
Some rolls

Do you drink tea or
coffee ?

kr-

Le ddjetlner est-il

pret?
Venez d^jeiiner
L'eau bout-elle
Cette eau rCa pas

bouilli
Le th^ est-il fait ?
Mettrai-je du the

vert dans la th^-

iere ?
N'en viettez que tres-

peu
Cela est assez
Des petits pains
Prenez-vous du the,

ou du caf/?

Leh daijeunay ai

pray
Lehd aijeunay ait eel

pray ?
Vennay daijeunay
Lo boot-el ?
Set o na pas booeel-

lee
Leh tay ait-eel fay ?
Mettray - je du tay

vair (long lah tai-

yare
Nong mettay keh

tray peu
Sla ait assay
Day pettee pang
Prennay-voo du tay

oo du caffay ?

English.
This cream is sour

Will you

egg?
These eggs are hard
We want another

French.

Cette crime s'est
agrie

egg-cup
Give me the salt

take an Voulez-vous manger
un ceuf?
Ces ceufs sont durs
II nous faut un au-
tre coquetier
Donnez-moi le sel

Pass me the butter Passez-moi le beurre

This butter is not

fresh
Bring some more

Give me a spoon

Is the coffee strong

enough ?
We want more cups

Take some more

sugar
A piece of toast
Cold meat

The table cloth

The sugar basin

Chocolate

A knife

This knife is blunt

We have done break-
fast

You can take away
the things

Ce beurre n'est pas

frais
Allez-nous en cher-

cher a' autre
Donnez-moi une

cuiller
Le caf^ est-il assez

fort ?
II nous manque des

lasses
Prenez encore du

Sucre
Une rotie
De la viande froide

La nappe

Le sucrier

Du chocolat

Un couteau

Ce couteau ne coupe

pas
■ Nous avons fini de

d^jeltner
Vous pouvez desser-

vir

Pronunciation

Set crame salt agree

Voolay-voo maunjay

un uf?
Saze euf son dure
Eel noo fote un otr

coktyai
Donnay mouah leh

sel
Passay mouah leh

beur
Seh beur nai pa frai

Allay-nooz ongshair-

shai dotr
Donnay mouah une

cweelyare
Leh caffay ait eel as-
say fore ?
Eel noo maunk day

tass
Prenaze auncore du

sucr
Une rotee
De lah veeaund

frouad
Lah nap
Leh sucreeay
Du shocolah
Ung cooto
Seh cooto ne coop

pas
Nooz avong feenee

deh daijeunay
Voo poovai dessair-

veer

Ordering Dinner.

Have you ordered

diner?
Show me the bill of

fare
What soup will you

have?
Maccaroni soup

Have you any roast-
beef?

Not to-day

We have very fine
fish

Fried soles

A dozen of prawns

What wines will you

have?
Let us see
Have you the best

wines ?
Here is the list

We shall dine at six

o'clock
Be punctual
What shall I help

you to ?

Avez-vous commande Avai-voo commaun

le diner ? dai leh deenai ?

Montrez-tnoi la carte Mongtray mouah lah

carte
Quelle soupe vous Kel soup voo sair-

servirai-je ? veeraije ?

De la soupe au maca- Deh lah soup o mac-

roni aroni

Hvez-vous du bceuf Avay-voo du beuf

roti? rotee?

Pas aujourd'hui Paz ojoordwee
Nous avons de trh- Nooz avong deh

tray bong pouahs-

song
Day sole freet
Une doozane deh

salleecok

bon poisson

Des soles f rites
Une douzaine de sail-

coques
Quel vins Monsieur K.e\ vang Mosseeu

dhire-t-il? dayzeer-t-eel ?

Voyons Vwoiyoiig

Avez-vous des vins Avai-voo day vang

fins ? fang ?

En void la liste Ong vwoysee lah

leest
Nous dinerons h six Noo deenerongs ah

heures seece eur

Soyez exacte Swoyai z exact

Que vous servirai-je ? Keh voo sairveer*
aije?

FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT.

English.

French.

Will you take some Voulez-vous un peu

soup ? de soupe ?

No, thank you Merci bien

Willingly Trhvolontiers

Help yourself Servez-vous

Well done, if you Bien cuit, s'il vous

please plait

It is excellent II est excellent

Do you take pepper? Mangez-vous le poi-

vre?
Cayenne pepper Le poivre rouge

Here are spinach Void des epinards et

and brocoli
Peas

Cauliflower
Artichokes
Potatoes
The mustard pot
Change the plates

des brocolis
Des pelits pois
Du choufleur
Des arlichauts
Des poinmes de terre
Le moutardier
Chansrez les assiettes

Give me a clean fork Donnez-moi une

fourchette propre

Are you hungry ?
I am hungry
You don't eat
Are you thirsty ?
I am very thirsty

Avez-vous faint ?
J'aifaim

Vous ne niangezpas
A vez- vous soif ?
J'ai bien soif

I am dying of thirst Je meurs de soif
Take a glass of wine Prenez un verve de

vin
Bring me a glass oi Apportez-moi un

water verre d'eau fraiche

Give me something Donnez-moi a boire

to drink
This wine tastes of Ce vin sent le bou-

the cork chon

It is flat // est /vent/

A cork-screw Un tire-bouchon

Pronunciation.

Voolai-vooz ung peu

deh soup?
Mairsee beeang
Tray volontyai
Sairvai voo
Beeang cwee, see voo

play
Eel ait exeellong
Maunjai voo leh pou-

ahvr
Leh pouahvr rouge
Vouasee daiz aipee-

nar ai day brocolee
Day pettee pouah
Du shoofleur
Daiz arteesho
Dayz pom deh tare
Leh mootardyai
Shaunjai laiz assyett
Donnay mouah une

foorshet propr
Avay-voo fang?
Jay fang

Voo neh maunjay pa
Avay voo souaf ?
Jay beeang souaf
Je meur deh souaf
Prennaze ung vair de

vang
Apportay-mouah ung

vair do frashe
Donnay mouah ah

bouahr
Seh vang song leh

booshong
Eel ait aivauntai
Ung teer booshong

Tea is quite ready
They are waiting for

you
I am coming
The tea is verystrong
Pour out the tea
Bring a saucer

Where are the sugar-
tongs ?
Ring, if you please

Tea.

Le t hi est tout prit Leh tay ai too pray

On vous attend On vous attong

Me void Meh vwoysee

Le the est ires -fort Leh tay ai tray fore

Versez le th/ Vairsay leh tay
Apportez une sou- Apportaze une soo-

coupe coop

Oii sont les pinces ? Ou song lay pangce ?

Sonnez, s'il vous Sonnay, see voo play
plait
A little more milk Encore un peu de lait A.Vincort ung peu

deh lay
What will you take ? Que prendrez-vous ? Keh praundray voo ?

English.

A slice of bread and

butter
Hand the plate
Will you take some

cake ?
A small piece
Make more toast

Make haste

This is excellent tea

The tea-tray
The milk-jug
A set of tea-things
Have you finished ?

Take another cup

No, thank you
Brown bread
White bread
Stale bread
New bread

French.

Une beurrde. — une
iartine de beurre

Passez Fassiette

Voulez-vous du gd-
teau?

Un petit morceau

Faites encore des
rSties

Deplchez-vous

Voila d excellent th/

Le cabaret

Le pot au lait

Un service

A vez-vous d/jh fini ?

Prenez encore une

tasse
Merci bien
Dupain bis
Dupain blanc
Du pain rassis
Du pain frais

Pronunciation.

Une beurray. — Une
tarteen deh bear

Passay lassyett

Voolay voo du
gahto ?

Ung pettee morso

Fates auncore day
rotee

Daypayshay voo

Vwoyla dexcellong
tay

Leh cabbaray

Leh pote o lay

Ung sairveece

Avay voo dayja fee-
nee

Prennaze auncore
une tass

Mairsee beeang

Du pang bee

Du pang blong

Du pang rassee

Dupang fray

Evening.

It is late
It is not late
What o'clock is it ?
It is still early

11 est tard
II n' est pas tard
Quelle heure est-il?
II est encore de bonne

heure
Etes-vous fatigu/?
Point du tout
Pas beaucoup
II nest que dix
heures
to // est r heure de se
coucher
Ma chambre est-elle

prH ?
Allez-voir
Fermez cerideau
Une couverture de
laine
Good night Bon soir

I wish you a good Je vous souhaite une

night bonne nuit

I am sleepy J'ai sommeil

Are you sleepy ? Avez-vous somtndl?

Are you tired ?
Not at all
Not much
It is only ten

It is time to go

bed
Is my room ready ?

Go and see
Draw the curtain
A blanket

Eel ay tar
Eel nay pa tar
Kel eur ait-eel ?
Eel ait auncore deh

bon eur
Ait voo fateegay ?
Pouang du too
Pa bocoo
Eel nay keh deeze

eur
Eel ai leur deh seh

cooshay
Ma shaumbr ait -el

prate?
Allay vouahr
Fairmay seh reedo
Une coovairture deh

lane
Bong souahr
Jeh voo sooate une

bon nwee
J'ay sommail
Avay voo sommail ?

A good vocabulary will now enable the student to progress,
and this, with the writing and exercises, will make the diligent
student master of the language.

4r-

GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT.

teman ^^If-iaugW.

^LPHy^BET /ND pRONU]^CI/TIO^.

The German Alphabet consists of the following 26 letters ;

English

German

Name

Character.

of the letter.

A a

^ a

as a in "part," " far."

B b

» 5

bay

as in English.

C c

6 C

tsay

as c in " cure " if before a, 0,
u, a consonant or when final.
" Ch" is pron. like the " ch"
in the Scotch word " loch."

D d

2) b

day

as in English.

E e

j as a in " name " when long,
1 as e in " t^l " when short.

e e

Ff ff

5fff

as in English.

® 8

gay

as g in "go."

H h

^ 1)

hah

like h in " horse."

I i

3 t

as i in " fit."

J J

3 i

yot

as y in " yes."

K k

5? f

kah

L 1

S I

SWm

Nn
Oo

9f n

- as in English.

3) >>

pay

koo

R r

31 r

err

S s

©«f

as s in "sin" — sch is pron.
like sh in "ship."

T t

2; t

tay

as tin "table."

(<St)

s-tay

U u

as 00 in ** stooL

V V

» »

fow

as f in " far."

SB»

vay

as V in " very."

X X

S X

iks

as X in "fox."

ypsilon

as y in " system."

Z z

tset

as ts in " fits."

Simple VoAA^els are:
a, t, i, 0, u.

Compound VoAvels ;

i 36 pronounced as a in " fate."

5 oe " like eu in the French word " feu," or u in

*' much."
it ui " "eeyu," or like u in the French word

" sure."
The last two have no exact corresponding sound In the
English language — Let a native pronounce it for you, and you
will easily catch the sound.

Masculine Feminine Neuter

ber bie ba^ is the German Article

dar dee das

Every German substantive is written with a capital letter.

GOLDEN RULE:
Always learn the Gender of the Substantive.

Observation.

In the first part of this book, the German has been printed
in the English characters to facilitate its reading, but as most
German books are printed in the German characters, that type
has been adopted for the second part, and must there be
studied.

English.

The earth

the fire

the water

the rainwater

the stream

the sea

the weather

the summer weather

the winter weather

the wind

the rain

the storm

the hail

the frost

the summer

the winter

the snow

the ice

the thunder

the morning

the day

The Earth.

German.

die Erde

das Feuer

das Wasser

das Regenwasser

der Strom

die See

das Wetter

das Sommerwetter

das Winterwetter

der Wind

der Regen

der Sturm

der Hagel

der Frost

der Sommer

der Winter

der Schnee

das Eis

der Donner

der Morgen

der Tag

Pronunciation.

dee airday

das feuer

das vasser

das regenvasser

dar storm

dee say

das vetter

das sommervetter

das vintervetter

dar vind

dar regen

dar stoorm

dar hahgel

dar frost

dar sommer

dar vinter

dar shna

das ice

dar donner

dar morgen

dar tag

114

GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT.

English.

the midday
the night
the moon
the sun
the star
the light
the year

German.

der Mittag
die Nacht
der Mond
die Sonne
der Stern
das Licht
das Jahr

Pronunciation.

dar mittag
dee nacht
dar mond
dee sonna
dar starn
das licht
das yahr

The Human Body.

The arm

the beard

the blood

the bosom

the breast (chest)

the eye

the ear

the chin

the eyebrows

the elbows

the fist

the finger

the flesh

the foot

the hair

the hand

the right hand

the left hand

the heart

the hip

the knee

the lip

the underlip

the upperlip

the neck

the nose

the mouth

The father

the grand-father

the step-father

the fatherland

the mother

the brother

the sister

the uncle

the aunt

the nephew

the niece

the girl (maiden)

the man

the young man

the old man

the wife (woman)

the bride

the widow

the widower

the guest

the neighbor

the friend

The beer
the glass
the flask (bottle)
the bread

der Arm

der Bart

das Blut

der Busen

die Brust

das Auge

das Ohr

das Kinn

die Augenbrauen

der Elbogen

die Faust

der Finger

das Fleisch

der Fuss

das Haar

die Hand

die rechte Hand

die linke Hand

das Herz

die Hiifte

das Knie

die Lippe

die Unterlippe

die Oberlippe

der Nacken

die Nase

der Mund

Relations.

der Vater
der Grossvater
der Stiefvater
das Vaterland
die Mutter
der Bruder
die Schwester
der Onkel
die Tante
der Neff"e
die Nichte
das Madchen
der Mann
der junge Mann
der alte Mann
das Weib
die Braut
die Wittwe
der Wittwer
der Gast
der Nachbar
der Freund

Nutriments.

das Bier
das Glas
die Flasche
das Brod

dar arm

dar bart

das bloot

dar boosen

dee broost

das owgay

das ore

das kin

dee owgenbrowen

dar elbogen

dee fowst

dar finger

das flyshe

dar foos

das har

dee hand

dee rechtay hand

dee linkay hand

das harz

dee heeyuftay

das knee

dee lippay

dee oonterlippay

dee oberlippay

dar nacken

dee nazay

dar moond

dar fater
dar grosfater
dar steeff"ater
das faterland
dee mootter
dar brooder
dee shwester
dar onkel
dee tantay
dar neffay
dee nichtay
das madchen
dar man

dar joongay man
dar altay man
das vyb
dee browt
dee vitvay
dar vitver
dar gast
dar nachbar
der froind

das beer

das glas
dee flashay
das brod

English.

fresh bread
the butter
fresh butter
the cheese
the honey
the milk
the buttermilk
the oil
the fish

the flesh (meat)
the wine
old wine
the punch
the rum
the water
the salt
the pepper
the salad
the soup
the beefsteak
the pudding
the coff'ee
the tea
the chocolate
the lemonade

. German.

frisches Brod
die Butter
frische Butter
der Kase
der Honig
die Milch
die Buttermilch
das Oel
der Fisch
das Fleisch
der Wein
alter Wein
der Punsch
der Rum
das Wasser
das Salz
der Pfeff'er
der Salat
die Suppe
das Beefsteak
der Pudding
der Kaff"ee
der Thee
die Chokolade
die Limonade

Pronunciation.

frishes brod
dee bootter
frishay bootter
dar casay
dar honig
dee milch
dee boottermilch
das eul
dar fish
das flyshe
dar vine
alter vine
dar poonch
dar room
das vasser
das saltz
dar pfeff'er
d^r salat
dee sooppay
das beefsteak
dar poodding
dar kaffay
dar tay

dee chocoladay
dee limonaday

ToAArn and Country. House and Garden,

The house

the garden

the land

the market

the street

the church

the post

the bank

the theater

the hospital

the coffeehouse

the palace

the haven (harbor)

the door

the bed

the mattress

the oven

the glass

the beerglass

the wineglass

the stool (chair)

the field

the dale (valley)

the wood (forest)

the bush

the heath

the hill

the mill

the corn

the straw

das Haus
der Garten
das Land
der Markt
die Strasse
die Kirche
die Post
die Bank
das Theater
das Hospital
das Kaffeehaus
der Palast
der Hafen
die Thiir
das Bett
die Matratze
der Ofen
das Glas
das Bierglas.
das Weinglas
der Stuhl
das Feld
das Thai
der Wald
der Busch
die Haide
der Hiigel
die Miihle
das Korn
das Stroh

das house
dar garten
das land
dar markt
dee strassay
dee keerchay
dee post
dee bank
das tayater
das hospital
das kaff"ayhouse
dar palast
dar hafen
dee teeyur
das bet
dee matratzay
dar ofen
das glass
das beerglass
das vineglass
dar stool
das feld
das taal
dar vald
dar boosh
dee hiday
dar heeyugel
dee meeyuUay
das korn
das shtro.

The Professions and Trades.

The baker
the bookbinder
the book
the doctop
the hat
the hatter
the shoe

der Backer
der Buchbinder
das Buch
der Doktor
der Hut
der Hutmacher
der Schuh

dar becker

dar boochbinder

das booch

dar doktor

dar hoot

dar hootmache?

dar shoe

GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT.

:;r^

English.

the shoemaker
the beard
the barber
the glass
the glazier
the nail
the saddle
the saddler
the mill
the miller
the master
dancing

the dancingmaster
the post
the postmaster
to ride

the ridingmaster
the school
the schoolmaster
the smith
the smithy
the nailsmith (nail-
maker)
the goldsmith
the coppersmith
the weaver
the king
the prince
the baron
the officer
the soldier
the pope
the archbishop
the bishop

German.

der Schuhmacher

der Bart

der Barbier

das Glas

der Glaser

der Nagel

der Sattel

der Sattler

die Mlihle

der M tiller

der Meister

tanzen

der Tanzmeister

die Post

der Postmeister

reiten

der Reitmeister

die Schule

der Schulmeister

der Schmid

die Schmiede

der Nagelschmid

der Goldschmid

der Kupferschmid

der Weber

der Konig

der Prinz

der Baron

der Officier

der Soldat

der Papst

der Erzbischof

der Bischof

Pronunciation.

dar shoemacher

dar bart

dar barbeer

das glass

dar glaser

dar nagel

dar sattel

dar sattler

dee meeyullay

dar meeyuUer

dar miceter

tanzen

dar tanzmiceter

dee post

dar posmiceter

riten

dar ritemiceter

dee shoolay

dar shoolmiceter

dar shmit

dee shmiday

dar nagelshmit

dar goldshmit
dar koopfershmit
dar vayber
dar keunig
dar prints
dar baron
dar offeezeer
dar soldat
dar papst
dar erzbishof
dar bishof

The Clothing

The jacket

die Jacke

dee yackay

the shoe

der Schuh

dar shoe

the hat

der Hut

dar hoot

the brush

die BQrste

dee beeyurstay

the hairbrush

die Haarblirste

dee harbeeyurstay

the frock (coat)

'der Frack

dar frak

the wool

die Wolle

dee vollay

the stick

der Stock

dar stock

the cravat

die Cravatte

dee cravate

the purse

die Borse

dee beursay

the cap

die Kappe

dee kappay

the ring

der Ring

dar ring

The Quadrupeds.

The hound (dog)

the cat

the rat

the mouse

the swine (pig)

the hare

the roe

the ox

the bull

the cow

the calf

the sheep

the lamb

the fox

the wolf

the bear

the elephant

the camel

4r-

der Hund
die Katze
die Ratte
die Maus
das Schvvein
der Hase
das Reh
der Ochse
der BuUe
die Kuh
das Kalb
das Schaf
das Lamm
der Fuchs
der Wolf
der Bar
der Elephant
das Kameel

dar
dee
dee
dee
das
dar
das
dar
dar
dee
das
das
das
dar
dar
dar
dar
das

hoond

katzay

rattay

mouse

shvine

hazay

ray

ocksay

booUay

koo

kalb

shaf

lam

fooks

volf •

bear

elefant

camale

Birds, Fishes, and Insects.

English. German. Pronunciation.

The swan
the falcon
the goose
the stork
the snipe
the raven
the lark
the crow
the nightingale
the cuckoo
the swallow
the finch
the sparrow
the fish
the carp
the herring
the eel
the frog
the worm
the spider
the oyster
the crab
the flea
the fly
the bee
the wasp
the snail

der Schwan
der Falke
die Gans
der Storch
die Schnepfe
der Rabe
die Lerche
die Krahe
die Nachtigal
der Kuckuck
die Schwalbe
der Finke
der Sperling
derFisch
der Karpfen
der Hering
der Aal
der Frosch
der Wurm
die Spinne
die Auster
der Krebs
der Floh
die Fliege
die Biene
die Wespe
die Schnecke

dar shvan
dar falkay
dee gans
dar storch
dee shnepfay
dar rabay
dee lerchay
dee krayay
dee nachtigal
dar kookook
dee shvalbay
dar finkay
dar Sperling
dar fish
dar carpfen
dar hering
dar aale
dar frosh
dar voorm
dee spinnay
dee ouster
dar kreps
dar flo
dee fleegay
dee beenay
dee vespay
dee shneckay

Minerals and Metals, etc.

The gold
the silver
the copper
the iron
the tin
the steel
the zinc
the bronze
the diamond
the pearl
the coral
the marble
the gypsum
the lime (clay)
the chalk
the coal
the earth
the sand
the stone

das Gold
das Silber
das Kupfer
das Eisen
das Zinn
der Stahl
das Zink
die Bronze
der Diamant
die Perle
die Koralle
der M armor
der Gyps
der Lehm
der Kalk
die Kohle
die Erde
der Sand
der Stein

das gold
das silber
das koopfer
das isen
das zin
dar staal
das zinc
dee bronze
dar deeamant
dee parelay
dee corallay
dar marmor
dar gyps
dar lame
dar calk
die coalay
dee airday
dar sand
dar stine

Ships and Shipping.

The ship

the boat

the ship of the line

the fisherboat

the anchor

the deck

the flag

the mast

the foremast

the sail

the strand

the rudder

the net

the lading (freight)

das Schiff
das Boot
das Unienschiff
das Fischerboot
der Anker
das Deck
die Flagge
der Mast
der Vordermast
das Segel
der Strand
das Ruder
das Netz
die Ladung

das shiff

das boat

das leenee-enshiff

das fisherboat

dar anker

das deck

dee flaggay

dar mast

dar fordermast

das saygel

dar strand

da.s rooder

das netz

dee ladung

)^ —

GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT.

English.

the freight
the coast
the cliff
the downs
the haven
the ground
the storm
the fleet
the frigate

White

red

blue

brown

gray

green

yellow

orange

purple

violet

Old

young

new

great

good

rich

cold

warm

long

high

full

cool

near

hard

light

wild

fat

fine

mild

deep

fresh

ripe

unripe

bitter

small

wide

open

loud

right

wise

blind

unwell

hot

thick

neat

thin

broad

round

false

sour

hollow

sharp

flat

German.

Pronunciation

die Fracht

dee fracht

die Kiiste

dee keeyustay

die Klippe

dee klippay

die Diincn

dee deeyunen

der Hafen

dar hafen

der Grund

dar groond

der Sturm

dar stoorm

die Flotte

dee flottay

die Fregatte

dee fregatay

Colors.

weiss

vise

roth

rote

blau

blou

braun

brouwn

grau

grou

grun

greeyun

gelb

orange

purpur

poorpoor

violett

veeolet

Adjectives.

alt

jung

joong

neu

noi

gross

gut

goot

reich

riche

kalt

warm

varm

lang

hoch

voU

fol

kuhl

keeyul

nahe

naay

hart

leicht

licht

wild

vild

fett

fein

fine

mild

tief

teef

frisch

frish

reif

rife

unreif

conrife

bitter

schmal

shmal

weit

vite

offen

laut

lout

recht

weise

visay

blind

unwohl

oonvole

heiss

hise

dick

nett

net

dUnn

deeyunn

breit

brite

rund

roond

falsch

falsh

sauer

sour

hohl

hole

scharf

sharf

flach

English.

To eat
to drink
to dream
to wash
to comb
to go
to speak
to laugh
to think
to learn
to bathe
to bieak
to bite
to cost
to hear
to help
to give
to make (do)
to do
to ride
to say
to send
to seek

German.

Pronunciation

essen

trinken

triiumen
waschen

troymen
vashen

kammen

gehen

sprechen

lachen

gayen

shprechen

lachen

denken

lernen

bad en

baden

brechen

beissen

bisen

kosten

costen

horen

heuren

helfen

geben
machen

gayben
machen

thun

toon

reiten

riten

sagen
senden

suchen

soochen

TkiostNecessarjforiliifliicli
Deviate froi tie Enilisl.

*^7>i

The World and its Elements.

!^AV.)>^

God

the Creator
Nature
the sky
the world
the air
the cloud
the storm
the lightning
the rainbow
the fog
the river
the brook
the lake
the sea
the tide
the ebb
the shore
the mountain
the meadow
the forest

The body

the skin
the face
the head*
the forehead
the tongue
the tooth

Gott

der Schopfer
die Natur
der Himmel
die Welt
die Luft
die Wolke
das Gewitter
der Blitz
der Regenbogen
der Nebel
der Fluss
der Bach
der See
das Meer
die Fluth
die Ebbe
das Ufer
der Berg
die Wiese
der Wald

got

dar sheupfer

dee natoor

dar himmel

dee velt

dee Jooft

dee volkay

das gevitter

dar blitz

dar raygenbogen

dar naybel

dar floos

dar bach

dar zay

das mare

dee floot

dee ebbay

das oofer

dar berg

dee veesay

dar vald

The Human Body.

der Korper dar kurper

die Haut dee hout

das Gesicht das gesicht

der Kopf
die vStirn
die Zunge
der Zahn

dar kopf
dee steem
dee zoongay
dar zaan

GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT.

117

Eaglish.

the stomach
the voice
the hearing
the sight
the taste
the feeling
the smell
the neck
the back
the leg

Gennan.

der Magen
die Stimme
das Gehor
das Gesicht
der Geschmack
das Gefiihl
der Geruch
der Hals
der Riicken
das Bein

Pronunciation.

dar maagen
dee stimmay
das geheure
das gesicht
dar geshmack
das gefeeyul
dar gerooch
dar hals
der reeyuckeni
das bine

Relations.

The woman

die Frau

dee frou

the boy

der Knabe

dar knabay

the girl

das Madchen

das madchen

the child

das Kind

das kind

the old man

der Greis

dar grice

the parents

die Eltern

dee eltern

the father-in-law

der Schwiegervater

dar shveegayrfater

the mother-in-law

die Schwiegermutter dee schveegayrmoot

the brother-in-law

der Schwager

dar shvaager

the cousin

der Vetter

dar fetter

the aunt

die Tante

dee tantay

the marriage

die Heirath

dee hirath

the wedding

die Hochzeit

dee hochzite

Nutriments.

The meal

die Mahlzeit

dee malzite

breakfast

das FrUhstuck

das freeyuhsteeyuck

dinner

das Mittagessen

das mittagessen

the refreshment

die Erfrischung

dee erfrischoong

supper

das Abendbrod

das abendbrode

boiled meat

gekochtes Fleisch

gekochtes flishe

roast meat

Braten

braaten

beef

Rindsfleisch

rindsflishe

roast-beef

Rinderbraten

rinderbraaten

veal

Kalbfleisch

kalbflishe

calves-liver

Kalbsleber

kalbslayber

veal-cutlets

Kalbscoteletten

kalbscotlett

mutton

Hammelfleisch

hanjelflishe

a leg of mutton

eine Hammelkeule

in ay hamelskoylay

pork

Schweinefleisch

shvinayflishe

ham

Schinken

shinken

bacon

Speck

speck

a sausage

eine Wurst

inay voorst

vegetables

Gemlise

gemeeyusay

a pie

eine Pastete

inay pastatay

an omele*^

ein Eierkuchen

ine eyerkoochen

cake

Kuchen

koochen

cheese

Kase

casay

eggs

Eier

eyer

Hock

Rheinwein

rhinevine

Port-wine

Portwein

portvine

Sherry

Xereswein

xeresvine

Eating Utensils.

'^^

The eating
the drinking
the table-cloth
the napkin
the plate
the knife

das Essen
das Trinken
das Tischtuch
die Serviette
der Teller
das Messer

das essen
das trinken
das tischtooch
dee serviette
dar teller
das messer

English.

the fork
the spoon
the vinegar
the mustard
the cup
the dish

The Ocean

the Baltic

the North-Sea

the channel

the island

the shore

the waves

the tide

the rock

the beach

the navy

the vessel

the steamer

the man-of-war

the merchant vessel

the rudder

the rigging

the cabin

the stem

the bow

the main-top

the oar

the rope

the captain

the boatswain

the sailor

the cabin-boy

the pilot

the light-house

the harbor

German.

die Gabel
der Loffel
der Essig
der Mostrich
die Tasse
die Schiissel

The Sea.

der Ocean
die Ostsee
die Nordsee
der Kanal
die Insel
die KUste
die Wellen
die Fluth
der Fels
die Seekiiste
die Marine
das Schiff
das Dampfboot
das Kriegsschiff
der Kauffahrer
das Ruder
das Takelwerk
die Kajlite
das Hintertbeil
der Bug
der Mastkorb
das Ruder
das Tau
der Kapitau
der Bootsmann
der Matrose
der Schiffsjunge
der Lootse
der Leuchtthurm
der Hafen

Pronunciation.

dee gaabel
dar leuffel
dar essig
dar mostrich
dee tassay
dee sheeyussel

dar oatsayan
dee ostsay
dee nordsay
dar canal
dee insel
dee keeyustay
dee vellen
dee floot
dar fels

dee saykeeyustay
dee mareenay
das shiff
das dampfboat
das kreegsshiff
dar kowfTaarer
das rooder
das tackleverk
dee cayutay
das hintertile
dar boog
dar mastkorb
das rooder
das tou
dar capiten
dar boatsman
dar matrosay
dar schiffsyunge
dar loatsay
dar loychtoonn
dar hafen

Time and Seasons.

A century

the year

the month

the week

the day

the hour

half-an-hour

the minute

the second

the seasons

spring

summer

autumn

winter

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

ein Jahrhundert

das Jahr

der Monat

die Woche

der Tag

•aie Stunde

tine halbe Stunde

die Minute

die Sekunde

die Jahreszeiten

Frllhling

Sommer

Herbst

Winter

Januar

Februar

Marz

April

Mai

Juni

Juli

August

September

October

November

December

ine yarhoondert

das yar

dar monat

dee wochay

dar tag

dee stoonday

inay halbay stoonday

dee minutay

dee secoonde

dee yaresziten

freeyuling

sommer

harebst

vinter

yanooar

febrooar

mayrz

apreel

yoonee

yoolee

owgoost

September

October

november

detzember

ii8

GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT.

English.

the days of the

Sunday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

a holyday

Christmas

Easter

Whitsuntide

the morning

noon

the afternoon

the evening

the night

midnight

sunrise

sunset

German.

week die Wochentage
Sonntag
Montag
Dienstag
Mittwoch
Donnerstag
Freitag
Sonnabend
ein Feiertag
Weihnachten
Ostern
Pfingsten
der Morgen
Mittag

der Nachmittag
der Abend
die Nacht
Mitternacht
Sonnenaufgang
Sonnenuntergang

The city
the suburb
the gates
the edifice
the tower
the cathedral
the church-yard
the town hall
the arsenal
the mint

the custom house
the liljrary
the university
the exchange
the prison
the square
the lane
the bridge
the monument
the dining-room
the public house
the shop

The bell
the knocker
to open
the servant
the staircase
the room
the drawing-room
the sitting-room
the dining-room
the sleeping-room
the kitchen
the cellar
the window
the stove
the chimney
the looking-glass
the table
the chair
the armchair
the carpet

The To^wn.

die Stadt
die Vorstadt
die Thore
das Gebaude
der Thurm
der Dom
der Kirchhof
das Rathhaus
das Zeughaus
die Miinze
das ZoUhaus
die Bibliothek
die Universitat
die Borse
das Gefangniss
der Platz
die Gasse
die Briicke
das Monument
das Speisehaus
das Bierhaus
der Laden

The House.

die Glocke
der Klopfer
Qffnen
die Magd
die Treppe
das Zimmer
das Putzzimmer
das Wohnzimmer
das Esszimmer
das Schlafzimmer
die Kliche
der Keller
das Fenster
der Ofen
der Kamin
der Spiegel
der Tisch
der Stuhl
der Armstuhl
der Teppich

Pronunciation.

dee vochentagay

sontag

monetag

deenstag

mittvoch

donnerstag

fritag

sonabend

ine firetag

vinachten

ostern

pfingsten

dar morgen

mittag

dar nachmittag

dar abend

dee nacht

mitternacht

sonnenowfgang

sonnenoontergaug

dee stadt
dee forstadt
dee toray
das geboiday
dar toorm
dar dome
dar keerchhof
das raathouse
das zoyghouse
dee meeyunzay
das zollhouse
dee bibleeotake
dee ooniversitate
dee beursay
das gefengniss
dar platz
dee gassay
dee breeyuckay
das monooment
das spysayhouse
das beerhouse
dar laaden

dee glockay
dar klopfer
eufnen
dee magd
dee treppay
das tzimmer
das pootstzimmer
das vohntzimmer
das estzimmer
das shlaftzimmer
dee keeyuchay
dar keller
das fenster
dar ofen
dar kameen
dar speegel
dar tish
dar stool
dar armstool
dar teppich

English.

German.

Pronunciation.

the chest of drawers die Kommode

dee commoday

the sofa

das Sopha

das sofa

the candlestick

der Leuchter

dar loychter

the candle

das Licht

das licht

the lamp

die Lampe

dee lampay

the wick

der Docht

dar docht

the oil

das Oel

das eul

to light

anzUnden

anzeeyuenden

the bed

das Belt

das bet

the counterpane

die Bettdecke

dee bettdeckay

the sheets

die Betti'icher

dee betteeyucher

the pillow

das kopfkissen

das kopflcissen

the basin

das waschbecken

das vashbecken

the soap

die Seife

dee sifay

the towel

das Handtuch

das handtooch

warm water

warmes Wasser

varmes vasser

cold water

kaltes Wasser

kaltes vasser

hot water

heisses Wasser

heyses vasser

to wash

waschen

vashen

the comb

der Kamm

dar kam

to comb

kammen

kemmen

Fruits, Trees, and Flov^ers.

The apple

der Apfel

dar apfel

the apple-tree

der Apfelbaum

dar apfelbowm

the pear

die Birne

dee beernay

the pear-tree

derBirnbaum

dar beernbowm

the plum

die PHaume

dee pflowmay

the plum-tree

der Pflaumenbaum

dar pflowmenbowm

the cherry

die Kirsche

dee keershay

the chestnut

die Kastanie

dee kastanyay

the peach

der Pfirsich

dar pfeersich

the apricot

die Apricose

dee apreecosay

the orange

die Apfelsine

dee apfelseenay

the lemon

die Citrone

dee citronay

the grape

die Weintraube

dee vinetrowbay

the nut

die Nuss

dee nooss

the walnut

die Wallnuss

dee valnooss

the currant

die Johannisbeere

dee yohanisbaray

the gooseberry

die Stachelbeere

dee stachelbaray

the raspberry

die Himbeere

dee himbaray

the blackberry

die Brombeere

dee brombaray

the strawberry

die Erdbeere

dee erdbaray

the oak

die Eiche

dee ichay

the beech

die Buche

dee boochay

the poplar

die Pappel

dee papel

the lime

die Linde

dee linday

the ash

die Eshe

dee eshay

the fir

die Tanne

dee tannay

the willow

die Weide

dee viday

the rose

die Rose

dee rosay

the pink

die Nelke

dee nelkay

the tulip

die Tulpe

dee toolpay

the lily

die Lilie

dee leeleeay

the violet

das Veilchen

das filechen

the lilac

der Flieder

dar fleeder

the lily of the valley

das Maiblumchen

das mybleeyumchen

Animals, Birds, Fishes, and Insects.

TJie horse

das Pferd

das pfayrd

the colt

das Fullen

das feeyuUen

the donkey

der Esel

dar Aysel

the goat

die Ziege

dee tzeegay

the dog

der Hund

dar Hoond

the pig

das Schwein

das shvine

kc-

GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT.

119

English.

the duck
the pigeon
the cock
the chicken
the wild boar
the stag
the chamois
the rabbit
the eagle
the hawk
the pheasant
the bat
the partridge
the peacock
the lobster
the pike
the perch
the salmon
the trout
the snake
the ant
the butterfly

The clothes

the coat

the trowsers

the pocket

the buttons

the dressing-gown

the slippers

the drawers

the stockings

the shirt

the braces

the waistcoat

the boot

the boot-jack

the cap

the gloves

the handkerchief

the watch

the umbrella

the purse

the brush

the comb

the apron

the fan

the dress

the petticoat

the stays

the veil

the powder

the soap

the tooth-powder

The voyage
the traveler
the road
the rail-road
the station
the train
the engine
the carriage
the departure

German.

die Ente

die Taube

der Hahn

das Hiihnchen

der Eber

der Hirsch

die Gemse

das Kaninchen

der Adler

der Habicht

der Fasan

die Fledermaus

das Rebhuhn

der Pfau

der Hummer

der Hecht

der Barsch

der Lachs

die Forelle

die Schlange

die Ameise

der Schmetterling

The Dress.

die Kleider
der Rock
die Hosen
die Tasche
die Knopfe
der Schlafrock
die Pantoffeln
die Unterhosen
die Striimpfe
das Hemd
die Hosentrager
die Weste
der Stiefel
der Stiefelknecht
die Mlitze
die Handschuhe
das Taschentuch
die Uhr

der Regenschirm
die Borse
die Blirste
der Kamm
die Schlirze
der Facher
das Kleid
der Unterrock
der Schnlirleib
der Schleier
der Puder
die Seife
das Zahnpulver

Traveling.

die Seereise
der Reisende
die Landstrasse
die Eisenbahn
die Station
der Zug
die Maschine
der Wagen
die Abreise

Pronunciation.

dee entay

dee towbay

dar haan

das heeyunchen

dar ayber

dar heersch

dee gemsay

das caneenchen

dar adler

dar habicht

dar fasan

dee flaydermouse

das rebhoon

dar pfow

dar hoommer

dar hecht

dar barsh

dar lacks

dee forellay

dee shlangay

dee amisay

dar shmetterling

dee klider

dar rock

dee hozen

dee tashay

dee kneupfay

dar shlafrock

dee pantofeln

dee oonterhosen

dee streeyumpfay

das hemd

dee hozen trayger

dee vestay

dar steefel

dar steefelknecht

dee meeyutzay

dee handshooay

das tashentooch

dee oor

dar raygensheerm

dee borsay

dee beeyurstay

dar kam

dee sheeyurzay

dar fecher

das klide

dar oonterrock

dar shneeyurlibe

dar shlier

dar pooder

dee zifay

das tzaanpoolver

dee zayreyzay
dar reyzenday
dee landstrassay
dee isenbaan
dee statzion
dar tzoog
dee masheenay
dar vaagen
dee abreyzay

English.

the arrival
the passport
the inn (hotel)
the landlord
the waiter
the bill

the interpreter
the luggage
the trunk
the carpet-bag

The paper

the writing-paper

the writing

the sheet

the pen

the steel pen

the penknife

the inkstand

the ink

the pencil

the scissors

the seal

the sealing-wax

the wafer

the ruler

the letter

the note

the envelope

the date

the direction

the post

German.

die Ankunft
der Pass
der Gasthof
der Wirth
der Kellner
die Rechnung
der Dolmetscher
das Gepack
der Koffer
der Reisesack

Of Writing.

das Papier
das Schreibpapier
die Schrift
der Bogen
die Feder
die Stahlfeder
das Federmesser
das Tintenfass
die Tinte
der Bleistift
die Scheere
das Petschaft
derSiegellack
die Oblate
das Lineal
der Brief
das Billet
das Couvert
das Datum
die Adresse
die Post

Pronunciation.

dee ankoonft
dar pass
dar gasthof
dar veert
dar kelner
dee rechnoong
dar dolmetsher
das gepeck
dar coffer
dar rizayzack

das papier
das shribepapeer
dee shrift
dar bogen
dee fayder
dee staalfayder
das faydermesser
das tintenfas
dee tintay
dar blystift
dee shayray
das petshaft
dar seegellack
dee oblaatay
das leenayal
dar breef
das bilget
das coovayrt
das datoom
dee adressay
dee post

Countries and Nations.

The country

the native land

the state

the empire

the kingdom

Europe

the European

America

the American

Asia

Africa

the East Indies

the West Indies

the United States

Brazil

England

the Englishman

Ireland

the Irishman

Scotland

the Scotchman

France

the Frenchman

Germany

the German

Holland

the Dutchman

Austria '

the Austrian

Prussia

das Land

das Vaterland

der Staat

das Reich

das Konigreich

Europa

der Europaer

Amerika

der Amerikaner

Asien

Afrika

Ostindien

Westindien

die Vereinigten Staa-

ten
Brasilien
England
der Englander
Irland

der Irlander
Schottland
der Schotte
Frankreich
der Franzose
Deutschland
der Deutsche
Holland
der Hollander
Oesterreich
der Oesterreicher
Preussen

das land

das faterland

dar staat

das riche

das keunigriche

Europa

dar Europayer

America

dar Amerikaaner

Azien

Afrika

Ostindien

Vestindien

dee vereinigten staa

ten
Brazilien
England
dar Ennlender
Eerland
dar Eerlender
Shotland
dar Shottay
Frankrich
dar Frantzosay
Doytshland
dar Doytshay
Holland
dar Hollender
Osterrich
dar Osterricher
Proyssen

I20

GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT.

English.

German.

Pronunciation.

English.

German.

Pronunciation.

the Prussian

der Preusse

dar Proyssay

ein und zwanzig

ine oond tsvantzig

Russia

Russland

Roossland

zwei und zwanzig

tsvi oond tsvantzig

the Russian

der Russe

dar Roossay

drei und zwanzip

dri oond tsvantzig

Sweden

Schweden

Shvayden

dreissig

dritzig

the Swede

der Schwede

dar Shvayday

vierzig

feertzig

Denmark

Danemark

funfzig

feeyunftzig

the Dane

der Dane

dar Daynay

sechszig

zechstzig

Switzerland

die Schweiz

die Shvitze

siebenzig

zeebentzig

the Swiss

der Schweizer

dar Shvitzer

achtzig

Italy

Italien

Italyen

neunzig

noyntzig

the Italian

der Italiener

dar Italiayner

100

hundert

hoondert

Spain

the Spaniard

Spanien
der Spanier

Spanyen

lOI

hundert und eins

hoondert oond ines

r J

dar Spaneeare

102

hundert und zwei

hoondert oond tsvi

Greece

Griechenland

Greechenland

200

zwei hundert

tsvi hoondert

the Greek

der Grieche

dar Greechay

300

drei hundert

dri hoondert

Turkey

die Turkei

dee Teeyurki

400

vier hundert

feer hoondert

the Turk

der Turke

dar Teeyurkay

500

funf hundert

feeyunf hoondert

the Jew

der Jude

dar Yooday

600

sechs hundert

zex hoondert

the Persian

der Perser

dar Perzer

700

sieben hundert

zeeben hoondert

800

acht hundert

acht hoondert

900
1000

neun hundert
tausend

noyn hoondert
towzend

Trade.

2000

zwei tausend

tsvi towzend

3000

drei tausend

dri towzend

The merchant

der Kaufmann

dar kowfman

1 0000

zehn tausend

tsane towzend

the shop

the counting-house

the merchandise

der Laden

dar laaden

a million

eine Million

inay milleeown

das Comptoir
die Waare

das congtwor
dee vaaray

1859

ein Tausend, acht ine towzend acht
Hundert neun und hoondert noyn

the wholesale mer

- der Grosshandler

dar grosshendler

funfzig

oona leeyuniizig

chant

the retailer

der Kleinhandler

dar klinehendler

Ordinal NumlDerfi-

the correspondent

der Correspondent

dar correspondent

the stock

das Lager

das laager

the first

der Erste

dar ayrste

the daybook

das Journal

das joornal

" Zweite

" tsvitay

the ledger

das Hauptbuch

das howptbooch

" 3d

" Dritte

" drittay

the cash-book

das Kassabuch

das cassabooch

" 4th

" Vierte

" feertay

the invoice

die Factur

dee factoor

" 5th

" Funfte

" feeyunf tay

the bill of exchange

der Wechsel

dar vechsel

6th

" Sechste

" zexte

the remittance

die Rimesse

dee rimessay

" 7th

" Siebente

" zeebentay

the acceptance

das Accept

das accept

8th

" Achte

" achtay

the payment

die Bezahlung

dee betzaaloong

9th

" Neunte

" noyntay

the receipt

die Quittung

dee quittoong

" loth

" Zehnte

" tsanetay

the buyer

der Kaufer

dar koyfer

" nth

" Eilfte

" elftay

the seller

der Verkaufer

dar ferkoyfer

I2th

" Zwblfte

" tsvelftay

the debtor

der Debitor

dar daybeetor

" 13th

" Dreizehnte

" dreytsanetay

the creditor

der Creditor

dar credeetor

" 14th

" Vierzehnte

" feertsanetay

" 15th

" FUnfzehnte

" feeyunftsanetay

" i6th

" Sechszehnte

" zech tsanetay

" 17th

" Siebenzehnte

" zeebentsanetay

Cardinal Numbers.

" 18th

" Achtzehnte

" achtsanetay

19th

" Neunzehnte

" noyn tsanetay

One

ein, eins

ine, ines

" 20th

" Zwanzigste

*' tsvanzigstay

two

zwei

tsvi

" 2ISt

" Ein und Zwan-

" ine oond tsvan-

three

drei

dri

zigste

tsigstay

four

vier

feer

" 22d

" Zwei und Zwan-

" tsvi oond tsvan-

five

funf

feeyunf

zigste

tsigstay

six

sechs

zex

" 23d

** Drei und Zwan-

" dri oond tsvan-

seven

sieben

zeeben

zigste

tsigstay

eight

acht

" 30th

" Dreissigste

" drysigstay

nine

neun

noyn

" 40th

" Vierzigste

" feertsigstay

ten

zehn

tsane

" 50th

" Fiinftzigste

*' feeyunftsigstay

eleven

elf

" 60th

" Sechszigste

" zechtsigstay

twelve

zwolf

tsvelf

70th

" Siebenzigste

" zeebentsigstay

thirteen

dreizehn

dreytsane

80th

" Achtzigste

" achtsigstay

fourteen

vierzehn

feertsane

' ' 90th

" Neunzigste

*' noyntsigstay

fifteen

fiinfzehn

feeyunftsane

" looth

" Hundertste

" hoondertstay

sixteen

sechszehn

zexstsane

" lOISt

" Hundert und

" hoondert oond

seventeen

siebenzehn

zeeben tsane.

erste

ayrstay

eighteen

achtzehn

acht tsane

" 200th

" Zweihundertste

" tsvi hoondertstay

nineteen

neun zehn

noyntsane

' ' 300th

" Dreihundertste

" dri hoondertstay

twenty

zwanzig

tsvantzig

" loooth

" Tausendste

" towzendstay

•^

GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT.

121

Collective Numbers.

English.

German.

Pronunciation.

English.

German. -

Pronunciation.

dry

trocken

wet

nass

A pair
a dozen

ein Paar
ein Dutzend

ine paar
ine dootsend

dirty
cheap

schmutzig
billig

shmootsig
billig

a score

Zwanzig

tsvantsig

clean

rein

rine

firstly

erstens

ayrstens

tired

mUde

meeyuday

beusay

loostig

secondly

thirdly

the first time

zweitens
drittens
das Erstemal

tsvitens
drittens
das ayrstaymal

angry
merry

bose
lustig

the second time
once

das Zweitemal
einmal

das tsvitaymal
inemal

twice

zweimal

tsvimal

Verbs.

three times

dreimal

drymal

singly

einfach

inefach

To breakfast

friihstUcken

free)rusteeyucken

double

doppelt

to dine

speisen

speyzen

threefold

dreifach

dryfach

to sup

zu Abend essen

tsoo abend essen

fourfold

vierfach

feerfach

to arrive

ankommen

one sort

einerlei

inerlye

to depart

abreisen

abreizen

two sorts

zweierlei

tsvierlye

to meet

treffen

ten sorts

zehnerlei

tzanerly

to be tired

mude sein

meeyude seyn

to be sleepy

schlafrig sein

shlafrig seyn

to excuse

entschuldigen

entshooldigen

to understand

verstehen

farstayen

to believe

glauben

glowben

Adjectives.

to know

wissen

vissen

to write

schreiben

shriben

Small

klein

kline

to read

lesen

layzen

narrow

enge

engay

to pronounce

aussprechen

owssprechen

low
beautiful

niedrig

needrig

to pronounce well gut aussprechen

goot owssprechen

schon

sheun

to translate

iibersetzen

eeyubersetsen

handsome

hubsch

heeyubsh

to recollect

sich errinnem

sich erinnem

ugly
bad
easy

hasslich
schlecht
leicht

hesslich

shiecht

leicht

to forget
to promise
to expect

vergessen

versprechen

erwarten

fargessen

farsprechen

arvarten

heavy

schwer

schvare

to converse

unterhalten

oonterhalten

soft

weich
wahr
kuiz

veich

to express

ausdriicken

owsdreeyuken

true
short

vaar
koorts

to explain
to tell

erklaren
sagen

arklayren
zaagen

far

weit

vite

to call

rufen

roof en

sweet
hollow

sQss
hohl

seevuss
hole

to weep

to recommend

weinen
empfehlen

vinen
empfaylen

blunt
delicious

stumpf
kostlich

stoompf
keustlich

to receive
to send

empfangen
schicken

empfangen
shicken

disagreeable

unangenehm

oonangenaym

to buy
to pay
to order

kaufen

kowfen

honest

ehrlich

ayrlich

bezahlen

betsaalen

polite

hdflich

heuflich

bestellen

obliging

gefallig

gefellig

to furnish

liefern

leefern

kind

gUtig

geeyutig

to sell

verkaufen

farkowfen

prudent

klug

kloog

to reply

antworten

antvorten

stupid

dumm

doom

ridiculous
reasonable

lacherlich
verniinftig

lecherlich
ferneeyunftig

happy

glucklich

gleeyucklich

Adverbs.

unhappy

unglucklich

oongleeyucklich

glad

froh

fro

Yes

i ja
ja wohl

yah

satisfied

zufrieden

tsoofreeden

yah vole

active

thatig

tatig

indeed

in der That

in dar tate

rude

grob

grobe

truly

wahrlich

vaarlich

preud

stoltz

stolts

certainly

gewiss

gayviss

bold

kahn

keeyuhn

surely

sicherlich

zicherlich

strong

stark

only

nur

noor

weak

schwach

shvach

some

etwas

etvas

attentive

aufmerksam

owfmerksam

nothing

nichts

clever

geschickt

geshickt

much

viel

feel

mild

gelind

quite

ganzlich

gehntzlich

sick

krank

very

sehr

zare

pale

blass

healthy

gesund

gezoond

thus

also

alzo

poor

arm

how?

wie?

vee?

empty

■ leer

lare

nein

nine

light

hell

not

nicht

dark

dunkel

doonkel

but

nur

noor

122

GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT.

English.

enough

scarcely

all

almost

here

there

where

out

then

now

soon

till

seldom

since

ever

never

oft

already

to-day

yesterday

late

why?

because

perhaps

above

about

after

against

before

over

since

for

from

near

under

with

and

also

even

nor

yet

because

that

therefore

German.

genug

kaum

ganz

beinahe

hier

herein

heraus

denn

jetzt

bald

bis

selten

seit

immer

nie

oft

schon

heute

gestern

spat

warum ?

well

wenn

vielleicht

Prepositions.

txber

nach

gegen

vor

von

Uber

seit

fUr

von

nahe

unter

auf

mit

Conj unctions.

und oond

auch ouch

sogar sogar

oder oder

noch noch

doch doch

weil vile

dass das

daher dahar

Pronunciation.

genooch

kowm

gants

bynaey

heer

herine

herows

den

yetst

bald

bis

zelten

zite

immer

nee

oft

schone

hoytay

gestern

spate

varoom ?

vile

ven

feelleycht

eeyuber

oom

nach

gaegen

for

fon

eeyuber

zite

feeyur

fon

nahay

oonter

owf

mit

% % <k <k. %. % %' % %. V % %' %'/ % 4b. %,
Ul ^ % ' V, %. %•■ , "fc . k.
1."""" - £ *

= €l
_'0r

fifl i\lJUL/UUliill 1 iiililUJJU, = 4 :
V i ^

• ■•■iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiijiiiiiuiiiii<Miiii-it> %

1^ '% "'^ ^ ^ % %

% \ % % % <^ -^l^ '^D ^ -^ ^ ^ % ^. ^ %

# 1^ ^ ,■% ■% -y ' ^ ^ %

NECESSARY PHRASES.!'

Affirmative Phrases.

English.

It is true

It is so

I believe it

I think so

I say yes

I say it is

I am certain

I am certain of it

You are right
You are quite right

I know it

I know it well

I know him

I know it positively

I promise it

I promise it to you

I give it

I give it to you

I will give it to you

You are wrong
He is wrong
I believe him

Very well

German.

e«iRh)a^r
e^ ill fo

3(^ bcnfe ti
3(^ f age ja
3c{) f age e*? ifl
3c^ bin gettji^
3c^ Mn beffen ftet»t§

©ie '^abcn SRec^t
©ie ^aben flanj 9ied^t

3* Wcig c<3

3c^ wcife c« gmau

3(^ fcntie i^n

3* tvet§ c(3 fictier

3c^ »erfprcd)e f(J

3d& »erfpred)e ti 3|nen

3d^ flebe e«

3(^ gebe i^ 3^nen

3c^ Witt ei3 3^ncn geben

(Bie :^aben Unved^t
(£r |at Unrec&t
3c^ glaube tl)m
©e'^r h)oM
<Bt\jX gut

Pronunciation.

Es ist var
Es ist zo
Ich glowbay es
Ich denkay es
Ich zaagay yah
Ich zaagay es ist
Ich bin gayviss
Ich bin dessen gay-
viss
See haaben recht
See haaben gants

recht
Ich vice es
Ich vice es genow
Ich kennay een
Ich vice es sicher
Ich versprechay es
Ich versprechay es

eenen
Ich gay bay es
Ich gaybay es eenen
Ich vill es eenen

gayben
See haben oonrecht
Air hat oonrecht
Ich glowbay eem
Zare vole
Zare goot

Negative Phrases.

I say no

I say it is not

It is not so
It is not true
I say nothing
I will say nothing
I have nothing
He is not here
I have it not
He has it not
We have it not
You have it not
He said no
Has he said no ?
Has he said nothing?

5Retn

3c& fagc nein

3c^ fage c<J if! ntc^t

e^ijlnicbtfo

3d) fage nidjtd
3d) will nic^t(3 fagen
3c^ I)abe nic^t^
(£r ijl ntd)t t)ter
3d^ ^abe C(3 nic^t •
(Er '^at e^ ni*t
SBtr l)abcn c^ nicbt
3^r t)abt e^ nid)t
©r fagte nein
■£)at cr netngefagt?
|)at er ni^t^ gefagt?

I did not hear 3^ ^abe nt^t ge^ort

I have not heard it 3c^ babe c^ ntc^t ge^ort

You are quite wrong ©te ^aben burd^au^ Un^
re(|t

Nine

Ich zaagay nine

Ich zaagay es ist

nicht
Es ist nicht so
Es ist nicht var
Ich zaagay nichts
Ich vill nichts zaagen
Ich haabay nichts
Air ist nicht heer
Ich haabay es nicht
Air hat es nicht
Veer haaben es nicht
Eer haht es nicht
Air zaagtay nine
Hat air nine gezaagt?
Hat air nichts ge-
zaagt ?
Ich haabay nicht ge-

heurt
Ich haabay es nicht

geheurt
Zee haaben doorch-
ows oonrecht

Interrogative Phrases.

English.

Who?

Who was it ?
What is it?
Who is it ?
Did you say it ?

German.

2Bfr?

fBtx toax fiJ ?

SBoiSijlf^?

SBer iji c« ?

©agten ©ie e^ ?

What are you doing ? SBad t^uit ©ie?
What is he doing ? SBa^ t^itt et ? ,
Tell me Sagett (3ie mtr

Will you tell me ? SQBoUen ©ie mir fflgen?

How are you ?

How is he?

What for ?

Why?

Why do you ask ?

Why shall I go?

SBte 6e^t« ?

SBte ge^td i^m ?

SBofur?

Swum ?

SBarum fragett ©te ?

SBorum fott'ici^ ge^en?

Why do you speak ? SBarum fpre^en ©ic ?
Why are you silent ? SBarum f(^»etgen ©ie ?

Why did you go?
Is it ready ?
Have you heard ?
Do you hear ?
Where ?
Where is it ?
Where is he ?
Where is she ?
Where are you ?
Where are you

going?
Where do you come

from ?
Where were you ?
What?
What is it ?
What is that ?
What time is it ?
What o'clock is it ?
What have you ?
What do you say?
What did you say?
What do you mean ?
What do you want ?
What will you do ?

SBarum gtngen ©tc ?

Sflfdfcrttg?

•g>aben©te ge^ort?

•^&ren©te?

SBo?

2BotPe«?

SBo titer?

SBo ill Tie?
SBortnb©te?
SBo ge^en ©ie :^tn?

SBofommen©ie^cr?

SBott)oren©ie?
SBai3?
SBa^tfle^?
SBaiSiflba^?
fSHai ill bie 3eit?
aQBie»tclU|rt|le(3?
fBai ^aben ©ie?
fBui fagen©tc?
SBa« jagten©ie?
2Ba^ ntctnen ©te?
SBa« woUenSie?
S35a« wolIett©iet^un?

Pronunciation.

Vare ?.

Vare var es ?

Vas ist es ?

Vare ist es ?

Zaagten zee es ?

Vas toon zee?

Vas toot air ?

Zaagen zee meer

Vollen zee meer zaa-
gen?

Vee gates ?

Vee gates eem ?

Vofeeyur ?

Varoom ?

Varoom fraagen zee ?

Varoom zoU ich
gayen ?

Varoom shprechen
zee?

Varoom shvigen
zee?

Varoom gingen zee ?

Ist es fartig ?

Haaben zee geheurt ?

Heuren zee ?

Vo?

Vo ist es ?

Vo ist air ?

Vo ist zee ?

Vo zind zee ?

Vo gayen zeen hin ?

Vo commen zee

hare?
Vo varen zee ?
Vas?

Vas ist es ?
Vas ist das ?
Vas ist dee tsite ?
Veefeel oor ist es?
Vas haaben zee ?
Vas zaagen zee ?
Vas zaagten zee ?
Vas minen zee ?
Vas vollen zee ?
Vas vollen zee toon ?

Imperative Phrases.

kr-

Come away !
Come here !

Go there !
Come back I

Go on !
Sit down !
Stand still !
Wait

Wait for me
Wait a little
Make haste
Be quick
Follow me
Follow him
Tell him
Call him
Speak
Eat

Commen ©te fort!
i?ommen©ie^ter^er!

@e|en ©te bort^tn!
Sommen ©te juriicf !

®e^en©tc Wetter 1
©c^en ©te ftc^ !
©teben©te|iia!
SBarten ©ie
SBarten ©te auf mtd&
SBartfn ©te ctn wenig
3)?ad^eit ©ie fc^neU
Seetlen ©ic fti^
golgen ©ie mtr
golgen ©ie i^m
©ageti ©ie i^m
JRufen ©ie t^n
©precfccn ©ic
Sffen ©te

Kommen zee fort !
Kommen zee heer-

hare ?
Gayen zee dorthin !
Kommen zee tsoo-

reeyuck !
Gayen zee viter !
Setsen zee zich !
Stayen zee still !
Varten zee
Varten zee owf mich
Varten zee ine vaynig
Machen zee shnel
Bayilen zee zich
Folgen zee meer
Folgen zee eem
Zaagen zee eem
Roofen zee een
Shprechen zee
Essen zee

English.

Drink
Hear
Hear me
Look at me
Look at him
Begin
Continue
Stop
Tell me
Tell it him
Speak to me

Speak to him

Be quiet

Go to him

Go to bed

Fetch
Fetch it
Bring it
Bring it to me
Let it be
Let me have it

German.

Srinfen ©ie
•^oren ©ie
|)6ren ©ie mid&
©e^en ©ie mi^ an
©e^eit ©ie tbii att
gattgen ©ie ait
gabreit ©ie fort
$iaU

©agen ©ie mir
©agen ©ie e^ i^m
©pret^en ©ie mit mtr

©pred^en ©te mit t^m

©cieit ©ie rul^ig
®eben ©ie
®e^en ©ie ju i^m
®e|en©iejtta3etle

■^olen

|)olen ©ie e^
Sringen ©ie d
Srtngen ©ie e^ mir
Saffen ©ie e^ fcin
Satfcn ©ie e« mic^

Pronunciation.

Trinken zee
Heuren zee
Heuren zee mich
Zayen zee mich an
Zayen zee een an
Fangen zee an
Faaren zee fort
Halt

Zaagen zee meer
Zaagen zee es eem
Shprechen zee mit

meer
Shprechen zee mit

eem
Zyen zee rooig
Gayen zee
Gayen zee tsoo eem
Gayen zee tsoo

bettay ?
Holen

Holen zee es
Bringen zee es
Bringen zee es meer
Lassen zee es zeyn
Lassen zee es mich

haaben

Tell me ©agen ©ie mir

If you please giittig(l — gcicilltgfl

Have the goodness -^aben ©tc . e ®ittc

Yes, Sir

Yes, Madam

No, Sir

No, Madam

No, Miss

Do you speak
German ?
English ?
or French ?

I do not speak Ger-
man

I speak it a little

I understand

I understand it
but

I do not speak it

3a, metn ^err
3a, 2»abam
9?ein, metn $err
Slein, SWabam
9?ein, mein grdulettt
©pred^en ©ie

beutW ?

englifd^ ?

ober franii&flfd& ?
3c^ fprec^e ntd^t beutfd^

3(i& fpredbe etwa^
3d^ serflc^e
3(^ I'erjle^e t9

abix
3(i) fpred^e e<3 nicbt

I speak English 3c^ fpreiic SnglifcJ^
I am an Englishman 3c^ bin ctn Snglanbcr

I speak French aSc^ fprcdbe ctn tpentg
little frrtnjojticft

I am not a French- 3ci^ bin fcin granjofe
man

Do you understand ?33crfle5cn ©ie ?

Can you understand? Jlonncn ©te »er|le^en ?

Zaagen zee meer

geeyutigst-gefelligst

Haaben zee dee
geeyutay

Yah, mine har

Yah, madam

Nine, mine har

Nine, Madame

Nine mine froyline

Shprechen zee
doytsh ?
english ?
oder frantseuzish

Ich shprechay nicht
doytsh

Ich sprechay etvas

Ich ferstaye

Ich ferstaye es
aber

Ich shprechay es
nicht

Ich shprechay Eng-
lish

Ich bin ine Englen-
der

Ich shprechay ine
vaynig frantseuzish

Ich bin kine Fran-
tsozay

Ferstayen zee ?

Keunnen zee fer-
stayen ?

' 124

GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT.

English.
Speak slower

You speak too fast

Give me

some bread

some butter

some water

some tea

some wine

some meat

something

to eat

to drink
Bring me

some coffee

some milk

some cheese
I thank you

German.

©pred^en ©ie langfamer
©ie fpreti^fn ju fc^neU

®eten ©te mir

ajrob

Sutter

SBaffer

2^ee

SBein

gletf(^

ettt)a«

iu effen

ju trinfen
Sringcn ©te mir

Itaffee

3(^ banfe S^neit

Good morning
Good day
Good afternoon
How do you do ?
How are you?

Very well

I am very well

Pretty well

Tolerably

How is your father?

How is your mother ?

I am not well
I am unwell
She is not well
He is not well
She is ill
He is very ill
She has a cold
I have the toothache
I must go
I am going now
It is time to go
Good bye
Farewell

I wish you a good
morning

Good evening

Good night

I wish you good

night
My compliments at

home

Meeting.

®uten SJJorgen
®uten 3:03
®uten 9?a^mtttag
2Bie se^t'iJ ?
2Bie bfpnben ©ie ftc^ ?

©e'^r wo'^l

3c^ befmbc mic^ fe^r

Stemlt^ wo'^l

2Bte beftnbct ftc^ 3^r

^err abater?
2Bie beftnbet flc^ 3^re

grau abutter?
3c& bin ntrbt wo^I
3c^ bin unttjo^l
©teifimc^ttDO'^t
Sr ill r.tc^t i»o^l
©ie tjl franf
eriflfe^rfranf
©ie ^at m efMItct
3c^ iabe Ba^nwe^
3c^ mu§ ge^eti
3c^ gele je^t
e« tjl Sett ju ge'^ett
Seben ©te voo^
Slbteu
3c^ wimfd^c 3^nen etnen

guten 5Worgen

®uten Slbenb

®ute S^ac^t

3c^ h)iinfc^e S^neii

gute S'Jac&t
Tliint Smpfe'^lungen

ben S^rigen

A Visit.

Pronunciation.

Shprechen zee lang-

zaamer
Zee shprechen tsoo

shnel
Gayben zee meer

Brode

Bootter

Vasser

Tay

Vine

Flishe

etvas

tsoo essen

tsoo trinken
Bringen zee meer

Kaffay

Milch

Kaysay
Ich dankay eenen

Gooten morgen
Gooten tag
Gooten nachmittag
Vee gaytes
Vee befinden zee

zich?
Zare vole
Ich befinday mich

zare vole
Tseemlich vole
Zo tseemlich
Vee befindet zich eer

har fater ?
Vee befindet zich

eere frow mootter ?
Ich bin nicht vole
Ich bin oonvole
Zee ist nicht vole
Air ist nicht vole
Zee ist krank
Air ist zare krank
Zee hat zich airkeltet
Ich haabay tsaanvay
Ich moos gayen
Ich gayay yetst
Es ist tsite tsoo gayen
Layben zee vole
Adeeu
Ich veeyunshe eenen

inen gooten mor-
gen
Gooten abend
Gootay nacht
Ich veeyunshe eenen

gootay nacht
Minay empfayloon-

gen dan eeregen

There is a knock S« fto^ft Es klopft

It is Mr. A. (£(3 tfl ^crr SI. Es ist har A.

It is Mrs. B. e^ tfl SRabam 23. Es ist madam B.

I am glad to see you 3d& freue mii^ ©te Jtt Ich froyay mich zee

•fe^en tsoo zayen

Pray be seated S3ttte ^efeen fte jld^ Bittayzetsen zee zich

English.

What nejvs is there ?
Good news
Do you believt it ?
I don't believe a

word of it
I think so

I think not
Who told you ?

It is true

It is not true

I doubt it

Have you heard from

home ?
The postman brought

me a letter to-day

Sad news

Will you dine with

us ?
No, thank you

German.

2Baegiebt(3 5Rcue(3?
®ute Stacbrid^ten
©louben ©te ti ?
3c^ glaube fein SBort

bation
3db benfe (glaube) fo

3c^ benfe ntc^t

SBer ^at e« S^nen ge=

fagt?

(£i ijl ttxi^r
m ifl nicbt wo^r
3ci& bejwetfle ti
|)aben ©ie son ^aufc

ge^ort ?
25er fflriefttfiger

bradbte nttt ^eute etnen

Srtef
©c^lec^te ^Ra^rtc^ten

aBoHen ©te mit un3

fpeifen ?
3lnn, t(| banfe 3^nen

I cannot stay

I must go

You are in a great

hurry
I have a great deal 3c^ M^^ "W JU t^utt

to do

3(^ ! onn ntc^t bletben

3d^ ntu§ ge^en

©ie <lnb in grower Site

Pronunciation.

Vas geebts noyes ?
Gootay nachrichten
Glowben zee es ?
Ich glowbay kine

vort dafon
Ich denke (glowbay)

zo
Ich denke nicht
Var hat es eenen ge

zaagt ?
Es ist var
Es ist nicht var
Ich betsviflay es
Haaben zee von

howsay geheurt ?
Dar breeftrayger

brachtay meer hoy-

tay inen breef
Shlechtay nachrich-
ten
Vollen zee mit oons

spizen ?
Nine, ich dankay

eenen
Ich kann nicht bliben
Ich moos gayen
Zee zind in grosser

ilay
Ich haabay feel tzoo

toon

Expressions of Joy.

What!

Is it possible !

Can it be !

How can it be pos-
sible !

Who would have be-
lieved it !

Indeed !

It is impossible

That cannot be

I am astonished at it

You surprise me
It is incredible

2Ba(S!

3fl ii ntoglic^ !

^onn e^ fein !

SBie fann ti ntoglld^

fetn!
SBer iriirbe iai ge*

glaubt tjaben 1
SQSivfUd) !
& ijl unmogIid^_
gd fann ntcbt fein
3cb wunbere mtc^ bar=

viber
©te uberrafd^en mtd^

(Ed tfl ungloubltd^

Vas!

Ist es meuglich !

Kan es zine !

Vee kan es meuglich

zine !
Var veeyurday das

geglowbt haaben !
Virklich !

Es ist oonmeuglich
Es kann nicht zine
Ich voonderay mich

dareeyuber
Zee eeyuberrashen

mich
Es ist oonglowblich

Of Sorro-w and Joy.

I am sorry

I am very sorry

What a pity

It is a great pity

It is a sad thing

ed t^ut mir letb
(£« t^ut inir fe^r leib

SSie f^abe

di tft fe^r fc^abe

Sd eine traurtge ©ad^e

It is a misfortune @i3 ijl ein Ungliidf

It is a great mis-
fortune
I am glad
I am glad of it

I am very glad

It gives me pleasure

(£3 tjl ettt groped Un

gliidf
^i tfl mir lieb
3d^ freue midt) bariiber

€« tjl mir fe^r licb
di mod^t mir SSergnii
gen

Es toot meer lide

Es toot meer zare
lide

Vee shaday

Es ist zare shaday

Es ist inay trowrigay
zachay

Es ist ine oon-
gleeyuck

Es ist ine grosses
oongleeyuck

Es ist meer leeb

Ich froyay mich dar-
eeyuber

Es ist meer zare leeb
■■ Es macht meer fer-

gneeyugen

GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT.

125

English.

German.

Pronunciation.

It gives me great joy S# madtt nttr
JJreube

I am happy

How happy I am !

I wish you joy

I congratulate you

^e Es macht meer gros-
say froyday
3* bin gliitfli* Ich bin gleeyuckiich

2Bte gtiiclli* id^ bin Vee gleeyuckiich ich

bin
Sd^ tt>iinfc^e S^nen Ich veeyunshe eenen

@liid gleeyuck

3^ gratulire 3^nen Ich gratooleeray

Of Anger and Blame.

I am angry
He is angry
He is very angry
Don't be angry

You are wrong

You are right

Why don't you do it ?

Be quiet
What a shame !
How could you do

it?
I am ashamed of you

3c^ bin argerlic^
(£r i|l drgerlic^
(£r tfl je^r argerlic^
©eien ©te ni^t drgerlic^

©te 'baben Unredbt
©te babe n 9iec^t
SBarum t^un ©le

m*t?
©eien ©ie rubtg
SBeld&e©cbanbe!
2Bte fonnten ©ie

t^un?
3ci^ fcbdme mic^ 3^ret

t»

e«

You are very much ©te ftnb fe^r ju tabeln

to blame
Don't answer Sfnttoorten ©te ntc^t

Be patient ®ebulben ©ie fit^

I will improve 34 werbe mic^ beffern

How old are you ?
I am twenty

I shall soon be thirty

He looks older
She is younger
She cannot be so

young
He must be older
I did not think you

were so old
He is at least sixty

She must be forty

How old is your

father?
He is nearly eighty
Is he so old ?
How old is your

sister ?
She is fifteen
Is she so young ?
How old is your

aunt ?
She is nearly ninety
It is a great age
He begins to grow

old

Age.

2Bte alt finb ©ie ?
3c^ bin jwanjig 3a^r

alt
34 werbe balb bretgtg

fein
6r fte^t alter aui
©ie ill jttnger
©ie fann ni^t fo jung

fein
(£r ntu§ atter fein
34glaubtenidbtbag©ie

fo alt fein
(Er if! »enigfien«

©te mui tttersig 3a'&r

alt fein
SBie alt i)! 3^r 35ater ?

(Sr i|l nolle a^tjig
3|lerfoalt?
SBie alt ifl i^re

©d)tt)cfler ?
©ie ill fiinfje'^n
3fl [it fo iunq ?
SGBie alt ifl 3^re Sante ?

©ie ill fafl neunjig
di i|l ein bobed 5tlter
gr fctngt an olt gu
roerben

Ich bin argerlich
Air ist argerlich
Air ist zare argerlich
Zyen zee nicht ar-
gerlich
Zee haaben oonrecht
Zee haaben recht
Varoom toon zee es

nicht ?
Zyen zee rooig
Velchay .shanday !
Vee konten zee es

toon ?
Ich shamay mich

eerer
Zee sind zare tsoo

tadeln
Antvorten zee nicht
Gedoolden zee zich
Ich varday mich
bessern

Vee alt zind zee ?
Ich bin tsvantsig

yaar alt
Ich varday bald dry-

sig zine
Er zeet elter ows
Zee ist yeeyunger
Zee kan nicht zo

yoong zine
Air moos elter zine
Ich glowbtay nicht

das zee zo alt zyen
Air ist venigstens

zechtsig
Zee moos feertsig

yaar alt zine
Vee alt ist eer faater ?

Air ist nahay achtsig

Ist ar zo alt ?

Vee alt ist eeray

shvester?
Zee ist feeyunftsane
Ist zee zo yoong ?
Vee alt ist eeray

tantay ?
Zee ist fast no)mtsig
Es ist ine hohes alter
Air fengt an alt tsoo

vayrden

To ask Questions.

English.

German.

Pronunciation.

What do you say ? S55ad fagen ©te ? Vas zaagen zee ?

Do you hear ? |)5ren ©ie ? Heuren zee ?

Do you hear me ? -gioren ©te micb ? Heuren zee mich ?

I don't speak to you 34 fprec^e mit 3|nen Ich sprechay mit

nicbt
Do you understand Serjle^en ©te mi4 ?

me?
Listen -^oren ©ie

Come here 5?ommen ©ie ^ier^er

eenen nicht
Fershtayen zee mich<

Heuren zee
Kommen zee heer-

hare
Vas ist das ?
Antvorten zee

What is that? fBai ifl bag ?

Answer 2lnttt>orten ©ie

Why don't you an- SBarum antworten ©ie Varoom antvorten

swer? ni4t? zee nicht?

What do you mean ? SBad meinen ©ie ? Vas minen zee ?

What do you mean SBag meinen ©ie bantit ? Vas minen zee da-

by that ? mit ?

You speak German 34 »erntut^e ©ie fj>re» Ich fermootay zee

I suppose 4en beutf4 shprechen doytsh

Very little. Sir ©e^r wenig, metn |)err Zare vanig mine hare

Do you know me ? itennen ©ie mi4 ? Kennen zee mich ?

Do you know Mr. H? Jfennen ©ie ^errn |) ? Kennen zee ham H ?
I know him 34 fenne i^n Ich keniiay een

I do not know him 34 fenne i^n nt4t Ich kennay een nicht

I know you 34 fenne ©ie Ich kennay zee

I know him by sight 34 fenne i^n Uon 2ln= Ich kennay een von

fe^en anzane

I know him by name 34 ffwne t^n bet Stamen Ich kennay een by

naamen
I know him well ®r tjl mtr WO^l befannt Air ist meer vole be-

kant
What do you call 2Bie nennen ©ie bad ? Vee nennen zee das ?

that?
What is that in Ger- SBie ^ei§t bad

man ? £)eutf4 ?

What do you call SBie ^ei§t bad

that in English ? engltf4 ?
What does that SBad ^eigt bad ?

mean ?
What is it good for ? SBoju ifl ed gut ?
It is good for nothing (£d ifl JU ni4td gut

aufVee histe das owf

Doytsh ?
auf Vee histe das

English ?
Vas histe das?

owf

Is it good ?
Is it bad ?
Is it eatable?
Is it drinkable ?
Is it nice?
Is it fresh ?

An early morning

Early

It is a fine morning

What o'clock is it ?
It is nearly eight
Light the fire

Light a candle

3fl cd gut ?
3fl ed f4le4t ?
3|l ed e§bar ?
3|l ed trinfbat ?
3|ledf4on?
3|ledfrtf4?

Morning.

Sin frii^er SWorgen

Sd ijl etn f45ner 3)?or»

gen
SBadtftbteU^r?
ed ijl na^e a4t U^r
3iinben ©ie bad geuer

an
3iinben ©te etn 2t4t on

I am going to get up 34 Will auffle^en
Get me some hot SSringen ©ie mir etwad

water ^eiged SBaffer

Some cold water ©ttrad faltcd SBaffer
Some spring-water (Jtn>ad Srinfttsaffer
Make haste 3JJa4en ©te f4neU

Votsoo ist es goot ?
Es ist tsoo nicbts

goot
Ist es goot ?
Ist es shlecht ?
Ist es esbar ?
Ist es trinkbar?
Ist es sheun ?
Ist es frish ?

Ine free)mer morgen

Freeyu

Es ist ine sheunee

morgen
Vas ist deeoor?
Es ist naay acht oor
Tseeyunden zee das

foyer an
Tseeyunden zee ine

licht an
Ich vill owfstayen
Bringen zee meer

etvas hises vasser
Etvas kaltes vasser
Etvas trinkvasser
Machen zee shnel

GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT.

-y

English. German. Pronunciation.

There is no towel S3 if! fein ^anbtuc^ ba Es ist kine handtooch

da
Bring me some soap Sringen ©tc mir ©eife Bringen zee meer

zifay
I want to wash my- 3c& wiinfc^e mid^ ju tta« Ich veeyunshe mich

self fc^cn tsoo vashen

How have you slept? 2Bte fiaten ®te 8efd^la= Vee haaben zee gay-
fen ? shlafen ?
Did you sleep well ? ^abftt (Sie gut ficfc^k' Haaben zee goot gay-
fen ? shlafen ?
Very well, thank you ©c^r gut, 3c^ banfe Zare goot, ich dan-

S^nen kay eenen

Not very well 3lidit fe^r gut Nicht zare goot

I could not sleep 3(^ fonntc ntc^t fd>lafen Ich konntay nicht

shlafen
I was so tired from 3c^ iror f mitbe »Ott ber Ich vare zo meeyude
traveling 9icife fon dar risay

Breakfast.

Breakfast is ready 2)a3 &rii||lii(f tfi ferttg
Is breakfast ready ? 3fl ba<? ijrii^fliitf ferttg ?

Come to breakfast

Let us breakfast

Does the water boil ?
This water has not

boiled
Is the tea made ?
Give me a cup of tea

A cup of coffee

A roll

Do you drink tea or

coffee ?
This cream is sour

^ommen ©te jum

grij^fliidt
Caffcn ©ie un3 friiV

fliicfcn
Sim ba« Staffer ?
2)lefc3 SBaffer ^at nti^t

gcfo^t
3f!bcr25ce ferttg?
®cben ©ic mtr eine

2affc I^ee
Sine Jaffe i?affee
ein ?Wild)brDb
Svinfeu ©Ie Z^tt ober

itaff cc ?
S)iefe ©a^ne tjl f«uer

Das freeyusteeyuck

ist faretig ?
Ist das freeyu-
steeyuck faretig?
Kommen zee tsoom

freeyusteeyuck
Lassen zee oons

freeyusteeyuck en
Kocht das vasser ?
Deezes vasser hat

nicht gekocht
Ist dar tay faretig ?
Gayben zee meer

inay tassay tay
Inay tassay kaffay
Ine milchbrodt
Trinken zee tay oder

kaffay ?
Deezay zaanay ist

English. German.

Will you take an egg? SBoHen ©ie cfn ®i effen ?

These eggs are hard IDtefe Sier jtnb l)art

Give me the salt Ocben ©ic mtr ba^ ©alj

Pass me the butter SReid^en ©ie mtr bie

Sutter
This is fresh butter T)<xi tfl frifd^e Sutter

This butter is not Diefe Sutter tft ntcfet

fresh fvifd^

Bring some more Sringen ©ie ettoad me^r

butter Sutter

Give me a spoon ®eben ©ie mtr cinen

Sbffcl
Is the coffee strong 3fl ber ^affee fiarf ge=

enough ttug

We want more cups SBir braud^ett me^r 3;of»

fen
Take some more S^Je^men ©ic ttoc^ etwaS

sugar 3utfer

Cold meat Ma\M %Um

The table-cloth Da« Jifcfetud^

The sugar-basin Die 3ucfcrbiid^fc

Chocolate E^ofolabe

A knife ©in 2Weffer

A fork ©nc ®abet

The knife is blunt Tia^ SWeffer tfl fiumjjf

We have done break- 2Cir ftnb mit bem %xh1)=
fast Plitf ferttg

You can take away ©ie f onnen bte 2^ee«
the things fad^en fortne'^men

Pronunciation.

VoUen zee ine eye

essen ?
Deezay eyer zind

hard
Gayben zee meer das

zalts
Richen zee meer dee

bootter
Das ist frishay boot-
ter
Deezay bootter ist

nicht frish
Bringen zee etvas

mare bootter
Gayben zee meer

inen leuffel
Ist dar kaffay stark

genoog ?
Veer browchen mare

tassen
Naymen zee noch et-
vas tsoocker
Kaltes flishe
Das tishtooch
Dee tsoocker-

beeyuchsay
Chocoladay
Ine messer
Ine gabel
Das messer ist

stoompf
Vir sind mit dem

freeyusteeyuck

faretig
Zee keunnen deetay-

zachen fortnaymen

The student being now well afloat, will be able to steer by
the aid of a good vocabulary.

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

127

*F we listen to the perform-
ances of two pianoforte-
players, one good and the other
bad, and try to analyze the dif-
ferences which exist between their
renderings of the same composition,
two points force themselves chiefly
upon our attention, and this even
supposing both players capable of
playing all the written notes cor-
rectly. The first of these points is
touch ; the passages of the good
player being distinct and brilliant,
while those of the other are slurred
and ineffective, and in listening to them one cannot
always feel sure that each note of the written pas-
sage has been fairly struck. Again, the cantabile or
melody playing of the one is rich and full in tone,
and the expression vocal — the instrument seems to
sing J whereas a melody played by the supposed bad
performer is weak and short in tone, and often over-
powered by heavy accompaniment. The second
of the two points of difference to be noticed is the
different rendering or conception of the whole work
given by the two players. In the one case the whole
is intelligible and satisfactory, while in the other
much of the music appears vague and unmeaning,
and one is inclined to wonder what the composer

could have meant by it. No doubt the question of
the general concieption and reading of a complete
composition is a wide one, and must necessarily in-
clude a great number of details, extending even to
the capability of the performer to enter into and
understand the intentions of the composer ; still, in
this book we have to do less with the intentions of
either composer or performer, than with the me-
chanical expression of those intentions, supposing
them to have been correctly conceived, and from
this point of view it will be found that the chief dif-
ference between the readings of our two imaginary
performers lies in their good or bad phrasing.
Touch and Phrasing will then chiefly claim our at-
tention, and first of all

TOUCH.

Touch is to the pianist what a good management of the
voice is to the vocalist, or a good action of the bow to a
violinist — the means of producing agreeable sounds and of
executing difficulties. True, the tone produced by an inex-
perienced hand on the pianoforte is not so disagreeable as the
earliest attempts of a beginner on the violin, because the
former is a more purely mechanical instrument than the latter ;
still, a good touch is one of the greatest excellences of a
pianist, and to play good music with bad touch is very like
attempting to read a fine poem in a language which one is
unable to pronounce properly.

Touch is of two kinds : legato, or connected, and staccato,
or detached touch. Of these legato-touch is by far the most

128

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

■^

4r-

important and the most frequently used, and it must there-
fore be considered first.

There are three kinds of legato-touch — namely, brilliant
touch, suitable for rapid passages ; cantabile, or melody-touch,
used for sustained melody ; and accompaniment-touch. Each
of these may be employed either singly or in combination ;
thus the touch proper to melody and that belonging to accompa-
niment are naturally generally met with together, and other
combinations are perfectly admissible in their proper place.
Moreover, although the classification here given is sufficiently
practical, there are cases in which the most appropriate touch
seems to partake of the qualities of two of the above kinds ;
for instance, a passage may be sufficiently melodious and not
too rapid to require somewhat of a cantabile touch, or so light
and delicate as to be best rendered by a touch approximating
to that proper for accompaniment.

Of the three kinds of legato-touch just mentioned, the touch
for brilliant passages is at once the most difficult to acquire,
and the most important, as being the foundation of all other
kinds. It consists of a rapid and decided blow, struck with
the tip of a bent finger (but rather rounded than angular), and
just escaping the finger-nail. In order to insure a correct
position of the hand for this kind of touch, the best method is
as follows : — Place the middle finger of the right hand on any
note — say E, the fourth space of the treble stave ; let the back
of the hand be kept level, so that a pencil laid upon it would
not roll off, and then point as nearly straight upwards as pos-
sible with the three free fingers and the thumb. Now lower
the front joints of the first and third fingers, slowly and
gradually, but without altering the position of the joints at
which the fingers are connected with the hand, and watch for
the gradual disappearance of the finger-nails. As soon as this
has taken place, and the nails are just hidden from view by
the bend of the finger, the hand is in a good position, and the
first finger is ready to strike D, or the third finger F, as may
be required. As for the thumb and little finger, they will, in
all probability, have become slightly lowered during the bend-
ing of the other fingers, and will now be on a level with the
back of the hand, but stretched out, which is their proper po-
sition.

The hand being thus well placed, and resting on the note
E played by the second finger, with all the other fingers (in-
cluding the thumb) held at a distance of about two inches
above the keys, let us now consider the best way of striking the
next note, D, so as to produce a bright, full, and decided
tone. To this end three things are requisite : the blow of the
finger upon the key must be rapid, vertical, and from a
sufficient distance. Any one or two of these qualities might
be present without the others. For example, the finger might
fall rapidly and in a vertical direction, but from an insufficient
distance ; or, the distance being sufficient, the blow might yet
be oblique, from the fingers having been too much or too
little bent, or slow in movement, and therefore deficient in
percussion. In none of these cases would the touch be good,
but if all three qualities are present, and if the finger which
is already upon E leaves its key at precisely the moment at
which the first finger strikes D, and in springing upwards ob-
serves the same rules — that is, moves rapidly, vertically, and

to a sufficient distance — then the npte D has been played with
good touch, and the second finger is in a position to play E
again in the same manner.

It will be readily seen that when the hand has once been
correctly placed, as described above, it is necessary that the
fingers should be kept absolutely motionless until the moment
of striking the next note, as otherwise the three conditions of
good touch could not be fulfilled. For suppose the first finger
to have been allowed to sink before striking its note, the
blow would not be given "from a sufficient distance:" or
suppose that it became too much bent or too much extended,
the blow would not be " vertical." It is therefore of the first
importance that the fingers should be kept absolutely still
during the whole time which intervenes between the striking
of one note and the next; whether that time be long, as in
the slow practice of finger-exercises, or short, as in a finished
rapid passage ; and this fact leads me to speak of secondary
motion.

Any movement of a finger which does not produce a note,
and which is therefore wasted, is called secondary motion.
Such movements are found in all untrained hands, and consist
of involuntary extensions and contractions, tremblings, or
(very frequently) sinkings of the finger. Secondary motion is
the very opposite of good touch, and the possibility of acquir-
ing the latter depends in the first place entirely upon overcom-
ing the tendency to the former — in other words, upon learning
to hold the fingers still. This is the reason why all finger-
exercises should be practiced very slowly, in order that the
student may be able to watch the behavior of the fingers
between the striking of the notes, and assure himself that they
are held not only in a good position, but quite free from
secondary motion.

The proper speed for the practice of finger-execises is, sup-
posing them to be written in quavers, about M.M. J* = 60.
But although they should be practiced thus slowly, the touch
must not be slow but rapid (according to the requirements of
the three good qualities mentioned above) ; and this is a point
too often neglected by teachers, who merely tell their pupils
to practice slowly, without explaining why, and so allow them
to form a touch adapted for nothing more lively than a
funeral march.

Let us suppose, for the sake of illustration, that the notes
of an exercise are being played at the rate of one per second,
and that the fingers of the player are so slow in their move-
ments as to require a whole second to rise or fall in ; such a
player will obviously be unable to play notes in the smallest
degree quicker than the speed mentioned ; but if the fingers
can be held quite stationary for (say) eleven-twelfths of a sec-
ond, and the movements of lifting one finger and striking with
the other (which movements are of course simultaneous) can
be made to occupy only the remaining twelfth, then the player
will be in a position to play twelve notes per second if re-
quired.

All that has been said so far applies of course to every couple
of fingers and to each hand, the only additional point to be
noticed being that the thumb and little finger should be kept
quite straight, except where the player has very long fingers,
when the little finger may be slightly bent, though never so

-A

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

129

much as the other three. All the principles of good *ouch are
so clearly brought before the student in the preceding descrip-
tion, that there is no exercise so entirely indispensable, not
only for the beginner but for the advanced performer, as the
so-called " slow trill," or exercise for two fingers.

The kind of touch just described has for its object the per-
formance of vigorous and brilliant passages ; but there are
also passages to be met with, particularly in Chopin's works,
which require to be played with great rapidity, and also with
extreme lightness and delicacy, pianissimo. Such passages
should always be studied, in the first place with the same touch
as forte passages, to insure accuracy ; and when perfect,
should be played with the same, or nearly the same amount
of finger-movement, but with very little force ; and I have
often found it useful to endeavor to play them at the proper
speed, but on the surface of the keys without sounding them ; as
when this has been accomplished, the slightest possible amount
of difference in the direction of increased force will produce
the effect required. Examples of passages of this kind may be
found in Chopin's Polonaise in E flat, op. 22, bars 57, 61, &c.

We now come to the consideration of the other kinds of
legato-touch — those used for cantabile playing and accompani-
ment ; and as they are so often met with in combination, it will
be convenient to examine both at once. They both differ from
passage-touch in requiring but little finger-movement, and that
at a slow speed ; in this respect they resemble each other, as
well as in the fact that the fingers are laid upon, or at least
brought very close to the surface of the keys before sounding
them, instead of striking them from a distance, no percussion
being required. The chief difference between them is that
the accompaniment-touch requires little or no pressure, the
keys being moved gently downwards, and the tone produced
being therefore quiet and subdued, while in that proper to can-
tabile the pressure must be firm and decided, the key being
moved slowly or quickly, according as the tone produced is re-
quired to be soft or full, since the quicker the movement of
the key, the louder will be the resulting sound.

The pressure, however, though firm, must not be made with
a rigid finger held with immovable joints, or the tone will be
hard and noisy. The proper condition of the hand during the
sustaining of a note is one not very easy to describe in words,
or to realize from a written description. Thalberg, in the pre-
face to his work, V Art du Chant, calls it a "hand without
bones " {main dcsossJe), and the hand should in fact feel as
though each finger-joint were in an elastic state, ready to yield
in every direction, but nevertheless not yielding in any.

Melody and accompaniment have frequently to be played by
the same hand, and when the arrangement is similar to that
shown in Ex, i, the combination presents no particular diffi-
culty. When, however, it happens that a note of the melody
and one of the accompaniment have to be played at the same
moment, as in Ex. 2, the case is different, and demands special
study in order to produce two different qualities of sound in
the same hand at the same time. In such a passage, break-

ing the first chord of a group — i. e,, playing the B of Ex. 2 after
the D which accompanies it — must by no means be allowed,
although a very common habit in such cases, and an easy
method of making a difference in the strength of the two
sounds. Playing a chord arpeggio is very rarely permissible
unless it is indicated by the composer. In our present case we
have to seek to produce as great a difference of tone as pos-
sible between the melody-notes and those of the accompani-
ment without separating them in the slightest degree, and this
may be accomplished by holding the hand, immediately before
sounding the notes, in such a position that the tip of the finger
which is to produce the strongest tone is on a slightly lower
level than that of the other finger. Of course the exact amount
of difference in the position of the two fingers can only be de-
termined by experiment and practice, and exercises such as
those shown in Ex. 3 — in which the notes which are to be
played strongest are written with minim heads — will be
found very serviceable in this direction. Most valuable also
as studies of this kind are the arrangements by Thalberg, en-
titled UArt du Chant applique' au Piano, and also Henselt's
Liebeslied.

Before passing from the subject of melody and accompani-
ment played by the same hand, one very important principle
remains to be observed. Accompaniment necessarily consists
of chords, which may be either unbroken, as in Ex. 4, or
broken as in Ex. 5. The principle is in both cases the same,
and may be expressed as follows : The last note or chord of
the accompaniment must be slightly shortened, and thus released
before melody passes to its next note. The correct rendering
of such passages, at least while practicing them, is therefore
nearly as in Ex. 6.

(4-) (5)

The object of this is to allow of the legato progression of the
melody from one note to the next, and to prevent a very com-
mon fault (shown in Ex. 7), in which the actual legato takes
place between the last note of the accompaniment and the fol-
lowing melody-note, instead of from one melody-note to the
next.

(7-)

i^^

"•"! 8 S »-

-^■^i»-

■ - S S S"

eHeeesS

LL.' "P

lUi

i«=ff:i=U

In the foregoing paragraph I have said " at least while prac-
ticing," because in some cases, when the passage has been suf-
ficiently studied and the proper connection of the melody-
notes insured, it is not always necessary or desirable that the

^^ —

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

last note of the accompanying group should remain shortened,
particularly in slow tempo. Nevertheless, the method indi-
cated will always be found conducive to clearness of melody, and
may often be retained with advantage in the finished perform-
ance. Many of Mendelssohn's Lieder ohne Worte afford valu-
able practice in the rendering of melody and accompaniment
in the same hand ; in particular. No. i of Book I. may be
mentioned, which should be practiced as follows :

^^^

Staccato-touch, like legato, may be divided into three kinds,
suitable respectively for passages, melody, and accompaniment.
The last-named kind is the simplest, and will require but brief
consideration. It is obvious that the notes in staccato accom-
paniment must be light and delicate, and not strong enough to
interfere with the melody which they accompany. When
they are required to be soft, and yet bright in tone and dis-
tinctly articulated, which is often the case, they must be played
with a steady hand, the fingers being held in a bent position
and with little or no movement of the joints, and the hand
lifted from the key with great rapidity, but to a very short dis-
tance. This movement which is very slight though quick,
comes from the action of the elbow-joint, and the tone pro-
duced is crisp and short, with very little percussion. This
touch is suitable for such passages as the bass in the Scherzo
of Beethoven's Sonata in E flat, op. 31, No. 3, or the chords of
the right hand in the io8th and following bars of the first move-
ment of the same.

Staccato-touch for passages is of two kinds, wrist-touch and
finger-staccato, the former being most frequently required. In
this kind of touch the wrist must be slightly depressed and the
hand drawn back as far as is convenient ; the note is then
struck by means of a free action of the hand from the wrist-
joint, with more or less force according to the strength of tone
required, but always with rapidity, the hand immediately
springing back to its former position, so as to be in readiness
for the next note. Wrist-touch is most used for passages of
staccato chords and octaves, though it may also be applied to
single notes if they are to be brilliant and vigorous ; but when
a staccato passage of single notes has to be played at a speed
too great to allow of the proper action of the wrist, the finger-
staccato must be employed. This consists in a movement of
each individual finger, similar to that of the legato-touch for
passages, but with the difference that the finger quits its key
immediately after striking it, instead of waiting until the next
note is struck, and in rising must be bent slightly more inwards
than in legato. Finger-staccato is particularly suited to rapid
and delicate passages, in which, according to Hummel (^Art of
Playing the Pianoforte), " the hand must not be taken up at all,
but the fingers must be hurried away from the keys very lightly
and in an inward direction."

The study of wrist-staccato demands much patience and

perseverance, and as it is at first fatiguing, it should not be
practiced for long at a time, but often, and at first pianissimo,
increasing the force of the blow as the wrist gains strength
and speed of movement. Studies of octaves and other stac-
cato passages abound, and need not be specified ; but exercises
such as those given in Ex. 9 will be found extremely useful
as preparatory studies. In practicing them the wrist should
be held low, about on a level with the key-board, and the
hand drawn back so that the tips of the fingers may be from
three to four inches off the keys. Each note is to be played
with the second finger, and to be made as short as possible,
the hand returning instantly to its raised position, in which it
is of the greatest importance that it should remain motionless
during the rests in each bar. Exercises of this kind may be
found in Plaidy's Technical Studies.

Staccato-touch in cantabile must of necessity be very difi"er-
ent from that just described. Cantabile signifies "in the
style of singing," and it would not be possible to sing notes so
short and detached as those of a brilliant pianoforte passage.
If the notes of a cantabile phrase be sung to the syllable la, as
in Ex. 10, the separation of the sounds caused by the forma-
tion of the letter / at the beginning of each syllable will give
an idea of the kind of effect required. Such a passage must
therefore be played with a slight pressure from the hand and
with but little percussion, the duration of the notes being
made about as in Ex. 11.

La, ia, la, la, la

II.— EXERCISES AND HOW TO USE THEM.

Closely connected with the subject of touch is that of the
exercises by the use of which touch may be cultivated and de-
veloped ; and it will be my purpose in this section to speak of
such exercises as are, in my belief, essential to the formation of
a good touch, and to arrange them in the order in which they
are most useful, at the same time giving certain rules and sug-
gestions as to the best method of practicing them.

The first exercise is a slow trill, or exercise for two fingers.
Alike serviceable to the beginner and the advanced per-
former, it contains in itself all the elements of good touch,
and should be practiced daily with eveiy couple of fingers
before proceeding to any other exercise ; as by this means
the formation of bad habits is prevented, and the hand is
brought into a fit state to attack greater difficulties.

After this comes the exercise for three fingers, in practicing
which a new and very important rule has to be observed. This
rule may be stated as follows : When striking a note with the
middle finger of any three, be sure that the finger just used is
sufficiently raised, and especially that the finger which is to
follow is kept at a proper distance from the key. Thus in

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

131

playing an exercise such as Ex. 12, with the fingering there
given, it is important that at the moment of striking E in as-
cending, not only should the first finger be raised, but the
third finger should be kept at a distance from its key ; and on
playing the descending E the third finger must be raised and
the first finger kept away from its key,

(12.)

1232

It is true that this rule is nothing more than a re-statement
of the principles laid down in section 7, according to which
evefy finger must strike its key " from a distance ; " neverthe-
less, it will be found a great advantage to keep the rule in
view in the form just given, and to endeavor to carry it out to
the letter in the practice of a// finger-exercises. For it is not
only in exercises for three fingers that it is of service ; it is of
far wider application, and in fact extends to the practice of all
brilliant passages of single notes. Let us see how its due ob-
servance will assist the practice of an exercise for five fingers,
such as Ex. 13 :

(130

4r-

In the above example, the thumb being placed on C, and
the hand properly held, we may consider the next finger (the
first finger) as "the middle finger of three," since it is pre-
ceded by the thumb, and followed by the second finger. Ac-
cording to the rule, therefore, the thumb must be raised at
the moment of striking the note D, and the second finger be
kept away from its key. The hand is now resting on the first
finger, and the second finger becomes in its turn the "middle
finger of three" (being preceded by the first and followed by
the third finger); consequently when the note E is struck the
first finger must be raised and the third kept away from its
key. It will thus be seen that each finger, excepting only the
little finger and the thumb, will in turn stand in the position
of " middle finger of three ; " and the result of observing the
rule in each case will be that the whole exercise will be played
in accordance with the principles of good touch, at least so far
as regards striking the notes ' ' from a sufficient distance " is
concerned.

In like manner each note of a brilliant passage of whatever
length (excepting only the first and last notes) stands between
two other notes, and each finger in its turn may therefore be
said to occupy the position of "middle finger of three," and
the rule we have been speaking of must in all cases be obeyed.
But it is of course not possible to give sufficient attention to
each individual note of a rapid passage to insure this, and
therefore AaStt must in the first place be acquired by means of
the diligent practice of finger-exercises. This is the reason
why finger-exercises are absolutely necessary, and why touch
and execution cannot be acquired by merely practicing the
difficult passages which occur in sonatas, etc., as has some-
times been pretended.

Five-finger exercises in abundance may be found in any

book of elementary studies, such as Plaidy's Technical Studies,
Loschhorn's Klavier Technik, etc. ; but in playing finger-exer-
cises from notes there is always some danger of the attention
being diverted from the principles of good touch, particularly
at first, before good habits have been formed. All such ex-
ercises must therefore be learnt by heart, and then practiced
with the whole attention directed to the position of the hand
and the quality of the touch; and at first, and indeed always
chiefly, with one hand at a time; for it is impossible for the
beginner to practice with both hands at once without making
mistakes of touch in one or the other.

After the exercises have been sufficiently practiced on the
first five notes of the scale of C, they should be transposed
into various other keys, so as to accustom the fingers to the
use of the black keys. This transposition, in itself not diffi-
cult, may be made very easy by writing down the fingering of
an exercise without any notes, thus : — x 213243 i. The
hand being then placed in any given position, the exercise is
easily played by merely using the fingers in the written order.
Thus in the key of C the exercise above given would read : -

(I4-)

In the key of D, thus : —

and so on.

The following example shows the most useful positions for
the practice of five-finger exercises, arranged in the order of
increasing difficulty : —

Right hand. (16.)

We may now pass on to the second division of finger-exer-
cises, namely, chord-passages, or arpeggios* In studying these
we have two great objects in view, first to improve the execu-
tion, and in particular to strengthen the hand by the employ-
ment of good touch ; and, secondly, to learn something about
the construction of the passages themselves — a point of great
practical importance, and one which it is clear the mere unin-
telligent practice of exercises from an instruction-book will
not help us to understand.

* Arpeggio — from arpeggiare, to play upon- the harp.

132

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

As regards touch, but little need be said in addition to what
has gone before. The same kind of touch must be used for
chord-passages as for five-finger exercises, but owing to the
stretched condition of the hand the fingers will be found less
easy to move " rapidly, and to a sufficient distance " — in other
words, there will be a greater tendency in the fingers to seek
the surface of the keys before striking them. On this account
greater watchfulness is necessary, and chord-passages should
not be attempted until some certainty has been attained in
five-finger exercises.

In order to understand the construction of chord passages
some slight knowledge of musical theory is necessary. It may
be hoped that the reader possesses this knowledge, useful if
not essential in so many various ways ; however, lest any
should not, it will be wise, before proceeding farther, to give
a short series of definitions of certain terms which we shall
find it necessary to employ. Whoever is ignorant of the theory
of music should commit these definitions to memory before
reading farther.

(i). A semitone is the distance from one note to the next
immediately above or below it, as from B to C, C to Cj, D
to Ep.

(2). A tone is a distance equal to two semitones, as from B
toCff, CtoD, DtoE.

(3). A scale is a series of eight sounds arranged in alpha-
betical order, and extending from one note to its repetition in
the octave above, thus : — C D E F G A B C. When we say
" in alphabetical order," we must bear in mind that only the
first seven letters of the alphabet are used (at least in English),
and that as these are employed over and over again, the note
immediately following G will be A.

(4). A degree is the proper term for a note of a scale. Each
degree bears a number counting from the key-note — that is,
the note which gives the scale its name ; thus in the key of
C, C is the key-note or first degree, D is the second degree, E
the third, and so on.

(5). A major scale is a scale in which there are semitones
between the third and fourth and between the seventh and
eighth degrees, and tones between all other degrees. The
scale of C given above (Definition 3) agrees in every particu-
lar with this definition, but all other scales will require the
addition of one or more sharps or flats to make them correct
major scales. Minor scales will be explained later on.

(6). A chromatic scale is a scale proceeding entirely by
semitones, and having thirteen notes to the octave.

(7). An interval is the distance between any two sounds.
Intervals are named according to the number of degrees they
contain ; thus from the first to the third of a scale (C to E in
the scale of C) is the interval of a third, because it contains
three degrees ; from the second to the fourth degree (D to F)
is also a third ; from the first to the fifth degree (C to G) is a
fifth, and so on.

(8). A common chord is a combination of three sounds,
viz.: the root, or note which gives the name to the chord, to-
gether with its third and fifth. Common chords are of two
kinds, major and minor. If we construct a major scale,
starting from the root of any given chord, and if we find that
the third and fifth of the chord are also the third and fifth de-

grees of that scale, it is a major chord ; but if only the fifth of
the chord agrees with that scale, while the third is one semitone
lower, it is a minor chord. For example, let the given chord
be C E G, a major scale constructed on the note C will show
the two notes E and G as third and fifth degrees ; C E G is
therefore a major chord. But C E [7 G would be a minor
chord, because the third (£(7) is a semitone lower than the
third degree of the major scale. The terms major and minor
as applied to chords speak for themselves, they refer to the
interval of the third, which is greater in the major and less in
the minor. Church music printed in the last century had very
commonly such titles as the following : " Te Deum in the key
of F with the Greater Third," "in the key of D with the
Lesser Third," instead of F major, D minor.

(9). A chord of the seventh is a chord of four notes, being
a common chord with the addition of a new note distant a
seventh from its root — for example, C E G B, G B D F, etc.

We are now in a position to play correctly any chord, either
major or minor, that may be required. For we have only to
construct a major scale on the root of the chord, according to
Definition 5, and then to combine the first, third, and fifth
degrees of that scale in order to produce a major chord ; while
if a minor chord be required the same process will be gone
through, and the third then lowered a semitone, suppose, for
example, we require the chord of EJ7 minor, our first step will
be to construct the major scale of E/ thus : EJ7 FGA[7,B[7
C D EJ7 ; from these we select the first, third, and fifth
degrees, Ej^ G and BJ7, and then lower the third. This gives
the combination E J7 G [> B j^ , which is the chord required.

We may now return to the practical part of our subject.
For purposes of finger-exercises common chords may be played
in three different positions, either the root, the third, or the
fifth of the chord being used as lowest note. They may also
be played either as small chords, consisting of three notes only,
ox full or complete chords, in which the octave of the lowest
note is added. In the following example the chord of C is
shown in its three positions, both small and complete :

(17.) a. Small Chords.

First Second Third
Position. Position. Position.

b. CoMPLETB Chords.

First Second Third

Position. Position. Position.

=t:

The chord-passages which I propose to consider in this
book are four in number, and are all founded on the complete
chords ; those derived from the small chords being less impor-
tant as exercises, and quite easy to understand when met with.
The first chord-passage consists of the three positions of
the chord in complete form (as in Ex. 17 V), broken in regular
order, both ascending and descending, thus : —

(18.)

4r-

-<^

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

133

The fingering given in Ex. 18 is in accordance with a rule
^yhich should be invariably observed, even in cases which may
at first appear to stretch the hand more than is convenient.
This rule is as follows : The second finger is used in the
first position in the right hand and in the third position in the
left, all other positions being fingered with the third finger.

Apart from the accent which always belongs to the first
note of a bar, of which I shall have more to say presently, the
accent of the passage requires careful consideration. For the
same regularity which is evident to the eye in such a passage
as Ex. 18 must also be made perceptible to the ear, and this
can only be done by strongly marking the first note of each
group of four. Whoever listens to a well and brilliantly
played chord-passage, paying particular attention to the accent,
will probably be surprised to find how great a difference of
force is made between the first note of a group and the other
three ; and this strongly-marked accent does not appear at all
disproportionate, as it would if it occurred at irregular inter-
vals, but merely renders the whole passage brilliant and effec-
tive. Such passages may be said to affect the ear in some-
what the same way that a regular geometrical pattern or border
appeals to the eye; and just as a pattern of this kind may be
made more effective by means of a thicker line or deeper shade
of color regularly introduced throughout, so the symmetry of
a chord-passage is made more pronounced — and therefore
more easy to be appreciated — by means of a regularly-recur-
ring accent.

In Ex. 18 the accent always falls on the lowest note of each
chord or position of a chord — the chord and the group coincide.
But this is not always the case in chord-passages; the group
may begin on any note of the chord, and as the accent is
always given to the first note of the group, it follows that
some other note of the chord will be the marked note instead
of the lowest. This will be best understood by comparing
together the four bars of Ex. 19, in each of which the accent
falls upon a different note in the various positions of the
chord, because each note becomes in turn the first note of the
group. In the first bar the accented note is the lowest note
of each chord position ; in the second bar it is the second note ;
in the third bar the third note ; and in the fourth bar the
highest note. The position in which the various chords stand
with respect to the groups is pointed out by means of brack-
ets drawn above the notes, each bracket including a complete
chord :

(19-) a. _*.

!si2 4' Xi3 4'si3 4' i_2_4[_X I 3 4' X 134'

24X1 34S1 34x1 4 ^13 4*13 4 S

I I ! I — --« — --11 — I I i I J -— * — J

4r-

The consequence of this is that although the order of both
notes and fingering is absolutely the same in all four bars, the
effect of the passage, both to the eye and the ear, is so differ-
ent that each bar appears almost a new passage. Whenever,

therefore, we meet with such passages as the above, our first
care must be to ascertain on which note of the group the chord
begins, as that note, when found, will require to be played
with the thumb or little finger according as the passage
ascends or descends, in order that the whole cord may lie under
the hand at once. In Ex. 19 the chord begins and the thumb
will be used at a on the first note of the group, at b on the
last note, at c on the third, and at d on the second note.

The first chord-passage may now be practiced in the four
forms shown in Ex. 19, in every key, both major and minor,
with the same fingering as that given for C major ; and the
best (although of course not the only) way of arranging it
for practice will be to imagine it written in bars of common
time, four groups of four semiquavers each (and therefore four
accents) in a bar. Counting aloud one to each group greatly
facilitates the placing of the accent, and is much to be recom-
mended in this as in all passages which require strongly marked
accent. The whole passage must be practiced slowly (about
M.M. J = 52), and great care must be taken that the additional
strength of the accent is produced by a more forcible blow
from the finger only, and not by pressure from the hand.
The best compass for the entire exercise is three octaves and a
third, and if the highest and lowest notes are repeated each time
they occur, without interrupting the rhythm, the accent will be
kept in the right place both in ascending and descending. I
have written out the whole passage in full in the next example,
and have pointed out the repeated notes by means of an aster-
isk. The fingering given underneath the notes is for the left
hand, and the passage should be played two octaves lower.
The same plan will be adopted for left-hand fingering in all
future examples.

(20.)

8va.

4 .

134X1

34x1

The disagreement of position of the chord and group has
already been explained, and in all the examples given the num-
ber of notes (four) of both chord and group has been the same.
But it is also possible for chords of three notes to be grouped
in fours, or chords of four notes in threes or sixes, and so on ;
the result, in each case, being a re-arrangement of the accent,
so as to produce an apparently new passage, although the order
of notes and fingering is unaltered. Examples of this kind of
passage are given below, and maybe practiced with advantage,
but not until the ordinary first chord passage (Ex. 20) has been
made perfect.

134

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

{at.) Chord of three notes grouped
in fours.

Chord of four notes grouped
in threes.

4 X ' -i4i 4„2i2 1-M

^--^si^y-

=^^

±is=-

Chord of four notes grouped in sixes.
S I 2 4^^ ^ , 4

-3-

The remaining three-chord passages may be treated more
briefly than the first, since the observations already made re-
specting accent and fingering will apply to all. The second
chord-passage consists of the same positions as the first, but
differently broken, thus : x 2 i 4, instead of x 124; and
in descending, 4 i 2 x , instead of 4 2 I x .

(22.)

3 1 4

214 ■♦ ■» 4

Although the positions of the chord are the same as in the first
chord-passage, the hand will appear more stretched, owing to
the necessity for keeping the fingers over the whole of the
chord at once, so that each may fall " vertically" at its proper
time ; and in consequence there will be a greater tendency in
the fingers to seek their keys improperly. As a help towards
accustoming the fingers to remain stationary over the whole
chord at a time, the following preparatory exercise will be
found useful :

(23)

The second chord-passage may be practiced in all keys,
major and minof, with the same fingering, and the accent may
also be varied as in the first chord-passage. The compass,
three octaves and a third, and the rhythm, four groups in a bar,
is the same as in the first chord-passage ; but the repetition of
the extreme notes — which is in itself a disadvantage, as break-
ing the legato— is not necessary here, since a slight alteration
of the last groups of both ascending and descending passages
will enable the connection between the two to be made, and
the regularity of the accent preserved. This alteration is
pointed out by means of an asterisk in the next example :

(24)

8va.

:*:x:l:!jt"£:L:^ ^i i 1

1^'-

.3 ^^5^

^^^^s

The practice of the first and second chord-passages in the
keys of F^ major and EJ7 minor will be found particularly
useful, because they consist entirely of black keys ; and the
surface of these being narrower than that of the white keys
they require greater precision in striking, lest the finger should
slide off the key at one side or the other, or lest (which would
be worse) the finger should give way to the temptation to in-
sure safety by seeking its key before striking it. In connec-
tion with this point it may be observed that the beginner will
always find it easier to play the notes of a passage correctly
with the wrong touch than with the right, and that therefore
if mere note-playing were the sole object sought, good touch
could never be acquired. In view, then, of the possibility of
a fatal mistake in this respect, the following axiom may be laid
down : Better a wrong note with the right touch, than
a right note with the wrong touch ; that is to say, an oc-
casional false note, caused by the uncertain movement of a
properly-lifted finger, is comparatively unimportant, and will
be corrected by practice, whereas playing every note correctly
with fingers that creep and anxiously seek their keys will always
hinder, if not entirely prevent, the formation of good touch.

The third and fourth -chord-passages closely resemble each
other, since they consist of the same order of notes and are fin-
gered in the same manner, differing only in respect to their ac-
cent, much as the four forms of the first chord-passage differ
(Ex. 19). Strictly speaking, they might perhaps be considered
as one passage, but the practical difference caused by the change
of accent is greater than in the first chord-passage, and it will
therefore be more convenient to study and practice them sep-
arately.

The third chord-passage consists of alternate groups of
the second chord-passage, every other position being omitted,
thus :

As regards touch, the only new points to be attended to are,
first, a contraction of the hand, which must take place at the
moment of striking the fourth note of each group, so as to
bring the thumb (or in descending the little finger) vertically
over its key ; and secondly, a corresponding extension im-
mediately after the thumb has been used, in order that the
three following fingers maybe held directly above their respec-
tive keys before striking. In making such contractions there
is always a tendency to raise too much the inner or thumb side
of the hand in ascending, and the outer or little-finger side in
descending ; it must therefore be borne in mind that the back
of the hand should be kept as level as possible throughout.

The compass for the practice of the third chord-passage
should be three octaves, and the rhythm four groups in a bar,
as before,- with a similar alteration in the fourth group of the
bar to that made in the second chord-passage (Ex. 24), in order
that the return passage may be played without break of con-
nection.

The notes and fingering of the fourth chord-passage are
the same as those of the third, but the accent is reversed--

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

135

that is, it falls on the highest note of each position in ascend-
ing instead of on the lowest, and on the lowest note in de-
scending instead of on the highest.

(26.)

I X 2 I , 31

"l"X-3-i"
" t * J
X 4 I 2

The first complete position of the above example begins on
the second note of the group, and the note before it (the first
note of the passage) is in reality the highest note of a still lower
position which is not made use of. According to strict rule,
therefore, this note would be played with the little finger, like
the first notes of all the following groups ; but this would be
inconvenient, and is not necessary, as the first finger can easily
be used in its stead. Such slight exceptions as this, made for
the sake of convenience, are always allowable at the beginning
of a passage. For instance, we should certainly begin a de-
scending scale of C in the right hand with the little finger in-
stead of the thumb, although the thumb properly belongs to
the key-note, and would be so used in all succeeding octaves.
In the same way the second, third, and fourth forms of the first
chord-passage (Ex. 19) may be begun in the position of the first
co7nplete chord, instead of in the lowest or first position ; and
thus one movement of the Jiand will be spared. For example :

'^7-> I T d X

X 14 X ^a 1 3^1 . 3x13

-^ rp" i-r?S^ — n 1 - 3-»— ^ II ^ r^-Vrr'^-

4 s 4 2

2421

The fourth chord-passage should be practiced with a com-
pass of four octaves and a third, and with two different
rhythms, at first with four notes in a group and six groups in
a bar, and afterwards with three notes in a group and four
groups in a bar. It will be observed that the ascending pas-
sage stops short of the highest note of all, this being only re-
quired for the descending passage.

8va.

— 1-1 — i — I 'mmkmd — ^T m I m-j-j-'-ma^^mJ i^kml

.i:l:i i.H4 .'J^ -i,* 4 ?><4

b-Jf- — !-^^=-?=yp-f-i-|--F.*1^h»-!*- 1 —w^ B. I ,

.i.1 2

-^^^i-

I 4m

X } I

4x i

4h T'^

J I

So far the same fingering has been employed in all chord-
passages. But in the third and fourth chord-passages this
fingering becomes inconvenient when applied to such chords
as would require the use of the thumb on the black keys; and
on this account the various chords have to be divided into
three classes, and a different fingering adopted for each.

The first class includes those chords which are composed of
either white or black keys exclusively, and for this class the
chord of C major will serve as model ; the second class con-
sists of those chords which have one black key — these may be
represented by the chord of D major ; and the chords of the
third class have but one white key — of these the chord of E 7
shall be chosen as representative.

The fingering of the chords of the first class has already
been shown in the examples ; it may be thus described : — A
complete chord in every position — that is to say, wherever
the thumb (or in descending the little finger) takes its place
upon a key, three more fingers follow it, so that the hand exe-
cutes a complete chord of four notes before changing its posi-
tion. In the chords of the other two classes this is not the
case. In the second class the first position is complete, as be-
fore, but it is followed by only two notes of the next position,
and these again by a complete position. The mle is therefore
as follows : — A complete chord and a half chord alter-
nately. In the next example I have pointed out this alterna-
tion of chord and half chord by means of brackets.

(29-) rm I, ^ ; i fl "" 'fr\ ^^V^ iTTT^

The fingers used for the two notes forming the half chord
must be those which would be used for the same notes if the
chord were complete. Thus the complete fingering of the
second group of Ex. 29 would be x 3 i 4, and the fingers for
the half chord must therefore be x 3, and not x 2, as such
passages are sometimes, though incorrectly, fingered.

The chord-passages of the third class follow the same rule,
and are fingered with a complete and a half chord alternately ;
but as there is only one white key, the thumb must necessarily
be placed upon it, and the half chord, consisting of two black
keys, will be played with the first and fourth fingers. If,
therefore, the passage begins on the key-note, we shall have
to commence with the half chord, thus :

XJ14

I 4 1}

All the rules of fingering just given apply equally to the
same passages for the left hand, except in the following single
instance. In the chords of the second class (Ex. 29) in the
right hand, the complete chord was played in the first posi-
tion, and the half chord was a part of the third position of the
chord ; in the left hand this is reversed, the complete chord is

136

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

played in the third position, and the half chord is a part of
the first, thus :

(31.)

"* — W — ' — mf — '- J ■ ^m^^^ — fV.1l — ^^^•l-K-^^ — ^^^-^ — t— — I — ^ \^

j ij

The fingering of the first two notes in the above example is
not marked, and the question arises, how should they be
fingered ? Properly, they form the upper part of a complete
chord, starting from the A below first D, and should, there-
fore, be fingered with the second finger and thumb. But since
the third and fourth notes of the group have to be played
with third finger and thumb, the fourth and first fingers
are already in a position to play the first two notes ; and by
employing them one unnecessary change of position of the
hand will be spared. This explains itself.

In practicing the third and fourth chord-passages in the
keys of D and E I? and similar keys, it will be found that there
is some danger of the accent becoming lost or changed, as the
recurrence of complete chord at every sixth note would
naturally lead one to group the passage in sixes instead of
fours, thus :

(32)

==5*;

It will, therefore, be necessary to watch for this tendency,
and to guard against it.

In the following table we have classified the chords accord-
ing to their fingering, and have repeated the rules :

CLASS I.
Models - C -

G major
F ,,

FJ,.

Rule—K

A minor
D „
E „

eK.

complete
chord in every
position.

CLASS II.
. - D -

A major
E ..

C minor
G „
F ..

CLASS III.
- - Ep

A V major A 7 minor

Rule — A complete chord and a half chord
alternately.

The complete chord
to be in the first
position, right hand,
and in the third
position, left hand.

The half chord to
be played with the
thumb and third
finger.

The complete chord
to be in the second
position, both hands.

The half chord to
be played with the
first and fourth fin-
gers.

The chords of B and B V, major and minor, are exceptional.

The chords of B and B [?, major and minor, are not included
in the above table, as their fingering is slightly exceptional,
and will require a few words of additional explanation. They
follow the same rules as the other chords, but with this differ-
ence, that another position is chosen for the complete chord.
The reason of this is as follows : The chords of B major and
BI7 minor both contain one white key and two black ones, and
should thus belong to the third class ; but in all other chords
of this class the white key is the third of the chord, whereas in
B major it is the root of the chord, and in B[7 minor ihejifih.
Now, as the only proper place for the thumb is on the white
key, it follows that in B major the complete chord will have
to be in the first position, and in BJ7 minor in the third, in-
stead of in the second position, as with the other chords of the
same class. So also in the case of B}? major and B minor,
which have but one black key, and should therefore belong to
the second class ; the complete chord cannot be in the first
position in the right hand and the third in the left, as with the
other chords of this class, because this would bring the thumb
on a black key. Here again then the choice of a different
position becomes necessary, and the complete chord is played
in B|7 major in the third position with the right hand and the
second position with the left, and in B minor in the second
position in the right hand and the first position in the left.
The half chords in each case follow the usual rules, being
played with the first and fourth fingers in B major and Bjj
minor, and with the thumb and third in Bjj major and B
minor ; except that in the half chord in the keys of B minor
in the right hand and BJ7 major in the left, the second finger
may, if preferred, be used instead of the third, on account of
the half chord being smaller than usual (a fifth instead of a
sixth) —

(33.)

Chord-passages of all kinds may be formed from the chords
of the seventh as well as from common chords. In this case
the addition of the octave is not necessary to form a complete
chord, as the chord itself already contains four notes. The
chord of the seventh may therefore be played in four posi-
tions, thus —

(34]

iH-^-

EEE

"tr — I — ' —

and the construction of the first and second chord-passages
will present no difficulty. They will read as follows

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

^37 ^

(35.) First chord-passage

The formation of the third and fourth chord-passages from
the chord of the seventh, however, requires a new rule — the
complete chord is played alternately with two half
chords instead of one, as in the common chords. It is better
not to attempt to classify the chords of the seventh like the
common chords, for the various combinations of black and
white keys are so numerous that we should require almost as
many classes as there are chords. A simple and sufficient
method is as follows : Choose from among the four positions
of the chord the one most convenient to the hand for the com-
plete chord (there will be no difficulty in finding this), and
then introduce two half chords between this and its recurrence
in the next octave. The fingering of the half chords will de-
pend upon their size, and on the question whether they are
composed of black keys or white. The choice lies between
thumb and third finger, thumb and second, and first and
fourth ; and after due study of the passages founded on com-
mon chords, the student will find no difficulty in choosing the
most suitable fingering, the only point to be borne in mind
being that it is never well to finger two successive chords with
the same fingers. Here are two examples, one containing
black keys and the other exclusively white, the study of which
will make clear the application of the rules :

In some cases it will be found possible to combine the two
half chords so as to form a second complete chord ; the whole
passage will then consist of two complete chords, played
alternately, and this is perhaps the best method of fingering
all such passages as consist entirely of white keys, and it may
sometimes be convenient to employ it for such as have a single
black key, for example :

-71
%*-

We now approach the most important of all finger-exercises,
the scale. As this requires a position of the hand in some
respects opposed to that proper for all the foregoing exer-

cises, it should not be attempted until most if not all of the
chord-passages have been sufficiently practiced, and a con-
siderable degree of certainty acquired.

In all previous exercises the change of position of the hand
to a higher or lower octave has been accomplished by means
of contractions and extensions, but in the scale this is not the
case ; the hand changes its position by passing the thumb
under the fingers or the fingers over the thumb. To facilitate
this it is necessary that the hand should be turned slightly in-
ward, so that a line drawn from the center of the wrist straight
down the middle finger of the right hand would point to the
left, while a similar line drawn down the middle finger of the
left hand would incline to the right. This attitude must be
preserved throughout the scale, in order that the thumb may
find itself directly over the key it has to strike, and to avoid
the awkwardness of reaching the thumb-note from one side.

The rule for fingering the scale is simple : the thumb is
placed on the first white key which occurs in ascending, and
afterwards follows the second and third fingers alternately.
In descending, each note is played with the same finger as in
ascending, and the same rule is thus followed, but in reversed
order, the third and second fingers passing alternately over
the thumb. In the left hand the fingering of the ascending
scale follows the rule of the descending scale in the right, and
vice versA.

Let us now play the first eight notes of the scale of C with
the right hand, and consider separately the movements re-
quired for each note.

The thumb is placed on C, and the wrist drawn outwards,
so that the wrist bone, which should be slightly prominent,
may be about on a level with A. The first finger, being well
raised and bent, will now be directly above its key.

The first finger strikes D, and at the same moment the thumb
passes underneath it, so as to be above E. In passing the
thumb there is always some danger of bending the first or
thumb-nail joint. This is not allowable, and to prevent it it
is well to look down on the back of the hand, and see that
the tip of the thumb is visible between the first and second
fingers.

The second finger strikes E, and the thumb passes under-
neath it, so as to be above F, while the first finger is lifted
with rapidity and to a considerable distance. These move-
ments, which must of course be simultaneous, form the chief
difficulty in scale-playing, and require the greatest attention.
There are two things to be feared : first, the thumb may have
become bent, and secondly, the first finger may be insuffi-
ciently lifted. If both these dangers have been escaped, the
hand will now be resting on the second finger, with the thumb
held exactly above F, and not too close to it, and the first
finger raised until its tip is nearly on a level with the second
joint of the middle finger.

The thumb strikes (not presses) F, the second finger is
lifted, and the whole hand makes a decided movement of about
an inch and a half to the right, without altering its position
as regards being inclined inwards. The effect of this move-
ment will be to bring the first finger into the same position
with respect to its next note, G, as it held at the beginning of
the scale with respect to D.

138

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

The first finger strikes G with the movements described
for D.

The second finger strikes A with the movements described
for E.

The third finger strikes B, the second finger being lifted
and the thumb passed on (still without bending), so as to ar-
rive over C.

The thumb strikes C, and a still farther movement of the
hand to the right brings the first finger into readiness to go on
with the next octave.

The movements for the descending scale in the right hand
are as follows :

The thumb being placed on C, the whole hand is turned
inwards, so that the third finger may be directly over B, and
at a proper distance from its key.

The third finger strikes B, and the thumb is raised inside
the hand, so as to touch very gently the root of the third
finger.

The second finger plays A, the third finger is raised, and
the thumb passes freely out into view, so as to be held over
F.

The first finger plays G, the second finger being simply
lifted as in a five-finger exercise.

The thumb plays F, and at the same moment the second
finger is passed over it, so as to be in readiness to play E.

The second finger plays E, and the thumb is lifted so as to
touch the root of the second finger.

The first finger plays D.

The thumb strikes C, and (if the scale is to be continued
beyond this note) the third finger passes over it, so as to be in
readiness to play B.

The same movements take place in scales played by the left
hand, the ascending scale employing the movements of the
right hand descending series, and the descending scale those
of the right hand ascending series. At first it is best to prac-
tice only the ascending scale in the right hand, and the de-
scending scale in the left, and when these are perfect the
scales in the opposite directions. They should be practiced
very slowly (each note equal to M.M. 84) and through a com-
pass of three octaves.

As tending to facilitate the use of the third finger over the
thumb, the following exercise will be found very useful, if
practiced with careful attention to the rules given above. It
may be transposed into various keys, provided the first note of
the scale is a white key :

(38.)

X121 S121

i X

i" ii i i I-

:-•';«:

^A^

X J a JX } 4 J 23, -

- ^ — ^ — &^^ — '~^^-

3 XJ|4 'i.^-X^ 3 ^ ^ i ,

3 XJi 3X31 3

After good habits have been formed by the diligent practice
of scales in one direction at a time, complete scales ascending
and descending without interruption, maybe practiced. They
are to be played as if grouped in fours, with a strong accent on
the first note of each group. Perhaps a compass of three oc-
taves distributes the accent among the different fingers better
than any other ; but they should also be frequently practiced
through four or five. Scales of one octave, or with a pause on
the first note of each octave, are useless. The highest note in
the right hand and the lowest in the left, provided it is a white
key, should be played with the little finger.

Minor scales are played precisely like major as regards
such and fingering, but their construction will require some
little explanation. All scales are said to be more or less
closely related to each other, according as they contain more or
fewer notes in common ; thus the scale of G is more nearly re-
lated to that of C than the scale of D is, because it contains
only one note which is not in the scale of C, namely F jf,
whereas D contains two, F J and Cjf. In like manner, any
given major scale has one minor scale which is more closely
related to it than all the rest, and the terms relative majoranA
relative minor are used to express this relationship between
the two. The relative minor scale begins on the sixth degree
of its relative major scale, and consists of the same notes as
the relative major, with the exception of its own seventh
degree, which is raised one semitone. The relative minor
of C major is therefore A minor, which begins on the sixth
degree of C, and consists of the notes A B C D E F and G J.

Such a scale as this, which contains between its sixth
and seventh degrees an interval greater than a tone, and
termed an augmented second, is called the harmonic minor
scale, because its notes form the component parts of all the
harmonies of a minor composition. But it is not the only
kind of minor scale in use ; another, called the melodic minor
scale, is still more frequently met with in passage-writing. In
this the ascending scale differs from the descending, since in
the former both the sixth and seventh degrees are raised one
semitone, and in the latter both these alterations are omitted
—A B C D E F# Gj A and A Gt| F^ E D C B A. Thus
the descending scale consists of the same notes as its relative
major.

In most instruction-books the minor scale is only given in its
melodic form, but both forms should be practiced, because the
harmonic form is frequently met with in pianoforte music, and
also because the greater stretch which it contains helps to
strengthen the third finger.

After the scales have become quite perfect in each hand
separately, they may be practiced with both hands together,
at first in slow tempo and afterwards at increased speed and
with every variety of strength of tone. The hands need not
always be an octave apart, but may move in thirds, sixths,
and tenths. Space will not allow me to give examples of
scales of this kind, nor is it necessary, as they are to be found
in every book of technical studies ; or, better still, the student

^
-<^

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

139

may, with a little trouble, learn to play them without book.
To conclude then this part of my subject, I would say, in
words addressed by a very eminent teacher to a pupil in my
hearing the other day, " Go now, and play tens of thousands
of scales."

After the scale comes the so-called grand arpeggio. This
passage, which is of very frequent occurrence in brilliant
pianoforte music, consists in the regular breaking of either a
common chord or a chord of the seventh throughout a compass
of two octaves or more, without repeating any note, for
example :

As the grand arpeggio requires the thumb to be passed

under the fingers and the fingers over the thumb, it closely

resembles the scale, and its movements are nearly the same,

allowing for the extra stretch between the notes. At first it is

best to practice it with a repetition of the thumb and second,

or thumb and third fingers, as the case may be, much as the

scale was practiced in Ex. 38, but without any regular rhythm,

thus :

8va

i=P=S:

When by this means the action of the thumb and second (or

third) finger has been rendered free and the touch vigorous,

the arpeggio must be practiced without the repetition, and with

a strong accent. This accent should fall on every fourth note

when the passage is formed from a common chord, and on

every third note when it is derived from a chord of the

seventh :

.^ 8va.... :^

The fingering of the arpeggio will present no difficulty ; the
thumb falls on the first white key which occurs in the ascend-
ing passage, and on every succeeding octave of that note.

In alternation with the scales and arpeggios the chromatic
scale should be practiced. There are three ways of fingering
the chromatic scale, all of which are shown in the next
example ; the fingering given in the lowest line is the most
generally useful, and should be studied first, the practice of
the other two being postponed until the first is perfect :

After the foregoing exercises, passages of double notes may
be practiced. These are of twoktnds, exercises with stationary
hand, such as those in the next example, and scales. The
stationary exercises should be practiced first, care being taken
that the two fingers which are used together shall strike their
keys at precisely the same moment, and be afterwards lifted
to as nearly as possible the same distance. The exercises
should be transposed into various keys for practice :

XE I z I 2

11} 4 3 z

Various methods of fingering the scale of double notes have
been adopted by different teachers. The most simple rule is
this — The little finger is used once in each octave, and
on the same note, thus :

3 4 z 3 z 3

The place of the little finger varies in the different scales,
and different pianoforte schools do not always assign the same
place to it even in the same scale. The following table gives
a place for the little finger in all the major and minor scales,
which will be found practical ; and the method has the ad-
vantage of being available for descending as well as ascend-
ing scales, and for both the harmonic and melodic forms of
the minor scales :

MAJOR SCALES.

Key.

Right Hand.

Left Hand.

Fourth finger on G

Fourth finger on C

" D

« D

" A

.. E

" A

" B

.. A

" FJ

" A;t

" F«

" - " A;f

" Gb

'• Bb

" G

'« F

.. Q

«' c

" G

•' G

" G

• • F

140

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

MINOR SCALES.

Key.

Right Hand.

Left Hand.

Fourth finger on B

Fourth finger on E

" "AandAj

" "A and A J

"E " Ett

cjf

"B " bJ

"A " Att
«E " e5

"F#" Fx

"C " Cb

"G " Gb

" G

There is also another method of fingering the scale, which
is in some keys decidedly easier than the above. In this
method the little finger occurs twice in the octave, and the
thumb is used on two consecutive notes, thus :

This kind of fingering will be found suitable for the scale of
A, E, A I?, E b, B b, F, and G, in the right hand, and E b, Ab,
E, A, D, G, and F, in the left.

The chromatic scale of double notes generally consists of
minor thirds, and is fingered in two ways. In the first method
the little finger of the right hand is used upon G and D, and
that of the left upon D and A ; and in the second method the
upper part of the scale in the right hand and the lower part
in the left is played by the second, third and fourth fingers,
and the other part (that is, the lower part in the right hand,
and the upper part in the left) by the thumb and first finger.
Both methods are shown in the next example, and it may be
observed that most players find the fingering of the upper
line best for ascending scales in the right hand and descend-
ing in the left, and that of the lower line for descending in
the right and ascending in the left.

(46.)

3 4

;q=i=ii

^pg^=s5teS^?l'

lrgsES£i?E?EE

a I

a 4

4 J

'W= t^ -

Other exercises in double notes, such as scales of sixths, etc.,
need not be given here, as they may be found in every book of
technical studies.

III.— FINGERING.

A good method of fingering is, for the pianoforte player, an
absolute necessity, as, without it, easy passages become diffi-
cult, and difficult ones impossible. Such a method can only
be the result of the careful study and application of certain
principles, which I shall now endeavor to explain.

As regards their fingering, all passages may be broadly di-
vided into two classes, scales and chords. In most cases this
classification is self-evident — as, for instance, in the following
example :

(47-)

and although it is sometimes more difficult to recognize, yet,
as we shall see presently, a little consideration will generally
prove that even passages which present the most irregular ap-
pearance belong in reality to one of these two classes, and
have to be fingered accordingly.

Let us in the first place consider those passages which are
founded on scales. And here let me remark that I use the
word passage in its widest sense, including not only brilliant
passages, but slow progressions — in a word, any continuous
legato movement.

If such a passage does not extend beyond five notes it will
be proper to use the five fingers, or as many as may be re-
quired, in what is called their natural position, one finger for
each note without contraction or extension. Here is a series of
simple passages of this kind, the fingering given being correct
and incorrect in alternate bars, the comparison of which will
help us to understand the rules.

(48-) 2^321 23432

In the above example the first bar is correctly fingered, ac-
cording to the rule — One finger for each note in natural
position.

Bar 2 is incorrect ; there is an unnecessary contraction be-
tween the first and second notes. Rule — Never make un-
necessary contractions.

Bar 3 is the correct fingering of bar 2.

Bar 4 is incorrect ; there is an unnecessary extension be-
tween the first and second notes of the bar. Rule — Never
make unnecessary extensions.

Bar 5 is bar 4 corrected.

Bar 6 is incorrect ; the thumb is used on a black key. Rule

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

141

— The thumb is not to be used on a black key unneces-
sarily.

Bar 7 is bar 6 corrected.

Bar 8 is incorrect ; the thumb passes under the first finger
unnecessarily, thus changing the position of the hand. Rule
— Do not change the position of the hand unnecessarily.

Bar 9 is bar 8 corrected.

Bar 10 is incorrect ; the second finger passes over the first,
and the first over (or under) the second. Rule — The first,
second, and third fingers may pass over the thumb, and
in rare cases over the little finger, but never over each
other, at least in passages of single notes.

Observe that in nearly every one of the rules just given the
vsford "unnecessarily" is employed, and the faulty fingerings
referred to are in fact only wrong because they are unneces-
sary, and interfere with the natural position of the hand. Ex-
tensions and contractions are necessary when the hand has to
pass to a higher or lower position, or in order to cover a com-
pass of more than five notes at once. Therefore the two bars
in the next example, although they contain the same contrac-
tion and extension as bars 2 and 4 of Ex. 48, are yet correctly
fingered, the changes of position being justified by necessity.

(49)

i- 2

I I !

iBi^_te^_ki

So also the use of the thumb on the black key, and the
passing of the thumb under the first finger, forbidden in bars
6 and 8 of Ex. 48, are perfectly correct in the following ex-
ample, because there they are necessary:

(so-) 4 4 ,

I qti. I

The fingering of the complete scale has already been de-
scribed, and all scale passages should, if possible, be fingered
with the regular fingering. But this depends very much upon
the position of the hand at the moment of commencing the
scale, and is not always possible. Each of the two bars of
the next example contain the scale of D, and in the first bar
the regular fingering will be perfectly convenient, and will
therefore be used ; but in the second bar the position of the
hand causes the first note of the scale (E) to be played with
the little finger, and to follow this by the thumb on D, though
strictly according to the rule, would be impossible, or at least
extremely inconvenient.

In such a case we have a choice of two methods ; either the
passage is fingered as if the note on which it begins were the
key-note of the scale, or else the third finger is passed over
the thumb every time instead of alternately with the second
finger, until at length the regular fingering of the scale
is reached (which will always be the case sooner or later),

after which the remainder of the passage is fingered regu-
larly. In the second bar of Ex. 51 the first of these two
methods is adopted ; the first note of the descending passage
is E, which is treated as the key-note, the thumb falling on
A and E, just as it would if the passage were really the scale
of E. In the next example we see the application of the other
method, the point at which the regular fingering of the scale
is arrived at being indicated by the asterisk.

This last method is only suitable for descending scales in
the right hand and ascending in the left ; whereas the other
plan, in which the first note of the scale is treated as the key-
note, is available in either direction and for both hands. In-
stances will, however, be met with of ascending passages for
the right hand and descending for the left, in which neither the
regular scale fingering, nor the method which treats the first
note as key-note, is convenient ; and in these cases the best
way is to choose such a fingering as shall bring the thumb into
its proper place in the scale as early as possible, after which
the legular scale fingering will be used For example ;

(S3)

Chromatic passages are fingered like the chromatic scale
(Ex. 42), and it will generally be found best, for passages re-
quiring vigor and force, to choose that fingering which em-
ploys the second finger upon all the black keys, and that in
which the third finger is used upon B [7 for such as require speed
and lightness. Chromatic scales are often met with — espe-
cially in Beethoven's works — which increase in speed towards
the end. In these it is well to use both methods of fingering,
beginning the passage with the second finger on the black
keys, and changing where the rate of movement changes. For
example :

(S4-)

Besides regular scale passages, there are others which con-
sist of scales with one or more notes omitted, or with one or
more extra notes introduced. In each case there are two
methods of fingering. Scales with notes omitted may be
played either by not using the fingers which belong to the
omitted notes (Ex. 55^), or else by passing the thumb under
the second finger every time, instead of under second and
third alternately (Ex. (55^). The latter method is not a.vail-
able if more than one note in the octave is omitted.

142

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

The introduction of an extra note into a scale always
causes a chromatic progression, and the simplest fingering is a
mixture of the fingerings of the ordinary and chromatic
scales, according as each may be required (Ex. 56a) ; or, if the
scale does not contain more than one extra note in the octave,
the thumb may be passed under the third finger (or this over
the thumb) every time, instead of under second and third
alternately (Ex. 56^).
(56.)

:y.T^

The fingering of chord-passages has already been fully ex-
plained, and need not occupy much of our space here. It
follows the simple rule that whatever fingers are suitable for
an unbroken chord, are equally correct when applied to the
separate notes of the same chord in a broken form. The
correct fingering of any kind of chord-passage will therefore
depend on the due observance of the various complete and
half chords of which it is composed. -In most cases there is
no difficulty in discovering them ; the four fundamental
chord-passages will be readily recognized wherever they occur,
while in most other varieties the chords on which the passage
is founded will be sufficiently obvious. For example, it is
clear that the first bar of Ex. 57, taken from Mendelssohn's
Concerto in G minor, consists entirely of complete chords in
various positions, while in the second bar (from Mendelssohn's
Presto Agitato in B minor), each group is formed of a com-
plete chord and a half chord.

Passages derived from chords are, however, not always so
regular as those just quoted ; sometimes the chords on which
they are founded contain extra notes, in which case the hand
will not be able to cover a whole octave without change of
position. Still, the principle remains the same ; the passage
is divided into chords and half chords, though not always fol-
lowing each other in regular order, and is fingered accordingly.
For example :

(S8.)

4r-

In such passages as the above the chord need not be a real

harmony, such as would sound well if its notes were struck
all together. Any set of four notes played without moving the
hand may be considered a complete chord so far as regards
the fingering, and any set of two a half chord. Thus the
passage in the first bar of Ex. 59 is founded on the chords
shown in the second bar, and fingered accordingly, although
these chords certainly cannot be called real harmonies.

(59)

fTil

The complete chords, besides being irregularly formed, as
above, will sometimes require exceptional fingering, as in the
next example, where the second of the two complete chords is
fingered with the third finger instead of the fourth, for greater
convenience.

Passages are often composed of scales and chords mixed, as
in the following example, from Weber's /nmiation i la Valse,
in which the scales are indicated by means of curved lines and
the chords by square brackets.

Passages often consist of a series of groups, or sets of
groups, each set containing the same number of notes ar-
ranged in the same order of ascent or descent, though not
necessarily always separated by the same intervals. In such
passages the progression which is repeated is called the figure
of the passage, and may consist of any number of notes ; thus
the two passages quoted in Ex. 57 are formed by the repetition
of a figure of four notes and six notes respectively. The rule
for such passages is as follows : All repetitions of the
same figure should be fingered with the same fingering
— and this in spite of its occasionally causing such irregulari-
ties as placing the thumb on a black key, &c. This rule is
a comparatively modern one, and is invaluable as facilitating
the execution of the difficult passages of modern music, such
as that by Chopin, Rubinstein, &c. As an example I will
quote a passage from Chopin's Scherzo in Bjt- minor. Op. 31,
in which the figure consists of no less than twenty-four notes,
which figure will require to be played with the same fingering,
even where it occasions such unusual movements as I have
pointed out by the asterisks in the example.

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

143

lo simple passages, when the figure consists of but few
notes, and lies easily under the hand, it is a question whether
the rule just given should in all cases be observed. In the
opinion of many modem teachers it should ; but for my ©wn
part I believe that a more elegant position of the hand is ob-
tained without prejudice to certainty (which is the aim and
object of the rule), by permitting such deviations, from regu-
larity of fingering as will prevent the placing of the thumb
on a black key, or any other awkwardness of the kind. For
instance, the fingering given in the lower line of the next ex-
ample is far preferable to that written above it, although this
latter is strictly according to rule.

(63.) 3Xiz}xii3Xiz*,J

Z X I 2 } X_I2 } IXI

}xiz}xi23Xiz
3x123x12312}

A somewhat similar departure from rule will enable us to
finger the first chord-passage in the key of D and similar keys
without using the thumb on the black key, thus :

''"xJ-2-^ '.J=y 3^ *3 3 4...

An interesting example of the difference between the older
and more modem methods of fingering a simple passage is
found in the edition of dementi's Gmdus ad Pamassum,
fingered by Tausig, in which the fingering of the first study
(No. 16 of the original edition) is altered thus :

(650

X I i 3 4J41

X I 2 ] 4321
&c.

As has already been shown, changes of position of the hand
are effected by means of contractions and extensions, and by
passing the thumb. And there is yet another method to be
mentioned which is of great value in legato passages, espe-
cially of double notes. This is the substitution of one finger
for another on the same key, in effecting which the finger
which first strikes the note must press its key firmly, or there
will be danger of the note being repeated by the finger which
follows. Changes of finger are marked by two figures brack-
eted together, as in the example :

(66.) 4 ri
I ' *
!. X I

4 3 4 }

*• -a ! —

4 3 4 ,
I X !

^'- * v

The formation of a good system of fingering will be greatly

assisted by the habit of paying careful attention to the marks
of fingered editions of studies, &c., always supposing these to
have been added by a competent teacher. Even then altera-
tions will probably have to be made in some cases, for the
method adopted by any one player will probably not be en-
tirely convenient to any but his own pupils, who have been
trained in his own peculiar school. Such alterations, which
are not to be made capriciously, but always with the object
of rendering more perfectly the intentions of the composer,
should always be marked in the copy, and the fingering, once
determined on, should be scrupulously adhered to, as nothing
tends more to produce uncertain execution than the habit of
fingering the same passage differently at different times.

There are two methods of marking fingering : one, with
which the student is already acquainted, used in English edi-
tions, and the other in all music published abroad. It is no
doubt unfortunate that such difference should exist, as it in-
creases the difficulty of reading ; nevertheless, as foreign edi-
tions are continually met with, it is necessary that the student
should become familiar with the system of fingering which
they adopt. In this system the first five numerals are em.
ployed : i stands for the thumb ; 2 for the first finger ; 3 for
the middle finger ; and so on. In learning to read them, it is
better not to think of the fingers by their new numbers J.ox it
would surely be very unnatural to speak of the thumb as a
"first finger"), but rather to accustom oneself in the first
place to look upon i and 3 as the signs for the thumb and
second finger ; the figure 5 for the little finger presents no
difficulty, as it does not occur in the English system, and
after these three have been learnt, the other two signs, 2 for
the first finger and 4 for the third, will be easily remembered.

IV.— PHRASING.

Phrasing may be said to bear the same relation to musical
performance that correct accentuation and punctuation bear
to speaking or reading aloud. It is the means by which the
composition is rendered intelligible to the listener : and just
as a wrong emphasis or false punctuation will make nonsense
of a written sentence, so a musical composition may be ren-
dered uninteresting and meaningless by false phrasing.

The two subjects which have to be considered in regard to
phrasing are the same as those which I have already spoken
of as influencing good reading, namely, accentuation and punc-
tuation, and I propose to speak of each in its turn.

All music is divided into equal portions called bars. The
parallel between music and spoken words will therefore be
closer if we make the comparison with verse instead of prose,
because verse may also be said to consist of regular bars, called,
in literary composition, feet. Let us now take these two lines

of verse :

As thro' the land at eve we went.
And pluck'd the rij)en'd ears,

and try to adapt them to the first phrase of No. I in Book 6 of
Mendelssohn's Lieder ohm Worte :
(67-)

At thro' tha Umd at eve we went, and pluik'd the ripen'd <

144

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

We see here a perfect correspondence of accent between words
and music ; and just as in reading the verse we should lay a
stress on certain syllables, thus : "As thro' the land at eve we
went, and pluck'd the ripen'd ears ; " so in playing the musi-
cal phrase we must give to the notes which correspond to these
syllables an additional amount of force, and this will bring
about an accent on the Jirs( z.nA.Jifth quavers of each bar.

This is in strict accordance with the first principle of musi-
cal accentuation, which is that there must be an accent on the
first note of each bar, and if the bar is long enough and
complicated enough to bear division into two or more sections,
there will be an accent on the first note of each section.
This accent is weaker than that on the first of the bar, and is
called a secondary accent.

The natural accents are as follows :

(i) In 2-4 time generally, and in 6-8 time and common or
alia breve time in rapid tempo, there are two beats in a bar
and one accent.

(2) In 3-8 time, and in 3-4 and 3-2 time in moderate or
quick tempo, there are three beats in a bar and one accent.

(3) In 2-4 time in slow tempo, and in common time in slow
or moderate tempo, there are four beats in a bar and two
accents.

(4) In 3-4 and 3-2 time in slow tempo, and in 9-8 and 9-4
time generally, there are respectively six and nine beats in a bar
and three accents.

(5) In 4-4 or common time, in slow tempo, there are eight
beats in a bar and four accents.

(6) In 12-8 time there are twelve beats in a bar (usually
counted as four for convenience) and four accents.

It will thus be seen that each accent is followed by at least
one unaccented note, and in all naturally accented passages
this is the case, no two accents ever appearing in immediate
succession.

In brilliant passages the number of accents required in a
bar will depend, to some extent, on the nature of the passage.
As a rule, one accent on the first note of each group will suf-
fice, the strongest being of course on the first of the bar ; but
when the harmonies which accompany the passage, or on
which the passage is founded, change rapidly, a greater num-
ber of accents may be necessary to give effect to these changes.
Thus, in the following example, the figure of the passage is in
both bars the same, but in the first bar each group is accom-
panied by a single harmony, while in the second there are two
accompanying chords to each group. The second bar will
therefore require twice as many accents as the first ; and the
case would be precisely the same if the passage were unaccom-
panied, as the group of notes would then represent the same
harmonies as those played by the left hand in the example :

(68.)

This variety of accent is even more important in scale-pas-
sages, for they possess no particular figure, and their agree-

4r-

ment with the harmonies by which they are accompanied will
therefore depend entirely upon their accents.

(69.)

As an example of varied accent depending on changes of
harmony, I will quote the Trio of the Scherzo of Beethoven's
Sonata in Ejj^, op. 7. In this case the proper rendering of the
harmonies represented by the passage will even require the
omission of the regular accent at the beginning of the ban
marked with an asterisk in the sample :

(7°0

The omission of the accent from the first beat of a bar, as
in the above example, is often met with in compositions of
rapid movement, written in bars of short duration. This
seeming irregularity is to be accounted for by the fact that the
bar, as understood by the listener, is in reality composed of
two or more of the written bars, and the beat from which the
accent is missing is, in fact, not the first beat of a bar at all.
This is the case in Ex. 70, as will be seen by comparing it
with the next example, in which the same melody is written in
6-4 time, two beats to a bar, the triplet movement having been
omitted for the sake of showing the actual melody more clearly:
(71.)

fe5

g^5§=B

In triple time, particularly in waltz movements, a compound
rhythm is frequently met with in which two bars are so com-
bined as to form one long bar of three beats, instead of a long bar
of two as in the foregoing example ; in other words, the rhythm
perceptible to the listener is that of 3-2 time, not 6-4. Ex.
72 is an instance of this ; it is an extract from Schumann's Con-
certo, and is written as in the example, the effect being pre-
cisely the same as if it were written in 3-2 time, as in Ex 73 :

(72-) _

(73-)

m=-0=

ts-

^^m^^ m^ ^

^
--^

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

145

In this, as in Ex. 70, the primary accent falls upon the first
of every alternate bar only, but the place of the secondary ac-
cents differs, as a comparison of the two examples will show.

This kind of combination, of two or more bars into one,
does not generally continue throughout the whole composition,
but is intermingled with bars of the written length, contain-
ng their proper accents, and thus the whole work gains in
variety. So, in the movement quoted in Ex. 70, the 6-4
rhythm only continues as far as the tenth bar, the six next fol-
lowing bars being in ordinary 3-4 rhythm, as is also the greater
part of the movement from Schumann's Concerto.

Another kind of rhythmic variety very frequently employed
consists in the displacement of the accent ; the accent which
belongs to any part of a bar being, not omitted, but anticipated.
This occurs whenever a note is struck on a non-accented part
of the bar, and prolonged, so as to include in its duration the
next following accented beat. In this case the accent, which
cannot fall on its proper beat by reason of the previous note
not having come to an end, is anticipated, being given to the
note which prevents its appearance in its proper place :

(74-)

±t

In this example the C in the first bar falls on the second
beat, but being prolonged beyond the third or accented beat,
it takes, by anticipation, the accent which properly belongs to
the latter. The same is true of the E in the second bar ;
while the fourth note of the same bar, F, takes the accent be-
longing to the first beat of the next bar, to which it is tied.
In the third bar each note falls on the half-beat, and each note,
except the last, will require a slight accent ; because, when
two halves of a beat are present, the first half is always slightly
accented in comparison with the second ; and as in the present
case only the second halves are sounded, they will each take
the accent belonging to the next following first half-beat, over
which they are prolonged. The last note in the bar, not be-
ing tied to the next following accent, will only possess its
own proper force, and will be unaccented. Such passages as
the above, which form the only exception to the rule that no
two accents can occur in juxtaposition, are called syncopa-
tions or syncopated passages.

Having thus considered the various kinds of accentuation
used in music, I have now to speak of the other part of phras-
ing — punctuation. By punctuation is to be understood the
division of music generally into separate phrases, and also the
proper employment of legato and staccato in the rendering of
the phrase itself. With respect- to this last point there are
abundant means by which a composer may express his inten-
tions even to the smallest detail, and correct phrasing in this
respect is therefore merely a matter of sufficient acquaintance
with the signs employed. But the power of dividing a com-
plete work into its component phrases, there being no written
sign of any such division, and of so executing it that the di-
vision may be -appreciated by the listener, is a more difficult
matter, and demands careful study. And here again we shall
be assisted by the same idea which has already helped us to

understand the nature of accent — namely, by the attempt to
adapt words to the music, as in Ex. 67. If this can be done
so that there is no disagreement between the accents of the
words and those of the music, then the beginnings and end-
ings of the musical phrases will coincide with the beginnings
and endings of the sentences to which they are set. This is
the principle upon which vocal music is composed, and the
principle upon which instrumental music must be phrased is
nearly related to it ; it is this — that the whole composition
must be divided into separate phrases, answering to the lines
of a composition in verse ; which phrases, though they need
not be all of the same length — and, in fact, rarely are, except
in very simple compositions — ^yet must each have a definite
beginning and ending.

I do not, of course, pretend that it is desirable or even pos-
sible to adapt actual words to all instrumental music ; the ex-
ample given above was chosen from a particularly favorable
source, from one of the Songs without Words, which, like most
of the others, might very easily be made a song with words.
But the illustration will serve to make clear the principle.
Very often the end of a phrase is followed by a rest, and when
this is the case both the end of one phrase and the beginning
of the next is perceptible as a matter of course ; when, how-
ever, one phrase follows the other without interruption it ts
not so easy to distinguish between the two, and it becomes the
performer's duty to make the division clear to the listener.
This is accomplished by ending the first phrase softly, and
then giving a slight increase of force to the first note of the
new one, and the effect may be assisted by slightly shortening
the last note of the first phrase, if the character of the music
will permit it. In the following examples, which will be rec-
ognized as extracts from Mendelssohn's Lieder ohne Worte, I
have marked the points of separation between the phrases by
means of a vertical dotted line, and the varieties of force
which will be required to make these separations perceptible
by the usual signs of piano 2inA forte ; but it must be under-
stood that these marks are merely indications of the strength
of the notes relatively to each other, and are not intended to
express any great degree of actual difference. In (he two first
examples the whole melody is legato, even at the moment of
passing from the end of one phrase to the beginning of the
next ; the separation of the two phrases will therefore depend
entirely on the relative strength of the notes at the point of
division, as the above-mentioned shortening of the final note
cannot be allowed. In the third and fourth examples, how-
ever, such a curtailment is permissible, and will add to the
effect. I have indicated its place by means of a comma (,), a
sign which has also been used for a similar purpose by Dr.
Lebert in his Instructive Edition of Beethoven's Sonatas (Vol.
i., p. 21).

146

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

-y

Sometimes the same note serves for the end of one phrase
and the beginning of the next, as in Ex. 76. In such a case
the beginning of the new phrase is the most important,
and the note which serves a double purpose (and which is
marked with an asterisk in the example) must be played
strong.
(76.) Mendelssohn. Concerto in D minor.

^^^^^

One more subject in connection with phrasing remains to
claim our attention ; this is the employment of legafo and
staccato. Here the intentions of the composer are more clearly
expressed than in the matter of division into phrases, as
definite signs are used. These are the dot, the dash, and the
slur.

The dot and dash, placed either above or below the notes,
both express staccato or detached notes, but with this dif-
ference, that notes marked with a dash are to be played as
short as possible, while the dot expresses a lesser degree of
staccato, the notes being made about half their written length.
Another sign consisting of dots placed inside a curved line ex-
presses what is called mezzo staccato, or ■i,orsx&\\xa&% portamento,
in which the notes are closely pressed and barely detached
from each other. The three signs, with their proper rendering,
as nearly as may be expressed in notes, are here shown.
(77O

The distinction between dot and dash, though considered
of the first importance by the great masters, has unfortunately
not been always observed by modern editors and printers, and
on this account the proper rendering of a staccato passage will
depend less upon a strict observance of the written signs than
upon a just appreciation of the general character of the music
in which they occur. Thus notes marked staccato, whether
with dots or dashes, cannot properly be played so short in an
adagio movement, such as Ex. 78a, as in an allegro such as
Ex. 78(5. Besides this, the effect which a mark of staccato is

(78.) Mozart. Sonata in G. Mozart. Sonata in D.
Adagio. Jj. Allegro.

allowed to have upon a note must depend to some extent on
the written length of the note itself. For instance, in Beet-
hoven's Sonata Fathe'tique we find the same sign applied to

both minims and crotchets (Ex. 79), but the former ought
certainly to be considerably less staccato than the latter, al-
though no exact proportion between the two need be observed.

(79-)

'■^

^=«=^

ttiit

^=^&

So also in passages consisting of longer and shorter notes
alternately, as in Ex. 80, from Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 7, a
slight but perceptible difference must be made in the amount
of staccato given to each note.

(80.) Written ^ ' V Played. ^

;'f- -f- -f- '-fL^s^-^-m — ,-r f -r- ^

gfe^j^

'q ^

Not thus.

-m — ;e

As a rule, a staccato passage which consists of notes of the
same written length should be perfectly equal, no single note
being made more or less staccato than the rest, for on this
regularity much of the beauty of such passages depends. But
an exception may sometimes be made in the case of a staccato
passage which leads either with or without rallentando to a
new theme. In such a case a good effect may be produced by
gradually lessening the amount of staccato so that the last few
notes are scarcely detached at all:

(81.) Beethoven. Sonata Pastorale, Op. 28.

1 T

mAM^ -gi

-m

:ff=P=

tz=iz

±±t

-r-r

3=1:

:«=3:

The proper sign to denote a legato or connected passage is
a curved line drawn either above or below the notes ; but as
all passages not marked staccato are intended to be played
legato, whether they bear this curved line or not, the sign as
ordinarily met with is introduced rather for the sake of giving
a finished appearance to the passage than from necessity ; and
except where it follows a staccato passage, and is therefore
required as a sign of contradiction, might perfectly well be
omitted.

The curved line is, however, also used to indicate an effect
which differs from simple legato, and is one of the most
characteristic and striking of all phrasing effects. This is the
slur, which is expressed by a curved line connecting two notes
in moderate or quick tempo, and rendered by emphasizing the
first note and making the second weak in tone and shorter
than it is written. The slur is more easy to render on the
violin or in singing than on the piano. In singing it is produced
by singing two notes to one syllable, on the violin by pkying
them with one stroke of the bow ; on the piano the effect is
analogous to the pronunciation of a word of two syllables
having the whole accent on the first, such as ever.

(82.) Mozart. Sonata in C Minor.
Written.

Played.

This stress must be laid on the first of two slurred notes,

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

147 Y

even when it falls on an unaccented part of the bar ; and thus a
displacement of accent may be caused by the slur, which is in
many cases highly effective.

(83.) Mozart. Fantasia in C minor.

As the curved line signifying simple legato is often applied
to a group of two notes (in which case the second note is of
course not shortened), it is always important to be able to tell
whether an actual slur is intended or merely a legato. To
distinguish between the two it must be borne in mind that for
a couple of notes to be really slurred the tempo must be suffi-
ciently rapid, and the second of the two notes must be either
of equal length with the first, or else shorter, but not longer.
Thus it would not be proper to slur the passages in Ex. 84, in
the first example because the notes are too slow, and in the
second because the second note is the longer of the two. The
curved lines in both cases must therefore be understood to
mean legato.

(84.)
Beethoven. Sonata, Op. 10, No. i. Beethoven. Sonata, Op. 3:, No. i.

It would scarcely be possible to fix the exact rate of move-
ment at which a curved line over two notes should cease to be
a slur and become a legato. In general terms it may be said
that notes of equal length and moving at a rate equal to about
M. M. 112, or quicker, may be slurred, but not slower notes.

There is, however, another kind of phrasing, in which the
second of two notes connected by a curve, although the longer
of the two, is yet slightly shortened by the slur, in opposition
to the rule given above. An example of this effect is given
below, in playing which the second of the two slurred notes is
to be slightly shortened. The correct rendering of the passage
differs, however, in two particulars from the real slur. In the
first place the accent remains in its proper place in the bar,
instead of being transferred to the first of the two notes (as in
Ex. 83), and in the second place the crochet, the second of
the two notes, is only slightly curtailed, instead of being made
quite staccato.

(8s-) Mendelssohn.

Andante Cantabile and Presto Agitato.
Written.

The slur is often followed by one or more staccato notes in
the same group, as in Ex. 86. In passages of this kind the
second of the two slurred notes must be played both shorter
and with less force than the succeeding staccato note, and it is
important that this rule should be thoroughly understood and
carefully observed, as the appearance of the sign of staccato
on the note following the slur often tempts the player to make
that the shortest note (as in Ex. 87), in consequence of which
the effect of the slur is entirely lost :

(86.)

Beethoven. Sonata, Op. 49, No. i . Beethotkm,

Wntten. Sonata, Op. 31, No. 3.

Strictly speaking, the slur is only applied to groups of two
notes, and the curved line drawn over three or more notes is
to be considered a sign of legato merely, and is not to cause
any shortening of the last note of the group ; unless, of
course, there is a sign of staccato in addition (as in Ex. 87).
This is at least always the case when the curved lines corre-
spond to the rhythmic divisions of the bar, and it would there-
fore be quite incorrect to phrase such passages as those in Ex.
88 with a short note at the end of the group :

But when the position of the curved lines does not agree
with rhythmic division of the bar, but ends either on or im-
mediately after an accent, there must be a break of legato be-
tween the end of one curved line and the beginning of the
next ; and so the phrasing of the passage resembles the slur in
the shortening of the last note of the group, although there
is not necessarily any displacement of accent.

(89.) Written.

The same break of legato is also occasionally expressed
without the use of the curved lines, by varying the grouping
of the notes so as to make it disagree with the rhythmic di-
visions of the bar ; for example :

(90.)

An example of this kind occurs in Schumann's Toccata, Op. 6.
Passages which consist of notes of the same length through-
out, or of a repetition of the same figure, and are intended to
be played either legato or staccato, are often marked with the
appropriate sign at the beginning only, the sign being then un-
derstood to remain in force so long as the character of the pas-
sage remains the same, or until a contradictory sign occurs.
Such a passage as Ex. 91 must therefore be played staccato
throughout, although only the commencement is so marked ;

148

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

since if any change had been intended it would certainly have
been indicated as in Ex. 92 :

(91.) Mkndelssohn. Prelude, Op. 35, No. 3.

E^^fET^E^^^^

^=s

**;sii

(92.) Mozart. Rondo in A minor.

Sometimes a staccato melody is combined with a legato ac-
companiment, as in the next example (from Mendelssohn's
Lieder ohne Worte, Book 6, No. 4). When this is the case it
is not necessary to lift the hand after the staccato note, be-
cause the staccato has reference to the melody only, and not
to the accompaniment. In the example, the melody notes are
written as quavers and have to be played as semi-quavers, be-
ing thus reduced to one-half their written value. At the rapid
tempo at which the movement is played this will be a sufficient
amount of staccato for the melody without injury to the legato
of the accompaniment. If, on the other hand, the notes were
made actually staccato, as in Ex. 94, the legato of the accom-
paniment would be destroyed. The correct rendering of the
passage will therefore be that shown in Ex 95, the prominence
of the melody being secured by strongly marking each note.

(93.) Presto.

Passages similar in effect to the above example are some-
times met with in which the notes forming the melody are
marked with a sign of staccato alone, without separate stems.
Ex. 96 (from Beethoven's Sonata Op. 14, No. i) is an instance
of this, and is played in precisely the same manner as the fore-
going example ; the staccato is understood to refer only to the
melody, and not to the accompaniment. As a matter of fact,
a real staccato with lifted hand is next to impossible at the
speed of the movement, but the endeavor to produce one re-
sults in giving just that amount of force to the notes which is
necessary to render the melody prominent.

(96.)

-^«^

THE TURN.

The turn is an ornament consisting of an essential
note, together with its upper and lower auxiliary notes, ar-

ranged in one of two ways. First, the turn begins with the
upper auxiliary note, this is followed by the principal note,
and this by the lower auxiliary note and the principal note
again (Ex. 97a). This is called the direct turn, and is ex-
pressed by the sign '~ placed over the principal note. The
other arrangement is the reverse of this, and begins with the
lower auxiliarj- note, followed by the principal, upper auxiliary,
and principal note again. This is called the inverted turn,
and is expressed by the sign I (Ex. 97<5). But the sign is
but rarely used, as when the inverted turn is employed it is
generally written out in full.

(97.) Written.

^ a. r^ b. X

P===;=:= w

Played.

ai'»=«^

Wf-^ T'.

If it is necessary to sharpen or flatten either of the two
unwritten notes of the turn, the requisite signs are placed
above or below the mark of the turn, or, as some composers
have preferred to write, right before and after it, thus :

(98.)

Written.

Ir-lf

Played.

But the turn is often left without any sign of alteration even
when alterations are necessary, and it is therefore important
that the player should understand when and where to introduce
them. The rule by which they are governed is as follows : —
The upper auxiliary note agrees with the key in which the
turn occurs, but the lower auxiliary note is usually only a
semitone removed from the principal note. Whenever,
therefore, the natural order of the scale would give a lower
auxiliary note a whole tone distant from its principal, it is
right to raise it one semitone in playing the turn, even though
there may be no written indication of such a change. There
are, however, cases in which this raising is not necessary, as will
have been gathered from the wording of the above rule, and
in order to understand these exceptions it will be well to ex-
amine the construction of a series of turns made upon each
note of the scale, thus :

(99)

In all the turns of the above series, excepting those on the first
and fourth degrees, it was necessary to raise the lower auxiliary
note in order to make it one semitone distant from its principal
note ; but even when this has been done the tiims are not all
absolutely alike. If we look at those on the third and seventh
degrees, we find that in those two cases the order of the scale

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

— ^
149 ^

gives an upper auxiliary which is only a semitone from its
principal note, and that in consequence of this the whole turn
is chromatic — that is, it proceeds by semitones. Now a chro-
matic ornament is not wrong, and in certain cases is very effect-
ive ; but a turn containing an interval of a tone on one side
or the other is smoother and more melodious, and therefore
more commonly useful ; and on this account the lower notes of
turns which already have a semitone between the principal
note and the upper auxiliary are better generally left unal-
tered.

There is another case in which the alteration of the lower
note can be dispensed with : this is in the turn on the sec-
ond degree, when followed by either the key-note of the scale
or the third degree — as in the next example. Here the sharp-
ening of the lower note would interfere to some extent with
the next following harmony, and produce a certain harsh
effect, called in musical theory 2i false relation.

(100.)

-I — -ff=-

F— *=^=t

=:■ r

— 1

4?— 1 — 1

:-l—

L4— -t 1

In minor the same rules are observed ; but it should be
noticed that on the fifth degree the chromatic turn is a ne-
cessity. The turns of the minor scale are as follows :

(lOI.)

"cTViCjj^it-y-J-;?*-'^

If the sign of the turn is placed directly above the note,
its execution, according to strict rule, should be that shown in
the examples. It should consist of a group of four notes be-
ginning with the upper auxiliary, and the value of the princi-
pal note should be so apportioned among the notes of the
turn, that the first three are played quickly and the last sus-
tained, or, if the time allowed for the whole turn is too short
to admit of this difference, the four notes are played of equal
length, and fill up the entire value of the principal note :

(102.) Mozart.
a. ,^

Violin Sonata in G.

Sonata in G minor.

But this commencement with the upper note has in many
cases a somewhat incomplete effect to modern ears, and it is
therefore often advisable in the case of a turn on a short note
to prefix an additional principal note to the commencement of
the turn, so that the principal note may be heard before the
auxiliaries (Ex. 103a). This is especially suitable when the
note which bears the turn is preceded by a rest or a staccato

note, as in Ex. 1030, or by a note one degree higher than it-
self (Ex. 121(5). But when the turn is on the second of two
repeated notes, as in Ex. 103^, the additional note is not nec-
essary, the principal note having already been heard before
the turn begins.

(103.) MozART< Sonata in A minor.

Bekthovbn. Sonata, Op. 2, No. 3.

i-^

J g* J

li^*-w^

rfe:

^-ip^^

When a turn is applied to a long note — ^by which is to
be understood any note long enough to admit of variety in the
length of the notes of the turn — it is either placed directly
above it or a little to the right. In the first case, which oc-
curs but seldom, its execution is that shown in Ex. I02a ; in
the second case the principal note is played first, and held for
nearly its full value, and the four notes of the turn are played
at the end (Ex. 104). This rule does not fix the exact speed
at which the turn-notes are played, as they may begin earlier
and be played slower, or later and therefore more quickly, ac-
cording to taste. As a rule, the rapid turn is most appropriate
to a quick movement.

(104.) Beethoven. Sonata, Op. 10. Beethoven. Son., Op. 2^No. i.

ifal

When a turn is placed over or after a dotted note, the
principal note is played first, and the turn comes between
that and the dot, so that the last note of the turn falls in the
place of the dot. This rule, like the last, is elastic, as it
allows of the turn being made quicker or slower according to
circumstances, provided always the last note falls in its proper
place.

(105.) Mozart. Sonata in D. Hummel. Sonata, Op- 13-

The rule just given only applies to dotted notes such

^^ —
150

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

as those in the last example, which are followed by notes of
half the value of the principal note without its dot, in order to
complete rhythm. When, however, the dotted note repre-
sents a bar of triple time, or half a bar of 6-8 or 6-4 time, it
is treated simply as a long note (Ex. 106^), and Ihe same is the
case when it is followed by two or more short notes (Ex.
io63).
(106.) Bbbthoven. Sonata, Op- 10. Mozart. Sonata in C minor.

EbB£E

S^l

r^^^

In all the foregoing examples the turn has been exe-
cuted during some part of the value of its principal note, either
at the beginning (Ex. 102), the end (Ex. 104), or throughout
the whole (Ex. 103^. But there are cases in which it has to
be played before the principal note, so that the principal note
itself forms the last note of the turn. This occurs when the
sign stands over the second of two tied notes (Ex. 107a), and
occasionally also when it is over the second of two notes of the
same name which are not tied (Ex. 106^).

Haydn. Sonata in Elj. Haydn

Examples of the latter kind are frequent in Haydn's

works, and the explanation of them appears to be that the

second of the two repeated notes stands in the place of a dot,

and therefore serves perfectly for the last note of a turn. Thus

Ex. \<xib might have beeti written as in Ex. 108, in which case

the rendering would have been precisely the same, according

to the rule that the last note of the turn must coincide with the

dot.

(108.)

But that the mere fact of the turn being over the sec-
ond of two repeated notes is in itself not .sufficient to cause the
turn to be played before its principal note will have been seen
from Ex. xoib, and will be noted by the student in numerous
other instances.

Having now given illustrations of the various uses of
the turn, it will be well to sum up the principal rules relating
to it, which may be done as follows :

(i) The turn over the long note is played at the beginning of
the note.

(2) The turn after the long note is played at the end of the
note.

(3) The turn over the short note divides the note into either
four or five equal parts.

(4) The turn over the dotted note is played so that the last
note of the turn falls in the place of the dot.

In concluding the subject there are two points relating
to the performance of the turn to which I would call atten-
tion. First, it is a not uncommbn though very great mistake
which is made whenever the principal note is in the slightest
degree separated from the next following, as though Ex. 104
should be rendered somewhat as follows :

(loq.)

This is of course entirely false phrasing, the legato should
be unbroken throughout. The second point is the fact that in
all turns which follow the principal note the first auxiliary
note should fall a little later or a little earlier than the rhythmic
division of the bar, as the turn will thereby be made more
graceful than if it began precisely with a beat. This difference
is not easy to express in notes, but is nearly as follows : —

Siiould be thus

Instead of.

THE TRILL.

The trill or shake is the most brilliant of all ornaments. It
is indicated by the letters tr placed above the note, and con-
sists in the rapid and regular alternation of a principal note
with its upper auxiliary.

Whether the trill should begin with the auxiliary or the
principal note is a question much disputed among teachers,
some agreeing with Emanuel Bach and the earlier masters,
who taught that it should begin with the auxiliary note, while
others, including Hummel, Czerny, and other celebrated teach-
ers, prefer to begin with the principal note. This latter view,
which is shared by most modern teachers, appears to me the
correct one, at any rate as regards modern music ; and I would
therefore Always begin the trill with the principal note, ex-
cepting only when the composer has indicated the contrary by
means of a small appoggiatura placed before the principal
note, as has been done by Beethoven in the Finale of the Son-
ata, Op. 53.

(ill.)

A trill may be either complete or incomplete. If complete
it is finished by a turn ; if incomplete it consists in the simple
alternation of its two notes. The turn of a complete trill is
formed by adding two notes, the lower auxiliary and the prin-
cipal note, to the last note of the trill. If the trill is inverted,
as in Ex. \\\b, this addition takes place immediately after the
last couple of notes (Ex. ii2a) ; but in order to add the turn
to a direct trill, such as Ex. iiia, an extra principal note has
to be introduced immediately before the turn, so as to avoid
passing by a skip from the last of the upper auxiliary notes to the

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

151

lower auxiliary (Ex. 1 12^). Strictly speaking, the turn ought
to be said to consist of the last /iiwrnotes of the whole passage,
but as the first two of these are but the ordinary notes of the
trill, it is more convenient to speak of the two notes which are
added to them as forming the turn.

(112.)

h.tr

E^e

The turn of a trill is usually indicated by means of small
notes, as in the above example, but it has to be added by the
player even when there is no such indication, provided the
next following note is accented (Ex. 114a). If, however, the
trill is followed by an unaccented note (Ex. 114^) it should be
played incomplete — that is, without a turn — but with an ad-
ditional principal note at the end, in order to avoid leaving off
on the upper auxiliary note, for all trills, "whether direct or
inverted, complete or incomplete, must end on the prin-
cipal note.

(II3-)

The number of notes which go to form a trill will depend
on the length of the written note ; and speaking broadly, it
may be said that the more rapid the trill the better, provided
the notes are perfectly distinct. In the case of a trill on a
tong note the exact number of notes is immaterial, the trill is
continued throughout the length of the note, and the turn is
played at the same rate as the notes of the trill. But when
the trill is on a short note it becomes necessary to define more
exactly the number of notes of which it is composed, in order
that the effect may be complete and satisfactory.

For the purpose of reckoning the number of notes, the whole
trill is divided into beats, each beat consisting of a couple of
notes, one principal and one auxiliary. The turn itself is con-
sidered as the last beat, but if Ihe trill is direct an extra prin-
cipal note will have to be introduced immediately before the
turn and in consequence of this the last beat but one
will consist of three notes, and will be a triplet. If there
is no turn the extra principal note which is then added to the
end of the trill causes the last beat of all to contain three
notes, and the triplet thus falls at the end of the trill.
According to this system of measurement, bar a in the next
example is a complete trill of four beats, and bar b one of two

beats, while bars c and d are incomplete trills of four and two

beats respectively.

(114.)

d. ir

The trill of two beats, as in bar b above, is the shortest
complete trill that can be made : but a yet shorter incomplete
trill is possible, consisting of a single beat of three notes (Ex.
115). Trills such as these are only suitable for very short
notes.

(115.) Written. Played.

When the written note is long enough to allow of a trill of
more than two beats, the exact number of notes will depend
upon two things : first, the manner in which the turn (if any)
is written ; and, second, the character of the accompaniment.

In very many instances of a trill on a short note, the turn,
instead of being indicated by two small notes, as in our ex-
amples hitherto, is written in notes of full size and occupying
their proper place in the rhythm of the bar ; when this is the
case, they govern the rate of movement of the whole trill, be-
cause both trill and turn should always be played at the same
speed. A trill written as in the following example would
therefore be played as a trill of four beats, because the two
demisemiquavers which form the turn require that the trill
should consist of demisemiquavers also, and the division of the
whole dotted quaver into demisemiquavers will give us three
beats — two of two notes each, and one (the usual triplet which
precedes the turn) of three, the turn itself counting as fourth

beat.

(116.) Written. Played.

When there is no turn, or when the turn is written in small
notes (which leaves the question of speed to the discretion of
the performer), the number of notes must depend on the num-
ber of the notes by which the trill may be accompanied. For
instance, supposing a trill to be accompanied by a group of
four notes, it should consist of either two, four or eight beats,
according to the duration of the note or the tempo of the whole
movement (Ex. 117), while a trill accompanied by three notes
would consist of either three or six beats (Ex. 118), and so on.

(117.) Allegro. Allegrbtto.
ir tr

4!>.

152

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

(118.)

Andante,

Athough the rules just given will apply to most instances of
accompanied trills, it will sometimes happen that a trill ac-
companied by four notes cannot well be played like either of
those in Ex. 117, on account of the tempo being too quick to
allow of the distinct rendering of four beats, and yet too slow
for two beats to appear sufficient. In such a case the trill of
three beats is to be used, although against four notes of ac-
companiment, and the whole seven notes of the trill have to
be re-arranged, being divided into two halves, with three notes
in the first half and four (which must therefore be slightly
quickened) in the second (Ex. 119). This arrangement is
certainly different from all others, as the accent falls first on
the principal and then on the auxiliary note ; but when played
at the proper tempo, the second accent (which of course need
not be very pronunced) is not perceptible, and the effect of the
whole is far more satisfactory than the slow trill of two beats,
or the indistinct, because too rapid, trill of four beats.

(119.) Mozart. Sonata in C. Allegro.

r\ 1 1 f 1 i I

In the same way a trill of two beats may sometimes oeused
with an accompaniment of three notes, when the tempo is too
quick to allow of a trill of three beats. In this case the notes
of the trill, which are five in number shoyild be played of
equal length.

(120.) Mozart.

Sonata in A.
tr

'^^^^'W'^W

The exact number of notes in an unaccompanied trill, or a
trill accompanied by a single note, is of less importance, but
will nevertheless be generally governed by the rhythmic divis-
ion of the note ; for example, a trill on a crotchet or quaver
in simple common time will usually contain either two, four,

or eight beats, while a trill on a dotted note in either triple or
compound common time will be best rendered by three beats.
The rule for the trill on a dotted note, a position which it
frequently occupies, is the same as that which governs a turn
similarly placed ; the last note of the trill falls on the dot.
The most frequent use of a trill in this position occurs in
the works of Bach and Handel, where it usually forms part
of a cadence with the final note anticipated. When the prin-
cipal note of the trill is situated below the short note which
follows it, a turn is required (Ex. I2ia) ; but when the trill is
on the note above the short note the turn is not necessary, and
it is sufficient to end the trill with a principal note falling in
the place of the dot (Ex. 121^).

(121.) Bach.

Suites Anglaises, No.
tr

Bach. Fugue No. i, Vol. i.
b. l»» w tr

«=S-^ i i ■! "

Nevertheless a turn to such a trill as the second of the
above is not impossible, and should always be made in the
case of two trills occurring together, as in the Sonatas by Bach
for Pianoforte and Violin.

(122.) Sonata No. 2.
Violin. tr

^^^E^=^^

Played.

M il l l-j— f,

Pianoforte, tr

Played.

In modern music in quick tempo, the execution of a trill on
a dotted note differs from the above ; the trill is continued
without pausing on the dot, and the short note which follows
is slightly curtailed, so as to become of equal length with the
notes of the trill. Here, as before, there will be a turn if the
note bearing the trill is below the short note which follows it
(Ex. 123^), but not if it is above (Ex. 1233).

(123.) Mozart. Sonata in C.
tr

■ ^

?: *1

Wkbkr.
tr

Polacca in £.

When a trill is made on a tied note, or on a note followed
by another of the same name, a single lower auxiliary note is
introduced immediately before the tied or repeated note so as
to form a turn. This single note is sometimes written in, as
in the 4th bar after the first Tutti of Beethovert's Concerto in
Eb, but even if not indicated it must in any case be intro-
duced by the player, thus —

■^

A GUIDE FOR THE PIANOFORTE PLAYER.

153

(124.) Bach. Fugue No 15, Vol. 2.

The rules relating to the distance of the lower auxiliary
from the principal note of a trill follow in all respects those
which govern the lower auxiliary note of the turn.

In old music the trill is often expressed by a zigzag line,
;w> or ty the sign ♦♦♦, instead of the usual sign.

(125.) Handel. Air in B)^.

The same sign is also found sometimes with a small curved
line or hook at one or both ends, thusAv,^^^, ,\/\i., or ^v^
The meaning of these marks is as follows : The hook at the be-
ginning of the sign signifies a variation in the commencement
of the trill ; if the hook comes up from below ( jvv) the trill
begins with the lower auxiliary note (Ex. 126a) ; if it is drawn
downwards from above (^v ) the trill begins on the upper
auxiliary note, but passes down to the lower auxiliary note
before making the regular alternation of principal note and
auxiliary (Ex. 126^).
(t26.)

a ,w

6 /w

_| 1

In modern music the prefix to the trill is indicated by a
small note or notes. Thus Ex. 126a would now be written as
in the next example. The prefix Ex. 126^ is not used in
modern music.

("7.)

- yT-

The hook at the end of the sign is always turned upwards,
and merely signifies that a turn is to be made. A zigzag line
with a hook at each end means, therefore, a trill with both
prefix and turn.

Besides the hook at the end, the turn is also sometimes in-
dicated by a small vertical stroke through the end of the zig-
zag (not through the middle — this indicates the extended mor-
dent) or by an ordinary turn placed above or after the sign.

("7)

^w>k

The execution of each of these three examples is the same
as that of Ex. 128a.

4r-

--^

154

A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS.

^^tmicn fioiL F9R ?w6*^^'*'

(^.^(^(^t^(Sg»(^C^(^t^(^(^(^(^^^(^t^^^^^^^^^!j^^^^(^f^<^(^^^

INGING is an art, and
one of the most difficult
of the arts to master ;
and any one who at-
tempts to learn it must
be prepared to give the same
devotion to it as is demanded
by the sister arts of painting
and sculpture.

Remember that the human
voice is the most delicate of all
instruments, susceptible to more
and more varied influence than
any other. The singer has to
combine in himself the instru-
ment and the performer ; and while all the artistic
and intellectual qualities necessary for the instru-
mentalist are required by him, he is compelled be-
yond that to realize that he is a living instrument, and
to exercise over himself all the care — and indeed far
more than all — that players exercise over their most
cherished "weapons." He has not only to learn
how to sing, but how to be and to remain fit for sing-
ing. He, more than any other musical artist, will find
that he is affected by moral as well as physical and
intellectual cuases, and he must face this fact boldly.

HABITS, DIET, ETC.

Practice early rising, and, if possible, take a short walk be-
fore breakfast.

Strict cleanliness is of the greatest importance.

If a mustache is worn, let it be kept within bounds, and
not allowed to fall over the mouth, where it would affect the

tone of the voice. Do not cut it straight along the lip, but
train it right and left, allowing it to grow naturally and uncut.
The advantages of the mustache are two : it acts to a certain
extent as a respirator, and protects the mouth and throat as
the eyelash does the eye, and it helps to conceal any slight
distortion of the mouth in singing.

Clean the teeth the first thing in the morning, «;/</ fAe last
thing at night. Use a moderately hard brush, better too soft
than too hard, with cold water, or, better still, just lukewarm.
Avoid all " dentifrices " and advertised nastinesses in the way
of powders and " fragrant" washes. If you find, in spite of
your care, that your teeth become discolored, the cause is prob-
ably that your stomach is out of order. In that case go straight
to a doctor, for the consequence of such derangement is that
"tartar" is formed on the teeth, and this grows, and pushes
back the gums, altering the form of the cavity of the mouth,
and so affecting the tone of the voice.

Be as much as you can in the open air. Take moderate
walking exercise, but of course do not tire yourself before
singing or practicing. For male singers, rowing, riding and
football, racquet or tennis, and above all an hour or two
weekly in a gymnasium, are excellent things ; while for ladies,
walking, riding, lawn tennis, " la grace," and calisthenics are
equally useful. If you live in a town, always walk in prefer-
ence to taking a conveyance, when time and weather permit it.

Never breathe through your mouth in walking, especially at
night or on coming out into the open air after singing. Keep
the lips closed, and inhale the air through the nostrils.

Nothing can be said in favor of our cliniate for singing.

In going out of hot rooms into the open air much pains
should be exercised to keep the chest and throat covered up
with an overcoat or cloak — however warm the weather may
be. In very severe winter weather the singer will derive much
comfort by wearing a flannel chest-protector. Sitting about
in gardens, and on lawns, in the evenings on even the warmest
days is not a safe indulgence for the student who is in earnest
in the pursuit of his art.

-<^

A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS.

'55

4r-

One caution is necessary as to "wrapping up," however.
Do not over-do it. The constant use of a " comforter" ren-
ders the throat delicate and susceptible. All you have to fear
is damp, not cold, in the atmosphere. A comforter, closely
wound round the throat, promotes prespiration, and the risk
of chill in removing it is greater than in not wearing it at all.
Common sense must guide every one. It is impossible to
made a rule for all.

As to diet : avoid everything that is at all indigestible. Live
well, and take plenty of varied nourishment. The singer's
system must be well nourished. Chocolate and coffee are
better than tea ; the latter is too astringent, and affects the
nerves too much if taken m abundance. Sugar, in modera-
tion, should always be used with those beverages, and they
should never be taken very hot. Bread is better than toast,
but avoid hot or very new bread. Eggs and butter are good.
Meat should be plainly cooked and not too well done. Pork
tries the digestion too severely to be a desirable food for a
singer, and the same may be said of veal. Fish is good for
the singer, and he should, if possible, let it form a part of his
daily menu. Creams and pastry are simply poison, and cheese
should only be taken in great moderation. Fruit is an excel-
lent thing if judiciously used. But here, again, hard and fast
rules are impossible, because constitutions vary. Only re-
member the old proverb, " We must eat to live, and not live
to eat."

Never practice or sing on an empty stomach, or soon after
a meal : either of these habits will unfairly tax your digestive
organs, and in so doing damage your voice. After a meal,
all the energy of the body is required for the stomach ; in a
healthy person the extremities will generally be cold after a
full meal, and the reason is that the digestive organs are using
all the heat and blood that the body can give for their special
work. Nature thus points to a rest of every other organ at that
time, and you must not fight against Nature by attempting
any such severe physical strain as the practice of the voice de-
mands.

All acids and astringents are bad for a healthy throat and
stomach. Vinegar, highly flavored sauces, almonds and
raisins, nuts of every kind should be avoided. Some of these
are useful as remedies in relaxed throat, or congestion of the
throat no doubt, but I am speaking simply of what is desirable
for a person in a state of health In cases of cold, hoarseness,
or indisposition of any kind, my prescription is, " Don't
doctor yourself, but (as Abernethy said) ' Take advice.' " Be
very careful and abstemious in the use of spirits. Brandy Js
decidedly injurious ; it heats and inflames the throat, and tends
to constipate the bowels. Gin or whisky is the most whole-
some spirit, but take as little as possible of either. If you
drink be'er or ale, take draught and not bottled, and always in
great moderation. All effervescing liquors are objectionable ;
therefore eschew champagne. The fluids called port and
sherry are cruel foes to singing. The best drink for singers
is claret, or any light wine, French, German, or Italian. Fluids
are apt to produce congestion or mucus in the throat and
glands of the mouth, and that of course interferes with the
free action of the muscles in singing.

As a general rule it may be laid down that smoking is a bad

habit for the singer, male or female (for there are females who
are proud of being able to smoke cigarettes nowadays ! ).

A cigarette is certainly a safeguard against taking cold in
coming out of a hot room into the open air, especially after
singing ; but strong cigars or strong tobacco in pipes are to be
avoided, because of their effect on the nerves.

Avoid late hours. You require, not only a certain amount
of sleep, but to take that sleep before the body and mind are
at all overtaxed. From many causes, it is well known, the
human frame is always at its lowest from about 2 A. M. till 5
A. M., and the nearer you approach those hours in going to
bed, the less able you are to derive all the benefit which you
require from sleep. Twelve o'clock is late enough for any
one.

The sensualist can never become an artistic singer. Sen-
suality dulls the purity of thought which marks all true art,
deadens the intellect which art requires, and injures the
physical powers, without which all a singer's study may be
suddenly rendered useless to him.

THE STUDY OF PRONUNCIATION AND
"WORDS" IN SINGING.

A few words as to nervousness. You will often hear per-
sons boast that they are not the least nervous in public ; and,
perhaps, will feel inclined to envy them. Get rid of any such
notion at once. If by "nervous" is meant "frightened,"
that is another thing altogether ; and it is perfectly true that
there are hundreds of persons who are not in the least afraid
of appearing in public, nor affected by timidity when so ap-
pearing. But fear is only one form of nervousness. Do not
be ashamed to admit that you are nervous, if it be so. Nerves
are a cruel master, but a splendid servant ; instead of letting
them overcome you, force them to do your bidding ; and in-
stead of "nervousness" meaning "fear," you will find that
it means courage and power to do your best.

Study correctness of pronunciation and propriety of emphasis
quite apart from singing. Remember that in speaking or
singing in a large space and to a number of persons, every
sound must have not only additional force, but additional
volume. And that comes to mean that every vowel-sound in
the words sung must be intensified, and every consonant be
delivered with more accuracy than is necessary in ordinary
speaking. If you were to pronounce the syllable "die" (for
instance), in singing, exactly as you do in speaking, you would
produce on the notes or note to which that word belonged a
thinness of tone which would be very ugly, and probably
would not " carry " far. And the same "with any vowel-sound
— even " Ah," or " Oh," — which, though not producing a thin
tone, would certainly produce a coarse one, if sung exactly as
spoken in ordinary conversation.

The reason of the need of this slight change is as follows :
Every vowel-sound, like every musical sound (for vowel-
sounds are nothing less than musical sounds) is composed of
two sounds. Combined with the prominent and chief sound
which first attracts the ear is a second, which, though not
prominent, lends point and force to the other. Thus our
English vowel-sound " A " is really Eh-^ ; "E " is E-i ; " I "
is Ah-e ; "O" 0-do, or even Aw-00 ; "U" is Ee-do. Of

156

A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS.

35r

course we do not mean to say that those absurd-looking syl-
lables really express exactly the sounds which we produce in
speaking the vowels, for no combination of letters can do that,
or can bring within reach of the eye the subtleties of sound in
human speech ; but if you attempt to pronounce those syllables,
you will find that you are really pronouncing the vowels from
which we "translated " them.

Now, in conversation or rapid speaking, the subordinate
sound of the vowel is scarcely noticeable, while the more
prominent sound is heard for the short interval of time re-
quired. But in singing or public speaking, where the produc-
tion is more deliberate, the space to be filled witli sound
larger, or, in other words, the column of air to be set vibrat-
ing is greater and heavier, the complex sound of the vowel
must not be ignored. It is impossible to lay down any set of
rules by which the student may overcome this difficulty ; but
every one, by bearing in mind the absolute necessity of atten-
tion to this point, may easily accustom himself to the slight
change of pronunciation (as it will at first appear) which is re-
quired to give vowel-sounds when sung, or spoken " ore ro-
tundo," the same tone, to the hearer's ear as they have in
ordinary speaking. As a general rule this is done by keeping
the throat more open, the larynx (or " Adam's apple ") as low
down as possible, and the root of the tongue flat, depressed,
even hollowed like the bowl of a spoon. The truth of all this
may easily be tested by singing any short passage deliberately
and distinctly, with the exact pronunciation of ordinary speak-
ing, and then repeating it with attention to the above hints.
In the first instance the result will be meagre, hard to be heard
at a moderate distance, and very likely extremely ludicrous to
the hearer. In the second, you will find that the tone of the
notes gains in roundness and fullness, while the words are
clearly heard in every part of the room with the exact effect
belonging to them.

In pronouncing consonants, be careful to give each its due
value, but without exaggeration. Be especially particular to
sound the last letter of each word distinctly. But take care to
avoid adding a slight sound (as of an /mute) after the final
letter ; for instance, do not say "When other-Zlips," etc., or
" bright-/ days," and so on. Do not over-aspirate the letter
"//." "A^," "Z," "^," "^," "/>," and "K," are all let-
ters requiring care in firm pronunciation.

Avoid prefixing a slight sound of " A^" to the first word of
a song or passage in singing. It is a common trick with be-
ginners to do this, and they frequently do it without being in
the least conscious of it. It is produced by a kind of nervous
feeling of the teeth with the tongue, as if to make sure that all
is right for the start ! We have heard an aspiring youth ac-
tually begin a well-known song thus : " Nwaft her Rangels
N through the sky" etc.

The English language is not the most suitable one under
the sun for singing purposes ; nevertheless, it^is not nearly so
intolerable and unfavorable an one as it is the fashion to make
out. The grand old Scripture passages which Handel, Men-
delssohn, and others have set to music testify to this. Yet
musical care is needed when singing English words, and
especially in pronouncing the "sibilants," as 5, etc. These

sibilants" must never be enunciated rapidly, or their ill

effects will soon be found in a series of hissings. Let it be
your study, then, to avoid this ill effect in singing English
words, and to utter such sounds slowly and carefully, with the
endeavor to produce a soft and agreeable effect ; for it is, in-
deed, unpardonable to hear an English singer unable to render
perfectly the words (if not the music) of his native country's
songs and ballads.

Having accustomed yourself to carefulness over each letter
in your pronunciation, the next thing is to study correctness of
emphasis, etc. All this is apart from the strictly musical
portion of your studies, and, while you can work at this with-
out music, you will certainly spoil the effect of your singing
(however good your voice and voice production may be), unless
you do so study your "words." We should recommend you
to practice reading aloud for not less than a quarter of an hour
at a time, say once a day. Read standing ; place your book
on a desk, on a level with your eyes, and speak out deliberately,
and with full tone of voice, and as much variety of intonation as
the matter read requires. Shakespeare is your best author for
this study. You will feel at first as if you were doing a very
absurd thing, but never mind that — do it, and do it as well
and as carefully as you can.

In speaking and reading aloud during your preliminary
training for singing, be very careful that there be no change in
the aperture of the mouth or position of the lips while uttering
any one sound, however prolonged. If the lips move from their
first position, however slightly, the tone immediately changes,
and the pronunciation ceases to be pure and refined.

The words of a song are as much worthy of the singer's
study as the music, that is, if the song is worth singing at all.
Study the text, therefore, apart from the music. Read
the words aloud deliberately ; master the sentiment of them,
and note the prominent words and phrases, so as to be
able to give them their due value when you have to combine
them with the music. Avoid giving prominence to such words
as "of," " for," " the," " and," " in," etc., etc., but yet let each
be distinctly pronounced, and not slurred over in an indefinite
murmur. Learn the words of your song by memory. Master
the text, and consider the whole from an elocutionist's point
of view before you attack the musical side of the matter. A
singer when singing in public should not be troubled with his
words and music too.

For a singer to be successful, he or she must be in a position*
to express, and bring home to an audience, such emotions as
love, hatred, anger, fear, grief, and pity ; all these, and many
other such feelings, have constantly to be transmitted by the
singer, and it is to the most natural and faithful exposition
of these, and that most consistent with the other equally
important points of the art of singing, that the student's atten-
tion should for a long while be patiently and perseveringly
directed.

To be a successful public singer, even in the concert-room,
one must be more or less an actor ; and, therefore, the time
and money bestowed in acquiring a sound knowledge of dra-
matic action and elocution will be well spent. For the lyric
stage, such a study is imperative ; but its utility to artists who
aspire no higher than to ballad or oratorio singing cannot be
too highly estimated.

A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS.

157

VOICES AND THEIR VARIOUS QUALITIES.

Naming the Voice. — "What is your voice?" is a very
common question, sometimes expressed in the rather less polite
but more intelligent form, "What do you call your voice?"
The answer almost invariably is either "Soprano," "Con-
tralto," " Tenor," " Bass," or " Barytone." Here is a warning
for you at starting. Do not limit your notions of what voices
are to those four or five generic names. Because choral music
is generally written in four parts, for soprano, alto, tenor, and
bass, the non-musical public, and a great many musical people
(some composers included), seem to think that those names are
an inclusive description of every human voice.

Remember always that the character of a voice is determined
not by compass or range of notes, but by quality, or body and
timbre, of tone. Two ladies may have voices ranging from
A to A — two octaves — and yet one might be a pure light
soprano, and the other a genuine contralto ; while in length of
compass a mezzo-soprano may even beat them both. And so
with male voices (the variety in which is even greater than in
female), you may have a voice of pure tenor quality, and yet
of such limited compass that your energetic barytone friend
next door may make your life miserable with jealousy of the
ease with which he bellows high Gs, G sharps, and even on
great occasions an A or so.

But compass has nothing whatever to do with the name of
the voice ; it may limit the quantity of music which can be
performed, but it should have no influence on the choice of the
style of music to be studied. This is a point of the greatest
importance, therefore we repeat it briefly once more — Your
voice must be described and used with reference to its quality, or
volume and timbre, and not with reference to the number of notes
which you can sing.

Male and Female Voices. — The actual varieties in tone
and quality in different voices cannot, of course, be expressed
on paper ; but a careful use of your ears in listening to good
public singers will soon teach you to discriminate. Female
voices are of at least four kinds : soprano, mezzo-soprano,
mezzo-contralto, and contralto. Male are of five or six or
even more. Alto ; tenore-leggiero or light tenor; tenore-
robusto or strong heavy-voiced tenor ; barytone ; basso-can-
tante (erroneously identified with the barytone by some per-
sons) ; basso-prof on do or bass.

Besides all these divisions or species, voices must be again
classed according to their power. Any one who has ever heard
an opera singer in a moderate-sized private drawing-room, will
readily appreciate the diff'erence between a voce di camera, or
' ' chamber voice," and a voce di teatro.

Compass. — The respective compasses of the several voices
may be roughly set down as follows, but it should be borne in
mind that it is by no means a matter of course that a singer of
any particular voice should possessor cultivate the whole range
of notes supposed to belong to that voice. He or she may be
none the less a tenor or a soprano because the one cannot pro-
duce an " Ut de poitrim," or the other " F in Alt." There
is a special individuality in every voice, as in every face, and
therefore every voice must be treated, by a good teacher, on
its own merits, as a thing in some respects unique.

Perhaps it will be best, therefore, instead of saying that the
compass of any given kind of voice is from — to — , to say
that music for such and such a voice is generally written be-
tween such and such limits. The range allotted by com-
posers to the various voices is about two octaves to each — for
solo work, of course — and is as follows, it being understood
that the male voices are an octave lower in pitch than the
female :

from

Soprano, and Tenore-Leggiero, and in operatic
music a certain kind of Tenore-Robusio»

from

Mezzo-Soprano and Tenore-Robusto.

Mezzo-Contralto and Barytone.

from

Contralto and Bass.

:=F

The basso-cantante is a low barytone, or high bass with a
lighter quality of tone than the basso prof ondo. The alto
voice, or counter-tenor, as it used to be called, is not a natural
voice at all, but is artificially produced by training the falsetto
to the exclusion of the other parts of the voice. It is totally
distinct from the contralto voice of a female, in quality,
average compass, and the style of music best suited to it. It
is of more use in part-singing and cathedral music than for
solo work, although in some oratorios solo parts have been al-
lotted to it. It is rarely pleasing when heard alone, for very
few alto singers are able to avoid the appearance of singing
with effort ; and the whole performance, except in some in-

A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS.

stances, appears unnatural and forced. The alto voice ranges
generally

from

but its best notes are confined to the octave
of B flat.

Soprano. — The soprano is generally clear, bright, and pene-
trating in tone ; capable, if rightly produced, of "carrying"
far without any appearance of force or effort. Its lower
register is often weak and inefTective, and the forcing of these
notes by a bad singer often damages the voice, and spoils the
evenness of tone, which is of far more importance than power
and noise in singing. Low notes, even if naturally weak, may
be trained to take their proper share of the work of the voice,
and every year will add to their natural power. Most soprano
voices have a " break " on

and another and more difficult one to deal with, on

4r-

The lower notes are the (so-called) " chest" register ; the mid-
dle ones, between the breaks, the "falsetto," and the upper
ones the " head " notes. We shall speak of these often-used
and frequently misapplied words presently ; we merely men-
tion them now for the sake of pointing out to soprani what
many young lady amateurs utterly ignore, that they have these
"breaks," and possess "chest," " falsetto," and "head"notes,
as well as male singers.

Soprano voices are frequently capable of great flexibility,
and passages are easy to them that tax the powers even of a
light mezzo-soprano severely. The high notes, especially, are
in many cases easily produced in a staccato manner, like notes
of a piccolo flute, and an eff'ect is thus made, which, though
pretty and pleasing if judiciously employed, becomes a great
snare to many singers, who, for the sake of astonishing their
audience, work the upper part of their voices unfairly, and,
neglecting steady use and practice of the lower registers, will
very soon find that they have weakened the power and thinned
the tone of the whole voice.

But there are many voices of pure soprano tone which lack
this flexibility : let the fair owners console themselves with
the recollection that good sostenuto singing is quite as pleasing
in the long run as displays of vocal gymnastics. You may not
be able to attempt the '' Dinorah" Shadow Song, or the " Re-
joice Greatly" in the " Messiah," but you will find that you

have plenty of good work left for you in such music as "Dove
Sono," " Deh vieni, non tardar " (^'Figaro"), or "Jerusalem"
{''St. Paur).

Mezzo-Soprano. — The mezzo-soprano voice is perhaps the
commonest of all female voices, and yet one of the rarest met
with in perfection. It is fuller and rounder in quality than
soprano — less flexible, and more adapted to a sostenuto or de-
clamatory style. Mezzo-soprano voices vary so much that it
is difficult to name any note on which the "break" will be
found. Sometimes it is on the same as a soprano — sometimes
on the same as a contralto — on the average, perhaps, nearer
the former. Wherever it may be, however, a judicious teacher
will soon point it out, and put the student into the way of
rightly treating it.

What lies within the sphere of a good mezzo-soprano has
been shown in late years by a Grisi and a Tietjens, the latter
of whom will live in the recollection of all who ever heard
her, as the perfect model for every mezzo-soprano in the pro-
duction of pure tone and even quality.

Mezzo - Contralto. — The name mezzo-contralto speaks
for itself. It is by no means an uncommon voice, and if used
with discrimination is an effective and useful one. Both in
compass and quality it lies between the contralto and the
mezzo-soprano. Heavier in tone, less resonant and less flexible
than the mezzo-soprano, it is yet lighter than the contralto.

Contralto. — The quality of a true contralto voice is so pe-
culiar that it is impossible to mistake it for any other voice,
although other voices may be mistaken for it. Of course,
there are exceptional cases in which the contralto and mezzo-
contralto are combined in one voice : the lower range being
of full and pure contralto quality, while instead of the some-
what limited upper notes of the contralto, a rich mezzo-con-
tralto range of notes may develop themselves ; and in such a
case careful training will be able to soften these two into each
other, so that a complete voice of peculiar charm and great
usefulness will result. But such cases, if not rare, are cer-
tainly the exception and not the rule, the deep and powerfully
resonant tone of the true contralto being comparatively sel-
dom met with. There is generally an awkward break between
the low B and the D above it in this voice, and the E 7 or E
are the highest notes within reach of the average contralto.
Voices of this class are better adapted for a species of ballads,
for solemn declamation, or music of a calm and flowing char-
acter, than for elaborate execution or lively melodies.

Alto. — The alto or counter-tenor voice is " simply a develop,
ment of i\i& falsetto — generally the falsetto of an inferior bass
voice." Of course, in a voice which is so artificial, there must
be expected a worse "break" than usual — the break in this
case being the point below which the falsetto cannot be ex-
tended, and where the natural "chest " quality of tone has to
be used. This break generally lies near the same place as the
contralto break — if anything, rather higher — say between C
and E in the middle of the voice. The effective notes of an
alto usually lie in the octave of B or Blj, and the repertoire of
music for which this voice is suited is comparatively limited.
That repertoire, however, includes the greater number of ora-
torios, a good deal of fine old Italian music, and a few old
English songs ; while a singer of cleverness and cultivation

A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS.

159

will find many ballads which he may make his own by the
help of transposition and the style of delivery.

Great pains must be taken by the possessor of an alto voice
in the formation and production of a good tone. The voice
must be made to sound as natural as possible ; and, if neces-
sary, power must unhesitatingly be sacrificed to sweetness.
There is great danger of producing a harsh, reedy, or nasal
tone, which, to the hearer, is simply distressing or offensive.
Above all, let him be content to develop his own means, and
to keep to music suited to or written for his voice.

Let him also beware of the snare of contralto music. The
alto in a man is totally distinct from the contralto in a woman.
The tone is utterly different — the best notes of the one are cer-
tainly not the best notes of the other ; and although in certain
cases a contralto may sing with good effect music written for
a male alto (f. g., in some oratorios), yet the converse is
scarcely ever true. The low notes, which are so fine in a
contralto, and so unlike any other tone, except perhaps a few
notes of some tenors, are utterly wanting in charm, and gen-
erally in power, in a male alto ; while the sweet and ringing
middle notes of the latter are far more effective in alto music
than the (frequently) weak and uncertain middle notes of a
contralto. Choose your music, as you name your voice, by the
quality of tone you can produce, and not by the range of
notes.

Tenore-Leggiero. — The tenore leggiero, or "light tenor,"
is the male voice corresponding to the female soprano ; it is
perhaps the most delicate and difficult to manage of all human
voices.

The tone of a light tenor is generally clear, resonant, and
penetrating ; sometimes there is a metallic ring about it which
is extremely pretty, if not forced.

A light tenor must be careful not to force up the lower
register of his voice beyond its natural and easy limit. The
charm of the voice is in the perfect blending together of the
lower, middle, and upper registers, and to do this the upper
notes of each register should be equally at command, as the
upper notes of that register or the lower notes of the one above
it. In order to attain this, the change from one register to
another should generally be made considerably lower than the
place where the real "break "in the voice comes. For in-
stance, supposing the ' ' break " to be on E (2, the singer should
be able to change his register as low as B or BJZ, and to take
all the notes between those two places either in the upper or
lower register with equal effect.

In voices of this character there is often one note which re-
quires to be made — i. e. , which is so naturally defective in tone
and quality that it can only be produced effectively by imi-
tating as nearly as possible the quality of the register above or
below it. The note is generally E, F, Fjf, or (sometimes) G,
between the middle and upper registers ; and if you find that
you unfortunately have such a refractory note, remember not
to tiy and force the tone of it from the next note above or be-
low ; e. g., if your bad note is F, do not try to improve it by
singing E well and then passing on to the F ; but try and form
the note from the fifth above or below (whichever it happens
to resemble most in tone). Rounden the refractory note —
give it a full tone in practicing, and produce it well from the

chest, letting the sound reverberate from the center of the
roof of the mouth — neither too far back towards the throat,
nor too much on the teeth.

Tenore-Robusto. — The robust or strong tenor is the male
voice corresponding to the mezzo-soprano of a female. It is
not an uncommon voice, but is rarely met with in anything
like perfection. A robust tenor voice of large compass and
round full tone is a treasure of the utmost value. The fact is,
that too frequently the possessor of a good voice of this kind,
instead of taking care of it and training it for the future, be-
gins using it too soon, strains and forces it into coarseness,
and spoils it forever. People do not realize that a voice may
be strong in quality and powerful in tone, and yet in itself be
an excessively delicate thing to keep in order.

Moreover, voices of this kind in their youth frequently re-
semble barytones, and their owners, fired with ambition to
rival some popular barytone singer, mistake their vocation,
and shout and bellow on the very part of the voice — the upper
" chest" register — which requires the tenderest nursing to fit
it for future difficulties. Consequently, when the voice de-
velops with age, and the singer finds that barytone work is too
heavy for the lower part of the voice, and that he can without
much difficulty extend his compass beyond the barytone limits,
he discovers that what he has been using as the top of his
voice is nearer the middle of it, and that the mode of using
those notes which he has practiced is excessivel]^ difficult, if
not impossible, with those which now lie above them. The
result is either the creation of a very awkward "break,"
which even time and practice can never entirely remove, or
else (and this is a commoner case) the same process of forcing
which has been employed hitherto is applied to the upper
notes, as far as strength can lake it !

Barytone and Basso-Cantante. — The barytone voice is
a voice of fuller quality than a tenor, and lighter than a bass,
having a compass partly included in both.

The distinctive character which this voice has assumed
within the present century is due, we believe, to the great
change in the pitch of musical instruments which has taken
place. In the last century the pitch was so much lower than
that at present in use, that a "high barytone'" was much the
same as " robust tenor." Consequently, music was not written
exclusively for the barytone voice, its existence as a separate
class of voice not being sufficiently recognized. Gradually, as
the pitch was raised, the barytone separated itself clearly from
other voices, and has now a repertoire of music and a style of
singing of its own ; and instead of appropriating tenor music,
it, if anything, has stolen away some of the property of the
bass ; for the raising of the pitch which placed tenor music be-
yond the reach of a barytone has also rendered a good deal
of music originally written for a bass far more suitable for a
barytone, or at all events for a basso-cantante.

Bass. — Of the bass voice less need be said here, not be-
cause it is a less important voice than any of the others, but
because it is more generally known and better understood. A
perfectly pure bass voice is, however, a rare thing. This
voice has no upper register," properly speaking ; the whole
voice consisting of " chest " notes, and not admitting of even
the process of developing upper notes of extraorc^inary quality

1 60

A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS.

which is part of the training of a barytone or basso-cantante.
Power and richness are the chief qualities of charm in a bass,
while flexibility and true intonation are the qualities most
rarely found in that voice. The young singer who finds that
he certainly is not meant by nature for a tenor, and also that
with all his efforts the upper notes of a barytone are quite out
of his reach, need not be discouraged by any lightness or thin-
ness of quality in his voice from the hope that he may develop
into a good bass.

Buffo. — A clever and good buffo singer may very likely be
able to sing other music well, but the style is so entirely dra-
matic and so utterly out of place anywhere except on the
stage, that no amateur should ever attempt it, and no pro-
fessional should appear in a concert -room as an exponent of
such music. Therefore, for those who wish to sing, any re-
marks on the peculiarities of a buffo bass would be super-
fluous ; those who wish to study that line as a profession, for
stage work, must learn all that they need from a regular dra-
matic teacher ; while those who wish to execute English
" comic" songs, may spare themselves any anxiety as to their
voices : if they have any voice naturally, ' ' comic " singing
will soon destroy its charm, and that will not matter to them,
for the last thing necessary to sing a " comic " song is the
possession of a voice of any kind. Therefore, if you have a
bass (or any other voice, indeed^ avoid " comic " songs, and
leave the "buffo " business to those who can do nothing better.

Qualities of Voice, Good and Bad. — It may not be un-
welcome to the student to have pointed out to him those quali-
ties of voice which are to be aimed at or cultivated, and also
those which are to be avoided or overcome.

The charms of a voice are found among the following quali-
ties : clearness, sweetness, evenness, flexibility, power, extent
of compass, variety, brilliancy, firmness, persuasiveness.

On the opposite side must be ranked roughness, huskiness,
feebleness (or want of power), shrillness (or want of depth),
hardness and want of flejcibility,' dullness, or want of " ring,"
etc.

It is, of course, impossible for any one voice to unite in
itself all these merits or all these defects ; and you cannot
give yourself merits which Nature has withheld ; but you may
marvelously improve what natural merits you have, and do
wonders in overcoming any difficulties which Nature has
placed in your way.

ON THE PRACTICE OF SINGING.

It is of great importance to bear in mind that no two voices
are exactly alike. To some singers is given quality of voice,
to others quantity. And for each alike, steady, well-aimed,
and well-ordered practice is indispensable. But, whatever you
sing ought, like your voice, to have some touch of individuality :
the song should seem to come naturally from you, and to be
the spontaneous expression of your thoughts. At the'same time
you must not lose sight of the all-important guide which you
have in the composer's intentions and wishes. Remember
that a small and delicate voice may be made to go as far as, if
not farther than, a voice of large volume and long compass.
By judicious management, by touching expression of the softer
feelings, by careful selection of music to be performed, the

obstacles which are placed in a singer's way by want of powei
may be effectually removed, because the audience will irre-
sistibly feel the influence of the singer's individuality. The
difficulties of the singer who has the gift of quantity rather
than quality of voice are in some respects greater, because the
necessity for thus impressing on his audience a sense of his
own individuality is not so strongly forced on him by circum-
stances.

The surest means of improving and strengthening the voice
is by constantly exercising and practicing it. Just as the
muscles and fibres of the legs of a pedestrian are increased and
made capable of great exertion by careful training, so is it with
the nerves and muscles of the throat. With judicious training,
the compass of the voice is extended, its quality is improved,
its tones grow rounder and firmer ; and, if the master is a good
one, and the pupil is willing to study patiently for some time,
never resting content, but always aiming at further progress
as year succeeds year, he may not unreasonably hope to attain
a well-earned place in his profession, and its attendant reward.

A looking-glass should form a part of the furniture of a sing-
ing student's study, for it is most important to watch the face
— its features and expressions — when singing ; and it is none
the less' useful for insuring the constant right position of the
mouth. In respect of the facial expression when singing, there
is a very great tendency to look too serious, too severe, and too
hard when earnestly studying. Now, a cheerful and good-
humored expression does not necessarily imply carelessness,
and it is far more agreeable to the audience than an anxious
and troubled look. Some people look quite savage when sing-
ing ; and when rendering passages of love and tenderness,
their features are far more indicative of rage, revenge and
murder ! And this very common fault is generally quite an
unconscious habit. It is only to be remedied by constant care,
and to this end practice before a looking-glass will be found
very helpful.

How to stand when singing has been explained by a great
number of writers on the subject, and most of the explanations
given have been chiefly remarkable as being entirely erroneous
and false. The body should not be kept in a perfectly upright
position, as it is (too popularly) believed that it should. The
best position is when the body is well collected, with its chief
weight upon the right leg and foot, with the head gently lean-
ing forward, and the arms, and indeed the whole carriage,
disposed in that manner which would indicate to the audience
a sort of desire on your part to persuade them and bring
them over to your feelings and sentiments. When the right
leg begins to tire with the weight of the body, the left leg can
take its duty, when the right may be gracefully drawn back as
in dancing. The best lesson on this subject, however, can be
gleaned by carefully watching the pose of a good Italian singer
during singing.

A sitting position is a very bad one in which to practice.
All singing should be done in a standing position, and the
student is strongly urged to adhere to this rule. Instead of
sitting at the pianoforte, and accompanying an exercise 01
"solfeggio," it is far better to sound the first note of each pas-
sage therein, and master the same without any accompaniment.
The advantages of this mode of practicing must be obvious ;

A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS.

i6i

but one of the most important is, that the attention is not
divided between the pianoforte and the voice, while it leaves
the singer free to give all his attention and care to the produc-
tion of the notes which he is endeavoring to sing artistic-
ally.

We would urge upon the student to hold a piece of music in
his hands while he practices. There is a place for the hands
when singing in public ; but. this place is neither the trowsers
pockets, nor on the hips, nor behind the back, nor across the
chest, but rather that position which is secured by leisurely
holding the music-sheet, not as if actually singing therefrom,
but as though it were merely intended for reference, if required.
This easy attitude not only gives the hands and arms their
legitimate position, but also lends a grace and freedom to other
parts of the body, all which points must be attended to in
singing. Remember to keep the arms well away from the
body. Some singers stick the elbows into the waist, as though
to give support ; instead of doing which they hinder the free
action of the lungs, besides giving an awkward look to the
whole figure.

Do not let your hands hang down, but keep them well be-
fore you, in some position which allows of your turning the
palms uppermost. In this way you (as it were) lock the joints
of the shoulders, and put a check on the tendency to raise the
shoulders, which is an invariable consequence of taking breath
wrongly. Keep your shoulders well back, your elbows de-
pressed, and your hands with the palms uppermost, and you
will find it difficult, if not impossible, to indulge in the vice of
heaving the chest and shoulders up and down, like the piston
of a steam engine !

One of the first conditions of singing well is to keep the
throat open. To have the throat in its proper position the
tongue must be kept down, and hollowed like the bowl of a
spoon, its root being well depressed. Nor must the throat ever
be allowed to screw itself up small, a common failing of many
singers whenever they approach a high note. Most of our
readers have yawned once or twice in their lives ; if they will
do it once more, in front of their looking-glass, and watch the
inside of the mouth as they yawn, they will see and feel the
exact position in which the throat should be during good sing-
ing. It will be useful to repeat this proceeding until the mind
is thoroughly impressed and the memory familiarized with the
feeling of the mouth and throat in this, the correct position for
singing.

When singing softly, ox piano, as it is called, take great pains
to keep your throat as open as you would for singing loudly,
leaving it entirely to the mouth and lips to keep the tone soft,
yet steady and firm. Do not forget, too, that in soft singing
it is a great advantage to keep the mouth in a smiling position.

The tongue, while being so useful, is nevertheless a very un-
ruly member in singing, it has so great a tendency to get out
of its place. Its legitimate office is to rest quite flat, or even
hollow, in the bottom of the mouth, with its root well down,
as this keeps the throat-passage clear, and with the tip of it
just touching the lower teeth. Get a looking-glass, and con-
tinually watch the position of the tongue. Never allow it to
roll up or turn about when singing, or the effect produced will
be scarcely worth repeating. The tongue should occupy the
II

least possible space in the mouth, and this is the case when the
directions here given are carried out.

The larynx, or upper part of the windpipe, plays a most im-
portant part in singing. Upon it depends all the beauty and
quality and richness of the voice. The singer will do well to
constantly think about the larynx, to watch it, to feel that it is
well down below the mouth before commencing the first note
of a song, which note must, under such circumstances, be rich,
round, and penetrating. Then the larynx must never be al-
lowed to rise above this fixed point. It may be deepened,
and must be, for the higher notes, but it must never ascend,
or nearly approach the roof of the mouth, or the sound-passage
is closed, and the sound becomes at once impure, vitiated, and
without body or foundation.

Try and guard against the bad hatit of pushing forward the
chin when singing, otherwise the tone cannot fail to be faulty.
The chin should be well down on the chest, and the larynx
quite low, to lead to an easy and pure production of tone. To
be constantly moving both the jaws for every note, continually
displacing the larynx, impairs the purity of the tone, spoils the
articulation of the words, and, what is worse than all, pro-
duces a hideous expression of the features, which latter fault
would alone be sufficient to prejudice seriously the chances of
any singing artist. The lower parts of the jaws, not the up-*
per ones, should do the work ; and when a high passage or
note is before the singer, the lower parts of the jaws should be
exercised to drop as the notes increase in height. The singer's
face should be controlled, if no other member can be so regu-
lated.

There is, in all beginners, a tendency to sing too much in the
head, that is, to have the foundation of the tones too high up
in the throat. This fault is due to the difficulty experienced
by beginners in keeping the larynx sufficiently below the mouth.
The fullness of tone, the rich, round, and mellow quality which
is so much admired in all good singers, is almost entirely ow-
ing to the voice being pitched low down, and not high jp in
the throat, towards the back of the head (as it appears to be).

Throatiness, or singing in the throat, is the common enemy
of all English speaking singers. Our language is the chief
cause of this disagreeable habit, which we begin to acquire as
soon as we learn to talk. Still, by diligence, the evil can be
cured, and no better plan can be followed than to constantly
practice singing the vowel-sounds Ah, A, E, O, throughout
the compass of the voice, taking every possible care — and this
is the point — never to allow the toru to vary, nor to leave the
teeth, and not to screw up the throat, especially in high
notes. It is impossible to produce a " throaty " quality of
voice if the throat is well open, and the tone is firmly directed,-
and kept on the upper teeth and front of the mouth. On the
other hand, if the student screws up the throat, rolls the
tongue, or practices singing without being constantly on the
look-out for the "voice on the teeth," the result must be a
" throatiness," which is most disagreeable to all people who
have any real knowledge of what singing should be.

Singers, good and bad, are often troubled with an apparent
stoppage in the throat, and this inconvenience seems to be at
its worst just at that moment when they wish to sing. To dis-
place or to cure this stoppage, they begin hacking and cough-

^ 162

A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS.

ing (" clearing the throat " as it is called), which proceeding,
however, only makes bad worse for the time being, and finally
grows into a habit, till at last such people cannot venture to
open their mouths without first subjecting the throat to a series
of these irritating " hacks." It is in many cases simply a nerv-
ous trick, and if the singer will accustom himself to swallow
instead of coughing, whenever he feels the sensation of which
we are speaking, he will soon get rid of it. If it results in any
case from real weakness of the throat, it may be beneficial to
gargle three or four times a day with moderately strong salt
and water, especially before singing.

Many people find great difficulty in counting with any de-
gree of certainty upon the top notes of their register. We
know of no greater assistance towards bringing these out than
that of well contracting the mouth and lips at the beginning
of the passage in which these high notes occur, dropping the
lower jaw, and securing a good play of the mouth as the
highest note is reached, at the same time keeping the throat
as open as possible, ejecting the sound to the audience with
as much " lip force " as can be secured, being careful that the
^ne is safe " on the teeth " before the note is " opened."

There can be no doubt whatever that the grand ground-
work of all singing is the diatonic scale. On it is built all the
graceful forms and figures which belong to the great artist.
Yet how few seem to know and to appreciate this fact ! To
excel, the diatonic scale must be practiced most seriously and
assiduously in its plain and simple form ; nor must it be left
until the student can sing every note therein purely, without
wavering or flutter, and with precision, in the soft, medium,
and loud voices.

The singer will derive much advantage by bearing in mind
that the voice has three main gradations, which the Italians
class as the forte, the mezzo di voce, and the piano. The man-
agement of these three is of vital importance, and the singer
should certainly practice the scales in all three voices, and
have each at command for every exereise and passage which
he studies.

The tone of the voice must never be vitiated or rendered im-
pure from any cause whatever. There is always a danger of
this in passages of great energy and passion, but it should be
remembered that whatever be the effect aimed at, it cannot be
attained by any means which involves a change in the tone
of the voice. The first and chief consideration must always
be to produce a good tone in the right manner. If the tone
be not good, the singing cannot be agreeable : and if it be not
produced in the right manner, you have no security that it will
be equally good throughout the voice, or in passages of all
kinds.

The changes of sound which are spoken of as " chest,"
"falsetto," and " head " voices are due to changes in the position
of the larynx and its surroundings, and in the action of the vocal
cords. What those changes are, and how or why they cause
the results which we hear, has yet to be discovered ; there are
several theories, but no one has yet ventured to claim the cer-
tainty of truth for any one of them.

The "chest " voice is probably so called because the vibrations
of the notes in that register may be distinctly felt in the chest ;
and because the breath passes directly from the chest, as it

seems, without any opposit'on in the throat, producing the
sound on its way. The "falsetto," or range of notes above
the chest, is so called (and rightly so) because in that register
of voice the tone feigns, or imitates, the tone of the " chest "
notes below, although it is certain that the sounds are not pro-
duced in the same way, for the position of the vocal cords and
their attendant parts is different* and changes suddenly on the
passage of the voice from the chest to the upper register.
A falsetto, rightly trained and used, is one, therefore, which is
true to its name, and so well imitates the "chest," that the
hearer cannot distinguish the "false" from the real "chest
tone." The "head voice," which many people persist in
confusing with the falsetto, is so called because to the singer it
feels as though the notes so produced came from the head.
This is due to the larynx itself rising up in the throat and ap-
proaching the back of the head. It comprises, in reality, all
that part of the voice which lies above the " chest " register,
all the lower part of it being shared by the " falsetto," exactly
as the falsetto shares the greater part of the chest register.
The falsetto, therefore, belongs to both, and its use is to carry,
by its power of imitation, the tone of the lower or chest
register into the upper or head register, so combining them
that no audible change of quality, or " break " is perceptible.

It cannot be too stronf.ly impressed upon, or too frequently
pointed out to, the singer (no matter what may be the stage of
his or her artistic development) how desirable and advan-
tageous it is to be constantly singing exercises and solfeggi in
preference to songs.

Bear in mind, first, all that has already been said here about
taking your breath, the position of standing, the form of your
mouth, and place of throat, tongue, teeth, etc., and study the
following exercises daily, say to the extent of thirty minutes
three times a day, with full attention to all the above points :

— /

— ts> —

r ^

" ?r^

"si.

: C2

m -^

Sing this fully and firmly. It should be begun and ended
with the same quality and " thickness " of sound, as suggested
by the even line over each note. You should be able to hold
each note out in one breath for twenty seconds without the
slightest alteration being preceptible in the tone, any more
than there would be if it was a note proceeding from an organ-
pipe. Practice it on each of the following sounds consecu-
tively : "A"ift"Bard," " A " in " Fate," " E" in " Steel,"
" I " in " Life," " O " in " Pole," " U " in " Rule," prefixing
each sound by L, and so singing Lah, Lay, Lee, Li, Lo, Loo.
In singing this first exercise, which for basses and barytones
will be, of course, an octave lower, be careful not to force the
lower notes, and do not seek to get a powerful tone thereupon.
The tone does not need to be full and heavy on these notes,
but rather should be a WELL-PRODUCED, light, and thin quality
of note. The way to proceed is : (r) To inspire the breath
from the bottom of the lungs as it were — not raising the shoul-
ders. (2) Steady the breath for a second or so in the chest
while you THINK the note you are about to sing, and while
•you prepare your throat and mouth for singing by lowering
the larynx and opening the throat. (3) Then begin to sound

hkr

-<t^

A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS.

163

■^

the note — not from the back of the mouth, but from the tip of
the tongue and the front teeth — thus taking the whole of the
tone out of the mouth, which is what is required to be done.
Sustain the note till you have only a little breath left — then
finish off in a clean manner, and allow the remaining breath to
leave the lungs and body in an orderly way. Repeat the same
operation for every note, and if you desire to make progress,
give a minute's attention of this kind to every single note.

i?2^

22:

— =^2:—=:.

jfs:

■b^-

and so on, rising by semitones until you come to this :

which is certainly the highest that you ought to attempt at
present.

Exercise No. 2 is a first step towards joining notes, and is
another difficulty in the matter of production. The object to
be aimed at is to sing the two notes which are bound (or tied)
together with the same breath, and the same body or quality
of tone. To step from C to E, the first movement in the ex-
ercise, is to raise the voice a major third ; but the student must
pass from his mind any notion of raising the throat in order to
sound the higher third. As the note E is higher than the C,
the tone of the former must be generated lower in the chest
than had been the case with the C. The higher the note to be
sung, the lower must be its generating-point in the chest.
This is the only way to OPEN the voice, and I need scarcely
say that it produces an entirely different tone and method than
are secured by the common habit of screwing and tightening
the throat in proportion as the notes ascend in pitch.

Another good exercise, which may be combined with the
last-given, is the following :
3

r. ^ -. f - ^ 1

— -^

m —

L- «^-

- ^

1— (^J

Lc-iJ

22:

This exercise (3) must be sung in the same manner as indi-
cated with No. 2, care being taken as each note gets higher to
pass under the preceding note, and not, as it were, to gene-
rate a high note over a lower one.

After which you may take this :
4

1-:?"

T^-

J^^^

but sing it very slowly and deliberately, bearing in mind the
production of the high notes.

As you begin to get all these notes firm and round, you may
take these same exercises in D, Dj^, and £[7, but be very care-
ful not to force the upper notes.

—p —

fr\

^,_

-c^»-

-^^

-(^

-<s>-

Exercise 5 is one where the question of the breath and its
proper management becomes of vital importance. The reader
will observe the notes are bound together, and the student's
attention should be turned towards passing from one note to
the other without any appreciable difference in the quality —
we do not say pitch — of the tone. Having inspired in the
manner already explained, the singer will sound the Do with
a pure, sympathetic, not harsh or forced, sound ; and by press-
ing dozvH the breath, will lift the voice on to Re, When he
has succeeded with the step of a second, he can go on to the
step of a third, fourth, etc. The care must be to utilize the
breath, always supporting the tone with the breath. If the
sound wavers, then there is something wrong with the breath.
You are either singing with too little, or are forcing the
breath.
6

I I |-^ ==: -M h^^J - ^

^ g )— g^ttfr ^- lf ^^ IH^ r^'l^

V) J Ji jt rJ-^ ^=y J fl J

And so on.

«7 I

-1-^ 1-

g^=^=^- J= --^^ ■■ =^=r^^— ;jr^

:^^

3=^

±^

'-^-

And so on, descending the scale by semitones.

=2^==^

■tj—^

ici:

-f?^

2i:

B^S

S=^I^S

164

A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SINGERS.

Duration of Practice. — Always guard against over-strain-
ing and over-working the voice. Do not sing or practice for a
longer time than half an hour without allowing the voice rest
for some time. If you have three hours at your disposal daily
to devote to singing, the most economical use of the time is to
divide it equally between the morning, afternoon, and even-
ing.

Singing in Tune. — Whatever be your voice, do not take
for granted that even the possession of a good ear will always
insure your singing in tune. Never practice (nor sing, if you
can help it) with a pianoforte which is not well in tune and
well " up to pitch." And be very constant in practicing in-
tervals, such as major and minor sixths and sevenths, so as to
be able to strike them as perfectly in tune and as unvarying in
quality as the notes of an organ diapason.

Hew to Begin. — Many people never make a good start
when beginning to sing any piece. Now a very good remedy
for a part of this evil is not to prepare yourself loo soon. Use
the bar immediately preceding that in which your part com-
mences to gather up your faculties, and, to use a common
phrase, " to pull yourself together ;" then let the muscles of
the body gently settle down. The ease and freedom acquired
by this momentary call upon the system is very remarkable ;
and for the singer especially the hint cannot be too often acted
upon.

Chorus Singing. — If you are studying seriously for solo
singing, you must discontinue all chorus singing, especially
during training. Singing in church choirs and choral socie-
ties must be abandoned. And this not because there is no
good to be learned there, but because the little good is by no
means commensurate with the great amount of harpi which is
acquired along with the good. To enumerate here all the
evil habits so easily learnt would be impossible. Not the

least of them, however, is the tendency to shout louder than
your neighbor, to use yourself to the bad habits of those on
each side of you ; to produce a bad tone ; to " chop " the pas-
sages instead of phrasing them ; to attack notes carelessly ; to
sing coarsely ; to depend on others ; to get into a machine-
like regularity of rendering the music.

Studying Songs. — Be careful, in studying a new song,
not to waste either time or strength by a trifling and super-
ficial treatment of it. ' ' Whatever is worth doing at all, is
worth doing well." First of all, sol-fa the melody a few
times in a full mezzo-voce. Then study it with rather stronger
tone, paying attention to lights and shades, yet at the same
time being chiefly occupied with the melody itself. Then
make your breath-marks, and adhere to the same unfailingly.
Then sing the melody once throughout, in order to find the
weak places ; having found which, you need no more practice
the whole of the melody, but give all the attention to these
latter phrases. Having mastered these, the melody will be
complete. It will then be necessary to determine where the
notes shall be made to bend into each other, to add the nuances,
a few graceful figures and effects which belong alone to the
true artist.

General Music Study. — If you want to be a good singing
artist, many more things besides singing should be studied.
You should be sufiiciently acquainted with the pianoforte to
play your own accompaniments, even of the most difficult
songs, well enough to get an idea of them. Then a knowl-
edge of harmony, counterpoint, and orchestration is of the
greatest value. The study of the best scores, orchestral and
vocal, should not be neglected, and further, the student
should make himself or herself otherwise familiar with the
rise and progress of the art, by reading all the best books on
the subject, whether historical, critical, or biographical.

HINTS TO STAMMERERS.

165

HE chief difficulty with
stammerers is to enunciate
words or syllables that
begin with a consonant ;
or, in other words, con-
sonant initials. 2. Any
violent effort to speak only in-
creases the difficulty ; therefore
to facilitate this process, speak
slowly, with an affected ease, in a
style approaching to chanting as
distinguished from staccato ; in
other words, let the words flow
out rather than attempt to jerk
them out. 3. When it is recommended to prefix
the sound of e — as in the French words le, de, me,
se, etc. — it is not intended that this sound should
be conspicuous, but inwardly, and little more than
mentally, simply to open the glottis and make a
free passage for the consonant initial succeeding.
4. The letters w, y, and u, as initials, present special
difficulties, which may be obviated by close atten-
tion to what follows. 5. The statement sometimes
made, that no stammerer ever experienced any
difficulty in enunciating a vowel sound, is not true ;
all that can be said is that the chief difficulty is
invariably found with the consonants.

Of course this constant observation of words
about to be uttered is attended by some degree of
mental strain ; but the life of an inveterate stam-
merer is attended by incessant strain from January
to December, and without hope of amelioration : in
the one case the strain is productive of gopd, and
increases confidence ; in the other it is unpro-
ductive, and attended with an amount of mental
misery inconceivable to all but the sufferer.

I. Commencing, then, with a word standing at
the beginning of a sentence or phrase, and having a
consonant initial ; for instance, " My friend who

has just spoken," etc. Here the m of my presents
an insuperable difficulty* but prefix to my the sound
of e, as in the French Avords le, de, me, se, etc. —
inwardly and little more than mentally as already
described — and the my will flow out, and with it,
probably, the whole of the sentence that follows.
Again : " £\ii there is a fatality which attends us,"
etc. The above remarks apply equally to " B\xi "
and the words following ; and the same directions
will apply equally to the following and all other
sentences or phrases having consonant or compound
consonant initials, such as br, pr, dr, si, si, etc.;
"Z?own with tyranny," etc.; "i^rom the beginning,"
etc.; " To infinity," etc.; "iVbw all that has to be
changed, etc.; " Thert is one side of our political
life," etc.; " Thai shewed the power," etc.; "Z>ur-
ing the existence," etc.; "iVbr is that the only mat-
ter," etd?; ybhn, Charles, ^Samuel, 77/omas, Cenesis,
Zeviticus, iVumbers, Z>euteronomy, Arotland, Spam,
etc. For this class of words, the directions for pre-
fixing the sound of e as in the French le, etc., will
prove amply sufficient.

2. Where one or more words, having consonant
initials, stand, not at the beginning but in the body
of a sentence, let the following plan be adopted :
Write the sentence out first in the ordinary way, for
instance, " May he rest in peace." Then divide it
artificially, so as to bring every initial consonant at
the end of a division, thus : " Im-ay heer-est inp-
eace." Practice the reading of this latter form
aloud many, times, studying to make it sound as
much as possible like the original sentence.

In the same way : Time discloses all things — Timed-iscloses
allth-ings. Laws are silent in the midst of arms — Laws ars-
ilent inth-um-idst of arms. Virtue alone is true nobility — Vir-
tue alone istr-oon-obility. Every man has his own pleasures
— Everym-an has his ownpl-easures. I came, I saw, I con-
quered — Ic-ame, Is-aw, Ic-onquered. A rare bird in the
earth, and very like a black swan — Ur-areb-ird inth-e earth
andv-eryl-ike ubi-acksw-on.

■^

i66

HINTS TO STAMMERERS.

Here it must be noted that every sentence, in
speaking or reading, need not be so divided, but
only where an obstacle presents itself ; and this can
mostly be anticipated by the stammerer with con-
siderable certainty ; and further it will be found,
that where some formidable word is conquered in
this way, a whole host of succeeding words will
flow with comparative ease. The above examples
will suffice to give a sufficiently intelligible idea of
the mode of treating words with consonant initials
in the body of a sentence. ,

3. Next among deadly enemies are to be recog-
nized the letters w,y, and u, as initials. Whenever
«/ stands as initial, substitute for it the sound of 00,
as in moon. In this way write out and repeat aloud,
so as to be able to apply it in colloquial speak-
ing : What = oo-ot, when = ooen, why = ooy,
where = ooare, whence = ooence, Watkins = 00-
otkins, wheel = ooeel, window = ooindow, wait =
ooiat, way = ooay, wine — ooine, will = ooil. If
the speaker avoid hanging upon the 00, no peculiar-
ity will be. observed in his pronunciation, and he
will astonish both himself and others by his enuncia-
tion of words of this class. It is a most difficult letter,
and this substitution will be found most effective.

Whenever y stands as initial, substitute for it the sound of
ee, as in bee, see, etc. In this way write out Ind repeat
aloud as before : Young = eeung, yea = eeay, yet = ee-et,
youth = eeooth, yonder = eeonder, Yates = eeates, yeast =
ee-east, yesterday = ee-esterday, Yankee = eeankee, year =
ee-ear, yore = eeore, yacht = eeot.

"Whenever «, having the long sound as in the alphabet,

stands as initial, substitute for it the sound of ee, as in bee,
followed by 00, as in moon. In this way write out and repeat
aloud as before : Universe = eeooniverse, universal = eeooni-
versal, unity = eeoonity, unit = eeoonit, unanimous = eeoon-
animous, unanimity = eeoonanimity, ubiquity = eeoobiquity,
uniform = eeooniform, uniformity = eeooniformity, unicorn
= eeoonicom, usage = eeoosage, usual = eeoosual. usurer =
eeoosurer, usury = eeoosury. etc.

In each of the above cases, the substitution of the
equivalent sounds for w, y, and u affords an amount
of relief almost incredible ; but care must be taken
not to dwell on these substituted sounds, but to pro-
nounce them nearly as one syllable. Practice is in
every case indispensable. Any one so affected will
not grudge the labor of adding to these examples,
and practising the same ; and our conviction is that
he will iind his labor well rewarded. By the adop-
tion of these artifices, I, a deplorable stammerer,
was enabled to accomplish for myself what the most
eminent professors of the day failed in effecting.

To a man who never in his life experienced any
difficulty in saying what he wished to say, doubtless
these directions may appear very superfluous ; but
to one whose daily bread is dependent on a tolerably
distinct utterance, the matter will assume a perfectly
different aspect.

The late Canon Kingsley has touchingly said :
" For the torments I have suffered since I was six
years old, God alone knows or will know — still to
me every stammerer is a friend at once, by unity of
sorrow ; after all, perhaps, the most sacred unity
on earth."

kr-

■^

PENMANSHIP.

I^Lr^^llll?Kg^ll^lLW|llliLf^'fc^^ml-'^a^rt|fc

THE HISTORY OF ITS RISE AND PROGRESS.

fRITING is the art of ex-
pressing ideas by visible
signs or characters in-
scribed on some material.
It is either ideographic
or phonetic. Ideographic
writing may be either pic-
torial, representing ob-
jects by imitating their
forms, or symbolic, by im-
itating their nature or pro-
portions. Phonetic writ-
ing may be syllabic or
alphabetic ; in the former
each character represents
a syllable ; in the latter, a single letter. Of the
origin of this art nothing is positively known. The
Egyptians ascribed it to Thoth ; the Greeks, to
Mercury or Cadmus ; and the Scandinavians, to
Odin.

The first step towards writing was probably the
rude pictorial representation of objects, without any
indication of the accessories of time or place ; the
next, the application of a symbolic signification to
some of the figures, so that the picture of two legs,
for example, represented not only two legs, bat also
the act of walking. Pictures, abbreviated for con-
venience, gradually became conventional signs, and
in time these characters were made to stand for the
sound of spoken language.

The various systems of writing of the ancient
world had probably at least three different sources —
the Egyptian, the Assyrian and the Chinese systems,

all of which were originally hieroglyphic. The Egyp-
tians practiced four distinct styles of writing — the
hieroglyphic, hieratic, demotic or enchorial, and
Coptic. Hieroglyphic writing, which was in use
much earlier than 3,000 B.C., was probably at
first ideographic ; its symbols became gradually used
to represent abstract ideas, and in time acquired a
phonetic value. The phonetic characters are both
syllabic and alphabetic. In the latter, pictoral
figures are used to express the initial letters of the
words which they represent ; for example, the*figure
of an eagle, akhoni^ stands for a, of an owl," mulag,
for ///, etc.

The hieratic writing, which probably came into
use 2,000 B.C., was a simplified form of the hie-
roglyphic style, in which the pictorial symbols de-
veloped through a stage of linear hieroglyph into a
kind of curious hand. The demotic or enchorial
writing was of a still simpler form of the hieroglyphic,
and a nearer approach to the alphabetic system. It
was in use from about the 7th century B.C. till the
2d century A.D., when it was gradually superseded
by the Coptic, which grew out of the hieratic and
demotic under Greek influences.

The Ethiopians also used hieroglyphs similar to
those of the Egyptians, and their current written
language resembled the Egyptian demotic, but its
alphabet had fewer symbols. At a later period a third
graphic system, somewhat analogous to the Coptic,
came into use, which may be called Ethiopic Greek.
With what people the Assyrian Cuneiform or Spheno-
graphic styles of writing originated is not known, but
it was originally without doubt a hieroglyphic sys-
tem, and became gradually modified by the different

4r-

i68

PENMANSHIP.

nations which occupied the Assyrian empire, until it
assumed the form of the present known inscriptions.
There are three classes of Cuneiform characters—
the Assyrian or Babylonian, the Scythian or Median,
and the Persian. The first is the most complicated,

containing from 600 to 700 symbols ; the second is
less complicated, but contains about 100 symbols, or
three times as many as the third, which is almost
purely alphabetic. Of these three original systems,
the Egyptian is by far the most important/for from

its hieratic symbols was probably derived the Phoe-
nician alphabet, the parent of almost all the princi-
pal graphic systems of the world.

The Roman letters were used in Italy until the
latter part of the 6th century, when the Lombardic

style was introduced.
This is also sometimes
called Roman, because
used by the Popes in
their bulls ; it continued
in use until the 13th
century.

The Visigothic style,
carried into Spain by
the Visigoths, was legally
abolished in 1091, and
Latin letters were adopt-
ed for all public instru-
ments. In France the
Merovingian style pre-
vailed from the close of
the 6th century to the
end of the 8th. Char-
lemagne introduced the
Caroline, which, having
degenerated before the
close of the loth century,
was restored by Hugh
Capet, and was subse-
quently called the Cape-
tian. It was in use in
England, France, and
Germany till the middle
of the 12th century,
when the modern Gothic
spread all over Europe.
The present German al-
phabet is a modification
of this.

There are no traces of
writing in Britain before
the Roman conquest,
when Latin letters were
introduced. What is
called the Roman-Saxon, resembling the Roman,
prevailed until the middle of the 8th century ; the
set Saxon succeeded it, lasting until the middle
of the 9th ; this was followed by the nmning-
hand Saxon of the time of Alfred ; the mixed

PENMANSHIP.

169

Saxon, combining the Roman, Lomba^dic, and
Saxon letters ; and the elegant Saxon, wKich was
introduced in the loth century, and did not become
obsolete until the middle of the 12th. The Norman
style, quaint, illegible, affected, and composed of
letters nearly Lombard ic, came in with William the
Conqueror.

The modem Gothic dates in England from the
1 2th century ; the old English, from the middle of
the 14th. The English court had a barbarous cor-
ruption of the Norman, which was contrived by the
lawyers of the i6th century, and lasted till the
reign of George II., when it was abolished by law.

The utmost diversity exists among different
nations in the manner or direction of writing ; but
in general the Semitic races wrote from right to left,
and the Aryan from left to right.

In form ancient manuscripts were either rolls,
volumm'a, or flat pages like our printed books,
codices. The Egyptian papyri are usually in rolls of
an indefinite length, according to the subject
matter, but some of the smaller ones are flat.

The transcripts of manuscripts were committed by
the Greeks and Romans principally to slaves, who
were esteemed of great value when they excelled in
the art. There were also at Rome professional copy-
ists, some of whom were women. About the 5th
century, associations of scribes, who worked under
stringent rules, were formed. In the middle ages
copying was almost exclusively in the hands of
ecclesiastics, who were called clerks, clerici. In the
Imperial library at Vienna is a Roman calendar
executed in the first half of the 4th century. In the
Vatican there is a fragment of a Virgil of the 4th
century. The most ancient manuscripts extant are
the papyrus rolls from the tombs of Egypt, where
the dryness of the climate and of the sand beneath
which they were buried preserved them in an almost
perfect condition for thousands of years.

j^iaiBigBwHSapiB^MH

EGIN with good paper, good pens, good ink.
In a good copy the letters should be of elegant
form, and constructed on natural principles.
Every letter should be as perfect as it is possi^
ble for human skill to execute, that wherever it
occurs it may present an unvarying model to
pupil. The turns and slopes should be alike,
loops of the same length and width, the
proper distances between the letters carefully ob-
served, and shade duly distributed.

Curlicues, flourishes, and ornamental capitals, may delight
an amateur in a show-case ; a thorough business man detests
them in his correspondence. In a lady's writing they are sim-
ply vulgar.

The course of instruction given in the copies should consti-
tute a system, arranged in that order of progression which" is
indicated by a careful analysis of the forms of the letters and of
the powers of the human hand, so that each advance miy pre-
pare the way for the next, and the steps not be farther apart
than the necessities of the case compel. To this end, the
simpler forms should precede the more complex ; the short,
the long. Those that have similar curves and turns and iden-
tical parts should be together. Words should precede sen-
tences. The columns should be first narrow, then broader, to
accustom the hand by degrees to move easily on the given
rests across the longest word. These columnar sections, in-
tended to be written down, are the gradual preparation for
the sentences, which occupy the width of the page. The se-
lection of the words for the columns should be in accordance
with the same principle of progressiveness, — first the easier,
then the more difficult combinations. In them the loops should
so occur that when the copy is written they may be hand-
somely distributed, and the general appearance of the page be
harmonious.

A good paper costs more, but it is indispensable. It should
be tolerably thick, well laid, with a smooth surface, moder-
ately glazed ; so that the ink will not show through when dry,
and that there may be no roughness or little hairs for the pen
to pick up, and that the pen may glide along without jar on
the muscles or nerves of the fingers and hand, — a very impor-
tant consideration now that steel pens are used, as paralysis
has in several instances resulted from their use, and their in-
jurious effect must needs be greater on a rough surface. A
white paper is generally to be preferred to a blue, indeed is
almost invariably used.

The pen should be fine-pointed, so that a good hair-line can
be made, and have a good springy nib, that the shades may
be cleanly cut, and that the writing may not be rendered stiff,
a result inevitably following the use of a " hard " pen. They
should be of a uniform character as much as possible, — not one

PENMANSHIP.

very hard and another very soft. Slight differences cannot be
avoided ; those that vary least are the best, if they are right in
other respects.

A new pen is often greasy, owing to a certain process in the
manufacture, and will not retain the ink. Dip it and raise it
from the ink slowly, then wipe it ; repeat this two or three
times and the trouble will be removed.

Good ink is a very difficult thing to procure. It should be
sufficiently fluid to flow easily from the pen, dark enough to
enable the pupil to see at the time what he is writing, and to
judge of hair-strokes and shades. It must not evaporate
rapidly from the inkstand, nor leave a layer of mud in it ;
neither should it mould. Frost should not affect it. Ink
should stain the paper in order to be permanent. Its color
when thoroughly dry should be a deep black, which neither
time nor exposure to the sun can change.

Pupils will learn by experiment that, if they raise the pen
from the ink suddenly, it will be too full, and apt to blot ; if
very slowly, the attraction of the fluid will leave none in the
pen ; and, therefore, a moderate motion must be used. One
experiment is worth hours of talking. Attention to this will
save many a blot. Cleanliness is as absolutely necessary for
the well-being of the pen as for our own.

Pens should be carefully cleaned at the close of the exercise.
Always dip and wipe a new pen two or three times before it is
written with, or it will be very likely to make a blot. To
avoid the same mishap, the pen should never be wiped on the
outside of the pen-wiper, but always between the leaves of it.
Should the pen-wiper then happen to get on the book, no dam-
age will be done.

A stiff blotter will last the longest, but common blotting-
paper, or a piece of newspaper, or any paper, will answer, not
indeed for blotting, but for the use we now designate. The
copy-book must be kept perfectly clean, and the blotter is to
be used for that purpose. The right hand does not soil the
book, for it rests on the nails of two fingers and only touches
the page with them. It is the left hand that does the mischief.
To obviate it, place the blotter so as to cover each column as
soon as it is dry after being written, and rest the left hand on
that, and not on the page.

iiOiAiAiAtAiAiAiAtAii*^

k k k

Position, Rests, and Movements.

HE immediate human instrument in writing is
the arm. It consists of three parts, the upper-
arm, the fore-arm, and the hand. The two
connections of these are the elbow and wrist.
The arm is attached to the body by the shoulder-
joint. The position of the body must, there-
fore, evidently depend upon the use we wish to
make of the arm and hand. This use, then, must
be determined first. Various ones have been advo-

cated by different teachers. The three following are the most
strongly distinguished ; the others arise from combinations of
two or more of them. First, considering the shoulder as a
point of suspension, and moving the whole arm without any
support and without any motion of the finger-joints. There
are, however, very few who possess sufficient muscular strength
and steadiness of nerve to write thus. It is the true move-
ment for striking large capitals and flourishing. Secondly,
resting the fore-arm near the elbow and on the nails of the
third and fourth fingers, and forming the letters by its move-
ment without any help from the pen-fingers. Thirdly, rest-
ing the fore-arm and hand as in the last, while the letters are
formed by the movement of those fingers only which hold the
pen. This generally leads to a feeble, constrained style.

There Must Be Freedom of Style. — This condition can
only be fulfilled by keeping the arm free from all unnatural
constraint. This precludes it from affording any support to
the body. Again, the letters are to be written across the page
on a horizontal line. A requirement of beauty is that this
line should be straight. This is secured without much diffi-
culty where the base is ruled. The only important thing is to
keep on it. If, now, we take pen in hand, use the elbow,
placed opposite the middle of the page, for a pivot, and move
the hand across, we find that the arc of a circle is described,
touching the base' line in only two points. In the middle it
rises a full half inch above the base line. This is a difficulty
to be overcome. Once more, whilst mere form does not de-
mand consideration here, because readiness in shaping letters
can only be acquired by practice, yet uniformity of slope and
similarity of turns, which are required, will evidently greatly
depend upon the maintenance of the same relative position of
the pen, hand, and fore-arm for each letter. If we now ob-
serve a little farther the movement above described, we find
that in it the position of the hand in relation to each succeed-
ing letter is changed, and assumes a new direction. How can
this difficulty be overcome ? Again, it is clear that we -shall
be able to write much faster, if the pen touches the paper
lightly, than if it presses on it heavily : this also contributes
greatly to freedom of style. Finally, in order to boldness of
style, powerful muscles must, if possible, be brought into play
in aid of the slight muscles of the fingers, while fonning the
letters. This would also help to prevent fatigue. To sum
up, the essentials of the work to be done are : long continu-
ance, freedom, forming the letters on a horizontal straight line
across the page, uniformity of slope and similarity of turns,
rapidity and boldness. The conditions we have found to be
hereby imposed on the arm are : avoidance of unnatural con-
straint, relief of all unnecessary pressure, movement of the
hand and fore-arm across the page with the same relative po-
sition to each letter, and counteraction of the curve arising
from this movement, adequate support, and use of powerful
muscles.

The Human Instrument.— A little in front of the elbow,
at the thickest part of the fore-arm, we find a mass of muscle
If the arm is placed on the desk, suspended from the shoulder,
and resting lightly on this mass as a support, we find an ex-
cellent ability for moving the fore-arm on it with freedom from
left to right and back again, within a certain limited distance.

PENMANSHIP.

IT? '

the muscle rolling under the arm. We will name this support
the tolling rest. It is o£ the highest importance to observe the
peculiar movement of the fore-arm on this rest. It is not to
be so used as that, when the hand passes to the left, the elbow
moves to the right, and vice versa. The fore-arm moves side-
ways as the muscle rolls under it, with sufficient play, when it
is placed at right angles to the base line and opposite the mid-
dle of a word or short clause, to carry the hand across from
one end of it to the other without changing its direction.
Bending the wrist sideways to the right — a most cramping
movement, and painful if frequently repeated — is thus rendered
quite unnecessary, and should be carefully watched against.

By turning the third and fourth fingers under, so that the
hand can rest on the comer of their nails, or, if preferred, on
the little finger only, another support, like the runners of a
sleigh, is provided, capable of moving freely over the paper.
We name this the sliding rest. To. avoid friction, the wrist
should not touch the desk ; by means of the two rests, it may
easily and comfortably be kept a little raised.

These, then, we conceive to be the natural positions and
rests, — namely, the right hand and fore-arm in the same
straight line, at right angles to the line of writing, and oppo-
site the middle of a long word or a clause of moderate length.
The fore-arm is supported on the rolling rest, the hand on the
sliding rest, and the wrist slightly raised.

The left fore-arm and hand are placed at right angles to the
right fore-arm, with the fingers on the blotter, which covers
the part already written, to steady the book, and move it when
necessary. The left fore-arm is therefore in the direction of
the line of writing.

What now are the movements of the right fore-arm and
hand? On the rolling rest the whole fore-arm moves, so as
always to be parallel to its first position, and carries with it the
hand supported on the sliding rest. The rolling rest is sta-
tionary ; the sliding rest glides along the paper on a horizon-
tal line, — that is, parallel to the line of writing : this is its only
movement. The whole fore- arm and hand move gradually to
the right in this way, with a nearly continuous motion, for the
formation of the successive letters, so that their relative posi-
tion to every letter is the same. All stoppages of the nails and
jerks to get the hand forward are to be absolutely forbidden.
This movement of the hand is named the sliding movement ;
the movement of the fore-arm we have named the comital
movement (Lat. comes, a companion), because it accompatiies
the hand.

Since the comital movement is more or less limited, some
further means must be found of keeping the fore-arm and hand
in the right relative position to the letters. Two methods
offer themselves to us for selection. One is, to draw the paper
to the left as we write. The other, which we prefer, is, by
means of a lift from the shoulder, to place the fore-arm and
hand in a position farther to the right : this should be done
only at the end of a word. To distinguish this movement, we
have named it the lateral movement. In performing it, the
hand slides as before. Experiment will now demonstrate that,
by the adoption of the rolling rest and the lateral movement,
the difficulty mentioned above, of the curve formed by the hand
crossing the page, is entirely done away with.

For the attaining of Boldness of Style, the powerful
muscles of the fore-arm must be brought into action by a slight
play of the whole fore-arm forwards and backwards, in direc-
tion of the slope on the rolling rest, over the sliding rest, — a
fixed point, so far as this movement is concerned. This gives
a full heft, through the medium of the hand, to the fingers
which move the pen, and, as a consequence, boldness of style ;
just as a large and massive stone rolling down a hill maintains
its course over considerable inequalities of surface, while the
slightest obstacle diverts a small and light one. This play of
the fore-arm we name the muscular movement. The resulting
play of the hand, as the medium of its transmission to the pen-
fingers, we name the medial movement.

We are now prepared to form a correct judgment as to the
best position of the body for the accomplishing of these move-
ments most naturally, and consequently with the least fatigue.
It may be summed up in two words. The body must be
upright and self-supported. Its relative position to the
desk is a matter of comparative indifference ; only, all the pupils
should conform to one plan. Each position has its advantages
and inconveniences. The simplest division of positions is
twofold ; the right side to the desk, and the face to the desk.

Where we adopt the former, we direct the pupil to turn on
his seat, so that his right side may be directly to the desk with-
out touching ; the body to be erect, and supported by the spi-
nal column ; the left foot slightly advanced. The book is ad-
justed with the back to the front edge of the desk, and at a
two-seated desk, the top edge of one at the outside edge of
the desk, of the other in a line with the inkstand. When
opened, the left side of the page to be written is to be placed
at the edge of the desk. The left hand is brought across, and
the fingers placed on the left side of the page to keep it steady.
The right fore-arm is placed on the desk, parallel with the
front edge. If necessary, from short-sightedness or bad adap-
tation of the height of the seats to the desks, the body maybe
inclined forward from the seat, — never by rounding the back
and contracting the chest, — and the head may be bowed some-
what forward by bending the neck. The advantages of this
plan of seating the scholars are : the perfectly natural position
of the body ; the freedom of the right arm from all avoidable
weight, and its ability to form the movements required ; the
certainty that both rests are on the desk ; and the facility with
which the teacher can look down the files and along the lines
in large classes, and see that every pen is rightly held, and
every movement correctly made. • An objection to this posi-
tion is made on the ground that, in business, when using large
account-books, it is impossible. We reply, that we adopt this
position for learners, because it is very convenient for the
teacher. When the art is acquired, the position becomes com-
paratively a matter of indifference.

Where we adopt the second method of seating, namely, the
body fronting the desk fairly, or with more or less inclination
of the right or left side to it, we take care of these two points :
that both rests of the right fore-arm shall be on and be
kept on the desk, and that the book is at right angles to the
right fore-arm. The following troubles are apt to arise : A
tendency to sprawl over the desk, and, as a necessary conse-
quence, to press the chest against it, — a practice most injuri-

172

PENMANSHIP.

ous. The book gets turned from its proper position at right
angles to the right fore-arm. When writing down a column,
a habit we strongly commend for learners, the book must be
continually pushed up, or the back rest of the arm will get
more and more off the desk. Indeed, pupils are sometimes
found actually resting the wrist on the front edge of the desk.
On the other hand, this is often the only position the seats ad-
mit of ; it is the position that must be adopted, when writing
in large account-books ; and there is no necessity that the
above faults should prevail. They certainly will not under the
care of a faithful teacher. We conclude, then, that the posi-
tion of the body at the desk is matter of indifference, provided
it is upright and self-supported.

The next point which claims our attention is the manner of
holding the pen, and the movement of the pen-fingers. We
have seen that the hand is supported on the sides of the nails
of the third and fourth fingers. Their ends, being bent under,
are separated from the others, and there is room for the execu-
tion of the pen-finger movements. The fingers should touch
one another at the second joints, as far as the shape of the
hand permits : this gives unity and support.

The pen is held by means of the thumb and the first and
second fingers. Place the right extremity of the holder against
the left side of the second finger just below the nail ; the end
of the finger will thus be above the pen. Next, adjust the
holder obliquely across the left side of the third portion of the
first finger, just behind the second jomt, the middle finger be-
ing at the same time slightly bent. The first two portions of
the forefinger may now be closed down on the holder, which
will be found to cross and touch them diagonally. The first
and second fingers touch throughout. Next, let the upper cor-
ner of the fleshy part of the thumb, near the nail, be placed,
by slightly bending the thumb, against the lower half of the
left side of the holder, opposite the first joint of the middle
finger, and the pen will be found in a secure and natural po-
sition, both for extension and retraction. It will be observed
that we have given the medium position of the pen. The fin-
gers and thumb with the joints slightly bent outwards, straight-
ening them would extend the pen ; bending them still more
would retract it. The pen is really held between three
points, — the side of the end of the second finger, the side of
the third portion of the first finger behind the second joint in
front of the knuckle, and the side of the end of the thumb.
The first finger is like the lid of a box placed on it to keep
the pen from jumping out ; it is also the principal agent in ef-
fecting the pressure for the shades. As to movement, the
thumb may be regarded as a spring. The first and second
fingers, by contraction of their muscles, press against it ; we
relax its muscles, and it yields by bending : thus the downward
strokes are made. By relaxing, in turn, the muscles of the
fingers, and straightening the thumb by calling its muscles
into action, it pushes back the fingers, and the up-strokes are
formed. The movement is twofold and alternate, extending
and retracting, to form oblique lines, ovals, or horizontals.

The pen must be held with the least possible grasp. It is
to be at right angles to the base line, and thus in a line with
the fore-arm. Great care must be taken to guard against a
wrong position of the hand and pen. The pen must be so held

that the right side is turned a little down, so that the right nib
touches the paper first when the pen is put down. With this
right nib the hair-strokes are made. The nibs, so to speak,
are at right angles to the slope ; not horizontal. By this means
the shades can be made smooth. When it is neglected, the
shades will be " scratchy," or rough on one side. A glance at
the holder tells the teacher in a moment if the hand is right.
With beginners, it will be found almost as variable as a weath-
ercock. Now it is inclined to the right, showing that the hand
is lying down, — a fault requiring constant watchfulness, and
arising from neglect of the comital movement of the fore-arm ;
now to the left, showing that the hand is turned too far over
in that direction. Now the end points outwards, showing the
elbow has got away ; again, it points inwards, showing that
the wrist is bent to the right.

The body with the right side to the desk, or directly facing
it, or with either side more or less turned to it. It is to be up-
right and self-supported.

The fore-aims rest lightly on the desk at right angles to one
another. The right is supported by the rolling rest, and the
hand by the sliding rest. The left arm has the fingers on the
left side of the book, to steady it and to move it when neces-
sary. The copy-book is placed with its vertical lines in the
direction of the right fore-arm, and its horizontal lines in that
of the left. It must be kept far enough on the desk to allow
the rests also to be on. This position of the book at right
angles to the right fore-arm is invariable, whatever direction
the arm may be in on the desk.

The rolling rest is the muscle in front of the elbow ; the
sliding rest, the comers of the nails of the third and fourth
fingers bent under.

The movements of the fore-arm are three. The comital,
which accompanies the sliding movement of the hand, and is
made sidewise on the rolling rest. The muscular, which
causes the medial movement of the hand, and gives heft to the
pen-fingers. It is a play of the arm forwards and backwards
on the rolling rest. The consequent medial movement of the
hand is made over the sliding rest, of which the only move-
ment is in a horizontal line. The lateral is the lifting and
moving the whole fore-arm and hand to the right : it is ren-
dered necessary by the limited scope of the comital.

The simplest movement for beginners is to form the letters
by the motion of the fingers, moving the hand and arm along
by the united sliding and comital movements, which should be
nearly continuous. When thoroughly familiar with these, after
considerable practice, the medial and muscular movements
may be added to give freedom and boldness of style. The
lateral will not be needed until sentences are written.

The movements of the pen fingers are in different directions,
by extension and retraction : thus are written oblique straight
lines ; ovals, direct, inverted, and alternate ; and horizontal
lines. The shades are made by pressure. As to these, great
care is needed. They must be made in ovals, with a gradual
increase and diminution of pressure. The usual fault is to
make them too abrupt, or with the greatest thickness too long
continued. The moment the thickest point is reached, the
pressure should begin to diminish. Special directions are
given in the analysis of the letters, where needed.

-4

PENMANSHIP.

»73

£leifi)eK)fe ^K)S ^lriK)cij}le3.

■^rF^*^>;

'ORDS are represented in writing by a single
letter, or by a combination of letters. Letters
are complex ; they can be resolved into forms
common to several of them : thus, the form
repeated in u is found also in i and 10 ; or,
they are expressed by one such form as /, found
in g and y. In some there are parts not found
in any other.

In writing, the letters are placed on horizontal lines,
either ruled or imaginary. Some of the letters and parts of
others are longer than the rest. The letter 0, which is the pure
oval, is taken as the standard of size. We name the line on
which the writing rests the Base Line. Suppose a line parallel to
this to be drawa so as to touch the top of the o. This, whether
ruled or imaginary, is named the Head Line. The distance
between the base and head lines is called one space, and gives
the height of the first four principles, wherever they enter into
the formation of letters. The dot of the r, the point of the
s, the top of the second part of the k^ are one-third of a space
higher.

Suppose, now, six lines parallel to the base line to be drawn,
three above the head line, and three below the base line, at
intervals equal to the first space. We shall have eight par-
allel lines bounding seven equal spaces in a vertical direction.
We call the middle space the first ; the next above and below,
the second ; the next, the third ; and the last, the fourth.
One of these spaces is taken for the unit of measurement.

Rule. — Loop letters are four spaces, and double loops seven ; / and d
two and a half, q three and a half,/ five, two above and two below the
first space. All the rest are one space, except r, j, and the second part
of k. which are one and a third.

The capitals are four spaces.

It will be observed that/i long j, and / extend as far above the first
space as they do below ; and that the top of / is a little higher than that
of t and d. and the bottom oi g ■&. little lower than that of/.

The commencing and ending lines of the letters are always to begin
and terminate at the biise and head lines respectively.

There are two grammatical divisions of letters, distinguished
by their forms : the small letters, which form the main body
of writing, and the capitals, which are used on special occa-
sions. We shall begin with the analysis of the small letters,
because they occur oftenest and because their forms are sim-
pler. We shall not take them up in their alphabetical order,
but in that which gives the easiest first, and shows their simi-
larity, arising from the possession of common principles.
This is the method adopted in our copy-books, in order to
render our system of teaching gradually progressive.

4r-

THE CAPITAL LETTERS.

General Rules.

The height of the capitals is four spaces, the same
as the loop letters.

A. This letter has three parts. The first part is generally written
upwards, the upper curve very slight. The second part is very slightly
curved to one-third from the top, then it is a straight line, of which the
shade gradually increases. The third part is the cross. It starts -from
the right foot, coincides for a half space, crosses to the left and forms a
loop, the center of which is one-third the height of the letter, and on the
double curve line. A line from the top through the center of the letter
would be on the main slope ; hence it will be seen that the second part,
or down-stroke, has a little less than the main slope, the first part a little
more. Observe that the width of the letter gradually increases from the
top to the base, and regulate the first up-stroke accordingly.

N. This letter consists of three parts. The first two are the same as
in A^ except in slope ; at the bottom of the second a very narrow turn
is made, and and a curve carried up from it, parallel to the first up-
stroke, four-fifths the height of the letter. The spaces on a horizontal
line across the middle are equal. The shade begins as in /4, and is
heaviest just before the turn. A line drawn through the centre of the
letter, dividing it into two equal lateral halves, would be on the main
slope. Observe the gradual increase and diminution of width in the
two sections. See the cautions on A .

M. This letter has four parts. The first three are the same as N^ ex-
cept that the third stroke is carried to the full height. The fourth part
is curved from the top, and closes with the direct oval. Observe the
shades carefully. A line through the centre, dividing the letter into
equal lateral halves, would be on the main slope. The viridths at the
top and the two at the base are equal. On a horizontal line through the
middle there are three equal spaces.

T has two parts. The strongest curve is in the lower section. There
is no shade except in the third principle and dot.

F'\^ T crossed in the middle by a small double curve placed horizon-
tally, which is itself crossed by a small straight line on the main slope.

P. This letter has two parts, the stem and the cap. It is on the main
slop)e. The cap begins with the inverted oval, two-thirds the height,
on the main slope, crossing the stem at right angles, the highest point
of the cap being in the middle of the line between the section of the
oval and the stem ; it is continued with the right curve, and terminates
on the stem in a dot at half the height of the letter. On the short di-
ameter of the first oval produced to the stem, there are four equal
spaces ; on a parallel line from the left curve of the oval crossing the
stem to the other curve, two equal spaces. A line on the main slope
through the oval would pass through the dot.

B. The stem and cap are like/", only that the right si je is carried
down one-third instead of a half, and the dot is omitted. The separa-
tion between the upper and lower sections of the right side is made by
a horizontal loop. The lower curve ends with the inverted oval. A
straight line drawn on the main slope, touching the right side of the
upper curve, would pass through the center of the lower oval ; the
lower right curve, therefore, projects beyond the upper. Across the
first oval to stem on its short diameter produced, there are four equal
spaces similarly as to the last oval, three. On a parallel line from the
right side of the first oval to the right side of the upper lobe, there are
two equal spaces.

R is like B as far as the separating loop, which is here made at right
angles to the main slope. After that the descending curve is turned
back to finish with the direct oval. Across each of the two ovals to the
stem on their short diameters produced, there are four equal spaces.
On a parallel line from the right side of the first oval to the right side
of the upper lobe there are two equal spaces. A line on the main slope
through the oval would pass through the dot.

X. The capital-stem is made first, writing downwards. Then the in-
verted oval and direct oval joined by a straight line on the main slope.
The two parts of the letter coincide through half the height, commenc-
ing at one-fourth from the top. Across the ovals there sire four equai
spaces The remark on the dot applies also.

174

PENMANSHIP.

S. Begin from base line with the rijjht curve on the slope of the con-
necting lines to half the height of the letter, then form a loop on the
main slope, half the height, complete a double curve, and end with a
dot on the commencing line. The dot is half a space high, and on the
main slope. The double curve h the essential part of tiiis letter. No-
tice how the loop is formed on the upper part, and the greater intensity
of cur\e is on the lower part. Let the shade begin just below the loop,
and be nicely graduated. Give much attention to the lower turn and the
dot. An oblique line through the loop lengthwise has similar curves
formed on the double curve, on the upper left and lower right side.

L. This letter begins like 5, but the double curve, instead of making
a turn to end with the dot, is carried to the left to form a horizontal
loop, v/hich rests on the base line, and whose thickness is half a space ;
it descends on the right side to touch the base line at precisely the same
distance from the crossing as on the left side, and ends with the direct
oval incomplete. The lower curve of the stem is stronger than the
upper. It will be observed that the upper curve of the horizontal loop,
and the curve to the right which touches the base line, together form a
double curve. The right section only of the direct oval is used. The
shade begins as in the S, below the loop. The bottom of this letter,
which may be termed the /.-foot, occurs also in Z>, Q, and one form of
Z. Take care that the direct oval is made on the main slope.

/. Begin v/ith the left curve at the height of one space from the base
line, carry it round to the right to form a circular loop, and continue to
curve to the height of the letter. The second part of the capital-stem
and dot passing through the center of the circular loop, whose center is
also in the middle of the stem. Take care that the upper part of the
head is not made too broad. Modify the curve gently to accord with
the upper part of the stem.

y. This letter begins as the /, but the circular loop is not so high;
its lov/cr curve is one space from the base line, and the double curve is
carried dov.-n to form a loop, the same length as j\ three spaces belov/
the line. The left curve of the loop crosses at the base line. A line
through the length of the loop should pass through the upper part of
the letter. Notice the slight intensity of the curve in both parts of the
stem. The heaviest shade is in the middle of the right side of the loop.
The loop is one space wide.

//. The commencement is the third principle. Next, the double curve
with a loop, the hair-stroke of v/hich is carried across and upwards, on
the sane slope, to form another loop similar to the first ; this side is
finished virith the direct oval. The first section is a little lower than the
second, which is the full height. The middle of the hair-line between
the two stcns is half the height of the letter ; hence each loop is a little
less than hclf the height. An oblique line through the center, dividing
the central space equally, would be on the main slope. The width be-
tween the down-strokes at the middle is one space. The second loop is
longer than the first.

IC. The first part is T. The second part consists of the left curve
turned back to make a small separating loop, then continued symmet-
rically with the upper part, and closed v/ith the direct oval. The sepa-
rate curve is inclined as in i?, and is one-third the height of the letter
from the top. The slope is the same as in //.

y. Commencement. Next, down-stroke straight, shaded heaviest
near the turn, which is narrow, like those of the small letters. Then,
up-stroke parallel to previous one, branching off into the left curve,
and terminated at the same height as the top of the introductory part.
An oblique line through the centre, dividing the letter into two equal
parts, would be on the main slope.

/K. Commencement. Next, double curve down, ending on the base
line ; then, double curve up with more slope. The second down-stroke
is like the second of A , very slightly curved one-third, and then straight.
The final stroke is the left curve, as in N. The spaces on a horizontal
line drawn through the middle of the letter are equal. A line from the
middle point at the top through the center of the letter would be on the
main slope.

Z. Gimmencement. The dov/n-stroke and foot like Z^, except that
the lower curve of the stem is a little less intense. It has the main slope.

D. This letter begins v>rith the double curve, commenced at the
height of the letter ; its foot is like that of L until it touches the base
line on the right side, whence it is carried up as the right side of an
oval, crosses the stem near its top, and ends with the direct oval. The
highest part of the letter is well in front of the stem.

Q. Begin with the inverted oval, and end like L. The oval is on the
main slope.

C. Begin with the left curve from the base line to half the height ;
next, make a loop half the height ; end with the direct oval. Take care
that the loop does not pitch over too much. It necessarily has more
than the main slope.

£. Begin with the left curve a little distance from the base line, carry
it two-thirds high, and make a loop one-third ; continue the curve to
form a small separating, nearly horizontal, loop to the right, and close
with the direct oval. The separating loop is a little inclined down tc»
the right, to correspond to the lower oval.

G. Begin with the left curve ; then, a loop two-thirds the'height ol
the letter ; continue the down-stroke as the bottom of an oval, whose
width is twice that of the loop, the bottom of t.he turn being one-fourth
from the base line. End with a double curve and dot : the double curve
is half the height of the letter. Both parts of the letter are on the main
slope. A line through the length of the loop would pass through the
dot.

V. This letter begins with the inverted oval, continues like third
principle to one-fourth from the base line, but the lower turn much
narrower than the upper, and ends with the double curve and dot ;
height, two-thirds.

U. Begin with the inverted oval ; continue as V, except that it rests
on the base line. The second part is a straight line ending with a di-
rect oral. The top of the second part lower than that of the first. Its
width is two spaces.

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(^^^^^LASSIFICATION relates to the arrangement
of the letters in groups, according to their pos-
session of common forms. Since every letter
must have something peculiar to distinguish it
from others which have a common principle,
classification includes a description of this peculi-
arity, which is termed the characteristic.

CLASSES OF SMALL LETTERS.

The most natural and convenient division of the small letters seems to
give four classes. Some letters will be found to belong to t\vo of them.
The reason of the position here assigned is obvious.

First Class.— Those letters which consist chiefly of the first, second,
and third principles, ?', u^ «, w?, v^ w, x.

Second Class.— Those formed from the oval, or the fourth principle,
^, rt, c, e.

These two classes contain all the short letters except two.

Third Class.— Those which have stems formed of the first element,/,
q, i, d. These are called the Stem Letters.

Fourth Class.— Those which have the fifth and sixth principles,^,*,
/, ^,y, ^, ^, 2,y, long s. These are the Loop Letters.

Besides these, there are two letters whose forms are anomalous, r, j.

CHARACTERISTICS.

The characteristics of the letters are as follows :

In the First Class. Of /, one straight line with tur-n at the bottom and
the dot above it ; — of u, two straight lines with turns at the bottom ; —
of «, two straight lines with turns at the top /—of ;«, three straight lines
with turns at the ioJ> ; — of », its two nearly parallel sides and the dot ;—

A2y.

y^a/.

/^??^^«?2^^;^^i^f?^>%^i^^%^is

PENMANSHIP.

of TV, its alternately parallel sides and the dot ; of jr, the straight line
forming the cross.

In ihe Second Class. Of o, the oval ; — of a, the addition of the first
principle ;— of c, the dot ; — of e, the loop.

In the Third Class. Of/, the third principle affixed; — of 7, the fourth
principle prefixed -.—of /, the cross j— of d, the fourth principle prefixed
to the /-stem without the cross.

In the Fourth Class. Of A, the third principle affixed; — of A, the knot
or kink ;— of /, the turn at the bottom ; — of 6, the parallel sides of the
lower part and the dot ; — of/, the dot ; — of g, the fourth principle pre-
fixed ; — of ^, the third principle prefixed ; — of z, the second principle and
shoulder ; in the other form, the zig-zag \—oiy, the knot.

In the anomalous letters. Of r, the dot and shoulder ; — of s, the twist
on the right side.

OF CAPITALS.

We give the Capitals in the order of their introduction. O, — A , N, M,
—P, F-P, B, R, X,-S, L—T, 7—H, K—V, ^K-Z, D, Q—C, £—G,
K, I/.

OCCURRENCE OF PRINCIPLES.

The capital-stem, or line of beauty, ending with a dot, occurs in four-
teen letters, A , TV, Af, T, F, P, B, P, X, S, I, /C, G, Y.

The capital-stem is written :—
Generally upwards and light, in three letters, A, N, M.
Downwards and light, in eleven letters, T, F, P, B, P, X, H, A', H^,

Z,D.
Downwards, light and short, in two letters, G, V.
Downwards and shaded in the lower curve, in three letters, /, Z, 5.
Downwards, prolonged into a loop, shaded on the right side, in one
letter, J.

The third principle of small letters is used for the commencement of
seven letters, T, C, //, X, V, IV, Z.

The direct oval, when of full size, forms the O.

Four-fii'ths of the vertical height, it is the end or front of D.

Half the height, it terminates eight letters, >1/, /?, A', H^ X, C, E, U.

One-third the height, it ends Z,, Z, Q.

The inverted oval, two-thirds the height, commences seven letters,
P, B, P, X, Q, U, Y.

Half the height it ends one letter, B.

A curve and circular loop are used for the head of /, %

The loop, half the height of the letter, is found in six letters, 5", L, J,
H, C, G; one-third the height, in E.

The knot, kink, or small separating loop, is found in three letters, .5,
Py K ; turned in the opposite direction, in E.

The horizontal loop, or Z-foot, is found in four letters, Z., Z>, Q, Z.

The first element, very slightly curved to one-third from the top, is
found in A , N, M, IV; straight throughout, and closed by a turn, in V.

Combination of Letters.

OMBINATION treats of the arrangement of
letters in words at proper distances. This is
generally spoken of as Spacing. It is effected
f^'|3 by the connecting lines of the two letters run-
I ning into one another, and thus forming one line,

which may be distinguished as the Combining Line.
Good taste requires that the letters in a word
should look about the same distance apart ; in other
words, that the space on the line which the word occupies

should be evenly filled. If this is neglected, the writing will
look "patchy," — crowded in one place, scattered in another.
We propose, therefore, to give rules for these distances, and
to point out the reasons on which they depend.

Every letter ends with a straight line, having a diagonal
connecting line with a turn, as u, or without a turn, as/, q;
or is an oval with a horizontal connecting line ; or is open on
the right side, as c and e. Every letter begins with a straight
line, having a diagonal connecting line without a turn, as u, h,
p, or with a turn, as n, y ; or is an oval, as, o, a ; or is open
on the left side, as j, in which the up-stroke is merely the con-
necting line. The combinations of these different classes of
letters may be determined by the following rules :

Rule i. — When tv/o straight lines, or a straight line and an oval, are
tmited by one turn and a combining line, or by a combining line only,
the distance between them is one space, the height of o; as «V, «/, 7/,
ill, ip; JO, ie: gi,go, qn, etc. Between is, us, etc., the distance is really
the same, because the width of j equals that of o.- bat since we have to
measure to the right side, it is a space and a half.

Remark — In if, ih, ip, where the combining line joins the straight
line at one-half, one-third, and the top, respectively, the distance is kept
by giving less slope to the combining line. In^/, y«, etc., the same
means are used.

Rule 2. — When two straight lines are united by two turns and a
combining line, the distance is one space and a half ; as, in, ir, nu, my,
pn, etc.

Remark.— This gives room enough to make the turns properly, and
the line crossing diagonally prevents the distance from seeming too
wide.

Rule 3.— When two ovals, or an oval and a straight line, are united
by a combining line only, or by a combining line and turn, the distance
is three-quarters of a space ; as, 00, oc, od, ba, ve, wo ; oi, ot, oh , op, vi :
on, zin, etc. The last part of ^, z/, to, is equivalent to the oval. In os Hie
distance is really the same, since s is the width of o.- but as we measure
to the right side, it is a little more than one space.

Remark.— A full space for the distance mentioned in the first part of
this rule would be too much, because, as the connecting line is horizon-
tal, there is nothing to disguise it. We have, therefore, to bring the
main lines nearer.

Rule 4.— When c or e precedes a letter beginning like «, or an oval,
the distance is one space and a half ; as, ci, ei, d, el, cp ; co, eo, ce, ee,
etc.

Remark.— The distance in this case is measured from the left side of
the c and e, and is crossed by the combining line diagonally.

General Remark —The combining line does not have an invariable
slope, but is determined by the necessities arising from the rules of
combination.

Rule 5— Words are written about one space apart. This, however,
depends very much on whether we wish to give the writing a free or a
condensed appearance.

1/U

AN EASY LESSON IN PHONOGRAPHY.

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AN EASY LESSON

8|©n©5rap|i|, ©r S|©ri-J|and[

^E need not dwell on the value and advantages of
short -hand. Every boy who learns it has a twofold
III II advantage over those who do not, whether he goes to
college or at once enters into business-life. The col-
v'D legian can take down a full report of his professor's
lecture, while his fellow-students have only rough and
often unintelligible notes.

The young man who goes to learn a business, whether me-
chanical or commercial, takes down in a moment instructions
givfn, conversations, examinations, details of any machine,
method of Avorking, etc. There is no walk in life in which it
does not come into play.

It looks diihcult to many, but is really easy to acquire.
The following is the phonographic alphabet :

\^ I I

Pee Be© Tee Deo

/ /

Chay Jay Kay Gay

T Th Th S Z

B JB M N Ng

V V ( { ) ) . J J

"Ef Vee Ith Dhee Es Zee Iss Ish Zhay

r ^ / ^ ^ ^ \ r ^

Lay Ar Ray Em En lag Way Yay rfay

The letters for which the above signs etand are :
PB t"d ChJ RO

Observe the double consonants, ch, th, /A, sh, zh, ng.

Th is used in words like think, thought^ youth ; th in words
like thcu, they, them. One is a light the other a heavy sound.
Sh, in words like hush, cash ; zh, as in pleasure, measure.
Curved R is used in words ending in JR ; straight line R when
commencing a word, and a vowel follows after. The circle
.S begins or ends a word.

The printed names, Pee, Bee, etc., under the signs, are the
sounds of the letters, for convenience in talking and writing
about them. The naming of signs is called the nometiclature ;
and it is very necessary to attend to that, as well as to the let-
ters for which the signs stand. The great value of the no-

menclature in describing the Phonography will appear as we
proceed with the lessons.

Remember each one of these signs is a part either of
a circle, or a straight line, perpendicular, horizontal, or diago-
nal. Imitate the cut as near as you can, in length and in
depth of pressure on the heavy letters. The use of heavy let-
ters simplifies the alphabet, making a few directions answer
double purpose. Continue to repeat your copying or reading
of the signs, sounds, and letters (it is best to read aloud as you
write), until you can skip about, and by covering up the signs,
write them from the print from memory, or covering the
print, read the signs. All the heavy signs, perpendicular or
diagonal, must be written from top to bottom ; all the horizon-
tal lines, heavy and light, from left to right,

Learn this alphabet thoroughly before you go on. If you
learn it in a week, you will do as well as many of the smartest
reporters did when they began to learn it. So get around
your center-table and see who learn it first.

Above we give you the Phonographic alphabet, condensed —
in fact, all the consonants in the language in a " nutshell." You
will find it handy for easy reference. (Patent not applied for.)
If you have not mastered the letters as presented, by all means
continue your study and practice by reading, writing, and
sounding them, until you can call them one by one, not only
in regular order, but by skipping, and immediately on sight.

This cut represents the shape, but not the relative length.

Lialf

»' ;«v

N^. Or ' ^

/^o

KNIA

AN EASY LESSON IN PHONOGRAPHY.

177

All the letters, light and heavy, should at first be written of
the same length — that is, about one-quarter of an inch long.
You will notice the letters which are of the same form or di-
rection, but which differ in depth and name, are placed op-
posite each other, so that you can compare the single and
double letters more easily. It can also be studied upside down,
or sidewise, or two students may study it at the same time
while sitting opposite one another. The cut might be made a
little more complete by placing the circle letter s in the center.
The rest is composed of four circles.

Supposing, now, that you have learned the single letters, we
proceed to give you a few examples of joining letters :

•pp pt pch pg pi) pd pj pJc

tp tt tch tg tb td tj tk

chp cbt chch chg clib chd chj chk

:::<0i.7Z. ZSO1.ZL—

kp ggtgch gg gb gd gj gk

..VV>.N-\-^....>..X_

top bt bch bg bb bd bj bk

In like manner take some ruled paper and pen (which is

better than pencil), and write the following, which you will see
is a continuance of the order in the second cut, commencing
with p, etc., joining the next letter on the right, until we come
around to the letter from which we started. Let the first
perpendicular letter come down to the line, and the rest fol-
low. If horizontal, let the secojtd letter rest on the line.
Write : '

dch, dg, db, dd, dj, dk,

jch, jg, jb, jd, jj, jk,

kch, kg, kb, kd, kj, kk,

chm, km, bm, dm, jm,

chn, kn, bn, dn, jn,

tth, chth, kth, bth; dth, jth,

chs, ks, bs, ds, js, etc.

It would be easier, perhaps, -if a hyphen (-) were placed be-
tween the single and the double letters, but if you are familiar
with the alphabet you need not make a mistake, and try to
write three letters in the above instead of two.

Now, let us skip a little, and write three letters together :

dp,

dt,

JP.

jt.

kp,

kt,

pm,

tm,

pn,

tn,

pth,

tth,

ps,

ts,

kmt,

mnt,

mlt, Itn,

ntl, tin.

tkk,

mkt.

nkt, kpl,

itl, nit,

vnt,

snp,

. shrp, Irn,

hng, etc.

The proper place for using the two kinds of R, sh, and
circle S, will be fully explained in our next. A good long

drill on the letters will do you immense service before you take
up the vowels to make words. So take the examples above,
and practice, practice, until you can read the letters at sight,
and write them from dictation.

If you have had any difficulty in making any of the single
or joined letters, so far, let us know, and we will answer as
soon after as possible.

Ish (sh) is generally written downward ; Shay {s/i) upward ;
Ar (r) is written downward ; Ray (r) upward ; Lay (1) upward,
and commences a word ; but if the vowel comes before it in
the spelling. El (/) is written instead, and downward. The
circle S (iss) may either commence, occur in the middle, or at
the end of a word. It also stands for Z. The words in which
it happens will not be confounded, as there is but little differ-
ence in the sound. Ch (ay) is always written downward, and
a little more straight up than R (ay), which is always written
upward and slanting to the right. If you try it you will no-
tice how natural it is for you to make the distinction. G (ay)
is the only letter that does not come under the rule that all the
heavy letters are to be written downward, and that, of course,
like all other horizontal letters, is to be written from left to right.
Make your heavy signs heavy enough to show the difference
between the light and heavy ones, and let them taper from and
to a fine point gradually. Do not take off your pen or pencil
between the letters in joining them. Double straight strokes
should be made the full length of two single ones, as tt, kg,
etc.

In reading the joined signs, commence with the letter on
the left and top, thus : t-ch, not rt. H (ay) is always written
upward. S-h (not sh) is made with the hook part of H
changed into a circle,

We trust you may understand the remarks without giving
you engraved examples in all cases. H (ay) and R (ay) are
both written in the same direction.

Now we give you a Vowel Scale, which you must learn be-
fore you begin to make up words. The straight up t sign in
this table has no value as a letter, and is used only to show the
place of putting the vowel, Jirst, second and third place.

The regular vowels, a, e, i, o, u, are not sufficient for all
the sounds of the language, so they are left out in the cold for
the present, and the following, with the rest that will appear
in our two next, are substituted :

LONG VOWKLS.

AB in eat, ate,

.___!

ate achs aim eel awl ear oar
tea key may lay law raw row

pour poor sheep shape four shave school
In like manner, write, and read aloud as you write : Ape,

178

AN EASY LESSON IN PHONOGRAPHY.

.....J

as in it

EHOET

VOVBtSi

:....

1 e a

t get hat

got

hut

footi

or, more simply, •without reference to words,
eounds : it, ct, at, ot at, cot.

ope, pa, paw, ate, ought or aught, oat, taw, to or toe, too, age,
jay, jaw, Joe, Jew, ache, oak, key, caw, coo, be or bee, bay,
bow or beau, each, chaw, chew, chcose, me, ma, maw, mow,
own, oath, ace, ail or ale, all, lo, lieu, foe, she, Shae, shawl,
shoe, eve, we, way, woe, woo, ye, yea, you.

This cut shows the vowels that occur in many words of the
language, and are called the lon^ vowels. Study the power
of each vowel sign, by reference to the word underneath it, un-
til you can detect the long vowels in any other word you may
read. The exercise will improve your pronunciation of words.
The long sound of e is placed in the beginning of every let-
ter, in the first place, either before or after the letter ; the a
sound is put in the middle, or second place, before or after the
letter ; and the ah sound in the third place, before or after.
So with the au, o, 00. Placed before the better or letters, the
vowel is read first ; placed after, it is read after ; placed above
a horizontal letter, the vowel is read first ; placed under the
letter, it is read after.

If you commence the making of the letters from the top
down, you begin to place the vowels from the top ; if the let-
ter is slanting and upward, you reckon the positions from the
bottom, or where you commenced.

The stroke vowel signs must be written at right angles to
the letter to which it belongs.

The double vowel letters must be pronounced together, as
au (awe), not a-u,oo (as in food), not double 00.

The letters must be made first, and vowels put in afterward.
Take all the consonants you can beginning with p or t, one
at a time, and write the first place vowel e befo7e it, until you
go all round the circle. Then take the same consonants,
one by one, and place the same first vowel e after it, until you
complete the circle again. Then take the second \o\w&\ sound
a and use it in the same manner. In every case be sure to
sound the letter and vowel together, whether it happens to
make a 7vo>d or not. This will give you plenty of exercise,
interesting and instructive. If necessary, get some one to
show you how to commence.

Then pick out all the words you can in this reading matter
which contain one or more long vowel sounds, and if they
have no sound different from those in the words under the
above scale, write them on paper, first the English word, and
under it the Phonographic consonant outline, with the vowel
properly placed.

Don't be alarmed at the task. The first principles are
always the hardest, but the art becomes easier as you learn to
understand it.

Taking it for granted that you have learned the rules for
writing the long vowels according to the scale, in proper po-
sition, first, second, or third place, heavy dot or heavy dash,
before or after the letters, we proceed to give you the scale of

pit pot pat top tap rich . chaprr
iellow berry merry marry lively Sunday Monday*

Mary, Johnnie, Sammy, Thomas, Billy, Joseph, Ella,

You will see the short vowels follow the same arrangements of
the long vowels in position, are somewhat alike in make and
sound, only the short vowels are more quickly and more lightly
spoken.

Study this table also until you can pick out the words in the
reading matter of any paragraph or column , whether the words
contain long or short vowels, or both, and by the aid of your
acquaintance with the full Alphabet, and vowels of both kinds,
write them all in correct phonographic (short-hand) characters
and without much time to study over it.

The t sign before which the short vowels in the table are
placed, has no value as a letter, but is to show the relative po-
sitions of the vowels to any consonant, whether written before
or after, at the beginning, in the middle, or end of a letter or
letters.

Referring to the table when necessary, copy, and read as
you write, the above exercise with the short vowels.

In like manner write, and read aloud as you do so, the fol-
lowing words : Pick, peck, pack, peak, peach, poach, putty,
tick, tack, tuck, took, touch, tip, top, tug, chick, check, cup,
kept, cage, catch, cut, cud, bit, bid, biddy, budge, back, book,
jot, jet, map, met. Mat, Mattie, mud, muddy, mint, meant,
among, nothing, fish, ship, shape, shop. Some of these words
you must write with three letters.

Take the reading matter in this lesson, or any other print on
this page, pick out all the words you can that have cither or
both sets of vowels, and write them out, first the consonant
outline, then fill in the proper vowels. A great many words
you will find have a kind of double vowel sound. These you
can skip until a more convenient season.

Now we conclude this lesson with the rule for placing the
vowels, in writing words.

First position vowels (long or short) are written after the
first consonant.

Second position vowels {long) are written after the first con-
sonant ; if short, before the second consonant.

Third position vowels (long or short) are written before the
second consonant.

You have a first-rate chance for practice in your every-day
schools, public and private : that is, you can use the big black-
board and chalk during recess, or before or after school hours.
Besides, the beautiful, mysterious, puzzling signs will excite
the curiosity and admiration of your fellow schoolmates, and
perhaps induce your teachers to inquire into the subject, and
to order the necessary books, and introduce short-hand into
their schoolrooms as a regular branch of study. Practice in
this way all the time you can spare, on the alphabet, then the
joined letters, then the Joined letters with the long vowels,

^
~-^

AN EASY LESSON IN PHONOGRAPHY.

179

~%«^

then with both long and short vowels, then make up new
words as fast as you can until you can write what you have been
over without stopping to think much of how you must write.

You had also better review every week the previous week's
lesson before you take up the new one. Be thorough — familiar
— well acquainted — with your short-hand company as you go
along together.

Supposing that you have learned all the past lessons, we now
give you the

BiPHTHONaa;

_......:l...!i . .. j....._.j

Sound of I 01 oa n

My boy ' bows (to) Sao
ist in

pie pies wise size rise arisQ

.is.^...Uv. _So .>0— -Vo'

nfgh high spice spiea Silaa

X...^...^_/C..is^-^

boy boys voice alloy annoy spoil

.\a-..\>a..>w.../^t:»...^- -Ja.-„

A A

bonr boaghs vow tnonse allow endow

^ /" "^ A

, A X. .aA.Jv_p. I.

owl row aronse ounce cow

^...-\t— -<0>v.oi:...VJ?< o

*^ — - . ^ ^

pew amuie shoes news accuse

In like manner write the following words (from Graham's
list) : Vie, vice, vices, mice, tie, ties, entice, entices, die, dye,
dies, sigh, sighs, ally, rye, arises, nice, spy, spices, sky, sly,
slice, slices, eyes (i-zee), ice (i-es), sight, side, sign. Annoys,
noises, choices. Bough, dow, allows, rouse, rouses, arouses,
ounces, cows, house, houses, south, sour. Abuse, abuses,
fuse, mew, amuses, dew, due (same), adieu, adduce, chews and
choose, juices, Jews, hew, suit (Iss [not Es] Tee), stew. It
is easier to memorize the sounds of the diphthongs by the sen-
tence above than by different and disconnected words.

These signs have a place, like the single vowels, either first,
second, or third, whether placed before, or after, at the be-
ginning, in the middle, or at the end of a letter. Copy, and
read aloud as you write, the above examples ; but do not
simply copy them without you know how and why the signs
mean what they read. Observe closely the angles of the
diphthong signs, whether downward, upward, to the left, at the
top, or bottom. We might give you, in this lesson, much
more to study, but it is best not to try to do too much all at
once. If you learn these perfectly, you can exercise yourself
in making other words like them from your school-books.

You will notice a difference is made between the S and Z
sign, by making the Z circle a little heavier than the S circle.
Two short-hand signs may be written entirely alike with this
exception, and have different meanings.

The double Iss adds another S to a single S, and is called
sis, ses, sus, or sez, according to the sound of the word you
are writing, oftener ses, and is made twice the size of the
single S circle, as in rise (Ray Iss), rises (Ray Sis), vices (Vee
Ses), entices (En Tee Ses), arises (Ar [not Ray] Ses), spices
(Is Pee Ses), slices (Iss Lay Ses), voices (Vee Ses), noises (En
Ses), and as in some of the above words.

If you have forgotten what we have called the nomenclature,
or describing of the letters (as just given in parenthesis), refer
to the first of the alphabet. By using this naming; you see,
we avoid all the drawing and engraving of examples, which you
can understand just as well as from the print.

.1 -1 J l....i i

ire wa wah waa wo woo

■ :i ^ J I ij.„

wi we wa wo wu woo

...A..^..L 1 ^..^_.,

web wig wavy sweet switch swallow

^ -....,-^: ^^..c^ ^....-^:....,

win wool willow^ wore walk

J.....J ...1,.,..J _

wi wol won'

/Examples :. wine quoit wound

From the above tables you will notice that the sounds, in
their order and power, resemble the ordinary long or short
vowels, and also the diphthongs, onfy with the addition of W
before them. Instead of e, a, ah, au, o, 00, it is we, wa, wah,
wau, wo, woo, etc. It would be well for you to repeat these
sounds of the long and short vowels, and this table with the
IV, constantly in succession, until you have the sounds familiar
and in order, just like your common alphabet. Most scholars
have some trouble in learning the difference between the third
place long vowel and the first place vowel of the last half of
the vowel scale ; this is, in forming words, they have some
difficulty in distinguishing the sound of Ah from the sound
Au. Be careful of this.

You can simplify these tables by dividing them into threes ;
that is, separate the first three sounds a little wider apart from
the second three, and so relieving the eye, you can memorize
the different sounds and forms by sets of threes — twelve sounds
in all. The first six are heavy — the first three open on one
side, and the next three open on the opposite side ; the last
six are light, and open in contrary ways, to be easily distin-
guished.

The next little cut represents sounds that do not occur very
often, especrially the woi, Wi and wou are more frequent.

i8o

AN EASY LESSON IN PHONOGRAPHY.

-y

Now, in same manner as recomniended in previous lesson,
take the letter p as a starting point, write all the above vowels
preceded by JV, before each letter of the round alphabet cut,
going round from left to right, both with the long and short
sounds above. This will give you plenty of exercise. . In
many cases you may not be able to make words or sense, but
persevere in the sounds.

In like manner, write the following words several times.
Repetition gives you confidence and speed.

Weep, warp, wait, wart, wit, wet, wot, watch, wag, weed,
wade, wooed, wage, week, weak, wake, walk, woke, ween,
wane, wan, weal, wail, wall, waif, woof, weave, wave, wove,
wash, wish, wing, etc.

The following suggestions are recommended for trial by
students and reporters. Position according to accented syllable:

Make a// half-lengths of word-signs express it, and in the
same position as the full lengths ; as, Blet ^ for believe it ; Diet
", deliver it.

Write words ending in er same as the primitive, with the
addition of downward R ; as pardoner, Par-Den-Ar, instead of
Per-Dee-Ner ; Dinner^ Den-Ar, instead of Dee-Ner ; Tinner,
Tenor, Ten-ar, instead of Tee-Ner.

Make all words ending with R, with downward R ; and all
words with a final vowel following the R, with upward R ;
but R before J is always Ray. This is an established rule, yet
often departed from with perplexing frequency ; but it is sug-
gested as a standing and unexceptional rule. So also with Ret
and Ard, down or up, as followed or not by a vowel. So also
with Lay and El, Let and Eld. As disposal, Dees-Pees-El ;
retail, Ret-El ; down-hearted, Den-Art : retained, Ret-End ;
ordained, Ard-End, and numerous others. This rule thus
provides a distinction between words ending in er, ry, el, and
ly, which, in many cases, according to the standard dictionary,
are written alike.

Retain the Pitman Ler sign for Ir, instead of Lay-Ar, which
is longer, especially in compound words, as Chandler, Chent-
Ler, instead of Chay-End, Lay-Ar.

Write all words ending in tionist with the Steh loop inside
the shon hook ; as abolitionist, Bee-Layshonst ; protectionist,
Pret-Kayshonst ; prohibitionist, Per-Beeshonst : and as in revo-
lutionist, resurrrctionist, secessionist, rationalist.

In advanced writing, ing may be omitted both in nouns and
participles, increasing the opportunity for phrasing ; as in see-
ing, doing ; loving us, Lay-Vees ; doing his. Dees ; doing it,
Det.

Write half the " I " sign in all phrases and compound words ;
my idea, eye-sight, thine eyes, eyelid, eyelet.

If in writing word-signs or phrases, the single sign or second
word of the phrase is out of position, throw it into position by
striking a line either above, through, or below such sign, for
first, second, or third position, as the case may be.

Simplify the pronunciation of the syllable oid, signifying
like, by ly substituting ty ; as petty, betty, tetty, detty, chetty,
jetty, ketty, petty, pretty, etc., instead of pet-oid, bed-oid, etc.

Write 7"y^er joined, and of understood, instead of double
length Veether ', to expressly their; except when of is em-
phasized.

Write Retty for on, before p, b, t, d, ch, j, b, v, n, ng, s, z,

sh, zh. el, th th, and y ; Chetty before k, g. Lay, Ar, Ray, w,
and m.

Write Retty for /, above the line, before p, b, t, d, ch, j, k,
g, s, and th ; Chetty before Ar, and Ray ; Petty before m, and
mp.

He, should, and the on the line, by Retty before p, b, d, t,
ch, j ; Chetty before k, g, m.

How same as the preceding, below the line.

When new and now commence a phrase, write them below
the line without the tick ; as nowadays, En-Dees ; knew-therc-
were, Enther-weh.

Write the sounds of ar and er after m without the Ray ; as
in March, merchant.

Write "society" by S through the preceding word in all
possible cases ; in a few other instances, join the S, as in
"good society," "modem society," etc.

" I should " may be joined to the rest of the verb, before
Ray or Lay, by Retty-Chetty. As, I should rather, I should
like.

Emphasis and grammar usually suggest and should deter-
minate whether you write " therefore " with a double-length
and an Ef hook,, or with a 7".^er tick with a hook. It always
comes between commas, and therefore is better distinct.
" There," also, whether by double-length or the Ther sign, is
best determined by the force of the emphasis. As, " do, there-
fore," Dee- Jefty instead Deetherf ; it should have, Tee-Retty-
Vee ; it should have, Tee-Chefty ; there is, therefore, Thers-
Befty ; there is, therefore, Ther-Zeetherf.

An a«-tick (not antic) and to tick on the line, and the rest
near and below, may express an con-, to con or com-, as, and con-
form ; to confer ; and combat. This when the article is not
joined, and the con implied.

A dot on the line may be used for a period, if the ticks are
used for the articles, a, a-nd, and the.

Ing thr may omit the disjointed heavy tick, and be expressed
by a joined ther tick, or a double-length, omitting the ing, as,
doing there, Deether ; having there, Vee-Jetty. See Rule 6.

Ing between other words may be omitted, or expressed by
writing the follo\ying word immediately after, disjoined.

Write else always downward, and less upward, for distinc-
tion, and according to Rule 3, as, any-body else, nothing-less.

If desired, short forms as well as double-lengths of Lay may
determine a vowel before it or not, by its inclination to per-
pendicularity, as in alone, alien, Len nearly vertical ; lone,
lane, learn, Len, usual, incline.

" Never have " may be written with Nef I — i. e., En an Vee
hook.

"Being," if written alone, should be Bee-Ing ; but in
phrases simply Bee — as " for the time being," Ef-Tee-Bee.

Write half-lengths to express ality, idity, bility, ility, inity,
—as Frugality, Fer-Gelt ; principality, Per-Pelt ; timidity,
Tee-Med ; fluidity, Eel-Det ; stability, Stee-Belt ; possibility,
Pees-Blet ; facility, Efs-Elt ; futility, Fet-Elt ; vicinity, Vees-
Net. But after N hook, write Bee, or omit the hook, as in
trainable.

Having given the student a good start, we now send him
on his way, assuring him that if he is diligent he will have no
reason to regret having taken to the study of Phonography.

LANGUAGES.

i8i

-^^

The number of languages and dialects, ancient
and modern, has been computed by Adelung to be
3,064, namely: —

Belonging to Asia 987

" "Europe 587

" " Africa 276

" "America 1,214

Total 3,064

It would take more space than our limits permit to
give a tabular view of all languages : the following
summary contains the principal families, and the
classes in which they are generally placed : —

I. Monosyllabic CZ^ji-.— Chinese, Siamese, Avan-
ese, Japanese.

II. Shemetic or Senietic Class. — Argemean (Chal-
dee Syriac), Hebrew, Phoenician, Arabic.

III. Indo- European or Indo-Germanic Class. —
Sanscrit, Celtic, Teutonic or Gothic, Pelasgic or
Greco-Latin, Sclavonic, Hungarian, Tartarian or
Turkish.

IV. The Polynesian Class, consisting of the dia-
lects spoken in the Indian archipelago and islands
of the South Seas.

V. The African Class. — Remains of the ancient
Libyan in the north ; Soosoo and Foulah (between
the rivers Senegal and Gambia); Ashantee; Amaaric,
spoken in parts of Abyssinia ; Hottentot, in the
south ; Caff re, extending from the south along the
east coast as far as Delagoa Bay.

VI. Polysynthetic Class, extending from north to
south of both continents of America, and comprising
Chilian, Peruvian, Brazilian, Mexican, Western dia-
lects of North America, Boreal dialects of North
America, etc. "*

The contrast between the first and the last of
these classes presents an apparent anomaly. The
Chinese languages have existed among a polished

people from very remote antiquity, and yet are as
rude and simple as if they had been just devised for
the use of a nation but recently emerged from bar-
barism ; whereas the languages in common use
among the wild tribes of America are complex and
difficult in their structure, and seem as if they had
been invented by a people who had made great ad-
vances in civilization. It has consequently been
surmised that America was at one time the residence
of a civilized people, of whom the Indian tribes are
the degenerated remains.

SPECIMENS OF LANGUAGES.

With the view of affording the unlearned reader
an idea of the appearance of some of the principal
languages, dead and living, we append the passages
from the New Testament composing the Lord's
Prayer, in Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, French,
German, Dutch, and English — for the sake of clear-
ness the Greek is printed in the Roman alphabet,
the aspirate at the beginning of certain words being
represented by the letter h. The reader is called on
to observe the difference between the Greek and
Latin words, and how evidently the Latin is the pa-
rent of the Italian, Spanish, and French, the latter,
however, possessing the least resemblance in orthog-
raphy and arrangement to its original. He will also
have an opportunity of comparing the German with
its kindred tongue, the Dutch, and both with their
relation to the Anglo-Saxon or English.

GREEK.

Pater hemon ho en tois ouranois, hagiastheto to onoma sou.
Eltheto he Basileia sou. Genetheto to thelema sou, hos en
ourano, kai epi tes ges. Ton arton hemon ton epiousion dos
hemin semeron. Kai aphes hemin ta opheilemata hemon, hos
kai hemeis aphiemen tois opheiletais hem5n. Kai me eisen-
engkes hemas eis peirasmon, alia rusai hemas apo tou ponerou;

l82

LANGUAGES.

hoti sou estin he Basileia, kai he dunamis kai he doxa, eis tous
aionas. Amen.

LATIN.

Pater nosTER, qui es in coelis, sanctificetur nomen tuum.
Adveniat regnum tuum. Fiat voluntas tua, sicut in coelo, et in
terra. Panem nostrum quotidianum da nobis hodie. Et re-
mitte nobis debita nostra, sicut et nos remittimus debitoribus
nostris. Et ne nos inducas in tentationem, sed libera nos a
malo. Tibi enim est regnum, et potentia, et gloria, in sempi-
ternum. Amen.

ITALIAN.

Padre nostro, che sei ne' cieli, sia santificato i' tuo nome.
II tuo regno venga. La tua volenti sia fatta in terra come in
cielo. Dacci oggi il nostro pane cotidiano. E rimettici i
nostri debiti, come noi ancora gli rimettiamo a' nostri debitori.
E non indurci in tentazione, ma liberaci dal maligno. Perci-
oche tuo e il regno, e la potenza, e la gloria, in sempiterno.
Amen,

SPANISH.

Padre nuestro, que estas en los cielos, sea sanctificado tu
nombre. Vega tu reyno ; sea hecha tua volontad como en el
cielo, ansi tambien en la tierra. Danos oy nuestro pan quoti-
diano. Y sueltanos nuestras deudas, como tambien nosotros
soltamos a nuestros deudores. Y no nos metas en tentacion,
mas libranos de mal. Porque tuyo es el reyno, y la potecia, y
la gloria, por todos los siglos. Amen.

FRENCH.

Notre Pere qui es aux cieux, ton nom soit sanctifie. Ton
regne vienne ; ta volonte soit faite sur la terre, comme au ciel.
Donne-nous aujourd'hui notre pain quotidien. Pardonne-nous
nos pe'ches, comme aussi nous pardonnons k ceux qui nous ont
offenses. Et ne nous abandonne point a la tentation, mais
delivre nous du malin. Car a toi appartient le regne, la puis-
sance, et la gloire, a jamais. Amen.

GERMAN.

Unser Vater in dem Himmel, dien Name vi^erde geheiliget.
Dein Reich komme. Dien Wille geschehe auf Erden wie im
Himmel. Unser tagliches Brod gieb uns heute. Und vergieb
uns unsere Schulden, wie wir unsern Schuldigern vergaben.
Und fuhre uns nicht in Versuchung, sondern erlese uns von
dem Uebel. Denn dein ist das Reich, und die Kraft, und die
Herrlichkeit, in Ewigkeit. Amen.

DUTCH.

Onze Vader, die in de Ilemelen zijt, uw naam worde geher-
ligd. Uw Koningrijk kome. Uw wil gerchlede, Gelijk in
den hemel. Zoo ook op de aarde. Geef ons heden ons dage-
lijksch brood. En vergeef ons onze schulden, Gelijk ook wij
vergeven onzen schuldenaren. En lied ons nict in verzoek-
ing, Maar verlos ons van den booze. Want Uw is het kon-
ingrijk, En de kracht, en de heerlijkheid, In de eeuwigheid.
Amen.

ENGLISH.

Our Father who art in heaven, hallowed be thy name.
Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth, as it is in

heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us
our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us.
And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.
For thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory, for ever
and ever. Amen.

Language, in the largest sense of the term, may be defined
as the means by which thought is expressed. Thought, as is
well known, may be expressed by means of mute signs, as
frowns, sighs, kind looks, gestures of the body, or by inarticu-
late sounds, as groans, cries, sobs, laughter. The first are
usually called natural language^ and the second inarticulate lan-
guage J and these means of expression partly belong to the
lower animals. Finally, there is articulate language, peculiar
to man alone, and consisting of a multitude of sounds, each of
which represents a distinct idea. To this last mode of expres-
sion, generally known by the simple term language, our atten
tion is for the present to be directed.

ORIGINAL FORMATION OF
LANGUAGE.

It is sufficiently clear that the vocal organs of man are con-
stituted with a view to his expressing himself by speech. The
larynx, epiglottis, pharynx, tongue, palate, and lips, are all
of them framed in such a manner as to show incontestably
that they were designed for producing such sounds as we employ
in articulate language.

The first language of a child is that of inarticulate sounds ;
it cries when it is hungry, screams when it is angry, and
moans when it is in pain. The strong resemblance which
subsists between the words in different languages expressive of
the first social ties, is worthy of observation. Thus the word
mother is
Em and am in Hebrew and Arabic. Modor in Anglo-Saxon.

Madr . . Persian Moder . . Swedish.

JMatr ..Sanscrit. Moder ..Danish.

3Ii'tc'r . . Greek. Moeder . . Dutch.

Mate} ..Latin. Mutter ..German.

Afadre . . Italian. Mater . . Russian.

A/cre ..French. Mat/iair. .Celtic.

When the primitive men, advancing from early necessities
and simple tangible ideas, found it necessary to have words to
represent the abstractions of the mind, they still proceeded
according to the dictates and analogies of nature.

In all languages, every term expressive of mental operations
is borrowed from the material world. Some of the terms thus
applied are signally appropriate.

In the present stage of language we have become so habitu-
ated to the use of terms applied metaphorically, that we
seldom reflect on their original import. There are many
instances in which the metaphorical word remains, when its
primary signification has been forgotten. For instance, the
word capricious does not suggest the idea of a goat, although
it is derived from the Latin caper, a goat, to denote the char-
acter of a person who bounds from subject to'subject, without
paying due attention to any ; like a goat, which bounds from
rock to rock, without settling long in any one spot.

§^

THE LETTER WRITER.

183

0-" ^^ ^^ Al lf\ ^^ fi^ ^^ ' "

<k»* *»* lnv.^

T'he Lezzer Vl/riiav.

;«?<** -^T-^w Sir ;

--^js.— ,*f-"fc * %.*% ^WPB^B^ v^% *v% %*% <»% fe v<u%<

VERY position in life demands letter-
writing. A letter is the great link be-
ween parents and children, between
lovers, between friends ; while in busi-
relations it makes fortunes, or mars
. A good letter must, firstly, be abso-
lutely correct in every mechanical detail ;
then style comes into question ; then the matter,
which must be intelligible to the meanest as well as
the highest understanding. The great art of letter-
writing is to be able to write gracefully and with ease,
and no letter should wear the appearance of having
been laboriously studied.

The first point to be observed in your letter is
that you write in a clear, legible hand, a hand that
anybody and everybody can read. You may fill
your pages with the most exquisite and sparkling
ideas, but if they cannot be read except to the tor-
ture of the peruser, your diamond thoughts lose all
their glitter, and people to whom you write, instead
of being anxious to receive a letter from you, will
mentally groan at the very idea of its receipt, know-
ing the toil and trouble that awaits them in its pe-
rusal.

Be patient, then, and plod on steadily until you
write a bold, clear, clean hand, and never let a scrap
of your writing pass from you that is not carefully
executed.

Never erase. It is much better, though wearying
the task, to commence all over again. An erasure
is a sore to the eye.

Orthography is next to be considered. Bad spell-
ing is disgraceful, and many people spell badly from
simple carelessness. Read carefully the works of
the best authors. Write extracts from these works,

and you will intuitively spell correctly. Your sense
will become offended at a misspelt word. Use
the simplest language. Always have a dictionary
(pocket) beside you, but never consult it unless you
are in doubt. Once consulted, you should remem-
ber the word ever afterward. Never divide your
words into syllables at the end of the line unless you
cannot help it. If you have space for the first syl-
lable, let your hyphen be bold. Thus :

It is sometimes a great con-
solation to me that, etc., etc.

A word of one syllable must not be divided. Bring
it bodily over to the next line.

Compound words must be divided into the simple
words composing them. Thus : War-whoop, not
warw-hoop ; bread-stuff, not breadst-uff.

GRAMMAR.

Place your verbs correctly at all hazards. Never
use the adverb for the adjective, or the adjective for
the adverb. Never take liberties with the relative
pronouns, or mingle in dire confusion tenses and
moods. A careful study of the admirable grammar
in this cyclopedia will keep the letter writer in the
straight path.

PUNCTUATION.

In order to have the meaning of words readily
understood, it becomes necessary to divide those
words into paragraphs, sentences and clauses, by
means of punctuation. As an instance of the ab-
sence of punctuation and the farcical result, just
read this :

Lost on Broadway on Thursday evening last an
umbrella by an elderly gentleman with a carved
ivory head.

THE LETTER WRITER.

Take the following rules and mark them well :

Put a comma wherever you would make a trifling
pause, were you speaking ; as, " He came, he saw,
he conquered."

A semicolon makes a longer pause, and an incom-
plete sentence ; as, " Julia is handsome ; Agnes is
beautiful." Th3 semicolon separates the sentence
more distinctly than the comma.

The colon marks a sentence which is complete in
itself, but is followed by some additional remark ;
as, " Shun vice : it will lead to ruin." The colon is
also used to precede a quotation, and point it off
from the rest of the sentence ; as, Shakespeare says :
" Assume a virtue, if you have it not."

A period is used to denote that a sentence is com-
plete ; as, "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush."

The dash is used to denote a sudden pause, or
abrupt change of sense ; as, " I have loved her
madly, wildly — but why speak of her ? "

The interrogation point is used only after a ques-
tion ; as, " Why did you say so ? "

The interjection point is used only to denote an
exclamation ; as, "Alas I all my joys have flown ! "

The parenthesis is used to enclose a portion of a
sentence which if left out would not destroy the
sense ; as, " I value this flower (a faded flower)
very highly."

The apostrophe is used to mark the possessive
case, and also the omission of a letter or letters in a
word ; as, " Frederick's hair is black,'' or, " Gen'l
Grant is getting old."

The caret is used to mark an omitted word, which
word must be written immediately above it ; as,

wet
" What a ^ day ! "

The hyphen is used to connect compound words,
and at the end of a line shows that more syllables
are carried over to the next line.

Quotation marks are used before and after every
quotation, to separate and define it ; as, " Many are
called, but few are chosen."

CAPITAL LETTERS.

The capital letters only set apart the sentences
and paragraphs, but while their proper use adds
greatly to the beauty of an epistle, their omission or
improper use will make the pages present a perfectly
absurd appearance.

Begin every paragraph with a capital letter.

Begin every sentence following a period with a
capital letter.

Begin all proper names with a capital letter.

Begin all titles, as President, Vice-President, Gen-
eral, Doctor or Captain, with a capital letter.

Begin all names of places, as Chicago, Long
Branch, Niagara, with a capital letter.

Begin the words. North, South, East, West, and
their compounds and abbreviations, as North-east,
S. W., with a capital letter.

Begin the names of the Deity and Heaven, or the
pronoun used for the former, as, in His mercy — ■
Thou, Father, with a capital letter.

Begin all adjectives formed from the -names of
places or points of the compass, as English, North-
ern, with a capital letter.

Begin every line of poetry with a capital let-
ter.

Begin all quotations with a capital letter.

Begin all titles of books, and usually each impor-
tant word of the title, as, Bancroft's History of the
United States.

Begin the name of any historical event, as the
Civil War, with a capital letter.

The pronoun I and the interjection O must inva-
riably be written with a capital letter.

Begin all the names of the months, as June, April,
with a capital letter.

Begin all addresses, as, Dear Sir — Dear Madam,
with a capital letter.

Capital letters must never be placed in the middle
of a word ; never, except in accordance with the
foregoing rules, in the middle of a sentence.

STYLE.

You cannot blindly follow any rules as regards
style, as your style will ever be your own. Quote as
little as possible, and be niggardly with your adjec-
tives. Avoid long sentences, and florid language.
Parenthesis should be carefully punctuated ; as,
"John (who is, as you are aware, a confirmed toper)
is considerably better."

Be very careful not to repeat the same word.
Tautology is a crime in writing. Read this and see
how you like it :

"Willie has come. Johnny will come to-morrow.
Will you come and spend a day with us ? Make
Susie come. Summer has come at last."

THE LETTER WRITER.

i8s

This is tautology. Do not underline unless in very
extreme cases.

" You know, darling, how intensely I love you," is
perhaps excusable.

Never abbreviate except in business. Dates should
be given in figures, and money, in parentheses, thus
($10,000). Date carefully.

Begin a letter this way :

• Richmond, Va.,

June ist, 1882.

New York, Sept. 7th, 1882.

Avoid postscripts. They are only embarrassing.
Take your envelope, and having neatly folded your
letter, place it in the envelope, close the envelope
and write in the most legible manner :

Iowa, lo. ; Florida, Fla.; Oregon, On.; California,
Cal.; Minnesota, Minn.; District of Columbia, D. C.

REPLIES.

There is no greater mark of good-breeding and
politeness, than the prompt reply to a letter. Never
lose a moment, if possible, in replying to one. If
the reply requires delay, write to acknowledge
receipt of the letter. Never reply by proxy if you
are able to write yourself.

Never write on a half sheet of paper.

Avoid pedantry.

Never write a congratulatory letter upon mourn-
ing-paper, even if you are in mourning.

Never try to patch an ill-formed letter.

•

Put
Stamp

c^^.

here.

J^-e-et^^'^'e cS-a^t^-en^

J//.

Abbreviate the names of the States in the following
fashion :

Maine, Me.; New Hampshire, N. H.; Vermont,
Vt.; Massachusetts, Mass.; Rhode Island, R. I.
Connecticut, Conn.; New York, N. Y.; New Jersey
N. J.; Pennsylvania, Penn, or Pa.; Delaware, Del
Maryland, Md.; Virginia, Va.; North Carolina, N
C; South Carolina, S. C; Georgia, Ga. or Geo
Alabama, Ala.; Mississippi, Miss.; Missouri, Mo,
Louisiana, La., Tennessee, Tenn.; Kentucky, Ky
Indiana, Ind.; Ohio, O.; Michigan, Mich.; Illinois
111.; Wisconsin, Wis. ; Arkansas, Ark.; Texas, Tex.

If you add your own address to a letter, put it
under your signature, thus ;

Very respectfully,

Robert R. White,

154 R St.,

New Orleans, La.

Never write an anonymous letter. Treat it with
silent contempt.

Never gossip. Friendly intelligence, if you are
certain it is true, may be communicated.

186

THE LETTER WRITER.

Date every letter clearly and carefully. It is of-
ten of the utmost importance to know when a letter
was written.

Sit erect when writing, as, if you write constantly,
a stoop will surely injure your figure and your health.

If you want to be stylish, send your letter of in-
troduction, with your card, by the servant .at the
private residence of the person to whom you are in-
troduced. Send a letter with your card if you pre-
sent it at a merchant's office.

-e^n^M^ cyo^-cA/^i^. ii^d-t^.^

7 ^^^v
/^ W^/ S{^M (^/4^€/^

We give examples of the forms of letters in gen-
eral use. These will act as guides to the inexpe-
rienced.

LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION.

Never seal a letter of introduction. Mention the
business in which the party whom you are introduc-
ing is or was engaged. Write the name of the party
introduced in the left-hand corner of the envelope
containing the introduction. Thus : you wish to in-
troduce Mr. Charles Kendrick, of Louisville, Ky., to
Mr. Henry Blachford, of New York. Direct your
letter as above.

INTRODUCING ONE LADY TO ANOTHER.

■z,uYi/o--7-yi^ /'i^^i^t^'' /'/i^ci^'t^^ //^i^-C'f^l-e^ /}--yi^ /d^t^^ /io-

•fiJj^WW**^^?^^^ "^^z

c^i/ya.^^i>C'ii^<i-'yi^fv-^€/yf'it-e''yi^^^

]lt^c/t:n^ (^^. (^/C^u^.

JU.

^e^i

dt^t^y

'e-

■i-yi^t4/i/yi/

THE LETTER WRITER.

187 Y

INTRODTJCING A YOUNG L^DY SEEKING EMPLOY-
MENT.

poughkeepsie, judc i, 1882.
Dear Mr. Jonks : —

The young lady whom this letter will make known to you is desirous
of obtaining employment in your city, and I use our old acquaintance-
ship as the bridge to your good oflSces in her behalf. She has received
a very liberal education and would prove of immense value to a family
whose young children need careful smd judicious teaching. She is gen-
tle, amiable, and willing. I trust you may be able to serve her.
I am, etc..

Dear Mr. Jones,

Your sincere friend,

R. A. Appleton.
Mr. W. F. Jones.

INTBODTTCING A GENTLEMAN SEEKING A POSI-
TION IN A COXJNTING-HOXrSE.

Albany, June i, 1882.
My dear Sir :

Recognizing your well-merited and extensive influence in the com-
mercial circles in your city, I beg to introduce to you W. James Farms,
who is desirous of obtaining a clerkship in a counting-house. He is a
gentleman of capacity and ability. His character stands A i, and he is as
industrious as he is energetic. He considers New York a better field than
this place, and prefers to try his chances there to remaining here. He
can refer to me. Trusting that you will lend him a helping hand, I am.

Yours, very truly,

Jacob Hill.
Joseph Lynch, Esq.

INTBOBUCING A SISTEB TO A SCHOOIiMATE.

WiLKESBARRE, JuKe 8, 1882.

Dear Rosie :

This letter will introduce my sister Polly. I do not think that I need
say another word. I love you both. You will love both of us. I will
write a long letter very soon.

Yours, as ever,

Mary.
Miss RosiE Irwin.

INTRODTJCING A YOUNG MARRIED LADY TO A
FRIEND IN HER NEW HOME.

Stanfxjrd, Conn., June i, 1882.
My dear Mamie :

Mrs. Holcroft will present this note, and when I tell you that she is a
bride, and is about to settle in your town, I feel that I have secured her
a pleasant friendship, and that she will find in you an old new friend
in the midst of strangers. I know that you will pay her all the atten-
tion that lies in your power for the sake of auld lang syne.

Your loving friend,

Blossie.
Mrs. W. T. Marsdbn.

INTRODUCING A DAUGHTER ABOUT TO MAKE A
VISIT.

Cleveland, C, June i, 1882.
My Dear Mrs. Becker :

My daughter Ellen will present this in person, as her introduction to
her mother's old friend, whose kind invitation to spend a few weeks
she accepts, con amore. That she will have a delightful time is amongst
the few certainties in this very uncertain life. You may find her a little
shy and reserved, but imder your care she will soon feel herself as
much at home as in Euclid Avenue, Cleveland. With warmest re-
gards to your husband, and lots of love to yourself, I am.
Your sincere friend,

Catherine E. Lawson.
Mrs. Joseph Becker,

INTRODUCING A GENTLEMAN TO A LADY FRIEND.

Warrenport, Me., yune i, 1883.
My dear Miss Tentine :

My friend Mr. Robert George Balfin by whom this letter will be
presented, is about to settle in Dayton. As your hospitality is proverb-
ial, may I hope for a little slice of it for him ? And I look forward to
good reports from both of you as to the ripening of a friendship the
seed of which is now sown by

Your very sincere friend,

John G.^hear.

LETTERS ON BUSINESS.

Letters on business should be brief, to the point, and clearly
and cleanly written. No flourishes either in diction or pen-
manship. There is no time for such ornamentation in business.

ORDERING A SUPPLY OF GK>ODS FOR A STORE IN
THE COUNTRY.

Spike, Thompson County, Ky., I
Jane i, 1882. '
Messrs. Park & Tilford, New York :

Gentlemen — I have just opened a large grocery store in this place,
and the prospects of success seem assured. I should be happy to deal
with your firm. I can refer you to Robinson & Charles, of 270 Broad-
way, New York. This being our first transaction, I shall be prepared
to pay the express co. upon delivery of goods, if you will forward me
your ac. with the usual cash discount by a previous mail.

Enclosed please find order, which I should wish filled as promptly as
is consistent with your convenience.

Very respectfully,

R. M. Macarthy.

REPLY.

Broadway, New York, I

3 June^ 1882.
Mr. R. M. Macarthy: •

Dear Sir— Your favor of the ist to hand. We shall be pleased to
open an account with you, Messrs. Robinson & Charles having spoken
very highly of you.

We have this day forwarded to your address the goods according to
your invoice, but being desirous of obtaining your approval of their
quality and value, will await your examination for the enclosed bill,
which is subject to 5 per cent, discount for prompt cash. A post-office
order or draft on one of our city banks will suit our convenience equally
well as collection by Dodd's Express.
Hoping to receive further orders, we are,

Yours respectfully,

Park & Tilford.

LETTER OFFERING THE MS- OF A BOOK TO A
PUBLISHER

Wilmington, N. C, April ^^ 1882.
Messrs. Provost & Co.,

Publishers, Tremont St., Boston, Mass.:
Gentlemen — I have just written a society novel of the present day,
and wish to have it put upon the market as soon as practicable. Please
inform me if you are willing to publish it, and at what terms.

This is my first novel, but under the name of " Daisy Dean" I have
contributed quite a number of short stories to Frank Leslie's and other
popular publications. I may mention that my style is what is termed
" breezy ;" that is, bright and crisp.
Awaiting an early reply, I am, gentlemen.

Very truly yours,

Mrs. J. F. Murray.
REPLY.

292 Trenton St., I
Boston, Mass., April a,, 1882. '
Mrs. J. F. Murray :
Dear Madam— Having made all our arrangements for publications

188

THE LETTER WRITER.

for the year, we are compelled to decline the offer of your MS., and
trust that you may be successful elsewhere.
We are, dear madam,

Your obedient servants,

Provost & Co.,
Per W. F,

LETTER PBOPOSINa TO SELL GK)ODS ON COM-
MISSION.

, Drakeville, Young Co., Md., (

January 28, 1882. '
Messrs. Short & Stelt :

Gentlemen— I have been in business in this town for over twelve
years, and refer to the National Bank, and to Mr. James E. Towns-
end, ex-Mayor and a prominent citizen. I see a good opening for in-
creasmg my sales, and am desirous of a supply of your goods to sell on
commission. If required I will give you full security against any loss.
Should this proposition meet your views, please fiU the accompanying
order, and give me the benefit of your most favorable terms.

Respectfully,

John Riley.

REPLY.

Baltimore, Feby. 2, '82.
Mr. John Rilev—

Dear Sir — We have to-day forwarded by Dodd's Express the goods

ordered per your letter of the 28th ult. : the Inquiries about you, as

suggested by you, having proved most satisfactory. The commission

is 10 per cent. The bill of sale accompanies each package.

Trusting that opening will lead to a long connection of mutual benefit,

We are yours respectfully,

Short & Stelt.

REQTJESTINa THE SETTLEMENT OF AN
ACCOUNT.

Milwaukee, Wis., July 30, 1882.
Mr. T. W. Ingram :

Dear Sir— As we have a large payment to make at the end of next
week, and as your account remains unsettled, we must beg of you to
send us a check for same by Tuesday next. We are reluctant to press
you, but we are pressed ourselves.

Very respectfully,

Smith & Brown.

REQUESTINO PAYMENT OF RENT.

E. 29TH St., New York, \

March 27, 1882. '
Mr. Patrick K. Chiselhurst :

Dear Sir — I must call your attention to the fact that, although your
agreement for the house rented by you from me stipulates monthly pay-
ments in advance, you have failed to pay for three months and are now
in arrears $206.

If you fail to pay the account within six days I shall be reluctantly
compelled to place the matter in the hands of my lawyer for collection.

Very respectfully,

Thomas Vosburg.

FROM A LADY IN THE COUNTRY ORDERING
GOODS.

Maida Vale, Tewkesbury Co., Mass., )
Jan. 18, 1882. I
Messrs. Calice & Twist,

Washington Street, Boston :
Gentlemen — Please send me by Dodd's Express the following goods :
12 yards of green gauze.
24 yards gingham.

2 pair of six-button gloves, lavender color, size 6J^, Dent's make.
6 fKJcket handkerchiefs, plain white, with broad hem-stitched border.
Also please send pattern of black satin of a good quality, price
marked.

The goods must be sent to Warrington by rail, and to Mr. V/illiam
Snipe, 240 State Street, who will pay C. O. D.
Direct as follows ;

Mrs. Wilson Toft,

Warrington Station,

Tewkesbury Co., Mass.

FROM A FARMER IN IRELAND, PROPOSING TO
EMIGRATE.

BaT-linkill, Co. Mayo, )

A uzust ist, 1882. '
To

Mr. John Murphy,

Tippins Cove,

Burke County, Montana.
Sir — Pat Lynch, of Coolamore, tells me that you could give me all
the information I want about that part of the county you are now in.
I have been farming about 60 acres for the last fifteen years, and have
saved up £,'^00.

I want to know what sort of a county you are in; climate, soil,
water, and all that, and what I could get for my £,yx> ; also, if any in-
ducements are held out to men of my class. I have a wife and seven
children — 4 boys and 3 girls. The boys, thanks be to God, are all able
to take a hand at farm work.
Pat Lynch will answer for me.

Yours obediently,

Murty Joyce.

REPLY.

Tippins Cove, (
Burke Co., Montana. '
To

Mr. Murphy Joyce : ^

My dear Friend — If Pat Lynch, my old friend , advised you to emigrate
here he did well. I have been here now for five years, and no induce-
ment would tempt me to leave it. For half of your Cs'^ you can buy
as many acres as you wish to farm, and our little settlement is growing
so rapidly thac in a short time your land will be worth double what you
pay for it. Come to me straight, and stop with me, all of you, till your
log hut is built.

The climate here is healthy and invigorating ; the soil fine, and a lit*
tie river of good water is close by, while the woods give us all th^
fuel we require. You can come to within fifty miles of me by rail, but
I'll have horses and wagons at the station to take you ^d your family
here. Let me hear full details of your starting, and giv? my warmest
regards to Pat Lynch. I wish he was coming too with all my heart.

Yours faithfully,

John Murphy.

TO THE FATHER OF A YOUNG LADY, ASKING
HER HAND IN MARRIAGE.

Washington Avenue, Brooklyn, )
Mar. 12, '82. »

Sir — I venture to hope that you will call all your friehdly feelings
to my assistance, in considering a proposal I am about to lay before you,
in which my happiness is completely concerned.

For a long time past your daughter, Effie, has held a strong hold over
my affections, and I have reason to believe that I am not indifferent to
her. My position is such as to warrant my belief that I could support
her in the style of comfort which she so well deserves, and which it has
been your constant aim to provide for your children. As regards my
character and disposition, I trust they are sufficiently well known to you ,
to give you confidence in the prospect of your child's happiness.

I have not, however, ventured on any express declaration of my feel-
ings, without first consulting you on the subject, as I feel persuaded
that the straightforward course is always the best, and that a parent's
sanction will never be wanting when the circumstances of the case
justify its being accorded.

Anxiously awaiting the result of your consideration on this important

and interesting subject,

I remain, sir.

Your most faithful and obedient servant,

Edward L. Spring.
To

W. Parsons, Esq.

THE LETTER WRITER.

189

FAVOKABIiX:.

Meadow Bank, }
March 13, 1882. >
My dear Edward Spring :

I thank you very much for the manly and honorable way in which
you have addressed me in reference to my daughter's hand. I have
long since perceived that your attentions to her were of a marked charac-
ter, and that they apjjeared to give her much pleasure. I know no reason
whatever to oppose your wishes, and, if I may judge from the manner
in which she received the communication from myself, you will find a
by no means unwilling listener.

Dine with us to-morrow at six o'clock, if you are not engaged, and
you will then have an opportunity of pleading your own cause. Mean-
while, believe me, with every confidence in your integrity and good
feeling.

Yours most sincerely,

William Parsons.
To

E. L. Spring, Esq.

UNFAVORABLE.

Meadow Bank, 1
March 13, 1882. J
Dear Sir :

It is always painful to return an unfavorable answer, but such is un-
fortunately my task on the present occasion.

My daughter has for a long time been engaged to a gentleman whose
character and position give her no cause to regret the engagement. At
the same time she duly appreciates the compliment implied by your pref-
erence, and unites with me in the sincere wish that, as an esteemed
friend, you may meet with a companion in every way calculated to en-
sure your happiness.

Believe me, dear sir.

Your sincere friend,

William Parsons.
To

E. L. Spring, Esq.

A GENTLEMAN, AFTER MEETING A LADY AT A

PARTY. ASKING PERMISSION TO PAY HIS

ADDRESSES.

* 18W. 36thSt.,N. Y., »

July 27, 1882. f
Dear Miss Winslow :

I must crave your pardon for the somewhat bold address I am about
to make, trusting that its apparent presumption may be excused by the
consideration that my feelings are deeply enlisted in its success. The
marked attentions paid you at Mrs. Burke's f>arty could not, I flatter
myself, have failed to attract your notice, nor have been wholly disa-
greeable to yourself. Cherishing this pleasing belief, I am encouraged
to crave the privilege of being permitted to improve my acquaintance
with a lady for whom I entertain so high an esteem.

The company in which we met will, I trust, be considered a 'Sufficient
guarantee of my character and position to warrant me in looking for-
ward to an early renewal of the happy hours spent in your company.
Your kind permission once granted, I shall lose no time in seeking, for
my addresses, the sanction of your parents ; but I do not feel at liberty
to take such a step until well assured that it will be agreeable to your
wishes.

May I entreat the favor of an early reply? which, dear Miss Wins-
low, will be anxiously awaited by

Your devoted admirer,

William Thropcake.

TO A WIDOW FROM A WIDOWER.

120TH St., New York, Nov. 19, 1882.

Mv dear Madam — I am emboldened to lay open to you the present
state of my feelings, being so convinced of your good sense and amia-
ble disposition, that I feel assured you will deal candidly with me in
your reply.

Like yourself, I have been deprived of the partner of my earlier life,
and, as I approach the middle state of existence, I feel more and more

the want of some kindred spirit to share with me whatever years are
reserved to mc by Providence. My fortune is such as to enable me to
support a lady in the manner which I feel to be due to your accomplish-
ments and position, and I sincerely hope that you will think carefully
over my proposal ; and, if you can make up your mind to share my for-
tune and affections, I trust that no efforts will be wanting on my part
to ensure you the happiness you so well deserve.

I need scarcely say that an early answer, on a matter so much con-
nected with my future happiness, will be a great favor to.

My dear madam.
Your devoted friend and admirer,

Arthur Borstop.
To Mrs. Wadlow.

A GENTLEMAN ASKING HIS BETROTHED TO
NAME THE DAY.

2 Allen's Ford, >
St. Louis, July 8, 1882. (
Mv Own Darling Wife that is to be \—

Let mc implore of you to name the day that will make us one— that
day which is to bring us together for all time. You blushed last night
when I urged the question, and put me off with some pretty, but pitiful
excuse. For once, darling, let »i^ dictate and say Wednesday. Won't
you, my precious pet ?

Yours,

Ted.

A YOUNG MAN IN COLORADO TO HIS BETROTHED
IN NEW YORK.

Leadville, Dec. 13, 18 — .

Dearest Elizabeth — You have doubtless received letters from me
lately, describing my situation here, and stating the projects that I had
under consideration. In one of those letters, allusion is made to a spec-
ulation in land in the neighborhood of this place, with the remark that,
if it were successful, I should be able to make good my promise, and
claim you as the partner of my joys and sorrows for life. My most san-
guine expectations have been more than realized.

Herewith you will receive a draft on the National Park Bank, in New
York, for $500, of which I pray you to make use in providing such ar-
ticles as may be necessary to replenish your wardrobe, in anticipation
of our speedy marriage, after my return home. Pray present your dear
mother with my affectionate regards, and say that I can never forget,
now that I have the power, that it is my duty to assist and cherish her
declining years. I also send some few trinkets, made of Leadville gold,
which you will please present on my behalf to your sisters, as tokens of
my brotherly regard ; for such I now consider my relations toward
them.

With my kindest respects to all, and trusting that I may soon be per-
mitted to einbrace my dearest, I remain

Her devoted

Mark Taplev.

COMPLAINTS OF A LADY'S COOLNESS.

Cedar St., PHftADELPHiA, March i.
Dear Susan — The change in your behavior toward me — from the
kindness of an attached friend to the cool indifference of a distant ac-
quaintance — indicates but too plainly that, by some means, I have had
the misfortune to excite your displeasure ; though how or when I can-
not imagine. Recently, I have several, times attempted to seek an ex-
planation, but, in every instance, my courage failed me at the critical
moment, and, as a last resort, intrusting to my pen the duty which my
lips should have performed, I now write to you, to ask wherein I have
offended. Whatever may be your reply, rest assured that my feelings
toward yourself cannot be changed, and that your beloved image will
ever be enshrined in the breast of

Your affectionate friend,

E. L. Dwyer.

THE LETTER WRITER.

EXPLAINING AN APPARENT SLIGHT.

Boston, March 8, 1882.
Dearest Julia — How could you consider me capable of inflicting a
slight upon yourself, in whom are centered all my hopes of happiness ?
Nothing more than ordinary courtesy was intended by my attentions to
Miss Frith. That she was a comparative stranger to the Stanleys, in-
duced me to pay her those attentions which have occasioned you so
much annoyance, but which otherwise I would not have considered my-
self justified in tendering.

I regret from my soul that anything should have occurred to originate
In your mind a doubt of my sincerity.

Your truly affectionate,

George Rogers.
To Miss Julia Tilghman,

No. — N. Fifteenth St., Philadelphia.

ON RECErVTNO- A FAVORABLE REPLY TO A PRO-
POSAL.

Newton, N. Y., March 20, 1882.

Darling — Words cannot express my rapture on finding your

note on my table last night. How delightful was it to find a letter— and
tuch a letter ! — from one whom I may now hop>e to hail as the compan-
ion of my whole future life ! The weight taken off my mind by the can-
did and gentle confession of one whose love seemed too great a happi •
ness to hope for is beyond description. To-morrow I shall hasten to
the presence of her from whom I hope 1 may never henceforth be
parted ; but I could not retire to rest without making one feeble at-
tempt to express my ecstasy at finding that hopes so flattering have not
been in vain.

Believe me, darling.

Your devoted and happy

Tom.

COMPLAINING OF 'NOT RECEIVING A LETTER.

Clifton, January 7, 1882.
Dear Agnes — Four days have passed without my receiving a letter
from you, and I am in painful anxiety lest illness should be the cause.
Pray write quickly, or I shall really feel inclined to quarrel with you as
an idle girl ; nay, I shall absolutely grow jealous, and fancy that some
more favored suitor is undermining the affections of my dear girl.

But I have no fears. I too well know that your innate goodness of
heart would prevent your trifling with the feelings of any one ; so, hop-
ing you will take this little scolding in good part, and relieve the offense
by a very long letter as speedily as your dainty fingers can write, be-
lieve me,

Dear Agnes,

Your affectionate

Ed.

ON A BIRTHDAY.

New London, June i, 1882.
My dearest Fannie — How sad it is that I am hindered from being
with you on this dearest of all days of the year.

Accept, dearest, the enclosed portrait. I feel that its original is too
deeply stamped on your heart to require any effigy to remind you of
him. It is, however, the most appropriate present I could offer to the
cause of my happiness on this brightest of all days.

God g^ant that every succeeding year may see you increase in all that
is charming in body and mind, and believe me.

My dearest Fannie,

Your own

John.

A COMPLAINT.

July to, i88a.
Dear Maudie :

It is with pain I write to you in aught that can seem like a strain of
reproach, but I confess that. your conduct last night both surprised and
vexed me. You received Mr. Watson's attentions in so marked a way

that I feel it due to yourself to comment on your conduct. Belieye me,
I am in no way given to idle jealousy j still less am I selfish or unmanly
enough to wish to deprive any girl on whom I have so firmly fixed my
affections of any pleasure to be obtained in good society. But my
peace of mind would be lost forever, did I believe that I had lost one
atom of your affection.

Pray write, and assure me that you still preserve your undivided
affection for

Your devoted but grieved

Fred.

CONGRATULATING A FRIEND ON HIS MARRIAGE.

Omaha, A ugust 20, 18 — .
My dear Tom :

As you have entered the enviable state of wedlock, and are no longer
the merry bachelor formerly the butt of my cl'ude jests, I must address
you in a tone of greater gravity than has been my custom. My dear
friend, I sincerely congratulate you upon this desirable change ; for in
your choic'e of a partner you have given evidence of the possession of
a sound judgment and much good taste. If my beneficent wishes were
the only requisite to insure your happiness in the married state, you.
would never have occasion to regret the step you have recently taken ;
for there is no one whom I more ardently desire to see surrounded with
all the blessings of this life.

Have the kindness to present my respectful compliments to Mrs.
Armitage,and believe me ever to remain

Your sincere well-wisher and friend,

Edward Keogh.

CONGRATULATING A GENTLEMAN UPON HIS
MARRIAGE.

Yankton, June i, 1882.
Dear Bill

I have just received the welcome message that informs me of your
new happiness. I hasten to off'er you my most sincere congratulations
and hearty good wishes. May every year of your married life find you
happier than the last, and may Mrs. Chiffins find you as loyal a husband
as you have been a friend.

From my inmost heart, dear Bill, I say, God bless you and your bride
with His choicest blessings.

Ever your friend,

George Meyers.
William Chiffins, Esq.

CONGRATULATING A LADY UPON HER MAR-
BIAGE.

K St., Washington, D. C, August 3, 1882.
Dear Josie :

Your cards have just reached me, and I write at once to try to express
my heartfelt pleasure at your happy prospects. It is a great pleasure
to your loving friends to be able to feel so much esteem and affection
for the gentleman to whom you have confided your life's happiness, and
to hope, as I do, that every year will unite your hearts more closely.

That heaven may bless you both, dear Josie, is the earnest prayer of

Your loving

Julia Robinson.
Mrs. Clifford Doyle.

CONGRATULATING A FRIEND ON THE BIRTH OF
A SON.

Batavia, N. Y., July 5, 1882.
My dear Joe:

What luck ! A son bom on the great 4th. May he prove as good, as
pure, and as honest a man and patriot as George Washington. What
more can I say, old fellow, except to add that I earnestly trust that
Mrs. Clithroe and George W. are doing well ?

Yours, always sincerely,

A. D. Hervy.
Joseph Clithroe, Esq.

-s5

THE LETTER WRITER.

191

CONGIIATUL.ATING A FRIEND ON THE BIRTH OF
A DAUGHTER.

Pegasus, Westchester Co., N. Y., i
April 10, '82. )
Dear Millie :

I congratulate you most heartily on your new acquaintance, and if
" missy " only grows up like " mamma," the boys will be around pretty
l-"ely. I suppose your husband is two feet taller. Take great care of
yourself and the wee Utile lady. I hope very soon to come round to
cougratulale you in person.

Your very sincere friend,

James Todhunthr.
Mrs. E. F. EvERLiGH.

SEEKING A CLERKSHIP.

Trov, May 4, 1882.
Gentlemen— Perceiving by your advertisement in the N. Y. Herald
that you are in want of a clerk, I beg to inclose testimonials, and ven-
ture to hope that from my previous experience in the line of business
you pursue I should be of some use in your establishment. My habits
of life are such as to assure regularity in the discharge of my duties,
and I can only assure you that, should you honor me with your confi-
dence, I shall spare no p>ains to acquit myself to your satisfaction.
I remain, gentlemen.

Your obedient servant,

Harry Sanderson.
To Messrs. Griffiths & Co.

APPLICATION FOR SUBSCRIPTION TO A CHARITY.

MlDGEViLLE, Tenn., October 8, 1882.
Sir [or Madam] ;— I take the liberty of inclosing a prospectus of an
institution which is likely to have a most beneficial effect upon the
poor in our neighborhood. {Here state particulars?!, From your well-
known liberality, I trust you will excuse this appeal from a stranger in
iurtberance of an act of benevolence, and remain.
Sir [or Madam],

Your most obedient servant,

Julia [or John] Smith.

DECLINING.

30 West 27TH St., New York, I
29th October, 1882. '

Mr. Thomas Jones regrets exceedingly that the numerous applications
for kindred purposes near home render it impossible for him to com-
ply with the request contained in Mr. [or Mrs.] 's letter of the

i8th October.

A FRIEND IN THE COUNTRY ASKING A CITY
FRIEND ABOUT BOARD.

Erie, Pa., August 14, '82.
Dear William— In a few days I will have occasion to visit New York,
and, being a comparative stranger, I wish to be as near the business
center as possible, though located in a private boarding-house, as I have
a strong aversion to hotel life. My object in writing is to ask you to
recommend me to some private boarding-house, and to engage rooms in
advance of my arrival, so that I may proceed thither at once on landing
from the cars. Leaving the selection entirely to yourself, and hoping
to hear from you soon, I remain

Yours faithfully,

Isaac Jenkins.

APPLICATION FOR A LOAN.

State St., Chicago, July 27, '82.
Dear Sir — I am temporarily embarrassed through the failure of my
New York correspondent to remit. The sum of $2,000 would relieve my
present necessities, but I dislike borrowing money of professional lend-
ers, and would rather solicit the aid of some one of my numerous
friends. My first thought was of yourself ; and, therefore, my object
in writing is to ask if you can spare me the required sum without in any

way interfering with your business arrangements ? \ bu may rely upon
having it returned 10 you on the isih prox., and perhaps before that
time. Pray reply at your earliest convenience, and oblige
Your obedient servant,

George White.
To Philip Duke, Esq.

REPLY IN THE AFFIRMATIVE.

Grove St., Cincinnati,,^:^.^ 30, '82.
Dear Sir — Your letter of yesterday was duly received, and it grati-
fies me to be able to say that you can have the loan asked for. In-
closed you will find a check for the amount, which you will return at
the date named and oblige,

Yours, very sincerely,

P. Duke.
To Geo. White, Esq.

DECLINING TO LEND MONEY.

Boston, /l/r/VSlh, 1882.
Mv dear Sir — I have always made it a principle in life never to bor-
row or lend money, not even when members of my own family have
been concerned. As Shakespeare says :

'• Neither a borrower nor a lender be.
For loan oft loses both itself and friend."

t therefore trust you will excuse conduct which may seem harsh and
uncourteous on my part, but which I have ever found to be the safest,
and, in the long run, the kindest course for all parties.
I remain, my dear sir.

Yours very faithfully,

Joseph Johnson.
To Howard Wells, Esq.

SOLICITING RENEWAL OF A PROMISSORY NOTE.

Ark St., Mobile, !\Iay 7, '82
Gentlemen— You have in your possession my note for $1,000, p.iya-
ble May 14, which I am sorry to say I cannot meet at maturity, owing to
a combination of circumstances adverse to my interests, and not antici-
pated. If you will do me the favor to renew it for ninety days, with
interest added, I do not doubt my ability to redeem it when due. A
compliance with this request will confer an obligation upon, and
oblige.

Your obedient servant,

Thomas Moean.
To Messrs. Sadlier & Co.,
30 William St., N. Y.

TO A FIRM, WITH AN INSTALLMENT.

Dean St., San Francisco, Cal., 1
May 20, 1882. 1
Gentlemen — Inclosed please find $500, in notes of San Francisco
banks, which I will thank you to place to my credit, as the first install-
ment upon my bill, now overdue nearly two months. The balance will
be remitted during the second week in June, if not before that time. I
regret the inconvenience caused you by my delay, which is a result of
our system of long credits, and entirely beyond my power to control.
I remain, gentlemen,

Your obliged and faithful servant,

William Dempsey,
Messrs. Hatch, Wight & Co.,
333 Broadway, New York.

OFFERING A LOAN OF MONEY FOR BUSINESS
PURPOSES.

Elizabeth, N. J., Dec. 15, '82.
Dear Robert — Knowing that you are desirous of starting in business
for yourself, I write to say that it is in my f)ower to offer you a loan of
two thousand dollars ($2,000) without interfering in any way with my

192

THE LETTER WRITER.

own business or expenditures. I trust that you will let me have a
friend's privilege, and accept the money on such t*ms as will best
suit you.
With best wishes for your success,

I am your friend,

Austin Keep.
Robert Rowe, Esq.

Letters of condolence, though a necessity between friends,
are very difficult to compose, since the more earnestly and
touchingly they are written, the more deeply will they probe
the wounds still bleeding under the stab of affliction. The
shorter such letters are, the better. Let them be short and sin-
cere, and always wind up with a hope that Providence will as-
suage the grief with which it has pleased Him in His far-see-
ing wisdom to afflict your friend.

ON THE DEATH OF A HUSBAND.

FORDHAM, N. Y., Nov. 29, 1882.

Mv DEAR Mrs. Manning :

Words fail to convey my feelings of sorrow on receipt of the intelli-
gence of the death of my old and esteemed friend, your late husband.
My own grief at the loss of a true friend teaches me how crushing must
be your affliction. May the Almighty in his goodness console you in
this dark hour of your tribulation.

Believe me always your true and sincere friend,

Joseph Butler.

ON THE DEATH OF A WIFE.

Providence, R. I., November 8, 1882.

My dear George :

I know how futile it is to address words, idle words, to you in this
moment of supreme anguish, with which it has pleased God to visit
you, and shall not say more than that the loss of your pure, good, and
beautiful wife is a source of deep sorrow to the numerous friends who
bad the privilege of knowing her, and to none more than

Yours, in deep sympathy and affection,

Terrence Barker.

ON THE DEATH OF A SON.

NoRWALK, Conn., June 3, 1882.
Mv dear Julia :

If God has plucked the bright blossom from your home it is for a pur-
pose none of us dare divine. He alone can pour balm upon your
crushed heart. The holy joy is yours of knowing that angel eyes now
watch for your coming, and that your beautiful boy will receive you
when " life's dark day is done."

If the tenderest or much-loving sympathy could soothe you, dear
Julia, learn that you have it from your

Friend,

Laura.

ON THE DEATH OF A MOTHER.

Tewkesbury, Mass., Nov. 8, 1882.
My dear Charles :

You have lost your mother. There is a very wail in the words. She
may never be replaced. The dear good lady has passed away to a bet-
ter land, cheered by the knowledge of your love and affectionate tender-
ness, consoled by the thought that her teaching, when you were a little
boy at her knee, has not been in vain, and that she leaves behind her for
a little while a son who treads the path of rectitude and of honor. Dear
Charles, ever remember that your darling mother watches you from on
high, and as she was devoted to you in life, so is she devoted to you in
death.
God sustain you under this heavy affliction.

Your true friend,

John Traver.

REPLIES TO ADVERTISEMENTS.

In replying to advertisements never omit to mention the
name of the paper in which the advertisement appeared, also
its date, and a brief allusion to the matter in the advertisement.

Be as concise as possible, covering the ground in a few well
chosen sentences.

BOOKKEEPEE.

28 Washington St., Boston, Mass., )
October 20, 1882. »
To Messrs. Winsole, Bird & Co. :

Gentlemen — In reply to your advertisement in this day's Transcript
for a competent bookkeeper, I respectfully beg to offer myseif as candi-
date for that position. I have been in the employment of Mr. Thomas
Lepy, 19 Tremont Street, in this city- '.he large dry-goods store— in the
capacity of bookkeeper for the last ti'uee years, and am about to leave
on the islpro-xhuo, as Mr. Lepy is about to retire from business.

Mr. Lepy has authorized me to refer to him in reference to character
and ability. I can also refer to Messrs. Bose & Pickwick, 17 Remsen
Street, with whom 1 clerked for a year and a half.
Hoping to be fortunate enough to suit your requirements,
I am, gentlemen,

Respectfully,

Joseph Sutcliff.

GENERAL EMPLOYMENT.

Newburg, I
jUk Se/>t.^ '82. f

Sir — I hasten to reply to your advertisement in the N.Y. Sun of to day.
lam most desirous of obtaining employment, and vwjuld not consider
present emolument so much an object as the prospect of a permanent
and respectable situation.

I am a young man (age 21), and single. I have received a good com-
mercial education, and am versed in bookkeeping ai. J accounts gen-
erally. In other respects I am willing to render myself generally useful,
and, although I have not hitherto filled a situation, I doubt not but that
in a short time I shall be able to fulfill any duties assigned to me.

In the event of your doing me the honor to select me for the proffered
employment, I could furnish you with satisfactory testimonials as to
character, and could, if necessary, provide guarantees for fidelity.
Trusting that I may have the honor of hearing from you in reply,
I remain, sir.

Your obedient servant,

Joseph L'Estrange.
To

W. Henry Cullinan,

27 Wand St., N. Y.

FROM A YOUNG MAN TO A FRIEND SOLICITING
A SITUATION.

Mohawk, March 28, 1882.
Dear Edward :

When you left Galveston, you were kind enough to promise that should
it be in your power to forward my interest in any manner you would
feel a pleasure in so doing. I am now in want of a position, my former
employer having sold his business, and his successor having, as he in-
forms me, a sufficient number of hands for all the work he is likely to
have. If, therefore, you should hear of any situation or employment
which you consider likely to suit me, either in my own business, that of
a clerk, or in any other in which I can make myself useful, your recom-
mendation would greatly oblige, and be of material service to.
Dear Edward,

Yours very truly,

John James.

ASKING PERMISSION TO REFER TO A PERSON.

New Haven, Conn. 1
y^ly 7, '82. '
Dear Sir :
As I have had the honor of being known to you for some years, dur«

THE LETTER WRITER.

193

inp which period I trust my conduct has impressed you favorably, I
lake the liberty of soliciting at your hand the following favor :

Messrs. Sebthorp, of Beaver Street, New York, are in want of a cor-
respondent at London, and as I am about to proceed there on some
affairs of my own, and shall probably take up my residence in that cap-
ital for some years, I am anxious to secure a post which appears to me
in every way eligible, and accords with my views exactly.

As a matter of course, Messrs. Sebthorp desire testimonials as to my
capiicity and integrity, and as you are in a position to speak positively
on these points, I have written to ask you whether I may so far trespass
on your kindness as to mention your name by way of reference.

Should you kindly grant this request, I need scarcely assure you that
my endeavor will be to prove both to Messrs. Sebthorp and yourself that
you have not been mistaken in your opinion of me, while I shall ever
feel grateful for this further instance of the interest evinced by you in
the welfare of

Your truly obliged,

Walter Mott.
To

Mr. George Fouke,

7th St., Cincinnati, O.

CLEBK.

29 Grove St., St. Louis, Mo., I
November 16, 1882. '
Mr. Isaac Waters :

Sir— I see by this day's Chronicle that you are in want of a competent
Clerk, and I respectfully beg to apply for the pwsition. Owing to the
financial difficulties of my late employers, Messrs. Kendrick & Warts,
with whom I was Clerk for eight years, I am out of employment. I can
refer to either of these gentlemen for a testimonial as to my industry,
good conduct and ability. I may add that I am a teetotaler.
Hoping to receive a favorable reply,

I am.
Respectfully,

Rudolph Meyer.

COOK.

100 West 28th St., New York, I
March 18, 1882. '
Mrs. William Howard :

Respected Madam — Having seen your advertisement for a plain
Cook in this day's Herald^ I respectfully apply for the place.

I can cook plain joints and do all manner of plain cooking, as my pres-
ent employer, Mrs. James Posnett, is willing to testify. As Mrs Pos-
nett is going to Europe on the ist of April, I will be out of place on that
day. A line to Mrs. Posnett will satisfy all inquiries in regard to my
character and capacity.

Respectfully,

Jane Matthews.

GOVEBNESS.

•

19 Bleecker St., Boston. 1
July 27, '82. '
Mrs. E. F. Slocum :

Madam— In reply to your advertisement in to-day's Courier for a
Governess to teach three little girls French, German and English, I
hasten to inform you that I am graduate of Vassar Class '80 ; that I have
resided one year in Paris and five months in Vienna, sojourning in both
capitals for the purpose of completing my knowledge of French and
German.

I have been Governess in the family of Mr. George F. Witmore, but
owing to the death of my dear little pupil, their only daughter, Ada, I
have been thrown out of employment. In addition to my College and
Academy testimonials, I beg to refer to Mrs. Witmore, Holly Park,
Brookline, and to the Rev. Mr. Brooks, St. Matthew's Church.
Hoping to be favored by your selection,

I am, madam.

Yours respectfully,

MiRLAM J. Packard.

A FEW LINES ACCOMPANYING A GIFT.

A WEDDING GIFT.

200 Fifth Avenue, New York', |
18M April. >
Nelly Suter sends her best love, and best wishes, to Susie Lorimer, and
a little bracelet as a souvenir of an event that Nelly trusts will ever prove
as happy and auspicious as she wishes it to be.

CHRISTENING GIFT.

Heath House, (
June 18, '82. >
God-papa sends little Mamie a coral ; to enable her to cut her teeth,
but not the acquaintance of

Joseph Chambers.

FLCWERS.

15 Madison Avenue, \
19 July. '
Roses become Miss Irwin so much, that Mr. Harnett earnestly hopes
to see the accompanying bunch in Miss Irwin's corsage this evening at
Wallack's.

MUSIC.

13 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, I
28M November^ '82. '
Mr. John St. Ruth presents his compliments to Miss Delamore and
begp to send her a few selections from the operas, her singing last
night at Mr. Hamlyn's having reminded him of the most celebrated
prima donnas.

EUROPEAN ETIQUETTE IN
DRESSING LETTERS.

AD-

letters to the queen ; TO the prince and princess of wales ; TO
relatives of the queen ; to dukes, duchesses, marquises ;
earls, countesses, etc., etc. ; to judges ; members of the privy
council, clergymen, etc.

Letters for her Majesty the Queen are sent under
cover, either to the Prime Minister, or to whomso-
ever has charge for the time being of her Majesty's
private correspondence. The inclosure is directed
" To her Majesty the Queen." Official communi-
cations, are ordinarily addressed, " To the Queen's
most excellent Majesty." Letters to the Queen
should be commenced, " Madam," or " Most gra-
cious Sovereign," or " May it please your Majesty,"
according to the nature of the communication ; and
should be concluded, " I have the honor to remain,
with the profoundest respect, madam, your Majesty's
most faithful and dutiful subject."

Letters for the Prince and Princess of Wales
should be sent under cover to Lieut.-Col. Knollys,
and the inclosure directed to " His Royal Highness
the Prince of Wales," or, " Her Royal Highness the
Princess of Wales."

The sons and daughters, brothers and sisters, and
uncles and aunts of the Queen, are all addressed
as " Royal Highness," but her Majesty's nephews

194

THE LETTER WRITER.

and cousins are addressed simply as " Your High-
ness."

Letters to members of the Royal Family should
begin, " Sir," or " Madam," and end, " I have the
honor to remain, sir (or madam), your Royal
Highness's most dutiful and most obedient servant. "

A letter to a Duke or Duchess, not members of the
Royal Family, should be addressed, "To His Grace,

the Duke of ; " " To Hei- Grace, the Duchess

of ." It should begin with " My Lord Duke ;"

but a duchess, in common with all other ladies,
from the Queen downwards, is addressed as
*' Madam."

In writing to a marquis, address the letter, " To
the Most Hon. the Marquis of ;" and to a mar-
chioness, " To the Most Hon. the Marchioness of
." Begin, " My Lord Marquis."

In writing to an earl or countess, address, " To

the Right Hon. the Earl (or Countess) of ."

Begin letters to earls, viscounts, or barons, with
" My Lord." A letter to a viscount or viscountess
should be addressed, " To the Right Hon. the Vis-
count (or Lady Viscountess) ." A letter to a

baron should be addressed, " To the Right Hon."

The younger sons of earls, and all the sons of vis-
counts and barons, are addressed, " The Hon. ,

Esquire ; " and the daughters, and sons' wives, " The

Hon. Mrs. , or Miss ." Letters should

begin, " Sir," or " Madam."

In addressing embassadors, begin, " My Lord,"
and use the title " Your Excellency " throughout,
Avherever the pronoun " you " would ordinarily be
used. The same title is used in addressing the Lord-
Lieutenant of Ireland, and the Governor of Western
Australia. The Governor-General of Canada and
the Governor of Dover Castle are addressed as
*' Right Honorable."

A letter to a baronet is addressed to " Sir William

, Bart. ; " one to a knight, ** Sir William

Begin letters to baronets, knights, or their wives,
" Sir," or " Madam," except, of course, in cases
where acquaintanceship exists, when formality ceases

and letters are begun, " Dear Sir William

" Dear Lady ."

Though the word " Esquire" means, in these days
little or nothing, yet it is considered more polite
when addressing persons of position, to write the
word in full. In addressing a French gentleman
also, it is impolite to use the initial of " Monsieur '

only. The word must be written in full, and it is
very frequently written twice, thus :
"A Monsieur.

*' Monsieur ."

Judges are addressed as *' Right Honorable," In
addressing a consul, write, "To A. B., Esq., Consul
to Her Britannic Majesty, at ."

In directing a letter to any member of the Privy
Council, prefix *' Right Hon." to the name, and add
after it the title of the office held. Observe the
same rules in addressing members of the Royal
Household. Letters or addresses to the House of
Peers as a body are addressed, " To the Right Hon.
the Lords Spiritual and Temporal in Parliament
assembled ;" and to the House of Conimons, " To
the Honorable the Commons of the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland."

The Speaker of the House is addressed as " The

Right Hon. , Esquire, Speaker of the House of

Commons." Individual members, who have no title,
are addressed by their Christian and surname, fol-
lowed by "Esq., M.P.," except, of course, in those
cases where they have a title.

When clergymen have titles, these should be
inserted after the word Rev., in addressing a let-
ter. The following are the forms for addressing our
Church dignitaries : "To His Grace the Archbishop

of ." " To the Right Rev. the Bishop of ."

" The Rev. John Smith, D.D." " The Very Rev. the

Dean of ." " The Very Rev. John Smith, D.D.,

Dean of ." " The Ven. Archdeacon .'

Rectors and curates are addressed as " The Rev.
John Smith ; " " The Rev. William Jones."

Holders of the higher appointments in the Army
and Navy are addressed as follows : " To Lieut.-
General the Duke of , K.C.B., Commander-in-
Chief of Her Majesty's Forces," etc. " To Field-
Marshal the Viscount , K.G., Master-General

of the Ordnance," etc. " To the Right Hon. Lord

, Commander of Her Majesty's Forces," etc.

"To Colonel the Hon. A. ." *' To Sir

, K.C.B., Admiral and Commander of the

Channel Fleet," etc. " To Sir , Captain

of Her Majesty's ship Black Prince.'' In address-
ing majors, captains, or lieutenants, add the names
of the regiments to which they belong. In the Navy,
address, " Lieutenant Brown, R.N., on board
H.M.S. Resistance." "Mr. Smith, Midshipman of
H.M.S. Devastation.^*

NOTE OF INVITATION.

NOTE IN REPUY.

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VARIOUS FORMS OF INVITATIONS.

195

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Wednesdays, \
Nov.ibth and 30th, \ from S to 1 1 P.M.
Dec. I4lh and 28th. )

Political.

ai J^o. SSS Blinhn Jl venue,

nun iJhuiiday evening, Jduleh i6ih,

at (j.SO Ki'datk, io meet

Jiofi. (Sdh ^m

immediaieijf «//«/« ftU addUU at the Jideiphi
JJcademij^

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JSX},a \a K\\iA oK\. ottK/t^ ^V,\

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;^t ^jJringficlb, ^\\.,

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$r(u>klijn, June 261^, 1880.

196

VARIOUS FORMS OF INVITATIONS.

198

VARIOUS FORMS OF INVITATIONS.

200

SPEECHES.

^^^ SPEECH should be s/ior^ and to the
Jjoint Remember that brevity is the soul
of — a speech. A long speech, unless the
speaker be exceptionally eloquent, or the
occasion exceptionally mandatory, is one
of the greatest of possible inflictions. Some
men love to hear themselves talk, and, quite
oblivious of the feelings of their listeners, continue
to drone out labored sentences and weary platitudes
until politely coughed or buzzed down. These men
ought to be indicted as nuisances.

The specimen speeches which we present in this
Cyclopaedia, are merely meant to act as guides. They
show the form of speech most popular, and give the
length that is likely to be received with approval.
Of course there are occasions when a long speech
is absolutely necessary. The toasts and sentiments
embrace all subjects, and are suited to occasions
of a festive character.

A PUBLIC OFFICER, ON RETIRING, IS PRESENTED
WITH A SOUVENIR.

Sir — Your friends— and their name is legion — cannot permit you to
retire into private life without a direct expression of their esteem and
regard. I am desired on their part to present you with the accompany-
ing as a very slight token indeed of their appreciation of so

admirable an officer, so good a citizen, and so perfect a gentleman.

REPLY.

Sir — To have won your approval, and that of the friends you so
kindly represent, is indeed sweeter to me than anything else that life,
with all its prizes, could offer. I am bold enough to say that I have en-
deavored to win the good -will of my fellow-citizens of all grades and
classes, but I am modest enough to assure you this gracious, superb, and
totally unexpected offering so completely affects me, as to leave me poor
in speech, but rich in thankfulness and gratitude. My children and
children's children shall treasure this souvenir, as the prize won in the
big fight by at least the honest efforts of their sire.

THE LADIES.

Where is the man who, upon one occasion or another, has
not been called upon to respond to the toast of " The Ladies? "

The following will enable the bashful youth to train his ideas
in regard to the subject, and to prepare him with a reply when
the mine shall have been sprung upon him. A ready response
to this most popular of all toasts is as necessary as it is grace-
ful and manly ; so let there be no hemming or hawing, no hes-
itations, stutterings or stammerings, but start to your feet at
once and dash into the subject as though you were enchanted
at the privilege.

Mr. President and Gentlemen :

The high, the glorious privilege has been accorded me of replying to
the toast of " The Ladies." You could not have selected a better man.
Impossible"! This you will say is rather cheeky of me ; but when 1 tel
you that there breathes not a man who reveres, loves, and adores the
sex so much as I do, I ask you in all honesty could the chance of reply-
ing to the toast have fallen upon more deserving shoulders ? The ladies,
God bless them ! what would we do without them — that nearer, clearer,
dearer heaven of stars ! In their smiles lie our sunshine, in their tears
our anguish, in their beauty our heartaches. To the ladies we owe all
the refining influences of our lives. They are the bright flowers by the
wayside, the quite too too tenderly utter beings, who make, mar, and
marry us.

Then here, gentlemen, is my response to the toast of The Ladies.
May they ever shine like stars in our firmament, never cease to capti-
vate us, and, when we deserve it, of rewarding us. The ladies, God
bless them !

ANOTHER REPLY.

The toast to which I have the honor of responding is one that awakes
in the manly heart the latent chivalry of manhood. The toast of The
Ladies embraces womanhood, the mother, the wife, the daughter, the
sister, and if you will, gentlemen, the cousins and the aunts. Sir Wal-
ter Scott has beautifully wi itten :

" O woman ! in our hours of ease.

Uncertain, coy, and hard to please.

And variable as the shade

By the light quivering aspen made ;

When pain and anguish rack the brow,

A ministering angel thou ! "

What an admirable delineation of woman's character! In our hours of
ease, on the stoop, or by the stove, there is no doubt of it, gentlemen,
that she ts uncertain, extremely coy, and infernally hard to please— I
mean at times— while as for her variability, she is as whirly-giggy as
a weather-cock on a windy March morning. But here is the other side
of the shield, the silver one. Have any of you ever been ill ? Have
any of you ever been smitten to the earth by grief or misfortune ? I
hope not ; but if such has been your bitter experience,' turn back on your
memories for the tender sympathy, the unfailing devotion, the cease-
less graciousness of woman. Gentlemen, this is a theme upon which,
like the brook, I could " run on for ever ; " yet, delightful as it is, time

SPEECH.

20I

flies, and perhaps the time that I am spending in reply to the toast of The
Ladies, could be far better spent in their company. Gentlemen, I return
you my most heartfelt thanks for being called upon by you to reply to
such an important and gracious toast.

PRESENTATION OF A PIECE OF PLATE TO A PUB-
LIC OFFICIAL.

Sir — It affords me intense pleasure to represent a committee, who in
turn represent your numerous friends and admirers, and on their behalf
to present you with this as a very slight token of their apprecia-
tion of the admirable and praiseworthy manner in which you have dis-
charged the onerous and responsible duties appertaining to your posi-
tion. Your high character, integrity, and zeal have not only won the
esteem and confidence of your friends, and of those brought into
immediate contact with you, but have radiated far and wide, so that you
have reached the position — one that is not only a credit to yourself but to
the country at large.

That you may long continue in the service which you so admirably
adorn is the wish of the many to whom your virtues are as household
words. With this souvenir let me, on the part of those whom I repre-
sent, wish you health, happiness, alid prt)sperity.

BEPLY.

Mr.

AND Gentlemen :

I need hardly say with what gratitude I accept this splendid gift — a
gift which is dearer to me than all the " gold of Ind," since it comes
from a set of friends whose endorsement on a bad bill no amount of
treasure could purchase.

Gentlemen, my aim in life has been to do what is right, to labor with
earnestness, to win on the merits. My efforts have been crowned with
success, and in this superb souvenir I recognize my crown of victory.

Gentlemen, your too flattering recognition will but serve as a greater
impetus to exertion, and, rest assured that no effort on my part shall
be wanting to repay in the fullest measure of my capacity the compli-
ment it has pleased you this day to bestow upon me.

PBESENTATION TO A TEACHER BY THE YOTJNa

LADY PUPILS.
Dear Teacher :

It devolves upon me to offer you, in the name of the yotrng ladies of
this school, a slight token of our esteem and regard. To myself it is a
source of immense pleasure to be made their mouthpiece on this occa-
sion, since my sincere delight may make some amends for my many
shortcomings. I am not now addressing you as our teacher, but as
our friend, our dear, trusted, and very much tried friend ; for how often
have we not tried your temper and your forbearance ! Dear Teacher,
we will ever keep your image enshrined in our hearts, and shall look
back to the school, not as an abode of jDenance, but rather of pleasure,
since your kindness and your amiability have so rendered it— our
studies having been illuminated by your patient graciousness. The
little gift we offer you is of no intrinsic value, but it is rich in love, and
gratitude, and respect. Please accept it, and with it our united hopes
that your life will ever be as happy as you have made oiirs.

REPLY.

My Dear Pupils:

I find that my heart is so anxious to speak that it has almost paralyzed
my lips. Yes, it is indeed my heart that returns thanks to yours, for I
know how pure, gentle, generous, strong, and true your hearts are, and
my heart says to yours, " Oh, how deeply grateful I am for this tender
mark of your affection ! " My dear pupils, if you have been a little
inclined to— what shall I call it ? not idleness— no, no— well, a word from
me ever brought you back from the plucking of the flowers of fancy,
and a rebuke was but a reminder that you should tread the path of study
for yet a little while. My life has been rendered doubly pleasant in the
sunshine of your youth, and that I shall hold a place in your esteem
and affection is indeed a delightful reward. That I thank you for your
gift it is needless to say. Ah ! would that one spark of eloquence of some
of the masters over whom we have studied together were given to me
now, to let you know what I feel on this occasion, which shall ever be
retnambered as one of the brightest resting-places in my journey
through life.

A BACHELOR.

Ladies and Gentlemen :

It seems rather hard that I, an unfortunate bachelor, should be sin-
gled out to reply to this toast. Surely the misfortune of being unable
to meet a fair one to share my lot ought to have won your sympathy,
and to have left me unnoticed save by what the poets are pleased to
term the " passing tribute of a sigh."

Ladies, it is no fault of mine that I am unmated. I detest, abhor,
loathe bachelorhood— would that I could find stronger terms of detesta-
tion—and if Fate, Kismet, Destiny, call it what you will, were to place
some charming blushing maiden, such as I see around this board to-
night, in my path, I would consider myself the most blessed of human
mortals. What more contemptible being than the old bachelor ! who so
lonely, who so uncared for, who so infamously selfish ! Of course,
ladies, I allude to those cravens who have feared to risk their fate on
that sweet small word " Yes." I must myself confess to a certain cow-
ardice, and, with Sir Walter Raleigh, exclaim, " Fain would I climb
but that I fear to fall." Oh, if some fair lady would but say, " If thy
heart fail thee do not climb at all ! " That I live in hope, white blos-
somed Hope, I do not deny, and whatever be my fate now, in the
presence of such charming and beautiful witnesses, I denounce bach-
elorhood and despise the bachelor.

THE HOST.

Gentlemen :

Fill your glasses till the beaded bubbles at the brim topple over. This
is a toast that to honor is a sacred duty. I give you the health of our
host — God bless him t

REPLY.

Gentlemen :

I thank you most heartily for the manner in which you have drank
the toast of my health. I assure you from my heart that I never feel so
happy as when I see myself surrounded by my friends, and to behold
one's friends enjoying themselves is a sight fit for the gods.

In the battle of life, which we are all compelled to fight, it becomes
necessary to halt occasionally, stop by the wayside, and refresh. This
brief snatching of pleasure at its best, makes us all feel that there is
something worth living for, and that life without friends would indeed
be but a dismal blank. I again thank you for your gracious good fellow-
ship, and promise you that no effort shall be wanting on my part to
enable you to propose the same toast, under the same circumstances,
again, again, apd yet again.

A DISTINQinSHED GUEST.

Gentlemen :

A duty, and a most pleasant one, devolves upon me of proposing the
health of a very distinguished gentleman who has honored us with his

presence this evening. Mr. has done us the very great favor of

joining our circle, and we feel the most intense pleasure in doing honor
to a citizen who has so justly elevated himself in the opinions and good

wishes of his fellow-countrymen. Were Mr. absent I could talk

about him for " a long hour by Shrewsbury clock," but as he is present
I will endeavor to spare his blushes, and come at once to the drinking
of his health in a bumper. Gentlemen, long life, prosperity and happi-
ness to our distinguished guest, Mr. . Three times three and a

tiger ! Take the time from me ! Hip, etc.

REPLY.,

Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen :

Our worthy host intimated that he wished to spare my blushes. Now
it is so long since I blushed, that I forget the sensation, but I declare
that I could find this no occasion to blush, save for very pleasure,
since to be thus introduced and thus toasted is indeed an occasion so
pleasurable to me, that it shall ever remain impressed on the tablets of
both my memory and my heart.

It is indeed a source of intense gratification to me to find that my
little efforts, so far as they have gone, are appreciated, and by gentle-
men such as I see around this board. True it is that I have done but
little ; but, gentlemen, I assure you my object is to do a great deal, and
failing in that, I have but done my share. If, however, I am to do my
share in this evening's bout, I am extremely grateful to our respected

202

SPEECHES.

■^

4r-

chairman for giving me an opportunity of speaking so early in the
evening, as later on — well, least said soonest mended.

"WEDDINa-DAY ANNIVERSARY.

This is indeed an occasion where a speech is utterly unnecessary, for
the fact of our being here speaks so eloquently, that the words even of
a Demosthenes or a Cicero would fall flat, stale, and unprofitable.

Ladies and gentlemen, just cast a glance at that happy man, out host,
and that beautiful lady, our hostess. See the " heavenly assenting
smile " that speaks of the tenderest devotion, of a happiness those who
wed whom they love, alone can know. The sunshine of unalloyed
felicity is a nimbus to their lives, and it is well that, as the clock strikes
another year upon their wedded bliss, we should be here to congratu-
late and say God bless them both.

That their journey of life will be always as smooth as it is now, and
that they may ever be protected from storm and strait, is the sentiment I

would couple with the health of our dear friends, Mr. and Mrs. ,

on this the anniversary of their wedding.

REPLY.

My very dear Friends :

As a rule, no husband is perfectly safe in replying for his wife,
since that much-to-be-respected party is usually so capable of replying
for herself, and as on too frequent occasions, her sentiments differ a
little from his. On this occasion, however, I reply for my dear wife,
knowing that every word I say will be endorsed by her, and that every
beat of her heart is in accord with mine.

This is indeed a very joyous anniversary. It recalls the delicious
rapture of the moment when I first could call my cherished partner by
that sacred and endearing term of wife. It recalls the moment when
she placed her happiness in my hands ; and, my dear friends, I ask of
you if that smile which puckers round her mouth now, does not do me
infinite justice ? If I have not been disappointed in her, I trust in God
she has not been disappointed in me, and as years pass around, and,
Darby and Joan like, we descend the hill, may this anniversary ever
prove a resting-place for happy retrospection.

CRYSTAL WEDDING.

In this age of transparency, when glass has arrived at such perfection,
it behooves us upon this, the anniversary of the crystal wedding of our
dear friends, to " hold the mirror up to nature," and let them view
themselves in the glass we now place before them. The lady smiles, as
well she may, for Time's glass has not shaken out a single sand, and
the fifteen years that have passed since she made our host the happiest
of men, have left scarce a trace upon her pellucid brow.

The crystals which we present our dear friends upon this auspicious
and delightful occasion are but a type of the transparency and bright-
ness of their lives. May they never look on life " as through a glass,
darkly." May the goblets which stand upon the festive board ever
brim with the nectar distilled from love and harmony, and may these
glass pitchers, and bowls, and decanters serve as crucibles through
which their silver and golden anniversaries may yet be passed, and in
this joyous and sympathetic company.

REPLY.

Dear Friends :
True it is that we have been married fifteen long years, yet it seems

to me that is just as young, just as fresh, just as lovely as when,

on this day fifteen years ago, I took her for better or for worse. Yet,
dear friends, I like this celebration. It reminds us that we have reached
one of the great resting-places on the line,'and that, whilst we look back
with intense pleasure upon our journey, we also anticipate a great deal
more farther on the road. It is indeed a source of intense gratification
to us to find that, after fifteen years, so many friends come to visit us as
we rest by the wayside, bringing gifts and bidding us to be of good
cheer. These anniversaries are a sacred institution, and as you were
good enough to express a hope that these beautiful goblets might
prove crucibles, let me now engage each and every one of you not only
to our silver and gold, but to our diamond weddings. I now drink
your healths, thanking you for my fifteen-year partner from the bottom
of my heart.

SILVER WEDDING.

Ladies and Gentlemen :

On a certain day just twenty-five years ago, a certain lady and gentle-
man entered for the race of life, and they have, I am delighted to de-
clare, won the plate. Behold it! [Points to gifts.] They have, to
continue the parlance of the turf, run neck and neck, and come in to
this the winning-post in the easiest of possible canters. Ladies and
gentlemen, let us drink to the winners, and let us earnestly hope that
they may be matched for the gold plate, and that we may be present
when the " little event" comes off.

. Ladies and gentlemen, need we say how deeply we congratulate our
dear friends ? Is not this occasion a lesson to maids and bachelors ?
Never were there words more applicable, " Go and do likewise." I
shall conclude, for I see that you ai"e all eager to do honor to my toast,
by quoting Sheridan :

" Ah, sure a pair were never seen
So justly formed to meet by nature,"

Their healths — God bless them !

GOLDEN WEDDING.

This is indeed a grand occasion, and one which, while it brings joy
and thankfulness to our hearts, bears with it one of the most beautiful
and touching lessons in the book of life.

Our respected and venerable friends have indeed reached the golden
age of maturity. Hand in hand have they ascended the hill, hand in
hand are they descending into the valley, a valley lighted with the un-
dying and unshifting lamp of faithfulness, love, and devotion. What
a privilege for us to be here to witness this beautiful sight, to see the
bride and bridegroom of to-day in soul, in heart, the bride and bride-
groom of this day half a century ago !

Time has sown fresh flowers in their dear old hearts ; time has gar-
landed their brows with choicest flowers ; time has but mellowed their
affections, which, like good wine, has but improved with age.

We have come here to felicitate them upon the fiftieth anniversary of
their marriage, to wish them many a long year yet before they snap the
golden link that bound them together ; that their bark may sail upon a
golden sea, and that their sunset may be golden, is our united senti-
ment.

CONGRATULATING A CANDIDATE.

Sir — It is not in mortals to command success, but, what is better, they
should endeavor to deserve it. You have been successful because you
have deserved it, and we come to fxc/^aw^^ congratulations, since whilst
we rejoice for you, you undoubtedly rejoice with us. We have won a
proud victory, but much of the glory is due to our standard-bearer.
That you will conscientiously and worthily fill the office which has been
bestowed upon you is beyond the region of doubt.

We have done honor to ourselves by proposing so clear-headed and
able a candidate, and you, sir, will do honor to us by pursuing in your
new position that pure and unsullied line of conduct which has this
day led us to nominate you for election.

We do not attempt to crow over the defeated candidate. We can
afford to be magnanimous, and since we are now so w^orthily repre-
sented, we feel assured that the enemy will regard you as the exponent
of their opinions as much as we shall. Sir, we cordially congratulate
you on a well merited success, and we congratulate you, and congratu-
late the good cause.

REPLY.

Gentlemen :

Deeds, not words, is my motto. That I thank you, and the energetic
workers in the good cause which has led to this triumph, a triumph
in which I am personally interested, need scarcely be said. I am as yet
an untried man, but it is my purpose to prove to you that your votes of
to-day have not been thrown away, and that you have honored an in-
dividual who will at least endeavor to prove his gratitudeby head, heart,
and unflagging work. The good cause has indeed triumphed, and I
pledge myself that the trust you have this day reposed in me shall lose
nothing from being placed in my hands. I shall endeavor to the best
of my poor ability to walk in the straight path, and to discharge the
duties appertaining to my office without fear or favor. Once more I
thank you for the high honor which you have done me.

TOASTS AND SENTIMENTS.

203

^W^''^W^ '^W^' "^W ^"'^

i^^v^^v'^^^-'^^v'^'^v'^^v"^^^'

AMATORY.

MERICAN belles and American fashions.
Laughing lovers to merry maids.
Love and opportunity.
Love's slavery.
Love without licentiousness, and pleasure without

excess.
Love, liberty, and length of blissful days.
Love without fear, and life without care.
Love for one.

Life, love, liberty, and true friendship.
Love in every breast, liberty in every heart, and learning in every

head.
Love at liberty, and liberty in love.
Love : may it never make a wise man play the fool.
Artless love, and disinterested friendship.
All that love can gfive, and sensibility enjoy.
A speedy union to every lad and lass.
Beauty's best companion — Modesty.
Beauty, innocence, and modest merit.
Beauty without affectation, and virtue without deceit.
Community of goods, unity of hearts, nobility of sentiment, and truth

of feeling to the lovers of the fair sex.
Charms to strike the sight, and merit to win the heart.
Constancy in love, and sincerity in friendship.
Here's a health to the maid that is constant and kind,
Who to charms bright as Venus' adds Diana's mind.
I'll toast America's daughters — let all fill their glasses—
Whose beauty and virtue the whole world's surpasses.
May blessings attend them, go wherever they will,
And foul fall the man that e'er offers them ill.
Love without deceit and matrimony without regret.
Love's garlands: may they ever entwine the brows of every true.

hearted lover.
Lovely woman — ^man's best and dearest gift of life.
Love to one, friendship to a few, and good-will to all.
Long life, pure love, and boundless liberty.

May love and reason be friends, and beauty and prudence marry.
May the lovers of the fair sex never want the means to defend them.
May the sparks of love brighten into a flame.
May the joys of the fair give pleasure to the heart.
May we be loved by those whom we love.
May we kiss whom we please, and please whom we kiss.
May the bud of affection be ripened by the sunshine of sincerity.
May a virtuous offspring succeed to mutual and honorable love.
May the presence of the fair curb the licentious.
May the confidence of love be rewarded with constancy in its object.
May the honorable lover attain the object of his wishes.
May the lovers of the fair be modest, faithful, and kind.
May the wings of love never lose a feather.
May the blush of conscious innocence ever deck the faces of the

American fair.
May the union of persons always be founded on that of hearts.
May the generous heart ever meet a chaste mate.
May the temper of our wives be suited to those of their husbands.
May true passion never meet with a slight

May every woman have a protector, but not a tyrant.

The Girl we Love — When she is our toast, we don't want any iul

her.
May we find our wives to-mght where Cain found his — in the land of

Nod.
Harmony in all the states of the world — Especially the Married

State.
The Graces that every Man desires — The good graces of woman.
The best Union Bonds in the Market — Marriage certificates.

BACCHANALIAN.

May we act with reason when the bottle circulates.

May good fortune resemble the bottle and bowl.

And stand by the man who can't stand by himself.

May we never want wine, nor a friend to partake of it.

May our love of the glass never make us forget decency.

May the juice of the grape enliven each soul.

And good-humor preside at the head of each bowl.

May mirth exalt the feast.

May we always get mellow with good wine.

May the moments of mirth be regulated by the dial of reason.

Champagne to our real friends, and real pain to our sham friends.

Come, every man now give his toast —

Fill up the glass — I'll tell you mine :
Wine is the mistress I love most 1

This is my toast^now give me thine.
Cheerfulness in our cups, content in our minds, and competency in oui

pockets.
Come, fill the glass and drain the bowl :

May Love and Bacchus still agree ;
And every American warm his soul

With Cupid, Wine, and Liberty.
Good-humor : and may it ever smile at our board.
Full bags, a fresh bottle, and a beauty.

Good wine and good company to the lovers of reasonable enjoyment.
A friend and a bottle to give him.
A hearty supper, a good bottle, and a soft bed to every man who fights

the battles of his country.
A full purse, a fresh bottle, and beautiful face.
A full bottle and a friend to partake of it.
A drop of good stuff and a snug social _party.
To spend a dull evening, gay, social, and hearty.
A mirth-inspiring bowl.
A full belly, a heavy purse, and a light heart.
A bottle at night and business in the morning.
Beauty, wit, and wine.
Qean glasses and old corks.

Wine : may it be our spur as we ride over the bad roads of life.
While we enjoy ourselves over the bottle, may we never drive prudence

out of the room.
Wine — for there's no medicine like it.
Wine — ^the parent of friendship, composer of strife.
The soother of sorrow, the blessing of life.
Wine, the bond that cements the warm heart to a friend.
Wine, Wit, and Wisdom — ^Wine enough to sharpen wit ; wit enough

204

TOASTS AND SENTIMENTS.-

to give zest to wine ; wisdom enough to " shut down " at the right

moment.
The Latch Kev — May it never open the door to reproach.
May we never lose our taste for any of the sweets of life — especially

'lasses.
The first duty of Bachelors — To ring the city belles.
Success to all parties that, like this party, are founded on friendship,

harmony, and hospitality.
The best of all Revolvers— The bottle as it goes round.

COMIC.

May the tax-gatherer be forgiven in another world.

To the early bird that catches the worm.

To the bird in the hand that is worth two in the bush.

The land we live in : may he who doesn't like it leave it.

The three great Generals in power—General Peace, General Plenty,

and General Satisfaction.
May the parched pea never jnmp out of the frying-pan into the fire.
The three R's : Reading, 'Riting, and 'Rithmetic.
May evil communications never corrupt good manners.
May the celebrated pin a day, of which we have heard so much, always

make the groat a year.
May the groat a year never be unwisely invested in a Joint-Stock

Company. ,

May that man never grow fat
Who carries two faces under one hat.

Here's to the best physicians— Dr. Diet, Dr. Quiet, and Dr. Merryman.
Here's to the feast that has plenty of meat and very little table-cloth.
Here's to the full purse that never lacks friends.
May fools make feasts, and wise men eat them.
Here's to the man who never lets his tongue cut his own throat.
Here's to the man who never quarrels with his bread and butter.
Here's to the man who never looks a gift horse in the mouth.
Here's to the old bird that is not to be caught with chaff.

CONSERVATIVE.

The equilibrium of state, may it always be preserved.

Judicious reforms and reformers.

The universal advancement of the arts and sciences.

May the dispensers of justice ever be impartial.

May the worth of the nation be ever inestimable.

May taxation be lessened annually.

May the sword of justice be swayed by the hand of mercy.

May the seeds of dissension never find growth in the soil of America.

May the love of country be imprinted in every American's breast.

Liberty, not license.

Confusion to all men who desert their party.

Party ties before all other ties.

A lasting cement to all contending powers.

The protectors of commerce and the promoters of charity.

A revision of the code of criminal laws.

ENGLISH.

England, home, and beauty.

English oak and British valor.

England forever : the land we live in.

England. Scotland, and Ireland : may their union remain undisturbed

by plots or treachery to the end of time.
England , the queen of the isles and the queen of the main.
May old England's sons, the Americans, never forget their mother.

IBISH.

A high post to the enemies of Quid Ireland.

Erin, the land of the brave and the bold.

Ireland : sympathy for her wrongs, and a determination to redress them.

The country that gave St. Patrick birth, the birthplace of wit, and hos-
pitality's home— dear Ould Ireland.

May Ireland be ever equally distinguished by her love of liberty and
true patriotism.

May the enemies of Ireland never meet a friend.

Justice to Ireland.

Grattan and the Volunteers of '82.

SCOTCH.

A health to the friends of Caledonia.

Caledonia, the nursery of learning and the birthplace of heroes.

Scotland, and the productions of its soil.

Scottish heroes, and may their fame live forever.

Scotland, the birthplace of valor, the country of worth.

The Queen and the Scottish Union.

The nobles of Caledonia and their ladies.

To the memory of Scottish heroines.

The Rose, Thistle, and Shamrock : may they flourish by the commoa
graft of union.

To the memory of Scotland's heroes.

To the memory of those who have gloriously fallen in the noble strug-
gle for independence.

lilBEBAIi.

Annihilation to the trade of corruption.

Addition to our trade, multiplication to our manufactures, subtraction
to taxes, and reduction to places and pensions.

All the honest reformers of our country.

America : may the land of our nativity ever be the abode of freedom,
and the birthplace of heroes.

America's annals : may they never suffer a moral or political blot.

Confusion to those who barter the cause of their country for sordid
gain.

Confusion to those who, wearing the mask of patriotism, pull it off and
desert the cause of liberty in the hour of trial.

Confusion to those-despots who combine against the liberties of man-
kmd.

Disappointment to all those who form expectations of places and pen-
sions on the ruin of their country.

Everlasting life to the man who gave the death-blowto the slave-trade.

Community, unity, navigation, and trade.

Faith in every kind of commerce.

Freedom to the oppressed, and slavery to the oppressors.

Freedom to all who dare contend for it.

Oblivion to all party rage.

Humanity to all created beings, especially to our own species, whether
black or white.

No party except mankind.

May the meanest American scorn the highest slave.

May every succeeding century maintain the principles of the glorious-
Revolution, enjoy the blessings of them, and transmit them to future
ages unimpaired and improved.

May the whole universe be incorporated in one city, and every inhabi-
tant presented with the freedom.

May freedom's fire take new birth at the grave of liberty.

May our country be, as it has ever been, a secure asylum to the unfor-
tunate and oppressed.

High wages, and sense to keep them.

May the freedom of election be preserved, the trial by jury maintained^
and the liberty of the press secured to the latest posterity.

May the tree of liberty flourish round the globe, and every human be-
ing partake of the fruits.

May truth and liberty prevail throughout the World.

May all partial and impolitic taxes be abolished.

May the sons of liberty marry the daughters of virtue.

May Americans never suffer invasion, nor invade the rights of others.

May the miseries of war be banished from all enlightened nations.

May our trade and manufactures be unrestrained by the fetters of
monopoly.

May the whole world become more enlightened and civilized.

May revolutions never cease while tyranny exists.

Our constitution as settled at the Revolution.

The majesty of the people of America.

The memory of our brave ancestors who brought about the Revolution,

and may a similar spirit actuate their descendants.
The sacred decree of heaven — Let all mankind be free.
The people — the only source of legitimate power.
The subject of liberty and the liberty of the subject.
The greatest happiness of the greatest number.

TOASTS AND SENTIMENTS.

205

May the nation that plots against another's liberty or prosperity fall a
victim to its own intrigues.

LITERAIIY.

Toleration and liberty of the press.

The Fourth Estate.

The liberty of the press, and success to its defenders.

The Press : the great bulwark of our liberties, and may it ever remain

unshackled .
The glorious literature of America.
The glorious literature of Scotland.
The glorious literature of Ireland.
The glorious literature of England.

liOYAI*.

A lasting peace or an honorable war.

A health to our patriots.

Agriculture and its improvers.

All societies associated for promoting the happiness of the himian race.

All the charitable institutions of the United States.

American virtue : may it always find a protector, but never need one.

Holy pastors, honest magistrates, and humane rulers.

Improvement to the inventions of our country.

Improvement to our arts, and invention to our artists.

May the sword of Justice be swayed by the hand of Mercy.

May the love of country always prevail.

May our sons be honest and fair, and our daughters modest and fair.

May every American's hand be ever hostile to tyranny.

May our jurors ever possess sufficient courage to uphold their verdict.

May every American manfully withstand corruption.

Our wives, homes, our country.

May every American manfully withstand tyranny.

May the glory of America never cease to shine.

May our hearts ever be possessed with the love of country.

May the brave never want protection.

May we ever honestly uphold our rights.

May we never cease to deserve well of our country.

May the liberties of the people be Immortal.

May the brow of the brave be adorned by the hand of beauty.

May we never find danger lurking on the borders of security.

May the laurels of America never be blighted.

May all mankind make free to enjoy the blessings of liberty, but never

take the liberty to subvert the principles of freedom.
May America's name and America's fame stand forever pure, g^reat and

free.
May every true American be possessed of peace, plenty, and content.
May every American act the patriot's part.
May victory spin the robe of glory for the brave, and fame enroll his

deeds.
May the laws never be misconstrued.
May the weight of our taxes never bend the back of our credit.

MTLITARY.

To the memory of Washington and all like him.

May the enemy's flag be surmounted by the American standard.

May the arms borne by a soldier never be used in a bad cause.

May American soldiers fight to protect, and conquer to save.

May the gifts of fortune never cause us to steer out of our latitude.

May the brow of the brave never want a wreath of laurel to adorn it.

May the brave soldier who never turned his back to the enemy never
have a friend turn his back to him.

May bronze and medals not be the only reward of the brave.

May the laurels of America never be blighted.

May all weapons pf war be used for warlike purpose only.

May a soldier never fall a sacrifice but to glory.

To the memory of sdl brave soldiers who fall in defense of their coun-
try.

NAVAL.

May our iron-clads do as much as our brave old oaks.

May rudders govern and ships obey.

May no true son of Neptune ever flinch from his gun.

May no son of the ocean ever be devoured by his mother.

May our navy never know defeat but*by name.

May our officers and tars be valiant and brave.

Success to the fair for manning the navy.

May gales of prosperity waft us to the port of happiness.

May the pilot of reason guide us to the harbor of rest.

May the memory of the noble Farragut inspire every seaman to do his
duty.

May the tar who loses one eye in defense of his country never see dis-
tress with the other.

The heart of a sailor : may it be like heart of oak.

Though our bold tars are fortune's sport, may they ever be fortune's
care.

The flag of America : may it ever brave the battle and the breeze.

The sea, the rough sea, the open sea : may our lives be spent upon it.

The sea, the sleepless guardian of the world.

Safe arrivals to our homeward and outward bound fleets.

RELiaiOUS.

The friends of religion, liberty, and science in every part of the globe.
The honest reformers of our laws and religion.

The friends of religious toleration, whether they are within or without
the Establishment.

SENTIBtENTAL.

May we ever have a sufficiency for ourselves, and a trifle to spare for

our friends.
May we always look forward to better time, but never be discontented

with the present.
May the miseries of war never more have existence in the world.
May the wing of friendship never moult a feather.
May our artists never be forced into artifice to gain applause and for-
tune.
May solid honor soon take place of seeming religion.
May our thoughts never mislead our judgment.
May filial piety ever be the result of a religious education.
May real merit meet reward, and pretension its punishment.
May prosperity never make us arrogant, nor adversity mean.
May we live happy and die in peace with all mankind.
May the unsuspecting man never be deceived.
May noise and nonsense be ever banished from social company.
May the faults of our neighbors be dim and their virtues glaring.
May industry always be the favorite of Fortune.
May the rich be charitable and the poor grateful.
May the misfortunes of others be always examined at the chart of our

own conduct.
May we never be so base as to envy the happiness of another.
May we live to learn, and learn to live well.
May we be more ready to correct our own faults than to publish the

faults of others.
May we never hurt our neighbor's peace by the desire of appearing

witty.
Modesty in our discourses, moderation in our wishes, and mutuality in

our affections.
May we never envy those who are happy, but strive to imitate them.
May we derive amusement from business and improvement from pleas

ure. '

May our faults be written on the seashore, and every good action prove

a wave to wash them out.
May virtue find fortune always an attendant.

May we never repine at our condition, nor be depressed by f)overty.
May reality strengthen the joys of imagination.
May we never make a sword of our tongue to wound a good man's rep<

utation.
May our distinguishing mark be merit rather than money.
A total abolition of the slave-trade.

306

TOASTS AND SENTIMENTS.

A heart to glow for others' good.

A heart to feel and a heart to give.

A period to the sorrows of an ingenuous mind.

A health to our sweethearts, our friends, and our wives.

May fortune smile on them the rest of their lives.

May genius and merit never want a friend.

Adam's ale : and may so pure an element always be at hand.

All that gives us pleasure.

All our wants and wishes.

All our absent friends on land and sea.

An honest guide and a good pilot.

As we bind so may we find .

As we travel through life may we live well on the road.

May truth and liberty prevail throughout the world.

May we never engage in a bad cause, and never fly from a good one.

May the fruits of America's soil never be denied to her children.

SPOIITIN&.

May the lovers of the chase never want the comforts of life.

The clear-sighted sportsman that sees his game with one eye.

The steady sportsman that always brings down his game.

The beagle that runs by nose and not by sight.

The jolly sportsman that never beats about the bush.

The joys of angling.

May the pleasures of sportsmen never know an end.

May we always gain fresh vigor from the joys of the chase.

May the sportsman's day be spent in pleasure.

May strength the sportsman's nerves in vigor brace.

May cruelty ne'er stain with foul disgrace,

The well-earned pleasures of the chase.
May the love of the chase never interrupt our attention to the welfare

of our country.
May every sport prove as innocent as that of the field.
May those who love the crack of the whip never want a brush to pursue.
May the heart of a sportsman never know affliction but by name.

MISCELLANEOUS.

The three A's :
Abundance, abstinence, and annihilation.
Abundance to the poor.
Abstinence to the intemperate.
Annihilation to the wicked.
The three B's :
Bachelors, banns, and buns.
Bachelors for the maidens.
Banns for the bachelors.
Buns after the consummation of the banns
The three C's :
Cheerfulness, content, and competency.
Cheerfulness in our cup.
Content in our minds.
Competency in our pockets.
The three F's :
Firmness, freedom, and fortitude.
Firmness in the senate.
Freedom on the land.
Fortitude on the waves.
The three F's : .
Friendship, feeling, and fidelity.
Friendship without interest.
Feeling to our enemies.
Fidelity to our friends.
The three F's : Fair, fat, and forty
The three generals in peace.
General peace.

General plenty.
General satisfaction.
The three generals in power :
General employment.
General industry.
General comfort.
The three H's :
Health, honor, and happiness.
Health to all the world.
Honor to those who seek for it.
Happiness in our homes.
The three L's :
Love, life, and liberty.
Love pure.
Life long.
Liberty boundless.
The three M's :
Mirth, music and moderation.
Mirth at every board.
Music in all instruments.
Moderation in our desires.
The three golden balls of civilization t

Industry, commerce, and wealth.
The three companions of beauty :
Modesty, love, and constancy.
The three blessings of this life.

Health, wealth, and a good conscience.
The four comforts of this life :
Love, liberty, health, and a contented mind.
The three spirits that have no souls :

Brandy, rum, and gin.
When we go up the hill of prosperity may we never meet a friend.
The three M's :
Modesty, moderation, and mutuality.
Modesty in our discourse.
Moderation in our wishes.
Mutuality in our affection.
The Musician's Toast— May a crotchet in the head never bar the ut-
terance of good notes.
May the lovers of harmony never be in want of a note, and its enemiei

die in a common chord.
The Surgeon's Toast— The man that bleeds for his count.ry.
The Waiter's Toast— The clever waiter who puts the cork in first and

the liquor afterwards.
The Glazier's Toast— The praiseworthy glazier who takes panes to

see his way through life.
The Painter's Toast — When we work in the wet may we never want

for dryers.
The Hatter's Toast — When the rogue naps it, may the lesson he. felt.
The Tailor's Toast— May we always sheer out of a law-suit, and by

so doing cut bad company.
The Baker's Toast — May we never be done so much as to make us

crusty.
The Lawyer's Toast— May the depth of our potations never cause us
to let judgment go by default.

LATIN.

Adfinem esto fidelis . Be faithful to the end.

Amor pair ice. The love of our country.

Dilige arnicas. Love your friends.

Dum vivimus vivamus. Let us live while we live.

Esto perpetua. Be thou perpetual.

Palmant qui meruit /erat. Let him who has won bear the palm.

Pro aris et focis. For our altars and firesides.

VoxpopuU vox Dei. The voice of the people is the voice of God.

Ar-

or XHt ^

. ^NIVER8{Ty
V « or

lilhalEHrm Capitals.

Ledger Hand

^ y

t^dd-Mny

MEdium Hand.
CDrrEspandingHand.

'^/Z92^<<

BOOK-KEEPING.

207

'HERE are, properly speaking, only two
methods of book-keeping, founded on
distinct principles — viz.. Single and
Double Entry. Single Entry is the more
simple, and is generally adopted by shop-
keepers and others who deal in a great vari-
ety of articles, where the sales are small and nu-
merous ; and to such it is peculiarly applicable,
as they have seldom time to record them particularly.
There is merely required a memorial of occurrences,
in the order of time, with a Ledger, in which the names
of all parties between whom transactions take place are
entered ; debtor and creditor accounts of each party
being arranged on the two opposite pages which are
presented at an opening, the first on the right hand,
and the second on the left. By this method the
Ledger is defective, since it contains no accounts of
cash, bills, or goods ; consequently it affords to the
owner no knowledge of these particulars, but only
records the debts due to and by him, with, at most,
the accounts of stock, family expenses, and shop fur-
niture. The Italian method of Double Entry differs
from Single Entry chiefly in making cash, stock,
goods, etc., parties as well as persons, and in mak-
ing a debtor and creditor account in every transac-
tion. Thus, if cloth is sold to A, A is made debtor
to cloth, and cloth creditor to A ; if cash is received
from B, cash is made debtor to B, and B creditor to
cash ; and in every case the party, whether animate
or inanimate, which receives is debtor to that which
pays, and inversely. A double entry is therefore
requisite in every transaction, and a balance may at
any time be struck between things as well as persons ;
and in order to avoid the confusion which would
arise in a direct transfer of account from the Waste-
book to the Ledger before the proper relation of
debtor and creditor in each transaction is distinctly

ascertained and recorded, they are first entered in
the Journal in the same form in which they must ap-
pear in the Ledger. But in order to form a proper
criterion of the existing methods of book-keeping, it
will be necessary to compare them, as we will now
do, before proceeding further.

As the Ledger, when kept by Single Entry, con-
tains no accounts of cash, bills, and goods, it con-
sequently affords to the owner no knowledge of these
particulars ; but these must be collected from the
subsidiary books. In a simple trade, such as the set
by single entry which follows this, the information
wanted may be obtained by the present arrangement
of the Day-book, Cash-book, and Stock-book ; but
in an extensive and diversified concern this arrange-
ment would by no means be advisable, as the objects
in question could not be easily and concisely ob-
tained. Posting from a number of books, when one
only is necessary, is of itself an insuperable objec-
tion, because it is more liable to errors and omissions ;
and from the unsightly appearance these books would
exhibit by the multiplicity of figures, the eye would
soon become fatigued and bewildered. It is both a
slovenly and tedious method to enter each sum
singly into the Ledger, and unnecessarily swells the
accounts with lines, as by the Italian method, which
increase the labor and difficulty of balancing.
Besides, previous to taking a general balance, the
number of entries, such as interest, commission, and
postage, arising from the accounts current, must
unavoidably be made either with a journal entry, or
each entered singly by a simple transfer from one
account to another, which is, in fact, a double entry,
and would be both awkward and improper. The
Cash-book might be constructed with columns to
show the monthly amounts of the cash received and
paid on account of bills receivable and bills payable,

208

BOOK-KEEPING.

etc, ; yet the information in other respects would not
be obtained, for the amounts of the sales, of con-
signments and shipments, etc., monthly, would not
be shown by Single entry.

Although the Ledger, by the Italian method of book-
keeping, contains accounts of cash, bills, goods, and
other property, yet the arrangement of it and the Jour-
nal is by no means adequate to the purposes of an
extensive and complicated concern. By making all
the original entries in one book, namely, the Waste-
book, a jumble of transactions so heterogeneous is
produced as cannot fail to render the business not
only more complex in itself, and consequently more
difficult, than if a separate book were kept for each
kind ; but when dispatch is required, as in selling,
shipping goods, etc., the greatest inconvenience is
experienced, as only one person can be employed at
once in making the entries. But the principal de-
fects lie in journalizing daily, in posting each sum
singly into the Ledger, and opening separate ac-
counts for each kind of goods. Hence the imprac-
ticability of following this method without the books
of an extensive business falling behind, the patience
of the book-keeper exhausted, or, perhaps, his health
destroyed. Besides swelling the Journal and par-
ticularizing the Ledger to an unwieldy size, it ren-
ders the balancing of the latter a laborious and, in
most cases, a difficult task.

By the practice at present followed in the count-
ing-house, the Waste-book is not recognized by that
title. It is represented, however, by a number of
subsidiary books, suited to the nature of the busi-
ness carried on, each containing such transactions as
exclusively apply to its title. Thus, a Cash-book, in
which is entered the money received and paid ; a
Bill-book, in which are recorded the bills received
and accepted ; a Purchase-book, or Invoice-book
Inward, in which are entered or posted invoices of
all goods purchased ; a book of shipments, or
Invoice-book Outward, in which are entered all
goods shipped ; an Account Sales-book, in which are
entered the particulars of such goods as are sold on
commission, with the charges attending them ; a
Day-book, in which are entered the sales of goods
on the merchant's own account, with such other
transactions as do not apply to any of the above
books ; an Account Current-book, containing dupli-
cates of the accounts as they stand in the Ledger,
with the particulars of each article drawn out in a

plain circumstantial manner, being exact copies of
the accounts transmitted or delivered to the persons
whose names they bear. These are the principal
subsidiary books used either in inland or foreign
trade, and from which the Journal or Ledger are
made. The division of the Waste-book into a num-
ber of books adapted to the nature of the business,
is a valuable modem improvement, both for sim-
plicity and dispatch. By bringing each kind of
transactions together, and dividing the labor among
a number of hands, the utmost simplicity, accuracy,
and dispatch are obtained.

The arrangement of the Journal, by combining
together each class of accounts, and carrying only
the amounts of these once a month into the Ledger,
not only simplifies the Journal, but greatly abridges
the former of these books, because no more than
twelve lines yearly will be required in general at the
accounts, though transactions be ever so numerous.

The Ledger, when kept by this method, may there-
fore be considered a general index to the Journal, as
that book is to the subsidiary books. By this means
the case of each account is brought into a concise
point of view, and is easily examined, without
fatiguing the eye with a multiplicity of figures,
which unavoidably takes place when each sum is
posted separately, as by the Italian method. It
must also be observed that instead of opening dis-
tinct accounts for each kind of goods, as by the
Italian method, only one general account of goods is
by the present practice opened ; for when the articles
are numerous, one account of goods in the Ledger
is quite sufficient, and will be found to answer every
useful purpose. In an extensive business, where
separate accounts for each kind of goods have been
attempted, it was found difficult to keep the Journal
and Ledger from falling behind. The Stock-book
is the proper place *for every particular of this sort,
which may be kept exclusively by one of the junior
clerks, when the business requires it. The result of
the general account in the Ledger of goods will
always correspond with the particular profits and
losses from the Stock-book.

But superior as the present practice is for saving
both time and labor in posting, it will be found still
more so at balancing the Ledger. What was
formerly a laborious, and, in some cases, next to an
impracticable task, where that book was posted daily,
namely, to bring the stock and balance accounts to

^^>-
^

BOOK-KEEPING.

209

agree (chiefly owing to the numerous. entries on the
property and nominal accounts), is by the present
method completely avoided, and that which was be-
fore the labor of weeks, can now be accomplished in
as many hours or days.

It will be of more advantage to the learner to pro-
cure or prepare for himself several sheets of ruled
paper, with cash columns, and enter each transaction
in the ca"der of time, than to trace the entries in the
Day-book and Cash-book which we have prepared.
In the first case he will find the task, as he proceeds,
familiar and interesting, while ^ his knowledge and
self-reliance will be increasing ; whereas, in the other
case, he will acquire so superficial an acquaintance
with the accounts that it will soon vanish from his
memory. The Day-book is arranged so as to admit
of entries being made both of sales and purchases,
the former on the right side, and the latter on the
left. By this means he will be taught what debit
and credit entries are before he is called upon to post
the Ledger, and, moreover, avoid the risk of carry-
ing error and confusion forward to the last stage of
his work. It has been observed that in an extensive
business it is preferable to enter the purchases in one
book and the sales in another ; and by adding these
up monthly the amounts of each would be shown,
which would enable the owner to extend or lessen
the purchases as circumstances point out. The Day-
book as now given will also serve this purpose, only
that instead of having separate books for the sales
and purchases, they are here arranged in one, and
disposed, as we have said, in the form of debtor and
creditor. It therefore follows that if we add at any
time to the credit side the value of the articles re-
maining on hand, the difference betwixt the sums
total on the two sides will show the whole gain or
loss upon the goods, and by entering the charges,
etc., attending the business, with the discount, both
against and in favor of it, to the proper sides, this
book will exhibit the result of the whole.

The following general rule is sufficient to direct
the learner respecting debtor and creditor. The
person from whom you buy goods on trust, or re-
ceive money, is Creditor ; and, on the contrary, the
person to whom you sell goods on credit, or pay
money, is Debtor.

For instance, if you buy goods on credit from
John Carter, he, being the deliverer, is creditor for
the value, and when you pay him for them, he, being

the person who receives, is debtor. On the same
principle, if you sell goods on credit to Philip Meek,
he, being the receiver, is debtor ; and when he pays
you for them, he, being the deliverer, is creditor. The
same rule is observed when you contract or discharge
a debt by any other transaction. Thus the person
who becomes indebted to you is debtor, and the
person to whom you become indebted is creditor.
In the same manner, the person whose debt you pay
is made debtor, and he who pays a debt to you, or
for you, is creditor.

In the Day-book, enter on the debtor, or left-hand,
page all the purchases, with the discounts allowed
by you, as these occur ; also all the petty expenses,
monthly. Enter on the creditor, or right-hand page,
all the sales, with the discount or interest allowed to
you ; also the value of goods on hand at balancing.

The Cash-book. — This book is very useful, whether
the Ledger be kept by Single or Double Entry, in
order to show at all times the money you receive
and pay, and how much at any time should remain
in hand. On the debtor, or left-hand page, is en-
tered every sum you receive ; and on the creditor, or
right-hand page, every sum you pay. The differ-
ence between the two sides is called the balance,
which should always agree with the money re-
maining in hand. This book is generally added up
and the amounts set down, at the end of each
month ; and the balance is entered on the credit
side to make the two sides equal, and likewise upon
the debtor side of the succeeding month.

The Bill-book is divided into two parts. In the
first are entered all bills which you receive, and are
therefore called Bills Receivable. It is ruled with a
number of columns for recording the several clauses
of the bill. When kept correctly the blank spaces
in the last column towards the right hand will always
show the bills which remain in your possession. As
soon as a bill passes out of your hands, by being
either paid, discounted, or endorsed to another per-
son, it must be marked off in the above column. In
the second part are entered all the bills which you
accept, or agree to pay, and are therefore called Bills
Payable. As soon as you pay a bill, it should also
be marked off in the column towards the right hand ;
when, of course, the blank spaces will just present
such bills of yours as are unpaid.

A dealer who does a cash business only requires
but a single book — the Cash-book. In it he enters

BOOK-KEEPING.

on its appropriate side all his transactions : on the
one side all he pays out, and what for, on the other
all he receives and its vouchers. The balance be-
tween the two sides will at any time show the state
of his affairs. Suppose, for instance, his Cash-book
shows on the debtor side a total transaction of $i,-
450.73, and on the credit side $659,32, the differ-
ence, $791.41, is the sum which he ought to have on
hand. These will appear on the Cash-book, thus :

Dr. Cr.

i,4So 73

659 32

Balance

To balance brought for-
ward 791 41

The transactions of which the foregoing forms a
total may be like the following :

Dr.

CASH.

Cr.

1880
Jan. I

Capital i,cxx> oo

Sales 10 IS

" 894

" 17 20

" 12 80

" 19 72

20 07

" 10 15

" 24 44

" 18 41

" 7 16

" 9 02

" 18 27

" 21 06

" 26 81

" 4194

" 73 20

64 16

" 47 23

$1.450 73

Jan

, I. Pd. Smith & Co.

for 10 bbls. flour. 52 50

2. Expenses 20 15

3. " 10 00

4- " 19 50

5. 42s

6. I 30

8. Wages 50 00

9. Expenses 24 00

10. " 19 7*

11. " 60 40

12. " 72 16

13. " 40 01

15- " 27 9°

16. Wages .so 00

17. Expenses 27 00

18. " 19 25

20. " 7 14

22. Wages 50 00

23. Expenses 17 84

24. " 86 20

$659 32

A single operation will enable you to ascertain at
any time the state of your affairs. Thus :

Balance of cash on hand 791 41

Cost of goods in stock 200 00

991 41

If you owe anything on your stock, you must ar-
rive at the result differently. Thus :

Balance of cash on hand 791 41

Cost of goods in stock 400 00

1,191 41
Deduct amounts due to various persons for stock . . 200 00

Balance as before 991 41

So if you give no credit, but sell only for cash
over your counter, you need only the one book, the
Cash-book, which will at any time you wish, if cor-
rectly kept, show the actual state of your business.

But as very few tradesmen or dealers confine
themselves to a cash business, it becomes necessary
to have other books, so when credit is given a
Ledger is demanded, so that the dealer may at all
times know not only what cash he has on hand, but
what money is owing him.

Suppose you are a bookseller, and your customers
keep running accounts, you will find it necessary to
have at least three books, a Cash-book, for the en-
tries of moneys received and paid out ; a Blotter,
as it is usually called, for recording the daily trans-
actions ; and a Ledger, for posting the accounts.
- A customer, say Mr. Robert Walpole, comes to
you and asks how his account stands. Looking at
the index in the front of your ledger, you find Mr.
Walpole's account on page 96. Turning to this
page, you discover the following statement :

MR. ROBERT WALPOLE.

Dr.

Cr.

1880.
Jan.

To mdse

My acceptance at 3 months, dated

April 10

Cash paid your order in favor of

Brown Sc Co

66
60

38
00

1880.
Jan.

25
16

144

By cash

Your acceptance at 3 months, due
April 13

130 CX)

The debtor side, or what he owes you, is $144,25.
and the creditor side, or what you owe him, is
$130.00 ; the difference, $14.52, being in your favor,

is therefore his debit to you. If he pays you, enter
it on the cash-book and on the credit side of the ac-
count in the ledger, thus making it balance.

kr-

BOOK-KEEPING.

NARRATIVE OF TRANSACTIONS.

1878.

Jan. I. Began trade with $2,000.

Bought goods as follows :

Of J. W. Bouton I150 20

Of Dodd, Mead & Co 241 00

Of A. S. Barnes & Co 300 00

Of D. Appleton & Co. 124 30

Sold 24 Annuals over the counter for ready

money, amounting to 14 80

Jan. 2. Paid J. W. Bouton, Cash 80 00

Paid Dodd, Mead & Co. ditto 120 00

Paid A. S. Barnes & Co. ditto 150 00

Paid D. Appleton & Co. ditto. 61 00

Accepted the following bills drawn on me :

J. W. Bouton, at 2 months 40 00

Dodd, Mead & Co., at 2 months 90 00

A. S. Barnes & Co, at 3 months 60 00

D. Appleton & Co., i month 40 00

Bought of A. D. F, Randolph, goods, value. 198 64
Jan. 3. Sold Tenter & Co., of Philadelphia, as follows :
120 Dodd, Mead & Co.'s Hand

Books, at 20c 24 00

80 Novels 26 00

. 40 Assorted books 24 00

74 00

Terms, half Cash, half Bills at 3 months.
Received from Tenter & Co.'s house in

town, cash 36 20

Idem, bill at three months 36 20

Sold B. Flock, of Pittsburgh, 42 assorted

books 50 80

Received from Flock's house in town, cash. 20 00

And a bill at 3 months date 30 80

Jan. 4. Sold Roberts Bros,, Boston, 36 Elements of

Commerce 74 32

Received from Roberts Bros., of New York,
for account of their house in Boston, their

acceptance at two months for 74 32

Paid A. D. F. Randolph on account of what
I owe him :

Bill paid to me by Flock 30 So

Bill paid to me by Roberts Bros 74 32

Together. 105 12

Bought of W. H. Vernon, 20 reams of paper. 170 00

Sold him 240 odd volumes all at 82 30

Sold for ready money over the counter, 6
vols. Hume and Smollett's History of En-
gland 6 60

HOW THEY ARE TO BE ENTERED IN THE
BOOKS.

This item being C^^fA in hand, must be placed on the debtor
side of the Cash Book.

To be entered in the DAY Book as goods bought at the time
of receiving the invoices. Each name, with the relative
amount of invoice, to form a separate entry.

To the Dr. side of Cash Book, as ready money received for
goods.

To be entered on the Cr. side of Cash Book, each^name
and amount forming a separate line.

To be entered in the Bills Payable Book, on separate
lines, according to the printed form sold for that purpose.

As before.

To be charged in the ImY Book, explaining every particu-
lar relating to the conditions of sale, and how forwarded.

To be entered in CASH Book as cash received for account
of Tenter & Co., Philadelphia.

To be entered in the Bills Receivable to the account of
Tenter & Co., Philadelphia, according to the printed forms.

As before.

As before.
As before.

As before.

This is a very peculiar entry, and one which persons ignorant of
book-keeping will find comparatively difficult to arrange. As it is,
however, a transaction which occurs continually, due attention ought
to be given to it.

There are two ways of entering it — one by the Cash Book, the other
by the Day Book. If by the/brmer, the amount must be first entered
on the Dr. side as received for the bills, and then the Cr. side as paid
to the parties. This, however, is a mode I do not like, because, in the
first place, it is noi a cash transaction at all ; and secondly, because an
entry on the Dr. side of the Cash Book is obliged to be created in order
to balance the other on the Cr. side. An entry by the Day Book is far
the best, as nothing more is necessary than to charge the person to
whom the bills are paid, with the amount of them, in the same way as
for goods sold. The latter method is the one adopted in the examples.

Day Book, as before.
As before.

As before.

213

BOOK-KEEPING.

Jan. 6. Paid trade charges and wages this day 422

Paid expenses to this day 6 60

Feb. 5. Paid cash for my acceptance to D. Apple-
ton & Co 40 00

Mar. 5. Idem to J. W. Bouton 40 00

Idem Dodd, Mead & Co 90 00

Apr. 5. Idem A. S. Barnes & Co 60 00

6. Received the amount of Tenter's acceptance,

paid me on the 3d Jan 36 20

7. Flock's acceptance returned to me by A. D.F.

Randolph, to whom I had paid it, it not
having been honored by the acceptor 30 80

8. Paid one month's Rent

Income Tax

City Taxes

Kov. I. Sold the following goods :

Ramsden & Co

S. Green

G. Barrows %

W. Sinn

V. S. Brown

Dec. I. Received the following acceptances, at three
months :

Ramsden & Co

S. Green

G. Barrows. ...

W. Sinn

V. S. Brown

Dec. 20. Bought goods as follows :

From Leggat Bros

From Houghton, Mifflin & Co

From S. R. Wells

From James R. Osgood & Co

Dec. 30. Gave my acceptances as follows, at three
months :

Leggat Bros

' To Houghton, Mifflin & Co

To S. R. Wells

To James R. Osgood & Co

Having entered all these various items in their
proper books, as explained, we proceed to transfer
them under their respective heads in the Ledger,
which is technically called Posting. First, taking
the Day Book, we post all under the date of the i st
of January ; then follows the Cash Book in the same
way, and finally the two Bill Books, care being taken
to mark the proper page of the Ledger in the col-
umns left for that purpose in the other books, and
vice versa to note in the Ledger, in like manner, the
folio of the book from which the entry has been ex-

120

200

192

170

200

192 40

170

To be entered on the CASH Book, under the head of Trade
Expenses.

Idem.

To be entered in the Cash Book to the charge of Bilb Pay-
able, specifying the number of the Bill, D. Appleton & Co.
having been debited with the amount when my acceptance was
given.

Idem.

To be entered in the Cash Book to the account of Bills Re-
ceivable, specifying the number, Tenter & Co. having been
credited for the Bill when I received it from them.

As I was obliged to take up this Bill, in other words to pay
it, for account of Flock, who ought to have paid it, I charge
Flock in the Cash Book with the amount I pay to A. D. F.
Randolph.

In the Cash Book, in the same way I entered trade and
other expenses.

To be entered in the Day Book, as before.

To be entered in the Bills Receivable Book, as before.

To be entered in the Day Book, as before.

To be entered in the Bills Payable Book, as before.

tracted. Thus, day by day, all the entries in the
Ledger are condensed from these four books.

All the items contained in the Cash Book, Bills
Receivable and Payable Books, and Day Book hav-
ing been properly posted in the Ledgfer, the next
operation will be to Balance ! This is generally
done on the last day of the year, at which time the
value of the stock on hand is taken. By reference
to the Ledger, it will be seen how those accounts are
ruled oif which balance of themselves, and in what
way the balances of the others are brought down,

BOOK-KEEPING.

213

some being amounts we owe, and others due to us.
The balances due us stand upoiv the Debtor side
of each account, and those we owe on the Creditor
side.

Having done this, we next proceed to draw up the
Balance Sheet, by which we shall ascertain the
amount of profit made or loss incurred upon the
year's transactions, after having paid all expenses
and trade charges. In order to do this properly, we
must collect into one sum a// we owe, and into an-

Dr.
AMOUNTS DUE TO ME, OR ASSETS.

BALANCES.

Folio in
the Ledger.

Accounts extracted.

B. Flock

Amount of book debts due /<'ine

♦ Bills Receivable in my hands not yet due.

Balance of Cash in hand

Estimated value of stock in hand

Balance in my favor

Which shows that after paying house and
trade charges, rent and taxes, I nave made
a clear net profit of $90.44 on my capital of

$2,000.

* Enumerate each item.

Balances as
per Ledger.

$30 80

$30

312
ii3iS
»,39°

$3i049
♦2,090

CASH

1880.

*
6

To Capital

$2,000
14

$2,067

Cash received for goods (ready money)
Tenter & Co., received for account of

80.
00

B. Flock

Cash received for goods (ready money).

60
60

Feb. I....

To Balance '.

$1,654

March i.

To Balance

$1^614

$1,614

April I . . .
6.

To Balance

$1,484

$1,522

Bill receivable, No. loi, received in
cash, this day

May I

To Balance

$1,315

So"

Note. — The amounts marked in the folio margin with a star, are not
by single entry, posted in the Ledger ; the Cash Book alone, under that
system, being quite sufficient for their registery. Only accounts with
^frj<7«j are kept : not with things as in Double Entry. At tlie same
time they may, ii wished, be posted under their respective heads as
matters of reference, but care must be taken not to include them in the
Balance, of which they form no part.

Other all we are possessed of, and the difference be-
tween the two will be the amount we are worth. The
amounts we owe are to be found in the Ledger and
the Bills Payable Book. The amounts due to us in
the Ledger, also, and the Bills Receivable Bo6k. Be-
sides these we must reckon as assets, Cash in hand,
as will appear by balancing Cash Book, and stock on
hand, which must be taken at a proper valuation.

Below will be found a General Balance Sheet,
drawn up according to these instructions.

31st December, 1880.

Cr.
AMOUNTS I OWE, OR LIABILITIES.

Folio in
the Ledger.

BOOK.

1880.
Jan. 2.

Feb. 5..

March 5.

Aprils..

Accounts extracted.

J. W. Bouton

Dodd, Mead & Co

A. S. Barnes & Co

D. Appleton & Co

A. D. F. Randolph

W.H. Vernon

Amount of book debts due by me.

Bills accepted by me not yet due ♦

Balance carried down

Balances

per Ledger.

$30

8343

614

$958

2,090

$3,049

* Enumerate each bill separately.

Cr.

By amount paid J. W. Bouton

Dodd, Mead & Co

A S. Barnes & Co

D. Appleton & Co

By Trade Charges,Expenses and Wages to
this day

Balance to next month .

By Bill Payable, No. 104, due this day . .
Glance

By Bill Payable, No. loi, due this day
Do do. 102, do

Balance.

By Bill Payable, No. 103, due this day. .

A. D. F. Randolph for Flock's Accep-
tance, due this day returned unpaid

One month's rent due this day

_— —Income Taxes

City Taxes

Balance.

|8o

I20

ISO

$423
$1,654

$2,077
$40

1,614

$1,654

130
$1,484

$1,614

$fo

30
80

$206

I.3I5

$1,522 °4

214

BOOK-KEEPING.

DAY BOOK.

Folio in
Ledger.

$150

Bought of J. W. Bouton

Bought of Dodd, Mead & Co.

$240

Bought of A. S. Barnes

$300

Bought of D. Appleton & Co.

I124

fin

Bought of A. D. F. Randolph

$188

fio

Sold Tenter & Co.

Half Cash.

Half Three Month's Bill

I20 Dodd, Mead & Co.'s Hand Books

8o Novels

$24
26
24

Forwarded by Union Express.

$74

Sold B. Flock

84 Assorted Books

$50

Sold Roberts Bros.

72 Elements of Commerce

$74

Forwarded per U. S. Express.

Paid A. D. F. Randolph

Flock's Acceptance, due April 7

Roberts Bros.' Acceptance, due March 7. ..

$30
74

80
32

$107

DAY BOOK— Continued.

Folio in
Ledger.

$170

Bought of W. H. Vernon

200 Reams of Paper

Sold W. H. Vernon

240 Odd Volumes all for

$82

Sold Ramsden & Co.

Books

$20
$18

Sold S. Green

Books

Sold G. Barrows

Books

$80

Sold W. Sinn

Books

$Z20

Sold V. S. Brown

Books

$74

Bought of Leggat Bros.

Goods as per invoice

$52

Bought of Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Goods as per invoice

$200

Bought of S. R. Wells

Goods as per invoice

$192

Bought of J. R. Osgood & Co.

Goods as per invoice

$170

N. B.— The folios should be marked in red ink.

x88o.

BILLS RECEIVABLE.

Folio.

Number of
the Bill.

On whose account.

Date.

Time.

When due.

Amount.

lOI

102
103

104

i^
107
108

Tenter & Co

January 3

3 months

April 6
March 7

March 4

$36
32
74

7
8

B Flock

December i

$143

20
18
80
120
74

S. Green

13
14

W. Sinn

V. S. Brown

312

X880.

BILLS PAYABLE.

Folio

Number of
Bill.

lOI
I03

103
104

106

By whom drawn.

J. W. Bouton

Dodd. Mead& Co

A. S. Barnes & Co

D. Appleton & Co

Leggat Bros

Houghton, Mifflin & Co

S.R.Wells

Jas. R. Osgood & Co. . .

Date.

January 2

December 30

Time.

2 months

When due.

March 5

April 5
Feb. s

Api

1879.
nl

Amount.

$40

■ 60

00
00

$230

~"$5^

200

192
170

40
80

$6iS

^>-

BOOK-KEEPING.

215

Folio ;
Dr.

THE LEDGER.
J. W. BOUTON.

Cr.

1880.

Jan.

Dec.

3»

To cash

To balance carried down.
To bills payable, No. loi .

1880.

$80

Jan.

Dec.

150

By goods .

By balance brought down.

I150

150 20

Folio 2.
Dr.

DODD, MEAD & CO.

Cr.

1880.

Jan.

Dec.

To cash

To bills jjayable, No. 102.
To balance carried down.

1880.

$120

Jan.

Dec.

3»

241

By goods .

By balance brought down.

$341

Folio 3.
Dr.

A. S. BARNES & CO.

Cr.

1880.
Jan.

Dec.

To cash

To bills payable. No. 103 .
To balance carried down.

$150
60
90

00
00
00

1880.

Jan.
Dec.

I
31

300

By goods .

By balance brought down.

$300

Folio 4.
Dr.

D. APPLETON & CO.

Cr.

1880.

Jan.

Dec.

To cash

To bills payable, No. 104.
To balance carried down.

$62

00
00
60

1880.

Jan.
Dec.

I
31

124

By goods ,

By balance brought down.

$124

Folio 5.
Dr.

A. D. F. RANDOLPH.

Cr.

1880.

Jan.

Dec.

To two bills receivable, paid them .
To balance carried down

$106
82

1880.

Jan.
Dec.

I
31

188

By goods.

By balance brought down.

$188

188

Folio 6.
Dr.

1880.
Jan.

TENTER & Co., Philadelphia.

To goods ,

$72 40

1880.
Jan.

By cash

By bill receivable, No. loi.

Cr.

I36
36

Folio
Dr.

SINN,

Partsburg, West

Va.

Cr.

1880.
Jan.
April

3
7

I
1

$50
30

80
80

1880.
Jan.

4
31

By cash

$20
30
30

To your acceptance returned unpaid

To balance brought down

Dec.

«o

Dec.

■—^

216

BOOK-KEEPING.

Folio 8.
Dr.

ROBERTS BROS., Boston.

x88o.
Jan. 4 I To goods.

$74

1880.
Jan.

By bill receivable, No. 103 .

Folio 9.
Dr.

W. H. VERNON.

1880.
Jan.
Dec.

To snoods

To balance carried down

$83

1880.
Jan.

Dec.

4
31

169

3°

By goods ,

By balance brought down.

Cr.

$74

Cr.

$169

169

Folio
Dr.

lO.

KAJ\

abiJii

JN ac »..»

Cr.

1880.
Nov.

1 $20

1880.
Dec.

By bill receivable. No. 104

$20

Folio
Dr.

ri. t

•

). liK

KBM.

Cr.

1880.
Nov.

$18

1880.
Dec.

By bill receivable, No. 105

$18

Folio 12.
Dr.

GEOR

GE 1

JARRO

WS.

Cr.

1880.
Nov.

To goods

$80

1880.
Dec.

By bill receivable, No. 106

$80

' '

Folio
Dr.

'3-

W. S

INN.

Cr.

1880.
Nov

$120

1880.
Dec.

By bill receivable. No. 107

$120

Folio 14.

V. S. BROWN.

Dr.

1880.
Nov.

To goods

$74

1880.
Dec.

By bill receivable. No. 108

$74

Folio
Dr.

IS-

LEGGAT BROS

Cr.

1880.
Dec.

To bill payable. No. 105. . .

$52

i88o.
Dec.

Bv firoods

$52

Folio 16.
Dr.

HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO.

Cr.

Dec. 30 1 To bill payable, No. 106.

1880.
$200 00 Dec. 30 1 By goods

Folio
Dr.

'7-

R. WELLS.

Cr.

1880.
Dec.

To bill payable, No. 107

$192

1880.
Dec.

Bv eoods ,

$192

' *

Folio
Dr.

18.

JAMES R. OSGOOD & CO.

Cr.

1880.
Dec.

To bill payable. No. 108

$170

1880.
Dec.

By goods

I170

BOOK-KEEPING.

217

After the Ledger has been duly examined, and it is seen
that the balances are struck and brought down correctly, pro-
ceed to observe if those balances are transferred properly to
the general Balance Sheet at page 213, which is the last
operation of all.

Beyond this, Book-keeping by Single Entry "can no further
go." It is only a confined system, and its results are never
demonstrated or proved. Errors of omission, of addition, and
of wrong posting, may, and in large establishments do fre-
quently occur without any means of detection, except the tire-
some and frequently fallacious method of a re-examination of
the entire books by another person. But by Double Entry,
provided the system be a correct one, no error of any kind can
escape without detection, because everything is verified by an
infallible rule. Nevertheless the diligent study of the method
of Single Entry is absolutely necessary as a preparatory step
towards acquiring a knowledge of the other. No one can
keep a set of books by Double Entry who does not understand
Single Entry, because the one is based upon the other. When
the learner has well studied what has already been laid before
him, let him pass on to the following pages, where he will
find the same transactions registered by Double Entry.

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

This method differs from the former chiefly in making cash,
stock, goods, &c., parties, as well as persons, and in making a
debtor and creditor account in every transaction. Thus, if
cloth is sold to A, A is made debtor to cloth, and cloth creditor
to A ; if cash is received from B, cash is made debtor to B,
and B creditor to cash ; and in every case the party, whether
animate or inanimate, which receives is debtor to that which
pays, and inversely. In Single Entry the record is single, and
there it ends, whereas in Double Entry every transaction has
a debit and credit, and every account in which it is not so
represented is imperfect. Two parties are necessarily engaged
in every transaction, and therefore each of them requires in
his Ledger two separate accounts, one for himself, and a sec-
ond for his customer or furnisher, as the case may be. Now,
by the use of what are called nominal accounts representing
the proprietor in his own Ledger, the double receptacle is
provided which every transaction requires. The nominal
accounts receive the counter entries of all the personal accounts,
and through their operation the merchant is enabled to ascer-
tain whether his business is profitable or the reverse. These
accounts are those or Stock. Profit and Loss, and its branches.
Stock is a term used to represent the proprietor, and it con-
tains on the credit side the amount of the money, goods, or
other property brought into trade ; and on the debtor, the
owner's liabilities. In Profit and Loss, the credit side exhibits
the gain of the business, and the debit the loss. In Single
Entry, nominal accounts have no place. There is a record
only of the side of the accounts belonging to the person deal-
ing with the concern, and none whatever of that which repre-
sents the owner. Such a method enables us to balance the
accounts of each party, but exhibits no register by which the
state of the stock in trade, and the balances of capital and
cash, can be at once ascertained without a separate and inde-
pendent investigation.

We have seen, that by Single Entry the items are transferred
from the Cash Book, Day Book, and Bill Books, at once, into
the Ledger ; but in Double Entry, another book, called the
Journal, is necessarily used, in which the items from all the
others are first arranged in proper form, and then passed into
the Ledger. Thus, posting by Single Entry is done from
several books ; whereas by Double Entry from the Journal
alone.

The old Italian method of keeping a Journal is fraught with
so many crudities, useless repetitions, and technical jargon,
that it has been long abandoned for one a thousand fold more
simple in its construction, and perfect in its results. Instead
of continually entering " Sundries Dr. to Cash," " Interest Dr.
to Sundries," " Commission Dr. to A. B. C," and "D. E. F.
Dr. to Commission," with a multitude of such anomalies, the
Journal is divided into two parts, (the right and left hand side
of the book) the one called the Debtor side and the other the
Creditor side. Under the Debtor side must be entered unin-
terruptedly everything that is to be debited ; and under the
Creditor side, everything that is to be credited ; and both
sides must agree, if the entering has been done correctly.

In addition to the simplicity of this arrangement, there are
other advantages which may not be overlooked. In the first
place, all the entries on one side of the Journal are posted upon
the same side in the Ledger, a convenience which every book-
keeper will know how to prize. Next, all the items for each
account in a month are consolidated in one entry previous to
posting, thus greatly reducing that labor, and offering the
phenomenon of a Ledger wherein no account for one year can
have more than twelve lines, one for each month ; and, finally,
the totals of each month in the Journal added together must
correspond with the gross amount of all the totals in the
Ledger, the last and surest demonstration of correctness which
figures can offer.

Let us proceed to Journalize according to this method all
the entries contained in the preceding Day Book, Cash Book,
Bills Payable Book and Bills Receivable Book, (for which
see pages 213, 214) begging the learner meanwhile, to recol-
lect the following rules : —

1st. When Goods are sold, the buyers must be debited and
Trade Account credited with the amount.

2d. When goods are bought Trade Account must be debited
and the sellers credited for the amount.

3d. When Cash is paid, the parties receiving it must be
debited and Cash Account credited, and when it is
received the Account must be debited and the payers
credited.

4th. When Acceptances are given, the persons on whose
account they are drawn must be debited, and Bills Pay-
able credited ; and when they are received Bills Receiv-
able must be debited and the party on whose account
they are received must be credited.

5th. When Accepted Bills become due and are paid. Bills

* Payable must be debited and Cash credited ; and when
Bills to be received become due and are paid. Cash must
be debited with the amount, and Bills Receivable
credited.

Finally. No entry can be made in the Ledger unless it be
extracted from the Journal, consequently everything must

, go into the Journal first.

These rules must be most carefully heeded in order to rapidly

acquire the science of book-keeping.

2l8

BOOK-KEEPING.

Dr.

JOURNAL. January, 1880.

Tenter & Co.
D. Flock.
Roberts Bros.
A. D. F. Randolph.

W. H. Vernon.
J. W. Bouton.

Dodd, Mead & Co.

A. S. Barnes & Co.

D. Appleton & Co.

Bills Receivable.

Cash.

Trade Acount.

3. Goods sold as per invoice

3. ditto —

4. ditto

4. Paid them Bill Receiv-
able, No. 102 30 80

Idem 103 74 32

4. Goods, as per invoice

2. Bill Payable, No. 101...40 00
Cash paid them 80 00

2. Bill Payable, No. 102.. go 00
Cash paid them 120 00

2. Bill Payable, No. 103.. 6000
Cash paid them rso 00

2. Bill Payable, No. 104... 40 00
Cash paid them 62 00

31. Amount received this month

as per Bill Receivable book

3x. Amount received this month

as per Cash Book

Goods bought this month :

or J. W. Bouton 150 20

Dodd, Mead & Co.. 241 00
A. S. Barnes & Co.. 300 00
D. Appleton & Co.. 124 60
A. D. F. Randolph. 186 60

W. H. Vernon 170 00

Cash paid charees as
per Cash Book 10 28

00
80

los
82

:2o

00 .

210

102

142

2,076

1,182

4,430

J. W. Bouton.
Dodd, Mead & Co.
A. S. Barnes & Co.
D. Appleton & Co.
A. D. F. Randolph.
W. H. Vernon.
Bills Payable.

Tenter & Co.

B. Flock.

Robert Bros,
Trade Account.

Cash.

Bills Rceivable.

I . Goods as per invoice

I. ditto

1. ditto

2. ditto

4. ditto

31. Amount of Bills accepted this
month as per Bill Book

3. Bill Receivable No. loi.. 36 20
Cash received 36 20

4. Bill Receivable No. 102. 30 80

3. Cash Received 20 00

4. Bill Receivable No. 102

I. Cap'al invested this day 2,000

Goods sold this month :
3. To Tenter & Co 74 00

3. Flock 5080

4. Roberts Bros 74 32

W. H. Vernon 82 30

I. Cash received 14 80

4. Ditto 6 60

31. Amount paid this month as

per Cash Book

4. No. 102, paid A. D. F.

Randolph 30 80

No, 103, ditto 74 32

Cr.

Bills Payable.

5, Cash paid, No. 104.

February,
40 00

1880.
Cash.

26. Amount paid this month as
per Cash Book

Dr.
Bills Payable.

5. Cash paid No. 102 .
Ditto

March,
90
40

130

1880.
Cash.

31. Amount paid this month, as
per Cash Book

Bills Payable.
B. Flock.

5. Cash paid No. 103

7. His bill returned unpaid

8. Cash for rent 80 00

Taxes 20 24
Taxes 15 20

Apri
60
30

242

00
80

44
20

1880.
Cash.

Bills Receivable.

30. Amount paid this month, as
per Cash Book

206
36

44
00

Charges on Trade.

6. Cash received No. loi

Cash.

30. Amount received this month
per Cash Book

242

Trade Account.

20. Goods bought this month :

Of Leggatt Bros 52 20

Houghton, Mifflin &

Co 200 00

S. R. Wells 192 40

Jas. R. Osgood & Co.. 170 80

December,

Leggat Bros. 30. Bill Payable, No. 105

Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 30. Idem 106

S. R. Wells. 30. Idem loy....... '.

J.R.Osgood. 30. Idem 108

Bills Receivable. 31. Amount received this month
as per Bill Book

61S
52
206
192
170

714

Leggat Bros. 20. Goods bought by him

Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 20. Idem

S. R. Wells. 20. Idem

Jas. R. Osgood & Co. 20. Idem

Bills Payable. 30. Bills accepted this month as

per Bill Book

Ramsden&Co. i. Bill Receivable, No. 104 —

S.Green. 1. Idem No. 105 —

G. Barrows. i. Idem No. 106

W. Sinn. i. Idem No. 107 . .
V. S. Brown. i. Idem No. 108

Ramsden & Co.

N
I. Goods sold them

ovember
20
18
80
120
74

24
00
00
20

1880.
Trade Account.

Goods sold this month : —

I. To Ramsden & Co 20 00

I. S. Green 18 24

I. G. Barrows 80 00

I. W. Sinn 120 00

I. V. S Brown 74 lo

312

S. Green.

1. Goods sold him

G. Barrows.

I. Goods sold him

W. Sinn.

I. Goods sold him

V. S. Brown.

I. Goods sold him

312

BOOK-KEEPING.

219

THE LEDGER.

IVheretn the contents 0/ the preceding Journal are posted.

Dr. TENTER
1880.
Jan . 3 To Goods 74 00

Dr. B.

Jan. 3 To Goods 5080

April 7 To Bill returned 30 80

81 60

To Balance 30 00

Dr. ROBERTS
Jan. 4 To Goods 74 32

Dr. A. D. F.

Jan. 4 To Sundries 106 00

To Balance 83 66

188 60

Dr. W. H.

Jan. 4 To Goods 82 30

To Balance 87 00

189 30

Dr. J. W.

Jan. 3 To Sundries 120 00

To Balance 30 20

150 30

Dr. DODD,

Jan. 3 To Sundries ; 210 00

To Balance 31 00

241 00

Dr. A. S. BAR

Ian. 3 To Sundries 210 00

To Balance 90 00

300 00

~D^. "" D. AP

Jan. 3 To Sundries 102 00

To Balance 22 60

134 60

Dr. BILLS

Jan. 31 To Sundries 142 20

Dec. 31 Idem 3^4 4°

456 60

To Balance 3 1 4 4°

Dr. CASH

Jan. 31 To Sundries 3,07634

April 30 Idem 36 20

3,113 54

To Balance 1,313 80

& Co. Cr.

1880.
Jan . 31 By Sundries . . 74 00

FLOCK. Cr.

Jan. 31 By Sundries 50 80

By Balance 30 80

81 60

BROS. Cr,

By Bill Receivable 74 3a

RANDOLPH.

Jan. 2 By Goods 18860

188 60

By Balance 82 60

VERNON. Cr.

Jan. 4. By Goods 189 30

189 30

By Balance 87 00

BOUTON. Cr.

By Sundries 150 20

150 20

By Balance 30 10

MEAD & Co. Cr.

Jan. 4 By Sundries 241 00

210 00

By Balance 31 00

NES & Co. Cr.

Jan. I By Goods 30000

30000

By Balance 90 00

PLETON & Co. Cr.

Jan. I By Goods 124 60

124 60

By Balance 22 60

RECEIVABLE. Cr.

Jan. 31 By Sundries 106 00

April 30 laem 36 20

142 20
Balance 314 40

456 60

ACCOUNT. Cr.

Jan. 31 By Sundries 42* 28

Feb. 29 Idem 4000

March 31 Idem 13000

April 30 Idem 206 40

798 68
Balance 1,313 86

8,xi3 54

220

BOOK-KEEPING.

-y

j)f._ TRADE

Jan. 31 To Sundries 1,184 34

April 30 Idem "4 36

Dec. 31 Idem "^4 34

1,913 04
Balance 700 20

2,613 24

ACCOUNT.

{an. 31 By Sundries,
lov. 30 Idem

Cr.

2,304 40

308 84

2,613 24
By Balance 700 20

PAYABLE. Cr.

Jan. 31 By Sundries 33000

Eec. 31 Idem 614 34

Dr. BILLS

Feb. 28 To Sundries 40 00

March 31 Idem 130 00

April 30 Idem 60 00

230 00
Balance 614 34

844 34

844 34
By Balance 614 34

Dr.
Nov. I To Goods

RAMSDEN

&Co.
Dec. I By Bill Receivable.

Cr.

Dr.
Nov. 1 To Goods

S.
18 24

GREEN.
Dec. I By Bill Receivable,

No.

105

Cr.
18 24

Dr.
Nov. I To Goods

G.
80 00

BERGER.
Dec. I By Bill Receivable,

No.

106

Cr.
80 00

Dt.
Nov I To Goods

SINN.
Dec. I By Bill Receivable,

No.

107

Cr.

Dr.
Nov I To Groods

V. s.

BROWN.
Dec. 1 By Bill Receivable

108

Cr.
74 20

Dr.
Dec. 30 To Bill Payable, No.

LEGGAT

BROS.
Dec. 20 By Goods

Cr.
52 20

Dr.
Dec. 30 To Bill Payable, No.

106

HOUGHTON,

MIFFLIN & Co.

Cr.

Dr.
Dec. 30 To Bill Payable, No.

S. R.

WELLS.
Dec. 20 By Goods

Cr.
192 40

Dr.
Dec. 30 To Bill Payable, No.

108

JAS. R. OSGOOD

&Co.

Cr.

T-7r> Rn

In the preceding Ledger we have posted under the head of
Trade Account all goods bought and charges incurred (both
in business and family matters) to the Debit ; and to the
Credit, the amount of my capital and goods sold, consequently
the balance of this account added to the amount of stock on
hand always shows the profit of the business. For instance :

Balance of the account 7CX3 16

Value of stock on hand, as estimated in the

Balance Sheet by Single Entry l>390 28

Total balance in my favor as shown in the

Balance Sheet by Single entry 2,090 44

Bat in partnership accounts, such a plan would not do, be-
cause domestic expenses cannot be charged to trade, nor
should the respective capitals be included. In such cases
separate accounts must be opened for each individual, which
must be credited with their separate capitals and debited with
their relative charges. At the end of the year, a balance is
struck, the profit or loss determined, and the sum total di-
vided into proper proportions, and transferred from the gen-
eral Trade or Profit and Loss Account, to each individual's
debit or credit, as the case may be.

N. B. — A Profit and Loss Account is merely another name
for a Trade Account. All bad debts must be charged to that Ac-
count which shows the Profit and Loss (whatever the name may
be), and the bad Accounts themselves closed by transfer.

Let us now see if the Ledger is correct. To determine this,
first extract all the totals, Dr. Cr. (before the balances are
struck) which must not only agree with each other,*but corre-
spond as well with the sums total in the Journal. Put all the
amounts at debit on one side, and the amounts at credit on
the other. The totals must agree with the totals in the Jour-
nal. If this prove to be the fact, it is thus demonstrated that
everything in the Journal has been posted in the Ledger.

Having thus seen that the totals on both sides of the Ledger
not only agree with each other, but correspond as well with
those of the Journal, which \% proof positive that the books are
correct, the next and last care will be to see that the balances
are properly struck and brought down, which is done by ex-
tracting them, and observing that both sides are alike.

If they agree, the balancing has been properly done.

This is the final operation at the end of a year ; and the
Journal of the next should have for its first entries Debtor and
Creditor, an exact copy of the Balance Sheet, registered the
same as all other items and included in the monthly total

ARITHMETIC.

-J

HE numerals now in use, with the mode of
causing them by peculiar situation to express any
number, and whereby the processes of arithmetic
have been rendered so highly convenient, have
heretofore been supposed to be of Indian origin,
transmitted through the Persians to the Arabs,
and by them introduced into Europe in the tenth
century, when the Moors invaded and became masters
of Spain. Such in reality appears to have been in a
great measure the tme history of the transmission of these
numerals ; but as it has been lately found that the ancient
hieroglyphical inscriptions of Egypt contain several of them,
learned men are now agreed that they originated in that early
seat of knowledge, between which and India there exist more
points of resemblance, and more traces of intercourse, than is
generally supposed. In the eleventh century, Gerbert, a Ben-
edictine monk of Fleury, and who afterwards ascended the
Papal throne under the designation of Sylvester II., traveled
into Spain, and studied for several years the sciences there cul-
tivated by the Moors. Among other acquisitions, he gained
from that singular people a knowledge of what are now called
the Arabic numerals, and of the mode of arithmetic founded
on them, which he forthwith disclosed to the Christian world,
by whom at first his learning caused him to be accused of
an alliance with evil spirits. The knowledge of this new
arithmetic was about the same time extended, in consequence
of the intercourse which the Crusaders opened between Europe
and the East. For a long time, however, it made a very slow
and obscure progress. The characters themselves appear to
have been long considered in Europe as dark and mysterious.
Deriving their whole efficacy from the use made of the cipher,
so called from the Arabic word tsapkara, denoting empty or
void, this term came afterwards to express, in general, any
secret mark. Hence, in more troublous times than the pres-
ent, a mode of writing was practiced, by means of marks pre-

viously concerted, and called writing in cipher. The Arabic
characters occur in some arithmetical tracts composed in Eng<
land during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, particu-
larly in a work by John of Halifax, or De Sacrobosco ; but
another century elapsed before they were generally adopted.
They do not appear to have settled into their present form till
about the time of the invention of printing.

It would be impossible to calculate, even by their own tran-
scendent powers, the service which the Arabic numerals have
rendered to mankind.

mm(i\f((^t(('i\ns^^^

HE Arabic numerals take the following well-
known forms : — I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, o.
The first nine of these, called digits, or digital
numbers, represent each one of the numbers be-
tween one and nine, and when thus employed
to represent single numbers, they are considered
as units. The last (o), called a nought, nothing or
cipher, is, in reality, taken by itself, expressive of an
absence of number, or nothing ; but, in connection
with other numbers, it becomes expressive of number in a
very remarkable manner.

The valuable peculiarity of the Arabic notation is the en-
largement and variety of values which can be given to the fig-
ures by associating them. The number ten is expressed by I
and o put together — thus, 10 ; and all the numbers from this
up to a hundred can be expressed in like manner by the asso-

222

ARITHMETIC.

ciation of two figures — thus, twenty, 20 ; thirty, 30 ; eighty-
five, 85 ; ninety-nine, 99. These are called decimal numbers,
from decern, Latin for ten. The numbers between a hundred
and nine hundred and ninety-nine inclusive are, in like man-
ner, expressed by three figures — thus, a hundred, 100 ; five
hundred, 500; eight hundred and eighty-five, 885 ; nine hun-
dred and ninety-nine, 999. Four figures express thousands ;
five, tens of thousands ; six, hundreds of thousands ; seven,
millions ; and so forth. Each figure, in short, put to the left
hand of another, or of several others, multiplies that one or
more numbers by ten. Or if to any set of figures a nought (o)
be added towards the right hand, that addition multiplies the
number by ten ; thus 999, with o added, becomes 9990, nine
thousand nine hundred and ninety. Thus it will be seen that,
in notation, the rank or place of any figure in a number is
what determines the value which it bears. The figure third
from the right hand is always one of the
1.234.567,890 hundreds; that which stands seventh al-

g'c g =;c g g-c g a" ways expresses millions ; and so on. And

50 g^o SS ?

Sf^-oQ-^Sai"!* whenever a new figure is added towards the

right, each of the former set obtains, as it

were, a promotion, or is made to express ten

times its former value.
A large number is thus expressed in the
."" ■" g* Arabic numerals, every set of three from

the right to the left hand being divided by
a comma for the sake of distinctness.

The above number is therefore one thousand two hundred
and thirty-four millions, five hundred and sixty-seven thous-
ands, eight hundred and ninety. Higher numbers are ex-
pressed differently in France and England. In the former
country, the tenth figure expresses billions, from which there
is an advance to tens of billions, hundreds of billions, tril-
lions, etc. In our country, the eleventh figure expresses ten
thousands of millions, the next hundreds of thousands of mil-
lions, the next billions, etc. The two plans will be clearly
apprehended from the following arrangement : —

ENGLISH METHOD.

Units.
Tens.
Hundreds.
Thousands.
Tens of thousands.
Hundreds of thousands.
Millions.
Tens of millions.
Hundreds of millions.
Thousands of millions.
Ten thousands of millions.
Hundreds of thousands of mil-
lions.
Billions.
Tens of billions.
Hundreds of billions, etc.

FRENCH METHOD.

Units.

Tens.

Hundreds.

Thousands.

Tens of thousands.

Hundreds of thousands.

Millions.

Tens of millions.

Hundreds of millions.

Billions.

Tens of billions

Hundreds of billions.

Trillions.

Tens of trillions.

Hundreds of trillions, etc.

SIMPLE OR ABSTRACT NUMBERS.

There are four elementary departments in arithmetic— Ad-
dition, Multiplication, Subtraction, and Division.

5
536

352
275

"95

TION is the adding or summing up of
several numbers, for the purpose of finding out
their united amount. We add numbers to-
gether when we say, i and i make 2 ; 2 and 2
make 4 ; and so on. The method of writing
numbers in addition, is to place the figures under
one another so that units will stand under units,
tens under tens, hundreds under hundreds, etc. Sup-
pose we wish to add together the following numbers —
27. 5, 536, 352,and 275; we range them in columns one under the
other, as in the margin, and draw a line under the whole. Be-
ginning at the lowest figure of the right-hand column,
we say 5 and 2 are 7 — 7 and 6 are 13 — 13 and 5 are 18
— 18 and 7 are 25 ; that is, 2 tens and 5 units. We
now write the five below the line of units, and carry or
add the 2 tens, or 20, to the lowest figure of the next
column. In carrying this 20, we let the cipher go, it
being implied by the position or rank of the first figure,
and take only the 2 ; we therefore proceed thus — 2 and
7 are 9—9 and 5 are 14 — 14 and 3 are 17 — 17 and 2 are 19.
Writing down the 9, we proceed with the third column, carry-
ing I, thus — I and 2 are 3 — 3 and 3 are 6 — 6 and 5 are 11.
No more figures remaining to be added, both these figures are
now put down, and the amount or sum of them all is found to
be 1 1 95. Following this plan, any quantity of numbers may
be summed up. Should the amount of any column be in
three figures, still only the last or right-hand figure is to be
put down, and the other two carried to the next column. For
example, if the amount of a column be 127, put down the 7
and carry the other two figures, which are 12 ; if it be 234,
put down the 4 and carry 23.

For the sake of brevity in literature, addition is often de-
noted by the figure of a cross, of this shape + . Thus, 7 + 6
means 7 added to 6 ; and in order to express the sum result-
ing, the sign =, which means equal to, is employed, as 7 + 6
= 13 ; that is, 7 and 6 are equal to 13.

The Sign of Dollars is $. It is read dollars. Thus, $64
dollars is read 64 dollars j $5 is read 5 dollars. When dollars
and cents are written, a period or point ( . ) is placed before the
cents, or between the dollars and cents. Thus, $4.25 is read
4 dollars and 25 cents. Since loo cents make $1.00, cents
always occupy two places, and never more than two.

If the number of cents is less than 10 and expressed by a
single figure, a cipher must occupy the first place at the right
of the point. Thus, 3 dollars 6 cents are written $3.06 ; i
dollar 5 cents are written $1.05. When cents alone are writ-
ten, and their number is less than 100, either write the word
cents after the number, or place the dollar sign and the point
before \h& number. Thus, 75 cents maybe expressed, $.75.
In arranging for addition, dollars should be written under dol-

ARITHMETIC.

— ^

223 f

lars, and cents under cents, in such order that \.)\q points stand
in a vertical line.

The sign $, and the point ( . ) should never be omitted.

, ULTIPLICATION is a short method of ad-
dition under certain circumstances. If we
wish to ascertain the amount of twelve times
the number 57, instead of setting down
twelve rows of 57, and adding them together,
we adopt a shorter plan by which we come
to the same conclusion. For ascertaining the
amount of all simple numbers as far as 12 times 12,
young persons commit to memory the following
Multiplication Table, a knowledge of which is of great value,
and saves much trouble in after-life : —

7l 8|

10 1

14 1 .6 1

•5

21 1 24 1

36
48

28 1 32 1

•5

35 1 40 1

50 1

42 1 48 1

49 1 56 1

56 1 64 1

63 1 72 1

.08

7o| 8o|

100

.20

77 1 88 1

I2i

132

[12

84I96I

108

120

132

144

This table is so well known, that it is almost superfluous to
explain that, when any number in the top row is multiplied
by any number in the left-hand side row, the amount is found
in the compartment or square beneath the one and opposite
the other. Thus, 2 times 2 are 4 ; 5 times 6 are 30 ; 12 times
12 are 144.

The multiplying of numbers beyond 12 times 12 is usually
effected by a process of calculation in written figures. The
rule is to write down the number to be multiplied, called the
multiplicand ; then place under it, on the right-hand side, the
number which is to be the multiplier, and draw a line under
them. For example, to find the amount of 9 times 27, we set
down the figures thus —

27 {Multiplicand.)
9 {Multiplier.)

243 {Product.)

Beginning with the right-hand figure, we say 9 times 7 are 63 ;
and putting down 3 we carry 6, and say 9 times 2 are 18, and
6, which was carried, makes 24 ; and writing down these fig-
ures next the 3, the product is found to be 243.

When the multiplier consists of two or more figures,
place it so that its right-hand figure comes ex-
actly under the right-hand figure of the multiplicand ;
for instance, to multiply 5463 by 34, we proceed as
here shown. Here the number is multiplied, first by
the 4, the product of which being written down, we
proceed to multiply by 3, and the amount produced
is placed below the other, but one place farther to
the left. A line is then drawn, and the two products
added together, bringing out the result of 185742. We may,
in this manner, multiply by three, four, five, or any number
of figures, always placing the product of one
figure below the other, but shifting a place far-
ther to the left in each line. An example is
here given in the multiplying of 76843 by
4563.

Multiplication is denoted by a cross of this
shape X : thus 3 x 8 = 24, signifies, that by
multiplying 8 by 3, the product is 24. A number
which is produced by the multiplication of two
other numbers, as 30 by 5 and 6, leaving nothing
over, is called a composite number. The 5 and 6, called the
factors (that is, workers or agents), are said to be the com-
ponent parts of 30, and 30 is also said to be a multiple of either
of these numbers. The equal parts into which a number can
be reduced, as the twos in thirty, are called the aliquot parts.
A number whfch cannot be produced by the multiplication of
two other numbers, is called a prime number. When the mul-
tiplicand and multiplier are the same, that is, when a number
is multiplied by itself once, the product is called the square of
that number : 144 is the square of 12.

5463
34

21852
16389

185742

76843
4563

230,529
4,610,58
38,421,5
307.372

350,634,609

UBTRACTION is the deducting of a smaller
number from a greater, to find what remains, or
the difference between them.

The Sign of Subtraction is — . It is read
minus, and signifies less.

When placed between two numbers, it indi-
cates that the one after it is to be subtracted from
the one before it. Thus, 12 — 7 is read 12 minus 7,
and means that 7 is to be subtracted from 12.
A Parenthesis ( ) is used to include within it such numbers
as are to be considered together. A Vinculum has the

same signification. Thus, 25 — (12 + 7), or 25 — 12 + 7,
sigaifies that from 25 the sum of 12 and 7 is to be subtracted.
Principles. — i. Only like numbers and units of the same
order can be subtracted.

2. The minuend must be equal to the sum of the subtrahend
and remainder.

224

ARITHMETIC.

537
325

We subtract when vre say, lake 3 from 5, and 2 remains.
To ascertain what remains, after taking 325 from 537,
we proceed by writing the one under the other as here
indicated, and then subtracting. Commencing at 5,

the right-hand figure of the lower and smaller number,

we say, 5 from 7, and 2 remains ; setting down the 2, ^^^
we say next, 2 from 3, and I remains; and setting down
the I, we say, 3 from 5, and 2 remains ; total remainder,
212.

To subtract a number of a higher value, involving the car-
rying of figures and supplying of tens, we proceed as in the
margin. Commencing as before, we find that 5 cannot be
subtracted from 2, and therefore supply or lend 10 to
the 2, making it 12 ; then we say, 5 from 12, and 7
remains. Setting down the 7, we take i, being the de-
cimal figure of the number which was borrowed, and
give it to the l, making it 2, and taking 2 from 3, we
find that i remains. Setting down the i, we go to the
8, and finding it cannot be taken from the 4 above it, we lend
10 to the 4, making it 14, and then we say, 8 from 14, and 6
rjmains. In the same manner as before, adding the first fig-
ure of the borrowed number (i) to the 6, we say, 7 from 8,
and I remains ; thus the total remainder is found to be 161 7,
From these explanations, which apply to all calculations in
subtraction, it will be observed, that when the upper figure is
less than the figure directly under it, 10 is to be added, and
for this one is carried or added to the next undet- figure.

A man having $15, paid $4 for a hat, and $2 for a vest.
How many dollars had he left ?

Analysis. — The difference between I15, and the sum of %\
and $2, which is $9.

8432
6815

1617

4r-

'IVISION is that process by which we discover
how often one number may be contained in an-
other, or by which we divide a given number
into any proposed number of equal parts. By
the aid of the Multiplication Table, we can
ascertain without writing figures how many
times any number is contained in another, as far
as 144, or 12 times 12 ; beyond this point notation
is employed. There are two modes of work-
ing questions in division, one long and the other
short. Let it be required to divide 69 by 3 : accord-
ing to the long method, write the figures 69 as an-
nexed, with a line at each side, and the divisor, or
3, on the left. The question is wrought out by ex-
amining how many times 3 is in 6, and finding it to
be 2 times, we place 2 on the right side ; then placing 6 be-
low six, we draw a line and bring down the 9, and proceed

3)69(23
6

9
9

with it in the same manner. The quotient is found to be 23.
But we take a more difiicult question — the divi-
sion of 7958 by 6. In commencing we find
that there is only one 6 in 7, and I over ; we 6)7958(1326

therefore place the 6 below the 7, and subtract

it, in order to bring out the i. The i being jg
written, we bring down the 9 to it, and this 18
makes 19. There being 3 times 6 in 18, we —
place the 3 to the product (which in division is ^

called the quotient, literally. How many times ?)

and 18 below the 19, leaving i over as before. 38

To this I we bring down the 5, and trying 3^

how many sixes there are in 15, it appears there
are only 2. We place 2 to the quotient, and 12
below the 15. This leaves 3 over, and bringing
down 8 to the 3, we have 38, in which there are 6 sixes. Six
sixes make 36 ; therefore, placing 6 to the quotient, and 36
below the 38, we find that there are 2 over. Here the account
terminates, it being found that there are 1326 sixes in 7958,
with a remainder of 2 over. In this question, 6 is called the
divisor ; the 7958 is the dividend, and 1326 is the quotient.

Skillful arithmeticians never adopt this long method of di-
vision ; they pursue a plan of working out part of
the question in the mind, called short division.
They would, for example, treat the above question •'795^
as here shown. The over number of I from the 1326-2
7 is carried in the mind to the 9, making 19 ;
the I from 19 is in the same manner carried to the
5 ; and the 3 from it is carried to the 8, leaving the overplus
of 2.

In Short Division the quotient only is written, the opera-
tions being performed vtentally. It is generally used when
the divisor does not exceed 12.

Divide $48.56 by 8 cents.

• Eight cents may be written ?.o8.
<K «'»'$ 8 fi ^Vhen the divisor and dividend are

7—- ^. like numbers, the quotient is an abstract

607 times. , TT o • ,

number. Hence, 8 cents are contained

in $48.56, 607 times.

Division is denoted by the following character H- ; thus,
75 -j- 25, signifies that 75 is to be divided by 25.

These explanations conclude the subject of simple or ab-
stract numbers. On the substructure of the few rules m Ad-
dition, Multiplication, Subtraction, and Division, which we
have given, whether in reference to whole numbers or frac-
tions, every kind of conventional arithmetic is erected, be-
cause these rules aie founded in immutable truths. Mankind
may change their denominations of money, weights, and
measures, but they can make no alteration in the doctrine of
abstract numbers. That 2 and 2 are equal to 4, is a truth yes-
terday, to-day, and forever.

ARITHMETIC.

225

miim^mni^m'

►sfFR ACTIONS.-!:

wm^jmmi

ITHERTO we have spoken only of whole
numbers which in arithmetic are called integers.
We have now to treat of fractions, or . the
parts into which integers may be broken. The
more ordinary fractions of any single article or
number are a half, third, quarter, etc. ; but a num-
ber admits of being divided into any quantity of
equal parts. All such fractions are called vulgar
fractions, from their being common. It is the practice to
write vulgar fractions with two or more small figures, one
above the other, with a line between, as follows : ^ (one-
half), \ (one-third,) \ (one-fourth or quarter), \ (one-eighth),
\ (four-fifths), j^^, (nine-tenths), and so on. In these and all
other instances, the upper number is called the numerator, the
lower the denominator,

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FRACTIONS.

1. Multiplying the numerator, or) ,,,.,.

TV- -J- .1. J • . X Multiplies the fraction.

Dividing the denominator, ) ^

2. Dividing the numerator, or I -r-.- • , 1 /■

»«^ !•• , • .t_ J • . I Divides the fraction.

Multiplying the denominator, )

3. Multiplying or dividing both I ^ ^ , ,

'^ ' ^ , , . I Does not change the

numerator and denominator r , , , , .

{ value of the fraction,
by the same number, J

These three principles may be embraced in one

GENERAL LAW.

A change in the numerator produces a like change in the
value of the fraction ; but a change in the denominator pro-
duces an opposite change in the value of the fraction.

It may happen that it is necessary to add together different
fractions to make up whole numbers. In working all such
questions, we must, in the first place, bring all the fractions
into one kind ; if we have to add \, \ and i together, we
make all into eighths, and see how many eighths we have got ;
thus i is g ; then -4 is f , that is 2 and 4, which make 6, and \
makes a total of \. The same plan is to be pursued in the
subtraction of vulgar fractions.

It is necessary sometimes to speak of the tenths, hun-
dredths, or thousandths of a number, and for this arithmetic
has provided a system of decimal fractions. Where great ex-
actness of expression is required, decimals are indispensable.
It has been already shown that, in writing common numbers,
the value of a figure increases by ten times as We proceed from
right to left ; in other words, we ascend by tens. Now. there
is nothing to prevent us in the same manner descending by
tens from unity. This is done by decimal fractions. We
place a dot after unity, or the unit figure, which dot cuts off
the whole number from its fractional tenths ; thus 120.3 means
J20 and 3-tenths of a whole ; if we write 120.31, the meaning

is 120 and 31-hundredths of a whole, that is, 31 parts in ICO
into which a whole is supposed to be divided. If we go on
adding a figure to the right, we make the fraction into thou-
sandths ; as, for instance, 120.315, which signifies 120 and 315
out of a thousand parts.

Tables of specific gravities, population, mortality, and
many matters of statistics, are greatly made up of decimal
fractions, and therefore it is proper that all should comprehend
the principle on which they are designed. In many cases, it
would answer the purpose to write the fractions as vulgar
fractions ; but there is a great advantage in reducing all
broken parts to the decimal notation, for it allows of adding
up columns of decimals all of the same denomination. Their
great excellence, indeed, consists in the uniformity which they
give to calculations, and the easy methods which, by these
means, they present of pursuing fractional numbers to any de-
gree of minuteness.

The method of reducing a vulgar to a decimal fraction is a
simple question in division. For instance, to reduce \ to a
decimal, we take the 3, and putting two ciphers after it, divide

4)300

by 4, thus ; therefore, .75 is the decimal, or, what is

■75
the same thing, 75-hundredth parts of a whole are equal to the

three-quarters of a whole.

SERIES of numbers is a succession of numbers
that increase or decrease according to some law.
Of the two kinds of series usually treated of in
arithmetic, the simpler is one whose terms in-
crease or decrease by some constant number
called the common difference. This conmipn
difference or rate of increase is only one, when
we say, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ; it is two, when we say 7, 9, 11,
13 ; and four, when we say 6. 10, 14, 18, and so on. Every
advancement of this nature, by which the same number is
added at every step, is called arithmetical progression. There
is a different species of advancement, by which the last num-
ber is always multiplied by a given number, thus causing the
series to mount rapidly up. Suppose 4 is the multiplier, and
we begin at 2, the progression will be as follows : 2, 8, 32,
128, 512, 2048, and so on. It is here observed, that multiply-
ing the 2 by 4 we have 8 ; multiplying the 8 by 4, we have
32 ; and multiplying the 32 by 4. we have 128. etc., till at the
fifth remove we attain 2048. This kind of advancement of
numbers is called geometrical progression. The very great dif-
ference between the two kinds of progression is exemplified in
the following two lines, the number 3 being added in the one
case and being used as the multiplier in the other ;

4r-

226

ARITHMETIC.

-%.

5, 8, II, 14, 17 — Arithmetical Progression.
5i 15. 45. 135. 405 — Geometrical Progression.

In the case of arithmetical progression, as above or in any
other manner exemplified, it may be noticed that the amount
of t1ie first and last term is always the same as twice the
amount of the middle term ; thus 5 and 17 being 22, are equal
to twice II, or 22. The cause of this is, that as the numbers
increase or decrease in equal degrees, the last number is just
as much more as the first is less than the number in the
middle ; and the two being added, the amount must conse-
quently be double the central number. The same rule holds
good with respect to any two numbers at equal distances from
the number in the middle. If the series be an even number,
and do not possess a middle term, then the two terms nearest
the middle (called the mean terms) must be added together :
thus in the natural series from i to 24, 12 and 13 are the two
nearest the middle, and one being added to the other makes
25, the sum of the first and last term.

In geometrical progression, each term is a factor of all the
numbers or terms that follow, and a product of all that go be-
fore, so that there is an harmonious ratio pervading the whole.
Each term bears an exact proportion to its predecessor, be-
cause the multiplier is the same. Supposing, as above, the
multiplier to be 3, the term 15 is proportionally greater than
5, as 45 is greater than 15. In the technical language of
arithmetic, as 15 is to 5, so is 45 to 15. To save words such
a proposition is written down with dots, thus — 15 : 5 :: 45 : 15.
The two dots mean is to, and four dots mean so is. The same
formula is applicable to any series of proportional terms,
though not in continued proportion to each other.

In order to discover the ratio between any two terms we
divide the largest by the least, and the quotient is the ratio :
45 divided by 15 gives 3 as the ratio. By thus ascertaining
the ratio of two terms, we are furnished with the means of
arriving at the ratio of other terms. We cannot do better than
explain the method of working out this principle in the ratio
of numbers, by giving the following passages from the admi-
rable Lessons on Arithmetic, by Mr. T. Smith of Liverpool.
Taking the four regularly advancing terms, 15, 45, 405, and
1215, he proceeds: "Suppose that we had only the first
three, and that it were our wish to find the fourth, which term
bears the same proportion to the third as the second does to
the first. The thing we have first to do, is to discover the
ratio between the first and second terms, in order to do which,
as before shown, we divide the larger by the smaller, and this
gives us the ratio 3, with which, by multiplying the third term,
we produce the fourth ; or, let the three terms be these, 405,
1215, 5, and let it be our wish to find a fourth which shall
bear the same relation to the 15 as 121 5 does to 405. We
divide and multiply as before, and the fourth term is produced.
And in this manner, having iiao numbers, or two quantities of
any kind, bearing a certain proportion towards each other, and
a third, to which we would find a number or quantity that
should bear a like proportion, in this manner do we proceed,
and thus easily may we find the number we require."

Referring to the discovered ratio of 45 to 15 to be 3, or the
fifteenth part — " Now " (continues this author), " what would

have been the consequence had we multiplied the third term
(405) by the whole, instead of by a fifteenth part of the second?
The consequence would have been, that we should have had a
term or number fifteen times larger than that required. But
this would be a matter of no difficulty ; for it would be set
right at once and our purpose gained, by dividing the over-
large product by 15. Let us write this process down : 405 X'
45 = 18225, and 1S225 -T- 15 = 1215, — which 1215 bears the
same proportion to 405 as does 45 to 15. And this is the rule,
when the terms are properly placed — multiplying the second
and third terms together, and dividing the product by the Jirst ;
this avoids all difficulties arising from the occurrence of frac-
tions in the course of the process, and gives us, in all cases,
any proportional terms we may require."

N the principle now explained, we can, in any
affairs of business, ascertain the amount of an
unknown quantity, by knowing the amount of
other three quantities, which, with the unknown
quantity, bear a proportional relation. The word
quantity is here used, but any sum of money is also
meant.

Let it be remembered, that the ratio of one number
to another is the number of times that the former contains the
latter ; for example, the ratio of 6 to 3 is 2, that of 12 to 4 is
3, and that of 8 to 12 is ^. When two numbers have the same
ratio as other two, they constitute a. proportion. Thus, the ratio
of 8 to 6 is the same as that of 12 to g, and the equality of
these two ratios is represented thus :

8 : 6 = 12 : 9, or, 8 : 6 :: 12 : 9.
The following is the rule for stating and working questions : —
Make that term which is of the same kind as the answer sought,
the second or middle term. Consider, from the nature of the
question, whether the answer should be more or less than this
term ; if more, make the smaller of the other two terms ihe Jirst,
and the greater the third ; if the answer should be less than
the middle term, make the greater of the two terms the first,
and the smaller the third ; then multiply the second and third
terms together and divide the result by the first term. The
quotient found will be the answer to the question, and it will
be found to bear the same proportion to the third term as the
second does to the first.

Such is the principle of working Rule of Three questions,
whatever be their apparent complexity. If either the first or
third term, or both, include fractional parts, they must be re-
duced to the denomination of the fractions before working ;
thus if one be reduced to shillings, the other must be made
shillings also 4 if to pence, both must be pence, and so

ARITHMETIC.

227

■^

on. If the middle term be also a compound quantity, it may
either be reduced to its lowest term, before multiplying and
dividing by the other terms, or you may multiply and divide
by Compound Division and Multiplication.

NTEREST is a sum paid for the use of money.
The Principal is the sum for the use of which
interest is paid. The Rate of Interest is the
per cent., or number of hundredths of the prin-
cipal, paid for its use om year. The Amount
,^^. the sum of the principal and the interest,

^b^ Principle. — The interest is the product of three

^ factors, namely : the principal, rate per annum, and

time.
To find the int. on $120.60 for 3 yr. 4 mo. at ?>%.

Analysis. — Since the

OPERATION.

^i 20.60 = Principal.

.08 = Rate per cent.

interest of any sum at 8^
for I yr. is .08 of the
principal, the interest of
$120.60 at 8^ for I yr. is
$9,648 ; and the interest
for 3 yr. 4 mo. is 3I
times $9,648, or $32.16.

$9.6480 = Int. for I year.
3^ = Time in years.

$3 2. 1 60= Int. for 3 yr. 4 mo.

RULE. — I. Multiply the principal by the rate per cent., and
the product will be the interest for i year.

II. Multiply the interest for i year by the time in years and
the fraction of a year, and the product loill be the required in-
terest.

In ordinary business transactions involving interest, 30 days
are considered one month, and 12 months, I year.

To find the interest of $175 for i yr. 7 mo. 15 da. at 7!?^.

Ana lysis.
OPERATION.

$175 = Principal.
.07 = Rate per cent.

Int. for I yr.

112.25
6. 1 25 = Int. for 6 mo.
1.020= Int. for I mo.
.5 10= Int. for 15 da.

— First multi-
ply ing the
principal by
the rate %, we
have $12.25,
the int. for I
yr. Then, for
6 mo. take \
of I year's int.,
for I mo. take
i of 6 months'
int., and for
15 da. take \
The sum of the several results is the int.

$19,965 = Int. for I yr. 7 mo. 15 da.
$175 = Principal.

$194,905 = Amt. for I yr. 7 mo. 15 da.

4r-

of I month's int
for the whole time.

Adding the principal to the interest gives the amount.

An easy and uniform method of computing interest, D.
Fish's method, is to place the principal, the rate, and the time
in months, on the right of a vertical line, and 12 on the left ;
or, if the time is short and contains days, reduce to days, and
place 360 on the left. After canceling equal factors on both
sides of the line, the product of the remaining factors on the
right, divided by the factor, if any, on the left, will give the
required interest.

To find the interest of $184.80 for i yr. 5 mo. at 5^.

OPERATION,

ns.4o

•05
17

Analysis. — $184.80 x .05 gives the
interest for i yr. or 12 months, which
divided by 12 gives the interest for i
month ; the quotient multiplied by 17,
the number of months in i yr. 5 mo.,
gives $13.09, the interest required.

13.09, Ans.
To find the interest of $240 for 2 mo. 18 da. at "]%.

OPERATION.
$2^0"
.07

'300

Analysis. — $240 x .07 gives the in-
terest for I year or 360 days, which
divided by 360 gives the interest for I
day ; the quotient multiplied by 78,
the number of days in 2 mo. 18 da.,
gives $3.64, the required interest.
$3.64, Ans.

To find the interest of $696 for 93 da. at \% a month.
Of $325.20 at \'Ji a month for 63 da.

510.92

OPERATION.
L348

OPERATION.

^8.10

i3l

-^^300

$107.88

%<^.\oi,Ans.

$21,576, Ans.

See interest tables in our Lightning Calculator.

An Aliquot Part or Even Part of a number is such a
part as will exactly divide that number. Thus, 2, 2^, 3i, and
5, are aliquot parts of 10.

An aliquot part may either be an integer or a mixed num-
ber, while a component factor xa}\%\. be an integer.

Aliquot Parts of One Dollar.

5 cents = gV of $1.
10 cents = 1^ of $1.
20 cents = ^ of $1.
25 cents = i of $1.
50 cents = 5 of $1.

b\ cents = A of $1.

8^ cents = h of l^-
12^ cents = i of $1.
16J cents = i of $1.
33i cents = i of $l.

1 228

ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS.

TO TELL ANY NUMBER THOUGHT OF.

ESIRE any person to think of a number, say a
certain number of shillings ; tell him to borrow
that sum of some one in the company, and add
the number borrowed to the amount thought
of. It will here be proper to name the person
who lends him the shillings and to beg the one who
makes the calculation to do it with great care, as he
may readily fall into an error, especially the first time.
Then, say to the person — " I do not lend you, but give you
10, add them to the former sum." Continue in this manner :
—"Give the half to the poor, and retain in your memory the
other half." Then add : — " Return to the gentleman, or lady,
what you borrowed, and remember that the sum lent you was
exactly equal to the number thought of." Ask the person if
he knows exactly what remains. He will answer " Yes." You
must then say — " And I know, also, the number that remains ;
it is equal to what I am going to conceal in my hand." Put
into one of your hands five pieces of money, and desire the
person to tell how many you have got. He will answer five ;
upon which open your hand, and show him the five pieces.
You may then say — " I well knew that your result was five ;
but if you had thought of a very large number, for example,
two or three millions, the result would have been much
greater, but my hand would not have held a number of pieces
equal to the remainder." The person then supposing that the
result of the calculation must be different, according to the
difference of the number thought of, will imagine that it is
necessary to know the last number in order to guess the result :
but this idea is false ; for, in the case which we have here sup-
posed, whatever be the number thought of, the remainder
must always be five. The reason of this is as follows : — The
sum, the half of which is given to the poor, is nothing else
than twice the number thought of, plus lo ; and when the
poor have received their part, there remains only the number
thought of, plus 5 ; but the number thought of is cut off when
the sum borrowed is returned, and, consequently, there re-
main only 5,

It may be hence seen that the result may be easily known,
since it will be the half of the number given in the third part
of the operation ; for example, whatever be the number
thought of, the remainder will be 36 or 25, according as 72 or

50 have been given. If this trick be performed several times
successively, the number given in the third part of the operation
must be always different ; for if the result were several times the
same, the deception might be discovered. When the first five
parts of the calculation for obtaining a result are finished, it
will be best not to name it at first, but to continue the opera-
tion, to render it more complex, by saying, for example : —
"Double the remainder, deduct 2, add 3, take the fourth
part," etc. ; and the different steps of the calculation may be
kept in mind, in order to know how much the first result has
been increased or diminished. This irregular process never
fails to confound those who attempt to follow it.

A Second Method. — Bid the person take i from the number
thought of, and then double the remainder ; desire him to take
I from the double, and to add to it the number thought of ; in
the last place, ask him the number arising from this addition,
and, if you add 3 to it, the third of the sum will be the num-
ber thought of. The application of this rule is so easy, that it
is needless to illustrate it by an example.

A Third Method. — Desire the person to add i to the triple
of the number thought of, and to multiply the sum by 3 ; then
bid him add to this product the number thought of, and the
result will be a sum, from which, if 3 be subtracted, the re-
mainder will be ten times the number required ; and if the
cipher on the right be cut off from the remainder, the other
figure will indicate the number sought. ^

Example : — Let the number thought of be 6, the triple of
which is 18 ; and^if i be added, it makes 19 , ilie triple of this
last number is 5!^^ and if 6 be added, it makes 63^ from which,
if 3 be subtracted, the remainder will be 66 ; now, if the
cipher on the right be cut off, the remaining figure, 6, will be
the number required.

A Fourth Method. — Bid the person multiply the number
thought of by itself ; then desire him to add X to the number
thought of, and to multiply it also by itself ; in the last place,
ask him to tell the difference of these two products, which will
certainly be an odd number, and the least half of it will be
the number required. Let the number thought of, for exam-
ple, be 10, which, multiplied by itself, give 100 ; in the next
place, ID increased by i is it, which, multiplied by itself,
makes 121 ; and the difference of these two squares is 21, the
least half of which, being 10, is the number thought of. This
operation might be varied by desiring the person to multiply
the second number by itself, after it has been diminished by 1.

ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS.

229

In this case, the number thought of will be equal to the
greater half of the difference of the two squares. Thus, in the
preceding example, the square of the number thought of is
100, and that of the same number less i, is 81 ; the difference
of these is 19 ; the greater half of which, or 10, is the number
thought of.

TO TELL TWO OR MORE NUMBERS
THOUGHT OF.

If one or more of the numbers thought of be greater than
9, we must distinguish two cases ; that in which the number
or the numbers thought of is odd, and that in which it is even.

In the first case, ask the sum of the first and second, of the
second and third, the third and fourth, and so on to the last,
and then the sum of the first and the last. Having written
down all these sums in order, add together all those, the
places of which are odd, as the first, the third, the fifth, etc. ;
make another sum of all those, the places of which are even,
as the second, the fourth, the sixth, etc., subtract this sum
from the former, and the remainder will be the double of the
first number. Let us suppose, for example, that the five fol-
lowing numbers are thought of, 3, 7, 13, 17, 20, which, when
added two and two as above, give 10, 20, 30, 37, 23 : the sum
of the first, third, and fifth, is 63, and that of the second and
fourth is 57 ; if 57 be subtracted from 63, the remainder, 6,
will be the double of the first number, 3, Now, if 3 be taken
from 10, the first of the sums, the remainder, 7, will be the
second number, and by proceeding in this manner we may
find all the rest.

In the second case, that is to say, if the number or the
numbers thought of be even, you must ask and write down,
as above, the sum of the first and the second, that of the
second and third, and so on, as before ; but, instead of the
sum of the first and last, you must take that of the second and
last ; then add together those which stand in the even places,
and form them into a new sum apart ; add also those in the
odd places, the first excepted, and subtract this sum from the
former, the remainder will be the double of the second num-
ber ; and if the second number, thus found, be subtracted
from the sum of the first and second, you will have the first
number ; if it be taken from that of the second and third, it
will give the third ; and so of the rest. Let the numbers
thought of be, for example, 3, 7, 13, 17 ; the sums formed as
above are 10, 20, 30, 24, the sum of the second and fourth is
44, from which, if 30, the third, be subtracted, the remainder
will be 14, the double of 7, the second number. The first,
therefore, is 3, the third 13, and the fourth 17.

When each of the numbers thought of does not exceed 9,
they may be easily found in the following manner : —

Having made the person add i to the double of the first
number thought of, desire him to multiply the whole by 5,
and to add to the product the second number. If there be a
third, make him double this first sum, and add I to it ; after
which, desire him to multiply the new sum by 5, and to add to
it the third number. If there be a fourth, proceed in the
same manner, desiring him to double the preceding sum, to
add to it I, to multiply by 5, to add the fourth number, and
so on.

Then ask the number arising from the addition of the last
number thought of, and if there were two numbers, subtract
5 from it ; if there were three, 55 ; if there were four, 555 ;
and so on, for the remainder will be composed of figures, of
which the first on the left will be the first number thought of,
the next the second, and so on.

Suppose the number thought of to be 3, 4, 6 ; by adding i
to 6, the double of the first, we shall have 7, which, being mul-
tiplied by 5, will give 35 ; if 4, the second number thought of,
be then added, we shall have 39, which, doubled, gives 78 ;
and, if we add i, and multiply 79, the sum, by 5, the result
will be 395. In the last place, if we add 6, the number
thought of, the sum will be 401 ; and if 55 be deducted from
it, we shall have, for remainder, 346, the figures of which, 3,
4, 6, indicate in order the three numbers thought of.

THE MONEY GAME.

A person having in one hand a piece of gold, and in the
other a piece of silver, you may tell in which hand he has the
gold, and in which the silver, by the following method : — Some
value, represented by an even number, such as 8, must be as-
signed to the gold ; and a value represented by an odd num-
ber, such as 3, must be assigned to the silver ; after which,
desire the person to multiply the number in the right hand, by
any even number whatever, such as 2 ; and that in the left hand
by an odd number, as 3 ; then bid him add together the two
products, and if the whole sum be odd, the gold will be in the
right hand, and the silver in the left : if the sum be even, the
contrary will be the case.

To conceal the artifice better, it will be sufficient to ask
whether the sum of the two products can be halved without a
remainder ; for in that case the total will be even, and in the
contrary case odd.

It may be readily seen, that the pieces, instead of being in
the two hands of the same person, may be supposed to be in
the hands of two persons, one of whom has the even number,
or piece of gold, and the other the odd number, or piece of
silver. The same operations may then be performed in regard
to these two persons, as are performed in regard to the two
hands of the same persons, calling the one privately the right,
and the other the left.

• THE GAME OF THE RING.

This game is an application of one of the methods employed
to tell several numbers thought of, and ought to be performed
in a company not exceeding nine, in order that it may be less
complex. Desire any one of the company to take a ring, and
put it on any joint of whatever finger he may think proper.
The question then is, to tell what person has the ring, and on
what hand, what finger, and on what joint.

For this purpose, you must call the first petson i, the
second 2, the third 3, and so on. You must also denote the ten
fingers of the two hands by the following numbers of the natural
progression, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., beginning at the thumb of the
right hand, and ending at that of the left, that this order of
the number of the finger may, at the same time, indicate the
hand. In the last place, the joints must be denoted by I, 2,
3, beginning at the points of the fingers.

230

ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS.

To render the solution of this problem more explicit, let us
suppose that the fourth person in the company has the ring on
the sixth finger, that is to say, on the little finger of the left
hand, and on the second joint of that finger.

Desire some one to double the number expressing the per-
son, which, in this case, will give 8 ; bid him add 6 to this
double, and multiply the sum by 5, which will make 65 ; then
tell him to add to this product the number denoting the finger,
that is to say 6, by which means you will have 71 ; and, in the
last place, desire him to multiply the last number by 10, and to
add to the product the number of the joint, 2 ; the last result
will be 712 ; if fi-om this number you deduct 250, the remain-
der will be 462 ; the first figure of which, on the left, will
denote the person ; the next, the finger, and, consequently,
the hand ; and the last, the joint.

It must here be observed, that when the last result contains
a cipher, which would have happened in the present example
had the number of the figure been 10, you must privately sub-
tract from the figure preceding the cipher, and assign the
value of 10 to the cipher itself.

THE GAME OF THE BAG.

To let a person select several numbers out of a bag, and to
tell him the number which shall exactly divide the sum of
those he had chosen : — Provide a small bag, divided into two
parts, into one of which put several tickets, numbered 6, 9,
15. 36, 63, 120, 213, 309, etc., and in the other part put as
many other tickets, marked No. 3 only. Draw a handful of
tickets from the first part, and after showing them to the com-
pany, put them into the bag again, and having opened it a second
time, desire any one to take out as many tickets as he thinks
proper ; when he has done that, you open privately the other
part of the bag, and tell him to take out of it one ticket only.
You may safely pronounce that the ticket shall contain the
number by which the amount of the other numbers is divisi-
ble ; for, as each of these numbers can be multiplied by 3,
their sum total must, evidently, be divisible by that number.
An ingenious mind may easily diversify this exercise, by mark-
ing the tickets in one part of the bag with any numbers that
are divisible by 9 only, the properties of both g and 3 being
the same ; and it should never be exhibited to the same com-
pany twice without being varied.

THE CERTAIN GAME.

Two persons agree to take, alternately, nurnbers less than
a given number, for example, 11, and to add them together
till one of them has reached a certain sum, such as 100. By
what means can one of them infallibly attain to that number
before the other?

The whole artifice in this consists in immediately making
choice of the numbers i, 12, 23, 34, and so on, or of a series
which continually increases by 11, up to 100. Let us suppose
that the first person, who knows the game, makes choice of i ;
it is evident that his adversary, as he must count less than 11,
can at most reach 11, by adding 10 to it. The first will then
take I, which will make 12 ; and whatever number the second
may add, the first will certainly win, provided he continually

add the number which forms the complement of that of his
adversary to 11 ; that is to say, if the latter take 8, he must
take 3 : if g, he must take 2 ; and so on. By following this
method he will infallibly attain to 8g : and it will then be im-
possible for the second to prevent him from getting first to
100 ; for whatever number the second takes he can attain only
to gg ; after which the first may say — " dnd i makes 100.'
If the second take i after 8g, it would make go, and his ad-
versary would finish by saying — " and 10 make 100." Between
two persons who are equally acquainted with the game, he
who begins must necessarily win.

If your opponent have no knowledge of numbers, you may
take any other number first, under 10, provided you subse-
quently take care to secure one of the last terms, 56, 67, 78,
etc., or you may even let him begin, if you take care after-
ward to secure one of these numbers.

This exercise may be performed with other numbers ; but,
in order to succeed, you must divide the number to be attained
by a number which is a unit greater than what you can take
each time, and the remainder will then be the number you must
first take. Suppose, for example, the number to be attained
be 52, and that you are never to add more than 6 ; then, di-
viding 52 by 7, the remainder, which is 3, will be the number
which you must first take ; and whenever your opponent adds
a number you must add as much to it as will make it equal
to 7, the number by which you divided, and so in continua-
tion.

ODD OR EVEN.

Every odd number multiplied by an odd number produces
an odd number ; every odd number multiplied by an even
number produces an even number ; and every even number
multiplied by an even number also produces an even number.
So, again, an even number added to an even number, and an
odd number added to an odd number, produce an even num-
ber ; while an odd and even number added together produce
an odd number.

If any one holds an odd number of counters in one hand,
and an even number in the other, it is not difficult t» discover
in which hand the odd or even number is. Desire the party
to multiply the number in the right hand by an even number,
and that in the left hand by an odd number, then to add the
two sums together, and tell you the last figure of the product ;
if it is even, the odd number will be in the right hand ; and
if odd, in the left hand ; thus, supposing there are 5 counters
in the right hand, and 4 in the left hand, multiply 5 by 2, and
4 by 3, thus : — 5 x 2 = 10, 4 x 3 = 12, and then adding 10
to 12, you have 10 +12 = 22, the last figure of which, 2, is
even, and the odd number will consequently be in' the right
hand.

PROPERTIES OF CERTAIN NUMBERS.

Of Odd Numbers. — All the odd numbers above 3, that can
only be divided by i, can be divided by 6, by the addition or
subtraction of a unit. For instance, 13 can only be divided
by I ; but after deducting I, the remainder can be divided
by 6 ; for example, 5+1 = 6; 7 — 1 = 6; 17 + 1 = 18;
ig — I = 18 ; 25 — I = 24, and so on.

ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS.

Of Number Three. — Select any two numbers you please,
and you will find that either one of the two, or their amount
when added together, or their difference, is always 3, or a
number divisible by 3. Thus, if the numbers are 3 and 8, the
first number is 3 ; let the numbers be i and 2, their sum is 3 ;
let them be 4 and 7, the difference is 3. Again, 15 and 22,
the first number is divisible by 3 ; 17 and 26, thair difference
is divisible by 3, etc

Of Number Five. — If you multiply 5 by itself, and the
quotient again by itself, and the second quotient by itself, the
last figure of each quotient will always be 5. Thus, 5x5 =
25 ; 25 X 25 = 625 ; 125 X 125 = 15,625, etc. Again, if you
proceed in the same manner with the figure 6, the last figure
will constantly be 6.

To divide any number by 5, or any multiplicand of that
number, by means of simple addition : — To divide by 5, dou-
ble the number given, and mark off the last figure, which will
represent tenths. Thus, to divide 261 by 5 : — 261 + 261 =
522, or 5 22-ioths. Again, to divide the same number by 25,
you must take four times the number to be divided, and mark
off the last two figures, which will be hundredths, thus, 261 +
261 + 261 + 261 = 1044, or 10 44-iooths.

Of Number Nine. — The following remarkable properties
oi the number 9 are not generally known : — Thus, 9 x 1=9;
9 X 2 = 18, I + 8 = 9 ; 9 X 3 = 27, 2 + 7 = 0, 9 X 4 ^ 36,
3 + 6 = 9:9x5 = 45, 4+5=9;9x6 = 54, 5+4 = 9;
9x7 = 63, 6 + 3 = 9; 9x8 = 72, 7 + 2 = 919x9 = 81,
8 + 1 = 9.

It will be seen by the above that — i. The component figures
of the product made by the multiplication of every digit into
the number 9, when added together, make nine. 2. The or-
der of these component figures is reversed, after the said num-
ber has been multiplied by 5. 3. The component figures of
the amount of the multipliers (viz. 45), when added together,
make nine. 4. The amount of the several products, or mul-
tiples of 9 (viz. 405), when divided by 9, gives, for a quotient,
45 ; that is, 4 + 5 = nine.

It is also observable, that the number of changes that may
be rung on nine bells is 362,880 ; which figures, added to-
gether, make 27 ; that is, 2 + 7 = nine.

And the quotient of 362,880, divided by 9, will be 40,320 ;
that is, 4 + 0+3+2 + 0= nine.

To add a figure to any given number, which shall render it
divisible by Nine : — Add the figures together in your mind,
which compose the number named ; and the figure which must
be added to the sum produced, in order to render it divisible
by 9, is the one required. Thus, suppose the given number
to be 7521 : —

Add those together, and 15 will be produced ; now 15 re-
quires 3 to render it divisible by 9 ; and that number 3, being
added to 7521, causes the same divisibility : —

7521
3

-kr-

9)7524(836

This exercise may be diversified by your specifying, before
the sum is named, the particular place where the figure shall

be inserted, to make the number divisible by g ; for it is ex-
actly the same thing whether the figure be put at the head of
the number, or between any two of its digits.

To multiply by Nine by Simple Subtraction. — Supposing you
wish to multiply 67583 by 9, add a cipher to the end of the
sum, then place the sum to be divided underneath the amount,
and subtract it from the same ; the quotient will be the pro-
duct of 67583 multiplied by 9 ; thus : —

675830
67583

608247

Number Nine and Eighteen. — If any two of the following
sums, 36, 63, 81, 117, 126, 162, 207, 216, 252^ 261, 306, 315,
360, 432, are added together, the figures in the quotient, when
cast up, will make either 9 or 18. For instance, 216 + 252 =
468, and 4 + 6 + 8 = 18 ; or, 63 + 81 = 144, and I + 4 +
4 = 9.

THE UNITED DIGITS.

The figures I to 9 may be placed in such order that the
whole added together make exactly loo. Thus — >

15
36
47

The secret is to arrange the figures I, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, in such
a manner that, added together, they make 98, when by add-
ing 2 you get the whole nine digits into the calculation.

TO DISCOVER A SQUARE NUMBER.

A square number is a number produced by the multiplica-
tion of any number into itself ; thus, 4 multiplied by 4 is
equal to 16, and 16 is consequently a square number, 4 being
the square root from which it springs. The extraction of the
square root of any number takes some time ; and after all
your labor you may perhaps find that the number is not a
square number. To save this trouble, it is worth knowing
that every square number ends either with a i, 4, 5, 6, or 9, or
with two ciphers, preceded by one of these numbers.

Another property of a square number is, that if it be divided
by 4, the remainder, if any, will be i — thus, the square of 5 is
25, and 25 d^ded by 4 leaves a remainder of i ; and again,
16, being a square number, can be divided by 4 without leav>
ing a remainder.

A MAGIC SQUARE.

The following arrangement of figures, from i to 36, in
the form of a square, will amount to the same sum if the
numbers are cast up perpendicularly, horizontally, or from

232

ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS.

comer to corner, the quotient in every direction being
III : —

36 ,

TO WEIGH FROM ONE TO FORTY POUNDS
WITH FOUR WEIGHTS.

To weigh any weight from i to 40 pounds by the use of
four weights only, the weights must be respectively i, 3, 9,
and 27 pounds each. Thus, 2 pounds may be weighed by
placing 3 pounds in one scale and i in the other ; 5 pounds,
by placing i and 3 in one scale and 9 pounds in the opposite,
and so on.

THE CANCELLED FIGURE GUESSED.

To tell the figure a person has struck out of the sum of two
given numbers : — Arbitrarily command those numbers only
that are divisible by 9 ; such, for instance, as 36, 63, 81, 117,
126, 162, 261, 360, 315, and 432.

Then let a person choose any two of these numbers ; and,
after adding them together in his mind, strike out from the
sum any one of the figures he pleases.

After he has so done, desire him to tell you the sum of the
remaining figures ; and it follows, that the number which you
are obliged to add to this amount, in order to make it 9 or 18,
is the one he struck out. Thus —

Suppose he chooses the numbers 162 and 261, making alto-
gether 423, and that he strikes out the centre figure, the two
other figures will, added together, make 7, which, to make 9.
requires 2, the number struck out.

THE DICE GUESSED UNSEEN.

A pair of dice being thrown, to find the number of points
on each die without seeing them : — Tell the person who cast
the dice to double the number of points upon one of them,
and add 5 to it ; then to multiply the sum produced by 5, and
to add to the product the number of points upon the other
die. This being done, desire him to tell you th? amount, and,
having thrown out 25, the remainder will be a number con-
sisting of two figures, the first of which, to the left, is the
number of points on the first die, and the second figure, to
the right, the number on the other. Thus —

Suppose the number of points on the first die which comes
up to be 2, and that of the other 3 ; then, if to 4, the dou-
ble of the points of the first, there be added 5, and the sum

produced, 9, be multiplied by 5, the product will be 45 ; to
which, if 3, the number of points on the other die, be added,
48 will be produced, from which, if 25 be subtracted, 23 will
remain ; the first figure of which is 2, the number of points
on the first die, and the second figure 3, the number on the
other.

THE SOVEREIGN AND THE SAGE.

A sovereign being desirous to confer a liberal reward on
one of his courtiers, who had performed some very important
service, desired him to ask whatever he thought proper, assur-
ing him it should be granted. The courtier, who was well
acquainted with the science of numbers, only requested that
the monarch would give him a quantity of wheat equal to that
which would arise from one grain doubled sixty-three times
successively. The value of the reward was immense ; for it will
be found that the sixty-foUrth term of the double progression
divided by I, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc., is 9,223,372,036,854,775,808.
But the sum of all the terms of a double progression, begin-
ning with I, may be obtained by doubling the last term, and
subtracting from it i. The number of the grains of wheat,
therefore, in the present case, will be 18,446,744,073,709,551,-
615. Now, if a pint contain 9216 grains of wheat, a gallon
will contain 73,728 ; and, as eight gallons make one bushel,
if we divide the above result by eight times 73,728 we shall
have 31,274,997,411,295 for the number of the bushels of
wheat equal to the above number of grains, a quantity greater
than what the whole surface of the earth could produce in
several years, and which, in value, would exceed all the
riches, perhaps, on the globe.

THE HORSE-DEALER'S BARGAIN.

A gentleman taking a fancy to a horse, which a horse-
dealer wished to dispose of at as high a price as he could, the
latter, to induce the gentleman to become a purchaser, offered
to let him have the horse for the value of the twenty-fourth
nail in his shoes, reckoning one cent for the first nail, two
for the second, four for the third, and so on to the twenty-
fourth. The gentleman, thinking he should have a good bar-
gain, accepted the offer ; how mistaken he was the result will
shov/.

By calculating as before, the twenty-fourth term of the pro-
gression, I, 2, 4, 8, etc., will be found to be 8,388,608, equal
to the number of cents the purchaser gave for the horse ; the
price, therefore, amounted to $83,886.08.

THE DINNER PARTY.

A club of seven persons agreed to dine together every day
successively, so long as they could sit down to table differ-
ently arranged. How many dinners would be necessary for
that purpose? It may be easily found, by the' rules of simple
progression, that the club must dine together 5,040 times be-
fore they would exhaust all the arrangements possible, which
would require above thirteen years.

THE BASKET AND STONES.

If a hundred stones be placed in a straight line, at the dis-
tance of a yard from each other, the first being at the same dis-

ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS.

tance from a basket, how many yards must the person walk who
engages to pick them up, one by one, and put them into the
basket ? It is evident that, to pick up the first stone and put
it into a basket, the person must walk two yards ; for the sec-
ond, he must walk four ; for the third, six ; and so on, in-
creasing by two to the hundredth.

The number of yards, therefore, which the person must
walk will be equal to the sum of the progression, 2, 4, 6, etc.,
the last term of which is 200 (22). But the sum of the pro-
gression is equal to 202, the sum of the two extremes, multi-
plied by 50, or half the number of terms ; that is to say,
10, 100 yards, which makes more than 5^ miles.

THE CAN OF ALE.

How to divide 8 gallons of ale contained in an 8-gallon can
into two equal parts, having only two empty bottles to effect
it with, one containing 5 gallons and the other 3. First, fill
the 5-gallon bottle, and you will have 3 remaining in the 8-gal-
lon can ; fill the 3-gallon bottle from the 5-gallon, which will
then contain only 2 gallons ; pour the 3 gallons in the 3-gallon
bottle into that which holds 8 gallons, which will then contain
6 gallons ; then pour the 2 gallons out of the 5-gallon bottle
into the 3-gallon bottle, and filling the 5-gallon bottle from
the 8-gallon can, which at present contains 6 gallons, you will
have I gallon in the can, 5 in the largest bottle, ind 2 in the
smallest ; by filling up the 3-gallon can fron^ the 5-gallon,
you leave 4 gallons, or one-half the 8 gallons, in the largest
bottle ; and, lastly, pouring the contents of the 3-gallon bottle
into the 8-gallon can, which contains i gallon, you have the
second half, or 4 gallons.

COUNTING A BILLION.

What is a billion? The reply is very simple — a million
times a million. This is quickly written, and more quickly
still pronounced. But no man is able to count it. You can
count 160 or 170 a minute ; but let us even suppose that you
go as far as 200 in a minute, then an hour will produce 12,000 ;
a day, 288,000 ; and a year, or 365 days (for every four years
you may rest from counting, during leap year), 105,120,000.
Let us suppose, now, that Adam, at the beginning of his ex-
istence, had begun to count, had continued to do so, and was
counting still, he would not, even now, according to the
usually supposed age of our globe, have counted nearly
enough. For, to count a billion, he would require 9512 years,

34 days, 5 hours, and 20 minutes, according to the above
rule.

THE NUMBER SEVENTY-THREE.

If number 73 be multiplied by any of the progressive num-
bers arising from the multiplication of 3 with any of the units,
the result will be as follows : —

73 X 3 =

219

73 X 6 =

438

73 X 9 =

657

73 X 12 =

876

73 X 15 =

1095

73 X 18 =

1314

73 X 21 =

1533

73 X 24 =

1752

73 X 27 =

1971

On inspecting these amounts it will be seen that the last
figures run thus — 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, I, Again, if we refer
to the sums produced by the multiplication of 73 by 3, 6, gt
12, and 15, it will be found that by reading the two figures to
the left of each amount backwards, it will give I, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, o.

CURIOUS CALCULATION.

If a pin were dropped into the hold of the Great Eastern
steamship, and on that day week a second pin, and on that
day week four pins, and so on, doubling the number of pins
each week for a year, there would, by the end of the 52 weeks,
be deposited no fewer than 4,503,599,627,370,495 pins. Al-
lowing 200 to the ounce, the weight of the whole would be
628,292,358 tons ; and to carry them all would require 27,924
ships as large as the Great Eastern, which is calculated to hold
22,500 tons.

ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION.

If you could buy a hundred ships, giving a farthing for the
first, a halfpenny for the second, a penny for the third, two-
pence for the fourth, and so on to the last, doubling the sum
each time, the whole amount paid would be £557,750,707,-
053,344,041,463,074,442 i8s. 7ld. — a sum which in words
runs thus : 557 quadrillions, 750,707 trillions, 53,344 billions,
41,643 millions, 74 thousand, 442 pounds, eighteen shillings
and sevenpence three farthings. This amount in sovereigns
would weigh 3,557,083,590,327,499,123,418 tons.

234

THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR.

■ i inn 1 1 iiiijijjyiijiijijiijjii e^

HE following tables show at a glance the
price of any number of articles at any
given rate : The first column of figures
shows the number of articles, and the
second, the total ; e. g., Sj articles at ^
cent each, amount to 2 if cents ; 46 articles
at 56^ cents each, give for a total $25.87^. If
the price be one not given in the tables, the sum is
easily ascertained by adding together two or more
of those which are given, thus : 23 articles at 19^
cents, 23 at 10 cents would be 2.30, at 5 cents
1.15, at 2 cents 46 cents, at -^ 11^ cents, and at ^
5I; adding these totals, 2.30 + 1.15 + 46 + 46
+ "i + Sf = $4-54i, the amount sought for.

These tables, too, will operate in other directions,
and show the number of articles, when the total
amount and the price per capita are given ; also when
the number of articles and the total amount are given,
the price per capita is easily ascertained.

When fractions of a cent are involved, it is often
confusing to an inexpert accountant to readily com-
pute the amount. A reference to these tables will
quickly give the required result, thereby saving that
which is so important to the business man — time.

The convenience of these tables cannot be over-
rated. Not only do they save time, but are also
conducive to perfect accuracy, a result which is not
always certainly obtained in a hurried calculation.

kr-

At i Cent.

No. Dol

s. Cts.

No. Dol

s. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

■i

. n

•13

i 6q

.I7i

.2li

• 9

.134

.17J

.2l4

. 94

.I3i

.174

.22

• 9*

•134

.18

.224

i
6

. 9I

.14

.184

.22^

.10

.144

.i8i

.22I

T.%

.104

.14^

.184

.23

.loi^

. 144

.19

.231

.xol

•15.

.i9i

.23^

.11

.154

- .19^

.24

.114

.I5i

.194

.24i

.Hi

.154

.20

100

• 25

.114

.16

.204

200

• 50

.12

.i6i

.20i

300

•75

.124

.16}

.204

400

1. 00

.12}

.164

.21

500

1.25

.12^

•17

.214

1000

2.50

THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR.

235

At i Cent.

No. Do]

s. Cts.

I No.

Dols. Cts.

No. Dol

s. Cts.

. i

.16

.314

. I

.i6i

. li

•^7,

324

.174

.18

335

34,

.19

344

.i9i

35,

.20

352

• 20 J

36^

.21

364

.2li

37,

.22

375

.22^

•23

•23i

«4

.24

•244

•25

•254

loi

.26

.26^

ii4

•27

.274

124

.28

.284

100

134

.29

200 I

.29i

300 I

144

• 30

400 2,

.305

500 2

154

• 31

1000 5

At I Cent.

No. Dol

s. Cts.

No. Dol

s. Cts.

No. Dol

s. Cts.

73-

100 I

200 2

300 3

400 4

500 5

•31

.62

1000 10

2 Cents.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

. 2

.64

1.26

• 4

.66

1.28

. 6

.68

1.30

. 8

.70

1.32

.10

•72

1-34

.12

•74

I 36

.14

.76

1.38

.16

•78

1.40

.18

.80

1.42

.20

.82

1.44

.22

.84

1.46

•24

.86

1.48

.26

.88

1.50

.28

.90

152

■30

.92

1.56

•32

•94

1. 60

• 34

.96

1.64

•36

.98

1.68

•38

1.72

.40

1.02

1.76

.42

1.04

1.80

•44

1.06

1.84

.46

1.08

1.88

.48

1. 10

1.92

•50

1. 12

1.96

• 52

1. 14

100

•54

1. 16

200

•56

i.iS

300

•58

1.20

400

.60

1.22

500

10.

.62

1.24

1000

20.

5 Cents.

No. Dol

s. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

1.60

3-15

1.65

1.70

1^75

1.80

1.85

1.90

1-95

2.05

2.10

2.15

2.20

2.25

2.30

7«

2.35

2.40 j

2.45

2.50

20 I

2^55

21 I

2.60

22 I

2.65 !

23 I

2.70

24 I

2.75

25 I

2.80

26 I

2.85

100

27 I

2.90

125

28 I

2-95

150.

29 I

175

30 I

3-05

200

31 I

3.10

225

-<^

23<5

THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR.

10 Cents.

No.

Dols. CIS.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

.10

3.20

6.30

.20

330

6.40

•30

3-40

6.50

.40

3-50

6.60

•50

3.60

6.70

.60

3-70

6.80

.70

3.80

6.90

.80

3-90

.90

7.10

4.10

7.20

1. 10

4.20

7-30

1.20

4-30

7.40

1.30

4.40

7-50

1.40

4- 50

7.60

1.50

4.60

7.80

1.60

4.70

1.70

4.80

8.20

1.80

4.90

«4

8.40

1.90

8.60

5.10

8.80

2.10

5.20

2.20

5-30

9.20

2.30

5.40

9.40

2.40

5-50

9.60

2.50

5-6o

9.80

2.60

5-70

100

10.

2.70

5.80

125

12.50

2.80

5.90

150

15-

2.90

175

17-50

6.10

200

20.

3.10

6.20

225

22.50

At i2i Cents,

or i of a Dollar.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

.12i

7.87^

4.i2i

37*

4-25,

8.12t

4-37i

8.25

62*

4-50

8.37i

4.62^

8.50

874

4-75

8.62*

4-87i

8.75,

12^

8.87i

5-I2i

9- ,

37i

5-25

9.12^

5-372

9-25,

62 L

5-5o_

9-37i

5.62i

9-50

87^

5-75

9-75

5-87i

10.

12-^

10.25

6.12i

10.50

■37l

6.25

10.75

• 50

6-37i

II.

.62^

6.50

11.25

•75

6.62i

11-50

.87i

6.75

11-75

6.87^

12.

.12i

12.25

•25

7-I2|r

100

12.50

■37h

7.25

125

15 62 J

•50

7-37i

150

18.75

.62^

7-50

175

21.87^

•75,

7.62i

200

25-

•87i

7-75

225

28.12i

At 25 Cents.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

-25

15-75

•50

8 25

16.

•75

8.50

16.25

8-75

16.50

I 25

16.75

1.50

9-25

17-

1-75

950

17-25

6.75

17-50

2.25

10.

17-75

2.50

10.25

18.

2.75

10.50

18.25

10.75

18.50

3-25

II.

18.75

3-50

11.25

19.

3-75

11.50

19.50

11-75

20.

4-25

12.

20.50

4-50

12.25

21.

4-75

12.50

21.50

12.75

22.

5-25

13-

22.50

5-50

13-25

23-

5-75

13-50

23-50

13-75

24.

6.25

14.

24.50

6.50

14-25

100

25-

6-75

14.50

125

3^-25

14-75

150

37-50

7-25

15-

175

43-75

7-50

15-25

200

50.

7-75

15-50

225

56.25

At 33i

Cents,

s of a

Dollar

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

.33i

10. 66 J

21*

661

21.33*

33Jf

21 66§

33^

661

22.

66|

22.33*

. 37

33^

22 . 665

33i

661

23-

66^

23.33*

33f

23.66ii

33^

66^

24.

662,

24-33*

33f

24.66I

33^

661

25-

661

25-33*

33i

26.

335

66§

27-

661

27.33*

3.3*

28.

33i

661

28.66I

661

i 88

29. 66 J

33*

30.

33^

66S

9.2

30.66I

661

94'

31 -33*

333

32.

33*

66'^

32.66f

66!

100

33-33*

33*

1 125

4i.66i

33i

66§

1 150

50.

66f

[ 175

58.33I

20 33i

200

66.661

33i

20.66I

225

75-

THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR.

237

At 43J

Cents

or iV of a

Dollar

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

•43I

14.

27.564

.87i

14 43i

28.

i.3ii

14.874

28.434

1-75

15.314

28.874

2.184

15.75

29-314

2.62i

16. m

29-75

3.064

i6.62i

30.184

3-50

17.06.1

30.624

3 -931

17.50

31.064

4-37i

17.934

31-50

4.8U

i8.37i

31.934

5-25

i8.8ii

32.37*

5.68i

19 25

32.814

6.12i

19. 681

33-25

6.564

20.12i

34-124

2o.56i

35-

7-434

21.

35-874

7-87i

21.43I

36.75

8.31^

2i.87i

37-62i

8.75

22.314

38.50

9.18I

22.75

39-37i

9.62i

23.184

40.25

10.064

23.624

41.124

10.50

24.064

42.

10.934

24.50

42.874

ii.37i

24.934

100

43-75

II. 814

25375

125

54-684

12.25

25.814

150

65.62^

12.684

26.25

175

76.564

I3.I2i

26.684

200

87.50

13-65-i

27.124

225

98.434

50 Cents.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts,

• 50

16.

31-50

16.50

1.50

17-

17-50

2.50

18.

18.50

3-50

19.

19.50

4-50

20.

20.50

5-50

21.

21.50

6.50

22.

22.50

7-50

23-

23.50

8.50

24-

24.50

950

25- -

25.50

10.50

26.

II.

26.50

11.50

27-

12.

27.50

12.50

28.

13-

28.50

100

13.50

29.

125

14.

29-50

150

14.50

30.

175

15-

30.50

200

100

15.50

31-

225

112

At 56i Cents,

or -,% of a

Dollar.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts,

.56i

18.

35-431

1.12^

i8.56i

36.

1. 68 J

19.12^

36.56^

2.25

19.68^

37i2i

2.81,

20.25

37. 68 J

3-37t

20.8li

38.25

3-93f

21-378

38.8ii

4- 50

21.93*

39 -37*

5-o6i

22.50

39-931

5.62,^

23.064

40.50

6.18J

1 42

23. 62^

4i.o6i

6.75,

24.18?

41.62^

7.3ii

24.75,

42.183

7.87^

25.3ii

42.75

8.43J

25 .87^

43-87*

9- ,

26.43*

45-

9-56i

27- ,

46.i2i

10.12^

27 56f

47-25

10.681

28.12i

48.37*

11.25

28.68I

49-50

ii.8ii

29.25

50.62*

12.37^

29.8ii

51-75,

12. 93 J

30.37I

52.87*

13-50

30.935

54- .

14.06^

31-50

55-12*

14. 62 J-

32.o6t

100

56.25

i5-i8i

32.62I

125

70.31*

15-75

33-18?

150

84-37*

16.31]

33-75

175

98-43^'

i6.87i

34-3ii:

200

112.50

17-43J

34-87i

225

126. 56i

At 87i

Cents

, or 1 of a

Dollar.

No,

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

.87*

28.

55-12*

1-75,

28.87I

56.

2.62^

29-75,

56.87*

3-50

30.62^

57.75

4-374

31-50

58.62*

5-25,

32-37*

59-50

6.I2I

33-25,

60.37*

7- ,

34-12*

61.52

7.87*

35- ,

62.12*

8.75,

35-87*

63-

9 62*

36.75,

63.87*

10.50

37.62*

64.75

11-37*

38.50,

65.62*

12.25

39-37*

66.50

13.12*

40.25

68.25

14.

41.122^

70.

14-872^

42.

71.75

15-75,

42.87*

73 50

16.622

43-75,

75-25

17.50,

44.62s

77.

18.37*

45-50

78.75

19.25

46.37*

80.50

20.12^ 1

47-25,

82.25

21.

48.12*

84.

21.87*

49- ,

85-75

22.75

49-87*

100

87.50

23.62^^

50.75

125

109-37*

24.50

51 -62^

150

131-25,

25-37*

52-50

175

153-12*

26.25

, 53-37*

200

175-

27.12^

54-25

225

196.87*

23S

THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR.

At $

1.25 Cents.

At $]

[.50 Cents.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No,

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

125

45-

88.75

1.50

54-

106.50

2.50

46.25

90.

55.50

108.

3-75

47-50

91-25

4.50

57.

109.50

48-75

92.50

58.50

III.

6.25

50.

93.75

7.50

60.

112.50

7-50

51-25

95-

61.50

114.

8.75

52.50

96.25

10.50

63.

115.50

10.

53-75

97.50

12.

64.50

7«

117.

11.25

55.

98.75

13-50

66.

118.50

12.50

56.25

100.

15-

67.50

120.

13-75

57.50

101.25

16.50

69.

121.50

15-

58.75

102.50

18.

70.50

123.

16.25

60.

103.75

19.50

72.

124.50

17-50

61.25

105.

21.

73.50

126.

18.75

62.50

106.25

22.50

75-

127.50

20.

63.75

107.50

24.

76.50

129.

21.25

65-

108.75

25-50

78.

130.50

22.50

66.25

no.

27.

79.50

132.

23 -75

67.50

III. 25

28.50

81.

133.50

25-

68.75

112.50

30.

82.50

135.

26.25

70.

113.75

31-50

84.

136.50

27.50

71.25

115-

33-

85.50

13S.

28.75

72.50

116.25

34.50

87.

139.50

30.

73-75

117.50

36.

88.50

141.

31-25

75.

118.75

37.50

90.

142.50

32.50

76.25

120.

39-

91.50

144.

33-75

77.50

121.25

40.50

93-

145.50

35-

78.75

122.50

42.

94-50

147.

36.25

80.

123.75

43.50

96.

148.50

37-50

81.25

100

125.

45-

97-50

TOO

150.

38.75

82.50

125

156.25

46.50

99.

125

187.50

40.

83.75

150

187.50

48.

TOO. 50

150

225.

41.25

85-

175

218.75

49-50

102.

175

262.50

42.50

86.25

200

250.

51.

103.50

220

300.

43-75

87.50

225

281.25

52.50

TO5.

250

337.50

At $1.75 Cents.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

No.

Dols. Cts.

1-75

31-50

61.25

91.

120.75

150.50

3.50

33.25

63.

122

152.25

5.25

35-

64.75

124

154.

36.75

- 66.50

126

155 75

8.75

38.50

68.25

127

157.50

10.50

40.25

70.

129

159-25

12.25

42.

71.75

lOI

131

161.

14.

43.75

73-50

103

133

162.75

15.75

45.50

75.25

105

134

164.50

17.50

47.25

77.

106

136

168.

19.25

49-

78.75

108

138

171-50

21.

50.75

80.50

140

100

175-

22.75

52.50

82.25

112

141

125

218.75

24.50

54.25

84.

113

143

150

262.50

26.25

56.

85.75

115

145

175

306.25

28.

57-75

87.50

117

147

200

350.

29.75

59 50

89.25

119

148.75

225

393.75

4r-

RATE OF WAGES.

— ^

239 '

^kte of Wk^e^, ffom $1 to $!^1 f^ef Week.

Cts.

62^ Cts. 75

Cts.

87I Cts.

50 Cts.

62 1 Cts.

75 Cts.

87^ Cts.

Days.

Dol

5. Cts.

Dols. Cts. Dol.

5. Cts.

Dols. Cts.

. 2i

• 3l

•37i 1

.464

.564

.65i

. 5i

• 74

.392

.49i

.594

.694

• 7f

.104

.418

.52

.62i

•73,

.10^

I2i

.148

.434

.54i
.57i

.65i

.76i

to|

•13

i5i

.184

■4Si

.68J

.80

12^

.151

18I

.22

.474

.59!

.711

.834

14^

.18

21I

.25i

.50

.62i

.75

.87i

i6j

.20|

.29

.584

.72 J

.87i

1.02

isl

■23i

.32}

.66i

.83i

1.16^

204

.26

314

.36i

•75

•93?

i.i2i

1. 314

.281

.344

.40

.834

1.04

1.25

1.454

.3ii

37i

.431

.911

I.i4i

i-37i

x.6o4

•33I

40^

.474

1.25

1.50

1-75

.364

435

•51

1.50

i.87i

2.25

2.62^

3ii

•39

464

.54i

2.50

3-50

33i

.4ii

.584

• 2.i6i

2.71

3^25

3.79

354

•44

.62

$I.I2i

$1.25

$i^37i

Days.

$1.50

$I.62i

$1-75

$i.87i

Dol

5. Cts.

Dols. Cts.

. 45

. 5}

• 55

. 6i

. 6t

. 7i

• 75

H ■

. 9k

.10^

.Hi

.I2i

.I3i

.I4i

.154

12 r

.14

• I5i

•i7i

.185

.20t

.2l5

.234^

20J

.i8i

.20 J

.23

• 25

•27

•29

.31-i

• 23i

.26

.28i

.3ii

•335

.36i

.39

.28

•3ii

.34^

•372

•4oi

•435

.465

.32 J

•36^

.40

•435

•47^

•51

.545

33i

.37^

•4ii

•455

•50

•54

.58I

•62^

37^

•42i

.46I

•5ii

• 56i

.61

.65i

•7oi

4ii

.46I

•52

•57i

.62i

.675

•73

•78

45i

.54

• 57i

.63

.685

•74k

.8oi

.86

.56i

.62i

.685

•75,

.8ii

•87^

•935

.61

• 675

.74i

.8ii

.88

•945

i.oii

58i

.65f

• 72 J

.8oi

.87i

•945

1.02

i.ogi
i-i7i

62^

.7oi

.78

.86

.935

i.oii

1.09I

66^

•75

.83i

-9la

1.08I

1.16I

1-25

7o|

•79i

.88i

•97t

1.06^

1. 15

1-235

1-324

•84i

• 93I

1.03

4-^

1.12^

1.21J

i-3ii

1-402

.89

• 985

1.081

I.i8f

I.28i

i-38i

i-48i-

83t

•93 J

1.04

x.i4i

1.25

i.35i

1-455

i.56i

•98^

^■ogk

1.20^

1-314

1-427

i.53i

1.64

1.03

I.i4i

1.26

i.37i

1-49

i.6oi

1.715

955

1.075

1. 19 J

1.315

1-435

1-555

1-675

1.795

6 I

1. 124

1.25

i.37i

1.50

I.62i

1-75

i.87i

7 I

i^^

i.3i-i

1.455

i.6oi

1.75

i.Sgi

2.04

2.18I

8 I

33i

1.50

i.66i

i.83t

2.16I:

2.33i

2.50

9 I

i.68f

i.87i

2.o6i

2.25

2-435

2.62^

2.8l:i

10 I

66^

1.87,^

2.o8i

2.29

2.50

2.705

2.91^

3-12^

II I

83t

2.o6i

2.29

2.52

2.75

2.98

3.205

3-435

12 2

2.25

2.50

2.75

3-25

3- 50

3.75

18 3

3.37^

3^75

4.12i

4.50

4-87i

5.25

5.62t

24 4

4- 50

5^50

6.50

7.50

26 4

33i

4.87i

5^42

5 96

6.50

7.04

7.58i

8.12^

^ 240

RATE OF WAGES.

Days.

I2.50

$3-50

Dols. Cts.

Dols, Cts.

Dols. Cts.

. 8J

.10^

.I2i

• i4i

i6t

.20J

•25

.29

.3ii

•37i

.43

331

.41?

.50

.58

41. i

•52

.62i

.72

.621

•75,

.872^

li^

58i

•73

.87i

1.02

66^

•83i

1.16^

•93 J

i.i2i

i^3il

83I

1.04

I 25

i-45|

9ii

1. 14

i^374

1.60I

1.25

1.50

1-75

08 1

I 35 If

I.62i

1.89^

16^

1.46

I 75

2.04

1-561

i.87i

2.18J

33]-

1.66^

2 -331

1-77

2.12^

2 -471

1.87^

2.25

2.62?

58i

I-97I

2.37^

2.77

66i

2.08I

2.50

2.9ii

«3i

2.29

2.75

3-2oi

2.50

3^50

33i

2.91^

3-50

4.081

66^

3-331

4.66i

3-75

4-50

5-25

33i

4.16J

5.83I

66^

4-581

5^50

6.4ii

7^50

10.50

10.

12.

14.

66^

10.83I

13-

i5-x6i

$4.50

$5-50

Days.

Dols. Cts.

.i6i

.184^

.204

-23

.334

-37^

• 4ii

-451

•50

• 564

.62i

.681

.66i

•75

-834

• 9ii

.83i

•934

1.04

1.14J

i.i2i

1-25

i-37i

I.I64

1. 314

1-454

i.6oi

i^334

1.50

1.66^

1 .831

1.50

1.684

. i.87i

2.06I

i.66i

i.87i

2.08i

2.29

1.834

2.064

2.29

2.52

2.25

2.50

2.75

3-1

2.l6i

2.434

2.70J

2.98

2.33i

2.62i

2. 911

3.201

2.50

2. 814

3-12^

3-431

2.66^

3-334

3-66i

2.83i

3-184

3-54-f

3-89i

3-375

3-75

4-121

3.i6i

3-564

3-954

4-35i

3^334

3-75,

4-i6i

4-58i

3-664

4.125

4-58i

5 -04

4-50

5-50

4-66i

5-25

5-83i

6-4ii

5-33I

6.66i

7-331

6.75

7-50

8.25

6.66i

7-50

8-33i

9.16^

7-33'i

8.25

9-i6i

10.08I

10.

II.

12.

13-50

15-

16.50

16.

18.

20.

22.

17-334

19.50

2i.66i

23-83!

Days.

Dols. Cts.

•25

.29

-33i

-371

• 58i

.661

•75

.87i

i.i2i

i.i6i

i-33i

1.50

I •454

1.661

1. 871

1-75

2.25

2.04

2-33i

2.62I

2^331

2.661

2.62i

3-37i

2-9ii

3-331

3-75

3.20I

3 661

4.12i

3- 50

4-50

3-79

4 33l

4-87*

4.08I

4-661

5-25

4-37*

5-621

4 -661

5-33I

4- 954

5-661

6.37i

5.25

6.75

5-54

6-33I

7-12I

5-83!

6.661

7-50

6.4ii

7 -337

8.25

8.]6i

9-33i

10.50

9-33I

10. 661

10.50

12.

13-50

ii.66i

I3-33T

15-

i2.83i

14. 661

16.50

14-

16.

18.

.18

21.

24.

27.

28.

32.

36.

30.334

34-661

39-

$10

$11

$12

$13

Days.

Dols. Cts.

•4if

.46

■ 50

•54-

.83i

.911

i.o8i

1.25

1-37*

1.50

I.62i

1. 661

1-83*

2.16J

2.08I

2.29

2.50

2.71

2.50

2-75

3^25

2.91^-

3.21

3-50

3^79

3^33i

3 66^

4^33*

3-75

4-121

4-50

4.87i

4- 16!

4-58I

5-413

4-58*

5 -04

5-50

5 96

5-50

6.50

5-4ii

5-96

6.50

7.04

5-83i

6.41I

7-58*

6.25

6.871

7^50

8.12I

6.661

7-33*

8.661

7-08I

7-79

8.50

9.21

7-50

8 25

9-75

7-9if

8.71

9-50

10.29

8-33*

9.16I

10.

10.83I

9-16^

10.08I

II.

ii.9lf

10.

II.

12.

13^

11.665

12.83^

14.

15-16I

13-33*

14-66I

16.

17-33*

15-

16.50

18.

19.50

16.66',

18.33*

20.

21.66^

18.33*

20.16'^

22.

23-83*

20.

22.

24.

26.

30.

33-

36.

39-

40.

44.

48.

5«-

43-33*

47 •66'^

52.

56.33*

-.x^

RATE OF WAGES.

-J

$14

$15

$16

$17

$18

fig

$20

$21

Days.

Dols. Cts.

.58i

.62i

.661

.71

-75

•79

-83*

.87*

1.16J

1-25

1-33^

i.4if

1.50

i-58i

1.66J

1.75

1-75,

i.87i

2.12i

2.25

2.37*

2.50

2.62i

2.333-

2.50

2.66^

2.83i

3-165

3-33*

3-50

2.91J

3-i2i

3 -331

3-54

3-75

396

4.16I

4-37*

3.50

3.75

4-25

4-50

4-75

5-25

4 -081

4-37i

4-661

4.0

5-25

5-54

5-83*

6.12*

A. 66^

5- ,

5-33i

5 -66 J

6.33i

6.66^

525

5.62i

6-37i

6.75

7-12*

7-50

7-87*

5.83i

6.25

6.661

7 oSi

7-50

7-9^

8.33*

8.75

6.41^

6.87^

7-33i

7-79

8.25

8. 71

9.16J

9.62*

7.50,

8.50

9-50

10.

10.50

7.58^

8.i2i

8.66J

9.21

9-75

10.29

10.83*

11-37*

8.16I

8.75,

9-33i

9-9l|

10.50

ii.oSi

11.66J

12.25

8.75

9-.37i

10.

10. 62^

11. 25

ii.87i

12.50

13.12*

9-33*

10.

io.66f

ii-33i

12.

12.661

13-33*

14.

9-913

10.62^^

ii-33i

12.04

12.75

13.46

14.16J

14.87*

10.50

11.25

12.

12.75

13-50

14.25

15-

15-75

11.08J

II. 87^

12.66!

13.46

14-25

15.04

15-83*

16.62*

11.66I

12.50

13 -33*

14 16?,

15-

15-83*

16. 66 J

17-50

I2.83i

13-75

14 -661

I5.58i

16.50

17. 413

18.33*

19-25

14.

15-

16.

17-

18.

19.

20.

21.

i6.33i

17.50

18.66J

i9-83i

21.

22.165

23-33*

24.50

18.66J

20.

2i.33i

22.66f

24.

25-33i

26.66I

28.

21.

22.50

24.

25 50

27.

28.50

30.

31-50

23 -33*

25-

26. 66 J

28.33i

30.

3i-66i

33-33*

35- ■

25.66I

27.50

29 -33^

31-16I

33.

34-83*

36.66I

38.

28.

30.

32-

34-

36.

38.

40.

42.00

42.

45-

48.

51.

54-

57-

60.

63-

56.

60.

64.

68.

72.

76.

80.

60. 66^

65.

69 -33^

73-66!

78.

82.33*

86.661

91.

RATE OF BOARD BY THE WEEK.

Time.

Rate.

Rate,

Rate.

W.^D.

I2.00

$2.25

$2.50

$3.00

$3-50

.29

.32

-36

•43

•50

-57

.64

•71

.86

.96

1.07

1.29

1.50

1. 14

1.26

1-43

1. 71

1-43

1. 61

1-79

2.14

2.50

1. 71

1-93

2.14

2.57

I.I

2.29

2-57

2.86

3-43

1.2

2.57

2.89

3-21

3-86

4^50

1-3

2.86

3-21

3-57

4.29

1.4

3-14

3-54

3-93

4-71

5-50

1-5

3-43

3.86

4.29

5-14

1.6

3-71

4.18

4.64

5-57

6.50

4-50

2.1

4.29

4.82

5-36

6.43

7-50

2.2

4-57

5-14

5-71

6.86

2-3

4.86

5-46

6.07

7-29

8.50

2.4

5-14

5-79

6-43

7-71

2-5

5-43

6. II

6.79

8.14

9-50

2.6

5-71

6.43

7-14

8.57

10.

6.75

7.50

10.50

3-1

6.29

7.07

7.86

9-43

II.

3-2

6.57

7-39

8.21

9.86

11.50

3-3

6.86

7.71

8.57

10.29

12.

3-4

7.14

8.04

8.93

10.71

12.50

3-5

7-43

8.36

9-29

II. 14

13.

3-6

7.71

8.68

9-64

11-57

13-50

10.

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Time.

Rate.

W. D.

$4.00

$4.50

$5-oo

$5-50

$6.00

•57

.64

-71

-79

.86

1. 14

1.29

1-43

1-57

1. 71

1-93

2.14

2.36

2-57

2.29

2.57

2.86

3.14

3-43

2.86

3-21

3-57

3-93

4-29

3-48

3-86

4-29

4-71

5-14

I.I

4-57

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5-71

6.29

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5-79

6.43

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6.43

7.14

7.86

8-57

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7.07

7.86

8.64

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6.86

7.71

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10.29

11-43

12.57

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9.71

10.93

12.14

13-36

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11.67

12.86

14.14

15-43

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10.86

12.21

13-57

14-93

16.29

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11-43

12.86

14.29

15-71

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13-50

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12.57

14.14

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17 29

18.86

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14.79

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17.14

18.86

20.57

3-4

14.29

16.07

17.86

19.64

21.43

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16.71

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23.14

16.

18.

20.

22.

24-

242

ALGEBRA.

E have seen that logarithmic tables may be used
as a substitute for many lengthened operations
in arithmetic. It is evident that the value of
all methods of computation lies in their brev-
ity. Algebra must be considered as one of the
most important departments of mathematical
science, on account of the extreme rapidity and cer-
tainty with which it enables us to determine the most
involved and intricate questions. The term algebra is of
Arabic origin, and has a reference to the resolution and compo-
sition of quantities. In the manner in which it is applied, it
embodies a method of performing calculations by means of
various signs and abbreviations, which are used instead of words
and phrases, so that it may be called the system of symbols.
Although it is a science of calculation, yet its operations must
not be confounded with those of arithmetic. All calculations
in arithmetic refer to some particular individual question,
whereas those of algebra refer to a whole class of questions.
One great advantage in algebra is, that all the steps of any
particular course of reasoning are, by means of symbols, placed
at once before the eye, so that the mind, being unimpeded in
its operations, proceeds uninterruptedly from one step of
reasoning to another, until the solution of the question is at-
tained.

Symbols are used to represent not only the known, but also
the unknown quantities. The present custom is to represent
all known quantities by the first letters of the alphabet, as a,
b, c, etc., and the unknown quantities by the last letters,
X, y, z.

The symbols used in arithmetic to denote addition, subtrac-
tion, etc., belong properly to algebra. Thus the sign + plus
denotes that one quantity is to be added to another, and is
called the positive or additive sign ; all numbers to which it is
prefixed are called positive. The sign — minus denotes that

one quantity is to be subtracted from another ; it is called the
negative or subtractive sign, and all quantities to which it is
prefixed are called negative. If neither + nor — be prefixed
to a quantity, then the sign + plus is understood.

The general sign to denote that one number is to be multi-
plied by another is x ; but it often occurs that one letter has
to be multipliad by another, and this is represented by placing
those letters one after another, generally according to the or-
der in which they stand in the alphabet ; thus a multiplied by
b is expressed by ab. The multiplication of quantities con-
sisting of more than one term, as, for instance, a + b hy c + d,
may be represented by any one of the following methods :
a + by.c+d, or a-^b'c+d, or {a + b) (c+d). The bar drawn
over a+b and c-^-d, which in the first two examples marks
them as distinct quantities, is called a vinculum, but brackets
or parentheses for the same purpose, as in the last example,
are now in more frequent use.

When a letter is multiplied by any given number, it is usual
to prefix that number to the letter. Thus, twice a, three
times b, four times c, six times jr, etc., are expressed thus:
la, 3(5, 4r, 6x ; and the numbers 2, 3, 4, 6, thus prefixed, are
called the coefficients of the letters before which they stand.

The sign -i- between two numbers shows, as in arithmetic,
that the former of those numbers is to be divided by the latter ;
thus, a-^b means that a is to be divided by b. It is, however,
more usual to place the number to be divided above that by
which it is to be divided, with a small line between, in the
form ef a fraction ; thus -, denotes that a is divided by b.

In arithmetic the powers of quantities are denoted by a
small figure, called the exponent or index of the power. Thus
ay. a, or the square of a, is expressed by <z* ; bxbxb, or the
cube of b, is expressed by b^, etc. The cube of a-irb is ex-
pressed thus: {a + by*.

The roots of quantities are represented by the sign 1^ with

^
-<^

ALGEBRA.

243

the proper index affixed ; thus '^a, or, more simply, ^a, ex-
presses the square root of a ; ^a the cube root of a ; /y/a + b
represents the 4th or biquadratic root oi a + b. Fractional in-
dices are also frequently used to denote the roots of quanti-
ties, thus : —

rti is the square root of a.

a^ is the cube root of a.

a\ is the 4th root of a, etc.

Again, aj is the cube root of a*, or of the square of a.

a\ is the square root of « ', or of the cube of a.

ai is the 5th root of a'^.

When two or more letters or quantities are connected to-
gether by signs, the combination is called an algebraic expres-
sion, and each letter or quantity is called a term.

Quantities of one term are called simple quantities ; as a, 2a,
Sb, etc.

A quantity of two terms, as b + c, is called a binomial.

When the binomial expresses the difference between two
quantities, it is called a residual, as a—b.

A quantity consisting of 3, 4, or many terms, are called re-
spectively trinomials, quadrinomials, multinomials.

The sign = placed between two quantities shows, as in
arithmetic, the equality of those quantities.

When quantities are connected by this sign, the expression
is called an equation: thus, 2 + 4 = 6, is an equation, as also
a-^b=c-f.

The symbol > or < is called that of inequality, it being
placed between two quantities, of which one is greater than
the other ; the open part of the symbol is always turned towards
the greater quantity : thus, a> b denotes a to be greater than
b ; and c <.d denotes d to be greater than c. The sign of dif-
ference ~, is only used when it is uncertain which of two
quantities is the greater ; thus ^ ~ / denotes the difference
between e and/ when it is uncertain which is the greater.

The word therefore, or consequently, often occurring in alge-
braical reasoning, the symbol .*. has been chosen to represent
it : thus, the sentence " Therefore a + 3 is equal to ^ + d,"
is thus expressed in algebra, .'. a -V b=c + d.

Like quantities are such as consist of the same letter or let-
ters, or power of letters : thus, 6 a and 2 a are like quantities,
and also 4 abc and 9 abc. Unlike quantities are such as con-
sist of different letters : as, 4a, 5^, 6fljr*, i^d, which are all
unlike quantities.

■^rf^^

The operation of addition in arithmetic consists, as has been
shown, simply in joining or adding several quantities together :
thus, 4 + 8+7 + 6= 25. This same process is always used
in algebra, whenever like quantities with like signs are required
to be added : thus, 2a + 3a+6a=iia; and — "] b — ^ b

— 6^= — 17^. But as it often happens that like quantities
which are to be added together have unlike signs, addition
has in algebra a far more extended signification than in arith-
metic. Thus, to add 7 a + 4 a to 8 a — 3 a, it is evident that,
after 7a + 4a + 8a have been added according to the usual
method, 3 a must be subtracted. Hence the general rule for
the addition of like quantities with unlike signs is to add first
the coefficients of the positive terms, and then to add those of
the negative terms ; the less sum must be subtracted from the
greater, and to this difference the sign of the greater must be
annexed, with the common letter or letters. Thus, let it be
required to add 7a — 30 + 4^ + 5a — 6a — 2a and g a ;
25 a will be found the sum of the positive terms, and 11 a
that of the negative ; li a, being the less number, must there-
fore be subtracted from 25 a, the greater, leaving a remainder
of 14 a, which is the required amount.

Unlike quantities can only be added by collecting them in
one line, and prefixing the proper sign of each ; thus, the sum
of3a+2^ + 4<r— 2</ can only be rendered 3a + 2^ + 4^

— 2d; this will be evident by reflecting that different letters
in the same algebraical expression always represent different
quantities, which cannot of course be added into one sum un-
less their precise value be known. Thus, the addition of a
and b cannot be represented by 2 a or 2 ^, because that would
imply that a is equal to b, which it is not necessarily ; neither
could it be represented by ab, because ab denotes the multi-
plication of the two quantities ; the only method then of ex-
pressing these sums is thus, a + b. When like and unlike
quantities are mixed together, as in the following example,
the like quantities must first be collected together according
to the method above described, and all unlike quantities must
be annexed in order : —

9 a + 5 .ry — 8 a^

— Sxy- lojr + 2 xy
3x — 7a>'— 5^
5ajr— 6 qx + II y

— xy — 4 a + g ax
2 ay + 12 X — 2 a

— loy — 2 xy + T'i ay

3a— i ax— Sxy +y

^ KyWK/K/WK/WK/WKyWWK/K/^

When two like quantities, having like signs, are to be sub-
tracted the one from the other, the process is precisely the
same as that already described in arithmetic : thus, 3 a sub-
tracted from 7 a, leaves as a remainder 4 a. From 8 a + 5 a
take 6 a + 2 a, and the remainder will be 2 a + 3 a, or 5 a.

But supposing it were required to subtract 6 a — 4 a from
9 a, it is evident that some other process must be adopted ;
because, if 6 a be subtracted from 9 a, the proposed operation
will not be performed ; for it is not 6 a, but 6 a — 4 a, that is,
2 a, which is required to be subtracted from 9 a ; 6 a sub-
tracted from 9 a leaves 3 a, which is 4 a less than would result

■^

Ky»irr

244

ALGEBRA.

from subtracting 2 a from 9 a ; but if to 3 a we add the other
term, namely, 4 a, the sum will be the remainder sought, be-
cause 3o + 4<z = 7a; and if 2 a be subtracted from 9 a,
which is just the same question in another form, for d a — 4 a
is = 2 a, the remainder is just 7 a as before. So, if a — ^ is
to be subtracted from c, the remainder would be ^ — a ■¥ h, and
for the same reason. It may therefore be given as a general
rule, that all the signs of a quantity which is required to be sub-
tracted from another must be changed : thus, when 4 j: — 3 ^y
is subtracted from 70+ 5 ^, the remainder is written thus,
7a + 5^ — 4j: + 3 7.

When like quantities are to be subtracted from each other,
it is usual to place them in two rows, the one above the other ;
the signs of the quantities to be subtracted must, for the rea-
son above adduced, be conceived to be changed ; and the sev-
eral quantities must be added, as shown in the following ex-
ample : —

From 5<]!j;+ "] xy — 2 y
Take 3 j + 3 «jr — 6 ;cy
Remainder, 2 ax -^ ^3 xy — 5y

>i-^@(g>@@)@{e)'^§)@{e)@gxgg)'|(®

'( ^ (§gX§§)^P@g)^P^g)(^) %

The multiplication of two quantities is performed by multi-
plying, as in arithmetic, the coefficients of the quantities, and
then prefixing the proper sign and annexing letters : thus, the
product of 3 a, multiplied by 5 <5, is 15 ab, and 7 <z x 4 a(5 =
28 d'b.

When the signs of both quantities are alike, the sign + is
to be prefixed ; but when unlike, the sign — must be prefixed,
which may be thus shown at one view : —

1 . + multiplied by + produces +

2. — multiplied by — produces +

3. + multiplied by — produces —

4. — multiplied by + produces —

Hence the technical rule generally given is, that "like num-
bers produce plus +, and unlike produce minus —." This,
however, is not perfectly true when more than two quantities
are to be successively multiplied ; because although the prod-
uct of an even number of negative quantities is positive, yet
the product of an odd number of negative quantities is always
negative ; thus,

— ax - b X — d = — abd
s.nA-ax-bx-dx-e = abde.
When the same letter occurs in both quantities, the indices
must be added ; thus, a" x a' = aaaaa = a\ In the multi-
plication of compound quantities, it is usual to commence
from the left-hand figure ; the multiplication, for instance, of
8 a* — 4^z^ + jr by 2 a, is thus performed :—

% ab — /^ ac -^ X
2 a

16 d'b — 8 aV + 2 ax

To multiply two compound quantities, each term of the one
must, as in arithmetic, be multiplied by each^ term of the
other ; these particular or partial products mtist be added ac-
cording to the rules of addition, and their sum will give the
whole product, as shown in the following instance • —

Multiply 3 a + 8 <5
By a -b

3 a^ + S ab

-3ab-Sb^
Product, 3 a'^ + S ab — 8 b'^

abx -j- ab^ or

6 a' -f- 2 fl'

The operations of division being in algebra, as in arithme-
tic, merely the converse of those of multiplication, the same
rules respecting signs apply in both. Thus, 6 ab"^, divided by
2 3, is equal to 3 ab,

And — 8 ex -T- 4 X, or — = — 2 ex.

4 x

In division, all letters common to both quantities must be
omitted in the quotient ; and when the same letters occur in
both with different indices, the index of the letter in the divi-
sor must be subtracted from that in the dividend ; thus,

abx .

— - = X : and
ab

2T-=3«'

When the exponent of any letter in the divisor exceeds that
of the same letter in the dividend, the latter exponent must
be subtracted from the former, and the quotient will be in the
form of a fraction ; thus,

-i2a^x^-^8ax^ = -l^^f=-^^^
8 axr 2 X

When the number to be divided is a compound quantity,
and the divisor a simple one, then each term of the dividend
must be divided separately, and the result will be the answer ;
thus,

(> a + 24 ab + S a^ + 12 ae

— = 3 + l2b + 4a + 6c

When the divisor and dividend are both compound quantities,
the rule is the same as that of long division in arithmetic.
"WTien there is a remainder, it must be made the numerator of
a fraction, under which the divisor must be put as the denom-
inator; 'this fraction must then be placed in the quotient, as
in arithmetic. The compound quantities must, however, be
previously arranged in a particular way, namely, according to
the descending powers of some letter, as of b in the following
example ; and this letter is called the leading quantity. The
following is an example of the division of compound quan.

titles : —

ALGEBRA.

245

— X) P — 3 Px + 3 dx'^ — x^ (^' — 2 i>x + x''
P - Px

* - 2 <J'';«: + 3 dx''

— 2 ft'^JT + 2 (JjT^

The rules regulating the management of fractions in algebra
are similar to those in arithmetic.

A mixed quantity is reduced to a fraction by multiplying
the whole or integral part by the denominator of the fraction,
and annexing the numerator with its proper sign to the prod-
uct ; the former denominator, if placed under this sum, will
give the required fraction. Thus, the mixed quantity 2 x

+ - — may be thus reduced to a fraction :2jrx 6^=12 ^jt,
o e

and as 5 ad must be added to form the numerator, and the

former denominator be retained, the required fraction is the

l2^jr+5 ai

following ;

An operation exactly the reverse of

this would of course be requisite, were it proposed to reduce a

12 <rjr + 5 ad

fraction to a mixed quantity. Thus, the fraction-

may be reduced to a mixed number by dividing the numerator
by the denominator ; the numerator of the fractional part
must be formed by that term which is not divisible without a
remainder ; the following is therefore the required mixed

quantity : 2 a

5 ad

A fraction is reduced to its lowest

terms, in algebra as in arithmetic, by dividing the numerator
and denominator by any quantity capable of dividing them
both without leaving a remainder. Thus, in the fraction

5 , it is evident that the coefficient of every

term can be divided by 5, and as the letter a enters into every
term, 5 a may be called the greatest common measure of this
fraction, because it can divide both the numerator and the de-
nominator. The numerator, (10 a^ + 20 a^ + 5 a^) -f- 5 a =
2 a"^ + 4 d + a ; and the denominator, 35 a'' -5- 5 a = 7 a ;

2 a" + 4 ^ + a

hence the fraction, in its lowest terms, is

7«

kr-

Sometimes the greatest common measure of two quantities is
not so obvious as in the example just adduced, in which case
recourse must be had to the following operation : — The quan-
tity, the exponent of whose leading letter in the first term is
not less than that in the other, must first be divided by the
other ; the divisor must then be divided by the remainder ;
each successive remainder is made the divisor of the last divi-

sor, until nothing remains, when the divisor last used will be the
greatest common measure. Quantities which have no common
measure or divisor except i , are called incommensuradle ; thus,
7> 5i 3» ^rid ii> 31^^ incommensurable quantities, and are also
said to be prime to each other. When fractions are required
either to be added or to be subtracted, they must necessarily
be first reduced to a common denominator, which is effected
by multiplying each numerator by every denominator but its
own, to produce new numerators, and all the denominators
together for the common denominator. The new numerators
can then be either added or subtracted according as the case
may require, and the new denominator must be left unchanged.
Multiplication of fractions is performed by multiplying all the •
numerators together for a new numerator, and their denomi-
nators together for a new denominator ; it is then usual to re-
duce the resulting fraction to its lowest terms. Division of
fractions is effected by multiplying the dividend by the reci-
procal of the divisor. The reciprocal of any quantity is unity,
or I, divided by that quantity, or simply that quantity inverted :

thus, the reciprocal of a or — is — , and the reciprocal of

the divi-

which is

ad 8 a 4 a

— is — ; therefore, to divide a fraction, as , by — ,

da 4-5

dend, , must be multiplied by the reciprocal of ,

5 8 a' 5 40 «'

— — : therefore, x = —. — : this last fraction, divi-

4 a 4 4 a 10 a

ded by its greatest common measure, 8 a, is the fraction re-
quired, namely, — .

The raising of a quantity to any required power is called
involution, and is performed by multiplying the quantity into
itself as often as it is indicated by the given power. When
the quantity has no index, it is only necessary to place the
given power above it, in order merely to indicate the power :
thus, the 4th power of a is a*, and the cube or 3d power of
a + d is {a + df.

When the quantity has an index, that index must be multi.

plied by the given power ; thus, the fourth power of «' is a",

because 2x4 = 8. If the quantity required to be raised be

a fraction, both the numerator and the denominator must be

, aV a*
multiplied by the given power : thus, the square of —3 is —^.

When the sign of the quantity is + , then all the powers to
which it can be raised must be 4- ; if — , then all the even
powers will be + , and all the odd powers — . Thus « x a
z= x^ ; — ax — a = + a^ ; —ax —ax — a = — a^.
A compound quantity, that is, one consisting of more than

" 246

ALGEBRA.

one term, is raised to any given power by multiplying it into
itself the number of times denoted by the power. This is
done according to the method already described in multiplica-
tion. Thus, the square of a; + 4 j, is thus found : —
Multiply a; +4/
By X + 4y
x' + 4xy

4xy + l6y
Square = x' + 8 xjf + 16/
The operations of evolution are the reverse of those of invo-
lution, being designed to discover the square root, cube root,
etc., of any given quantity. The roots of numerical coeffi-
cients are found as in arithmetic : thus, the square root of 49
a^, is 7 a, because 7 x 7 = 49. The index of the given quan-
tity must be divided by 2 for the square root, by 3 for the cube
root, by 4 for the 4th root, etc. : thus, the cube root of a' is a''.
The square root of compound quantities may be extracted
by a method very similar to that described in arithmetic, and
of which an example was there given. The cube root may
likewise be extracted by a similar procesj.

11 Irrational Qnaititles, or Snris.|^

^|^^<4 ^t^f.^ ^>^r^ ^>'^^"d ^f^y^f^ ^>«

^yf^ yji^^ ^^\i ^Ji^'^ ^JK^^^

Some numbers have no exact root ; for instance, no num-
ber multiplied into itself can produce 5. The roots of such
quantities are expressed by fractional indices, or by the sign Y,
■which is called the radical sign, from the Latin radix, a root ;
thus, the square root of 5, and the cube root of {a + bf, may
be expressed either by \/$, ?/ (a + Sf, or by 5i, (« + 3)i.

The approximate value of such quantities can be ascertained
to any required degree of exactness by the common rules for
extracting roots : thus, the square root of 2 is i and an indefi-
nite number of decimals : but as the exact value can never be
determined, the name of irratiortal is given to such quantities,
to distinguish them from all numbers whatever, whether whole
or fractional, of which the value can be found, and which are
therefore termed rational. Irrational numbers are generally
called surds, from the Latin surdus, deaf or senseless.

kr-

When two quantities are equal to each other, the algebra-
ical expression denoting their equality is called an equation.
Thus, jf — 2 = 4 + 3 is an equation, denoting that if 2 be

deducted from some unknown quantity represented by x, the
remainder will be equal to 4 + 3, that is, to 7 ; therefore, the
value of X in this equation is evidently 7 + 2, or 9.

The doctrine of equations constitutes by far the most im-
portant part of algebra, it being one of the principal objects of
mathematics to reduce all questions to the form of equations,
and then to ascertain the value of the unknown quantities by
means of their relations to other quantities of which the value
is known.

Many problems, which are now quickly and readily deter-
mined by being reduced to equations, used formerly to be
solved by tedious and intricate arithmetical rules ; and they
may still be found in old treatises on arithmetic, arranged
under the titles of Double and Single Position, False Position,
Allegation, etc. Equations receive different names, accord-
ing to the highest power of the unknown quantities contained
in them. An equation is said to be simple, or of the Jirst de-
gree, when it contains only the first power of the unknown
quantity : thus, jrx^ = 35fl — 2 is a simple equation, the
unknown quantity being represented by x, as it generally is in
other equations, and the known quantities by the other letters
and figures, jr* + 4 =: S «, is a quadratic equation, because
X, the unknown quantity, is raised to the second power.

a;' = a + 3 ^ is a cubic equation, the unknown quantity be-
ing raised to' the third power.

X* — « = 25 r is a biquadratic equation, because x is raised
to the 4th power. If equations contain unknown quantities
■ raised to the 5th, 6th, or higher powers, they are denominated
accordingly.

The quantities of which an equation is composed, are called
its terms j' and the parts that stand on the right and left of the
sign =, are called the members or sides of the equation.

When it is desired to determine any question that may arise
respecting the value of some unknown quantity by means of
an equation, two distinct steps or operations are requisite ; the
first step consists in translating the question from the collo-
quial language of common life into the peculiar analytical
language of the science. The second step consists in finding,
by given rules, the answer to the question, or in other words,
the solution of the equation. Expertness and facility in per-
forming the former operation cannot be produced by any set
of rules ; in this, as in many other processes, practice is the
best teacher. Every new question requires a new process of
reasoning ; the conditions of the question must be well con-
sidered, and all the operations, whether of addition, subtrac-
tion, etc., which are required to be performed on the quanti-
ties which it contains, are to be represented by the algebraic
signs of +, — , etc. : the whole problem must be written down
as if these operations had been already performed, and as if
the unknown quantities were discovered, which can be done
very briefly by substituting the first letters of the alphabet for
the known quantities, and the last letters for the unknown,
prefixing to each the signs of addition, multiplication, etc.,
which may be denoted in the question.

The second operation in determining a question may be sal(J
to consist in contrivances to get x, or the unknown quantity,
to stand alone on one side of the equation, without destroying
the equality or balance between the two sides ; because, in

ALGEBRA.

247

such an equation, for instance, as the following, x = 4 + 2,
the value of x is at once seen ; if 6 were to be put in the place
of X, the question would be said to be fulfilled, because then
it would stand thus, 6 = 6; therefore, 6 is the root or solution
of the equation jt = 4 + 2. In some questions, the unknown
quantity is so much involved with known quantities, that it
is often a difficult, although always a highly interesting, pro-
cess to separate it from them. Many rj'" : for effecting this
are given in most algebraical treatises, 1 at they may all be
comprised in one general observation, namely, that any oper-
ation, whether of addition, subtraction, etc., may be performed
on one side of an equation, provided only that the very same
operation be performed on the other side, so as not to destroy
their equality. Thus, in the equation a; + 5 = 12, it is evi-
dent that, if 5 could be removed from the left to the right side
of the equation, x would stand alone, and its value at once be
ascertained ; it having been already stated that any operation
may be performed on one side of the equation, provided only
the same operation be performed on the other, it follows that
5 may be subtracted from the left side, if subtracted likewise
from the right ; therefore, x + 5 — 5 = 12 — 5; but 5—5 be-
ing equal to o, the equation would more properly be expressed
thus, ;f = 12 — 5 ; that is to say, the value of x is 7. Again,
in the equation jr — 10 = 27, add ten to each side of the
equation ; then, jt — 10 + 10 = 27 + 10 ; but — 10 + 10 = o ;
therefore, jr = 27 + 10. When the same quantity is thus sub-
tracted from both sides of an equation, or added to both
sides, the operation is technically, though perhaps incorrectly,
termed, ^^transposing quantities from one side of an equation
to the other."

The reason why the same operation performed upon both
sides of an equation does not alter their equality, is simply
because "if equal quantities be added to, or subtracted from,
equal quantities, the value of the quantities will still be
equal." To illustrate this, supposing a wine-merchant has 2
casks of wine, each cask containing 36 gallons, it is evident
that, if he draws off the same number of gallons from each
cask, the quantity of gallons remaining in each cask will still
be equal ; so, if he were to replace the same number of gal-
lons of wine in each cask, the number of gallons contained in
each would still be equal to each other. For the same reason,
if the two sides of an equation were either multiplied or divi-
ded by the same number, their equality to each other would
still remain ; in the equation 3^=27, the value of x may be
discovered by dividing both sides of the equation by its coeffi-

'\X 27 'XX 27

cient, 3 ; thus — ^ = — ; but — = x, and — = Q ; .*. jr = g.

3 3 3 3

In the same way, if the unknown quantity in an equation is
required to be divided by some known quantity, each side of
the equation may be multiplied by the divisor : thus, in the

equation — = 32, if each member be multiplied by 4, the re-
4

suit will be ;«: = 32 X 4 = 128. This is technically called

clearing an equation of fractions.

ON SIMPLE EQUATIONS CONTAINING TWO
OR MORE UNKNOWN QUANTITIES.
It may be given as a general rule, that when a question

arises as to the value of two or more unknown quantities, each
of these quantities must be represented by one of the last let-
ters of the alphabet, and as many separate equations must be
deduced from the question as there are unknown quantities.
A group of equations of this kind is called a system of simul-
taneous equations.

If it be required to solve a system of two simple equations,
containing two unknown quantities, the most natural method
seems to be to determine first the value of one of the unknown
quantities by means of both the equations. Then as " things
which are equal to the same thing are equal to each other,"
it follows that the two sets of numbers or letters in the two
equations, which have been ascertained to be equal to the
value of X, will also be equal to each other, and may be re-
duced to an equation, which will contain only one unknown
quantity. This process is technically called elimination. Let
it, for instance, be required to find the length of two planks
of wood : the length of both planks together is 20 feet, and
one plank is 8 feet longer than the other plank. This is evi-
dently a question involving two unknown quantities, namely,
the length of each of the two planks of wood. To translate
this question into algebraical language, call the longer plank
jr, and the shorter plank _y, then the facts above mentioned
may be thus stated : x ■¥ y = 20, and x — y ■=%. The value
of jr may be ascertained by means of both the equations, in
the following manner : —

The first equation gives x =■ 2.0 — y
And the second, x = 8 4- ^

The two values of x, thus ascertained, must form a new equa-
tion, thus : —

20 — ^ = 8 -f- ^y
20 = 8 + 2 _>'

So that it is evident from this last equation that 2 ^ is equal
to 12, because 20 — 8 = 12 ; therefore ^ = 6, and 20 — 6 =
14. The length of both the planks is thus ascertained, the
longer being 14 feet in length, and the shorter 6 feet.

This problem is not only given as an example of elimina-
tion, but also as an illustration of the general theorem, that
" the greater of two numbers is equal to half their sum, //«j
half their difference ; and that the less number is equal to half
the sum, minus half the difference." Thus the above ques-
tion might have been solved in the following manner : —

20 8 , 20 8 ,

1 — = 14, and =6

2 2 2 2

The following is the method of demonstrating this curious
theorem algebraically : — Let a and b be any two numbers of
which a is the greater, and let their sum be represented by s,
and their difference by d ;

Then, a 4- ^ = j

and a — b ^ d

2 a ^^ s + d

s d

and a = - -f —

2 2

Also, 2 b — s — d

and 3 =

2 2

—-^

248

ALGEBRA.

A quadratic equation literally means a squared equation, the
term being derived from the Latin quadratus, squared ; a
quadratic equation, therefore, is merely an equation in which
the unknown quantity is squared or raised to the second pow-
er. Quadratic equations are often called equations of two
dimensions, or of the second degree, because all equations are
classed according to the index of the highest power of the
unknown quantities contained in them.

There are two kinds of quadratic equations, namely, pure
and adfected. Pure quadratic equations are those in which
the first power of the unknown quantity does not appear :
there is not the least difficulty in solving such equations, be-
cause all that is requisite is to obtain the value of the square
according to the rules for solving simple equations, and then,
by extracting the square root of both sides of the equation, to

ascertain the value of the unknown quantity. For instance,
let it be required to find the value of x in the equation x'' + 4
= 29. By deducting 4 from each side of the equation, the
value of x^ is at once seen to be as follows : jt'^ = 29 — 4 =; 25 ;
the square root of both sides of this equation will evidently
give the value of x, thus, - y 25 = 5. Adfected or affected
quadratic equations are such as contain not only the square,
but also the first power of the unknown quantities.

There are two methods of solving quadratic equations ; we
are indebted to the Hindoos for one of these methods, of
which a full account is given in a very curious Hindoo work
entitled Bija Ganita. The other method was discovered by
the early Italian algebraists. The principle upon which both
methods are founded is the following : It is evident that in
an adfected equation, as for instance, ax"^ -f- bx = d, the first
member, ax"^ + bx, is not a complete square ; it is, however,
necessary for the solution of the equation that the first side
should be so modified as to be made a complete square, and
that, by corresponding additions, multiplications, etc., the
equality of the second side should not be lost ; then, by ex-
tracting the square root of each side, the equation will be re-
duced to one of the first degree, which may be solved by the
common process.

■^

GYMNASTICS.

249

4r-

YMNASTICS is a sys-
tem of exercises which
develop and invigorate
the body, particularly the
muscular system. If
properly directed, gym-
nastics will enlarge and
strengthen the various mus-
cles of the trunk, neck, arms,
and legs, and will expand the
chest so as to facilitate the
play of the lungs, will render
the joints supple, and will
impart to the person grace,
ease, and steadiness of car-
riage, combined with strength, elasticity, and quick-
ness of movement ; but an injudicious mode of exer-
cise will frequently confirm and aggravate those
physical imperfections for which a remedy is sought,
by developing the muscular system unequally.

WALKING, RUNNING, JUMPING, AND LEAP-
ING.

In Walking, the arms should move freely by the side, the
head be kept up, the stomach in, the shoulders back, the feet
parallel with the ground, and the body resting neither on the
toe nor heel^ but on the ball of the foot. On starting, the
pupil should raise one foot, keep the knee and instep straight,
the toe bent downward. When this foot reaches the ground,
the same should be repeated with the other. This should be
practised until the pupil walks firmly and gracefully.

In Running, the legs should not be raised too high ; the
arms should be nearly still, so that no unnecessary opposition
be given to the air by useless motions. In swift running the

swing of the arms should be from the shoulder to the elbow,
the fore-arm being kept nearly horizontal with the chest.
Running in a circle is excellent exercise, but the direction
should be changed occasionally, so that both sides of the
ground may be equally worked : as if the ground be not kept
level, the runners will find it difficult to maintain their
equilibrium.

Jumping. — The first rule is, to fall on the toes, and never
on the heels. Bend the knees, that the calves of the legs may
touch the thighs. Swing the arms forward when taking a
spring ; break the fall with the hands if necessary ; hold the
breath, keep the body forward, come to the ground with both
feet together, and, in taking the run, let your steps be short,
and increase in quickness as you approach the leap.

Leaping. — The Long Leap. — Make a trench, which widens
gradually from one end to the other, so that the breadth of
the leap may be increased daily. Keep the feet close together,
and take your spring from the toes of one foot, which should
be quickly drawn up to the other, and they should descend at
the same instant ; throw the arms and body forward, especi-
ally in descending. Take a run of about twenty paces.

The Deep Leap.—'\\\vs, is performed from the top of a wall,
or a flight of steps, increasing the depth according to the pro-
gress of the pupil. The body should be bent forward, the feet
close together, and the hands ready to touch the ground at
the same time with, or rather before the feet.

The High Zm/.— This leap can best be taken over a light
fence that will give way in the event of its being touched by
the feet. It may be taken either standing or with a run : for
the former, the legs should be kept together, and the feet and
knees raised in a straight direction ; for the latter, we recom-
mend a short run, and a light tripping step, gradually quick-
ened as the object to be leaped over is approached. You
should be particularly careful not to alight on your heels, but
rather on the toes and balls of the feet.

Let a set of apparatus be erected after the pattern we are
about to give, and use be made of it as we f.hall recommend,
and we will guarantee that there shall be fewer accidents in a

■-^

250

GYMNASTICS.

whole year than may be looked for in any ordinary high field-
day at football ; nay, more than this — that it shall prove not
only a less perilous pastime than any of the regular outdoor
sports, but actually a preservative against accidents from other
causes.

Fig. I.

Our apparatus will consist of the following : horizontal bar,
hanging bar, parallel bars, vaulting-horse, ladder, hanging
ropes, and the usual et ceteras. Of these latter, however, we
shall not take notice here ; our attention will be entirely
directed to the more advanced exercises.

The Horizontal Bar should be set up as follows : If
intended as a permanency, two strong posts must be let into
the ground or into iron sockets, standing seven feet apart and
about eight feet in height ; these are to support the bar, which
must be made to shift up and down in grooves cut in the posts,
so as to be easily adapted to the height of the performer.
This bar should be of straight-grained ash, seven feet between
the uprights, an inch and three-quarters in diameter, perfectly
round, with a steel core an inch thick running through the
centre. This last is a very important point.

If there be no steel core, then the bar must be reduced at
least one foot in length and increased to two inches diameter ;
both of which, especially the latter, as making it clumsy to
the grasp of an ordinary hand, will detract much from its prac-
tical value.

The bar must be so fastened to the uprights that there shall
be no unsteadiness or vibration. A wabbly bar is a terrible
nuisance, and is apt to throw one out of all calculation just at
the critical point of a feat.

If for private use, or it be thought desirable to make it port-
able, the method of construction figured in our cut (Fig. i)
will be found very convenient and serviceable, and, what is
more, thoroughly trustworthy.

The Hanging Bar must be very carefully constructed. The
ropes should be attached securely to a good, firm, unyielding
support, about fifteen or eighteen feet from the ground — this
will be quite sufficient height — and the bar, which should be
about twenty-six inches long by one-and-a-quarter in diameter,
with a steel core as before, must be firmly attached to the.

ropes, so as to afford a safe hold. Above all things, it must
not revolve in the gi asp. The height from the ground must be
regulated by the stature of the performer.

The Parallel Bars are very seldom constructed with any-
thing like correctness of shape or proportions. A couple of
clumsy rails — one might almost say beams — laid across two
pairs of posts at any height from the ground and at any dis-
tance apart, are set up, dubbed " parallel bars," and are sup-
posed to be all that could be desired. But, as might be sup-
posed if people only took the trouble to think, parallel bars,
to be of any real service, require as nice an adaptation to their
purposes as any other mechanical contrivance.

The bars or rails, being intended for the grasp of the hands,
must be of such size and shape as will afford the best grasp,
and their height and distance apart must be adapted to the
stature of those for whose use they are intended.

The size of the bars is especially important : if they be too
large for a fair grasp, not only is the hand likely to slip and a
heavy fall to result, but there is great danger to the wrist and
thumb of serious sprains or dislocation. Moreover, when a
fair grasp is impossible, many of the exercises — most of them,
indeed — are also ipso facto impossible, and thus many begin-
ners are disgusted at the outset : they are told to begin with
such and such exercises, as simple preliminaries to others more
advanced ; they find after repeated trials that they cannot even
make a commencement, and naturally soon give up the whole
thing in despair.

For ordinary purposes, that is, for people not of exceptional
stature, the most useful dimensions are these : height from the
ground, four feet eight inches ; distance apart, eighteen
inches, or nineteen at most ; for boys, seventeen or even six-
teen will be sufficient. The length should not be less than
seven feet, and the bars should be round, and of a diameter of
two-and-an-eighth inches.

Oval bars are sometimes used, but we prefer the round ones.

Fig. 2.

as they feel more natural, most of the other apparatus being of
similar form.

For the uprights no dimensiens need be given : all that is

-<%.

GYMNASTICS.

251

needful is that they should be sufficiently strong. They
should be fitted into a stout wooden frame, firmly morticed
together. When in use, this frame must be fastened to the
floors by screws. If required for a playground, or any place
where it is necessary to have them fixed, they may readily be
secured by wooden stakes or wedges driven into the ground.

A more convenient way is to sink the posts permanently
into the ground ; but then they are liable to decay from the
damp, and thus to become unsafe.

The Vaulting-Horse is of all gymnastic apparatus that
which has been hitherto most neglected.

There are various lengths for these horses, but the one you
will find to be the most generally useful is six feet long and
about sixteen inches across the back. It is covered with cow-
hide all over and evenly padded, and is generally made with
one end a little raised, with a slight bend corresponding to
the neck of the animal which is its prototype ; and this gives
some form to it, and is useful as a mark where to place the
hands.

There are two pommels placed about the centre, eighteen
inches apart, and movable, so that the horse may be used with-
out them if required ; and in this case flush pommels, level
with the back of the horse, are inserted into the grooves.

The legs must be made to slide up and down after the man-
ner of a telescope, so that the horse may be used at heights
varying from about three feet six inches to six feet.

It is also necessary to have a solid deal board, about three
feet square, rising in thickness from a feather-edge to three
inches, for taking what is technically termed a "beat" off

Fig. 3.

which is very useful in exercises which require to be performed
lengthways on the horse. Of course it is not used as a spring-
board, but only to give a firm foundation for the feet in jump-
ing, and particularly to mark the place of starting when in-
creasing or diminishing the distance from the horse.

The ladders, hanging ropes, and so on, we need not de-
scribe. There are, however, two more requisites to which we
should wish to direct attention. One is the Hand-Rings :
two ropes, as if for a hanging bar, but terminating instead
each in an iron ring covered with leather, and large enough

for the hand to grasp comfortably. These rings are made of
various shapes ; but that which we recommend as the most
practically useful is the stirrup.

One other requisite, indispensable for safety in first essays
at many of the feats we shall describe, is the Lungers, so
called. This is a strong broad leather belt to buckle round
the waist, with an iron ring or eye at each side. To these
eyes are strongly attached ropes, one on each side, of sufficient
strength to support the weight of the wearer. The figure
will indicate the method of using it." (Fig. 4.)

Fig. 4.

This is an invaluable safeguard for novices, and enables
many to learn quickly — simply by the fearlessness it engen-
ders — many a difficult feat which they would otherwise never
dream of attempting.

We cannot help thinking that a similar appliance, only a
little more above the centre of gravity, would prove of im-
mense service in learning difficult figures in skating. Ladies,
too, might profit by it in their first efforts, as all fear of un-
seemly falls would be quite dispelled.

So much for the construction of an apparatus ; now for the
use to be made of it. We will begin with

THE HORIZONTAL BAR.

But before we begin it must first be put into good condition.
Most likely there will be a little grease on it from previous
practice, which it is highly important should be removed be-
fore commencing. This is done in the following manner :
Take a wet cloth ( without soap or soda, as any kind of alkali
will raise the grain of the wood and make it rough ), and rub
the bar with it ; then get a few feet of rope — I find thick
sash-line the best — give it one turn round the bar, and taking
hold of each end, rub it up and down, gradually moving it
from one end to the other. The friction will dry the wood,
remove the grease or dirt, and put on a good surface.

The bar being now in good condition, wash your hands per-
fectly clean, and you are ready to commence. You will find
that there is no resin required, which every gymnast is com-
pelled to use if the bar is not kept in good order. The use
of resin is bad for various reasons : it will dirty your hands,
and if you have not practiced much it will cause blisters sooner
than otherwise. I have sometimes seen the skin of hard hands
torn, and wounds ensue, preventing further practice for some

252

GYMNASTICS.

time. But if you are obliged to use resin, do it judiciously :
powder a little, and rub only the tips of the fingers in it ;
avoid, above all things, getting it into the palm of the hands,
as it will make them stick to the bar, and it is also very likely
to cause jerks in swinging, and the grip will not be so certain
as when the hands move smoothly round. These details may
appear rather tedious, but you will find them useful, as they
apply to all apparatus where the wood is handled.

Now, there is another thing you must bear in mind, and that
is, the way in which you must take hold of the bar.

Some say that you should take hold of it as you would a
handle, with the thumb underneath ; but we think there is no
doubt that the proper way is the same as that in which a monkey
holds the branch of a tree — the thumb on the same side as the
fingers. If the thumb be underneath, in all ordinary swing-
ing exercises it has a tendency to draw the fingers off; although
in some few slow movements it may be under, yet, as a rule,
it is better above.

Now, keeping what has been said in mind, let us try some
actual exercises.

Jump up at the bar, and hang with the hands, the body,
arms, and legs perfectly straight, and the feet close together.
Hardly anything looks worse than to see the legs swinging
about in all directions when you are performing an exercise ;
be careful, therefore, to keep them quite quiet ; every un-
necessary movement, you must recollect, is so much wasted
force, and so much, therefore, taken from your chance of per-
forming the feat.

To perform all feats quietly and easily shows the finished
gymnast ; and so far from violent exertions being the test of
difficulty, the reverse is generally the case, and the easiest-
looking feats are very often the hardest, and vice versa, and,
besides, these irregular movements only tend to tire you.

Now, having hold of the bar with both hands, draw your-
self up until the chin is above the bar ; then lower the body
until the arms are quite straight again.

Practice this exercise as often as you can without tiring, or
until you can perform it six or eight times in succession, which
you will not do until you have practiced for some little time.

Fig. 5.

Beginners must now try a few gentle exercises, such as
hanging by each hand alternately, the other close to the side.

Then begin to walk along the bar by the hands, taking alter-
nate steps with them, making the steps as equal as possible,
and keeping, as we said before, the legs hanging quietly down.

Go in this manner from one end to the other, then reverse
the hands, and back again.

Now draw yourself up, with your chin above the bar, as in
Fig. 5, and repeat the walk in this position.

Next try a few good swings backward and forward at arms*
length : you will find that you will swing farther each time,
until you can swing your body almost into a horizontal posi-
tion.

All these little exercises should be repeated as often as pes
sible ; they help to strengthen the muscles, and accustom the
hands to the feel of the bar.

To Get on the Bar. — Draw yourself up as in the last
figure (Fig. 5), then suddenly drop the whole of the right side,
raising at the same time the left leg and throwing it over the
bar, as in Fig. 6. Now establish a good swing with the right
leg, and you will bring your body well over the bar, when a
sudden exertion of muscle will bring you sitting in the atti-
tude of Fig. 7. This is by no means an easy thing to do at
first ; but persevere, and, after a few failures, you will sud-
denly find you have succeeded : once accomplished, it will
come easy enough.

At first you will find it hard matter enough to get your legs
up to the bar at all. Beginners mostly try to lift the toes
without bending the knees, and, of course, find it beyond
their powers. Bring your knees up to your chin, doubling
your feet well into your body, and you will find it come easy
enough.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

There is another method of getting on to the bar, by bring-
ing the leg up through the hands, and with one good swing
bringing yourself roundly up.

You may try either of these methods, but nothing but con-
tinued practice will enable you to master either of them ; but
when you do, and can get on to the bar in a respectable man-
ner, you may consider you are making some progress. We
now proceed to

The Leg-Sw^ing. — Being in your original position, as in
Fig. 7, throw your right leg as far behind you as possible, at
the same time slipping the other leg backward, and catching
by the bend of the knee, as in Fig. 8. Then throw the head
back with a good swing (keeping the arms straight), and you
will thus make one turn backward round the bar.

You will find at first you are apt to make a half-turn too
much ; but after a little practice you will be able to regulate
the first swing so as to go round once, and come up into your
first position with a good balance.

■^

GYMNASTICS.

253

Next try two or three turns without stopping ; but always
endeavor to finish above the bar, as at starting. It is bad to
stop as in Fig 9, as you are disabled for the next exercise.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 10.

Fig. II.

For the forward swing, reverse the hands, keeping the
whole weight of the body on the arms, throw the head well to
the front, and with one plunge forward — keeping tight hold
with the hands, and the bodyerect, as in Fig. 10 — you will
make one forward revolution round the bar.

After some practice, you will be able to go round several
times without stopping.

This exercise is actually easier than the former, but it re-
quires more confidence, for the want of which you are apt to
keep too close to the bar, and thus you do not get sufficient
swing to bring you up again.

Practice both these exercises with right and left legs alter-
nately.

Sitting on the Bar.— Having accomplished the backward
leg-swing, we will now proceed to something a little more
difficult.

You will now get on lo the bar as in Fig. 7, with leg over ;
now try to balance yourself in this position without holding
by your hands ; having succeeded, take hold of the bar with
both hands behind you, and pass the hanging leg over the bar
into a sitting position, as in Fig. 11.

Now practice a few different balances while sitting ; that is,
with the bar under different parts of the thigh.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

4r-

Try to sit almost straight, and again with the bar just within
the angle of the knee. This must be done without touching
the bar with the hands.

We now come to

The Sit-Swing. — This is so called from its being a swing
performed while sitting on the bar, and we will commence
with the backward swing.

The " sit-swing" is somewhat similar to the leg-swing, but,
of course, more difficult, as in the latter the weight of the
body is mostly on the leg ; but in the present exercise the
whole weight is thrown upon the arms, therefore requiring
more^strength.

While sitting on the bar, as in the last figure, but holding
with the hands, straighten the arms, and let them support a
great part of the weight of the body ; now throw yourself
backwards with a good swing, still keeping a firm hold of the
bar with both hands.

Now, the object of this movement is to go quite round the
bar in the swing, and thus make one complete revolution,
which is called the "sit-swing backward;" but of course no
one can expect to accomplish this feat at once.

The first few times you attempt it, you will most likely find
youi-self hanging with the weight of the body beneath the bar,
and with the momentum of the swing gone.

In this case, all you can do is to let your legs pass through
your arms, and thus drop on to the ground ; but you must re-
peat the movement until you are able to swing quite round-

Fig. 14.

Fig. 15.

The way to practice this is, to swing about three-quarters
round, and then lo come back into the sitting posture again.
This will give you confidence, and after a time you will feel
yourself able to go all the way round, and lo come up into
your original position.

For some time you will find that you will come up in rather
an awkward manner, without having swing enough to balance
yourself, and therefore you will fall forward again ; in which
case you must be prepared to let go with the hands, and to
throw yourself off the bar on to your feet ; or, what is much
better, to have some one standing in front, in readiness to
catch you as you come off.

But you may take comfort, for when you can get thus far
the feat is nearly achieved, and after a few more trials you
will be rewarded by feeling yourself able to accomplish the
" sit-swing."

In the forward sit-swing, the first start is the principal thing,
as the impetus gained will be sufficient to bring you up again.
In order to get a good start, you must raise the body as far

254

GYMNASTICS.

away from the bar as possible, supporting the whole weight
on the arms, as in Fig. 13 ; now throw the chest out and the
head back, with the legs rather straight, then with a good
plunge forward, keeping the arms straight as in Fig. 15, you
will go quite round ; that is to say, you will in time, for you
must not think of succeeding at first in any of these feats, but
perseverance will soon enable you to accomplish them.

You will find in practicing this exercise, that some of your
strength will be expended in getting on to the bar again after
each failure. I will now show you a verygood way of getting
into the sitting position again, while hanging, as in Fig g.
Straighten the body as in Fig. 15, and draw your center of
gravity a little above the bar, then, bending the body again
slightly, you will roll quite over so as to come into a sitting
position again. This movement is called the " Plymouth."

Hanging by the Legs.— Get on to the bar in a sitting
position, and then throw yourself off backward, as for a sit-
swing ; but, instead of going round, drop the body and bend
your knees, and thus let them catch on the bar, getting a firm
grip with them, at the same time letting go your hands as in
Fig. 17.

A young beginner should practice this on a low bar, so that,
when he hangs by the legs, his hands will touch the ground ;
and thus, when he is getting tired and cannot raise himself, he
may let his legs drop, and come on to his hands on the floor

Fig. 17.

Fig. 18.

safely. He may then get on to the bar again, hanging by the
knees as before, and practice swinging backward and forward
as high as he can. At first the friction will make the legs a
little sore, but the muscles will soon harden with practice.

There are a few other leg exercises which may be practiced
with advantage, and which will afford variety, and also help
to bring all the muscles into play.

One of these is shown in Fig. 18, where you hang on the
bar with one leg, stretching the other straight out with the toe
against the under side of the bar, and the exercise is to bend
the body up and down. This should be done with right and
left legs alternately.

A performance which is also very showy (although we should
not advise any one to attempt it without very good nerve and
also strength in the legs), is the standing balance on the
bar.

This may be practiced on a bar as low as you like, so that
you can easily jump off ; but of course it looks better on a bar
of ordinary height.

While sitting on the bar, lift one foot and gradually bring
it on to the bar, as in Fig. iq, and then raise yourself up
standing, as in Fig. 20, a feat which, of course requires great

Fig. 19.

Fig.

strength in the legs, and a good command of balancing power.
Now endeavor to walk forward and backward by shifting the
feet ; and if you lose your balance, jump off the bar altogether,
without trying to recover it, and get up again.

Hanging by the Toes.— This will make a good finish
after the standing balance on the bar. To do it artistically,
stand first on one .foot, then on the other,
turn round, let yourself down, and drop
quietly and smoothly beneath the bar, hook
your toes on to it, and hang down quite
straight with your arms folded across your
chest. (See Fig, 21.)

This, if done without stopping, has a good
effect ; but of course you must not expect to
accomplish anything in this style for some
time, and therefore must be content simply
to hang by your hands, and then bring your
legs up, and hook your toes over the bar, tak-
ing care, the moment you let go with your
hands, to straighten the body and stretch out
your arms, so as to save your head if you
should chance to slip.

Vaulting over the Bar is a very useful exercise, and quite
as well performed on the horizontal bar as on the vaulting-
horse, if your choice of apparatus should be limited.

Try it first on a bar about three feet six inches from the
ground, and gradually raise it ; but take care not to overtask
your powers by having it too high for you, as. very often, when
young gymnasts find that they are getting on respectably,
they are very apt to be too ambitious, and to attempt heights
far beyond their powers. About four feet six inches is a fair
height for a person about five feet four or five, to begin with.
Learn to clear this clean and in correct style, before you at-
tempt anything higher.

As vaulting is by no means a difficult feat, to look well it

Fig.

GYMNASTICS.

255

Fig. 22.

should be done in good style. To make a clean vault, the
body should be kept as straight and as far away from the bar

as possible (see Fig. 22),
and should be practiced
right and left alike.

No careful gymnast
need ever be afraid of in-
jury if he uses his brain
as well as his body, and
you will find that, if a
mishap occurs, it is gen-
erally to some one who
attempts exercises with-
out taking into consid-
eration in what different positions he may come off the
apparatus ; but all these exercises may be gone through safely
if sufficient precautions are taken at first. Mr. Spencer says
on this head :

" I am sure I can speak for myself, having often in former
times made myself quite a laughingstock at the gymnasium
from the careful way in which I have tried new exercises
which had any risk attending them. But ' let those laugh
who win.'

"I first put on the ' lungers ' (which you will find repre-
sented and described on page 251), with a comrade on each
side to hold the ropes, and something soft underneath (such as
a mattress, tan bark, or any other suitable material), and hav-
ing some one in front to prevent my pitching forward when I
came down.

" This is as you might have seen me when trying my first
• fall-back,' or other difficult exercises ; and what was the re-
sult ? Why, I tried many times, and fell many times, and
should have hurt myself many times had I not been caught.

" But I knew I was perfectly safe, from the precautions
taken (I did not mind the look), and this gave me confidence,
and left me at liberty to give my whole attention to the feat I
was attempting ; and since then I have done that, and many
other more difficult feats, numerous times, without the slightest
injury."

HANGING BAR.

The exercises on this will be much the same as those on the
fixed bar. We shall not, therefore, with the limited space at
our disposal, do more than recommend it as an agreeable
change from the fixed bar. Its use as a flying trapeze is too
dangerous for ordinary boys to attempt, and we shall there-
fore not introduce it here.

THE PARALLEL BARS.

You may commence with the parallel bars, as in the hori-
zontal bar, with the simple movements which any one would
naturally perform upon them ; such as standing between them,
and with a spring placing a hand upon each, and thus support-
ing the weight of the body.

When you have become somewhat used to them in this way,
commence swinging backwards and forwards, with the legs
straight down, trying to go higher each time.

Of course, if you have practiced on the horizontal bar, the
preliminary exercises will be mastered at once ; but as it is

possible that some may commence on the parallels, I give this
short description of these simple movements.

The first exercise after you are on the bars should be

The Walk. — This is very simple, being performed by
jumping up and placing one hand on each bar, with the body
hanging suspended between them as before.

Now walk along the bar by taking steps with the arms,
making them as evenly and regularly as you can, keeping the
head well up, and the body perfectly straight.

Walk in this way from one end to the other, and when you
can do this easily, walk back in the same way, without turning
round. Then let the body sink down as in Fig. 23, and
hop from one end to the other backward and forward. This
you will find capital practice for the muscles of the arms,
although rather tiring at first.

Fig. 23. Fig. 24.

When this hopping movement is done with a good swing,
so as to go forward or backward some considerable distance,
it has a very good effect, and is called " The Grasshopper."

Vaulting Movements are performed by getting up be-
tween the bars as for the walk, placing yourself near the
centre of the bars.

Now swing backwards and forwards until you are able to
throw both legs over one side of the bars in front of you, as
in Fig. 24.

Now with another swing bring them back again, and throw
them over behind you on the same side as before. (Fig. 25.)

Fig. 25. Fig. 26.

There are several of these movements which may be prac-
ticed with great advantage to the muscles. Another is shown
in Fig. 26.

This is one of many which may be gone through while in

256

GYMNASTICS.

this position on the bars, the dotted line showing the serpentine
course of the movement.

All these exercises should be performed with the body as
straight as possible, and when done neatly, with the legs close
together, have a very pretty effect, and are very good practice.

There are several similar movements, such as those repre-
sented in Figs. 27 and 28, which are done by first swinging
backwards and forwards, and then throwing the legs over the
outside of the bars in front, one on each side ; then bending
back a little, and bringing the legs over back again between
the bars, and then, without stopping, throwing them over
again behind you, one on each side as before. This you should
practice until you can repeat it several times without stopping.

Fig. 27.

Fig. 28.

The next exercises are good practice. Stand between the
bars, and place the, hands on the under side of them, even
with the shoulders, then gradually raise the legs until they
turn over and bring the body into an inverted position, as in
Fig. 29 ; then continue the movement right over, until you
are hanging as in the position shown in Fig. 30.

Fig. 29.

Fig. 30.

You should practice this until you can do it several times
without touching the ground with the feet, and you will find

it very good prac-
tice for the front
and back horizon-
t a 1 movements,
previously shown
on the horizontal
bar.
The Pumping
F,G. 31. Movement is

one of the finest
exercises for developing the muscles of the chest. You must

first practice the swing until you can bring yourself up
horizontally, as show in Fig. 31 ; then, by bending the arms,
drop the body into Fig. 32, and then swing round, your feet
describing a semicircle, and come up again into Fig. 33, fin-
ishing the movement by swinging backwards again in the
same manner into Fig 31, as on commencing the movement.
The Vaulting Horse. — There are no simple preliminary

exercises on the horse
but what may be just as
well performed on the
parallels ; and, indeed,
such is the similarity in
some of them, that we
have invariably noticed
that any gymnast who
is good on the one is not likely to be a novice on the other.

For this reason we shall endeavor to make as much variety
as possible, and shall therefore not describe exercises which
may be as well gone through upon the parallels, but only give
those which have a distinctive character.

Commence by jumping on to the horse, with the hands one

Fig. 32.

Fig!' 33. Fig. 34-

on each of the pommels, and supporting the whole weight of
the body ; the legs hanging straight down as in Fig. 3.

Now bring one leg over the body of the horse in between
the pommels, as in Fig. 34 ; then bring it back again without

Fig. 35.

Fig. 36.

touching the horse with the foot, and pass the other leg
through in the same manner.

Now try and change the legs simultaneously ; that is, while

GYMNASTICS.

257

Fig. 37.

the one is being brought back, pass the other through -forward ;
the body, of course, still supported by the arms.

The Leg-Spring is the next exercise, and is performed in
the following manner :

Get on to the horse as in Fig. 3, and then bring both legs
up on to the back in a kneeling position, as in Fig. 35 ; then,
while the body is thus gathered, give a good spring up, throw-
ing up the arms as in Fig. 36, and you will come over to the
other side on to your feet on the ground.

If you are nervous in attempting this at first, get the assist-
ance of some one to hold your hand, and you will accomplish
it without much difficulty.

The next exercise must be practiced at first with the horse
as low as possible, and the jumping-board placed about a foot
from the horse.

Jumping Through the Hands. — Take a short run, and
jump on to the board with both feet down at once, flat-footed.
Place your hands one on each pommel,
spring up, and pass the legs through the
hands, as in Fig. 37, shooting them out in
front of you over the horse, so as to come
neatly down on the other side. Of course
you must measure your distance, so that
you may rise high enough while passing
over for the back to clear the top of the
horse.

Another form of this exercise is to jump
over the horse with the legs outside the hands, and is per-
formed in a similar manner to the last, but is rather more
difficult, as you will need a much greater spring to raise your-
self sufficiently high to pass clear over ; and you must also
take care to let go with the hands at
the proper moment, when in the po-
sition shown in Fig. 38.

If you retain your hold of the pom-
mels too long, you will lose command
of yourself, and they will have a ten-
dency to pull you back and cause you
to pitch head first on to the ground ;
but when you commence to practice this movement, it is ne-
cessary to have some one standing in front, to catch you in
case your feet do not quite clear the top of the horse, more
especially if it should be at all too high for you.

Saddle Vaulting. — Get on to the horse as in Fig. 39, sit-
ting across as in a saddle, but behind the pommels ; then,
bearing the whole weight upon the
arms, throw your legs right up, and
giving yourself a kind of twist, de-
scribe a semicircle with them, and
bring yourself round with the face
the other way ; your hands being
one upon each pommel, your course
will naturally be towards the one
which holds the aftermost.

The Long Fly is a very fine
exercise for the whole of the body,
and more especially the lower ex-
tremities.

Fig. 38.

Fig. 39.

You commence practice for this movement by placing the
jumping-board about three feet from the largest end of the
horse, then with a run, pitch with yeur hands on to the end,
as in Fig. 40.

Now move the board a little farther off, and repeat the
movement ; and thus continue the exercise, increasing the
distance each time, until you can pitch on to the end from
about five or six feet.

Now vary this movement by jumping from different dis-
tances, and pitching on the hands first, and then bringing up
the feet on to the back of the horse, as in Fig. 41.

Fig. 40. Fig. 41.

And when you are in this position, pitch with the hands on
to the extreme end of the horse, and go over as at "leapfrog."

Having now sufficiently practiced these preliminaries, place
the board about a foot from the end of the horse (having first
had the high pommels taken out, and the flush ones substi-
tuted).

Now take a run and jump, pitching with your hands on the
first pommel, landing yourself astride, as near the middle of
the horse as possible ; repeat this exercise, gradually increas-
ing the jump, until at last you clear the whole length, as in
Fig. 42, coming down safely on the ground in front of the
horse.

Fig. 42.

When you can get near the neck and are likely to come
right over in a few more trials, have some one standing in
front to catch you in case you do not quite clear the end, and
come instead into a sitting position on the neck of the horse,
as in this case the sudden stop is likely to throw you over head
forwards in a rather ignominious manner ; but if you practice
assiduously, when you feel that you can do it, and make up
your mind for it, you are almost certain to clear it.

It will, of course, take some time to master this thoroughly ;
but it is a fine dashing feat, well worth the trouble of acquir-
ing. Only don't think you are doing it if you are satisfied to
pitch short and paddle along on your hands for the rest of the
distance ; you ought to pitch clear over at one movement. If

4r-

258

GYMNASTICS.

horses of various lengths arc available, they will prove of im-
mense service in practicing this exercise.

Hanging Rings. — These are very useful for developing
the muscles of the arms and shoulders. We have, therefore,
found room for a few exercises upon them as a guide to the
young gymnast, who will find little difficulty in supplement-
ing our instructions with exercises of his own.

Fig. 43. Fig. 44.

Commence by drawing yourself up, as in Fig. 43, holding
one ring at arm's length, and the other close to the body.

Draw in the outstretched arm and straighten the other, and
repeat this as often as you like, as it is very good preliminary
exercise for the trapeze.

Now, from this position gradually spread the arms wide
apart, suspending the body between them, as in Fig. 44, and
then let the body gradually sink down until you hang straight
down by the arms again.

There are many other strength movements on the hand-
rings, but you will soon find them out for yourself ; we will,
therefore, pass on to the swinging exercises.

Commence swinging simply backward and forward, increas-
ing your momentum by drawing yourself up by contracting the
arms as you ascend, and when at the highest, lowering your
body with a drop, and by this means you will swing higher
each time, until you are able to bring your arms and legs
straight and nearly into a horizontal position, as in Fig. 45.

Fig. 4s.

Also swing in different positions in order to get command
of yourself while swinging.

Practice by drawing the legs over the head when at the end
of the swing, as in Fig. 46, passing back in this position to
the other end, and then bringing the legs smartly over, and

shooting them straight out (in order to preserve the momen.
turn), and coming back all straight again to the starting point.

Fig. 46.

Repeat this several times, and you will find it very good
work for the muscles.

Fig. 47.

Also swing with the hands close to the groin, and the arms
nearly straight by the side, and supporting the body, as in Fig.
47 ; keeping yourself from pitching your head and shoulders
too much forward, at the end of the swing, by bending the arms

Fig. 48.

and projecting the legs, as in Fig. 48, which represents the
bent position which you assume when beginning to descend.

Fig. 49.

Another variety of this swing is shown in Fig. 49, where the
body is kept horizontal throughout.

^^ —

GYMNASTICS.

259

CLIMBING LADDERS, ROPES, POLES,
etc., etc.

Climbing the rope is a very useful exercise, which should
be practiced by every one, as it may often be the means of
saving life in case of fire or shipwreck, etc.

Fig. 50.

Fig. 51.

We mean climbing by the use of both legs and arms. Fig.
50 shows the way of taking hold of the rope, and Fig. 51 the
position when climbing.

At a gymnastic festival lately, some of the competitors
ascended on a rope in this way to the height of upwards of
one hundred feet.

Fig. 59.

Fig. S3.

Another method is by holding on and raising yourself by
using the hands only, but this is more difficult.

Another exercise is by climbing the knotted rope, and also
one with short cross-bars fixed at frequent intervals.

Climbing the pole, either fixed or hanging, as in Fig. 52,
only varies from the same exercise on the rope by its being
rather more difficult to grasp, from being thicker and also
rigid.

4r-

Climbing ladders, fixed both in vertical and horizontal
positions, and at various angles, furnishes a good variety of
exercise for the arms, and is very easy to commence with.
Fig. 53 shows an exercise on the horizontal ladder, in which
you hold by the outside, and progress by moving the hands
forward alternately. Fig. 54 represents another movement.

Fig 54.

Fig. 55.

in which you walk along under the ladder, increasing the
length of the step by holding the rounds at some distance
apart, the intervening ones being passed. Fig. 55 shows one
of the movements upon the perpendicular ladder, in which the
object is to keep the arms and legs as straight
as possible while the steps are taken. Fig.
56 is the oblique ladder, which may be prac-
ticed by moving both up and down by the
hands.

The "giant's stride ' is a very good ex-
ercise for beginners, and consists of a very
strong and firmly fixed upright, about fifteen
feet in height, having an iron cap at the top
which will revolve easily, and around which
ropes are fixed, each having a short cross-
bar at the bottom, so that several may ex-
ercise at once, each one holding a bar and
running round, increasing the speed until
the body takes the same angle as the rope.
Various evolutions may be gone through in
this manner, which will be found very
amusing.

It is hardly necessary to say that there are some simple rules
to be observed in practicing.

One is, never over-tire yourself by practice, as that will do
more harm than good. And be careful not to get into a heat
without having a wrapper handy to put on when you leave off ;
and do not practice after a full meal.

Dress must also be suitable, as it is highly important to have
all the limbs free and unfettered ; and therefore light and loose
garments and gymnastic shoes should be worn. A belt
may be used by those who require it, but it is not indispens-
able.

Fig. 56.

260

GYMNASTICS.

aYMK^^I'lCi^ Wl¥SoU¥ ^f>s{dlSl< Sf>f>af(S¥l/^.

THE THREE CHAIRS.

Even should the young gymnast be without any apparatus,
he can train his body in various ways, so that when he obtains
apparatus, its work will be half done.

For example, he may practice the " Three Chairs " exercise,
which will strengthen the loins immensely ; that being just the
jiortion of the body that is least exercised in the artificial life
of the present day.

The young gymnast should take three chairs, and set them

in a row, the two endmost chairs facing each other, and the
central one set sideways They should be just so far apart
that the back of the head and the heels rest on the two end-
most chairs, and that the central chair supports the middle of
the body.

Now curve the body a little upwards, so as to take its weight
off the center chair ; take the chair with the right hand,
draw it from under you, pass it over you to the other side, and
with the left hand replace it under your body. This should
be done several times, so as to pass the chair from side to side.

The easiest way of learning this really useful exercise is to
begin by putting the head and nape of the neck on one chair,
and allowing the feet to reach nearly to the middle of the
other. This will greatly take off from the difficulty ; and as
you feel yourself getting stronger, move the chairs gradually
apart, so that at last you lie exactly as shown in the illustra-
tion.

KICKING THE CORK.

This is a capital exercise, and has the advantage of being ex-
ceedingly amusing.

Draw two lines on the
ground (like a J_ reversed),
one at right angles to the
other. Place your right foot
with the heel just touching
the cross-line of the X» ^i^d
the foot pointing along the
upright line. Next, put your
left foot in front of the right,
with the heel just touching
= its toe, and then place the
'<^ right foot in advance of left
in a similar manner. You will
thus make three short steps,
each the exact length of your foot.

Exactly in front of the advanced foot, stand a common
wine cork upright.

Now, go back to the cross-line, place your left heel
against it as before, and with the right foot try to kick down
the cork, as shown in the illustration, without losing the balance
of the body or allowing the left foot to touch the ground. At
first it will be found utterly impossible to do so, the toe not
reaching to within an inch of it ; but a little practice wil
enable the young gymnast to perform the feat without very
much difficulty. The best plan is to reach forward until you
judge that your foot is close to the cork, and then, with a
slight sideways kick, strike at the cork, and bring yourself
again to the upright position.

This exercise is exceedingly valuable for strengthening the
legs and giving pliability to the whole body.

THE STOOPING STRETCH.

This exercise does for the arms what the preceding does
for the legs.

Take the same lines as before, and stand with both toes on
the cross-line. Now throw yourself forivard on your hands,
and with the right hand make a chalk-mark on the floor as
far as you can stretch. Having done this, spring up to the
upright position b y
means of the left arm,
taking care not to move
the toes from the cross-
line. Each competitor
at this exercise tries to
chalk his mark as far as
possible.

When this exercise is first attempted, it seems utterly im-
possible to reach to any distance, the spring of the left arm
being found insufficient to bring the body upright again. After
a time, however, when the muscles of the arms become
strengthened, the player finds that he can rapidly extend the
length of stretch, until at last he can throw himself nearly flat
on the ground, and yet spring up again.

In order to strengthen both arms equally, they should be
used alternately.

One secret in performing this exercise is to chalk the mark
and spring back as quickly as possible, as every second of time
takes away the strength of the supporting arm.

STILTS.

There are various forms of stilts and modes of using them.
Some, such as those which are employed by professionals, are
strapped to the ankles and have no handles. These should
not be tried until the young gymnast is skilled with the handle-
stilts, as a fall is really dangerous.

Others have long handles, and the feet are received into
leathern loops nailed on the stilt ; but by far the best are those
which, like the stilts represented in the illustration, are fur-
nished merely with two wooden projections on which the feet
can rest.

The easiest way of getting on the stilts is to stand with the
back against the wall, and take the handles of the stilts under

GYMNASTICS.

261

the arms, as shown in the illustration. Then place the right
foot on the step of one stilt, raise yourself, with your back still
leaning against the wall, and then place the
left foot on the step of the other stilt.

Now try to walk, raising each stilt alter-
nately with the hands, and lifting the foot with
it. A very short time will get you into the
way of doing this, and in a few days you ought
to be able to walk with freedom.

Having obtained some degree of proficiency,
you should race with other stilt-walkers, ascend
and descend steps, planks, or stairs, pirouette
on one stilt, holding the other above your
head, and then replace the feet without com-
ing to the ground, and perform similar feats.
Accomplished stilt-walkers can even ascend
and descend ladders laid at a considerable
slope.

The height of the feet from the ground rather
diminishes than adds to the difficulty of walk-
ing on stilts. If the stilt-walker should feel himself losing
his balance, he should at once jump to the ground, and not
run the risk of damaging himself by trying to recover his
balance. After some little skill has been attained, the young
athlete ought to be able to get on his stilts without needing the

support of the wall, a short run and a spring being quite
enough for the purpose.

THE WALL-SPRING.

A very good preliminary exercise is that which is called the
"Wall-spring."

The young gymnast stands at some little distance from a
wall, places his right hand behind his back, and throws himself
against the wall, supporting himself by the left hand. He
then springs back to the upright position without moving his

toes from the spot on which they had been placed. This, like
all similar exercises, should be done with both arms alternately,
and the gymnast should learn to throw the strength of all his
body, as well as of the arms, into the spring.

^ 262

RIDING.

ti 1 11 1 I'll tiiii I II mil 1 1 1'i'i IIIIIIEIilllllllyllf Il9l!llif I

Your head and your heart keep boldly up;

Your hands and your heels keep down ;
Your legs keep close to your horse's side ;

And your elbows keep close to your own.

Chefneys Secret of Riding.

^LL boys, nnd most men, ate ambitious of the
triumphs of hoisemanship ; and, with many, a
knowledge of hoises and dogs stands in the place
of a polite education. The child escaped fiom
leading-strings, bestrides his fathei's walking-
stick, and. with a pack-thiead rein, toddles over
le carpet on his mimic steed, with as much glee as
a fox-hunter gallops after the hounds. From riding
a cane, the same spirit and feeling makes a gate
with string stirrups an acceptable means for a few first lessons
in equitation, and tenders a tocking-horse a perfect idol. The
trim saddle of the painted steed, the teat reins (made fast by
tin tacks), the horse hair mane and tail supported by a wooden
crupper — all these aie sources of as great a triumph as Alex-
ander felt when he subdued Bucephalus ; a deed that history
seems proud to tell of, and which painters love to depict, as
our artist has. From the rocking-horse the young rider takes
another step upwards in the scale of equitation, by mounting
u real live donkey, who kicks and shies, and stands stock-still,
and rubs against a post or backs into a pond, and by these
various tricks gives another morsel of experience to the youth-
ful horseman. The day of gladness comes to him at last,
when the grand creature, which has long been his admiration,
stands before him ready to be mounted.

Mounting. — When about to mount, stand before the left
shoulder of the horse, hold the whip in the left hand with the
lash downwards, leave the curb-rein loose on the neck, and
take the snaffle-reins at their center, between the thumb and
forefinger of the right hand, with which draw them up evenly
between the fore and third fingers of the left hand (the middle
or longest finger dividing them), until they are sufficiently
tightened for you to feel the bearing of the horse's mouth.
Throw the loose ends over the middle joint of the forefinger,
so as to drop down on the off-side of the horse's neck. Then
take the center of the curb-reins between the thumb and fore-
finger of the right hand, as already described, and allowing
them to hang more slackened than the snaffle-reins, separate

them with the little finger of the left hand, passing the loose
ends up the palm, and casting them to the off-side over the
ends of the snaffleieins. Take with the tight hand a lock of
the mane, and wind it once or twice round the left thumb,
closing the hand so as firmly to grasp the reins and mane.
The left hand may now be tested on the neck of the horse
near to the withers, and within about six or eight inches of
the pommel of the saddle. With the right hand, hold the
stirrup until the left foot is placed in it ; the right hand should

now be put on the cantle, the body raised until the feet are
side by side, and both knees press the saddle ; move the right
hand from the cantle to the pommel, and throw the light leg
quickly, but not hastily, or with a jeik, across the horse, and
sink easily (no jerking or bumping) into the saddle. By turning
the toe of the boot slightly inwaids, so as to strike the right
stirrup gently, the movement will cause it to swing partly
round ; by this means the foot obtains possession of it with-
out the aid of the hand, which should never be employed
when the stirrups are lost ; after a little practice the stirrups
may be dropped even when galloping, and quickly regained
by striking both toes simultaneously inwards.

Get into the habit of making your horse stand steady dur-
ing and immediately after mounting. When an animal has
been in careless hands, he not unfrequenlly tries to move off
immediately he feels your weight on the stirrup. This is not
only an unpleasant but also a dangerous ptoceeding, especially
when a lady is mounting. It may be checked by keeping the

RIDING.

263

reins tight, and, if necessary, using the curb- rein. The horse
is so docile an animal, though a creature of habit, that it can
easily be taught what is required, or cured of its defects, pro-
vided only that its master is patient and intelligent. Thus,

A. Pommel.

B. Hind Arch.

C. D's on Saddle.
D.. Saddle-flaps.

E. Stirrup leathers.

F. Girths.

when mounted, instead of immediately starting off at a trot or
or walk, wait a few seconds, and thus teach your horse that
he is not to rush away immediately he feels your weight in the
saddle.

In order to discover the proper length for your stirrups, sit
comfortably down on your saddle, keep the body upright, let
the legs hang loosely at first, then clasp the horse slightly
with them, turn the toe in and rather up ; then the stirrup
ought just to support the foot. Then stand up in the stirrups
with the legs straight, and see whether the fork will clear the
pommel of the saddle : it ought just to do so if the stirrups
are the correct length. Having once ascertained what is the
correct length for the stirrups, you should measure from the
finger-tip to armpit the length from the buckle to the end of

the stirrups, and thus you can always on future occasions tell
whether any alterations are required before mounting.

Being now seated on the horse, which we will suppose is a
quiet, well-trained animal, it would be advisable that a groom

or some friend should lead the horse for a time, in order that
we may get accustomed to the motion of the horse and to sit-
ting in the saddle.

The seat in the saddle should be obtained by sitting -we/l
doitm, leaning rather backwards than forwards, and grasping
the horse with a tolerably firm grip of both legs. There are
two seats to be avoided, but which nearly all beginners at first
practice : one is leaning forward as if in readiness to go over the
horse's head ; the other is sitting on the saddle as though it
were red hot. The very best method of getting "shaken
down in the saddle," as the term is, is to quit the stirrups —
that is, take the feet out of them — and trot round and round a
circle. This can be easily done by having a rope attached to
a head-collar on the horse, and getting this rope held by an
attendant. After a few days of this kind of bumping, we
learn how to grasp with the legs so that we scarcely move
from the saddle, and we do not then adopt the dangerous and
unsightly practice of depending mainly on the stirrups for our
equilibrium.

During the time that we are " jogging " in the trot, the reins
should be held one in each hand, and so that we "feel"

gently the horse's mouth : at no time should the reins become
slack, but an uniform "feel" should be maintained. A horse
soon becomes accustomed to the hand of its rider, and learns
to obey the slightest change. Many horses, especially those
gifted with tender mouths, will become restive, or will rear,
attempt to run away, etc., when their riders either suddenly
slacken, then tighten the reins, or in other ways alter their
hold upon them.

The Trot.— Having passed through the process of being
shaken down in the saddle, we may then take our stirrups and
learn how to sit down in the saddle, keep our stirrups, and
yet not to rise in them when the horse trots ; after which we
may practice rising to the trot. There is scarcely a more
ridiculous exhibition than that of a rider working laboriously
to rise to his horse's trot, using much more exertion than the
animal he bestrides, whilst he works his arms and body as
though riding were a very painful matter. The very slightest
movement of the instep and a spring from the knee is suffi-
cient to prevent the bumping produced by a horse's trot ; and
the skill or awkwardness of a rider is never more prominent
than when his horse is indulged in a long slashing trot.

— -r^

264

RIDING.

— ^

The Canter. — To "raise a horse into a canter" from a
trot, we should slightly pull the left rein, at the same time
closing the legs. By a steady hand on the reins we may in-
crease or decrease the speed of the horse, or again reduce his
pace to a trot.

Nothing but practice and instruction will ever give a rider
a good firm seat on a horse ; but at the same time, practice
alone may produce a strong seat but a very awkward one, un-
less the defects of the seat are pointed out early.

Vices and their Treatment. — Having attained a certain
amount of skill in sitting on a horse and in handling the reins,
the horseman may devote his attention to certain matters
which are not unlikely to happen to every equestrian per-
former. These may be classed under the head of the vices of
the horse, and are principally as follows : running away, shy-
ing, rearing, bucking, and refusing to move ; kicking, biting,
and stumbling.

Running A'way. — A runaway horse is a most dangerous
animal, and for an unskilled rider to keep such a creature is
not advisable. Many so-called runaway horses, however, are
merely high-spirited animals whose former riders were unable
to manage them. As an example : we possessed for three

years a horse which we regularly hunted, and on which we
placed a lady, and which had been sold because he was a de-
termined runaway. Only once did this horse run away with
us, and that was in consequence of the reins breaking. That
horses do run away, however, is a fact ; and we will now con-
sider the best means of dealing with this vice.

A runaway horse is usually one with a very hard mouth,
which is unaffected by any amount of pulling applied merely
as a dead pull. A horse is stronger than a man, and there-
fore to pull against him is useless.

A particular kind of "bit " is requisite for a runaway horse ;
the best that we have found being a powerful " Pelham."
The rpins should be very stout, so as to afford a firm grasp,
with no fear of breaking. Stout strong reins also do not slip
through the fingers as do those which are thin.

We will now suppose that a rider is seated on a horse, and
starts for a canter on a nice bit of turf. His horse, probably
fresh, bounds off, and the rider soon finds the animal pays no
attention to his " Woa, woa ! " or to the pull at the reins. A
bad rider has at this point come to the end of his expedients,
and usually does nothing more than give a dead pull at the

reins until he gets cramp in his arms and fingers, and is unable
to use them effectively, when he is at the mercy of his horse.
Some riders vary the "dead pull" by sawing their horses'
mouths by alternately pulling the right and left rein. This
sometimes, but rarely, has the effect of stopping a horse ; the
common result being that the animal throws up its head,
changes its feet in the gallop, but still goes on, probably with
a temper not improved by the fact of its mouth bleeding in
consequence of this ill treatment.

As an effectual method foV pulling up a runaway horse we
have never found any equal to the following :

The reins being very strong, and the bit a "Pelham," or
one which will not slip through a horse's mouth, we gather
the reins short up in the left hand, so short that the hand is
pressed against the horse's mane ; then pass the right hand
down the right rein until it grasps this rein within a few
inches of the bit ; with a firm hold pull this round towards
the right knee, taking care that the horse does not snatch the
rein out of your hand, as he will try to do if he be an accom-
plished runaway. When the horse's head is thus pulled round
he cannot gallop, nor can he do more than twist round. We
have by this method the advantage of a lever pulling round
the horse's head with enormous power.

Against this plan it has been urged that we are very likely
to throw a horse down. Grant this ; and it is perhaps the less
of the two evils that we throw a horse down where we like,
selecting a soft piece of turf, than that we get dashed to pieces
by coming in collision with a carriage or cart, a lamp-post or
railing, or slip up on stone pavement, etc. But in answer to
this objection we can say that, on an average, once a week the
horse we before mentioned iried to run away with us, but we
invariably stopped him by this plan, and never, during three
years, did we ever throw him down. Two other horses that
we rode also on one or two occasions tried to run away, and
were instantly stopped by this method ; thus we have practical
proof of its efficacy, against the theoretical objection urged
against it.

To a bad or timid rider, or even to one not capable of deal-
ing with it, a runaway horse is a dangerous possession ; un-
less, therefore, a rider is well skilled, well nerved, and strong
armed, our advice is, never mount a known runaway horse.

As, however, every horse may, some time or other, try to
run away, the preceding advice should not be neglected, as it
may save a fall, a broken arm, leg, or neck.

Shying. — Shying is a very common practice of horses, par-
ticularly of young horses. It may arise from defective sight,
or from mere frolic. To a good rider it is of no consequence,
but to a bad horseman a fall may result. After a brief ac-
quaintance with an animal, we can tolerably well tell at what ob-
jects he usually shies. To overcome this practice we should
never be off our guard, but should ever keep a watch on our
horse's ears. When we notice that he suddehly raises his ears,
and looks attentively at any object, it is probable that he may
shy. To avoid such a result, we should endeavor to distract
the animal's attention by patting his neck and speaking to
him, a slight movement of the reins to arouse him, or by let-
ting the whip rest on his neck, his attention may be with-
drawn from the object that alarms him. A brutal and igno-

-<t3

RIDING.

265

rant horseman usually commences thrashing his horse when it
shies, and thus only adds to its fear, and causes it to repeat
its vice with double effect.

The late Mr. Rarey used to say that a horse never could
surprise him, because its ears always told him what it was
thinking of doing. There is much truth in this remark, as
every one accustomed to horses must know, and those unac-
customed to them may learn.

Rearing. — Rearing is one of the most dangerous and incur-

able of vices ; it may, however, arise from a harsh use of the
curb ; but a rearing horse may at any time cause his rider's
death by falling back on him. When a horse rears we should
sit quietly on him, and well forward. A rider without a firm
seat may lean back, holding on to the reins, and will thus pull
the horse over on him. A sharp pair of spurs may be used
with advantage on a rearing horse, but the reins must be very
delicately handled — the cause of rearing being in many cases
due to that abominable habit of bad riders of continually jerk-
ing their horse's mouth, for no other reason, apparently, than
that they are themselves bad riders.

Buck-jumping. — Bucking is an endeavor to unseat a
rider, and consists in a series of bucks in the air, or a sort of
rocking motion produced by a succession of jumps. The
horse tries to get its head down between its legs, arches its
back, and springs several times from the ground. There is
no other means left than to sit the horse through its perform-
ance, which generally takes place when first mounted, after
which it not unusually will travel quietly all day.

Refusing to Move. — This is not a very common vice,
except with a horse which has been cruelly ill-used. We once
found a horse belonging to a friend which possessed this vice,
and we cured it by getting two leather straps, like handcuffs ;
by these we fastened the horse's fore legs together so that it
could not move, and then sat patiently on its back. In about
ten minutes the animal got tired of standing still ; but we de-
termined on giving it a lesson, so we kept it hobbled for fully
an hour, after which it at once moved on. On every occasion
afterwards, either the exhibition of these handcuffs or the at-

tempt to put them on, at once was received as a hint, and the
horse was ready to start off.

Kicking. — A kicking horse is always dangerous ; when,
however, we are on his back, it is well to remember that he
cannot kick with both hind legs whilst his head is held up.
We should, however, be very careful how we allow any one to
approach him ; also when in the stable great caution is req-
uisite. The same remarks apply to a biting horse ; it is bet-
ter at once to get rid of such a brute, for we are never safe
from his vicious habit.

Stumbling. — Stumbling may arise from careless riding or
from the imperfect form of a horse. An animal which in its
walk or trot does not raise its feet much will usually be a
stumbler ; and if its fore feet, when they come to the ground,
are not placed in advance of the shoulder, the horse is likely
to be a dangerous stumbler.

Those who wish to become adepts in regard to horses
should, when the opportunity offers, study the form and ac-
tion of a well-known good horse ; the shape of his shoulders,
set on of the head, and, in fact, every peculiarity should be
noticed.

There is no indicator equal to the eyes and the ears for tell-
ing the character of a horse ; the eye of a vicious horse never
will look good-tempered, nor can he conceal its vicious look.
The ears of a playful horse may, to the inexperienced, seem to
indicate vice ; for a horse that is playful, well bred, and fond
of its master or groom, will often put back its ears and bite
at its manger when its master approaches it ; but this is not
vice, and should not be misunderstood for such. Experience
in this respect is needed to prevent mistakes.

The bits in most general use are the Plain Snaffle, the Curb,
the Pelham, and the Hanoverian Bit.

The Snaffle is used for horses with good mouths, and may,
in the hands of a skillful rider, be used even for hard-mouthed,
pulling animals.

The Curb is often used with the snaffle.
It is more powerful, and will pull up
most horses ; it also makes a horse carry
his head well, and is a favorite bit with
military riders.
The Pelham bit is very powerful, and
THE SNAFFLE. is that which we recommend for a run-

^ 266

RIDING.

away horse. It can be used either as a snaffle or curb, and
is a very serviceable bit.

THE PELHAM.

THE HANOVERIAN.

The Hanoverian bit is more powerful even than the Pel-
ham, but cannot be used as freely or like a snaffle. It is very
similar to the curb, the mouth-piece being bigger.

kr-

When a rider has become sufficiently skilled to sit a horse
well during its trot and canter, it is not improbabje that he
will wish to try a leap with it, or he may be
desirous of hunting. Should this be the case,
the first precaution is to find whether your _

horse can leap.

It is not to be expected that a horse i.? '^^
know how to do anything which he nas not
been taught any more than that a man should.
Some horses may have reached the age of
four or five years, and have never taken a
leap ; they don't know how to do it, and
should be taught. If we ride a strange horse
at a stile or stout fence, we may very probably
find that the animal has been called upon to
perform a feat as difficult to him as for a boy
to leap with a pole, when he has never before
attempted to do so.

Remarking upon the number of accidents
that annually occur in consequence of fool-
hardy conduct with firearms, when some boy
points a gun at his friend, and says, "I'll
shoot you ! " and straightway does so, whilst
the boy shrieks, "Oh dear! I didn't know
it was loaded ! " a veteran sportsman once
recommended us '^ always io treat a gun as
if it were loaded and on full cock, then we
shall never have an accident ; " so we would

recommend a young horseman always to treat a horse as
though he were likely to run away, likely to shy, and were
unable to leap a stile safely, until we have personally proved
the contrary. We can easily test our horse's leaping power
by trying him at small safe fences ; but we must bear in
mind that many good horses will often refuse a leap at
which they are not ridden in a determined manner. A hor-se
is very quick at finding out whether his rider really means to
ride at a leap, or is "just a little nervous " about it ; and as
few animals care to exert themselves unnecessarily, the horse
is not likely to take a leap unless he believes his rider means
it.

Many horses which have been badly ridden, or bullied by
bad riders, have bad tempers, which show themselves by re-
fusing leaps, or refusing other things. A good rider, or even
an observant person, will soon discover what irritates his
horse, and will avoid any acts which produce this effect.

Horses that are usually ridden, vary in age from about four
years to seven or eight. Whenever your horse commits any
fault, bear in mind that he is not so old as you are, and, in
fact, is a mere child in years ; treat him accordingly, try to as-
sist his weaker mental powers by your skill, and you will al-
ways find him a good and faithful servant ; bully and ill treat
him, and he is partially your enemy. When once, by ill treat-
ment, you have produced any particular vice in a horse, it is
almost impossible to eradicate it.

The age of a horse may be known by his teeth, and the fol-
lowing will aid the tyro in learning how to discover a horse's
age.

When a colt is two years old, its teeth are called " milch
teeth," the center of which is whitish.

At three years old the two center milch teeth are displaced

r. Muzzle and parts
about the muz-
zle.

2. Gullet.

3. Windpipe.

4. Crest.

5. Withers.

6. Chest.

7. Girth.

8. Back.

9. Loins.

10. Ilium or Hip.

11. Croup.

12. Haunch or Quar-

ters.

13. Thigh.

14. Hock.

15. Shank or Cannon.

16. Fetlock.

17. Pastern.

18. Shoulder-bone 0/

Scapula.

19. Elbow.

20. Fore-arm.

21. Knee.

22. Coronet.

RIDING.

267

by two which are called " permanent teeth," and are distin-
guished by being broader, larger, and in the center upper sur-
face having dark cavities.

"When a horse is four years old there will be four instead of
two permanent teeth in the lower jaw, and between four and
five years old the tusks begin to appear in males. Up to four
years old a male is called " a colt," after this age " a horse."

At five years of age the horse's permanent teeth are com-
plete, and the age after this is known by the wearing down
of the cavities of the permanent teeth.

At six years old the dark oval mark on the center teeth is
worn down, whilst the cavities in the other teeth are more
filled up. The tusks of the horse are longer than when five
years old, but are still sharp, and not much worn.

At seven years old the cavities of the second pair of nippers
are filled up ; the tusks are blunted by wear, and are longer
than fonuerl?.

At eight years the horse is sometimes said " not to have a
good tooth in its head," that is, the corner nippers are filled
up, and the age teeth are nearly all alike, the tusks exhibit
greater signs of wear and tear, and are very blunt.

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

Be kind and conciliatory to the noble beast that bears you,
and never show the spirit of the coward by acting cruelly, or
with unnecessary severity, towards a creature so docile, so in-
telligent, and so useful as the horse. Let the young horseman
remember that this creature is endowed not only with strength
for our service, and beauty for our admiration, but with
nerves sensitive to pain, and a nature keenly alive to ill-usage.
To a kind master, a good-tempered horse will by many signs
show his attachment, which will increase as he becomes better
acquainted with him.

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268

DRIVING.

DRIVING A SINGLE HORSE.

AKING YOUR SEAT.— In commencing these
instructions we will suppose your horse to have
been harnessed and brought to your door. It is
of course to be expected that the groom has seen
to his shoes, his harness, and the axles of the
wheels ; still no prudent driver would mount a
vehicle in which was a high-couraged horse, without
lookmg to see that the reins were properly fastened
to the bit, the head-piece properly on, the throatJash fas-
tened, the traces, back -band and belly-band quite as they
ought to be, nor indeed without giving a look around his
horse to see that his shoes were on, which can of course be
done without holdmg up the foot. And we will here remark,
that if it be necessary to see that the main points of your har-
ness are right, when you have the advantage of the daylight,
it is even more necessary that a critical examination take place
by night ; this can be effected as well by the hand as by the
eyes ; and we should advise you particularly to observe that
the reins are correctly placed, as many accidents have arisen
from their being crossed. Having attended to these things,
take the reins and whip in your right hand ; then mount the
vehicle, and transfer the reins to the left hand, one of them
(the near rein) passing over the upper finger, the other, be-
tween it and the next ; then close the thumb upon them, and
they will be firmly grasped in the hand. Whilst turning, or
when driving a high-couraged horse, and in critical situations
generally, the right hand must be at all times called to the
assistance of the left ; thus the reins being grasped as before
stated, you pass the second and third fingers between them, and
loosening your hold on the off rein a little, let the right hand
have complete control of its guidance, still, however, firmly
holding both reins in your left. This position gives you great
power over your horse.

Starting.— Holding your reins as described, start your horse
either by your voice or by the reins, gently feeling his mouth,
but neither pulling at it, nor jerking the reins. Many high-
couraged horses have been made jibbers by the stupidity of a

driver. If a young horse's mouth is hurt, by the driver check-
ing him every time he starts, he will be sure to incur some vice ;
the habit of rearing or of jibbing will most probably be the
lesult. The learner may say, "Suppose, however, he refuse
to start, what then is to be done ? " We reply, have patience,
let the groom lead him off, caress him, speak quietly and en-
courage him to proceed, and if he presses on one side, as if he
wanted to go round, tnrn him round, if there be room, and as
soon as he has his head the right way, give him his liberty,
and, by the voice or the whip, urge him to proceed. Much
tjiust here be left to the judgment ; a touch with the whip in
such circumstances would make some horses jib, while it would
immediately start others ; some it would be advisable to urge
only with the voice, and to have a person to push the gig on,
so that the collar should scarcely touch the shoulder in start*
ing. Supposing there is not room for the horse to turn, and
he persists in his attempt to do so, we have always found it
best in such a case to desire the groom to let his head alone,
and to go to the side towards which the horse is inclined to
turn, and then push against the extreme end of the shaft ; if
he does this, speaking quietly to him all the time, forty-nine
horses out of fifty, that are not irreclaimable jibbers, will, after
a short struggle, proceed. The sooner you get rid of a con-
firmed jibber the better ; no quality such a brute can possess
would repay you for the trouble the vice occasions ; which is,
besides, always a dangerous one.

The Road.— Having started your horse, keep your eyes
open, looking well before you, not merely for the purpose of
avoiding other carriages, but looking up the road, and on each
side of it, so as to notice if there be any impediment to your
horse's progress ; any loose stones which he might tread upon,
and thereby be thrown down ; any sudden risings or fnllings
in the road, of any object which might frighten him. Always
keep your horse well in hand — that is, feel his mouth ; if you
do not, you are never prepared for emergencies : if he
stumbles, you cannot help him to recover his legs ; if he
starts, you cannot check him. But in keeping him in hand,
as it is called, you may still fall into error, for if the horse be
very light in the mouth, there is a probability that an inex-

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DRIVING.

269

perienced person may so check him as not only to impede his
progress, but to put him out of temper ; and as nothing is
more difficult for a novice to manage than a very light-
mouthed horse, when he once takes it in his head to have his
own way, you must be careful merely to feel his mouth so as
to have the reins at command, but still not sufficiently tight to
check him ; this is called driving with a light hand, and in-
deed is the perfection of driving, when it has become so
habitual as to have assumed the character of " a style."

DIFFICULT SITUATIONS FOR YOUNG
DRIVERS.

Tusking th2 Bit and Running Away.— Some ill-tem-
pered horses will become violent upon being in any manner
put out of their way — such, for instance, as being suddenly
stopped two or three times within a short distance, or receiving
a sudden cut with the whip ; but instead of exhibiting this
violence by rearing or kicking, they will seize the bit in their
mouths, close against the tusk, and run violently to one side of
*the road, as if with the intention of landing you in a ditch, or
giving you a resting-place in a shop-window. Your best mode
is to stop them at once by a quiet pull, speaking softly, as if
nothing were the matter ; and then coax them into good tem-
per. If this cannot be done, give them the head for a
moment (a short one it must be), and after bestowing a violent
switch across the ears, snatch the reins suddenly towards the
side to which the horse is boring, which will probably, from
the surprise, disengage the bit, and enable you almost simul-
taneously either to pull him up or draw him away from the
danger. You will observe we have said on the side to which
he is pressing, for it would be all but impossible to draw him to
the other ; for such a brute always seizes the bit by the branch
or side which is next to the place he is running to, knowing,
or rather thinking, you will pull the other rein, in which case
the side of the face would aid him in resisting your efforts.
The remedy for this is a ring-bit, for it has no branches for
the horse to get hold of, and if he merely seizes that part of
the bit which is in his mouth, a sudden jerk will instantly dis-
engage it, that is, if it be done with sufficient decision.

Frequently, however, a horse tusks the bit, as it is called,
with a view of bolting ; if you cannot disengage the bit in the
way directed, you have only to stop him as quickly as you can.
Recollect, however, that a continual dead pull will never stop
a runaway horse, unless indeed you have the strength of Her-
cules ; his mouth soon becomes callous to the action of the
sharpest bit. Nor is it proper to keep jerking a horse under
such circumstances, as that would rather urge him to increase
his speed. The ordinary mode is to take the reins short in
your hands, and then by a sudden, steady movement of the
body backwards, exerting at the same time all the strength of
the arms, endeavor to pull him up ; this, repeated two or three
times, will generally be effectual. Suppose it not to succeed,
adopt the following plan : Cross the reins in your hand — that
is, place the right rein in the left hand, the left in the right
hand — take them very short, and then suddenly put all your
strength to them with a sudden jerk, but continue the press-
ure, violently sawing them at the same time ; if this will not

bring the horse to his haunches at the first attempt, let him
partially have his head — that is, sufficiently slacken your pull
to give his mouth time to recover its feeling — and then repeat
the effort.

Stumbling and Slipping. — If your horse be kept well in
hand, you will generally be able to keep him from absolutely
coming down. You will naturally put more force to your pull
upon his making the stumble, and this jerk, if succeeded by a
strong, continuous aid, generally keeps him on his legs ; a
smart stroke with the whip should follow, to remind him that this
carelessness is not to be repeated. A horse that is apt to stum-
ble, or even one that from his form is likely to stumble,should
not only always be kept well in hand, but also be kept alive
by now and then being reminded, without actually punishing
him, that his driver has a whip in his hand. A horse with his
head set too forward — that is, low in the withers — is almost
sure to come down sooner or later, particularly if his fore-legs
" stand at all under him," as it is technically termed — that is,
slant a little inwards. Stumbling, however, be it remembered,
is totally distinct from slipping ; wood pavements will give the
tyro plenty of opportunities of perceiving the difference. If a
horse slips, a sudden jerk would probably throw him down
in such a case the driver must aid the horse by a strong steady
hold, letting him, as it were, lean on the bit to help himself to
stand. It requires some nerve thus to aid the horse, without
being induced to jerk him by the suddenness of the slip.

Jibbing is that sort of obstinacy in a horse which causes
him to plant his fore-feet upon the ground and refuse to move.
If we are asked what is the best mode to adopt with a jibber,
we say. Patience ! This, however, must be qualified by the
temper of the horse. Some jibbers {but very few) may be
started by sudden and severe whipping ; ninety-nine times out
of a hundred it will render a jibber restive, mischievous, or ob-
stinate. Experience only can dictate the management of such
animals. Some will start after waiting for a short time, hav-
ing their head free ; coaxing is generally the best means, and,
as before said, have patience, and do not be in too great a
hurry to start. Some may be started by being turned round,
and others, by being backed for a short distance. Many think
it a good plan to punish a jibber when he is once started ; our
experience proves the contrary, for, depend upon it, he will
recollect this next time, and will not fail further to exercise
your patience, for fear of the flogging. Kindness and good
driving may cure a horse who is not a confirmed jibber ; but
when once this vice has become habitual, you can never de-
pend upon the horse ; as we have said before, get rid of him.

Kicking. — An experienced eye can generally tell if a horse
is likely to kick, and also when he is about to kick. We,
however, always drive with a kicking-strap, and would recom-
mend the practice. When a horse attempts to kick, you must
hold him well in hand, and lay the whip well into him about
the ears, rating him at the same time with a loud voice ; this
plan we have generally found effective.

Rearing. — Little can be done in harness with a deter-
mined rearer. When he tries to rear, if you have room,
give him a half turn ; this will make him move his hind-legs,
and will consequently bring him down ; you will find a series
of turns punish and surprise him more than anything else

■^

270

DRIVING.

4r-

When you have once got him on the move, with his head the
right way, you can punish him with the whip, if he is one that
you are sure you can manage ; if not, you had better leave
well alone. With respect to rearing in double harness, we
will here observe, the best way to act is, to push the other
horse forward, and soothe the restive one, until you have fairly
got him on ; you can then punish or not, according to your
judgment, but not without reference to your ability to manage
the horses.

Shying. — Before a horse starts at anything on the side of
the road, or lying on the road, he usually gives some notice of
his intention, by cocking his ears, and bending his head to-
wards the object. As soon as the driver perceives these signs
of uneasiness, he should be upon his guard to prevent a sud-
den turn round, or flying to one side, which would evidently
be dangerous ; and not only on this account should he be at-
tentive, but because each time the horse violently shies, the
habit is in progress of being confirmed. As soon, therefore,
as a horse, accustomed to shy, gives notice of uneasiness, he
should be coaxed up to the object of his terror, so that he may
perceive its harmlessness ; let him deliberately stand and view
it, and if he cannot be got to it, let it, if possible, be brought
to him, and then replaced in its former position ; thus let him
be induced to go up to it by care and kindness before it is
passed, and you will generally find that a repetition of this
practice will greatly improve, if it do not cure him ; but by
no means flog or force him up to it — let him take his time.
Some horses have a nasty nack of flying on one side in pass-
ing, or flying around on meeting a carriage ; care and patience
are the remedies, in addition to more work. It very fre-
quently arises from playfulness rather than vice ; and giving
them more work to do will cure this. An experienced hand
may force a horse forward, under such circumstances, by the
reins and whip ; but we recommend the tyro rather to slacken
his pace upon meeting an object that his horse will go round,
or attempt to go round at ; by doing this, and speaking kindly,
the animal will either be soothed or diverted from his purpose.

DRIVING TWO HORSES.

We have addressed most of our remarks to a person driving
a single horse, for this reason, that it is much more difficult to
drive one horse, than it is to drive a pair, that is, if you have
sufficient nerve. In almost all situations of difficulty, you can
make the second horse assist you in managing the other ; if
the one shies, and will go to the right — we will suppose it is
the near wheeler — by opposing the strength of the other to
him, which you will do by the reins, touching him with the
whip on the off-side, you will prevent any very great deviation
from the straight line. Again, if one will not start readily,
the other, generally speaking, may be made to pull him on ;
in this case, never hit the restive horse ; or at any rate until
your judgment is sufficiently matured to determine v/hether it
will do good or harm. Suppose the one tries to run away — if
he is an ill-tempered brute, it may sometimes be advisable not
to irritate him by hard pulling — then all you have to do is to
keep back the other, and he must shortly be beaten, as he will
not only have the carriage and its contents opposed to him.

but the weight and strength of his companion to pull against.
Sometimes a horse will be awkward in turning a corner, here
again his companion assists you ; if he turns too quick, the
other opposes him ; if not sufficiently so, a touch with the
whip makes the other force him on. Instead of its being
more difficult to drive two horses than one, as the tyro doubt-
less imagines, it is, in fact just the reverse, when he has ob-
tained sufficient confidence to attempt it. But although it is
easier to manage two horses than one, it requires much more
attention in some respects ; you must continually watch them,
or, perhaps, one will do all the work while the other is doing
nothing.

The Seat. — When driving, sit quite straight towards your
horses, and rather more to the middle than to the off-side of
the box-seat. Keep your body nearly upright, or inclined a
little backward rather than forward, and your feet well to-
gether, extended upwards, and on no account doubled under
your legs ; a firm seat is indispensable for your own safety and
that of the friends you may be driving, therefore never sit with
your feet doubled under you, for a sudden jolting of the car-
riage, or increase of the pace of your horses, may capsize you
into the road. Never ride in a vehicle that has the wheels se-
cured only by a common linchpin, for accidents arising from
wheels, thus fastened, coming off, are generally of a serious
character.

Accidents. — As accidents are usually unforeseen, the sud-
denness with which they arise is apt to unnerve the rider, and
so sure as this be the case, his judgment will be at fault.
Presence of mind should, therefore, be exercised on all occa-
sions of danger. With kicking horses before you ( unless you
are in a gig ), the best plan is to let the whip take it out of
them. With runaways, never think of deserting the box by
jumping off, for there is a chance of your being able to pull
them up, but none of your escaping severe contusions, if not
broken limbs or loss of life, should you throw yourself from
the vehicle.

Down Hills. — If these are of an ordinary character, we
would not advise locking the wheel except with a heavy load,
or when your horses will not hold back ; besides the trouble,
locking is a great disadvantage, for by letting out your horses
when you have passed the pitch of a hill, the motion of the
carriage takes it half way up an ordinary rise before your
horses feel the weight, and this, in a day's journey, will be
found of considerable importance. If your horses will not
hold back, or are not masters of their load, locking the wheel
becomes necessary when the hill is long or steep. When the
hill is not very steep, and the near edge of the road happens
to be of a rough, rutty nature, or has gravel or granite strewn
upon it, take your near wheels a few inches upon the resisting
substance, which will supply the additional friction, or bile,
necessary to check the increasing momentum. of a downward
pace, and obviate the necessity of skidding.

Stopping. — When pulling up, accustom your horses to
stop by some signal, and draw in the reins equally, unless
either of the animals shows a disinclination to obey the notice.
Young horses should be stopped very gradually, and eight or
ten yards allowed them to pull up in ; for they are apt to re-
sist attempts to stop them short.

DRIVING.

71 {

Matching Horses. — Some persons are particular as to the
color of their horses, but it is much more important that their
paces and their tempers should match, than that their colors
should be alike ; for if you have one slow and the other fast —
one irritable and nervcTus, and the other stupid and obstinate —
one free, and the other like a lawyer that will not move with-
out being paid — you are sure to weary out the free, nervous,
and fast horse, by whipping up the other to his pace ; and
although you may hold him back, you will take as much
strength out of him as though he was doing all the work. If,
therefore, your horses do not match in pace and freeness, get
rid of the dull one, or depend on it your work will soon kill
the other ; besides, you can never have any pleasure in driving.

RECORDS OF TROTTING HORSES OF 2.20
AND UNDER.

Maud S 2.ioi

St. Julien 2.iii

Rams 2 . I3i

Goldsmith Maid 2. 14

Trinket 2.14

Hopeful 2.i4f

Lulu 2.15

Smuggler ' 2.15^

Hattie Woodward 2.15^

Darby 2.i6i

Lucille Golddust 2. i6i

American Girl 2.163

Occident. . . ". 2 . i6|

Charley Ford 2. i65

Gloster 2.17

Dexter 2 . I7i

So So 2.i7i

Piedmont 2.17!

Edwin Thome 2.17I

Santa Glaus 2.17^

Hannis 2 . 17 J

Proteine 2.18

Judge FuUerton 2.18

Nettie 2.18

Red Cloud 2.18

Great Eastern 2.18

Edwin Forrest 2.18

Dick Swiveler 2.18

Kate Sprague 2.18

Robert MacGregor 2.18

Lady Thome 2. 184

Lady Maude 2 . i8{

Midnight 2.i8i

Lucy B.i8^

Monroe Chief 2. i8i^

Slow Go : 2.i8i

Colonel Lewis 2 . 182

Nutwood 2.i8|

Patchen 2.i8i

J. B. Thomas 2 18?

Albemarle 2 . ig

Edward 2 . ig

Cozette 2.ig

Bonesetter 2 . ig

Alley 2.ig

Kittie Bates 2.ig

Wedgewood 2 . ig

Alexander. 2 . ig

Croxie 2 ig^

Thomas L. Young 2 . igi

Bodine 2 . ig|

George Palmer. 2. ig^

Comee 2.ig

Parana 2 . ig^

Will Cody 2.ig^

Driver 2.ig^

Moose 2 . ig jr

Troubadour 2 . ig^

Adelaide 2.ig^

Flora Temple 2 . igj

Camors 2.ig|

Deck Wright 2.rgJ

Keene Jim 2.igJ

Daisy Dale 2.igJ

Clingstone 2.igi

Fanny Witherspoon 2 . igj^

John S. Clark 2.ig5

Josephus 2 . ig\

Fleety Golddust 2.20

Little Fred 2.20

Nancy Hackett • 2 . 20

Mambrino Gift 2.20

May Queen 2. 20

Prospero 2 • 20

Graves 2 . 20

John H, 2.20

Etta Jones 2 . 20

Belle Brassfield 2 . 20

Frank 2 . 20

Orange Girl 2 . 20

Captain Emmons 2.20

Elaine 2 . 20

Annie W ." «-20

272

LESSONS IN BICYCLE RIDING.

4r-

UY one of the old-fash-
ioned to begin upon ;
these may be got at a
reasonable price, as
many have been dis-
carded for the modern
^ ones. They are called
"practicers," or, more familiarly,
" bone-shakers." In learning to
ride, it is advisable to have a com-
petent teacher, who cannot only
show what is wanted, but can
also put the beginner in the way
of doing it himself ; but as many
may be unable, from distance or other causes, to avail
themselves of this kind of assistance, the following in-
structions are intended for those who are thus thrown
upon their own resources. Of course it is necessary
to have recourse to a friendly arm, and there may be
many cases in which /wo friends are desirous to learn
the bicycle, and can give mutual help.

The old-fashioned bicycle is of this construction,
that is, of moderate height and the most solid build,
and altogether very different from its latest develop-
ment, with its enormous driving-wheel and general
lightness of make. These machines, with compara-
tively little difference in the height of the wheel, are
best for beginners, as, being /otv, the getting on and
off is easier and safer, and they are in every way
adapted for the purpose ; and it is only when toler-
able command of this kind is acquired, that the
modern large-wheeled bicycle may be adventured
with fair prospect of success.

But even with these some discrimination is neces-
sary. In choosing a machine on which to begin

practicing, we strongly advise the learner to select
one of the size suitable to his height, as, if it is too
small, his knees will knock against the handles, and
if too large, his legs will not be long enough fairly to
reach the throw of the crank. We know it is not
uncommon to begin with a boy's machine, and on
an inclined plan ; but the benefit of these is very
doubtful, unless you are totally without help, and
have no one to lend you a helping hand.

The best guide in measuring oneself for a bicycle to
learn on is, we consider, to stand by its side and see that
the saddle is in a line with the hips. The point of the
saddle should be about six inches from the upright
which supports the handles ; for if the saddle is
placed too far back, you decrease your power over
the driving-wheel, especially in ascending a hill.

When you have secured a good velocipede, well
suited to your size, you will find it useful to practice
wheeling it slowly along while holding the handles.
While thus leading it about, of course you will soon
perceive the fact that the first desideratum is to keep
the machine perfectly upright, which is done by
turning the handles to the right or left when there
is any inclination to deviate from the perpendicular.
If inclining to the right, turn the wheel in the same
direction, and vice versa, as it is only the rapidly
advancing motion that keeps it upright, on the prin-
ciple of the boy's hoop, which, the faster it rolls, the
better it keeps its perpendicular, and "which, when
losing its momentum, begins to oscillate, and finally
must fall on one side or the other.

Now for the —

FIRST LESSON.

Having become accustomed to the motion of the machine,
and well studied its mode of traveling, the next thing is to get

LESSONS IN BICYCLE RIDING.

273

the assistant to hold it steady while you get astride, and then
let him slowly wheel it along.

Do not attempt at first to put your feet on the treadles, but
let them hang down, and simply sit quiet on the saddle, and
take hold of the handles, while the assistant moves you slowly
along, with one hand on your arm and the other on the end
of the spring.

It is hardly necessary to say that the best place to learn is
a large room or gallery, with smooth-boarded floor or flag-
stone pavement.

Now, directly you are in motion you will feel quite helpless,
and experience a sensation of being run away with, and it will
seem as if the machine were trying to throw you ofi" ; but all
you have to do is to keep the front wheel straight with the
back wheel by means of the handles, and the assistant will
keep you up and wheel you about for a quarter of an hour or
so, taking rest at intervals. When you want to turn, move
the handle so as to turn the front wheel in the direction re-
quired, but avoid turning too quickly, or you will fall off the
reverse way.

Observe that in keeping your balance, all is done by the
hands guiding the front wheel Do not attempt to sway your
body, and so preserve your balance, but sit upright, and if
you feel yourself falling to the left, turn the wheel to the left ;
that is to say, guide the machine in the direction in which you
are falling, and it will bring you up again ; but this must be
done the same moment you feel any inclination from the per-
pendicular. Do not be violent and turn the wheel too much,
or you will overdo it, and cause it to fall the other way.

Practice guiding the machine in this way until you feel
yourself able to be left to yourself for a short distance, and then
let the assistant give you a push, and leaving his hold, let you
run by yourself for a few yards before you incline to fall.
Should you feel that you are losing your balance, stretch out
the foot on the side on which you incline, so that you may
pitch upon it, and thus arrest your fall.

SECOND LESSON.

Having pretty well mastered the balancing and keeping the
machine straight, you may now take a further step, and venture
to place your feet on the treadles, and you will now find
the novel movement of the legs up and down liable to distract
your attention from the steering or balancing ; but after a few
turns you will get familiarized with the motion, and find this
difficulty disappear ; and it will seem within the bounds of
possibility that you may some time or other begin to travel
without assistance.

Of course, in this and the former lesson, some will take to it
more quickly than others, and the duration of the lessons must
depend on the learner himself, and the amount of mechanical
aptitude which he may be gifted with. Some we have known
to take six times as much teaching as others.

THIRD LESSON.

Now, having in the first lesson ridden with the feet hang-
ing down, and in the second with them on the treadles, in the

third lesson you should be able to go along for a short dis-
tance, working the treadles in the usual way.

Of course, wlien we speak of \\\q first and j^'r<7«</ lessons, we
do not mean that after practicing each of them once you will
be able, of necessity, to ride at the third attempt ; although we
have taught some who seemed to take to it all at once ; but
that these are the progressive steps in learning to ride, and
you must practice each of them until tolerably proficient.

When you are sufficiently familiar with the working of the
treadles while held by the assistant, it depends entirely on
yourself, and the amount of confidence you may possess, to
determine the time at which he may let go his hold of you,
and you may begin to go alone ; but of course for some time
it will be advisable for him to walk by your side, to catch you
in case of falling. When you have arrived at this stage, you
only require practice to make a good rider, and the amount of
practice taken is generally a guide to the amount of skill
gained.

To Get On and Off. — Having now learnt to ride the veloci-
pede without assistance, we will now proceed to getting on
and off in a respectable manner, in case you have not a step,
which all modern machines are now provided with. The
proper way is to vault on and off", which is theeasiest wayof all,
'u.^hen you can do it, but it certainly requires a Uttle courage
and skill.

At first, it may be, from want of confidence in yourself, you
will jump at the machine and knock it over, both you and it
coming down. But what is required to be done is, to stand on
the /^//-hand side of the bicycle, and throw your >ight leg
over the saddle. Stand close to the machine, holding the
handles firmly ; then run a few steps with it to get a sufficient
momentum, and then, leaning your body well over the han-
dles, and throwing as much of your weight as you can upon
them, with a slight jump throw your right leg over the saddle.

This may sound formidable, but it is in reality no more
than most equestrians do every time they mount, as the height
of the bicycle to be cleared is little more than that of the
horse's back when the foot is in the stirrup, only the horse is
supposed to stand quiet, and therefore you can jump with a
kind of swing.

You must be very careful that while running by the side you
keep the machine perfectly upright, particularly at the mo-
ment of jumping. Perhaps at first you will vault on, forget-
ting to keep the machine quite perpendicular, and as an in-
evitable consequence you will come to the ground again,
either on your own side, or, what is worse, you may go right
over it, and fall with it on the top of you on the other side.

Of course it is much better to have an assistant with you at
your first attempts at vaulting, and it is good practice to let
him hold the machine steady while you vault on and off as
many times as you can manage. You must not forget to put
all the weight you can on the handles, and although at first
this seems difficult, it is comparatively easy when the knack is
acquired.

You will not attempt any vaulting until you can manage
the machine pretty well when you are on, up to which time
the assistant should help you on and set you straight.

274

LESSONS IN BICYCLE RIDING.

To get on with the help of the irea<//e is a very neat and
useful method, but requires considerably more practice than
vaulting.

Stand with the left foot on the treadle, and taking a slight
spring or "beat " from the ground with the right foot, give the
machine a good send forward, of course following it yourself,
and with a rise bring the right foot over to the saddle. The
secret of this movement is that you put as little weight as
you can on the treadle, merely following the movement,
which ha£ a tendency to lift you, and keep the greater part
of your weight on the handles.

You may mount the bicycle in another way, and that is
by running by its side, and watching the time when one of
the treadles is at its lowest, then place your foot upon it,
and as it comes up, the momentum thus gained will be suffi-
cient to lift you quite over on to the saddle. In this move-
ment also, as in most others, it is much better to have as-
sistance at first.

To vault ofi", you have merely to reverse all the move
ments just described.

Another capital way of alighting from the machine while
in motion is to throw the right leg over the handles. You
hold the left handle firmly, and raise your right leg over
and into the center of the handles, previously raising your
right hand to allow the leg to pass under. Then lifting
your left hand for the same purpose, you will be able to
bring your leg over into a side-sitting posture, and drop on
to the ground with the same movement.

But at this time pay strict attention to the steering, and take
care never to let go one hand until you have a firm hold with
the other, or you and the whole affair may come to extreme
grief.

This we consider one of the easiest methods of getting off,
although it looks so difficult.

To Ride Side-saddle. — Riding in a side-sitting position
is very simple, but you must first learn the foregoing exercises.
First vault on the usual way, and work up to a moderate
speed, then throw the right leg over the handles as in the act
of getting off, but still retain your seat, and continue working
with the left leg only. Now from this position you may prac-
tice passing the right leg back again into its original position
when sitting across the saddle in the usual way.

To Rest the Legs. — A very useful position is that of
stretching out the legs in front when taking long journeys, as
it rests the legs, and also, as sometimes you do not require to
work the treadle descending an incline, the weight of the
machine and yourself being sufficient to continue the desired
momentum.

In this position the break is generally used ; but when put-
ting it on, mind you do not turn the handles with both hands
at once, but turn with one first and then with the other ; as, if
the spring should be strong, and you att^empt to use both
hands in turning it, as a matter of course when you let go to
take fresh hold the handles will fly back, to your great an-
noyance.

To Ride without using the Hands.— This is a very
pretty and effective performance, but of course it is rather
difficult, and requires much practice before attempting it, as

the steering must be done with the feet alone, the arms being
generally folded.

To accomplish this feat, you must keep your feet firmly on
the treadles in the upward as well as the downward movement,
taking care not to take them off at all, as you will thereby keep
entire command of them, which is absolutely necessary, as in
fact they are doing double work, both propelling and also
steering the machine. You will, as you become expert in this
feat, acquire a kind of clinging hold of the treadles, which you
will find very useful, indeed, in ascending a hill when you take
to outdoor traveling. Fancy riding of this kind must only be
attempted on good surfaces.

Description will not assist you much here, but when you
attempt it you will soon find out that when riding without
using the hands, every stroke of the foot, either right or left,
must be of the same force, as, if you press heavier on one
treadle than qn the other, the machine will have a tendency
to go in that direction ; and thus you must be on the watch to
counteract it by a little extra pressure on the other treadle,
without giving enough to turn the machine in the reverse
direction.

This is all a matter of nice judgment, but when you can do
it a very good effect is produced, giving spectators the idea of
your complete mastery of the bicycle.

But remember that you must be always ready to seize the
handles, and resume command if any interruption to your prog-
ress presents itself.

To Ride without using Legs or Hands. — As you can
now ride without using the hands, let us now proceed to try a
performance which, at first sight, will perhaps seem almost
impossible, but which is really not much more difficult than
going without hands. This is to get the velocipede up io full
speed, and then lift your feet off the treadles and place them
"on each side of the rest, and when your legs are up in this
way, you will find that you can let go the handles and fold
your arms, and thus actually ride without using either legs or
hands.

In progressing thus, the simple fact is that you overcome
gravity by motion, and the machine cannot fall until the
momentum is lost.

This should only be attempted by an expert rider, who can
get up a speed of twelve to fourteen miles per hour, and on
a very good surface and with a good run ; and, in fact, from
this position you may lean back, and lie flat down, your body
resting on and along the spring.

At Rest. — We are now come to the last and best, or, we
may say, the most useful fe^it of all, and this is to stop the
bicycle and sit quite still upon it.

The best way to commence practicing this is to run into a
position where you can hold by a railing or a wall, or perhaps
the assistant will stand with his shoulder ready .for you to take
hold of.

Now gradually slacken speed, and when coming nearly to a
standstill, turn the front wheel until it makes an angle of 45
deg. with the back wheel, and try all you know to sit perfectly
still and upright.

Of course this is a question of balancing, and you will soon
find the knack of it. "When the machine inclines to the left

-*^

LESSONS IN BICYCLE RIDING.

*-7S

slightly press the left treadle, and if it evinces a tendency to
lean to the right, press the right treadle ; and so on, until,
sooner or later, you achieve a correct equilibrium, when you
may take out your pocket-book and read or even write letters,
&c., without difficulty.

Now, we do not think that there is anything further to be
said as to learning to ride the bicycle, and we can only express
a hope that if you follow the advice and instruction we have
been able to give, you will become an expert rider and be
able to begin practicing on the " Modem Bicycle."

Choice of a Machine. — And first, as to the choice of a
machine. In this case it is imperative to have the very best
you can get, as it is utter folly to risk life and limb by using
one of inferior make.

In choosing a bicycle, of course the first thing to be con-
sidered is the height of wheel, which greatly depends on the
length of limb of the rider; as, of course, although two men
may be of equal height, one may have a longer leg than the
other. A good guide is to sit on the machine and let the toe
touch the lower treadle without quite straightening the leg, as
of course command must never be lost. For a rider of average
height, say 5 feet 8 inches, a machine of 52 to 54 inches we
should consider suitable. But of course any well-known
and reliable maker will furnish you with a machine to suit
you.

Having selected your " Modern Bicycle," the first thing you
want to accomplish is to be able to mount and dismount. Of
course, the saddle being nearly as high as your shoulder, it is
impossible to vault on, as with the old "practicer." It is
therefore necessary to provide a "step," which, in all the
modern machines, is fitted on the^backbone, or connecting-
iron, just above the hinder fork on the left side, at a conve
nient height. It consists of a small round plate, jagged, to
afford a firm grip for the toe when placed upon it.

There are two ways of mounting. One is to start the ma-
chine and to run by the left side, and put the left toe upon the
step while in motion, throwing the right leg over on to the
seat ; the other is to stand at the back of the machine, standing
on the right leg, with the left toe on the step, and, gently
starting, hop with the right leg until you have gained a sufficient
impetus to raise yourself on the step, and throw your right leg
across the seat.

The first is the best plan, as you can run with greater speed,
and mount ; in fact, the quicker you go, the easier to get on.
In many cases it is the only practicable plan, as, for instance,
on remounting on a slight ascent, where it would be most
difficult to get up sufficient speed by the hopping plan, which,
moreover, does not present a very graceful appearance.

Now, in the second way of getting on by the step, you hold
the handle with the left hand to guide the machine, placing
the other on the seat. You can now run it along easily. Your
object in having one hand on the seat is, that if both hands are
on the handles, you are over-reached, and it is difficult to keep
your balance. Now take a few running steps, and when the
right foot is on the ground give a hop with that foot, and at
the same time place the left foot on the step, throwing your
right leg over on to the seat. Now, the hop is the principal

thing to be done, as if, when running beside the bicycle at a
good speed, you were merely to place the left foot on the step
without giving a good hop with the other, the right leg would
be left behind, and you would be merely what is called " doing
the splits."

You will see at once that as the machine is traveling at
good speed, you have no lime to raise one foot after the other
(as in walking up stairs), as when you lift up your foot, you are,
as it were, " in the air," and nothing but a good long running
hop will give time to adjust your toe on tlie step as it is mov-
ing. This is, of course, difficult to describe, and we need not
say, requires a certain amount of strength and agility, without
which no one can expect to become an expert rider.

But, in the high racing machines, no one would think of
trying to mount without the assistance of a friendly arm, and
a stand or stool of suitable height.

Having now mounted the high machine, you will find that
the reach of tlie leg, and the position altogether, is very dif-
ferent from the seat on the "bone-shaker;" but when you
get some command, you will find the easy gliding motion
much pleasanter, as well as faster. You are now seated much
higher, in fact, almost on the top of the wheel ; and, in.stead of
using the ball of the foot, you must use your toe ; and when
the treadle is at the bottom of the throw of the crank, your
leg will be almost at its fullest extent, and nearly straight.

Now you must pay a little attention to the process of
alighting.

In getting off by the step, all you have to do is to reach back
your left foot until you feel the step, and, resting upon the
handles, raise ^ourself up, and throw the right leg over the
seat on to the ground

But we consider getting off by the treadle much the prefer
able way when you can manage it ; but you must be very
careful when first trying not to attempt it until the machine is
perfectly at rest. Get some one to hold you up, the bicycle
being stationary, and practice getting off in the following
manner : First, see that the left hand crank is at the bottom,
and with your left foot on that treadle practice swinging your
right leg backwards and forwards, in order to gel used to the
movement Now while in position, throw your right leg with
a swing backwards, resting as much as you can of your weight
upon the handles, and raise yourself with your right foot into
position, continuing your swinging movement until you are of!
the seat and on the ground.

When you are well able to get off in this way, with the
bicycle at rest, you may attempt it when slackening speed to
stop. As it is, of course, easier to get off the slower you are
going, you must come almost to a standstill, just keeping way
enough to prevent the machine falling over, as, if you attempt
it when going at all quickly, you will have to run by its side
after you are off, which is a difficult feat for any but a skillful
rider.

The great advantage of getting off in this way is that, with
practice, you can choose your own time, which is very useful
when an obstacle suddenly presents itself, as in turning a cor-
ner ; and in getting off the other way you are liable to lose
time in feeling for the step.

There are different styles of riding, and of course at first

276

LESSONS IN BICYCLE RIDING.

you are glad to be able to get along in any way you can ; but
when you come to have any command over your machine, and
and have time to think about style, you cannot do better than
take for your model some graceful rider, whose upright and
graceful seat gives an impression of quiet power. Very dif-
ferent is the appearance presented by some well-known riders,
who, although going at really good speed, present a painful
appearance, hanging forwards over the handles as if about to
topple over, and favoring the beholders with such a variety of
facial contortions.

Hints on Training. — It is very difficult to give any rules
that will apply to all, as constitutions differ so widely ; but
the simple rules of regular diet, rest, and exercise will apply
to every one, whether they are going, as the saying is, " to
race for a man's life," or merely trying to ^et themselves into

the best frame of body to endure moderate exertion. The
daily use of the cold bath, or tepid if necessary, cannot be
too strongly insisted upon ; and also early rising and going to
rest; and the avoidance of all rich viands, such as pork, veal,
duck, salmon, pastry, etc., etc. Beef, mutton, fowls, soles,
and fish of similar kind, should form the principal diet. The
severity of the rules of professional training has been much
relaxed of late years, and many things, such as vegetables,
stimulants in great moderation, etc., are now allowed, which
before were rigidly excluded.

In training for any special effort, of course it is necessary
to have professional assistance ; but with moderate attention
to diet and regimen, any one may soon get himself into good
condition, and particularly if he becomes an habitual bicycle-
rider.

or THC

VNIYERSfTY

#% Of

SWIMMING.

277 Y

S — ^^ — ^^ — \ _x_ \ \ \^ \ \ \ . \ \ \ \ \ \ \ • \ i^;--^— v^ ^^ ^^-..^

WIMMING is the art of keeping the body afloat
and propelling it by means of the body and
hands. The swimming of man is artificial, but
as the specific gravity of the human body is very
little greater than that of water, it can be floated
with very little difhculty.
Every boy should be taught to sv/im, and if he reads
the following pages and abides by the instructions, he
can easily teach himself
The first care of the intending swimmer is, of course, to find
a proper piece of water in which to learn his first lessons. The
very best water that can be found is that of the sea, on account
of its saltness and bitterness, whereby two great advantages
are obtained.

The first advantage is, that, on account of the salt and
other substances which are dissolved in it, the sea-water is so
much heavier than fresh that it gives more support to the body,
and enables the beginner to float much sooner than he can ex-
pect to do in fresh water.

The other advantage is, that the taste of the sea-water is so
nauseous that the learner takes very good
care to keep his lips tightly shut, and so does
not commit the common error of opening
the mouth, which is fatal to all swimming,
and is sure to dishearten a beginner by letting
water get down his throat and half-choke him.
As to place, there is nothing belter than a
sloping sandy shore, where the tide is not
very strong. In some places the tide runs
wi^lh such a force, that if the beginner is taken
off"his legs he will be carried away, or, at least,
that he will have great difficulty in regaining
his feet.

We strongly recommend him to walk over
the spot at low' water, and see whether there
are any stones, sticks, rocks, or holes, and if
so, to remove all the movable impediments
and mark the position of the others.

Take a special care of the holes, for there
is nothing so treacherous. A hole of some
six or seven inches in depth and a yard in di-
ameter looks so insignificant when the water

is out that few persons would take any notice of it ; but, when a
novice is in the water, these few inches may just make the
difference between safety and death.

On sandy shores the most fertile source of holes is to be
found in large stones. They sink rather deeply into the sand
and form miniature rocks, round which the water courses as the
tides ebb and flow, thus cutting a channel completely round
the stone. Even when the stone is removed, the hole will
remain unfilled throughout several tides.

The next best place for learning to swim is a river with a
fine sandy bed, clear water, and no weeds.

When such a spot has been found, the next care is to exam-
ine the bed of the river and to remove very carefully every-
thing that might hurt the feet. If bushes should grow on the
banks, look out carefully for broken scraps of boughs, which
fall into the stream, become saturated with water, sink to the
bottom, and become fixed to one of the points upwards.

If human habitations should be near, beware of broken glass
and crockery ; fragments of which are generally flung into the
river, and will inflict most dangerous wounds if trodden on.

■^

278

SWIMMING.

If the bed of the stream should be in the least muddy, look
out for mussels, which lie imbedded almost to their sharp
edges, that project upwards and cut the feet nearly as badly as
broken glass.

Failing sea and river, a pond or canal is the only resource,
and furnishes the very worst kind of water. The bed of most
ponds is studded with all kinds of cutting and piercing objects,
which are thrown in by careless boys, and remain where they
fell. Then, the bottom is almost invariably muddy, and the
water is .seldom clean. Still, bad as is a pond, it is better
than nothing, and the intending swimmer may console him-
self with the reflection that he is doing his duty, and with the
prospect of swimming in the sea some time or other.

Of course the large public baths possess some of the draw-
backs of ponds ; but they have, at all events, the advantage
of a regulated depth, a firm bank, and no mud.

As the very essence of swimming lies in confidence, it is al-
ways better for the learner to feel secure that he can leave the
water whenever he likes. Therefore, let him take a light rope
of tolerable length, tie one end to some firm object on the
bank, and let the rest of the rope lie in the water. " Manilla "
is the best kind of rope for this purpose, because it is so light
that it floats on the surface instead of sinking, as is the case
with an ordinary hempen rope.

If there is only sand on the shore, the rope can be moored
quite firmly by tying it to the middle of a stout stick, burying
the stick a foot or so in the sand, and filling up the trench.
You may pull till you break the rope, but you will never pull
the stick out of its place. If you are very nervous, tie two
sticks in the shape of a cross and bury them in like manner.

The rope need not be a large one. as it will not have to
sustain the whole weight of your body, and it will be found
that a cord as thick as an ordinary washing-line will answer
every purpose.

On the side of a stream or pond, tie the rope to a tree, or
hammer a stake in the ground. A stake eighteen inches in
length, and as thick as an ordinary broomstick is quite large
enough. Hammer it rather more than two-thirds into the
ground, and let it lean boldly away from the water's edge.
The best way of fixing the rope to it is by the " clove hitch."

Now, having your rope in your hand, go quietly into the
water backwards, keeping your face towards the bank. As
soon as you are fairly in the water, duck completely beneath
the surface. Be sure that you really do go fairly under water,
for there is nothing more deceptive than the feel of the water
to a novice. He dips his head, as he fancies, at least a foot
beneath the surface ; he feels the water in his nose, he hears
it in his ears, and thinks he is almost at the bottom, when, in
reality, the back of his head is quite dry.

The best way of "ducking" easily is to put the left hand
on the back of the head, hold to the rope with the right hand,
and then duck until the left hand is well under water.

The learner should next accustom himself to the new ele-
ment by moving about as much as possible, walking as far as
the rope will allow him, and jumping up and down so as to
learn by experience the buoyancy of the water.

Perhaps the first day may be occupied by this preliminary
process, and on the second visit the real business may begin.

In swimming, as in most other pursuits, a good beginning
is invaluable.

Let the learner bestow a little care on the preliminaries,
and he will have no bad habits to unteach himself after-
wards. It is quite as easy to learn a good style at first as
a bad style, although the novice may just at the beginning
fancy that he could do better by following his own devices.

The first great object is to feel a perfect confidence in the
sustaining power of the water, and, according to our ideas,
the best method of doing so is by learning to float on the
back.

Floating on the Back.

Take care that the cord is within easy reach, so that it
may be grasped in a moment, should the novice become
nervous, as he is rather apt to do just at first. Take it in
both hands, and lay yourself very gently in the water, arch-
ing the spine backwards as much as possible, and keeping
the legs and knees perfectly straight and stiff.

Now press the head as far back as possibly can be done,
and try to force the back of the head between the shoulder-
blades. You can practice this attitude at home, by lying
on two chairs and seeing whether your attitude corresponds
with that which is given in the illustration.

When you have thus lain in the water you will find that
you are almost entirely upheld by its sustaining power, and

that only a very little weight is sustained by the rope. On
reflection you will also discern that the only weight which
pulls on the rope is that of your hands and arms, which are
out of water, and which, therefore, act as dead weight.

Indeed, you might just as well lay several iron weights of
a pound each upon your body, for the hands and arms are
much heavier than we generally fancy. Just break an arm or
a leg, and you will find out what heavy articles they are.

Now let your arms sink gradually into the water, and you'
will see that exactly in proportion as they sink, so much weight
is taken off the rope ; and if you have only courage to put
them entirely under water, and to loose the rope, your body
will be supported by the water alone.

Swimming on the Back, Head First.

There are many modes of swimming on the back, head first ;
some in which the hands are the moving power, others in which
the force is derived from the legs, and some in which the legs
and arms are both exerted.

To practice one of these methods — viz., that commonly

SWIMMING.

279

4r-

called floating — ^you should throw your head gently back, as
before, bringing your feet to the surface ; let your arms lie in
the water close to your sides, using the hands in the same
manner as when sculling, with a swift pushing motion of the
palms towards the feet, returning edgeways, thumbs first, by
bending the arms ; and pushing again towards the feet by
straightening the arms close to the sides. This produces a
very rapid progress through the water, and may be continued
for some time.

Another method is as follows : — Throw yourself round on
your back without stopping (which may be done with a swing
of the body, while swimming in the first described method),
and you will retain part of the impetus already acquired.
Then throw both hands out of the water, as far as you can
reach, in the direction you wish to proceed, entering again
edgeways beyond your head, and describe a segment of a
circle in the water, having the shoulders for a center. The
hands on appearing again on the surface below the hips, should
pass immediately through the air for another stroke . This
mode is very serviceable when taken with cramp, or symptoms
of cramp, as it removes the stress entirely off the muscles of
the leg. It may be gracefully varied by using the right and
left hands alternately.

For the practice of a third method the hands and arms are
to be used as in the last, but the progress should be aided by
the lower limbs striking out with vigor, after having been
drawn up to the body by the stroke made with the arms.
The kick should be made as the hands pass through the air.
This is a very quick manner of swimming, and is most com-
monly resorted to for relief when swimming in a match.

For another method, lie on your back with your arms folded,
or with your hands passed over your shoulders beneath your
neck, or floating quietly by your side, drawing up your legs
towards the chest as high as possible, and then striking them
backwards with vigor, which will cause you to make consider-
able progress through the water without using the arms at all.
When you draw up your feet the movement is against the sur-
face, where there is little resistance, but, when you strike
them out, the force is applied in a downward direction,- where
the resistance is greatest. The foregoing method is useful
when your arms are tired, or you have something to carry or
tow after you, the hands being perfectly free.

Steering the course is easily managed by means of the legs. If
the left leg is allowed to remain still, and the right leg is used,
the body is driven to the left, and 7'ice versa when the left leg
is used and the right kept quiet. Tlie young swimmer must
remember that when he brings his legs together they must be
kept quite straight and the knees stiff. The toes should also
be pointed, so as to offer no resistance to the water.

Swimming on the back is a most useful branch of the art,
as it requires comparatively little exertion and serves to rest
the arms when they are tired with the ordinary mode of swim-
ming. All swimmers who have to traverse a considerable dis-
tance always turn occasionally on the back. They even in
this position allow the arms to lie by the sides until they are
completely rested, while at the same time the body is gently
sent through the water by the legs.

liCt swimming on the back be perfectly learned, and prac-

ticed continually, so that the young swimmer may always feel
secure of himself when he is in that position.

The feet should be kept about twelve or fourteen inches
below the surface of the water, as, if they are kept too high,
the stroke is apt to drive the upper part of the head and eyes
under the water.

It must always be remarked that it is impossible to arch the
spine too much, or to press the head too far between the
shoulders.

S'wimining^ on the Chest.

We now come to swimming on the chest, which is the mode
adopted by most persons, and which, together with swimming
on the back, will enable the learner to perform almost any
aquatic feat.

In order to begin with confidence, walk into the water until
it is almost as high as the chest, and then turn towards the
land, so that every movement may carry you from the deeper
to the shallower water. Next place your hands in front of the
chest, the fingers stiff and pressed together, and the thumb
held tightly against the forefinger. Do not press the palms
together, as too many books enjoin, but hold the hands with
the thumbs together, the palms downwards and the backs up-
wards.

Now lean gently forward in the water, pushing your hands
out before you until the arms are quite straight, and just before
your feet leave the bottom give a little push forwards. You
will now propel yourself a foot or two towards the land. Try

how long you can float, and then gently drop the feet to the
£round. Be careful to keep the head well back and the spine
arched.

Repeat this seven or eight times, until you have gained con-
fidence that the water will support you for a few seconds.
The accompanying illustration shows the proper attitude.

Now go back to the spot whence you started,' and try to
make a stroke. Lay yourself on the water as before, but when
the feet leave the bottom draw them up close to the body, and
then kick them out quickly. WTien they have reached their full
extent, press them together firmly, keeping them quite straight
and the toes pointed.

This movement will drive you onwards for a short distance,
and when you feel that you are likely to sink, drop the feet as
before. Start again and make another stroke, and so on until
the water is too shallow.

At first you will hardly gain more than an inch or two at
each stroke ; but after a little practice you will gain more

280

— ^

SWIMMING.

and more until you can advance three or four feet without put-
ting the legs to the ground. It is a good plan to start always
from the same spot, and to try in how few strokes you can
reach the land. There is a great interest in having some
definite object in view, and one gets quite excited in trying to
reduce the number of strokes.

The action of the legs may be seen in the illustration.
The next point is the movement of the arms.
In reality the arms are more valuable in swimming than the
legs, and for this simple reason : any one who has the use of
his limbs at all is obliged to use his legs daily, and that to
a considerable extent. However sedentary he may be, he
must walk up and down stairs twice at least in the day. He
must walk from one room to another. He must get into and
out of his carnage, and walk a few paces to his office. And
in all these little walks his legs have to carry the weight of his
body, which, to set it at the least figure, weighs from seventy
to ninety pounds.

The Side-Stroke.

There is no stroke that enables the swimmer to last so long
as this does, and for this reason : instead of employing both
arms and legs simultaneously in the same manner, the side-
stroke employs them simultaneously but in different manners ;
so that when the swimmer is tired of exercising one side he
can just turn over and proceed with the other, the change of
action resting the limbs almost as much as actual repose
would do.

The side-stroke is thus managed : the swimmer lies on his
right side, stretching his right arm out as far as he can reach,
keeping the fingers of the right hand quite straight and the
hand itself held edgewise, so as to cut the water like a shark's
fin. The left hand is placed across the chest, with the back

against the right breast, and the swimmer is then ready to
begin.

He commences by making the usual stroke with his legs,
and the right leg, being undermost, doing the greater share
of the work. Before the impetus gained by the stroke is
quite expended, the right arm is brought round with a broad
sweep, until the palm of the hand almost touches the right
thigh. At the same moment, the left hand makes a similar
sweep, but is carried backwards as far as it can go.

The reader will see that the hands act directly upon the

water like the blades of a pair of oars, and do not waste
any of their power by oblique action.

In ordinary swimming we seldom use the left arm, but allow
it to hang quietly in the water, so that it may be perfectly
ready for work when wanted.. Then, after some little time,
we turn round, swim on the other side, and give the left
arm its fair share of labor.

There is a modification of swimming on the side, which
is sometimes called Thrusting, and sometimes the Indian
Stroke, because the North American Indians generally em-
ploy it.

DROWNING.

I. — Preliminary Rules.

N cases of apparent death, either from drowning
or other suffocation, send immediately for medi-
cal assistance, blankets, and dry clothing, but
proceed to treat the patient instantly on the
spot, in the open air, with the face downward,
whether on shore or afloat ; exposing the face,
sck, and chest to the wind, except in severe weather,
and removing all tight clothing from the neck and
chest, especially the braces.

The points to be aimed at are : first and immediately, the
restoration of breathing ; and secondly, after breathing is re-
stored, \he promotion of warmth and circulation.

The efforts to restore breathing must be commenced imme-
diately and energetically and persevered in for one or two
hours, or until a medical man has pronounced that life is ex-
tinct.

Efforts to promote warmth and circulation, beyond removing
the wet clothes and drying the skin, must not be made until
the first appearance of natural breathing. For if circulation
of the blood be induced before breathing has recommenced,
the restoration to life will be endangered.

II. — Treatment to Restore Breathing, According to
Dr. Marshall Hall's Method.

I. — To clear the throat.

Place the patient on the floor or ground with the face down-
wards, and one of the arms under the forehead, in which
position all fluids will more readily escape by the mouth, and
the tongue itself will fall forward, leaving the entrance into
the windpipe free. Assist this operation by wiping and
cleansing the mouth.

If satisfactory breathing commences, use the treatment de-
scribed below to promote warmth.

If there be only slight breathing, or no breathing, or if the
breathing fail, then —

2. — To excite breathing.

Turn the patient well and instantly on the side, supporting
the head, and excite the nostrils with snuff, hartshorn, and
smelling salts ; or tickle the throat with a feather, &c., if they
are at hand. Rub the chest and face warm, and dash cold
water, or cold and hot water alternately, on them.

If there be no success, lose not a moment, but instantly —

3. — To imitate breathing.

Replace the patient on the face, raising and supporting the
chest well on a folded coat or other article of dress.

Turn the body very gently on the side and a little beyond
and then briskly on the face, back again ; repeating these
measures cautiously, efficiently, and perseveringly about fifteen
times in the minute, or once every four or five seconds, occa-
sionally varying the side.

By placing the patient on the chest, the weight of the body
forces the air out ; when turned on the side, this pressure is
removed, and air enters the chest.

On each occasion that the body is replaced on the face,
make uniform but efficient pressure with brisk movement, on
the back between and below the shoulder blades or bones on
each side, removing the pressure immediately before turning
the body on the side.

During the whole of the operations let one person attend
solely to the movements of the head, and of the arm placed
under it.

The result is respiration or natural breathing ; and, if not
too late, life.

Whilst the above operations are being proceeded with, dry
the hands and fegt ; and as soon as dry clothing or blankets
can be procured, strip the body, and cover or gradually re-
clothe it, but taking care not to interfere with the efforts to
restore breathing.

282

DROWNING.

III.— Treatment to Restore Breathing, According to

Dr. Silvester's Method.

Instead of these proceedings, or should these efforts, not

prove successful in the course of from two to five minutes,

proceed to imitate breathing by Dr. Silvester's method, as

follows : —

I. — Patient's position.

Place the patient on the back of a flat surface, inclined a
little upwards from the feet ; raise and support the head and
shoulders on a small firm cushion, or folded article of dress
placed under the shoulder blades.

2. — To effect a free entrance of air into the windpipe.

Cleanse the mouth and nostrils, draw forward the patient's
tongue, and keep it projecting beyond the lips ; an elastic
band over the tongue and under the chin will answer this pur-
pose, or a piece of string or tape may be tied round them, or
by raising the lower jaw, the teeth may be made to retain the
tongue in that position. Remove all tight clothing from
about the neck and chest, especially the braces.

3. — To imitate the movements of breathing.

Standing at the patient's head, grasp the arms just above
the elbows, and draw the arms gently and steadily upwards
above the head, and keep them stretched upwards for two
seconds. ( By this means air is draivn into the lungs.) Then
turn down the patient's arms and press them gently and firmly
for two seconds against the sides of the chest. ( By this means
air is pressed out of the lungs. Pressure on the breast-bone
will aid this.)

Repeat these measures alternately, deliberately, and per-
severingly, about fifteen times in a minute, until a sponta-
neous effort to respire is perceived ; immediately upon which
cease to imitate the movements of breathing, and proceed to
induce circulation and warmth.

Should a warm bath be procurable, the body may be placed
in it up to the neck, continuing to imitate the movements of
breathing. Raise the body in twenty seconds in a sitting
position, and dash cold water against the chest and face, and
pass ammonia under the nose. The patient should not be
kept in the warm bath longer than five or six minutes.
4. — To excite inspiration.

During the employment of the aoove method excite the
nostrils with snuff or smelling salts, or tickle the throat with
a feather. Rub the chest and face briskly, and dash cold and
hot water alternately on them.

The above directions are chiefly Dr. H. R. Silvester's
method of restoring the apparently dead or drowned, and
have been approved by the Royal Medical and Chirurgical
Society.

IV. — Treatment after Natural ■ Breathing has been
Restored.

I — To promote warmth and circulation.

Wrap the patient in dry blankets, commence rubbing the
limbs upwards, with firm grasping pressure and energy, using
handkerchiefs, flannels, &c. ( By this measure the blood is
propelled along the veins towards the heart.)

The friction must be continued under the blanket or over
the dry clothing.

1. Promote the warmth of the body by the application of
hot flannels, bottles, or bladders of hot water, heated bricks,
&c., to the pit of the stomach, the arm-pits, between the
thighs, and to the soles of the feet. Warm clothing may
generally be obtained from bystanders.

2. If the patient has been carried to a house after respira-
tion has been restored, be careful to let the air play freely
about the room.

3. On the restoration of life, when the power of swallowing
has returned, a teaspoonful of warm water, small quantities
of v.'ine, warm brandy and water, or coffee, should be admin-
istered. The patient should be kept in bed, and a disposition
to sleep encouraged. During reaction, large mustard plasters
to the chest below the shoulders will greatly relieve the dis-
tressed breathing.

V. — General Observations.

The above treatment should be continued for some hours,
as it is an erroneous opinion that persons are irrecoverable be-
cause life does not soon make its appearance, persons having
been restored after persevering for many hours.

VI. — Appearances which Generally Indicate Death
from Drowning.

Breathing and the heart's action cease entirely ; the eyelids
are generally half closed ; the pupils dilated ; the jaws
clenched ; the fingers semi-contracted ; the tongue approaches
to the under edges of the lips, and these, as well as the nos-
trils, are covered with a frothy mucus. Coldness and pallor
of surface increase.

VII. — Cautions.

1. Prevent unnecessary crowding of persons round (he
body ; especially if in an apartment.

2. Avoid rough usage, and do not allow the body to remain
on the back unless the tongue is secured.

3. Under no circumstances hold the body up by the feet.

4. On no account place the body in a warm bath, unless
under medical direction, and even then it should only be em-
ployed as a momentary excitant.

ROWING.

283

<"►; M_t; -iji, .;V^-..i^w^ ^^MM^ ^

HE immense and in-
creasing importance
which the art of Rowing
is assuming in this coun-
try has induced the pub-
lisher to include the sub-
ject in the Manual.

The publisher feels himself
justified i n recommending the
present volume to the attention
of Youths whose proclivities
take the form of Rowing or
Sailing.

ROWING.

We suppose that every American man or boy who takes to
rowing or sailing for amusement wishes to go fast ; now, every
fast boat is more or less liable to be upset, even with the best
and most skillful management ; and when a boat is upset, while
he who can swim laughs at the adventure, he who cannot is
not only himself in danger, but endangers others who feel
obliged to risk their own lives in order to save his. There-
fore, let every one learn to swim before he attempts either to
row or sail in a fast boat ; he will then be able to enjoy the
amusement, and his friends on shore will feel at ease, and not
wish to deter him. Having acquired this art, he may safely
proceed in learning to row, and with it to learn the general
management of a rowing-boat. Boys at school, and men at
college, can often row very well without being ivatei-men —
that is to say, without understanding how the boat, the oars,
the rudder, etc., ought to be fitted, or how to steer or manage
a boat in difEculties, or how to row except in a boat and with

an oar fitted exactly as it ought to be ; but let the beginner
not follow this example — let him determine to learn how to
detect and correct any fault in the fittings of a boat, and how
to row under difficulties. Of course any one can row better
in a properly-fitted boat than in one that is not so, but grum-
bling at the boat and fittings is the sign of a greenhorn ; a
good waterman should be able to row anywhere and anyhow
— with a mopstick across a tenpenny nail, if necessary, and at
the same time should know how to make the best of a good
boat and oars when he has got them. These arts are only to
be acquired by rowing in all sorts of boats, by listening to
what watermen or experienced oarsmen have to say on the
subject, by always looking out to pick up something new, and
to learn something every day ; and, first, let the beginner learn
the names and use of every part of a boat, and of its fittings.

There are several methods of fitting the oars and boat, ac-
cording to the purpose required : we will begin with fresh-
water boats and the style of rowing adapted for them, inas
much as seamen hate rowing, and without exception row
badly. The boats now used in fresh water are either outtiggers
or gigs ; wherries, funnies, skiffs, etc., being almost super-
seded. The ouhigger is so called from having an iron frame
or outrigger on each side of the boat to carry the rowlock, and
so enable a longer-handled oar to be used. They were first
brought into notice by the Claspers from Newcastle, in Eng-
land, and have now superseded all other boats for racing pur-
poses. The gig is a broader and higher boat, and has a
straight ^wwwfl/^, a stern nearly upright, and a transom, or flat
piece, to the stem. h. funny is a long sculling boat, sharp at
each end ; a skiff is a stronger, shorter, heavier, and wider
boat, used to carry people or goods without risk of upsetting ;
a shallop is a still larger boat, used for pleasure parties, etc. ;
2iptint is a strongly-built boat, with a flat bottom and square
ends, used for fishing, and is usually propelled by pushing on
the ground with z. punt-pole. Four-oars, six-oars {seldom used),

4--

284

ROWING.

and eight-oars are now always outriggers when used for racing,
gigs for ordinary pulling. An outrigger wager sculler's boat is
30 feet long, 16 inches wide, and weighs about 40 pounds ; a
pair-oar wager-boat is 36 feet long, 20 inches wide ; an eight-
oar from 56 feet to 66 feet long, and 2 feet 3 inches wide.

We proceed to give the technical names of the parts of a
boat :— I. The bows, or front part of the boat ; the stern,
after part, or hind part of the boat ; the rest of the boat
is called the midships. Under the bottom of the boat,
projecting about an inch, is a long piece of wood called a >^t'd'/y
where the keel turns up forward, it is called the stem ; the
upright piece of wood fitting into the keel abaft is called the
stern-post, and to this the rudder is hung. In square-slerned
boats there is, besides, the transom. The sides of the boat are
made of planks nailed together, and called strakes ; the lowest
strakes next the keel are called the garboards. The strakes
are strengthened and the boat is kept in shape by pieces of
wood crossing the boat in the inside, like ribs, called timbers
or lands. The square holes are called rowlocks, and consist
of the thole, against which the oar is pulled ; the stopper, or
after thole, forming the other side of the rowlock ; and the
leather yf//«//^, forming the bottom of the rowlock. The seats
across the boat are called thwarts; the pieces of wood fasten-
ing them to the sides of the boat are knees ; the piece of
board against which the feet rest, the stretcher j the boards
for standing on at the bottom of the boat amidships are bot-
tom-boards or burdens ; the boards in the bow, the how-sheets ;
those in the stern, the stern-sheets ; the space between the
steerer's thwart and the thwart of the stroke-oar is the state-
room, and in large boats has seats on each side for sitters.

Fitted to the top of the rudder is a cross-piece of wood or
brass called the yoke, attached to which are ropes called yoke-
lines, for the steerer's hands. In eight-oars it is usual to have
the yoke-lines attached to the side of the boat, and passing
through pulleys in the yoke, in order to give more power to
the steerer. The rope by which the boat is made fast is called
the painter, or sometimes the head fast. Wager-boats are
built of white fir or mahogany, gigs usually of white fir, but
sometimes of oak. Fir is perhaps lighter, but oak lasts much
longer. Sea-going boats are usually built of elm ; and the
timbers of ash.

When the rower rows with an oar in each hand, the oars are
called sculls, and are shorter ; when he uses only one oar, it
is called an oar, and is about 13 feet 5 inches long. Sculls
and oars are usually of white pine, and consist of the han-
dle and the loom, within the rowlock, the part outside of the
rowlock consisting of the shank or small, and the blade,
and are fitted either with boxing or filling, and a button,
or with leather and a stop. The sculls usually overlap about
four inches ; the handle of the oar should just clear the
other side of the boat. The oars in a boat are numbered
from the bow, No. i being the bow, No. 2 the next, and
so on to No. 8, or stroke in an eight-oar. The stroke-oar
is always on the port, larboard, or left side of the boat, and
the oars on that side are called the stroke or larboard oars ; the
oars on the right side of the boat, the bow or starboard oars.

It should be recollected that pair-oar rowing is the founda-
tion of all rowing ; in a four, and still more easily in an eight,

defects, especially shirking, may pass undetected, but not
easily in a pair-oar. Let the beginner, therefore, get some ex-
perienced friend or a waterman to giv^ the first lessons in a
steady and not too light boat ; if he can get some one to row
stroke whilst the friend or waterman steers and instructs, so
much the better ; if not, let the friend or waterman pull the
bow oar so as to see his pupil at his work. The mat must be
firmly tied to the thwart, and this every man should learn to
do for himself, as the men at the boat-house never do it prop-
erly. Flannel mats with strings are much the best. Let the
pupil then seat himself on the thwart nearly on the after edge
of it, bending his knees a little, and opening them about a
foot, and placing his feet firmly against the stretcher, with
heels close together and toes turned out straight before him ;
if the strap is used, the outside foot, or that nearest the mid-
dle of the boat, will be passed under it ; but for the first few
lessons, the strap should not be used, as a man ought to be
able to row without it. The stretcher must of course be ad-
justed to the proper length. The pupil will then take hold
of the oar with the button just inside the thole, and grasp the
oar with the outside hand close to the end, but not capping it,
and thumb above the oar, the inside hand about three inches
from the other, just where the square loom begins, thumb un-
der the oar. Let him then sit upright, straighten his back,
flatten and drop his shoulders, keeping them perfectly square,
and hold his head a very little forward, elbows close to his
sides, sitting very nearly as he would be directed to sit by a
drill sergeant or dancing-master, the only exception being
that the knees are open and the head a little forward, and that
he holds the oar. Let him then stretch forward as far as the
stopper will allow the oar to go, which is about as far as he
can reach, still keeping his back straight, his shoulders square,
though of course a little raised, his arms extended, his outside
wrist flat with the arm, his inside wrist bent convexly. And
here let the pupil understand clearly that all the motions are
to be made by swinging evenly backwards and forwards on
his seat as on a hinge ; the back is never to be bent, and
though the shoulders must necessarily be raised a little in
reaching forward, in going back they should be dropped as
low as they can be brought. There is a common notion that
rowing rounds the back and shoulders, and bad rowing does
so, but a good oar has his shoulders and back as flat as any
drill sergeant would wish them to be ; when his shoulders are
humped or his back rounded, it is a sign that he is tired out
and done. If the rower raises one shoulder higher than the
other, or does not swing evenly backwards and forwards,
he makes the boat roll, and prevents the other men from
rowing properly. Let the pupil then resume the upright
position, stretch forward a little, and dip the oar into the
water, taking care that the blade is upright, and the button
against the thole ; let him then pull a short stroke, keeping
the blade upright and leaning back a little, "the first stroke
or two without any pressure, afterwards pressing on the oar,
taking care to have the chest well bent forward towards the
loom, so as to strike the water and feel resistance at once.
Let the pupil continue to make short strokes like this until he
can keep his oar upright and recover himself after each stroke,
keeping the button against the thole, and when he can do this

ROWING.

285

pretty well, let him begin to feather, or bring the oar out of
the water in a horizontal or flat position ; this is done by
dropping the wrists sharply at the end of the stroke, and,
though difficult at first, is very soon acquired.

There are different styles of feathering : the Harvard men
feather high ; Yale men almost graze the surface of the water,
which certainly looks well, but cannot be done if there is any
sea or rough water. In about an hour any one who takes pains
ought to have mastered these points, and that ought to suffice
for one day ; and at the end of each quarter of an hour, the
pupil should change sides and work with the other oar. If
this is not done at the very beginning, he is likely to contract
a habit of rowing on one side only, and will never learn to row
on the other side : a deficiency which will cause great incon-
venience to himself and others in future time.

On the following day, the pupil should be taught to stretch
out and pull his stroke through, and to keep time, the instruc-
tor pulling a very long, slow, and steady stroke ; the pupil
should then be taught to back water, which is exactly the re-
verse of pulling, as the oar is then pushed through the water
so as to propel the boat stem foremost, or to assist in turning
the boat round ; he should also be taught to ship\\\% oar neatly
and quickly ; and this is done by letting go with the outside
hand, and lifting the oar sharply up out of the rowlock with
the inside hand, letting the blade float astern. The beginner
would do well to go out in a safe boat with a friend, and
practice backing and shipping till he can do both quickly and
neatly at the word of command ; and in about three lessons of
an hour each the pupil ought to become a passable oar. This
system of pair-oared tuition is immeasurably superior to and
quicker than the ordinary plan pursued at schools and colleges,
of putting seven raw hands into an eight-oar with a tolerable
stroke and a good coxswain, and trying to teach them all at
once. The unhappy wretches have no idea of what they
ought to do, and cannot understand the directions of their
coxswain, who sits raving and storming at them, and at the
end of the lesson they return stiff, sore, tired, and disgusted,
having learnt very little, and probably begun to contract faults
which they may never get rid of. Let the first rowing of every
man be carefully attended to, and all faults checked at once
before they grow into habits. For all further tuition we refer
to the following extract from " The Principles of Rowing and
Steering," by studying which the beginner, or even the advanced
oar, may learn what to do and what to avoid : —

" The requisites for a perfect stroke are : —

" I. Taking the whole reach forward, and falling back
gradually a little past the perpendicular, preserving the
shoulders throughout square, and the chest developed at the
end.

" 2. Catching the water and beginning the stroke with a
full tension on the arms at the instant of contact.

"3. A horizontal and dashing pull through the water im-
mediately the blade is covered, without deepening in the space
subsequently traversed.

" 4. Rapid recovery after feathering by an elastic motion of
the body from the hips, the arms being thrown forward per-
fectly straight simultaneously with the body, and the forward
motion of each ceasing at the same time.

" 5. Lastly, equability in all actions, preserving full strength
without harsh, jerking, isolated, and uncompensated movements
in any single part of the frame."

' ' Faults in Rowing, — The above laws are sinned against
when the rower —

" I. Does not straighten both arms before him.

" 2. Keeps two convex wrists instead of the outside wrist
flat.

" 3. Contrives to put his hands forward by a subsequent
motion after the shoulders have attained their reach, <thich is
getting the body forward without the arms.

" 4. Extends the arms without a corresponding bend on the
part of the shoulders, which is getting the arms forward with-
out the body.

" 5. Catches the water with unstraightened arms or arm, and
a slackened tension as its consequence : thus time may be kept
but not stroke ; keeping-stroke always implying uniformity of
work.

" 6. Hangs before dipping downward to begin the stroke.

" 7. Does not cover the blade up to the shoulder.

" 8. Rows round and deep in the middle, with hands high
and blade still sunken after the first contact.

" 9. Curves his back forward or aft.

" 10. Keeps one shoulder higher than the other.

"11. Jerks.

" 12. Doubles forwaid and bends over the oar at the feather,
bringing the body up to the handle, and not the handle up to
the body.

" 13. Strikes the water at an obtuse angle, or rows the first
part in the air.

" 14. Cuts short the end, prematurely slacking the arms.

" 15. Shivers out the feather, commencing it too soon and
bringing the blade into a plane with the water while work may
yet be done : thus the oar may leave the water in perfect lime,
but stroke is not kept. This and No. 5 are the most subtle
faults in rowing, and involve the science of shirking.

" 16. Rolls backward, with an inclination towards the inside
or outside of the boat.

" 17. Turns his elbows at the feather instead of bringing
them sharp past the flanks.

" 18. Keeps the head depressed between the shoulders
instead of erect.

" 19. Looks out of the boat instead of straight before him.
(This almost inevitably rolls the boat.)

" 20. Throws up water instead of turning it well aft off the
lower angle of the blade. A wave thus created is extremely
annoying to the oar farther aft ; there should be no wave travel-
ing astern, but an eddy containing two small cii cling swirls."

Nos. 17 and 18 perhaps only affect the appearance, but all
the other requisites and faults go to the essentials of rowing.

As soon as the pupil has become totally skillful in the
management of his oar he will be put into a four or eight oar,
and will have to practice what he has learnt, and we will ven-
ture to give him two hints : — ist. To pay particular attention
to keeping time. 2d. To take particular care not to put his
oar in the water before he has finished going forward ; of the
two it is better to make the first part of the stroke in the air,
though that, of course, is not right ; but pt'^^ting the oar in the

4r-

286

ROWING.

4r-

water too soon will inevitably splash the men who are forward,
and of all the faults which annoy the other men, splashing and
not keeping time are the worst. One misfortune which will
probably happen once or twice to every learner is catching a
crab, by letting the oar turn in the water the wrong way before
taking it out ; the water then pens the oar down, and the handle
bears the rower backwards off his seat. The moment he feels
this likely to happen he must sharply ship his oar, and if he is
quick he may escape the annoyance and danger of being
knocked backwards. It will be at least a month before the
beginner is able to handle his oar with ease and comfort to
himself and satisfaction to others ; and during this time, as at
all times, he ought to pay attention to the instructions of the
captain and coxswain, and take their scolding and remarks
willingly and good-humoredly. Above all things let him not
take it into his head that he is right and the others wrong ; in
the first place, it is very unlikely ; and in the next place, how-
ever right he may be, until he is captain, and able to enforce
his own ideas, he must row as the others row. Eight inferior
oars rowing together, and in the same way, would inevitably
beat the best eight oars in America if each of them persisted
in rowing in his own way. Another most important thing to
a beginner is, never roxv a single stroke carelessly or badly ; if
you are tired, row easily, but in good form and style. In fact,
form and style must be taught and learnt in paddling — i. e.
rowing easily — and that is the time for it ; but there is never
a time for rowing badly, and every stroke badly rowed is
positively injurious.

Sculling is practiced on exactly the same principles as rowing
with oars, except that, both sculls being managed by one man,
he has but one hand for each. The sculler must, of course, sit
exactly in the middle of the boat, and he must keep his back
flatter and his shoulders lower, if possible, than when rowing ;
the strength which can be put into the last part of the stroke
depending entirely upon the drop of the shoulders. The great
difficulty in sculling, especially since the light outriggers have
been introduced, is in the steering, as the sculler must look
behind him at least every third stroke ; and to turn the head
without turning the body or rocking the boat requires long
practice.

Inpair-oar rowing the bow-oar steers and directs, whilst the
stroke-oar merely pulls steadily and follows the directions of
the bow-oar. The bow-oar, being forward, has of course most
power over the boat ; but it often happens that the best steerer
is the strongest oar, and will therefore pull stroke and steer at
the same time — of course, at a disadvantage. The great secret
in ordinary pair-oar rowing is to let one man steer and
direct, the other merely following the directions and not
slacking or pulling harder without orders, or without saying
what he is going to do. Nothing is more provoking to the
steerer and more likely to lead to accidents, and at the same
time there is nothing more common, than for his companion
to pull harder or easier without orders, and exactly when the
steerer wishes it not to be done. When there is a side-wind
the bow of the boat tends to turn towards the direction from
which the wind is blowing ; this tendency must, of course, be
counteracted by the rower whose oar is on that side, and he
is then said to have the labor.

In fours and eights there is always a steersman or coxswain,
and his art is at least as difficult to learn as the art of rowing.
He should sit upright on his thwart, but well forward on it,
putting his knees forward and his shins tucked under his
thighs, with his feet as far beneath him as they can be brought,
so as to be able to throw all his strength and weight upon the
lines when required. He should take a turn with each line
round the palm of the hand, and let the end come out between
his forefinger and thumb, where it must be tightly nipped.
His hands are to be well in front and against the ribs, the little
fingers resting on the thighs ; the lines are always to be kept
on the stretch, so that any necessary pull may be instantly
given. The steerer will find himself obliged to bend forward
at each stroke ; but let him only yield to the motion and not
bob violently, a process .which cannot do any good, disturbs
his own view, and tends to shake the boat. If any man be-
lieves in the efficacy of bobbing, let him get into a boat by
himself and try to make her advance by bobbing. As soon as
the steerer has had a little practice, and knows how much
effect a pull on the yoke-lines produces, he ought to turn all
his attention to steering straight, an art which is of immense
importance, but which is usually neglected or left to chance.
Let any one place himself where he can see an ordinary eight-
oar coming towards him, and he will then see the zigzag de-
vious course that in nine cases out of ten she will take. To
prevent this, the steerer should early learn always to steer for
some object right in the course, the farther off it is the better;
and let him then keep, or try to keep, the boat's stem steadily
pointed at that object. He will find this not so easy, but will
attain the art by dint of practice, but not if he learns to lounge
about and steer carelessly. When that object is no longer in
the course, let him take another, and so on, recollecting that
every touch of either yoke-line stops the boat, and that a zig-
zag is longer than a straight line. One thing Which puzzles
young steerers much is steering in a strong side-wind ; the boat
is then constantly being driven bodily to leeward, and, in
order to keep a straight line, the stem must not point at any
object in the course, but must constantly point to ■windxuanl
of the course, and the boat must take a kind of crab-like mo-
tion, the proper angle for which must be found by tria .

The steerer has also' to instruct the crew ; and to learn how
to do that, he should carefully observe good rowing whenever
he sees it, and read a good work on the subject. In instruct-
'ing, he should not bully individuals : many faults are incurable,
and many men will not try to alter. If a man has been told
three times of a fault, and shows no symptoms of amendment,
it is useless to annoy him further, and he must either be turned
out of the boat, or allowed to go on in his own way. When
a man has improved or corrected a fault, let him be immediately
praised and complimented. All general unmeaning exclama-
tions in which steersmen are wont to indulge, prpbably from not
knowing what really ought to be said, are totally useless. In
training a crew, it is an excellent plan for the stroke or best
oar in the boat himself to take the yoke-lines occasionally, and
see what the men are doing. If the river is narrow, the men
can best be seen by running along the bank.

A fast sculler will make about thirty-six strokes a minutt;
with oars, forty strokes a minute may be taken.

ROWING.

287 V

We now come to the two painful subjects connected
with rowing, the mere mention of which causes a shudder
in every old oarsman : blisters on the hands, and raws on the
stern : —

Every man suffers at first from blisters, and the harder he
pulls, the worse they are ; but after a time his hands get hard
and horny, and no ordinary exertion will leave a mark. The
blisters are often burst during the rowing : they are then
usually painful, and all that can be done is to grin and bear it,
avoiding the contact of water, which smarts at the time and
retards the cure. If they get too bad, two or three days' rest
will usually set matters right ; if not, you are in bad health,
and should go to the doctor. If the blister does not burst,
let it remain as a protection for two days ; at the end of that
time the new skin will be formed underneath, and the blister
should be pricked to let out the water which keeps the new
skin soft and incomplete. Haws will come at all times, but
wriggling on the seat is a very frequent cause ; the steadier a
man sits, the less likely are raws. Of course any folds in the
cushion or trowsers are to be carefully avoided, as very likely
to raise a raw. If the skin is fairly rubbed off, the place
should be covered with goldbeater's-skin, and a day's rest will
then almost invariably effect a cure.

We will add a few words as to sea-going boats. The sides of

the rowlocks are in them formed by two movable pegs called
tholes ; there is no button or stop on the oars ; the oars are
often of ash ; there is no difference between oars and sculls,
and the term sculling is applied to propelling a boat by work-
ing an oar through a notch in the stern of the boat.

Small rowing-boats in the sea, from nine to thirteen feet
long, are called punts ; the oars, instead of rowlocks, often
work on a single pin or thole, which passes through a block of
hard wood called a cleat, nailed to the oar. Cleat-oars, of
course, cannot be feathered, but are convenient for going
alongside a vessel, and in other ways, as they may be let go
without being lost. Those who use cleat-oars for the first
time should recollect to put the oar on or abaft the thole so
as to pull upon the thole, not from it, which would soon tear
off the cleat. The fittings of sea-going boats are usually very
bad ; the thwarts are too high and too near the rowlocks, the
oars are badly balanced, and there is no stretcher. If there
is much sea, it is not possible to pull a long stroke or to
feather quickly. This, and the general defects in the fittings,
render the rowing of sailors almost always very bad, and
utterly unfit for imitation ; but the good oarsman should
always row as well as the boat will admit : the back may
always be kept flat, the shoulders down, and the stroke pulled
through.

-4.

MERCANTILE LAW.

K^a^

,— jj

^dir\ii\i^ti'ktioi) of 5<>^tkte^

in EN a person dies, leav-
ing no valid will behind
him, his estate is distrib-
uted among his heirs by
what is known as opera-
tion of law. This is reg-
ulated by the statute of
the State in which the
deceased resided at the
time of his death. The
distribution must be made
by an administrator duly
appointed by law. The
administrator is a p -
pointed by the court having jurisdiction in such
cases on being satisfied that the person proposed is
legally qualified. The appointment must be made
with the consent of the person appointed. It is the
generally accepted rule that any one is legally com-
petent to be an administrator who is competent to
make a contract. Certain classes of persons are dis-
qualified by statute, as in the State of New York,
for instance, drunkards, gamblers, spendthrifts, etc.
The relatives of the deceased are considered as en-
titled to the appointment to administer the estate,
and the order of precedence is regulated by statute.
The husband is to be granted administration on the

wife's personal estate, and administration on the
husband's estate is to be granted to the widow and
the next of kin in the following order if they or any
of them will accept :

1. To the widow.

2. To the children.

3. To the father.
To the brothers.
To the sisters.
To the grandchildren.
To any other of the next of kin who would be

entitled to a share in the distribution of the estate.

The guardians of minors who are entitled may ad-
minister for them. In case none of the relatives or
guardians will accept, the administration will be given
to the creditors of the deceased. The creditor who
applies first, if legally competent, is to be preferred.
If no creditor applies, any person who is legally
qualified may be appointed. In the City of New
York the public administrator may administer the
estate after the next of kin. In the State of New
York the Surrogate may select, among the next of
kin, any one in equal degree, and appoint him sole
administrator to the exclusion of the others. In
case there are several persons of the same degree of
kindred to the intestate, entitled to administration,
they are preferred in the following order :

1. Males to females.

2. Relatives of the whole blood to those of the
half blood.

3. Unmarried to married women ; and should
there be several persons equally entitled, the Surro-

MERCANTILE LAW.

289

gate may grant letters to one or more of them, as
his judgment may suggest.

If letters of administration should be unduly
granted they may be revoked.

Administration may likewise be granted on certain
conditions, for a certain limited time, or for a special
purpose.

The powers and duties of an administrator differ
from those of an executor only inasmuch as he must
distribute and dispose of the estate according to the
direction of the law, as he has no will to follow.

First. The administrator must give bonds with
sureties for the faithful execution of his trust.

Second. He must make an inventory of the goods
and chattels of the intestate, in accordance with the
requirements of the law.

Third. Two copies of this inventory shall be
made, one of which will be lodged with the judge of
the court, and the other will be kept by the admin-
istrator. The latter will be obliged to account for
the property mentioned in the inventory.

Fourth. Having completed the inventory, the ad-
ministrator must then collect the outstanding debts
of the intestate, and also pay the debts of the same.
The order of payment is regulated by local sta-
tutes.

Having liquidated . all the debts of the intestate,
the administrator will divide the remainder of the
assets among the surviving relatives of the deceased.
In so doing, he will act under the direction of the
court.

&^Q^6y.

By Agency is meant the substitution of one per-
son by and for another, the former to transact busi-
ness for the latter. An Agency may be established
by implication — an express agreement with a person
that he is to become the agent of another, not being
necessary — or verbally, or by 7vriting. A verbal
creation of agency suffices to authorize the agent to
make a contract even in cases where such contract
must be in writing.

Agency is of three kinds : special, general, and
professional. A special agency is an authority ex-
ercised for a special purpose. If a special agent
exceed the limits of his authority, his principal is not
bound by his acts.

A general agency authorizes the transaction of all
business of a particular kind, or growing out of a

particular employment. The principal will be
bound by the acts of a general agent though the
latter act contrary to private instructions, provided
he keep, act the same time, Avithin the general limits
of his authority.

Professional agents are those licensed by the
proper authority to transact certain kinds of busi-
ness for a compensation. The following are among
this class of agents :

1. Attorneys.

2. Brokers.

3. Factors.

4. Auctioneers.

5. Masters of Ships,

In regard to the subject of an agency, the general
rule is that whatever a man may do in his own
right, he may also transact through another. Things
of a personal nature, implying personal confidence
on the part of the person possessing them, cannot
be delegated.

Infants, married women, lunatics, idiots, aliens,
belligerents, and persons incapable of making legal
contracts, cannot act as principals in the appoint-
ment of agents. Infants and married women may,
however, become principals in certain cases.

Agency may be terminated in two ways : (i) by
the act of the principal or agent ; (2) by operation
of law. In the latter case, the termination of the
agency is effected by lapse of time, by completion
of the subject matter of the agency, by the extinc-
tion of the subject matter, or by the insanity,
bankruptcy, or death of either party.

^1^^)111^11011.

Arbitration is an investigation and determination
of subjects of difference between persons involved
in dispute, by unofficial persons chosen by the par-
ties in question.

The general rule is that any person capable of
making a valid contract concerning the subject in
dispute may be a party to an arbitration. Any
matter which the parties may adjust by agreement,
or which may be made the subject of a suit at law,
may be determined by arbitration. Crimes cannot
be made the subject matter of an arbitration. This
matter is regulated by statute in the different States.

Questions may be submitted for arbitration in the
following ways :

§^

290

MERCANTILE LAW.

1. By faro/.

2. By writing.

3. Under the statute, which must be done if the
parties are desirous of availing themselves of its
provisions.

4. By rule of court, which occurs when an action
is pending in court and the parties agree to take it
before arbitrators, in accordance with an order of
the court.

5. By deposit of notes.

A person may be selected as arbitrator, notwith-
standing his natural incapacity or legal disability to
make contracts.

The arbitrators must fix the time and place of
hearing, and give due notice of the same to the par-
ties. They must be sworn, if the statute requires
an oath, unless such oath is weighed by the parties
themselves. In the matter of hearing evidence the
statute of the State must be followed.

The arbitrators may adjourn from time to time,
provided the time does not extend beyond the
period appointed for the delivery of the award.

In arbitrations the parties are entitled to the aid
of counsel, the same as they would be in court.

After a fair submission and a legal award, the
matter submitted cannot be litigated on, any more
than if it had been settled by a judgment.

An award may be impeached where it has been
procured by corruption, fraud, or other undue
means ; by misconduct, corruption or irregularity
on the part of the arbitrators, when the arbitrators
acknowledge they have made a mistake in their de-
cision ; where the arbitrators have exceeded their
powers ; where pertinent and material evidence was
rejected, etc. If either party revokes the submission,
he will be liable for an action for breach of contract,
and the payment of damages by the other party.

Sfi'e^t.

&V-

The defendant in an action may be arrested for
the following causes, when the action is to recover
damages :

1. Personal injury.

2. Injury to property, including wrongful taking,
detention, or conversion of property.

3. Breach of promise to marry.

4. Fraud or deceit.

5. Misconduct or neglect in ofifice, or in profes-
sional employment.

6. In an action to recover a chattel where said
chattel or a part thereof has been removed, con-
cealed, or disposed of, so that it cannot be found or
be taken by the Sheriff, and with intent that it should
not be found or taken by the Sheriff, or with the
intent of depriving the plaintiff of the benefit
thereof.

7. In an action upon contract, express or implied,
other than a promise to marry, where the defendant
has been guilty of fraud in contracting or incurring
the liability.

8. In an action upon contract, either express or
implied, other than a promise to marry, where de-
fendant has, since the making of the contract, or in
contemplation of the same, removed or disposed of
his property with the intent of defrauding his cred-
itors, or where he is about to remove or dispose of
the same with like intent.

9. In case of action to recover for money re-
ceived, or to recover property or damages for the
conversion or misapplication of the same, where the
money was received, or where the property was
embezzled, or fraudulently misapplied by a public
official, or by an attorney, solicitor, or counselor, or
by an officer or agent of a corporation or banking
association in the course of his employment, or by a
factor, agent, broker, or any person in a fiduciary
capacity.

10. In an action wherein the judgment demanded
requires the performance of an act, the neglect or
the refusal to perform which would be punishable
by the court as contempt, or where the defendant,
not being a resident of the State, or being a resident,
is about to depart from the State, by reason of
which departure there is a danger that a judgment
or an order requiring the performance of the said
act will be rendered ineffectual.

Females are liable to arrest only in the cases
mentioned in the preceding subdivision, or in
cases of willful injury to person, character, or pro-
perty.

A debtor may be arrested in this Sta'te only when
it can be proved that he employed fraud in con-
tracting the debt, or that he concealed or put his
property out of his hands with the intent of defeat-
ing his creditors.

The defendant, when arrested, may give bail.

MERCANTILE LAW.

291

Stfed^ment.

An attachment may be issued, when it is a ques-
tion of recovering a sum of money, for damages, in
the following cases :

1. For breach of contract, whether express or
implied, other than a contract to marry.

2. For wrongful conversion of personal property,
or for any injury to personal property, in conse-
quence of fraud, negligence, or any other act.

The plaintiff must prove that a cause of action
exists under one of the above heads before he is en-
titled to a warrant of attachment. In case of an
action to recover damages, his affidavit must show
that he is entitled to recover a sum therein stated
over and above any or all counter claims against
him. In addition, he -must show that the defendant
is either a foreign corporation or a non-resident of
this State, or in case he is an individual person and
resides in the State, that he has departed therefrom
with the intention of defrauding his creditors, or
avoiding being served with a summons, or that he
keeps himself concealed within the State with like
intent. If the defendant is a natural person or a
domestic corporation, the affidavit must show that
he or it has removed his or its property from the
State with the intention of defrauding his or its
creditors, or that he has assigned, disposed of. or
secreted his property, or that he is about to do so
with like intent. The plaintiff must also give a bond
or undertaking to the amount of two hundred and
fifty dollars before the attachment issues. Salary
or wages may be attached provided the conditions
already mentioned exist for so doing. In the ab-
secice of said conditions, and after unsatisfied judg-
ment and execution, wages may be taken by supple-
mentary proceedings. The earnings of the debtor
for his personal services for sixty days previous to
the institution of said supplementary proceedings,
where such earnings appear to be necessary for the
support of a family wholly or in part supported by
his labor, cannot be reached.

Clikttel jVioi^t^k^e^.

A mortgage of goods and chattels will be void to
creditors of the mortgagee, if the following con-
ditions are not complied with :

I . The immediate deliveTy of the property accom-

panying the mortgage, followed by actual and con-
tinued claim of possession.

2. The filing of the mortgage, or a true copy
thereof, as required by law, in the clerk's or regis-
ter's office of the town, city or county where the
mortgagor resides, and where the property lies at
the time the instrument was executed. The mort-
gage must be filed where the mortgagee resides, if
he is a resident of the State ; if not, it must be filed
in the city or town where the property is located at ,
the time of the execution of the mortgage. It must
be filed in the Register's Office in the cities of New
York and Brooklyn.

Coiiti'kdt^.

The conditions of a contract, as applying to
individuals, are: i. Age; 2. Rationality; and 3,
as to Corporations, the possession of general or
special statutory powers.

Persons under age are incompetent to make con-
tracts, except under certain limitations. Generally
such persons are incapable of making binding con-
tracts.

As to rationality, the general principle of law is
that all persons not rendered incompetent by per-
sonal disability, or by considerations of public
policy, are capable of making a contract.

Corporations have powers to make contracts
strictly within the limits prescribed by their char-
ters, or by special or general statute. The following
classes of contracts are void, unless they shall be in
writing and subscribed by the party to be charged
thereby :

1. Every agreement that by its terms is not to be
performed within one year from the making thereof.

2. Every special promise to answer for the debt,
default, or miscarriage of another persqji.

3. Every agreement, promise or undertaking,
made upon consideration of marriage, except mutual
promises to marry.

4. Every contract for the leasing of a longer
period than one year, or for the sale of any lands, or
any interest in lands, shall be void, unless the con-
tract, or some note or memorandum thereof, express-
ing the consideration, be in writing and subscribed
by the party by whom the lease or sale is made.

Every contract for the sale of any goods, chattels,
or things in action shall be void, unless.

292

MERCANTILE LAW.

1. A note or memorandum of such contract be
made in writing, and be subscribed by the parties
to be charged thereby ; or,

2. Unless the buyer shall accept and receive part
of such goods, or the evidences, or some of them,
of such things in action ; or,

3. Unless the buyer shall, at the time, pay some
part of the purchase money.

Coi^pof^tioi\^.

Corporations are bodies created by law, which
consist of individuals united under a common name,
whose members succeed each other, so that the
body continues the same, notwithstanding the
change of the individuals who compose it.

Three or more persons so desiring may form a
corporation.

The persons desiring to form a corporation must
make and acknowledge the same before an officer
empowered to take the acknowledgment of deeds a
certificate in writing, in accordance with the direc-
tions required by law.

A duplicate of this certificate must be filed in the
office of the Secretary of State.

The stockholders of the incorporated company are
individually liable to the company's creditors to the
amount of the stock held by them respectively, until
all the capital stock shall have been paid in, and
until a certificate stating the amount of the capital
fixed and paid in shall be filed in the office of the
County Clerk, in accordance with the requirements
of the law. The stockholders are jointly and seve-
rally individually liable to the laborers or servants
of the corporation for work performed for the
same.

Corporations are liable for contracts made by the
duly authorized agent within the scope of his
authority, as well as for trespasses or torts committed
by such agents under authority of such corpora-
tions.

Corporations are liable for negligence or breach
of duty the same as individuals.

Corporations are liable to pay taxes in the same
manner as individual owners of property.

Corporations are likewise subject to visitation,
which consists of an authority to inspect the actions
and regulate the behavior of the members v/ho share
in the franchise.

®e^dei\t kr^d f)i,^trifeiitior^ of ?ei*.
^oi\kl 5<^tkte^:

When a person dies intestate, his personal estate
remaining after the payment of his debts, and where
a will has been left, the surplus remaining after the
payment of debts and legacies, if not bequeathed,
shall be distributed to the widow, children, or next
of kin of the deceased in the following manner :

1. One third part thereof to the widow, and all
the residue in equal portions among the children,
and such persons as may legally represent such
children, if any of them shall have died before the
deceased.

2. If there be no children, and no legal repre-
sentative of them, then one moiety of the whole
surplus, after the payment of debts, shall be allotted
to the widow, and the other moiety shall be distri-
buted to the next of kin of the deceased.

3. If the deceased shall leave a widow, and no
descendant, parent, brother or sister, nephew or
niece, the widow shall be entitled to the whole sur-
plus ; but if there be a brother or sister, nephew or
niece, and no descendant or parent, the widow shall
be entitled to a moiety of the surplus and to the
whole of the residue, where it does not exceed two
thousand dollars ; if the residue exceed that sum,
she shall receive, in addition to the moiety, two
thousand dollars ; and the remainder shall be dis-
tributed to the brothers and sisters and their repre-
sentatives.

4. If there be no widow, then the whole surplus
shall be distributed equally to and among the chil-
dren and such as legally represent them.

5. In case there be no widow and no children, and
no representatives of a child, then the whole surplus
shall be distributed to the next of kin, in equal de-
gree to the deceased, and their legal representatives.

6. If the deceased shall leave no children, and no
representatives of them, and no father, and shall
leave a widow and a mother, the moiety not dis-
tributed to the widow shall be distributed in equal
shares to the mother, and brothers and sisters, or
the representatives of such brothers and sisters ;
and, if there be no widow, the whole surplus shall
be distributed in like manner to the mother, and to
the brothers and sisters, or the representatives of
such brothers and sisters.

■^

MERCANTILE LAW.

293

7. If the deceased leave a father, and no child or
descendant, the father shall take a moiety, if there
be a widow, and the whole if there be no widow.

8. If the deceased leave a mother, and no child,
descendant, father, brother, sister, or representative
of a brother or sister, the mother, if there be a widow,
shall take a moiety, and the whole if there be no
widow.

9. Where the descendants, or next of kin of the
deceased entitled to share in his estate, shall be all
in equal degree to the deceased, their shares shall
be equal.

10. When such descendants, or next of kin, are
of unequal degrees of kindred, the surplus shall
be apportioned among those entitled thereto, ac-
cording to their respective stocks ; so that those who
take in their own right shall receive equal shares,
and those who take by representation shall receive
the shares to which the parent whom they represent,
if living, would have been entitled.

11. No representation shall be admitted among
collaterals after brothers' and sisters' children.

12. Relatives of the half blood shall take equally
with those of the whole blood in the same degree ;
and the representatives of such relatives shall take
in the same manner as the representatives of the
whole blood.

13. Descendants and next of kin of the deceased,
begotten before his death, but bom thereafter, shall
take in the same manner as if they had been born
in the lifetime of the deceased, and had survived him.

The above provisions apply to the personal es-
tates of married women who die intestate, leaving
descendants ; and the husband of any deceased
married woman may demand, recover, and enjoy .
the same distributive share in her personal estate
that she, if a widow, would be entitled to in his per-
sonal estate, but no more.

The real property of every person dying intestate
shall descend as follows :

1. To his lineal descendants.

2. To his father.

3. To his mother.

4. To his collateral relatives.

In case the inheritance comes to the intestate on
the part of the mother, the father does not take if
the mother be living ; and in such a case, if she be
dead, the father only takes a life interest, unless all
the brothers and sisters of the deceased, and their

descendants, be dead, or unless the deceased had no
brothers or sisters, in which cases the father is en-
titled to take the fee.

In case there is no father or mother, and the in-
heritance came to the deceased on the part of the
mother, it will descend to the collateral relatives of
the mother in preference to those of the father.

In case the inheritance came to the deceased on
the part of neither father nor mother, it will descend
to the collateral relatives of both in equal shares.

Relatives of the half blood inherit equally with
those of the whole blood in the same degree.

The descendants and relatives of the intestate,
begotten before his death, but born thereafter, in-
herit in the same manner as if they had been born
in the lifetime of the intestate.

The mother of an illegitimate child, dying with-
out any descendants, takes the inheritance.

Besides the provisions in favor of the widow and
the minor children from the personal estate of her
husband, it is provided that she may tarry in the
house of her husband forty days after his death,
whether her dower be sooner assigned or not, with-
out being liable to rent for the same, and meantime
she shall have her reasonable sustenance off the estate
of her husband. This sustenance shall be provided
out of the personal property of her husband, and
through the executor or administrator, should one
be appointed prior to the expiration of the forty
days, and shall be given according to the circum-
stances and station in life of the family, to the
widow and children dependent on her. In pro-
viding this sustenance, the executor or administrator
must exercise judgment and discretion, as he should
in paying funeral expenses.

Interest is a moderate profit for the use of money.
In the different States the rate of interest is estab-
lished by statute. In New York State seven per
cent, is the legal rate of interest. Any excess over
this, whether received directly or indirectly, will ren-
der the contract void, and is a misdemeanor, pun-
ishable by a fine not exceeding $1,000, or by im-
prisonment not exceeding six months, or both. An
excess of interest above the legal rate may be re-
covered by an action at law, if brought in one
year from the time of payment.

294

MERCANTILE LAW.

Corporations cannot set up the defence of usury.

In case promissory notes and bills of exchange
do not specify the payment of interest, interest is
not allowable until maturity. But from the moment
they fall due, they bear interest, whether it be so
specified or not.

As a rule, compound interest is not allowable, but
a contract is not usurious or void because of a stipu-
lation for the payment of compound interest. The
courts, however, will not enforce its payment, when
the agreement is made before any interest has ac-
crued. If a debt already due has an accumulation
of interest not paid, the parties may agree to have
the principal and interest added together, and draw
interest.

Interest is not allowable upon unliquidated de-
mands for board and lodging, where price or time
of payment is not agreed upon between the parties.

A lender, whether banker or broker, can charge a
reasonable amount for his services in addition to
the interest, without being liable for usury.

Interest in advance is allowed under certain limi-
tations.

I^cir^dlofd cii\d ¥er(kr\t.

Leases for one year or less need no written agree-
ment. Leases for more than a year must be in
writing ; if for life, signed, sealed, and witnessed in
fhe same manner as any other important document.

Leases for over three years must be recorded. No
particular form is necessary.

If no agreement in writing for more than a year
can be produced, the tenant holds the property from
year to year at the will of the landlord. If there is
no agreement as to time, the tenant as a rule holds
from year to year.

In the City of New York, when the duration of
the occupation is not specified, the agreement shall
be held valid until the first day of the May follow-
ing the occupation under such agreement.

A tenancy at will may be terminated by giving
the tenant one month's notice in writing, requiring
him to remove from the premises occupied.

A landlord can no longer distress for rent in New
York, nor has any lien on the goods and chattels of
a tenant for rent due. Rent may be collected by
action after the removal of the tenant.

A tenant is not responsible for taxes, unless it is
so stated in the kase.

A lease falling into the hands of a party accident-
ally would be invalid, and must in all cases be de-
livered to the party for whom it is intended.

The tenant may underlet as much of the property
as he desires, unless it is expressly forbidden in the
lease. Tenants at will cannot underlet.

A lease made by a minor is not binding after the
minor has attained his majority. It binds the lessee,
however, unless the minor should release him.
Should the minor receive rent after attaining his ma-
jority, the lease will be thereby ratified. A lease
given by a guardian will not extend beyond the
majority of the ward. A new lease renders void a
former lease.

In case there are no writings, the tenancy begins
from the day possession is faken ; where there are
writings and the time of commencement is not
stated, the tenancy will be held to commence from
the date of said writings.

If a landlord consents to receive a substitute, the
former tenant is released.

I<iei\ I<kw^.

Any one who, as contractor, sub-contractor, or
laborer, performs any work, or furnishes any mate-
rials, in pursuance of, or in conformity with, any
agreement or contract with the owner, lessee, agent,
or one in possession of the property, toward the
erection, altering, improving, or repairing of any
building, shall have a lien for the value of such
labor or materials on the building or land on which
it stands, to the extent of the right, title and interest
of the owner, lessee or person in possession at the
time of the claimant's filing his notice with the clerk
of the County Court.

This notice should be filed within thirty days
after completion of the work, or the furnishing of
the materials, and should state the residence of the
claimant, the amount claimed, from whom due,
when due, and to whom due, the name of the person
against whom claimed, the name of the owner, lessee
or person in possession of the premises, with a brief
description of the latter.

Liens cease in one year after the filing of the
notice, unless an action is begun, or the lien is con-
tinued by an order of Court.

The following classes of persons are generally en-
titled to lien :

MERCANTILE LAW.

295

1. Bailees, who may perform labor and services
on the thing bailed, at the request of the bailor.

2. Innkeepers, upon the baggage of guests they
have accommodated.

3. Common carriers, upon goods carried, for the
amount of their freight and disbursements.

4. Venders, on the goods sold for payment of the
price where no credit has been expressly promised
or implied.

5. Agents, upon goods of their principals, for
advancements for the benefit of the latter.

6. All persons are entitled to the right of lien who
are compelled by law to receive property, and be-
stow labor or expense on the same.

The right of lien may be waived :

1. By express contract.

2. By neglect.

3. By new agreemejit.

4. By allowing change of possession.

5. By surrendering possession.

The manner of the enforcement of a lien, whether
it be an innkeeper's, agent's, carrier's factor's, etc. ,
depends wholly upon the nature and character of
the lien.

I^irqitktior^ of Sdtioq — ^Wl:\ei\ k
Debt i^ Outlkwed.

Actions upon judgments or decrees of a court, or
a contract under seal, or for the recovery of real
estate, must be commenced within a period of
twenty years from the date when the cause of action
accrued.

All actions upon unsealed contracts, express or
implied, become outlawed in six years.

Claims for damages to property become outlawed
in six years.

Claims for damages for injury to the person or
rights of another are outlawed in six years, except
in cases of personal injuries caused by negligence,
when the claim is outlawed in three years.

All actions for libel, slander, assault, battery, false
imprisonment, and for forfeitures or penalties to the
people of the State, are outlawed in two years.

Claims for the specific recovery of personal prop-
erty and on judgments of Courts not of record, are
outlawed in six years.

In the case enforcing the payment of a bill, note,

or other evidence of debt that may be issued by a
moneyed corporation, or to enforce the payment of
same issued or put in circulation as money, there
is no limitation of time to sue.

An acknowledgment or new promise cannot take a
contract or other liability out of the statute of out-
lawry, unless it be in writing.

A payment on account of principal or interest
takes the case out of the statute, without being in
writing.

JVikMage ki)d ©ivoi'de.

Marriage may be entered into by any two persons,
with the following exceptions : Idiots, lunatics, per-
sons of unsound mind, persons related by blood or
affinity within certain degrees prohibited by law,
infants under the age of consent, which is in New
York State 14 for males and 1 2 for females, and all
persons already married and not legally divorced.

Absolute divorce can be obtained in the State of
New York for adultery alone.

Limited divorce is granted on the following
grounds.

First — Idiocy or lunacy.

Second — Consent of either party having been
obtained by force, duress, or fraud.

Third — Want of age or physical incapacity.

Fourth — The former husband or wife of either
party being still living.

Fifth — Inhuman treatment, abandonment, ne-
glect, or failure on the part of the husband to
provide for the wife.

Sixth — Such conduct on the part of the defendant
as would render it dangerous for the plaintiff to
cohabit with the former.

JVfote^ ki^d SiU^ of i^x(5l\ki|^e.

Notes are, as a rule, entitled to three day's grace —
that is, the note is not payable till the third day
after the day expressed for its payment. Notes
made payable " on demand " are not entitled to
grace.

In the following cases there are no days of grace :

1. Bills of exchange or drafts, payable at sight
at any place within this State, shall be deemed due
and shall be payable on presentation, without the
allowance of any days, grace.

2. Checks, bills of exchange or drafts appearing

296

MERCANTILE LAW.

■■^

on their face to have been drawn upon any bank, or
banking association, or banker, carrying on banking
business under the act to authorize the business of
banking, which are on their face payable on any
specified day, or in any number of days after the
date or sight thereof, shall be deemed due and pay-
able on the day mentioned for payment of same,
without any days of grace being allowed ; nor shall
it be necessary to protest the same for non-
acceptance.

When the last of the days of grace falls on Sunday,
or any leading public holiday when general business
is suspended, the presentment for payment must be
made on the Saturday preceding the Sunday, or the
day preceding the holiday. Drawers and endorsers
should be notified not later than the following
Monday, or the day after the holiday.

As a general rule, the note or bill must be pre-
sented for payment on the last of the days of grace,
and the drawers and endorsers must be notified of
non-payment not later than the following day.

Notes and bills, when made payable to or at any
person's order and endorsed in blank, pass by
delivery.

The words " value received," though ordinarily
used, are not indispensable, as value is held to be
implied.

Notes do not bear interest except when it is so
stated. After maturity all notes bear legal interest.

The holder of a note that is made payable to or-
der, may sue in his own name.

A promissory note given by a minor is void.

The indorser of an accommodation is a surety for
the maker, and he is liable to the costs of collection
that may be brought against such maker or indorser.

Any promise to pay, without specifying the time
of payment, is equivalent to a promise to pay on de-
mand.

f^kfti\ef^l:\ij).

The general rule is that every person of sound
mind, and not otherwise restrained by law, may enter
into a contract of partnership.

There are several kinds of partners, which may be
classed as follows :

1. Ostensible partners, or those whose names are
made public as partners, and who in reality are
such, and who take all the benefits and risks.

2. Nominal partners, or those who appear before

the public as partners, but who have no real interest
in the business.

3. Dormant, or silent partners, or those whose
names are not known or do not appear as partners,
but who, nevertheless, have an interest in the busi-
ness.

4. Special partners, or those who are interested in
the business only to the amount of the capital they
have invested in it.

5. General partners, who manage the business,
while the capital, either in whole or in part, is sup-
plied by a special partner or partners. They
are liable for all the debts and contracts of the
firm.

A nominal partner renders himself liable for all
the debts and contracts of the firm.

A dormant partner, if it becomes known that he
has an interest, whether creditors trusted the firm
on his account or not, becomes liable equally with
the other partners.

The partnership firm is responsible for any acts
done by any partner, touching the partnership busi-
ness.

The representation or misrepresentation of any
fact made by any partner within the scope of the
business, is binding on the firm.

A notice to or by any of the firm is deemed a no-
tice to or by all of them.

Each partner is liable to third parties for the whole
partnership debts.

The articles of partnership must in all cases be
in writing.

It is not allowable to transact business in the name
of a partner not interested in his firm, and the des-
ignation " and Company," or " & Co.", when used,
must represent an actual partner or partners.

A violation of these provisions constitutes a mis-
demeanor, and is punishable by a fine not exceed-
ing $1,000.

The following are the exceptions to this rule :

I. Firms having business relations with foreign
countries.

.2. Firms that have transacted business in this
State for five years or more.

In the above cases, a certificate of the change in
the persons constituting the partnership, and declar-
ing the persons thus dealing under the partnership
name, shall be made and filed with the county clerk,
and published for four consecutive weeks in a news-

MERCANTILE LAW.

297 '

paper of the town which shall be the principal place
of business of such firm.

Should a firm fail to comply with these provisions,
the law would refuse to lend its aid to such a firm in
enforcing its contracts.

ii|ei|t oi\ 5<xedutioi).

The different States have different laws relative
to the property exempted by statute from attach-
ment and execution.

In the State of New York the {oUowing persoria/
property is exempt :

First. — All spinning-wheels, weaving-looms, and
stoves put up or kept for family use in any dwell-
ing-house, and one sewing-machine with appurte-
nances.

Second. — The family bible, family pictures, and
school-books used by or in the family, and books —
not exceeding fifty dollars in value — part of the
family library.

Third. — A pew or seat in church, used by the
iebtor or his family.

Fourth. — Ten sheep, with their fleeces, and the
yarn or cloth manufactured therefrom, together with
one cow and two swine, and the necessary food for
them.

Fifth, — All pork, beef, fish, flour, and vegetables
provided for family use ; and fuel, oil and candles
necessary for family for sixty days.

Sixth. — All necessary wearing apparel, beds, bed-
steads, and bedding for debtor and family ; all arms
and accoutrements required by law ; all necessary
cooking utensils ; one table, six chairs, six knives
and forks, six plates, six tea-cups and saucers, one
sugar-dish,, one milk-pot, one tea-pot, six spoons, one
crane with appendages, one pair of andirons, one
shovel and tongs, and all the tools and implements
of a mechanic necessary to carry on his trade, to
the value of twenty-five' dollars.

In addition to the above, when owned by a
householder or anybody having a family for which
he provides, the following exemptions are made.
All necessary household furniture, working tools,
professional instruments, furniture, and library ; a
team not worth over $250, and the food necessary
for such team for ninety days, except on executions

for purchase-money for such, or for wages of a do-
mestic in the family, in which case the debtor is not
entitled to the benefit of the exemptions ; lastly,
land not over a quarter of an acre set apart for bur-
ial-place and the vault thereon.

The following real property is exempted :

The lot and building thereon to the value of
one thousand dollars, owned and occupied as a
residence by the debtor. This exemption continues
after the death of the judgment-debtor for the ben-
efit of his widow and family, until the youngest child
becomes of age, and until the death of the widow,
on condition that one or more of the family occupy
the premises.

To be valid, the release of the exemption must be
in writing, subscribed by the householder, and ac-
knowledged in the same way as a conveyance of
real estate. No property is exempted from sale for
the non-payment of taxes, assessments, or a debt
contracted for the purchase-money of the property,
or contracted previous to the recording of the deed
as required by law.

If the sheriff holding the execution thinks the
property worth more than one thousand dollars, he
must summon six qualified jurors of his county, and
have the premises appraised and sold accordingly
within sixty days, unless the debtor pays meantime
the surplus over and above one thousand dollars.
In case the premises are sold, the debtor receives
one thousand dollars, the surplus going to the liq-
uidation of the debt.

f{ig]:\t^ of JVikfried Won|ei\.

Any and all property which a woman owns at her
marriage, together with the rents, issues, and profits
thereof, and the property that comes to her by descent,
devise, bequest, gift, or grant, or which she acquires
by her trade, business, labor, or services performed
on her separate account, shall, notwithstanding her
marriage, remain her sole and separate property, and
may be used, collected, and invested by her in her
own name, and shall not be subject to the inter-
ference or control of her husband, or be liable for
his debts, unless for such debts as may have been
contracted for the support of herself or children by
her as his agent. •

A married woman may likewise bargain, sell,
assign, transfer, and convey such property, and

(
"^^

298

MERCANTILE LAW.

enter into contracts regarding the same on her sepa-
rate trade, labor, or business with the like effect as
if she were unmarried. Her husband, however, is
not liable for such contracts, and they do not render
him or his property in any way liable therefor. She
may also sue and be sued in all matters having rela-
tion to her sole and separate property in the same
manner as if she were sole.

In the following cases a married woman's contract
may be enforced against her and her separate estate :

1. When the contract is created in or respecting
the carrying on of the trade or business of the wife.

2. When it relates to or is made for the benefit of
her sole or separate estate.

3. When the intention to charge the separate es-
tate is expressed in the contract creating the liability.

When a husband receives a principal sum of money
belonging to his wife, the law presumes he receives
it for her use, and he must account for it, or expend
it on her account by her authority or direction,
or that she gave it to him as a gift.

If he receives interest or income and spends it
with her knowledge and without objection, a gift
will be presumed from acquiescence.

Money received by a husband from his wife and
expended by him, under her direction, on his land,
in improving the home of the family, is a gift, and
cannot be recovered by the wife, or reclaimed, or an
account demanded.

An appropriation by a wife, herself, of her sepa-
rate property to the use and benefit of her husband,
in the absence of an agreement to repay, or any cir-
cumstances from which such an agreement can be
inferred, will not create the relation of debtor and
creditor, nor render the husband liable to account.

Though no words of gift be spoken, a gift by a
wife to her husband may be shown by the very
nature of the transaction, or appear from the attend-
ing circumstances.

A wife who causelessly deserts her husband is not
entitled to the aid of a Court of Equity in getting
possession of such chattels as she has contributed
to the furnishing and adornment of her husband's
house. Her legal title remains, and she could con-
vey her interest to a third party by sale, and said
party would have a good title, unless her husband
should prove a gift.

Wife's property is not liable to a lien of a sub-
contractor for materials furnished to the husband

for the erection of a building thereon, where it is not
shown that the wife was notified of the intention to
furnish the materials, or a settlement made with the
contractor and given to the wife, her agent or
trustee.

All persons of sound mind and proper age may
dispose of their property by last will and testament.
In some States minors may bequeath personal prop-
erty. The limitation for disposing of personal estate
by will is eighteen years for males and sixteen years
for females.

All wills must be made in writing and subscribed
with the testator's full name, unless the person be
prevented from so doing by the extremity of his last
illness, when his name may be signed in his presence,
and by his express direction.

A will requires at least two attesting witnesses.

The form of a will is not material provided it
manifests, in a sufficiently clear manner, the inten-
tion of the testator. It may be put in any language
he may choose.

A will may be revoked at any time by the testator.

The following are among the modes of revoking
a will :

First. By subsequent instrument. A second will
nullifies a former one, provided it contains words
expressly revoking it, or that it makes a different
and incompatible disposition of the property.

Second. By the destruction of the will.

Third. By marriage. Marriage, and the birth of
a child after the execution of a will, is a presump-
tive revocation of such will, provided wife and child
are left unprovided for.

The will of an unmarried woman is annulled by
her marriage. She may make a deed of settlement
of her estate, however, before marriage, empowering
her to retain the right to make a will after marriage.

Children born after the execution of the will, and
in the lifetime of the father, will inherit at the death
of the testator in like manner as if he had died
without making a will.

Fourth. By alteration of estate. Any alteration of
the estate or interest of the testator in the property
devised, implies a revocation of the will.

A sale of the devised property, or a valid agree-
ment to sell it, is a legal revocation of such will.

4--

-^.

MERCANTILE LAW.

299

A codicil, so far as it may be inconsistent with
the will, works as a revocation.

A subsequent will, duly executed, revokes all for-
mer wills, though no words to that effect may be used.

Property cannot be devised to corporations, unless
such corporations are expressly authorized to receive
bequests by its charter.

A will should not be written by a legatee or de-
visee, nor should either of them, or an executor, or
any one interested in the will be called upon to wit-
ness such will.

Aliens not authorized by law to hold property
cannot receive bequests.

All debts and incumbrances must be settled
before the bequests shall be distributed.

A codicil, that is an addition or supplement to a
will, must be executed with the same formalities as
the will itself. The witnesses may be the same or
different ones. When there are several codicils, the
later operate to revive and republish the earlier
ones.

S ^yi\op^i^ of tl\e f(iile^ of ft^6ti6Q iq tl^e lJi|ite(i ^tkte^ fktQ^t Offide.

CORRESPONDENCE.

)LL business with the
^ofifice should be transact-
ed in writing.
All office letters must be
ent in the name of the
Commissioner of Patents."
Express charges, freight,
^'postage, and all other charges
' on matter sent to the patent
office must be prepaid in full ;
otherwise it will not be
received.

The personal attendance of

applicants at the patent office

is unnecessary.

When a letter concerns an application, it should

state the name of the applicant, the title of the

invention, the serial number of the application, and

the date of filing the same.

When the letter concerns a patent, it should state
the name of the patentee, the title of the invention,
and the number and date of the patent.

Letters received at the office will be answered,
and orders for printed copies filled, without unneces-
sary delay. Telegrams, if not received before 3
o'clock p.m., cannot ordinarily be answered until the
following day.

ATTORNEYS.

Any person of intelligence and good moral
character may appear as the agent or the attorney
in fact of an applicant, upon filing a proper power of
attorney.

Before any attorney, original or associate, will be

allowed to inspect papers or take action of any kind
his power of attorney must be filed.

APPLICANTS.

A patent may be obtained by any person who has
invented or discovered any new and useful art,
machine, manufacture, or composition of matter, or
any new and useful improvement thereof, not known
or used by others in this country, and not patented
or described in any printed publication in this or
any foreign country, before his invention or discov-
ery thereof, and not in public use or on sale for more
than two years prior to his application, unless the
same is proved to have been abandoned ; and by any
person who, by his own industry, genius, efforts, and
expense, has invented and produced any ne\^( and
original design for a manufacture, bust, statute,
alto-relievo, or bas-relief, any new and original
design for the printing of woolen, silk, cot-
ton, or other fabrics ; any new and original impres-
sion, ornament, pattern, print, or picture to be
printed, painted, cast, or otherwise placed on or
Avorked into any article of manufacture ; or any new,
useful, and original shape or configuration of any
article of manufacture, the same not having been
known or used by others before his invention or pro-
duction thereof, nor patented or described in any
printed publication, upon payment of the fees
required by law and other due proceedings had.

In case of the death of the inventor, the applica-
tion may be made by, and the patent will issue to,
his executor or administrator. In such case the oath
will be made by the ex'ecutor or administrator.

In case of an assignment of the whole interest in
the invention, or of the whole interest in the patent
to be granted, the patent will, upon request of the

300

MERCANTILE LAW.

kr-

applicant or assignee, issue to the assignee ; and if
the assignee hold an undivided part interest, the
patent will, upon like request, issue jointly to the
inventor and the assignee ; but the assignment in
either case must first have been entered of record,
and at a day not later than the date of the payment
of the final fee. The application and oath must be
made by the actual inventor, if alive, even if the
patent is to issue to an assignee. If the inventor be
dead it may be made by the executor or adminis-
trator, or by the assignee of the entire interest.

THE APPLICATION.

Applications for letters patent of the United States
must be made to the Commissioner of Patents. A
complete application comprises the petition, specifi-
cation, oath, and drawings, and the model or speci-
men when required.

No application for a patent will be placed upon
the files for examination until all its parts, except the
model or specimen, are received,

THE SPECIFICATION.

The specification is a written description of the
invention or discovery, and of the manner and pro-
cess of making, constructing, compounding, and
using the same, and is required to be in such full,
clear, concise, and exact terms as to enable any per-
son skilled in the art or science to which it apper-
tains,* or with which it is most nearly connected, to
make, construct, compound, and use the same.
It must conclude with a specific and distinct claim
or claims of the part, improvement, or combination
which the applicant regards as his invention or dis-
covery.

The following order of arrangement should be
observed, when convenient, in framing the specifica-
tion, such portions as refer to drawings being omitted
■when the invention does not admit of representation
by drawings.

(i.) Preamble giving the name and residence of

the applicant, and the title of the invention ;
(2.) General statement of the object and nature

of the invention ;

(3.) Brief description of the drawings, showing

what each view represents ;.

(4.) Detailed description, explaining fully the

alleged invention, and the manner of constructing,

practicing, operating, and using it ;

(5 ) Claim, or claims.

(6.) Signature of inventor.

(7.) Signatures of two witnesses.
In every original application the applicant must
distinctly state, under oath, whether the invention
has been patented to himself or to others with his
consent or knowledge in any country.

THE OATH.

The applicant, if the inventor, must make oath or
affirmation that he does verily believe himself to
be the original and first inventor or discoverer of the
art, machine, manufacture, composition, or improve-
ment for which he solicits a patent, and that he does
not know and does not believe that the same was
ever before known or used ; and shall state of what
country he is a citizen, and where he resides.

If the application be made by an executor or
administrator, the form of the oath will be corre-
spondingly changed,

THE DRAWINGS.

The applicant for a patent is required by law to
furnish a drawing of his invention, where the nature
of the case admits of it.

(i.) Drawings must be made upon pure white
paper of a thickness corresponding to three-sheet
Bristol board. The surface of the paper must
be calendered and smooth, India ink alone
must be used, to secure perfectly black and solid
lines,

(2.) The size of a sheet on which a drawing is
made must be exactly 10 by 15 inches. One inch
from its edges a single marginal line is to be
drawn, leaving the " sight " precisely 8 by 13
inches. Within this margin all work and signa-
tures must be included.

(3.) All drawings must be made with the pen
only,

(4.) Drawings should be made with the fewest
lines possible consistent Vith clearness,

(5.) Letters and figures of reference must be
carefully formed. They must never appear upon
shaded surfaces, and, when it is difficult to avoid
this, a blank space must be left in the shading
Avhere the letter occurs, so that it shall appear per-
fectly distinct and separate from the work. If
the same part of an invention appear in more than
one view of the drawing it must always be repre-

MERCANTILE LAW.

3°

sented by the same character, and the same char-
acter must never be used to designate different
parts.

(6.) The signature of the inventor is to be
placed at the lower right-hand corner of the
sheet, and the signatures of the witnesses at the
lower left-hand corner, all within the marginal
line.

(7.) Drawings should be rolled for transmission
to the office, not folded.

Applicants are advised to employ competent artists
to make their drawings. The office will furnish the
drawings at cost, as promptly as its draughtsmen can
make them, for applicants who cannot otherwise
conveniently procure them.

THE MODEL.

The model must clearly exhibit every feature of
the machine which forms the subject of a claim of
invention, but should not include other matter than
that covered by the actual invention or improvement,
unless it is necessary to the exhibition of the inven-
tion in a working model.

A working model is often desirable, in order to
enable the office fully and readily to understand the
precise operation of the machine.

THE EXAMINATION.

All cases in the patent office are classified and
taken up for examination in regular order, those in
the same class being examined and disposed of, as
far as practicable, in the order in which the respec-
tive applications are completed.

AMENDMENTS AND ACTIONS BY
APPLICANTS.

The applicant has a right to amend before or after
the first rejection ; and he may amend as often as
the examiner presents any new references or reasons
for rejection.

When an original or reissue application is rejected
on reference to an expired or unexpired domestic
patent, which substantially shows or describes but
does not claim the rejected invention, or to a foreign
patent, or to a printed publication, and the applicant
shall make oath to facts showing a completion of the
invention before the filing of the application for the
domestic patent, or before the date of the foreign
patent, or before the date at which the printed pub-

lication was made, and shall also make oath that he
does not know and does not believe that the inven-
tion has been in public use or on sale in this coun-
try for more than two years prior to his application,
and that he has never abandoned the invention, then
the patent or publication cited will not bar the
grant of a patent to the applicant, except upon inter-
ference.

When an application is rejected on reference to an
expired or unexpired domestic patent which shows
or describes, but does not claim, the rejected inven-
tion, or to a foreign patent, or to a printed publica-
tion, or to facts within the personal knowledge of
an employe of the office, set forth in an affidavit of
such employe, or on the ground of public use or
sale, or upon a mode or capability of operation
attributed to a reference, or because the alleged
invention is held to be inoperative, or frivolous, or
injurious to public health or morals, affidavits or
depositions supporting or traversing these references
or objections may be received ; but they will be
received in no other cases, without special permis-
sion of the Commissioner.

If an applicant neglect to prosecute his applica-
tion for two years after the ' date when the last
official notice of any action by the office was mailed
to him, the application will be held to be abandoned.

DESIGNS.

Patents for designs are granted for the term of
three and one-half years, or for seven years, or for
fourteen years, as the applicant may, in his applica-
tion, elect.

When the design can be sufficiently represented
by drawings or photographs; a model will not be
required.

Whenever a photograph or an engraving is em-
ployed to illustrate the design it must be mounted
upon Bristol-board, 10 by 15 inches in size, and
properly signed and witnessed. The applicant will
be required to furnish ten extra copies of such
photograph or engraving (not mounted), of a size
not exceeding 7^ inches by 11,

REISSUES.

A reissue is granted to the original patentee, his
legal representatives, or the assignees of the entire
interest, when, by reason of a defective or insuffici-
ent specification, or by reason of the patentee claim-

302

MERCANTILE LAW.

ing as his invention or discovery more than he had
a right to claim as new, the original patent is
inoperative or invalid, provided the error has arisen
from inadvertence, accident, or mistake, and without
any fraudulent or deceptive intention.

INTERFERENCES.

An interference is a proceeding instituted for the
purpose of determining the question of priority of
invention between two or more parties claiming sub-
stantially the same patentable invention. The fact
that one of the parties has already obtained a patent
will not prevent an interference ; for, although the
Commissioner has no power to cancel a patent, he
may grant a patent for the same invention to another
person who proves to be the prior mventor.

Interferences will be declared in certain cases,
when all the parties claim substantially the same
patentable invention.

APPEALS.

Every applicant for a patent or the reissue of a
patent, any of the claims of whose application have
been twice rejected upon grounds involving the mer-
its of the invention, such as lack of novelty or utility,
abandonment, public use, or want of identity of
invention, either in amended or in reissue applica-
tions, may appeal from the decision of the primary
examiner to the board of examiners-in-chief, having
once paid a fee of ten dollars. The appeal must be
made in writing, signed by the party, or his duly
authorized agent or attorney, setting forth the points
of the decision upon which the appeal is taken and
duly filed.

HEARINGS AND INTERVIEWS.

Hearings will be had by the Commissioner at 10
o'clock a.m., and by the board of examiners-in-chief
and the examiner of interferences at i o'clock p.m.,
on the day appointed, unless some other hour be
specially designated.

DATE, DURATION, AND FORM OF
PATENTS.

Every patent will bear date as of a day not later
than six months from the time at which the applica-
tion was passed and allowed and notice thereof was
mailed to the applicant or his agent, if within that
period the final fee be paid to the Commissioner of

Patents, or if it be paid to the treasurer, or any oi
the assistant treasurers or designated depositaries of
the United States, and the certificate promptly for-
warded to the Commissioner of Patents ; and if the
final fee be not paid within that period, the patent
will be withheld.

A patent will not be antedated.

Every patent will contain a short title of the
invention or discovery, indicating its nature and
object, and a grant to the patentee, his heirs and
assigns, for the term of seventeen years, of the
exclusive right to make, use, and vend the invention
or discover)' throughout the United States and Terri-
tories thereof.

EXTENSIONS.

No patent granted since March 2, 1861, can be
extended, except by act of Congress.

CAVEATS.

A caveat, under the patent law, is a notice given
to the office of the caveator's claim as inventor, in
order to prevent the grant of a patent to another for
the same alleged invention upon an application filed
during the life of the caveat without notice to the
caveator.

Any citizen of the United States who has made a
new invention or discovery and desires further time
to mature the same, may, on payment of a fee of ten
dollars, file in the patent office a caveat setting forth
the object and the distinguishing characteristics of
the invention, and praying protection of his right
until he shall have matured his invention. Such
caveat shall be filed in the confidential archives of
the office and preserved in secrecy, and shall be
operative for the term of one year from the filing
thereof.

ASSIGNMENTS.

Every patent or any interest therein shall be
assignable in law by an instrument in writing ; and
the patentee or his assigns or legal representatives
may, in like manner, grant and convey an exclusive
right under his patent to the whole or ^ny specified
part of the United States.

OFFICE FEES.

Nearly all the fees payable to the patent office are
positively required by law to be paid in advance—

MERCANTILE LAW.

— ^
3°3

that is, upon making application for any action by
the office for which a fee is payable. For the sake
of uniformity and convenience, the remaining fees
will be required to be paid in the same manner.

The following is the schedule of fees : —
On filing every application for a design

patent $io oo

On issuing a design patent for three years

and six months no further charge.
On issuing a design patent for seven years . 5 00
On issuing a design patent for fourteen

years 20 00

On filing every cavea^ 10 00

On filing every application for a patent for

an invention or discovery 15 00

On issuing each original patent for an inven-
tion or discovery 20 00

On filing a disclaimer 10 00

On filing every appHcation for a reissue. ... 30 00
On filing every application for a division of

a reissue 30 00

On filing every application for an extension. 50 00

On the grant of every extension 50 00

On filing an appeal from a primary examiner

to the examiners-in-chief 10 00

On filing an appeal to the Commissioner

from the examiners-in-chief 20 00

For certified copies of patents or other in-
struments, except copies of printed patents
sold by the office, for every 100 words. . . 10

For certified copies of printed patents sold
by the office, 10 cents for every 100 words,
less the price actually paid for such copies
without certification.
For certified copies of drawings, the reason-
able cost of making them.
For recording an assignment of 300 words

or less I 00

For recording an assignment of more than

300 and not more than 1,000 words 2 00

For recording every assignment of more

than 1,000 words 3 00

For uncertified copies of the specifications
and accompanying drawings of all patents
which are in print : —

Single copies. 25

Twenty copies or more, whether of one or

several patents, per copy 10

For uncertified copies of the specifications

and drawings of patents not in print, the

reasonable cost of making the same.
For copies of matter in any foreign language,

per loo words , $0 20

For translations, per loo words 50

For assistance to attorneys in examination

of records, one hour or less 5G

Each additional hour 50

For assistance to attorneys in examination

of patents and other works in the Scientific

Library, one hour or less i 00

Each additional hour i 00

No person will be allowed to make copies or trac-
ings from the files or records of the office. Such
copies will be furnished, when ordered, at the rates
already specified.

The money required for office fees may be paid to
the Commissioner, or to the treasurer, or any of the
assistant treasurers of the United States, or to any
of the designated depositaries, national banks, or
receivers of public money, designated by the secre-
tary of the treasury for that purpose, who shall give
the depositor a receipt or certificate of deposit
therefor, which shall be transmitted to the patent
office. When this cannot be done without much
inconvenience, the money may be remitted by mail,
and in every such case the letter should state the
exact amount inclosed. Letters containing money
may be registered. Post-office money-orders now
afford a safe and convenient mode of transmitting
fees. All such orders should be made payable to the
" Commissioner of Patents."

All money sent by mail, either to or from the
patent office, will be at the risk of the sender.

REPAYMENT OF MONEY.

Money paid by actual mistake, such as a payment

in excess, or when not required by law, or by neglect

or misinformation on the part of the office, will be

refunded.

PUBLICATIONS.

The " Official Gazette," a weekly publication
which has been issued since 1872, takes the place
of the old " Patent-Office Report." It contains the
claims of all patents issued, including reissues, with
portions of the drawings selected to illustrate the
claims, and also lists of design patents, together with
decisions of the courts and of the Commissioner,
and other special matters of interest to inventors.

•*«<»
,**^

304

FORMS OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS.

GENERAL FORM OF AGREEMENT.

This Agreement, made the first day of May^ one thousand eight
hundred and eighty-two, between John Doe, of the cityoi Hart/ord,
in the county of Hartford^ and State of Connecticut ^ of the first part,
and Richard Roe, of the village of Windsor ^ in said county and State,
of the second part —

WITNESSETH, that the said John Doe, in consideration of the coven-
ants on the part of the party of the second part, hereinafter contained,
doth covenant and agree to and with the said Richard Roe, that \kere
insert the agreenterii on the part of John Doe\.

And the said Richard Roe, in consideration of the covenants on the
part of the party of the first part, doth covenant and agree to and with
the said John Doe, that \liere insert the agreement on the part of Riih-
ard Roe'].

In witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands and seals, the
day and year first above written.

Sealed and delivered,

in presence of

John Smith,

JOHN DOE. [l.s.1

RICHARD ROE. [l.s.]

Thos. Brown. J

[When required this clause may be inserted Z]

And it is further agreed, between the parties hereto, that the party
that shall fail to perform this agreement on his part, will pay to the
other the full sum of fifty dollars, as liquidated, fixed, and settled
damages.

AGREEMENT FOR THE PURCHASE OP A HOUSE
AND LOT

Memorandum of an agreement made this 15th day of November, in the
year 1882, between John Smith, Jeweler, of the city of New York', and
Henry Brown, Merciiant, of the same city, ■witnesseth—Tha.t the said
John Smith agrees to sell, and the said Henry Brown agrees to pur-
chase, for the price or consideration of • dollars, the house and lot

known and distiajuished as number ninety-nine, in street, in the

said city of New York. The possession of the property is to be deliv-
ered on the first day of May next, when twenty-five per cent, of the
purchase-money is to be paid in cash, and a bond and mortgage on the
premises, bearing seven per cent, interest, payable in five years (such
interest payable quarterly), is to be executed for the balance of the pur-
chase-money, at which time also a deed of conveyance in fee simple,
containing the usual full covenants and warranty is to be delivered,
executed by the said John Smith and wife, and the title made satisfac-
tory to the said Henry Brown ; it being understood that this agreement
shall be binding upon the heirs, executors, administrators, and assigns
of the respective parties ; and also that the said premises are now

insured for dollars, and, in case the said house should be burnt before

the said first day of May next, that the said John Smith shall hold the

said insurance in trust, and will then transfer the same to said Henry
Brown with the said deed.
In Witness, &c [as in General Form'].

AGREEMENT FOR THE SALE OF REAL ESTATE.

Articles of agreement made and entered into this day of

between A. B. of . of the one part, and C. D. of , of the other

part, as follows : The said A. B doth hereby agree with the said C. D. to

sell him the lot of ground [here describe it], for the sum of ; and that

he, the said A B., shall and will, on the —day of next, on receiving

from the said C. D. the said sum, at his own cost and expense, execute
a proper conveyance for the conveying and assuring the fee simple of
the said premises to the said C. D., free from all encumbrances, which
conveyance shall contain a general warranty and the usual full cove-
nants. And the said C. D. agrees with the said A. B that he, the said

C. D., shall and will, on the said day of next, and on execution

of such conveyance, pay unto the said A B. the sum of aforesaid.

And it is further agreed between the parties aforesaid, as follows;
The said A. B. shall have and retain the posses' ion of the property, and
receive and be entitled to the rents and profits thereof, until the said

day of next ; when, and upon delivery of the conveyance, the

possession is to be delivered to the said C. D. And it is understood that
the stipulations aforesaid are to apply to and to bind the heirs, executors,
and administrators of the respective parties. And incase of failure,

the parties bind themselves each unto the other in the sum of , which

they hereby consent to fix and liquidate the amount of damages to be
paid by the failing party for his non-performance.

In witness, &c. [as in General Form].

AGREEMENT FOR BUILDING A HOUSE.

Memorandi'm. — That on this day of , it is agreed between

A. B. and C. D ,of , in manner following, viz. : the said C.

D., for the considerations hereinafter mentioned, doth for himself, his
heirs, executors, and administrators, covenant with the said A. B., his
executors, administrators, and assigns, that he the said C. D. or his

assigns shall and will, within the space of next after the date

hereof, in a good and workmanlike manner, and at his own proper charge

and expense, at , well and substantially erect," build, and finish,

one house, or messuage, according to the draught, scheme, and explana-
tion hereunto annexed, with such stone, brick, timber, and other
materials, as the said A. B. or his assigns shall find and provide for the
same; In consideration whereof , the said A. B. doth for himself , his
executors, and administrators, covenant with the said CD., his
executors, administrators, and assigns, well and truly to pay unto
the said C. D., his executors, administrators, and assigns, the sum of
of lawful money of in manner f ollov/ing, viz. : part

'Sj

FORMS OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS.

305

-y

thereof at the beginning of the said work ; another part thereof

when the said work shall be half done; and the remaining in full

for the said work, when the same shall be completely finished : And
also that he, the said A. B-, his executors, administrators, or assigns,
shall and will from time to time, as the same small be required, at his
and their own proper expense, find and provide stone, brick, timber,
and other materials necessary for making, building, and finishing the
said house. And for the performance of all and every the articles and
agreements above mentioned, the said A. B. and C. D. do hereby bind
themselves, their executors, administrators, and assigns, each to the

other, in the penal sum of firmly by these presents.

In witness, &c. [as in General Forrn].

AGREEMENT TO BE SIGNED BY AN AUCTIONEER,
AFTER A SALE OF LAND AT AUCTION.

I HEREBY acknowledge that A. B. has been this day declared by me
the highest bidder and purchaser of [describe the land], at the sum of

. dollars [or, at the sum of dollars cents per acre or

foot] , and that he has paid into my hands the sum of , as a deposit,

and in part payment of the purchase money ; and I hereby agree that the
vender, C. D., shall in all respects fulfill the conditions of sale hereunto

annexed. Witness my band, at , on the day of , A. D.

1800.

J. S., Auctioneer,

ARTICLES OF COPARTNERSHIP.

Articles of copartnership made and concluded this day of

• , in the year one thousand eight hundred and sixty, by and

between A. B , bookseller, of the first part, and C. D., bookseller of the
second part, both of , in the county of .

Whereas, it is the intention of the said parties to form a copartner-
ship, for the purpose of carrymg on the retail business of booksellers
and stationers, for which purpose they have agreed on the following
terms and articles of agreement, to the faithful performance of which
they mutually bind and engage themselves each to the other, his execu-
tors and administrators.

First. The style of the said copartnership shall be " and com-
pany ;" and it shall continue for the term of years from the above

date, except in case of the death of either of the said parties within the
said term.

Second. The said A. B. and C. D. are the proprietors of the stock, a
schedule of which is contained m their stock book, in the propwrtion of
two thirds to the said A. B., and of one third to the said C. D. ; and the
said parties shall continue to be owners of their joint stock in the
same proportions ; and in case of any addition being made to the same
by mutual consent, the said A. B. shall advance two thirds, and the said
C. D. one third of the cost thereof.

Third. All profits which may accrue to the said partnership shall be
divided, and all losses happening to the said firm, whether from bad
debts, depreciation of goods, or any other cause or accident, and all
expenses of the business, shall be borne by the said parties in the afore-
said proportions of their interest in the said stock.

Fourth. The said C. D. shall devote and give all his time and atten-
tion to the business of the said firm as a salesman, and generally to the
care and superintendence of the store ; and the said A. B. shall devote
so much of his time as may be requisite, in advising, overseeing, and
directing the importation of books and other articles necessary to the
said business.

Fi/th. All the purchases, sales, transactions, and accounts of the
said firm shall be kept in regular books, which shall be always open to
the inspection of both parties and their legal representatives respec-
tively. An account of stock shall be taken, and an account between the
said parties shall be settled, as often as once in every year, and as much
oftener as cither partner may desire and in writing request.

Sixt.'i. Neither of the said parties shall subscribe any bond, sign or
endorse any note of hand, accept, sign, or endorse any draft or bill of
exchange, or assume any other liability, verbal or written, either in his
ov/n name or in the name of the firm, for the accommodation of any
other person or persons whatsoever, without the consent in writing of
the other party ; nor shall either party lend any of the funds of the
copartnership without such consent of the other partner.

Seventh. No importation, or large purchase of books or other things,

shall be made, nor any transaction out of the usual course of the retail
business shall be undertaken by either of the partners, without previous
consultation with, and the approbation of, the other partner.

Eighth. Neither party shall withdraw from the joint stock, at any
time, more than his share of the profits of the business then earned, nor
shall either party be entitled to interest on his share of the capital ; but
if, at the expiration of the year, a balance of profits be found due to
cither partner, he shall be at liberty to withdraw the said balance, or to
leave it in the business, provided the other partner consent thereto, and
in that case he shall be allowed interest on the said balance.

Ninth. At the expiration of the aforesaid term, or earlier dissolution
of this copartnership, if the said parties or their legal representatives
cannot agree in the division of the stock then on hand, the whole
copartnership effects, except the debts due to the firm, shall be sold at
public auction, at which both parties shall be at liberty to bid and pur-
chase like other individuals, and the proceeds shall be divided, after
payment of the debts of the firm, in the proportions aforesaid.

Tenth. For the purpose of securing the performance of the foregoing
agreements, it is agreed that either party, in case of any violation of
them or either of them by the other, shall have the right to dissolve this
copartnership forthwith, on his becoming informed of such violation.

In witness, &c. [as in General Form] .

AGREEMENT TO CONTINUE THE PARTNERSET? ;
TO BE ENDORSED ON THE BACK OF THE ORTGI-
NAL ARTICLES.

Whereas, the partnership evidenced by the within-written articies
has this day expired by the limitations contained therein [or, will expire

on the day of next], it is hereby agreed, that the same shah

be continued on the same terms, and with all the provisions and restric-
tions therein contained, for the further term of years from this

date [or from the day of next].

In witness, &c. [as in General Form],

DEED WITHOUT COVENANTS.

This indenture, made the day of , In the year of our Lord

one thousand , between A. B., of, &c., of the first part, and

C D., of, &c., of the second part, Witnesseth : That the said party of
the first part, for and in consideration of the sum of fifty dollars, to him
in hand paid, by the said party of the second part, the receipt whereof
is hereby acknowledged : hath bargained and sold, and by these pres-
ents doth bargain 'and sell, unto the said party of the second part, and
to his heirs and assigns forever, all, &c. [Here describe the property.}
Together with all and singular, the heraditaments and appurtenances
thereunto belonging, or in any wise appertaining, and the reversion and
reversions, remainder and remainders, rents, issues, and profits thereof;
and also all the estate, right, title, interest, claim, or demand, whatso-
ever of him the said party of the first part, either in law or equity, of,
in, and to, the above bargained premises, and every part and parcel
thereof : To have and to hold to the said party of the second part, his
heirs, and assigns, to the dole and only proper use, benefit, and behoof,
of the .said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns, forever.

In witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands and seals, the
day and year first above written.
Sealed and delivered J

in presence of ( A. B. [l. s.I

John Smith, (" C. D. [l. s.]

Frank Robinson. )

CONVEYANCES OF LANDS ON SALE £Y MORTGAGE.

This indenture, made the day of , in the year ,

between A. B., of, &c., of the one part, and C D., of, &c., of the other
part. Whereas, E. F., of, &c., did, by a certain indenture of mortgage

dated the day of , in the year , for the consideration

of , bargain and sell unto the said A. B., and to his heirs and

assigns forever, all that certain, &c. ; together with all and singular
the liereditaments and appurtenances thereunto belonging : To have '
and to hold the said granted and bargained premises, with the appur-
tenance?, unto the said A. B., his heirs and assigns, to the only proper
use and behoof of the said A. B.,his heirs and assigns forever; pro-
vided, nevertheless, and the said indenture of mortgage was thereby
declared to be upon condition, that if the said E. F., his heirs, executors,
or administrators, should well and truly pay unto the said A. B., his

306

FORMS OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS.

executors, administrators, or assigns, the just and full sum of ,

with lawful interest for the same, on or before the day of ,

in the year , according to the condition of a certain bond or

writing, obligatory, bearing even date with the said indenture of mort-
gage, that then, and in such case, the said indenture, and the said writ
ing obligatory, should be void and of no effect : and the said E F. did.
by the said indenture, for himself, his heirs and assigns, agree with the
said A. B. , his heirs, executors, administrators, and assigns, that in case it

should so happen, that the said sum of , and the interest for the

same, should be due and unpaid at the time limited for the payment
thereof, in the whole or in part thereof, that then it should and might
be lawful forthe said A. B., his heirs or assigns, at any time alter default
in payment, to bargain, sell, and dispose of the said mortgaged
premises, witli the appurtenances, at public vendue, and out of the
moneys to arise from the sale thereof, to retain and keep the said sum

of dollars, and the interest, or so much thereof as might be due,

together with the costs and charges of such sa.e. or sales, rendering the
overplus money, if any, to the said E. F., his heirs, executors, adminis-
trators, or assigns : And, whereas the said E. F. did not pay to the said
A. B. the said sum of money, with the interest, at the time limited for
payment, or at any time since : and the said A. B. hath, therefore, in
pursuance of the authority so given to him as ^foresaid, and according
to the statute in such case made and provided, caused the premises
to be advertised and sold at public auction : and the same has been

struck off to the said C. D., for , being the highest sum bid for the

same.

Now, therefore, this indenture witnesseth. that the said A. B., in pur.
suance of the power and statute aforesaid, and also for and in consid

erationof the said sum of . to him in hand paid, by the said C. D.,

at and before the ensealing and delivery hereof, the receipt whereof is
hereby acknowledged, hath granted, bargained, aliened, released, and
confirmed, and by these presents doth grant, bargain, sell, alien, release,
and confirm unto the said C. D., and to his heirs and assigns forever,
all the farm, piece, or parcel of land above mentioned, together with
the hereditaments and appurtenances, as the same is described and con-
veyed by said indenture of mortgage ; and all the estate, right, title,
interest, claim, and demand at law and in equity, of him the said A. B.,
and also of the said E. F., as far forth as the said A. B. hath power to
grant and convey the same, of, in, and to the prcniscs, and every part
aud parcel thereof : To have and to hold the said above granted and
bargained premises, with the appurtentnces, unto the said C. D., his
heirs and assigns, to the sole and only proper use and behoof of the said
C. D., his heirs and assigns, forever.

In v/itness, &c. [as in General Form oj Agreemenf\.

DEED OF GIFT OF PEESONAL ESTATE.

Know all men by these presents, that I, A. B., of, <ic., in consideration
of the natural love and affection which I have and bear for my son, C.
B., and also for divers other good causes and considerations. 1, the
said A. B., hereunto moving, have given, granted, and confirmed, end
by these presents, do give, grant and confirm unto the said C. B., all
and singular, my goods, chattels, leases, and personal estate whatsoever,
in whose hands, custody, or possession soever they be : To have, hold,
and enjoy, all and singular, the said goods, chattels, and persona!
estate, aforesaid, unto the said C. B., his executors, administrators, and
assigns, to the only proper use and behoof of the said C. B.. his execu-
tors, administrators, and assigns, forever. And I. the said A. B.. all
and singular, the said goods, chattels, personal estate, and other the
premises, to the said C. B.. his executors administrators, and assigns,
against me, the said A. B., my executors and admmistrators. and all
and every other person and persons, whatsoever, shall and will warrant,
and forever defend, by these presents ; of all and singular v.-hich saiJ
goods, chattels, personal estate, and other premises, I. the said A. B.,
have put the said C. B. in full possession, by delivering to him one
pewter dish, at the time of the sealing and delivery of these presents. In
the name of the whole premises hereby granted.

In witness, &c. \_as in General Form 0/ Agreement],

DEED OF GIFT BY A FATHER TO A SON OF HIS
PERSONAL PROPERTY. ON CONDITIONS.

This Indenture, made the, &c., between A. B ,of, &c., of the one part

and C. B. , of, &c., of the other part. Whereas, the said A. B., being the
father of the said C. B., by reason of his age and infirmities, is not capa-
ble of attending to his estate and affairs as formerly, and has therefore
agreed, for advancement of the said C. B., to make over his property
to the said C B., so that the said C. B. should pay the debts of the
said A. B.. and afford him a maintenance as is hereinafter mentioned :
Now this indenture Witnesseth^ That the said A. B., in crdei to carry
the said agreement into effect, and in consideration of the natural love
and affection which he hath for and towards his son, the said C. B.,
and of the provisoes, covenants, .ind agreements, hereinafter mentioned,
by the said C. B., to be observed and performed, hath given, granted,
bai'gained, sold, and assigned, and by these presents doth give, grant,
bargain, sell, and assign, unto the said C. B., his executors, adminstra-
tofs, and assigns, all and singular, his household goods and implements
of household, stock in trade, debts, rights, credits, and personal estate,
whereof he is now possessed, or any way interested in or entitled
unto, of what nature or kind soever the same are, or wheresoever or in
whosesoever hands they be or may be found, with their and every of
their rights, members, and appurtenances : To have and to hold the said
goods, household stuff, stock in trade, debts, rights, and personal
estate, and the other the premises, unto the said C. B., his executors,
administrators, and assigns, forever, without rendering any account or
being therefor in anywise accountable to the said A. B.,his heirs,
executors, or administrators, for the same.

And the said C. B.. for himself, his heirs, executors, and administrators,
doth covenant, promise, grant, and agree, to and with the said A. B.,
his executors, administrators, and assigns, in manner and form follow-
ing, that is to say: that he, the said C. B., his heirs, executors, and
administrators, shall and will, settle, pay, discharge, and satisfy, or
cause to be settled, paid, discharged, and satisfied, all accounts, debts,
judgments, and demands, of every nature and kind whatsoever, now
outstanding, against, or now due from or payable by the said A. B., 01
for the payment of which the said A. B. shali beiiable,or be held liable
either at law or equity, on account of any matter, cause, or thing hereto
fore had. suffered, done, or performed, and at all times hereafter, free,
discharge, and keep harmless, and indemnified, thesaid A. B., his heirs,
executors, administrators, from all and every such accounts, debts, judg-
ments, and demands, and from all actions, suits, and damages, that may
to him or them arise, by reason of the non-payment thereof ; and more-
over, that he. the said C. B., his heirs, executors, and administrators,
shall and will yearly, and every year, during the term of the natural life
of the said A. B., by four equal quarterly payments, the first to begin

on the day of next, well and truly pay, or cause to be paid,

to the said A. B., or his assigns, the sum of , for, of toward his

support and maintenance, or find or provide for him sufficient meat,
drink, washing, lodging, apparel, and attendance, suitable to his
state and situation, at the choice and election, from time to time, of the
said A. B.

Provided always, and upon this condition, and it is the true intent
and meaning of these presents, that if the said C. B., his heirs, exec-
utors, and administrators, shall neglect or refuse to pay the said accounts,
debts, judgments, and demands, according to his covenant aforesaid, or
shall suffer the said A. B. to be put to any cost, charge, trouble, or
expense, on account of the same, or shall neglect or refuse to pay the
said annual sum, in manner aforesaid, or to find and provide for thesaid
A. B., as aforesaid, that then, in all, any, or either of the cases afore-
said, it shall and may be lawful to and for the said A. B., all and
singula*-, the premises hereby granted to take, repossess, and enjoy, as
in his former estate.

In witness, &c. \as in General Form 0/ Agreement^.

MARRIAGE CERTIFICATE.

I, William Frazer, Minister of the Gospel and Rector of St. Paul's
Protestant Episcopal Church at Leopardston, Orange "County, and State
of New York, do hereby certify, that, on the fourth day of July, in the
year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty-two, at the
rectory of said church at Leopardston aforesaid, I joined together in
Koly Matrimony, John Smith, of the City, County, and State of New
York, and Julia Tompkins, of Fayvillc, in the State of Nev/ Jersey,
according to the forms and customs of said church to which I belong, in
the presence of Joseph Nipp, of said City of New York, and George Rog.
ers, of said Fayville, attesting witnesses thereto. I further certify, thai

FORMS OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS.

307

ihe said parties married by me as aforesaid, were personally known to
me (or, if not, "were satisfactorily proved by the oath of Joseph Nipp, a
person known to me ") to be the p)ersons described in this Certificate,
and that before I solemnized such marriage as aforesaid, I ascertained
that the said John Smith and Julia Tompkms were of sufficient age to
contract marriage ; and after due inquiry made by me at such time,
there appeared no lawful impiediment to such marriage.

William Frazer.

SAME BY A PUBLIC OFFICER.

This is to certify, that on the fourth day of August, 1882, I, John
Jones, Mayor of the City of Brooklyn, joined together in marriage, at
ny office, in said City.Charlss Jones, of Jamaica, Queen's County, and
Mary Briggs, of the City of Chicago and State of Illinois, according to
tV.e law in such case made and provided, in the presence of James
Burke, of the City of New York, and Charles Ambler, of Vonkers,
Westchester County, New York, attesting witnesses thereto. I further
certify (same as preceding form to end, altering names).

Given at my office, in said City of Brooklyn, the day and year above
mentioned.

John Jones, Mayor.

ARTICLE OF SEPARATION BETWEEN HUSBAND
AND WIFE.

This Indenture of three parts, made the day of , one

thousand eight hundred and , betwen A. B., of the city of ,

of the first part, and C. D., his wife, of the second part, and E. F.
trustee of the said C. D., of the third part : Whereas, divers disputes
and unhappy differences have arisen between the said party of the first
part, and his said wife, for which reason they have consented and agreed
to live separate and apart from each other during their natural life:
therefore, tiiis Indenture luitrtesseiA; That the said party of the first
part, in consideration of the premises, and in pursuance thereof, doth
hereby covenant, promise, and agree, to and with the said trustee, and
also to and with his said wife, that it shall and may be lawful for her,
his said wife, at all limes hereafter, to live separate and apart from him ;
and that he shall and will allow and permit her to reside and be in such
place and places, and in such family and families, and with such rela-
tions, friends, and other persons, and to follow and carry on such trade
or business as she may from lime to lime choose, or think fit to do ; and
that he shall not, or will at any time sue, or suffer her to be sued, for
living separate and apart from him, or compiel her to live with him, or
sue, molest, disturb, or trouble her for living separate and apart from him,
or any other person whomsoever, for receiving, entertaining, or harbor-
ing her: and that he will not. without her consent, visit her, or knowingly
enter any house or place where she shall dwell, reside, or be, or send,
or cause to be sent, any letter or message to her ; nor shall, or will, at
any lime hereafter, claim or demand any of her money, jewels, plate,
clothing, household goods, furniture, or stock in trade, which she now
hath in her power, custody or possession, or v/hich she shall
or may at any time hereafter have, buy, or procure, or which shall
be devised or given to her, or that she may otherwise acquire ; and that
she shall and may enjoy and absolutely dispose of the same, as if she
were a feme sole and unmarried ; and further, that the said party of the
first pan shall and will well and truly pay. or cause to be paid unto her,
his said wife, for and towards her better support and maintenance, the

yearly sum of dollars, free and clear of all charges and deductions

whatever, for, and during her natural life, at. or upon the first days of
January, April, July, and October, in each and every year during her
said natural life, which the said trustee doth hereby agree to take, in
full satisfaction for her support and maintenance, and all alimony what-
ever. And the said trustee, in consideration of the sum of one dollar,
to him duly paid, doth covenant and agree, to. and with the said party
of the first part, to indemnify and bear him harmless of, and from all
debts ^ his said wife, contracted, or that may hereafter be contracted
by her, or on her account ; and if the said party of the first part shall
be compelled to pay any such debt or debts, the said trustee hereby
agrees to repay the same on demand, to the said pany of the first part,
with all damage and loss that he may sustain thereby.

In witness, etc. {as in Marriage Setilement].

A WILL OF REAL ESTATE.
Thb last will and testament of A. C, &c. I, A. C, considering the

uncertainty of this mortal life, and being of sound mind and memory
(blessed be Almighty God for the same !), do make and publish this my
last will and testament, in manner and form following (that is to say) ;

First, Igiyeand bequeath unto my beloved wife, J. C, the sum of .

Item, I give and bequeath to my eldest son, G. C, the sum of .

Item, I give and bequeath unto my two youngest sons, J. C. and F. C ,
the sum of each. Item, 1 give and bequeath to my daughter-in-
law, S. H , widow, the sum cf ; which said several legacies or

sums of money I will and order to be paid to the said respective legatees,
within six months after my decease. I further give and devise to mj
said eldest son G. C, his heirs, and assigns, all that messuage or tene-
ment, situated, lying, and beinj in, &c., together with all my other
freehold estate whatsoever, to hold to him the said G. C, his heirs and
assigns, forever. And I hereby give and bequeath to my said younger
sons, J. C. and F. C, all my leasehold estate, of and in all those mes-
suages or tenements, with the appurtenances, situate, &c.. equally to
be divided between them. And lastly, as to all the rest, residue, and
remainder of my personal estate, goods, and chattels, of what kind and
nature soever, I give and bequeath the same to my said beloved wife,
J.C., whom lapfwint sole executrix, of this my last will and testament,
hereby revoking all former wills by me made.

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my band and seal, the

day of , in the year of our Lord one thousand .

A. C. [l. S.J

The above instrument, consisting of one sheet (or, of two sheets),
was now here subscribed by A. C, the testator, in the presence of each
of us ; and was at the same time declared by him to be his last will and
testament ; and we, at his request, sign our names hereto as attesting
witnesses

D. F., residing at , in County.

G. H., residing at , in County.

[Or, if the witnesses do not see the testator subscribe the will, it may be
attested by his acknowledgment in the /allowing- Jorm .']

The above instrument of one sheet {or, of two sheets) was, at the date
thereof, declared to us by the testator, A. C, to be his last ,vill and
testament ; and he then acknowledged to each of us, that he had sub-
scribed the same ; and we, at his request, sign our names hereto as
attesting witnesses.

D. F., residing at , in County.

G. H., residing at , in County.

CODICIL TO A WILL.

Whereas I, A. C, of, &c., have made my last will and testament in
writing, bearing date, &c. [and have thereby, &c., &c.]. Now I do by
this my writing, which 1 hereby declare to be a codicil to my said will,
to be taken as a part thereof [will and direct, &c., &c.], give and bequeath
to my niece M. S., one gold watch, one large diamond ring, and one
silver coffee-f)oi. And whereas, in and by my last will and testament,
I have given and bequeathed to my daughter-in-law G. H., the sum of

. I do hereby order and declare, that my will is that only the sum of

be paid unto her, in full of the said legacy I have as aforesaid

given and bequeathed unto her ; and that the remaining part of the
said legacy, be given and paid to my nephew E. G. And lastly, it is
my desire that this my present codicil be annexed to, and made a part of
my last will and testament, to all intents and purposes.

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this

day of , &c.

A. C. [L. s.]

The above instrument of one sheet was. at the date thereof, declared
to us by the testator, A C, to be a codicil to be annexed to his last will
and testament ; and he acknowledged, to each of us, that he had sub-
scribed the same ; and we, at his request, sign our names hereto as
attesting witnesses.

D. F., residing at , in County.

G. H., residing at , in County.

GENERAL FORM, DISPOSING OF BOTH REAL AND
PERSONAL ESTATE.

In the name of God, Amen. I, A. B , of, &c , being in good bodily
health, and of sound and disposing mind and memory, calling to mind
the frailty and uncertainty of human life, and being desirous of settling

3o8

FORMS OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS.

my worldly affairs, and directing how the estates with which it has
pleased God to bless me, shall be disposed of after my decease, while I
have strength and capacity so to do, do make and publish this my last
will and testament, hereby revoking and making null and voi^i all other
last wills and testaments by me heretofore made. And, first, I com-
mend my immortal being to Him who gave it, and my body to the earth,
to be buried with little expense or ostentation, by my executors herein-
after named.

And as to my worldly estate, and all the property, real, personal, or
mixed, of which I shall die seized and possessed, or to which I shall be
entitled at the time of my decease, I devise, bequeath, and dispose
thereof in the manner following, to wit :

Imprimis. My will is, that all my just debts and funeral charges
shall, by my executors hereinafter named, be paid out of my estate, as
soon after my decease as shall by them be found convenient.

Itevi. I give, devise, and bequeath to my beloved wile, C. B., all my
household furniture, and my library in my mansion or dwelling-house,
my pair of horses, coach, and chaise, and their harnesses ; and also fif-
teen thousand dollars, in money, to be paid to her by my executors
hereinafter named, within six months after my decease : To have and to
hold the same to her, and her executors, administrators, and assigns
forever. I also give to her the use, improvement, and income of my

dwelling-house, land, and its appurtenances, situated in , my

warehouse, land, and its appurtenances, situated in , to have and

to hold the same to her for and duiing her natural life.

Item. I give and bequeath to my honored mother, O. B., two thou-
sand dollars, in money, to be paid to her by my executors hereinafter
named, within six months after my decease ; to be for the sole use of
herself, her heirs, executors, administrators, and assigns.

Itvm. I give, devise, and bequeath to my son, E. B., the reversion or
remainder of my dwelling or mansion-house, land, and its appurte-
nances, situated in ,and all profit, income, and advantage that may

result therefrom, from and after the decease of my beloved wife, C. B. :
To have and to hold the same to him, the said E. B.,hisheirsand assigns,
from and after the decease of my said wife, to his and their use and
behoof forever.

Item. I give, devise, and bequeath to my son, F. B., the reversion or
remainder of my warehouse, land, and its appurtenances, situated in

, and all the profit, income, and advantage that may result therefrom,

from and after the decease of my beloved wife, C. B. : To have and to
hold the same to the said F. B.,his heirs and assigns, from and after the
decease of my said wife, to his and their use and behoof forever.

Item. All the rest and residue of my estate, real , personal, or mixed,
of which I shall die seized and possessed, or to which I shall be entitled
at the time of my decease, I give, devise, and bequeath, to be equally
divided to and among my said sons, E. B. and F. B. And,

Lastly. I do nominate and appoint my said sons, E. B. and F. B., to
be the executors of this my last will and testament.

In testimony, whereof, I, the said A. B., have to this my last will and
te.stament, contained on three sheets of paper, and to every sheet
thereof subscribed my name, and to this the last sheet thereof I have

here subscribed my name, and afhxed my seal, this day of ,

in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and .

A.B. [t,. s.l

This will must be attested in the same manner as in the preceding
forms.

DEVISE FROM A HUSBAND TO HIS "WIFE, OF AN
ESTATE FOR LIFE, IN LIEU OF DOWER;
REMAINDER TO HIS CHILDREN AS TENANTS IN
COMMON.

Item. I give and devise unto my said wife, all that my said messuage
or tenement, with the appurtenances, situate, &c., with the lands and
hereditaments thereunto belonging, and the rents, issues, and profits
thereof, for and during the term of her natural life ; and from and after
the decease of my said wife, I give and bequeath the said messuage or
tenement, lands, and hereditaments, unto such child or children, as I
shall leave or have living at the time of my decease, and to their heirs
and assigns forever, as tenants in common, and if I shall have no such
child or childSren, &c., then I give and devise, &c., which said legacy
given to my said wife as aforesaid, I hereby declare is intended to be.

and is so given to her, in full satisfaction and recompense of, and fo<
her dower and thirds, which she may, or can in any wise claim oi
demand out of my estate.

Itetn. I give and devise all the rest and residue of my estate, both
real and personal (not hereinbefore by me given and bequeathed), imto,
&c.

MORTGAGE OF LANDS BY HUSBAND AND WIFE.

This Indenture, made the-

- day of -

-, in the year of our Lord

one thousand eight hundred and , between F. F., of the city of New

York, merchant, and J. his wife, of the first part, and L. M., of said city,
merchant, of the second part, ■wilnesseth : That the said parties of the

fir^t part, for and in consideration of the sum of , lawful money

of the United States, to them in hand paid, the receipt whereof is hereby
acknowledged, have granted, bargained, sold, aliened, released, con-
veyed, and confirmed, and by these presents do gra.it, bargain, sell,
alien, release, convey, and confirm, unto the said party of the second
part, and to his assigns forever, all that certain lot, &c. ; together with
all and singular the hereditaments and appurtenances thereunto belong-
ing, or in any wise appertaining, and the reversion and reversions,
remainder and remainders, rents, issues, and profits thereof ; and also
all the estate, right, title, interest, dower, possession, claim, and demand
whatsoever, of the said parties of the first part, of, in. and to the same,
and every part thereof, with the appurtenances : To have and to hold the
said hereby granted premises, with the appurtenances, unto the said
party of the second part, his heirs, and assigns, to his and their only
proper use, benefit, and behoof forever. Provided always, and these
presents are upon this condition, that if the said parties of the first
part, their heirs, executors, administrators, or assigns, shall pay unto
the said party of the second part, his executors, administrators, or

assigns, the sum of , on or before the day of , which

will be in the year , with interest, according to the condition of a

bond of the said F. F., to the said L. M., bearing even date herewith,
then these presents shall become void, and the estate hereby granted
shall cease and utterly determine. But if default shall be made in the
payment of the said sum of money, or the interest, or of any part
thereof, at the time hereinbefore specified for the payment thereof,
the said parties of the first part, in such case, do hereby authorize and
fully empower the said parly of the second part, his executors, admin-
istrators, and assigns, to sell the said hereby granted premises, at public
auction, and convey the same to the purchaser, in fee simple, agreeably
to the act in such case made and provided, and out of the moneys aris-
ing from such sale, to retain the principal and interest which shall then
be due on the said bond, together with all costs and charges, and pay
the overplus (if any) to the said F. F., party of the first part, his heirs,
executors, administrators, or assigns.

In witness whereof, the parties to these presents have hereunto set
their hands and seals, the day and year first above written.

Sealed and delivered in I FRANCIS FOREST, [i-.s.]

the presence of f JULIA FOREST. [l.s.]

John Smith.

A MORTGAGE GIVEN FOR PART OF THE PUR-
CHASE MONEY OF LAND.

This Indenture, made the-

• day of , in the yearof our Lord

, between A. B., of the city of New York, merchant, of the first

part, and R. T., of the said city, esquire, of the second part, -jjitnesscth :
That the said party of the first part, for and in consideration of the sum
of three thousand dollars, lawful money of the United Sates, to him in
hand paid, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, hath granted
bargained, sold, aliened, released, conveyed, and confirmed, and by
these presents doth grant, bargain, sell, alien, release, convey, and con-
firm, unto the said party of the second part, and to His heirs and assigns
forever, all those three certain lots, pieces and parcels of land, situate,
lying, and being, &c. ; the said three lots of land being part of the pre-
mises this day conveyed to the said A. B. by the said R. T. and his
wife, and these presents are given to secure the payment of part of the
consideration money of the said premises ; together with all and singu-
lar the hereditaments and appurtenances thereunto belonging, or in any
wise appertaining, and the reversion and reversions, remainder and
remainders, rents, issues, and profits thereof, and also, all the estate,

FORMS OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS.

309

right, title, interest, dov/er, possession, claim, and demand whatsoever,
of the said party of the first part, of, in, and to the same, and every part
thereof, with the appurtenances. To have and to hold the said hereby
granted premises, with the appurtenances, unto the said party of the
second part, his heirs and assigns, to his and their only proper use, bene-
fit, and behoof forever. Provided always, and these presents are upon
this condition, that if the said party of the first part, his heirs, executors,
administrators, and assigns, shall pay unto the said party of the second
part, his executors, administrators, or assigns, the sum of three thousand

dollars, lawful money aforesaid, on or before the : day of next,

with interest thereon at the rate of six per cent, per annum, payable
half yearly, on the first days of May and November in each year, until the
\vhole principal sum shall be fully paid and satisfied, according to the con-
dition of the bond of the said A. B. to the said R. T., bearing even date
herewith, then these presents, and the estate hereby granted, shall cease
and be void. And if default shall be made in the payment of the said sum
of money, or the interest, or of any part thereof, at the time hereinbe-
fore specified for the payment thereof, the said party of the first part in
each case does hereby authorize and fully empower the said party of the
second part, his executors, administrators, and assigns, to sell the said
hereby granted premises at public auction, and convey the same to the
purchaser, in fee simple, according to law, and out of the moneys aris-
ing from such sale to retain the principal and interest which shall then
be due on the said bond, together with all the costs and charges, and the
overplus (if any) pay to the said party of the first part, his heirs, execu-
tors, administrators, and assigns. And it is also agreed, by and between
the parties to these presents, that until the payment of the said princi-
pal and interest moneys in full, it shall be lawful for the party of the
second part, his executors, administrators, or assigns, to keep the build-
ings erected, or to be erected, upon the lands above conveyed, insured
against loss or damage by fire, and these presents shall operate to secure
the repayment of the premium or premiums paid for effecting or con-
tinuing such insurance.

In witness, &c. [as in Mortgage 0/ Lands by Husband and Wife\.

MORTGAGE ON GOODS OR CHATTELS.

To all to whom these presents shall come : Know ye, that I, A. B., of

, party of the first part, for securing the payment of the money

hereinafter mentioned, and in consideration of the sum of one dollar to

me duly paid by C. D. of , of the second part, at or before the

ensealing and delivery of these presents, the receipt whereof is hereby
acknowledged, having bargained and sold, and by these presents do
grant, bargain, and sell unto the said party of the second part, tv/o bay
horses, and all other goods and chattels mentioned in the schedule here-
unto annexed, and now in the possession of ; to have and to hold

all and singular the goods and chattels above bargained and sold, or
intended so to be, unto the said party of the second part, his executors,
administrators, and assigns, forever. And I, the said party of the first
part, for myself, my heirs, executors, and administrators, all and singular,
the said goods and chattels above bargained and sold unto the said party
of the second part, his heirs, executors, administrators, and assigns,
against me, the said party of the first part, and against all and every
person or persons whomsoever, shall and will warrant and for ever
defend ; upon condition, that if I, the said party of the first part, shall
and do well and truly pay unto the said party of the second part, his

executors, administrators, or assigns, the full sum of dollars, on

*he day of next, according to the tenor and effect of a cer-
tain promissory note, bearing even date herewith, made by me in favor
of the said C. D., then these presents shall be void. And I, the said
party of the first part, for myself, my executors, administrators, and
assigns, do covenant and agree, to and with the said party of the second
part, his executors, administrators, and assigns, that in case default shall
be made in the payment of the said sum above mentioned, then it shall
and may be lawful for, and I, the said party of the first part, do hereby
authorize and empower the said party of the second part, his
executors, administrators, and assigns, with the aid and assistance of
any person or persons, to enter my dwelling-house, store, and other
premises, and such other place or places as the said goods or chattels
are, or may be placed, and take and carry away the said goods and chat-
tels, and to sell and dispose of the same for the best price they can
obtain ; and out of the money arising therefrom, to retain and pay the

said sum above mentioned, and all charges touching the same, render-
ing the overplus (if any) unto me, or to my executors, administrators,
or assigns. And until default be made in the payment of the said sum
of money I am to remain and continue in the quiet and peaceable posses-
sion of the said goods and chattels, and the full and free enjo5rment of
the same.

In witness, &c. \_as in Mortgage 0/ Lands by Husband and Wi/e\.

NATURALIZATION PAPERS.

DECLARATION OF INTENTION.

I, A. B., do declare, on oath, that it is bonajide my intention to become
a citizen of the United States, and to renounce forever all allegiance and
fidelity to all and any foreign prince, potentate, state, and sovereignty
whatever ; and particularly to Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland .

Sworn in open court, this I
day of , 18 — . )

I, L. T., clerk of the court of , do certify that the above

is a true copy of the original declaration of intention of A. B. to become
a citizen of the United States, remaining of record of my office.

In testimeny whereof, I have hereunto subscribed my name and affixed
the seal of the said court, the day of . one thousand

A.B.

[L. S.]

eight hundred and

L. T.

OATH OF ALIEN.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

«,J

State of New York
County of

A. B., being duly sworn, doth depose and say, that he is a resident in
the State of New York, and intends always to reside in the United States,
and to become a citizen thereof as soon as he can be naturalized, and
that he has taken such incipient measures as the laws of the United
States require, to enable him to obtain naturalization.

Sworn before me, the day of , i8 — .

J. S., Clerk of the U. S. District Court

CERTIFICATE OF CITIZENSHIP.

Be it remembered, that on the day of , in the year of our

Lord one thousand eight hundred and , A. B., late of Limerick,

Ireland, at present of the city of , in the State of , appeared

in the court of (the said court being a court of record,

having common-law jurisdiction, and a clerk and seal), and applied to
the said court to be admitted to become a citizen of the United States of
America, pursuant to the directions of the act of Congress of the United
States of America, entitled, " An act to establish an uniform rule of
naturalization, and to repeal the acts heretofore passed on that subject ;"
and also to an act entitled " An act in addition to an act, entitled, ' An
act to establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and to repeal the acts
heretofore passed on that subject ;' " and also to the " Act relative to
evidence in cases of naturalization," passed 116. March, 1816 ; and also
to an act entitled "An act in further addition to an act to establish an
uniform rule of naturalization, and to repeal the acts heretofore passed
on that subject," passed May 26, 1824. And the said A. B., having
thereupon produced to the court such evidence, made such declaration
and renunciation, and taken such oath, as are by the said acts required :

Thereupon it was ordered by the said court, that the said A. B. be
admitted, and he was accordingly admitted by the said court to be a
citizen of the United States of America.
In testimony whereof, the seal of the said court is hereunto affixed this

[l. s.] ^^^ °^ '" ^^^ y^^*" °"^ thousand eight hundred and

, and in the year of our independence.

Per curiam. L. T., Clerk.

POWER OF ATTORNEY TO COLLECT DEBTS.

Know all men by these presents, that I, A. B., of , have consti-
tuted, made, and appointed, and by these presents do constitute, make,

and appoint T. U., of , to be my true and lawful attorney, for me

and in my name and stead, and to my use, to ask, demand, sue for, levy,
recover, and receive, all such sum and suras of money, debts, rents,
goods, wares, dues, accounts, and other demands whatsoever, which

FORMS OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS.

are or shall be due, owing, payable, and belonging to me, or detained
from mc, in any manner of ways or means whatsoever, by I. K.. his
heirs, executors, and administrators, or any of them, giving and grant-
ing unto my said attorney, by these presents, my full and whole power,
strength, and authority, in and about the premises, to have, sue, and
take all lawful ways and means, in my name, for the recovery thereof ;
and upon the receipt of any such debts, dues, or sums of money afore-
said, acquittances, or other sufficient discharges, for me and in my name
to make, seal, and deliver ; and generally all and every other act and
acts, thing and things, device and devices, in the law whatsoever, need-
ful and necessary to be done in and about the premises, for me and in
my name to do, execute, and perform, as largely and amply, to all
intents and purposes, as I might or could do, if personally present, or
as the matter required more special authority than is herein given ; and
attorneys, one or more under him, for the purpose aforesaid, to make
and constitute, and again at pleasure to revoke, ratifying, allowing, and
holding, for firm and effectual, all and whatsoever my said attorney shall
lawfully do in and about the premises, by virtue hereof.
In witness, &c [as in Power of A tforney to Sell and Lease Lands'\ .

POWER TO RECEIVE A LEGACY.

Know all men by these presents, that whereas A. B., late of ,

deceased, by his last will and testament did give and bequeath unto

me, C. D., of , a legacy of , to be paid unto me on , of

which said will E. F., of , and C. H., of — , , are joint executors

as in and by the said will may appear : now know ye, that I, the said C.

D., have made, ordained, constituted, and appointed J. K., of ,

my true and lawful attorney, for me and in my name, and for my use
and benefit, to ask, demand, and receive, of and from the said E. F. and
G. H., the legacy given and bequeathed unto me, the said C. D , by the
said will of the said A. B., as aforesaid ; and upon receipt thereof by,
or payment thereof to, my said attorney, a general release or discharge
for the same to make, execute, and deliver ; hereby ratifying, confirm-
ing, and allowing whatsoever my said attorney shall lawfully do in the
premises.
In witness, &c.

STOCK POWER.

Know all men by these presents, that I, A. B., of , do hereby

make, constitute, and appomt C. D., of , my true and lawful

attorney^ for me and in my name to sell, transfer, and assign

shares of capital stock, standing in my name on the books of the Mer-
chants' Bank in the city of , with power also an attorney or

attorneys under him for that purpose to make and substitute, with like
power, and to do all lawful acts requisite for effecting the premises ;
hci-cby ratifying and confirming all that my said attorney or his substi-
tute or substitutes shall do therein by virtue of these presents.
In witness, &c.

TRANSFER OF STOCK.

Know all men by these presents, that I, C. D., of

-, for value

received, have bargained, sold, assigned, and transferred, and by these

presents do bargain, sell, assign, and transfer unto E. F., shares

of capital stock, standing in my name on the books of the Merchants'

Bank in the city of , and do hereby constitute and appoint A. B.,

of , my true and lawful attorney, irrevocable for me and in my

name and stead, but to his use, to sell, assign, transfer, and set over all
or any part of the said stock, and for that purpose to make and execute
all necessary acts of assignment and transfer, and one or more persons
to substitute with like full power ; hereby ratifying and confirming all
that my said attorney, or his substitute or substitutes, shall lawfully do
by virtue hereof.
In witness, &c.

POWER TO RECEIVE DIVIDEND.

Know all men by these presents, that I, A. B., of ,do authorize,

constitute, and appoint C. D. to receive from the cashier of the Mer-
chants' Bank of , the dividend now due to me on all stock stand-
ing to my name on the books of the said company, and receipt for the
same ; hereby ratifying and confirming all that may lawfully be done in
the premises by virtue hereof.

In witness, &c.

GENERAL RELEASE OF ALL DEMANDS.

Know all men by these presents, that I, A. E., of, &c., for and in con-
sideration of the sum of , to me paid by C. D., of, &c. (the receipt

whereof I do hereby acknowledge), have remised, released, and forever
discharged, and I do hereby, for myself, my heirs, executors, adminis-
trators, and assigns, remise, release, and forever discharg,- the said C
D., his heirs, executors, and administrators, of and from all debts,
demands, actions, and causes of action, which I now have, in law or
equity, or which may result from the existing state of things, from any
and all contracts, liabilities, doings, and omissions, from the beginning
of the world to this day.

In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this six-
teenth day of May, eighteen hundred and eighty- two.

JOHN SMITH. [L.S.]

AGREEMENT FOR A LEASE.

This agreement, made the day of , in the year eighteen'

hundred and eighty-two, between A. B. of , and C. D., of said

city, merchant, witnesseth. That A. B. agrees, by indenture, to be

executed on or before the day of next, to demise and let to

the said C. D. a certain house and lot in said city, now or late in the

occupation of E. F., known as No. — , in street, to hold to the said

C. D , his executors, administrators, and assigns, from the— day of

, aforesaid, for and during the term of three years, at or under the

clear yearly rent of dollars, payable quarterly, clear of all taxes

and deductions except the ground rent. In which lease there shall be
contained covenants on the part of the said C. D.,his executors, admin-
istrators, and assigns, to pay the rent (except in case the premises are
destroyed by fire, the rent is to cease until they are rebuilt by the said
A. B ), and to pay all taxes and assessments (except the ground rent) ;
to repair the premises (except damages by fire) ; not to carry on any
offensive business on the same (except by written permission of the said
A. B ) ; to deliver the same up at the end of the term, in good repair
(except damages by fire, aforesaid) ; with all other usual and reasonable
covenants, and a proviso for the re-entry of the said C. D., his heirs
and assigns, in case of the non-payment of the rent for the space of fif-
teen days after either of the said rent-days, or the non-performance of
any of the covenants. And there shall also be contained covenants en
the part of the said A. B., his heirs and assigns, for quiet enjoyment ;to
renew said lease, at the expiration of said term, for a further period cf
twenty-one years at the same rent, on the said C. D., his executors
administrators, or assigns, paying the said A. B., his executors, admin-
istrators, or assigns, the sum of five hundred dollars, as a premium for
such renewal ; and that in case of accidental fire, at any time during the
term, the said A. B. will forthwith proceed to put the premises in as
good repair as before such fire, the rent in the meantime to cease. And
the said C. D. hereby agrees to accept such lease on the terms aforesaid.
And it is mutually agreed, that the cost of this agreement, and of mak-
ing and recording said lease, and a counterpart thereof, shall be borne
by the said parties equally.

As witness our hands and seals, the day and year first above written.

In presence of i
J.S. j

A. B. [l. s.]
CD. U-M

LANDLORD'S AGREEMENT OF LEASE.

This is to certify, that I have, this day of , 1880, let and

rented unto Mr. C. D. my house and lot, known as No. — , in

street, in the city of , with the appurtenances, and the sole and

uninterrupted use and occupation thereof, for one year, to commence
the day of next, at the yearly rent of dollars, pay-
able quarterly, on the usual quarter-days ; rent to cease in case the
premises are destroyed by fire. A. B.

TENANT'S AGREEMENT.
This is to certify, that I have hired and taken from Mr. A. B. his

house and lot, known as No. — , in street, in the city of ,

with the appurtenances, for the term of one year, to commence the first

day of next, at the yearly rent of dollars, payable quarterly

on the usual quarter-days. And I do hereby promise to make punctual
payment of the rent in manner aforesaid, except in case the premises
become untenantable from fire or any other cause, when the rent is to
cease ; and do further promise to quit and surrender the premises, at

FORMS OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS.

311

the expiration of the term, in as good state and condition as reason-
able use and wear thereof will permit, damages by the elements
excepted.

Given under my hand and seal, the day of , i860.

In presence of I C. D. [l. s.]

J.S.

SECURITY FOR RENT.

In consideration of the letting of the premises above described, and
for the sum of one dollar, I do hereby become surety for the punctual
payment of the rent, and performance of the covenants in the above
written agreement mentioned, to be paid and performed by C. D., as
therein specified and expected ; and if any default shall be made therein
I do hereby promise and agree to pay unto Mr. A. B. such sum or sums
of money as will be sufficient to make up such deficiency, and fully
satisfy the conditions of the said agreement, without requiring any
notice of non-payment or proof of demand being made.

Given, &c. [as in Tenant'' s A^^eement].

TENANT'S AGREEMENT FOR A HOUSE, EMBRAC-
ING A MORTGAGE OF HIS CHATTELS.

This is to certify, that I, A. B., have hired and taken from C. D., the

premises known as No. — , in street, in the city of New York, for

the term of one year from the first day of May next, at the yearly rent
of six hundred dollars, payable quarterly. And I hereby promise to
make punctual payment of the rent in manner aforesaid, and quit and
surrender the premises at the expiration of said term, in as good state
and condition as reasonable use and wear thereof will permit, damages
by the elements excepted ; and engage not to let or underlet the whole
or any part of the said premises, or occupy the same for any business
deemed extra-hazardous on account of fire, without the written consent
of the landlord, under the penalty of forfeiture and damages. And I do
hereby mortgage and pledge all the personal property, of what kind
soever, which I shall at any time have on said premises, and whether
exempt by law from distress for rent or sale under execution, or not, to
the faithful performance of these covenants, hereby authorizing the
said C. D., or his assigns, to distrain upon and sell the same, in case of
any failure on my part to perform the said covenants, or any or either
of them.

Given, &c.

LANDLORD'S AGREEMENT.

This is to certify, that I, C. D., have let and rented unto A. B. the

premises known as No. — , in street, in the city of New York, for

the term of one year from the first day of May next, at the yearly rent
of six hundred dollars, payable quarterly. The premises are not to be
used or occupied for any business deemed extra-hazardous on account
of fire, nor shall the same, or any part thereof, be let or underlet, except
with the consent of the landlord in writing, under the penalty of for-
feiture and damages.

Given, &c.

AGREEMENT FOR PART OF A HOUSE.

Memorandum of an agreement entered into, the day of ,

1880, by and between A. B., of ,and C. D., of, &c., whereby the

said A. B. agrees to let, and the said C D. agrees to take, the rooms, or
apartments following, that is to say : an entire first floor and one room
in the attic story or garret, and a back kitchen and cellar opposite, with
the use of the yard for drying linen, or beating carpets or clothes, being
part of a house and premises in which the said A. B. now resides, situ-
ate and being in No. — , in street, in the city of , to have

and to hold the said rooms and apartments, and the use of the said yard
as aforesaid, for and during the term of half a year, to commence from
the day of , instant, at and for the yearly rent of dol-
lars, lawful money of the United States, payable monthly, by even and

equal portions, the first payment to be made on the day of

next ensuing the date thereof ; and it is further agreed that, at the expi-
ration of the said term of half a year, the said C. D. may hold, occupy,
and enjoy the said rooms or apartments, and have the use of the said
yard as aforesaid, from month to month, for so long a time as the said
C. D. and A. B. may and shall agree, at the rent above specified ; and

that each party be at liberty to quit possession on giving the other a
month's notice in writing. And it is also further agreed, that when the
said C. D. shall quit the premises, he shall leave them in as good condi-
tion and repair as they shall be in on his taking possession thereof,
reasonable wear excepted.
Witness, &c.

NOTICE TO QUIT, BY LANDLORD.

Please to take notice that you are hereby required to surrender and

deliver up possession of the house and lot known as No. — in

street, in the city of , which you now hold of me ; and to remove

therefrom on the first day of next, pursuant to the provisions of

the statute relating to the rights and duties of landlord and tenant.

Dated this day of , i83o.

To Mr. C. D. A. B., Landlord.

NOTICE TO aUIT, BY TENANT.

Please to take notice, that on the first day of May next I shall quit
possession and remove from the premises I now occupy, known as house
and lot No. — , in street, in the city of .

Dated this day of , i86o.

To Mr. A. B. Yours, &c., C. D.

THE LIKE WHERE THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE
TENANCY IS UNCERTAIN.

, Mr. C. D. — I hereby give you notice to quit, and deliver up on the

day of next the possession of the messuage or dwelling

house [or, rooms and apartments, or, farm lands and premises], with

the appurtenances, which you now hold of me, situate in the of

, in the county of , provided your tenancy originally com-
menced at that time of the year ; or otherwise, that you quit and deliver
up the possession of the said messuage, &c., at the end of the year of
your tenancy which shall expire next after the end of one half-year from
the time of your being served with this notice.
Dated, &c. [as in Notice to Quit, by Landlord].

NOTICE TO THE TENANT EITHER TO GUIT THE
PREMISES, OR TO PAY DOUBLE VALUE.

Sir : I hereby give you notice to quit, and yield up, on the day

of next, possession of the messuage, lands, tenements and hered-
itaments, which you now hold of me, situate at in the parish of

, and county of , in failure whereof I shall require and insist

upon double the value of the said premises, according to the statute in
such case made and provided.

Dated, &c. [as in Notiie to Quit, by Landlord].

OATH OF HOLDING OVER.

-^ss.

City OF

A. B., of said city, merchant, being duly sworn, doth depnjse and say,

that on or about the day of , the deponent rented unto C.

D., of said city, printer, the house and lot known as No. — , in

street, in said city, for the term of one year from the first day of May
then next, which said term has expired, and that the said C. D. or his
assigns hold over and continue in the possession of the said premises,
without the permission of this deponent.

Sworn before me, this day of . A. B.

O. P., Commissioner of Deeds.

ASSIGNMENT.

Know all men by these presents, that I, A. B., having become insolv-
ent, did, in conjunction with so many of my creditors, residing within
the United States, whose debts, in good faith, amount to two-thirds of
all the debts owing by me to creditors residing within the United States,

present a petition to the Hon. J. P. H., County Judge of county

[or, as the case may be], praying for relief, pursuant to the provisions
of the statute authorizing an insolvent debtor to be discharged from his
debts; whereupon the said Judge ordered notice to be given to all my
creditors to show cause, if any they had, before him, at a certain day
and place, why the prayer of the petitioner should not be granted ; which
notice was duly published, and no good cause appearing to the contrary,
he being satisfied that the proceedings were just and. fair, and that I

312

FORMS OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS.

had in all things conformed to those matters required by the said
statute, directed an assignment of all my estate to be made by me for
the benefit of all my creditors. Now, therefore, know ye, that, in con-
formity to the said direction, I have granted, released, assigned, and set
over, and by these presents, do grant, release, assign, and set over, unto
J. K , of, &c., and L. M., of, &c., assignees nominated to receive the
same, all my estate, real and personal, both in law and equity, in posses-
sion, reversion, or remainder, and all books, vouchers, and securities
relating thereto, to hold the same unto the said assignees, to and for the
use of all my creditors.

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal this

day of , in the year one thousand eight hundred and .

Sealed and delivered
in presence 1

G. H.

ivered I
of f

A. B. [l. s.]

NOTE WITH SURETY.

$100. New York, April 12, i83o.

Six months after date, I promise to pay John Thompson, or order,
one hundred dollars, value received. JOHN BROWN.

Geo. Smith, Surety.

AN UNNEGOTIABLE NOTE.

$1000. New York, April 10, 1880.

Three months after date, I promise to pay John Thompson one thou-
sand dollars, for value received. JAMES FOWLER.

A NEGOTIABLE NOTE.

$ieoo. New York, April 19, 1880.

Three months afterdate, I promise to pay John Thompson, or order,
one thousand dollars, for value received. JAMES FOWLER.

A NOTE, OR DUE BILIi, PAYABLE ON DEMAND.

$too. CiNXiNNATi, O., April 14, 1880.

On demand I promise to pay Charles Jones, or order, one hundred
dollars, for value received.

HENRY WARING, 120 State-street.

A NOTE BEARING INTEREST.

$100. New Orleans, La., May i, 1882.

Six months after date, I promise to pay George Robinson, or order,
one hundred dollars, with interest, for value received.

PHILIP REDMOND.

A NOTE PAYABLE BY INSTALMENTS.

$3ooO' Philadelphia, Pa., April 20, 1882.

For value received, I promise to pay Smith & Brown, or order, three
thousand dollars, in the manner following, viz. : one thousand dollars
in one year, one thousand dollars in two years, and one thousand dol-
lars in three years, with interest on all said sums, payable semi-
annually, without defalcation or discount.

HUGH FAULKNER, 120 Chcstnut-st.

SEALED NOTE.

$5°oo- Cleveland, O., May 8, 1882.

For value received, I promise to pay Smith & Edgar, or order, five
thousand dollars, in three years from the date hereof, with interest,
payable semi-annually, without defalcation or discount. And in case
of default of my payment of the interest or principal aforesaid with
punctuality, I hereby empower any attorney-at-law, to be appointed by
said Smith & Edgar, or their assigns, to appear in any court which said
Smith & Edgar, or their assigns, may select, and commence and prose-
cute a suit against me on said note, to confess judgment for all and
every part of the interest or principal on said note, in the payment of
which I may be delinquent.

Witness my hand and seal, this 8th day of June, A. D. 1882.

.„ ^ „ -,- JOHN DREW. [SEAL.]

Attest, George White.

DUE BILL, PAYABLE IN GOODS.

Due John Jones, or bearer, fifty dollars in merchandise, for value
received, payable on demand. THOMAS BOLAND.

New York, May 3, 1882.

ORDER FOR GOODS.

Mr. J. Tongue. New York, April 16, 1882.

Please pay John Jones, or order, one hundred dollars in merchandise,
and charge the same to account of HENRY WALFORD.

BILL OF EXCHANGE.

$1000. Hartford, Conn , April 20, 1882.

Thirty days after sight, pay to the order of Messrs. Jolm Smith &

Co. one thousand dollars, and charge the same to account of

RICHARD JAY.
To Messrs. Wilson & Rivers, New York.

A SET OF BILLS OF EXCHANGE.

No. 188.— Ex. ;C3oo- New York, April 26, 1882.

Three days after sight of this, my first of exchange (second and third
unpaid), pay to Charles Walker, or order, three hundred pounds ster-
ling, value received, and charge the some to account of

JOHN SMITH.

No. 188. — Ex. ;£3oo. New York, April 26, 1882.

Three days after sight of this, my second of exchange (first and third
unpaid), pay to Charles Walker, or order, three hundred pounds ster-
ling, value received, and charge the same to account of

JOHN SMITH.

No. 188.— Ex. ;^3oo. New York, April 8, 1882.

Three days after sight of thij, my third of exchange (first and sec-
ond unpaid), pay to Charles Walker, or order, three hundred pounds
sterling, value received, and charge the same to account of

JOHN SMITH.
MONEY ORDER.

Mr. Henry Denhis : New York, May 20, 1882.

Please pay Charles Robinson, or order, one hundred dollars, and
charge the same to account of JOSEPH DOYLE.

NOTICE OF NON-PAYMENT.

TO BE GIVEN TO THE DRAWER AND ENDORSERS.

New York, Feb. 26, 1882.

Please to take notice, that acertain bill of exchange, dated , for

$1000, drawn by , on and accepted by , of and by you

endorsed, was this day protested for non-payment, and the holders look
to you for the payment thereof. You's, &c..

To Mr. A. B. J. T., Notary Public.

RECEIPT IN FULL OF ALL DEMANDS.

$500. New York, March 28, 1882.

Received of John Smith five hundred dollars, in full of all demands
against him. WM. JONES.

RECEIPT ON ACCOUNT.

$100. New York, March 28, 1882.

Received of John Smith one hundred dollars, to apply on account.

WM. JONES.

RECEIPT FOR MONEY PAID FOR ANOTHER.

$100. New York, March 28, 1882.

Received of J. G. Wells one hundred dollars, in full of all demands
against John Smith. WM. JONES.

GENERAL FORM OF ASSIGNMENT.

TO BE WRITTEN OR ENDORSED ON THE BACK OF ANY INSTRUMENT.

Know all men by these presents, that I, the within-named A. B., in
consideration of one hundred dollars to me paid by C. D., have assigned

FORMS OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS.

313

to the said C. D., and his assiprns, all ray interest in the within written
Instrument, and every clause, article, or thing therein contained ; and 1
do hereby constitute the said C. D., my attorney, in my name, but to
his own use, and at his own risk and cost, to take all legal measures
which may be proper for the complete recovery and enjoyment of the
assigned premises, with power of substitution.

In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this
tenth day of May, one thousand eight hundred and sixty.

Executed and delivered I a r r i

in the presence of J ^- **• Lseal.j

ASSIGNMENT OF A LEASE.

Know all men by these presents, that I, the within-named A. B., the
lessee, for and in consideration of the sum of one thousand dollars, to
me in hand paid by C. D. , of, &c., at and before the sealing and delivery
hereof (the receipt whereof I do hereby acknowledge), have granted,
assigned, and set over, and by these presents do grant, assign, and set
over, unto the said C. D., his executors, administrators, and assigns
the within indenture of lease, and all that messuage, &c., thereby
demised, with the appurtenances ; and also all my estate, right, title,
term of years yet to come, claim, and demand whatsoever, of, in, to, or
out of the same. To have and to hold the said messuage, &c., unto the
said C. D., his executors, administrators, and assigns, for the residue of
the term within mentioned, under the yearly rent and covenants within
reserved and contained, on my part and behalf to be done, kept, and
performed.

In testimony, &c. [as in General Form 0/ Assignment].

ASSIGNMENT OF A MORTGAGE.

K.vow all men by these presents, that I, A. B. , the mortgagee within
named, for and in consideration of the sum of sixteen hundred dollars,
to me paid by C. D., of, &c.,at and before the sealing and delivery
hereof (the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged), have granted,
bargained, sold, assigned, and set over, and by these presents do grant,
bargain, sell, assign, and set over, unto the said C. D., his heirs, exec-
utors, administrators, and assigns, the within deed of mortgage, and
all my right and title to that messuage, &c., therein mentioned and
described, together with the original debt for which the said mortgage
was given, and all evidence thereof, and all the rights and appurtenances
thereunto belonging. To have and to hold all and singular the premises
hereby granted and assigned, or mentioned, or intended so to be, unto
the said C. D., his heirs and assigns, forever ; subject, nevertheless, to
the right and equity of redemption of the within named E. F.,his heirs
and assigns (if any they have), in the same.

In testimony, &c. [_as in General Form 0/ Assignment'].

ASSIGNMENT OF A PATENT.

Whereas, letters patent, bearing date day of , in the year

, were granted and issued by the government of the United States,

under the seal thereof, to A. B., of the town of , in the county of

. in the State of , for [here state the nature of the invention

in general terms, as in the patent], a more particular and full descrip-
tion whereof is annexed to the said letters patent in a schedule ; by
which letters patent the full and exclusive right and liberty of making
and using the said invention, and of vending the same to others to be
used, was granted to the said A. B., his heirs, executors, and adminis-
trators, or assigns, for the term of fourteen years from the said date :

Now know all men by these presents, that I, the said A. B., for and

in consideration of the sum of dollars, to me in hand paid (the

receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged), have granted, assigned, and
set over, and by these presents do grant, assign, and set over, unto C.

D., of the town of , in the county of , and State of ,

his executors, administrators, and assigns, forever, the said letters
patent, and all my right, title, and interest, in and to the said invention,
so granted unto me : To have and to hold the said letters patent and
invention, with all benefit, profit, and advantage thereof, unto the said
C. D., his executors, administrators, and assigns, in as full, ample, and
beneficial a manner, to all intents and purposes, as I, the said A. B., by
virtue of the said letters patent, may or might have or hold the same, if
this assignment had not been made, for and during all the rest and resi-
due of the said term of fourteen years.

In testimony, &c., [as in General Form 0/ Assignment.]

ASSIGNMENT OF A POLICY OF INSURANCE.

Know all men by these presents, that I, the within-named A. B., for

and in consideration of the sum of , to me paid by C. D., of, &c.

(the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged), have granted, sold,
assigned, transferred, and set over, and by these presents I do abso-
lutely grant, sell, assign, transfer, and set over to him, the said C. D.,
all my right, property, interest, claim, and demand in and to the within
policy of insurance, which have already arisen, or which may hereafter
arise thereon, with full power to use my name so far as may be neces-
sary to enable him fully to avail himself of the interest herein assigned,
or hereby intended to be assigned. The conveyance herein made, and
the powers hereby given, are for myself and my legal representatives to
said C. D. and his legal representatives.

In testimony, &c. [as in General Form o/" Assignment].

ASSIGNMENT OF DEMAND FOR WAGES OR DEBT.

In consideration of $100 to me in hand paid by M. D., of the city of
-,the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged,!, L. C, of the same

place, have sold, and by these presents dc sell, assign, transfer, and set
over, unto the said M. D., a certain debt due from N. E., amounting to
the sum of $150, for work, labor, and services, by me performed for the
said N. E. (or for goods sold and delivered to the said N. E.), with full
power to sue for, collect, and discharge, or sell and assign the same in
my name or otherwise, but at his own cost and charges ; and I do
hereby covenant that the said sum of $150 is justly due as aforesaid, and
that I have not done and will not do any act to hinder or prevent the
collection of the same by the said M. D.
Witness my hand, this April loth, 1863.

L. C.

ASSIGNMENT OF ACCOUNT ENDORSED THEREON.

In consideration of $1, value received, I hereby sell and assign
to M. D. the within account which is justly due from the within named
N. E,, and I hereby authorize the said M. D. to collect the same.

L. C.

Troy, April loth, 1863.

BOND TO A CORPORATION.

Know all men by these presents, that I, A. B., of, &c., am held and

firmly bound unto the Insurance Company, in the sum of one

thousand dollars, lawful money of the United States, to be paid to the

said Insurance Company or assigns ; for which payment, well

and truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, executors, and adminis-
trators, firmly by these presents.

Sealed with my seal. Dated the day of , one thousand

eight hundred and .

The condition of the above obligation is such, that if the above
bounden A. B., his heirs, executors, or administrators, shall well and

truly pay, or cause to be paid unto the above named Insurance

Company, or assigns, the just and full sum, &c. [as in Common Bend],

COMMON CHATTEL MORTGAGE.

This Indenture, made the day of, &c., between A. B., of, &c.,

of the first part, and C. D., of, &c., of the second part, witnesseth .-

That the said party of the first part, in consideration of the sum of

dollars, to him duly paid, hath sold, and by these presents doth grant
and convey, to the said party of the second part, and his assigns, the
following described goods, chattels, and property [kere describe them.,
or refer to thejn thus, " as in the schedule annexed "], now in my ix)s-
session, at the of aforesaid ; together with the appurte-
nances, and all the estate, title, and interest of the said party of the first
part therein. This grant is intended as a security for the payment of
one hundred and fifty dollars, with interest, on or before the expiration
of one year from the date hereof ; and the additional sum of one hun-
dred and sixty dollars, with interest, on the day of , 18 — ;

which payments, if duly made, will render this conveyance void.

In witness, &c. [as in Bill of Sale and Chattel Mortgage]

^
-<%.

314

GOVERNMENT BONDS.

OVERNMENT Bonds
are quoted and dealt in
at the Stock Exchange,
but the principal trans-
actions take place in the
offices of the large dealers,
with whom parties desiring
to invest in or dispose of
bonds may transact their
business either in person or
through a broker. The
dealers are ordinarily pre-
pared to buy and sell either
large or small amounts at
the current quotations.

This mode of dealing greatly facilitates transac-
tions in Government bonds, and adds to their desir-
ability and convenience for investment ; as it enables
the investor to purchase the bonds for immediate
delivery, or to convert them into money at once, and
also to ascertain, before he buys or sells, just what
price he must pay or will receive, instead of taking
the chances of an order to buy or sell at the market
prices, or at a fixed limit at the Stock Exchange.

The difference between the prices at which the
dealer is prepared to buy or sell the more active
bonds, on a steady market, is usually one-eighth

of one per cent., with occasionally wider varia-
tions.

All the different issues of Government bonds now
outstanding arc in registered form, except the Fours
and Four-and-a-halfs, which are both coupon and
registered.

Coupon bonds, at times, sell higher than regis-
tered bonds of the same issue ; the difference in
price in their favor occurring, for the most part,
when United States bonds are in demand in Euro-
pean markets, and for the reason that registered
bonds are not taken for the English and German
markets, except to a very limited extent.

When bonds are not being sent abroad, and the
demand is for home investment exclusively, the price
of the registered bonds approximates more nearly or
becomes equal to, or a little higher than, that of the
coupon bonds.

Registered bonds rarely sell more than one-eighth
of one per cent, higher than coupon bonds, for the
reason that the latter can always be converted into
the former at the bare cost of forwarding them to
the Treasury Department for that purpose.

The Currency Sixes derive their name from the
fact that the interest on them is made payable in
" United States Treasury notes or any other money
or currency which the United States have, or shall
declare lawful money and a legal tender."

All the other issues of bonds derive the names by^

GOVERNMENT BONDS.

315

which they are known from the rates of interest
which they bear, or which they bore when originally
issued.

All the issues of United States bonds now out-
standing, except the Currency Sixes, are payable in
coin, either by the express terms of the Acts under
which they are issued, or by the pledge of the faith
of the United States in the *' Public Credit Act " of
March 18, 1869.

The Currency Sixes having fixed periods to run
of from thirteen to seventeen years, with no option
on the part of the Government to call them in be-
fore maturity, are, for this reason, desirable for long
investment for Savings Banks, estates, trust funds
and banking purposes.

The Three-and-a-half-per-cent. bonds, continued
from Sixes of 1881, and known as " Continued
Sixes," are now being called in from time to time,
and will probably all be paid off from the surplus
revenue, within the next two years.

The Three-and-a-half-per-cent. bonds, continued
from Fives of i88i, and known as " Continued
Fives," are pretty certain to remain undisturbed for
several years, unless the holders are offered in the
meantime, by new legislation, the advantage of ex-
changing them for bonds having a definite time to
run, as an equivalent for a somewhat lower rate of
interest.

The Four-and-a-half-per-cents have still nine
years to run ; but the Four-per-cents, having twenty-
five years to run, must be considered as the most
desirable for permanent investment of any of the
issues now outstanding, unless the avoidance of the
high premium is desired, in which case the Contin-
ued Fives will be most suitable.

COUPON BONDS.

Coupon bonds, being payable to bearer, pass by
delivery without assignment, and are therefore more
convenient for sale and delivery than registered
bonds, which must be assigned by the party in
whose name they arc registered. The interest cou-
pons being also payable to the bearer upon presen-
tation at any Sub-Treasury of the United States, the
holder of coupon bonds may collect his interest
without the necessity of personal identification.

The difficulty of holding coupon bonds with safety
by parties not provided with burglar proof safes or
vaults of their own, has been, to a considerable ex-

tent, removed by the establishment of " Safe Deposit
Companies," who undertake, for a moderate com-
pensation, the custody of securities, under the most
favorable conditions for securing absolute safety.

Coupon bonds may be converted into registered
bonds of the same issue, at the Treasury Depart-
ment in Washington, but there is no provision of
law for converting registered bonds into coupon
bonds.

Coupon bonds forwarded to the Treasury Depart-
ment for conversion into registered bonds should be
addressed to " The Secretary of the Treasury,
Washington, D. C. ; " except in case they are for-
warded by a National Bank, or for account of a
National Bank, to secure deposits or circulation ; in
which case, if they are to secure deposits, they
should be sent to "The Treasurer of the U. S.;"
or, if they are to secure circulation, to " The Comp-
troller of the Currency."

REGISTERED BONDS.

Registered bonds are issued without interest cou-
pons, and are filled up in the name of the registered
owner, payable to him or his assigns. They are reg-
istered on the books of the Treasury Department in
the name of the party to whom they are filled up,
and are not available to any other person until prop-
erly assigned or transferred by the registered owner.

If registered bonds are lost or stolen, payment
may be stopped by notifying the Treasury Depart-
ment at Washington, as detailed in Chapter VI.

For this reason, registered bonds afford greater
security in case of loss, theft or destruction than
coupon bonds, and are therefore preferable for long
or permanent investment, and for investors who
have not the proper facilities for the safe keeping of
coupon bonds. ■

ASSIGNMENT.

Registered bonds are transferable on the books of
the Treasury Department at Washington, when for-
warded there with a proper assignment filled up and
executed in accordance with a form printed on
the back of the bonds. When a transfer is made,
the old bond is cancelled and a new one issued in
the name of the party to whom it has been trans-
ferred.

As the interest on registered bonds, as it becomes
due, is sent by check to the owner, at his post-office

316

GOVERNMENT BONDS.

-y

address, this address should be given with each
order.

An executor, administrator, trustee, guardian, or
attorney cannot assign bonds to himself, unless he is
specially authorized to do so by a court possessing
jurisdiction of the matter.

Registered bonds forwarded to tlie Treasury De-
partment for transfer should be addressed to " The
Register of the Treasury, Washington, D. C," ex-
cept in case they are forwarded by a National Bank
or for account of a National Bank, to secure de-
posits or circulation, when the instructions contained
in the succeeding chapter should be followed.

QUOTATIONS.

All Government Bonds are dealt in and quoted
flat — that is to say, the quoted market price is for
the bond as it stands at the time, including the ac-
crued interest, except that after the closing of the
transfer books the registered bonds are quoted ex-
interest — that is to say, the interest then coming due
belongs to the holder of the bond at the time of the
closing of the books, and does not go with the bond
to the purchaser.

In comparing the prices of the coupon and regis-
tered bonds during the period in which the transfer
books remain closed, it should be remembered that
during that time the quoted price of the coupon
bonds includes the accrued interest falling due on
the first of the ensuing month, while that of the reg-
istered bonds does not. If the market value of the
registered and coupon bonds at the time is the same,
the difference in the quoted prices of the two will be
equal to the value of the interest included in the
one and not in the other. For example : If, in the
month of December, when the books are closed pre-
paratory to the payment of the interest due January
ist, the coupon Four-per-cents are quoted at 118,
the equivalent for the registered bonds of the same

issue would be 117, the three months' interest being
equal to one per cent.

RATES OF INTEREST AND DENOM-
INATIONS.

The interest on the different issues of Govern-
ment bonds now in circulation is payable as follows
— viz.:.

Currency Sixes 6 p>er cent., semi-annually, January i and July i

January i and July i
j February i and May i

Continued Sixes of i88i..3>^ "
Continued Fives of iS8i.3>^ "

quarterly.

Four-and-a-half-per-cts.4J^ "
Four-per-cents 4 "

' August I and Nov.

J March i and June i

' Sept. I and Dec. 1

J January i and April i

' July I and October 1

The only coupon bonds are in the Four- and the
Four-and-a-half-per-cent loans. They are in de-
nominations of $50, $100, $500, and $1,000.

There are registered bonds of all issues. They are
in denominations of $50, $100, $500, $1,000, $5,000
and $10,000, except that of the Currency Sixes
there are none of a less denomination than $1,000.

Of the funded loans, viz., the Five-per-cents
(continued at 3^ per cent.), the Four-and-a-half-per-
cents, and the Four-per-cents, there are, in addition
to the above, registered bonds of the denomination
of $20,000 and $50,000.

It is not generally advisable to have bonds regis-
tered in higher denominations than $10,000, as they
will not bring as good a price in the market in
case of sale. The highest denomination which is a
good delivery at the New York Stock Exchange is
$10,000

CALLED BONDS.

Bonds concerning which the Government has ex-
ercised its option of redemption, and givei\ notice
that they will cease to bear interest after a certain
date, are designated as *' called bonds."

DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS.

317

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tiC. 'uL* *2L^'*1

^4W TEB-^^'

(abandonment. The relinquishing to the under-
writers, under an insurance, of all the property saved
from a wreck, in order to entitle the insured to claim for
a total loss.

Abate. To break down,, destroy, or remove ; as, for
instance, to abate (remove or put an end to) a nuisance.
Abduction. The unlawful taking or detention of a
woman (having property in possession or expectancy) against
her will, with the intention of procuring her marriage or de-
filement. Also the unlawful taking of an unmarried girl, un-
der the age of sixteen years, out of the fKJSsession, and
against the will of, the father, or other person having the lawful care of
her, although done without force or corrupt motives. The former is a
felony, and the latter a misdemeanor.

Abettor. A person who encourages or excites another to commit an
offence punishable by law.

Abeyance. The fee simple of lands is in abeyance when there is no
person in being in whom it can vest, so that it is in a state of expectancy
or waiting until a proper person shall appear, or the right thereto is
determined. The same applies to digfnities or offices.

Abjuration (oath of). An oath disclaiming any right in the pre-
tender to the British throne, and also the jurisdiction and authority of
the pope or any other foreign prince within this realm.

Abortion. The offence of procuring the miscarriage of a woman
quick with child.

Abstract of Title. An epitome of the deeds and documents consti-
tuting the evidence of title to an estate.

Acceptance. The act by which a person on whom a bill of exchange
is drawn undertakes to pay it at maturity. The bill of exchange itself is
sometimes called, in common parlance, an acceptance.

Accessory. A person concerned in a felonious offence, although not
the actual perpetrator, nor present at its performance. He may be
accessory either before or after the fact.

Accommodation Bill. A bill of exchange accepted without value,
for the purpose of raising money thereon by discount.
Account Stated. An account closed or balanced.
Acknowledgment by a Married 'Woman. A ceremony gone through
by a married woman to enable her to convey her interest in land, and
which has been substituted for^he old process of a fine.

Action. The method of demanding the enforcement of a legal
right, and procuring redress for a civil injury in the courts of common
Aw.

Act of Parliament. See Statutes.

Acts of Bankruptcy are numerous — such as keeping out of the way
to avoid a creditor, etc.

Addition. The title, degree, profession, or business, jind also the
place of abode of a person.

Adjudication. In England, the act of giving judgment, as, for in-
stance, when a bankruptcy judge finds a party bankrupt, it is called the
Adjudication. In Scotland it is applied to the law whereby a creditor
attaches the property of his debtor, and has different sigfnifications
according to the nature of the property attached.

Administrator. He that has the goods of a person dying without a
will committed to his care, for the purpose of legal distribution. The
nearest of kin is entitled to administration.

Admiralty (Court of), has cognizance of all civil (but not now, as it
had formerly, of criminal) matters, arising on the high seas, or on those
parts of the coast which are not within the limits of an English county.
— Also of prize cases. Criminal matters are triable before the ordinary
assize courts of the nearest English county.

Ad Valorem. Stamp duties, the amount of which is regulated ac-
cording to the value of the property, etc., are so termed.

Advowson. The right of presentation to an ecclesiastical benefice.
He who possesses this right is styled the patron. Advowsons are of
three kinds, presentative, collative, or donative.

Affidavit. A written statement upon oath. It must be sworn before
a person authorized to administer oaths ; who that is, depends upon
what the affidavit relates to. The same officer is not usually empow-
ered to administer oaths in all the courts.

Affinity. Relation by marriage between the husband or wife and
the blood relations of either ; but not between the husband and wifa
themselves.

Affirmation. A solemn declaration in lieu of an oath.

A Fortiori. By so much stronger reason.

Agent. A person appointed to do an act for another. The act when
performed is, in law, the act of the principal ; the maxim being " qui
facit peralium facit per se."

Agistment. Where cattle are taken in to pasture; from agiser, i. e.,
levant and couchant.

Alderman. Literally, an elder man. In London the aldermen are
magistrates chosen for life.

Alibi. Elsewhere. A defence by which it is proved that the accused
was not at the place where the offence was committed at the time of its
commission.

3i8

DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS.

Alien. One born in a foreign country out of the allegiance of the
queen.
To Aliene. To convey or dispose of property to another.
Alimony. An allowance made by a husband to his wife when living
apart from her.
Aliunde. Elsewhere, besides, &c.

Allegations. The pleadings in the Ecclesiastical Courts are so
termed.

Allegiance. The obedience which every subject owes to his prince
or liege lord.
Allocation. An allowance made on an accotint in the Exchequer.
Allocatur. The certificate by which a taxing master certifies the
amount at which he has taxed a bill of costs.

Allodial (contradistinguished from feudal), is where lands are held
free, i. e. without being subject to any fine, rent, or service.

Amicus Curiae. A counsel (or by-stander), who informs the judge
on a point of law, on which he is doubtful or mistaken.

Ancestor. The law distinguishes between ancestor and prede-
cessor ; the former is applied to individuals, the latter to corporations.

Ancient Demesne. A tenure of lands partaking of the properties
both of copyhold and freehold.

Apparator. A messenger that serves the process of the Ecclesiasti-
cal Court.

Appeal. The removal of a cause from an inferior into a superior
court, for the purpose of impeaching the judgment of the inferior
court.

Appearance to Action. The first formal step by a defendant in an
action or suit. It is a notice that he intends to defend.

Appellant. The person appealing to a superior from the decision of
an inferior court.

Appanage. The portion of the younger children of continental
princes.

Appointment. A formal execution of some power or authority ; as,
for instance, a power to dispose of property amongst a certain class, as
children or grauidchildren.

Appraiser. A person who values personal chattels.

Appropriation. The appropriation of a payment means the ap-
plying of it to the discharge of a particular debt, where the creditor to
whom it is made has more than one debt due from the same debtor.

Approver. A person guilty of an indictable offence, who, to obtain
pardon for himself, makes a full confession, and is admitted to give
evidence against his accomplices.

Arbitration. An extrajudicial method of settling matters in differ-
ence by referring them to the arbitrament or determination of p)ei^ons
appointed by the disputants, and termed arbitrators.

Arches Court. A court of appeal from all inferior Ecclesiastical
Courts within the province of Canterbury, England.

Arraignment. A term of criminal procedure. A prisoner, after hav-
ing had the indictment read over to him, is commanded to state wheth-
er or not he is guilty. This proceeding is termed the arrraignment.

Arrest. A legal seizure, capture, or taking of a man's person which
is effected by corporeal touching, or something equivalent thereto. In
civil cases a man can only be arrested under legal process. The officer
cannot break open a man's outer door for the purpose of arresting him ;
nor can arrest on a civil process be effected on a Sunday, except after
an escape.

Arrest of Judgment. Where the court stays a judgment, after a ver-
dict, on some question of law.

Arson. Felonious houseburning.

Articled Clerk. A student bound by deed to serve an attorney pre-
paratory to his own admission to practice.

Articles of the Peace. A complaint against a person to compel him
to find sureties to keep the peace.

Assault and Battery. An attempt or offer, with force and violence,
to do a corporal hurt to another is an assault ; an injury actually done
to the {jerson of another in an angry, revengeful, or insolent manner,
be it ever so small, is a battery.

Assets. Property, whether real or personal, in the hands of an exec-
utor, &c., for the purpose of satisfying debts.

Assignee. A person to whom any real or personal property is trans-
ferred by the act of law, as an executor, an assignee of a bankrupt, &c.,
or by the act of party, as a purchaser of a lease.

Assignment. A transfer of any kind of property from one person to
another.

Assumpsit. A verbal or parol promise expressed or implied, spring-
ing out of a simple contract. The law always implies a promise to do
that which a party is legally bound to perform. An action of assump-
sit or promise is the remedy for breach of a parol as distinguished from
a written contract.

Assurance. The securing the payment of a sum of money or other
benefit on the happening of a certain event, as, for instance, the death
of a person. This is the term now usually applied to life contingencies,
as contradistinguished from fires, losses at sea, &c., as to which the
term insurance is still used.

Attachment. A process of the Courts of Law and Equity for com-
pelling by arrest the performance of an act, which a party is already in
contempt for not performing. Also an ancient remedy open to credi-
tors in London, and some other cities, to attach the money or goods of
their debtor in the hands of a third party within the city.

Attorney. A person appointed by another by letter or power of at-
torney to do anything for him in his absence.

Attorney-at-Law. An officer of the superior courts of law, legally
authorized to transact the business of other persons — termed his clients
— in those courts.

Attornment. An acknowledgment by one person that he holds lands,
or is the tenant, of another, thereby creating between them the relation
of landlord and tenant.

Autre Droit. When a person holds an estate not in his own right,
but in right of another.

Autre Vie. For the life of another.

Average. A contribution to a general loss. When, for the safety of
a ship in distress, any destruction of property is incurred, all persons
having goods on board contribute ratably to the loss ; this is called
average.

Award. The judgment or decision of an arbitrator.

Backing a 'Warrant. The indorsing by a justice of the peace of the
county where a warrant (which has been granted by the justice of the
peace of another county) is about to be executed, and is a necessary act
to be done before a person can be apprehended in a county different to
that in which the warrant was issued.

Bail. The sureties for the reappearance of a person released from
custody.

Bail-Bond. A document under seal, by which a p)erson becomes bail.

Bailee. An individual intrusted with the custody of goods ; for in,
tance, a carrier.

Bailiff. There are various kinds of bailiffs ; the most common being
those appointed by the sheriff, commonly called sheriff's officer.

Bailment. A delivery of a thing in trust for some special object of
purj)ose.

Bailor. The person who makes a bailment, or delivers goods to a
bailee.

Banc, or Banco (sittingfs in). The sittings of the judges of the su-
perior Courts of Common Law.

Banker. A person who holds the money of another, and disposes of
it as the other from time to time directs.

Bank Note. A promise by a banker to pay a specified sum to the
holder.

Bankrupt. A trader who is indebted in a certain amount, and has
committed an act of bankruptcy. See Acts of Bankruptcy.

Bargain and Sale. A form of conveyance ; but rarely now used.

Baron and Feme. The old legal style of husband and wife.

Barratry. Any act of the master or crew of a ship which is of a crim-
inal or fraudulent nature, tending to the prejudice of the owners.

Barristers. A body of men qualified by admission in one of the Inns
of Court to plead as advocates ; such admission is termed, being " called
to the bar."

Base Fee. A freehold estate of inheritance, liable to be determined
on the happening of a certain event.

Battel. A trial by combat, formerly.allowed by the law, by which
the innocence or guilt of a party was decided.

Battery. See Assault and Battery.

Bencher. A Senior of the Inns of Court.

Benefice. An ecclesiastical living.

■^

DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS.

319

Benefit of Clergy. Certain privileges formerly enjoyed by the
clergy alone ; afterwards a privilege claimed by all criminals who
could read, but now abolished.

Bequest. A testamentary disposition of personal estate.

Bigamy. The criminal offence of a married man or woman pretend-
ing to marry again, his wife or her husband (as the case may be) being
still alive.

Bill. The term applied to an intended statute when passing through
Congress, prior to its becoming law.

Bill in Chancery. A printed statement of the plaintiff's case in the
form of a petition to the Lord Chancellor, praying for redress. It is
the first step in a suit.

Bill of Exceptions. A mode of app>ealing from the decision of a
judge on a point of law.

Bill of Exchange. A written order for payment of money by one
j>erson (called the drawer) upon another (termed the drawee). When
the drawee has undertaken to pay the bill, which he does by writing
his name across it, he is termed the acceptor. Bills of exchange are ne-
gotiable, i. e. they confer on the holder the right of suing upon it,
which he could not do in the case of a mere ordinary contract, for the
want of that privity which the law in ordinary cases requires between
the parties to a contract. The law as to bills of exchange is governed
by the law Merchant. See Law Merchant.

Bill of Lading. A memorandum or receipt signed by the master of a
ship, acknowledging the shipment of goods, which are usually made
deliverable to the consignee, or his order. One part of the bill of lading
is sent to the consignee by post. By indorsing the bill of lading the
prop)erty in the goods is passed to the indorsee, and so from hand to
hand. The bill of lading, properly indorsed, forms, in fact, the title to
the goods, and without the production of which the captain would not
deliver the goods.

Bill of Sale. An assignment of goods and chattels, by writing ; gen-
enerally, but not necessarily, imder hand and seal.

Bona Fide. With good faith.

Bond. A written obligation, under seal. If for the payment of a
sum of money upon or after the death of a person, it is then termed a
post-obit bond. The person making a bond is called the obligor, and
he to whom it is given, the obligee.

Borough. A town having now, or having formerly had, corporate
rights.

Borough-English. A tenure by which the youngest son inherits
from the father.

Bottomry. The borrowing of money by the master on th« bottom or
hull of a ship ; to be paid with interest,, if the ship return in safety, but
otherwise to be lost or forfeited.

Breach of Covenant. The doing of an act which a party has cove-
nanted not to do, or the neglecting to do that which he has covenanted
to perform.

Breach of the Peace. An act by which the public repose is dis-
turbed, and the safety of the community, more or less, endangered.

Breach of Promise. The doing, or abstaining from doing, something
contrary to an undertaking or contract.

Breach of Trust. A neglect of duty by a trustee, or person standing
in a fiduciary relation, in violation of his trust.

Bribery. The giving or receiving any reward for corrupt pur-
poses.

Brief. An abridgment of a client's case, for the instruction of coun-
sel on a trial, or hearing in court.

Broker. An agent employed to buy or sell goods; a sort of middle-
man between vendor and purchaser. He is not, like a factor, intrusted
with the possession of the articles he vends.

Brokerage. The commission paid to a broker.

Burgage Tenure. A tenure whereby houses or lands are held in cer-
tain ancient boroughs.

Burgesses includes all the inhabitants of a borough.

Burglary. The offence of entering a dwelling-house, in the night,
with intent to commit felony.

Bursar. The treasurer of a college. In Scotland it is nearly syn-
onymous with sizar in the English universities.

By-Law. A private law made by those duly authorized by charter,
custom, or prescription ; but such by-law must be consonant to the pub-
lic laws laws and statutes, and for the common benefit.

Canon Lavtr. A collection of ecclesiastical constitutions, definitions,
and rules, derived from the ancient councils, the writings of the fath-
ers, ordinances of popes, etc. At the Reformation it was enacted that
a review should be had of the Canon Law ; but that, until such review,
the existing law should continue in force, except as far as the same
should be repugnant to the law of the land or the Royal Prerogatives—
this still remains the state of the law, such review never having been
made. The canons of 1603, having been made by the clergy, and con-
firmed by the king, James I., alone, but not by Parliament, do not
bind the laity.

Capias. A writ authorizing the arrest of a defendant in a suit. It is
issued, either after judgment, or when it is satisfactorily shown that
the defendant is about to leave the realm before trial.

Capias ad Satisfaciendum, or Ca-sa, The writ of capias when is-
sued after judgment : so termed, because the defendant is taken to
satisfy the plaintiff's demands.

Caption. The act of arresting a man. See Arrest.

Carrier. A person whose business it is to carry goods, for the proper
delivery and safety of which he is legally responsible.

Casus Omissus. Where anything is omitted, or not provided ag^ainst
by a statute, &c.

Caveat. A proceeding to prevent an act being done, such as the
granting of administration, without notice to the party entering the
caveat.

Caveat Emptor. Let the purchaser beware. It signifies that a ven-
dor is not bound to answer for the goodness of his wares, unless he
expressly warrants them.

Certiorari. A writ for the removal of a cause from an inferior to a
superior court. This writ always lies, unless where expressly taken
away by statute, and herein it differs from an appeal, which can never
be had unless expressly given.

Cestui que Trust. He who is the real and beneficial owner of prop)-
erty held in trust.

Cestui que Vie. The person for whose life lands are held. See
Tenant pur autre vie.

Challenge. An exception taken by a prisoner against one or more
jurors, who, when challenged, are set aside, if the challenge be al-
lowed, and new ones put in their places.

Chambers. A lawyer's apartments.

Champerty. The offence of unlawfully maintaining a suit in con-
sideration of a bargain for a part of the thing in dispute, or some profit
out of it.

Chancellor. An officer of the highest dignity and authority in various
departments.

Chance Medley. The accidental killing of any one, without malice
prepense.

Chancery. The highest court of judicature next to the Parliament,
and of very ancient institution. The Court of Chancery is called a
Court of Equity, because it was instituted for the purpose of proceed-
ing by the rules of equity and conscience, and of moderating the rigor
of the common law ; equity being the correction of that wherein the
law, by reason of its universality, is deficient. — Yet the Court of Chan-
cery is not intended to act in opposition to, but in assistance of, the
common law, supplying its deficiencies, not contradicting its rules ; no
judgment of law being reversible by a degree in Chancery.

Charter. A royal grant or privilege, granted to corporations, com-
panies, etc.

Charter-Party. An instrument between merchants and owners or
masters of ships, containing the particulars of the contract for the hire
of the ship. It is in fact a mercantile lease of the ship.

Chattels. There are two kinds, chattels real and chattels personal ;
the former are leasehold property, and the latter personal goods or
chattels, as furniture or money.

Chose. A thing. Chose-en-action is a thing of which a man has
not the possession, and which he can only claim by action, as, for in-
stance, a debt owing to him by another.

Church Rates. Rates assessed by the parishioners, in vestry assem-
bled, for the repair of the parish church. It is now definitely settled
that, if the majority vote against the rate, it may be resisted with im-
punity.

Churchwardens. Officers annually chosen to superintend the church,
churchyard, and such things as belong thereto.

4r-

320

DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS.

Citation. The first step in an ecclesiastical cause, analogous to the
writ of summons in an action.

Civil Law. The Roman law is comprised in the institutes, code, and
digest of the Emperor Justinian.

Clerk. The strict definition of the word " clerk " is a person in holy
orders, but it is now generally applied to any person whose chief occu-
pation is writing.

Client. Anciently, a Roman citizen, taken under the protection of
some great man, who was styled his patron. The term is now applied
to a party who employs a solicitor or counsel in any legal proceeding.

Close. An enclosed piece of ground.

Code. A collection or system of laws, as the Code Napoleon.

Codicil. A supplement to a will. See Will.

Cognovit Actionem. An instrument by which a defendant ac-
knowledges the plaintiff's cause, and suffers judgment to be entered
against him without trial.

Collateral Descent. That which descends from a side branch of a
family ; as from an uncle or a nephew.

Collative. An advowson vested in the bishop. He cannot present
to himself, but he confers the benefice on his nominee by collation.

Commendam. A beneficed clergyman, when promoted to a bishop-
ric, vacates his benefice by the promotion, but the crown might for-
merly, by special grant, have given him power to retain his benefice,
and when this was done, he was said to hold it in commendam. Grants
in commendam are now abolished.

Commission. The warrant, or letters-patent, authorizing any in-
quiry judicial or otherwise ; as the commission of the judges, the com-
mission of the peace, etc.

Commitment. The sending a person who has been guilty of any
crime to prison, by warrant or order.

Committee. Persons to whom the consideration of any matter is re-
ferred ; as a Committee of the House of Congress.

Common (Rights of). These are of four sorts : viz., pasture, pis-
cary, estovers, and turbary. Common of pasture is the right of
feeding one's cattle on the land of another ; piscary, that of fishing in
waters belonging to another ; estovers, the right of taking wood from
another's estate, for household use and implements in husbandry ; and
turbary, the right of digging turf upon another's ground.

Common Law. The law of England is composed of Acts of Parlia-
ment or statutes, and the custom of the realm. The latter consisting of
those rules or maxims, which have obtained by common consent an im-
memorial usage. The former are designated the lex scripta, or stat-
ute law ; the latter the lex non scripta, or common law. This term is
also applied to the superior courts of Westminster, which are called
Courts of Common Law, as distinguished from the Court of Chancery,
which is a Court of Equity.

Commonalty. In London one of the compyonent parts of the Livery
Companies, which consist of the master, wardens, and commonalty.

Commutation of Tithes. The term applied to the conversion of the
tithes in England into a fixed rent ch^ge.

Complainant. One who complains of the act of another in a court
of justice, more commonly called plaintiff.

•Compounding Offences. Entering into an agreement not to prose-
cute an offender, for any consideration received or to be received, con-
stitutes a crime, for which the offender may be indicted.

Compounding with Creditors. An agreement by which creditors
take a portion of their claims in discharge of the whole.

Conditions of Sale. The terms upon which a vendor undertakes to
sell to a purchaser.

Confirmation. A deed by which a voidable estate in land is made
perfect.

Congd d'6lire. The license of the crown to a dean and chapter to
choose a bishop ; a mere form to be gone through, as they can only ac-
cept or reject the candidate nominated by the crown.

Conjugal Rights. Those rights of husband and wife which spring
out of their relationship.

Consanguinity. Relationship by blood, in contradistinction to affin-
ity, which is a relationship by marriage.

Conservator, A standing arbitrator, appointed to compose and ad-
just differences that may arise between parties, etc.

Consideration. The price or motive of a contract, without which a
simple contract is void. In technical language, it may be defined as

" some detriment to the plaintiff sustained for the sake or at the instanco
of the defendant, or some benefit to the defendant moving from the
plaintiff."

Consignee. A person to whom goods are delivered either as pur-
chaser, or more generally for sale on commission.

Consignor. The person by whose act or directions goods are deliv-
ered to the consignee.

Consignment. The act of making over, or delivering, goods to an-
other.

Conspiracy. A combination of two or more persons to carry into
effect an unlawful purpose.

Constructive Trust. A trust founded in what the law deems to be
the presumed, as contradistinguished from the expressed, intention of
its creator.

Consul. An officer appointed by government to reside abroad and
watch over the interests of our countrymen, who may happen to reside
in or be passing through the place where the consul is located.

Contempt. A disobedience to the rules, orders, or process of a court,
which has power to punish such offence, which it does by imprison-
ment.

Contingent Remainders. Estates which cannot become vested
until the happening of some uncertain event.

Contract. A covenant or agreement between two or more persons
with a lawful consideration.

Contribution. Where one surety or joint contractor has been obliged
to satisfy the whole demand, he may obtain contribution from his fellow-
surety or contractor.

Contributory. One liable to contribute to the liquidation of the lia-
bilities of a joint-stock company, under the Winding-up Acts.

Conveyance. A deed which passes or conveys land from one person
to another.

Conveyancers. Persons who devote themselves to the preparation
of formal documents concerning property.

Convict. He that is found guilty of an offence by the verdict of a
jury.

Coparceners. Such as have equal shares in the inheritance of their
ancestors ; as, where a man dies intestate, having two daughters, his
heiresses, they take his freehold lands as coparceners.

Copyhold. Land held by a copy of the court rolls of a manor.

Copyright. The exclusive right which the law allows an author of
printing and publishing his own original work for a prescribed period,
viz., the term of his natural life, and seven years afterwards; and if
such seven years expire before forty-two years from the time of the
first publication, then for such forty-two years.

Coram non Judice. When a judge in a court of law exceeds his
jurisdiction in a cause, it is said to be coram non judice.

Coroner. An officer whose duty it is to inquire into the cause by
which any person came to a sudden or violent death, which must be
done, before him and the jury assembled for the purpose, upon view of
the body.

Costs. The expenses incurred in the prosecution or defence of legal
proceedings, of which there are two kinds, those between party and
party, and those between attorney and client.

Counsel. See " Barrister at Law," who is usually termed counsel or
counsellor.

Count, in common-law pleadings, is a section of a declaration.

County Court. Local courts established throughout the country.

Court Baron. A court incident to every manor, held by the stev/ard,
in which surrenders and admittances of the manor lands are passed, and
other matters relating thereto transacted.

Court Christian. The Ecclesiastical Courts are so called, as distin-
guished from the civil courts.

Covenant. An agreement under seal.

Coverture. The state of a married woman as being under the protec-
tion and influence of her husband or baron. She is called a feme covert.

Crassa Negligentia. Gross neglect.

Crim. Con., or Criminal Conversation. Illicit conversation with a
married woman, for which the party is liable to an action for damages.

Cross-examination. The interrogation of a witness by or on behalf
of the party against whom the evidence is given.

Curia Advisare Vult. When the court takes time to consider its
judgment.

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DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS.

321

4r-

Cursitors. Officers of the Court of Chancery who make out all orig-
inal writs.

Curtesy of England. An estate which a husband has for his life in
his wife's fee simple, or fee tail estates after her death. The wife must
have been actually seised of such estates, and have ha'd issue bom alive.

Custodia Legis. In the custody of the law.

Custom. A law, not written, established by long use, and the con-
sent of our ancestors : if it be universal, it is common law ; if particular,
it is then properly custom.

Customs. Duties levied on commodities exported and imported.

Custos Rotulorum. The officer who has the custody of the rolls or
records of a county.

Cy pris (as near to). An equitable doctrine applied in certain cases,
where the court cannot adhere strictly to the terms of an instrument,
but carries it into effect cy pr^s, or as near to the object as it can.

Damages. The amount of money awarded by a jury, to be paid by
a defendant to a plaintiff, as a compensation for the injury of which the
latter complains.

Damnum absque injuria. Any act done by one which may cause
loss to another without doing him a legal injury.

De bene esse. To do a thing de bene esse is to accept or allow it
for the present as good, until it comes to be more fully examined, and
then to stand or fall according to its merits.

Debenture. A written instrument of the nature of a bond or bill for
a certain sum of money.

De bonis non. When an administrator dies, the right does not de-
scend to his own representative, but a fresh grant of administration
must be obtained of the goods remaming unadministered, and which is
called an administration de bonis non.

Declaration, in an action at law, signifies the plaintiff's statement of
his cause of action.

Declaration of Trust. A written or verbal expression or statement
by which a person acknowledges himself to be a trustee for another.
If relating to lands, it must be in writing.

Decree. The judgment of a Court of Equity.

De die in diem. From day to day.

Deed. A writing sealed and delivered by the parties to it.

De facto. A thing actually done or existing.

Default (Judgment by). If a defendant omits to appear or plead to
an action, within the time allowed, the plaintiff can sign judgment by
default.

Defaulter, A person who neglects to perform an act required to be
done.

Defeasance. A collateral deed made at the same time with some
other deed, and containing certain conditions which may defeat or ren-
der null and void the provisions of such other deed.

Defendant. The party against whom an action or suit is brought.

Del credere. The additional commission paid to a factor who guar-
antees the payment of the purchase -money of goods sold by him.

Demesne. Lands which formerly the lord kept in his own hands,
being next to his mansion.

Demise. A word used in conveyances of estates for terms of years.

Demurrage. A compensation or allowance for detaining a ship be-
yond the usual or specified time.

Demurrer. A mode of raising a point of law, upon the facts stated
in the pleadings, assuming them to be true.

Denizen. An alien who, on obtaining letters patent, was enabled to
purchase and devise land.

Deodand, was anything, as a horse or a carriage, which by accident
caused the death of a human being, and thereby became forfeited.

Deposition. The testimony of a witness taken down in writing and
signed by him.

Descent. One of the modes of acquiring a title to real property.

De son tort, of his own wrong. A term applied to a party who as-
sumes to act as the executor of a deceased party without auy legal au-
thority.

Detainer. A writ whereby a person may be detained in custody.

Detinue. The form of action to recover possession of goods and
chattels wrongfully withheld.

Devise. The giving away of lands or other real estate by will.

Disability. A legal incapacity to do an act.

Disclaimer. A renunciation by an executor or trustee of the office
imposed upon him, also a mode of defence in equity, etc.

Discovert. A term applied to a widow or unmarried woman.

Disfranchise. To take away from certain places or persons any
privilege, freedom, or liberty.

Disseisin. A wrongful invasion of the possession of another, and
turning him out from the occupation of his lands, either by force or
surprise.

Distress. The distraining or taking the effects of a tenant, in order
to satisfy the rent due to his landlord.

Distringas (on Stock). A writ which stops the transfer of stock by
the party in whose name it stands, and can be obtained at the instance
of any party beneficially interested in the stock.

Divorce. The legal separation of husband and wife. In England
there are two kinds of divorce, the one absolute, the other what is now
called a Judicial Separation. See the recent Statute 20 & 21 Vic. cap. 85,
which takes away the jurisdiction, in matrimonial matters, from the Ec-
clesiastical Courts, and vests the same in a New Court, which consists
.of the " Judge Ordinary," and the Full Court, the latter only having
power to grant an absolute divorce. By this Act a judicial separation
(which does not enable the parties to marry again) may be obtained by
husband or tvife, for (i.) Adultery, (2.) Cruelty, or (3.) Desertion with-
out cause for two years. As to an Absolute Divorce, a difference takes
place if it be the wife, instead of the husband, applying for it ; thus, a
husband can obtain an absolute divorce against his wife on the groimd
of adultery, but an absolute divorce by a wife against her husband can
only be obtained if the husband has been guilty of (i) incestuous adul-
tery, or (2) of bigamy with adultery, or (3) of rape, or sodomy, or besti-
ality, or (4) of adultery coupled with cruelty, or (5) of adultery coupled
with desertion^ without reasonable cause, for two years.

Doctors of Civil Law. A degree (D. C. L.), granted by our Univer-
sities of Oxford and Cambridge to such of its members as are learned
in the civil law.

Doctors Commons. A college of civilians in London, near St.
Paul's Cathedral, where also the ecclesiastical and admiralty courts are
held ; but by the recent statute abolishing the probate and matrimonial
jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts, power is given to the doctors to
dissolve this college.

Doli Capax. Capable of committing a crime.

Doli Incapax. Incapable of committing a crime.

Domicile. The domicile of a person is where he has his permanent
home. There are three sorts of domiciles— by birth, by choice, and by
operation of law.

Domitae Naturx, tame by nature. A term applied to animals of a
naturally tame disposition, as sheep, etc.

Donatio Mortis Causa. A gift of chattels made by a person in a
dying stale, to become absolute only in the event of his death.

Donative. A benefice given by the patron direct to the clerk by ■
deed, without either presentation to, or induction by, the bishop.

Doomsday-Book. An ancient work compiled in the time of Wil-
liam the Conqueror, consisting of two volumes, which contains the de-
tails of a great survey of the kingdom. These volumes are now pre-
ser\'ed in the Exchequer.

Dower. A widow ft entitled, at the death of her husband, to a life-
interest in a third part of the estates of inheritance of which her hus-
band was seised, and did not dispose of by deed or will.

Drawer. See Bill of Exchange.

Duces Tecum. A clause added to a subpoena requiring the wit-
ness to bring with him, and produce at the trial, certain documents in
his possession.

Durante Bene Placito. During pleasure.

Durante Minore ^tate. During minority.

Durante Viduitate. During widowhood.

Durante Vita. During life.

Duress. Anything done under compulsion and through unavoidable
necessity.

Easement. A convenience which one has in or over the lands of
another, as a way or a water course.

Easter Term. One of the four law terms, commencing on the 15th
April and ending the 8th May in each year.

Ecclesiastical Courts. Arches Court. The jurisdiction of these

\ .322

DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS.

kr-

courts is now confined to church matters, they having been shorn of
that which constituted nine-tenths of their business, viz. the jurisdic-
tion in testamentary and matrimonial matters.

Effluxion of Time. The expiration of a term in its natural course
as contradistinguished to its determination by act of the parties.

Ejectment. An action at law to recover the possession of lands.

Elegit. A writ of execution under which all the debtor's lands may
be seized or extended, and held by the judgment creditor until his
judgment is satisfied.

Embezzlement. The act of appropriating that which is received in
trust for another, which is a criminal offence.

Emblements. The growing crops which are annually produced by
the labor of the cultivator. They are deemed personal property, and
pass as such to the executors, and not to the heir.

Enfeoff (to). The act of conveying an estate of freehold by deed of
feoffment.

Enfranchisement. The admittance of a person into a society or
body-pwlitic. Enfranchisement of copyholds is a conversion of copy-
holds into freehold tenure.

Engrossing. A style of writing, not now generally used for deedsj
but still used for the probates of wills.

Enrolment. The registering of deeds as required by certain stat-
utes ; as, for instance, deeds conveying lands to charitable uses.

Entail. That inheritance whereof a man is seized to hhn and the
heirs of his body. Tail-General is where lands and tenements are given
to one, and the heirs of his body generally. Tenant in tail-special is
where the gift is restrained to certain heirs of the donee's body as male
or female. There is no such thing as a perpetual entail by the law of
England. The way in which property is tied up in families is by re-
peated settlements. If in any one generation the usual settlement
(which of course is the act of the parties and not of the law) should not
be executed, the entailed property would be free. The property settled
by the nation on Marlborough and Wellington were, by special Act of
Parliament, vested in their heirs for ever, thus in fact creating what
the common law would not permit, a perpetual entail.

Equitable Estate. The beneficial interest of a cestui que trust, the
legal ownership being in a trustee.

Equitable Mortgage. The most familiar instance is the depwsit
(either with or without a memorandum, although it is better to have
one) of the title deeds of an estate by way of security, which consti-
tutes an equitable mortgage without the execution of any formal mort-
gage deed.

Equity of Redemption. The right which equity gives to a mort-
gager of redeeming his estate after the appointed time for payment
has passed, and which right can only be barred by a foreclosure.

Error. A w^rit of error is a commission to judges of a superior
court, by which they are authorized to examine the record, upon which
a judgment was given in an inferior court, and to affirm, reverse, or
vary the same, according to law.

Escheat. Is where lands, for want of heirs, or from forfeiture, es-
cheat or fall back to the sovereign or lord of the fee as the original
grantor.

Escrow. A deed delivered to a 3d person conditionally until some-
thing is done by the grantor. Until the condition has been performed
the deedTias no legal effect.

Estate. The interest which a person has in lands, or other prop-
erty.

Estoppel. Where a man is precluded in law from alleging or deny-
ing a fact in consequence of his own previous act, allegation, or denial
to the contrary.

Estreat. Where a recognizance becomes forfeited by any of its
conditions being broken, it is estreated: that is, extracted from the
record, and sent up to the Exchequer, whence a process will issue to re-
cover the penalty.

Evidence. Proof , either written or unwritten, of the facts in issue
in any legal proceeding.

Exchange of Lands. A mutual grant of lands ; the one in consider-
ation of the other.

Excise. A tax or impost charge by government on certain commo-
dities.

Excommunication. A punishment inflicted by the sentence of an
Exrclesiastical Court debarring the offender from the sacraments, etc.

Execution. The act of putting the sentence of the law into force.

Executor. One appointed by a person's last will to administer his
personal estate.

Executor de son tort. A stranger who takes upon himself to act as
executor without any authority. ,

Exhibits. Documents, etc., produced in evidence, and marked for
the purpose of identification.

Exigent. A writ used in the process of outlawry.

Ex-ofRcio. Anything done by virtue of an office. An information
filed by the Attorney-general, by virtue of his office, is called an Ex-
ojfficio Information.

Ex-parte. A statement is called Ex-par te where only one of the
parties gives an account of a transaction, in which two or more are
concerned.

Ex-post-facto. An ex-post-facto law, is a law made purposely to
restrain or punish an offence already committed.

Extra-judicial. Any act done by a judge beyond his authority, or
any opinion expressed by him not strictly p)ertinent to the matter in
issue before him.

Extra-parochial. Places which are out of the bounds or limits of a
parish ; and, therefore, exempt from parish rates and duties.

Eyre (Justices in). The word eyre, or eire, is French, and is derived
from the Latin iter, a journey. Thus, the term Justices in Eyre sig-
nifies the itinerant court of justices, or those who journey from place to
place to hold assizes.

Factor. An agent intrusted with the possession of goods for sale
belonging to his principal. A broker, on the other hand, has not the
custody of the goods of his principal. See Broker.

Faculty. A privilege or dispensation granted by an Ecclesiastical
Court in certain cases.

False pretenses. The criminal offence of obtaining any chattel,
money, or valuable security by means of a false pretence ; it is punish-
able by transportation, fine, or imprisonment.

False return. An incorrect account, given by a sheriff , of his do-
ings under a writ of execution, for which he is liable to an action.

Falsi crimen. A fraudulent concealment of the truth.

Fealty. The duty due to a lord from his tenant, pursuant to the oath
taken at his admittance.

Fee-simple. That estate or interest in lands which a person holds
to him and his heirs for ever. During his life he possesses over it a per-
fectly free and unrestrained power of disposition, and, 4)n his death
without having alienated it by deed or will, it descends to his heirs,
both lineal and collateral, male and female, according to an esublished
order of descent.

Felo-de-se. One who commits self-murder.

Felony. Formerly defined as comprising " all capital crimes below
treason." It may now more accurately be defined as comprising all
crimes occasioning a forfeiture of lands or goods, or both.

Feme-covert. A married woman. See Coverture.

Feme-sole. An unmarried woman.

Feoffment. A mode of conveyance of lands in fee, accompanied by
certain solemnities. It is rarely, if ever, now used.

Ferae naturae. Animals that are of a wild nature, such as foxes,
hares, Vvild fowl, etc., in opposition to tame and domesticated ani-
mals.

Fiat. An order or warrant for a thing to be done or executed.

Fieri Facias. A writ of execution, by which the sheriff is com-
manded to levy the debt and damages of the goods and chattels of the
defendant.

Finding. A finder of goods may appropriate them to his own use if
he really believes when he takes them that the owner cannot be found ;
but if a jury should say that the finder appropriated the goods, not
having (or that he could reasonabfy be supposed not'to have had) such
belief at the time of appropriation, it amounts to a theft, and can be
punished criminally.

Finding a Bill. The grand jury either find or ignore the bills
against prisoners ; if they find a true bill, the case goes into court, and
is tried.

Fire bote. The wood which a tenant of lands is legally entitled to
take for the purpose of making his fires. If he takes too much he com-
mits waste, and is liable to an action.

DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS.

323

Fire policy. An instrument by which an insurane ccompany guar-
antees to a person, who has insured his property, the payment of a sum
of money if it is injured or destroyed by fire.

First-fruits and tenths. Certain revenues arising to the Crown
from ecclesiastical livings ; which now form the fund called Queen
Anne's Bounty, for the augmentation of poor livings.

Fixtures. This term is generally used to denote those personal
chattels which though annexed to the freehold of demised premises, a
tenant is nevertheless entitled to remove. They consist of trade fix-
tures, and of those put up for the ornament or convenience of the
premises.

Foreclosure. The barring the equity of redemption on mortgages.

Foreign Bill of Exchange. A bill drawn by a person abroad and
accepted in the United States, or vice versa.

Forfeiting recognizances. When a person who has entered into
recognizances, fails to comply with their conditions, the same are for-
feited or estreated.

Forfeiture. A punishment consequent upon the commission of cer-
tain crimal offences or illegal acts.

Forgery. The crime of counterfeiting a signature, seal, or mark ;
or the fraudulent alteration of a writing to the prejudice of another.

Franchise. A royal privilege to which a subject is entitled — as a
fair, a market, a free warren, a park.

Fraud. A dishonest and illegal artifice by which undue advantage
is taken of another, or by which the interests of that other are unjustly
prejudiced. Fraud strikes at the root of every transaction, and vitiates
every contract, whether by record, deed, or otherwise.

Free Bench. Is that estate or interest to which a woman is by vir-
tue of a special custom, entitled for life in the one third part of the
copyholds of her husband of which he died possessed, and is analogous
to " dower " in freeholds.

Freehold. Lands held in fee-simple, fee-tail, or at least for life.
■ Freight. The remuneration due to the owner of a ship for the con-
veyance of goods or merchandise, on which he has a lien for the
freight.

Funded Debt. The public debt of this country, consisting of an im-
mense sum which, from time to time, has been lent to government by
individuals, and which they or their assigns receive interest for, out of
the taxes.

Further assurance. The name given to a covenant in a conveyance
whereby the grantor undertakes to do any further act which may be re-
quired for perfecting the grantee's estate.

Future estates. Estates not in possession, but in expectancy, as a
I'emainder.

Garnishee. The party in whose hands money, due to a defendant,
is attached.

General issue. A form of plea in common law actions ; so called
because the issue that it tenders goes to the whole cause of action.

Gift. A voluntary conveyance or gift of lands or goods. If of the
former, it is liable to be defeated in the life-time of the grantor, by his
conveying the same lands to a purchaser, for a valuable consideration,
even though with notice of the prior gift.

Glebe. The name given to lands annexed to an ecclesiastical bene-
fice.

Grace, days of. The name given to the days of indulgence allowed
to the acceptor of a bill of exchange after it becomes due. The number
of such days varies in different countries. In some, as in France, they
are abolished altogether. In England three days are allowed, so that
a bill at a month drawn on the ist of one month, will become due on the
4th of the next.

Grand Jury. The jury to whom all bills of indictment are referred
in the first instance. It is the duty of this jury to interrogate the wit-
nesses for the prosecution, and ascertain whether or not z. prima facie
case is made out against the prisoner ; if so, they find a true bill, and
he takes his trial, if not, they ignore the bill, and he is discharged.

Grant. A mode of conveyance, formerly applicable only to incor-
poreal hereditaments, reversionc, etc. ; but its significance has been ex-
tended by a recent statute, and it is now the instrument most usually
employed in the conveyance of land.

Guaranty. An engagement to be responsible for the debts or duties
of a third person.

Habeas Corpus. A 'Writ of Right for those who are grieved by il-
legal imprisonment. The Habeas Corpus Act is next in importance to
Magna Charta ; for, so long as this statute remains, no subject of En|r_
land can long be detained in prison, except under legal process.

Habendum. One of the formal parts of a deed ; its office is to limit
or define the estate granted. It is so called because it begins with the
words " to have,"

Heir. The legal representative of his ancestor, with respect to the
real property of such ancestor. He takes all the real prof)erty, not
otherwise disposed of by the ancestor in his life-time or by his will.

Heir apparent is one whose right of inheritance is certain, and
which nothing can defeat, provided he outlives his ancestor ; as the
eldest son or issue. Heir presumptive is one who would inherit,
provided his ancestor were 10 die at that particular time, but whose
right of inheritance might be defeated by some nearer heir being after-
wards bom ; as a brother or nephew, whose presumptive succession
may be destroyed by the birth of a child.

Heir looms. Such personal chattels as go to the heir along with the
inheritance, and not to the executor of the deceased.

Hereditaments. All things which may be inherited, that is, which
would descend to the heir, if not disposed of by deed or will. Heredita-
ments are of two kinds, corporeal and incorporeal.

Heriot. The best beast, or in some cases the best chattel — such as a
piece of plate — which falls to the lord of a manor on the death of a ten-
ant. It is regulated by custom, and in some manors it does not ap-
ply at all.

Heritable (and Movable) Rights. These terms are used in the
Scotch law to denote what in England is meant by real and personal
property : real projjerty in England answering nearly to the heritable
rights in Scotland, and personal property to the movable rights.

Highway rate. A sum of money levied upon persons who are liable
to pay poor rates, for the necessary reparation of highways.

Homicide. The crime of killing any human being ; of which there
are three Yvi\A.'&— justifiable., excusable, a-ndfielonious.

House bote. The necessary quantity of wood which a tenant may
lawfully take for the reparation and support of the demised premises.

Hue and Cry. The old common law process of pursuing felons
" with horn and voice." Also, the name of a paper now circulated
amongst the police containing the names and descriptions of felons.

Hypothecate. A term used for pawning a ship and goods, or either,
for necessaries, which a master of a ship may do when in distress at
sea.

Ignore. When the grand jury reject a bill of indictment, they are
said to ignore it, from the Latin word ignoramus.

Illegal condition. A condition annexed to anything which is illegal,
immoral, impossible, or otherwise contrary to law.

Immoral contracts. Contracts infringing the rules of morality
which, for reasons of public policy, are void at law.

Impanelling. Writing in a parchment schedule the names of the
jury by the sheriff.

Incorporeal Hereditaments. Hereditaments of a non-tangible
nature, and consisting of rights or benefits issuing out of corporal or
tangible things— as a rent, an advowson, etc.

Incumbent. The present possessor of an ecclesiastical benefice.

Incumbrance. A charge or lien upon property, as a mortgage.

Indemnity. A written instrument whereby one undertakes to free
another from responsibility.

Indenture. A deed, or writing, formerly cut or indented ; now the
name usually given to deeds, although indenting is no longer essential.

Indictment. A written accusation, of one or more persons, of a crime
or misdemeanor, preferred to, and presented on oath, by a grand jury.

Indorsement. Anything written on the back of a deed or other in-
strument ; such as a bill of exchange.

Induction. The act of giving to a clergyman the ix>ssession of his
church.

In esse. This term is used to express anything that has a real being,
in contradistinction to the term in posse, which implies a thing that is
not, but may be.

Infant. Every person is by the law styled an infant till he has attained
the age of t-wenty-one years.

Inheritance. An estate in lands or tenements to a man and his
heirs.

324

DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS.

Inhibition. A writ which issues from a higher Ecclesiastical Court to
an inferior one from an appeal.

Injunction. A prohibitory writ granted by the Court of Chancery
forbidding certain acts to be done under pain of contempt. It may be
granted in urgent cases ex parte, but notice is sometimes required to be
given.

Inland Bills. Bills of exchange are so called, when the drawer and
acceptor both reside in the same country.

Inquest. A meeting of jurors, who are summoned to take into con-
sideration certain matters, which may appear in evidence before them,
and to bring in their verdict accordingly.

Inquiry (writ oO- A writ directed to the sheriff, commanding him to
summon a jury and assess the damages in an action ; as, for instance,
when the defendant has suffered judgment by default.
Insolvency. The state of a person who is unable to pay his debts.

Institution. Is the ceremony by which a bishop commits the cure of
souls to a clerk on his presentation to a church living.

Insurance. A security or indemnification against the risk of loss from
the happening of certain events. The usual kinds are fire and marine.

Interesse termini. The interest possessed by a lessee in a lease,
after the granting thereof, but before he has entered upon the land de-
mised.

Interpleader. When two or more persons claim the same thing of a
third, the latter may call upon them to interplead^ i. e. to try the right
to it between themselves ; he, the third person, retaining possession of
the thing in the meantime as a kind of stake-holder.

Interrogatories. Written questions, to which the parties interro-
gated are to give written iinswers on oath.

Intestate. A person dying without a will, or, having made a will,
without appointing an executor thereof.

Inuendoe. That part of the declaration, in actions of libel and
slander, which explains the meaning, or points the application, of the
libellous or slanderous matter complained of.

In Ventre sa Mere. A child not yet born, but of which the mother
is pregnant.

I. O. U. A written acknowledgment of a debt. This instrument is
regarded in a court of law as evidence of an account stated. It is not a
promissory note, and does not require a stamp.

Issue. The disputed point or question to which the parties in an ac-
tion have by pleadings narrowed their several allegations, and are hence
said to Join Issue. If it be an issue of fact, it is tried by a jury, if of la w,
by the court — Issue is also the legal term for children or remoter de-
scendants.

Jactitation of Marriage. When one party boasts or falsely declares
that he or she is married to another, whereby a common reputation of
their marriage may ensue.

Jeofail. An oversight in pleading or other law proceeding. It is de-
rived from the Trench. y at ■Jaille.

Joinder in Action. The coupling or joining two parties in one suit
or action.

Joint-Tenants. Persons who hold lands, etc., jointly by one title.
On the death of one the survivor takes the whole.

Jointure. A settlement of lands or tenements on a woman, to take
effect after her husband's death in lieu of dower.

Judgment. TYiC sentence o/ the law pronounced by the court upon
the matter contained in the record.

Jurat. The clause written at the foot of an affidavit, stating when,
and before whom, it was sworn.

Jurist. A civil lawyer.

Jury. A certain number of men sworn to deliver a verdict upon such
evidence of facts as shall be delivered to them, touching the matter in
question.

Jury list. The list kept by the sheriff of persons liable to serve on
juries.

Jus. A law, a right.

Jus accrescendi. The term expressive of the right of survivorship '
among joint tenants.

Jus ad rem. Signifies an inchoate or imperfect right to a thing, in
contradistinction to Jus in re, which signifies the complete and perfect
right in a thing.

Jus commune. The common law.

Jus gentium. The law of nations.

Justifying Bail. Is the act of proving to the satisfaction of the court,
that the persons proposed as bail are sufficient for the purpose.
Kin, or Kindred. A relation either of consanguinity or affinity.
Landlord. A proprietor of lands occupied by another, which latter
party is termed the tenant.

Lapse. A forfeiture of the right of presentation to a church by the
neglect of the patron to present. The word is also applied where a tes-
tamentary gift fails by the death of its object in the life-time of the
testator.

Larceny. The wrongful and unlawful taking and carrying away by
one person of the personal goods of another, with the felonious inten-
tion of converting them to his own use.

Law. This word signifies generally an inflexible rule of action. The
law of England is composed of -written laws or statutes, and unwritten
laws, or the customs of the realm. The latter is also termed the Com-
mon Law.

Law Merchant. Part of the unwritten or Common Law, consisting
of particular customs, that have gradually grown into the force of law
and are recognized as such by the courts ; such as the law relating to
Bills of Exchange, etc.

Law of Nations. A system of rules or principles deduced from the
law of nature, and intended for the regulation of the mutual intercourse
of nations.

Leading Cases. Cases decided by the superior courts, which have
settled and determined important pwints of law.

Leading Question. A question put or framed in such a form as to
suggest the answer sought to be obtained. Such a question is not
allowed to be put to a witness, except on cross-examination.

Lease. A conveyance or demise of lands or tenements for life, or
years, or at will, but always for a less term than the party conveying has
in the premises.

Lease and Release. The form of conveyance, until recently com-
monly used for conveying land ; but a lease, commonly called a lease for
a year, is no longer necessary ; the release alone being now as effectual
as a lease and release were formerly.

Leasehold. Lands held on lease, which (however long the term) are
considered as chattels real, and go to the next of kin, and not to the heir,
on the death of the owner intestate.

Legacy. A gift, or bequest of money, goods or other personal prop
erty by will. The person to whom it is given is styled the legatee ; and,
if the gift is of the residue, after payment of debts and legacies, he is
then styled the residuary legatee.

Le Roi (or La Reine) le vent. (The King or Queen wills it.) The
form of the royal assent to public Bills in Parliament.

Lessor and Lessee. The person who grants a lease is called the
lessor, the party to whom it is granted, the lessee, and the person to
whom either of them assigns, the assignee.

Letters of Administration. The instrument granted by the Probate
Court under which administrators derive their title to administer the
goods and chattels of an estate.

Letters (or Power) of Attorney. A writing, under seal, empower-
ing another person to do any act instead of the person granting the let-
ter. It may be either general or special ; the attorney represents his
principal in the matters prescribed by the letter until it be revoked.

Letters of License. An instrument whereby creditors grant to their
debtor time for the payment of his debts, and bind themselves not to
molest him until that time has expired.

Levant and Couchant. The law term for cattle that have been so
long in the grounds of another, that they have lain down and risen again
to feed.

Levari facias. A Writ of Execution, now superseded in practice,
except in the case of outlawry.

Levy. The seizing of goods or chattels by a sheriff under an execu-
tion is called a levy.

Lex loci contractus. The law of the place or country where the
contract was made.
Lex mercatoria. The mercantile law.
Lex non scripta. The unwritten or common law.
Lex scripta. The written law.
Lex terrae. The law of the land.

Libel. A malicious defamation, expressed either in printing or writ-
ing, or by signs, pictures, etc., tending either to blacken the memory of

DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS.

325

one who is dead, or the reputation of one who is alive, and thereby ex-
posing him to public hatred, contempt, or ridicule.

Lien. A qualified right which a person has in or to a thing in his
possession, arising from a claim upon the owner. Liens are of two
kinds, particular or general.

Limited liability. The limitation of the liability of shareholders in
a company to the amount unpaid upwan their shares, introduced by re-
cent Acts, and applicable to all companies registered thereunder : such
companies are bound to use the word " Limited " in their title after the
word " Company."

Lineal Descent. That which goes from father to son, from son to
grandson, and so on.

Liquidated Damages, are damages the amount of which are fixed or
ascertained.

Liquidator. A person duly appointed to wind up the affairs of an in-
solvent company, under the winding up acts.

Lis pendens. A pending suit or action.

Livery of seisin. A delivery of possession of lands by the alienor to
the alienee. In former times when the feoffments were used, livery of
seisin was indispensably necessary to complete a gift or alienation of
lands.

Locus in quo. The place where anything is alleged to be done in
pleadings, etc.

Locus poenitentiae — a place of penitence. The position of a party
who may recede from a contract or bargain which he is about to enter
into or make.

Lords Spiritual. The two archbishops and twenty-four bishops of
England, with one Irish archbishop and three bishops — in all thirty.

Lords Temporal. The lay f)eers of the realm, whose number may
be increased at the will of the sovereign.

Lucri causa. For the cause or purpose of gain.

Lunatic. One who has had understanding, but, by grief, disease, or
other accident, has lost the use of his reason generally, though he may
have lucid intervals.

Magna Charta. The g^reat charter of English liberties, granted by, or
rather extorted from. King John, at Runnymede, between Windsor and
Staines, on the 19th June, 1215, and afterwards confirmed by Henry III.

Maihem or Mayhem. The violently depriving another of the use of
such of his members as may render him less able, in fighting, either to
defend himself or to annoy his adversary.

Mainprise. The surrendering a person into friendly custody, upon
giving security that he shall be forthcoming at the time and place re-
quired. The writ of mainprise is obsolete.

Majority. The being of full age.

Mala fides. Bad faith.

Mala in se. Wrong in themselves.

Malice prepense. Malice aforethought ; i. e. deliberate, predeter-
mined malice.

Malus animus. A bad or malicious intent.

Mandamus. A writ commanding the completion or restitution of
some right, or the performance of a duty.

Manor. A territorial domain, held partly by the lord and partly by
his tenants ; it must have continued from time immemorial, and have
annexed to it a Court Baron, with at least two suitors.

Manslaughter, The unlawful killing of another, but without
malice.

Manumission. The making a bondman free.

Market overt. Selling goods in market overt, or open, has in many
cases a different legal effect to a mere private sale. In London a sale in
an open shop is a sale in market overt ; for every day, except Sunday, is
a market there.

Marksman. A deponent in an affidavit who cannot write, but makes
his mark.

Marque and Reprisal (Letters of.) Commissions granted to in-
dividuals to fit out privateers in time of war ; not used in the late war,
and abandoned by all the great powers at the Congress of Paris, 1856.

Master of the Rolls. An assistant of the Lord Chancellor, who hears
and decides the cases assigned to him, at his own Court in the Rolls
Yard. He holds his office by patent for life.

Maturity. Bills, or notes, when due, are said to be at their maturity.

Maxims in Law. Certain proverbial axioms, which form part of the

general custom or common law of the land. As, " No man is botmd to
criminate himself." — " Conditions against law are void." — " It is fraud
to conceal fraud," etc., etc.

Medietas Linguae. A jury whereof one half are foreigners, and the
other natives ; and is used to try a cause in which either party is
a foreigner, and requires that mode of trial.

Merger. The sinking of a smaller estate into a greater, whereby the
former is utterly extinguished and destroyed. It lakes place when two
estates meet together, without any intermediate estate between them,
to both of which estates the same individual is entitled in one and the
same right — as where a tenant for life afterwards acquires the fee-
simple.

Mesne-Process. Commonly used to describe the first process in an
action, as where a party used to be arrested on mesne-process, as dis-
tinguished from an arrest on a final judgment.

Misdemeanor. An indictable offense, which, though criminal, does
not amount to felony.

Misprision. A neglect, oversight, or contempt ; as, for example, mis-
prision of treason is a negligence in not revealing treason.

Mittimus. A writ for removing of records from one court to
another.

Modus. A composition in lieu of tithes.

Moot point. An obscure point of law not definitely settled ; and
therefore open for discussion.

Mortgage. A conveyance of lands by way of security, for the repay-
ment of a sum of money borrowed, or owing.

Mortmain. Lands held by corporations are said to be held in mort-
main.

Motion. An occasional application to the court, to obtain some rule
or order in the progress of a cause.

Municipal Law. That which pertains solely to the citizens of a
particular state, city, or province.

Muniments. Deeds, evidences, and writings in general.

Murder. Unlawfully killing any person, with mzilice aforethought,
either express or implied by law.

Mutiny Act. An Act annually passed to punish mutiny and deser-
tion, and for the better regulation of the army.

Naturalization. The making a foreigner a lawful subject of the
state.

Ne exeat regno. A writ to restrain a person from leaving the kingdom.

Negative Pregnant. A form of denial which implies or carries with
it an affirmative.

Negotiable Instruments. Those instruments which confer on the
holders the legal right to sue for the money or property thereby se-
cured, and which by delivery pass such money or property from man
to man — as bills of exchange, bills of lading.

Nemine Contradicente (Nem. con.). Words used to signify the
unanimous consent of the members of Parliaiment, or other public
body, to a vote or resolution.

Next friend. The party in whose name an infant or feme-covert
brings an action or suit.

Nil debet. A common plea to an actioo of debt when the money is
not owing.

Nil dicit. When judgment is had against a defendant by default.

Nisi prius. A term applied to those courts in which civil causes are
tried before a judge and jury.

Nolle Prosequi. An acknowledgment by the plaintiff that he will
not further prosecute his suit^ as to the whole or a part of the cause of
action.

Nomine Poenae. A penalty agreed to be paid on the non-perform-
ance of some specified act.

Non assumpsit. He has not promised. A plea by which a defend-
ant denies his liability in an action of assumpsit.

Non compos mentis. Of unsound mind.

Non concessit. He did not grant.

Non constat. It is not clear or evident.

Non est factum. A plea by which a defendant denies that the deed
mentioned in the declaration is his deed.

Non est inventus. The sheriff's return to a writ, when the defend^
ant is not to be found in his county or bailiwick.

Nonfeasance. The omitting to do what ought to be done.

-<^

326

DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS.

Non pros. When the plaintiff neglects to take any step within the
prescribed time, the defendant may move for a judgment against him,
which is called judgment of non pros.

Nonsuit. A renunciation of a suit by a plaintiff, after which he may
still commence another action for the same cause, which he could not
do if a verdict goes against him.

Notary-Public. A person whose business it is to note and protest
bills of exchange, and who also attests deeds and writings, to make
them authentic in another country.

Nudum pactum. An agreement without consideration, which,
when not under seal, is void in law.

Nuisance. Anything which unlawfully annoys or does damage to
another. Nuisances may be either public or private.

Nuncupative Will. An oral will before a sufficient number of wit-
nesses, and afterwards reduced to writing— now abolished, except as to
soldiers and sailors.

Nunc pro tunc. Literally, now for then: and is often so used in
legal proceedings.

Oath. An appeal to God as a witness of the truth of what is affirmed
or denied in evidence, in the presence of a judge, magistrate, or other
officer authorized to administer oaths.

Obiter dictum. A casual remark or opinion of a judge, not neces-
sary to or forming part of his judgment on the matter before him..

Obligee. An individual for whose benefit an obligation is entered
into.

Obligor. He who enters into a bond or obligation.

Official Assignees. Officers of the Court of Bankruptcy, one of
whom is allotted to each Bankrupt's Estate. He acts with the assign-
ees appointed by the creditors in the administration of the estate ; but
his especial duty is to keep the assets of the estate, and receive and pay
all money on account of it.

Onus probandi. The burden of proof. It is a legal principle that
the issue in an action must be proved by the party who slates an affirm-
ative ; not by the party who states a negative. The burden of proof,
therefore, is on the former party.

Ostensible partner, A person whose name appears to the world as
a partner in a firm. Although such a person may not have any interest
in the partnership, he is liable for its debts and engagements.

Ouster. The turning of a person out of possession of property .^

Outlawry. The act or process by which a person is excluded from,
or deprived of, the benefit of the laws, attended with a forfeiture of
his goods to the Crown.

Overt Act. An open act, capable of being manifested by legal
proof.

Oyer and Terminer. A commission directed to the judges and
others, by virtue whereof they have power to hear and determine
treasons, felonies, etc.

O Yes. A corruption of the French oyez, hear ye ! The term is
used by a public crier to enjoin silence and attention.

Panel. A schedule or slip of parchment, containing the names of
such jurors as have been returned by the sheriff to serve on trials.

Paraphernalia. Things to which a wife is entitled over and above
her dower, consisting of wearing apparel and ornaments suitable to her
rank and station in life. The husband may (with the exception of his
wife's wearing apparel) dispose of them in his lifetime, but not by will.
On his death they belong to the wife absolutely.

Parol. Word of mouth, verbal.

Particeps criminis. A participator in a crime.

Partition. The dividing of lands held by joint tenants, coparceners,
or tenants in common, into two distinct portions.

Patent ambiguity. A matter of doubt appearing upon the face of
an instrument.

Pawn. A delivery of goods and chattels, to be retained until a debt
is discharged.

Peculiar. A particular parish or church having a special jurisdic-
tion within itself, as exempt from the bishop's court.

Penance. An ecclesiastical punishment, varied according to the
nature of the offense, in which the penitent is supposed to make satis-
faction to the church for the scandal he has given by his evil example.

Pendente lite. During litigation.

Peppercorn Rent. A nominal rent.

Perjury. The offense committed by a person who, having been
sworn to tell the truth in a matter pending inacourtof justice, willfully
and deliberately takes a false oath.

Perpetuity. A rule that land cannot be limited beyond a life or
lives in being and twenty-one years afterwards, and the period of ges-
tation, if it actually exists, is commonly called the rule against per-
petuities.

Personal Estate, or Personalty. Movable things, whether alive
or dead, as distinguished from land, or immovables, which are termed
real estate.

Petitioning creditor. A creditor who petitions the Court of Bank-
ruptcy to make his debtor a bankrupt-
Pin Money. An allowance set apart by the husband for the personal
expenses of a wife, i.e., for her dress and pocket money.

Piscary. The right or privilege of fishing.

Plaint. Process by which actions are commenced in the County
Court.

Plaintiff. The complainant in an action or suit.

Plea. The defendant's answer to the plaintiff's declaration.

Pleader. A lawyer, who draws the pleadings in actions.

Pleadings. The mutual allegations or statements which are made
by the plaintiff and defendant in an action.

Plene administravit. A plea by an executor or administrator that
he has fully administered.

Plough Bote. The wood which a tenant is entitled to take for the
necessary reparation of his ploughs, carts, etc.

Posse Comitatus. The power of the county. This includes the aid
and attendance of all men, except ecclesiastics and inferior f>ersons,
above the age of fifteen, within the county ; which force may be used
in cases of riot or rebellion, or where any resistance is made to the exe-
cution of justice.

Postea. The verdict of the jury drawn up in due form, and entered
on the back of the record.

Pound breach. The indictable offense of breaking open a pound
for the purpose of taking cattle therefrom.

Praecipe. An abstract of a writ left with the officer at the time of
issuing it.

Praemium Pudicitiae. A bond or consideration given to a previously
virtuous woman, by the person who has seduced her.

Pre-emption. The right of first buying.

Prescription. A title acquired by use and time, and allowed by
law.

Presentment. The notice taken by a grand jury or inquest of any
offense, etc., from their own knowledge or observation.

Primogeniture. The right of the eldest son to inherit his ancestor's
estate, to the exclusion of the younger son, where the ancestor has died
intestate.

Privilege. An exemption from the general rules of law. It is of two
kinds— real, attaching to any place, or personal, attaching to persons,
as ambassadors, etc.

Probate. The copy of a will made out on parchment with a certifi-
cate of its having been proved.

Process. A general term applied to formal judicial proceedings.

Procheim Amy. Next friend (which see).

Prohibition. A writ issuing out of the s iperior courts directing the
judge of an inferior court not to proceed fu her in a suit.

Promissory Note. A written promise by which one person engages
or promises to pay a certain sum of money to another.

Pro Rata. In proportion.

Protest. On bills of exchange. A protest means the solemn decla-
ration of a public notary of the dishonor of a bill.

Provisional Assignee. An officer of the Insolvent Debtor's Court,
in whom the estate of an insolvent vests.

Proviso. A condition inserted in a deed, on the f>erformance
whereof the validity of the deed frequently depends.

Puisne. Younger, junior. The judges and barons of the superior
courts, except the chiefs, are called puisne judges arid puisne barons.

Quamdiu se bene gesserit. A clause expressing that the party to
whom an office is granted shall hold the same so long as he properly
conducts himself.

DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS.

327

Quantum Meruit. So much as he has deserved.

Quantum Valebat. So much as it is worth.

Quarantine, signifies 40 days. It is applied to the period which per-
sons coming from infected countries are obliged to wait on board ship
before they are allowed to land. But in law it more strictly applies to
the similar period during which a widow, entitled to dower, is per-
mitted to remain in her husband's capital mansion after his death,
whilst she awaits the assignment of her dower.

Quare impedit. The form of action now adopted to try a disputed
title to an advowson.

Quarto die post. The fourth day after the term.

Quash. To annul or cancel.

Quasi Contract. An implied contract.

Queen's Bench. The supreme Court of Common Law in the king-
dom, consisting of a chief justice and four puisne judges. In this
Court the sovereign used formerly to sit in person ; hence its title.

Queen's Counsel. The ap[>ointment of Queen's Counsel does not
confer any emolument from the Crown, but is regarded as a mark of
distinction. The Queen's Counsel wear silk gowns (the other barristers
wearing stuff ones) and are entitled to precedence in Court.

Queen's Evidence. An accomplice in the commission of a crime,
who gives evidence in the hof>e of receiving a pardon for himself.

Quid pro quo. Giving one thing for another, being the mutual con-
sideration in contracts.

Quietus. Freed or acquitted A term used principally in proceed-
ings on the revenue side of the Exchequer.

Qui tarn. Actions brought by common informers, and vulgarly
called " qui tarn " actions ; because in the form in which they are con-
ceived, the prosecutor declares that he prosecutes " as well for our
sovereign lord the king as for himself ; " tarn pro Domino Rege quam
pro seipso.

Quit rent. A small rent payable by the tenants of manors, and which
entitle them to be quit and free of all other services.

Quo Minus. A common writ formerly issued against a defendant on
the plea side of the Court of Exchequer, founded upon a presumption or
fiction of law that the plaintiff was the less able to pay the Crown on
account of the defendant being his debtor. It was the writ which gave
the Court jurisdiction in matters not relating to the Revenue, but now
the Court of Exchequer has coordinate jurisdiction with the other supe-
rior courts, without the necessity of any longer resorting to a fiction for
the purpose of founding it.

Quo warranto. An ancient writ still in use, directed against any
person or corporation, who usurp any office, franchise, or liljerty, call-
ing upion them to show by what authority they support their claim.

Rack rent. A rent of the full annual value of the land, out of which
it issues.

Rape. The carnal knowledge of a female, who is above the age of
ten years, against her will ; or of a girl under the age of ten years,
although with her permission.

Readers. The lecturers appointed by the Inns of Court are so
termed.

Real estate, or Realty, is the term applied to land, in contradis-
tinction to personalty.

Rebutter, The answer of the defendant to the surrejoinder of the
plaintiff.

Recaption. The taking a second distress during the pendency of a
replevin on a former distress.

Recital. The formal statement of some matter of fact in any deed or
writing. It usually commences with the formal word " Whereas."

Recognizance. An obligation of record which a man enters into,
with condition to do some particular act ; as, to app>ear at the assizes,
to keep the peace, to pay a debt, or the like.

Rec«rd. An authentic testimony, in writing, contained in rolls of
parchment, and preserved in a court of record.

Rector. He who has the spiritual care or charge of a parish.

Recusant. Used in old statutes for one who separates from the
church as established by law.

Red Book. An ancient record in the Exchequer, in which are reg-
istered those who held lands per baroniam in the time of Henry II.

Redendum. The clause in a lease by which the rent is reserved. It
usually begins with the words " yielding and paying."

Re-entry, proviso for. A stipulation in a lease that, on non-payment
of rent or non-performance of the covenants, the leasor may regnter.

Reference. The submitting of any cause or matter to arbitration.

Refresher. A further fee to counsel, where the cause goes over from
one term or sitting to another.

Registrars. Officers having custody of a Registry, such as the reg
istrars of births, marriages, and deaths.

Rejoinder. The answer of a defendant in an action to the plaintiff's
replication.

Release. A form of conveyance. Also, an acquittance under seal
of a debt or other obligation.

Remainder. A vested or contingent estate or interest in land, lim-
ited to take effect and come into possession on the determination of a
prior estate created at the same time.

Remanet. A term used when a cause set down for trial at a partic-
ular assize or sittings is postponed.

Rent. The annual return made by the tenant to his landlord, which
may be either money, labor, or provisions.

Replevin. An action to try the validity of a distress. The things
distrained are re-delivered to the tenant on security or pledges given
by him to try the right.

Replication . The plaintiff's answer to the defendant's plea or an-
swer.

Representative Peers. The peers elected from their own bodies
to represent Scotland and Ireland in the House of Lords, being 16 for
the former, and 28 for the latter.

Reprieve. A suspension of the execution of sentence of death on a
criminal.

Rescue. A resistance against lawful authority, as, for instance, the
violently taking away a man who is under legal arrest.

Residuary devisee. The person to whom a testator devises the re-
mainder of his lands, not otherwise disposed of.

Residuary legatee. A legatee to whom is bequeathed the residue or
remainder of a testator's personal estate, after payment of all legacies,
claims, and demands.

Residue, or Residuary Estate. The portion of a testator's estate
not specifically disposed of.

Res Integra. An entire thing.

Rest. A pause in an account between a debtor and creditor, in
striking periodical balances.

Retainer. A fee given to counsel to secure his services. It.may be
either general or special. The former secures the services of the coun-
sel to the party giving it in all matters ; the latter only in one cause or
matter. The fee in the former cause is 5 guineas, in the latter i guinea.

Return of a 'Writ. The certificate of the sheriff made to the court
of what he has done towards the execution of any writ directed to
mm.

Reversal. The making a judgment void, in consequence of some
error in the same.

Reversion. The residue of an estate left in the grantor, and return-
ing to him or his heirs, after the grant is determined.

Rider. A kind of schedule or writing, annexed to a document, which
cannot well be incorporated in the body of it.

Roll. A schedule or sheet of parchment, on which legal proceedings
are entered.

I^ule. An order made by the court at the instance of one of the par-
ties in an action. It may either be a rule absolute, or merely a rule
nisi or to show cause.

Rules of Court. The rules framed by the judges for regulating the
practice of the different Courts of Law.

Sacrilege. A desecration of anything that Is holy.

Salvage. An allowance made for saving ships or goods from ene-
mies, or wreck, or loss at sea.

Scandal. Rumor calculated to injure one's reputation.

Schedule. A list or inventory of things.

Scienter. Knowingly.

Scire Facias. A judicial writ founded on matter of record, and is
used for various purposes, as, for instance, to enforce against a share-
holder a judgment against a Joint Stock Company wkich it is unable to
satisfy.

328

DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS.

Sc.ivener. One intrusted with other men's monies to put out for
theni, and for which he charges a commission, or bonus.

Security for Costs. When the plaintiff lesides out of the jurisdiction
of the Court, the defendant may require him to give security for costs.

Secus. Otherwise.

Se Defendendo. A plea for a party charged with the death of
another person, who alleges that he was driven to do what he did in
his own defense.

Seisin. PossessiBn of a freehold esUte. Seisin in deed is when ac-
tual possession is obtained. Seisin in law is a right to lands of which
actual possession has not been obtained.

Separate estate. Real or personal property settled upon a married
woman, and which she may dispose of as if she were a single woman.

Sequestration, is used in several cases ; but most frequently as sig-
nifying an execution for debt against a beneficed clergyman, in which
case the debt is satisfied out of the tithes and other profits of the bene-
fice. In Scotland a Sequestration is nearly equivalent to our term
" Bankruptcy."

Set-off. A mode of defense, whereby a defendant sets up a demand
of his own to counterbalance the plaintiff's claim either wholly or in part.

Similiter. A set form of words in an action by which one party sig-
nifies his acceptance of the issue tendered by his opponent.

Simony. The corrupt presentation of any one to an ecclesiastical
benefice, for money, gift, or reward.

Simple Contract. An agreement entered into verbally or by writing
not under seal.

Slander. The malicious defamation of a man by word of mouth,
analogous to libel, which is slander by writing.

Socage. The tenure by which most freehold lands in England are
held, which consists in the performance of some certain and determi-
nate service, usually of a nominal nature, as distinguished from the old
feudal services, which were generally at the will of the lord.

Son assault demesne. A plea in an action for an assault that the
defendant did the act complained of in his own defense.

Special Case. A mode of raising a point of law for the opinion of
the court on an agreed written statement of the facts.

Special Jury, is a jury composed of individuals above the rank of
ordinary freeholders Either parly in an action may apply for, and
obtain, a special jury.

Special pleading. When the pleadings in an action are not in the
ordinary form, but are of a more complex character, they are termed
special pleadings.

Specific performance. A remedy in equity, to compel the perform-
ance of a contract according to its terms, instead of proceeding at law^
to recover damages merely.

Statutes. The written laws of the kingdom (see Common Law) are
of two kinds, public or private ; the former applies to all statutes
which affect the public generally, and of which the judges fake cogni-
zance without being specially pleaded. The latter relates to the private
rights of individual bodies, as, for instance, the various acts for the
Management of Railway and other Companies are private acts.

Stirpes. Taking property by representation is called succession per
stirpes, as contradistinguished from per capita, which signifies taking
it by one's own right.

Stoppage in transitu. Goods sold on credit to a person, since be-
come insolvent or bankrupt, may be seized by the vendor at any time
before their actual and complete delivery to the vendee. This seizure
is called stoppage in transitu ; it is often a nice and difficult question
to determine when the transit has ended and the purchaser's possession
begun.

Subornation of perjury. The offense of procuring another to Uke
a false oath.

Subpoena. A writ used for the purpose of compelling witnesses to
attend and give evidence.

Sufferance, a tenant at, is a person who acquired the possession of
lands by right, and holds over after his right is determined.

Suit. Proceedings in Equity are usually termed suits, as distinguished
from the proceedings at common law, which are termed actions.

Summons, writ of. The process used for the commencement of all
actions in the courts of law.

Supersedeas. A command to sUy some ordinary proceedings at
law, on good cause shown.

Surrejoinder. An answer to the rejoinder of the defendant in ac-
tion.
Syngraph. A deed or bond under hand and seal of all the parties.

Tail, or Fee-tail. See Entail.

Tenancy. The holding of property under tenure.

Tenant. One who holds lands of another as a tenant for life, for
years, in tail, etc.; it is a word extensively used in legal phraseology.

Tender. A legal tender is an unconditional offer to pay a debt,
which, if refused, may be afterwards pleaded in bar to an action.

Tenement. Property held by a tenant ; it comprises lands, houses,
and every species of real property which may be holden.

Tenure. The systwn of holding lands in subordination to some su-
periors.

Termer. A tenant who holds lands for a fixed and ascertained pe-
riod of time.

Testamentary Guardian. A person appointed by a father in his
will to be the guardian of his child.

Testator or Testatrix. The maker of a will.

Teste. The clause at the bottom of a writ beginning with the word
" witness " is so called.

Theft bote. When a party, who has been robbed, and knowing the
felon, takes his goods again or receives other amends upon agreement
not to prosecute.

Tithes. The tenth part of the increase yearly arising from the
profits of lands, etc. Tithes are in this country now commuted into a
fixed rent charge, which is chatted up>on the land, and not upon the per-
son.

Tithing. A f)ortion of a hundred. Tithing-man was formerly an
officer of some importance ; in the present day, however, he is a mere
constable.

Title. The evidence of the right which a person has to the posses-
sion of property.

Traverse. A plea which denies the truth of some part of the plain-
tiff's declaration in an action.

Treasure Trove. Any money, etc., found bidden under the earth,
the owner thereof being unknown.

Trespass. Any wrong or damage which is done by one man to
another^ whether it relates to his person or property, but it usually sig-
nifies a wrongful entry on another's premises.

Trial. The formal method of examining and adjudicating upon a
question of fact in a court of law.

Trover. The form of action used to try a disputed question of prop-
erty in goods or chattels, in which the plaintiff can only recover their
estimated value, and not the goods or chattels themselves.

True bill. The words indorsed upon an indictment by a grand jury,
when satisfied that the charge against the offender is made out.

Trust. A trust exists where a party, called the cestuique-trusi, has a
right in equity to the beneficial enjoyment of property, the legal owner-
ship of which is vested in another, who is hence called a trustee.

Umpire. A third person chosen to decide a matter in dispute left to
arbitration, in case the arbitrators should not agree.

Under-lease. A lease granted by one who is himself only a lessee of
the premises under-let.

Under-lessee. The person to whom an under-lease is granted.

Unliquidated damages. Damages not fixed or ascertained, and
which require therefore to be estimated by a jury.

Use. A right to the beneficial enjoyment of land nominally vested
in another.

Usury. The extortion of unlawful gain ; the taking more for the use
of money than is allowed by law ; but the usury laws in this country
are now abolished, any rate of interest therefore may now be lawfully
taken.

Value received. Th# words usually, but unnecessarily, appearing
in bills of exchange and promissory notes.

Venditioni exponas. A writ directed to the sheriff, commanding
him to sell goods which he has taken possession of under a writ of fieri
facias, and which remain in his hands unsold.

Vendor and Vendee. A vendor is the person who sells and a vendee
the i>erson who buys, anything.

DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS.

3»9

Venue. The county in which an action at law is intended to be tried.

Verdict. A verdict is the unanimous judgment or opinion of the
jury on the issue of fact submitted to them.

Vi et Armis (with force and arms). Words used in indictments, to
express the charge of a forcible and violent committing of any crime or
trespass.

Viva voce. By word of mouth.

Voir dire. An examination of a witness to test hss competency is
termed an " examination in the voir dire."

Voluntary Conveyance, or Settlement. A conveyance or settle-
ment made without any valuable consideration.

Voucher. A receipt or discharge.

Waifs. Stolen goods which the thief has thrown away or left be-
hind him.

Ward. An infant under the guidance and protection of a guardian.

Ward ■>{ Court. An infant with reference to whose property a suit
has been instituted in Chancery. A ward ought not to marry without
leave of the court. Any person marrying a ward without such leave is
guilty of a contempt of court, and can be punished by imprisonment.

Warrant. An authority or precept from a justice, commanding the
apprehension of an offender, or a search to be made for stolen goods.

W^arrant of Attorney. An authority given by any one to an attor-
ney-at-law, to appear and plead for him ; or to suffer judgment to pass
against him, by confessing the action.

AVarranty, as applied to goods and chattels, may be either expressed
or implied ; the implied warranty only extends to the title of the vendor.
If that proves deficient, the purchaser may demand satisfaction from
the seller.

Watercourse, right of. A right to an uninterrupted flow of water.

■Way, right of. The right of going over another man's ground.

Will. A will is the legal written declaration of a man's intentions ol
what he wills to be performed after his death with reference to the
disposition of his property. It must be in writing signed by the testa-
tor and attested by two witnesses, who must not only be present and
see the testator sign, but must themselves subscribe the will as wit-
nesses in the presence of the testator and of each other. Without these
formalities the will is invalid. A codicil is a kind of addendum or sup-
plement to a will. Its execution and attestation must be attended with
the same formalities as the will itself.

Will, estate at. An estate in lands held at the will of the landlord
and tenant, and determinable at the pleasure of either party. Such a
holding is very rare now, the law generally construes undefined hold-
ings into tenancies from year to year.

330

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

A CALENDAR

For ascertaining Any Day of the Week for any given time within Two Hundred Years from
the introduction of t/ie New Style 1752* to 1952 inclusive.

YEARS 1753 TO 1952.

i
>— >

0.
<!

1 761
1801

1803

180S

1755
1806

1758
1809

1753
1810

1767
1807

1773
1813

1763
1814

1765
1811

1766
1817

1769
181S

1759
182 1

1778
1818

1779
1819

1774
1825

1771
1822

1777
1823

1775
1826

1770
1827

1789
1829

1790
1830

1785
1831

1782
1833

1783
1834

1786
1837

1781
1838

179s
1835

1841

1791
1842

1793
1839

1794
1845

1797
1843

1787
1849

1846
1847

1853

1799
1850
1901

1800
1851
1902

1854
1905

1798
1855

1857
1903

1858
1909

1859
1910

1861
1907

1862
X913

1865
1911

1866
1906

1863
1914

1869
1915

1870
1921

1867
1918

1873
1919

1871
1922

1877
1917

1874
1925

1875
1926

1881
1927

1878
1929

1879
1930

1882
1933

1883
1923

188s
1931

1886
1937

1887
1938

1889
1935

1890
1941

1893
1939

1894
1934

1891
1942

1897
1943

1898
1949

1895
1946

1947

i8q9
1950

1900
1945
1951

4
S
6
2
3
7
I

I
2

5
6

29
3

I
3

5
6

3
4

4
5
I
3
6
7

7
3

4
I

2
2

z
3

3
6

4
5

3
4
5

I
2
6
7

6
7

4
5

3
3

2
3

4
7

5
6

4
S
6
3
3
7
I

I
2
5

6
3

4
7

5
6

LEAP YEARS.

1764

1792

1804

1832

i860

1888

1928

1768

1796

1808

1836

1864

1892

1904

1932

_s_

I
6

S
3

I
6

S
3

I
6

4
2

3
7

S
3

1772

1812

1840

1868

1896

1908

1936

6
4

7
S

1776

1816

1844

1872

1912

1940

1780

1820

1848

1876

1916

1944

1756

1784

1824

1852

1880

1920

1948

176c

1788

1828

1856

1884

1924

1952

* 1752 same as 1773 from Jan. i to Sepl. 3. From Sept. 1410 Dec. 31 same as 1780 (Sept. 3 13 were omitted.)

kr-

N C4 C4 M

^ ™ O. ii
I-. < to O

& a

(U (J

Q
U

Q
U]

<!« "m "3

a rt j< £

rt -g 3 3

« w Q Q

err

3 2 o .-2 >.>».«

c -g !3 o. rt rt §

rt • O

•s s S a

J3 2 ii a 2 .^ rt

9- rt rt o t« rt-g
J^ Pi h4 O hJ (^ c)^

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

A TABLE OF THE KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND.

Name.

Egbert

Ethelwulf

J Ethelbald

I Ethelbert

Ethelred

Alfred

Edward the Elder

Athelstan

Edmund

Edred

Edwy .

Edgar

Edward the Martyr

Ethelred II

Edmund Ironside

Cani'te

Harold I

Hardicanute

Edward the Confessor

Harold II

William I

William II

Henry I

Stephen j

tiENRY II ,

Richard I

John

Henry III

Edward I

Edward II

Edward III

Richard II

Henry IV

Henry V

Henry VI

Edward IV J

Edward V

Richard III

Henry VII \

Henry VIII

Edward VI

Mary I

Elizabeth

James I •<

Charles I

Commonwealth -<

Charles II

James II

William III t

and •<

Mary II : |

Anne

George I -I

George II

George III

George IV

William IV

Victoria

SAXONS AND DANES.

First King of all England

Son of Egbert

Son of Ethelwulf

Second son of Ethelwulf

Third son of Ethelwulf

Fourth son of Ethelwulf

Son of Alfred

Eldest son of Edward

Brother of Athelstan

Brother of Edmund

Son of Edmund

Second son of Edmund

Son of Edgar

Half-broth^ of Edward '.

Eldest son of Ethelred

By conquest and election

Son of Canute

Another son of Canute

Son of Ethelred II

Brother-in-law of Edward

THE HOUSE OF NORMANDY.

Obtained the Crown by conquest

Third son of William I

Youngest son of William I

Third son of Stephen, Count of Blois, by Adela, fourth daughter I
of William I f

THE HOUSE OF PLANTAGENET.
Son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, by Matilda, only daughter of Henry I.

Eldest surviving son of Henry II

Sixth and youngest son of Henry II

Eldest son of John

Eldest son of Henry III

Eldest surviving son of Edward I

Eldest son of Edward II

Son of the Black Prince, eldest son of Edwjird III

THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER.

Son of John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III

Eldest son of Henry IV

Only son of Henry V. (Died 1471)

THE HOUSE OF YORK.

His grandfather was Richard, son of Edmund, fifth son of Ed- 1
ward III.; and his grandmother, Anne, was great-grand- V
daughter of Lionel, third son of Edward III )

Eldest son of Edward IV

Younger brother of Edward IV

THE HOUSE OF TUDOR.

Son of Edmund, eldest son of Owen Tudor, by Katharine, widow )
of Henry V.; his mother, Margaret Beaufort, was great-)-
granddaughter of John of Gaunt )

Only surviving son of Henry VII

Son of Henry VIII. by Jane Seymour

Daughter of Henry VIII. by Katherine of Arragon

Daughter of Henry VIII. by Anne Boleyn

THE HOUSE OF STUART.
Son of Mary Queen of Scots, granddaughter of James IV. and {

Margaret, daughter of Henry VII )

Only survivmg son of James I

Commonwealth declared May 19

Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector

Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector 7

THE HOUSE OF STUART— RESTORED.

Eldest son of Charles I

Second son of Charles I. (died Sept. 16, 1701'*

(Interregnum, Dec. 11, 1688 — Feb. 13, 1689 )
Son of William, Prince of Orange, by Mary, daughter of)

Charles I V

Eldest daughter of James II )

Second daughter of James II

THE HOUSE OF HANOVER.
Son of Elector of Hanover, by Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, I

daughter of James I : )

Only son of George I

Grandson of George IT

Eldest son of George III

Third son of George III

Daughter of Edward, fourth son of George III

Accession.

827

837,

8531

8;8r

866

871

901

925

940

946

9SS

958

975

979
1016
1017
1035
1040
1042
1066

1066
1C87
1 100

"54
1189

"99
1216
1272
1307
1327
1377

1399
1415
1422

1461

1483
1483

1485

1509
1547
1553
1558

1603
1625

1640
165-5
1658

1660
1685

1689 •<
1702

1714

1727
1760
1820
1830
1837

Died.

839

860

—

866

—

871

—

901

9"5

940

—

946

955

—

958

975

979

1016

1035

1040

—

1042

1066

1087

IIOO

"35
"54

1189

"99

1216

1272

1307

1327
^ 1377
Dep. 1-99

1413

1422

Dep.. 1461

1483

1483
148s

1509

1547
1553
1558
1603

1625
1649

1658
Res. 1659

168s
Dep. 1688
Dec. 1701

1702

1694
1714

1727

1760
1820
1830

1837

Age.

Reigned.

whom god preserve.

kr-

■J^

332

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

SOVEREIGNS OF SCOTLAND FROM A.D. 1057 TO THE UNION OF THE CROWNS.

Names. Began to reign.

Malcolm (Ceanntohr) 1057, Apr.

Donald (Bane) 1092, Nov.

Duncan 1094, May.

Donald (Bane) rest 1095, Nov.

Edgar 1097, Sept.

Alexander 1 1107, Jan. 8

David I... 1124, Apr. 27

Malcolm (Maiden) 1153. May 24

William (The Lion) 1165, Dec. 9

Alexander II 12141 Dec. 4

Names. Began to reign.

Alexander III 1249, July 8

Margaret 1286, Mar. 19

John (Balliol) 1292, Nov. 17

Robert I. (Bruce) 1306, Mar. 27

David II 1329, June 7

Robert II. (Stewrart) 1371^ Feb. 22

Robert III 139°, Apr. 12

James 1 1406, Apr. 4

James II i437. Feb. 20

James III 1460, Aug. 3

Names. Began to reign.

James IV 1488, June 11

James V 1513, Sept. 9

Mary 15421 Dec. 16

Francis and Mary 1558, Apr. 24

Mary 1560, Dec. 5

Henry and Mary 1565, July 29

Mary 1567, Feb. 10

James VI 1567, July 29

(Ascended the throne of England as James I.,

March 24th, 1603.)

WELSH SOVEREIGNS OR PRINCES— A.D. 840 to A.D. 1282.

Roderic the Great 840

Anarawd, son of Roderic 877

Howel Dda, the Good 943

Jefan and Jago 948

Howel ap Jefan, the Bad 972

Cadwallon, his brother 984

Meredith ap Owen ao Howel Dha 985

Idwal ap Me]'ric ap Eldwal Voel 992

Llewelyn ap Sitsylht 1015

lago ap Idwal ap Meyric 1023

Griffith ap Llewelyn ap Sitsylht. Killed 1039

Bleddyn 1063

Trahaern ap Caradoc 1073

Griffith ap Cynan 1070

Owain Gwynedd 1130

David ap Owain Gwynedd 1169

Llewelyn the Great 1194

David ap Llewelyn 1240

Llewelyn ap Gnffitti, last Prince, 1246;

slain 1283

Edward of Carnarvon, afterwards King

Edward II. of England ; born 1284

Created Prince of Wales 1301

FRENCH DYNASTIES

The Merovingians.

Clovis, " The Hairy," King of the Salic Franks 428

Childeric III., last of the race 737

The Carlovingians.

Pdpin, " The Short," son of Charles Martel 752

Charlemagne, The Great, Emperor of the West 768

Louis v., " The Indolent," last of the race 986

The Capets.

Hug;h Capet, " The Great,"

Louis IX., " St. Louis " «.

Charles IV., " The Handsome "

The House 0/ Valois.

Philip VI. de Valois, " The Fortunate " .~

Heniy HI., last of the race

The House of Bourbon.

Henry IV., " The Great," King of Navarre

Louis XIII., " The Just "

Louis XIV., " The Great," Dieudonn^

Louis XV., " The Well-beloved "

Louis XVI. (gfuillotined January 21, 1793)

Louis XVII. (never reigned)

The First Reptiblic.

The National Convention first sat September 21,

The Directory nominated November 1,

987
1226
1322

1328
1574

1589
1610
1643
1715
1774
>793

1792
179s

AND SOVEREIGNS.

The Consulate.

Bonaparte, Cambac^rfes, and Lebrun December 24, 1799

Bonaparte, Consul for 10 years May 6, 1802

Bonaparte, Consul for Life ". . August 2, ^802

The Empire.

Napoleon I. decreed Emperor May 18, 1804

Napoleon II. (never reigned) died July 22, 1832

The Restoration.

Louis XVIII. re-entered Paris May 3, 1814

Charles X. (deposed July 30, 1830, died November 6, 1836) 1824

Heir-expectant, Henry, Comte de Chambord September 29, 1820

The House of Orleans.

Louis Philippe, King of the French 1830

(Abdicated February 24, 1848, died August 26, 1850.)

Heir-expectant, Comte de Paris, born August 24, 1838

The Second Republic.

Provisional Government formed February 22, 1848

Louis Napoleon elected President December 19, 1848

The Second Empire.

Napoleon HI. elected Emperor November 22, 1852

(Deposed September 4, 1870, died January 9, 1873.)
Third Republic.

Committee of Public Defence September 4i 1870

L. A. Thiers elected President August 31, 1871

Marshal MacMahon elected President May 24, 1873

Jules Gr^vy elected President January 30, 1879

PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

Declaration of Independence July 4,

General Washington first President 1789 and

John Adams

Thomas Jefferson 1801 and

James Madison 1809 and

James Monroe 1817 and

John Quincy Adams

General Andrew Jackson 1829 and

Martin Van Buren

General William Henry Harrison (died April 4)

John Tyler (elected as Vice-President) .'',

Population in 1776, including slaves,

1776

1793
1797
180:;
1813
1821
182s
1833
1837
1841
1841
2,614

James Knox Polk 1845

General Zachary Taylor (died July 9, 1850) 1849

Millard Fillmore (elected as Vice-President) 1850

General Franklin Pierce 1853

James Buchanan 1857

Abraham Lincoln (assa-ssinated April 14, 1865) 1861 and 1865

Andrew Johnson (elected as Vice-President) 1865

General Ulysses S. Grant 1869 and 1873

Rutherford B. Hayes 1877

James A. Garfield 1881

Chester A. Arthur 1881

300. Population in 1880, all free, 48,632,218.

THE BRITISH HOUSE OF COMMONS

Consists at present of— Liberals, 344 ; Conservatives, 236 ; Home Rulers, 60,

English boroughs were totally disfranchised, and 23 others lost i mem

The English House of Commons, at the time of the Union with Scot-
and, in 1707, consisted of 513 members ; 45 were then added for Scot-
and, and in 1801, 100 for Ireland, making the total of 658. This total
number was preserved by the first Reform Act (1832), as well as by the
recent one (30 and 31, Vict. cap. 102), but in each case the apportion-
ment was altered, and it now stands— England and Wales, 493 mem-
bers; Scotland, 60; and Ireland, 105. By the Reform Act 0/^1867, n

ber each ; but 25 seats were bestowed on new boroughs and universi-
ties, and 28 on counties. Four boroughs, with 6 seats, have since
been disfranchised for corrupt practices, viz., Beverley, Bridgewater,
Sligo, and Cashel, and, in eight others, representing 12 seats, the
writs are suspended, making the present number of sitting members
640.

-A

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

333

UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE TAXES.

Ale, per bbl. of 31 gallons $l 00

Banks and bankers, on average amount of deposits,

each month 1-24 of i per ct.

Banks, savings, and savings institutions, having no
capital stock and making no profit on deposits, are
exempt from tax on so much of their deposits as
is invested in United States securities, and on all
sums not exceeding $1,000 in the name of one person.
Banks and bankers, on capital, beyond the average
amount invested in United States bonds, each

month 1-24 of i per ct.

Banks and bankers, on average amount of circulation,

each month 1-24 of i per ct.

Banks, on average amount of circulation, beyond 90
per cent, of the capital, an additional tax each

month 1-6 of i per ct.

Banks, persons, firms, associations, etc., on amount of
notes of any person, firm, association (other than a
national banking association), corporation, State
bank, or State banking association, town, city, or
municipal corporation, used and paid out as circula-
tion 10 per ct.

Banks, persons, firms, associations (other than national
bank associations), and every corporation, State
bank, or State banking association, on the amount
of- their own notes used for circulation and paid out

by them 10 per ct.

Beer, per bbl. of 31 gallons $1 00

Brandy, per gallon go

Brewers, manufacturing 500 bbls. or more, annually.. 100 00

manufacturing less than 500 bbls. annually. . . 50 00

Cigars, manufacturers of, special tax 10 00

Cigars of all descriptions, made of tobacco or any sub-
stitute, per 1,000 6 00

Cigarettes, not weighing more than 3 lbs. per 1,000,

per 1,000 I 75

Cigarettes, weight exceeding 3 lbs. per 1,000, per 1,000. 6 00
Cigars or cigarettes, imported, in addition to import
duty, to pay same as above.

Liquors, fermented, per bbl i 00

Liquors, distilled, per gallon 90

Liquor dealers (wholesale), special tax 100 00

Malt liquor dealers (wholesale) 50 00

Liquor dealers (retail), special tax 25 00

Malt liquor dealers (retail) 23 00

Manufacturers of stills 50 00

Manufacturers of stills, for each still or worm made. . 20 00
Rectifiers, special tax less than 500 bbls., $100 ; above

500 bbls 200 00

Snuff, or snuff flour, manufactured of tobacco, or any

substitute, per lb 16

Spirits, distilled, per proof gallon 90

Stamps, for distilled spirits for export, wholesale liquor
dealers, special bonded warehouse, distillery ware-
house, and rectified spirits each 10

Tobacco, all kinds, per lb 16

Tobacco, dealers in 5 00

Tobacco, manufacturers of 10 00

Tobacco, dealers in leaf, wholesale 25 00

Tobacco, dealers in leaf, retail 500 00

Tobacco, dealers in leaf, for sales in excess of $1,000,

per dollar of excess 50

Tobacco peddlers, traveling with more than two horses,

mules, etc 50 00

Tobacco peddlers, traveling with two horses, mules, or

other animals 25 00

Tobacco peddlers, traveling with one horse, mule, or

other animal 15 00

Tobacco peddlers, traveling on foot, or by public con-
veyance 10 00

Tobacco, snuff, and cigars for export, stamps for, each 10

F2 40

Whiskey, per proof gallon

Wines and champagne (imitation), not made from
grapes grown in the United States, and liquors not
made from grapes, currants, rhubarb, or berries
grown in the United States, but rectified or mixed
with distilled spirits, or by infusion of any matter in
spirits, to be sold as wine or a substitute, per dozen
bottles of more than a pint and not more than a quart
Imitation wines, containing not more than one pint,

per dozen bottles i 20

Stamp Taxes.
Bank check, draft, or order for the payment of any
sum of money whatsoever, drawn upon any bank,

banker, or trust company 2 cents.

Playing cards, each pack 5 cents.

Medicines, Preparations, Cosmetics, etc.
Every packet, box, bottle, pot, vial, or other inclosure,
containing any pills, powders, tinctures, troches, or
lozenges, syrups, cordials, bitters, anodynes, tonics,
plasters, liniment, salves, ointments, pastes, drops,
waters, essences, spirits, oils, or other preparations
or compositions whatsoever, made and sold, or re-
moved for consumption and sale, by any person or
persons whatever, wherein the person making or
prepaiing the same has, or claims to have, any pri-
vate, formula or occult secret or art for the making
or preparing the same, or has, or claims to have,
any exclusive right or title to the making or prepar-
ing the same, or which are prepared, uttered, vended
or exposed for sale under any letters patent, or held
out or recommended to the public by the makers,
venders, or proprietors thereof as proprietary medi-
cines, or as remedies or specifics, and for every
packet, box, bottle, pot, vial, or othfer inclosure, con-
taining any essence, extract, toilet water, cosmetic,
hair oil, pomade, hair dressing, hair restorative, hair
dye, tooth wash, dentifrice, tooth paste, aromatic
cachous, or any similar articles, by whatsoever name
the same have been, now are, or may hereafter be
called, known, or distinguished, used or applied, or
to be used or applied as perfumes or applications to
the hair, mouth, or skin, made, prepared, and sold
or removed for consumption and sale in the U. S- , as
follows ; where such packet, box, bottle, vial, or
other inclosure, and contents, shall not exceed,
at retail price or value, the sum of twenty-five cents. I cent.
Exceeding twenty-five, and not exceeding fifty cents. .2 cents.
Exceeding fifty, and not exceeding seventy-five cents. .3 cents.
Exceeding seventy-five cents, and not exceeding one

dollar 4 cents.

Exceeding one dollar, for every additional fifty cents

or fractional part thereof, an additional 2 cents.

Matches, Wax Tapers, and Cigar Lights.
Friction matches, or lucifer matches, or other articles
made in part of wood, and used for like purposes,
in parcels or packages containing 100 matches or

less, for each parcel or package i cent.

Packages containing more than 100, and not more than

200 matches 2 cents.

And for every additional 100 matches, or fractional

part thereof i cent.

Wax tapers, double the rate upon friction or lucifer

matches.
Cigar lights, made in part of wood, wax, glass, paper,
or other materials, in parcels or packages containing

25 lights or less in each parcel or package I cent.

Parcels or packages containing more than 25, and not

more than 50 lights 2 cents.

For every additional 25 lights or fractional part of that

number i cent.

334

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

STYLES OF ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE.

Name.

Norman

Transition

Early English

Transition

Decorated

Transition

Perpendicular

Tudor oivElizabethan

Jacobean

Prevailed.

1066 to 1154
1154 to 1189
1189 to 1272
1272 to 1307
1307 to 1377
1377 to 1407
1399 to 1547

1550 to 1600

1603 to 1641

Characteristics.

J Round-hsaded doorways and windows, heavy pillars, and zigzag ornaments. (Example, Nave,
I Rochester Cathedral.)

Same, but with pointed windows. (Example, Choir, Canterbury Cathedral.)
J Narrow-pointed windows, lancet shaped ; clustered pillars. (Example, Presbytery at the east
I end of Lincoln Cathedral ; Choir, Westminster Abbey.)

Tracery introduced into windows. (Example, east end of Lincoln Cathedral.)
J Geometrical tracery in windows, enriched doorways, beautifully arranged mouldings. (Ex-
( ample, Lady Chapel, Ely.)

Lines less flowing. (Example, Choir, York Minster.)
J Upright lines of mouldings in windows, doorways often a combination of square heads with
I pointed arches. (Example, King's (College Chapel, Cambridge.)

J A debased species of Perpendicular, mostly employed in domestic architecture. (Examples,
I Thornbury Castle, Gloucestershire ; Compton Winyate House, Warwickshire.)
j An admixture of Classical with all kinds of Gothic or Pointed. (Example, Longleat House,
1 Wiltshire.)

THE BRITISH EMPIRE.

In the following brief table an abstract is given (approximately) of
the area, population, revenue, public debt, and commerce of the British
Empire. The figures given are near enough for the purpose, although

it is to be regretted that the precise amounts cannot be procured. The
table, short as it is, presents a result unparalleled in this world's his-
tory.

name of country.

Great Britain and Ireland.

Indian Possessions, etc

Other Eastern Possessions

Australasia

North America

Guiana, etc

Africa

West Indies, etc ,

European Possessions

Various Settlements

Totals

area in square

MILES.

POPULATION.

REVENUE.

PUBLIC DEBT.

IMPORTS AND
EXPORTS.

121,115

34,500,000

;^83,000,000

;C783,OOO,O00

;£6l2,OOO,O0O

1,558,254

246,000,000

60,000,000

150,000,000

105,000,000

30,000

3,500,000

2,600,000

1 ,800,000

39,000,000

3,173,310

2,700,000

18,000,000

68,000,000

94,000,000

3,620,500

4,000,000

5,000,000

30,000,000

35,000,000

100,000

200,000

375,000

500,000

5,000,000

270,000

1,500,000

3,500,000

9,000,000

13,000,000

12,707

1,253,000

1,500,000

1,400,000

10,000,000

120

160,000

250,000

320,000

2,000,000

96,171

200,000

550,000

650,000

2,000,000

8,982,177

294,010,000

>SI 74,775,000

;Cl, 044,670,000

;C9i7,ooo,ooo

THE FIRST DAY OF THE YEAR.

Readers of Parish Registers and other ^cient documents are some-
times puzzled by the dates, and especially by the apparent discrepan-
cies in the time when the year commenced. It began ; —

7th to 14th Centuries, at Christmas.
12 Century, by the Church, on March 25.
14th Cer.tury, by Civilians, same time.

In 1752 the New Style was introduced, and 1753 commenced on the

ist of January. Previous to this two dates were used, one for the civil
year, and the other for the historical ; the former commenced March
25, and the latter January i ; thus we find the same event with two
dates, e. £■., Feb. 20, 1681-2. Another change was made in the calendar
by the same Act, 24 Geo. II. c. 23 ; the day after September 2d was
accounted i!a& fourteenth, hence the difference between Old and New
Michaelmas and other days.

GENERAL COUNCILS.

Jerusalem Against Judaizers 51

Aries Against the Donatists 314

*Nice First CEcumenical Council 325

Constantinople Arian 337

Rome Athanasian 342

Sardis Against Arius 347

* Constantinople Second QBcumenical 381

*Ephesus Third do 431

*Chalcedon Fourth do 451

* Constantinople Fifth do 553

^Constantinople Sixth do 681

Nice Seventh do 787

Constantinople Eighth do 870

Rome First Lateran 1123

A.D.

Rome Second Lateran 1139

Rome Third do , 1197

Rome Fourth do 1215

Lyons Emperor Frederick deposed 1243

Lyons Temporary reunion of Greek and Latin

Churches. , 1274

Vienne Fifteenth CEcumenical , 1312

Pisa Popes elected and deposed 1409

Constance Huss condemned to be burnt 1414

Basle Eighteenth CEcumenical 1431

Rome Fifth Lateran 1512 to 1517

Trent Nineteenth CEcumenical 1545 to 1563

Rome Last CEcumenical 1870

"' Only the six thus marked were indisputably General or CEcumenical.

--^

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

335

DEBTS, REVENUES, EXPENDITURES, AND COMMERCE OF NATIONS.

Countries,

Argentine Republic

Australia

Austria-Hungary

Austria proper

Hungary proper ....

Belgium

Bolivia

Brazil

Canada

Ceylon

Chili

China

Colombia

Denmark

Ecuador

Egypt

France

Germany

Prussia .7

Other German States

Great Britain

Greece

Hawaii *

India, British

Italy

Japan

Luxembourg

Mexico

Netherlands

Norway

Paraguay

Persia

Peru

Portugal

Roumania

Russia

Servia

Siam

Spain

Sweden

Switzerland

Turkey

United States

Uruguay

Venezuela

Total debts

Fiscal
Year.

1879
1S81

1879
1880

1879
1878
1879
1880
1879
1879

1880
1879
1880
1880
1880
1880

1879
1876
1879
1880
1881
1880
1880
1879

1879

Public Debt.

Doilars.

57,068,979

462,760,5:5

1,582,722,008

204,308,213

500,665,178

351,967,293

30,000,003

407,716,027

199,125,323

6,650,000

77,654.238

64,500,000

19,971,219

46,798,190

18,350,400

411,820,700

4,700,860,700

88,385,022

477.210,581

792.858,492

3,843.518,460

58,572,730

388,900

754,979,810

2,042,000,000

363,721,776

2,400,000

144,953,785

376,908,500

24,705,000

12,098,417

No debt.

254,000,000

387.659.57s

114,210,075

2,081,417,932

20,248,090

2- 504.571.684

62,196,184

6,120,780

1,289,565,000

2,018,869,698

47,861,042

67,309,990

26,979,170,506

Revenue,

Doilars,

19,594.305
79.637.540
57.922,954
204,827,997
132.207,358
54,501,284
2,929,574
57,423,412
23,307,406

7.374.335

27,693,087

121,482,000

4,910,000

12.756.571

1,853,600

42,097,105

552,496,163

148,239,138

125,439,802

121,396,304

420,207,440

8,759,000

1,780,080

325,998,0^0

286,904,471

59,933.507

1,347,000

17,811,125

42,044,240

13.454.670

216,599

8,216,000

38,900,000

30,794,012

24,152.940

435.548.352

5,125,216

4,000,000

163,347,097

20,503,260

8,502,901

62,681,608

360,782,292

8,936,714

4,680,000

Expenditures.

Collars.
17,270,516
93.225,515
61,092,009
231.556,152
153,590.048
55.763.710

4,500,504
59,762,289
24,850,634

7,343,915
24.777,360
121,475,000

8,634,571
11,251,561

2,688,000

41.544,350

547,241,755

147,695,846

228,267,605

116,032,115

415.509.620

18,765,000

2,196,000

315,826,780

283,340,500

59,204,609

1,612,400

23,128,218

49,786,774

n.937.340

270,031

8,131,000

54,600,000

34,478,143

24.164,876

469,121,794

5,127,108

4,000,000

156,529,840

20,098,260

8,020,764

57.390,803

260,712,887

10,090,260

4,448,000

Imports.'

Dollars.

44,660,204

236,893,913

302,900,000

(In Austria-

452,265,000

5,000,000

81,752,900

86,489.747

25,'97.i75

22,740,000

70,804,027

10,787,634

53.744,310

7,596,264

32,749,664

981,509.400

973,2co,oco

(In German

(in German

2,056,147,825

29,101,400

3.673,000

224,286,715

244,548,042

32,637,000

29,962,407

338,680,000

40.715,976

956,000

7,500,000

27,000,000

34,046,000

51,057,200

395,466,667

5,244,100

5,200,000

88,660,000

62,139,340

Not given.

107,500,000

753,240,125

18,328,225

14,800,000

Exports.*

Dollars.

66,497,423

206,149,785

329,995,000

Hungary.

428,149,065

5,647,000

102,029,250

87,911,458

24,804,690

6,620,226

67,172,179

13,711,511

42,576,810

8,634,331

64,916,017

680,129.800

705,375.000

Empire.

1,432,072,330

47,992,000

4,968,000

324,598.705

225,128,904

28,364,000

31,659,151

232,680,000
29,359,530
1,046,700
4,500,000
45,000,000
20,502,000
43,782,000

418,466,667
7,002,97s
10,200,000

100,980,000
50,264,280
Not given.
99,250,000

921^784,193
19,752,201
11,300,000

I.- Including merchandise, specie, and bullion.

2. Including New South Wales, New Zealand, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia.

THE NAVIES OF THE WORLD.

Countries.

Argentine Republic

Austria- Hungary

Belj;ium

Brazil

Canada (Dommion)

Chili

China

Colombia

Denmark

Egypt

France

Germany

Great Britain and Ireland
Greece

No. OF
Vessels.

41
7
23

33
14

258
86

238

No. OF

Men.

991
6,369

172
4.984

1.468

1,125

48,283

15.81S

58,800

652

Cost of
Navy.

$550,439
4,633.669

1,000,000
1,383,940

32,267,498
9,722,721

51,607,175
1,056,53^

Countries.

Italy

Japan

'Mexico

Netherlands. .

Norway

Peru

Portugal . . . . ,

Roumania

Russia

Spain

Sweden

Turkey

United States
Venezuela. . . .

No, OF
Vessels.

122

123

389
139
131
78
139
4

No. OF
Men.

16.140
■ 5.551

5,914
4.342

3.569

539

30,194

15,179

5.925

23,000

11,115

200

Cost of
Navy.

^9,227,132
3,015,000

4,849,776
448,632

1,607,411

19,268,755
6,429,163
1,424,250
2,816,000

15,686,671

NAVY YARDS OF THE UNITED STATES.

1. Brooklyn Navy Yard, Brooklyn, N. Y.

2. Charlestown Navy Yard, Boston, Mass,

3. Gosport Navy Yard, near Norfolk, Va.

4. Kittery Navy Yard, opposite Portsmouth. N. H.

5. League Island Navy Yard, 7 miles below Philadelphia.

6. Mare Island Navy Yard, near San Francisco, Cal.

7. New London Naval Station (unfinished). New London, Conn.

8. Pensacola Navy Yard, Pensacola, Fla.

9. Washington City Navy Yard, Washington, D. C.

336

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

■^

Washington, D. C 1200 m.

Athens, Greece 6 43 p. m.

Auckland, New Zealand 4 51 a. m.

Augusta, Me iz 29 p. m.

Austin, Texas 10 37 a. m.

Batavia, Java 1215 a.m.

Bombay, India 10 00 p. m.

Boston, Mass 12 24 p. m.

Berlin. Prussia 601 p. m.

Calcutta, India 11 01 p. m.

Canton, China 12 41 a. m.

Charleston, S. C 11 49 a. m.

Chicago, 111 II 18 a. m.

Constantinople, Turkey 7 04 p. m.

Copenhagen, Denmark 5 58 p. m.

VARIATIONS IN TIME.

Denver, Col 10 07 a. m,

Dublin, Ireland 443 p.m.

Gibraltar, Spam 451p.m.

Glasgow. Scotland 4 51 p. m.

Halifax, Nova Scotia 12 54 p. m.

Harrisburg, Pa iz 01 p.m.

Lima, Peru 12 com.

London, England 5 07 p. m.

Madrid, Spain 4 53 p. m.

Mecca, Arabia 7 49 p. m.

Mexico, Mexico 10 27 a. m.

New Orleans, La 11 08 a. m.

New York, N. Y 12 12 p. m.

Olympia, Washington Ter 8 57 a. m.

Omaha, Neb 10 44 a. m.

Paris, France 5 42 p. m.

Pekin, China 12 54 a. m.

Philadelphia, Pa 12 13 p.m.

Pittsburg, Pa 11 48 a. m.

Rio Janeiro, Brazil 2 16 p. m.

Rome, Italy 5 58 p. m.

St. Louis, Mo .., II 07 a m.

St. Petersburg, Russia 7 09 p. m.

Salt Lake City, Utah 940 a.m.

San Francisco, Cal 8 58 a. m.

Tallahassee, Fla 11 30 a. m.

Toronto, Canada 11 51 a. m.

Valparaiso, Chili 12 21 p. m.

Yeddo, Japan 2 27 a. m.

THE ENGLISH MILE COMPARED WITH OTHER EUROPEAN MEASURES.

English Statute Mile. ........

English Geographical Mile...

Kilometre.

German Geographical Mile . .

Russian Verst

Austrian Mile

Dutch Ure

Norwegian M jle

Swedish Mile

Danish Mile

Swiss Stunde

ENGLISH

STATUTE

MILE.

1. 000
I -15.3
0.621
4.610
0.663
4-714
3-458
7.021
6.644
4.682
2.987

ENGLISH
GEOG.
MILE.

I -153
1. 000
0.540
4.000
0.575
4.089
3.000
6.091
5-764
4.062
2.592

FRENCH

KILO-
METRE.

1,609
1-855
1. 000
7.420
1.067
7.586
5-565
1 1 . 299
10.692
7-536
4.808

GERMAN
GEOG.
MILE.

0.217
0.250

0.135
1.000
0.144
1.022
0.750
1-523
1.441
1.016
0.648

RUSSIAN
VERST.

1.508
1-738
0.937

6-953
1.000
7.112

5.215
10.589
10.019
7.078
4-505

AU.STRIAN
MILE.

0.212
0.245
0.132
0.978
0.141
1.000

0-734
1.489
1.409
0.994
0.634

DUTCH
URE.

0.289
0.333

o 180

1-333
0.192

1-363
1.000

2.03s
1.921

1.354
0.864

NOR-
WEGIAN
MILE.

0.142
0.164
O.0S8
0.657
0.094
0.672

0.493
1.000
0.948
0.667
0.425

SWEDISH
MILE.

0.151
0.169
0.094
0.694
0.100
0.710
0.520
1-057
1.000
0.705
0.449

DANISH
MILE.

0.213
0.246

0.133
0.985
0.142
1.006
0.738
1.499
1.419
1. 000
0.638

SWISS

STUNDE.

0.335
0.386
0.208

1-543
0.222
1.578
1-157
2.350
2.224
1-567
1.000

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE.
A TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF MILES IN A DEGREE OF LONGITUDE AT EACH DEGREE OF LATITUDE.

LAT.

MILES.

LAT.

MILES.

LAT.

MILES.

LAT.

MILES.

LAT.

MILES.

LAT.

MILES.

LAT.

MILES.

LAT.

MILES.

LAT.

MILES.

!»

li"

58.9

21°

56.0

31"

51.4

41°

45-3

51"

37.8

61°

29.1

71°

19-5

81°

9.4

58.7

55.6

50.9

44.6

36.9

28.2

18.5

8.4

59-9

58.5

55- =

50.3

43.9

36.1

27.2

17-5

Z-3

59-9

58.2

54.8

49-7

43.2

35-3

26.3

16.5

6.3

59-8

58.0

54.4

49.1

42.4

34-4

25.4

iS-5

8-;

5-2

59.7

57.7

53-9

48.S

41.7

33.6

24.4

14.5

4.2

59.6

57.4

53-5

47-9

40.9

32.7

23.4

13. S

3.1

59-4

57.1

53.0

'♦^3

40.1

31.8

22.5

12. s

2.1

59-3

56.7

52-5

46.6

39-i

§9

30.9

21-5

11.4

1.0

59.1

56.4

52.0

46.0

38.6

30.0

20. 5

10.4

0.0

MISCELLANEOUS ENGLISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

Measures of Length.

/«.
3
4

A Palm

AHand

Foot

Yard 36

Rod , f)ole or perch 198

Chain 792

Furlong 7i92o

Mile 63,360

F^.

i6j^
66
660
5,280

Vs. Pis. Ch. Fs.

5}i

1,760

40
320

Particular Measures of Length.
A fathom 6 feet.

12 lines 1 inch.

3 inches i palm.

4 inches I hand.
A cubit 18 inches.
A pace, military, 2 feet 6 inches.
A pace, geometriccil, 5 feet.

Square or Surface Measi're

A cable's length 240 yards.

A degree 69)^ miles = 60 nautical

knots or geographical miles.
A league 3 miles.

In.

Square foot 144

Square yard 1,296

Rod, pole, or perch 39,204

Square chain 627,264

Rood 1,568,160

Acre 6,272,640

Ft. Yds. Ph. Ch. R.

■^yi

272ji

303^

4,356

484

10,890

l,?IO

43,560

4,840 _

160

kr-

A square mile contains 640 acres, 2,560 roods, 6,400 chains, 102,400 rods,
poles, or perches, or 3,097,600 square yards.

Apothecaries' Weights and Measures by which Medicines arb
Compounded.

20 Grains = i Scruple 3 = 20 grs.

3 Sciuples = 1 Drachm 3 = 60 "

8 Drachms =^ i Ounce 3 = 480 "

12 Ounces — 1 Pound lb = 5760 "

Drugs are purchased by Avoirdupois Weight.

Fluid Measure. „ , ,

Marked

60 Minims Til = 1 Fluid Drachm f 3

8 Drachms — 1 Ounce f J

20 Ounces = 1 Pint ....; O

8 pints = I Gallon gal.

Particular Weights.

A Stone, Horseman's weight = 14 lbs.

A Firkin of Butter = 56 "

A Firkin of Soft Soap = 64 "

A Barrel of Raisins = 112 "

A Barrel (or pack) of Soft Soap = 256 "

A Fodder of Lead, London and Hull = i^}i cwt

" " Derby = 22>^ "

" " Newcastle = 21^ "

A Sack— Potatoes, 168 lbs.; Coals, 224 lbs.; Flour, 280 lbs.

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

-J

MISCELLANEOUS ENGLISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES-Continued.

Measures of Time.

60 Seconds = i Minute.

60 Minutes = i Hour.

24 Hours — I Day.

7 Days = I Week.

28 Days = I Lunar Month.

28, 29, 30, or 31 Days = i Calendar Month.

12 Calendar Months = i Year.

365 Days = I Common Year.

366 Days = I Leap Year.

Angular Measure.

60 Seconds = i Minute.

60 Minutes = i Degree.

30 Degrees = i Sig^.

90 Degrees = i Quadrant,

4 Quadrants, or 360° = i Circumference, or Great Circle.

Cubic or Solid Measure.

1728 Cubic Inches = i Cubic Foot.

27 Cubic Feet = i Cubic Yard.

40 Do. of Rough, or I ^ t j

50 Do. of Hewn Timber f = i Ton or Load.

42 Cubic Feet of Timber = i Shipping Ton.

108 Cubic Feet = i Stack of Wood.

128 Cubic Feet = 1 Cord of Wood.

40 Cubic Feet 1 Ton Shipping.

Liquid Measure. Ca&. Q/s. Pis.
Four Gills, one Pint i

8uart X 2

allon I

Firkin or Quarter Barrel 9

Kilderkin or Half Barrel 18

Barrel 36

Hogshead of Ale (i^^ barrel) 54

Puncheon 72

Butt of Ale (3 barrels) 108

Practically, the only measures in use are gallons and quarts, the
others are merely nominal ; e. g-., the hogshead of 54 gallons, old mea-
sure, 001110.111% but 52 gjallons, i Quart, i pint, and 3.55 gills imperial
measure, and of wine six nominal quart bottles go to the gallon. Of
imported wines the following are the usual measurements :

Pipe of Port or Masdeu = 115 Gallons.

" Teneriffe = loq "

8
72

72
144

144

288

210

288

432
576

Pipe of Ma.-sala = 93 Gallons.

" Madeira and Cape = 92 "

Butt of Lisbon and Bucellas = "7 "

" Sherry and Tent = io3 ' "

Aum of Hock and Rhenish

Hogshead of Claret

= 30
= 46

Dry or Corn Measure.

4 Quarts =1 Gallon.

2 Gallons = I Peck.

4 Pecks = 1 Bushel.

3 Bushels (four of com) . . .• — i Sack.

12 Sacks = I Chaldron.

8 Bushels, or two sacks = i Quarter.

5 Quarters =1 Load.

Measures of Weight. — Avoirdupois.

27>{ Grains = 1 Drachm = 27K )

16 Drachms = i Ounce = 437^^ y Grains.

16 Ounces = i Pound = 7000 )

8 Pounds = I Stone of Butcher's Meat.

14 Pounds = I Ordinary Stone.

28 Pounds = I Quarter (qr.).

4 Quarters = 1 Hundredweight (cwt.)./

20 Cwt = I Ton.

This weight is used in almost all commercial transactions, and com-
mon dealings.

Troy Weight.

sVe Grains =1 Carat.

24 Grains = i Pennyweight.

20 Pennyweights = i Ounce 480 grs.

12 Ounces = i Pound 5770 "

Hay and Straw.
Truss of Straw, 36B>.
Truss of Old Hay. 56*.
Truss of New Hay. 60B).

Load, 36 Trusses = Straw, 11 cwt. 2 qrs. 8fl>.; Old Hay, 18 cwt.; New
Hay, 19 cwt. i qr. 4B).

Woo"" cwt. qr. lb.

7 Pounds "'

2 Cloves

2 Stones

6>^Tods

12 Sacks

= I Clove o

= I Stone o

= iTod o

= I Wey I

= I Last 39

FRENCH METRICAL SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

The Metrical System is based upon the length of the fourth part of a
terrestrial meridian. The ten-millionth part 01 this arc was chosen as the
unit of measures of length, and called Metre. The cube of the tenth
part of the mfeire was adopted as the unit of capacity, and denominated
Litre. The weight of a litre of distilled water at its greatest density

equal to

Millimetre

Centimfetre

Drfcimfetre

MtTRE

Ddcametre

Hectometre 3937.07000

Kilomfetre 39370.79000

Myriametre 393707.90000

Measures or Length (unit Metre).
Inches. Feet.

0.003281

was called Kilogramme, of which the thousandth part, or Gramme, was
adopted as the unit of weight. The multiples of these proceeding in
decimal progression are distinguished by the employment of the pre-
fixes deca, hecto, kilo, and myria, from the Greek, £ind the subdivisions
by deci, centi, and milli, from the Latin : —

0.03937
o- 39371
3-93708
39-37079
393.70790

0.032809

0.328090

3 . 280989

32.809892

328.089917

3280.899167

32808.991667

Yards.

0.0010936

0.0109363

o. 1093633

1.0936331

10.9363306

109.3633056

1093.6330556

10936.3305556

equal to
Millilitre, or cubic centimfetre .

Centilitre, 10 cubic do

Decilitre, 100 cubic do

Litre, or cubic Decimetre

Decalitre, or Centistfere.

Cubic, or Measures of Capacity (unit Litre).

Cubic Inches. Cubic Feet. Pints.

0.06103 •• 0.000035 . 0.00176

0.61027 •• 0-000353

6.io2jjt .. 0.003532

61.02705 .. 0.035317

610.27053 .. 0.353166

Hectolitre, or D^istfere 6102.70515 .. 3.531658

Kilolitre, or Stere, or cubic mitre 61027.05152 .. 35.316581

Myrialitre, or Decastfere 610270.51519 .. 353.165807

0.01761
0.17608
1.76077
17.60773
176.07734
1760.77341
17607.73414

Measures of Weight (unit Gramme).

equal TO Grains. Troy Oz. Avoirdupois lb.

Milligramme 0.01543 -■ 0.000032 .. 0.0000022

Centigramme 0.15432 .. 0.000322 .. 0.0000220

Decigramme 1.54323 .. 0.003215 .. 0.0002205

Gramme 'S-4323S .. 0.032151 .. 0.0022046

D^agramme 154.32349 .. 0.321507 .. 0.0220462

Hectogramme 1543.23488 .. 3.215073 .. 0.2204621

Kilogramme 15432.34880 .. 32.150727 .. 2.2046213

Myriagramme ..'. 154323.48800 .. 321.507267 .. 22.0462126

Square, or Measures of Surface (uNrr Ark).

equal TO Sg. Feet. Sf. Yards. Sq. Perches.

Centiare, or square mfetre 10.764299 .. 1. 196033 .. 0.0395383

Are, or 100 square mfetres 1076.429934 .. 119.603326 .. 3.9538290

Hectare, or 10,000 square mfetres 107642.993419 .. 11960.332602 .. 395.3828959

FathoTKs.

0.0005468

0.0054682

0.0546816

0.5468165

5.4681653

54 6816528

546.8165278

5468.1652778

Gallons.

0.0002201

0.0022010

0.0220097

o 2200967

2.2009668

22 . 0096677

220.0966767

2200.9667675

Cwt. ■=■ 112 lb.
0.0000000
0.0000002
0.0000020
0.0000197
0.0001968
0.0019684
0.0196841
0.1968412

Sq. Roods.
0.0009885
0.0988457
9.8845724

Miles.
., 0.0000C06
0.0000062
0.0000621
0.0006214
0.0062138
0.0621382
0.6213824
6.2138242

Bushels.

0.0000275
0.0002751
0.0027512
0.0275121
0.2751208
2.7512085
27.5120846
275.1208459

Tons — 20 curt.
0.0000000
0.0000000
o.ooooooi
o.oooooio
0.0000098
0.0000984
0.0009842
0.0098421

Sq. Acres.
0.0002471
0.0247114
3.4711431

338

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

■-^

TABLE FOR THE CONVERSION OF METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES INTO ENGLISH.

Metres into

Kilometres to miles

Litres into galls.

Hectolitres

into

Kilogrammes into cwts.,

Hectares

into

yards

and yards.

and quarts.

quarts

and bushels.

qrs.

lbs.

, oz.

acres, r.

.P-

1.094

1094

I 0.880

2-751

^'i

1 2

2.187

2 I

427

2 I. 761

5 502

2 4

3.281

3 I

'1^'

3 2.641

0.254

9%.

3 7

4-374

4 2

«55

4 3-521

3-005

4 9

5.463

5 3

18S

5 0,402

5.756

5 X2

6.562

6 3

1282

6 I 1.282

0.507

6 14

7-655

7 4

015

7 I 2.163

3.258

7 17

8.749

8 4

1709

8 I 3-043

6.010

loM

8 19

9.843

9 S

1043

9 I 3-923

0.761

I3>^

9 22

10.936

10 6

376

10 2 0.804

3-512

0%.

10 24

21-873

20 12

753

20 4 1.608

7.024

i>4

20 49

32.809

30 18

1 129

30 6 2.412

2.536

^y^

30 74

4°

43-745

40 24

1505

40 8 3.215

6.048

3,.

40 98

54-682

50 31

122

50 11 0.019

1.560

2t)

so 123

65.618

^0 37

49«

60 13 0.823

5.072

4>^

60 148

76.554

70 43

874

70 15 1.627

0.585

70 172

87-401

80 49

1251

80 17 2.431

4.097

80 197

98.427

90 55

1627

90 19 3-235

7.609

bl4

90 222

100

109.363

100 62

243

100 22 0.039

100

3.121

100

100 247

200

218.727

200 124

487

200 44 0.077

200

6.242

200

200 494

300

328.090

300 i86

730

300 66 0.116

300

103

1.362

300

300 741

400

437-453

400 248

973

400 88 0.15s

400

137

4-483

400

400 988

500

546.816

500 310

1217

500 110 0.193

Soo

171

7-604

500

500 1235

FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

FRANCE.
I. Measure of Length.

I Myriam^tre = loooo Mfetres.

1 Kilom&tre = 1000 Mfetres.

1 Decamfetre = 10 Mfetres.

I Mfetre = The 10,000,000 part of the quarter of the merid-
ian of the earth.

I Decimfetre = i-ioth of a metre.

1 Centimetre = i-iooth of a mfetre.

1 Milim&tre = i-ioooth of a mfetre.

n. Measttre of Surface.

I Hectare = 100 Ares.

I Are = 100 Square mfetres.

I Centiare = 1 Square mfetre.

ni. Measure of Solidity.

I Stere = 1 Cubic mfetre.

I Decistere = i-ioth of a stere.

IV. Measure 0/ Capacity.

1 Kilolitre = 1 Cubic mfetre.

I Hectolitre = 10 Decalitres.

I Decalitre = 10 Litres.

I Litre.. = 1 Cubic decimfetre. '

1 Decilitre = i-ioth of a litre.

Millia.

V. Measure of Weight.

= 1000 Kilogrammes, and is the weight of a ton

of sea-water.

1 Quintal = 100 Kilogrammes.

1 Kilogramme = Weight of a. cubic decimfetre of water, at the

temperature of 4" above melting ice, or

about 40° Fahrenheit.
1 Hectogramme.... = 100 Grammes.

1 Decagramme = 10 Grammes.

I Gramme = i-ioooth of a kilogramme.

1 Decigramme = i-ioth of a gramme.

These measures may be compared with the English measures bv
means of the following table :

I Mfetre = 39.38 Engl i.sh inches, nearly.

I Are = 3.9 English perches, nearly.

I St^i'e = 35.32 English cubic feet.

I L'tre = 1.76 English pints.

I Gramme = 15.44 English grains.

BELGIUM.

The metrical system is used here; but the kilogramme is termed a
livre; the litre, alitron ; and the mfetre, an aune.

NETHERLANDS.

Here., also the metrical system has been adopted • but Flemish names
are employed instead of those used in France.

LOMBARDO-VENETIAN KINGDOM.

The metrical system, with Italian names substituted for most of the
original terms, is used officially ; but the old measures are also used.
See Venice.

AUSTRIA.

The ell — 30.6 inches. The joch ;:= i acre 1.75 rood. The metzen =
1-7 bushel. The eimer =; 12.4 gallons. The pfund = 1-2 pound. Gold
and silver are weighed by the mark of Vienna, which = 4333 grains.

BASLE.

100 pounds = 108.6 pounds avoirdupois. The ohm 3« 10.7 gallons.
The sack =; 3.6 bushels. The large and small ells — 46.4 and 21.4
inches respectively.

BAVARIA.

The long and short ells = 24 and 23 . 3 inches respectively. The schaff
of 8 metzen = 5.6 bushels. The muid of 48 mass = 15 gallons. 100
pounds heavy and lightweight = 108.3 and 104.2 pounds avoirdupois
respectively. The mark of Augsburg — 3643 grains.

BREMEN.

The foot or half-ell =11.4 inches. The ohm = 31.5 gallons. The
last =10.2 quarters. 100 pounds = 109.9 pounds avoirdupois.

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.

The centner, or loc pounds Dutch weight = 108.9 pounds avoirdu-
pois. The leager of 15 ankers = 126.5 gallons. The muid of schepels
:= 3 bushels. The ell of 27 Rhynland inches = 27.8 inches.

CHINA.

The chang of 10 chih = 4 yards, nearly. The shing = i pint. 10 ho
— I shing ; 10 shing = i tow ; 10 tow = i hwuh, or 120 catties. The
catty = 1.33 pound avoirdupois. 16 taels =: i catty; 100 catties = i
pccul. Liquids nre sold by weight ; but the English gallon is used in
trading with foreigners.

DENMARK.

The foot = 12.3 inches. 100 ells = 68.6 yards. The viertel = 1.7
gallon. TOO tonnen = 47 . 8 quarters. The pound = 1.1 pound avoirdu-
pois. The pound for gold and siver weighs 7266 grains.

EAST INDIES.

Bengal. — The Factory maund = 74.66 pounds avoirdupois. 10 bazar
maunds = 11 Factory maunds. 16 chittacks = i seer; 40 seers — 1
maund. The guz of 2 cubits = 1 yard.

Bombay. — The maund = 28 pounds avoirdupois. 40 seers = 1 maund ;
20 maunds = i candy. The candy = 24.5 bushels.

Afadras.— The maund = 25 pounds avoirdupois. 4opollams = i vi ;
8 vis = I maund, mauns = i candy. The covid = 18.6 inches. The
gars of 80 parahs — 16.875 quarters, and weighs 8400 pounds avoirdu-
pois.

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

339

■^

EGYPT.

The Turkish pike — 27 inches. The ardeb of 24 Cairo rubbie = 6
quarters. The cantar =: 100 pounds avoirdupois. 216 drains or 144 meti>
cals = I rottole ; 100 rottoli or 36 okes =: i cantar.

FRANKFORT ON THE MAINE.

The ell = 21.2 inches. The foot = 11. 2 inches. The matter = 3
bushels, nearly. The viertel — 1.6 gallon, nearly. The pound, light
and heavy weight, = 1.03 and i.i pound avoirdupois. The Zoll-cent-
ner — no. 2 pounds avoirdupois. The Cologne mark, used for gold and
silver, w^eighs 3609 grains.

GENEVA.

The ell = 45 inches. The acre = i acre i.i rood. The coupe, or
sack = 2.1 bushels. The setier = 10 gallons. The heavy pound = 1.2
pound avoirdupois ; the light pound i-6th less. The mark weighs 3785
grains.

GENOA.

The braccio of 2.5palmi — 22.9 inches. The mina = 3.3 bushels.
The barile — 16.3 gallons. The pound = 0.7 pound avoirdupois. 1.5
pound = I rottole. The pound sottile, for gold and silver, weighs
489 1. 5 grains.

GREECE.

The Venetian measures of length are used, the braccio being called a
piche. loo kila =11.4 quarters. The cantaro of 40 okes — 112 pounds
avoirdupois.

HAMBURG.

The foot =11.3 inches, nearly. 100 ells = 62.6 yards. Thescheflel =
I acre 6 perches. The last = 1.09 last. The viertel = 1.6 gallon. The
pound = 1.06 pound avoirdupois. For the Cologne mark, see Frank-
fort. 2 marks = i pound troy.

LUEECK.

The ell = 22.9 inches. The last = 11 quarters. The viertel = 1.6
gallon. The pound = 1.07 pound avoirdupois, nearly.

MALTA.

The palme = 10.25 inches; 3.5 palmi = i yard ; 8 palmi = i canna.
The salma = 7.8 bushels. The caflfiso = 4.5 gallons. The barile =
9.33 gallor.3. 64 rottoli — i hundredweight. The cantaro = 175
pounds avoirdupois.

MAURITIUS.

Besides the English weights and measures, those of France before
the late alteration are used. The aune = 1.3 yr.rd. The velte = 1.7
gallon. The poid de marc — 1.08 pound avoirdupois.

NAPLES.

The canna = 83.2 inches. The moggia = 3 roods 12 perches. The
tomolo .— 1.4 bushel. The barile — 9.1 gallons. The cantaro grosso
and piccolo = 196.5 and 106 pounds avoirdupois, respectively. The
pound used in weighing gold and silver contains 4950 grains.

PORTUGAL.
.8 inches. The almude = 3.6 gallons. The pound

The covado j.„ ...^.,^

^ 1. 01 f)ound avoirdupois.

PRUSSIA.

The ell =26.5 inches. The morgen = 2 roods 21 perches. The
scheffel = 1.5 bushel. The eimer =15.1 gallons. The pound = 1.03
pound avoirdup>ois. The mark of Cologne is used for gold and silver.

ROME.

The canna of 8 palmi = 2.2 yards. The canna of 10 palma = 88 inches,
nearly. The rabbio = 8.1 bushels. The boccale = 0.4 gallon. The
pound — 0.7 pound avoirdupois.

RUSSIA.

The arshine = 28 inches. The foot — 13. y 5 inches. The dessetnia -
2 acres 2.8 roods. The tschetwert = 5.7 bushels. The wedro = 2.7
gallons. The pound = 0.9 pound avoirdupois. The pood = 36 pounds
avoirdupois.

St. GALLEN.

The ells for silks and woolens = 31.5 and 24.25 inches, resp>ectively.
The miitt of 4 viertels = 2.09 bushels. The eimer = 11.25 gallons. The
pound, light and heavy weight =1.03 and 1.3 pound avoirdupois, re-
spectively.

SAXONY.

The foot =11.1 inches. The acre = i acre 1.5 rood, nearly. The

eimer, at Dresden, = 14.9 gallons ; at Leipsic - 16.8 gallons. The

wispel, at Dresden = 69.9 bushels; at Leipsic = 91.7 bushels. The
pound = 1.03 f>ound avoirdupois.

SICILY.

The canna = 76.5 inches. The salma = 7.6 bushels. The barrel =
8 gallons, nearly. The pound of 12 ounces = 0.7 pound avoirdupois.
The cantaro — 175 pounds avoirdupois.

SMYRNA.
The killow =11.3 gallons. The rottolo =•

SOUTH AMERICA.

The Spanish and Portuguese measures are most generally employed.
The use of the English measures prevails in some parts.

The pike = 27 inches.
1.2 pound avoirdupois.

The vara, or ell

33.3 inches
The arroba = 3.5 gallons,
i.oi pound avoirdupois.

SPAIN.

The fanegada = i acre 21 perches.
The fanega =1.5 bushel. The pound =1

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

The ell =23.3 inches. The tunneland = i acre i rood, nearly. The
tunnu = 0.6 quarter. Thekann = 0.6 gallon. The pound = o.9pound
avoirdupois.

TURKEY.

The pike = 26.25 inches. The killow = 0.9 bushel. The almud =
I.I gallon. The oke = 2.8 pounds avoirdupois. The rottolo =13
pound avoirdupois.

TUSCANY.

The braccio ^ 23 inches, nearly. The saccata = i acre 0.9 rood. The
sacche = 2 bushels. The fiasche — 4 pints. The pound = 12 ounces
avoirdupois.

VENICE.

Besides the metrical system, the following measures are used : The
braccio, for woolens = 26.6 inches ; for silks = 24.8 inches. The stajo
= 2.2 bushels. The secchia = 2.4 gallons. The pound sottile —0.9
pound avoirdupois, nearly ; grosso = 1.05 pound avoirdupois.

REDUCTION OF FRENCH, PARIS, ENGLISH,
AND RHENISH MEASURES OF LENGTH,
USED BY SCIENTIFIC WRITERS, TO THE
SCALE OF EACH.

TOISES, REDUCED TO ENGLISH AND RHENISH LENGTHS.

TOISES.

METRES.

ENGLISH FEET.

RHENISH FEET.

1.94904

6.39459

6.21002

3.89807

12.78918

12.42004

S.8471I

19.18377

18.63006

7.79615

25.57837

24.84008

9-74518

31.97296

31 .05010

11.69422

38.36755

37.26012

13.64326

44-76214

43-47014

15.59229

51-15673

49.68016

17-54133

57-55132

55-89017

19.49037

63.94592

62 . 10019

100

194.90366

639.45916

62I.OO194

lOOO

1949.03659

6394-59160

6210. 91941

METRES, REDUCED TO PARIS, ENGLISH, AND RHENISH
LENGTHS.

METRES.

TOISES.

PARIS.

ft. in. lines.

ENGLISH.

feet & inches.

RHENISH FT.

0.51307

11.296

3-3708

3 . 18620

I .02615

6 I

10.592

6.7416

6.37240

1-53922

9 2

9.888

10. I 124

9.55860

2.05230

12 3

9. 184

1.4832

12.74480

2.56537

15 4

8.480

4.8539

15.93100

3.07844

18 5

7.776

8.2247

19.11720

3-59'52

21 6

7.072

11-5955

22 . 30340

4.10459

24 7

6.368

2.9663

25.48960

4.61767

27 8

5.664

6-3371

28.67580

5-13074

30 9

4.960

9.7079

31.86200

100

51.30471

307 10

1.600

328

1.0790

318.62000

1000

513.07407

3078 5

4.000

3280

10.7900

3186. 19996

340

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

■^

A TABLE OF THE SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF
BODIES.

BAROMETER, 30 INCHES ; FAHRENHEIT'S THERMOMETER, 60°.

(From the Works of Drs. Thompson, Young, and Ure.)

Platinum 22 .069

Gold 19.360

guicksilver 13.568

ead "-352

Silver lo- 474

Copper 8.878

Brass 8.396

Steel 7.833

Iron (cast) 7.645

Tin 7.320

Glass (crystal) 3.150

-Granite 3.000

Marble (Parian) 2.838

Flint 2 . 570

Brick 2.000

Nitre

Ivory

Brimstone ,

Coal

Boxwood

Sea Water

Common Water.
Oak (English) . . .

Walnut

Cedar

Elm

Willow

Fir

Poplar

Cork

1.900

1.825

1. 810

X.250

1.030

1.026

1. 000

.760

.671

.613

.600

.585

• 550

• 383
.240

Note.— The several sorts of wood are supposed to be dry.

THE ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES.

The Army of the United States consists of the following forces in
officers and men :

Ten calvary regiments

Five artillery regiments

Twenty-five infantry regiments

Engineer battalion, recruiting parties, ordnance
department, hospital service, Indian scouts,
West Point, Signal detachment, and general
service

Officers.

434
283
881

551

Enlisted

men.

6,882

2,403

10,530

3,781

Total 2,149

23,596

For convenience, and to fix responsibility, the country is divided into
three military divisions, each witn several departments, as follows :

1. Military division of the Missouri, commanded by Lieut. -General
Philip H. Sheridan, head-quarters Chicago ; comprehends the depart-
ments of the Missouri (General John Pope) ; I'exas (General C. C.
Auger) ; Dakota (General A. H. Terry), and the Platte (General George
Crook). There are eight regiments of cavalry and eighteen of infantry
in this division.

2. Military division of the Atlantic, commanded by Major-General
Winfield S. Hancock, head-quarters New York. Includes department
of the East (General Hancock) ; department of the South (Colonel H.J.
Hunt, Newport Barracks, Ky.) There is also the department of West
Point, commanded by Brig. -General O. O. Howard. This division in-
cludes four regiments of artillery and three of infantry.

3. Military division of the Pacific, commanded by Major-General
Irvin McDowell, head -quarters San Francisco. Includes departments
of California (General McDowell) : the Columbia (General Nelson A.
Miles); Arizona (General O. B. Willcox), comprises one regiment of ar-
tillery, two of cavalry, and four of infantry.

The maximum military force allowed under existing laws is 2,155 com-
missioned officers and 25,000 enlisted men. The report of the General
of the Army exhibits the actual number in service as 2,149 officers and
23,596 enlisted men, October 25, 1881. The following table exhibits the
number in each rank of the army :

Colonels, 66 ; lieutenant-colonels, 85 ; majors, 244 ; captains, 607 ; ad-
jutants, 40 ; regimental quarter-masters, 39 ; first lieutenants, 567 ;
second lieutenants, 446 ; chaplains, 34 ; store-keepers, 21 ; total, 2,149.
The enlisted men embrace 38 sergeant-majors, 40 quarter-master ser-
geants, 638 musicians, 215 trumpeters, 9 saddler sergeants, 114 ordnance
sergeants, 181 hospital stewards, 148 commissary sergeants, 420 first
sergeants, 1,999 sergeants, 1,57s corporals, 219 farriers, 64 artificers, 115
saddlers, 55 wagoners, and 17,162 privates ; total 22,992. Besides these
there are employed in the Signal Corps 495 non-commissioned officers
and privates ; Military Academy, 8 professors, 172 cadets, 191 enlisted
men ; total, 371.

The number of retired army officers is 397 ; number of privates dis-
charged during the fiscal year 1881, 6,564 ; number died during same
period, 248 ; number deserted, 2,361 ; number enlisted and reenlisted,
5,769.

TOTAL COTTON PRODUCTION AND AVERAGE PRODUCT PER ACRE.

From the Tables of the Tenth Census, 1880— (Crop year, 1879.)

States, in Order of Production.

Mississippi

Georgia

Texas..

Alabama

Arkansas ,

South Carolina

Louisiana

North Carolina

Tennessee

Florida

Missouri

Indian Territory

Virginia

Kentucky

Total

POPULATION.

Total.

,131
,542
,592
,262.
802,
995 >
939.
,399'
,542,

,574
,505
,525
,577
946
750
463
493-

1,512,565
1,648,690

16,808,644

White.

479,371
816,906

1,197,499
662,185

591,531
391,105
454,954
867,242

1,139,120
142,605

2,023,568

11,024,123

Colored.

652,221
725,274
395,076
600,320
210,994
604,472
484,992
532,508
403,343
126,888
145,236

631,707
271,511

5,784,541

COTTON PRODUCTION.

Acres.

2,093,330
2,617,138
2,173,732
2,330,086
1,042,976

1,364,249
864,787

893,^53
722,569

245,595

32,711

35,000

24,000

2,667

14,441,993

Bales.

955,808
814,441
803,642

699,654

608,256

522,548

508,569

389,598

330,644

54,997

19,733

17,000

11,000

1,367

5,737,257

Mississippi

Georgia

Texas

Alabama

Arkansas

South Carolina..

Louisiana

North Carolina.,

Tennessee

Florida

Missouri

Indian Territory

Virginia

Kentucky

Total..

AVERAGE PRODUCT PER ACRE, IN POUNDS.

Fraction of
bale (475 lbs.)

Seed
Cotton

0.46

641

0.31
0.37

444
528

0.30
0.58
0.38
O.S9
0.44
0.46

429
831
546
837
621

651

0.22
0,60

318
861

0.49
0.46

693
654

0.51

729

567

Lint.

176

143
277
182
279
207
217
106
287
231

2l8

243

Cotton
Seed.

434
296
352
286
554
364
558
414
434
212

574
462
436
486

378

TOTAL IN TONS.

Lint.

227,004

193,430

190,865

166,168

144,461

124,105

120,785

92,530

78,528

13,062

4,687

4,037

2,612

325

1,362,599

Cotton Seed.

454,009
386,859
381,730
332,336
288,922
248,210
241,570
185,059
157,056
26,124

9,373 -

8,075

5,225

649

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

341

HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL TABLE OF THE UNITED STATES AND TERRITORIES.

SHOWING THE AREA OF EACH IN SQUARE MILES AND IN ACRES ; THE DATE OF ORGANIZATION OF TERRITORIES ; DATE OK

ADMISSION OF NEW STATES INTO THE UNION, WITH THE STATUTORY REFERENCES FOR EACH.

From the Report of the Commissioner of the General Land Office with Corrections. The areas are from the Census report of 1880.

Thk Thirteen Original States.

New Hampshire
Massachusetts. . .
Rhode Island . . .

Connecticut

New York ,

New Jersey

Pennsylvania...,

Delaware

Maryland

Virginia

North Carolina..
South Carolina. .
Georgia

Ratified the Constitution

Tune

Feb.

May

Tan.

July

Dec.

April

June

Nov.

May

Jan.

21, 1788.

6, 1788
29, 1790

9, 1788
26, 1788
18, 1787

12, 1787

7i 1787
28, 1788
25, 1788

21, 1789

23, 1788

2,7788

Area of the Original States.

In Square Miles.

9i3oS

8.3'5

1,250

4,990

49,»70

7,815

■45,215

2,050

12,210

42,450

52,250

30,570

59.475

In Acres.

5,955,200

5,321,600

800,000

3,193,600

31,468.800

5,001,600

28,937,600

1,312,000

7,814,400

27,168,000

33,440,000

19,564,800

38,064,000

States Admitted.

Kentucky

Vermont

Tennessee

Ohio

Louisiana

Indiana

Mississippi...

Illinois

Alabama

Maine ,

Missouri

Arkansas

Michigan

Florida

Iowa

Texas

Wisconsin....
California ...

Minnesota

Oregon

Kansas

West Virginia

Nevada

Nebraska ...
Colorado

Act Organizing Terri-
tory.

Out of Virginia ...
Outof N. H.&N.Y.
Out of N. Carolma.
Ordinance 1787.

March

May

April

February

March

Out of Mass.

June

March

January

March

June

Annexed

April 20, 1836

From Mexico

March 3, 1849

August 14, 1848

May 30, 1854

Out of Virginia

March 2, i86t

May 30, 1854

February 28, 1861

1805
1800
1798
1809
1817

4, 1812
2, 1819

11, 1805
30, 1822

12, 1838

United

States

Statutes.

33'
58

549

5'4

371

743

493

3
3

vyg

654

235

797

403

323

377

209

277

172

Act Admitting
State.

Feb. 4,
Feb. 18,
June I,
April 30,
April 8,
Dec. II,
Dec. 10,
Dec. 3,
Dec. 14,
Mar. 3,
Mar. 2,
June 15,
Jan. 26,
Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
Sept.
May „
Feb. 14,
Jan. 29,
Dec. 31,
Mar. 21,
Feb. 9,
Mar. 3,

1791
1791
1796
1802
1812
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1836
1837
184s
1845
1845
1847
1850
1858
1859
1861
1862
1864
1867
1875

United

States

Statutes.

189
191
491
»73
701

399
472
536
608
544
645
50
144
74«
742
108 ■
178
452
285

383
126

633

391

474

Admission
Took Effect.

June
Mar.
June
Nov.
Apr.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Mar.
Aug.
June
Jan.
Mar.
Dec.
Dec.
May
Sept.
May
Feb.

{an.
une
Oct.
Mar.
Aug.

1, 1792

4, 1791
I, 1796

29, 1802

30, 1812
II, 1816
10, 1817

3, 1818

14, 1819

15. 1820

10, 1821
15, 1836
26, 1837

3. 1845

z8, 1846

29, 1845

29, 1848

9, 1850

11. 1858
14, 1859
29, 1861
19, 1863

31, 1864
I, 1867
I, 1876

Area of
Admitted States
and Territories.

In
Square
Miles.

40,400

9,565
42,050
41,060
48,720
36.350
46,810
56,650
52.250
33,040
69.415
53,850
58,915
58,680
56.025

265,780
56,040

158.360
83,365
96,030
82,080
24,780

110,700
76,855

103.925

In Acres.

25.856.000
6,121,600
26,912,000
26,278,400
31,180,800
23,264,000
29,958,400
36,256,000
33,440,000
21,145,600
44,425,600
34,464,000
37.705,600
37,555,200
35.856.000

170,099,200
35,865,600

101,350,400
53,353,600
61,459,200
52,531.200
15,859,200
70,848,000
49,187,000
66,513,000

UNITED STATES MONEY.

United States money is the legal currency of the United States. Its
denominations are shown in the following

10 mills
10 cents
10 dimes
10 dollars

cent, marked c.
dime, " d.
dollar, " $.

I eagle,

Coins are pieces of metal converted into money by legal stamping.
The Coins of the United States are of gold, silver, nickel, and
bronze, as follows :

Double-eagle,
Eagle,

value $30

Half-eagle, value
Three dollars "
Quarter-eagle, "
Dollar.

SILVER.

Dollar, value )
Half-dollar,

Quarter-dollar, "
Twenty cents, "
Dime, "

1. 00
.50
.25
.20
.10

Also, a TraJe Dollar for purposes of foreign trade.

NICKEL.

Five cents, value
Three cents, "

5C.
3C.

BRONZE.

Cent, value

I c

342

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

The weight of the pold dollar is 25 8/ro grains, and of the other gold
coins in proportion ; the weight of the silver half-dollar is i2>^ grains,
or 192 9/10 grains, nearly, and of the smaller silver coins in proportion ;
the weight of the dollar is 412X grains, and of the trade dollar 420
grains ; and of the nickel five cent, 5 grams, or 77 16/100 grains.

'TheS/auifar<fo{lhcj,v/c/rtyti:soilhc United States is 9 parts pure
metal and 1 part silver and copper , of the siVvcr coins 9 parts pure
metal and 1 part copper ; of the nickel coins, 25 parts pure mctr.l and 75
parts copfKjr ; and of the iron::e coin, 95 parts copper and 5 parts zinc
and tin.

The dollar mark, $, may be considered as the letter U written upon
an S., denoting U. S , the initials of United States.

NOTATION AND NUMERATION.

The Dollar is the unil of United States money.

In accounts, eagles are written as t&ns of dollars, and indicated by
the dollar mark ($) ; and they are usually read as a number of dollars.
Thus :

5 eagles are written $50, and read fifty dollars.

Dimes are written as tenths, cents as hundredths, and mills as
thousandths of a dollar, and separated from dollars by the decimal
point ( . ). Dimes are usually read as a number of cents, and mills are
sometimes read as a part of a cent. Thus :

3 eagles, 3 dollars, 3 dimes, 3 cents, and 3 mills, are written,

$33 -3331

and read thirty-three dollars, thirty-three cents, and three mills ; and,
4 eagles, 2 dimes, and 5 mills may be written,

$4-3. 20X,
and read forty dollars, twenty and one half cents.

PRODUCTION OF GOLD AND SILVER IN THE

UNITED STATES.
According to the Mint Reports of 1874 and 1881.

Year.

Gold.

Silver.

Year.

1865

Gold.

$5!, 225 ,00

Silver.

1848

$I.>,OX1,000

$50,000

$11,250,0

1849

40,00 \ooo

50,000

1866

55,5-x),ooo

I ,< 00,iA

1850

5 ^,'■00 ,00

50, 00

1867

5i,725,oco

13,500,000

1851

5S,ooo,ooo

50,000

1868

48,000,00 1

I?, 000 ,000

1852

60,000,000

50,000

i86g

49,503,000

13,000,000

i8s3

65,000,000

50,000

1870

50,000,000

16,003,000

1854

60,000,000

50,000

1871

43,500,000

23,000,000

1855

55,000,000

50,000

1872

36,000,000

25,750,000

1856

55,000,000

50,000

*'?73

36,000,000

35,750,000

1857

55,000,000

50,000

*i874

33,400903

37,3-4,504

1858

50,000,000

50,000

1875

3 -> 1467 ,8 56

31,727,560

18.S9

50,000,000

100,000

1876

39,929,166

38,783,016

i860

46,000,000

150,000

1877

46,897,390

3Q,'03,573

i86i

45,000,000

2,000,COO

1878

51,206,360

45,281,385

1S62

39,2 30,000

4.500,000

1879

38,899,858

40,812,132

1863

4:1,003,003

8,500,000

1883

36,030,000

39,200,000

1864

46,100,000

Tot

1 1 ,000,000

al, 1848-1881.

1881

36,500,000

42,100,000

ii5.';7ii4',532

501 ,072,260

Total Gold and Silver, $2,058,213,792.

TABLE SHOWING VARIATIONS OF TIME, DISTANCES FROM NEW YORK CITY, HOURS
BY RAILWAY, AND PASSENGER FARES FROM NEW YORK TO THE PRINCIPAL
PLACES IN THE UNITED STATES.

Names of Cities.

Albany, N. Y

Atlanta, Ga

Auburn, N. Y

Baltimore, Md

Bangor, Me

Boston, Mass

Bridgeport, Conn.. .

Brooklyn, N Y

Buffalo, N. Y

Burlmgton. Iowa

Burlington, Vt

Charleston, S. C

Chicago, 111

Cmcinnati, O

Cleveland, O

Columbus. O

Concord, N. H

Council Bluffs, Iowa

Davenport, Iowa

Dayton, O

Denver, Col

Des Moines. Iowa...

Detroit, Mich

Dubuque. Iowa

Easton, Pa

Elmira, N. Y

Evansville, Ind

Fort Wayne, Ind

Galveston, Tex

Harrisburg, Pa

Hartford , Conn

Indianapolis, Ind...
Kansas City, Mo. . . .

Keokuk, Iowa

Leavenworth, Kan..
Little Rock, Ark ...

Louisville. Ky

Lowell, Mass

Memphis, Tenn

Milwaukee, Wis

Mobile, Ala

Time when

Distance

Mail

R. R.

it IS 12 noon

by rail

time

fares

at N. Y.

from N. Y.

from N.Y.

from N.Y

miles.

hours.

% cts.

12 01 p. m.

145

4 IS

3.10

11 18 a. m.

881

52 15

25.50

11 50 a. m.

319

9 30

6.58

II 50 a. m.

188

6.20

12 21 p. m.

478

19 40

12.00

12 12 p. m.

233

6.00

12 03 p. m.

1.30

12 00 m.

.02

II 40 a m.

424

925

10 51 a. m.

1 120

27.25

12 03 p. m.

302

8.00

II 36 a.m.

804

24.00

II 05 a. m.

913

20.00

II 18 a. m.

758

18.00

II 29 a. m.

585

13-00

II 24 a. m.

639

16.25

12 10 p.m.

274

10 30

7.15

10 34 a. m.

1389

35.- 50

10 53 a. m.

1096

41 40

26.00

II 19 a. m.

709

17.50

9 57 a. m.

1982

59-75

10 42 a m.

1270

51 10

31-20

11 24 a. m.

776

15.00

10 54 a. m.

1103

26.60

II 55.a. m.

2 30

2.25

II 49 a. m.

27s

22 30

7-25

11 07 a. m.

995

36 25

25.00

II 15 a. m.

765

'6.75

10 37 a, m.

1789

97 30

49-25

11 49 a. m.

183

5 »o

5.50

12 05 p. m.

3 45

2.65

11 12 p. m.

826

19.00

10 37 a. m.

1343

32.75

10 50 a. m.

1128

26.25

10 37 a. m.

1369

32.75

10 47 a. m.

1411

54 20

42.85

II 14 a. m.

868

22.00

12 10 p. m.

245

7.00

10 55 a. m.

1245

32.00

II .05 a. m.

998

23.00

11 04 a. m.

1236

40.75

Names of Cities.

Montgomery, Ala

Nashville, Tenn

Newark, N. J ".

Newburgh, N. Y

Newbury port, Mass.
New Haven, Conn..,

New Orleans, La

Newport, R. I

Norfolk, Va

Northampton, Mass..

Norwich, Conn

Ogdensburg, N. Y...

Omaha, Neb

Philadelphia, Pa

Pittsburg, Pa

Pittsfield, Mass ,

Portland, Me

Poughkeepsie, N. Y..

Providence, R. I

Richmond, Va

Rochester, N. Y ,

Sacramento, Cal

St. Louis, Mo

St. Paul, Minn

Salt Lake City, Utah
San Antonio, Tex....
San Francisco, Cal..,

Savannah, Ga

Springfield, 111

Springfield, Mass

Syracuse, N. Y ,

Terre Haute, Ind . . . . ,

Toledo, O

Trenton, N. J

Troy, N. Y

Utica. N. Y

Vicksburg, Miss

Washington, D. C

Wheeling, W. Va....

Wilmington, Del

Worcester, Mass

Time when

it is 12 noon

at N. Y.

II 48

10 a. m.
og a. m.
59 a. m.
00 m.
12 p. m.

04 p. m.
56 a. m.

11 p. m.
51 a.m.

05 p. m.
07 p. m.

54 a. ffl.

32 a. m.

55 a. m.
36 a. m.
02 p. m.
15 p. m.
00 m.
10 p. m.
46 a. m.

43 a. m.

50 a. m

55 a. m.

44 a. m.
28 a. m.
23 a. m.
46 a. m.
3^ a. m.
58 a. m.
05 p. m.

51 a. m.
07 a. m.
22 a. m.
54 a. m.
58 a. m.

56 a. m.

53 a. m.
a. m.

33 a. m.

54 a. m.
10 p. m.

Distance

by rail

from N.Y.

miles.

1056

1053

63
270

1377

185

372

156

140

374

1406

445

161

341

189

343

374

3183

1066

1322

2476

1952

3273

919

1032

139
293
899
706
58
15'
240
1287
228

5"
118

Mail

time

from N.Y,

hours.

45
43

18
6

5 15
14 30
56 20

2
15
6

6 30

'3
10
146 IS
38
54
120
104
15'
39

42 30
4 30
8 30
32
24
I 30
4 20

7 30
63 30

3
7 15

R. R.

fares
from N.Y.

$ cts.

32. QO

29-45
.20

I-4S
7.00

1-75

42.75

2.00

8.50

3-65

2.00

9.60

36.00

2.50

12.50

3-50

9.00

1 .46

5.00

>2.8s

7.70

136.00

24.25

3J-3S

i'5,50

67.05

136.00

25.00

24.00

3-30
6.06

21.25

16.25
1-75
3->5
5.00

39-25
7-50

M-25
3.10
4-65

Note. —The mail time and passenger fares are to be taken as approximate.

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

343

EXECUTIVE OFFICERS OF THE UNITED STATES FROM 1789 TO 1882.

Date.

April 30, 1789, to March 4, 1793..
March 4, 1793, to March 4, 1797 .

March 4, 1797, to March 4, i8oi.

March
March
March

March

March
March

4, 1801,
4, 1805,
4, 1809,

4i 1813,

4, 1S17,

4, 1821,

4, 1825,

4, 1829,

4, '833,

4, 1837,
4, 1841,

to March
to March
to March

to March

to March
to April

4, 1805.
4, 1809.
4, 1813.

4, 1817.

4, 1821.

4. 1825.

4, 1E29.

4, 1833.

4i 1837.

4, 1841.
4, 1841.

April 4, 184 1, to March 4, 1845.

March 4, 1845, to March 4, 1849.
March 5, 1849, to July 9, 1850.
July 9, 1850, to March 4, 1853.

March 4, 1853, to March 4, 1857.

March 4, 1857, to March 4, 1861 .

March 4, 1861, to March 4, 1865.
March 4, 1865, to April 15, if^Gs.
April 15, 1865, to March 4, 1869.

March 4, 1869, to March 4, 1873.

March 4, 1873, to March 4, 1877.

March 5, 1877, to March 4, 1881.
March 4, 1881, to Sept. 19, 1881.
Sept. 19, 1881, to

President.

George Washington, Va

John Adams, Massachusetts.

Thomas Jefferson, Virginia.
Thomas Jefferson, Virginia.
James Madison, Virginia

James Madison, Virginia

James Monroe, Virginia

John Q. Adams, ,Mass

Andrew Jackson, Tennessee.

Martin Van Buren, N. Y

Wm. H. Harrison, Ohio

John Tyler, Virginia

Vice-President.

James K. Polk, Tennessee. . .
Zachary Taylor, Louisiana.
Millard Fillmore, N. Y

Franklin Pierce, N. H

James Buchanan, Penn

Abraham Lincoln, Illinois.
Abraham Lincoln, Illinois.
Andrew Johnson, Tenn

Ulysses S. Grant, Illinois. . .

Rutherford B. Hayes, Ohio

James A. Garfield, Ohio

Chester A. Arthur, N. Y. . .

John Adams, Massachusetts.
John Adams, Massachusetts.

Thomas Jeiferson, Vii^nia

Aaron Burr, New York

George Clinton, New York

♦George Clinton, New York .. .
+Wm. H. Crawford, Georgia. . .
♦Elbridge Gerry, Massachusetts
tjohn Gaillord, South Carolina.
Daniel D. Tompkins, New York

Daniel D. Tompkins, New York

John C. Calhoun, S. Carolina...

Martin Van Buren, New York. .

Richard M. Johnson, Kentucky
John Tyler, Virginia

tSamuel L. Southard, N. Jersey
tWillie P. Mangum, N. Car. . .

Geo. M. Dallas, Pennsylvania.
Millard Fillmore, New York...
tWilliam R. King, Alabama . . ,

♦William R. King, Alabama. .

tD. R. Atchinson

tj. D. Bright

John C. Breckenbridge, Ky

Hannibal Hamblin, Maine ,

Andrew Johnson, Tennesee

tLafayette S. Foster, Conn

tBenjamin F. Wade, Ohio

Schuyler Colfax, Indiana

♦Henry M. Wilson, Mass

tThos. W. Ferry, Mich

Wm. A. Wheeler, New York. . .
Chester A. Arthur, New York..
tThos. F. Bayard, Delaware...
tDavid Davis, Illinois

♦Died.

+President/ro tern of the Senate,

Secretary of State.

Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, September 26, 1789.

Thomas Jefferson, reapjjointed.

Edmund Randolph, Virginia, January 2, 1794.

Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, Dec. 10, 1795
Timothy Pickering, reappointed.

John Marshall, Virginia, May 13, 1800.
James Madison, Virginia, March 5, 1801.
James Madison, reappointed.
Robert Smith, .^'aryland, March 6, 1809.
James Monroe, Virginia, April 2, 181 1.
James Monroe, reappointed.

John Q. Adams, Massachusetts, March 5, 1817.

John Q. Adams, reappointed.

Henry Oay, Kentucky, March 7, 1825.

Martin Van Buren, New York, March 6, 1829.
Edward Livingston, Louisiana, May 24, 1831.
Louis McLane, Delaware, May 29, 1833.
John Forsyth, Geortria, June 27, 1834.
John Forsyth, reappointed.
Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, March 5, 1841.

Hugh S. Legare, South Carolina, May 9, 1843.
Abel P. Upshur, Virginia, July 24, 1843.
John' Nelson, Maryland, (act) February 29, 1844.
John C. Calhoun, South Carolina, March 6, 1844.

James Buchanan, Pennsylvania, March 6, 1845.

John M. Clayton, Delaware, March, 7, 1849.

Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, July 22, 1850.

Edward Everett. Massachusetts, Dec. 6, 1852.
Wm. L. Marcy, New York, March 7, 1853.

Lewis Cass, Michigan, March 6, 1857.
Jeremiah S. Black, Pennsylvania, Dec. 17, i86o.
William H Seward, New York, March 5, 1861.
William H. Seward, reappointed.
William H. Seward, continued.

E. B. Wasbbume, Illinois, March 5, 1869.
Hamilton Fish, New York, March n, 1869.
Hamilton Fish, reappointed.

Wm. M. Evarts, New York, March 12, 1877.

James G. Blaine, Maine, March 5, 1881.

T. F. Frelinghuysen, New Jersey, Dec. 12, i{

DATE OF BIRTH AND DEATH OF PRESIDENTS.

Bom.

Washington Feb. 22, 1732

J.Adams Oct. 19, 1735

Jefferson April 2, 1743

Madison Mar. 16, 1751

Monroe April 28, 1758

J.Q.Adams July u, 1767

Jackson Mar. 15, 1767

Van Buren Dec. 5, 1782

Harrison Feb. 9, 1773

Tyler Mar. 29, 1790

Died.

Dec.

14,

1799

July

1826

July

1826

June

28,

1836

July

1831

Feb.

23.

1848

June

•84s

July

24.

1862

April

1841

Jan.

17.

1862

Bom. Died.

Polk Nov. 2, 179s

Taylor. Nov. 24, 1784

Fillmore Jan. 7, 1800

Pierce Nov. 23, 1804

Buchanan April 23, 1791

Lincoln Feb. 12, 1809

Johnson Dec. 29, 1808

Grant April 25, 1822

Hayes • Oct. 4, 1822

Garfield Nov. 19, 1831 Sept. 19, 1881

June IS,

,849

July 9.

1850

Ma.-ch 8,

1874

Oct. 8,

1869

June I

1868

April 15,

1865

July 30.

187s

344

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

EXECUTIVE OFFICERS OF THE UNITED STATES FROM 1789 TO 1882.— Continued.

Secretary of Treasury.

Secretary of War.

Secretary of the Navy.

Alex. Hamilton, New York, September 12, 1789

Alex. Hamilton, reappointed.

Oliver Wolcott, Connecticut, Feb. 2, 1795

Oliver Wolcott, reappointed

Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, Jan. i, 1801 ....

Samuel Dexter, reappointed

Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania, May 14, 1801 . . . .

Albert Gallatin, reappointed

G. W. Campbell, Tennesee, February 9, 1814...

Alex. J. Dallas, Pennsylvania, Oct. 6, 1814

W. H. Crawford, Georgia, October, 22, 1816

W. H. Crawford, continued

W. H. Crawford., reappointed

Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, March 7, 1825

S. D. Ingham, Pennsylvania, March 6, 1829

Louis McLane, Delaware, August 8, 1831

Wm. J. Duane, Pennsylvania, May 29, 1833

Roger B. Taney, Marylannd, Sept. 23, 1833

L. Woodbury, New Hampshire, June 27, 1834. .
Levi Woodbury, reappointed

Thos. Ewing, Ohio, March 5, 1841

W. Forward, Pennsylvania, September 13, 1841

John C. Spencer, New York, March 3, 1843

George M. Bibb, Kentucky, June 15, 1844

R. J. Walker, Mississippi, March 6, 1845

W. M. Meredith, Pennsylvania, March 8, 1849 .

Thos. Corwin, Ohio, July 23, 1850

fames Guthrie, Kentucky, March 7, 1853
iowell Cobb, Georgia, March 6, 1857

Philip H. Thomas, Maryland, Dec. 12, i860

John A. Dix, New York, January 1 1, i83t

Salmon P. Chase, Ohio, March 5, i86i

W. P. Fessenden, Maine, July i, 1864

H. McCulloch, Indiana, March 7, 1865

Hugh McCulloch, continued

G. S. Boutwell, Massachusetts, March n, 1869.

William A. Richardson, Mass., March 17, 1873 .

B. H. Bristow, Kentucky, June 2, 1874

Lot M. Morrill, Maine, June 21, 1876

John Sherman, Ohio, March 8, 1877

Wm. Windom, Minnesota. March 5, 1881

Chas. J. Folger, New York, October 27, 1881 . . .

Henry Knox, Massachusetts, Sept. 12. 1789. . . .

Henry Knox, continued

Tim. Pickering, Pennsylvania, Jan. 2, 1795

James McHenry, Maryland, Jan. 27, 1796".

James McHenry, contmued

Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, May 13, 1800..

Roger Griswold, Connecticut, Feb. 7, 1801

Hy. Dearborn, Massachusetts, March 5, 1801..

Henry Dearborn, reappointed

Wm. Eustis, Massachusetts, March 7, 1809

John Armstrong, New York, January 13, 1813.
James Monroe, Virginia, September 27, 1814.
Wm. H. Crawford, Georgia. August i, 1815 . .

George Graham, Virginia, April 7, 181 7

John C. Calhoun, South Carolina, Oct. 8, 1817.
John C. Calhoun, reappointed

James Barbour, Virginia. March 7, 1825.
P. B. Porter, New York, May 26, 1828...
J. H. Eaton, Tennessee, March 9, 1829..
Lewis Cass, Michigan, August i, 1831...

Lewis Cass, reappointed

B. F. Butler, March 3, 1837, acting

J. R. Poinsett, South Carolina, March 6, 1837. . .

John Bell, Tennessee, March s, 1841

John McLean, Ohio, September 13, 1841

J. C. Spencer, New York, October 12, 1841

James M. Porter, Pennsylvania, March 8, 1843. .
Wm. Wilkins, Pennsylvania, February 75, 1844.
Wm. L. Marcy, New York, March 6, 1845

Reverdy Johnson (act.), March 8, 1849

G. W. Crawford, Georgia, March 8, 1849

Winfield Scott (ad int)^ July 23, 1850

C. M. Conrad, Louisiana, August 15, 1850

Jeff Davis, Mississippi, March 7, 1853

John B. Floyd, Virgmia, March 6, 1857

Joseph Holt, Kentucky, January 18, 1861

Simon Cameron, Pennsylvania, March s, i86t . . .
E. M. Stanton, Pennsylvania, January 15, 1862..

Edwin M. Stanton, reappointed ,

E. M. Stanton, suspended August 12, 1867

U. S. Grant {ad ini), August 1 2, 1867

E. M. Stanton, reinstated January 14, 1868

J. M. Schofield, May 28, j868

J. A. Rawlins, Illinois, March 11, 1869

Wm. T. Sherman {ad tnt), September 9, 1869...

Wm. W. Belknap, Iowa, October 25, 1869

Wm. W. Belknap, reappointed

G. M. Robeson (act.), March 2, 1876

Alfonzo Taft, Ohio, March 8, 1876

J. D. Cameron, Pennsylvania, May 22, 1876

G. W. McCrary, Iowa, March 12, T877

Alex. Ramsey, Minnesota, December 10, 1879. • •
R. T. Lincoln, Illinois, March 5, 1881

The War Department had charge of Naval Af-
fairs until April, 1798.
♦Geo. Cabot. Massachusetts, May 3, 1798.
Benj. Stoddert, Maryland, May 21, 1798.

Benj. Stoddert, reappointed.

Robert Smith, Maryland, July 15, 1801.

J. Crowninshield, Massachusetts, May 3, 1805.

Paul Hamilton, South Carolina, March 7, 1809.

Wm. Jones, Pennsylvania, Jan. 12, 1813.

B.,W. Crowninshield, Massachusetts, Dec. 19, '14.

B. W. Crowninshield, reappointed.

S. Thompson, New York, November 9, 1818

J. Rogers, Massachusetts. Sept. i, 1823, acting.
S. L. Southard, New Jersey, September 16, 1823.
S. L. Southard, reappointed.

John Branch, North Carolina, March 9, 1829.
L. Woodbury, New Hampshire, May 23, 1831.
M. Dickerson, New Jersey, June 30, 1834.

Mahlon Dickerson, reappointed.

J. K. Paulding, New York. June 25, 1838.

G. E. Badger, North Carolina, March 5, 1841.

A. P. Upshur, Virginia, Sept. 13, 1841.

D. Henshaw, Massachusetts, July 24, 1843.

T. W. Gilmer, Virginia, February 15. 1844.

John Y. Mason, Virginia, March 14, 1844.

Geo. Bancroft, Massachusetts, March 10, 1845.

J. Y. Mason, Virginia, September 9, 1846.

Wm. B. Preston, Virginia, March 8, 1849.

Wm. A. Graham, North Carolina, July 22, 1850.
J. P. Kennedy, Maryland, July 22, 1852.
James C. Dobbin, North Carolina, March 7, 1853..
Isaac Toucey, Connecticut, March 6, 1857.

Gideon Welles, Connecticut, March 5, i86i.

Gideon Welles, reappointed.
Gideon Welles, continued.

Adolph E. Borie, Pennsylvania, March 5, 1869.
G. M. Robeson, New Jersey, June 25, 1869.

Geo. M. Robeson, reappointed.

R. W. Thompson, Indiana, March 12, 1877.
Nathan Goff, West Virginia, Jan. 10, 1881.
Wm. H. Hunt, Louisiana, March 5, 1881.

♦Declined.

POPULATION OF EUROPEAN CAPITALS.

kr-

London (Great Britain) 3250000

Paris (France) '.".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.*.'.'.'.'. i',82s',ooo

Constantinople (Turkey) i 075,000

Vienna (Austria) 833000

Berlin (Prussia) 825000

St. Petersburg (Russia) !.!.!.'.'.".'.'.'.!'.!".!'.!'.!'.!'.!'.!!.' 667'ooo

Madrid (Spain) 332,000

Brussels (Belgium) 314,000

Rome (Italy) ... 24^

Lisbon ( Port ugal ) 224 ,000

Copenhagan (Denmark) 181 000

^f^sden (Saxony) ; ; ;■.•;.■.■.■.■.■. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. i77;ooo

Munich (Bavaria) 160000

Stockholm (Sweden and Norway) ' ' 1,6 ooo

Stuttgart (Wurtemberg) oi'nor.

The Hague (Netherlands) :;::": ^o'^

Brunswick (Brunswick) .. "' cs'ooo

Athens (Greece) !!!!!!!."!!." 41 "000

Darmstadt (Hessen-Darmstadt) 39'ooo

Carlsruhe (Baden) 36,000

Berne (Switzerland) ; . . 36,000

Schwerin (Mecklenburg-Schwerin) 26,000

Gotha (Saxe-Coburg-Gotha) 20,000

Altenburg (Saxe-Altenburg) 20,000

Weimar (Saxe- Weimar) 16,000

Dessau ( Anhalt) , 16,000

Grettz (Reuss-Greitz) ' 11,000

Oldenburg (Oldenburg) 8,000

Neu-Strelitz (Mecklenburg-Strelitz) 7,ooo

Meiningen (Saxe-Meiningen) '. 7,000

Rudolstadt (Schwarzburg-Rudolstadf) 6,000

Sondershausen (Schwarzburg-Sondershausen) 6,000

Schleitz (Reuss-Schleitz) ■ S,ooo

Buckeburg (Lippe-Schaumburg 4,000

Arolsen (Waldeck) 2,000

Monaco (Monaco) i ,900

Lichtenstein (Lichtenstein) 1,000

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

345

THE COPYRIGHT LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Every applicant for a copyright must state distinctly the name and
residence of the claimant, and whether the right is claimed as author,
designer, or proprietor. No affidavit or formal application is required.

A printed copy of the title ot the book, map, chart, dramatic or
musical compiosition, engraving, cut, print, or photograph, or a descrip-
tion of the painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or
design for a work of the fine arts, for which copyright is desired, must
be sent by mail or otherwise, prepaid, addressed "Librarian of Con-
gress, Washington, D. C." This must be done before publication of
the book or other article.

A fee of -;o cents, for recording the title of each book or other article,
must be inclosed with the title as above, and 50 cents in addition (one
dollar in all) for each certificate of copyright under seal of the Librarian
of Congress, which will be transmitted by return mail.

Within ten days after publication of each book or other article, two
complete copies must be sent prepaid, to perfect the copyright, with
the address, " Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C.

Without the deposit of copies above required the copyright is void,
and a penalty of $25 is incurred.

No copyright is valid unless notice is given by inserting in every
copy published :

" Entered according to act of Congress^ in the year , by , in

the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington :'^ or, at the op-
tion of the f)erson entering the copyright, the words : " Copyright^ 18 — ,
by .

The law imposes a penalty of $100 upon any person who has not ob-

tained copyright who shall insert the notice " Entered according to act
of Congress^'' or " Copyright" or words of the same import, in or upon
any IxKik or other article.

Each copyright secures the exclusive right of publishing the book or
article copyrighted for the term of twenty-eight years. Six months be-
fore the end of that time the author or desigrer, or his widow or chil-
dren, may secure a renewal for the further term of fourteen years, mak-
ing forty-two years in all.

Any copyright is assignable in law by any instrument of writing, but
such assignment must be recorded in the office of the Librarian ofCon-
gress within sixty days from its date. The fee for this record and cer-
tificate is one dollar.

A copy of the record (or duplicate certificate) of any copyright entry
will be furnished, under seal, at the rate of 50 cents.

Copyrights cannot be granted upon Trade-marks, nor upon Labels
intencled to be used with any article of manufacture. If protection for
such prints or labels is desired, application must be made to the Patent
Office, where they are registered at a fee of $6 for labels and I25 for
trade-marks.

Note. — By decision of the Supreme Court of the United States, ren-
dered November 17, 1870, the trade-mark law of July 8, 1870, by which
Trade-marks were for the first time recognized and protected by act of
Congress, was declared unconstitutional. The registry of Trade-marks
at the Patent office is, however, continued to such as seek the benefit of
a record without regard to the ultimate validity of the right.

PRINCIPAL CEREAL PRODUCTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES.

States and Territories.

Alabama

Arizona

Arkansas

California

Colorado

Connecticut

Dakota

Delaware

District of Columbia

Florida

Georgia

Idaho

Illinois

Indiana

Iowa

Kansas

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts

Michigan

Minnesota

Mississippi

Missouri

Montana

Nebraska

Nevada

New Hampshire

New Jersey

New Mexico

New York

North Carolina

Ohio

Oregon

Pennsylvania

Rhode Island ,

South Carolina

Tennessee :

Texas

Utah

Vermont

Viginia

Washington

West Virginia

Wisconsin

Wyominjr

Total United States

INDIAN CORN.

Bushels.

251451,278

34,746

24,156,417

1,993,325

455,968

1,880,421

2,000,864

3,894,264

29,750

3,174,234

23,202,018

16,408

325,792,481

115,482,300

275,024,247

105,729,325

72,852,253

9,906,189

960,633

15,968,533

1,797,593

32,461,452

. 14,831,741

21,340,800

202,485,723

5,649

65,450,135

12,891

1,350,248

11,150,705

633,786

25,875,480

28,019,839

111,877,124

126,862

45,821,531

372,967
11,767,099
62,764,429
29,0^^5,172

163,342

2,014,271

29,106,661

39,183

14,090,609

34,23°,579

1,754,861,535

Bushels.

1,529,657

136,427

1,269,730

29,017,707

1,425,014

38,742

2,830,289

1,175,272

6,402

422

3,159,771

540,589

51,110,502

47,284,853

31,154,205

17,324,141

11,356,113

5,034

665,714

8,004,864

15,768

35,532,543
34,601,030

218,890
24,966,627

469,688

13,847,007

69,298

i6j,3i6

1,901,739

706,641

11,587,766

3,397,393

46,014,869

7,480,010

19,462,405

240

962,358

7,331,353

2,567,760

1,169,199

337,257

7,822,504

1,921,322

4,001,711

24,884,689

4,674

459,479,505

3,039,639

564

2,219,822

1,341,271

640,900

1,009,706

2,217,132

378,508

7,440

468,112

5,548,743

462,236

63,189,200

15,599,518

50,610,591

8,180,385

4,580,738

229,840

2,265,575

1,794,872

645,159

18,190,793

23,382,158

1,959,620

20,670,958

900,915

6,555,875

186,860

1,017,620

3,710,573

156,527

37,575,506

3,838,068

28,664,505

4,385,650

33,841,439

159,339

2,715,505

4,722,190

4,893,359

418,082

3,742,282

5,333,i8i

1,571,706

1,908,505

32,905,320

22,512

407,858,999

Bushels.

5,281

239,051

1,952

12,579,561

107,116

12,286

277,424

523

210

18,662

274,750

1.229,523

382,835

4,022,588

300,273

486,326

242,185

6,097

80,128

1,204,316

2,972,965

348

123,031

39,970

1,744,686

513,470

77,877

4,091

50,053

7,792,062

2,421

1.707,129

920,977

438,100

17,783

16,257

30,019

7^786

217,140

267,625

14,223

566,537

9,740

5,043,118

buckwheat.

Bushels.

20,402

22,387

181,681

19,465

370,733

24,359

5,953

3,704

2,965

101,716

4,341
3,121,785

303,105

1,518,605

413,181

668,050

1,013

26,398

288,067

213,716

294,918

215,245

5,134

535,426

430

424,348

""34',638

949,064

240

2,634,690

285,160

389,221

13,305

3,683,621

12,997

27,049
156,419

25,399
9,605

71,733

324,431

7,124

113,181

2,298,513

19,831,595

Bushels^

363

548

22,307
no

137,563

2,521

5,857

403

178,859
89,707

166,89s
24,421
9,942

382,701
136,667

67,117

413,062

41,756

57,640

437
17,562

94,090
460,414

4,461,200

44,668

280,229

6,2»5

3,593,326

1,254

33,434
535

356,618
136,004

2,498
285,298
299,107

346

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

ESTIMATE OF VALUES OF FOREIGN COINS.

As proclaimed by the Director of the Mint, January 2, 1882.

Country.

Austria

Belgium

Bolivia

Brazil

British Possessions in N. A

Chili

Cuba

Denmark

Ecuador

Egypt

France

Great Britain

Greece

German Empire

Hayti

India

Italy

Japan

Liberia

Mexico

Netherlands

Norway

Peru

Portugal

Russia

Sandwich Islands

Spain

Sweden

Switzerland

Tripoli

Turkey

U.S. of Colombia

Venezuela

Monetary Unit,

Florin

Frjuic

Boliviano

Milreis of 1000 reis. . . .

Dollar

Peso

Crown

Peso

Piaster

Franc

Pound sterling

Drachma

Mark

Gourde

Rupee of 16 annas

Lira

Yen

Dollar

Florin

Crown

Sol

Milreis of 1000 reis....
Rouble of 100 copecks.

Dollar

Peseta of 100 centimes,

Crown

Franc

Mahbubof 20 piasters.

Piaster

Peso

Bolivar

Standard.

Silver

Gold and silver.

Silver

Gold

Gold and silver.
Gold and silver,

Gold

Silver

Gold

Gold and silver

Gold

Gold and silver

Gold

Gold and silver

Silver

Gold and silver

Silver

Gold

Silver :

Gold and silver

Gold

Silver

Gold

Silver

Gold

Gold and silver

Gold

Gold and silver

Silver

Gold

Silver

Gold and silver

Standard Coin.

5, 10 and 20 francs.
Boliviano.

Condor, doubloon and escudo.

i/io, a, /i, )4y and 1 doubloon.

10 and 20 crowns.

Peso.

5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 piasters.

5, 10, and 20 francs.

^ sovereign and sovereign.

5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 drachmas.

5, 10 and 20 marks.

I, 2, 5 and 10 gourdes.

5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 lire.

1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 yen, gold and silver yen.

Peso or dollar, 5, 10, 25 and 50 centavo.

10 and 20 crowns.
Sol.

2, 5 and 10 milreis.
X, }i and 1 rouble.

5, 10, 20, 50 and 1CX3 pesetas.
10 and 20 crowns.
5, 10 and 20 francs.

25, 50, 100, 250 and 500 piasters.

Peso.

5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 Bolivar.

COMPARISON OF THE FAHRENHEIT, CENTIGRADE, AND REAUMUR THERMOMETERS.

Fahrenheit.

Centigrade.

Reaumi

212 water boils.

100.

80.

200

93-33

74.66

180

82.22

65.77

160

71. II

56.88

140

60.

48.

120

48.88

39."

lOO

37.77

30.22

26.66

21-33

Fahrenheit.

Centigrade

32 water freezes

JS-5S

10.
4-44
0.

- 6.66

— T2.22

- 17.77

Reaumur.

— 5 33

— 9-77

— 14.22

A PERPETUAL CALENDAR.

FOR 2000 YEARS AFTER CHRIST, Old Style, AND FROM 1500 TO 2000 A. D., New Style.
TABLE I.— DOMINICAL LETTERS.

Years

in excess of

Hundreds

100

Old

Style. ■{

700

800

(

1400

1500

New

Sty

- \

1700

New Style. |

.S9

3';

Centuries.

200 300
900 1000
1700

1600

1800

400

IlOO

1800
1500

1900

500 600

I2CX3 1300
1900 2000

1600
2000

E
FE

B
AG

D
CB

F
ED

GF
E
D
C

BA
G
F
E

DC
B
A
G

FE
D

G
AF

D
CB

F
ED

A
GF

A
BA

E
DC

G
FE

B
AG

F
ED

A
GF

C
BA

Years in excess of
Hundreds.

Old Style.

New Style.

o 100

700 800

1400 1500

1700

Centuries,

200
1600

300
1000
1700

400
1100
i8co

500

.1200
1900

6oa
1300
200a

1800

1500
1900

1600
2000

14 42 70 98

15 43 71 99

16 44 72

17 45 73

18 46 74

19 47 75

20 48 76

21 49 77

22 50 78

23 SI 79

24 52 80

25 53 81

26 54 82

27 55 83

F
ED

A
GF

C
BA

A
G

FE
D
C
B

AC
F
E
D

CB
A
G
F

B
A

GF
E
D
C

BA
G
F
E

DC
B
A
G

C
B

AG
F
E
D

CB
A
G
F

ED
C
B
A

D
C

BA
G
F
E

DC
B
A
G

FE
D
C
B

D
CB

F
ED

A
GF

F
E

DC
B
A
G

FE
D
C
B

AG
F
E
D

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

347

A PERPETUAL CALENDAR— Continued.

DAYS OF THE MONTHS.

TABLE n.

February, March,

Dominical Letters.

January, October.

November.

April, July.

May.

C D

I 8

22 29

12 19 26

2 9 10

23 30

7 14 21

Su.

Sa.

F. Th.

Tu.

2 9

2J 30

13 20 27

3 10 »7

^4 31

I 8 IS 22

Su.

Sa. F.

Ih.

Tu.

3 lo

24 31

14 21 28

4 II 18

2 9 16 2j

Tu.

Su. Sa.

Th.

VV.

4 II

IS 22 29

5 12 19

3 10 17 24

'lu.

M. Su.

Sa.

"lb.

5 12

»<)

16 23 30

613 20

4 11 18 25

Th.

Tu. M.

Su.

Sa.

6 13

17 24 31

7 14 21

5 12 19 26

"ih.

W. Tu.

Su.

Sa.

7 I*

18 25

I 8 15 22

6 13 so 27

Sa.

Th. W.

Tu.

Su.

DAYS OF THE MONTHS.

Dominical 1
C D

^jtj.

June.

August.

September, December.

II lij

6 13 20

3 10 17 24 3

Su.

Sa.

F. Th.

Tu.

12 19

7 14 21

4 II 18 2S

Su.

Sa. F.

'ih.

Tu.

13 20

I 8 IS 22

5 12 19 26

Tu.

Su. Sa.

Th.

14 21

2 9 16 23

3°

6 13 20 27

Tu.

M. Su.

Sa.

Th.

15 22

3 10 17 24

7 14 21 28

Th.

Tu. M.

Su.

Sa.

16 23

4 II 18 25

t 8 IS 22 29

Th.

W. Tu.

Su.

Sa.

17 24

5 12 19 26

3 9 16 23 30

Sa.

Th. W.

Tu.

Su.

Rule. — Find the Dommical Letter for the year, in the First Table ; and note, that in Leap Years there are two Dominical Letters, the first for
January and February, the second for the other months ; then in this Second Table, the days of the week under the Dominical Letter will be those
for the required year.

N. B.— New Style commenced in Roman Catholic countries generally in 1582 ; but was not adopted in England till 1752. Old Style is still used
in Russia.

UNITED STATES POSTAL TABLE.
/iaUs on aU MailabU Matter between Points in the United States.

LETTEBS. Each Yi oz.

Mail letters 3 cents.

Drop letters at letter carrier offices 2 "

Drop letters at NON-letter carrier offices i cent.

Drawings, plans, designs, and all matter sealed against inspection, 3

cents for each }i oz. or fraction oz.
Registered letters 10 cents in addition to the proper postage.

NEWSPAPERS,

BOOKS, MERCHANDISE, SEEDS, ETC.

Newspapers and periodicals to regular subscribers, weekly or oftener,
2 cents a lb.

Transient newspajjers, i cent each 2 02.

Third Class Matter— Books (printed and blank), circulars, other
printed matter, proof sheets, corrected proof sheets and manuscript
copy accompanying the same, valentines, heliotypes. chromos, post-
ers, lithographs, stereoscopic views, photographs, printed blanks,
business cards, lags and tickets, i cent each 2 oz.

Newspapers (except weekly to subscribers), circulars and periodicals,
not 2 oz in weight, deposited in letter carrier offices for local de-
livery, 1 cent each. .

Fourth Class Matter. — Printed envelopes in quantity, blank bills,
letter heads, blank cards, flexible patterns, plain envelopes and letter
paper, sample cards, merchandise, models, sample ores, metals, miner-
als, seeds, bulbs, cuttings, roots, not exceeding 4 lbs in weight, i cent
each oz. or fraction of oz.

Patterns and samples to Canada, 10 cents prepciid for each 8 oz. or frac-
tion.

First, third and fourth class matter may be registered at 10 cents each
package in addition to the regular p>ostage.

All matter not prepaid at letter rates must be so wrapped that it can be
examined without destroying the wrapper, and can name contents,
from whom, and address, and nothing more. A business card may be
printed, impressed or pasted on the wrappers. Liquids, poisons, ex-
plosives, and other dangerous matters are excluded.

POSTAGE TO FOKEIGN COUNTRIES.

Not exc. News-

Letters. x^ oz. papers.

Cents. Cents.

Africa, west coast, British possessions . - . . *5 i

Africa, west coast, except Liberia, British, French, Span-
ish, and Portuguese possessions 15 .5

Aspinwall ' * ♦- j

New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, via San Fraii-

cisco ,2 J

Australia, except ^bove places, via San Francisco 5 2

Austria *g ,

Belgium " . | .' •- ^

Bermuda, via New York *k i

Brazil. .... '..'.'.'. *s 1

Canada, Nova Scotia, etc 3 i

Newfoundland '.!".".!.*.'. *k i

Cape Goot. Hope, British mail !!!!!.".!.!!! •le «

Boltvia, via Aspinwall 17 4

Cbili, Ecuador, and Peru *5 i

Not exc. News-
Letters. M oz. pape

tents. Ceni
China — Amoy, Canton, Chee Foo, Hong Kong, Shanghai,

via San Francisco *$

China, via England and Brindisi *i3

Cuba *s

Denmark *s

France and Colonies ♦$

Germany ♦$

Great Britain and Ireland ♦j

Holland ♦s

India, British, via Brindisi , *$

India, French and Portuguese Colonies ♦$

Italy *5

Japan and Trisum -po, Corea, via San Francisco ♦$

Liberia, via Southampton ♦$

Mexico ♦$

Natal, British mail *i5

New Zealand, via San Francisco *i2 ■

" " " Brindisi .. *is

Norway and Sweden *$

Portugal *s

Russia *5

Sandwich Islands, via San Francisco 6

Shanghai, via San Francisco 5

Spam *5

Switzerland ♦s

Turkey— Europe and Asia *$

Venezuela ♦$

West Indies, direct 5

" " via St. Thomas 13

The asterisk (♦) indicates that the postage may be prepaid or not, at

the option of the sender of the letter.
International postal cards, price 2 cents, may be sent to any of the

above-mentioned countries where the postage isdesignated'as 5 cents.

MONEY ORDERS.

No fractions of cents allowed in any money order.

Rates on Money Orders in the United States : Not exceeding $is, ten

cents • over $15 to $30, fifteen cents ; over $30 to $40, twenty cents ;

over $40 to $50, twenty-five cents.
Money Orders to Great Britain or Ireland: Not exceeding $10,

twenty-five cents ; over $io to $20, fifty cents ; over $20 to $30, seventy

cents ; over $30 to $40, eighty-five cents ; over $40 to $50, one dollar.
Money Orders to German Empire, France, Italy, Canada, and Algeria :

Not exceeding 8'o, fifteen cents ; over $10 to $20, thirty cents ; over

$20 to $30, forty-five cents ; over $30 to I40, sixty cents ; over $40 to

$50, seventy-five cents.
Money Orders to Swiuerland : Not exceeding $10, twenty-five cents ;

over $10 to $20, fifty cents ; over $20 to $30, seventy-five cents : over

$30 to $40, one dollar ; over $40 to $50, one dollar and twenty-five

cents.
Money Orders can be made payable in Denmark, Sweden and Norway,

Netherlands and Luxemburg, through Germany, at German rates.

In Belgium, Austria and Hungary, through Switzerland, at Swiss

rates.

'^^

--^

348

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

TABLES SHOWING THE HEIGHT OF THE MOUNTAINS, AND THE LENGTH OF THE CHIEF

RIVERS OF THE GLOBE.

PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS.

Name.

Aconcagua

Ararat

Ben Nevis

Cervin or Materhorn . .

Chimborazo

Cotopaxi

Dhawalagiri

El-burz (Caucasus)...

Etna

Everest

Finster-aar-horn

Grimsel Pass

Hekla

Illimani

Jungf rau
Cunchinjinga

Macgillicuddy's Reeks
Mount Blanc

Country.

Chile

Armenia

Scotland . . .
Switzerland

Ecuador

India

Russia

Sicily

India

Switzerland

Ditto

Iceland

Bolivia

Switzerland

India

Ireland . . .
Piedmont . . .

Height.

23,910
17,260

4,368
14,837
18,17s
21,415
26,862
18,493
10,874
29,002
14,100

8,400

5,095
2i,:49
13,781
28,156

3,404
>5.744

Name.

Mont Perdou

Monte Rosa

Niti Pass

Ortler Spitz

Pic de Nethou

Popocatepetl

Sahama

St. Bernard (Great) Pass of

St. Elias

Scaw Fell

Simplon, Pass of

Skiddaw

Snowdon

Sorata

Stelvio, Pass of

Teneriffe, Peak of

Vesuvius

Country.

Spain

Switzerland

India

Tyrol

Spain

Mexico

Bolivia

Switzerland

Russian America.

England

Switzerland

England

Wales

Bolivia

Tyrol

Canary Island....
Italy

Height.

994
284
814
,852
,426
773
.350
173
900
166
,578

i023
571
,286

1I77
,236
932

PRINCIPAL RIVERS.

River.

Amazon

Amoor

Columbia

Danube

Dnieper

Douro

Elbe

Euphrates

Eraser

Ganges

Hoang-ho

Indus

Lawrence, St . .

Lena

Loire ,

Mississippi

Niger

Nile

Obi

Ohio

Orinoco

Parana

Platte

Potomac

Rhine

Rhone

Scheldt

Seine

Senegal

Shannon

Susquehanna...

Tagus

Thames

Tigris

Vistula

Volga

Yang-tze-kiang
Yenesei

Mouth.

Atlantic Ocean

Pacific Ocean

Black Sea .,

Black Sea

Atlantic Ocean

North Sea ,

Persian Gulf

Pacific Ocean

Bengal Bay

Pacific Ocean

Indian Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

Arctic Sea

Bay of Biscay ,

Mexico, Gulf

Atlantic Ocean ,

Mediterranean Sea. ,

Arctic Ocean

Mississippi River...

Atlantic Ocean

Plate River

Atlantic Ocean

Adriatic Sea

Chesapeake Bay

North Sea

Mediterranean Sea.

North Sea , .

English Channel . . .
Atlantic Ocean ... .

Atlantic Ocean

Atlantic Ocean —

North Sea

Euphrates River . . .

Baltic Sea

Caspian Sea

Pacific Ocean

Arctic Ocean

Course.

South America

Russia in Asia

North America

Germany and Hungary

Russia

Spain and Portugal

Germany

Turkey m Asia

British Columbia

Hindostan

China

Hindostan

Canada

Russia in Asia

France

United States

Africa

Abyssinia, Nubia and Egypt.

Siberia

United States

South America

South America . .

Italy

United States

Germany

Switzerland and France

Belgium

France

Africa

Ireland

United States

Spain and Portugal

England

Turkey in Asia

Poland, Prussia

Russia

China

Siberia

Length in
English Miles.

),9oo
MOO

750
[,760
[,140

400

670
[,900

600

",550
2,625
1,630
2,340
2,500

545
4,000

2 ,000
3,000

2,55°

1,188

1,480

1,500

2,130

410

8io

460

170

42s

950

200
620

2IS
1,000

640
2,03s
2,990
2,900

DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN LAKES.

Name.

Length.
Mifes.

Width.
Miles.

Depth.
Feet.

Elevation

Ab've the Sea.

Feet.

Ontario

180
270
250
400
480

^0
100

50
109

500
200

unknown.
900

231
565^
6-8
618

Erie

Huron

Michigan

Superior

641

DISTANCES SOUND MAY BE HEARD.

Human voice 150 yards

Rifle 5,300 "

Militaryband 5,2oo

Cannon 35,°°°

-r^

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

349

REDUCTION OF THE SCALE OF THE ENG-
LISH BAROMETER TO FRENCH MILLI-
METRES.

Barometer,

English.

Barometer, English.

Inch. loths

Millim'tr's

Inch. loths

Millim'tres.

Inch. loths

Millim'tres

60959

27 4

695.9s

703.82

612.13

698.49

706.07

614.67

701.03

708.33

617.31

703.57

710.59

619.75

706. n

712.84

622.29

708.65

715.10

624.83

711. 19

717-36

627.37

7'3.73

719.61

629.91

716.27

721.83

632-45

718.81

724.12

634.99

721.35
723.89

726.38

637-53

728.63

640.07

726.43

730.89

642.61

728.97

733-15

645.15

731.51

735.40

647.69

734.05

737.66

650.23

736.59

739.91

652.77

739.13

742.17

655-31

741.67

744.42

657-85

744.21

746.68

660.39

746.75

748.94

662.93

749.29

751.19

^i'»7

751.83

753.4s

668.01

754.37

755.70

670.55

756.91

757.96

673-09

759-45

760.33

675.03

761.99

762.47

678.17

764-53

764.73

680.71

767.07

766.98

683.35

769.61

769.24

685.79

772. IS

771.49

688., 3
690.87

774 69

773 75

777.33

776.01

693 41

779-77

778.26

TEMPERATURES OF IMPORTANT PLACES
IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD.

Name of Place.

London ,

Dublin

Edinburgh

Paris

Vienna....

Berlin

Copenhagen

Stockholm

St. Petersburg

Moscow

Naples . . .

Rome

Madrid

Constantinople

Jerusalem

Calcutta

Bombay

Pekin

Canton

Hobart Town

Auckland

Cairo

Cape of Good Hojje

New York

New Orleans

Rio Janeiro

Quebec

Toronto

Melbourne

Sydney

Jamaica

Warsaw

Latitude.

N.
S.

S.^

51 30
53 23
55 57
48 50
48 12

52 3'
55 4'
59 21
59 56
55 45

40 52

41 54

40 25

41 o
31 47
22 33
18 56

39 54

33 8

42 53

36 51

30 3

34 "

40 49
29 57
22 54
46 49

43 40

37 42
33 51
18 o

52 13

Mean

Summer

Winter

Temper-

ature.

39>^

3»

68
14

63)^

24>^

Annual
Temper-
ature.

51
50
47
S'
51
48
46
43
39
40
63
61

56
62
83
8x
53
69
52
59
72
66
51
69
73
41
45

65
78
44

LEADING AGRICULTURAL CROPS IN EUROPE.

Coimtries.

1871
1873
1873
1873
1871
1870
1873
1873
1873
1867

1873
1873
1873

1873
1865
1877

1873
1870
1873
1873
1873
1868
1857
1872
1868
1868
1873

United States 1877

Austria

Baden

Bavaria

Belgium

Denmark

Finland

France

Great Britain

Ireland ,

Greece ,

Hesse- Darmstadt .

Holland

Hungary

Italy

Norway

Portugal ,

Prussia

Roumania

Russia

Saxe Altenburg . .

Saxe- Weimar

Saxony

Servia

Spain

Sweden

Switzerland

Turkey

WUrtemberg

Date of

Sta-
tistics.

Total Area.

Acres.

74,180,173

3^774,358

19,360,648

7,278,873

9,448,691

93.371,255

130.7331S81

57,623,333

20,811,357

11,766,143

3,072,512

8,123,200

80,027,559

64,080,565

78,663,021

22,508,508

85,788,437

39,893,638

1,368 890,822

326,558

880,700

3'.704,o7o

10,762,876

125,223,666

110,629,417

10,234,802

89,957,183

4,803,571

2,184,000,000

Land under
Tillage.

Acres.
22,273,313

1,498,969
7,666,407
3,926,704
3r434,925
1,931,659
64,984,190
18,317,276
5,283,928

1,043,630

2,437,033
27,966,121

1,570,631
4,551,400

8,656,770

190,579

498,665

1,863,328

6,257,567

Wheat.

Bushels.

35,945,699

4,347,248

31,626,587

24,682,369

53,922

237,998,066

104.512,354

3,871,032

5,102,894

278,138

5,238,650

107,381,080

5,684,696
73,731,406

221,714,919
425,019
792,611

4,086,720
117,563,372

2,455r429

2,145,528

40,867,200

7r274,i3S

364,194,186

Rye.

Bushels.

74,407,428

1,263,478

24,550,562

13,367,392

9,024,840
58,971,844

1,779,426
178,510
123,009

3,259,660

8,i37r443

8,740,887

6,240,450
173,485,733

616,954,569
1,175,846
1,757,136

510,840
25,511,715
15,985,926

8,684,680
10,216,800

1,638,48s

21,170,100

Barley.

Bushels.
46,234,017

3,343,164
17,501,814

3,565,090

4,994,880
53,163,763
91,513,013
8,385,154
2,059,506
3,179,908
4,699,546

13,321,218

1,985,663
86,742,609

124,255,047

886,818

1,989,665

3,065,040
58,471,962
12,574,379

1,430,352
35,542,000

5,358,653

Oats.

Bushels.

91,486,937

3.188,777

25,897,914

21,777,248

27,564,583

4,852,980

192,677,482

123,248,64c

57,058,502

200,028

2,729,146

11,116,821

41,374,609

9,633,196

568v449

227v434,922

8,449,464
590,746,010

1,903,390

2,538,874

3,969,845

510,840

31,945.516
5,212,736
3,065,040
9,269,233

34,441,400 406,394,000 170,092,000

Potatoes.

Bushels.

178,429,626

20,433,600

59,776,270

60,803,441

14,625,690

7,095,000

374,216,236

86,293,261

124,409,304

18,390

15,251,505

53,309,455

126,520,764

29,696,724

18,847,584

3,785,041

569,720,471

380,292

326,906,518

2,671,353

5,261,894

41,304,494

6,356,016
44,704,176

19,850,584

Average

yield of

Wheat

per acre.

Bushels.

T56

16 9
29 2

27 9

17 8
17 1
29 9
23
13 5
39 o
24 8

12 6

23 3

13 2
17 6
138

28 7
17 2
37

ie'i

13 5

15°

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.

DURATION OF LIFE.

The following Table has been Constructed by Dr. Farr, F. R. S.

Number of Persons Alive at Com-
mencement of Year.

Number of Persons alive at Com-
mencement of year.

•<

No.

Male.

Female.

•

Total

Deaths each

Year.

So No.

Male.

Female.

Total

Deaths each

Year.

73
74

No.

Male.

Female.

Total

Deaths each

Year.

X, 000,000
850,507
796,827
768,589
750,133

5",745
428,026
400,505
386,290
377,077

488,255
422,481
396,322
382,299
373.056

149,493
53,680

28,238

18,456

13,315

37 558,859

38 552,181

39 545,425

282,296
278,944
275,538

276,563
^?3,237
269,887

6,678
6,756
6,841

191,956
176,487

91,149
83,416

100,807
93,071

15,469
15,363

77
78

161,124
145,988

ii6!88o
103,154

75,777
68,294

6l,02(

54,036
47,381

85,347
77,694
70,173
62,844

55,773

15,136
14,789

40
41
42
43
44

45
46
47
48

538,584
531.653
524,626

517,499
510,263

272,073
268,544
264,948
261,280
257,534

266,511
263,109
259,678
256,219
252,729

6,931
7,027
7,127
7,236
7,348

I
9

736,818
726,919

719.151
712,592

707,134

370,358
365,325
361,372
358,062
355,328

366,460
361,594
357,779
354,530
351,806

9,899
7,768

6,559
5,4S8
4,625

14,319
13,726
13,021

80
8i
82

^3
84

90,133
77,919
66,599

56,241
46,869

41,115
35,283
29,922
25,060
20,711

49,oi£
42,636
36,677
31,181
26,178

502,915
495,448
487,856
480,134
472,277

253,708
249,796
245,795
241,700
237,508

249,207
245,652
242,061
238,434
234,769

7,467
7,592
7,722
7,857
7,997

11,320
10,358
9,352
8,324

702,509
698,481
694,844
691,413
688,031

353,031
351,048
349.272
347,606
345,969

349,478
347,433
345,572
343,807
342,062

4,028
3,637
3,431
3,382
3,468

13
14

85
86

38,565
31,265
24,967
19,621
15,162

16,877

13,549
10,709

8,325
6,360

21,688
17,716
14,258
11,296
8,802

50
51
52
53
54

464,280
456,139
447,725
439,135
430,374

233,216
228,821
224,195
219,437
214,552

231,064
227,318
223,530
219,698
215,822

8,141
8,414

9,259

7,300
6,298
5-346
4,459
3,653

15
i6

684,563
680,894

676,937
672,620
667,900

344,290
342,509
340,581
338,469
336,149

340,273
338,385
336,356
334,151
331,751

3.669
3,957
4,317
4,720
5,150

90
91
92

93
94

100
101
102
103
104

11,509
8,576
6,266

4,485
3,142

4,770
3,510
2,531
1,787
1,234

6,739
5,066
3,735
2,698
1,908

55
56

60
6i,
62

421,115
4i'-532
401,623
391,378
380,785

209,539
204,395
199,114
193,686
188,102

211.576
207,137
202,509
197,692
192,683

9,583
9,909
10,245
10,593
10,958

2,933
2,310
1,781

1,343
989

20
21

662,750
657,167
651,499
645,751
639,931

333,608
330,844
328,043
325,207
322,339

329,142
326,323
323,456
320,544

317,592

5,583
5,668
5,748
5,820
5,886

23
24

2,153

1,440

940

598

370

833
548
352
220
134

1,320
892
588
378
236

369,827
358,489
346,752
334,603
322,031

182,350
176,421
170,303
163,989
157,474

187,477
182,068
176,449
170,614
164,557

11,338
11,737
12,149
12,572
13,002

713
500

27
28

634,045
628,095
622,086
616,021
609,900

319,442
316,516
313,562
310,581
307,572

314,603
3",579
308,524
305,44°
302,328

5,950
6,009
6,065
6,121
6,176

342
228
147

223
131
74
41
22

79
46
25
14
7

49
27

65
66

67
68
69

309,029
295599
281,753
267,509
252,902

150,754
143,833
136,718
129,421
121,963

158,275
151,766
145,035
138,088

130,939

13,430
13,846

14,244
14,607
14,925

30
31
32

33
34

603,724

597,493
591,206
584,863
578,459

304,534
301,466
298,366
295,232
292,061

299,190
296,027
292,840
289,631
286,398

6,231
6,287

6,343
6,404
6,466

33
19
10

106

4
2
I

2
I

6
3

70
71
72

237.977
222,793

207,424

114,370
106,675
98,919

123,607
xi6,ii8
108,505

15,184
15,369
15,468

565,460

288.850
285,596

283,143
279,864

6,601

Note.— The rate of mortality of males of all ages is i in 39.91, and of females, x in 41.85.
EXPECTATION OF LIFE AT THE FOLLOWING AGES.

Calculated in Years and Hundredths. By Dr. Farr, F. R. S.

Age.

Male.

Female.

Age.

Male.

Female.

Age.

Male.

Female.

Age.

Male.

Female.

Age.

Male.

Female.

2
3

39-91
46.65
48.83
49.61
49.81

41.8s
47.31
49.40
50.20
50.43

20
21
22
23
24

38. X3
37-46
3^-79

40.29
39.63
38.98
38.33
37.68

41
42

26.06
25 39
24-73
24.07

23.41

26.69
26.03
25.38
24.72

60
61
62

13.53
12.96
X2.41
11.87
11.34

14.34
13.75
13.17
12.60
12.05

80
81
82

4.66
4.41
4.17
3-95

5.26
4.98
4-71
4.45
4.21

49-71
49-39
48.92
48. 3f
47.74

50.33
50.00

49-53
48.98
48.35

26
27
28
29

36.13
35-44
34-77
34.10
33-43

37.0^
36-39
35-75
35- 10
34 46

46
47
48
49

22.76

22.11
21.46
20.82
20.17

24 06
23.40
22.74
22.08
21.42

6S
66

67
68
69

10.82
10.32
9.83
9.36
8.90

11.51
10.98
10.47
9-97
9.48

85
86

3-73
3-53
3.34
3 16
3.00

•3.98
3.76
3.56
3.36
3.18

12
13
14

47-05
46.31
45-54
44.70
43.97

47-67
46.95
46.20

45-44
44-66

43-00
43-14
42.40
41.67
40.97

30
31
32
33
34

32.76
32.09
31.42
30.74
30.07

33-81
33.17
32.53
31.88
31.23

30.59
29.94
29.29
28.64
27-99

50
51
52
53
54

19.54
18.90
18.28
17.67
17.06

20.75
20.09
19-42

1^:^

70
71
72

73
74

8.45
8.03
7.62
7.22
6.85

9.02
8.57 •
8-13
7.71
7.31

93
93
94

"it
2.69

2-55
2.41
2.29

3.01
2.8s
2.70
2.55
2.42

IS
16

\l
19

43.18
42.40
41.64
40.90
40.17

37
38
39

29.40
28.73
28.06

27.39
26.72

55
56
57
58
59

16.45
15.86
15.26
14.68
14.10

17.43
16.79
16.17

15.55
14.94

6.49
6.15
5.82
5-51

5.21

6.93
6.56
6 21
5.88
5. 56

95
96

99
100

2.06
1-95
1.85
1.76
T.68

2.29
2.17
2.06
1.96
1.86
1.76

The mean lifetime of boys at birth is 39.91 years, and of girls, 41.85.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

351

AMERICA was
known to the an- ^^
cient Northmen as early
as the tenth century, but
its true discovery dates
from the voyage of Colum-
bus, in 1492.

Christopher Columbus, a
native of Genoa, having en-
listed the assistance of Isa-
bella of Spain, sailed from
the port of Palos, on the
third day of August, 1492,
on his voyage of discovery,
with a fleet of three ves-
sels, and a crew of one hundred and twenty men,
and landed on the island of San Salvador on the
twelfth of October of that year.

1493. — Having returned to Spain, where he gave
an account of his discoveries to their majesties,
Ferdinand and Isabella, Columbus sailed on the
twenty-fifth of September, 1493, on his second voyage,
in which he discovered more of the West India Islands.
1497. — Sebastian Cabot, who claims with Colum-
bus to have been the first discoverer of the Western
Continent, was a son of John Cabot, a Venetian, and
a native of Bristol. He sailed in the spring of 1497,
in search of the northwest passage to India, and dis-
covered land, which he called Prima Vista, or New-
foundland, after which he sailed along the coast of

America as far as Chesapeake Bay, and then re-
turned to England.

1498. — On the thirteenth day of May, 1498, Co-
lumbus set out on his third voyage from the Bay of
St. Lucas, and, after sighting some new islands, on
the first of August he discovered the continent, but
imagining it to be an island, he termed it Isla Santa.

1499. — Americus Vespucius, or Vespucci, from
whom the Western Continent derives its name, was
a native of Florence, and made four voyages to the
New World from 1499 to 1503. After returning to
Spain he was appointed by King Ferdinand to draw
sea charts descriptive of the New World, from which
circumstance the continent became known as America.

15 1 2. — Ponce de Leon, a native of Spain, dis-
covered Florida on Easter Sunday {Fascua Florida,
in Spanish), April 6, 15 12.

1 5 13. — On September 29, 15 13, Balboa, a Span-
iard, crossed the Isthmus of Darien and discovered
the Pacific Ocean. He took possession of all the
lands it might touch in the name of the Spanish crown.

J224. — Francis I., of France, ambitious of the
glory of Charles V., supplied Verazzano, a noble
Florentine, with four vessels to prosecute discoveries
in America. After a severe voyage he came upon a
coast supposed to be North Carolina. Sailing north
he entered a spacious bay receiving a noble river —
the Hudson — and following the coast he reached
Martha's Vineyard and Boston. Proceeding further,
first west and then north, he skirted Nova Scotia,

352

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

discovered Cape Breton Island, and finally reached
the land discovered by the Cabots, Newfoundland
and Labrador.

1535, — Jacques Cartier, the discoverer of Canada,
sailed from the port of St. Malo, France, and as-
cended the riyer St. Lawrence in 1535, as far as the
site of the present city of Montreal.

1538. — The career of Hernando de Soto is one
of the most adventurous episodes in the history of
American discovery. He accompanied Pizarro to
America, and distinguished himself in the severe
battle that took place between his chief and Alma-
gro. Having returned to Spain, he was created
Captain-General of Cuba and Florida, and sailed in
command of a brilliant armament from San Lucar
de Barrameda, April 6th, 1538, to undertake the
conquest of Florida. He arrived at Cuba on the i st
of May, sailed from Havana May 12, 1539, arrived
at Espiritu Santo, Florida, on the 25th, and took
formal possession of the country in the name of the
Spanish Emperor. After being harassed by the
Indians, he continued his route to the dominions of
the caique Tuscaloosa, which comprised part of
Alabama and Mississippi. Here he fought a dis-
astrous battle on the site of the city of Mobile, and
on the 1st of April, 1541, he came in sight of the
Mississippi River, which he crossed. In the spring
of 1542 De Soto returned to the Mississippi, where,
after untold trials and disappointments, he suc-
cumbed to fever and fatigue. His body was sunk
in the river, lest the Indians should desecrate it.

1542. — Cabrillo made the first voyage along the
Pacific coast, sailing as far north as the boundaries
of Oregon.

1562. — Admiral Coligni, one of the Huguenot lead-
ers in France, conceived the design of establishing
a trans-atlantic settlement for the purpose of afford-
ing an asylum to his Protestant brethren, and fitted
out two vessels in 1562, which he placed under
command of John Ribault, of Dieppe, a seaman of
experience. The discoverers landed in Carolina,
but the settlement did not ^p rove successful.

1564. — In 1564 Coligni fitted out three vessels,
which he placed under the command of Laudonniere,
an officer who had accompanied Ribault, which at-
tempt, however, was no more successful than the
first. In 1565 Ribault was sent with several ships
to supersede Laudonniere, bringing with him large
supplies, which induced the colonists to remain.

1565. — Melendez, a Spanish explorer, landed in
Florida in 1565, and laid the foundations of a col-
ony. It was named St. Augustine, and is the oldest
town in the United States.

1576. — Frobisher, an English navigator, tried to
find a northwest passage, entered Baffin Bay, and
twice endeavored to found a colony in Labrador,
but was unsuccessful.

1578. — Sir Francis Drake, a famous English cap-
tain, from 1578 to '80 sailed through the Straits of
Magellan and along the Pacific coast as far as Ore-
gon, wintered in San Francisco harbor, and circum-
navigated the globe.

1582. — In 1582 New Mexico was explored and
named by the Spaniard Espejo, who founded Santa
Fe, the second oldest city in the United States.

1584. — Sir Walter Raleigh is distinguished for
having projected and established permanent British
settlements in America. In April, 1584, he fitted
out two ships, fully equipped and provisioned, under
the command of Captain Philip Amadas and Arthur
Barlow. Having arrived on the American coast,
they entered into trade with the natives, and after a
hasty examination of the country, returned to Eng-
land, where they arrived in September. The coun-
try which they discovered was named Virginia, by
order of Queen Elizabeth, in allusion to her unmar-
ried state of life. Sir Walter soon fitted out another
fleet for America, under the command of Sir Rich-
ard Grenville, Mr. Ralph Lane having been appoint-
ed Chief Governor of the colony. The Governor
retul-ned to England for supplies shortly afterward.
Raleigh dispatched another colony under John
White, who was appointed Governor. Governor
White returned to England, and when he came
back, three years later, he found that the entire
colony had perished. It is asserted by Camden that
tobacco was now for the first time introduced into
England, and the potato into Ireland, from America.

1605. — De Monts, a native of France, received a
grant of all the land lying between the fortieth and
forty-sixth parallels of latitude. The tract was termed
Acadia. With Champlain, he founded Port Royal,
the first permanent French possession in America.

1606. — James I. of England granted the London
Company a colony in Virginia in 1606. The expedi-
tion reached America in 1607, and, ascending the
James River, chose for their colony a spot which
they called Jamestown. The colonists and their

--^

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

353

kr-

posterity were declared English subjects, though
they were invested with no political rights. The
colonists suffered many severe hardships, and were
saved from destruction mainly through the energy
and sagacity of Captain John Smith, who had been
installed as president. This was the first perma-
nent English settlement in America.

1608. — The first permanent French settlement in
Canada was established by Samuel de Champlain,
who founded the city of Quebec in 1608. In the
follow.ing year he discovered the beautiful lake which
bears his name. He has been justly termed " The
Father of New France," as the French possessions
in America were named.

1609-10. — In the beginning of the seventeenth
century, the Dutch and English directed their atten-
tion to the discovery of a northwest passage to In-
dia. After the failure of several navigators in this
endeavor, it was resumed by Henry Hudson, a navi-
gator in the Dutch service. Not succeeding, he
proceeded to explore the American coast, and sailed
up the river that now bears his name.

In 1 6 10 he was sent by a Dutch company on
another voyage, when he explored the great bay to
which his name is attached.

In virtue of Hudson's voyage, the Dutch claimed
the country from the Delaware River to Cape Cod,
and in 16 10 several stations were formed on the
Island of Manhattan, the name then given to New
York. In 16 13, a settlement was founded. The
country was called New Netherlands, and a cluster
of cottages, where New York now stands, was named
New Amsterdam.

1 61 9. — The " first legislative body that ever as-
sembled in America " was called at Jamestown by
Governor Yeardly, July 30, 1619. Its laws were
ratified by the company in England, but possessed
no binding force unless subsequently ratified by the
colonial assembly. These privileges were in 1621
embodied in a written constitution, " the first of its
kind in America."

16 19. — Slavery was introduced into the United
States in 16 19, by the captain of a Dutch trading
vessel, who bought twenty negroes which he sold to
the tobacco planters. Their labor being found prof-
itable, a traffic in slaves soon sprung up.

1620. — After various abortive attempts to colonize
New England, a tide of population poured into it
from an unexpected quarter. The ** Pilgrim Fa-

thers " — Puritans who had fled from England to
Holland to escape the persecution of the established
church — sailed for America in September, 1620, and
arrived on the 9th of November, in view of Cape
Cod. They settled on a spot which they named
New Plymouth. After suffering untold privations,
which reduced their numbers in the spring of 1621
to fifty or sixty persons, they persevered, and in the
spring of 1624 they counted one hundred and eighty.
Their numbers were increased in 1629, and in 1630,
fifteen hundred settlers having arrived from England
in the latter year. They soon became involved in
war with the Indians, which checked the progress of
the colony, but the nativeSwere finally subdued and dis-
persed. In 1 692, Plymouth was united with Massachu-
setts Bay Colony, under the name of Massachusetts.

1622. — On the 2 2d of March, 1622, occurred the In-
dian Massacre of Virginia, when over three hundred
men, women and children fell victims in a single day,

1630. — The first house erected in Boston, under
Governor Winthrop, in July, 1630.

Connecticut was settled at Windsor, Hartford
and Wethersfield, in 1633-6.

1633. — Sir George Calvert, Secretary of State
under James I., obtained from King Charles I. a
large grant of land in America, which was named
Maryland, in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria. Sir
George, now created Lord Baltimore, died before
the completion of the charter, and the establishment
of the colony devolved accordingly on his son Cecil.
The first emigrants, consisting of about two hundred
persons, arrived in 1633. The colonists acted justly
toward the natives, and the Maryland government
was distinguished for proclaiming religious toleration
to all. The Protestants having obtained a majority,
deprived Catholics of their rights, and declared
them outside the protection of the law. In 1691,
Lord Baltimore was deprived of his proprietary rights,
and Maryland became a royal province. In 17 15,
under the fourth Lord Baltimore, the government
was recovered and religious toleration was restored.

1636. — Rhode Island was settled at Providence
in 16^6, by Roger Williams, who stamped upon
the colonies the idea of religious toleration. In
1647, a set of laws guaranteeing freedom of worship
were enacted — " the first legal declaration of liberty
of conscience ever adopted in Europe or America."

1638. — The first permanent settlement in Dela-
ware was made in 1638 by the Swedes, on a tract

354

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

lying near Wilmington. The settlement was subse-
quently conquered 'by the Dutch, and later still
yielded to the English power.

1643. — ^^ ^643 too^ place the Union of the Col-
onies, Massachusetts Bay, New Haven and Con-
necticut, for the purpose of common defense against
the Indians, and the encroachment of the French
and Dutch settlers.

1646. — In 1646 Peter Stuyvesant was appointed
Governor of the New Netherlands, which colony
continued to thrive under his just and humane rule
till its conquest by the English in 1664.

1660. — In 1660, the British Parliament enforced
the Navigation Act, whereby the commerce of the
colony of Virginia should be carried on in English
vessels, and their tobacco shipped to England.

1663. — In 1663 Charles II. granted a vast tract
of land south of Virginia to Lord Clarendon and
other noblemen, which was termed Carolina in honor
of the king. Two settlements were established,
Albemarle Colony and Carteret Colony (1670). The
two colonies separated in 1729.

.1664. — In August, 1664, Sir Robert Nichols, who
had been sent out by Charles II. to effect the con-
quest of the Dutch possessions in America, arrived
before New Amsterdam, having landed a portion of
his troops on Long Island. The Governor, Peter
Stuyvesant, was unable to offer any effective resist-
ance, and the colony passed into the possession of
the English.

^673. — The Jesuit Missionaries were the explorers
of the Mississippi Valley. Father Marquette, in
1673, floated in a birch-bark canoe down the Wis-
consin to the Mississippi, which he descended to the
mouth of the Arkansas.

La Salle, another Jesuit missionary, in 1682, made
his way to the Gulf of Mexico, and named the coun-
try bordering on the gulf Louisiana, in honor of
Louis XIV., King of France.

1682. — The first settlement in Pennsylvania was
established by William Penn, an English Quaker, in
1682. In the following year he purchased land of
the Swedes, and laid out on it the city of Philadel-
phia. He entered into a friendly treaty with the
Indians, and the colony flourished apace. After his
death, in 1718, his heirs ruled the colony until 1779,
when their claims were bought out by the State for
the sum of half a million dollars.

1689-1697. — King William's War. — In conse-

quence of the war between England and France, in
Europe, hostilities between their colonies broke out
in America. The savage tribes took part on both
sides. The war lasted eight years, during which
time several horrible massacres and barbarities took
place.

1692. — In 1692, the mania known as the Salem
witchcraft broke out, and not till forty-five people
had been tortured and twenty hung was it abated.

1702. — Queen Anne's War. — In this year, Eng-
land having declared war against France and Spain,
the colonies took up the contest. Hostilities con-
tinued for eleven years, during which period sev-
eral fruitless expeditions and horrible massacres took
place. Peace was ratified by the treaty of Utrecht.

1733. — Georgia Founded. — The last of the thir-
teen colonies was planned in 1732, and settled the
following year by James Oglethorpe, an English offi-
cer, who received a tract of land from George II.,
which he termed Georgia, in honor of the donor.
Georgia became a royal colony in 1752,

1744. — King George's War. — France and Eng-
land being once more at war, the colonies entered
into hostilities also. The war lasted four years and
was concluded by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.

1 754-1 763. — During this period the French and
Indian \^;ar raged, having originated in the English
and French laying claim to the territory west of the
Alleghany Mountains. Peace was signed at Paris
in 1763, whereby the English acquired all the terri-
tory stretching from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf
of Mexico.

1765. — The Stamp Act, which ordered that
stamps purchased from the British Government
should be placed on all legal documents, pamphlets,
newspapers, etc., was passed in 1765. Resistance
to the measure was threatened on all sides. Depu-
ties from nine of the colonies assembled at New
York and drew up a Declaration of Rights and a
petition to the King and Parliament. The Act was
repealed in 1 766, but the right to tax the colonies
was still asserted.

1768. — In this year the " Mutiny Act " was passed,
whereby soldiers were quartered on the inhabitants
of the colonies, without the consent of the latter.

1770. — On March 5, 1770, occurred the "Boston
Massacre." This was a fight between the soldiers
sent by General Gage to quell the incipient resist-
ance of the Bostonians to the " Mutiny Act," and

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

355

the citizens. Two of the latter were killed and
three wounded.

1773- — On December i6, 1773, the climax of re-
sistance to the principle of taxation without repre-
sentation was reached by the colonists, who, dis-
guised as Indians, boarded the vessels in Boston
harbor and cast three hundred and forty-two chests
of tea into the water.

1774. — The first Continental Congress met in
Philadelphia, September 5, 1775. All the colonies,
with the exception of Georgia, sent delegates thither.
The Congress, by its resolutions, virtually raised the
standard of rebellion, and arrayed the colonies
against the mother country.

1775. — The battle of Lexington, the first of the
Revolution, was fought on April 19, of this year.
Seven Americans were killed. The British were as-
sailed on all sides by the surrounding inhabitants,
and before their retreat to Boston was completed
they had lost three hundred men.

1775. — Bunker Hill, the first regular battle of the
Revolution, was fought June 17, 1775, and resulted
in a victory for the Americans, though they were
forced to retire in the end, owing to the exhaustion
of their ammunition. On this day General Warren fell.

1775. — Capture of Ticonderoga, May 10, by
Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold. By this surprise
large stores of cannon and ammunition fell into the
hands of the Americans.

1775. — O^ the loth of May, 1775, the second
Continental Congress met at Philadelphia. It voted
to raise twenty thousand men, and on the 15th of
June unanimously elected George Washington com-
mander-in-chief.

1775. — Invasion of Canada. — In September, 1775,
Canada was invaded by the American forces under
General Schuyler. General Schuyler, being taken
ill, left the command in the hands of General Mont-
gomery, who prosecuted the enterprise. He laid
seige to Quebec, and on the morning of the 31st of
December, endeavored to carry it by assault. He
fell at the first fire. The assault was unsuccessful,
and the Americans soon after retreated from
Canada.

1776. — Evacuation of Boston. — The evacuation
of Boston by the British troops, under' General
Howe, took place on the 17th of March, 1776. On
the following day Washington entered the city amid
general rejoicing.

1776, — June 28. Attack on Fort Moultrie by an
English fleet. The fleet was driven off in a badly
shattered condition. Great rejoicing among the
colonists, as this was their first encounter with the
English navy.

1776. — Declaration of Independence. — On July
4th, 1776, the report of the committee appointed to
draw up a Declaration of Independence was adopted.
This Declaration was signed by each of the mem-
bers of Congress, and by it the thirteen colonies cast
off their allegiance to Great Britain and declared
themselves an independent people.

1776. — Battle of Long Island. — On the 27th of
August, the British Army, thirty thousand strong,
under the command of Howe and Clinton, engaged
the Americans, who numbered about nine thousand
men, commanded by General Putnam, in Brooklyn,
L. I, The Americans were defeated with a loss of
two thousand men.

1776. — November 16. — Fort Washington captured
by the Hessians, after a stubborn defense.

1776. — Battle of Trenton. — After the battle of
Long Island, Washington retreated into New Jersey,
to prevent the British from capturing Philadelphia.
On Dec. 25, it being Christmas night, Washington
surmised that the Hessians were not expecting an at-
tack, and falling upon them in the midst of a plunging
storm, surprised them in the height of their revelry,
slew their leader. Rail, killed a thousand of their
number, and effected his retreat back to camp with a
loss of four men, two killed and two frozen. This de-
feat of the enemy produced a marked effect through-
out the colony.

1777. — January 3. Battle of Princeton. — In this
battle Washington inflicted a serious defeat on the
British troops. The Americans suffered severely
also, losing one General, two Colonels, one Major
and three Captains, killed. In this battle Colonel
Monroe, who afterward became President of the
United States, bore a conspicuous part.

1777. — Battle of Brandywine. — On September 11
the Americans, who had taken up a position at
Chad's Ford, on the Brandywine, were attacked si-
multaneously in front and rear by the British, and
after performing prodigies of valor, were defeated.
Philadelphia, in consequence, fell into the hands of
the enemy.

1777. — Battle of Germantown, Oct. 4.

1777. — Battles of Saratoga. — On September ig,

35^

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

and October 7, of this year, were fought the battles
of Saratoga between the forces of Generals Gates and
Burgoyne. The latter was defeated on the 17th,
and forced to capitulate, surrendering an army of
nearly six thousand men, together with a splendid
train of brass artillery, and all the arms and baggage
of the troops. In consequence of this defeat, the
British were unable to hold possession of the forts on
the lakes, and retreated to Isle-aux-Noix and St. John's.

1778. — February 6, treaty with France signed at
Paris. The chief articles of the treaty were, that if
Britain, in consequence of the alliance, should be-
gin hostilities against France, both countries should
mutually assist each other, that the independence of
America should be maintained, that if France should
conquer any of the British West India Islands they
should be deemed her property, that the contracting
parties should not lay down their arms till the inde-
pendence of America was formally acknowledged,
and that neither of them should conclude peace
without the consent of the other.

1778. — Battle of Monmouth, June 28.

1778. — The Wyoming Massacre. — On the ist of
July, 1778, a band of fifteen hundred men, composed
of Indians and Tories, under the command of
Colonel John Butler, burst into the settlement of
Wyoming in the Susquehanna Valley. The able-
bodied men being for the most part in the field with
the patriot army, there remained none save the old
■men and boys to make a defense. They were
quickly defeated, and, with the women and children,
were tomahawked or burned in the flames, after
enduring the most savage tortures. The entire
settlement was destroyed, and those who escaped the
hatchet and the flames forced to fly into the depths
of the wilderness.

1779. — Capture of Stony Point. — About midnight
on the 15th of July, General Wayne, with a force of
only eight hundred men, performed one of the most
brilliant exploits of the war, in the capture of Stony
Point. After encountering unexpected difficulties.
General Wayne surprised the garrison and compelled
them to surrender. The military stores in the fort
were considerable.

1779.— On the 2 2d of August General Sullivan
led an expedition into the Genesee Country, and
on the 29th fought a battle, near the present town
of Elmira, with the Indians and their Tory allies,
defeated them, and then laid waste their towns and

orchards, so that they might have no inducement
again to settle so near the States.

1779. — September 23dJ^ capture of the Serapis by
the Bon Homme Richard, under Captain Paul Jones,
off the north-east coast of England.

1780. — Surrender of Charleston, May 12, to Gen-
eral Clinton, after a siege of forty days.

1780. — Battle of Camden. — Aug. 16, General
Gates having been appointed to take command of
the troops of the South, marched to meet Cornwal-
lis near Camden. The armies encountered one
another unexpectedly ; the American troops were
demoralized, defeated, and dispersed through the
woods, marshes, and brushwood. By this disastrous
defeat. South Carolina and Georgia were again laid
prostrate at the feet of the royal army, and the hope
of maintaining their independence seemed once more
to vanish.

1780. — Arnold's Treason. — General Arnold,
whose services at Quebec and Saratoga, were so con-
spicuous, having deemed himself unjustly treated,
entered into a plot with the British Major Andre to
hand over West Point to the enemy. Andre
ascended the Hudson, and went ashore on the
night of Sept. 21st, but was captured at Tarry town
on his return, condemned as a spy, and hanged.

1 78 1. — Battle of Cowpens. — General Tarleton
having attacked General Morgan's forces, Jan. 17,
at Cowpens, suffered a crushing defeat. Cornwallis
set out on the news reaching him to punish the victors
and retake the prisoners, but Morgan had meantime
effected a retreat into Virginia, and after a close
pursuit gained the fords of the Dan,

1 78 1. — Battle of Guilford House, March 15.

1781. — Battle of Eutaw Springs, Sept 8.

1781. — On the 4th of January, 1781, General
Arnold, the traitor, who had been dispatched by
Sir Henry Clinton to prosecute the war in that
quarter, landed at Westover, 25 miles below Rich-
mond, with 1,600 men and marched directly toward
the city. He burned and destroyed all the property
in his line of march, and acted with mingled hate and
brutality. Cornwallis soon after took his place, and,
after having destroyed ten million dollars worth of
property, took up his position at Yorktown.

1 78 1. — August 30, the combined American and
French armies entered Philadelphia.

1781. — Surrender of Yorktown. — On the 28th of
September, 178J, the combined American and

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

357

French forces, twelve thousand strong, laid siege to
Yorktown. The French fleet in the harbor co-oper-
ated with the land forces. After a vain attempt to
escape, Comwallis capitulated to the allied forces on
the 19th of October. Exclusive of seamen, nearly
7,000 men surrendered. Seventy-five brass and
sixty-nine iron cannons, with a large amount of
ammunition and military stores, fell into the hands
of the allies ; while one frigate, two ships of twenty
guns, a number of transports and other vessels, with
about 1,500 seamen, surrendered to the French Ad-
miral, Count de Grasse. This virtually ended the war.

1783. — Peace Declared. — On Sept. 3d, 1783, a
treaty of peace was signed at Paris, acknowledging
the independence of the United States.

1783. — Savannah evacuated by the British, July
II, 1783.

1783. — On November 25, 1783, the British evacu-
ated New York, and an American detachment under
General Knox took possession of the town.

1787. — Adoption of the Constitution. — A stronger
national government than that which existed being
needed and desired, a Convention was called in
Philadelphia, Sept. 17, 1787, to revise the Articles
of Confederation. Washington was chosen Presi-
dent. After much deliberation an entirely new
Constitution was adopted. During the year 1788,
nine States, the number required to make it binding,
had ratified the Constitution, and the same year
the government was organized under the new instru-
ment, and in 1789 it went into operation.

1789. — April 30. — Washington inaugurated first
President of the United States. He took the oath
to uphold the Constitution of the United States on
the balcony of the old Federal Hall, in the city of
New York, which was then the temporary capital.

1794. — Whiskey Rebellion in Western Pennsyl-
vania. — The tax imposed on whiskey to restore the
nation's shattered finances, provoked considerable
opposition, and in Pennsylvania the rioters had to be
subdued by the militia. No blood was shed, however.

1795. — j3-y's treaty with England ratified by the
Senate June 24, 1795, after prolonged opposition.

1795. — Treaty with Spain, whereby the United
States secured free navigation of the Mississippi,
and the boundary of Florida was fixed.

1795. — Treaty with Algiers by which American
captives were released and the Mediterranean com-
merce was made free to American vessels.

4r-

1796. — Tennessee, the sixteenth State, was ad-
mitted into the Union June ist, 1796. Two years
previously it had been granted distinct territorial
government.

^797- — On the 4th of March, 1797, John Adams
was inaugurated second President of the United
States. He was opposed by Thomas Jefferson,
whom he defeated by two electoral votes.

1799. — Death of Washington. — On the 14th of
December, 1799, George Washington died at Mount
Vernon, his home, in Virginia, after a brief illness.

1800. — The capitol was removed to Washington
in this year.

1 801. — Inauguration of Jefferson. — Thomas Jeff-
erson was inaugurated third President of the United
States March 4th, 1801. He was the chief author
of the Declaration of Independence and the em-
bodiment of the principles of Democracy.

1 801. — War Against Tripoli. — The Bashaw of
Tripoli, who had been- accustomed to receive annual
tribute from the United States for immunity from
his piratical cruisers, declared war against the United
States in this year. The United States dispatched
a fleet thither in 1803, which bombarded the city of
Tripoli, and compelled a treaty of peace in 1805.

1802. — Ohio, the seventeenth State, was admitted
to the Union November 29, 1802. It was first ex-
plored by the French, under La Salle, in the year
1680.

1803. — The Louisiana Purchase. — Louisiana
Territory, embracing all the region west of the Mis-
sissippi, and covering an area of over a million of
square miles, was purchased from France, under Na-
poleon, on the 30th April, 1803, for the sum of $15,-
000,000.

1804. — Death of Alexander Hamilton, who fell in
a duel with Aaron Burr, at Weehawken, New Jersey,
July II, 1804.

1807. — Robert Fulton's steamboat, the Clermont,
made her memorable trip from New York to Albany,
on September 14, 1807. This was the first steam
vessel ever launched.

1807. — The American frigate Chesapeake was fired
into by the British frigate Leopard off the coast of
Virginia, June 22, 1807. This act was perpetrated
in sustainment of a pretension of the English to the
right of searching American vessels and impressing
British subjects found therein into the English ser-
vice. The immediate result of this outrage v/as an

358

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

embargo laid on American ships by Congress and the
suspension of all intercourse with England.

1809.— James Madison was inaugurated fourth
President of the United States, March 4, 1809.

181 1. — Battle of Tippecanoe. — The battle of
Tippecanoe was fought November 7, 181 1, between
General Harrison and a confederacy of the Indian
tribes under Tecumseh, a famous chief. The Indi-
ans had been instigated to this war by British emis-
saries. The Indians were defeated and dispersed.

1 81 2. — Louisiana, the eighteenth State, was re-
ceived into the Union April 8, 181 2. The territory
was so named in honor of Louis XIV., King of
France.

1812. — War with Great Britain. — The British
Government continued to seize American vessels
and impress our seamen. On the 19th of June,
181 2, the United States declared war against Great
Britain. On the 1 6th of May previous the Ameri-
can frigate President having hailed the British sloop
Little Belt was fired upon by the latter. A fight
ensued, in which the British sloop was disabled.
All hope of a peaceful termination of the difficulty
was thereby rendered impossible.

181 2. — Canada was invaded by General Hull July
12, 181 2. On the approach of the British and In-
dians he retreated to Detroit, which, with the whole
of Michigan, he, in a most cowardly manner, sur-
rendered to the enemy, August 16, with all its gar-
rison and stores.

1812. — The battle of Queenstown Heights was
fought October 13, 181 2. The English were dis-
lodged and their general, Brock, killed, but not being
sustained by the American militia, who refused to
cross over from theif State, the Americans on the
Canada side were compelled to surrender, after a
heroic struggle.

181 2. — August 19, 181 2, the British frigate Guer-
riere was captured, after a hard fight, by the United
States frigate Constitution (Old Ironsides) off the
coast of Massachusetts, Captain Hull commanding.

181 2. — October 13, capture of the English brig
Frolic^ off the coast of North Carolina, by the
American sloop of war Wasp.

1813. — September 10, 1813, was made memorable
by Captain Perry's brilliant victory over the British
on Lake Erie. The American flotilla consisted of
nine vessels, carrying fifty-four guns ; that of the
eneiLv six vessels and sixty-three guns. Perry's fa-

mous message after the battle was : " We have met
the enemy and they are ours."

18 13. — The American frigate C/^^.y^/^^^(? captured
by the British ship Shannon, June i, 18 13.

1813. — Battle of the Thames, October 5. This
battle was fought between the forces of General
Harrison and the British under Proctor, and their
Indian allies under the famous chief Tecumseh. The
enemy were defeated, Tecumseh being among the
slain. This victory, in connection with Perry's
triumphs on Lake Erie, virtually decided the issue of
the war.

1 8 14. — Massacre of Fort Mimms. — This deed
was perpetrated by the Creek Indians, August 30,
18 14, who broke in upon the garrison and slew all,
including women and children. General Jackson
was sent with a force against the Indians, and fall-
ing on them at Horseshoe Bend, slew six hundred
of their number and compelled them to make peace.

1814. — Battle of Chippewa, July 5, gained by the
Americans under General Scott.

1814. — Battle of Lundy's Lane, July 25. This
battle resulted in a victory for the Americans.

1 8 14. — Battle of Lake Champlain, September 11,
1814. The American squadron, under the command
of Commodore McDonough, almost wholly destroyed
the British fleet in this conflict. Simultaneous with
this signal victory, the American forces, numbering
only fifteen hundred men, repelled the advance of
General Prevost, the British commander in Platts-
burg, at the head of twelve thousand veterans, who
had served under Wellington.

1814. — ^Washington captured by the British, Au-
gust 24, 1 8 14. The Capitol was burned, and the
Congressional Library, together wi.th several public
and private buildings, shared the same fate.

1814. — Treaty of peace with England, December
24, 1 814. The treaty was signed at Ghent.

1815. — Battle of New Orleans. Though a treaty
of peace had been signed on the 24th of December,
at Ghent, the intelligence had not yet arrived in
America. On the 8th of January, General Packen-
ham, with an army of twelve thousand veteran
troops, sustained by a powerful fleet," marched to
the attack of New Orleans. General Jackson, with
a force of scarce half that number, mostly raw re-
cruits, inflicted an overwhelming defeat on the
invaders. General Packenham was slain, and while
the British lost over two thousand of their number,

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

359

the American loss was but seven killed and six
wounded.

1 8 15. — In May, 18 15, Decatur was sent with a
squadron to chastise the Algerines, who had renewed
their piratical practices during our war with Eng-
land. He obtained the liberation of all the Ameri-
can prisoners held by the Barbary States, with com-
plete indemnity for all losses inflicted.

1816. — Indian^ the nineteenth State, was admitted
to the Union on December 11, 1816.

181 7. — James Munroe inaugurated fifth President
of the United States, March 4, 181 7.

181 7. — Mississippi, the twentieth State, was re-
ceived into the Union December 10, 1817. The
State derived its title from the great river of that
name.

1 81 8. — Illinois, the twenty-first State, was ad-
mitted to the Union December 3, 1818. It derives
its name from its greatest river, which signifies " The
River of Men."

181 9. — Alabama, the twenty-second State, was
admitted to the Union, December 14, 1819. It
derives its name from the Indian phrase, signifying
" Here we rest. "

1819. — Florida ceded by Spain to the United
States, February 22, 1819. The • treaty was not
signed by the King of Spain until October 20, 1820,
and the United States did not enter into full pos-
session until July 17, 182 1.

1820. — The Missouri Compromise passed March
3, 1820. This was the settlement of the difficulty
that arose regarding the question of slavery, on the
proposal of admitting Missouri into the Union.
Through the efforts of Henry Clay, it was admitted
as a slave State, under the compromise that slavery
should be prohibited in all the other territories west
of the Mississippi, and north of the southern bound-
ary of Missouri.

1820. — Maine, the twenty-third State, was ad-
mitted to the Union, March 15, 1820.

182 1. — Missouri, the twenty-fourth State, was ad-
mitted to the Union, August 10, 182 1. It derives
its name from its principal river, which signifies
" Muddy water."

1824. — Lafayette's visit as " the Nation's guest,''
August 15, 1824. He was received with the most
joyous welcome in all the States.

1825.— rjohn Quincy Adams inaugurated sixth
President of the United States, March 4, 1825.

Four candidates being in the field, and none of
them obtaining a majority of votes, the election
went to the House of Representatives.

1826. — Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, ex-
Presidents, died July 4, 1826.

1829. — Andrew Jackson inaugurated seventh
President of the United States, March 4, 1829.
He was distinguished for his honesty, tenacity of
purpose, and his thorough American spirit.

1832. — Nullification Ordinance, passed by South
Carolina threatening secession from the Union, in
the event of force being employed to collect the
revenue at Charleston. A settlement was effected by
the acceptance of Henry Clay's "Compromise Bill."

1832.— Black Hawk War.

1835. — The Florida War. A war with the Semi-
nole Indians broke out this year. It arose from a
refusal of the Indian chief Osceola, to move west of
the Mississippi, in accordance with a treaty. He
plotted a wholesale massacre of the whites. In which
Major Dade and one hundred men were slain. The
Indians retreated to the everglades of Florida, where
they were pursued and defeated by Taylor, at the
Battle of Okechobee, December 25, 1837.

1835. — Great fire in New York, Dec. 16, 1835.
Six hundred stores burned. Loss $18,000,000.

1836. — Arkansas, the twenty-fifth State, was ad-
mitted to the Union, June 15, 1836. Its name is
derived from an extinct Indian tribe.

1837. — Michigan, the twenty-sixth State, was
received into the Union, January 26, 1837. The
name is Indian, signifying " Great Lake."

1837. — Martin Van Buren, the eighth President
of the United States, inaugurated March 4, 1837.
During his term of office a terrible financial crisis
prevailed throughout the country. In two months
alone in the city of New York the losses amounted
to $100,000,000.

1 84 1. — Wm. H. Harrison inaugurated the ninth
President of the United States, March 4, 1841. One
month after, April 4, he died.

1 84 1. —John Tyler, the Vice-President, inaugu-
rated tenth President of the United States, in ac-
cordance with the Constitution of the United States,
April 6, 1 841.

1842.— Ashburton treaty, by which the North-
east boundary between Maine and New Brunswick
was settled. The commissioners on each side were
Lord Ashburton and Daniel Webster.

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360

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

■^

1842. — Dorr's Rebellion, a difficulty which arose
from the endeavor to secure a more liberal Constitu-
tion in Rhode Island. This was secured in 1843.

1844. — Anti-Rent Rebellion in the State of New
York. The occupants of the old "patroon " estates
refused to comply with the feudal customs of the
Patroon landlords, and resisted and killed the officers
sent to serve warrants on them. The disturbances
had to be quelled by the militia, and the allodial
was substituted for the feudal tenure.

1845. — Florida, the twenty-seventh State, was ad-
mitted to the Union, March 3d, 1845.

1845. — James K. Polk, inaugurated eleventh Pres-
ident of the United States, March 4, 1845.

1845. — Joe Smith, the Mormon Prophet, killed,
and the Mormons driven away from Nauvoo City,
111., by the mob.

1845. — Texas, which had wrested its independ-
ence from Mexico, and applied for admission to the
Union, was received into the family of States, De-
cember 27, 1845.

1846. — Battle of Palo Alto. — The Texas boundary
having given rise to a dispute between the United
States and Mexico, Gen'l Taylor was ordered to oc-
cupy the disputed territory with his troops. He
was attacked by the Mexicans, with a superior force,
May 8, at Palo Alto. The latter were defeated.
Gen'l Taylor fought the battle of Resaca de la
Palma, the following day, and gained a signal vic-
tory.

1846. — War declared against Mexico by Congress,
May II, 1846.

1846. — Capture of Monterey, with its garrison of
ten thousand men, by Gen'l Taylor, with a force of
six thousand, Sept. 24, 1846.

1846. — Iowa, the twenty-ninth State, was admitted
to the Union December 28, 1846.

1846. — Conquest of New Mexico and CaHfornia,
by Captain John C. Fremont, assisted by Commo-
dores Sloat and Stockton, and General Kearney.

1847. — Battle of Buena Vista, fought between a
portion of General Taylor's command, and twenty
thousand Mexican troops, under Santa Anna, Feb. 23.
After a desperate struggle, lasting the entire day, the
American troops, though vastly outnumbered, were
victorious.

1847. — Capture of Vera Cruz, by Gen'l Scott,
after a furious bombardment of four days, March
29, 1847.

V 1847. — Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18, 1847. •

1847. — Battle of Contreras, August 20.

1847. — Capture of Chapultepec, September 13.

1847. — Surrender of Mexico to the American
army, September 14.

1848. — Treaty of Peace with Mexico, February 2,
1848. By this treaty the United States acquired the
territory stretching south to the Gila, and to the
Pacific on the west.

1848. — Gold was discovered in California in Feb-
ruary, and soon attracted a tide of immigration from
Europe, Asia, Australia, South America and all parts
of the United States. Towns and settlements grew
up as if by magic. More than one hundred thousand
persons flocked to the mines from the United States
within eighteen months after the discovery of the
precious metal.

1849. — General Zachary Taylor, the twelfth
President of the United States, was inaugurated
March 5, 1849.

1850. — Death of President Taylor July 9, 1850.

1850. — Millard Fillmore, the Vice-President, in-
augurated thirteenth President of the United States
in accordance with the Constitution, July 16, 1850.

1850. — California, the thirty-first State, was ad-
mitted to the Ujiion September 9, 1850.

1853. — Franklin Pierce, the fourteenth President
of the United States, inaugurated March 4, 1853,

1854. — Kansas-Nebraska Bill passed. May 1854.
This Bill was a virtual nullification of the Missouri
Compromise Bill. It provided that the inhabitants
of each Territory should decide Avhether the State
should enter the Union as a free or slave State.

1854. — A Treaty with Japan was secured in May
1854, by Commodore Perry, whereby the United
States were granted two ports of entry in that
exclusive country.

1857. — James Buchanan, the fifteenth President
of the United States, was inaugurated March 4,

1857.

1858. — Minnesota, the thirty-second State, was
admitted to the Union, May 11, 1858. It derives
its name from the Indian word, signifying " cloudy
water."

1859. — Oregon, the thirty-third State, was re-
ceived into the Union February 14, 1859. Its name
is of Spanish origin.

i860. — Secession of South Carolina. — On the
election of Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency, the

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

361

Southern leaders prepared to carry out their threats
of secession from the Union. On December 20,
South Carolina withdrew, and was soon followed by
Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana
and Texas. The act of secession was the outcome
of the question of State rights in regard to slavery,
which had vexed the country almost from the for-
mation of the Union,

1 86 1. — Kansas, the thirty-fourth State, was ad-
mitted to the Union January 29, 1861. The name
is derived from an Indian term, signifying '' smoky
water."

1 86 1. — Southern Confederacy Inaugurated. — On
the 4th of February, 1861, delegates from the se-
ceded States met at Montgomery, Ala., and formed
a government known as the " Confederate States of
America." Jefferson Davis, formerly a United
States Senator from Mississippi, was chosen Presi-
dent, and Alex. H. Stevens, of Georgia, was chosen
Vice-President. All the national property and mu-
nitions of war belonging to the United States, sit-
uated in the seceded States, were seized and
held.

186 1. — Attack on Fort Sumter, April 12, 1861. —
The Star of the West, an unarmed steamer, bearing
supplies to Major Anderson's garrison in Fort Sum-
ter, had been fired upon and driven back January
9, 1 86 1. At the same time the Southern leaders de-
clared that any attempt to relieve Fort Sumter
would be regarded as a declaration of war. At
length Gen'l Beauregard opened fire on the fort on
the morning of the 12 of April, and after a contest
of thirty-seven hours the garrison surrendered. The
garrison numbered only seventy men, while the be-
sieging force was seven thousand.

1861.— Abraham Lincoln, the sixteenth Presi-
dent of the United States, inaugurated March 4,
1861.

1 86 1. — Call for seventy-five thousand volun-
teers by President Lincoln to suppress the rebellion,
April 15, 1861.

1 86 1. — Seizure of Harper's Ferry by Confederate
troops, April 18, 1 86 1.

1 86 1. — Seizure of the Norfolk Navy Yard by the
Confederates, April 20, 1861.

1861. — Massachusetts troops attacked in the
streets of Baltimore, April 19, 1861. First blood
shed in the civil war on the anniversary of Con-
cord and Lexington.

1861. — The Confederate Congress assembled at
Richmond, Va., July 20, 1861.

1861.— Battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21, 1861.—
The Federal troops having driven the enemy from
the field after a sharp contest, were suddenly attacked
in flank and thrown into a panic. The retreat was
changed to a rout, arms and munitions being aban-
doned, the fugitives flying in all directions. The
effect of this battle was to convince the Northern
people of the desperate nature of the great conflict
that had just opened. Congress immediately voted
$500,000,000 and 500,000 men to prosecute the
war.

1862. — Capture of Fort Donelson with its garri-
son of fifteen thousand men, by General Grant, Feb-
ruary 16, 1862.

1862.— Battle of Shiloh (April 6 and 7) 1862.

1862. — Capture of New Orleans by Captain Far-
ragut, April 25, 1862.

1862. — Battle of the Merrimac and Monitor,
March 9, 1862. This was the first battle ever
fought between turreted iron ships.

1862. — Invasion of Maryland by the Confederate
forces under General Lee, September 5, 1862.

1862. — Battle of Antietam, September 17, 1862.
This was one of the bloodiest conflicts of the war,
and though the result could scarce be said to be de-
cisive, the effect was a Federal victory. Lee was
forced to retire across the Potomac, and Washing-
ton was no longer threatened.

1862. — Battle of Fredericksburg, December 13,
1862 ; overwhelming defeat of Union troops ; Fed-
eral loss twelve thousand.

1862. — While the civil war was at its height, the
Sioux Indians took to the war path, and perpetrated
horrible massacres in Minnesota, Iowa and Dakota.
They were finally routed by Colonel Sibley, and sev-
eral of their number taken prisoners and hanged.

1862. — Battle of Murfreesboro, December 31, and
January 2, 1863. This was one of the fiercest bat-
tles of the war, the loss being stated as one-fourth
of the number engaged. The Confederates were
compelled to retreat.

1863. — Emancipation Proclamation, declaring
freedom to the slaves, issued by President Lincoln,
January i, 1863.

1863. — Battle of Chancellorsville, Va., May 2-3,
1863.

1863. — West Virginia, the thirty-fifth State, was

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362

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

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admitted to the Union, June 20, 1863. This por-
tion of Virginia remained loyal to the Union during
the war, and v/as accordingly incorporated into a
separate State.

1863.— Battle of Gettysburg, Penn., July 1-3, 1863.
This was the bloodiest and most desperately con-
tested struggle of the war. The loss on both sides
numbered about fifty thousand men. Lee was
forced to retreat beyond the Potomac, and a North-
ern invasion was no longer thought of. The back-
bone of the rebellion was broken.

1863. — Surrender of Vicksburg with 37,000 pris-
oners of war, July 4, 1863. This was one of the
most important events of the war. By its capture
the Confederacy was cut in two and the Mississippi
opened to the Gulf.

1863. — Battle of Chickamauga, September 19-20,
1863.

1863. — Battle of Chattanooga, Tenn., November
24-25, 1863.

1864. — Battle of the Wilderness, May 5-6, 1864.

1864. — Battle of Spottsyivania, May 8-12, 1864.

1864. — Battle of Cold Harbor, June 3, 1864.
Twenty minutes after the battle had opened, ten
thousand Union soldiers had fallen.

1864. — Capture of Atlanta, Ga., by General Sher-
man, September 2, 1864.

1864. — Nevada, the thirty-sixth State, was re-
ceived into the Union, October 31, 1864. The
name is of Spanish origin.

1864. — Battle of Nashville, December 15-16, 1864.

1865. — Capture of Petersburg and Richmond,
April 2-3, 1865, by the forces of General Grant.

1865. — Surrender of General Lee, at Appomatox
Court House, Va., April 9, 1865. This event brought
the civil war to a close.

1865.-— Assassination of President Lincoln, April
14, 1865. This black deed was perpetrated in Ford's
Theater, Washington, where the President occupied
a box during the performance. It was the act of
the crazed brain of one who, thinking he was rid-
ding the country of a tyrant, struck an almost deadly
blow at the now vanquished South, in the murder of
her most powerful friend.

1865. — Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, inau-
gurated seventeenth President of the United States,
in accordance with the Constitution, April 15, 1865.
1865. — The Thirteenth Amendment, declaring
the abolition of slavery, adopted as a part of the

Constitution of the United States, December 18,
1865.

1867. — Nebraska, the thirty-seventh State, admit-
ted to the Union, March i, 1867.

1867. — Death of Maximilian, so-called Emperor
of Mexico, June 19, 1867. During the American
civil war, Napoleon III. sought to found an empire
in Mexico, and established Maximilian, of the house
of Austria, emperor, with the aid of French troops.
This the Americans regarded as a violation of the
"Monroe Doctrine," and after the close of the war
they compelled the French Emperor to withdraw
his troops from the neighboring republic. Deprived
of foreign aid, Maximilian's regime was overthrown
by the Mexicans, and the unfortunate monarch shot.
1867. — Purchase of Alaska from Russia by the
United States Government for the sum of $7,200,000
in gold.

1868. — Impeachment of President Johnson, Feb-
ruary 24, 1868. The order to impeach the Presi-
dent was made in consequence of the latter having
attempted to remove the Secretary of War, a pro-
ceeding which was held to be in violation of the
Tenure-of-Ofiice Bill, which had some time previous
been passed over the President's veto. After a pro-
tracted trial. President Johnson was acquitted, hav-
ing escaped conviction by one vote.

1868. — The Fourteenth Amendment, whereby
equal civil rights were guaranteed to all, irrespective
of race or color, was adopted by Congress, July 28,
1868.

1868. — Treaty between China and the United
States, whereby valuable commercial privileges were
acquired by the latter.

1869. — Ulysses Simpson Grant, the eighteenth
President of the United States, inaugurated March
4, 1869.

1869. — Completion of the great trans-continental
railroad from New York to San Francisco.

1870. — The Fifteenth Amendment, whereby the
right of suffrage is guaranteed to all, regardless of
race, color, or previous condition of servitude, was
formally announced as part of the Constitution,
March 30, 1870.

1870. — The Treaty of Washington ratified,
whereby Great Britain was compelled to pay the
United States the sum of $15,500,000 in gold, in
consideration of damages caused to American com-
merce by the Alabama and other Confederate cruis-

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-<t?

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

3^3

ers fitted out in English ports during the Civil
War.

1870. — Rejection by Congress of the proposed
annexation of San Domingo to the United States.

1 87 1. — Great fire broke out in Chicago, Oct. 8,
187 1. Three thousand acres of the city devastated,
$200,000,000 of property destroyed, and a hundred
thousand people left homeless.

1872. — Great Boston fire, Nov. 9. Sixty acres of
the business portion of the city laid waste and $70,-
000,000 of property destroyed.

1873. — Difficulties with the Modoc Indians. After
dispatching troops against them. Captain Jack and
several of the leaders were captured, and executed
Oct. 3, 1873.

1875. — Colorado, the thirty-eighth State, received
into the Union, March 3, 1875.

1876. — Centennial Exhibition of the "arts and
industries of all nations," at Philadelphia, opened
May 10, 1876. The exhibition lasted six months, and
had an average daily attendance of 61,000 per-
sons.

1877. — War with the Sioux Indians. — The Indian
reservation being encroached on by gold prospect-
ors, it led to difficulties which terminated in compel-
ling a dispatch of regular troops to the reservation.
General Custer and his entire command were slain
in the conflict which occurred on the twenty-fifth
of June on the Little Big Horn river.

1877. — Rutherford B. Hayes, the nineteenth
President of the United States, inaugurated March
4, 1877.

1 88 1. — James A. Garfield, the twentieth President
of the United States, inaugurated March 4, 188 1.

1 88 1. — Assassination of President Garfield July 2,
1881, by Charles J. Guiteau, at the railroad depot,
Washington. The assassination was regarded as the
act of a crazed brain. The wounded President was
removed to Long Branch, N. J., where he died on
the 19th of Sept. following.

1 88 1. — Gen. Chester A. Arthur, Vice-President,
inaugurated twenty-first President of the United
States, in accordance with the Constitution, Sept.
20, 1881.

fleelamlien ©f Si^lb.

Whereas, since the close of the last war, the
British parliament claiming a power of right, to bind
the people of America by statutes in all cases what-
soever, hath, in some acts, expressly imposed taxes
on them, and in others, under various pretenses, but
in fact for the purpose of raising a revenue, hath im-
posed rates- and duties payable in these colonies, es-
tablished a board of commissioners, with unconsti-
tutional powers, and extended the jurisdiction of
courts of admiralty, not only for collecting the said
duties, but for the trial of causes merely arising
within the body of a county.

And whereas, in consequence of other statutes,
judges, who before held only estates at will in their
offices, have been made dependent on the crown
alone for their salaries, and standing armies kept in
times of peace : And whereas it has lately been re-
solved in parliament, that by force of a statute, made
in the thirty-fifth year of the reign of king Henry
the Eighth, colonists may be transported to England,
and tried there upon accusations for treasons, and

misprisons, or concealments of treasons committed in
the colonies, and by a late statute, such trials have
been directed in cases therein mentioned.

And whereas, in the last session of parliament,
three statutes were made ; one, entitled an " Act to
" discontinue, in such manner and for such time as
"therein mentioned, the landing and discharging,
" lading, or shipping of goods, wares and merchan-
" dise, at the town, and within the harbor of Boston,
" in the province of Massachusetts-Bay, in North
" America ; " another, entitled " An act for the bet-
" ter regulating the government of the province of
" Massachusetts-Bay in New England ; " and an-
other, entitled " An act for the impartial adminis-
" tration of justice, in the cases of persons ques-
" tioned for any act done by them in the execution
" of the law, or for the suppression of riots and tu-
" mults, in the province of the Massachusetts-Bay,
" in New England : " and another statute was then
made, " for making more effectual provision for the
" government of the province of Quebec, &c " All

kr-

364

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

which statutes are impolitic, unjust, and cruel, as
well as unconstitutional, and most dangerous and
destructive of American rights.

And whereas, assemblies have been frequently dis-
solved, contrary to the rights of the people, when
they attempted to deliberate on grievances ; and
their dutiful, humble, loyal, and reasonable petitions
to the crown for redress, have been repeatedly treated
with contempt by his majesty's ministers of state :

The good people of the several colonies of New-
Hampshire, Massachusetts-Bay, Rhode- Island and
Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New-York,
New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, New-Castle, Kent and
Sussex, on Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North
Carolina, and South Carolina, justly alarmed at these
arbitrary proceedings of parliament and administra-
tion, have severally elected, constituted, and ap-
pointed deputies to meet, and sit in General Con-
gress, in the city of Philadelphia, in order to obtain
such establishment, as that their religion, laws, and
liberties may not be subverted. Whereupon the
deputies so appointed being now assembled, in a full
and free representation of these colonies, taking into
their most serious consideration, the best means of
attaining the ends aforesaid, do, in the first place, as
Englishmen, their ancestors, in like cases have usu-
ally done, for affecting and vindicating their rights
and liberties, DECLARE,

That the inhabitants of the English colonies in
North- America, by the immutable laws of nature,
the principles of the English constitution, and the
several charters or compacts, have the following
RIGHTS :

Resolved^ N. C. D.* i. That they are entitled to
life, liberty, and property, and they have never ceded
to any sovereign power whatever, a right to dispose
of either without their consent.

Resolved^ N. C. D. 2. That our ancestors, who
first settled these coloijies, were at the time of their
emigration from the mother country, entitled to all
the rights, liberties, and immunities of free and
natural-born subjects, within the realm of England.

Resolved^ N. C. D. z- That by such emigration
they by no means forfeited, surrendered, or lost any
of those rights, but that they were, and their de-
scendants now are, entitled to the exercise and en-
joyment of all such of them, as their local and

* An abbreviation for nemin€contradic*ntey i. *., no one opposing or
disagreeing.

other circumstances enable them to exercise and
enjoy.

Resolved^ 4. That the foundation of English lib-
erty, and of all free government, is a right in the
people to participate in their legislative council : and
as the English colonists are not represented, and
from their local and other circumstances, cannot
properly be represented in the British parliament,
they are entitled to a free and exclusive power of
legislation in their several provincial legislatures,
where their right of representation can alone be pre-
served, in all cases of taxation and internal polity,
subject only to the negative of their sovereign, in
such manner as has been heretofore used and accus-
tomed. But, from the necessity of the case, and a
regard to the mutual interest of both countries,
we cheerfully consent to the operation of such acts
of the British parliament, as are bona fide, restrained
to the regulation of our external commerce, for the
purpose of securing the commercial advantages of
the whole empire to the mother country, and the
commercial benefits of its respective members ; ex-
cluding every idea of taxation internal or external,
for raising a revenue on the subjects in America,
without their consent.

Resolved, N. C- D. ^. That the respective colonies
are entitled to the common law of England, and
more especially to the great and inestimable privi-
lege of being tried by their peers of the vicinage,
according to the course of that law.

Resolved, 6. That they are entitled to the benefit
of such of the English statutes, as existed at the time
of their colonization ; and which they have, by ex-
perience, respectively found to be applicable to their
several local and other circumstances.

Resolved, N. C. D. 7. That these, his majesty's
colonies, are likewise entitled to all the immuni-
ties and privileges granted and confirmed to them by
royal charters, or secured by their several codes of
provincial laws.

Resolved, N. C, D. 8. That they have a right
peaceably to assemble, consider of their grievances,
and petition the king ; and that all prosecutions,
prohibitory proclamations, and commitments for the
same, are illegal.

Resolved, JV. C. D. 9. That the keeping a stand-
ing army in these colonies, in time of peace, without
the consent of the legislature of that colony, in which
such army is kept, is against law.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

365

Resolved, N. C D. 10. It is indispensably neces-
sary to good government, and rendered essential by
the English constitution, that the constituent
branches of the legislature be independent of each
other ; that, therefore, the exercise of legislative
power in several colonies, by a council appointed,
during pleasure, by the crown, is unconstitutional,
dangerous, and destructive to the freedom of Amer-
ican legislation.

All and each of which the aforesaid deputies, in
behalf of themselves, and their constituents, do
claim, demand, and insist on, as their indubitable
rights and liberties ; which cannot be legally taken
from them, altered or abridged by any power what-
ever, without their own consent, by their represen-
tatives in their several provincial legislatures.

In the course of our inquiry, we find many in-
fringements and violations of the foregoing rights,
which from an ardent desire, that harmony and mu-
tual intercourse of affection and interest may be re-
stored, we pass over for the present, and proceed to
state such acts and measures as have been adopted
since last war, which demonstrate a system formed
to enslave America.

Resolved, N. C. D. That the following acts of
parliament are infringements and violations of the
rights of the colonists ; and that the repeal of them
is essentially necessary, in order to restore harmony
between Great Britain and the American colonies,
viz.:

The several acts of 4 Geo. III. ch. 15, and ch.
34. — 5 Geo. III. ch. 25. — 6 Geo. III. ch. 52. — 7
Geo. III. ch. 41, and ch. 46. — 8 Geo. III. ch. 22,
which impose duties for the purpose of raising a rev-
enue in America, extend the power of the admiralty
courts beyond their ancient limits, deprive the
American subject of trial by jury, authorize the
judges' certificate to indemnify the prosecutor from
damages, that he might otherwise be liable to, re-
quiring oppressive security from a claimant of ships
and goods seized, before he shall be allowed to defend
his property, and are subversive of American rights.

Also 12 Geo. III. ch. 24, entitled "An act for the

"better securing his majesty's dock-yards, maga-
" zines, ships, ammunition, and stores," which de-
clares a new offense in America, and deprives the
American subject of a constitutional trial by jury of
the vicinage, by authorizing the trial of any person,
charged with the committing any offence described
in the said act, out of the realm, to be indicted and
tried for the same in any shire or county within the
realm.

Also the three acts passed in the last session of
parliament, for stopping the port and blocking up
the harbor of Boston, for altering the charter and
government of Massachusetts- Bay, and that which is
entitled " An act for the better administration of jus-
tice," &c.

Also the act passed in the same session for estab-
lishing the Roman Catholic religion, in the province
of Quebec, abolishing the equitable system of Eng-
lish laws, and erecting a tyranny there, to the great
danger (from so total a dissimilarity of religion, law
and government), of the neighboring British colo-
nies, by the assistance of whose blood and treasure
the said country was conquered from France.

Also, the act passed in the same session, for the
better providing suitable quarters for officers and
soldiers in his majesty's service, in North America.

Also, that the keeping a standing army in several
of these colonies, in time of peace, without the con-
sent of the legislature of that colony, in which such
army is kept, is against law.

To these grievous acts and measures, Americans
cannot submit, but in hopes their fellow-subjeots in
Great Britain will, on a revision of them, restore us
to that state, in which both countries found happi-
ness and prosperity, we have for the present, only
resolved to pursue the following peaceable meas-
ures : I, To enter into a non-importation, non-con-
sumption, and non-exportation agreement or associ-
ation. 2. To prepare an address to the people of
Great Britain, and a memorial to the inhabitants of
British America : and 3. To prepare a loyal address
to his majesty, agreeable to resolutions already en-
tered into.

366

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of
America in Congress assembled, July t^th, 1776-

When, in the course of human events, it becomes
necessary for one people to dissolve the political
bonds which have connected them with another, and
to assume, among the powers of the earth, the sep-
arate and equal station to which the laws of nature
and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect
to the opinions of mankind requires that they should
declare the causes which impel them to the separa-
tion.

We hold these truths to be self-evident — that all
men are created equal ; that they are endowed by
their Creator with certain unalienable rights ; that
among these, are life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness. That, to secure these rights, govern-
ments are instituted among men, deriving their just
powers from the consent of the governed ; that,
whenever any form of government becomes destruc-
tive of these ends, it is the right of the people to
alter or abolish it, and to institute a new government,
laying its foundations on such principles, and organ-
izing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem
most likely to effect their safety and happiness.
Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long
established should not be changed for light and
transient causes ; and, accordingly, all experience
hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suf-
fer, while evils are sufferable, than to right them-
selves by abolishing the forms to which they are
accustomed. But, when a long train of abuses and
usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object,
evinces a design to reduce them under absolute
despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw
off such government, and to provide new guards for
their future security. Such has been the patient

sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the
necessity which constrains them to alter their
former systems of government. The history of the
present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated
injuries and usurpations, all having, in direct object,
the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these
states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a
candid world : —

He has refused his assent to laws the most whole-
some and necessary for the public good.

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of
immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended
in their operation till his assent should be obtained ;
and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to
attend to them.

He has refused to pass other laws for the accom»
modation of large districts of people, unless those
people would relinquish the right of representation
in the legislature ; a right inestimable to them, and
formidable to tyrants only.

He has called together legislative bodies at
places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from
the depository of their public records, for the sole
purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his
measures.

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly,
for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on
the rights of the people.

He has refused, for a long time after such disso-
lutions, to cause others to be elected.; whereby the
legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have
returned to the people at large for their exercise ;
the state remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all
the danger of invasion from without, and convulsions
within.

He has endeavored to prevent the population of

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-4

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

367

'hr-

these states ; for that purpose, obstructing the laws
for naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass
others to encourage their migration hither, and rais-
ing the conditions of new appropriations of lands.

He has obstructed the administration of justice,
by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judici-
ary powers.

He has made judges dependent on his will alone,
for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and
payment of their salaries.

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and
sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people,
and eat out their substance.

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing
armies, without the consent of our legislatures.

He has affected to render the military independent
of, and superior to, the civil power.

He has combined with others to subject us to a
jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unac-
knowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their
acts of pretended legislation :

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among
us :

For protecting them by a mock trial, from punish-
ment, for any murders which they should commit
on the inhabitants of these states :

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the
world :

For imposing taxes on us without our consent :

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefit of
trial by jury :

For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for
pretended offenses :

For abolishing the free system of English laws in
a neighboring province, establishing therein an
arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries
so as to render it at once an example and fit instru-
ment for introducing the same absolute rule into
these colonies :

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most
valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the pow-
ers of our governments :

For suspending our own legislatures, and declar-
ing themselves invested with power to legislate for
us in all cases whatsoever.

He has abdicated government here, by declaring
us out of his protection, and waging war against us.

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts,
burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.

He is, at this time, transporting large armies of
foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death,
desolation, and tyranny, already begun, with circum-
stances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in
the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the
head of a civilized nation.

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken cap-
tive on the high seas, to bear arms against their
country, to become the executioners of their
friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their
hands.

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst
us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants
of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, whose
known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruc-
tion of all ages, sexes, and conditions.

In every stage of these oppressions, we have peti-
tioned for redress, in the most humble terms ; our
repeated petitions have been answered only by
repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus
marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is
unfit- to be the ruler of a free people.

Nor have we been wanting in attention to our
British brethren. We have warned them, from time
to time, of attempts made by their legislature to
extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We
have reminded them of the circumstances of our
emigration and settlement here. We have appealed
to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have
conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred,
to disavow these usurpations, which would inevit-
ably interrupt our connections and correspondence.
They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice
and consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce
in the necessity which denounces our separation,
and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind,
enemies in war, in peace, friends.

We, therefore, the representatives of the United
States of America, in general Congress assembled,
appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for
the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name, and
by the authority of the good people of these colonies,
solemnly publish and declare, that these United
Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and
independent states ; that they are absolved from all
allegiance to the British crown, and that all political
connection between them and the state of Great
Britain, is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and
that, as free and independent states, they have full

368

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances,
establish commerce, and do all other acts and things
which independent states may of right do. And, for
the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance
on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually
pledge to each other, our lives, our fortunes, and our
sacred honor.

The foregoing declaration was, by order of Con-
gress, engrossed, and signed by the following members :

JOHN HANCOCK.

New Hampshire. Massachusetts Bay. Rhode Island.

Stephen Hopkins,

Josiah Bartlett,
William Whipple,
Matthew Thornton

Samuel Adams,
John Adams,
Robert Treat Paine,
Elbridge Gerry.

William Ellery.
Connecticut.
Roger Sherman,
Samuel Huntington,
William Williams,
Oliver Wolcott.

New York. Delaware,

William Floyd, Caesar Rodney,

Philip Livingston, George Read,

Francis Lewis, Thomas M'Kean.
Lewis Morris.

New yersey. Maryland.

Richard Stockton, Samuel Chase,

John Witherspoon, William Paca,
Francis Hopkinson, Thomas Stone,

John Hart, ' Charles Carroll, of

Abraham Clark. CarroUton.

North Carolina.
William Hooper,
Joseph Hewes,
John Penn.

South Carolina.
Edward Rutledge,
Thomas H ey ward , j r.,
Thomas Lynch, jr.,
Arthur Middleton.

Pennsylvania.
Robert Morris,
Benjamin Rush,
Benjamin Franklin,
John Morton,
George Clymer,
James Smith,
George Taylor,
James Wilson,
George Ross.

Virginia.

George Wythe, Georgia.

Richard Henry Lee,
Thomas Jefferson, Button Gwinnett,
Benjamin Harrison, Lyman Hall,
Thomas Nelson, jr. , George Walton.
Francis Lightfoot

Lee,
Carter Braxton.

We the People of the United States, in order to form a more
perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquil-
lity, provide for the common defence, promote the general
Welfare and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and
our Posterity, do ordain and establish this CONSTITUTION
for the United States of America.

ARTICLE I.

Section i. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be
vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist
of a Senate and House of Representatives.

Section 2. ['] The House of Representatives shall be com-
posed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of
the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have
the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous
Branch of the State Legislature.

P] No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have
attained to the Age of twenty- five Years, and been seven
Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when
elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be
chosen.

4r-

[Note,— The small figures in brackets are not in the original, but
have been added subsequently, to mark the dillereni clauses in the
section.]

['] Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned
among the several States which may be included within this
Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be
determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons,
including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and ex-
cluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.
The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years
after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States,
and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Man-
ner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Represen-
tatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but
each State shall have at Least one Representative ; and until
such enumeration shall be made, the State of New-Hampshire
shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode-
Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five,
New-York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Dela-
ware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten. North Carolina five.
South Carolina five, and Georgia three.

['] When vacancies happen in the Representation from any
State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of
Election to fill such Vacancies.

['] The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker
and other officers ; and shall have the sole Power of Impeach-
ment.

Section 3. ['] The Senate of the United States shall be

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

369

4r-

composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the
Legislature thereof, for six Years ; and each Senator shall
have one Vote.

["] Immediately after they shall be assembled in Conse-
quence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally
as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of
the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second
Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year,
and of the third class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that
one third may be chosen every second Year ; and if Vacancies
happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the
Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make
temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legis-
lature, which shall then fill such Vacancies.

[^] No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained
to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of
the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an In-
habitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.

I*] The Vice President of the United States shall be Presi-
dent of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be
equally divided.

['] The Senate shall chuse their other Ofificers, and also a
President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President,
or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United
States.

['J The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeach-
ments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath
or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is
tried, the Chief Justice shall preside : And no Person shall
be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the
Members present.

['] Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend
further than to removal from Office, and Disqualification to
hold and enjoy any Office of honour. Trust or Profit under the
United States : but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be
liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punish-
ment, according to Law.

Section 4. ['] The Times, Places and Manner of holding
Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed
in each State by the Legislature thereof ; but the Congress may
at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as
to the places of chusing Senators.

['] The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year,
and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December,
unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.

Section 5. ['] Each House shall be the Judge of the Elec-
tions, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a
Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business ;
but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may
be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members,
in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may
provide.

["jEach House may determine the Rules of its Proceed-
ings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with
the Concurrence of tv/o thirds, expel a Member.

p] Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and
from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as
may in their Judgment require Secrecy ; and the Yeas and

Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall,
at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the
Journal.

[*] Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall,
without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three
days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two
Houses shall be sitting.

Section 6. ['] The Senators and Representatives shall re-
ceive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by
Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States.
They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of
the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance
at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and
returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in
either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.

P] No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for
which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under
the Authority of the United States, which shall have been cre-
ated, or the Emoluments whereof have been encreased during
such time ; and no Person holding any Office under the United
States, shall be a Member of either House during his Con-
tinuance in Office.

Section y. ['] All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate
in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose
or concur with Amendments as on other Bills.

['] Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Repre-
sentatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be
presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve
he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objec-
tions to that House in which it shall have originated, who
shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and pro-
ceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two
thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be
sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by
which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by
two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all
such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by
yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and
against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House
respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the Presi-
dent within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have
been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like Man-
ner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Ad-
journment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a
Law.

['] Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concur-
rence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be
necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be pre-
sented to the President of the United States ; and before the
Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being
disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the
Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules
and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill.

Section. 8 The Congress shall have Power

['] To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to
pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and gen-
eral Welfare of the United States ; but all Duties, Imposts
and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ;

370

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

['j To borrow Money on the credit of the United States ;

['] To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among
the several States, and with the Indian Tribes ;

[*] To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and
uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the
United States ;

[^] To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of for-
eign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures.;

["] To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the
Securities and current Coin of the United States ;

['] To establish Post Offices and post Roads ;

['] To promote the progress of Science and useful Arts, by
securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the ex-
clusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries ;

["] To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court ;

['"] To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed
on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations ;

["] To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal,
and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water ;

["^J To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of
Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two
Years ;

['^] To provide and maintain a Navy ;

["] To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of
the land and naval Forces ;

['*] To pravide for calling forth the Militia to execute the
Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions ;

["J To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining,
the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be
employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the
States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the
Authority of training the Militia according to the Discipline
prescribed by Congress ;

["] To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatso-
ever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as
may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of
Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United
States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased
by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the
Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals,
Dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings ; — And

['"J To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper
for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all
other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of
the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.

Section 9. ['] The Migration or Importation of such Per-
son as any of the States now existing shall think proper to
admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the
Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or
Duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten
dollars for each Person.

[-J The privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be
suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the
public Safety may require it.

[^] No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.

[*J No Capitation, or other direct. Tax shall be laid, unless
in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before
directed to be taken.

4r-

['] No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from
any State.

['] No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Com-
merce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of
another : nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be
obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.

[■"] No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in
Consequence of Appropriations made by Law ; and a regular
Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of
all public Money shall be published from time to time.

['] No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United
States : And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust
under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, ac-
cept of any present. Emolument, Office, or Title of any kind
whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State.

Section 10. ['] No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alli-
ance, or Confederation ; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal ;
coin Money ; emit Bills of Credit ; make any thing but gold
and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts ; pass any Bill
of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obli-
gation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility.

['^J No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay
any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what
may be absolutely necessary for executing it's inspection Laws:
and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any
State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treas-
ury of the United States ; and all such Laws shall be subject
to the Revision and Controul of the Congress.

L'j No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any
Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of
Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another
State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless ac-
tually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit
of Delay.

ARTICLE II.

Section I. [*] The executive Power shall be vested in a
President of the United States of America. He shall hold his
Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the
Vice-President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as fol- '
lows :

['^] Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legisla-
ture thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole
Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State
may be entitled in the Congress : but no Senator or Represen-
tative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under
the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.

p] The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and
vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not
be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And
they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the
Number of Votes for each ; which List they shall sign and
certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of
the United States, directed to the President of the Senate.
The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Sen-
ate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates,
and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the
greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Num-

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

371

ber be a Majority of the whole Numberof Electors appointed ;
and if there be more than one who have such Majority and
have an equal number of Votes, then the House of Repre-
sentatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for
President ; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the
five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner
chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes
shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State
having one Vote : a Quorum for this Purpose shall consist of
a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a
Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In
every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person hav-
ing the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the
Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who
have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Bal-
lot the Vice-President.

['] The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the
Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes ;
which Day §hall be the same throughout the United States.

[*] No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of
the United States at the time of the Adoption of this Consti-
tution, shall be eligible to the Office of President ; neither
shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have
attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen
Years a Resident within the United States.

[*] In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or
of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers
and Duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the
Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the
Case of^ Removal, Death, Resignation, or Inability, both of
the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall
then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly,
until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be
elected.

['] The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Ser-
vices, a Compensation, which shall neither be encreased nor
diminished during the Period for which he shall have been
elected; and he shall not receive within that Period any other
Emolument from the United States, or any of them.

["] Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall
take the following Oath or Affirmation : —

" I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully exe-
' ' cute the Office of President of the United States, and will to
" the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the
"Constitution of the United States."

Section 2. ['] The President shall be Commander in Chief
of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia
of the several States, when called into the actual Service of
the United States ; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of
the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments,
upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective
Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Par-
dons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of
Impeachment.

P] He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Con-
sent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of
the Senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by
and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint

Ambassatiors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of
the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States,
whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for,
and which shall be established by Law : but the Congress may
by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they
think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or
in the Heads of Departments.

P] The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies
that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by grant-
ing Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next
Session.

Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress
Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to
their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary
and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene
both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement
between them, with Respect to the time of Adjournment, he
may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper ; he
shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers ; he shall
take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Com-
mission all the officers of the United States.

Section 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Offi-
cers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Im-
peachment for, and Conviction of. Treason, Bribery, or other
high Crimes and Misdemeanors.

ARTICLE IIL

Section l. The judicial Power of the United States, shall
be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts
as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish.
The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall
hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated
Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation which shall
not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.

Section 2. ['] The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases,
in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws
of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be
made, under their Authority ; — to all Cases affecting Ambas-
sadors, other public Ministers and Consuls ; — to all Cases of
admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction ; — to Controversies to
which the United States shall be a Party ; to Controversies
between two or more States ; — between a State and Citizens
of another State ; — between Citizens of different States, — be-
tween Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants
of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens
thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects.

n In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Minis-
ters and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party,
the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the
other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have
appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such
Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall
make.

[•■j The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeach-
ment, shall be by Jury ; and such Trial shall be held in the
State where the said Crimes shall have been committed ; but
when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at

372

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have di-
rected.

Section 3. ['] Treason against the United States, shall
consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to
their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person
shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two
Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open
Court.

(^] The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punish-
ment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Cor-
ruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the
Person attainted.

ARTICLE IV.

Section I. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each
State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of
every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws
prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Pro-
ceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof.

Section 2. ['] The Citizens of each State shall be entitled
to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several
States.

['] A Person chained in any State with Treason, Felony, or
other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in
another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of
the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed
to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime.

["] No person held to Service or Labour in one State, under
the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence
of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such
Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the
Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.

Section 3. f'jNew States may be admitted by the Congress
into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected
within the Jurisdiction of any other State : nor any State be
formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of
States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the States
concerned as well as of the Congress,

[■*] The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make
all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or
other Property belonging to the United States ; and nothing
in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any
Claims of the United States, or of any particular State.

Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every
State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and
shall protect each of them against Invasion, and on Applica-
tion of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legisla-
ture cannot be convened) against domestic Violence.

ARTICLE V.

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem
it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution,
or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the
several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amend-
ments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and
Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the
Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Con-
ventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode

of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; Provided
that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year one
thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect
the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first
Article ; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be de-
prived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate.

ARTICLE VI.

[']A11 Debts contracted and Engagements entered into,
before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid
against the United States under this Constitution, as under the
Confederation.

\^] This Constitution,' and the Laws of the United States
which shall be made in Pursuance thereof ; and all Treaties
made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the
United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land ; and
the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing
in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary not-
withstanding.

["] The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and
the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all execu-
tive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the
several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to sup-
port this Constitution ; but no religious Test shall ever be re-
quired as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under
the United States.

ARTICLE VII. ■

The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States,, shall be
sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between
the States so ratifying the Same.

Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States
present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year
of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty
seven and of the Independence of the United States of
America the Twelfth. In Witness whereof we have
hereunto subscribed our Names,

Go Washington —
Presidt and deputy from Virginia

NEW HAMPSHIRE.
John Langdon Nicholas Oilman

MASSACHUSETTS.
Nathaniel Gorham Rufus King

CONNECTICUT.
Wm Sam! Johnson Roger Sherman

NEW YORK.
Alexander Hamilton

Wil Livingston
Wm Paterson

NEW JERSEY.

David Brearley
Jona Dayton

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

373

■«s

B Franklin
Robt Morris
Tho Fitzsimons
James Wilson

Geo Read
John Dickinson
Jaco Broom

James M'Henry
Danl Carroll

John Blair

Wm Blount
Hu Williamson

J Rutledge
Charles Pinckney

William Few

Attest :

PENNSYLVANIA.

Thomas MifBin
Geo Clymer
Jared Ingersoll
Gouv Morris

DELAWARE.

Gunning Bedford, Jun'r
Richard Bassett

MARYLAND.

Dan of St Thos Jenifer

VIRGINIA.

James Madison, Jr

NORTH CAROLINA.

Rich'd Dobbs Spaight

SOUTH CAROLINA.

Charles Cotesworth Pinckney
Pierce Butler

GEORGIA.

Abr Baldwin
William Jackson, Secretary.

ARTICLES

IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDMENT OF

THE CONSTITUTION

OF THE

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

Proposed by Congress, and ratijied by the Legislatures of the
several States, pursuant to the fifth article of the original Con-
stitution.

(ARTICLE I.)

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of
religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging
the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the
people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government
for a redress of grievances.

(ARTICLE II.)

A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a
free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall
not be infringed.

(ARTICLE III.)

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house,
without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a
manner to be prescribed by law.

(ARTICLE IV.)

The right of the people to be secure in their persons,
houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and
seizures shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but
upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and
particularly describing the place to be searched, and the per-
sons or things to be seized.

(ARTICLE V.)

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a
Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces,
or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or
public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same
offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall
be compelled in any Criminal Case to be a witness against
himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without
due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for
public use, without just compensation.

(ARTICLE VI.)

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the
right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the
State and district wherein the crime shall have been com-
mitted, which district shall have been previously ascertained
by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the ac-
cusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to
have Compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor,
and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.

(ARTICLE VII.)

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy
shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be
preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-
examined in any Court of the United States, than according to
the rules of the common law.

(ARTICLE VIII.)

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines im-
posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

(ARTICLE IX.)

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall
not be construed to deny or desparage others retained by the
people.

(ARTICLE X.)

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Con-
stitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the
States respectively, or to the people.

374

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

(ARTICLE XI.)

The Judicial power of the United States shall not be con-
strued to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or
prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of an-
other State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State.

(ARTICLE XII.)

The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote
by ballot for President and Vice President, one of whom, at
least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with them-
selves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as
President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-
President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons
voted for as President and of all persons voted for as Vice-
President, and of the number of votes for each, which
lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to
the seat of the government of the United States, directed
to the President of the Senate ; — The President of the Senate
shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre-
sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then
be counted ; — The person having the greatest number of votes
for President shall be President, if such number be a ma-
jority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no
person have such majority, then from the persons having the
highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted
for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose
immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the
President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representa-
tion from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this pur-
pose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of
the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary
to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not
choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve
upon them, before the fourth day of March next following,
then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case
of the death or other constitutional disability of the President.
— The Person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-
President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a
majority of the whole number of Electors appointed-, and if
no person have a majority, then from the two highest num-
bers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a
quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the
whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole num-
ber shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitu-
tionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to
that of Vice-President of the United States.

(ARTICLE XIII.)

Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, ex-
cept as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have
been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or
any place subject to their jurisdiction.

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article
by appropriate legislation.

(ARTICLE XIV.)

Section l. All persons born or naturalized in the United
States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of
the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No
State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the
privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States : nor
shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property,
without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its
jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the
several States according to their respective numbers, counting
the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians
not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the
choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the
United States, representatives in Congress, the executive or
judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature
thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State,
being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United
States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in re-
bellion or other crime, the basis of representation shall therein
be reduced to the proportion which the number of such male
citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens
twenty-one years of age in such State.

Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative
in Congress, or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold
any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under
any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a member
of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member
of any State Legislature, or as an executive or a judicial officer
of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States,
shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the
same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But
Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove
such disability.

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United
States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for pay-
ment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing in-
surrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither
the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt
or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion
against the United States, or any claim for the loss or eman-
cipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations and
claims shall be held illegal and void.

Section 5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro-
priate legislation, the provisions of this article.

(ARTICLE XV.)

Section l. The right of the citizens of the United States
to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States,
or by any State, on account of race, color o'r previous condi-
tion of servitude.

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to CHforce this
article by appropriate legislation.

4r-

^§^
^

OUT-DOOR GAMES.

— -%

375

ili.

'^JW'i^ ^yJ^C? ■^;i^<? "Jjs^c? "^i^^

HE ball must not weigh less than 5 ounces, and
not more than 5:^ ; and must measure not less
than 9, and not more than gi inches in cir-
cumference. It must be composed of India-
rubber and yarn covered with leather.
2. The bat must be round, and must not exceed
2^ inches in diameter at the thickest part ; nor 42
inches in length.
3. The bases, four in number, must be securely fast-
ened at the corners of a square, whose side is thirty yards.
They must be so constructed as to be plainly visible to the
umpire, and must cover respectively a space equal to one
square foot. The first, second, and thiri bases shall be
canvas bags, painted while and stuffed with sand or saw-
dust ; the home base to be marked by a circular iron plate
colored white. A similar mark shall also be used for the
pitcher's post.

The base from which the ball is struck shall be called the
home base ; the first base is that on the right hand of the
striker ; the second, that opposite to him ; and the third,
that on his left. Chalk lines must be drawn from the
home base to the first and third bases respectively, so as
to be plainly visible to the umpire.

The pitcher's position shall be marked by two lines, four
yards in length, drawn at right angles to a line from
home to second base, having their centers upon that line

at two fixed iron plates, placed at points fifteen and six-
teen yards respectively from the home base. The pitcher
must stand within these lines, and must deliver the ball
as nearly as possible over the center of the home base, and
suitably for the striker.

6. Should the pitcher fail repeatedly to deliver fair balls to
the striker, for the apparent purpose of delaying the game,
or from any other cause, the umpire, after warning him,
shall call " One ball ; " and if the pitcher persists in such
action, " Two " and " Three balls ;" when seven balls shall
have thus been called, the striker shall be entitled to the
first base, and each occupant of a base at the time shall be
entitled to the next, without the liability to being put out.

7. The ball must be pitched, not jerked or thrown, to the
bat, and a " balk " must be called if he make pretense or
offer to throw the ball without doing so ; or he be not in-
side his ground, or either foot be off the ground at the
moment of delivery.

8. ^Vhen three " foul balls " have been called the umpire
shall declare the game forfeited.

9. If a ball from a stroke of the bat iake tJu ground, touch
the person of a player or any other object, between home and
the first or third bases, it shall be considered fair, if within
the foul ball lines.

10. A player making the home base shall be entitled to score
one run.

11. If three balls are struck at and missed, and the last one is
not caught flying, the striker must attempt to make his run.

12. The striker is out if a foul ball be caught either flying or
at the first bound ; or, if three balls be struck at and missed
and the ball be caught flying ; or, if the ball be similarly
caught from a fair stroke of the bat ; or, if a fair ball after
being struck, be held by a player on first base before the
striker touches that base.

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376

OUT-DOOR GAMES.

larly caught from a fair stroke of the bat ; or if a fair ball,
after being struck, be held by a player on first base before
the striker touches that base.

13. Any player running the bases is out if at any time he be
touched by the ball while in play in the hands of an ad-
versary, unless some part of his person be on the base.

14. No ace or base can be made on a foul ball : such ball shall
be considered "dead "and out of play until it shall be
settled in the hands of the pitcher. In such case players
running bases must return to those they started from, and
in so returning may be put out in the same manner as the
striker in making his first base.

15. No ace or base can be made when a fair ball has been
caught before touching the ground. In such cases players
running bases must return as above, subject to a similar
risk of being put out. But after the ball has been so
caught, players may start to run their bases at their dis-
cretion, subject to the ordinary risks of being put out.

16. The strikers must stand on a line drawn through the cen-
ter of the home base, their feet on either side of it, and
parallel with the line occupied by the pitcher. Players
must strike in regular rotation ; the order agreed upon at
the beginning being continued throughout the match,
from innings to innings. The next man to the last man
out in one innings being the first striker in the succeed-
ing.

17. Players must make their bases in the order of striking, and
when a fair ball is struck and not caught, as in Rule 15,
players holding bases to which another player must of
necessity run must vacate them and make for the next,
subject to being put out as in Rule 13.

18. Players running bases must touch them, and so far as
possible keep upon the direct line between them. Should
any player run more than three feet out of this line to
avoid the ball in the hands of an adversary, he shall be
declared out.

19. Any player who shall intentionally obstruct an adversary
in catching or fielding a ball shall be declared out.

20. If a player in making his base be obstructed by an adver-
sary, he shall be entitled to that base, and cannot be put
out.

21. If a fieldsman stops the ball with his bat or cap, or takes
it from the hand of any one not engaged in the game, no
player can be put out until the ball shall first have been
settled in the hands of the pitcher.

22. If two hands are already out, no player running home at
the time a ball is struck can make an ace if the striker is
put out.

23. The game shall consist of nine innings to each side.

24. In playing matches, nine players on a side shall constitute
a full field.

25. Should a striker stand at the bat without striking at good
balls repeatedly pitched to him, the umpire, after warn-
ing him, shall call "One strike," and, if he persists in
such action, " Two " and " Three strikes." When three
strikes are called, he shall be subject to the same rule as
if he had struck at three fair balls.

The Ground. — For the purposes of this game it is neces-
sary, if really fine play be contemplated, to have a sheet of
turf smooth as a cricket-field. There is, of course, no neces-
sity for the ultra-smoothness of the "between wickets," but
the out-fielding ought to be at least as good in one as in the
other. For men the field should be about two hundred yards
long by a hundred and fifty yards broad ; but for boys a field
of considerably less dimensions will serve all reasonable re-
quirements.

In laying out the ground, which had better be done perma-
nently, it is well to start with the home base, which should be
marked out about twenty yards from one end of the field ;
measure from this along the field one hundred and twenty -
seven feet four inches for your second base. Now, for the
first and thir^ attach a cord sixty yards long, with a. knot in
the middle, to the rings of the home and second base, stretch
this as far as it will go to the right for the first base, which
will be marked by the knot, and to the left for the third.
Mark also a point fifteen yards from the home in the direction
of the second base for the pitcher's post.

The bases should be marked by letting a short stout post
into the ground, just leaving the top flush with the surface,
and a stout iron ring must be screwed int«>each as a point
of attachment for the canvas cushions described in Rule 3.

The striker is left to follow his own fancy as to the length
of his bat, and, so long as it is of wood, is not tied down by
any regulation. Ash is, perhaps, the most generally service-
able, but willow will be, perhaps, preferred by those who like
a light bat.

There is no rule as to the manner of handling of a bat, this
also being left to the individual fancy of the player.

The Game. — Each player counts one to the score every time
he completes the circuit of the bases, and two if he makes an
ace or rounder, that is, gets all round and home off one strike.

The Field. — The nine fieldsmen are placed as follows,
their names indicating their positions : the Catcher ox Back-stop,
a few yards behind the striker, to catch or stop the ball ; the
Pitcher, at the pitching-post, to serve the ball ; the Short-stop,
about ten yards behind the pitcher, as a near field and general
utility man inside the bases ; three Base-tenders, one for each
base, whose duty it is, when a runner is making for a base, to
stand with one foot on the cushion in readiness to catch the
ball. The other three, called respectively Right-field, Center-
field, and Left-field, stand well out in the positions their names
indicate.

The same qualities are required in a fieldsman for this game
as in " Cricket : " great activity and alertness, a safe pair
of hands for a catch, extreme dexterity in meeting and stop-
ping a ball, and above all, without which the rest will be of
little avail, perfect accuracy in returning it to the pitcher or
base-tender as occasion may require.

Further, an umpire and scorer are required, the former of
whom must be thoroughly up in the rules of the game, and
should see that they are rigidly enforced.

■^

OUT-DOOR GAMES.

GOOD game to get warm with when there is no
time for any more set amusement. One player
stands upon a mound or piece of rising ground,
crying, " I am king of the castle," and the others
try to pull him down and supplant him. Any
agreement may be entered into previously as to
what use of the hands, etc., shall be allowed. The
game works better when nothing but pure pushing
is allowed — no holding or dragging.
The writer once saw a lot of lambs play this game in splen-
did style, using a large stone about a yard in diameter as their
castle. There must have been about forty of them, and they
played the game just like a parcel of boys, showing a wonder-
ful individuality of character amongst them — some very
plucky and not to be denied, some making a great parade of
charging, but doing next to nothing, and others merely pranc-
ing and frisking about, and making no attempt to get on the
stone at all.

The wag of the party was a rather slightly built but wiry
black lamb : he was here, there, and everywhere, all at once :
at one moment gallantly storming the castle ; at another
scouring madly off, with a lot after him in their usually gre-
garious fashion ; then coming back equally suddenly, with a
rush and a spring clean on to the stone, driving his head into
the ribs of the unfortunate king, and sending him flying over
and over. After this, perhaps, he would execute a war-dance
on the stone in triumph, but it was equally likely that he would
jump down again for another scamper, or would suddenly
stand still in a meditative manner, and regard the prospect
with an air of the most profound abstraction from all sub-
lunary considerations. This game went on for weeks : the
lambs never seemed to tire of it, and the black lamb kept up
his spirits to the last. He went the way of most black lambs
at last ; but he enjoyed life to the end, and what more could
he desire ?

HIS game derives its title from the fact that it
requires no court, and can be played on any
lawn at a small cost for fittings. These consist
of two poles, a net, and a few rackets and balls.
The ground is set out as follows, the dimensions
being those used at Lord's. These dimensions
may be varied according to the size of the ground,
providing that a due proportion be preserved.

First, the two posts are set up, 24 ft. apart, and the
net so hung that it is 5 ft. from the ground where it touches
the poles, and 4 ft. in the middle. The form of the court is
shown in the accompanying illustration :

COURT.

g COURT.

COURTS

The rules of the game are briefly as follows :
The players take their stand on opposite sides of this net.
The player who " serves " — i. e., gives the first stroke — stands
in one of the courts, with one foot beyond the base-line. He
then strikes the ball over the net, so that it falls in the diago-
nal court, and within the server's line. After it has touched
the ground, the opponent tries to strike it over the net again.
Should he fail, or send the ball beyond the base-line, the first
player, or "hand-in," scores one point. Should he succeed,
and " hand-in " fail to return it properly, the other player be-
comes "hand-in." It will be seen, therefore, that only the
" hand-in " can score, and that, in case of his failure, he and
" hand-out " change places.

It is not allowed to " volley " a ball— i. e., to strike it be^
fore it has touched the ground. The stroke is lost if a ball
touch any part of a player or his clothes, or if it be struck more
than once. Fifteen points constitute the game.

378

OUT-DOOR GAMES.

:^.^ FULL-SIZED croquet ground should measure
" 40 yards by 30 yards. Its boundaries should
be accurately defined.

The Hoops should be of half-inch round iron,

and should not be more than 6 inches in width,

inside measurement. The crown of the hoop

should be at least 12 inches clear of the ground. A

hoop with the crown at right angles to the legs is

to be preferred.

The Pegs should be of uniform diameter of not less than i^
inch, and should stand at least 18 inches above the ground.

The Balls should be of boxwood, and should not weigh less
than 14 ounces each.

The Four-Ball Game is recommended for adoption in pref-
erence to any other.

When odds are given, the Bisque is recommended. A
bisque is an extra stroke which may be taken at any time
during the game in continuation of the turn. A player re-
ceiving a bisque cannot roquet a ball twice in the same turn
without making an intermediate point. In other respects, a
bisque confers all the advantages of an extra turn. A player
receiving two or more bisques cannot take more than one in
the same turn. Passing the boundary, or making a foul
stroke, does not prevent the player taking a bisque.

The following Settings are recommended :

No. I. Eight-H:op Setting.— Distances on a full-sized
ground : Pegs 3 yards from boundary ; first and correspond-
ing hoon 5 yards from pegs ; center hoops midway between
first and sixth hoops, and 5 yards from each other ; corner
hoops 6 yards from end of ground, and 5 yards from side.
Starting spot 2 feet in frqnt of first hoop, and opposite its
center.

No. 2. Seven-Hoop Setting.— Distances on a full-sized
ground : Pegs in center line of ground 8 yards from nearest
boundary. Hoops up center line of ground 6 yards from peg,
and 6 yards apart ; comer hoops 7 yards from center, and in
a line with pegs. Starting spot li yard from first hoop in
center line of ground.

No. 3. Six-Hoop Setting. — Distances on a full-sized ground
as in No. 2, except the middle-line hoops 8 yards apart. Start-
ing spot I foot from left-hand corner hoop, and opposite its
center.

It is essential to match play that bystanders should abstain
from walking over the grounds, speaking to the players or the
umpires, making remarks upon them aloud, or in any way dis-
tracting their attention.

DEFINITIONS.

A Foint is made when a hoop is run, or a peg is hit, in
order.

The striker's hoop or peg in order is the one he has next to
make.

A Roquet is made when the striker's ball is caused by a blow
of the mallet to hit another which it has not before hit in the
same turn since making a point.

The striker's ball is said to be in play until it roquets another.
Having made roquet, it is in hand until croquet is taken. Cro
quet is taken by placing the striker's ball in contact with the
one roqueted, the striker then hitting his own ball with the
mallet. The non-striker's ball, when moved by a croquet, is
called the croqueted ball.

A Rover is a ball that has made all its points in order except
the winning peg.

THE LAWS OF CROQUET.

1. Mallets. — There should be no restriction as to the number

weight, size, shape, or material of the mallets ; nor as to
the attitude or position of the striker ; nor as to the part,
of the mallet held, provided the ball be not struck with
the handle, nor the mace stroke used.

2. Size of Balls. — The balls used in match play shall be 3I

inches in diameter.

3. Choice of Lead and of Balls. — It shall be decided by lot

which side shall have choice of lead and of balls. In a
succession of games the choice of lead shall be alternate,
the sides keeping the same balls.

4. Commencement of Game. — In commencing, each ball shall

be placed on the starting spot (see Settings). The striker's
ball, when so placed and struck, is at once in play, and
can roquet another, or be roqueted, whether it has made
the first hoop or not.

5. Stroke, when taken. — A stroke is considered to be taken if

a ball be moved in the act of striking ; but should a player,
in taking aim, move his ball accidentally, it must be re-
placed to the satisfaction of the adversary, and the stroke
be then taken. If a ball be moved in taking aim, and
then struck without being replaced, the stroke is foul (see
Law 25).

6. Hoop, when run.—K ball has run its hoop when having

passed through from the playing side and ceased to roll,
it cannot be touched by a straight-edge placed against the
wires on the side from which it was played.

7. Ball driven partly through Hoop. — A ball driven partly

through its hoop from the non-playing side cannot run
the hoop at its next stroke, if it can be touched by a
straight-edge placed against the wires on the non-play-
ing side.

8. Points counted to Non- Striker's Ball. — A ball driven

through its hoop, or against the turning peg, by any stroke
not foul, whether of its own or of the adverse side, counts
the point so made.

9. Points made for Adversary's Ball. — If a point be made for .

an adversary's ball, the striker must inform his adversary
of it. Should the striker neglect to do so, and the adver-
sary make the point again, he may continue his turn as
though he had played for his right point.

-<^

OUT-DOOR GAMES.

379

lO. T/i£ Turn. — A player, when his turn comes round, may
roquet each ball once, and may do this again after each
point made. The player continues his turn so long as he
makes a point or a roquet.

I r. Croqtut imperative after Roquet. — A player who roquets a
ball must take croquet, and in so doing must move both
balls (see Law 25). In taking croquet, the striker is not
allowed to place his foot on the ball.

12. Ball in hand after Roquet. — No point or roquet can be
made by a ball which is in hand. If a ball in hand dis-
place any other balls, they must remain where they are
driven. Any point made in consequence of such dis-
placement counts, notwithstanding that the ball displac-
ing them is in hand.

13. Balls Roqtuted simultaneously. — When a player roquets
two balls simultaneously, he may choose from which of
them he will take croquet ; and a second roquet will be
required before he can take croquet from the other ball.

14. Balls found Touching. — If at the commencement of a turn
the striker's ball be found touching another, roquet is
deemed to be made, and croquet must be taken at once.

15. Roquet and Hoop made by same Stroke. — Should a ball, in
making its hoop, roquet another that lies beyond the hoop,
and then pass through, the hoop counts as well as the ro-
quet. A ball is deemed to be beyond the hoop if it lies
so that it cannot be touched by a straight-edge placed
against the wires on the playing side. Should any part
of the ball that is roqueted be lying on the playing side
of the hoop, the roquet counts, but not the hoop.

16. Begging out. — If a rover (except when in hand) be caused
to hit the winning peg by any stroke of the same side, not
foul, the rover is out of the game, and must be removed
from the ground. A rover may similarly be pegged out
by an adverse rover.

17. Rover pegged out by Roquet. — A player who pegs out a
rover by a roquet loses the remainder of his turn.

18. Balls sent off the Ground. — A ball sent off the ground
must at once be replaced 3 feet within the boundary,
measured from the spot where it went off, and at right
angles to the margin. If this spot be already occupied,
the ball last sent off is to be placed anywhere in contact
with the other, at the option of the player sending off the
ball.

19. Ball sent off near Comer. — A ball sent off within 3 feet of
a comer is to be replaced 3 feet from both boundaries.

20. Ball touching Boundary. — If the boundary be marked by
a line on the turf, a ball touching the line is deemed to
have been off the ground. If the boundary be raised, a
ball touching the boundary is similarly deemed to have
been off the ground.

21. Ball sent off and returning to Ground. — If a ball be sent
off the ground, and return to it, the ball must be similarly
replaced, measuring from the point of first contact with
the boundary.

22. Ball sent -within "i feet of Boundar}!. — A ball sent within
3 feet of the boundary, but not off the ground, is to be
replaced as though it had been sent off — except in the
case of the striker's ball, when the striker has the option

of bringing his ball in, or of playing from where it
lies.

23. Boundary interfering with Stroke. — If it be found that
the height of the boundary interferes with the stroke, the
striker, with the sanction of the umpire, may bring in the
balls a longer distance than 3 feet, so as to allow a free
swing of the mallet. Balls so brought in must be moved
in the line of aim.

24. Dead Boundary. — If, in taking croquet, the striker send
his own ball, or the ball croqueted, off the ground, he
loses the remainder of his turn ; bnt if by the same stroke
he make a roquet, his ball, being in hand, may pass the
boundary without penalty. Should either ball while roll-
ing after a croquet be touched or diverted from its course
by an opponent, the striker has the option given him by
Law 26, and is not liable to lose his turn should the ball
which has been touched or diverted pass the boundary.

25. Foul Strokes. — If a player make a foul stroke, he loses
the remainder of his turn, and any point or roquet made
by such stroke does not count. Balls moved by a foul
stroke are to remain where they lie, or be replaced, at the
option of the adversary. If the foul be made when tak-
ing croquet, and the adversary elect to have the balls re-
placed, they must be replaced in contact as they stood
when the croquet was taken. The following are foul
strokes :

{a) To strike with the mallet another ball instead of or
beside one's own in making the stroke.

{b) To spoon, i. e., to push a ball without an audible
knock.

(d) To touch, stop, or divert the course of a ball when

in play and rolling, whether this be done by the

striker or his partner.
(<») To allow a ball to touch the mallet in rebounding

from a peg or wire.
(/) To move a ball which lies close to a peg or wire by

striking the peg or wire.
{g) To press a ball round a peg or wire (crushing

stroke).
(h) To play a stroke after roquet without taking cro-
quet.
(/■) To fail to move both balls in taking croquet.
{k) To croquet a ball which the striker is not entitled to

croquet.

26. Balls touched by Adversary.— ShonlA. a ball when rolling,
except it be in hand, be touched, stopped, or diverted
from its course by an adversary, the striker may elect
whether he will take the stroke again, or whether the ball
shall remain where it stopped, or be placed where, in the
judgment of the umpire, it would have rolled to.

27. Balls stopped or diverted by Umpire. — Should a ball
be stopped or diverted from its course by an umpire, he
is to place it where he considers it would have rolled to.

28. Flaying out of Turn, or -with the Wrong Ball. — If a
player play out of turn, or with the wrong ball, the re-
mainder of the turn is lost, and any point or roquet made
after the mistake. The balls remain where they lie when

3Bo

OUT-DOOR GAMES.

the penalty is claimed, or are replaced as theywere before
the last stroke was made, at the option of the adversary.
But if the adverse side play without claiming the penalty,
the turn holds good, and any point or points made after
the mistake are scored to the ball by which they have
been made — that is, the ball is deemed to be for the point
next in order to the last point made in the turn — except
when the adversary's ball has been played with, in which
case the points are scored to the ball which ought to have
been played with. If more than one ball be played with
during the turn, all points made during the turn, whether
before or after the mistake, are scored to the ball last
played with. Whether the penalty be claimed or not, the
adversary may follow with either ball of his own side.

29. Playing for Wrong Point. — If a player make a wrong
point it docs not count, and therefore — unless he have, by
the same stroke, taken croquet, or made a roquet — all
subsequent strokes are in error, the remainder of turn is
lost, and any point or roquet made after the mistake.
The balls remain where they lie when the penalty is
claimed, or are replaced as they were before the last
stroke was made, at the option of the adversary. But if
the player make another point, or the adverse side play,
before the penalty is claimed, the turn holds good ; and
the player who made the mistake is deemed to be for the
point next in order to that which he last made.

30. Information as to Score. — Every player is entitled to be
informed which is the next point of any ball.

31. State of Game, if disputed. — When clips are used, their
position, in case of dispute, shall be conclusive as to the
position of the balls in the game.

32. Wires knocked out of Ground. — Should a player, in trying
to run his hoop, knock a wire of that hoop out of the
ground with his ball, the hoop does not count. The ball
must be replaced, and the stroke taken again ; but if by
the same stroke a roquet be made, the striker may elect
whether he will claim the roquet or have the balls re-
placed.

33' ^eg^ or Hoops not Upright. — Any player may set upright
a peg or hoop, except the one next in order ; and that
must not be altered except by the umpire.

34. Ball lying in a Hole or on Bad Ground. — A ball lying in
a hole or on bad ground may be removed with the sanc-
tion of the umpire. The ball must be put back — /. e.,
away from the object aimed at — and so as not to alter the
line of aim.

35. Umpires.— Kx\. umpire shall not give his opinion, or no-
tice any error that may be made, unless appealed to by
one of the players. The decision of an umpire, when ap-
pealed to, shall be final. The duties of an umpire are—

(a) To decide matters in dispute during the game, if ap-
pealed to.

{b) To keep the score, and, if asked by a player, to dis-
close the state of it.

{c) To move the clips, or to see that they are properly
moved.

{d) To replace balls sent of! the ground, or to see that
they are properly replaced.

if) To adjust the hoops or pegs not upright, or to see
that they are properly adjusted,

36. Absence of Umpire. — When there is no umpire present,
permission to move a ball, or to set up a peg or hoop, or
other indulgence for which an umpire would be appealed
to. must be asked of the other side.

37. Appeal to Referee. — Should an umpire be unable to decide
any point at issue, he may appeal to the referee, whose
decision shall be final ; but no player may appeal to the
referee from the decision of an umpire.

^HE Ball must weigh not less than 5|^oz.,nor
more than 5I oz. It must measure not less
than gi" inches in circumference. At the
beginning of each innings either party may
call for a new ball.

The Bat must not exceed 4^ inches in the
widest part ; it must not be more than 38 inches in
length.
3. The Stumps must be three in number, 27 inches
out of the ground ; the bails 8 inches in length ;
the stumps of equal and sufficient thickness to prevent
the ball from passing through.

4. The Bowling-crease must be in a line with the stumps,
6 feet 8 inches in length, the stumps in the center, with
a return-crease at each end towards the bowler at riglit
angles.

5. The Popping-crease must be 4 feet from the wicket, and
parallel to it ; unlimited in length, but not shorter than
the bowling-crease.

6. The Wickets must be pitched opposite to each other by
the umpires, at the distance of 22 yards.

7. It shall not be lawful for either party, during a match,
without the consent of the other, to alter the ground by
rolling, watering, covering, mowing, or beating, except at
the commencement of each innings, when the ground may
be swept and rolled at the request of either party, such
request to be made to one of the umpires within one min-
ute after the conclusion of the former innings. This rule
is not meant to prevent the striker from beating the
ground with his bat near to the spot where he stands dur-
ing the innings ; nor to prevent the bowler filling up
holes with sawdust, etc., when the ground is wet.

8. After rain the wickets may be changed with the consent
of both parties.

g. The Bowler shall deliver the ball with one foot on
the ground behind the bowling-crease and within
the return-crease, and shall bowl four balls before he

OUT-DOOR GAMES.

change wickets, which he shall be permitted to do only
once in the same innings.

10. The ball must be bowled. If thrown or jerked, the um-
pire shall call " No ball."

u. He may require the striker at the wicket from which he
is bowling to stand on that side of it which he may
direct.

12. If the bowler shall toss the ball over the striker's head, or
bowl it so wide that in the opinion of the umpire it shall
not be fairly within the reach of the batsman, he shall ad-
judge one run to the party receiving the innings, either
with or without an appeal, which shall be put down to
the score of "wide balls." Such ball shall not be reck-
oned as one of the four balls ; but if the batsman shall by
any means bring himself within reach of the ball, the run
shall not be adjudged.

13. If the bowler deliver a " no ball " or a " wide ball," the
striker shall be allowed as many runs as he can get, and
he shall not be put out, except by running out. In the
event of no run being obtained by any other means, then
one run shall be added to the score of no balls, or wide
balls, as the case may be. All runs obtained for wide
balls to be scored for wide balls. The names of the bowl-
ers who bowl wide balls and no balls in future to be
placed on the score, to show the parties by whom either
score is made. If the ball shall first touch any part of the
striker's dress or person, except his hands, the umpire
shall call " leg-bye."

14. At the beginning of each innings the umpire shall call
" Play ! " From that time to the end of each innings no
trial ball shall be allowed to any bowler.

15. The Striker is cut if either of the bails be bowled off,
or if a stump be bowled out of the ground ;

16. Or if the ball, from the stroke of the bat or hand, bat not
the wrist, be held before it touch the ground, although it
be hugged to the body of the catcher ;

17. Or if, in striking, or any other time while the ball shall
be in play, both his feet shall be over the popping-crease
and his wicket put down, except his bat be grounded
within it ;

18. Or if, in striking at the ball, he hit down his wicket ;

19. Or if, under pretense of running or otherwise, either of
the strikers prevent a ball from being caught, the striker
of the ball is out ;

20. Or if the ball be struck and he wilfully strike it again ;

21. Or if, in running, the wicket be struck down by a throw,
or by the hand or arm (with ball in hand), before his bat
(in hand) or some part of his person be grounded over the
popping-crease. But, if both the bails be off, a stump
must be struck out of the ground ;

22. Or if any part of the striker's dress knock down the
wicket ;

23. Or if the striker touch or take up the ball while in play,
unless at the request of the opposite party ;

24. Or if with any part of his person he stop the ball, which,
in the opinion of the umpire at the bowler's wicket, shall
have been pitched in a straight line from it to the striker's
wicket, and would have hit.

25. If the players have crossed each other, he that runs for
the wicket which is put down is out.

26. A ball being caught, no run shall be reckoned.

27. A striker being out, that run which he and his partner
were attempting shall not be reckoned.

28. If a lost ball be called, the striker shall be allowed six
runs ; but if more than six shall have been called, then
the striker shall have all that have been run.

2g. After the ball shall have been finally settled in the wick-
et-keeper's or bowler's hands, it shall be considered dead ;
but when the bowler is about to deliver the ball, if the
striker at his wicket go outside the popping-crease before
such actual delivery, the said bowler may put him out,
unless (with reference to Law 21) his bat in hand, or some
part of his person, be within the popping-crease.

30. The striker shall not retire from his wicket, and return to
it to complete his innings, after another has been in, with-
out the consent of the opposite party.

31. No substitute shall in any case be allowed to stand out or
run between wickets for another person without the con-
sent of the opposite party ; and in case any person shall
be allowed to run for another, the striker shall be out if
either he or his substitute be off the ground, in manner
mentioned in Laws 17 and 2i, while the ball is in play.

32. In all cases where a substitute shall be allowed, the con-
sent of the opposite party shall also be obtained as to the
person to act as substitute, and the place in the field which
he shall take.

33. If any fieldsman stop the ball with his hat, the ball shall
be considered dead, and the opposite party shall add five
runs to their score ; if any be run, they shall have five
in all.

34. The ball having been hit, the striker may guard his wicket
with his bat, or with any part of his body except his
hands, that Law 23 may not be disobeyed.

35. The wicket-keeper shall not take the ball for the purpose
of stumping until it shall have passed the wicket ; he shall
not move until the ball be out of the bowler's hand ; he
shall not by any noise incommode the striker ; and if any
part of his person be over or before the wicket, although
the ball hit it, the striker shall not be out

36. The umpires are the sole judges of fair or unfair play, and
all disputes shall be determined by them, each at his own
wicket ; but in case of a catch which the umpire at the
wicket bowled from cannot see sufficiently to decide upon
it, he may apply to the other umpire, whose decision shall
be conclusive.

37. The umpires in all matches shall pitch fair wickets, and
the parties shall toss up for choice of innings. The um-
pires shall change wickets after each party has had one
innings.

38. They shall allow two minutes for each striker to come in,
and ten minutes between each innings, when the umpire
shall call " play." The party refusing to play shall lose
the match.

39. They are not to order a striker out, unless appealed to by
the adversaries ;

40. But if one of the bowler's feet be not on the ground be*

382

OUT-DOOR GAMES.

hind the bowling-crease and within the return-crease when
he shall deliver the ball, the umpire at his wicket, un-
asked, must call " no ball."

41. If either of the strikers run a short run, the umpire must
call "one short."

42. No umpire shall be allowed to bet.

43. No umpire is to be changed during a match, unless with
the consent of both parties, except in case of violation of
Law 42 ; then either party may dismiss the transgressor.

44. After the delivery of four balls the umpire must call
" over," but not until the ball shall be finally settled in
wicket-keeper's hands : the ball shall then be considered
dead. Nevertheless, if an idea be entertained that either
of the strikers is out, a question may be put previously to,
but not after, the delivery of the next ball.

45. The umpire must take especial care to call " no ball" in-
stantly upon delivery, and ' ' wide ball " as soon as it
shall pass the striker.

46. The players who go in second shall follow their innings
if they have obtained 80 runs less than their antagonists,
except in all matches limited to only one day's play, when
the number of runs shall be limited to 60 instead of 80.

47. When one of the strikers shall have been put out, the use
of the bat shall not be allowed to any person until the
next striker shall come in.

THE LAWS OF SINGLE WICKET.

1. When there shall be less than five players on a side,
bounds shall be placed 22 yards each in a line from the
off and leg stump.

2. The ball must be hit before the bounds, to entitle the
striker to run, which run cannot be obtained unless he
touch the bowling-stump or crease in a line with his bat,
or some part of his person, or go beyond them, returning
to the popping-crease, as at double wicket, according to
Law 21.

3. When the striker shall hit the ball, one of his feet must
be on the ground and behind the popping-crease ; other-
wise the umpire shall call "no hit."

4. When there shall be less than five players on a side,
neither byes nor overthrows shall be allowed ; nor shall
the striker be caught out behind the wicket, nor stumped
out.

5. The fieldsman must return the ball so that it shall cross
the play between the wicket and the bowling-stump, or
between the bowling-stump and the bounds ; the striker
may run till the ball be so returned.

6. After the striker shall have made one run, if he start
again, he must touch the bowling-stump and turn before
the ball cross the play, to entitle him to another.

7. The striker shall be entitled to three runs for lost ball,
and the same number for ball stopped with bat, with ref-
erence to Laws 28 and 23 of double wicket.

8. When there shall be more than four players on a side,
there shall be no bounds. All hits, byes and overthrows
shall then be allowed.

g. The bowler is subject to the same laws as at double
wicket.
10. Not more than one minute shall be allowed between each
ball.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULES.

DOUBLE WICKET.

Rules 3, 4 and 5. — The accompanying diagram will explain,
better than many words, the arrangement and method of
marking the various creases, which are usually marked out on
the turf with a mixture of chalk or whiting and water.

r. c

s s s

n "

"^ L.

if-

in.

3 A

Unlimited.

J J J, the Stumps (the three together forming the Wickef)- B. C the
Bowling-crease ; r. c. the Returning-crease ; P. C. the Popping-crease.

It is well to practice always with the creases duly marked,
and in strict observance of all rules connected with them, as
the mind thus forms a habit of unconscious conformity to
them, and the player is not embarrassed, as too many are when
they come to play in an actual match, by the necessity of keep-
ing a watch over his feet as well as over the ball. Many a
good bat, especially amongst boys, allows himself to be
crp,mped in his play in this very unsatisfactory manner.

The purposes of the several creases are as follows :

The Bowling-crease marks the nearest spot to the striker
from which the bowler may deliver the ball.

The Return-crease prevents the bowler from delivering
the ball at an unreasonable distance laterally from the wicket ;
and the two together mark out within sufficiently exact limits
the precise spot from which the striker may expect the ball.

The Popping-crease, while giving the striker ample space
to work in, puts a check upon any attempt to get unduly for-
ward to meet the ball ; it forms, too, a distinct and convenient
mark by which to judge of a man's being on his ground, and
of his having run the requisite distance between wickets. It
is unlimited, to avoid the confusion betwe^en strikers and
fieldsmen, which must inevitably be of constant recurrence
were the strikers required to run directly from wicket to
wicket.

Rule 13. — " All runs obtained from wide balls to be scored
to wide balls." This does not include hits, as, by the latter
part of Rule 12, " if the batsman bring himself within reach
of the ball, the wide does not count." Hits, therefore, made
off wide balls score to the striker.

OUT-DOOR GAMES.

383

Rule 17. — The popping-crease itself, it must be remembered,
does not form part of the ground ; the bat or part of the body
must, therefore, be inside it ; on it is not sufficient to meet the
requirements of the rule : if the bat or some portion of the
body be not on the ground inside the crease when the wickets
are put down, the player is out.

Rule 20. — The striker may block or knock the ball away
from his wicket after he has played it, if that be necessary to
keep it from the stumps. The rule only forbids striking it a
second time with intent to make runs.

SINGLE WICKET.

The accompanying diagram shows the ground marked out
for single wicket with less than five players on a side :

1:5

\/ 11 Yds.

\IV

^, the Bowling-stump, Crease, &c.; fF. the Wickets, with Popping-
crease, as in double wicket ; b 6, the Boundaries.

Rule 2. — " Hit before the bounds " means that the ball, after
leaving the bat, must first touch the ground in front of the line
marked by the two bounds, which line, by the way, is, like
the popping-crease, supposed to extend inimitably either way.

Single wicket is chiefly valuable in dearth of sufficient play-
ers to form an adequate field at double wicket. It is so infe-
rior in interest to double wicket, that it is hardly ever played,
unless when the latter is impracticable.

A good game at single wicket, though, where only a few
players have met for practice, is far better, and infinitely more
improving, than any amount of the desultory knocking about
which is usual on such occasions. For a player deficient in driv-
ing and forward hitting of all kinds the practice it affords is in-
valuable, and to such a good course of single wicket is strongly
recommended.

Implements. — A few words upon the choice of bats, balls,
gloves, etc. Too much pains cannot be taken by a cricketer
in thus providing his outfit. None but experienced hands <-a«
estimate the vital importance of attention to all such details :
that the bat is the right weight and size, and properly bal-
anced ; that the gloves, shoes, pads, etc. , are perfect in their
fit and appointments ; in fine, that the player stands at the
wicket or in the field fully equipped for the fray, yet in nowise
impeded or hindered by ill-fitting garments, clumsy shoes, or
cumbersome pads.

First, then, for the bat. This is limited in Rule 2 both as
to length and width ; but the thickness and weight are left to
the fancy and capacity of the player. In a general way, a tall
man can use a heavier bat than a short one. About 2 pounds
is a fair weight for a player of middle height and ordinary
muscular development.

Although it is a great mistake to play with too heavy a bat
— for nothing so cramps the style, and so entirely does away
with that beautiful wrist-play which is the ne plus ultra of good
batting, as attempting to play with a bat of a weight above
one's powers — yet extreme lightness is still more to be depre-
cated : it is useless for hard hitting, and can therefore do little
in the way of run-getting against a good field; "shooters,"
too, will be apt to force their Way past its impotent defense.

The points most to be looked for in a bat are these : First,
weight suited to the player. The young player should play
with a heavier bat every year, until he attains to his full stat-
ure. Don't let him think it " manly " to play with a full-sized
bat before he is thoroughly up to the weight and size ; it is
much more manly to make a good score.

Secondly, good thickness of wood at the drive and lower end
of the bat, i. e. , at the last six inches or so.

Thirdly, balance. Badly balanced bats give a sensation as
of a weight attached to them when they are wielded, while a
well-balanced one plays easily in the hand. Experience alone
can teach the right feel of a bat.

The outward appearance of a bat must not always be taken
as a certain indication of its inherent merits : varnish and
careful getting up may hide many a defect. There are many
fancies, too, in favor of different grains : a good knot or two
near the lower end is generally a good sign ; but, after all,
nothing but actual trial of each several "bit of willow" can
decide its real merits or defects.

Last, but not least, the handle is a very important consider-
ation. Cane handles, pure and simple, or in composition
with ash or other materials, arc the best : some prefer oval
handles, some round. The handle should, at least, be as
thick as the player can well grasp : a thick handle greatly adds
to the driving power of the bat ; it is also naturally stronger,
and therefore more lasting. A good youth's bat costs about
eight shillings.

It should be remembered that a good bat, like good wine,
improves with keeping.

In purchasing balls, wickets, and other needful "plant," it
will be found better economy to pay a little more in the be-
ginning, and thus get a good article. With reasonable care,
such first-class goods will last out whole generations of the
more cheaply got-up articles, and prove more satisfactory
throughout into the bai^ain.

In choosing wickets, attention must be paid to two points :
first, that each stump be perfectly straight ; and, secondly,
that it be free from flaws or knots. The least weakness is
sure to be found out sooner or later.

Great attention should be paid to the bails, that they are
exactly of the right size, especially that they are not too long.
The least projection beyond the groove in the stump may
make all the difference between "out" and " not out" — ^be-
tween, perhaps, winning a match and losing it.

384

OUT-DOOR GAMES.

Stumps and bails, with ordinary care, ought to last a very
long time. The chief thing to guard against is their lying
about in the wet, or being put away damp : moisture is very
apt to warp them.

So that the gloves and pads yf/, the player may be left
pretty much to his own discretion in selecting a pattern.
Vulcanized India-rubber is the best for gloves.

Spiked or nailed shoes are a necessity. The player may
please himself in the vexed question of spikes v. nails. Many
players keep two pairs of shoes — with spikes for wet and
slippery ground, with nails for dry ground.

It is hardly worth while for a boy in the rapid-growing stage
to set up a regularly built pair of cricketing-shoes : an admir-
able substitute may be found, though, in the ordinary canvas
shoes, as used for rackets, etc., price half-a-crown ; a few
nails will make them answer all the purposes of the more
legitimate article.

Parents and guardians may be informed that a proper cos-
tume of flannel and shoes is actually better economy than
condemning a boy to play in his ordinary clothes ; and for
this reason — flannels are made to suit the exigencies of the
game : loose where they should be loose, and vice versd, with-
out regard to the exigencies of fashion ; they are cheaper, and
are, nevertheless, more lasting, than ordinary cloth clothes ;
they never get shabby, will wash when dirty, and will carry a
darn or patch without detriment to their dignity ; they are not
injured by perspiration or wet ; and, above all, they are great
preservatives against colds and other ailments.

Shoes may put in much the same claim. Cricket is marvel-
ously destructive to the ordinary walking-boot ; is it not, then,
better to substitute a cheaper and more durable article ?

In choosing spikes, care should be taken to obtain good
length and small diameter ; a squat, clumsy spike is an awful
nuisance. If nails be the choice, they should not be put
much nearer than at intervals of an inch, otherwise they will
be liable to clog.

If men play cricket, let that cricket be their very best ; any
little extra trouble at first will be more than repaid by the
results. It is not given to every man to be a first-rate crick-
eter ; but most men might play far better than they do, and
many men, who now hardly deserve the name of players,
might, with very little expenditure of trouble in their younger
days, have been now men of mark in the cricketing world.

Be it remembered, then, that there is a right way to per-
form each function of cricket, and a wrong way, or perhaps I
should rather have said, innumerable wrong ways.

Now, this right way will hardly come of itself : cricket, by
the light of nature only, would be a prodigy indeed. The
beginner must, therefore, first ascertain what this nght way is,
and thenceforth strive continually to practice and perfect him-
self in it, whether it be in batting, bowling, or fielding, until
habit has become a second nature.

And not only must the learner cultivate good habits, he must
diligently eschew all bad ones ; for bad habits are wonderfully
easy of acquirement, but, once acquired, can hardly ever be
completely shaken off.

It is all very well to say, " I know the right way, and that
is enough," and then, from sheer laziness or indifference, go

the wrong ; but when it comes to the point of practical expe-
rience, it will be found that the bad habit will have an un-
comfortable knack of coming into play at critical moments,
just when it is least desired.

For cricket, it should be remembered, is a series of sur-
prises. Give a man time to think, and he can decide between
the right way and the wrong ; but tiine to think is just the
very thing a man does not get at cricket : instant, unhesitat-
ing action is his only chance.

If he has habituated himself to one only method of action,
he must, he can, only act in accordance with it ; but if there
be several conflicting habits, who shall say which shall be the
one that comes first to hand in an emergency ?

Let the young cricketer, then — and the old one, too, for the
matter of that — make this his rule and study, to make every
ball he bowls, he bats, or he fields, one link more in the chain
of good habits, one step farther on the road to success.

'P'

in. f.

P. t.m.

s./.

l.sl

1st.

s.sj

^U.

s.l.

ARRANGEMENT OF THE FIELD FOR FAST BOWLING.

I'f'

^ B^^ ^w.k. o/.st.

>d.

In.

m.n. s.s.l

s.l.

ARRANGEMENT OF THE FIELD FOR SLOW BOWLING.

W W., wickets ; B., batsman ; <5., bowler ; w.k., wicket-keeper ; l.si.,
long-stop; s.l., slip; l.sl., long-slip; t.m., third man ; /., point; c./.,
cover-point ; tn./., m.n., mid-wicket, off and on ; /., long-field or cover-
bowler ; I./. & l.n.. long-field, off and on ; s.l., square leg ; s.s.1., short
square leg ; /./., long leg ; d., draw or short leg.

OUT-DOOR GAMES.

385

HEORY OF THE Game.— Football, like cricket,
requires two opposing sides. It is played with
a hollow ball, some eight or ten inches in diam-
eter, of India-rubber (in former times a bladder)
blown full of air, and protected by a leather
case.
The goals are placed at opposite ends of the field,
each side defending its own, and trying to drive the
ball through its opponents'.
It is a game only suitable for cold weather, as cricket is for
hot, for the exertion is not only very severe while it lasts, but
the intervals of rest in a well-contested game are few and far
between.

RULES.

1. The length of the ground shall be not more than 150
yards, and the breadth 55 yards. The ground shall be
marked out by posts, two at each end, parallel with the
goal-posts, and 55 yards apart ; and by one at each side
of the ground, half-way between the side-posts.

2. The goal shall consist of two uprights 15 feet apart, with
a cross-bar 8 feet from the ground.

3. The choice of goal and kick-off shall be determined by
tossing.

4. In a match, when half the time agreed upon has elapsed,
the sides shall change goals the next time the ball is out
of play. In ordinary games the change shall be made
after every goal.

5. The heads of sides shall have the sole management of
the game.

6. The ball shall be put in play as follows :

(a) At the commencement of the game, and after every
goal, by a place-kick 25 yards in advance of the goal,
by either side alternately, each party being arrayed
on its own ground,

(i) If the ball have been played behind the goal-line (i)
by the opposite party, the side owning the goal shall
have a place-kick from behind the goal-line at their
discretion ; (2) by the side owning the goal, whether
by kicking or guiding, the opposite party shall have
a place-kick from a spot 25 yards in front of the goal,
at their discretion.

(c) If the ball have been played across the side-lines, the
player first touching it with the Aam/ shall have a
place-kick from the point at which the ball crosssd
the line.

7. In all the above cases the side starting the ball shall be
cui of play until one of the opposite side has played it.

8. When a player has played the ball, any one of the same

side who is nearer the opponents' goal-line on their ground
is out of play, and may not touch the ball himself, or ob-
struct any other player, until the ball be first played by
one of the opposite side, or he have crossed into his own
ground.

No player shall carry the ball, hold it, throw it, pass it to

another with his hands,
or lift it from the ground
with his hands, on any
pretense whatever.

10. All charging is fair ; but
holding, pushing with the
elbows or hands, tripping
up, and hacking are for-
bidden.

11. No player may wear iron
plates, projecting nails,
or gutta percha on his
boots or shoes.

12. A goal is gained when the
ball is kicked from the
front between the up-
rights and beneath the
cross-bar, or in any w^ay
passed through from the
front, by the side owning
the goal.

13. In case of any distinct
and willful violation of
these rules of play by one
of either side, the oppo-
site side may claim a
fresh kick-off.

DEFINITION OF
TERMS.

A place-kick is a kick at
the ball while at rest on the
ground. The kicker may
claim a free space of 3 yards in front ot the ball.

Grotmd. — Each side claims as its owa that portion of the
ground which lies between its goal and the center.

Charging is bringing the body into collision with that of an
opponent. The arms, and especially the elbows, must be kept
well to the sides, not to violate Rule 10.

Hacking is kicking an adversary intentionally.
Tripping is throwing an adversary by placing the foot, leg,
or any part of the body in the way of an adversary's legs, and
thus causing him to fall or stumble.

Vk 25 yds 5 yds 25 yds >^

386

OUT-DOOR GAMES.

THE BOW.

' ' OWS are of two kinds. The se/f bow consists

either of one piece of wood, or of two dove-
tailed together at the handle, in which latter
case it is called a grafted bow ; by far the
best material for a self bow is yew, although
a variety of other woods, such as lancewood, hick-
ory, &c., are used. As it is but very rarely that
we are able to obtain a piece of yew long enough
for a bow of equal quality throughout, the grafted bow was
invented, in order that the two limbs, being formed by splitting
one piece of wood into two strips, may be of exactly the same
nature.

The backed bow consists of two or more strips of wood glued
together longitudinally and compressed so as to insure perfect
union. The strips may be of the same or of different woods
— for instance, of yew backed with yew, yew with hickory,
lancewood, &c. ; but of all backed bows the yew-backed yew
is far the best. It has been a great subject of controversy
whether the self or the backed bow be the best for shooting
purposes ; we most unhesitatingly decide in favor of the self,
although many good authorities prefer the backed.

HOW TO CHOOSE IT.

In purchasing a bow, it is always better to go to a good
maker ; the inferior makers, although they may sell their
goods a trifle cheaper, are still not to be depended upon, and
as a good deal concerning a bow has to be taken on trust —
e. ^, whether the wood is properly seasoned, horns firmly fast-
ened, &c. — a maker who has a reputation to loose always
proves the cheapest in the end. Having selected a maker and
determined on the price you are willing to give, you will pro-
ceed to see that the bow tapers gradually from the handle to
the horns ; that the wood is of straight, even grain, running
longitudinally and free from knots and pins, or that, if there
are any pins, they are rendered innocuous by having the wood
left raised around them. The bow should be quite straight,
or even follow the string (bend in the direction it will take
when strung) a little. Beware of a bow which bends away
from the string : it will jar your arms out of their sockets, and
should the string break, there will be an end of it. See that
both limbs are of equal strength, in which case they will de-
scribe equal curves. The handle should not be quite in the
middle of the bow, but the upper edge of it should be about
an inch above the center, and above the handle a small piece
of ivory or mother-of-pearl should be let in on the left side of
the bow, in order to prevent the friction of the arrow wearing
away the wood. See that there are no sharp edges to the

nocks on the horns of the bow, for if they are not properly
rounded off they will be continually cutting youY string.
Lastly, make sure that your bow is not beyond your strength — ■
in other words, that you are not overbowed. It is a very com-
mon thing for persons to choose very strong bows under the
idea that it gives them the appearance of being perfect Sam-
sons ; but their ungainly struggles to bend their weapon, and
the utterly futile results of their endeavors, are, we think, any-
thing but dignified. The weight of the bow should be such
that it can be bent without straining, and held steadily during
the time of taking aim. The strength of bows is calculated by
their weight, which is stamped in pounds upon them, and
which denotes the power which it takes to bend the bow until
the center of the string is a certain distance (twenty-eight
inches for a gentleman's, twenty-five inches for a lady's bow)
from the handle. It is ascertained by suspending the bow by
the handle from a steelyard whilst the string is drawn the re-
quired distance. Gentlemen's bows generally range from 48
lbs. to 56 lbs., and ladies' from 20 lbs. to 32 lbs.

HOW TO PRESERVE IT.

Many things will spoil a bow which a little care and atten-
tion would prevent. Amongst the most fatal enemies to the
bow are chrysals, which, unless noticed in time, will surely
end in a fracture. A chrysal .should at once be tightly lapped
with fine string saturated with glue; this, if neatly done and then
varnished, will interfere but little with the appearance of the
bow. Care should be taken not to scratch or bruise the bow.
When shooting in damp weather, the bow, especially if a
backed one, should be kept well wiped, and perfectly dried
with a waxed cloth before putting away. A backed bow is
always the better for a little lapping round each end just by
the horn, which prevents the bow from breaking if by any
chance the glue is softened by damp. A bow should always
be kept as dry as possible ; when going to shoot at a distance,
a waterproof cover is advisable. Do not unstring the bow too
often while shooting ; once in every six double ends is quite
enough, unless there are many shooters.

THE ARROW.

Arrows are distinguished by weight in the same manner as
bows, only in the former it is calculated as weighed against
silver money, and arrov/s are known as of so many shillings'
weight, &c. The lengths recommended by the best authori-
ties are aslfollows :

Length.
For ladies 25 inches

For Gentlemen -

Bows of 50 lbs. and upwards, ")

and 6 feet long, I

Bows under 50 lbs. and not j

exceeding 5 ft. 10 in. long, J

There are two kinds of arrows — self, made of one piece of
wood, anA footed, having a piece of hard wood at the pile end.
The latter are the best for several reasons, one being that they
are not so likely to break if they strike anything hard. The
best material for arrows is red deal footed with lancewood.

4r-

OUT-DOOR GAMES.

387

HOW TO CHOOSE IT.

The first thing to ascertain is whether it is quite straight,
which is done by bringing the tips of the thumb and two first
fingers of the left hand together and laying the arrow thereon,
while it is turned round by the right hand. If it goes smoothly
it is straight ; but if it jerks at all it is crooked. Then make
sure that it is stiff enough to stand the force of the bow with-
out bending, as, if too weak, it will never fly straight. The
pile or point should be what is called the square-shouldered
pile ; some prefer the sharp pile, but the other answers best
for all purposes. The nock should be full and the notch
pretty deep ; a piece of horn should be let in at the notch to
prevent the string splitting the arrow. The feathers should be
full sized, eVenly and well cut, and inserted at equal distances
from each other.

THE BOW-STRING.

The string should be not too thin, or it will not last long ;
in the selection of it, it is best to be guided by the size of the
notch of your arrows. At one end of it a strong loop should
be worked to go over the upper horn, the other end should be
left free in order to be fixed on to the lower horn. When
the lower end is fastened, the distance between it and the loop
at the other end should be such, that when the loop is in its
place (/.I?., the bow strung) the string is, in a gentleman's bow,
six inches, in a lady's five inches, from the center of the bow.
The string should be lapped for an inch above the nocking
poirit, and five inches below it, with waxed thread and this again
with floss silk — to such a thickness that it completely fills the
notch of the arrow, but without being too tight, or it may split
it. Never trust a worn string ; take it off and put on a new
one — should it break, it will most probably snap your bow.

THE BRACER.

This is a guard for the left arm, to prevent its being
abraded by the string when loosed ; it also has another object,
viz., to confine the sleeve and keep it out of the way. It con-
sists of an oblong piece of smooth leather, and is fastened to
the arm by straps.

The shooting-glove is used to protect the fingers of the right
hand from abrasion by the string when loosing, and consists
of three finger-guards, attached by strips of leather, passing
down the back of the hand to a strap fastening round the
wrist.

THE QUIVER.

The quiver is a tin case somewhat in the shape of the quiver
usually represented as forming part of the equipment of Robin
Hood and his band ; it is not now, however, used as part of
the personal equipment of the archer, but is employed simply
for the purpose of protecting the spare arrows.

TARGETS.

A target is made of straw bound with string into an even
rope, which is twisted upon itself until it forms a flat disc,
and then covered on one side with canvas painted in five con-
centric rings, viz., gold or center, red, blue or inner white.

black, and white. These rings should be all of exactly the
same width, the target itself being four feet in diameter. In
scoring, the following value is given to the rings :

Gold 9

Red 7

Blue 5

Black 3

White I

When an arrow strikes on the edge of two rings, the higher
is counted, unless it is otherwise agreed upon. It is neces-
sary to have two targets, one at each extremity of thr distance
fixed upon — as it is not usual to shoot more than iAree arrows
at each ' ' end," as it is called — walking over between each three
to reclaim your arrows, and then shooting them back at the
target you have just left. By this means a»-different set of
muscles are called into play, those used in shooting are relaxed,
and in addition, a great deal is added to the exercise which
renders archery so healthy a pastime ; for example, in shoot-
ing the national round the archer walks 3,920 yards, or nearly
two miles and a quarter, between the ends. The stands for
the targets are usually made of iron or wood, and somewhat
resemble in shape an artist's easel. The legs should be pad-
ded or wrapped round with straw, otherwise arrows striking
them will be apt to break.

Stringing the Bow. — In stringing the bow it is held by the
handle in the right hand (flat part towards the body) with the
lower horn resting on the ground against the hollow of the
right foot. The left hand is then placed upon the upper part
of the bow in such a manner that the base of the thumb rests
upon the flat side of it, the thumb pointing upwards. The
bow is then bent by the combined action of the two hands,
the right pulling, the left pressing it ; at the same time the
loop of the string is slipped into its place by the left thumb
and forefinger.

Position. — It is difficult to determine exactly what is the
desf position for the archer. Every one naturally subsides into
that which is most easy to him ; still there are certain funda-
mental rules, which are given in almost every book on archery,
by attention to which in the first place the shooter ultimately
falls into the best position for himself. The left foot should
point rather to the right of the mark, the right foot being
nearly at right angles to it, the heels six or eight inches apart,
in a straight line from target to target, both feet flat on the
ground, knees straight, body erect but not too stiff, face turned
towards the mark. The body must be carried as easily as
possible on the hips, not too stiffly upright nor yet bending
forward. Nothing looks worse than a stiff, constrained at-
titude, except a loose, slouching one.

Nocking. — Having mastered the position, the next thing to
be looked to is the nocking: The bow being held by the
handle in the left hand, let the arrow be placed with the right
(over the string, not tender) on that part of the bow upon which
it is to lie ; the thumb of the left hand, being then gently
placed over it, will serve to hold it perfectly under command,
and the forefinger and thumb of the right hand can then take
hold of the nock end of the aiTow and manipulate it with the
most perfect ease in any manner that may be required.

388

OUT-DOOR GAMES.

When the arrow is nocked it should be at right angles with
the string. Some archers are accustomed to try to alter the
range of the arrow by heightening or lowering the nocking
point, but this is a great mistake. Care must be taken that
the whipped portion of the string exactly fits the notch of the
arrow. If too large or too small, it will probably split it.

Drawing. — Having nocked the arrow according to the
foregoing direction, the next thing to proceed with is the
drawing, which is managed as follows : Extend the left arm
downwards until it is perfectly straight, the hand grasping the
handle of the bow, the arrow being held by the nocking end
by the two first fingers of the right hand passed over the
string and on each side of the arrow, care being taken
not to pass the fingers too far over the string, or the
sharpness of the loose will be interfered with. This done, the
left arm should be smoothly raised, still extended, until at
right angles, or nearly so, with the body, the string being
drawn at the same time with the right hand until the arrow is
drawn about three-fourths of its length, when the right wrist
and elbow should be at about the level of the shoulder. Hav-
ing got it thus far a slight pause may be made before drawing
the arrow to its full length (although we think it better to
make it all one motion), which done, the archer must take his
aim before loosing. By drawing the arrow below the level of
the eye, the archer is enabled to look along it as he would
along the barrel of a rifle. As regards the direction, the
archer will find that it is but seldom he will be able to aim
directly at the gold. He will almost always have to aim to
one side or the other, to make allowance for wind, etc. This
cannot be taught. The archer will soon learn by experience
whereabouts on the target his proper point of sight lies, and
will aim accordingly. He will also learn the degree of eleva-
tion required by his bow at the various distances, which ele-
vation he will always give by raising or lowering his left hand,
and in no other way if he values success.

Remember! the arrow must always be drawn to exactly the
same spot. If possible, let the spot where the pile and stele
join just reach the bow.

Loosing. — Having drawn the arrow to its full extent, the
next thing is to loose it properly, and this, although appa-
rently a very simple thing, is by no means so easy as it looks.
The great object to be attained in loosing is to remove the
obstruction of the fingers from the string suddenly, and yet in
such a manner that no jerk is given to the string (which would
be fatal to the aim), and that the fingers do not follow the
string, which would weaken the force of the shot. The
string should lie across the fingers at an equal distance from
the tip of each — not too near the joint nor too near the tip ;
about midway between the tip and joint of the first finger,
and on the others in proportion, will be found about the most
convenient position for a good loose. The fingers must all be
withdrawn at once, for should one be an instant behind the
others, it would be fatal to the aim.

^>^Jh2^m5u^h^^^

^"^♦^^^^O^J^^^^^S*^^

FGIN by putting out of your mind the notion of
walking. Skaters place their feet fat on the ice
so as to slide along it, but do not rise on the toe,
as if they were walking.

The best way to learn to advance on skates is
follows: stand as if in the "third position"
in dancing, but with the heel of the right foot a few
inches away from the hollow of the left. Then, with
the edge of the left foot press against the ice, so as to push the
right forward. Bring up the left foot parallel with the right,
and slide along until the impetus is exhausted. Do this with
both feet alternately for some little time, and you will then be-
gin to " feel your skates," as the saying is.

After you have practiced these movements for some time,
gradually increasing the length of each stroke, you will
begin to find yourself skating on the " inside edge," a move-
ment to which nine out of ten skaters restrict themselves.
It is, however, an ungraceful plan, and is of little use except in
racing, and, moreover, tires the ankle sooner than the " out-
side edge " skating, which is the only mode worth practicing.

The mode of learning this is very simple. Put a stone or
stick on the ice, to act as a center for the circle you are about
to describe.

Now stand about three or four yards from the stone, with
your right side towards it, and your head looking over your
right shoulder at the stone. Press the outside edge of your
right skate as firmly as you can into the ice, and with your left
skate propel yourself round the stone, leaning as much inwards
as you can.

After a short time you will be able to lift the left foot ofT the
ice for a short time, and as soon as you can do this, try how
long you can keep the left foot in the air. Practice these
movements with both feet alternately until you feel that you
can confidently trust yourself to the outside edge.

As soon as you are firm on the edge, try to describe a com-
plete circle, taking care to keep the right knee quite straight
and the left foot the least particle in advance of the right.
When you can get completely round on either foot, combine
the two circles, and you have the 8, which, with the 3, is at
the bottom of all figure-skating.

Now for the 3. Start forwards, as before, on the outside
edge of the right foot, but leave the left foot vi^ell behind ihe
right, the toe slightly behind the heel. Do not change the
position of your feet, and you will find that when you have
rather more than half completed your circle, you will spin
round on the right foot and make half another circle (5cr/'wan/j.
.The books on skating say that, in order to turn round, the
skater ought to rise on his toe a little. I consider this advice
as totally wrong. True, the rising on the toe does bring the

OUT-DOOR GAMES.

589

body round, but it gives an appearance of effort, which a good
skater never shows. If you will only keep the off foot well
behind the other, you mus^ come round at the proper spot, and
without effort of any kind.

In fact, in all outside edge skating you steer yourself by the
foot which is off the ice, and on no consideration ought any of
the work to be done by the foot which is on the ice.

When you can cut the figure 3 equally well with either foot,
combine them, passing from one foot to the other without
jerking yourself. Practice this until you do it without any
effort, the mere swing of the body at the time supplying just
enough impetus to carry you round.

The next thing to be done is to get on the outside edge
backwards. This feat, difficult as it looks, and indeed is at the
first attempt, in reality is easy enough. It all depends on the
position of the feet. If you have kept your feet precisely in
the attitude which has been described, the outside edge back-
wards is a necessary corollary of the figure 3.

After you have turned on your right foot and got partly
round the lower half of the 3, simply put your left foot on the
ice and lift your right foot. Don't be afraid of it. Press the
outer edge of the left foot well into the ice, and you must com-
plete the circle. Provided that you do not alter the position
of your head, body, or limbs, it is the easiest thing in the
world. Only dare to do it, and it will be done.

When you have learned to shift in this way from one foot to
the other with ease, you will soon attain to the summit of a
skating ambition, the quadrille.

We will end with a few cautions.

Keep the knee of the acting leg perfectly rigid : a knee ever
so slightly bent ruins the effect of the best skating.

Never carry a stick.

Never raise, bend, or fold your arms ; but let them hang
easily by your side, and keep your hands out of your pockets.

Keep the toe of the off foot within an inch of the ice, and
the heel rather up.

SLIDING.

The only remark that need be made about sliding is that the
feet should always be kept close together and parallel with
the line of the slide. The sideways sliding adopted by many
boys is altogether wrong, and is sure to lead to a nasty fall
some time or other.

Accustom yourself to put your weight on each foot alter-
nately, so as to be able to lift the other off the slide, and with
the off foot give a double stamp on the ice. This is called the
"postman's knock." Keep the arms close to the body, and,
as in skating, if you find yourself likely to fall, slip down and
roll aside, so as to be out of the way of those who are follow-
ing you.

390

PARLOR GAMES.

doi)^e^uei\de|^.

^^-

This is a capital indoor table game, especially when there
are some ten or a dozen players to keep the game alive.

It is founded upon the absurd incongruities that result when
a number of people combine together to make one connected
sentence, each taking his own part irrespective of each and all
of the others.

Just as in the preceding game a connected drawing was
made by uniting three several parts, each drawn in ignorance
of the other two, so in this the several component parts of a
sentence are written down by a number of players separately
and without collusion, and then joined together in one.

We will suppose eleven players are sitting round the table,
severally provided with a pencil and a strip of paper. Each
writes on the top of his paper one or more adjectives attribu-
table to a man, folds his paper down over the writing, and
passes it to his left-hand neighbor, receiving one in return
from him on his right ; and proceeding in the same order he
writes in succession,

Adjectives suitable to a man,

A man's name,

Adjectives suitable to a woman,

A woman's name,

The name of a place.

Some productions of ditto,

A date,

A short sentence suited to a man,

A woman's reply,

The consequences, and

What the world said.

As an example we will suppose the following to have been
written down on one of the papers :

The irascible and enthusiastic — Paul Pry — The pious and
charitable — The Queen of the Cannibal Islands — Coney
Island — Bloaters and ginger beer — Christmas Day, B.C. 450 —

Have you seen Jumbo ? — Ask mamma — They both perished
miserably — It always knew how it would be.

When all have been filled up, the president takes the pa-
pers and reads them out ; the one instanced above reading thus :

The irascible and enthusiastic Paul Pry met the pious and
charitable Queen of the Cannibal Islands at Coney Island,
famous for its bloaters and ginger beer, on Christmas Day,
B.C. 450. He ash'd her in tender strains, " Have you seen
Jumbo?" 7^0 which she replied, with a modest blush, "Ask
mamma." As a natural conseqtience they both perished mis-
erably ; and the world said it always knew how it would be.

This is also a very amusing game. One of . the players
writes a letter, which of course he does not show, leaving a
blank for every adjective. He then asks each player in turn
round the table for an adjective, filling up the blank spaces
with the adjectives as he receives them.

The following short letter will explain the game better than
a long description :

My detestable Friend,

In answer to your amiable letter, I am silly to inform
you that the dirty and degraded Miss Jones sends you her most
fallacious thanks for your kindness, and bids me tell you she
will always think of you as the vainest and most adorable
friend she ever had. As for that sagacious fellow, Smith, he
is such a delightful ass, such a flthy and eminent mufi, you
need not fear he will prove a very complicated rival.
Believe me, my foolish iello-w ,

Yours, etc.

(3.>-

PARLOR GAMES.

391

This is a game only for those who have some facility in
rhyming and versifying ; with half dozen such it will always
afford unlimited amusement. It is played as follows :

The players sit round the table, each with a pencil and two
slips of paper ; on one he writes a question — any question that
occurs to him, the quainter the better — and on the other, a noun.

These slips are put into two separate baskets or hats, and
shaken up well, so as to be thoroughly mixed. The hats or
baskets are then passed round, and each player draws two
slips at random, one from either basket, so that he has one
slip with a question and one with a noun.

The players thus furnished now proceed to write on a third
slip each a practical answer to the question before him. The
answer must consist of at least four lines, and must introduce
the afore-mentioned noun.

For instance, supposing a player to have drawn the ques-
tion, fVko killed Cock Robin ? and the noun Jaw, he might
answer it somewhat as follows ;

" I, said the Sparrow, ^

With my bow and arrow,

If you'd known him too
You'd have wished him at Harrow ;

With his cheek, and his jaw.
And his dandy red vest,

He became such a bore.
Such a regular pest !
'Twas really no joke :
Such troublesome folk
Must not be surprised if they're promptly suppressed."

Or, as a more concise example, question asked. Do you
bruise your oats ? Noun, Cheese. Answer,

As I don't keep a steed,

For oats I've no need ;

For myself, when my own private taste I would please,

I prefer wheaten bread to oat-cake with my cheese.

Here is another example of veritable crambo rhymes. The
question was, "Can you pronounce Llyndgynbwlch ? " and
the noun '* Oil." Answer as follows :

" Pronouncing Llyndgynbwlch

My glottis will spoil,
Unless lubricated
With cocoa-nut oil."

There happened to be cocoa-nut cakes on the table.

These will be amply sufficient as guides to the method of
playing the game. They are not offered as models of poetry
or diction, but as just the sort of things anybody might write
on the spur of the moment, and therefore better suited for
our purpose than any more finished and elaborate productions.

Of course this game can only be played by those who will
take an interest in it, and who possess some little facility of

versification. A player who, after half an hour or so spent in
puzzling his brain and beating about for rhymes and sense,
cannot succeed in turning out a few lines of doggerel, had
better, for his own sake and that of others, turn his attention
to other and less intellectual amusements.

But we would not alarm any timid players — we have no
wish to seem to require any great poetical gifts in the player,
though, of course, the more witty and brilliant they are, the
more delightful and interesting the game : the merest doggerel
is quite sufficient for all purposes, and the facility of stringing
verses together will be found to increase rapidly with every
days' practice. None but a veritable dunce need despair of
taking at least a creditable part in this very amusing game.

The theory of this game is very simple, but the opening it
gives for wi^,<thd satire is simply unbounded, and for pure in.
tellectuality it stands unrivaled amongst evening games.

The players sit round a table each with a pencil and piece
of paper ; a noun is then selected at random from a list, or in
any convenient way, and each is then bound to furnish an
original definition. This done, another is given out and sim-
ilarly defined.

When a convenient number have been thus disposed of, the
papers are handed up to the president, who is chosen for the
occasion, and the several definitions read aloud.

Some very brilliant impromptus are sometimes flung off in
this manner ; and we would strongly advise, where the game
is much played, that a book should be kept for the enshrinc-
ment of the special flowers of wit.

We offer a few here as examples, not so much for imitation,
but as illustrations of the modus operandi, or perhaps we might
rather say, ludendi.

NOUN— MIRROR.

DEFINmONS.

(a) The rarest gift the fays can gie us —

We see oursels as ithers see us.
{6) The vain man's most intimate friend ; the wise man's acquaint-
ance.

(r) The type of perfect unselfishness, giving away all that it receives
and retaining nothing for itself.

{d) The hermit of modem life : it spends all its time reflecting on the
vanities of the world.

NOUN— PROSPERITY.

DEFINfTIONS.

(d) The reward of exertion.
((5) Man's greatest temptation.
(<r) The world's touchstone of merit.

(rf) What each man most thinks he has a right to expect for himseif
and is least inclined to desire for his neighbor.
(<-) The pass-key that unlocks the gates of society.
(/) A prize in the lottery of fate.

392

PARLOR GAMES.

NOUN— HUMANITY.

DEFINITIONS.

(«) The best abused virtue in the calendar.
{i) The highest triumph of civilization.

(d) The most God-like of virtues.

(e) A common cloak for cupidity.

(/) The begging impostor's Tom Tiddler's ground.
{g) The weakness of the many, the virtue of the few.

'm§i§Mm§M§mi

';iUOWDOTOULIKElT?il

How DO YOU LIKE IT, WHEN DO YOU LIKE IT, AND WHERE
DO YOU LIKE IT? — This is also, like " Proverbs," a guessing
game. One player, as before, goes out of the room while the
others fix upon a word. He then returns, and puts to them
severally in turn the question, "How do you like it?" and
then, having completed the circle, "When do you like it?"
and thirdly, in like manner, "Where do you like it?" To
each of which questions the other players are bound to return
a satisfactory reply.

At the end of these questions, or at any time in the game,
the questioner may make a guess at the word, being allowed
three guesses in all, as before in "Proverbs." If he succeed
in guessing rightly, he points out the player from whose an-
swer he got the right clue, who therefore pays a forfeit and
takes his place, and the game goes on as before. If he do not
succeed in guessing rightly, he himself pays a forfeit and goes
out again.

The great secret of the game is to select words that, though
pronounced alike (spelling does not matter), have two or more
meanings.

For instance, Z goes out, and the word " bow " is chosen.
He asks of each, "How do you like it?" A answers "In
a good temper" (beau) ; B, 'With long ends " (a bow tied in
a ribbon) ; C, "Very strong " (an archer's bow) ; and so on,
ringing the changes upon three different sorts of bow.

In the next round the players are not bound to adhere to the
same meaning they selected before, but may take any meaning
they think most likely to puzzle the questioner.

Thus, to the question " Wlien do you like it?" the answers
may quite legitimately be as follows : A, " When I am dress-
ing ; B. " When I want exercise ; " C, "When I am going to
a party." And to the last question, " ^Vhere do you like it?"
A answers, " Under my chin ; " B, "At my feet ; " C, " Out-
side on the lawn."

If there be only three to be questioned, this would prove
hard enough to find out, though "Under the chin" might
perhaps give a clue. Z's chance lies in the number of answers
that have to be given to the same question, and in the short

time each has to prepare a satisfactory answer — one that shall
satisfy all conditions and yet give no clue to the word.

The whole fun in this game, as in " Proverbs," depends en-
tirely upon the wit and spirit of the players. To be seen at
its very best it should be played by a party of really clever
grown-up people. The contest of wit is then, as Mr. Cyrus
Bantam would say, " to say the least of it, re-markable."

Below will be found a few words, taken almost at random,
suitable for this game :

Air— Heir

Bowl

Mail-Male

Ant— Aunt

Cask-

Casque

Main — Mane

Bow — Bough

Cell— Sell

Pear— Pair

Bow — Beau

Qiord

-Cord

Fair— Fare

Flour— Flower

Chest

Sail— Sale

Bale— Bail

Club

Rain— Rein

Band

Corn

Vale-Veil

Aisle— Isle

Drop

Tale-Tail

Bar

Gum

Note

Bill

Kite

Poll

Ball

Dram-

—Drachm

Roll

Buoy— Boy

Draft-

-Draught

Stole

Balm— Barm

Knight— Night

Box

Arms — Alms

Hair-

-Hare

Game, etc.

i,- >*r, V -,' V ^ v V V -^ V ^ w V -r V ," V V V / "r ,■ ^> ^ ^ V ,■ »r v .■*■.

lis WHAT IS MY THOUGHT LIKE ? 11

K.-^k^v -rtv vT^ ^^ ^v w vfv^^:^^w/^ -nv^\vi v ^rvv^'*>S

This game is somewhat like the last, only that the ques-
tioner does not leave the room, and the onus of the game lies
on the questioned, not on the questioner.

The players being seated in a semicircle round the ques-
tioner, he thinks of something or a person — it matters not
what — and demands of each player, " What is my thought
like ? " The answers, of course, being given without any clue
to the word thought of, are of the most incongruous nature.

This, however, is only the commencement of the fun.
Having taken and noted each player's simile, the questioner
now reveals the word he had thought of, and demands of each
a verification of his simile under penalty of a forfeit.

As the answer must be given promptly, without time to ar-
range an elaborate defense, much quickness of wit and readi-
ness of resource is required to avoid the forfeit for failure.

If the whole party succeed in justifying their similes, the
questioner pays a forfeit, and a new questioner is appointed.

The decision as to an answer being satisfactory or not lies
in disputed cases with the whole party of players.

An illustration of the working of the game may be, per-
haps, not out of place.

We will suppose that Z, the questioner, has thought of a
baby, and has asked the question, " What is my thought like?"
all round, and received the following answers :

A, "A lump of chalk ;"B, "Alexander the Great;" Q
" The Great Eastern ;" D, "A gooseberry ;" E, "A fishing-
rod ; " F, "A carpet bag ; " and so on.

-3^

Q.>-

PARLOR GAMES.

393

Z now tells them he thought of a baby, and calls upon them
each severally to justify his simile.

A, " It is like a lump of chalk because it is white." (Al-
lowed.)

B, " It is like Alexander because it cries for what it can't
get." (Allowed.)

C, "It is like the Great Eastern because it costs a great
deal of money before it makes any returns." (Disputed as
rather too fanciful, but finally allowed.)

D, "It is like a gooseberry because it is soft and red."
(Not allowed. It had previously been likened to chalk as
being white ; red, therefore, cannot stand, and softness is not
a sufficiently characteristic. Forfeit.)

E, "It is like a fishing-rod because it has many joints."
(Allowed by general acclaim.)

F, "It is like a carpet bag because it has most elastic ca-
pacities of stowage." (Allowed after some discussion.)

Of course, it is easy enough in most cases to find some sort
of justification of almost any simile if time be allowed, though
even then one sometimes comes across one that would puzzle
the most ingenious ; but in the actual game the explanation
must be found on the spur of the moment, and herein consists
half the fun.

This game, like all others of its kind, is entertaining ex-
actly in proportion to the wit and capacities of the players.
Even the most witty and most learned may join in it without
derogating from their dignity, and with a certainty of deriv-
ing from it a fund of endless and highly intellectual amuse-
meht.

This is a very good mental exercise for all, and is capital
fun even for adults ; indeed, the better educated and the
more clever the players are the more fun is there to be got
out of the game, as it gives ample occasion for the exercise of
wit of the highest quality.

One player goes out of the room, and the rest, being seated
in a circle, fix upon a proverb, which should not be a very
long one. The first player being now recalled, he begins at
player number one in the circle and asks any question he likes:
the answer must contain the first word of the proverb. He
then tries the next, whose answer must contain the second
word, and so on.

He is allowed .to go completely round the circle if it be a
large one, or twice if it be a small one, and then must either
guess the proverb or go out again and try a new one. If he
guess rightly, he has to declare the answer that gave him the
clue, and the player who gave it has to go in his stead.

In answering the questions much ingenuity may be exer-
cised, and much amusement created in concealing the key-
words of a proverb. For instance, in "Birds of a feather

flock together " there are three dangerous words — birds,
feather, and flock — all difficult to get into an ordinary sen-
tence, and it requires much dexterity to keep them from being
too prominent. Let us take this proverb as an example. A goes
out, and " Birds of a feather flock together" is agreed upon.
A asks of B, " Have you been out to-day ? " B, " No ; " but I
sat at the window for a long time after sunset listening to the
birds and watching the rabbits on the lawn ; you can't think
what a lot there were," A is puzzled, he has so many words
to pick from, and the word, which when expected seems so
prominent, falls unnoticed upon his ear. He asks C, " And
what have you been doing with yourself this evening?" C,
" Oh, I have been sitting with B, looking out 0/ window too."
Next comes D, who can have but little trouble in bringing in
his word a, only let his answer be not too short. Then E has
to bring in the word fcailur. A asks him, " What did you
have for dinner to-day?" F, "Oh, roast beef, turkey, and
plum pudding ; but the turkey was so badly plucked, it tasted
of singed feathers, and we couldn't eat it." This, repeated
rapidly, may deceive the questioner, who goes on to E : "I
saw you with a fishing-rod to-day ; what did you catch ? " F
— who is by no means required to adhere to absolute facts,
and may draw upon his imagination to any extent — replies,
" Well, to tell you the truth, I did not catch any ; for there
was ^Jlock of sheep having their wool washed ready for shear-
ing." F brings in the 'mooI to lead A off to the proverb
" Great cry and little wool," as almost his only chance of con-
cealing the real \iorA Jlock. A then demands of G, " Do you
like walking ? " G, " I do if I have a companion. When
Charlie and I go out together we always have lots of fun ; but
Harry is such a duffer, it's awfully slow walking with him."

If A is at all quick, he ought to have heard quite sufficient
to know the proverb ; he may, however, be puzzled by the
complicated sentences ; but after the second round at least,
when the catch-words have been repeated, he must be slow
indeed if he does not discover it.

One of the party should be appointed umpire, to decide
whether any answer is a fair one, and no one else should be
allowed to interfere in any way ; nothing is so likely to give
a clue to the questioner as a dispute whether a word
has been fairly introduced or not. In cases of doubt the
umpire may call for a fresh question and answer. There is no
reason why the umpire, who should be one of the oldest play-
ers for authority's sake, should not join in the game. He is
appointed almost solely to prevent confusion, and his being a
player or non-player can have no influence on his decisions.

The answers should be made with decision, and as rapidly
as is consistent with distinctness — a quality upon which the
umpire should insist ; and the player should especially avoid
giving short answers when he has a simple word, such as
"of," "the," etc., and thus give the questioner the clue to
the answer in which lie the catch-words, and thus aid him
materially in his task. Of course, great pains must be taken
not to lay any stress upon the word that has to be introduced,
and not to make the answers unfairly long.

Simultaneous Proverbs. — A very good modification of the
above. No questions are asked ; but the players, one for
each word of the proverb, stand or sit in a semicircle, and the

394

PARLOR GAMES.

player who has to discover the proverb stands in front of
them. One of them, who is chosen leader, now gives the
time, " One, two, three ; " at the word " three " they all call
out simultaneously each his own word. This they may be
requiied to repeat once or twice, according to previous ar-
rangement, and then the guess must be made under the same
conditions as above.

A long proverb should be chosen for this, if there be enough
players ; the greater the number of voices, of course, the more
difficult it is to discover the proverb.

This is a capital game, and, if well managed, will defy
all detection. To do it well, however, requires some practice.

Two persons assume respectively the roks of Professor of
Mesmerism and Clairvoyant. The professor must have a ready
wit and a good store of language, a plentiful vocabulary at
his finger ends : whilst the clairvoyant must be quick of ob-
servation and retentive of memory.

A semicircle is formed by the spectators, and the clairvoyant
is seated blindfold with his back to them ; and the professor,
after going through the usual ceremony of mesmerizing him,
leaves him and crosses to the spectators, asking them for any
objects they may have about them for the clairvoyant to name
and describe.

If they are both well up to their work, the clairvoyant will
appear to those who are not initiated into the secret to be able
to see without his eyes, to their intense astonishment and ad-
miration.

The author once thus played clairvoyant to a friend's pro-
fessor at a large charade party, and deluded the whole com-
pany into a belief in the reality of the exhibition.

Robert Houdin, the great French conjurer, and his little
boy made this clairvoyance one of the leading features of his
entertainment, and brought the art to a wonderful pitch of
perfection.

It would be impossible in the contracted space of one of
these short notices to give full instructions how to produce
this clever illusion ; a mere outline of the method of proced-
ure is all that can be attempted. This, however, will be
amply sufficient for a boy of any intelligence to grasp the idea
of the leading principles : the mere details he will soon learn
to work out for himself. If he should desire any further par-
ticulars, he will find much interesting information in the
"Memoirs" of Robert Houdin, which may now be procured
at almost any library.

The method of procedure is as follows : The clairvoyant
makes it his business to observe narrowly — unostentatiously,
of course — and to catalogue in his mind the persons present,
any little peculiarities in their dress, ornaments, etc., the gen-

eral arrangement of the room, and any little knickknackeries
lying about. Practice only will enable him to do this to any
considerable extent ; but if he have any talent for such men-
tal exercise, and without it he will never make a clever clair-
voyant, practice will soon enable him to observe almost at a
glance and retain in his memory almost all the leading features
of all around him, animate and inanimate.

Robert Houdin trained his son and himself by walking rap-
idly past various shops in the streets of Paris, and then writ-
ing down on paper, after passing each shop, all the articles
they could remember seeing in their transitory glimpse through
the window : at first half a dozen or so was all they could
manage, but they rapidly rose by practice to twenty or thirty,
until the young Houdin, who quite outstripped his father,
would tell almost the whole contents of a large window.

Of course, such a wonderful pitch of perfection is scarcely
attainable by an ordinary boy, and would not be worth his
while if it were ; nor, indeed, is it, or anything like it, nec-
essary ; but the instance may serve as an indication of the
right method of procedure, to be worked out by each boy ac-
cording to his individual bent and opportunities.

It should be understood that all this preparation and prac-
tice is not absolutely necessary before beginning to exhibit the
trick. A very few rehearsals will suffice for a very respecta-
ble performance ; only if anything like perfection be aimed
at, some extra trouble must be taken to attain it. Of course,
every exhibition will do its work of improvement.

Meanwhile professor and patient must practice the code of
signals by which the former conveys to the latter any neces-
sary information about the objects to be described.

These signs may be words or other sounds ; but great care
must be taken with the latter, as they are more open to de-
tection.

The initial letter of the first, second, or last word in each
sentence the professor addresses to the clairvoyant is the same
as that of the object ; and as the number of objects likely to
be offered for description is limited, a little practice will insure
its instant recognition from the clue thus given. Some signal
should be preconcerted by which the clairvoyant may be
warned that the object presented is at all out of the common.

If there be any difficulty in making out the object, the pro-
fessor may, by a little ingenuity and assurance, spell out in
successive sentences the name of the object in his hand. To
cover this manauvre, he should pretend that the mesmeric
influence is failing, and make "passes " at the patient, being
careful, of course, not to go near him, and the clairvoyant
must pretend to brighten up under their influence.

In the instance above referred to in the author's own expe-
rience, one of the company presented for description some-
thing very much out of the common way, a nutmeg-grater or
something similar, and the professor, with the greatest readi-
ness and the coolest assurance, deliberately spelt its name
through almost to the last letter without detection.

The above, it is hoped, will be found sufficient to set the ,
young aspirant to mesmeric fame on the right track ; but an
example of the actual working may, perhaps, prove more
serviceable than much description.

Suppose, for instance, the object be a coin — a shilling, say.

PARLOR GAMES.

395

of George the Third, date 1800. The professor, who, by the
way, should speak with as much rapidity as is compatible with
distinctness, says sharply :

Can you tell me what I have in my hand ?

A coin.

Modern OT ancient?

Modern.

English or foreign ?

English.

Give the reign.

George the Third.

But what value ?

Shilling.

ffow dated?

iSoo.

Thank you, sir ! Your shilling, I believe ? Right, is it not ?

The first question, it will be seen, begins with c ; this,
without further explanation, means coiti. The next two ex-
plain themselves. The fourth begins with G for George, the
only possible modem English reign ; and the next word be-
ginning with / gives the clue to third. B at the beginning of
the next stands for " bob" or shilling, when speaking of
English coins. The guesser can't be far wrong in his date,
knowing the reign. In enumeration the several digits are
represented by the letters of the alphabet ; // is the eighth let-
ter, and therefore stands for 1800. Any odd numbers might
have been spelt out in similar fashion.

Both professor and clairvoyant should speak rapidly and
decisively to prevent detection, and should constantly change
the key-word from first to last, and so on. A knowledge of
French or some other language will be of great service in con-
cealing the machinery.

When a player has to pay a forfeit, he gives in pledge some
piece of portable property, which he will afterwards, at the
end of the game, have to redeem in due order.

One player is declared judge, and, with eyes blindfold
stands with his face to the wall, while another takes up the
several pledges separately and asks, " Here is a pretty thing,
and a very pretty thing ; what is to be done to the owner of this
very pretty thing ? " Or, omittmg the formula, asks merely,
" What is to be done to the owner of this ? " The blindfolded
player, who, of course, does not know to whom each forfeit
belongs, and therefore cannot be accused of unfairness, as-
signs for each forfeit a task which must be fulfilled before the
pledge can be reclaimed.

This calling of the forfeits requires no little ingenuity, tact,
and judgment, and the entire success depends upon the
suitability of the penalties to the company and the circum-
stances.

The judge must take into consideration not only what pen-
alties can be enforced, but what will afford the most fun,
and at the same time must avoid the slightest shadow of
offense.

Where the party is composed entirely of boys with no great
inequality of ages, the task is tolerably easy ; but where
there is a mixed company of girls and boys, not only must
the penalty attached to any forfeit be such as a girl could
perform, but it must be such as no girl would object to per-
form.

In cases like this it is better to get an older person — a lady
if possible — to cry the forfeits ; and where such is not forth-
coming, it is better not to cry them at all ; or, if that be too
hard a trial for the young players' philosophy, to cry the girls'
and the boys' separately.

As the penalties, therefore, must depend so entirely upon
the special circumstances of each occasion on which they are
imposed, it would be impossible for us to find space enough
to give a list sufficiently comprehensive to be of any real serv-
ice as a guide to the judge in all cases.

The old stock forfeits are so well known and so stale that it
would be mere waste of time and space to insert them here.
We might certainly give a few new ones ; but the exigencies
of space would, as we said above, prevent our giving more
than a very few, and we therefore prefer to leave them en-
tirely to the ingenuity and invention of the judge for the time
being, who, if he will be worth his salt, with one glance of his
eye round the group of expectant pledge owners gather more
hints for penalties suited to the occasion than he would from
whole pages of printed instructions.

4--

396

GAMES OF CARDS.

Mf^isL

" Troy owes to Homer what Whist owes to Hoyle."

DMOND HOYLE, the

great authority on Whist,

pubHshed his treatise in

1743- ^

Of all card games, this is
perhaps the most interesting ;
and certainly, if such a term
can be used in regard to any-
thing in which mere chance
is an element, the most
scientific.

" ' A clear fire, a clean
hearth, and the rigor of the
game.' This was the cele-
brated toast of a lady, who, next to her devotions,
loved a good game of Whist.

" Man is a gaming animal, and his passion can
scarcely be more safely expended than upon a game
at cards with only a few cents for the stake."

Now then for our first lesson on Whist. This game — Long
Whist — is played by four persons, with a complete pack of
cards, fifty-two in number. The four players divide them-
selves into two parties, each player sitting opposite his partner.
This division is usually accomplished by what is called cutting
the cards, the two highest and the two lowest being partners ;
or the partnership may be settled by each player drawing a
card from the pack spread out on the table, or in any other

way that may be decided on. The holder of the lowest card
is the dealer. But previous to their being dealt, the cards are
"made" — that is, shuffled — by the elder hand, and "cut"
by the younger hand. The undermost card in the pack,
after it has been shuffled and cut, is the " trump."

The whole pack is now dealt out card by card, the
dealer beginning with the player on his left, the elder hand.
The last card — the trump — is then turned face upwards on the
table, where it remains till the first trick is won, and turned.
The deal completed, each player takes up his alloted thirteen,
and arranges them in his hand according to the several suits —
the Hearts, Clubs, Spades, and Diamonds by themselves in
their regular order. The elder hand now leads or plays a
card. His left-hand adversary follows, then his partner, and
last of all his right-hand adversary. Each player must " fol-
low suit," if he can, and the highest card of the suit led wins
the " trick ;" or if either player cannot follow suit, he either
passes the suitt-that is, plays some card of another suit, or
trumps ; that is, plays a card of the same suit or denomina-
tion as the turned-up card. Thus, we will suppose the first
player leads a Nine of Spades, the second follows with a Ten,
the third, who perhaps holds two high cards, plays a Queen,
and the last a Two or a Three. The trick would then belong
to the third player who won it with his Queen. The winner
of the trick then leads off a card, and the others follow as
beforfe, and so on till the thirteen tricks are played. A second
deal then takes place as before, and so the game proceeds till
one or the other side has obtained ten tricks, which is game.

The order and value of the cards in Whist is as follows: —
Ace is highest in play .ind lowest in cutting. Then follow
King, Queen, Knave, Ten, Nine, Eight, Seven, Six, Five,
Four, Three, Two, the lowest.

But there are other ways of scoring points besides tricks.
The four court cards of the trump suit are called honors ; and
the holders of four score four towards the game ; the holders
of three score two ; but if each player or each set of partners
hold two, then honors are said to be divided, and no points
are added to the game on either side. Thus, A and C

■ Si^c. ■ JSfva . Co, J\l.y.

■ or THE

UNIVERSITY

GAMES OF CARDS.

397

(partners) have between them the Ace, Knave, and Queen.
At the end of the deal or round, they say and score Iroo by
honors ; or, B and D hold Ace and King only, while A
and B have Queen and Knave in their hands ; then the
honors are divided.

All tricks above six score to the game. All honors above
two score in the way explained — t-iuo points for three honors,
four points for four honors.

There being thirteen tricks which must be made in each
round or deal, it follows that seven points may be gained,
which, with the four honors, would finish the game in a
single deal. This stroke of good fortune is, however, seldom
attained. It is much more likely that four or five deals are
made before the game is won. As we have explained, ten
points are game in Long Whist

In Short Whist, which is the ordinary game cut in half, five
points win. But if either side get up to iiine points, then the
holding of honors is of no advantage. In the language of the
Whist-table, at nine points honors do not count. But at eight
points, the player who holds two honors in his hand has what
is called the privilege of the call That is, he may ask his
partner if he has an honor — "Can you one?" or "Have you
an honor ?" If the partner asked does hold the requisite
Court card, the honors may be shown, the points scored, and
the game ended. But the inquiry must not be made by the
player holding the two honors till it is his turn to play, nor
must the holder of a single honor inquire of his partner if he
has two.

Nor does the holding of four honors entitle the partners to
show them at any stage of the game except at eight points.
To put the matter epigrammatically, at six or seven points,
tricks count before honors ; at eight points, honors count before
tricks.

At nine points, honors do not count. It must be understood,
however, that, in order to count honors at eight points, they
must be shoiun before the first trick is turned, or they cannot be
claimed till the round is completed. Thus it might happen
that the partners at eight points, holding the honors between
them, and neglecting to show them, would be beaten, even
though the other side wanted three or four tricks for the
game.

A Single Game is won by the side which first obtains the
ten points by a majority of one, two, three or four points.

A Double Game is made when one side obtains ten points
before the other has scored yfrr.

A Lurch or Triplet is won by the obtainment of ten points
to nothing on the other side.

A Rubber is two games won out of three.
The Points of a Rubber are reckoned thuswise : — For the
single game, one point ; for the double, two points ; and for
the rub, two points. Thus it is possible to obtain six points
in one rubber — namely, two doubles and the rub.

A Lurch or Triplet is in some companies reckoned for three
points. Generally, however, a lurch is only counted as a
double game where triplets are counted ; it is possible, there-
fore, for the winners to obtain eight points.

A Slant is when the whole thirteen tricks are won in a
single hand.

The game is usually marked on the table by coins or count-
ers, or by the holes in a Cribbage-board. Many pretty little
contrivances have been invented as Whist-markers ; but if
coins be used, the following is the simplest way of arranging
them in order to denote the score : —

123 4567 89

n on -^r^n O OO O OOO OO ^
O 00 000 QQ Q QQ3 O 00 g

Or thus — a plan in which the unit above stands for three, or
below ior five : —

45678 9 9

QQQ o o 00 000 oooo,,o^

TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN WHIST.

Ace. — Highest in play, lowest in cutting

Blue Peter. — A signal for trumps, allowable in modem play.

This term is used when a high card is unnecessarily played

in place of one of lower denomination, as a ten for a seven,

a five for a deuce, etc.
Bumper. — Two games won in succession before adversaries

have won one ; that is, a rubber of full points — Five at

Long Whist, Eight at Short.
Cut. — Lifting the cards, when the uppermost portion (not

fewer than three) is placed below the rest. The pack is

then ready for the dealer.
Cutting-in. — Deciding the deal by each player taking up not

fewer than three cards, and the two highest and two lowest

become partners. In case of ties, the cards must be cut

again.
Cuttin,^-out. — In case of other person or persons wishing to

play, the cut is adopted as before, when the highest (or low-
est, as may be agreed on) stands out of the game, and does

not play.
Call, the. — The privilege of the player at eight points asking

his partner if he holds an honor — " Have you one ?" The

partners having eight points are said to have the call. When

each side stands at eight, the first player has the privilege.

As explained in a previous page, no player can call till it is

his turn to play.
Deal. — The proper distribution of the cards, from left to right,

face downwards.
Deal, mis. — A misdeal is made by giving a card too many or

two few to either player ; in which case the deal passes to

the next hand. {Sec Laws.)
Deal, fresh. — A fresh or new deal, rendered necessary by any

violation of the laws, or by any accident to the cards or

players.
Double. — Ten points scored at Long Whist before adversaries

have obtained five; or in Short Whist, five before three.
Elder-hand. — The player to the left of the dealer.
Faced Card. — A card improperly shown in process of dealing.

398

GAMES OF CARDS.

It is in the power of adversaries in such cases to demand a
new deal.

J^inessing. — A term used when a player endeavors to conceal
his strength, as when, having the best and third best (as
Ace and Queen), he plays the latter, and risks his adversary
holding the second best (the King). If he succeed in win-
ning with his Queen, he gains a clear trick, because, if his
adversary throws away on the Queen, the Ace is certain of
making a trick. The term finessing may be literally ex-
plained by saying a player chances an inferior card to win
a trick with while he holds the King card in liis hand.

Forcing. — This term is employed when the player obliges his
adversary or partner to play his trump or pass the trick.
As, for instance, when the player holds the last two cards in
a suit, and plays one of them.

Hand. — The thirteen cards dealt to each player.

Honors. — Ace, King, Queen, and Knave of trumps, reckoned
in the order here given.

Jack. — The Knave of any suit.

ICing Card. — The highest unplayed card in any suit; the lead-
ing or winning card.

Lead, the. — The first player's card, or the card next played by
the winner of the last trick.

Long Trumps. — The last trump card in hand, one or more,
when the rest are all played. It is important to retain a
trump in an otherwise weak hand.

Loose Cards. — A card of no value, which may be thrown away
on any trick won by your partner or adversary.

Longs. — Long Whist, as opposed to Short.

Lurch. — The players who make the double point are said to
have lurched their adversaries.

Love. — No points to score. Nothing,

Marking the Game. Making the score apparent, with coins,
etc., as before explained.

No Game. — A game at which the players make no score.

Opposition. — Side against side.

Points. — The score obtained by tricks and honors. The Avager-
ing or winning periods of the game.

Quarte. — Four cards in sequence.

Quarte Major. — A sequence of Ace, King, Queen, and Knave.

Quint. — Five successive cards in a suit; a sequence of five, as
King. Queen, Knave, Ten, and Nine.

Renounce. — Possessing no card of the suit led, and playing
another which is not a trump.

Revoke. — Playing a card different from the suit led, though
the player can follow suit. The penalty for the error,
whether made purposely or by accident, is the forfeiture of
three tricks. {See Laws.)

Rubber. — The best two of three games.

Ruffing.— Another term for trumping a suit other than
trumps.

Sequence. — Cards following in their natural order, as Ace,
King, Queen, Two, Three, Four, etc. There may, there-
fore, be a sequence of Four, Five. Six. and so on.

Aw^/^-.— Scoring, at Long Whist, ten tricks before your adver-
saries have scored five.

See-saw.— \N\\Qn each partner trumps a suit. For instance. A
holds no Diamonds, and B no Hearts. When A plays

Hearts, B trumps and returns a Diamond, which A trumps

and returns a Heart, and so on.
Score. — The points gained in a game or rubber.
Slam. — Winning every trick in a round.
Shorts. — Short Whist as opposed to Long.
Tenace. — Holding the best and third best of any suit led when

last player. Holding tenace, as King and Ten of Clubs.

When your adversary leads that suit, you win two tricks

perforce. [ Tenace minor means the second and fourth best

of any suit.]
Tieble. — Scoring five (at Short Whist) before your adversaries

have marked one.
Terce. — A sequence of three cards in any suit.
Terce Major. — Ace, King, and Queen of any suit held in one

hand.
Tiicks. — The four cards played, including the lead.
Trump. — The last card in the deal; the tum-up.
Trumps. — Cards of the same suit as the turn-up.
Ties. — Cards of like denomination, as two Kings, Queens, etc.

Cards of the same number of pips.
Trumping Suit. — Playing a trump to any other suit led.
Underplay. — Playing to mislead your adversaries; as by lead-
ing a small card though you hold the King card of the suit.
Younger Hand. — The player to the right of the dealer.

SHORT RULES.

FOR FIRST HAND OR LEAD.

1. Lead from your strong suit, and be cautious how you
change suits ; and keej) a commanding card to bring it in
again.

2. Lead through the strong suit and up to the weak,but not
in trumps, unless very strong in them.

3. Lead the highest of a sequence ; but if you have a quart
or quint to a King, lead the lowest.

4. Lead through an honor, particularly if the game be much
against you.

5. Lead your best trump, if the adversaries be eight, and
you have no honor; but not if you have four trumps, unless
you have a sequence.

6. Lead a trump if you have four or five, or a strong hand;
but not if weak.

7. Having Ace, King, and two or three small cards, lead
Ace and King, if weak in trumps, but a small one if strong in
them.

8. If you have the last trump, with some winning cards,
and one losing card only, lead the losing card.

9. Return your partner's lead, not the adversaries'; and if
you have only three originally, play the best; but you need not
return it immediately, when you win with the King, Queen,
or Knave, and have only small ones, or when you have a good
sequence, have a strong suit, or have five trumps.

10. Do not lead from Ace Queen, or Ace Knave.

11. Do not lead an Ace, unless you have a King.

12. Do not lead a thirteenth card, unless trumps be out.

13. Do not trump a thirteenth card, unless you be last
player, or want the lead.

14. Keep a small card to return your partner's lead.

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GAMES OF CARDS.

399

'kr-

15. Be cautious in trumping a card when strong in trumps,
particularly if you have a strong suit.

16. Having only a few small trumps, make them when you
can. .

17. If your partner refuses to trump a suit, of which he
knows you have not the best, lead your best trump.

18. When you hold all the remaining trumps play one, and
then try to put the lead in' your partner's hand.

19. Remember how many of each suit are out, and what is
the best card left in each hand.

20. Never force your partner if you are weak in trumps, un-
less you have a renounce, or want the odd trick.

21. When playing for the odd trick, be cautious of trump-
ing out, especially if your partner be likely to trump a suit;
make all the tricks you can early, and avoid finessing.

22 If you take a trick, and liave a sequence, win with the
lowest.

FOR SECOND HAND.

23. With King, Queen, and small cards, play a small one,
when not strong in trumps. But if weak, play the King.
With Ace, King, Queen, or Knave, only, and a small card,
play the small one.

FOR THIRD HAND.

24. With Ace and Queen, play her Majesty, and, if she
wins, return the Ace. In all other cases the third hand should
])lay his best card when his partner has led a low one. It is a
safe rule for the third hand to play his highest! n

FOR ALL THE PLAYERS.

25 Fail not, when in your power, to make the odd trick.

26. Attend to the game, and play accordingly.

27. Hold the turn-up card as long as possible, and so keep
your adversaries from a knowledge of your strength.

28. Retain a high trump as long as you can.

29. When in doubt win the trick.

30. Play the game fairly and keep your temper.

cutting in.

1. The two highest are partners against the two lowest.

2. Less than three cards is not a cut.

[If fewer than three cards be cut od the pack, the player so cutting
must replace the cards, and cut again.]

3. In cutting, the Ace is lowest.

4. Ties must cut again.

5. After the pack is cut, no fresh cards can be called for in
that deal.

6. If a card be exposed, a new cut may be demanded.

7. All cutting-in and cutting-out must be by pairs.

8. The right-hand adversary cuts to the dealer.

SHUFFLING.

g. The cards must be shuffled above the table.

10. Each player has a right to shuffle the cards, the dealer
last.

DEALING.

11. The cards must be dealt one at a time, commencing
with the player to the left of the dealer.

12. In case of a misdeal, the deal passes to the next player.
[The following are misdeals :~A card too many or too few given to

either player. An exposed card. Looking to the trump card before
it is turned up in the regular order of play. Dealing the cards with
the pack not having been cut. The trump card dropped out of
turn. A faulty pack. In every case, except the last, the deal is
lost if a fresh deal be claimed by opponents. A card faced by any
other than the dealer is not subject to penalty.]

13. The dealer must not touch the cards after they have
left his hand, but he is allowed to count those remaining un-
dealt if he suspects he has made a misdeal.

14. The trump card must be left on the table, face upwards,
till the first trick is turned.

[If it is not then taken up, however, it can be treated as an exposed
card, and called at any part of the game, provided that no revoke
be made by playing it.]

15. One partner may not deal for another without the con-
sent of opponents.

THE GAME.

16. Any card played out of turn can be treated as an ex-
posed card and called, provided no revoke be thereby caused.

[Thus, a player who wins a trick plays another card before his partner
plays to the trick. The second card becomes an exposed card.]

17. If the third player throws down his card before the
second, the fourth player has a right also to play before the
second; or, if the fourth hand play before the second or third,
the cards so played must stand, and the second be compelled
to win the trick if he can.

18. No player but he who made the last trick has a right to
look at it after it has been turned.

19. A trump card played in error may be recalled before the

trick is turned.

[But if the playing of such trump cause the next player to expose a
card, such last exposed card cannot be called.]

20. If two cards be played, or if the player play twice to
the same trick, his opponents can elect which of the two .shall
remain and belong to the trick. Provided, however, that no
revoke be caused.

[But if the trick should happen to be turned with five cards in it, ad-
versaries may claim a fresh deal ]

21. A player, before he throws, may require his partner to
" draw his card," or he may have each card in the trick
claimed by the players before the trick is completed.

[The proper way is to say, " Draw your cards," as then the chance
of partner claiming the wrong one is lessened.]

22. If two players answer the lead together, the one whose
turn it was to play can call the other card in the next or fol-
lowing trick as an exposed card.

23. No player is allowed to transfer his hand to another
without the consent of his adversaries.

24. A hand once abandoned and laid down on the table
cannot be taken up again and played.

25. If a player announce that he can win every trick, ad-
versaries may call his cards.

THE REVOKE.

26. The penalty for a revoke is the forfeiture of three
tricks. If a revoke be made, the adverse party may add three

400

GAMES OF CARDS.

to their score by taking them from their opponents, or they
may reduce your score by three.

[In order to more fully explain the intent of a revoke : " If a suit is
led, and any one of the players, having a card of the same suit,
shall play another suit to it— that constitutes a revoke. But if the
error be discovered before the trick is quitted, or before the party
having so played a wrong suit, or his partner, shall play again, the
penalty only amounts to the cards being treated as exposed, and
being liable to be called."]

27. If a player revokes, and before the trick is turned dis-
covers his error, adversaries may call on him to play his high-
est or lowest card of the suit led, or they may call the card
exposed at any time when such call will not lead to another
revoke.

28. No revoke can be claimed till the trick is turned and
quitted, or the revoker's partner has played again.

29. When a revoke is claimed, the cards must not be mixed,
under forfeiture of the game.

30. The player or partners against whom a revoke is es-
tablished cannot claim the game in that deal.

31. No revoke can be claimed after the cards are cut for
the next game.

32. When a revoke has occurred on both sides, there must
be a new deal.

33. The proof of a revoke is with the claimants, who may
examine each trick on the completion of the round.

CALLING HONORS.

34. Honors cannot be counted unless they are claimed be-
fore the next deal. No omission to score them can be rectified
after the cards are packed, but an overscore can be deducted.

35. Honors can only be called at eight points, and then
only by the player whose turn it is to play.

[It is quite usual to omit calling honors when the game is pretty cer-
tain, but the shortest and fairest plan is for the player holding two
honors to ask, " Can you one ? " when, if your partner holds one,
the game is at an end.]

36. At nine points honors do not count.

37. Four honors in one or both partners' hands count four
to the game ; three honors, two. Two honors on each side are
not scored, but are said to be divided.

THE SCORE.

38. If both partners score, and a discrepancy occur between
them, adversaries may elect which score to retain.

39. The score cannot be amended after the game is won
and the cards packed.

INTIMATIONS BETWEEN PARTNERS.

40. A player may ask his partner, " What are trumps? " or,
"Can you follow suit?" "Is there not a revoke?" Or he
may tell him to draw his card. All other intimations are
unfair.

41. Lookers-on must not interfere unless appealed to.

BY-LAWS.
These are all the laws of the game of Whist, but there are
certain other rules or by-laws with which it is important the
finished player should be acquainted. The penalties attached
to a disregard of any of the following by-laws differ in differ-
ent companies, and to some, which partake rather of the
nature of maxims, there is no penalty at all.

When the trump is turned, and taken into the player's
hand, it cannot be demanded by either of the players.

When a card is taken distinctly from the hand to which it
belongs, it may be treated as an exposed card.

Taking a trick belonging to your adversaries subjects you
to no penalty, but it may be reclaimed at any time during the
round.

If a player throws up his hand, and the next player follows
his example, the game must be considered at an end, and lost
to the first player resigning. »

Honors scored improperly are in some companies trans-
ferred to adversaries.

Approval or disapproval of a partner's play, or, in fact, any
improprieties of speech or gesture, are not allowable.

As soon as the lead is played to, it is complete.

If a player announce that he can win all the remaining tricks,
he may be required to face all his cards on the table. His
partner's hand may also be so treated, and each card may be
called separately.

HINTS AND CAUTIONS FOR AMATEURS.

Place each suit together, in the natural order of the cards ;
but do not always put the trumps to the left, as thereby, your
adversary is able to count them as you put them aside. Many
good players do not sort their cards at all, but arrange them
in the hand just as they fall on the table.

Never dispute the score, unless you are pretty certain you
are right ; nothing is so ungraceful as a disputatious player.

Never hesitate long in playing, but if you have a bad hand,
do your best and trust to your partner.

Remember that no points can be marked if you neglect to
score before the second trick of the succeeding round is
played.

Do not show honors after a trick is turned, as they may be
called by your adversaries.

At eight points, the elder hand asks the younger, and not
the younger the elder. That is to say, the player with the
two honors in hand asks, " Can you one ? "

Remember the pood old maxim, " Second hand throws
away, and third hand plays high."

Always endeavor to retain a leading card or trump to nearly
the end.

Never throw a high card on a lost trick when a low one will
suffice.

Follow your partner's lead, and not your adversary's.

When you suspect your partner to be strong in trumps, ruff
when he leads a small card and return a little trump.

WTienyour partner leads from an apparently good hand, do
your best to assist him.

Whist is a silent game ; therefore do not distract the at-
tention of the players by idle conversation.

Never interfere needlessly.

Watch the style of your adversaries' play, and act in accord-
ance with your own judgment.

Make tricks when you can without injury to your partner','
hand.

Accustom yourself to remember the cards that are played.
A good memory is a wonderful assistant at Whist.

GAMES OF CARDS.

401

GENERAL RULES.

Be cautious how you change suits, and allow no artifice of
your adversaries to induce you to do so, without your own
hand warrants it.

Keep a commanding card, to bring in your own strong suit
when trumps are out, if your hand will permit.

Never keep back your partner's suit in trumps, but return
them at the first opportunity.

With a strong suit and but few trumps, rather force your
adversaries than lead trumps — unless it happens that you are
strong in at least one other suit.

Never neglect to make the odd trick when you have a
chance.

Look well to your own and your opponents' score, and shape
your play by reference to them.

In a backward game, it is sometimes wise to risk one trick
in order to secure two ; but in a forward game, be more cau-
tious.

If you hold three cards of the suit led by your partner, re-
turn his lead with your best.

Remember what cards drop from each hand, how many of
each suit are out, and the best remaining card in each .

Seldom lead from Ace and Queen, Ace and Knave, or King
and Knave, if you hold another moderate suit.

If neither of your adversaries will lead from the above suits,
you must do it yourself with a small card.

You are strong in trumps with five small ones, or three
small ones and one honor.

Do not tmmp a card when you are strong in trumps, more
especially if you hold any other strong suit.

If you hold only a few small trumps, make them when you
can.

If your partner refuses to trump a suit of which he knows
you have not the best, lead him your best trump as soon as
you can.

If your partner has trumped a suit, and refuses to play
trumps, lead him that suit again.

Never force your partner but when you are strong in trumps,
unless you have a renounce yourself, or want only the odd
trick.

If the adversaries trump out, and your partner has a re-
nounce, give him that suit when you get the lead, if you think
he has a small trump left.

Lead not from an Ace suit originally, if you hold four in
number of another suit.

When trumps are either returned by your partner, or led by
your adversaries, you may finesse deeply in them ; keeping
the command as long as you can in your own hand.

If you lead the King of any suit, and make it, you must
not thence cpnclude that your partner holds the Ace.

It is sometimes proper to lead a thirteenth card, in order to
force the adversary, and give your partner a chance of making
a trick as last player.

If weak in trumps, make your tricks soon ; but when strong
in them, you may play a more backward game.

With five small trumps and a good hand, lead trumps, and
so exhaust the suit.

With the lead, and three small trumps and the Ace, it is

sometimes judicious to allow your adversaries to make two
tricks in trumps with King and Queen, and on the third
round play your Ace. You then secure the last trick with
your little trump.

With one strong suit, a moderate one, and a single card, it
is good play to lead out one round from your strong suit, and
then play your single card.

Keep a small card of your partner's first lead, if possible,
in order to return it when the trumps are out.

Never force your adversary with your best card of a suit
unless you have the second best also.

In your partner's lead, endeavor to keep the command in
his hand, rather than in your own.

If you have see-saw, it is generally better to pursue it than
to trump out, although you should be strong in trumps with a
good suit.

Keep the trump you turn up, as long as you properly can.

When you hold all the remaining trumps, play one of them,
to inform your partner ; and then put the lead into his hand.

It is better to lead from Ace and Nine than from Ace and
Ten.

It is better to lead trumps through an Ace or King than
through, a Queen or Knave.

If you hold the last trump, some winning cards, and one
losing card only, lead the losing card.

When only your partner has trumps remaining, and leads a
suit of which you hold none, if you have a good sequence of
four, throw away the highest of it.

If you have an Ace, with one small card of any suit, and
several winning cards in other suits, rather throw away some
winning card than that small one.

If you hold only one honor with a small trump, and wish
the trumps out, lead the honor first.

If trumps have been led thrice, and there be two remaining
in your adversaries' hands, endeavor to force them out.

Never play the best card of your adversaries' lead at second
hand, unless your partner has none of that suit.

If you have four trumps, and the command of a suit where-
of your partner has none, lead a small card, in order that he
may trump it.

With these general directions we may now proceed to con-
sider each hand as analyzed by Hoyle and improved by
modem players. The following are from the last and best
edition of Hoyle ; the maxims have been adopted by Payne,
Trebor, Carleton, Coelebs, Captain Crawley, and all the other
writers on the game.

THE LEAD— FIRST HAND.

Begin with the suit of which you have the greatest number ;
for, when trumps are out, you will probably make tricks in it.

If you hold equal numbers in different suits, begin with
the strongest ; it is the least liable to injure your partner.

Sequences are always eligible leads ; they support youT
partner's hand without injuring your own.

Lead from King or Queen rather than from a single Ace ;

:sir-

402

GAMES OF CARDS.

for, since your opponents will lead from contrary suits, your
Ace will be powerful against them.

Lead from King rather than Queen, and from Queen rather
than Knave ; for the stronger the suit, the less is your partner
endangered.

Do not lead from Ace Queen, or Ace Knave, till you are
obliged ; for, if that suit be led by your opponents, you have
a good chance of making two tricks in it.

In sequences to a Queen, Knave, or Ten, begin with the
highest, and so distress your left-hand adversary.

With Ace, King, and Knave, lead the King ; if strong in
trumps, you may wait the return of this suit, and finesse the
Knave.

"With Ace, Queen, and one small card, lead the small one ;
by this lead, your partner has a chance of making the Knave.

With Ace, King, and two or three small cards, play Ace
and King if weak, but a small card if strong, in trumps ; when
strong in trumps, you may give your partner the chance of
making the first trick.

With King, Queen, and one small card, play the small one ;
for your partner has an equal chance to win, and there is little
fear of your making King or Queen.

With King, Queen, and two or three small cards, lead a
small card if strong, and the King if weak, in trumps ;
strength in trumps entitles you to play a backward game, and
to give your partner a chance of winning the first trick. But
if weak in trumps, lead the King and Queen, to secure a trick
in that suit.

With Ace, with four small cards, and no other good suit,
play a small one if strong in trumps, and the Ace if weak ;
strength in trumps may enable you to make one or two of the
small cards, although your partner cannot support your lead.

With King, Knave, and Ten, lead the Ten ; if your part-
ner has the Ace, you may probably make three tricks, whether
he pass the Ten or not.

With King, Queen, and Ten, lead the King ; for, if it fail,
by putting on the Ten, upon the return of the suit from your
partner, you may make two tricks.

With Queen, Knave, and Nine, lead the Queen ; upon the
return of that suit from your partner, by putting on the Nine,
you make the Knave,

SECOND HAND,

With Ace, King, and small ones, play a small card if strong
in trumps, but the King if weak. Otherwise your Ace or
King might be trumped in the latter case- Except in critical
cases, no hazard should be run with few trumps.

With Ace, Queen, and small cards, play a small one ; upon
the return of that suit you may make two tricks.

With Ace, Knave, and small cards, play a small one ; upon
the return of that suit you may make two tricks.

With Ten or Nine, with small cards, play a small one. By
this plan you may make two tricks in the suit

With King, Queen, Ten, and small cards, play the Queen.
By playing the Ten on the return of the suit, you stand a
good chance of making two tricks.

With King, Queen^ and small cards, play a small card if
srrong in trumps, but the Queen if weak in them ; for strength

in trumps warrants a backward game. It is advantageous to
keep back your adversaries' suit.

With a sequence to your highest card in the suit, play the
lowest of it, for by this means your partner is informed of
your strength.

With Queen, Knave, and small ones, play the Knave, be-
cause you will probably secure a trick.

With Queen, Ten, and small ones, play a small one, foi
your partner has an equal chance to win.

With either Ace, King, Queen, or Knave, with small cards,
play a small one ; your partner has an equal chance to win
the trick.

With either Ace, King, Queen, or Knave, with one small
card only, play the small one, for oherwise your adversary
will finesse upon you.

If a Queen of trumps be led, and you hold the King, put
that on ; if your partner hold the Ace, you do no harm ; and
if the King be taken, the adversaries have played two honors
to one.

If a Knave of trumps be led, and you hold the Queen, put
it on ; for, at the worst, you bring down two honors for one.

If a King be led, and you hold Ace, Knave, and small
ones, play the Ace, which can only make one trick.

THIRD HAND.

The third hand plays high.

With Ace and King, play the Ace and immediately return
the King. It is not necessary that you should keep the com-
mand of your partner's hand.

With Ace and Queen, play the Ace and return the Queen.
By this means you make a certain trick, though it is son.etimes
policy to play the Queen. Your partner is, however, best
supported by the old-fashioned method.

With Ace and Knave, play the Ace and return the Knave,
in order to strengthen your partner's hand.

With King and Knave, play the King; and if it win, return
the Knave.

riay the best when your partner leads a small card, as it
best supports him.

If you hold Ace and one small card only, and your part-
ner lead the King, put on the Ace, and return the small
one ; for, otherwise, your Ace may be an obstruction to his
suit.

If you hold King and only one small card, and your part-
ner lead the Ace, when the trumps are out, play the King ;
for, by putting on the King, there will be no obstruction to
the suit.

FOURTH HAND.

If a King be led, and you hold Ace, Knave, and a small
card, play the small one ; for supposing the Queen to follow
you will probably make both Ace and Knave.

When the third hand is weak in his partner's lead, jou
may often return that suit to gJeat advantage ; but this rule
must not be applied to trumps, unless you are very strong
indeed.

Never neglect to secure ihe-trick if there is any doubt about
the game.

GAMES OF CARDS.

403

If you hold the thirteenth trump, retain it to make a trick
when your partner fails in his lead.

If you stand in the nine holes, make all the tricks you
can ; but at the same time be careful. Watch the game nar-
rowly, and look well to your partner's lead.

LEADING TRUMPS.

Lead trumps from a strong hand, but never from a weak
one ; by which means you will secure your good cards from
being trumped.

Never trump out with a bad hand, although you hold five
small trumps ; for, since your cards are bad, you only bring
out your adversaries' good ones.

If you hold Ace, King, Knave, and three small trumps,
play Ace and King ; for the probability of the Queen falling
is in your favor.

If you hold Ace, King, Knave, and one or two small
trumps, play the King, and wait the return from your part-
ner to put on the Knave. By this plan you may win the
Queen. But if you have particular reasons to exhaust trumps,
play two rounds, and then your strong suit.

If you hold Ace, King, and two or three small trumps, lead
a small one, with a view to let your partner win the first trick ;
but if you have good leason for getting out trumps, play three
rounds, or play Ace and King, and then your strong suit.

If your adversaries are eight, and you hold no honor, throw
off your best trump ; for, if your partner has not two honors,
you lose the game. But if he should happen to hold two
honors — as he probably would — you have a strong command-
ing game.

Holding Ace, Queen, Knave, and small trumps, play the
Knave ; by this means, the King only can make against you.

Holding Ace, Queen, Ten, and one or two small tnimps,
lead a small one ; this will givje your partner a chance to win
the first trick, and keep the command in your own hand.

Holding King, Queen, Ten, and small trumps, lead the
King ; for, if the King be lost, upon the return of trumps you
may finesse the Ten.

Holding King, Knave, Ten, and .small ones, lead the Knave;
it will prevent the adversaries from making a small trump.

Holding Queen, Knave, Nine, and small trumps, lead the
Queen ; if your partner hold the Ace, you have a chance of
making the whole suit.

Holding Queen, Knave, and two or three small trumps,
lead the Queen.

Holding Knave, Ten, Eight, and small trumps, lead the
Knave ; on the return of trumps you may finesse the Eight.

Holding Knave, Ten, and three small trumps, lead the
Knave ; this will most distress your adversaries, unless two
honors are held on your right hand, the odds against which
arc about three to one.

Holding only small trumps, play the highest ; by which
means you support your partner.

Holding a sequence, begin with the highest ; thus your part-
ner is instructed how to play his hand, and cannot be injured.

If any honor be turned up on your left, and the game much
against you, lead a trump as soon as you can. You may thus
probably retrieve an almost lost game.

In all other cases it is dangerous to lead through an honor
without you are strong in trumps, or have an otherwise good
hand. All the advantage of leading through an honor lies in
your partner finessing.

If the Queen be turned up on your right, and you hold Ace,
King, and small ones, lead the King. Upon the return of
trumps finesse, unless the Queen falls. Otherwise the Queen
will make a trick.

With the Knave turned up on your right, and you hold
King, Queen, and Ten, the best play is to lead the Queen.
Upon the return of trumps play the Ten. By this style of
play you make the Ten.

If the Knave turn up on your right, and you hold* King,
Queen, and small ones, it is best to lead the King. If that
comes home, you can play a small one, for the chance of your
partner possessing the Ace.

If Knave turn up on your right, and you have King, Queen,
and Ten, with two small cards, lead a small one. Upon the
return of trumps play the Ten. The chances are in favor of
your partner holding an honor, and thus you make a trick.

If an honor be turned up on your left, and you hold only
one honor with a small trump, play out the honor, and then
the small one. This will greatly strengthen your partner's
hand, and cannot injure your own. .

If an honor be turned up on the left, and you hold a
sequence, lead the highest ; it will prevent the last hand
from injuring your partner.

If a Queen be turned up on the left and you hold Ace,
King, and a small one, lead the small trump ; you have a
chance for winning the Queen.

If a Queen be turned up on your left, and you hold Knave,
with small ones, lead the Knave ; for the Knave can be of no
service, since the Queen is on your left.

If an honor be turned up by your partner, and you are
strong in trumps, lead a small one ; but if weak in them, lead
the best you have. By this means the weakest hand supports
the strongest.

If an Ace be turned up on the right, and you hold King,
Queen, and Knave, lead the Knave ; it is a secure lead.

If an Ace be turned up on the right, and you hold King,
Queen, and Ten, lead the King ; and upon the return of
tramps play the Ten. By this means you show strength to
your partner, and probably make two tricks.

If a King be turned up on the right, and you hold Queen,
Knave, and Nine, lead the Knave, and upon the return of
trumps, play the Nine : it may prevent the Ten from making.

If a King be turned up on your right, and you hold Knave,
Ten and Nine, lead the Nine ; upon the return of trumps play
the Ten. This will disclose your strength in trumps to your
partner.

If a Queen be tunied up on the right, and you have Ace,
King, and Knave, lead the King. Upon the return of trumps
play the Knave, which makes a certain trick.

HOW TO PLAY WHEN YOU TURN UP AN HONOR.

If you turn up an Ace, and hold only one small trump with
it, if either adversary lead the King, put on the Ace.

But if you turn up an Ace, and hold two or three small

•^-

404

GAMES OF CARDS.

trumps with it, and either adversary lead the King, put on a
small one ; for, if you play the Ace, you give up the command
in trumps.

If you turn up a King and hold only one small trump with
it, and your right-hand adversary lead a trump, play a small
one.

If you turn up a King, and hold two or three small trumps
with it, if your right-hand adversary lead a trump, play a
small one.

If you turn up a Queen or Knave, and hold besides only
small trumps, if your right-hand adversary lead a trump, put
out a small one.

If you hold a sequence to the honor turned up, play it last.

HOW TO PLAY FOR THE ODD TRICK.

Never trump out if you can avoid it, for you can hardly be
sure of the other three hands.

If your partner, by hoisting the Blue Peter, or by any other
allowable intimation, shows that he has means of trumping any
suit, be cautious how you trump out. Force your partner, if
strong in trumps, and so make all the tricks you can.

Make tricks early in the game, and be cautious in finessing.

With a single card of any suit, and only two or three small
trumps, lead the single card.

RETURNING PARTNER'S LEAD.

In the following cases it is best to teturtt your partner' s lead
directly : —

When you win with the Ace, and can return an honor ; for
then it will greatly strengthen his hand.

When he leads a trump, in which case return the best re-
maining in your hand unless you hold four. An exception to
this arises if the lead is through an honor.

When your partner has trumped out ; for then it is evident
he wants to make his strong suit.

When you have no good card in any other suit ; for then
you are entirely dependent on your partner.

In the following instances it is proper that you should NOT re-
turn your partner' s lead immediately: —

When you win with the King, Queen, or Knave, and have
only small cards remaining. The return of a small card will
more distress than strengthen your partner's hand.

When you hold a good sequence ; for then you may make
tricks and not injure his hand.

When you have a strong suit. Leading from a strong suit
is a direction to your partner and cannot injure him.

When you have a good hand ; for in this case you have a
right to consult your own hand, and not your partner's.

When you hold five trumps ; for then you are warranted to
play trumps if you think it right.

When, in fine, you can insure two or three tricks, play them,
and then return the lead. With a leading hand, it is well to
play your own game.

THE FINISH.
The most important part of a game at Whist is the Finish
— the last two or three tricks. Be careful how you play, or
ycu may make a bad ending to a good beginning.

Loose Card. — If you hold three winning cards and a loose
one, play the latter, and trust to your partner.

Loose Trump and Tenace. — Holding these, play the loose
trump.

King and the Lead. — If you hold a King, and a loose card,
the best plan is to play the last, so that your partner may lead
up to your King.

Long Trumps. — If you hold three it is best to lead the small-
est ; by this means you give your partner a chance of making
tricks, and still hold a commanding card in your own hand.
It is not well to play out the King card.

Third Hand with King, Gfc. — " Supposing," says Coelebs,
" ten tricks being made, you remain with King, Ten, and
another. If second hand plays an honor, cover it ; otherwise
finesse the Ten for a certain trick. If you want two tricks
play your King."

Running a Card. — The same authority says — "With such
cards as Knave, Nine, Eight, against Ten guarded, by ' run-
ning' the Eight you make every trick."

STRENGTH IN TRUMPS.

The following hands are given by Hoyle to demonstrate
what is known as being strong in trumps : —
Ace. King, and three small trumps.
King, Queen, and three small trumps.
Queen, Ten, and three small trumps.
Queen and four small trumps.
Knave and four small trumps.
Five trumps without an honor must win two tricks if led.

FORCING YOUR PARTNER.
You are justified in forcing your partner if you hold —
Ace and three small trumps.
King and three small trumps.
Queen and three small trumps.
Knave and four small trumps.
Five trumps.

CALCULATIONS FOR BETTING.

At Long Whist,

It is about five to four that your partner holds one card out
of any two.

Five to two that he holds one card out of any three.

Two to one that he does not hold a certain named card.

Three to one that he does not hold two out of three named
cards in a suit.

Three to two that he does not hold two cards out of ai.y
four named.

Five to one that your partner holds one winning card.

Four to one that he holds two.

Three to one that he holds three.

Three to two that he holds four.

Four to six that he holds five.

BETTING THE ODDS.

The odds on the rubber are five 10 two in favor of the deal-
ers generally.

GAMES OF CARDS.

405

With the first game secured, the odds on the rubber, with

the deal, are —

to love

about

7 to 2

4 — I
9 — 2

5 — I

6 — I

At any part of the game, except at the points of eight or nine,
the odds are in proportion to the number of points required to
make the ten required. Thus, if A wants four and B six of
the game, the odds are six to four in favor of A. If A
wants three and B five, the odds are seven to five on A win-
ning the game.

Against honors being divided, the odds are about three to
two against either side, though the dealers have certainly the
best chance.

The following, calculated strictly, are the

ODDS ON THE GAME WITH THE DEAL.

love

—

love

—

love

—

love

—

• —

—

love

—

love
love

—

7
5
9

—

love
te I

—

9
9
9
9

4
4
4

6
6
2

5
4

7
6

—

— ~

z ;

—

— I

—

— I

—

— I

—

to 2

—

7
3

—

— 2

7
8

6
6

4
?

— 2

—

—^

I
3

—

;

— 2

—

— 2

—

Honors counting at eight points and not at nine, the odds
are slightly in favor of the players at eight. It is usual for the
players at eight points, with the deal, to bet six to five on the
game. It is about an even bet, if honors are not claimed at
eight points, that the dealers win. As a disinterested piece of
advice, however, let me add — Don^/ bet at all.

AT SHORT WHIST.

The foUoving are the generally-accepted odds, but it must
be remembered that in respect of betting the chances in Short
Whist do not greatly differ from those of the old and, as I
think, much superior game.

ON THE GAME WITH THE DEAL.

At starting, the odds are about 11 to 10, or perhaps 21 to
20, in favor of the dealers. With an honor turned up, the
odds are nearly a point greater in favor of the dealers.

1 to love is about

2 —

3 —

4 —

2 to I is about

3 — 2 —

3 — 3 —

4 — 3 —

10 to 8

5 — 3

3 — I

4 — I

5 to 4
2 — I

11 — 10
9—7

ON THE RUBBER WITH THE DEAL.

1 to love is about

2 —

3 —

4 —

to 4

— I

— 2

— I

The following are given as mere matters of curiosity :

It is 50 to I against the dealer holding 7 trumps, neither
more nor less.

15 to I against his holding 6 trumps.

8 to I against his holding exactly 5.

3 to 2 against his holding exactly 4.

5 to 2 in favor of his holding 3 trumps or more trumps.

II to 2 in favor of his holding 2 or more trumps.

30 to I against his holding only the i trump turned up.

Against any non-dealer holding any specified number 0/
trumps.

100 to I against his holding exactly 7.

30 to I ** ** 6.

15 to I '• " 5.

5 to I •• " 4.

3 to 2 " " 3.

5 to 2 in favor of his holding 2 or more.

50 to I in favor of his holding i trump or more.

Against the dealer holding 13 trumps it is calculated to be
158,753,389.89910 I.

Against his holding 12 trumps, 338,493,367 to i.

Against his holding 11 trumps, 3,<X)0,ooo to i.

Against his holding 10 trumps, 77,000 to l.

Against his holding g trumps, 3,500 to l.

Against his holding 8 trumps, 320 to l.

Against his holding 7 trumps, 50 to i.

These figures are, however, of but small practical utility in
Whist, from the simple fact that nowadays such odds are
seldom or never offered or taken. Whist is not a game to
gamble at.

SHORT WHIST, DUMMY, DOUBLE
DUMMY, etc.

THE LAWS OF SHORT WHIST.

1. The game consists of five points. One point scored
saves the triple game ; three points, a double. The rubber is
reckoned as two points.

[Eight points may therefore be gained in a single rubber.]

2. Honors cannot be " called " at any part of the game, and
do not count at the point of four.

[In all other respects, honors are reckoned as in Long Whist.]

^
-<^

406

GAMES OF CARDS.

•^

The two highest and two lowest are partners, the lowest
cut having the deal.

[The cards are to be shuffled and cut in precisely the same way as in
the old-fashioned game.]

4 An exposed card necessitates a fresh deal.

5. In cases of misdeal, the deal passes to the next player.
[Misdeals occur from precisely the same causes as in Long Whist, and

need not, therefore, be stated.]

6. No questions as to either hand can be asked after the
trick is turned.

[Nor are any questions except those admissible in the other game to
be asked.]

7. Any card played out of turn, or shown accidentally, can
be called.

8. A revoke is subject to the penalty of three tricks.
[Taken as in Long Whist.]

g. The side making the revoke remains at four, in whatever
way the penalty be enforced.

10. Lookers-on must not interfere unless appealed to by the
majority of the players.

It is not necessary to dilate upon the best method of playing
each separate hand at this game, because whatever is useful
and true at Long Whist is equally useful and true at Short
Whist. " The peculiarities of the short game," says a recent
writer, " call for special appliances. This should act as stim-
ulants to the player, and rouse his energy." But what these
special appliances are it is difficult to discover, seeing that the
two games are identical in everything but length. The only
advantage of the short game lies in the more forcible use that
can be made of trumps. " Trumps," says Carleton, " should
be your rifle company ; use them liberally in your manoeuvers ;
have copious reference to them in finessing, to enable you to
maintain a long suit. Should you be weak in trumps, ruff a
doubtful card at all times ; with a command in them, be very
chary of that policy. Let your great principle always be to
keep the control of your adversaries' suit, and leave that of
your partner free. If you see the probable good effect of
forcing, decide which of your adversaries you will assail, but
do not attempt them both at once. Let it be the stronger if
possible. When you force both hands opposed to you, one
throws away his useless cards ; while the chance is, the other
makes trumps that, under other circumstances, would have
been sacrificed." Kx\^%o, et cetera ad infinitum. Deschapel-
les, who is the French Hoyle without his science, but with
double his power of writing, says of Short Whist : " When we
consider the social feelings it engenders, the pleasure and vi-
vacity it promotes, and the advantages it offers to the less skill-
ful player, we cannot help acknowledging that Short Whist is
a decided improvement upon the old game." All this is,
however, open to argument ; and therefore dc gustibus non est.

VtXiyiUS, OR THREE-HANDED WHIST.

This game is precisely the same as Long Whist, only that
one player takes two hands, one of which he holds in the
usual manner, and the other he spreads open on the table. The
rules are the same.

Another Game is played by three persons, in which two

Nines and Fours, and one of the Five is cast out from the pack,
and each player plays on his own account.

A Third Way of playing three-handed Whist is to reject
the fourth hand altogether, and allow it to remain unseen on
the table. Each player then takes the miss, or unseen hand,
in exchange for his own, if he thinks fit. Each player stands
on his cards, and the best hand must win. There is, however,
room for finesse, and the player who sees two hands — the miss,
and that first dealt to him — has an undeniable advantage.

TWO-HANDED WHIST.

This game is either played as Double Dumby, by exposing
two hands and playing as with four players, or by rejecting
two hands and each player making the best he can of his own
hand. In these games each honor counts as one point in the
game. There is but small room for skill in any of the im-
perfect Whist games, and the player who is acquainted with
the real old-fashioned game need not be told how to play his
cards at Dumby or French Humbug. At best these games are
inferior to Cribbagc, Ecarte, All-Fours, or any of the regular
two-handed games.

i V^^\^£^ UCHRE is played with a pack of thirty-two
cards, all below the Seven being rejected.
Two, three, or four persons may play, but the
^^ four-handed game is the best.

THE DEAL.

players having cut for deal the pack is shuffled
the player to the right of the dealer cuts. The
deal is executed by giving five cards to each player.
The dealer gives two cards at a time to each in rotation, begin-
ning with the player to his left ; he then gives three cards at a
time to each, or vice versa. In which ever manner the dealer
commences to distribute the cards, he must continue ; he must
not deal two to the first, three to the next, and so on. After
each player has received five cards, the dealer turns up the
next card for trumps, and places it face upward on top of the
stock.

The right to deal passes successively to the left.

At the outset of the game each player cuts for the deal, and
the lowest cut deals. In a tie, the parties tied cut again. The
players cutting the two highest cards play against those cut-
ting the two lowest.

In cutting, the Ace is lowest, and the other cards rank as at
Whist.

Should a player expose more than one card, he must cut
again.

GAMES OF CARDS.

407

The cards may be shuffled by any player who demands that
privilege, but the dealer has always the right to shuffle last.

The cards must be cut by the right-hand opponent before
they are dealt.

A cut must not be less than four cards removed from the
top, nor must it be made so as to leave less than four cards at
the bottom ; and the pack must be put on the table for the
cut.

RANK.

The cards in suits, not trumps, rank as £t Whist, the Ace
being the highest, the Seven the lowest. When a suit is
trump, the cards rank differently. The Knave of the suit
turned up is called the ri^/ti Bower, and is the highest trump.
The other Knave of the same color (black or red. as the case
may be) is called the left Bower, and is the next highest
trump.

HOW TO ORDER UP, ASSIST, PASS, AND TAKE UP.

When the trump is turned, the player to the left of the
dealer examines his hand to determine his plans. He may
either order up the trump, or pass. If he thinks his cards are
strong enough to win three tricks, he says, " I order it up."
The dealer then discards one card from his hand, and puts it
under the stock, face downward, and the trump card belongs
to the dealer, instead of the card he discarded. If the eldest
hand is not satisfied with his cards, he says, " I pass."

If the eldest hand pass, the partner of the dealer then has
the option of declaring what he will do, and he may either
assist his partner, or pass. If his hand is strong enough, with
the help of the trump his partner has turned, to win three
tricks, he says, " I assist," and his partner discards as before,
and the trump card belongs to him. If the partner of the
dealer has a weak hand, he says, " I pass," and the third
player, that is, the player next to the right of the dealer, has
the option of saying what he will do.

The third play6r proceeds exactly as the eldest hand, and,
if he pass, the dealer has the next say.

If all the other players pass the dealer may either take up
the trump, or pass. If his hand is strong enough to take three
tricks he says, " I take it up." The dealer then discards the
weakest card from his hand, and takes the trump card instead.
If the dealer has a weak hand, he says, " I turn it down," and,
at the same time, places the trump card face upward under the
stock.

If the dealer turns down the trump, the eldest hand has the
option of naming any suit (except the one turned down) for
trumps, or of passing again. If he pass, he says, " I pass the
making."

If the eldest hand pass the making, the partner of the dealer
then has the option of making the trump, and so on in rota-
tion up to and including the dealer.

If all the players, including the dealer, decline to make the
trump, a fresh deal takes place, and the eldest hand deals.

If either side adopt (play with the suit turned up for trump),
or make the trump, the play of the hand commences.

When the trump is made of the same color as the turn up
(ihat is, black, if the turn up is black, or red, if it is red), it is
called making it next in suit.

If the trump is made of a different color from the turn up,
it is called crossing the suit.

AVHEN TO PLAY IT ALONE.

If a player holds a hand so strong that he has a reliable
hope of taking all five tricks without the assistance of his
partner, he may play alone. If he plays without his partner,
he says, ^^ I play alone." His partner then places his cards
face downward on the table, and makes no sign.

If the eldest hand order up, or make the trump either he or
his partner may play alone. If the dealer's partner assist,
or make the trump, either he or the dealer may play alone.
If the player to the right of the dealer order up or make
the trump, he may play alone (but his partner cannot). If the
dealer take up or make a trump, he may play alone (but his
partner cannot).

A player cannot play alone after having passed a trump, or
passed the making of a trump. A player cannot play alone
when the opposing side adopt or make the trump ; nor can he
play alone unless he announce Ijis intentions to do so befoie
he or the opposing side make a lead.

THE PLAY.

The eldest hand leads a card and each player in rotation
plays a card to the lead. The four cards thus played consti-
tute a trick. A player must follow suit if he can, but if not
able to follow suit he may play any card he chooses.

The highest card of the suit lead wins the trick ; trumps win
all other suits. The winner of the trick leads to the next, and
so on until the five tricks are played.

THE SCORE.

The game is five points.

If the side who adopt, or make a trump, win all five tricks,
they make a march, and score two.

If they win three tricks, they make ihc point, and score one.
Four tricks count no more than three tricks.

If they fail to take three tricks they are euchered, and the
opposing side scores two points.

When a player plays alone and takes all five tricks, he scores
four points.

If he takes three tricks he scores one point. If he fails to
take three tricks he is euchered, and the opposing side score
two points. By some rules to euchre a lone hand counts the
opposing side four points.

Cards are used in marking game. The face of the Three
being up, and the face of the Four down on it, counts one,
whether one, two, or three pips are exposed ; the face of the

408

GAMES OF CARDS.

Four being up, and the Three over it, face down, counts two,
whether one, two, three, or four of the pips are shown ; the
face of the Three uppermost counts three ; and the face of the
Four uppermost counts four.

GOLDEN MAXIMS.

Never lose sight of the state of the game. When vou are
four and four, adopt or make the trump upon a weak hand.

When the game stands three to three, reflect before you
adopt or make a trump upon a weak hand, for a euchre will
put your adversaries out.

When your are one and your opponents have scored four,
you can afford to try and make it alone upon a weaker hand
than if the score were more in your favor.

When you are eldest hand and the score stands four for
you and one for your opponents, do not fail to order up the
trump, to prevent them from playing alone. This is called a
" Bridge." You need not do this if you hold the Right Bower,
or the Left Bower guarded.

Never trump your partner's winning cards, but throw your
losing and single cards upon them.

If your partner adopts or makes the trump, and you hold
the Right or Left Bower al'^ne, ruff with it as soon as you can
get the opportunity.

When playing second, be careful how you ruff a card of a
small denomination the first time round, for it is an even
chance that your partner will be able to take the trick if you
let it pass. Throw away any single card lower than an
Ace, so that you may ruflf the suit you throw away when it is
led.

When your partner assists, and you hold a card next higher
to the turn-up card, ruff with it when an opportunity occurs,
for by so doing you give your partner information of value.

When you are in the position of third player, ruff with high
or medium trumps.

When your partner leads a lay Ace, and you have none of
that suit, do not trump it ; but if you have asingle card, throw
it away upon it.

When second hand, if compelled to follow suit, head the
trick if possible, to strengthen your partner's game.

When you cannot follow suit or trump, dispose of your
weakest card.

When opposed to a person playing it alone, be careful how
you separate two cards of the same suit. Be cautious how
you separate your trumps when you hold the Left Bower
guarded.

When it comes your turn to say what you will do, decide
promptly, saying, " I pass," "assist," etc., at once.

In discarding endeavor to keep as few suits as possible.

EUCHRE WITH THE JOKER.

A euchre pack is usually accompanied by a specimen blank
card, which has given rise to this amusing variety of the game
of Euchre. It is called " the Joker," or highest trump card,
and ranks above the Right Bower. If this "Joker" should
happen to be turned for trump, the dealer must turn up the
next card to determine the trump suit. In all other particu-

lars the game is played in the same manner as the regular game
of Euchre.

TWO-HANDED EUCHRE.

The rules of the four-handed game apply equally to two-
handed euchre.

The player, remembering that he has but a single hand to
contend against, may play or even order up, if he has a reason-
able hope of making three tricks.

MISDEALS.

A card too many or too few given to either player.

Dealing the cards when the pack has not been properly cut ; the
claim for a misdeal in this case must be made before the trump carQ is
turned, and before the adversaries look at their cards.

Whenever a misdeal is attributable to any interruption by
the adversaries, the deal will not be forfeited.

If, during the deal, a card be exposed by the dealer or part-
ner, should neither of the adversaries have touched their
cards, the latter may claim a new deal, but the deal is not lost.
If, during the deal, the dealer's partner touch any of his
cards, the adversaries may do the same without losing their
privilege of claiming a new deal should chance give them that
option.

If an opponent displays a card dealt, the dealer may make
a new deal, unless he or his partner have examined their own
cards.

If a deal is made out of turn, it is good, provided it be not
discovered before the dealer has discarded, and the eldest
hand has led.

If a card is faced in dealing, unless it be the trump card, a
new deal may be demanded, but the right to deal is not lost.

If the pack is discovered to be defective, by reason of hav-
ing more or less than thirty-two cards, the deal is void ; but
all the points before made are good.

The dealer, unless he turn down the trump, must discard
one card from his hand and take up the trump card.

The discard is no*; complete until the dealer has placed the
card under the pack ; and if the eldest hand makes a lead be-
fore the discard is complete, he cannot take back the card
thus led, but must let it remain. The dealer, however, may
change the card he intended to discard and substitute another,
or he may play alone, notwithstanding a card has been led. '
After the dealer has quitted the discarded card he cannot take
it back under any circumstances.

After the discard has been made, the dealer may let the
trump card remain upon the table until it is necessary to play
it. After the trump card has been taken in hand, no player
has a right to demand its denomination, but he may ask what
card is trump, and the dealer must inform him.

Should a player play with more than five cards, or the
dealer forget to discard or omit to declare the fact before three
tricks have been turned, the offending party is debarred from
counting any points made in that deal, under these circum-
stances. Should the adverse side win, they may score all the
points they make.

PLAY OUT OF TURN, AND EXPOSURE OF CARDS.
All exposed cards may be called, and the offending party
compelled to lead or play the exposed card or cards when he

-<^

GAMES OF CARDS.

409

'kr—

can legally do so, but in no case can a card be called if a
revoke is thereby causesl.

EXPOSED CARDS,

Two or more cards played at once.

If a player indicates that he holds a certain card in his hand.
Any card that is dropped with its face upwards.
All cards exposed, by accident or otherwise, so that an opponent can
distinguish and name them.

If any player lead out of turn, his adversaries may demand
of him to withdraw his card, and the lead may be compelled
from the right player, the card improperly led be treated as
an exposed card, and called at any time during that deal,
provided it causes no revoke.

If any player lead out of turn and the mislead is followed
by the other three, the trick stands good ; but if only the
second, or the second and third, have played to the false lead,
their cards, on discovery of their mistake, are taken back, and
there is no penalty save against the original offender, whose
card may be called.

If a player play out of turn, his opponents may compel him
to withdraw his card, and the card so played may be treated
as an exposed card, and called at any time during that deal,
provided no revoke is thereby caused.

If any player trump a card in error, and thereby induce an
opponent to play othervvise than he would have done, the
latter may take up his card without penalty, and may call up-
on the offender to play the trump at any period of the hand.

If two cards be played, or if the player play twice to the
same trick, his opponent can elect which of the two shall be-
long to the trick, provided, however, that no revoke be caused.

If a player, imagining that he can take every trick, or for
any other reason, throw down his cards upon the table with
their faces exposed, the adverse side may call each and all of
the cards so exposed, as they may deem most advantageous to
their game , and the delinquent party must play the exposed cards
accordingly. This, however, in the case of a lone hand only.

REVOKE.

When a revoke takes place, the adverse party is entitled to
add two points to their score.

If a suit is led, and any one of the players, having a card of
the same suit, shall play the card of another suit to it — that
constitutes a revoke. But if the error be discovered before
the trick is quitted, or before the party having so played a
wrong suit, or his partner, shall play again, the penalty only
amounts to the cards being treated as exposed, and being
liable to be called.

When the player, who has made a revoke, corrects his
error, his partner, if he has played, cannot change his card
played ; but the adversary may withdraw his card and play
another if he elects to do so.

When a revoke is claimed against adversaries, if they mix
their cards, or throw them up, the revoke is taken for granted,
and they lose the two points.

No party can claim a revoke after cutting for a new deal.

A revoke on both sides causes forfeit to neither ; but a new
deal must be made.

If a player makes a revok*^, his side cannot count any point
or points made in that hand.

A party, refusing to play an exposed card on call, forfeits
two to his opponents.

MAKING THE TRUMP, PLAYING ALONE.

Any player making a trump cannot change the suit after
having once named it ; and if he should by error name the
suit previously turned down, he forfeits his right to make the
tiump, the privilege passing to the next eldest player.

A player may only play alone when he orders up, takes up, or
makes a trump ; or when his partner assists, orders up, or makes
a trump. He cannot play alone with a trump he has passed, or
with a trump, the making of which he has passed ; nor can
he play alone after a lead has been made by himself, or by
his opponents.

A player cannot play alone when he or his partner is ordered
up by an opponent, or when the opposite side adopt or make
the trump.

When a player, having the right to play alone, resolves to do
so, his partner cannot supersede him, and play alone instead.

When a player announces that he will go it alone, his
partner must place his cards upon the table face downwards,
and should the latter expose the face of any of his cards,
either by accident or design, his opponents may compel him
to play or not to play with his partner, at their option.

A player who goes alone must announce his intention in
a clear and audible tone, so that no doubt can be entertained
of his design.

DELICATE HINTS BETWEEN PARTNERS.

If a partner indicates his hand by words or gestures to
his partner, directs him how to play, even by telling him to
follow the rules of the game, or in any way acts out of
order, the adversary scores one point.

If a player, when his side is at a bridge, call the attention
of his partner to the fact, so that the latter orders up, the
latter forfeits the right to order up, and either of the op-
ponents may play alone, if they choose so to do.

No player has aright to see any trick but the one last turned.

T requires a pack of fifty-two cards to play this
game, and any number of persons from two to
six.

THE DEAL.

Before the dealer begins to deal the cards, the
'player next to his left, who is called the Ante-»ian, or
Age, must deposit in the pool an ante not exceeding
one-half the limit previously agreed upon ; this is
called a blind.

'S^

410

GAMES OF CARDS.

4r-

The deal is executed by giving five cards to each player,
one at a time, beginning with the player to the left of the
dealer.

THE ORIGINAL HAND.

After the cards have been dealt the players consult their
hands, and each player, in rotation, beginning with the player
to the left of the Ag-e, determines whether he will ^o in or not.
Any player who decides to go in — that is, to play for the pool,
must put into the pool double the amount of the ante, except
the player holding the Age, who contributes the same amount
as his original ante.

Those who declare they will not play throw their cards, face
downward, upon the table in front of the next dealer.

Any player, when it is his turn, and after making the ante
good, may raise, i. e., increase the ante any amount within the
limit of the game ; the next player, after making good the
ante and raise, may then also raise it any amount within the
limit ; and so on. Each player as he makes good and pays a
share that equalizes his with the other players who are in be-
fore him, may thus increase the ante if he chooses, compelling
the others to pay up that increase, or abandon their share of
the pool.

Each player who raises the ante, must do so in rotation,
going round to the left, and any player who remains in to
play, must put in the pool as much as will make his stake
equal to such increase, or abandon everything which he has
already contributed to the pool.

STRADDLE.

When betting upon the original hand, the straddle may be
introduced. The straddle is nothing more than a double
blind.

The straddle does not give a player the Age, it only gives
him the first opportunity to be the last in before the draw;
that is, the player to the left of the last straddler, after looking
at his hand, and before the draw, must be the first to declaie
whether he will make good the straddle, and so on, in rota-
tion, up to the player who made the last straddle. After the
draw, the player to the left of the Age must make the first bet,
provided he remains in.

FILLING THE HANDS.

When all are in who intend to play, each player has the
right to draw any number of cards he chooses, from one to
five, or he can retain the cards originally dealt to him. If a
player draws cards, he must discard a like number from his
hand previous to drawing, and the rejected cards must be
placed face downward upon the table near the next dealer.

The dealer asks each player in rotation, beginning with the
holder of the Age, how many cards he wants, and, when the
player has discarded, he gives the number requested from the
top of the pack. Wlien the other hands have been helped,
the dealer, if he has **gone in," and wants cards, then helps
himself last.

BET, RAISE, AND CALL.

When all the hands are filled, the player to the left of the
Age has the first say, and he must either bet or retire from the
game, forfeiting what he has already staked. The same with

all the other players, in rotation, up to the Age. When a
player makes a bet, the next player must either see him — that
is. put in the pool an equal amount, or^^^^ /tetter — that is, make
the previous bet good, and raise it any amount not exceeding
the limit; or he must retire. This continues either until some
one player drives all the others out of the game, and takes the
pool without showing his hand ; or until all the other players
who remain in see the last raise (no one going better) and call
the player who made the last raise. In this event, that is,
when a call is made, the players remaining in all show their
hands, and the strongest hand takes the pool.

If all the players pass, up to the Age, the latter takes the
pool, and the deal ends.

VALUE.

One Pair. — If two players each hold a pair, the highest pair
wins; if the two are similar, the highest remaining card wins.
T'.vo Pair. — ^f the players each hold two pairs, the highest
pair wins. If the two pairs are similar, the player whose re-
maining card is the highest wins.

Tiiplets. — Three cards of the same denomination, not ac-
companied by a pair. The highest triplet wins. Triplets
beat two pairs.

A Straight. — A sequence of five cards not all of the same
suit. An Ace may cither begin or end a straight. If more
than one player holds a straight, the straight headed by the
highest card wins. A straight will beat triplets.

A Flush. — Five cards of the same suit, not in sequence. If
more than one player holds a flush, the flush containing the
highest card wins ; if the highest cards tie, the next highest
cards in those two hands wins, and so on. A flush will beat
a straight, and consequently, triplets.

A Full. — Three cards of the same denomination and a pair.
If more than one player holds a full, the highest triplets win.
A full will beat a flush.

Fours. — Four cards of the same denomination, accompanied
by any other card. If more than one player holds fours, the
highest fours win. When straights are not played, fours beat
a straight flush

A Straight Flush. — A sequence of five cards, all of the same
suit. If more than one player holds a straight flush, the win-
ning hand is determined in the same manner as the straight,
which see.

When none of the foregoing hands are shown, the highest
card wins ; if these tie, the next highest in those two hands,
and so on.

If, upon a call for a show of hands, it occurs that two or
more parties interested in the call hold hands identical in
value, and those hands are the best out, the parties thus tied
must divide the pool, share and share alike.

THE TECNICAL TERMS.

Age. — Same as eldest hand.

Ante.— The stake deposited in the pool by the Age at the
beginning of the game.

fi laze.— Th-h hand consists of five court cards, and, when it
is played, beats two pairs.

Blind.— The ante deposited by the Age previous to the

GAMES OF CARDS.

411

deal. The blind may be doubled by the player to the left of
the eldest hand, and the next player to the left may at his op-
tion straddle this bet ; and so on, including the dealer, each
player doubling. The player to the left of the Age alone has
the privilege of the first straddle, and if he decline to straddle,
it debars any other player coming after him from doing so.
To make a blind good costs double the amount of the ante,
and to make a straddle good costs four times the amount of
the blind. Each succeeding straddle costs double the pre-
ceding one.

Call. — When the bet goes round to the last better, a player
who remains in, if he does not wish to see and go better,
simply sees and calls, and then all those playing show their
hands, and the highest hand wins the pool.

Chips. — Ivory or bone tokens, representing a fixed value in
money.

Discard. — To take from your hand the number of cards you
intend to draw and place them on the table, near the next
dealer, face downwards.

Draw. — After discarding one or more cards, to receive a
corresponding number from the dealer.

Eldest Hand, or Age. — The player immediately at the left
of the dealer.

Filling. — To match, or strengthen the cards to which you

draw.

Foul Hand. — A hand composed of more or less than five

cards.

Going Better. — When any player makes a bet, it is the privi-
lege of the next player to the left to raise him — after making
good the amount already bet by his adversary, to make a still
higher bet.

Going In. — Making good the ante of the Age and the strad-
dles (if any) foi the privilege of drawing cards and playing for
the pool.

Limit. — A condition made at the beginning of a game, limit-
ing the amount of any single bet or raise.

Making Good. — Depositing in the pool an amount equal to
any bet previously made. This is done previous to raising or
calling a player, and is sometimes called seeing a bet.

Original Hand. — The first five cards dealt to any player.

Pat Hand. — An original hand not likely to be improved by
drawing, such as a full, straight, flush or pairs.

Pass. — " / Pass," signifies that a player throws up his hand
and retires from the game.

yack Pots. — Comes from out West. See page 412.

Raising a Bet. — The same as going better.

Say. — When it is the turn of any player to declare what he
will do, whether he will bet, ox pass his hand, it is said to be
bis say.

Seeing a Bet. — Synonymous with making good.

Straddle.— Reier to Blind.

Table-Stakes.— A table-stake signifies that each player places
his stake where it may be seen, and that a player cannot be
raised more than he has upon the table ; but, at any time be-
tween deals, he may increase his stake from his pocket, or he
may put up any article for convenience* sake, say a key, and
state that that makes his stake as large as any other player's,
and he is then liable to be raised to any amount equal to the

stake of any other player, and must make good with cash.
When playing table-stakes if a player have no money on the
table, he must put up or declare his stake previous to raising
his hand, and failing to do this, he must stand out of the game
for that hand.

THE LAWS.

CUT AND DEAL.

The deal is determined by casting one card to each player,
and the lowest card deals.

In casting for the deal, the Ace is lowest and the King
highest. Ties are determined by cutting.

The cards must be shuffled above the table ; each player
has a right to shuffle the cards, the dealer last.

The player to the right of the dealer must cut the cards.

The dealer must give each player one card at a time, in
rotation, beginning to his left, and in this order he must
deliver five cards to each player.

If the dealer deals without having the pack properly cut, or
if a card is faced in the pack, there must be a fresh deal. The
cards are reshuffled and recut, and the dealer deals again.

If a card be accidentally exposed by the dealer while in the
act of dealing, the player to whom such card is dealt f//ust
accept it as though it had not been exposed.

If the dealer give to himself, or either of the other players,
more or less than five cards, and the player receiving such a
number of cards discover and announce the fact before he
raises his hand, it is a misdeal.

If the dealer give to himself, or either of the other players,
more or less than five cards, and the player receiving such im-
proper number of cards lift his hand before he announces the
fact, it is not a misdeal, and the player must retire from the
game for that hand.

After the first hand the deal proceeds in rotation, begin-
ning with the player to the left of the dealer.

DISCARD AND DRAW.

After the deal has been completed, each player who remains
in the game may discard from his hand as many cards as
he chooses, or his whole hand, and call upon the dealer
to give him a like number from the top of those re-
maining in the pack. The eldest hand must discard first,
and so in regular rotation round to the dealer, who discards
last. All the players must discard before any party is helped.

Any player, after having asked for fresh cards, must take
the exact number called for ; and after cards have once been
discarded, they must not again be taken in hand.

Any player, previous to raising his hand or making a bet,
may demand of the dealer how many cards he drew, and the
latter must reply correctly. By raising his hand, or making a
bet, the player forfeits the right to inquire, removing the obli-
gation to answer.

Should the dealer give any player more cards than the latter
has demanded, and the player discover and announce the fact
before raising his cards, the dealer must withdraw the super-
fluous cards and restore then to the pack. But if the player
raise the cards before informing the dealer of the mistake, he
must retire from the game during that hand.

412

GAMES OF CARDS.

SUsr

Should the dealer give any player fewer cards than the lat-
ter has discarded, and the player discover and announce the
fact previous to lifting the cards, the dealer must give the
player from the pack sufficient cards to make the whole num-
ber correspond with the number originally demanded. If the
player raise the cards before making the demand for more, he
must retire from the game during that hand.

If a player discard and draw fresh cards to his hand, and
while serving him the dealer expose one or more of the cards,
the dealer must place the exposed cards upon the bottom of
the pack, and give to the player a corresponding number from
the top of the pack.

BET, CALL, AND SHOW.

In opening the pool, the Age makes the first ante, which
must not exceed one-half the limit. After the cards are dealt,
every player in his proper turn, beginning with the player to
the left of the Age, must make this ante good by depositing
double the amount in the pool, or retire from the game for
that hand.

After the cards have been dealt, any player, in his proper
turn, beginning with the player to the left of the Age, after
making good the Age's ante, may raise the same any amount
not exceeding the limit of the game.

After the hands are filled, any player who remains in the
game, may, in his proper turn, beginning with the player to
the left of the Age, bet or raise the pool any amount not ex-
ceeding the limit of the game.

After the draw has been made, the eldest hand or Age has
the privilege of deferring his say until after all the other"
players have made their bets, or passed. The Age is the last
player to declare whether he will play or pass. If, however, the
Age pass out of the game before the draw, then the next player
to his left in the game after the draw, must make the first
bet ; or failing to bet, must pass out.

If a player, in his regular turn, bet, or raise a bet any amount
not exceeding the limit of the game, his adversaries must
either call him, go better, or retire from the game for that
hand.

When a player makes a bet he must deposit the amount in
the pool.

If a player makes good, or j^^ja bet, and calls for a show of
hands, each player must show his entire hand to the board,
the caller last, and the best poker hand wins the pool.

If a player bets, or raises a bet, and no other player ^£>^j
better or calls him, he wins the pool and cannot be compelled
to show his hand.

Upon a show of hands, if a player miscall his hand, he
does not losfe the pool for that reason, for every hand shows
for itself.

If a player pass or throw up his hand, he passes out of the
game, and cannot, under any circumstances whatever, parti-
cipate further in that game.

Any player betting with more or less than five cards in his
hand, loses the pool, unless his opponents all throw up their
hands before discovering the foul hand. If only one player
is betting against the foul hand, that player is entitled to the
ante and all the money bet ; but if there are more than one

betting against him, then the best hand among his opponents
is entitled to the pool.

If a player makes a bet, and an adversary raises him, and
the player who made the previous bet has not money sufficient
to see the raise, he can put up all the funds he may have and
call for a show for that amount.

None but the eldest hand (the Age) has the privilege of
going a blind. The party next and to the left of the eldest
hand may double the blind, and the next player straddle it,
the next double the straddle, and so on, but the amount of
the straddle, when made good, must not exceed the limit of
the game.

A player cannot straddle a blind and raise it at the same
time, nor can any player raise a blind before the cards are
dealt.

If the player to the left of the Age decline to straddle a
blind, he prevents any other player from doing so.

JACK POT,

This is played as follows : When all the players pass up to
the blind hand, the latter allows his blind to remain in the
pot, and each of the other players deposits a similar amount.
The blind now deals, and any player in his regular turn may
open or break the pot, provided he holds a pair of Jacks or
better, but a player is not compelled to do so, this being en-
tirely optional.

Each player in turn, commencing with the one at the left
of the dealer, declares whether he can and will open the pot.

If no player opens the pot, then each player deposits in
the pool the same amount that was previously contributed,
and the deal passes to the next player. The same perform-
ance or mode of action will continue until some player holds
the necessary cards, and is willing to break the pot.

A player may break the pot for any amount within the lim-
its of the game, and each player in turn must make the bet
good, raise it, or retire.

After all the players who determine to go in have made
good the bet of the player who opened the Jack Pot, and the
hands have been filled, then the opener of the pot makes the
first bet.

If all pass up to the player who broke the pot, the latter
takes the pool, and can only be compelled to show the Jacks,
or better, necessary to break the pot.

A player who breaks the pot on a pair, may split the pair
in order to draw to a four flush or straight; but, if he does so,
he must lay the discard to one side, separate from any other
cards, so that after the result has been determined he may
satisfy the other players that he broke the pot with a correct
hand. If this precaution is not observed, and attention called
to it, the delinquent is subject to deposit in the pool, as pen-
alty, twice the amount of his original bet.

If no player come in except the one who broke the pot on
an insufficient hand, a new hand must be dealt, and the penalty
added to the pot.

STRAIGHT POKER.

Straight Poker, which is sometimes called Bluff, is played
with a pack of fifty-two cards. The same rules as those of

GAMES OF CARDS.

413

Draw Poker govern it. It differs from the latter game in the
following particulars only:

I. The winner of the pool has the deal.

II. Each player antes before the cards are cut for the deal.

III. Any player may pass with the privilege of coming in
again, provided no player preceding him has made a bet.

IV. No player is permitted to discard, or draw any cards.

V. When all the players pass, the eldest hand deals, and
each player deposits another ante in the pool, thus making
what is termed a "double-header." When a misdeal occurs
the rule is the same.

WHISKEY POKER.

Each player contributes one chip to make a pool, and the
same rules govern as at Draw Poker, save that the strongest
hand you can get is a straight flush. Five cards are dealt to
each player, one at a time, and an extra hand is dealt on the
table, which is called the " widow." The eldest hand then
examines his cards, and if, in his judgment, his hand is suffi-
ciently strong, he passes. The next player then has the pri-
vilege of the widow, and, supposing him to take it, he then
lays his discarded hand (that which he relinquishes for the

widow) face up in the centre of the table, and the next player
to the left selects from it that card which suits him best in
filling his hand, and so on all around the board, each player
discarding one card and picking up another, until some one is
satisfied, which he signifies by knocking upon the table.
When this occurs, all the players around to the satisfied party
have the privilege of one more draw, when the hands are
shown, and the strongest wins. If any player knocks before
the widow is taken, the widow is then turned face up, and
each player from him who knocks has but one more draw.
Should no one take the widow, but all pass to the dealer, he
then turns the widow, and all parties have the right to draw
until some one is satisfied.

STUD POKER
is in all essential particulars like the other Poker games, and
is subject to the same laws and mode of betting, passing, etc.

MISTIGRIS
is a variety of a game of Draw Poker, sometimes called Fifty-
Three Deck Poker. Mistigris is a name given to the blank
card accompanying every pack ; the player holding it can call
it any card not already in his hand.

■^

414

GAMES OF SKILL.

Cl\Q^^.

Black.

iSiB

• « «

iMfvy|f|4T^v^j^^

tions and powers, and eight pawns, are allotted to each com-
petitor. As a necessary distinction, each set is colored in a
different way, one commonly being white, the other red or
black. The pieces are named as follows :

King.

•mm k%

Queen. Bishop.

■

iK night. Rook. Pawn.

4r-

White.

ORDER OF THE MEN ON THE BOARD.

HESS is one of the most ancient of
known games of skill. Various theories
are advanced as to its origin. One ac-
count states that the wife of Ravan,
King of Ceylon, devised it in order to
amuse her royal spouse with an image of
war while his metropolis was closely be-
sieged by Rama.

We will now proceed to give the necessary directions for
playing the game.

The game is played on a board divided into sixty-four
squares, colored alternately black and white. It is the same
as that used at draughts. Eight pieces of different denomina-

Every player, thepefore, is provided with one king, one
queen, two bishops, two knights, and two rooks, besides the
eight pawns. They are placed, at the beginning of each game,
in the order shown at the head of this article.

In placing the board, care must be taken that a while
corner square be at the right hand of each player. It should
also be observed that the queen must be placed upon a square
of her own color.

THE PIECES: THEIR POWERS AND MODE
OF ACTION.

The king can move in any direction — forward, backward,
sideways, or diagonally, provided always, of course, that he
does tiot move into check. The king possesses one great
prerogative — that of never being taken ; but, by way of counter-
balancing the advantage of this exemption, he is restrained
from exposing himself to check. He can move only one
square at a time, except when he castles, which he may do
once during ea.ch game. He may then move two squares. He
cannot castle when in check, nor after he has once moved, nor
with a rook that has been moved, nor if any of the squares
over which he has to move be commanded by an adverse
piece.

The queen can move either horizontally or diagonally. She

GAMES OF SKILL.

415

combines the powers of the bishop and the rock. She can, at
one move, pass along the whole length of the board, or, if
moving diagonally, from comer to corner. Although she can
move and take in the same manner as a bishop or as a rook,
she must make the whole of one move in one direction, and
cannot combine in one move the powers of these two pieces :
in other words, she cannot move round a corner at one step.

The rook (sometimes called the castle) may pass along the
entire length of the board at one move. It may move back-
wards, or forwards, or sideways — but always horizontally,
never diagonally.

The bishop can move only in a diagonal direction, but can
go any number of squares, from one to eight, or as far as the
space be open. The bishop can never change the color of his
square. Thus, the white king's bishop being on a white
square at the beginning, remains so throughout the game.
This is a necessary consequence of his move being purely
diagonal.

The knight has a power of moving which is quite peculiar,
and rather difficult to explain. He moves two squares at once
in a direction partly diagonal and partly straight. He
changes the color of his squares at every move. The knight
is the only piece that possesses what is styled the " vaulting
motion." He is not precluded from going to a square be-
tween which and his own other pieces intervene. Thus,
instead of moving your king's pawn two, as your first move,
you might, if good play permitted it, move out either of your
knights right over the row of pawns in front. This power is
possessed by the knight alone, all the other pieces being
obliged to wait until there is an opening in front of them
before they can emerge.

The pawn moves in a straight line towards the adverse
party. It caAnot move out of its file except in capturing one
of the opposing pawns or pieces, when it steps one square in a
diagonal or slanting direction, and occupies the square of the
captured piece. It can only be moved one square at a time,
excepting in the first move, when the player has the option of
advancing it two squares. The pawn is the only piece which
cannot retreat, and which does not take in the direction in
which it moves. For full explanations relative to "queening
the pawn," and taking a pawn en passant, see instructions on
those points.

ABBREVIATIONS.

The abbreviations which are invariably used in chess publi-
cations are the following : K. for king, Q. for queen, B. for
bishop, Kt. for knight, R. for rook, P. for pawn, Sq. for
square, and Ch. for check. The pieces on one side of the
board are distinguished from those on the other in the follow-
ing manner : Those on the same side as the king are named
after him, as K.'s B, (king's bishop), K.'s Kt. (king's knight),
K.'s R. (king's rook) ; while those on the same side as the
queen are named Q.'s B. (queen's bishop), Q.'s Kt. (queen's
knight), Q.'s R. (queen's rook). The pawns are distinguished
in like manner. The pawn occupying the square in front of
the K.'s B. is called K.'s B.'s P. ; that in front of the K.'s Kt.
is called K.'s Kt.'s P. ; that in front of the Q.'s R. the Q.'s
R.'sP.,etc.

CHESS NOTATION.

It is very necessary that the beginner should thoroughly
understand the system of notation which is invariably used
throughout England, for without it he could never make any
use of book games.

The following diagram fully explains it. It will be seen
that the moves are reckoned both for black and white.

Black.

Q.R.S. Q.Kt.8.

•bs-aO
Q.B.8.

•zaO

Q.B.7.

•bs-O
Q8.

•bs-H
K.8.

•bsa^M
K.B.8.

bs-JMa
K.Kt.8.

bs"aM
K.R.8.

Q,R.7.

O.Kt.7

■zQ
Q.7.

•=M
K.7.

R.B.7.

•=J»M
K.Kt.7

•'"aH

K.R.7.

Q.R.6.

Q.Kt.6.

•e-aO

Q.B.6.

■£•0
Q.6.

.£•51
K.6.

•£aM

K.B.6.

•e-JMJI
K.Kt.6.

•£•^•51

K.R.6.

QR-5.

Q.Kt.5.

Q.B.5.

Os.

•t-3I
K.5.

•*a-M

K.B.5.

K.Kt.5.

K.R.s.
£^»
KR.4.

Q.R.4.

Q.Kt.4.

•s-aO
Q.B.4.

•so

Q4-

■S^K
K.4.

K.B.4. K.Kt.4.

•9H0
Q.R.3.

•9JMC5
Q.Kt.3.

•9aO
Q.B.3.

•90
Q-3.

•9-M
K.3.

9a-x j-9i5i-a

K.B.3. K.Kt.3.

9"ax

K.R.3.

Q.R.2.

Q.Kt.2.

Q.B.2.

Q.2.

K.2.

K.B 2. |K.Kt 2.

K.R.2.

8"aO

Q.Rsq.

■8JM0
Q.Kt.sq

Q.B.sq.

•80
Q.sq.

•8H
K.sq.

•8-a-X JS'IM-JI; -S-HX
K.B.sq. K.KtsqK.R.sq.

White.

CHESS NOTATION FROM EACH END OF THE BOARD.

Suppose the white queen's bishop moves one square, it is
then said to stand on its second, which is the black queen's
bishop's seventh. The white king's eighth is the black king's
first, and vice versd all through the pieces.

TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN THE GAME.

The Move. — Whichever player opens the game by making
the first move is said to have " the move."

Check. — When your king is attacked by any piece, he is said
to be "in check," and it is your opponent's duty to give you
warning of such an event by crying " Check," when he makes
the move. You must then put your king out of check by
moving him, by taking the checking piece, or by interposing
one of your own men between the checking piece and your
king, thus " covering " check, as it is termed.

Checkmate is the term used when the king is in inextricable
check, i.e., when none of the above means avail to place him
beyond the range of the attacking pieces. When a checkmate
is obtained, the game is at an end, that being the sole object.

Discovered Check is when the player moves a pawn or piece
from before another piece, thereby opening or " discovering "
check : 1?.^., the black rook may be on a line with the oppos-
ing king, the only intervening piece being a black pawn. The
removal of this pawn " discovers check."

Double Check is when check is discovered as above, the king
being^also attacked by the piece moved.

Perpetual Check is when the king of one of the players can
be checked almost at every move, and when he has little else

416

GAMES OF SKILL.

to do but move out of check. When the game has reached
this stage, the weaker player may demand that checkmate
shall be given in a certain number of moves, in default of
which it may be declared a drawn game. (See Rule 8.)

Drawn Game. — A drawn game may arise from several
causes :

1. As above.

2. Stalemate. (See "Stalemate.")

3. Equal play. " Between very good players," remarks
Phillidor, " it sometimes happens that the equipoise in force
and position is constantly sustained in the opening, in the in-
termediate stages, and in the last result ; when either all the
exchangeable pieces have been mutually taken, or the remain-
ing forces are equal — as a queen against a queen, a rook against
a rook, with no advantage in position, or the pawns are mu-
tually blocked up."

4. Absence of mating power, I. ^., when neither player pos-
sesses the force requisite to obtain a checkmate. (See " Mating
Power.")

5. Unskillful use of a sufficiently strong force. If one player
is superior in force to his adversary, and possesses the requisite
mating power, the game may still be drawn by the unskillful
use of that superiority. If he cannot effect a checkmate in
fifty moves it may be declared a drawn game.

Stalemate describes that state of the game when one of the
players has nothing left but his king, which is so placed that,
although not in check, he cannot move without going into
check.

Castling is a double operation, accomplished by moving the
king and one of the rooks at the same time. When the re-
moval of the bishop and the knight on the one side, or of the
bishop, knight, and queen on the other, has cleared the inter-
vening squares, the king may castle with either of his rooks.
If it should be done on the king's side of the board, the king
is to be placed on the knight's square, and the rook on the
bishop's ; if in the queen's section, the king must be moved to
the bishop's square, and the rook to the queen's. In other
words, the king, in either case, must move two squares, and
the rook be placed on the opposite side of him to that on
which he stood before.

En Prise. — A piece is said to be en piise when under
attack.

En Passant {in passing). — If your adversary has advanced
one of his pawns to the fifth square, and you move one of
your pawns in either of the adjoining files two squares, he is
entitled to take your -^v^w, en passant, as though you had only
moved it one square. This peculiar mode of capture can only
be effected by pawns.

Ranks and Files, — The lines of squares running from left to
right are known as ranks, and those perpendicular to them,
running from one player to the other, are called files.

Passed and Isolated Pawns. — A pawn is said to be " passed "
when it is so far advanced that no pawn of the adversary's can
oppose it. An isolated pawn is one that stands alone and un-
supported.

Double Pawn. — Two pawns on the same file.

" fadoube" (signifying I adjust or / arrange) is the ex-
pression generally used when a player touches a piece to

arrange it without the intention of making a move. Perhaps it
is not absolutely necessary that he should say " jTadoube"
but he must at any rate use an equivalent expression.

To Interpose. — This term explains itself. If your king or
one of your pieces is attacked, and you move another of your
pieces between the attacking piece and the piece attacked,
either for the purpose of covering check, or as a means of
protection, or with any other object, you are said to " inter-
pose."

Winning the Exchange. — You arc said " to win the ex-
change " when you gain a rook for a bishop, a bishop for a
knight, or, in short, whenever you gain a superior piece by
giving an inferior.

Queening a Pawn. — You are said to " queen a pawn " when
you advance it to the eighth square on the file. You may then
claim a queen or any other piece in exchange for it. Formerly
the rule was, that you might substitute for it any piece you
had previously lost, but according to the modern game three
or more rooks, or bishops, or knights may be obtained in this
way.

Gambit. — This term, which is derived from the Italian, de-
scribes an opening in which a pawn is purposely sacrificed at
an early stage of the game, in order subsequently to gain an
advantage. Several gambits are distinguished by the names
of their inventors, such as the Cochrane gambit, the Muzio
gambit, the Salvio gambit, etc.; there are also the bishop's
gambit, the queen's gambit, etc., etc.

Mating Power. — The force requisite to bring about a check-
mate : a king and queen against king and two bishops, king
and two knights, king and bishop and knight, or against king
and rook, can effect checkmate. King and two bishops can
mate against king and bishop, or king and knight. King with
two bishops and knight can mate against king and rook. King
with rook and bishop can mate against rook and king. King
can always draw against king and bishop, or king and knight.
King and rook against either a king and bishop, or king and
knight, makes a drawn game, etc.

LAWS OF THE GAME.

The following laws are in force in all the principal clubs in
this country :

r. If a player touch one of his men, unless for the purpose
of adjusting it, when he must say ^' J^adoube " (see Law
4), or it being his turn to move, he must move the
piece he has so touched.
[Walker gives the following remarks on this law : "When
you touch a piece with the bona fide intention of playing it.
the saying J'adoube will not exonerate you from completing
the move. A chess-player's meaning cannot be misunderstood
on the point ; and were it otherwise, you might hold a man in
your hand for five minutes, and then saying 'J'adoube,' re-
place it, and move elsewhere."]

2. If the men are not placed properly at the beginning of
the game, and this is discovered before four moves have
been made on each side, the game must be recom-
menced. If the mistake should not be found out till
after four moves have been made, the game must be
proceeded with.

GAMES OF SKILL.

417

3. Where the players are even, they must draw lots for the
first move, after which they take the first move alternately.
When a player gives odds, he has the option of making the
first move, and the choice of men in every game.

[In giving odds, should it be agreed upon to give a pawn,
it is customary to take the K. B. P. If a piece is to be given,
it may be taken from either the king's or queen's side.]

4. If a player should accidentally or otherwise move or

touch one of his men without saying " J'adoube" V\%
adversary may compel him to move either the man he
has touched or his king, provided the latter is not in
check.

5. When a player gives check, and fails to give notice by

crying "Check," his adversary need not, unless he think
proper, place his king out of check, nor cover. •
[If it is discovered that the king is in check, and has been
so for several moves past, the players must move the men back
to the point at which they stood when check was given. If
they cannot agree as to when check was first given, the player
who is in check must retract his last move, and defend his king.]

6. The player who effects checkmate wins the game.

7. Stalemate constitutes a draw game.

8. So long as you retain your hold of a piece you may move

it where you will.

9. Should you move one of your adversary's men instead of

your own, he may compel you to take the piece you
have touched, should it be en prise, or to replace it and
move your king ; provided, of course, that you can do
so without placing him in check.

10. Should you capture a man with one that cannot legally
take it, your adversary may compel you either to take
such piece (should it be en prise) with one that can le-
gally take it, or to move the piece touched ; provided
that by so doing you do not discover check, in which
case you may be directed to move your king.

11. Should you move out of your turn, your adversary may
compel you either to retract the move, or leave the
piece where you placed it, as he may think most advan-
tageous.

12. If you touch the king and rook, intending to castle, and
have quitted hold of the one piece, you must complete
the act of castling. If you retain your hold of both,
your adversary may compel you to move either of them.

13. The game must be declared to be drawn should you fail
to give checkmate in fifty moves, when you have

King and pawn against king.
King and two pawns "
King and minor piece "

King and queen against king.
King and rook "

King and two bishops "
King, bishop, and kt. "

14. Drawn games of every description count for nothing.

15. Neither player may leave a game unfinished, nor leave

the room without the permission of his adversary.

16. Lookers-on are not permitted to speak, nor in any way

express their approbation or disapprobation while a
game is pending.

17. In case a dispute should arise on any point not provided

for by the laws, a third party must be appealed to,
and his decision shall be final.

HINTS FOR COMMENCING THE GAME.

To open the game well, some of the pawns should be played
out first. The royal pawns, particularly, should be advanced
to their fourth square ; it is not often safe to advance them
farther. The bishop's pawn should also be played out early
in the game ; but it is not always well to advance the rook's
and knight's pawns too hastily, as these afford an excellent
protection to your king in case you should castle. Phillidor
describes pawn-playing as the "the soul of chess." When
they are not too far advanced, and are so placed as to be mu-
tually supporting, they present a strong barrier to the advance
of your adversary, and prevent him from taking up a com-
manding position. If you play your pieces out too early, and
advance too far, your adversary may oblige you to bring them
back again by advancing his pawns upon them, and you thus
lose time.

Do not commence your attack until you are well prepared.
A weak attack often results in disaster. If your attack is likely
to prove successful, do not be diverted from it by any bait
which your adversary may purposely put in your way. Pause,
lest you fall into a snare.

Beware of giving check uselessly — i, e., unless you have in
view the obtaining of some advantage. A useless check is a
move lost, which may, particularly between good players, de-
cide the game.

It is generally injudicious to make an exchange when your
position is good, or when, by so doing, you bring one of your
adversary's pieces into good play. Never make an exchange
without considering the consequences. When your game is
crowded and ill arranged and your position inferior, it is ad-
vantageous to exchange. Sometimes also, when you are much
superior in force, it is worth your while to make an equal
exchange.

The operation of castling often relieves a crowded game.
A lost opportunity of castling, or castling at the wrong time,
is a disadvantage which may be turned to account by your ad-
versary.

Never put your queen before your king in such a way that
your adversary may bring forward a bishop or rook and attack
her, and the king through her. In such a case, unless you
can interpose another piece, you will inevitably lose your
queen.

It is good play to " double " your rooks — i. <?., to make them
mutually supporting. Don't bring your rooks into active play
too soon. They can generally operate most effectively at a
distance, and they are therefore of most value toward the end
of a game, when the board is comparatively clear.

From time to time take a review of the game. Although
an incurably tedious player is a general nuisance, it is mere
folly to play without "knowing the reason why." To take
an occasional review of the game gets you into a systematic
habit. When near the close, take notice of the position of
your adversary's pawns, and if you find that you can queen
before him, make all haste to do so ; if not, attack his pawns
so as to prevent him from queening. If your adversary pos-
sesses a decided advantage, ^look out for a means of drawing
the game.

Do not stick to one opening, but learn as many as you can.

418

GAMES OF SKILL.

-y

Always be willing to accept odds of a better player, so that
the game may be interesting to him. If you should lose, it is
natural that you should feel inwardly chagrined, but do not let
your disappointment be perceived. "Keep your temper" is
a golden rule. Do not give up the game before you are quite
sure it is lost. On the other hand, you should not too hastily
jump to the conclusion that you have won it.

It is necessary that you should occasionally study some of
the best book games, but without actual practice proficiency can
seldom be attained.

Endeavor to understand the reasons which lead to your adver-
sary's moves, and take measures accordingly.

" Openings " of Games. — The principal openings are the
king's gambit, the queen's gambit, the king's knight's open-
ing, the king's bishop's opening, etc. From these spring the
various gambits, known as the Evans, the Muzio, the Cunning-
ham, the Allgaier, the Cochrane, the Giuoco piano, etc., most
of them deriving their names from the inventors. All these
gambits have a variety of subdivisions, and openings not
founded on them are termed irregular openings. We shall,
after defining each of the most celebrated of these openings,
give illustrations of them.

TAe King's Gambit —\x^ this gambit, the first player ad-
vances his K, B. P. two squares at his second move.

The Queen's Gambit is when the first player, at his second
move, advances his Q. B. P. two squares.

King's Bishop's Gambit is so styled because the first player
brings out the K. B. at his second move.

King's Knight's Gambit. — In this much-used opening the
first player brings out his K. Kt. at his second move.

The Evans Gambit, so styled from its inventor, Captain W.
D. Evans, R. N. , is when the player advances Q. Kt. P. two
at his fourth move, and sacrifices it, with the object of recov-
ering at least its equivalent, at the same time obtaining a de-
cided lead.

Besides the above, there are the queen's pawn-two-opening,
the queen's bishop's pawn's opening, the Lopez gambit, the
king's pawn-one -opening, the queen's counter-gambit, the
king's rook's pawn's gambit, the Allgaier gambit, the Muzio
gambit, the Cochrane gambit, the Cunningham gambit, the
bishop's gambit, the Damian's gambit, the Greco counter-
gambit, etc., etc.

In an article of such limited scope as the present, it would
be impossible to treat at any length upon every one of these
openings. We shall therefore content ourselves with making
a selection which will be at once interesting and suitable for
beginners. In every case we have preferred to give those
variations which are considered the best and most legitimate,
believing that the study and practice of such positions will be
more advantageous to the learner than giving, as some writers
do, inferior play and positions, and then afterward giving the
correct ones.

The King's Gambit. —

White. Black.

1. K. P. 2. 1. K. P. 2.

2. K. B. P. 2. 2. P. takes P.

3. K. Kt. to B. 3. • 3. K. Kt. P. 2.

4. K. B. to Q. B. 4.

There has been much difference of opinion as to the move

- Black.

1. P. to K. 4.

2. K. B. to Q. B. 4 (best).

3. Q. to K. 2 (good).

which black should now make. Some writers prefer advancing
K. Kt. P., whilst Walker and a whole host of authorities think
it better to place the K. B, at Kt. second: "Although," says
Walker, "playing the pawn is productive of more brilliant
situations." He advises both moves for practice.

King's Bishop's Opening. — This opening is considered by
the great chess master, Phillidor, as the very finest opening
for the first player, as it brings out the bishop at the second
move, and immediately attacks black's K. B. P., his weakest
point. From this opening spring some of the finest and most
difficult combinations known. It commences thus :

White.
T. K. P. to K. 4.

2. K. B. to Q. B. 4.

3. P. to Q. B. 3.

4. K. Kt. to B. 3.

Some prefer to play the Kt. to K. 2, but in our opinion this
is not so good as to B. 3, because in the former case black
could take K. B. P. with his bishop (check) ; and if white K.
takes bishop, black queen gives check at her B. 4, and white
loses bishop.

White. Black.

4. K. Kt. to B. 3.

5. Q. to K. 2. 5- P- to Q. 3.

6. P. toQ. 3. 6. P.toQ. B. 3

If black plays his Q. B., pinning Kt., white will advance
R. P., which will cause black either to retire bishop (which will
be losing time) or force an exchange, which will open the game
to white's queen. Therefore it will be better for black to play
P. to Q. B. 3, as we have given it, which will leave the game
pretty equal up to this point. If black, at his third move,
replies as follows — which is an inferior move — then the game
proceeds thus :

White.

4. P. to Q. 4. 4-

5. P. to K. s- S-

6. Q. to K. 2.

7. P. to K. B. 4.

8. P. to K. B. 5.

If black now play 8. Kt. to K. B.,

white has the best of the- game, and ought to win ; but if black

play Kt. to Kt. 4, white will play Q. to K. R. 5, and then P.

to K. R. 4. If white at his third move should play Q. to K. 2,

attacking K. B. P. and threatening ch. with Q. and capture of

bishop, and if black advance Q. P. one, it may then become

the Ruy Lopez gambit by white playing as his fourth move P.

to K. B. 4. If the gambit referred to be not properly met, it

leads to strong positions of attack. It is better for the second

player to refuse the pawn offered.

Kin^s Knight's Opening. — This is a sound opening, and

has been largely treated upon by many writers. Some fine

situations spring from it. At the second move, white directly

attacks K. P. with K. Kt. We will give the opening, and a

few brief remarks thereon, together with a game arising from

it :

White. Black.

1. P. to K. 4. I. P. to K. 4.

2. K. Kt. to B. 3.

For black, in reply to this, to move P. to K. B. 3, would

Black.
K. Kt. to B. 3.
P. Ukes P.
Kt. to K. s

6. Kt. to Kt. 4.

7. Kt. to K. 3.

^
-<%.

GAMES OF SKILL.

419

only show weak play, and would enable white to win in a few
moves, or at any rate to obtain a rook and a pawn in exchange
for a knight. Black's best answer is the following : '
2. Kt. to B. 3.

Black thus defends his pawn, and has the advantage of a
counter-attack.

Kings Knight's Gambit. — This is a variation of the king's
gambit, brought about by white at his fourth move advancing
the K. R. P. before bringing out bis K. B. This variation
brings out some fine play, but is not so strong for the first
player as the king's gambit proper. The Allgaier gambit
springs from this opening.

White. Black.

1. P. to K. 4. 1. p. to K. 4.

2. P. to K. B. 4. 2. P. takes P.

3. K. Kt. to B. 3. 3. P. to K. Kt. 4.

4. P. to K. R. 4. 4. P. to K. Kt. 5 (best).

5. K. Kt. to K. 5.

By white's last move the game emerges into the Allgaier.
Black's best move now is

5. P. to K. R. 4.

6. K. B. to Q. B. 4. 6. R. to K. 2.

This move of black's is considered better than K. Kt. to R. 3.

7. P. to Q. 4. 7. P. to Q. 3.

8. Kt. to Q. 3. 8. K. B. P. advances.

If white now plays K. Kt. P., black has the best of the game
by keeping the gambit pawn. If white attacks queen with
bishop, black will give check with pawn, and have the stronger
game. Most authorities consider this opening weak for the
first player.

The Allgaier Gambit. — This opening, the invention of a
noted German from whom it takes its name, arises out of the
king's knight's gambit, as detailed in the preceding paragraph.
It is not a safe opening, although, if successful, it will prove a
strong one. When properly met, the siege is soon raised, and
the second player will stand in the better position. It is, how-
ever, a fine opening, and requires cautious play on both sides.
It is as follows :

White. Black.

1. P. to K. 4. I. P. to K. 4.

2. P. tp K. B. 4. 2. P. takes P.

3. K. Kt. to B. 3. 3. P. to K. Kt. 4.

4. P. to K. R. 4. 4. P to K. Kt. s-

5. K. Kt. to Kt. 5.

White's fifth move constitutes the Allgaier gambit, white in-
tending to sacrifice the knight if attacked by the pawns. Black
may reply in several ways, but in our opinion his best move is

the following :

S. P. to K. R. 3.
Black by this move wins the knight.

6. Kt. Ukes K. B. P. 6. K. takes Kt.

7. Q. takes P. 7. K. Kt. to B. 3.

8. Q. takes B. P.

^ The last mOve is much better than giving check with the
bishop, which would only have the effect of involving white's
game. Walker says, " No better move can be played at this
crisis." It will be good practice for the student to continue
the above opening, and exercise his ingenuity by finishing the
game.

The Muzio Gambit. — This is another variation of the king's
gambit, and is produced by white offering to sacrifice knight

in order to gain a strong attacking position. It is the inven-
tion of Signor Muzio, an Italian player of some eminence.
Walker says this may be classed as the most brilliant and
critical opening known, and recommends the student to
play it at every opportunity ; he also throws out the warning
that an incorrect move may irrecoverably lose the game. The
defense is most difficult to discover in actual play.

White.

Black.

P. to K. 4-

I. P. to K. 4.

P. to K. B. 4.

2. P. takes P.

K. Kt. to B. 3.

3. P. toK.Kt. 4-

K. B. to Q. B. 4.

4. K. Kt. P. advances

Castles.

This move consttutes the gambit ; for, instead of white with-
drawing his Kt., or moving it to Q. 4, he allows it to remain
and be taken. It now rests with black whether he will accept
the gambit. Walker says he cannot do better.

5. P. takes Kt.

6. Q. takes P. 6. Q. to K. B. 3 (best).

This last move is Sarratt's defense, which is clearly shown to

be the best.

7. K. P. advances. 7. Q. takes K. P.

•This is black's best move, for, if he did not take P., white at

once obtains the advantage by playing P. to Q. 2, defending

K. P. If black play Q. to Kt. 3 (ch,), white moves K. to R.

sq., and ought to win.

The Scotch Gambit., or Queen's Pawn Two Opening. — This

gambit has a fine, dashing attack, and one of its advantages is,

that in case it should miscarry, the disaster is comparatively

slight. " It is," as Walker says, " one of the most attacking

yet safe methods of commencing the game which can possibly

be adopted." Again, " It is alil^e fertile in resource and safe

in results."

White. Black.

1. P. to K. 4. I. P. to K. 4.

2. K. Kt. to B. 3. 2. Q. Kt. to B. 3.

3. P. to Q. 4.

The third move of white gives it the name of the Queen's
Pawn Two Opening. White plays the pawn for the purpose
of opening the game, especially for his bishops. Black may
now take the pawn either with his P. or Kt. We will suppose
him to do the former, which we consider best :

3. P. takes P.

4. K. B. to Q. B. 4.

Some players now give black's fourth move as B. to Q. Kt.
5 (ch.); but this is a decidedly bad move, and with an indif-
ferent player would lose the game. Black's best move is that
introduced by Macdonnell, and described by Walker as a sound
defense. We give it below :

4. Q. to K. B. 3.

White may now castle, or play P. to Q. B. 3 ; either of which
is better than Kt. or B. to K. Kt. 5.

HOW TO FINISH THE GAME.
Having now considered the "Hints for Commencing the
Game," and studied most of the principal openings, we must
say a few words with regard to finishing the game. It is often
very difficult to checkmate when you have a king, bishop, and
knight against a king. Although possessing the requisite mat-
ing power, good players have often failed to accomplish the

420

GAMES OF SKILL.

the mate within the stipulated fifty moves. The only way
in which it can be done is by driving the adverse king to a
comer commanded by your bishop. The better to convey
our meaning, we ^ive an illustration. Suppose the men to

be placed thus :

White K. at K. B. 6.
" K. B. at K. B. 5.
" Kt at K. Kt. 5.
Black K. at K. R. sq.

Then, in eighteen moves, white may effect checkmate :

White.

1. Kt. to K. B. 7 (ch.).

2. B. to K, 4.

3. B. to K. R. 7.

4. Kt. to K. 5.

5. Kt. to Q. 2.

6. K. to K. sq.

7. K. to Q. 6.

8. B. to K. Kt. 6 (ch.).

9. Kt. to Q. B. s.

10. B. to B. 7.

11. Kt. to Q. Kt. 7 (ch.).

12. K. to Q. B. 6.

13. K. toQ. Kt. 6.

14. B. to K. 6 (ch.).

15. Kt. to Q. B. 5.

16. B. to Q. 7.

17. Kt. to Q. R. 6 (ch.).

18. B. to Q. B. 6, checkm.

As will be observed from the above example, one of the
important objects is never to let the king escape into the middle
of the board.

In our chapter on checkmate we should not omit to give the
" Fool's Mate " and the " Scholar's Mate."

The former shows that it is possible to effect mate in as few
as two moves. It is easy to understand why it should be
named the " fool's mate ; " but why a checkmate which may
be effected in four moves should be termed "scholar's mate"
is probably less capable of explanation.

FooFs Male. —

Black.

1. K. to Kt. sq.

2. K. to K. B. sq.

3. K. to K. sq.

4. K. to K. B. sq.

5. K. to K. sq.

6. K to Q. sq.

7. K. to K. sq.

8. K. to Q. sq.

9. K. to Q. B. sq.

10. K, to Q. sq.

11. K. to Q. B. sq.

12. K. to Q. Kt. sq.

13. K. to Q. B. sq.

14. K. to Q. Kt. sq.

15. K. to Q. R. sq.

16. K. to Q. Kt. sq.

17. K. to Q. R, sq.

White.

1. K. Kt. P. 2 sq.

2. K. B. P. I sq.
Scholar's Mate. —

White.

1. K. P. 2.

2. K. B. to y. B. 4.

3. Q. to K. R. s.

Black.

1. K. P. 2.

2. Queen mates

Black.

1. K. P. 2.

2. K. B. to Q. B. 4.
2. Q. P.

4. Q. takes K. B. P., giving " scholar's mate."
King and Queen against King.— Several examples of this
checkmate might be given, but the one below will probably be
sufficient. The principal point upon which the learner need
be warned is against allowing his adversary to effect stalemate.
Suppose the pieces to be placed thus :
White king at K. sq.

" queen at Q. B. sq.
Black king at Q. ^.
The game may then proceed as follows :

White. Black. .

1. Q. to K. Kt. 5. 1. K. to K. 4.

2. K. to K. 2. 2. K. to Q. 3.

3. K. to K. 3. 3. K. to K. 3.

4. K. to K. 4. • 4 K. to Q. 3.

5. Q. to K. Kt. 6. 5.

6. K. advances. 6.

7. Q. mates.

King and Queen against King and Rook. — Suppose the men
to be placed thus :

White king at K. B. 3.
" queen at K. sq.
Black king at K. R. 7.
" rook, at K. Kt. 7,

supposing white to have the first move, the game may be com-
pleted in three moves :

White. Black.

1. Q. to K. 5 (ch.). I. K. to R. 8.

2. Q. to Q. R. (ch.). 2. K. moves.

3. Q. to K. sq., and wins.

PROBLEMS.
The following problems are selected from various sources,
and are given because they are just sufficiently difficult to ex-
ercise the ingenuity of the learner. At the same time, we
would caution him against too close a study of problems until
he is well up in the game, for, if followed up, it will only tend
to weary and tire him, and the result may be that he will
throw up the game with dislike.

PROBLEM No. 1.
Black.

White.
White to move, and mate in two moves.

PROBLEM No. a.
Black.

White.
White to move, and mate in two moves.

GAMES OF SKILL.

42]

PROBLEM No. 3.
Black.

M^'-*? « M

Sr m

W"w^^^

^^"mJ^%

White.
White to move, and mate in three moves.

PROBLEM No, 4,
Black.

..■!,„,^.^,_.„«

White.
White to move, and mate in three moves.

PROBLEM No. 5.
Black.

White.
White to move, and mate in three moves

PROBLEM No. 6.
Black.

White.
White to move, and mate in three moves..

PROBLEM No. 7.
Black.

White.
White to move, and mate in three moves.

PROBLEM No. 8.
Black.

mm. wm^

^^^^M ^

White.
White to move, and mate in four moves.

422

GAMES OF SKILL.

PROBLEM No. 9.
Black.

mm W^iA&M

■— --LB^B^W

White.
White to move, and mate in four moves.

PROBLEM No. 10.

( The Indian Problem^

Black.

"^' w"^B ■

A W^, W^ ^# A ^

White.
White to move, and mate in four moves.

SOLUTIONS OF THE PROBLEMS.

Problem i. Problem 2.

White. Black. White. Black.

1. Q. to B. 4 (ch). I. P. takes Q. i. R. to Q. 8 (ch.). 1. K. takes R.

2. R. to Q. 8, mate 2. Q. to Q. 7, mate.

Problem 3. Problem 4.

White. Black. Whit:. Black.

1. R. to K. sq. I. K. to B. sq. i. K. R. to R. 6. 1 . K. to K.B 4.

2. R. to K. Kt. sq. 2. K. to K. sq. 2. Q. R. to K. Kt. sq. 2. K. toK. 4.

3. R. to Kt. 8. mate. 3. R. to Kt. 5, mate.

There are two other solutions to
this problem.

Problem 5. Problem 6.

White. Black. White. Black.

1. Q. to K. R. 7. I. Q. Kt. takes Q. i. Q. to Q. 2. i. K. moves.
«. Kt. to Kt. 6 (ch.). 2. K. to Kt. sq. 2. Q. to Q. sq. 2. K, takes Kt.
\ B. to Q. 5, mate. 3. Q. mates.

Problem 7. Problem 8.

White. Black. White. Black.

1. R. to Q. B. 2 (dis. ch.). i. R. takes 1. Kt. to K. B. 6. i. P. advances,
R. 2. Kt. to K. 4 (ch). 2. K. 10 R. 8.

P. takes R

2 R. to 0- B. 4. (ch.). 2.
3. B. mates.

Problem 9,

Black.

White.

1. R. to K. Kt. 2 (ch.). I. K. to B. sq.

2. Kt. to Q. 7 (ch.). 2. R. takes Kt.

3. R. to K. 8 (ch.). 3. K. takes R.

4. R. to Kt. 8, mate.

3. K. to B. sq. 3. R. P. I.

4. Kt. to B. 2, mate.

Problem 10.

{The Indian Problem.)

White. Black.

1. B. to Q. B. sq. 1 . P. moves.

2. R. to Q. 2. 2. P. moves.

3. K. moves. 3. K. moves.

4. R. to Q. 4 (dis. checkm.).

"^^r^^p^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

DI\AUGHTS

^^y^^^yJ^^

RAUGHTS is a game that is very often
underrated, because it is supposed that
there is little or no play in it, and thus,
when a person is asked if he plays
draughts, his reply is not unusually,
" No, it is such a stupid game; there's no
play in it."

Whenever this remark is made to us, we challenge
the person to a series of games, when, having beaten
him some half-dozen in succession, we prove that
there must be some play in the game, or such a re-
sult would be improbable.

When playing chess, there are so many pieces,
each having a. different moving power and a relative
value, that one oversight, caused probably by a
momentary relaxation of memory, loses a game,
whereas in draughts such a result is less probable,
and the attention can be more completely devoted
to some plot, through which the opponent does not
see. As a rule, a good draught-player is a more
acute person on every- day subjects than is a good
chess-player, and thus we strongly recommend
draughts as a game likely to call into action very
useful qualities.

Draughts is played on the same board as is chess, the mei^
however, being placed entirely on squares of one color.

There are twelve men on each side, arranged on the squares
from I to 12 and from 21 and 32.

The two squares marked i and 5, and 32 and 28, are called
the double corners, and these must always be on the right hand
of the player, whilst the left-hand lowest squares, 4 and 29,
must always be on the left-hand side.

Having arranged the men, the first move is arranged be-
tween the players by lot.

-<^

GAMES OF SKILL.

423

The men move one square at a time ; thus, the man on 22
can move either to 18 or 17; the man on 23 can move either
to 19 or 18. The men can only move forwards, not back-
wards, until they have succeeded in reaching the bottom row
of the adversary's squares, when they are crowned by having a
second man placed above them. They are then termed kings,
and can move either forwards or backwards as desirable.

A man may take an opponent's man by leaping over him
and taking up the vacant square beyond him, the piece taken
being removed from the board.

A man may take two or three men at one move, provided
he can leap over each in succession. To understand this,
place a white man at 18, li, and 25, and a black man at 29,
all other pieces being removed from the board. The black
man can move and take the three white men, as he can leap
to 22, 15, and 8, thus taking the men on squares 18, 11, and
Black.

4r-

White.

25. A king can take both backwards and forwards any num-
ber of men, as long as a square is open. Thus, place a white
man on 25, 26, 27, 19, 10, g, and 17. A black king at 29
could take all these men at once, for he could leap from 29 to
22, taking 25 man ; to 31, taking 26 ; to 24, taking 27; to 15,
taking 19 ; to 6, taking 10 ; to 13, taking 9 ; and to 22, taking
17, and taking all these in one move.

If a man take other men, and in the taking reach the
bottom row, he cannot go on taking, as a king, until the ad-
versary has moved.

Example. — Place a white man at 24, 7, 16, and 8, a black
man at 28. The black man takes 24 by leaping to 19, takes
16 by leaping to 12, takes 8 by leaping to 3, and is there
crowned ; but cannot leap to ro, thus taking the man at 7,
until the adversary has moved.

The game is won when all the adversary's men are either
taken or blockaded so that they cannot move, and it is drawn
when two kings or less remain able to move, in spite of the
adversary.

Laws. — The following are the established laws of the game,
which should be learned by every person who is desirous of
becoming a draught-player.

RULES OF THE GAME OF DRAUGHTS.

The chief laws for regulating the game of draughts are as
follows : —

1. Each player takes the first move alternately, whether the

last game be won or drawn.

2. Any action which prevents the adversary from having a

full view of the men is not allowed.

3. The player who touches a man must play him.

4. In case of standing the huff, which means omitting to

take a man when an opportunity for so doing occurred,
the other party may either take the man, or insist upon
his man, which has been so omitted by his adversary,
being taken.

5. If either party, when it is his turn to move, hesitates

above three minutes, the other may call upon him to
play; and if, after that, he delay above five minutes
. longer, then he loses the game.

6. In the losing game, the player can insist upon his adver-

sary taking all the men in case opportunities should
present themselves for their being so taken.

7. To prevent unnecessary delay, if one color have no

pieces but two kings on the board, and the other no
piece but one king, the latter can call upon the former
to win the game in twenty moves. If he does not
finish it within that number of moves, the game to be
relinquished as drawn.

8. If there are three kings to two on the board, the subse-

quent moves are not to exceed forty.

Advice. — The men should be kept as much as possible in a
wedge form towards the center of the board. Avoid moving
a man on the side square, for, when there, he is deprived of
half his power, being able to take in one direction only.

Consider well before you touch a man, for a man once
touched miist be moved.

Avoid the cowardly practice of moving a man, and then,
when you discover by your adversary's move that you have
committed an error, taking your move back. Stand the con-
sequences though the game be lost, and next time you will be
more careful. A game, even if won after replacing a man, is
unsatisfactory, and not to be counted a victory, and often
leads to disputes. The rules are made to avoid all argument
and dispute, and the more closely, therefore, you obey these,
the more harmonious will be your games.

Do not talk during a game, or whistle, or fidget by drum-
ming with the fingers, or in any way act so as to annoy or
worry an adversary. A game of draughts, though only a
game, may be made a training process for much more im-
portant matters. A careless, thoughtless, or worrying draught-
player will, undoubtedly, be the same character in worldly
matters.

Never allow the loss of a game to cause you to lose your
temper, for such a proceeding shows you to be more self-
sufficient than intellectual. If beaten, it proves your adver-
sary to be more experienced or quicker-sighted than yourself,
and you should, therefore, use all your faculties to discover
how he beats you.

As a rule, seek to play with a better player than yourself
rather than with a worse, which is merely saying, " Endeavor
to improve your own game rather than to instruct a worse
player."

When you lose a game, avoid all disparaging remarks, such

-*^

424

GAMES OF SKILL.

as, "Oh, I should have won that if so-and-so had not oc-
curred," etc. Your adversary who defeats you will think
more highly of you if you say nothing, or merely acknow-
ledge his greater skill.

If you find a person who defeats you easily, rt<oember how
much thought and time he must have devoted to the subject
in order to obtain this advantage, and bear in mind that it is
only by a similar process that you can gain like results.

GAMES.

Draughts is a game in which one is particularly called upon
to estimate the skill and style of play of one's adversary. One
person may very easily be drawn into a trap, where another
more cautious could not be thus defeated. Again, a too cau-
tious player may be defeated by a dashing move, whereas
another opponent would win the game in consequence. We
will now give one or two examples of games, calling attention
to the points in each. The men are supposed to be arranged
as before mentioned — white's men from 21 to 32, black's from
I to 12. Black moves first.

Black.
II to 15.
IS to 22 (takes).

8 to II.

White.

22 to 18.

25 to 18 (takes).
29 to 25.

Now, at this point of the game, if white were a very young
or incautious player, he might be easily tempted into a false
move by black moving il to 16, for white, seeing a supposed
advantage in position, might move 24 to 20. Let us suppose
these moves to have been made, and black wins at once, for,
moving 3 to 8, he compels white to take 20 to II, and then,
with a man at 8, takes II, 18, and 25, and procures a king at
29, thus gaining a majority of two men, an advantage equi-
valent to the game, for, by exchanging man for man on every
occasion, he would soon reduce the odds to 4 to 2, or 2 to o.

If, however, black play a more cautious game, he should
move 4 to 8.

White again might lose the game if he moved either 24 or
23 to 19, for black would respond by 10 to 1 5, when white
must move from 1 9 to I o, black from 6 to 29, taking these
men as before.

Black's best move is, perhaps, 25 to 22.

At this period of the game exchanges of men usually take
place, the object being an advantage of position, as follows:

Black. White.

9 to 14. 18 to 9.

5 to 14. 24 to 20.

6 to 9. 22 to 18.
I to 5. 28 to 24.

Up to the present time no great advantage is gained on
either side, the game being, perhaps, slightly in favor of Wack,
who may cause a separation in white's men by the following:

Black. White.

9 to 13. 18 to 9.

S to 14.

White may reply by —

Then,

M to 23. 27 to 18.

Now, unless black moves 2 to 6, or i o to 1 5, white could

23 to 18.

procure a king as follows: Suppose black had moved 1 2 to 16,
then white 18 to 14,

Black. White.

10 to 17, 21 to 14.

and whatever black now does, white must procure a king. It
is under such conditions as these that the acute player often
wins a game ; for we shall find that the eagerness for gaining
this king may cause white to be in a difficult position. Carry
ing on the game under this supposition, we have

Black.
16 to 19.
II to 18.

8 to II.

18 to 22.

13 to 22.

2 to 6.

7 to 14.

14 to 17.

3 to 8.*

8 to 12.

White.
24 to 15.
13 to 9.
9 to 5.

26 to 17.

5 to 1 (king).

I to 10.
32 to 28.
28 to 24.
31 to 27.

27 to 23.

Black must now lose a man, and therefore the game, as
follows . —

Black. White.

22 to 26, or 17 to 21. 23 to 18.

26 to 31, or 22 to 25. 19 to 15, and white wins.

The Double Corners. — When there is one king against two,
the rule is that the game is drawn unless it be won in at least
twenty moves. If the player does not know how to block up
in the double corners, this may easily be a drawn game. We
will now show the moves for blocking in the double corners,
giving the case that will require the greatest number of
moves.

Black's kings at i and 5 ; white's at 10.

Black. White.

5 to 9. 10 to 15.
9 to 14. 15 to 19.

14 to 18. 19 to 24.

18 to 23. 24 to 28 (reaches double
I to 6. 28 to 32. comer.)

6 to 10. 32 to 28.
10 to 15. 28 to 32.

15 to 19. 32 to 28.

23 to 27. 28 to 32.

19 to 23. 32 to 28.

27 to 32. 28 to 24.
23 to 18. 24 to 19.
32 to 28. 19 to 16.
18 to 15. 16 to 20.
IS to II, and wins in 15 moves.

Had black moved from 15 to 19 at last, white could have
gone to 24, and the game would have been prolonged. There
is no position on the board where two kings cannot defeat one
in fifteen moves.

It is usual with two experienced players to pronounce the
game drawn when there are two kings only on ' each side, one
of which is enabled to reach the double comers. There are
however, two or three chances of catching an incautious
player.

The following example will serve to illustrate cases. White's

* This move of black's will very likely lose him a man, or, at least,
allow his adversary to make a king rapidly.

GAMES OF SKILL.

425

positions are king at 28 and at 30 ; black's at 24 and ig. Black
moves.

Black. White.

24 to 27. 28 to 32.

19 to 23. 30 to 26.

23 to 30. 32 to 23.

30 to 25. 23 to 26.

35 to 30. 26 to 23, and wins.

Another case may be tried with caution, and which is as
follows, two kings each: black at 15 and 23; white at 16 and
25. White moves.

White. ^ Black.

35 to 33. 33 to 18.

16 to II. 18 to 35.

IX to x8, and wins next move by blocking.

These are not positions likely to entrap very good players,
but succeed very often with average hands.

The game in these instances resulted in the winner having
what is called " the move." To ascertain whether you have
the move of any one of your adversary's men, examine the
situation of each. If your opponent has a black square at
a right angle under his man, you have the move, and vice
versa.

Draughts is in reality a deeply interesting game, and one
that is very rarely appreciated.

THE LOSING GAME OF DRAUGHTS.

The losing game 0/ draughts is rarely understood, and there-
fore rarely appreciated. We believe that there is even more
foresight required in the losing than in the winning game of
draughts, for it is equally as necessary to see several moves on
ahead, and the game may be almost instantly lost by a thought-
less move.

To win at the losing game we must compel our adversary to
take all our men, and the novice usually commences by losing
as many men as possible. This proceeding is an error ; the
player has the advantage who has the most men on the table,
as will be instanced by one or two examples.

Suppose white to have a king on each of the four squares, i,
2, 3, 4; black, one on 31. First, we will suppose that white
commences thus : —

White. Black.

4 to 8. 31 to 27.

3 to 7. 27 to 23.

2 to 6. 23 to 18.

I to 5.

Black must now retreat, for, if he moves to 14 or 15, the game
is lost, as he may be compelled to take each of his opponent's
men in succession. Thus, suppose he move to 14 : —

White. Black.

Sto 9. 14 to 5.

6 to 9. 5 to 14.

7 to 10. 14 to 7.

8 to II and wins.

Thus black's move must be a retreat in answer to white's i to
5. Then.

Black. White.

18 to 22. 5 to 9.

22 to 36. 6 to 14.

36 to 31. 14 to 18.

•ji to 27.

At this point, if white advanced from 18 to 23 to be taken, he
would lose the game unless very careful, as the lost man would
have the move against him. His best move, therefore, would
be 18 to 25. If black moves to 24, he loses. Black had better
move to 32, and white 6 to 10.

Black.
32 to 28.
28 to 32.
32 to 28.
28 to 19.
19 to 3.

White.
8 to II.
15 to 19.
19 to 24.
10 to 15.
IT to 7, and wins.

We will now point out the best "traps" for the losing
game.

Suppose white's men to be placed from 21 to 32. If then we can
secure one of the adversary's men at 21, we are almost certain
to lose all our men first, and thus to win the game, for, by
keeping this man blocked until required, he can be made use
of at the right time. Let us take an example, white moving
first.

White. Black.

22 to 18. 9 to 14.

18 to 9. s to 14 (very bad play;

21 to 17. 14 to 31. this ought to

34 to 20. II to 16. have been 6

20 to II. 7 to 16. to 13.)

23 to 18 (not a good move, but will 10 to 15.
18 to II. serve to illustrate the 8 to is-

advantage of man at 21.) 15 to c».
6 to 10.

1 to 10.
4 to 8.

16 to 19.

13 to 19.

10 to 15.

Sto 8.

2 to 7.

28 to 24.
24 to 15.
15 to 6.

26 to 23.

27 to 23.
23 to 16.

33 to 18.

18 to 4.

4 to II.
II to 3.

White now h^ six men on the board, whilst black has only
two ; but white can reduce this number at any time by moving
30 to 26. Black can only move 19 to 24 or to 23. Suppose
he move it to 23, then it will be better for white to reduce
black to one as follows ; —

White.

31 to 27.
30 to 23.
39 to 35.

32 to 28.
38 to 24.

Black.
33 to 36.

31 to 30.
30 to 31.

ai to 17.
17 to 14.

If black move to 18, 10, or 9, he loses at once, so 14 to 17 is
the best move. If white move 27 to 23 he loses the game, for
black would move 17 to 22, from which white could not escape.
Hence the game would be best played by

White.

3 to 6.

6 to 10.
10 to 14.
14 to 17

Black.
17 to 31.
31 to 3<;,
35 to 30.

The game might now be prolonged, but still to win the
losing game with the four against one is almost a certainty, as
it can only be lost by an oversight.

426

GAMES OF SKILL.

• •

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,\/' ,-iV"4 ix/'' s"«. ;v*>ijji

HE game of dominoes is frequently
looked upon as a trivial amusement, but
those who are well acquainted with it
agree that it affords room for much curi-
ous calculation. It is by no means a
mere game of chance. Let any ordinary
player enter the lists against an old and ex-
perienced hand, and he will soon discover that it
requires something besides good weapons to come
off victorious in this as in most other contests. In
fact, it is as much a game of skill as any of the card
games. A moderately good player can generally
tell what his adversary has in his hand, by his style
of play ; and by calculating two or three moves in
advance, he may either block the game or leave it
open, just as he finds it will suit his" purpose.

The ordinary game — technically termed " double
sixes " — is played with twenty-eight dominoes. In
some parts of England — chiefly in the North — they
use "double nines" and "double twelves." But it
signifies little how many dominoes are used, the
rules and principles of the game, as here laid down,
will, in most cases, equally apply.

HOW TO COMMENCE THE GAME.

In the English game it is usual to play a rubber of three
games ; but this, of course, is subject to arrangement.

After the dominoes have been well shuffled, each player
draws one, and he who draws the domino containing the
smallest number of pips wins " the down ; " in plainer Eng-
lish, he wins the privilege of playing first. Sometimes a dif-
ferent method of deciding who shall have "the down" is
adopted. One of the players draws a domino, and without
showing it, asks if it is odd or even. If the adversary guesses
right he wins " the down ;" if, on the contrary, he guesses
wrong, he loses it. The latter method is the more common
of the two. A third method is in use on the Continent. The
person holding the highest double has the "pose," or " down,"
and he commences by playing that domino. If there should

be no doubles, then the person holding the highest domino
has the pose. However, it is quite immaterial which of these
plans is adopted. The dominoes having been shuffled, each
player takes six or seven, as may be agreed upon.

If it is found that one of the players has drawn more than
the number agreed upon, his adversary withdraws the extra
number, and puts them back on the heap, keeping the face
downwards, of course. Each player then takes up his dom-
inoes, and the first player commences by putting down one of
his dominoes, after which his adversary joins one to it, con-
taining on one of its sections the same number of pips as are
marked upon adjoining of the domino first played. They
thus play alternately till the game may become so "blocked"
that one of the players cannot " go." His adversary will then
continue to play as long as there is an end open. If he .should
succeed in getting rid of all his men he wins the game ; but if
the game should be blocked at both ends before' either player
has played out, they compare the aggregate number of pips on
all the dominoes in each hand, and whoever has the smallest
number wins the game.

GENERAL MAXIMS.

1. Endeavor to play so as to keep both ends open, so that
you may be sure of being able to "go " next time.

2. Play out your heavy dominoes first, because, if the game
becomes blocked, j'ou will then have fewer pips to count.

3. Contrive to play so that the numbers at both ends shall'
be those of which you hold the most. By this means you may
often block your adversary till you are played out.

4. If you have made both ends alike, and your adversary
plays, follow him at that end, as the chances are that he can-
not go at the other, which you may keep open for yourself
until you are able to play at his end.

5. It is sometimes an advantage to hold heavy dominoes
as they not unfrequently enable you to obtain what is called a
good " follow ; " and if your adversary should hold none but
low dominoes, he would not be able to go, thus enabling you
to play five or six times consecutively, or even to play out.

6. When you have sole command over both ends you are
generally in a position to "block" the game or not, as you
think most expedient for your own game. In such a case,
you must be guided by the number of dominoes you hold com-
pared with those in your adversary's hands ; and another ele-
ment for your consideration would be whether yours are light
or heavy. If they are light, and fewer in number than your
adversary's, of course your best policy is to close the game at
once and count. But in this you must learn to calculate from
your adversary's style of play whether his hand is light or
heavy.

7. At the commencement of the game it is better to have a
variety in hand.

8. If you hold a "double," with two of the same number,
it is better to play the double before either of the others.
Sometimes you will be obliged to play one, in which case you
must endeavor to force the double.

9. If you hold a double, and one other of the same num-
ber, play both consecutively ; but if you are unable to do
that, endeavor at any rate to let the double go first.

GAMES OF SKILL.

427

10. In playing against " the down," endeavor to deceive
your opponent by playing a domino or two at each end indif-
ferently. This is better than playing to his last domino, as it
leads him to believe you cannot go at that end, while at the
same time you may be simply keeping both ends open.

11. If your adversary has possession of one end, make the
other of a number of which you hold several, with a view of
forcing him to play at his end, and shutting it against the
dominoes he was keeping it for.

12. If you hold several doubles, wait till your adversary
makes the number for them in preference to making them for
yourself ; otherwise, a good player will see what you are aim-
ing at, and will block the double. But if you hold a double
with several duplicates, and can bring that number at both
ends, do so.

13. If your adversary cannot go at one end, and you hold
the double of that end, it is better that you should play at the
other as long as you can. When you are blocked at that end,
you may then play your double, and your adversary will then
in most cases be obliged to open the other end for you.

14. It is generally considered that a light hand, yet with no
number missing, is the best for ordinary play. The follow-
ing, for example, would be a very fine hand : f , ^, f , ^, %, §.
An example of a bad hand would be : b> s. I. f » f . i I but
the worst possible hand would be the following : ^, ^, J, §, |,
-J^. The latter, however, would seldom occur in actual play.

15. It does not necessarily follow that because a hand is
heavy it must therefore lose. Provided it is equally varied, it
has an equal chance of success with a light hand. The dis-
advantage of a heavy hand is shown when the game becomes
blocked, and has to be decided by counting.

16. In leading "the down" from a hand consisting of a
high double and several light dominoes, lead the double, and
afterwards endeavor to obtain command of both ends. Sup-
pose, for example, you hold the following hand : 5, |, f , f,
15, ^ ; it would be better to play the ^, as your other double
can be forced by the aid of the f and |.

17. It will at all times be found a difficult thing, in an
equal game and between equal players, for the second player
to win.

18. Endeavor to bring both ends as often as you can to a
number of which you have several duplicates, for by that
means you may block your adversary.

19. In blocking the game, you must be cautious that you do
not block it to yourself, and leave it open to your adversary.

20. During the game look over the dominoes which have
been played, so that you may calculate what numbers are
likely to be soon run out, and what numbers your opponent
is likely to be short of.

21. Do not push the game to a block if you hold a heavy
hand, but play out your heaviest first, and keep both ends
open.

22. Use your judgment freely. It is not always the best
policy to adhere too strictly to the rules laid down in books.
In fact, a wily player will oftentimes find it expedient to play
a speculative, eccentric game, apparently quite at variance
with the ordinary ' ' laws. "

23. Keep perfectly quiet, attentively watch your opponent's

moves, and prevent him, if you can, from obtaining an insight
into your play.

24. Last (though not least), don't lose your temper.

ALL FIVES.

This game stands next in popularity to the preceding one.
The same number of dominoes are taken, or as many as may
be agreed upon, and in many points it is similar. The object
of the game is to contrive so to play that the aggregate num-
ber of pips on the dominoes at both ends shall number 5, 10,
15, or 20. If they number 5, the player who makes the point
counts one ; if 10, two ; if 15, three ; if 20, four.

In order to make our meaning clearer, we give an illus-
tration. Suppose that at one end there is ^, and at the other
a five. The next player then plays ^ to the single five, and
scores two, because the aggregate number of pips on the dom-
inoes at both ends is ten. If the opponent should follo',v up
by playing the % to the oj he, of course, scores three.

To give another illustration. Suppose at one end is §, and
the next player places at the other end ^, he scores four fof
making twenty.

If the game becomes blocked, he who holds the least num-
ber of pips counts one.

The custom as to what number shall be "up," is different
in different parts of the country. In some places it is ten ; in
others fifteen ; in others again, twenty. The number ought
to be agreed upon at the commencement of the game. In our
opinion it adds to the interest of the game to select the lower
numbers.

Sometimes the game is so played that he who makes five
counts five ; ten is made to count ten, and so on ; but in that
case not fewer than 50, and not more than 100, points should
constitute the game.

As we have shown, the material point in which this game
differs from the previous one is that you count the fives, from
which circumstance it derives its name.

The next best thing to making fives yourself is to prevent
your adversary from doing so ; and when you do give him
the opportunity of making a point it should only be in order
that you may make two or three points yourself.

When your adversary fails to avail himself of a good chance,
you may presume that he does not hold such and such dom-
inoes, and from that and like indications, which you must
carefully store up in your memory, you will be able to form a
tolerably accurate estimate of his hand. You should never
omit to turn these indications to good account.

There is only one domino in the whole pack which can be
led without the next player being able to make a point from
it — namely f . Always lead that if possible.

If you must play one of two dominoes, either of which you
fear your adversary will turn to his account, of course you
must play that by which you think you will be likely to lose
the least.

It is good practice occasionally to take a survey of the game
as far as it has gone, not only in order to refresh your memory
as to what has been played, but also that you may form an
opinion, if possible, of what your opponent's "little game"
is. If there are good grounds for coming to the conclusion

.4r-

428

GAMES OF SKILL.

that he holds heavy numbers while you hold light ones, block
up the game as speedily as you can, and proceed to count. To
understand your opponent's hand is a most important matter,
and we do not think we have insisted on it too much. Good
players will tell you that they have won many games by watch-
ing closely the opponent's moves, and drawing therefrom in-
ferences respecting the dominoes he holds in hand. We
need not add, the greatest caution must be used in forming
these inferences.

THE DRAWING GAME.

The same number of dominoes are used, and the lead is
drawn for in the same manner in this as in the previously
described games.

The difference is that when a player cannot go, he must
draw a domino from the pack. If he cannot then go, he must
draw another, and so on until he is able to continue the game.

He who plays out first, or, in case the game becomes blocked,
he who holds the smallest number of pips, wins.

The French have a different way of playing this game.
The player who holds the highest double, or, in the event of
there being no double, the highest domino, has the pose or
lead. The second player, should he be unable to go, may draw
all the remaining dominoes except two, which must remain
untaken. If he leave more than two, the first player, should
he require them in order to continue the game, may appropri-
ate the surplus, still leaving two on the table.

If a player cannot go, it is compulsory that he draw till he
gels hold of a domino that will enable him to continue the
game.

Each player may take the pose alternately, or the winner in
the first instance may letain it, as agreed upon.

The French method of counting is also different. When a
player has played out, he counts the pips in his opponent's
hand, and scores them to his own account. In case the game
should become blocked, the player holding the fewest pips
scores the number of pips in his adversary's hand to his own
account, each pip counting one. A game consists of from 20
to 100 points, according to agreement.

With respect to the English method of playing this game,
the general instructions and maxims given on the other games
apply equally to this. But a few words must be added with
regard to the French play. He who has the highest double
is compelled to play first, and cannot draw any more dominoes
until it is his turn to play again, but his opponent may draw
all but two, which two must remain untaken during that game.
But the second player should not draw more than half the
dominoes, unless really compelled by the badness of his hand,
as by this means it will leave a chance of his opponent having
as many to draw. A good player at times might be justified
in taking all but two, for by the calculation and judgment
obtained by having them, he might be enabled to play them
all before his opponent could play his five or six dominoes, as
the case may be. Should the second player hold a good
hand, comprising dominoes of every denomination, he should
not draw until compelled. If he should happen to draw high
doubles, he ought to continue to draw until he holds several
of that number.

It is not always the player holding the greatest number who
gets out first, because as he has some of almost every denomi-
nation, his adversary will keep playing to him, and the odds
are that he (the adversary) will be able to play out first. Still,
in many games, (he one holding the largest number of dom-
inoes possesses this advantage, that he has the power to keep
both ends open to himself but closed to his opponent, and he
may thus run out.

In order to be able to play out first with the largest number
(supposing that only two dominoes remain untaken), you
should by all means, and in the first place, endeavor to ascer-
tain what those two are. You may arrive at this in two ways.
Suppose you hold so many of a particular number that with
those already played they make six out of the seven of that
denomination, you must by all means keep playing them.

As an illustration, we will suppose you hold in your hand
four threes, and that two other threes have already been
played. Now, if you play your threes, and your adversary,
not being able to play to them, becomes blocked, it is quite
clear that one of the dominoes on the table is a three. Then, if
those you hold in your hand are — f , |, \, and f , and you find
among the dominoes played % and \, it is, of course, quite
safe to conclude that the domino which is left is the %.

The second plan is this. If during the course of the game
you have given your opponent opportunities of playing a cer
tain double which you do not yourself hold, you may be cer-
tain that it is one of the left dominoes.

A little experiment, in order to test the nature of your ad-
versaiy's hand, so as, however, not materially to injure your
own, would often be found more expedient than groping all
the while, as it were, in the dark.

By carefully looking over your own hand, you may judge
pretty correctly as to whether your adversary's is light or heavy.

It is only by taking into account all these and other nice
points that a player can possibly be successful.

Having formed an idea of your opponent's hand, you should
make it an object to " run out," or play so that he may be
blocked, or that he may be obliged to leave both ends open
for you to play out.

Having given some instructions to the player who holds the
larger number of dominoes, we must now proceed to give a
few hints to the lesser hand.

If, holding the lesser hand, you can contrive to play a few
moves at first without being blocked, you ought to be pretty
sure of winning ; because, by that time, your hand will have
become so disproportionately small, that your opponent will
have some difficulty in preventing you from playing out with-
out blocking himself. This, therefore, must be one of your
main objects.

If the game goes pretty equal, bring oyt your strong suits.
Wherever you are short of a particular suit, if you find that
many of that number have already been played, you need not
fear that your adversary will be able to block you in regard to
it, for you will, of course, infer that they are as scarce in his
hand as in your own. Endeavor to bring these rules to bear,
reserving to your discretion as to whether you should in any
wise depart from them, or use such modifications as the con-
tingencies of the moment require.

GAMES OF SKILL.

429

THE MATADORE GAME.

This is a foreign game, and each player takes only three
dominoes. You can only play when your domino, added to
the one previously played, would make seven. Those dominoes
which themselves make that number are termed "matadores,"
and may be played at any time, regardless of the numbers
played to. The double blank is also a matadore. The mata-
dores, therefore, are four in number, viz. : f , ^, ^, %.

The highest domino leads, and if the next player cannot go,
he must draw from the heap until he' can. He must cease,
however, to draw when there are only two dominoes left. He
who plays out first wins, and if the game is blocked, he who
holds the least number of pips counts those held by his op-
ponent, and scores them to his own game. The number of
points constituting the game is subject to agreement ; it varies
from 26 to 100.

MAXIMS FOR PLAYING THE MATADORE GAME.

This game differs widely from any of the other varieties of
dominoes. The element of chance is more largely introduced.
The player who happens to obtain more matadores than the
other is almost certain of winning, provided the parties be
pretty evenly balanced in skill and experience.

The blanks are very valuable at this game — the double blank
being the most valuable of all the matadores. It is impos-
sible to make a seven against a blank, so that if you hold
blanks you may easily block the game and count.

When you have the worst of the game, and indeed at other
times as well, guard against your adversary's blanks, and pre-
vent him from making them ; which you may do by playing
only those dominoes which fit with the blanks already down.

Never play a blank at the J>ose unless you have a matadore
or a corresponding blank.

Keep back your double blank till your opponent makes it
blanks all ; you can then force him to play a matadore, or
compel him to draw till he obtains one. It is better to have
a mixed hand.

DOMINO POOL.

This game is played either by partners or by separate play-
ers. If played singly by three or four players, each must draw
a domino, and he who draws the highest number of pips but
one sits on the left of him who draws the highest, the next
highest to the left of the second, and so on. If the game is
played by partners, the two lowest are partners and the two
highest. The partners must sit opposite to each other. The
players must draw afresh at each game, and the stake to be
played for, called the " pool," must be placed on the table.

Each player takes five dominoes, and he who holds the high-
est leads. When one player cannot go, the next in turn plays,
and so on. The maxims given in reference to the English
game apply equally to this.

The game is scored in the following manner : When one
player has played out, the one keeping the score counts the
number of pips on each player's remaining dominoes, and puts
down the number under each of their names or initials respec-
tively. The same is done if a player cannot go. When the
number of any one player reaches 40, 50, or 100, or any limit
previously agreed upon, he is out of the game ; but he comes

in again by what is called "starring." In other words, he
must pay over again the amount he originally put into the
pool. The method of " starring " is the same as at billiards,
from which the game is taken. He who " stars " recommences
at the number which the player holds who is in the worst
position. Suppose, for example, there were three players —
one at 20, one at 40, and the other at 60, 100 being up, the
player who " stars " must recommence at 60. He can only
"star" once," and that must be at the time he is out. Each
player has the option of " starring," except the last two, who
must divide the pool, or they may agree to play it out. Slill,
unless an agreement to play out is made beforehand, the last
two must divide.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR PLAYING DOMINO POOL.

When this game is played by separate players, and one be^
comes greatly ahead, the other three can combine, so as to
render his chance of winning uncertain. The necessity of this
combination is clear. If he is allowed to win, the competi-
tion for that game is over ; but if, by combining, the other
players can keep him back a little, they obtain for themselves
a better chance of success. The player who is ahead will also
do his best to throw obstacles in the way of the player in the
next best position, as he becomes a dangerous competitor.
The two in the worst position will in like manner combine
against the two ahead. The necessity for this combination
does not arise till the game is somewhat advanced, as at the
beginning all the players are on a level ; and the relative posi-
tion of the others is of no moment till the game becomes ad-
vanced. It is of very little use for one player to attempt to
stop the progress of another who is too far ahead, unless the
others combine with him. If, through ignorance or anything
else, they continue to play for their own hands, you must do
likewise. Although, if you attempted by yourself to stop the
player who was ahead of you, you might succeed, that success
might be purchased at the risk of your own chance in the game.
As in this game you have only five dominoes out of twenty,
your power of influencing the game is very much diminished,
and there is not quite so much scope for the exercise of your
judgment as in other single games where you hold six dom-
inoes out of twelve. Your opponents are sure to hold some of the
remaining numbers in which you are strong ; so that the in-
jury you can in other games inflict by having a preponderance
of a particular number will be greatly diminished here.
Therefore it is scarcely worth your while endeavoring to retard
your opponent's game when you have three of a number, un-
less some of that number have already been played ; because,
if you keep those numbers until you are called upon to play
them, you will do infinitely more towards crippling their game
than if you were to lead from them. On the other hand,
should you hold more than three of a particular number, do not
wait for this chance, but lead it on the first opportunity. If
you find that you and one of the other players hold nearly all
of a particular number, combine with him, in order to exhaust
the hands of the other two. In doing this you are of course
only studying your own interest. It is better to adopt this
plan when you have reasons to believe you are already on the
safe side. If you hold one or two doubles, with duplicates of

430

GAMES OF SKILL.

either, retain the latter until you first get rid of the doubles ;
but if you hold three or four duplicates along with a double,
play the duplicates at once, as you will be able by your own
hand to force the double at any time. If you are short in any
particular number, get rid of your heavy dominoes as quickly
as possible. In playing off you may lead with a light domino,
if you hold one or more of the number ; but if not, you must
lead a higher domino, in order to diminish the number of pips
in your hand. If you hold a heavy hand with high doubles, or
a hand which admits of little or no variety, or without any
particular preponderance, you must play a safe game, and
sustain as little loss as you possibly can under the circum-
stances. Endeavor to balance the inferiority of your hand by
drawing the other players along with you.

When there are only three players left, and one is greatly
ahead, while another has starred, it should be the object of
the third player to prolong the game as much as possible, as
he still has a chance to star.

When two players are in advance, the two behind must avoid
embarrassing each other in their combinations against the other
two. It is better for them to use their joint efforts against one
at a time, as the attack, if concentrated in that way, would be
stronger and more effectual. Should one of the. advanced
players get embarrassed, endeavor to embarrass him still more,
for you may be sure his competitor will not assist him.

It will be perfectly understood, however, that, in playing
with partners, the object of each partner will be to play as
much as possible into his partner's hands and to cripple his
opponents. If it is your lead and you have a good hand, you
must try and win with it, regardless of your, partner's position.
So, on the other hand, if it is your partner's down, and you
have a bad hand, you must be content to sacrifice your own
chance in order to increase his. In the partner's game it is
generally good play to lead from a strong suit, for, as this is a
generally understood rule, your partner will accept the hint,
and will not fail to " return your lead," or, in other words, to
play into your hands as much as possible. If you hold some
doubles, with others of the same number, you may — contrary
to the single game — play the latter first if it suits your hand,
as your partner will be sure to assist in getting out your
doubles.

We might continue these directions and hints ad infinitum,
but experience, after all, is the best teacher ; and — recom-
mending the learner to practice assiduously and play carefully
—we dismiss this portion of our subject.

THE WHIST GAME.

This game resembles in some points the game of cards from
which it takes its name. It is played by four persons — two
partners on each side. The partners, as usual, sit opposite to
each other. The whole of the dominoes are taken — seven by
each player.

It is best to lead from your strongest suit. By this and
such other indications you will enable your partner to form an
opinion as to your hand, by which he will be guided very
much in his play, and as the game proceeds each must tax his
recollection as to who played such and such a dommo, and
how the game stood at that particular time, so as to form a
judgment as to the motive of such play, etc. The general in-
structions given in previous chapters will apply in great
measure to this game, particularly those given in reference to
the Pool Game.

THE FOUR GAME.

In this game, which is played by four persons, each player
takes seven dominoes ; and he who plays out first, or, if the
game becomes blocked, holds the least number of pips, wins
the hand, and draws a certain stake from the other three.

Very little in the way of instruction is required in this game.
If you have the pose, you should play out as far as possible,
and then endeavor to block the game.

, Endeavor to keep your hand even, so as to be ready at any
number, or (and in this you must be guided by the nature of
your hand) play to keep your strongest suit in hand until those
of the same suit held by other players are out. By this means
you may oftentimes be able to play out or shut the game, as
you find most expedient.

SEBASTOPOL GAME.

This game is played by four players, each taking seven dom-
inoes. The player holding the double six plays it, and takes
the lead. Each player must play a six to it. He who cannot
loses the turn. The dominoes are played in the form of a
cross the first round, after which the players alternately play
at either of the four ends. He who has the last domino, or, in
the event of more than one player being left with dominoes
when the game is shut, he who holds the greatest number of
pips, pays a certain amount to the winners.

Endeavor to get rid of your heavy dominoes, and put ob-
stacles in the way of your adversaries running out.

TIDDLE-A-WINK GAME.

This is a very amusing game, and suitable for a round
party.

If six or more play, each takes three dominoes. The % is
then called for, as in the French game, and the person holding
it leads with it. If it is not out, the next highest double is
called forth, and so on downwards until a start is made.

In this game, he who plays a double, either at the lead or at
any other part of the game, is entitled to play again if he can
— thus obtaining two turns instead of one. The game then
proceeds in the ordinary way, and he who plays out first cries
" Tiddle-a-wink ! " having won. In the event of the game
being blocked, he who holds the lowest number of pips wins.

PARLOR MAGIC.

431

FEW preliminary hints are necessary in
order to enable an amateur to perform
the tricks he attempts with effect and
success.

A conjuror should always be able to
" palm " well. That is done by holding
a coin in the fingers, and by a quick move-
ment passing it into the middle or palm of the hand,
and, by contracting the muscles on each side of the
hand, to retain it there, making the hand appear
open and as though nothing were in it. After a lit-
tle practice this will become comparatively easy, but
it will require the exercise of great perseverance in
order to become perfect. The pains, however, will
be well bestowed, as this is one of the principal
means by which prestidigitators deceive their
audiences.

MAKING THE PASS.

In many of the tricks with cards it is necessary to
"make the pass," as it is termed, which is a very
neat and simple movement. The operator shows a
card, which he wishes his audience to believe he can
change by simply using the mysterious words " Presto,
begone ! " While, however, he is saying these words,
he gives a sharp blow on the pack he holds in his
hand, and at the same time slips the card under the
pack and t^kes off the top one, or vice versa. Prac-
tice, in this as in other matters, will impart great
dexterity to the operator ; and, as the hand can be
trained to move more quickly than the eye can see,
he will be able to go through the movement without
it being perceived by his audience.

The following mode of " making the pass " should

be well studied : Hold the pack of cards in your
right hand so that the palm of your hand may be under
the cards ; place the thumb of that hand on one side
of the pack, and the first, second, and third fingers
on the other side, and your little finger between
those cards that are to be brought to the top and the
rest of the pack. Then place your left hand over
the card in such a manner that the thumb may be
at 5, the forefinger at 6, and the other fingers at 7,
as in the accompanying figure :

Right hand.

Bottom.

Little finger.

The hands and the two portions of the pack being
thus disposed, you draw off the lower cards confined
by the little finger and the other parts of the right
hand, and place them with an imperceptibly quick
motion on top of the pack.

But before you attempt any of the tricks that de-
pend upon " making the pass " you must have great
practice, and be able to perform it so dexterously
and expeditiously that the eye cannot detect the
movement of the hand, or you may, instead of
deceiving others, expose yourself.

FORCING A CARD.

In card tricks it is frequently necessary to " force
a card," by which you compel a person to take such

432

PARLOR MAGIC.

a card as you think fit, while he imagines he is taking
one at haphazard. The following is, perhaps, the
best method of performing this trick :

Ascertain quietly, or whilst you are amusing your-
self with the cards, what the card is which you are to
force ; but either keep it in sight, or place the little
finger of your left hand, in which you have the cards,
upon it. Next, desire a person to select a card from the
pack, for which purpose you must open them quick-
ly from left to right, spreading the cards backwards
and forwards so as to perplex him in making his
choice, and when you see him about to take one,
open the pack until you come to the one you intend
him to take, and just at the moment his fingers are
touching the pack let its corner project invitingly a
little forward in front of the others. This will seem so
fair that in nine cases out of ten he will take the one
so offered, unless he is himself aware of the secret
of forcing. Having by this method forced your
card, you request him to examine it, and then give
him the pack to shuffle, which he may do as often as
he likes, for you are of course always aware what
card he has taken. A perfect acquaintance with the
art of forcing is indispensably necessary before you
attempt any of the more difficult card tricks.

THE "LONG CARD."

Another stratagem connected with the perform-
ance of many of the following tricks is what is termed
the " long card," that is, a card a trifle longer or
wider than the rest of the pack, so as not to be per-
ceptible to the eye of the spectator, but easily dis-
tinguished by the touch of the operator. Good
operators sometimes have both cards in the pack.
Any bookbinder will shave the edges of your pack
so as to leave you a long and a wide card.

Having laid down what we may be allowed to
term the " leading principles " which rule the art of
card conjuring, we now propose to explain the vari-
ous tricks which may be performed with a pack of
ordinary playing-cards. They depend to some ex-
tent for success on manual dexterity, a knowledge
of the science of numbers, and some simple appara-
tus, easily procured or made by an ingenious youth.
For instance, all the. court cards may be made to
come together by relying upon the doctrine of
chances. Thus : take the pack, separate all the
kings, queens, and knaves, and place them all to-
gether in any part of the pack you choose. There

are five hundred chances to one that a stranger can-
not in twelve cuts disturb the order in which they
are placed. This trick is easy, and when success-
fully carried out is amusing. It may be made more
so by placing one-half of the above number of cards
at the bottom of the pack and the other half at the
top. Of a very similar character is the famous
trick of

GUESSING A CARD THOUGHT OF.

To do this well you must attend to the following directions :
Spread out the cards in your right hand in such a manner
that, in showing them to the audience, not a single card is
wholly exposed to view, with the exception of tlie king of
spades, the upper part of which should be clearly seen with-
out any obstruction either from the fingers or from the other
cards. When you have thus spread them out, designedly in
fact, but apparently at random, show them to one of the
spectators, requesting him to think of a card, and at the same
time take care to move the hand a little, so as to describe a
segment of a circle, in order that the audience may catch sight
of the king of spades without noticing that the other cards
are all partially concealed. Then shuffle the cards, but in
doing so you must not lose sight of the king of spades, which
you will then lay on the table face downwards. You may
then tell the person who has thought of a card that the one in
his mind is on the table, and request him to name it. Should
he name the king of spades, which he would be most likely to
do, you will of course turn it up and show it to the company,
who, if they are not acquainted with the trick, will be very
much astonished. If, however, he should name some other
card — say the queen of clubs — you must tell him that his
memory is defective, and that that card could not have been
the card he at first thought of. Whilst telling him this, which
you must do at as great length as you can in order to gain
time, shuffle the cards rapidly and apparently without any par-
ticular purpose until your eye catches the card he has just
named (the queen of clubs). Put it on the top of the pack,
and, still appearing to be engrossed with other thoughts, go
through the first false shuffle to make believe that you have
no particular card in view. When you have done shuffling,
take care to leave ihe queen of clubs on the top of the pack ;
then take the pack in your left hand and the king of spades
in your right, and while dexterously exchanging the queen of
clubs for the king of spades, say, "What must I do, gentle-
men, that my trick should not be a failure ? what card should
I have in my right hand?" They will not fail to call out the
queen of clubs, upon which you will turn it up, and they will
see that you have been successful.

This trick, when well executed, always has a good effect,
whether the spectator thinks of the card you intended him to
think of, or, from a desire to complicate matters, of some
other. It requires considerable presence of mind, however,
and the power of concealing from your audience what your
real object is. .

Another method of making the spectator think of any par-

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PARLOR MAGIC.

433

cicular card is the following : Pass several cards under the eye
of the person selected, turning them over so rapidly that he
sees the colors confusedly, without being able to distinguish
their number or value. For this purpose take the pack in
your left hand, and pass the upper part into your right, dis-
playing the front of the cards to the audience, and conse-
quently seeing only the backs yourself. Pass one over the
other so rapidly that he will not be able to distinguish any one
of them, until you come to the card which you desire to force
— presuming, of course, that you have made yourself ac-
quainted with its position. The card you select ought to be
a bright-looking and easily distinguishable one, such as the
king of hearts or the queen of clubs. Contrive to have this
card a little longer before your audience than the rest, but
avoid all appearance of effort, and let everything be done
naturally. During the interval watch the countenance of the
spectator, in order that you may be sure he notices the
card you display before him. Having thus assured yourself
that he has fixed upon the card you selected, and that he is
not acquainted with the trick, you then proceed as before.
Should you come to the conclusion that he has fixed upon
some other card, you will then have recourse to the " ex-
changed card " trick, as explained in the previous trick.

TO TELL A CARD BY SMELLING IT.
A very clever trick, and one which never fails to excite as-
tonishment at an evening party, is to select all the court cards
when blindfolded ; but before commencing it, you must take
one of the party into your confidence, and get him to assist
you. When all is arranged, you may talk of the strong sense
of smell and touch which blind people are said to possess, and
state that you could, when blindfolded, distinguish the court
cards from the rest, and profess your willingness to attempt
it. The process is this : After you have satisfied the company
that your eyes are tightly bound, take the pack in your hands,
and holding up one of the cards in view of the whole com-
pany, feel the face of it with your fingers. If it is a court
card, your confederate, who should be seated near to you,
must tread on your toe. You then proclaim that it is a court
card, and proceed to the next. Should you then turn up a
common card your confederate takes no notice of it, and you
inform the company accordingly ; and so on until you have
convinced the company that you really possess the extraordi-
nary power to which you laid claim.

y TO TELL ALL THE CARDS WITHOUT SEEING
THEM.
Another good parlor trick is to tell the names of all the
cards when their backs are turned towards you. Perhaps this
is one of the best illusions that can be performed with cards,
as it not only brings the whole pack into use, but can never
fail in the hands of an ordinarily intelligent operator. This
trick, which is founded on the science of numbers, enables
you to tell every card after they have been cut as often as your
audience please, although you only see the backs of them. It
is thus performed : A pack of cards are distributed face up-
permost on a table, and you pick them up in the following
order — 6, 4, i, 7, 5, king, 8, 10, 3, knave, 9, 2, queen. Go
28

through this series until you have picked up the whole of the
pack. It is not necessary that you should take up the whole
of one suit before commencing another. In order that the
above order may not be forgotten, the following words should
be committed to memory :

641 75

The sixty-fourth regiment beats the seventy-fifth ; up starts
king 8 10 3 knave 9 2

the king, with eight thousand and three men and ninety-two
qtteen
women.

The cards being thus arranged, the cards must be handed
to the company to cut. They may cut the cards as often as
they like, but it must be understood that they do it whist
fashion, that is, taking off a portion of the cards, and placing
the lower division on what was formerly the upper one. You
then take the pack in your hands, and, without letting your
audience perceive, cast a glance at the bottom card. Having
done this — which you may do without any apparent effort —
you have the key of the whole trick. You then deal out the
cards, in the ordinary way, in thirteen different sets, putting
four cards to each set ; in other words, you deal out the first
cards singly and separately, and then place the fourteenth
card above the first set, the next upon the second set, and so
on throughout, until you have exhausted the whole pack. You
may be certain now that each one of these thirteen sets will
contain four cards of the same denomination — thus, the four
eights will be together, and so with the four queens, and every
other denomination. The thirteenth, or last set, will be of
the same denomination as the card at the bottom which you
contrived to see, and as they will be placed exactly in the re-
verse order of that in which you first of all picked them up,
you may without difficulty calculate of what denomination
each of the sets consists. For example, suppose an 8 was the
bottom card, you would find, after a little calculation, that
after being dealt out in the manner above described, they
would be placed in the following order: king, 5, 7, i, 4, 6.
queen, 2, 9, knave, 3, 10, 8 ; and repeating in your own mind
the words which you have committed to memory, and reckon-
ing the cards backwards, you would say —

8 10 3 knave 9 2 queen

" Eight thousand and three men, and ninety-two women ;

641 75

sixty-fourth regiment beats the seventy-fifth ; up starts the
king
king with," etc., etc.

You observe the same rule whatever the bottom card may

f^^f^ TO TELL A CARD THOUGHT OF.

By a certain prearranged combination of cards, the con-
juror is enabled — apparently to guess, but really to calculate
— not only the card that is thought of by any member of the
company, but to tell its position in the pack. You take the
pack and present it to one of those present, desiring him to
shuffle the cards well, and after he is done, if he chooses, to
hand them over to some one else to shuffle them a second
time. You then cause the pack to be cut by several persons,
after which you select one out of the company whom you re-

434

PARLOR MAGIC.

quest to take the pack, think of a card, and fix in his memory
not only the card he has thought of, but also its position in
the pack, by counting i, 2, 3, 4, and so on, from the bottom
of the pack, as far as, and including, the card thought of.
You may offer to go into another room while this is being
done, or remain with your eyes bandaged, assuring the com-
pany that, if they desire it, you will announce beforehand the
number at which the card thought of will be found. Now,
supposing the person selecting the card stops at No. 13 from
the bottom, and that this thirteenth card is the queen of
hearts, and supposing also that the number you have put
down beforehand is 24, you will return to the room or remove
your handkerchief, as the case may be, and without putting
any question to the person who has thought of a card, you ask
for the pack, and rest your nose upon it, as if you would find
out the secret by smelling. Then, putting your hands behind
your back or under the table, so that they cannot be seen, you
take away from the bottom of the pack twenty-three cards —
that is, one fewer than the number you marked down before-
hand — and place them on the top, taking great care not to
put one more or less, as inaccuracy in this respect would cer-
tainly cause the trick to fail. You then return the pack to
the person who thought of the card, requesting him to count
the cards from the top, beginning from the number of the
card he thought of. For example, having selected the thir-
teenth card, he will commence counting 14, 15, 16, and so on.
When he has called 23, stop him, telling him that the number
you marked down was 24, and that the twenty-fourth card
which he is about to take up is the queen of hearts, which he
will find to be correct. In performing this trick it is neces-
sary to observe that the number you name must be greater
than the number which your opponent gives you, describing
its position in the pack.

TO CHANGE A CARD BY WORD OF COMMAND.
It at first sight seems singular that any one should be able
even to appear to change a card by word of command ; yet it
can easily be done, and under different titles, and with slight
variations, the trick is constantly performed in public. To do
it, you must have two cards alike in the pack — say, for ex-
ample, a duplicate of the king of spades. Place one next to
the bottom card, which we will suppose to be the seven of
hearts, and the other at the top ; shuffle the cards without dis-
placing these three, and then show one of the company that
the bottom card is the seven of hearts. This card you dex-
terously slip aside with your finger, so that it may not be per-
ceived, and taking the king of spades from the bottom, which
the person supposes to be the seven of hearts, lay it on the
table, telling him to cover it with his hand. Shuffle the cards
again without displacing the first and last cards, and shifting
the other king of spades from the top to the bottom, show it
to another person. You then contrive to remove the king of
spades in the same manner as before, and taking the bottom
card, which will then be the seven of hearts, but which the
company will still suppose to be the king of spades, you lay
that also on the table, and tell the second person to cover it
with his hand. You then command the cards to change
places, and when the two parties take off their hands, they

will see, to their great astonishment, that your commands are
obeyed.

"TWIN CARD" TRICK.

Another trick performed by means of "twin," or duplicate,
cards, as in the previous case, is to show the same card appar-
ently on the top and at the bottom of the pack. One of
these duplicate cards may be easily obtained ; in fact, the
pattern card, which accompanies every pack, may be made
available for that purpose. Let us suppose, then, for a mo-
ment, that you have a duplicate of the queen of clubs. You
place both of them at the bottom of the pack, and make be-
lieve to shuffle them, taking care, however, that these two
keep their places. Then lay the pack upon the table, draw
out the bottom card, show it, and p'lace it on the top. You
then command the top card to pnss to the bottom, and, on the
pack being turned up, the company will see with surprise that
the card which they had just seen placed upon the top is now
at the bottom.

MAGIC TEA-CADDIES.

This, like some of the tricks we have previously explained,
requires suitable apparatus for its successful performance.
Two cards, drawn by different persons, are put into separate
tea-caddies, and locked up, and the object of the operator is
to appear to change the cards without touching them. This
may be done without the aid of a confederate. The caddies
are made with a copper flap which has a hinge at the bottom
and opens against the front, where it catches under the bolt
of the lock, so that when the lid is shut and locked the flap
will fall down upon the bottom. The operator places the two
cards he intends to be chosen between the flap and the front,
which may be handled without any suspicion ; he then re-
quests one of the persons to put the card he has selected into
one of the caddies, taking care that he puts it into the caddy
into which you placed the other card ; the second person, of
course, puts his card into the other caddy. The operator then
desires them to lock the caddies, and in doing this the flap
becomes unlocked, falls to the bottom, and covers the cards,
and when opened, the caddies show apparently that the cards
have been transposed.

THE VANISHING CARD.

Another good trick is thus performed : Divide the pack,
placing one-half in the palm of the left hand, face downwards;
and, taking the remainder of the pack in the right hand, hold
them between the thumb and first three fingers, taking care
to place the cards upright, so that the edges of those in your
right hand may rest upon the back of those in the left, thus
forming a right angle with them. In this way the four fingers
of the left hand touch the last of the upright cards in your
right hand. It is necessary that the cards should be placed in
this position, and that once being attained, the rest of the
trick is easy. These preliminaries having been gone through,
one of the company, at your request, examines the top card
of the half-pack that rests in the palm of your left hand, and
then replaces it. Having done this, you request him to look
at it again, and, to his astonishment, it will have vanished.

^
■^^

PARLOR MAGIC.

435

4r-

and another card will appear in its- place. In order to accom-
plish this, having assumed the position already described, you
must damp the tips of the four fingers that rest against the
last card of the upright set in your right hand. When the
person who has chosen a card replaces it, you must raise the
upright cards in your right hand very quickly, and the card
will then adhere to the damped fingers of your left hand. As
you raise the upright cards, you must close your left hand
skillfully, and you will thereby place the last of the upright
cards — which, as we have explained, adheres to the fingers of
your left hand — upon the top of the cards in the palm of your
left hand, and when you request the person who first examined
it to look at it again, he will observe that it has been changed.
Rapidity and manual dexterity are required for the perform-
ance of this capital sleight-of-hand trick.

TO TELL THE NUMBER OF CARDS BY WEIGHT.

The apparently marvelous gift of telling the number of
cards by weight depends on the use of the long card. Take
a portion of a pack of cards — say forty — and insert among
them two long cards. Place the first — say fifteen from the
top, and the other twenty-six. Make a feint of shuffling the
cards, and cut at the first long card ; poise those you hold in
your hand, and say, " There must be fifteen here ; " then cut
at the second long card, and say, ** There are but eleven
here ;" and poising the remainder, say, " And here are four-
teen." The spectators, on counting them, will find that you
have correctly estimated the numbers.

TO PRODUCE A MOUSE FROM A PACK OF CARDS.

Cards are sometimes fastened together like snuff-boxes. If
you possess such a pack, or can procure one, you may, with-
out difficulty, perform this feat. The cards are fastened to-
gether at the edges, but the middles must be cut out, leaving
a cavity in the pack resembling a box. A w/iok card is glued
on to the top, and a number of loose ones are placed above it.
They must be skillfully and carefully shuffled, so that your
audience may be led to believe that it is an ordinary and per-
fect pack. The card at the bottom of what we may term the
" box" must likewise be a whole card, but must be glued to
the box on one side only, so that it will yield immediately to
internal pressure. This bottom card serves as the door
through which you convey the mouse into the middle of the
pack. Being thus prepared, and holding the bottom tight
with your hand, request one of the company to place his open
hands together, telling him you intend to produce something
very marvelous from the pack. Place the pack in his hands,
and whilst you engage his attention in conversation, affect to
want something out of your bag, and at the same moment take
the pack by the middle, and throw it into the bag, and the
mouse, which you had previously placed in the box, will re-
main in the hands of the person who holds the cards.

TO SEND A CARD THROUGH A TABLE.
Request one of the company to draw a card from the pack,
examine it, and then return it. Then make the pass — or, if
you cannot make the pass, make use of the long card — and

bring the card chosen to the top of the pack, and shuffle
by means of any of the false shuffles before described, without
losing sight of the card. After shuffling the pack several
times, bring the card to the top again. Then place the pack
on the table, about two inches from the edge near which you
are sitting, and having previously slightly dampened the back
of your right hand, you strike the pack a sharp blow, and the
card will adhere to it. You then put your right hand very
rapidly underneath the table, and taking off with your left
hand the card which has stuck to your right hand, you show
it to your audience, who will at once recognize in it the card
that was drawn at the commencement of the trick. You must
be careful while performing this trick not to allow any of the
spectators to get behind or at the side of the table, but keep
them directly in front, otherwise the illusion would be dis-
covered.

TO KNOCK ALL THE CARDS FROM A PERSON'S
HAND EXCEPT THE CHOSEN ONE.
With a little care a novice may easily learn this trick. It
is not new, and is called by some the " Nerve Trick," Force
a card, and request the person who has taken it to return it to
the pack and shuffle the cards. Then look at the card your-
self, and place the card chosen at the bottom of the pack.
Cut them in two, and give him the half containing his card at
the bottom, and request him to hold it just at the comer be-
tween his finger and thumb. After telling him to hold them
tight, strike them sharply, and they will all fall to the ground
except the bottom one, which is the card he has chosen. An
improvement in this trick is to put the chosen card at the
bottom of the pack and turn the face upwards, so that when
you strike, the card remaining will stare the spectators in the
face.

ANOTHER CLEVER CARD TRICK.

This trick, commonly called the " Turnover Feat," is easily
performed, and yet is difficult of detection. Having forced
a card, you contrive, after sundry shufflings, to convey it to
the top of the pack. Make the rest of the cards perfectly
even at the edges, but let the chosen card project a little over
the others. Then, holding them between your finger and
thumb, about two feet above the table, let them suddenly and
quickly drop, and the projecting card in the course of its de-
scent will be turned face uppermost by the force of the air, and
exposed to the view of the whole company.

TO TELL THE NAME OF A CARD THOUGHT OF.
One of the company must, at your request, draw seven or
eight cards promiscuously from the pack, and select one from
among them as the card he desires to think of. He then re-
turns them to the pack, and you, either by shuffling or in any
other way which will not be noticed, contrive to pass the
whole of them to the bottom oi the pack. You then take five
or six cards off the top of the pack, and throw them on the
table face upwards, asking if the card thought of is among
them. Whilst the person is examining them you secretly take
one card from the bottom of the pack and place it on the top ;
and when he tells you that the card he thought of is not in
the first parcel, throw him five or six more, including the card

436

PARLOR MAGIC.

-y

you have just taken from the bottom — the denomination and
suit of which it is presumed you have taken the opportunity
to ascertain — so that should be say that his card is in the sec-
ond parcel, you will at once know which card is indicated,
and in order to " bring it to light," you may make use either
of the two foregoing tricks, or any other you think proper.

TO TELL THE NAMES OF ALL THE CARDS BY

THEIR WEIGHTS.
The pack having been cut and shuffled to the entire satis-
faction of the audience, the operator commences by stating
that he undertakes, by poising each card for a moment on his
fingers, to tell not only the color, but the suit and number of
spots, and, if a court card, whether it be king, queen, or
knave. For the accomplishment of this most amusing trick
we recommend the following directions : You must have two
packs of cards exactly alike. One of them we will suppose to
have been in use during the evening for the performance of
your tricks ; but in addition to this you must have a second
pack in your pocket, which you must take care to arrange in
the order hereinafter described. Previous to commencing the
trick you must take the opportunity of exchanging these two
packs, and bringing into use the prepared pack. This must
be done in such a manner that your audience will believe that
the pack you introduce is the same as the one you have been
using all the evening, which they know has been well shuffled.
The order in which the pack must be arranged will be best
ascertained by committing the following lines — the words in
italics forming the key : —

Eight kings threa-ten'd to save,
Eight, king, three, ten, two, seven.
Nine fair ladies for one sick knave.
Nine, Jive, queen, four, ace, six, knave.
These lines thoroughly committed to memory will be of
material assistance. The alliterative resemblance will in
every instance be a sufficient guide to the card indicated. The
order in which the suits should otherwise be committed to
memory, — viz., hearts, spades, diamonds, clubs. Having sorted
your cards in accordance with the above directions, your
pack is " prepared " and ready for use ; and when you have
successfully completed the exchange, you bring forward your
prepared pack, and hand it round to be cut. The pack may
be cut as often as the audience pleases, but always whist
fashion, — i.e., the lower half of the pack must be placed
upon the upper at each cut. You now only want to know the
top card, and you will then have a clue to the rest. You
therefore take off the top card, and holding it between your-
self and the light, you see what it is, saying at the same time,
by way of apology, that this is the old way of performing the
trick, but that it is now superseded. Having once ascertained
what the first is, which, for example, we will suppose to be
the king of diamonds, you then take the next card on your
finger, and poise it for a moment, as if you were going
through a process of mental calculation. This pause will
give you time to repeat to yourself the two lines given by
which means you will know what card comes next. Thus : —
" Eight kings threa-Z^-wV to," etc. ; it will be seen that the
three comes next.

THE QUEEN'S DIG FOR DIAMONDS.

Taking the pack in your hands, you separate from it the
four kings, queens, knaves, and aces, and also four common
cards of each suit. Then laying the four queens, face up-
wards, in a row on the table, you commence telling your story
somewhat after this fashion : —

" These four queens set out to seek for diamonds. \Here
you place any four cards of the diamond suit half over the
queens."] As they intend to dig for diamonds, they each take
a spade. \^Here lay four common spades half over the diamonds^
The kings, their husbands, aware of the risk they run, send a
guard of honor to protect them. [Place the four aces half over
the spades.] But fearing the guard of honor might neglect
their duty, the kings resolve to set out themselves. [Here lay
the four kings half over the four aces.] Now, there were four
robbers, who, being apprised of the queens' intentions, deter-
mined to waylay and rob them as they returned with the dia-
monds in their possession. [Lay the four knaves half over the
four kings.] Each of these four robbers armed himself with
a club [lay out four clubs half over the knaves] ; and as they
do not know how the queens may be protected, it is necessary
that each should carry a stout heart." [Lay out four hearts
half over the knaves.]

You have now exhausted the whole of the cards with which
you commenced the game, and have placed them in four col-
umns. You take the cards in the first of these columns, and
pack them together, beginning at your left hand, and keeping
them in the order in which you laid them out. Having done
this, you place them on the table, face downwards. You pack
up the second column in like manner, lay them on the first,
and so on with the other two.

The pack is then handed to the company, who cut them as
often as they choose, provided always that they cut whist
fashion. That done, you may give them what is termed a
shuffle-cut ; that is, you appear to shuffle them, but in reality
only give them a quick succession of cuts, taking care that
when you are done a card of the heart suit remains at the
bottom.

You then begin to lay them out again as you did in the first
instance, and it will be found that all the cards will come in
their proper order.

MYSTERIOUS DISAPPEARANCE OF THE KNAVE
OF SPADES.

Fixing your eye upon the stoutest-looking man in the room,
you ask him if he can hold a card tightly. Of course he will
answer in the affirmative ; but if he should not, you will have
no difficulty in finding one who does. You then desire him to
stand in the middle of the room, and holding up the pack of
cards, you show him the bottom one, and request him to state
what card it is. He will tell you that it is the knave of
spades. You then tell him to hold the card tightly and look
up at the ceiling. While he is looking up you ask him if he
recollects his card ; and if he answer, as he will be sure to do,
the knave of spades, you will reply that he must have made a
mistake, for if he look at the card he will find it to be the knave
of hearts, which will be the case. Then handing him the

PARLOR MAGIC.

437

pack, you tell him that if he will look over it, he will find his
knave of spades somewhere in the middle of the pack.

This trick is extremely simple and easy of accomplishment.
You procure an extra knave of spades, and cut it in half,
keeping the upper part, and throwing away the lower. Be-
fore showing the bottom of the pack to the company, get the
knave of hearts to the bottom, and lay over it, unperceived by
the company, your half knave of spades ; and under pretense
of holding the pack very tight, put your thumb across the
middle, so that the joining may not be seen, the legs of the
two knaves being so similar that detection is impossible. You
then give him the lower part of the knave of hearts to hold,
and when he has drawn the card away hold your hands so that
the faces of the cards will be turned toward the floor. As
early as possible you take an opportunity of removing the
half knave.

SLEIGHT-OF-HAND TRICKS, Etc.

Having completed our catalogue of card feats, we now pro-
ceed to give a short selection of other conjuring tricks.

A CHEAP WAY OF BEING GENEROUS.
You take a little common white or bees' wax, and stick it
on your thumb. Then, speaking to a bystander, you show
him sixpence, and tell him you will put the same into his
hand ; press it down upon the palm of his hand with your
waxed thumb, talking to him the while, and looking him in
the face. Suddenly take away your thumb, and the coin will
adhere to it ; then close his hand, and he will be under the
impression that he holds the sixpence, as the sensation caused
by the pressing still remains. You may tell him he is at
liberty to keep the sixpence ; but on opening his hand to look
at it he will find, to his astonishment, that it is gone.

THE FAMOUS MOUNTEBANK TRICK.

In the days when merry-andrews and mountebanks met with
a hearty welcome on every English village green, no conjuring
trick was more popular than this ; yet there are few that can
be performed with less difficulty. You first of all procure a
long strip of paper, or several smaller strips pasted together,
two or three inches wide. Color the edges red and blue, and
roll up the paper like a roll of ribbon. Before doing so, how-
ever, securely paste a small piece of cotton at the end you
begin to roll. Then, when the proper time has arrived, you
take hold of this cotton, and begin to pull out a long roll
which very much resembles "a barber's pole." In order to
perform this trick with good effect, have before you some
paper shavings, which may easily be procured at any book-
binder's, and commence to appear to eat them. The chewed
paper can be removed each time a fresh handful is put into
the mouth ; and when the proper time and opportunity have
arrived, put the roll into the mouth, and pull the bit of cotton,
when a long roll comes out, as before described, to the as-
tonishment of the audience.

A more elegant but similar feat is the following, which we
will style

BRINGING COLORED RIBBONS FROM THE
MOUTH.
Heap a quantity of finely-carded cotton wool upon a plate,

which place before you. At the bottom of this lint, and con-
cealed from the company, you should have several narrow
strips of colored ribbons, wound tightly into one roll, so as to
occupy but little space. Now begin to appear to eat the lint
by putting a handful in your mouth. The first handful can
easily be removed and returned to the plate unobserved while
the second is being "crammed in." In doing this, care
should be taken not to use all the lint, but to leave sufficient
to conceal the roll. At the last handful, take up the roll and
push it into your mouth without any lint ; then appear to have
had enough, and look in a very distressed state, as if you
were full to suffocation ; then put your hands up to your
mouth, get hold of the end of the ribbon, and draw, hand over
hand, yards of ribbon as if from your stomach. The slower
this is done, the better the effect. When one ribbon is off
the roll your tongue will assist you in pushing another end
ready for the hand. You will find you need not wet or damage
the ribbons in the least. This is a trick which is frequently
performed by one of the cleverest conjurers of the day.

CATCHING MONEY FROM THE AIR.

The following trick, which tells wonderfully well when skill-
fully performed, is a great favorite with one of our best-known
conjurers. So far as we are aware, it has not before been
published. Have in readiness any number of silver coins,
say thirty-four ; place all of them in the left hand, with the
exception of four, which you must palm into the right hand,
then, obtaining a hat from the audience, you quietly put the
left hand with the silver inside ; and whilst playfully asking
if it is a new hat, or with some such remark for the purpose
of diverting attention, loose the silver, and at the same time
take hold of the brim with the left hand, and hold it still so
as not to shake the silver. Now address the audience, and in-
form them that you are going to "catch money from the air."
Ask some person to name any number of coins up t« ten, say
eight. In the same way you go on asking various persons,
and adding the numbers aloud till the total number named is
nearly thirty ; then looking round as though some one had
spoken another number, and knowing that you have only
thirty-four coins, you must appear to have heard the numbei
called which, with what has already been given, will make
thirty-four ; say the last number you added made twenty-eight,
then, as though you had heard some one say six, " and twenty-
eight and six make thirty-four — Thank you, I think we
have suflScient." Then, with the four coins palmed in your
right hand, make a catch at the air, when they will chink.
Look at them, and pretend to throw them into the hat, but
instead of doing so palm them again ; but, in order to satisfy
your audience that you really threw them into the hat, you
must, when in the act of palming, hit the brim of the hat with
the wrist of the right hand, which will make the coins in the
hat chink as if they had just fallen from the right hand. Hav-
ing repeated this process several times, say, "I suppose we
have sufficient," empty them out on to a plate, and let one of
the audience count them. It will be found that there are only
thirty, but the number which you were to catch was thirty-
four. You will therefore say, " Well, we are four short ; I
must catch just four, neither more nor less." Then, still hav-

43«

PARLOR MAGIC.

ing four coins palmed in your right hand, you catch again,
and open your hands, saying to the audience, " Here they
are."

HOW TO FIRE A LOADED PISTOL AT THE
HAND WITHOUT HURTING IT

This extraordinary illusion is performed with real powder,
real bullets, and a real pistol ; the instrument which effects
the deception being the ramrod. This ramrod is made of
polished iron, and on one end of it is very nicely fitted a tube,
like a small telescope tube. When the tube is off the rod,
there will, of course, appear a little projection. The other
end of the rod must be made to resemble this exactly. The
ramrod with the tube on being in your hand, you pass the
pistol round to the audience to be examined, and request one
of them to put in a little powder. Then take the pistol your-
self, and put in a very small piece of wadding, and ram it
down ; and in doing so you will leave the tube of the ramrod
inside the barrel of the pistol. To allay any suspicion that
might arise in the minds of your audience, you hand the ram-
rod to them for their inspection. The ramrod being returned
to you, you hand the pistol to some person in the audience,
requesting him to insert a bullet, and to mark it in such a
way that he would recognize it again. You then take the
pistol back, and put in a little more wadding. In ramming
it down, the rod slips into the tube, which now forms, as it
were, an inner lining to the barrel, and into which the bullet
has fallen ; the tube fitting tight on to the rod is now with-
drawn along with it from the pistol, and the bullet is easily
got into the hand by pulling off the tube from the rod while
seeking a plate to "catch the bullets"; and the marksman
receiving order to fire, you let the bullet fall from your closed
hand into the plate just as the pistol goes off.

CURIOUS WATCH TRICK.
By means of this trick, if a person will tell you the hour at
which he means to dine, you can tell him the hour at which
he means to get up next morning. First ask a person to think
of the hour he intends rising on the following morning. When
he has done so, bid him place his finger on the hour, on the
dial of your watch, at which he intends dining. Then— hav-
ing requested him to remember the hour of which he first
thought — you mentally add twelve to the hour upon which
he has placed his finger, and request him to retrograde,
counting the hours you mention, whatever that may be, but
that he is to commence counting with the hour he thought of
from the hour he points at. For example, suppose he thought
of rising at eight, and places his finger on twelve as the hour
at which he means to dine, you desire him to count back
twenty-four hours ; beginning at twelve he counts eight, that
being the hour he thought of rising, eleven he calls nine, ten
he calls ten (mentally, but not aloud), and so on until he has
counted twenty-four, at which point he will stop, which will
be eight, and he will probably be surprised to find it is the
hour he thought of rising at.

THE FLYING QUARTER.
This is a purely sleight of hand trick, but it does not require
much practice to be able to do it well and cleverly. Take a

quarter between the forefinger and thumb of the right hand ;
then, by a rapid twist of the fingers, twirl the coin by the same
motion that you would use to spin a teetotum. At the same
time rapidly close your hand, and the coin will disappear up
your coat sleeve. You may now open your hand, and, much
to the astonishment of your audience, the coin will not be there.
This capital trick may be varied in a hundred ways. One
plan is to take three quarters, and concealing one in the palm
of your left hand, place one of the others between the thumb
and forefinger of the right hand, and the thiid between the
thumb and forefinger of the left hand. Then give the coin in
the right hand the twist already described, and closing both
hands quickly, it will disappear up your sleeve, and the left
hand on being unclosed, will be found to contain two quarters.
Thus you will make the surprised spectators believe that you
conjured the coin from your right hand to the left.

PLUMES FOR THE LADIES.

The following very clever trick was a favorite with M. Hou-
din, and was performed by him at St. James Theater, where
it drew forth a good deal of admiration. When known, how-
ever, it appears like a great many other tricks, extremely simple
and easy.

Procure two or three large plumes of feathers, or a lot tied
together. Take off your coat, and hold one lot in each hand,
so that the plumes will lie in a parallel line with the arms.
Put your coat on again, and press the feathers into small com-
pass. Ask some one to lend you a large silk handkerchief,
throw it over one hand and part of the arm, and with the other
quickly draw the feathers from that arm. The plumes, being
released from their imprisonment, will spread out and resume
their bulky appearance, and the onlookers will be completely
baffled as to where they could have come from. Then repeat
the process with the other arm.

THE BORROWED QUARTER IN THE WORSTED
BALL.

This easily-performed trick should be in the repertoire of
every amateur magician. A large ball of worsted is obtained,
and a marked quarter having been borrowed from the audience,
the worsted is unwound, and out falls the quarter which but a
moment before was supposed to be in the hands of the opera-
tor. It is done in this way : Procure a few skeins of thick
worsted ; next, a piece of tin in the shape of a flat tube, large
enough for the coin to pass through, and about four inches
long. Then wind the worsted on one end of the tube to a
good-sized ball, having a quarter of your own in your right
hand. You may now show the trick. Place the worsted any-
where out of sight, borrow a marked quarter, and taking it
in your left hand, you put the one in your right hand on the end
of the table farthest from the company. While so doing, drop
the marked quarter into the tube, pull the tube out, and wind a
little more worsted on in order to conceal the hole. Then put
the ball into a tumbler, and taking the quarter you left on the
table, show it to the company (who will imagine it to be the
borrowed quarter), and say " Presto ! fly! pass !" Give the
end of the ball to one of the audience and request him to un-
wind it, and on that being done the money will fall out.

PARLOR MAGIC.

439

THE INK AND FISH TRICK.

This trick, originally introduced by M. Houdin, has been
performed by every wizard since. A large goblet is placed on
the table, containing apparently several pints of ink. A small
quantity of ink is taken out with a ladle, and being poured out
into a plate, is handed round to the company to satisfy them
that it really is ink. A handkerchief is then covered over the
goblet, and upon being instantly withdrawn, reveals the glass
now full of water, in which swim gold and silver fish. The
trick is thus performed : a black silk lining is placed inside the
goblet, and kept in its place by a wire ring. It thus forms a
bag without a bottom, as it were, and when wet adheres close
to the glass in which are the water and the fish. The next part
of the deception is the ladle; which must be capable of contain-
ing as much ink as will induce the audience to believe that it
was got from the goblet before them. The ink must be con-
cealed in the handle of the ladle, so that when it is lying on
the table it will not be perceived ; but on being elevated, it
must run into the ladle through a small aperture made for the
purpose. The black silk is easily withdrawn by the thumb
and finger at the time the handkerchief is removed. It must
be concealed within the folds of the handkerchief.

SILVER CHANGED TO GOLD— FLYING MONEY.

Before commencing this trick you must provide yourself
•with two quarters and a half eagle, and one of the quarters
must be concealed in the right hand. Lay the other quarter
and the half eagle on the table, in full view of the audience.
Now ask for two handkerchiefs, then take the half eagle up
and pretend to roll it in one of the handkerchiefs ; but instead
of that roll up the quarter, which you had concealed in the
right hand, and retain the half eagle. Then give the handker-
chief to one of the company to hold. Now take the quarter
off the table, and pretend to roll that up in the second hand-
kerchief, but put up the half eagle instead. Give this hand-
kerchief to a second person and bid him " hold it tight," while
you command the half eagle and the quarter to change places.
On the handkerchief being opened, the coins will appear to
have obeyed your command.

THE "TWENTY CENTS" TRICK.

This trick may be performed with any number of either
quarters, half eagles, or half dollars ; but, following the tradi-
tional rule, we will suppose that you borrow at random twenty
cents from the company and display them on a plate, having
previously concealed five oiker cents in your left hand.
You take the cents from the plate into the right hand, mix
them with the concealed five, and then give them to one of
the company to hold. You then ask the possessor to return
five to you, which he will do, under the supposition that he
only retains fifteen, while in reality he retains twenty. You
must now have another cent palmed in your right hand, so
that when you give the five cents to another person to hold,
you add one to the number, and in reality put six in his hands.
You then ask him, as in the previous case to return one to
you, reminding him, as you receive it, that he has only four left.

Then pretending to put the cent you have just received into
your left hand, you strike the left hand with your magic wand,
and bid the coin you are supposed to be holding to fly into the
closed hand of the person holding five, or, as he supposes, four
cents. On unclosing his hand he will find it to contain five cents,
and he will believe that you transferred one of them thither.
Now, taking the five cents, you must dexterously pass them
into the left hand, and bid them fly into the closed hand of the
person holding the supposed fifteen ; and he, in like manner,
will be astonished to find, on unclosing his hand, that it con-
tains twenty cents instead of, as he supposed, fifteen.

THE MYSTERIOUS BAG.

Mr. Philippe, when appearing before his wonder-struck au-
diences, used to excite the most profound amazement by means
of a mysterious bag, from which he produced nearly every
conceivable thing, from a mouse-trap to a four-post bedstead ;
and its capacity was so prodigious, that it swallowed even
more than it produced. Similar but less pretending is the
one which we give under the title of " The Mysterious Bag."
Make two bags, each about a foot long and six inches wide, of
some dark material, and sew them together at the edge, so that
one may be inside the other. Next make a number of pock-
ets, each with a cover to it, which may be fastened down by a
slight elastic band. Place these about two inches apart, be-
tween the two bags, sewing one side of the pocket to one bag
and the other side to the other. Make slits through both bags
about an inch long, just above the pockets, so that you can
put your hand in the bags ; and by inserting your thumb and
finger through these slits you may obtain entrance to the pock-
ets, and bring out of them whatever they contain. It is, of
course, necessary that a variety of articles should be put in the
pockets. Before commencing the trick you may turn the bag
inside out any number of times, so that your audience may
conclude that it is quite empty. You can then cause to appear
or disappear any number of articles of a light nature, much to
the amusement of your audience.

TO MAKE A DIME DISAPPEAR AT COMMAND.

This simple and well-known but often amusing trick, en-
ables the operator to cause a small coin to disappear after it
has been wrapped up in a handkerchief. Borrow a dime or a
small coin, or use one of your own, and secretly place a small
piece of soft wax on one side of it ; then spread a pocket-
handkerchief on a table, and taking up a coin, show it to
your audience, being very carefulnot to expose the side that
has the wax on it. Having done this, place the coin in the
center of the handkerchief, so that the wax side will adhere.
Then bring the corner of the handkerchief over, and com-
pletely hide the coin from the view of the spectators. All this
must be carefully done, or the company will perceive the wax
on the back of the coin. You must now press very hard on
the coin with your thumb, in order to make it adhere. When
you have done this, fold over successively the other corners,
repeating the operation a second time, and leaving the fourth
corner open. Then take hold of the handkerchief with both
hands at the open part, and sliding your finger along the

440

PARLOR MAGIC.

4r-

edge of the same, it will become unfolded, and the coin ad-
hering to the corner of the handkerchief will, of course, come
into your right hand ; then detach the coin, shake out the
handkerchief, and to the great astonishment of the company
the coin will have disappeared.

In order to convince your audience that the coin is still in
the handkerchief after you have wrapped it up, you can drop
it on the table, when it will sound.

TO PRODUCE A CANNON-BALL FROM A HAT.

This is a very old trick, though it still finds favor with most
of the conjurors of the present day. You borrow a hat, and
on taking it into your hands you ask a number of questions
about it, or say it would be a pity for you to spoil so nice a
hat, or make use of some such remark. This, however, is only
a ruse for the purpose of diverting attention. Then passing
round to the back of your table — (where, by the way, you have
arranged on pegs a large wooden " cannon-ball," or a cab-
bage, or a bi*dle of dolls, trinkets, etc., loosely tied together,
so that they may be easily disengaged) — you wipe, in passing,
one or other of these articles off the pegs, where they must be
very slightly suspended, into the hat so rapidly as not to be
observed.

Returning to the gentleman from whom you received the
hat, you say to him — "You are aware, sir, that your hat was
not empty when you gave it to me " — at the same time empty-
ing the contents in front of the audience. Supposing you
have, in the first instance, introduced the dolls and trinkets,
you may repeat the trick by wiping the " cannon-ball " or one
of the other articles into the hat, and again advancing towards
the gentleman from whom you received it, say, " Here is
your hat ; thank you, sir." Then, just as you are about to
give it to him, say, "Bless me, what have we here?" and
turning the hat upside down, the large cannon-ball will fall
out.

EVANESCENT MONEY.

" ' T is here, and 't is gone ! " This simple but effective
trick is done in the following manner : Stick a small piece of
white wax on the nail of your middle finger ; lay a dime
on the palm of your hand, and state to the company that you
will make it vanish at the word of command, at the same
time observing that many perform the feat by letting the dime
fall into their sleeve, but to convince them that you have not
recourse to any such deception, turn up the cuffs of your
sleeves. Then close your hand, and by bringing the waxed
nail in contact with the dime, it will firmly adhere to it.
Then blow upon your hand, and cry " Begone \" and sud-
denly opening it and extending yonr palm, you show the dime
has vanished. Care must be taken to remove the wax from the
dime before you restore it to the owner.

THE WINGED DIME.

Take a dime with a hole in the edge, and attach it to a
piece of white sewing-silk, at the end of which is a piece of
elastic cord about twelve inches in length. Sew the cord to
the lining of your left-hand coat sleeve, but be careful that the

end of the cord to which the coin is attached should not ex-
tend lower than within two inches of the end of the sleeve
when the coat is on. Having done this, bring down the six-
pence with the right hand, and place it between the thumb and
under finger of the left hand, and showing it to the company,
tell them you will give it to any one present who will not let
it slip away. You must then select one of your audience, to
whom you proffer the dime, and just as he is about to receive
it you must let it slip from between your fingers, and the con-
traction of the elastic cord will draw the coin up your sleeve,
and its sudden disappearance will be likely to astonish the
would-be recipient. This feat can be varied by pretending to
wrap the coin in a piece of paper or a handkerchief. Great
care should be taken not to let any part of the cord be seen,
as that would be the means of discovering the trick.

THE AERIAL COIN.

The following will furnish the key to many of the stock
tricks of professional conjurors. Having turned up the cuffs
of your coat, begin by placing a cent on your elbow (your
arm being bent by raising the hand toward the shoulder)
and catching it in your hand — a feat of dexterity easily
performed. Then say that you can catch even a smaller coin
in a more difficult position. You must illustrate this by
placing the dime half-way between the elbow and the wrist,
and by suddenly bringing the hand down the dime will
fall securely into the cuff, unseen by any one, and it will
seem to have disappeared altogether. Take a drinking glass
or tumbler, and bidding the spectators to look upwards, in-
form them that the lost coin shall drop through the ceiling.
By placing the glass at the side of your arm, and elevating
your hand, the coin will fall from the cuff into the tumbler.

THE TRAVERSING RING.

Provide yourself with a silk handkerchief and a small ring.
With a needleful of silk, doubled, sew the ring to the mid-
dle of the handkerchief, but let it be suspended by the silk
within an inch or two of the bottom of the handkerchief.
When the handkerchief is held up by the two corners, the ring
must always hang on the side facing the conjuror. The hand-
kerchief may now be crumpled up to " show all fair." Obtain
a ring from one of the company, and retain it in the hand with
which you receive it, but pretend to pass it to the other. Then
pretend to wrap it up in the handkerchief, and taking hold of
the other ring through the folds, request some one to hold it.
Ask them if they can feel it, and as soon as they are satisfied
that this is the identical ring which you borrowed, you put a
plate on the table, and request the person holding the hand-
kerchief to place both it and the ring on the plate. You then
inform the company that you will cause the ring to pass
through the plate and table into a little box, which you show
round, and which you will place under the table. You can
easily slip the ring in as you are doing so. Then partly un-
wrap the handkerchief, so that the ring will chink upon the
plate, and with the words, " Quick ! change ! begone !" or
some expressions of similar import, take the handkerchief by
two corners, and put it in your pocket, saying, "It is now in

PARLOR MAGIC.

441

-y

the box." You then request some one to pick it up and take
out the ring.

THE COOKING HAT.

Have cakes or pudding previously made, and procure a jar
or doctor's gallipot, and a tin pot, made straight all the way
up, with the bottom half way down, so that both ends contain
exactly the same quantity. The ready-made pancakes are pre-
viously put into the one end of this pot, which must be dex-
trously slipped into the hat. Then take some milk, flour,
eggs, &c., and mix them up in the jar. Having done so, de-
liberately pour the mixture into the hat, taking care that the
pot previously deposited there receives it. Put the jar down
into the hat, press it on the tin pot, which exactly fits inside
the jar, and brings away the pot containing the mixture, leav-
ing the pancakes, which you pretend to fry over the candle,
using the hat as a frying-pan. Then turn out the pudding or
pancakes, show that the hat remains unsoiled, and restore it
to its owner.

AN AVIARY IN A HAT.

This excellent, but well-known trick requires the assistance
of a confederate. A hat is borrowed as before from one of
the audience, and turned round and round to show there is
nothing in it. It is then laid on the operator's table, behind
a vase or some other bulky article ; after which, as if a new
idea had occurred to you, perform some other trick, during
which the confederate removes the borrowed hat, substituting
one previously prepared. This substituted hat is filled with
small pigeons, placed in a bag with a whalebone or an elastic
mouth, which fits the inside of the hat. The bag containing
the birds is covered with a piece of cloth, with a slit in the
top. The operator, taking up the hat, puts his hands through
the slit, and takes out the birds one by one, till all are free.
The hat is then placed on the table, for the ostensible purpose
of cleaning it before handing it back, and the confederate
again changes the hats, having in the interim fitted the bor-
rowed hat with a bag similar to the other, and also filled
with pigeons. This having been done, you call out to your
confederate, and request him, so that all your audience may
hear, to " Take the gentleman's hat away, and clean it." He
takes it up, ^nd peeps into it, saying, " You have not let all
the birds away," upon which, to the surprise and amusement
of the spectators, you produce another lot of birds as before.
In brushing the hat previous to restoring it to the ownei-, the
bag may be adroitly removed.

A BANK-NOTE CONCEALED IN A CANDLE.

Ask some, one to lend you a bank-note, and to notice the
number, etc. You then walk up to the screen behind which
your confederate is concealed, pass the note to him, and take
a wax or composite candle. Then turning to the audience,
you ask one of them — a boy would be preferred — to step up
on the platform. At your request he must cut the candle into
four equal parts. You then take three of them, and say you
will perform the trick by means of them, passing the fourth
piece to the other end of the table, where your confederate has

already rolled up the note in a very small compass, and thrust
it into a hollow bit of candle, previously made ready. You
take up this piece, and, concealing it in your hand, you walk
up to the boy, and appear accidentally to knock one of the
bits of candle out of his hand, and while you are stooping to
pick it up off the floor, you change it for the bit which con-
tains the note. You then place it on the table, and say to the
audience, " Which piece shall I take— right or left ? " If they
select the one which contains the note, ask the boy to cut it
carefully through the middle, and to mind that he does not cut
the note. "When he has made a slight incision, tell him to
break it, when the note will be found in the middle. If the
audience select the piece which does not contain the note, you
throw it aside, and say that the note will be found in the re-
maining piece. When this is done with tact, the audience will
naturally believe that they have really had the privilege of
choosing.

THE DOLL TRICK.

The Doll Trick, although common in the streets of London
and at every fair throughout the country, is without exception
one of the best sleight-of-hand tricks that was ever performed,
and must not be omitted here.

The conjuror produces a wooden painted doll, about six
inches long ; he then places it in a bag of very dark material,
and tells his story. "The little traveler, ladies and gentle-
men, you see before you, is a wonderful little man who has
been all over the world ; but as he has grown older he has be-
come very nervous. One evening lately, at a small cabaret in
the south of France, he was stating how nervous he was and
how much he dreaded being robbed, when a Jew who sat in a
corner of the room undertook to impart to him the means of
making himself invisible at any moment, for a sum to be
agreed upon. The bargain was struck, the money paid, and
the Jew placed at his disposal a small skull-cap, which, as
soon as it was placed upon his head, rendered him at once in-
visible ; and I will now show you, ladies and gentlemen, the
power possessed by this cap." The doll is then introduced
into the bag, which has a small opening at the smaller end
sufficiently large to admit of the doll's head passing through
it. When the head has been shown, the lower part of the bag
is turned over the doll and its body shown, " so that there can
be no deception ! " The conjuror then says (still holding the
head above the top of the bag), " I will now show you the
wonderful cap by which the old gentleman is at once rendered
invisible ; " and producing it from his pocket, he places it
upon the head of the doll for a moment, and then removes it ;
the head then disappears in the bag, which is then turned in-
side out, and no trace of the doll can be perceived, though the
bag be thrown on the floor, stamped upon, etc.

And now for the secret and the method of performing this
really surprising though very simple trick. The head is re-
movable and only fastened to the neck by a peg about three-
quarters of an inch long ; the bag or dress is made full at the
bottom, i. e. , about the size of a hat, and has an opening at
the top just large enough to allow the doll's head to pass
through it ; at the lower edge of this bag must be made a small
pocket, just large enough to contain easily the doll, and on the

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442

PARLOR MAGIC.

outside of the bag must be a red streak, by way of ornament,
coming from the top directly down to the pocket, so that it
may be seen exactly where the pocket is. This side of the
bag must be held nearest to the performer.

In performing the trick the doll is introduced at the bottom
of the bag, and passed upwards until the head is shown
through the opening at the top ; and when the performer says,
" I will now show you the cap," he, holding the head of the
doll in his left hand, quickly passes the body into his pocket,
where he has the cap, which he produces, leaving the body in
its place. He then for a moment places the cap on the doll's
head, and replaces it in his pocket ; then placing his right
hand in the bag, he slowly draws down the head, which he
slips into the small pocket in the bag, and shows his hand
open and empty. He then catches hold of the lower edge of
the bag at the pocket, holding, of course, the head of the doll
in his hand, and strikes the bag against the table, ground, etc ,
and says, " I told you the old gentleman would become invisi-
ble." He then says, " I will try to bring him back again ;"
and introducing his hand into the bag, he takes the head from
the pocket and shows it through the opening at the top of the
bag, and retaining it in his hand, he throws the b^g on the
floor and tramples upon it.

If well done, we consider this trick, though common, one of
the best that is performed. It will be as well to have two
dolls made exactly alike, one with the head fixed, to be handed
round, and the other with the movable head to be used in the
trick. We sometimes use a pocketless dress, and " palm " the
head.

TO PASS A DIME, OR OTHER SMALL ARTICLE,
THROUGH A TABLE.

This trick, like the preceding one, is very amusing, and if
well, and what we may call cleanly done, is really very aston-
ishing. The conjuror, seating himself at a table, borrows two
articles of any kind sufficiently small to be concealed in the
hands ; these he places on the edge of the table before him,
and says, I take this one, as you see, in my right hand, and
hold it at arm's length, and the other I take in my left hand —
my hands never meet. I now place my left hand under the
table and njy right hand above it, and upon my giving the
word " Pass ! " the dime which you saw me take in my right
hand will pass through the table to the ball of cotton in my
left, which you see is the case.

This trick is very easy of accomplishment, if but a little time
and patience be bestowed upon it. The dime, piece of
India-rubber, or any other small article must be placed on the
edge of the table, and the fingers must be placed over it ex-
actly the same way as if it were really desired to take it in the
hand ; but instead of doing so the fingers merely push it over
the edge of the table, and, the knees of the performer being
closed, it falls into his lap. It is then picked up with the left
hand, and the right hand being brought sharply upon the
upper surface of the table, the dime appears to have passed
through it.

THE CUP AND CENT.

This too, if well performed, is a most astounding trick.
Three coins of one cent each are shown, and a small cap or

cup. The cents are thrown on the table, picked up again,
arranged one on the other, and the cap placed over them. A
hat is then introduced, and shown to be empty ; this is then
held in the left hand under the table, the cap removed with the
right hand, the cents shown and recovered. The conjuror
then says, " Pass !" when the cents are heard to fall in the
hat ; the cap on the table is raised, and they are gone, and in
their place a small die or three cent piece appears. The cents
are then taken in the left hand, held under the table, and com-
manded to pass ; and on raising the cap they again appear be-
neath it.

This trick is very simple though ingenious, and the solution
of it is as follows : The cap is of leather or any similar
stiff material, and made to fit over three coins of one cent
each easily; and the "trick" cents are six riveted together,
the upper one being entire, but the other five being turned
out, leaving nothing but their outer rims. Three coins
of one cent each are shown, as also the cap ; and after
showing the cents, while gathering them in the hand, " palm"
them and place the "trick" cents (inside of which is the
die) on the table, and cover them with the cap. Then tak-
ing the hat in the left hand, command the cents to pass, and
at the word drop the genuine cents into the hat, at the same
time raising the cap on the table, and by pinching the
sides of it rather tightly the " trick " cents are raised with
it, and the die or three cent-pieces appear, then covering
the die or three cent-pieces with the cap and the '' trick "
cents concealed in it, show the genuine cents in the hat,
and command them to return ; and holding the genuine
cents in the left hand, lift the cap, and the cents again
appear. Then taking the cap in the right hand, adroitly
drop the "trick" cents into it and tender the cap for
scrutiny.

The table-cloth should be a thick and soft one, to prevent
the spectators from hearing the die fall as the "trick" cents
are placed on the table.

THE SHOWER OF SUGARPLUMS.

This is a capital yf«rt'/(? to an evening's amusement, particu-
larly with young children. A small bag, capable of holding
about a pint, must be made of a piece of figured calico, of a
conical shape, but open at the bottom or larger end, on each
side of which must be inserted a flat thin piece of whalebone ;
at the upper or smaller end must be a small hook made of
wire — a lady's hair-pin will answer the purpose perfectly. The
trick is performed in this way : —

The bottom of the bag must be opened by pressing the op-
posite ends of the two pieces of whalebone, when, of course,
they will bend and divide, and the bag must then be filled with
sugarplums, care being taken to put the small bonbons at the
top of the bag, and the large ones at the bottom next the
whalebone, which will prevent the small ones from falling out.
The bag when filled must on the first opportunity be sus-
pended by its hook at the back of a chair having a stuffed
back, so that it cannot be seen.

When the trick is to be performed, a large handkerchief
must be shown, with a request that it may be examined. It

PARLOR MAGIC.

443 r

is then laid over the back of the chair. A little girl must then
be asked if she is afraid of being out in the rain, and on her
answering in the negative she must be requested to kneel down
in the middle of the room. The performer must then place
his left hand on the handkerchief, and feeling the hook which
supports the bag, he raises it with the handkerchief, and holds
it above the little girl's head ; then passing his right hand from
the fourth' finger and thumb of the left hand which hold the
handkerchief and bag, downwards, he can easily feel the bottom
of the bag, and on pressing the opposite ends of the whalebone,
they bend and open, and the contents of the bag of course fall
out in a shower, and a general scramble among the children
takes place.

TO REMOVE AN EGG FROM ONE WINE-GLASS TO
ANOTHER WITHOUT TOUCHING EITHER
THE EGG OR THE GLASSES.

Place two wine-glasses touching each other and in a direct
line from you, and in the one nearer to you must be placed an
egg with its smaller end downwards. Then blow with the
mouth suddenly and sharply and strongly against the side of
the egg, but in a downward direction, when the egg will be
lifted up, and falling over will lodge in the other glass.

THE EGG IN THE BAG.

This, too, is a capital trick, if quietly and neatly performed,
and the more slowly the better.

A small bag is produced, rather larger than a sheet of note-
paper, into which an egg (or rather the shell of one out of
which the contents have been blown) is dropped. The comer
of the bag must then be squeezed round it to show that it is
there, and it may be felt by any one present. The corner of
the open end of the bag is then held by the finger and thumb
of the left hand, and the right placed in the bag, which is then
held open end downwards, and the right hand withdrawn
empty. The bag is then seized by the right hand, and struck
violently against the table, and then crumpled up in the
hands. It is then held with the mouth upwards, the right
hand is again placed in the bag, and the egg unbroken pro-
duced.

The trick is performed in this way : The bag is made dou-
ble on one side, thus forming a second bag, the mouth of
which is at the bottom of the other. After the egg has been
dropped in the bag and felt to be there, it is held in the right
hand, while the bag is held bottom upwards, and then
dropped in the second bag. The right hand is then with-
drawn. When the edge of the bag is seized by the right hand,
the egg must be also held in the same hand in the bag, and it
is thus preserved from being broken when the bag is struck
against the table, etc. The mouth of the bag being then held
upwards, the egg of course falls into the first bag, and is then
taken out and shown.

TO FIX A PENKNIFE BY ITS POINT IN THE CEIL-
ING, AND AFTERWARD PLACE A QUARTER
SO EXACTLY UNDER IT THAT WHEN DIS-
LODGED BY STRIKING THE CEILING THE
KNIFE SHALL FALL ON THE QUARTER.

This is a most ingenious trick, and is done in this way.
Mounting a table, stick the penknife by its point into the ceil-
ing, but only sufficiently to support it. Then after a deal of
examination of its position, etc., place a piece of brown papet
on the floor, on which put the quarter, and then say you will
undertake to place the quarter so exactly under it that, when
dislodged, the knife shall fall upon it. When wonder is ex-
cited, and it is declared to be impossible, call for a glass of
water ; then mounting on the table, dip the penknife in the
water and withdraw the glass ; a drop of water will soon fall
on the paper, and on that very spot place the quarter. You
then strike the ceiling with your fist, when the knife will fall,
of course, on the quarter. The knife chosen for the purpose
should be one having rather a heavy pointed handle, as the
drop of water will then fall from the most central point.

TO PRODUCE A CANNON-BALL FROM A HAT.

A ball must be turned out of any kind of soft light wood,
and must have a hole bored in it large enough to admit the
middle finger, and it should be painted black. The trick is
performed in this way : On the front of the conjuring table,
i. e., the side next the spectators, should be placed a few layers
of books, high enough to conceal from view the ball or any
other apparatus with which it is intended to perform. On the
side of the books next the performer the ball should be placed,
with the hole in it towards him. The hat should be placed on
the books on its side on the left-hand end of the table, with its
crown next the spectators. When the trick is to be performed
the hat should be shown to be entirely empty, and then re-
turned to its position on the books ; then, having placed ^hat-
brush or silk handkerchief at the right hand of the table, say,
"This trick cannot be performed unless the hat is perfectly
smooth," and while leaning to the right to reach the brush or
handkerchief, which diverts attention to that end of the table,
the middle finger of the left hand must be placed in the hole
in the ball, which is thus slipped into the hat, which must then
be carefully brushed and held crown uppermost. The brush
should then be put down, and the right thumb placed on the
rim of the hat, with the fingers extended underneath so as to
support the ball in the hat, and the left hand should then be
placed in the same position, and the hat, with the ball in it,
carried and placed upon another table. A small ball must
then be produced, and a boy asked if he thinks he can hold it
in his mouth, and told to try. The ball is then taken in the
right hand, pretended to be thrown against the hat, " palmed,"
and concealed in the pocket. The boy should then be asked
if he will again take the ball in his mouth, and while opening
it the cannon-ball is suddenly taken from under tlie hat and
placed in front of his face.

444

PHYSICS WITHOUT APPLIANCES.

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A Cheap Magnifying Lamp — Measuring the Illuminat-
ing Power of a Candle and an Argand Lamp.

N ordinary looking-glass, a lighted taper, and a
foot rule, or a measuring tape, are quite sufficient
to demonstrate the simple geometrical laws of
reflection ; for, with their aid, it is very easy to
show that the image of the candle in the mirror
is virtually situated at a distance behind the mir-
ror equal to the actual distance of the candle front,
and that, when a ray falls obliquely on the mir-
ror, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
A teacher who wishes to go further into the matter, and to de-
monstrate the laws of reflection at curved surfaces, usually
provides himself with the appropriate silvered mirrors of convex
and concave form. Failing these, the exterior and interior
surfaces of the bowl of a bright silver spoon will probably be as
satisfactory a substitute as any. We have found even a saucer of
common glazed earthenware to form a very fair concave mirror,
giving upon a small tissue paper screen a beautiful little
inverted image of a distant gas flame. To illustrate the
geometrical laws of refraction through lenses, a good reading-
glass of large size is a desirable acquisition. Spectacle-lenses,
though of a smaller size, and therefore admitting less light, are
also of service. In the absence of any of these articles, it is
generally possible to fall back upon a water decanter, provided
one can be found of a good globular form, and not spoiled for
optical purposes by having ornamental work cut upon the sides
of the globe. It is held a few inches away from a white wall
and a candle is placed at the opposite side, so that its light
falls through the decanter on to the wall. The candle is
moved toward or away from the decanter until the position is
found in which its rays focus themselves upon the wall, giving
a clear inverted image of the candle-flame upon the wall. The
experiment may be varied by setting down the candle on the
table, and then moving the decanter to and fro until a definite
image is obtained. If a large hand-reading-glass be available,
the image will be much clearer than with the improvised water-
lens ; and a further improvement in the manner of experiment-
mg may be made by using a screen of white paper or card
instead of a whitened wall on which to receive the image. The
first sheet of paper should be set up in simple fashion at
one end of the table. The candle should be placed at the
other end of the table, and the reading-lens moved about be-

tween them until a point is found at which it throws upon the
screen a good clear image of the candle. It will be found
that there are two such points, one near the candle, the other
near the screen. In each case the image of the candle will be
inverted, but in the first case it will be a magnified and, in the
second, a diminished image, the size of the image, as compared
with that of the real flame, being proportional to their respect-
ive distances from the lens.

When the lens has been placed in a position of good focus,
the candle may be removed and placed where the screen stood ;
if now the screen is placed where the candle was, it will be
found that the image is again visible on the screen, still in-
verted, though altered in magnitude. This experiment, in
fact, proves the law of conjugate foci.

The young beginner in science who repeats these experi-
ments for himself will begin to understand how it is that in the
photographer's camera the image in the instrument is inverted,
and how it can also be true that the images cast on the sensi-
tive retina of the eye are also inverted. The retina at the back
of the eyeball answers to the white screen on which the image
is thrown by the lens in front of it. It is possible, indeed, to
show in actual fact that the image in the eyeball is inverted ;
the experiment is very simple, but we believe that this is the
first time that it has been described in print. Take a candle, and
hold it in your right hand as you stand opposite a looking-glass.
Turn your head slightly to the left while you look at the image
of yourself in the glass. Open your eyes very wide, and look
carefully at the image of your left eye. Move the candle about
gently, up, down, forward, etc., so that the light falls more or
less obliquely on to the eyeball. You will presently notice a
little patch of light in the extreme outer corner of the eye ; it is
the image of the candle on the inside of the eyeball, which you
see through the semi-transparent horny substance of the eye.
If you move the candle up, the little image moves down, and
if you succeed well, you will discern that it is an inverted image,
the tip of the flame being downward. You thus prove to your
own satisfaction that the image of the candle in your eyeball is
really upside down.

A magnifying-glass of very simple construction a few
years ago found a great sale in the streets of London, at the
price of one penny. A bulb blown at the end of a short glass
tube is filled with water. When held in front of the eye,
this forms a capital lens for examining objects of microscopic
dimensions, which may be secured in place by a bit of wire
twisted round the stem.

-«^

PHYSICS WITHOUT APPLIANCES.

445

The principle by which the intensity of two lights is com-
pared in the photometer is very easily shown. We can measure
by the following process, the relative brightness of an Argand
oil-lamp, and of an ordinary candle. Both these lights are set
upon the table, and are so arranged that each casts on to a screen
of white paper a shadow of a tall, narrow object. The most
handy object for this purpose is another candle unlighted. The
Argand lamp, being the brighter light, will cast the deeper
shadow of the two, unless it is placed farther away. The meas-
ure of the brightness is obtained by moving the brighter light
just so far off that the intensity of the two shadows is equal, for
then we know that the relative intensities of the two lights are
proportional to the squares of their distances from the photo-
meter. All that remains, therefore, is to measure the distances
and calculate out the intensities. If, for example, the distance of

"hr

the lamp is double that of the candle when the two shadows
are equally dark, we know that the brightness of the lamp is
four times as great as that of the candle.

Many other facts in optics can be shown with no greater
trouble than that entailed by such simple experiments as we
have described. The pendant luster of a chandelier will pro-
vide an excellent prism of glass for showing the dispersion of
light into its component tints. A couple of spectacle glasses
appropriately chosen will, when pressed together, afford capital
"Newton's rings " at the point where they touch. Diffraction
bands of gorgeous hue may be observed by looking at a distant
gaslight, or at the point of light reflected by a silvered bead in
sunshine, through a piece of fine gauze, or through a sparrow's
feather held close in front of the eye. And yet more remark-
able effects of diflfVaction are obtained if the point of light be
looked at through substances of still finer structure, suc}\ as the

preparations of woody structure, and of the eyes of insects
which are sold as microscopic objects. But the explanation
of these beautiful phenomena would lead us far beyond our
subject

Expansion of Air— To keep Hot and Cold Water

APART.

The science of heat constitutes one of those departments
of physics in which both the uninitiated beginner and the
advanced student can find food for thought. To follow out
the theoretical teachings of the science of heat requires a knowl-
edge of abstruse mathematical formulae ; but, on the other
hand, a very large proportion of the fundamental facts of ex-
periment upon which the science depends can be illustrated
with the simplest means.

The property possessed by almost all material bodies of
expanding when they are warmed affords us the means of as-
certaining the degree to which they are warmed. Thus the
expansion of the quicksilver in the bulbs of our thermometers
shows us the degree of temperature of the surrounding air.
Again, the heat imparted to the air within a paper fire-balloon
makes it expand and 1)ecome specifically lighter than the sur-
rounding atmosphere through which it rises. In general it
may be asserted that matter, in whichever state it may be — solid,
liquid, or gaseous — expands when heat is imparted to it, and
contracts when heat is taken from it. An empty wine bottle
is placed with its mouth downward in a deep dish or jar con-
taining water, the bottom of the bottle projecting over the
side of the jar. Heat is then applied by means of a spirit-
lamp ; or, if this is not available, by burning under it
a piece of cotton-wool soaked in spirits and held on
the end of a fork. The glass of the bottle becomes hot —
if too hot it may crack — and the air inside shares its warmth
and begins to expand. There being only a limited space in-
side the bottle, some of the air will be forced out and will rise
in bubbles through the water. If now the flame be removed,
the reverse operation of contraction by cooling may be wit-
nessed ; for, as the air inside the bottle cools, it will occupy a
smaller and smaller amount of space, and the water will gradu-
ally rise up in the bottle-neck. Of course, this is seen better
with a bottle of clear glass than with one of dark or opaque
tint.

The contraction of a liquid on cooling can be even more
simply shown. Take a common medicine bottle, warm it
gently (by rinsing it out with a little hot water) so that it shall
not crack by the sudden heating, and then fill it btimful of
boiling water. Leave it to cool ; and in less than half an hour
you will find that the water which you poured in to overflow-
ing has shrunk down into the neck of the bottle, having con-
tracted as it cools.

It was mentioned above that the hot air in a fire balloon
raises it, being lighter than the cold air. In the same way hot
water will rise through cold, and float on the top of it, being
specifically lighter. You may prove this in several ways. Fill
a deep jar with water, and then, taking a red-hot poker, plunge
about an inch of the tip of it into the surface of the water.
Presently the whole of the water at the top will be boiling
furiously ; but the water at the bottom will be just as cool as

446

PHYSICS WITHOUT APPLIANCES.

before, for the hotter water will not have gone down, but will
have floated at the top, being lighter in consequence of expan-
sion. The same thing can be shown very prettily by the
following simple experiment : — Fill a wide and deep glass jar —
the glass of a parlor aquarium will do excellently — to about
half its depth with cold water. Provide yourself also with a
kettleful of boiling water, a funnel, a bit of wood about three
inches square, and with some ink — red ink if possible. Pour
into the kettle enough of the ink to color it with a perceptible
tint : this is simply that you may be able to distinguish between
the colorless cold water and the colored hot water which you
are going to cause to float at the top. The only difficulty of the
experiment is how to pour out the hot water without letting it
mix with the cold water. A bit of wood (or cardboard) is laid
on the water as a float, and you must pour the hot water on to
this to break the force of its fall. The funnel will also help to
break the fall of the hot water, and will aid you to guide the
stream on to the middle of the float. With these precautions
you need not fear failure, and you will enjoy the spectacle so
seldom seen, though so often actually occurring, of hot water
floating on the top of cold water.

SINGING AND SENSITIVE FLAMES.

Much notice was attracted some years ago by the discovery
of singing and sensitive flames. A sensitive flame is not easily

made, unless where gas can be burned at a much higher pres-
sure than is to be found in the case of the gas supplied by the
companies for house-lighting. To make a singing-flame requires
the proper glass tubes, and an apparatus for generating hydro-
gen gas. The roaring-tube, which we are now about to de-
scribe, is a good substitute, however, and is also due to the

generation of very rapid vibrations, although in this case the
way in which the heat sets up the vibrations cannot be very
simply explained. Let a common paraffine lamp-chimney be
chosen, and let us thrust up loosely into its wider or bulbous
portion a piece of iron wire gauze such as is often employed for
window-blinds. If this be not at hand, a few scraps of wire
twisted together, or even a few hairpins, will suffice. The
lamp chimney must then be held over the flame of a spirit-
lamp, or other hot flame, until the wire gauze glows with a
red heat. Now remove the lamp or lift the chimney off" it, so
that the gauze may cool. It will emit a loud note like a
powerful (though rather harsh) organ-pipe, lasting for about a
quarter of a minute, or until the gauze has cooled. Tubes of
different sizes produce different notes.

It is now well known that the quality of different sounds
depends upon the form or character of the invisible sound-
waves, and that diff"erent instruments make sounds that have
characters of their own, because their peculiar shapes throw
the air into waves of particular kinds. The different vowel-
sounds are caused by putting the mouth into particular shapes
in order to produce waves of a particular quality. Take a jew's-
harp and put it to the mouth as if you were going to play it.
Shape the mouth as if you were going to say the vowel O, and
on striking the harp you hear that sound. Alter the shape of
the mouth to say A, and the harp sounds the vowel accordingly.
The special forms of vibration corresponding to the different
vowel-sounds can be rendered evident to the eye in a very
beautiful way by the simplest conceivable means. A saucerful
of soapy water (prepared from yellow kitchen soap and soft
water, or with cold water that has previously been boiled), and
a brass curtain-ring, is all that is needed. A film of soapy
water shows, as all children know when they blow bubbles, the
loveliest rainbow-tints when thin enough. A flat film can be
made by dipping a brass curtain-ring into the soapy water, and
then lifting it out. When the colors have begun to show on
the edge of the film, sing any of the vowels, or the whole of
them, one after the other, near the film. It will be thrown
into beautiful rippling patterns of color, which differ with the
diff"erent sounds. Instead of a curtain-ring, the ring made by
closing together the tips of finger and thumb will answer the
purpose of proving a frame on which to produce the phoneido-
scopic film.

TRANSMISSION OF SOUND.

Acoustical experiments require, for the most part, the aid of
some good instrument or valuable piece of apparatus. Never-
theless, a few instructive illustrations of the principle of science
can be improvised without difficulty. Firstly, there is the
familiar experiment brought into fashion by Professor Tyndall,
of setting a row of ivory billiard balls, or glass solitaire marbles,
along a groove between two wooden boards, and showing how
their elasticity enables them to transmit from one to another a
wave of moving energy imparted to the first of the row, thus
affording a type of the transmission of sound-waves from parti-
cle to particle through elastic media. Then we may show
how sounds travel through solid bodies by resting against a
music-box, or other musical instrument, a broomstick, or any

PHYSICS WITHOUT APPLIANCES.

447

convenient rod of wood, at the other end of which we place
our ear.

Another familiar illustration is afforded by means of threads : —
A large spoon is tied to the middle of a thin silken or hempen
thread, the ends of which are thrust into the ears upon the
ends of the thumbs. If the spoon be dangled against the edge
of the table it will resound, and the tones reach the ear like a
loud church-bell. The thread telephone, or " lover's tele-
graph," is upon the same principle, the thread transmitting the
whispered words to a distance, without that loss — by spreading
in all directions — which takes place in the open air.

The discovery that a musical tone is the result of regularly
recurring vibrations, the number of which determines the pitch
of the tone, was made by Galileo without any more formal
apparatus than a mill-edged coin along the rim of which he
drew his thumbnail, and found it to produce a sound. We
can show this better by taking a common toy gyroscope-top
with a heavy leaden wheel, such as are sold at every toy shop.
With a strong penknife or a file, cut a series of fine notches or
grooves across the rim, so that it shall have a milled edge like a
coin. Now spin it, and while it spins, gently hold against the
revolving wheel the edge of a sheet of stiff writing-paper, or of

a very thin visiting card. A loud, clear note will be heard if the
nicks have been evenly cut, which, beginning with a shrill
pitch, will gradually fall with a dolorous cadence into the bass
end of the scale, and finally die out in separately audible
ticks.

REGELATION DEMONSTRATED.

If a piece of ice be placed on two chairs and a copper wire
passed around it, with a weight to make it press on the ice, in

the course of a few hours the weight will have dragged the wire
through the ice, as if it were no harder than a piece of cheese,
yet the ice has healed up as fast as the wire cut into it,
and it is still one solid block. This is termed regelation,
and the extraordinary fact can be accounted for in the following
way : —

In the neighborhood of the wire, where it passes through the
ice, the pressures are not uniform, for just below the wire the
portions of the ice are under pressure, owing to the pull of the
heavy weight, while immediately above the wire the ice is sub-
jected to a stress tending to draw the particles asunder, or, in
other words, it is subjected to a pull or " negative pressure."
The pressure on the ice under the wire lowers its melting
point, and causes very small quantities of it to melt ; these
liquid portions immediately are squeezed out, and find their
way round the wire to the space above it, where, the pressure
being reduced, they again freeze hard.

TO LIFT A DECANTER WITH A STRAW.

The following simple experiment illustrates the principle
that a substance which is very weak in one direction may be

very strong in another, the " strength " of the material (that
is to say, the resistance it offers before it will break) depend-
ing on the way in which a force is applied to it. It is possible
to lift a decanter full of water by means of a single straw.
To do this the straw must be bent, as shown in our illustration
on page 228, so that the weight comes longitudinally upon the
straw. The straw is a very weak thing if it has to resist a
force applied laterally. Lay a single straw horizontally, so
that the two ends are supported, and then hang weights on tc

--^

448

PHYSICS WITHOUT APPLIANCES.

the middle of it — a very few ounces will break it across. But
let the weights be fixed to one end of the straw, and the
straw itself be hung downward so that the pull is exerted
along it, and it will support one or two pounds at least.
When bent, as in the figure inside the bottle, most of the
weight is applied as a thrust against the end of the straw ; the
bottle tilts slightly until the center of gravity of the whole is
below the point from which it hangs between finger and
thumb ; but in this position the sideway thrust against the
middle of the straw is very small, and the material is strong
enough to stand the strain to which it is subjected lengthways.

MELTING LEAD ON A CARD.

Twist up the edges of a common playing-card or other bit
of cardboard, so as to fashion it into a light tray. On this
tray place a layer of small shot or bits of lead, and heat it
over the flames of a lamp. The lead will melt, but the card
will not burn. It may be charred a little round the edges,
but immediately below the lead it will not be burned, for
here again the lead conducts off the heat on one side as fast

as it is supplied on the other. Lastly, we give an experiment
which, like the two preceding, proves that a good conduct-
ing substance may protect a delicate fabric from burning by
conducting away the heat rapidly from it. Lay a piece of
muslin quite flat upon a piece of metal. A live coal placed on
the muslin will not bum it, for the metal takes away the heat
too fast. If the muslin is, however, laid On a bad conductor,
such as a piece of wood, it will not be protected, and the
live coal will kindle the muslin.

A MINIATURE DIVING BELL.

A wine-glass is turned mouth downward and plunged into
a jar of water. The water rises tip only a very little way into

the mouth of the wine-^lass, owing to the air which it con-
tains. The deeper the wine-glass is plunged the more the air is
compressed, and the higher does the water rise in the miniature
bell. To compress the contained air into one-half of its orig-
inal volume it would be necessary to plunge the wine glass
about thirty-four feet deep into the water ; for to halve the
volume of the air inside we must double the external pressure.
The pressure of the air is already several pounds to each
square inch of surface. A few flies or other insects may, with-
out incurring the charge of cruelty to animals, be made to do
duty as divers inside the diving bell during this experiment.

EXPERIMENT WITH COIN.

A simple experiment, depending partly upon the inertia of
matter and partly upon elasticity, is often shown as an after-
dinner trick. Upon a linen table-cloth is placed a five-cent
piece, between two quarters, or larger and thicker coins. Over
this an empty wine-glass is placed, and the puzzle is how to
get out the smaller coin without touching the glass. The
very simple operation of scratching with the finger-nail upon

the cloth, as shown in our illustration, suffices to accomplish
the trick, for the little coin is seen to advance gently toward
the finger until it is carried forward beyond the glass.

While the fibers are drawn forward slowly, they drag the
coin with them to a minute distance ; but when the slip occurs
and they fly backward, they do so very rapidly, and slip back
under the coin before there is time for the energy of their
movement to be imparted to the coin to set it in motion. So
the coin is gradually worked toward the operator.

ASTRONOMY.

449

Astronomy (from the Greek, asfron, a
star, and nomas, a law) is, comprehen-
sively, that science which explains the
nature and motions of the bodies fill-
ing infinite space, including our own
globe, in its character of a planet or mem-
ber of the solar system. The science may
be divided into two departments — i. Descriptive As-
tronomy, or an account of the systems of bodies
occupying space ; 2. Mechanical Astronomy, or an
explanation of the physical laws which have pro-
duced and which sustain the arrangements of the
heavenly bodies, and of all the various results of
the arrangement and relations of these bodies. Ura-
nography is a subordinate department of the science,
presenting an account of the arrangements which
have been made by astronomers for delineating the
starry heavens, and working the many mathematical
problems of which they are the subject.

DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY.

The field contemplated by the astronomer is no less than
INFINITE SPACE. So at least, he may well presume space to
be, seeing that every fresh power which he adds to his tele-
scope allows him to penetrate into remoter regions of it, and
still there is no end. In this space, systems, consisting of
suns and revolving planets, and other systems again, consist-
ing of a numberless series of such lesser systems, are sus-
pended by the influence of gravitation, operating from one to
another, yet each body at such a distance from another, as,
though the mind of man can in some instances measure, it
can in none conceive. We begin with what is usually called
the Solar System — that is, the particular solar system to which
our earth belongs.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM.

The solar system, so named from sol (Latin), the sun, con-
sists of the sun in the center, numerous planets, and an un-
known number of bodies named comets. The word planet is
from the Greek planao, to wander, because the few such
bodies known to the ancients were chiefly remarkable in their
eves on account of their constantly shifting their places with

reference to the other luminaries of the sky. Comets are so
named from coma (Latin), a head of hair, because they seem
to consist of a bright spot, with a long brush streaming be-
hind.

Some of the planets have other planets moving round them
as centers — the moon, for instance, round the earth. These
are called secondary planets, moons or satellites ; while those
that move round the sun are called primary planets. The
primary planets consist — ist, of eight larger planets, including
the Earth ; their names, in the order of their nearness to the
sun, are — Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Herschel or Uranus, and Neptune. 2d. A group of small
planets or planetoids, called also asteroids, considerable in num-
ber. The discovery of a new asteroid by Professor Borelli,
places the entire number of planets in the solar system at one
hundred and eighteen, against six known in 1781, when Sir
W. Herschel discovered Uranus.

The planets move round the sun on nearly one level or
plane, corresponding with the center of his body, and in one
direction, from west to east. The secondaiy planets, in like
manner, move in planes round the centers of their primaries,
and in the same direction, from west to east. These are de-
nominated revolutionary motions ; and it is to be observed
that they are double in the case of the satellites, which have
at once a revolution round the primary, and a revolution, in
company with the primary, round the sun. The path de-
scribed by a planet in its revolution is called its orbit.

Each planet, secondary as well as primary, and the sun also,
has a motion in its own body, like that of a bobbin upon a
spindle. An imaginary line, forming, as it were, the spindle
of the sun or planet, is denominated the axis, and the two ex-
tremities of the axis are called the poles. The axes of the sun
and planets are all nearly at a right angle with the plane of
the revolutionary movements. The iriotion on the axis is
called the rotatory motion, from rota, the Latin for a wheel.
The sun, the primary planets, and the satellites, with the
doubtful exception of two attending on Uranus, move on their
axes in the same direction as the revolutionary movements,
from west to east.

The Sun is a sphere or globe of 882,000 miles in diameter, or
1,384,472 times the bulk of the earth, moving round its axis
in 25 days. When viewed through a telescope, the surface
appears intensely bright and luminous, as if giving out both
heat and light to the surrounding planets. But on this sur-
face there occasionally appear dark spots, generally surround-

450

ASTRONOMY.

ed with a border of less dark appearance ; some of which
spots have been calculated to be no less than 45,000 miles in
breadth, or nearly twice as much as the circumference of the
earth. The region of the sun's body on which the spots ap-
pear, is confined to a broad space engirdling his center. They
are sometimes observed to come into sight at his western limb,
to pass across his body in the course of twelve or thirteen
days, and then disappear. They are sometimes observed to
contract with great rapidity, and disappear like something
melted and absorbed into a burning fluid. Upon the bright
parts of the sun's body there are also sometimes observed
streaks of unusual brightness, as if produced by the ridges of
an agitated and luminous fluid. It has been surmised, that
the sun is a dark body, enveloped in an atmosphere calculated
for giving out heat and light, and that the spots are produced
by slight breaks or openings in that atmosphere, showing the
dark mass within. Though so much larger than the earth, the

can only be seen occasionally in the morning or evening, as it
never rises before, or sets after the sun, at a greater distance
of time than i hour and 50 minutes. It appears to the naked
eye as a small and brilliant star, but when observed through a
telescope, is homed like the moon, because we only see a part
of the surface which the sun is illuminating. Mountains of
great height have been observed on the surface of this planet,
particularly in its lower or southern hemisphere. One has
been calculated at 104 miles in height, being about eight times
higher, in proportion to the bulk of the planet, than the
loftiest mountains upon earth. The matter of Mercury is of
much greater density than that of the earth, equaling lead in
weight ; so that a human being placed upon its surface would
be so strongly drawn toward the ground as scarcely to be able
to crawl.

Venus is a globe of about 7,800 miles in diameter, or nearly
the size of the earth, rotating on its axis in 23 hours, 21 min-

Raie of movement 0/ the Planets
in miles per minute.

Mercury 1796

Venus 1334

Earth 1133

Mars 905

Vesta 905

Juno 90s

Ceres 693

Pallas 693

Jupiter 490

Saturn 363

Uranus 253

Moon 38

Densities of Planets compared
•with ivater, which is considered as
one.

The Sun 1, 2-i3ths.

Mercury 9, i-6th.

Venus 5,1 i-i5ths.

Earth 4}

Mars 3, 2-7ths.

Jupiter I, i-24th.

Saturn o, i3-32ds.

Uranus o, 99-iooths.

Inclinations of Orbits to the
Ecliptic.

Mercury.
f o' 9" I.

Venus.
3° 23' 28" s.

Mars.
1° 51' 6" 2.

Vesta.
7° S' 9" o.

Juno.
13" 4' 9" 7-

Ceres.
10" 37' 26" 2.

Pallas.
34" 34' 55" o.

Jupiter.
1° 18' 51" 3.

Saturn.
2" 29' 3S" 7.

Uranus,
o" 46' 28" 4.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM.

matter of the sun is of only about a third of the density or
conjpactness of that of our planet, or little more than the
density of water.

The sun is surrounded to a great distance by a faint light,
or luminous matter 0/ extreme thinness, shaped like a lens or
magnifying-glass, the body of the sun being in the center, and
the luminous matter extending in the plane of the planetary
revolutions, till it terminates in a point. At particular sea-
sons, and in favorable states of the atmosphere, it may be ob-
served before sunrise, or after sunset, in the form of a cone
pointing obliquely above the place where the sun is either
about to appear or which he has just left. It is termed the
Zodiacal Light.

Mercury, the nearest planet to the sun, is a globe of about
2,950 miles in diameter, rotating on its axis in 24 hours and 5^^
minutes, and revolving round the central luminary, at a dis-
tance of 37,000,000 of miles in 88 days. From the earth it

utes, and 19 seconds, and revolving round the sun, at the dis-
tance of 68,000,000 of miles in 225 days. Like Mercury, it
is visible to an observer on the earth only in the morning and
evening, but for a greater space of time before sunrise and
after sunset. It appears to us the most brilliant and beautiful
of all the planetary and stellar bodies, occasionally giving so
much light as to produce a sensible shadow. Observed through
a telescope, it appears horned, on account of our seeing only
a part of its luminous surface. The illuminated part of Venus
occasionally presents slight spots. It has been ascertained
that its surface is very unequal, the greatest mountains being
in the southern hemisphere, as in the case of both Mercury
and the Earth. The higher mountains in Venus range between
10 and 22 miles in altitude. The planet is also enveloped in
an atmosphere like that by which animal and vegetable life is
supported on earth, and it has consequently a twilight. Venus
performs its revolution round the sun in 225 days. Mercury

ASTRONOMY.

451

and Venus have been termed the Inferior Planets, as being
placed within the orbit of the Earth,

The Earth, the third planet in order, and one of the
smaller size, though not the smallest, is impoitant to us, as
the theater on which our race have been placed to "live,
move, and have their being." It is 7,902 miles in mean
diameter, rotating on its axis in 24 hours, at a mean distance
of 95,000,000 of miles from the sun, round which it revolves
in 365 days, 5 hours, 56 minutes, and 57 seconds. As a planet
viewed from another of the planets, suppose the moon, " it
would present a pretty, variegated, and sometimes a mottled
appearance. The distinction between its seas, oceans, con-
tinents, and islands, would be clearly marked ; they would
appear like brighter and darker spots upon its disk. The con-
tinents would appear bright, and the ocean of a darker hue,
because water absorbs the greater part of the solar light that
falls upon it. The level plains (excepting, perhaps, such re-
gions as the Arabian deserts of sand) would appear of a some-
what darker color than the more elevated and mountainous
regions, as we find to be the case on the surface of the moon.
The islands would appear like small bright specks on the
darker surface of the ocean ; and the lakes and Mediter-
ranean seas like darker spots on broad streaks intersecting the
bright parts, or the land. By its revolution round the axis,
successive portions of the surface would be brought into view,
and present a different aspect from the parts which pre-
ceded."

The form of the earth, and probably that of every other
planet, is not strictly spherical, but spheroidal ; that is flat-
tened a little at the poles, or extremities of the axis. The
diameter of the earth at the axis is 26 miles less than in the
cross direction. This peculiarity of the form is a consequence
of the rotatory motion, as will be afterward explained.

The earth is attended by one satellite, the Moon, which is a
globe of 2,160 miles in diameter, and consequently about a

TELESCOPIC APPEARANCE OF THE MOON.

49th part of the bulk of the earth, revolving round its primary
in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, and II seconds, at the distance
of 240,000 miles. The moon is 400 times nearer the earth

than the sun is ; but, its diameter being at the same time 400
times less than that of the sun, it appears to us of about the
same size. The moon rotates on her axis in exactly the same
time as she revolves round the earth. She consequently pre-
sents at all times the same part of her surface toward the
earth. Inspected through a telescope, her surface appears of
unequal brightness and extremely rugged. The dark parts,
however, are not seas, as has been supposed, but more like
the beds of seas, or great alluvial plains. No appearance of
water, or of clouds, or of an atmosphere, has been detected.
The surface presents numerous mountains, some of them about
a mile and three quarters in height, as has been ascertained by
measurement of the shadows which they cast on the neigh-
boring surface. The tops of the mountains of the moon are

«•

PHASES OF THE MOON.

generally shaped like a cup or basin, with a small eminence
rising from the center, like many volcanic hills on the earth.
It has hence been surmised that the moon is in a volcanic
state, as the earth appears to have been for many ages before
the creation of man, and that it is perhaps undergoing pro-
cesses calculated to make it a fit scene for animal and vege-
table life.

The moon turning on its axis once in a little more than 27
days, presents every part of its surface in succession to the
sun in that time, as the earth does in 24 hours. The day of
the moon is consequently nearly a fortnight long, and its
nights of the same duration. The light of the sun, falling
upon the moon, is partly absorbed into its body ; but a small
portion is reflected or thrown back, and becomes what we call
moonlight. The illuminated part from which we derive moon-
light, is at all times increasing or diminishing in our eyes, as
the moon proceeds in her revolution around our globe. When
the satellite is at the greatest distance from the sun, we, being
between the two, see the whole of the illuminated surface,
which we accordingly term full moon. As the moon ad-
vances in her course, the luminous side is gradually averted
from us, and the moon is said to wane. At length, when
the satellite has got between the earth and the sun, the
luminous side is entirely lost sight of. The moon is then said
to change. Proceeding in her revolution, she soon turns a
bright edge toward us, which we call the new moon. This
gradually increases in breadth, till a moiety of the circle is
quite filled up ; it is then said to be half moon. The luminary,
when on the increase from ne'cu to half, is termed a crescent,
from crescens, Latin for increasing ; and this word has been

■^

452

ASTRONOMY.

applied to other objects of the same shape— for instance, to a
curved line of buildings-

In the early days of the new moon, we usually see the dark
part of the body faintly illuminated, an appearance termed
the oM moon in Die new moons arms. This faint illumination
is produced by the reflection of the sun's light from the earth,
or what the inhabitants of the moon, if there were any, might
be supposed to consider as moonlight. The earth, which
occupies one invariable place in the sky of the moon, with a
surface thirteen times larger than the apparent size of the
moon in our eyes, is then at the full, shining with great luster
on the sunless side of its satellite, and raceiving back a small
portion of its own reflected light. The light, then, which
makes the dark part of the moon visible to us, may be said to
perform three journeys, first from the sun to the earth, then
from the earth to the moon, and finally from the moon back
to the earth, before our eyes are enabled to perceive this
object.

Mars, the fourth of the primary planets, is a globe of 4,189
miles in diameter, or little more than a half of that of the
earth ; consequently, the bulk of this planet is only about a
fifth of that of our globe. It performs a rotation on itsaxiff in
24 hours, 39 minutes, and 133 seconds, and revolves round
the sun, at a distance of 142,000,000 of miles, in 686 days, 22
hours, and i8 seconds. Mars appears to the naked eye of a
red color ; from which circumstance it was, probably, that
the ancients bestowed upon it the name of the god of war.
Inspected through a telescope, it is found to be occasionally
marked by large spots and dull streaks, of various forms, and
by an unusual brightness of the poles. As the bright polar
parts sometimes project from the circular outline of the planet,
it has been conjectured that these are masses of snow,
similar to those which beset the poles of the earth.

Vesta, Ceres, Pallas, and Juno are among the globes, re-
volving between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, in paths near
and crossing each other, and which are not only much more
elliptical than the paths of the other planets, but also rise and
sink much further from the plane of the general planetary rev-
olutions.

Vesta is of a bulk only I-15, 000th part of the bulk of the
earth, with a surface not exceeding that of the kingdom of
Spain. It revolves round the sun in 3 years, 66 days, and
4 hours, at a mean distance of 225,500,000 miles. Though
the smallest of all the planets, it gives a very brilliant light,
insomuch that it can be seen by the naked eye.

Juno is 1,425 miles in diameter, and presents, 'when in-
spected through the telescope, a white and well-defined ap-
pearance. Its orbit is the most eccentric of all the planetary
orbits, being 253,000,000 of miles from the sun at the greatest,
and only 126,000,000, or less than one-half, at the least dis-
tance. In the half of the course nearest to the sun, the motion
of the planet is, by virtue of a natural law afterward to be
explained, more than twice as rapid as in the other part.

Ceres has been variously represented as of 1,624 and 160
miles in diameter. The astronomer who calculated its
diameter at 1,624 miles, at the same time believed himself to
have ascertained that it has a dense atmosphere, extending
675 miles from its surface. It is of a reddish color, and ap-

pears about the size of a star of the eighth magnitude. Ceres
revolves round the sun, at a distance of 260,000,000 of miles,
in 4 years, 7 months, and 10 days.

Pallas has been represented as of 2,099 miles in diameter,
with an atmosphere extending 468 miles above its surface.
Another astronomer has allowed it a diameter of only 80
miles. It revolves round the sun, at a mean distance of 266,-
000,000 of miles, in 4 years, 7 months, and 11 days. How-
ever unimportant it may appear beside the large planets, it
has a peculiar interest in the eyes of astronomers, on account
of its orbit having a greater inclination to the plane of the
ecliptic than those of all the larger planets put together.

Jupiter is the largest of all the planets. Its diameter is
nearly eleven times that of the earth, or 89,170 miles, and its
volume or mass is consequently 1,281 times that of our globe.
The density of Jupiter is only a fourth of that of the earth, or
about the lightness of water ; and a human being, if transfer-
red to it, would be able to leap with ease over a pretty large
house. It performs a rotation on its axis in 9 hours, 55
minutes, and 33 seconds, or about two-fifths of our day. It
revolves round the sun, at a distance of 490,000,000 of miles,
in 4,330 days, 14 hours, and 39 minutes, or nearly twelve of
our years. Viewed through a telescope, Jupiter appears sur-
rounded by dark lines, or belts, which occasionally shift, melt
into each other, or separate, but sometimes are observed with
little variation for several months. These belts are generally
near the equator of the planet, and of a broad and straight
form ; but they have been observed over his whole surface,
and of a lighter, narrower, and more streaky and wavy appear-
ance. It is supposed that the dark parts are lines of the body
of the planet, seen through openings in a bright, cloudy
atmosphere.

Jupiter is attended by four satellites, which revolve round
it, in the same manner as the moon round our globe, keeping,
like it, one face invariably presented to their primary. They
are of about the same size, or a little larger diameter than our
moon ; the first having a diameter of 2,508, the second of
2,068, the third^of 3,377, and the fourth of 2,890 miles. The
first revolves round the primary planet in i day, 18 hours, 28
minutes ; the second in 3 days, 13 hours, 14 minutes ; the
third in 7 days, 3 hours, 43 minutes ; and the fourth in t6
days, 16 hours, 32 minutes. These satellites frequently
eclipse the sun to Jupiter ; they are also eclipsed by the
primary planet, but never all at the same time, so that his
dark side is never altogether without moonlight.

Saturn, seen through a telescope, is the most remarkable
of all the planets, being surrounded by a ring, and attended
by seven satellites. In bulk this is the second of the planets,
being 79,042 miles in diameter, or about 995 times the volume
of the earth. Its surface appears slightly marked by belts
like those of Jupiter. It performs a rotation on its axis in 10
hours, 16 minutes, and revolves round the sun, at a distance
of 900,000,000 of miles, in 10,746 days, 19 hours, 16 minutes,
or about 29!^ of our years. At such a distance from the sun,
that luminary must be diminished to one-eightieth of the size
he bears in our eyes, and the heat and light in the same pro-
portion. The matter of Saturn is one-eighth of the density of
our earth.

ASTRONOMY.

453

The ring of Saturn surrounds the body of the planet in the
plane of its equator. It is thin, like the rim of a spinning-
wheel, and is always seen with its edge presented more or less
directly toward us. It is luminous with the sun's light, and
casts a shadow on the surface of the planet, the shadow of
which is also sometimes seen falling on part of the ring. The
distance of th^ inner edge from the planet is calculated at
about I9,cxx> miles ; its entire breadth from the inner to the
outer edge is 28,538 ; the thickness is not more than i<x>. In
certain positions of the planet we can see its surface at a con-
siderable angle, and the openings or loops which it forms on
the sides of the planet. At other times we see its dark side,
or only its edge. From observations made upon it in favor-
able circumstances, it is found to be apparently divided near
the outer edge by a dark line of nearly 1,800 miles in breadth,
as if it were divided into two concentric rings. From other
appearances, it has been surmised to have other divisions, or
to be a collection of several concentric rings. It is also
occasionally marked by small spots. The ring of Saturn
rotates on its own plane in 10 hours, 32 minutes, 15 seconds,
and a part of a second, being about the same time with the
rotation of the planet.

The seven satellites of Saturn revolve around it, on the ex-
terior of the ring, and almost all of them in nearly the same
plane. They are so small as not to be visible without a power-
ful telescope. The two inner ones are very near to the outer
edge of the ring, and can only be discerned when that object
is presented so exactly edgeways as to be almost invisible.
They have then been seen passing like two small bright beads
along the minute thread of light formed by the edge of the
ring. The three next satellites are also very small ; the sixth
is larger, and placed at a great interval from the rest. The
seventh is the largest ; it is about the size of the planet Mars,
and is situated at nearly thrice the distance of the sixth, or
about 2,300,000 miles from the body of Saturn. The revolu-
tions of these satellites range from i to 79 days ; and it has
been ascertained of some of them that, according to the usual
law of secondary planets, their rotations on their axes and
their revolutions round their primary are performed in the
same time, so that, like our moon, they always present the
same face to the center of their system. The orbit of the
seventh satellite is much inclined to the plane of Saturn's
equator.

Urattus, or Herschel, the remotest planet known in the
solar system, is a globe of 35,112 miles in diameter, rotating
on its axis in 7 hours, and performing a revolution round the
sun, at a distance of 1,800,000,000 of miles, in 84 of our
years. The sun to this remote planet must appear only a
400th part of the size which he bears in our eyes. Two satel-
lites are known, and other four are suspected, to attend upon
Uranus. The two which have been observed circulate round
their primary in orbits almost perpendicular to the ecliptic,
and are further supposed to move in a direction contrary to
that of all the other planetary motions — namely, from east to
west.

Some idea may be obtained of the comparative size of the
principal objects of the solar system, by supposing a globe of
two feet diameter, placed in the center of a level plain, to

represent the sun ; a grain of mustard-seed, placed on the
circumference of a circle 164 feet in diameter, for Mercury ; a
pea, on a circle of 284 feet, for Venus ; another pea, on a
circle of 430 feet, for the Earth ; a large pin's head, on a
circle of 654 feet, for Mars ; four minute grains of sand, in
circles of from 1,000 to 1,200 feet, for Vesta, Ceres, Pallas,
and Juno ; a moderate sized orange, on a circle of nearly half
a mile in diameter, for Jupiter ; a small orange, on a circle

ORRERY.

four-fifths of a mile in diameter, for Saturn ; and a small
plum or full-sized cherry, on a circle of a mile and a half in
diameter, for Uranus. It is calculated that the united mass
of the whole of the planets is not above a 600th part of the
mass of the sun. The sun and planets are represented, with
an approximation to correctness, in philosophical toys termed
orreries, of which the appearance is conveyed in the preced-
ing engraving.

COMETS.

Comets are light vapory bodies, which move round the sun
in orbits much less circular than those of the planets. Their
orbits, in other words, are very long ellipses, or ovals, having
the sun near one of the ends. Comets usually have two parts,
a body or nucleus, and a tail ; but some have a body only.
The body appears as a thin vapory, luminous mass, of globular
form ; it is so thin, that, in some cases, the stars have been
seen through it. The tail is a lighter or thinner luminous
vapor surrounding the body, and streaming far out from it, in
one direction. A vacant space has been observed between the
body and the enveloping matter of the tail ; and it is equally
remarkable that the tail has in some instances appeared less
bright along the middle, immediately behind the nucleus, as if
it were a stream which that nucleus had in some measure
parted into two.

Out of the great multitude — certainly not less than 1,000 —
which are supposed to exist, about 150 have been made the
subject of scientific observation. Instead of revolving, like
the planets, nearly on the plane of the sun's equator, it is
found that they approach his body from all parts of surround-
ing space. At first, they are seen slowly advancing, with a
comparatively faint appearance. As they approach the sun,
the motion becomes quicker, and at length they pass round

454

ASTRONOMY.

kr-

him with very great rapidity, and at a comparatively small
distance from his body. The comet of 1680 approached within
one-sixth of his diameter. After passing, they are seen to
emerge from his rays, with an immense increase to their
former brilliancy and to the length of their tails. Their
motion then becomes gradually slower, and their brilliancy
diminishes, and at length they are lost in distance. It has
been ascertained that their movement round the sun is in
accordance with the same law which regulates the planetary
movements, being always the quicker the nearer to his body,
and the slower the more distant. In the remote parts of space
their motions must be extremely slow.

Three comets have been observed to return, and their
periods of revolution have been calculated. The most re-
markable of these is one usually denominated Halley's Comet,
from the astronomer who first calculated its period. It revolves
round the sun in about seventy-five years, its last appearance
being at the close of 1835. Another, called Enke's Comet,
from Professor Enke, of Berlin, has been found to revolve once
in 1,207 days, or 3^ years ; but, in this case, the revolving
body is found at each successive approach to the sun, to be a
little earlier than on the previous occasion, showing that its
orbit is gradually lessening, so that it may be expected ulti-
mately to fall into the sun. This fact has suggested that some
part of that space through which the comet passes, must be
occupied by a matter presenting some resistance to the move-
ment of any denser body ; arid it is supposed that this matter
may prove to be the same which has been described as con-
stituting the zodiacal light. It is called a resisting medium j-
and future observations upon it are expected to be attended
with results of a most important nature, seeing that, if there
be such a matter extending beyond the orbit of the earth, that
planet, in whose welfare we are so much interested, will be
exposed to the same ultimate fate with Enke's Comet.

The third, named Beila's Comet, from M. Beila, of Joseph-
stadt, revolves round the sun in 64 years. It is very small,
and has no tail. In 1832, this comet passed through the
earth's path about a month before the arrival of our planet at
the same point. If the earth had been a month earlier at that
point, or the comet a month later in crossing it, the two
bodies would have been brought together, and the earth, in all
probability, would have instantly become unfit for the existence
of the human family.

Comets often pass unobserved, in consequence of the part
of the heavens in which they move being then under daylight.
During a total eclipse of the sun, which happened sixty years
before Christ, a large comet, not formerly seen, became visi-
ble, near the body of the obscured luminary. On many occa-
sions, their smallness and distance render them visible only
by the aid of the telescope. On other occasions, they are of
vast size. The comet now called Halley's, at its appearance
in 1456, covered a sixth part of the visible extent of the
heavens, and was likened to a Turkish scimitar. That of
1680, which was observed by Sir Isaac Newton, had a tail
calculated to be 123,000,000 of miles in length, a space
greater than the distance of the earth from the sun. There
was a comet in 1744, which had six tails, spread out like a
fan across a large space in the heavens. The tails of comets

usually stretch in the direction opposite to the sun, both in
advancing and retiring, and with a slight wave at the outer
extremity, as if that part experienced some resistance.

THE STARS.

The idea at which astronomers have arrived respecting the
stars, is, that they are all of them suns, resembling our own,
but diminished to the appearance of mere specks of light by
the great distance at which they are placed. As a necessary
consequence to this supposition, it may be presumed that they
are centers of light and heat to systems of revolving planets,
each of which may be further presumed to be the theater of
forms of beings, bearing some analogy to those which exist
upon earth.

The stars, seen by the naked eye on a clear night, are about
two thousand in number. This, allowing a like number for
the half of the sky not seen, gives about four thousand, in all,
of visible stars. These are of different degrees of brilliancy,
probably in the main in proportion to their respective dis-
tances from our system, but also perhaps in some measure in
proportion to their respective actual sizes. Astronomers class
the stars under different magnitudes, not with regard to ap-
parent size, for none of them present a measurable disk, but
with a regard to the various quantities of light flowing round
them ; thus, there are stars of the first magnitude, the second
magnitude, and so on. Only six or seven varieties of magni-
tude are within our natural vision ; but with the telescope vast
numbers of more distant stars are brought into view ; and
the magnitudes are now extended by astronomers to at least
sixteen.

The stars are at a distance from our system so very great,
that the mind can form no idea of it. The brilliant one called
Sirius or the Dog-star, which is supposed to be the nearest,
merely because it is the most luminous, has been reckoned by
tolerably clear calculation to give only i-20,ooo,oooth part of
the light of the sun ; hence, supposing it to be of the same
size, and every other way alike, it should be distant from our
earth not less than 1,960,000,000,000,000,000 miles. An at-
tempt has been made to calculate the distance of Sirius by a
trigonometrical problem. It may be readily supposed that
the position of a spectator upon the earth with respect to
celestial objects must vary considerably at different parts of
the year : for instance, on the 2ist of June, he must be in ex-
actly the opposite part of the orbit from what he was on the
2ist of December — indeed, no less than 190,000,000 of miles
from it, or twice the distance of the earth from the sun. This
change of position with relation to celestial objects is called
parallax. Now, it has been found that Sirius is so distant,
that an angle formed between it and the two extremities of
the earth's orbit is too small to be appreciated. Were it so
much as one second, or the 3,600th part of a degree, it could be
appreciated by the nice instruments we now possess ; but it is
not even this. It is hence concluded that Sirius must be at
least 19,200,000,000 of miles distant, however much more !
Supposing this to be its distance, its light would take three
years to reach us, though traveling, as it does, at the rate of
192,000 miles in a second of time !

THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE.

4SS

THE RULES OF DEBi^TE,

^^1 AND F)QW TO CONDUCT ONE, j

,^M

PUBLIC MEETINGS.

PUBLIC meeting is the assemblage of
a portion of the people, for the expression
of opinion upon matters of local or gen-
eral concern. The proceedings are but
few and simple ; yet, to preserve order
during its session, and to give effect to its
action, the meeting has to be guided by

defined rules from the time of its projection to the

moment of its close.

A DEMOCRATIC MEETING 1

The citizens of Blank, in favor of the policy of the Demo-
cratic party, are requested to meet on Saturday Evening, Sep-
tember gth, at the house of Jasper Clyde, Bridge Street, at 7
o'clock, to take such measures as are deemed advisable to pro-
mote the success of the party in the coming election.

The notice is also published in the county newspaper, should
there be one.

Meanwhile, the proposers of the affair, either after a caucus
or individually, obtain the consent of some speaker, say a Mr.
Joseph Becker, to be present and give his views on public
topics. In that case, the advertisement closes with an an-
nouncement like this :

"A. B., Esq., has accepted an invitation to address the
meeting. "

The projectors meanwhile meet in caucus, and agree upon
officers. They select for chairman Mr. Charles Kendrick, an
old resident and a man of standing, and Mr. John Travers, to
act as secretary, and these gentlemen consent to take the posi-
tions assigned them.

When the evening comes, and the meeting has assembled,
no business is begun until half an hour after the hour named.
This interval is called " thirty minutes' grace," and is always
allowed, through custom, for the difiference in watches.

At yi o'clock, Mr. William Irwin steps forward and says :

"The meeting will please come to order."

Every one hereupon suspends conversation, and, so soon as
all is quiet, Mr. Irwin continues :

"I move that Mr. Charles Kendrick act as President of
this meeting."

Mr. Parke Neville says :

" I second the motion."

Then Mr. Irwin puts the question thus :

" It has been moved and seconded that Mr. Charles Kendrick
act as president of this meeting. So many as are in favor of
the motion will signify their assent by saying ' aye ! ' "

As soon as those in the affirmative have voted, he will say :

" Those who are opposed, will say 'no ! ' "

If there are more ayes than noes, as there will be, unless
Mr. Kendrick be very unpopular indeed, he will say :

" The ayes have it. The motion is carried. Mr. Kendrick
will take the chair."

If, on the contrary, the noes prevail, he will say :

" The noes have it. The motion is lost."

Thereupon he will nominate some other, or put the ques-
tion upon other nominations.

As soon as a chairman is chosen, he will take his place.
Mr. Thomas Turbot then says :

" I move that Mr. John Travers act as secretary of this
meeting. "

This motion is seconded, and the chairman puts the ques-
tion and declares the result.

The form of putting the question to the chairman may be
simplified thus :

' ' Mr. Charles Kendrick has been nominated as president of
this meeting. Those in favor, will say ' aye ! ' — Contrary
opinion, 'no ! '"

The meeting is now organized. The chairman will direct
the secretary to read the call. When that has been done, he
will say :

" You have heard the call under which we have assembled ;
what is your further pleasure ? "

Hereupon, Mr. John Smith says :

" I move that a committee of three be appointed to draft
resolutions expressive of the sense of this meeting."

This is seconded.

-<m

456

THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE.

The chairman then says :

"Gentlemen, you have heard the motion ; are you ready
for the question ? "

If any one desires to speak against the resolution, he arises
and says :

" Mr. Chairman ! "

The chairman turns toward the speaker, and listens to him,
and so to each in succession. When they are all done, or in
case no one responds to the call, he puts the question in the
customary form previously given, and declares the result.

The resolution being adopted, the chairman says :

" How shall that committee be appointed? "

If there be no reply, or a reply of ' ' chair, " the chairman
names the mover of the resolution and two others as a com-
mittee. The committee withdraws to prepare the resolutions,
or to examine those previously prepared for the purpose.

During the absence of the committee is a proper time for
the speaker or speakers to address the meeting. When the
speeches are over, the chairman of the committee comes for-
ward and says :

" Mr. Chairman, the committee begs leave to report the fol-
lowing resolutions : "

He then reads the resolutions, and hands them to the sec-
retary.

The chairman now says :

"You have heard the report of the committee ; what order
do you take on it ? "

Some one now moves that the report be accepted, and the
resolutions be adopted. To save time, the chairman will put
the question solely on the adoption of the resolutions. If no
objection is made, and no amendment offered, he will put the
question, and declare the result.

As a general thing, a committee may be avoided, as a use-
less formality, and the resolutions be offered by one of the
projectors of the meeting.

So soon as the resolutions are adopted, and the speeches are
over, the chairman should ask :

" What is the further pleasure of this meeting ? "

If there be no further business, some one moves an adjourn-
ment. The chairman does not ask if the meeting be ready
for the question, since an adjournment is not debatable, but
puts the question direct. If carried, he says :

" This meeting stands adjourned without day."

If the meeting thinks proper to adjourn to meet at another
time, the time is fixed by a previous resolution, and then,
when it adjourns, the chairman declares it adjourned to the
time fixed upon.

It will be seen that the foregoing form, by varying the call,
and changing the business to suit, will answer for any other
political party, or for any other purpose.

When a public meeting is called by any executive or other
committee, the name of the chairman of that committee
should be appended to the call, and the committee itself
should prepare business for the action of the meeting, as
much as possible.

The duty of the secretary of a public meeting is merely nom-
inal, unless it is desired to publish an account of its proceed-
ings. In the latter case, the record of the foregoing meeting.

which is a form for any other meeting, varied, under the cir-
cumstances of the case, would read thus :

"At a meeting of the Democratic citizens of Blank, held
pursuant to public notice, on Saturday evening, September
gth, at 7 o'clock, at the house of Jasper Clyde, Mr. Charles
Kendrick was called to the chair, and Mr. John Travers ap-
pointed secretary.

" On motion of Mr. John Smith, a committee of three, con-
sisting of Messrs. John Smith, Henry Magraw, and Casper
Evans, was appointed to draft resolutions expressive of the
sense of the meeting.

" During the absence of the committee, the meeting was
effectively addressed by Joseph Becker, Esq.

" The committee, through its chairman, reported the fol-
lowing resolutions, which were unanimously adopted :
[Here the secretary inserts the resolutions.^

" On motion, the meeting adjourned."

ORGANIZING ASSOCIATIONS.

When it is advisable to form a society, club, or other asso-
ciation, for any specific purpose, those who agree in regard to
its formation may meet upon private notice or public call.
The mode of organizing the meeting is similar to that of any
other.

As soon as the meeting has been organized, and the chair-
man announces that it is ready to proceed to business, some
one of the originators, previously agreed upon, should rise,
and advocate the formation of the club or society required for
the purpose set forth in the call, and end by moving the ap-
pointment of a committee to draft a constitution and by-laws.
This committee should be instructed to report at the next
meeting. A convenient time of adjournment is fixed on, and
if there be no further business, the meeting adjourns.

When the time for the second meeting arrives, the same
officers continue, without any new motion. If either be
absent, his place is supplied, on motion, by some other. The
Committee on the Constitution and By-laws reports. If the
constitution is not acceptable, those present suggest amend-
ments. As soon as it has taken the required shape, it is
adopted, and signed by those present. The by-laws are
treated in the same way.

The society is now formed, but not fully organized. The
officers provided for by the constitution have now to be
elected. This may be done at that meeting, or the society
may be adjourned over for that purpose. So soon as it has
been done, the chairman of the meeting gives way to the
newly-elected president, or, in his absence, to a vice-presi-
dent ; the secretary of the meeting vacates his seat, which is
taken by the newly elected secretary or secretaries, and thus
the organization of the new body is complete.

PUBLIC CELEBRATIONS.

Public celebrations may be made by some public society, or
by the citizens at large. If by the latter, a meeting is gener-
ally called, subject to the customary rules, and a committee of
arrangements appointed, who take charge of the business. A
society appoints a like committee.

■^

THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE.

457

The committee of arrangements meet, and appoint a chair-
man and secretary. As soon as this is done, the mode of cele-
bration is determined upon. In the case of the Fourth of
July, some fit person is generally invited to deliver an oration,
and another to read the Declaration of Independence. A sub-
committee is appointed to secure a proper room, unless the
celebration takes place in the open air, when the committee
has in charge the erection of a stand.

The proper sub-committees are :

t. On correspondence. The duty of this committee is to
luvite such distinguished guests as are desirable.

2. On orator. This committee invites the orator selected.

3. On place. This committee attends to hiring a room
and fitting it up, or, if it be an out-of-door celebration, see to
the erection of a stand for the officers and speaker, and seats
for the auditors.

4. On printing. This committee attends to the necessary
advertising and printing.

All these report their action to the main committee as it
adjourns from time to time.

The day having arrived, at the hour named, the officers and
speakers being ready, and the audience assembled, the chair-
man of the committee of arrangements calls the meeting to
order, nominates the president of the day, and puts the ques-
tion on his acceptance. The latter now takes his seat, and
the other officers are appointed. So soon as this is done, a
clergyman, if there be one named for the purpose, delivers a
short prayer. The chairman of the day next announces by
name the reader of the Declaration, and says :

" Mr. [naming him], will read the Declaration of Indepen-
dence."

The Declaration being read, the chairman says :

" Mr. [naming him], the orator of the day."'

The orator now comes forward, and delivers his oration, at
the close of which the exercises are determined, and after a
benediction, if a clergyman be present, the meeting adjourns
without any formal motion.

If a band of music can be had, it is always engaged on such
an occasion, and plays national and patriotic airs previous to
the taking the chair, at the close of the proceedings, and at
the various intervals.

The public celebration of their own anniversaries by public
societies, if done by orations, follows the same form.

CONVENTION^.

A convention is a number of delegates assembled for the
purpose of carrying out the views of constituents, and is gifted
with powers over that of an ordinary meeting. It is the legis-
lature of a party ; and, consequently, is governed by the same
rules of action, or very nearly, as any other legislative body.

A convention may be called, either by some committee
gifted with the power, or by invitation of the leading friends
of a particular cause or measure. The call should contain
some general directions as to the mode of electing delegates.

The night before the meeting, it is usual for the friends of
particular men or measures, among its delegates, to hold a
caucus, in order to devise the plan of action necessary to
secure the success of the man or measures they prefer. Here

they discuss acts and views with a freedom which cannot be
permitted in open convention, and agree upon their common
ground on the following day. Part of their proceedings will
leak out in spite of all precaution ; but care should be taken
to admit none but those who are friendly, in order that as
much secrecy as possible may be attained.

There are two sets of officers in a convention — temporary and
permanent. The first is merely f 9r the purpose of conducting
the business preparatory to organization. The possession of
the permanent president is often a matter of great importance
when there are two parties in a convention. If the temporary
president appoints the committee which is to nominate per-
manent officers, it may be important to gain him. In that
case there is a struggle who shall nominate first, and some-
times there are several nominations for temporary chairman.
To avoid this indecent competition, it is usual to give the
delegation from each county, district, or township, the right
to name one member of the committee on permanent organiza-
tion. Until the permanent officers have been chosen, and
have taken their seats, none but preliminary business is to be
transacted.

The whole machinery of a convention resembles that of one
of the houses of legislature. But a convention for a political
or social purpose never formally goes into committee of the
whole. When there is an interval, and the main body is wait-
ing for the report of a committee, or after the business is done,
and previous to adjournment, it is customary to call on various
prominent men to address the convention, which thus goes
into quasi-committee, without the formality of a motion.

Frequently, the permanent chairman of a convention is
chosen on account of his wealth or position ; but the custom
is a bad one. A convention is essentially a business convoca-
tion ; the time of its members is more or less valuable ; and
no chairman should be installed unless he is familiar with the
duties of his position, and capable of conducting affairs with
promptness, dignity, and force.

It is a custom to give the thanks of the convention to its
officers, just previous to adjournment. In that case, the mem-
ber who makes the motion puts, himself, the question upon
its adoption, and declares the result.

FORMS OF CONSTITUTIONS.

A constitution is the formal written agreement making the
fundamental law which binds the parties who associate. In
preparation of this, useless words should be avoided.

The constitution, after having been adopted, should be en-
grossed in a blank book, and signed by the members.
Amendments or alterations should be entered in the same
book, with the date of their adoption, in the shape of a copy
from the minutes ; and a side-note inserted in the margin of
the constitution, opposite the article amended, showing on
what page the amendment may be found.

LYCEUMS OR INSTITUTES.

Preamble. — Whereas, experience has shown that knowl-
edge can be more readily acquired by combination of effort
than singly, we, whose names are hereunto annexed, have
agreed to form an association to be known as [Aere insert title\.

4r-

458

THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE.

and for its better government, do hereby establish the follow-
ing constitution :

Article I. — The name, style, and title of this association
shall be \^/ier^ insert name], and its objects shall be the increase
and the diffusion of knowledge among its members.

Article II. — i. The officers of this association shall con-
sist of a president, two vice-presidents, a corresponding secre-
tary, a recording secretary, a treasurer, a librarian, and a
curator, who shall be elected annually on [^here insert time of
election and mode, whether by open voice or by ballot],

2. The said officers shall hold their offices until their suc-
cessors shall have been elected ; and their powers and duties
shall be similar to those of like officers in like associations.

Article III. — There shall be appointed by the president,
immediately after his election, by and with the consent of the
association, the following standing committees, to consist of
five members each, namely : on finance, library, museum, lect-
ures, and printing, who shall perform such duties and take
charge of such business as may be assigned to them by vote of
the association.

Article IV. — i. Any person residing within \^here state
limits], who is above the age of twenty-one years, may become
a resident member of this association, by consent of a major-
ity of the members present at any stated meeting succeeding
the one at which his name shall have been proposed ; any per-
son residing without the limits aforesaid may be chosen, in
like manner, a corresponding member ; and any person who
is eminent in science or literature, may be elected an hon-
orary member.

2. Each and every resident member, upon his election,
shall sign this constitution, and pay over to the recording sec-
retary the sum of [^/icre insert the sum], and shall pay the like
sum annually in advance ; but no dues or contributions shall
be demanded of corresponding or honorary members.

Article V. — l. This association shall be divided into the
following sections, namely : I. Natural Science ; 2. Arts ;
3. History ; 4. Agriculture and Horticulture ; 5. Mental and
Moral Philosophy ; 6. General Literature ; to each of which
sections shall be referred all papers or business appropriate to
its department ; and to one or more of these sections each
member, immediately after his election, shall attach himself.

2. Each section shall report, from time to time, upon the
business intrusted to it, as this association shall direct.

Article VI. — This association shall meet monthly {^here
insert time], and at such other times as it may be called upon
by the president, upon the written request of six members ; of
each of which meetings due notice shall be given, and at each
and all of these meetings six members shall constitute a quo-
rum for the transaction of business.

Article VII. — The rules of order embraced in " The Rules
of Debate and Chairman's Assistant," shall govern the deliber-
ations of this association so far as the same may apply ; and
the order of business therein laid down shall be followed, un-
less suspended or transposed by a two-thirds vote.

Article VIII. — Any member who shall be guilty of any
public, felonious offence against the law, or who shall perse-
vere in a course of conduct degrading of itself or calculated
to bring this association into odium, may be expelled by a two-

thirds vote of the members present at any stated meeting ;
and any member who shall neglect or refuse to pay his dues
for more than one year, shall thereby cease to be a member of
this association ; but no member shall be expelled until due
notice shall have been given him of the charges brought
against him, and until he shall have had the opportunity of
being confronted with his accusers, and of being heard in his
own defence.

Article IX. — This constitution may be altered, amended,
or abrogated, at any stated meeting, by a vote of two-thirds
of the members present ; provided, that written notice of said
alteration, amendment, or abrogation, shall have been given
at a previous stated meeting.

DUTIES OF OFFICERS.

THE PRESIDING OFFICER,
The chairman should have made himself fully acquainted
with the rules of order and the usages of deliberative bodies.
He should be prompt, dignified, and impartial. He should
be quick of eye to note any member who rises, and quick of
speech to declare him in possession of the floor. He should
suffer no member to violate order, without instant rebuke.
His voice should be Steady, distinct and clear, so that all may
hear readily. When he puts the question, states a point of
order, or otherwise addresses the body, he should rise ; and
when he has finished, resume his seat. His constant attention
is necessary, and his eye should never wander from the speaker
before him ; nor should he, in any way, show a neglect of the
business. No matter what disturbance may arise, his cool-
ness and temper must be preserved. If his decision be ap-
pealed from, he should show no resentment — an appeal being
a matter of privilege — but should put the appeal in the same
indifferent manner as though it were an ordinary question.
He should always remember that he has been placed there to
guide and control the machinery of the moment, and not to
give his own views, or display his own abilities in an organ-
ized association. He will sign all orders for the payment of
money, ordered by the body.

THE RECORDING OFFICER,

The secretary or clerk, at the commencement of proceed-
ings, will seat himself at his table ; and, at the order of the
chairman, will read the minutes of the previous meeting. He
must note down the proceedings, and write them down in full,
previous to another meeting. He must file all resolutions and
other papers before the body, and allow none to go from his
custody without due authority. He must read all resolutions
and papers, when requested to do so by the chair. He must
turn over his records and papers in good order to his suc-
cessor on leaving his office. He must countersign all orders
on the treasurer, which have been signed by the president, as
this counter-signature is the evidence that the society has ap-
proved the order.

THE TREASURER.

The treasurer must enter, in a book to be provided for the
purpose, all money received, and all payments made, on ac-
count of the body. He must pay out no money, except on
an order, signed by the president, and countersigned by the

THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE.

459

secretary. He must retain these orders, as his vouchers. He
must turn over his books, in good order, to his successor on
leaving his office. He must give bonds in such needful sum
as it deems best, if the body require.

THE LIBRARIAN.
The librarian will take upon him the charge of the books
and manuscripts not pertaining to the duties of other officers.
Of these he must keep a catalogue. He must keep a record
of all books borrowed, by whom and when returned ; and
must only loan them under such regulations as the body see
fit to adopt. He must turn over his catalogue and records to
his successor on leaving his office.

THE CURATORS.
The curators will take charge of all specimens of nature or
art, or otherwise, and all property of the body, not in charge
of other officers. This they will have catalogued, and will
keep it under such restrictions as may be imposed on them by
the main body. They must turn over their catalogue papers
and property to their successors on leaving their office.

THE COMMITTEE ON CORRESPONDENCE.
The committee will take charge of all correspondence or-
dered by the body, and if there be no corresponding secretary,
will conduct it with all parties, at direction of the body,
through its chairman. It will report, from time to time, as
directed, and will keep copies of letters sent, and a file of
those received, which it will turn over to its successors, on its
discharge. If there be a corresponding secretary, he will per-
form the duties assigned above to the committee of corre-
spondence.

THE COMMITTEE ON FINANCE.

The committee on finance will devise the ways and means
to obtain the necessary funds for the body, and report thereon
from time to time ; and will attend to such other duties as
may be assigned to them.

OTHER COMMITTEES.
Other committees will attend to such business as may be as-
signed to them by the main body, reporting thereon as may

be required.

BY-LAWS.

The old custom of appending a distinct set of By-Laws has
fallen into disuse. The main points will be found embodied
in the Constitution in the forms given. Any others, or any
modifications of the rules necessary, may be provided for in
the Constitution, or enacted by a majority vote. But, if it be
thought necessary, that portion of the Constitution that con-
tains provisions that were formerly so placed, can be made
distinct.

OFFICIAL FORMS.

THE PRESIDENT,
On taking his seat, says :

" The meeting [or society, or club, or association, as the case
may be^ will come to order. "

If there have been a meeting previous :

" The secretary will please to read the minutes."

After the minutes have been read :

"You have heard the minutes of the previous meeting read.
What order do you take on them ? "

When a motion has been made and seconded :

" It has been moved and seconded that \here state the mo-
tion\. Are you ready for the question ? "

If a member arises to speak, recognize him by naming him
by his place, or in any way which will identify him without
using his name, if possible.

In putting the question :

" It has been moved and seconded that \here state the mo-
tion]. So many as are in favor of the motion will signify their
assent by saying ' Aye ! ' "

When the ayes have voted, say :

" Those to the contrary opinion, ' No ! * "

Or, have the resolution read, and say :

" It has been moved and seconded that the resolution just
read be passed. So many as are in favor," etc.

On a call for the previous question :

" Shall the main question be now put? Those in the af-
firmative will," etc.

On an appeal, state the decision, and, if you think proper,
the reasons therefor, and that it has been appealed from, and
then :

" Shall the decision of the chair stand? Those in the af-
firmative," etc.

Should it be sustained, say :

" The ayes have it. The decision of the chair stands as
the judgment of this meeting " [or society, etc., as the case may
be].

Should it not be sustained, say :

" The noes have it. The decision of the chair is reversed."

In announcing the result of a question, if it be carried,
say :

" The ayes appear to have it — the ayes have it — the motion
[or amendment, as the case may be] is carried. "

If it be lost :

' ' The noes appear to have it — the noes have it — the motion
is lost."

If a division be called for :

" A division is called for. Those in favor of the motion
will rise."

Count them. When counted, announce the number, and
say :

" Those opposed will rise."

Count them, report the number, and declare the result.

If the yeas and nays be called for, and no objection be
made, he states the question, if needed, and says :

" As the roll is called, members will vote in the affirmative
or negative. The secretary will call the roll."

After the ayes and nays have been determined, the chair-
man states the number and declares the result.

If no quorum be present at the hour of meeting, after wait-
ing a reasonable time, he says :

" The hour for which this meeting was called having ar-
rived and past, and no quonim being present, what order is to
be taken ? "

Or, he may simply announce the fact, and wait for a mem-
ber to move an adjournment.

4r-

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460

THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE.

If during a meeting some member calls for a count, he
counts, and announces if a quorum be present or not. If not,
he says :

" This meeting is in want of a quorum. What order is to
be taken ? "

Or he may state the fact only, and wait for a motion to ad-
journ. But while there is no quorum present, business must
be suspended.

After the minutes have been adopted, he says :

' ' The next business in order is the reports of standing com-
mittees."

If none, or after they have reported, he says :

" The reports of special committees are next in order."

And so he announces each business in its proper succession.

When the hour for the orders of the day arrives, on call of
a member, he says :

' ' Shall the orders of the day be taken up ? So many as are
in favor," etc.

In case of disorder in committee of the whole, which its
chairman cannot repress, the presiding officer may say :

" The committee of the whole is dissolved. The society
[or club, or association, as the case may be] will come to order.
Members will take their seats."

He will then take the chair, instead of the chairman of the
committee of the whole.

In taking the question on amendment, he says :

" The question will be on the amendment offered by the
member from [naming his place, or otherwise indicating him\,"
and then puts the question.

If on an amendment to an amendment, then :

"The question will be on the amendment to the amend-
ment," and the rest as before.

If either the amendment or the amendment to the amend-
ment be carried, he will say :

" The question now recurs on the resolution as amended.
Are you ready for the question ? "

And if no member rises to speak, he will put the question.

On the motion to amend by striking out words from a reso-
lution, he says :

" It is moved to amend by striking out the words [naming
them]. Shall those words stand?" And then he puts the
question.

Objection being made to the reading of a paper, he will
say :

"Shall the paper [naming it] be read?" and then put the
question.

And on an objection being made to the reception of a re-
port, he will say :

"Shall the report of the committee be received?" and
after the demand he puts the question.

When in doubt as to which member was up first, he says :

" The chair is in doubt as to which member is entitled to
the floor. The society [or club, or association, as the case may

be] will decide. Was the gentleman from [indicating

any one] first up ? " And puts the question. If the body decide
against that member, he puts the question on the next, and so
through, until the society decides that some one of them has
the floor. If but two contend, however, and the society de-

cide against the first named, the decision virtually entitles the
other to the floor without further vote.

If a member is out of order, he will say :

"The member [indicating him] is out of order." He will
make him take his seat, and then state wherein the member
is out of order.

If the point of order is raised by a member, he will say :

" The member [indicating him] will state his point of or-
der." When this has been done, he decides the point.

On a question of the time of adjournment, he says :

" It has been moved and seconded that when this meeting
[or club, etc., as the case may be] adjourns, it adjourn to
[naming time and place]. Are you ready for the question ? "
And if no one rises to speak, puts the question.

On a question of adjournment, he says :

"It has been moved and seconded that this meeting [<7r
club, etc.] do now adjourn ; " and puts the question.

When adjournment is carried, he says :

" This society [or club, etc.] stands adjourned to " [naming
time and place] ; or if without any time, he says :

" This society [or club, etc.] stands adjourned without day."

THE RECORDING SECRETARY.

The secretary commences his minutes thus :
"At a stated \or special, or adjourned stated, or adjourned
special, as the case may be] meeting of [here insert the name of
the body], held on [here insert the time and place of meeting],
Mr. [insert chairman's name] in the chair, and [here insert
secretary's name] acting as secretary —

" The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and ap-
proved."

If the reading of the minutes was dispensed with, say so,
instead of the preceding line.

Then give a statement of what was done, without com-
ments, as succinctly as possible, down to the adjournment.

In countersigning an order for money, or in giving a certi-
fied copy of the minutes, or an extract from them, always
sign the name on the left-hand corner of each sheet except the
last. On the last, the signature on the same comer should be
preceded — if an order for money — by the word teste or attest ;
and if it be a copy of minutes, by the words " A true copy of
the minutes."

In case of an adjournment for want of a quorum, say :
" At a stated [or special, etc.] meeting called at [name place
and time], no quorum being present, the meeting adjourned."
In recording the yeas and nays, prepare a list of the mem-
bers, or have it on hand, and after the name of each have two
columns ruled.

Where a member votes " aye," write it in the first column,
or head one column " aye," and the other "no," and make a
mark in the proper column, opposite the nkme. Where he
votes "no," write it on the second. Add up, and enter the
number at the foot of each column. Indorse the resolution
or motion voted upon the back of the list.

Where a report is made, it is not necessary in the minutes
to do more than give an abstract of its contents, oj: a sentence
or two indicating its nature. The report should, however, be
indorsed with its title, and the date of its report, and filed.

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THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE.

461

A list of the orders of the day should always be made out
previous to every meeting, for the convenience of the presid-
ing officer.

CORRESPONDING SECRETARY.

In addressing a letter for the body, write the words " Cor-
responding Secretary," as concluding part of the signature,
and retain a copy of the letter sent, with a record of the time
it was dispatched, stating whether by mail or private hand.

THE TREASURER.
The form of account of the treasurer is very simple. But
where the accounts are complicated, a regular set of books
should be opened, and kept by double entry.

THE COMMITTEES.

The chairman of the committee of the whole, when the
committee has risen, will say to the president of the main
body, if it have concluded its business :

' ' Mr. President : The committee of the whole has, acccord-
ing to order, gone through the business assigned to it, and
asks leave to report."

Leave being granted, he reports what has been done.

Or, not having concluded —

' ' The committee of the whole has, according to order, con-
sidered the business assigned to it, and made progress therein,
but not having time to conclude the same, asks leave to sit
again."

Or, if rising from the want of a quorum —

" The committee of the whole, has, according to order, con-
sidered [proceeded to consider] the business assigned to it, but
has risen for want of a quorum. "

In putting the question for rising —

"It has been moved and seconded that this committee do
now rise and report [or report progress]. So many as are in
favor, " etc.

All written reports are headed after a similar form. If from
a standing committee, thus : *

" The committee on [insert name of committee] respectfully
report ." And then let the report follow.

If a special committee —

The committee to which was referred [here state the special
matter of reference], have considered the same, and respect-
fully report," etc.

And all reports conclude with :

" All of which is respectfully submitted."

A minority report is headed

" The undersigned, the minority of a committee to which
/was referred," etc.

And concludes as in a majority report.

RULES OF ORDER.

QUORUM.

1. A quorum is a sufficient number to legally transact busi-
ness. A majority of the members of any association consti-
tutes a natural quorum ; but a smaller number is usually made
a quorum by a provision to that effect in the constitution or
by-laws, through motives of convenience.

2. If there be a quorumT)resent at the hour named for the

meeting, or within thirty minutes thereafter, the presiding
officer takes the chair, and calls the association to order ; if
not, he waits a reasonable time, and from the chair announces
that no quorum is present. Thereupon no further business is
in order, except to adjourn for want of a quorum. But it will
be in order to call the roll of members, and to make endeavor
to obtain the presence of enough to form a quorum.

3. During the transaction of business, should it be observed
that no quorum is present, the chair may announce the fact,
or any member may call for a count. If, on counting, it be
found that there is no quorum, business is suspended until a
quorum be found. If not to be had, the meeting must be ad-
journed.

4. If, on calling the ayes and noes, or on division, a
quorum be not found, the vote is null, and at the next meet-
ing the unfinished business is in the exact state it was when
the absence of a quorum was discovered.

CALL.
I. On a call of the body, each member rises as he is called,
and answers to his name, and the absentees are noted. In a
small body it is not necessary to rise.

MINUTES.

1. The presiding officer having taken the chair, and a
quorum being present, the minutes are read. If there be any
mistakes in the record, these are amended, and then the min-
utes are adopted. If, under any circumstances requiring
haste, or in the absence of the journal, the reading of the
minutes be suspended, they may be either read and adopted
at another stage of the proceedings, or at the next succeeding
meeting. Nevertheless, the minutes being a record of facts,
any error subsequently discovered may be amended at any
time. This may be done by unanimous consent ; or, if objec-
tions be made, then any member who voted in the affirmative
on their adoption, can move a reconsideration of the motion
to adopt. This last motion prevailing, the minutes are open
to amendment ; and after being amended, the motion on their
adoption as amended is put.

2. The rule of record in ordinary associations is somewhat
different from that in legislative bodies. The minutes of the
former stand in lieu of the journals of the latter. The former
never contain a question which is interrupted by a vote to ad-
journ, or to proceed to the order of the day ; the latter always
do. Even propositions withdrawn, or ruled out of order, may
be entered, as so treated. The minutes are to be full and ex-
plicit, and a true record of all that was done, but not of all
that was said, unless the latter be necessary to the clear under-
standing of the business.

3. Proceedings in committee of the whole are, of course,
not entered on the minutes — the entry merely that the com-
mittee rose and reported thus, and so, and what was done
thereon by the association.

PRESIDING OFFICER.

In the absence of the president, or in case he declines, the

vice-president takes the chair. If there be more than one

vice-president, then they take it in their numerical order, unless

the association, by vote, designate a particular one. If neither

462

THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE.

president nor vice-president be present, some member is
called to act temporarily as chairman, on motion put by the
mover thereof.

RECORDING OFFICER.

In the absence of the secretary, or, if more than one, in the
absence of all, a temporary secretary must be appointed on
motion.

ARRANGEMENT OF BUSINESS.

This, in associations, is usually provided for in the by-laws.
If not otherwise provided for, it is as follows: i. Reading the
minutes ; 2. Reports of standing committees ; 3. Reports of
special committees; 4. Special orders; 5. Unfinished business;
6. New business. The election of new members, unless other-
wise ordered, is always in order ; and the election of officers
ranks as a special order ; but an election of members is not in
order while other business is pending, or while a member has
the floor.

ORDERS.

There is only one case where a member has a right to insist
on anything, and that is where he calls for the execution of an
existing order. No debate nor delay can be had on it ; but
where it is for an order of the day, fixing some particular
business to be taken up, then the president, on call of a mem-
ber, puts the question whether the association will proceed to
the order of the day. If it is decided in the negative, that is,
in effect, a reversal of the former order, and the association
decides to proceed to other business.

COMMITTEES.

1. Standing committees are appointed under the constitution
or by-laws of the association, or by resolution, and sit perma-
nently, while special committees are usually appointed by
resolution to attend to some particular business, which being
done, they are usually discharged.

2. The first-named person acts as chairman of any commit-
tee. It is true that the committee possesses the inherent
power to choose its own chairman ; but custom prevents this
power from being used. Should a committee select some
other than the first named as chairman, it would be considered
a wanton insult,

3. It is always proper to place the mover of a successful
motion on any committee arising through his resolution, and
to name him first ; but if the committee is upon an inquiry
into his conduct, or where its deliberation concerns himself
personally, or his manifest interest, the rule is not followed.

4. As near as they will apply, the rules of order of the
main body govern the deliberations of committees.

5. A committee to whom a resolution or affirmative prop-
osition is committed should always have a majority of mem-
bers, if they can be had, favorable to such resolution or propo-
sition.

6. Unless otherwise ordered, the chair appoints all commit-
tees.

7. When there is a standing committee on any subject, any-
thing referring to such subject should be referred to that com-
mittee alone ; but it may be given to a special committee, if
the association think proper,

8. Standing committees require no order to report. They

are always in session, and should report at every meeting, if
only to report progress.

9. A committee cannot sit while the main body is in ses-
sion, unless so ordered to do.

10 A majority of a committee must concur in a report ;
but the minority are never refused leave to bring in a counter
report.

11. Sometimes a majority cannot be found, when the com-
mittee should report the fact of their disagreement, and ask
leave to be discharged ; they are then to be discharged, and
either a new committee raised, or the subject brought before a
committee of the whole, or before the main body,

12. Persons appointed upon a committee should join that
committee so soon as they are notified of their appointment,
unless they are excused ; as it is the duty of the first named
member of the committee to call his fellows together as soon
as possible.

COMMITTEE OF THE -WHOLE.

1. If it be necessary to go into committee of the whole
society, either for a general or specific purpose, it is done by
motion, when the chairman vacates the chair, and calls some
member to it to act as chairman ; though the committee of the
whole, if it chooses, can select another chairman like any
other committee. This it never does.

The quorum of the committee is the same as that of the
main body. If a quorum be found wanting, the committee
has to rise, the regular chairman takes his seat, and the chair-
man of the committee informs him that the committee rises
for want of a quorum. Then the usual course is taken in re-
gard to the absence of a quorum.

2. If any communication be made to the main body while
in committee of the whole, the committee cannot receive it.
If its reception be necessary, the committee have to rise.

3. If there be confusion or disturbance in committee of the
whole, the president may take the chair, declare the com-
mittee dissolved, and reduce the body to order. In that case
it requires another motion for that committee to sit again.

4. A committee of the whole cannot adjourn, but it must
rise. It cannot take the previous question, nor take the ayes
and noes.

5. If the business before the committee of the whole be
unfinished, it rises on motion, the regular presiding officer
takes the chair, and the chairman of the committee reports
that the committee of the whole have, according to order,
considered the business assigned to them, and have made prog-
ress therein, but, not having time to conclude the same, ask
leave to sit again. Leave is then granted on motion. If the
subject be a special one, and it is concluded, the motion is
that the committee rise and report proceedings ; then, when
the president takes the chair, the chairman of the committee
reports that the committee have gone through the business re-
ferred to them, and ask leave to report. Leave is then given
to report then, or at some other time, either by motion, or,
should there be no objection, on the call of some member.

6. In committee, members may speak oftener than once on
the same subject, and are not confined strictly to the subject-
matter. With these and the foregoing exceptions, the same

THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE.

463

rules of order govern the committee of the whole as govern
the main body.

7. A motion to rise and report progress is in order at any
stage of the business, and is to be decided without debate.
When they have reported, they may be discharged on motion,
which brings the matter laid before them directly before the
association itself.

COMMITMENT.

1. If it be desired to refer a resolution, address or other
matter to a committee, it is done on motion. If to a special
committee, the chair names the committee. Any member
present may suggest one member on that committee, and if
the main body do not object the chair will name him, since
the silence of members in that case is equivalent to a direct
appointment of that person by the association. But such a
course is unusual, and generally improper.

2. Though the majority on a committee should be favorable
to a measure, the minority may be of those who are opposed
to it in some particulars. But those totally opposed to it
should never be appointed ; and if any one of that view be
named, he should rise and state the fact, when the main body
will excuse him from serving.

3. If it be a written matter which is referred, the secretary
delivers it to the first named of the committee.

4. A committee meets when and where it pleases, unless the
time and place is fixed for it. But it cannot act unless its
members assemble together.

5. The committee cannot change the title or subject of the
matter before it, but otherwise have full power over it.

6. If it be a written matter before it, if it originate with
the committee, the writing must be considered paragraph by
paragraph, and the question put on each. After each para-
graph is approved or amended, it is then considered as a
whole. If it h%s been referred, the committee only report
the amendments they recommend separately ; as they have no
right to amend a paper belonging to the main body.

7. When the committee is through, some member moves
that it rise, and report the matter to the main body, with or
without amendments, as the case may be.

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES.
The chairman of the committee, standing in his place, in-
forms the association that the committee to which was in-
trusted such a matter, naming it, have directed him to report
thereon, and moves that the report be received. The cry of
" Receive ! " or " Report ! " or " Read it ! " from any one,
generally dispenses with the formality of a question. He then
reads the report, whatever it may be, and delivers the written
report to the secretary. Then it lies on the table until called
up by a motion. The committee is dissolved, and can act no
more unless reconstituted for the purpose by a vote.

MOTIONS.

1. A motion is a proposition by two members ; conse-
quently, if not seconded, it is not to be entertained. This is
different, however, in the case of an appeal, where the ques-
tion may be put on the demand of one member.

2. A motion must be put in writing, if any member desires

it, and read, when required for information. But if the de-
mand for the reading be repeated, so as to show itself a mere
pretext for delay, the association may order it to be read no
more.

3. A motion for adjournment cannot be made while one
member is speaking ; because it is a breach of order for one
to speak when another has the floor, except to a point of order ;
consequently, even a privileged motion cannot be entertained.
And even on a call to-order, decided against him, he must still
be allowed to go on, provided he does not persist in the same
violation of order in his remarks.

AMENDMENTS.

1. An amendment takes the place of the question it is pro-
posed to amend, and must be decided first. So an amend-
ment to an amendment must be decided before the first
amendment.

2. But amendments cannot be piled one on the other ; that
is, while you can amend an amendment, you cannot amend
the second amendment.

3. For example : it is moved to give the thanks of the asso-
ciation for his kind gift of fifty volumes to the society. It is
moved to amend by striking out the word "kind " and insert-
ing "generous." This is an amendment. It is then moved
to strike out the word "generous " and insert that of "lib-
eral." This is an amendment to the amendment. It is then
proposed to strike out the word " liberal," and insert that of
" munificent." This third amendment is out of order.

4. Nor can amendments be made to certain privileged ques-
tions. Thus, an amendment to a motion to adjourn, for the
previous question, a call of the house, or to lay on the table.

5. But an amendment, though inconsistent with one pre-
viously adopted, is still in order. It is for the association
alone to decide whether, by the passage of the second amend-
ment, it will recede from its former action.

6. On an amendment being moved, a member who has
spoken to the main question, may speak to the amendment.

7. If it be proposed to amend by leaving out certain words,
it may be moved to amend the amendment by leaving out a
part of the words of the amendment, which is equivalent to
letting those words remain.

8. For example : the original words being " Resolved that
we have heard with feelings of lively satisfaction that the au-
thorities of our town propose to tax dogs, and approve their
action," it is moved to amend by striking out the words " with
feelings of lively satisfaction." If it be moved to amend the
amendment, by striking out the words " with feelings of sat-
isfaction," the question would be : Shall those words stand as
part of the resolution? If carried, the word "lively" is
struck out, and the rest remains. The question then recurs
on the resolution as amended.

9. When it is proposed to amend by inserting a paragraph,
or part of one, the friends of this should make it perfect by
amendments ; because if it be inserted it cannot be amended,
since it has been agreed to in that form. So if proposed to
amend by striking out a paragraph, the friends of the para-
graph should also make it as perfect, by amendments, as pos-
sible ; for if the striking out be negatived, that is equivalent

464

THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE.

to agreeing to it in that form, and amendments are not ad-
missible.

10. When it is moved to amend by striking out certain words
and inserting others, the manner of stating the question is,
first to read the whole passage to be amended, as it stands at
present ; then the words proposed to be struck out ; next those
to be inserted ; and, lastly, the whole passage as it will be
when amended. And the question, if desired, is then to be
divided, and put first on striking out.*' If carried, it is next
on inserting the words proposed. If that be lost, it may be
moved to insert others.

11. A motion is made to amend by striking out certain
words and inserting others in their place, which is negatived.
Then it is moved to strike out the same words, and to insert
others of a tenor entirely different from those first proposed,
which is negatived. Then it is moved to strike out the same
words and insert nothing, which is agreed to. All this is in
order ; because to strike out A and insert B, is one proposition.
To strike out A and insert C is another proposition. To
strike out A and insert nothing, is another proposition. The
rejection of either proposition does not preclude the offering
of a new one. But a motion to strike out alone being voted
down, is equivalent to voting that the words should stand, and
amendments are not in order. Jefferson thinks that even if
the question be divided, and taken first on the striking out,
and that fails, amendments are in order, because the proposi-
tion is only half put. There is force in this, and it seems to
be the practice.

12. After the paragraph is amended, it nevertheless may be
further amended by striking it entirely out.

PRIVILEGED QUESTIONS.

1. " When a question is under debate, no motion shall be
received but to adjourn, to lay on the table, to postpone in-
definitely, to postpone to a day certain, to commit, or to
amend ; which several motions shall have precedence in the
order they stand arranged ; and the motion to adjourn shall
be always in order, and shall be decided without debate."

2. These privileged questions shall not only be entertained
while the main question is pending, but will be put before it.

3. A motion to adjourn takes precedence of all others, be-
cause otherwise the body might be kept sitting against its will,
and indefinitely. Yet even this question cannot be entertained
after another question is actually put, and while members are
voting upon it.

4. An order of the day — that is, a question which has pre-
viously been set down to be argued or determined on that day
— takes place of all questions except adjournment. If, for
instance, a matter be set down for 7 o'clock, then at that hour,
although another question may be before the body, a motion to
proceed to take up the order of the day must be received by
the chair.

5. These privileged questions sometimes conflict with each
other, but are reconciled under known rules.

6. If the previous question be first moved, it is first put.
This cuts off all the others. The society, having decided to
take the question, must vote on it as it stands — postponement,
commitment, and amendment being out of order.

7. If postponement be carried, of course the question can-
not be either committed, amended, nor the previous question
be carried, for the subject is not before the body.

8. If committed, the same rules and reasons follow.

9. If amendment is first moved, the question on that must
be determined before the previous question.

10. If amendment and postponement are proposed, the lat-
ter is put first. The reason is, that the amendment is not
suppressed, but comes up again in its order whenever the main
question is again considered.

11. If a motion for amendment be followed by one for com-
mitment, the latter shall be put first.

12. The previous question cannot be put on the motion to
postpone, commit, or amend the main question.

13. The motion for the previous question, or for commit-
ment or amendment, cannot be postponed.

14. A motion made for reading papers relative to the ques-
tion discussed must be put before the main question.

1 5. A motion made and seconded cannot be withdrawn with-
out leave, though, if no member object, it is not necessary to
put the question.

16. When different sums or dates are used in filling blanks,
the question shall first be put on the largest sum and the long-
est time.

17. In commitment, the motions to commit are privileged
in the following order : i. Committee of the Whole ; 2. Stand-
ing Committee ; 3. Special Committee.

18. A motion to lay on the table must be put before either
postponement, commitment, or amendment, although neither
of these last can be laid on the table.

19. A postponement can be amended as to time, and an
amendment can be amended ; but if it be proposed to amend by
inserting anything, a motion to amend or perfect the matter pro-
posed to be inserted must be put to a vote tmoic the question
to insert. The same rule follows in regard to striking out.

20. A question of privilege, such as a quarrel between
members, or affecting the character of members, or the main
body, must be disposed of before the original question be
disposed of.

21. Questions on leave to withdraw motions, or appeals
from the decision of the chair, have a precedence over the
main question.

PREVIOUS QUESTION.

1. When any question is before the association, any mem-
ber may move that the main question be put ; and this is
termed moving the previous question. If the motion pass in
the affirmative, the main question is put immediately, and no
further debate is allowed upon the matter at issue.

2. This is frequently styled " the gag law," becuase its
adoption cuts off all debate. When a subject in the judgment
of the majority has been exhausted, or whefi personalities
have been introduced, and disorders are threatened, it is a
very proper and wise thing ; but it should not generally be
brought to bear so long as members who desire to speak are
unheard.

DIVISION OF THE QUESTION.

I. A question which contains more parts than one may be
divided, on the demand of a member, provided the main body

THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE.

465

concur. If the question contain parts which are evidently in-
compatible, the presiding officer may divide them of his own
will, unless the body deny him the power.

2. When a question is divided, after the question has been
taken on the first member of it, the second member is still
open to amendment and debate, unless the previous question
be taken upon it.

COEXISTING QUESTIONS.

1. Occasionally there are two questions up at the same time —
one primarily, and the other secondarily. Are both subject
to debate ?

2. When it has been moved to commit a question, the main
question is debatable under that motion ; but no amendment
can be entertained, because the question of commitment will
be first put.

EQUIVALENT QUESTIONS.

Where questions are equivalent, so that the rejection of one
is the affirming the other, that necessarily determines the
latter. Thus, a vote against striking out is virtually the same
as a vote to agree ; a vote to reject is equivalent to a vote to
adopt ; but, on a motion to strike out A and insert B being
decided in the negative, this does not preclude the motion to
strike out A and insert C, these being separate questions.

THE QUESTION.

1. The question is first to be put on the affirmative, and
then on the negative side.

2. After the question has been put, debate upon it is out of
order ; but after the presiding officer has put the affirmative,
any member who has not spoken before on the question may
speak before the negative be put, for it is not a full question
until the negative be put,

3. But on trifling matters, such as leave to bring in reports
of committees, withdrawing motions, reading papers, and such
like, the consent of the main body will be supposed without
the formality of a question, unless some one should object,
for the absence of an objection in such cases testifies to unani-
mous consent.

DIVISION.

1. The affirmative and negative voices having been heard
upon a question, the presiding officer declares by the sound
what is the result. If he have doubts as to the relative
strength of the yeas and nays, or if any member demands it,
before other business has been gone into, then a division is
ordered.

2. The mode of dividing is for those in the affirmative to
rise, when the presiding officer counts those up, and announces
the number. These sit, and those in the negative arise, to be
counted in like manner.

3. One-fifth of the members present may call for the yeas
and nays, each member's name being called, and his answer
entered by the secretary.

In case of any disorder during a division or calling of the
yeas and nays, the presiding officer decides the question of
order ; and the decision is not the subject of appeal at this
time, although it may be revised after the division or call is
over. (See Rule XXXIII.)

RECONSIDERATION.

1. A question which has been decided either in the affirma-
tive or in the negative, may be reconsidered upon the motion
of a member who has voted with the majority. But this
motion for reconsideration will not be in order, unless made
during the meeting whereat the question was decided.

2. The effect of the adoption of a motion to reconsider is to
place the question in the position it occupied before the vote
on its adoption or rejection was taken ; consequently it is as
open to amendment, postponement, commitment, or laying on
the table, as it was at that time.

APPEALS.

1. An appeal from the decision of the chair is a matter of
right, and brings under review and opens to debate the
grounds of such decision.

2. The presiding officer, by usage and courtesy, has the
right to assign his reasons for his decision before the question
is put on the appeal.

3. The question on an appeal is, whether the decision of the
presiding officer shall stand as the judgment of the body itself.
If a majority vote in the affirmative, the decision stands ; if
not, it is reversed.

4. An appeal cannot be put on an appeal ; that is, a second
appeal cannot be entertained while the first remains undis-
posed of.

5. A mere opinion of the chair, drawn out by an interroga-
tion on points of order, is not subject to an appeal. To be
appealed from, it must be an actual decision on a question
coming up legitimately in the progress of business.

PAPERS.

1. When papers have been laid before the main body, or
referred to a committee, every member has a right to hear
them once read at the secretary's table, before he can be com-
pelled to vote on them.

2. But he has not a right, therefore, to have papers read inde-
pendently of the will of a majority of his colleagues. If the
reading be demanded purely for information, and not for
delay, and no one objects, the chairman will direct it to be
done, without putting it to the question. But should any one
object, the question must be put.

3. Nor can any member have a right, without a question
first put, to have any thing read, which is not before the
body.

4. Nor can a member have a right to read a paper, in his
place, not even his own speech, if it be objected to, without
the leave of the body. But this rule is not usually enforced,
unless there be a gross or intentional abuse of the time and
patience of the body.

COMMUNICATIONS.
When a communication addressed to the main body is pre-
sented, the question is to be put whether it shall be received.
But a general cry of "Receive !" or, even if there be no
objection, the silence of the body, is sufficient to dispense
with the formality of the question. In that case, or in case
the vote on its reception be in the affirmative, it is to be read,
unless otherwise disposed of.

466

THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE.

THINGS ON THE TABLE.

1. Matters which have been laid on the table can only be
called up when the class of business to which they belong is
in order,

2. If laid on the table by a motion, they can only be lifted
from it by a motion. If laid there under rules, as a matter
of course, they can be called up by any member as a matter
of right, when the business to which they belong is reached in
its regular order.

3. But it is deemed discourteous, when the matter lies on the
table, to call it up in the absence of the mover, or against his
wishes, if present, provided it refers to a matter of local or
private concern, in the mover's special charge ; and provided,
further, that it is not designed or calculated to delay final ac-
tion on any measure or proposition before the body, or impede
the progress of business.

RESOLUTIONS.

All resolutions must be committed to writing, if demanded,
and the name of the mover should be signed thereto.

RIGHTS OF MEMBERS.

1. It is the right of a member to have the question put on
his motion, and a refusal to do this is a breach of order on the
part of the chair.

2. It is the right of a member to insist on the execution of
a standing order of the body.

3. And it is the right of a member, if he observe that a
quorum is not present during the transaction of business, to
call for a count.

ORDER AND DECORUM.

1. When the presiding officer takes the chair every member
is to be seated.

2. When any member means to speak, he is to stand up,
uncovered, and to address himself — not to those around, or to
any particular member — but to the presiding officer, who
calls him by his name ; or, better still, indicates him by his
position, or otherwise, that the body may take notice who it
is that speaks. But a member who is indisposed may be in-
dulged to speak sitting.

3. When a member stands up to speak, no question is to be
put ; but he is to be heard, unless the body overrules him.

4. If two or more rise to speak nearly together, the chair-
man decides who was first up, and calls him by name or loca-
tion ; whereupon he proceeds, unless he voluntarily sits down,
and gives way to the other. But if the chairman is not clear
in his mind, or the body does not acquiesce in his decision,
the question is to be put as to which was first up.

5. No man can speak more than once to the same question,
not even though he change his opinion in the meanwhile, un-
less by unanimous consent.

6. But if he be the mover, proposer, or introducer of the
question pending, he may close the debate ; but only after
every one desiring to speak on it shall have been heard.

7. Or he may be permitted to speak again, to clear a matter
of fact ; or merely to explain himself in some material part of
his speech ; or to the manner and words of the question keep-,
ing himself to that only, and not traveling into the merits of

it ; or to the orders of the body, if they be transgressed, keep-
ing within that line.

8. If the chairman rise to state a point of order, give infor-
mation, or otherwise speak within his privilege, the member
standing up must resume his seat, that the chairman may be
first heard.

9. No one is to speak impertinently or beside the question,
superfluously or tediously.

10. No person is to use indecent language against the pro-
ceedings of the body ; and no prior determination of which is
to be reflected on by any member, unless he means to con-
clude with a motion to rescind it. While a proposition is
under consideration, however, though it has been even re-
ported by a committee, reflections upon it are not reflections
upon the body itself.

11. No person, in speaking, is to mention a member then
present by his name ; but to describe him by his seat, or as
one who spoke last ; or on the other side of the question ; or
in some other indirect way to identify him.

12. Nor is he to digress from the matter to fall upon the
person ; nor to use even unmanly words against a member ;
nor to arraign the motives of those who propose or advocate
it. All such violations of order it is the duty of the chair to
immediately suppress.

13. When a member shall be called to order by a member
or the chair, he shall sit down until the point of order is de-
cided. The member who makes the call shall state his point
of order, and the question shall be decided by the chair, with-
out debate ; subject, of course, to an appeal.

14. While the chair is putting a question, or addressing the
body, none shall walk out of or across the room ; nor, in such
case, nor while a member is speaking, shall entertain private
discourse ; nor, while a member is speaking, shall pass be-
tween him and the chair. Every member shall remain uncov-
ered while the body is in session. No member, or other per-
son, shall visit or remain near the secretary's table while the
ayes and noes are being called, or the ballots counted.

15. No one is to disturb another in his speech by hissing,
coughing, spitting, or rude exclamations ; nor stand up to in-
terrupt him ; nor pass between the chair and the speaking
member, nor go across the house while he is speaking ; nor
walk up and down the floor ; nor take books or papers from
the table, or write there. Nevertheless, if no attention is
paid to what the member says, it is a piece of prudence for
him to sit down, as the ill-manners of his colleagues are
prima facie evidence that he is saying nothing worth the
hearing.

16. If repeated calls do not produce order, the chair may
call any member by name who obstinately persists in irregular-
ity, whereupon the main body may require the member to sit
down. He must be heard in exculpation, if it is intended to
proceed further, and then withdraw to await the further action
of his colleagues, who may pass a vote of censure upon him ;
or, if he persist, may act in his case in the manner prescribed
in the by-laws of the body.

17. Disorderly words are not to be noted until the member
finishes his speech, unless they are manifestly personal, inde-
cent, blasphemous, or reflecting upon the house. The offen-

THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE.

467

sive words are to be taken down by the member who objects,
or by the secretary, at his request. If the chair thinks they
are not disorderly, he directs them not to be taken down by
the secretary, unless there be a general cry to the contrary.
They are to be read, when taken down, to the member, who
may deny them ; in which case the body shall decide by vote
whether they are his or not. If they are voted to be his, or
if he acknowledge them, he must justify them satisfactorily,
explain the use of them, or apologize. If the offended mem-
ber still persists, and is not satisfied, the sense of the body
may be taken, during which both members must withdraw.
But when business has intervened, or any member spoken
after the offensive words, they cannot be taken down.

18. Disorderly words spoken in committee must be written
down, as in the main body ; but the committee can only re-
port them to the latter for its action.

19. Blasphemous or seditious words, or words reflecting on
the religious belief of members or on religion generally, are
not in order.

20. No member can be present when anything which con-
cerns himself is debating, much less vote upon it ; nor is
any member to speak to the merit of it until he withdraws.
Nevertheless, he may be heard upon it, before he withdraws.

21. No member is to come into the place of meeting, or
remain there, with his head covered, nor put on his hat while
there.

22. A question of order may be adjourned for a time, to
look into precedents.

23. When a member is called to order, he shall sit down at
once, unless permitted to explain. If the body be appealed
to, it shall decide the question without debate ; if there be no
appeal, the decision of the chair shall be submitted to. If the
decision be in favor of the member, he shall be allowed to
proceed ; if against him, he shall not proceed without the
leave of the body ; and the body may, if it think proper, pro-
ceed to censure him.

24. All decisions of the presiding officer are liable to be re-
versed, altered, or amended by the body.

ADJOURNMENTS AND RECESSES.

An adjournment is the closing of a session for the day to be
resumed on another day ; on which day the regular routine of
business is commenced anew, except when superseded by a
special order.

A recess is a suspension of business from one hour of a
day to another hour of the same day ; at which hour business
is taken up at the point where it was left, unless a special
order takes its place .

A motion to adjourn cannot be amended, by adding the
day and hour. It must be put simply that this body do now
adjourn ; and, if carried in the affirmative, it is adjourned to
the next sitting day, or without day, as the case may be. But
any special time of adjournment may be fixed by a previous
resolution.

If a question be put for adjournment it is no adjournment
till so pronounced by the chair. And it is a breach of cour-
tesy for a member to leave his place until the chair has pro-
nounced on the question of adjournment.

SUSPENSION OF RULES.
By unanimous consent any rule or order may be suspended
in part or whole ; but the object of suspending the rule must
be stated in the motion, and when that object has failed or
been attained, the rule regains its former force.

FORCE OF WORDS.

Throughout these rules, whenever the word "body" or
"main body" has been used, it means the society, club, as-
sociation, or other organized body to which the rules are made
to apply.

TIE-VOTE.

\Miere a presiding officer is not chosen out of the body it-
self, as in the case of the Vice-President of the United States,
the Lieutenant Governor of a State, or the Mayor of a city or
town, who may preside over the Common Council, he has '
naturally no vote. The Constitution in the case of the two
first, and the charter in case of the last, give them the privi-
lege of deciding in case of a tie, and they do not vote other-
wise.

But in the case of the Speaker of Congress, or of a House of
Assembly, or a State Senate choosing its own presiding offi-
cer, the Speaker or President votes like any other member,
only it is customary for the clerk, in calling the roll, to call
him by his title, and not by his name. Hence in ordinary
societies the presiding officer votes on all questions, and must
vote if it be pressed, or be guilty of contempt of the main
body, as in the case of any other member. The effect of a
tie vote then is merely that the question before the body, not
having a majority of votes, is lost.

OF RESOLUTIONS.

A written resolution is the formal record of opinion upon
one or more subjects, expressed by a body of men. As in al-
most every species of written composition, the language should
be simple, terse and forcible.

A resolution may or may not be prefaced by a preamble. If
it be so constructed, the preamble should set forth briefly the
cause of the resolution which is to follow. This preamble
is usually commenced with the word " Whereas."

After this comes the resolution or resolutions — ^which com-
mence with the word "Resolved."

A good resolution — one that is pithy and forcible — requires
some care in its composition. Unless the writer be a very ex-
perienced one, he had better avoid all figures of rhetoric, and
confine himself to a plain statement of the opinion he wishes
to convey.

As example is always useful, we will take a subject, and
shov^ the preferable form of a preamble and resolution
upon it.

We will suppose that a party majority in the legislature
passes a registry law, which is not approved by the opposite
party, and a public meeting of the members of the latter de-
sire to condemn it. The following preamble and resolutions
may be suggested :

" Whereas, It is proper for the people, in their public as-
semblages, to express their views of the conduct of those in
office, and to award to the latter their approval or censure ;
and ^

468

THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE.

" Whereas, The late legislature of this State have passed an
oppressive registry bill, odious in its principles, and burden-
some in its details ; therefore,

" Resolved, That the act referred to meets our unqualified
disapproval and decided condemnation ; that vk'e will spare no
efforts to promote its abrogation ; and that we will vote for
no candidate for senate or assembly who is not pledged to its
speedy repeal."

Now, the above is not more wordy than such resolutions
usually are, yet it can be easily simplified.

It is unnecessary to aver that it is proper for the people to
express their views on official conduct, "in their public as-
semblages," since it is their right to do that also in other
places. The rest of the first paragraph is a mere repetition.
And, finally, the whole is a matter generally admitted, and,
therefore, not the subject of affirmation. The preamble had
better begin with the second paragraph. But that contains
useless words also. Any thing which is oppressive is apt to
be odious in its principles and burdensome in its details, and
vice versa.

The resolution itself contains superfluous matter in its
phrases — "decided condemnation" or "unqualified disap-
proval " should be stricken out, and the remainder of the par-
agraph condensed.

Again : the statements of the preamble may be as fully ex-
pressed in the body of the resolution itself, and may be prop-
erly omitted.

Following these hints, the resolution would read as follows :

^''Resolved, That we are opposed to the present oppressive
registry law, and that we will vote for no candidate for either
house of the legislature who is not pledged to its speedy re-
peal."

With these remarks upon composition, we proceed to lay
before the reader a series of resolutions upon various ordinary
subjects, which may possibly afford him hints, or serve for the
nucleus of others.

VARIOUS RESOLUTIONS.

RESOLUTIONS OF CONDOLENCE ON THE DEATH OF A MEMBER
OF A FIRE COMPANY.

Whereas, It has seemed good to the Almighty Disposer of
events to remove from our midst our late worthy and esteemed
fellow-member, Philip Flint ; and

Whereas, The intimate relations long held by the deceased
with the members of this company render it proper that we
should place upon record our appreciation of his services as a
fireman, and his merits as a man ; therefore.

Resolved, That we deplore the loss of Philip Flint, with
deep feelings of regret, softened only by the confident hope
that his spirit is with those who, having fought the good fight
here, are enjoying perfect happiness in a better world.

Resolved, That we tender to his afflicted relatives our sin-
cere condolence, and our earnest sympathy in their affliction
at the loss of one who was a good citizen, a devoted fireman,
and an upright man.

Resolved, That the members of this company will attend
our deceased member to the grave in a body ; that the engine-
house be hung with the emblems of mourning until after the

funeral ceremony shall have been performed, and that the hall
of meeting be draped with black for thirty days.

Resolved, That a copy of the foregoing resolution, signed
by the president, and certified by the secretary, be transmitted
to the relatives of the deceased.

RESOLUTIONS OF INSTRUCTION TO MEMBERS OF THE LEGIS-
LATURE.
Whereas, From the situation of this county \or "town," or
"village,"], the general road law of the State is partly inap-
plicable to us, and highly inefficient, and the circumstances of
the case require a specific law ; therefore

Be it resolved, by the people of [insert name here\, in town meet-
ing assembled. That the Senate and Representatives of this
district in the legislature be, and hereby are, instructed to
procure the passage of a law exempting this county \or " vil-
lage," or " town," as the case may be] from the action of the
general road law, and placing the working and repair of the
roads entirely under the control of the local authorities.

RESOLUTIONS OF THANKS TO THE OFFICERS OF A CONVENTION.
Resolved, That the thanks of this convention are hereby
given to the president for the able, dignified, and impartial
manner in which he has presided over its deliberations, and to
the other officers for the satisfactory manner in which they
have fulfilled the duties assigned to them.

\^0n a resolution of this kind the question is always to be put
by the member who makes the motion — it being personal to the
presiding officer.]

RESOLUTIONS AT A MEETING OF STOCKHOLDERS IN FAVOR
OF A CERTAIN ROUTE.
Resolved, That the proposed horse railroad should be lo-
cated upon the summit of the Palisades, and not on the shore
below, for these reasons :

1. The shore route is narrow, and being limited by the river
on one side and the steep Palisades on the other, is incapable
of the expanded population which may be expected on the
space above, and is not likely to furnish those profits in the
future which shall reimburse stockholders for the present
outlay.

2. There is now a road being constructed from Hoboken to
Union Hill, on the upper route. This will probably be ex-
tended to Bull's Ferry, and thus connecting with this line an
unbroken communication will be secured between the upper
terminus of our road and the ferry at Hoboken.

3. The slightly increased cost of grading in the upper route
is more than made up by the fact that the right of way in the
lower route will cost a vast deal more.

Resolved, That, for the foregoing and other reasons, the
directors be instructed to select the upper, and not the lower,
route for the line of the proposed road.

OF REPORTS.
A report is the written statement of a person having a par-
ticular matter in charge, of the acts officially performed, or of
a committee concerning the results of an investigation or mat-
ter confided to their care. The matter of the report is regu-
lated by the same rules as regards its style and nature, as
govern resolutions.

THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE.

469

"kr-

RECAPITULATION OF CERTAIN POINTS.

In order to impress certain points more strongly on the
mind, we present in a condensed form the rules in regard to
matters likely to confuse the reader.

I. MOTIONS IN ORDER DURING DEBATE.
These in their order of precedence are :

1. To adjourn.

2. To lay on the table.

3. To postpone indefinitely.

4. To postpone to a day certain.

5. To commit.

6. To amend.

II. MOTIONS IN THEIR ORDER OF PRECEDENCE.

1. To fix time [and place, if desired] of adjournment.

2. To adjourn.

3. For the order of the day.

4. To lay on the table.

5. For the previous question.

6. To postpone indefinitely.

7. To postpone to a time certain.

8. To commit.

9. To amend.

III. MOTIONS IN ORDER \VHEN A MEMBER HAS THE

FLOOR.

1. Call to order.

2. Appeal from decision of the Chair.

3. Objection to considering a question.

[Not in order if debate have already begun on the subject.]

4. That the question be discussed.

5. For the order of the day.

IV. MOTIONS OPENING MAIN QUESTIONS TO DEBATE.

1. To strike out enacting clause of bill, or ordinance, [of
course, not applicable in private societies, and used in State
or Municipal Legislatures when it is desirable to force the
fight on the measure at the second reading.]

2. To commit the question.

3. To refer.

4. To postpone indefinitely.

5. To reconsider a debatable question.

V. SUCCESSFUL MOTIONS THAT CANNOT BE RECON-

SIDERED.

1. Adjournment.

2. To take from the table.

3. To reconsider.

4. That the committee rise.

5. To suspend the rules.

VI. MATTERS NOT SUBJECT TO AMENDMENT.

1. Motion to adjourn.

2. Amendment to an amendment.

3. An appeal from the decision of the Chair.

4. A call to order.

5. Motion for leave to continue speaking after having been
pronounced out of order.

6. Motion to lay on the table.

7. Objections to the consideration of a question.

8. Motion for the order of the day.
g. Motion to indefinitely postpone.

10. Call for the previous question.

11. Motion to reconsider.

12. Motion that the committee rise.

13. Motion that a question be discussed.

14. Motion to suspend the rules.

15. Motion to take from the table.

16. Motion to take up a question out of the proper order.

17. Motion for leave to withdraw a motion.

VII. NON-DEBATABLE MATTERS.

1. A motion to adjourn. But a motion to fix the time to
which the Society shall adjourn, when it does adjourn, is de-
batable.

2. An appeal from the decision of the Chair, when a
question of decorum is in debate, or to the priority of business.
And no appeal can be made the subject of debate while the
previous question is pending.

3. A call to order is not debatable.

4. Motion to extend the limit of debate.

5. Motion to have leave to continue speaking after having
been pronounced out of order.

6. Motion to lay on the table.

7. Motion to limit debate.

8. Objection to the consideration of a question proposed.

9. Motion for the order of the day.

10. Motion for the previous question.

11. Questions in regard to priority of business.

12. Call for the reading of papers.

13. To reconsider an undebatable question.

14. Motion that the committee rise.

15. Motion to allow the question to be discussed.

16. Motion to suspend the rules.

17. Motion to take from the table.

18. Motion to take up a question out of proper order.

19. Leave to withdraw a motion.

VIII. FORMS OF PUTTING CERTAIN QUESTIONS.

In putting the question on an appeal, the Chair does not
ask if the decision of the Chair be overruled, but — ' ' SkaH the
decision of the Chair be sustained? " or " Shall the decision of
the Chair stand? " If there be a tie vote, the decision of the
Chair is overruled, because of the lack of a majority.

In putting the question on striking out certain words, it is
put — " Shall these words [naming them] stand as part of the
resolution ? " If there be a tie vote, they are struck out, be-
cause a majority have not pronounced in their favor.

On a demand for the order of the day, the question is put —
" Will the Society [council, club, whatever it is] now proceed
to the order [or orders] of the day ? "

On a demand for the previous question, the form is —
" Shall the Main Question be now put? "

On an objection to the consideration of a question, if made
at the time of the introduction of the subject, the form is —
'• Shall the question be considered? "

On putting the yeas and nays — " As many as are in favor oj

470

THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE.

the motion [or resolutions] will when their names at e called,
answer, Aye. 7' hose of the contrary opinion, No. Mr. Secre-
tary, call the roll. "

On a call for the yeas and nays — "As many as are in favor
of callittg the yeas and nays, will, when their names are called,
say. Aye. Mr. Secretary, call the roll." When the requisite
number have answered the Secretary suspends calling, reports
result to Chair, who says — [naming the number,] ' ' In the
affirmative. The yeas and nays are ordered ." Or, if there be
no objection, he may say — " Those in favor of calling the yeas
and nays will rise and remain standing till counted." He
then counts them audibly, and announces the number and re-
sult. But if any member cries " vote ! " or otherwise dissents,
the roll must be called for the ayes only.

IX. TWO-THIRDS VOTE.

There is no such thing naturally as the necessity of a two-
thirds vote. By the rules of order, a majority suffices to
order the previous question, to limit the time of speeches, to
limit the debate — which last is virtually ordering the previous
question at a fixed hour — or to consider a question when ob-
jected to ; while to suspend the rules, or amend them, or to
make a special order, or to move for the discussion of a non-
debatable question, or to take up a question out of its order
— the three last amounting to a suspension of the rules — re-
quires unanimous consent.

But while this is the practice in legislative bodies, in or-
dinary organizations, where celerity in the dispatch of business
is not of great importance, where the previous question is
looked upon as a device to prevent the minority from express-
ing an opinion, and where a suspension of the rules is more
frequently necessary, the following special rule is sometimes
adopted :

It shall require a two-thirds vote of the members present at

any meeting to call the previous question, to limit debate, to
fix a specified hour for closing debate, to consider a question
when objected to on its introduction, to make a special order,
to suspend, or to amend the rules, to order the discussion of a
subject non-debatable under the rules, or to take up a ques-
tion out of its order.

This may be placed in the constitution or by-laws of the
society, when it will become paramount law, to which the
rules of order opposed to it must yield.

The safest mode, however, will be found to adhere to the
parliamentary rules.

X. MATTER-OF-COURSE QUESTION.

To expedite business, that to which no one objects, when
stated by the chair, is considered ordered. Thus, the recep-
tion of a report, calling for division, reception of communi-
cation, withdrawal of a motion before the house, leave to
continue speech in order after-being pronounced out of order,
etc., are permitted without a vote, if no objection be made.
So in making a motion, which strictly (when not a question of
order, an objection to the consideration of a question or a call
for the order of the day) requires to be seconded, it is always
taken for granted that it has been, unless some one should
violate courtesy so far as to inquire. In that case, it must be
seconded, or it falls to the ground.

It is considered unfair to insist upon the seconding of a
motion, because it violates the natural right of a member to
get a proposition in good faith before the house ; but, if his
motion be made for dilatory purposes, or to annoy and weary
out the majority, or be in effect, though not in shape, offen-
sive to the house, it is eminently proper that he should have
at least one member to back him in his attempt ; and it is no
discourtesy to cut off his discourtesy by demanding the sec-
onder.

PHRENOLOGY.

471

HRENOLOGY is a Greek compound,
signifying a discourse on the mind.
The system which exclusively passes
by this name, was founded by Dr. Fran-
cis Joseph Gall, a German physician,
bom in 1757. The brain is the organ by and
through which mind in this life is manifested.
This truth is now disputed scarcely anywhere.

Phrenologists conjectured that different brains
differ in quality, but were long without any indica-
tions of these differences. The doctrine of the
Temperaments has thrown considerable, though not
perfect, light on this point, and for this we are in-
debted to Dr. Thomas, of Paris. There are four
temperaments, accompanied with different degrees
of power and activity, in other words, quality of
brain. These are the bilious, the nervous, the san-
guine, and the lymphatic. These temperaments were
observed and distinguished long before the discov-
ery of phrenology, though to little purpose. They
figure in the fanciful philosophy of Burton, and sim-
ilar writers of former times, and much nonsense
is written connected with them. Phrenology has
adopted them, and made them intelligible and use-
ful. They are supposed to depend upon the con-
stitution of particular bodily systems. The muscular
and fibrous systems being predominantly active,
seem to give rise to the bilious temperament. The
name is equivocal, and therefore not well applied ;
the other three are more appropriate. The brain
and nerves predominating in activity, give the nerv-
ous ; the lungs, heart and blood-vessels, the san-
guine ; while the glands and assimilating organs
present the lymphatic temperament. The predom-
inance of these several bodily systems is indicated
by certain sufficiently obvious external signs, whence
our power of recognizing them. The nervous tem-

perament is marked by silky, thin hair, thin skin,
small, thin muscles, quick muscular motion, pale-
ness, and often delicate health. The whole nervous
system, brain included, is active, and the mental
manifestations vivacious. It is the temperament of
genius and refinement. The bilious has black, hard,
and wiry hair, dark or black eyes, dark skin, moder-
rate fullness, but much firmness of flesh, with a harsh
outline of countenance and person. The bilious
temperament gives much energy of brain and men-
tal manifestation, and the countenance is marked
*and decided ; this is the temperament for enduring
much mental as well as bodily labor. The sanguine
temperament has well - defined forms, moderate
plumpness and firmness of flesh, light or red hair,
blue eyes, and fair and often ruddy countenance.
It is accompanied with great activity of the blood-
vessels, an animated countenance, and a love of out-
door exercises. With a mixture of the bilious — for
in most individuals the temperaments are mixed,
often all four occurring in one person — it would give
the soldier's temperament. The brain is active.
The lymphatic temperament is indicated by a round
form, as in the fat and corpulent, soft flesh, full cel-
lular tissue, fair hair, and pale skin. The vital ac-
tion is languid, the circulation weak and slow. The
brain also is slow and feeble in its action, and the
mental manifestations correspond.

THE PRIMITIVE FACULTIES OF MIND, AS

CONNECTED WITH THEIR ORGANS

IN THE BRAIN.

Mind, which was considered by the metaphysicians as a sin-
gle thing or essence, was said by them to be capable of being
in different states, in each of which states it made one of its
various manifestations, as memory, judgment, anger, etc. In
no particular does the phrenological hypothesis differ more
from the metaphysical than in this. The phrenological doc-
trine is, that the brain, the organ of the mind, is divided into

472

PHRENOLOGY.

various faculties, each of which has its own mode of acting.
It is held—

First. That by accurate observation of human actions, it is
possible to discriminate the dispositions and intellectual power
of man, such as love, anger, benevolence, observation, reflec-
tion, etc.

Secondly. That the true form of the brain can be ascertained
from the external form of the head ; the brain, though the
softer substance, being what rules the shape of the skull, just
as a shell takes its form from the animal within.

Thirdly. The organs or parts into which the brain is divided,
all of which organs are possessed by every individual except in
the case of idiocy, appear on the brain's surface in folds or
convolutions, somewhat like the bowels or viscera of an ani-
mal, but have a well-ascertained fibrous connection through
the whole substance of the brain with one point at its base,
called the medulla oblongata, which unites the brain to the
spinal cord. The organs have thus each a conical form from
the medulla oblongata to the surface ; the whole being not in-
aptly compared to the stalks and flower of a cauliflower.

Fourthly. The brain is divided into two equal parts called
hemispheres : on each side of the fosse or division between
these hemispheres the same organ occurs ; all the organs are
therefore double, in analogy with the eyes, ears, etc. But
when the term 07-gan is used, both organs are meant. The
organs which are situated close to the middle line drawn verti-
cally on the head, though close to each other, are nevertheless
double ; for example, Individuality, Benevolence, Firmness, etc.

Fifthly. Beside the brain proper, there is a smaller brain,
attached to the hinder part of the base of the brain, called the
cerebellum.

Sixthly. The brain, including the cerebellum, is divided
into the anterior, middle, a.nd postenor lobes. The cerebellum
forms part of the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe contains
all of the intellectual faculties ; the posterior and lower range
of the middle lobe are the regions of the animal propensities ;
while the moral sentiments are found, with a sort of local
pre-eminence, to have their organs developed on the top or
coronal surface of the head.

The gradation in size of the organs is thus denoted:

Very Small.
Small.
Rather Small.

It has been found convenient to express these degrees in
numbers, thus : —

Moderate.

Rather Large

Rather Full.

Large.

Full.

Very Large.

2. (Idiocy.)

4! (Very Small.)

6. (Small.)

8. (Rather Small.)

10. (Moderate.)
II.
12. (Rather Full.)

I 14." (Full.)

IS-

16. (Rather Large.)

'7-

18. (Large.)

19.

20. (Very Large.)

The intermediate numbers, 3, 5, 7, &c., denote something
between the two denominations, and have been found useful.

In practice, the general size of the head is measured, in
several directions, with calliper compasses. Twenty males,
from 25 to 50 years of age, measured, from the occipital spine
(the bony knot over the hollow of the neck) to the point over
the nose between the eyebrows, on an average, 7 J inches;
some of them being as high as 8i, and others as low as 6^.

From the occipital spine to the hollow of the ear, the average
was 4I, some being as high as 5, others as low as 3}. From
the hollow of the ear to the point between the eyebrows, as
above, average nearly 5 ; some being 5^, others 4^. From
the same hollow of the ear to the top of the head, about an
inch behind the center (the organ of Firmness), the average
was 5,^5 ; some being 6^, others 5^. Across the head, from a
little below the tops of the ears (from Destructiveness to
Destructiveness"), the average was 5 f„ ; some being 6^, others
5^. The averages are in these twenty individuals higher than
those of the natives of Britain generally, some of them being
large, and none small.

Phrenologists further distinguish between power and activity
in the organs of the brain. Power, in whatever degree pos-
sessed, is capability of feeling, perceiving, or thinking ; while
activity is the exercise of power, or the putting into action the
organ with more or less intensity.

The powers of mind, as manifested by the organs, are
ca-Weii faculties. A faculty may be defined to be a particular
power of thinking or feeling. A faculty has seven character-
istics, in order to our concluding it primitive and distinct in
the mind, namely, i. When it exists in one kind of animal
and not in another ; 2. When it varies in the two sexes of the
same species ; 3. When it is not in proportion to the other
faculties of the same individual ; 4. When it appears earlier or
later in life than the other faculties ; 5. When it may act or
repose singly ; 6. When it is propagated from parent to child ;
and, 7. When it may singly preserve health, or singly manifest
disease.

Division or Classification of the Faculties. — The facul-
ties have been divided by Gall and Spurzheim into two great
orders — Feeling and Intellect, or Affective and Intel-
lectual Faculties. The Feelings are divided into two
genera— the Propensities and the Sentiments. By a propensity
is meant an internal impulse, which incites to a certain action
and no more ; by a sentiment, a feeling which, although it has
inclination, has also an emotion superadded.

The second order of faculties, the Intellectual, also suffers
division into the Pe7-ceptive or Knowing, and the Reflective
Faculties. The Perceptive Faculties are again divided into
three genera — ist, the External Senses and Voluntary Motion ;
2d, the Internal powers which perceive existence, or make man
and animals acquainted with external objects and their physi-
cal qualities ; and, 3d, the powers which perceive the relations
of external objects. The fourth genus comprises the Reflective
Faculties, which act on all the other powers ; in other words,
compare, discriminate, and judge.

The following is a table of the names of the organs synop-
tically given : —

AFFECTIVE.

I.— Propensities.

IL— Sentiments.

Amativeness.

10. Self-Esteem.

Philoprogenitiveness.

II. Love of Approbation.

Inhabitiveness and Concentra-

12. Cautiousness.

tiveness.

13. Benevolence.

Adhesiveness.

14. Veneration.

Combativeness.

15. Firmness.

Destructiveness.

16. Conscientiousness.

Alimentiveness.]

17. Hope.

Love of Life.]

18. Wonder.

Secretiveness.

19. Ideality.

Acquisitiveness.

20. Wit, or Ludicrousness.

Constructiveness.

21. Imitation.

%r-

PHRENOLOGY.

473

I.— Perceptive.

INTELLECTUAL.

22. Individuality

23. Form.

24. Size.

25. Weight.

26. Coloring.

27. Locality.

28. Number.

29. Order.

30. Eventuality.

31. Time.

32. Tune.

33. Language.

IL — Reflective.

34. Comparison.

35. Causality.

ORDER FIRST.— FEELINGS.

» GENUS L— PROPENSITIES.

The propensities are common to man and the lower animals ;
they neither perceive nor reason, but only feel.

No. I. — Amativeness. — This organ is situated immediately
over the nape of the neck, and fills up the space between the
ears behind, or rather between the mastoid processes, or pro-
jecting bones behind the ears. It generally forms a projection
in that part, and gives a thickness to the neck when it is large,
and a spareness when small.

As the basis of the domestic affections, it is one of great
importance, and its regulation has ever been one of the prime
objects of moral systems, laws, and institutions.

No. 2. — Philoprogenitiveness. — This, in man as well as
animals, is the feeling of the love of his offspring. It depends
on no other faculty, as reason or benevolence ; it is primitive ;
and in the mother, who, for wise reasons, is gifted with it most
strongly, its object, the infant, instantly rouses it to a high
state of excitement. It is situated in the middle of the back
of the head, and when large projects like a portion of an ostrich
egg. The organ is one of the easiest to distinguish in the
human head. Those who are flat and perpendicular there,
instead of being delighted are annoyed by children. It is
generally smaller in males than in females, though sometimes
found larger ; and men so organized delight to carry about and
nurse children. The feeling gives a tender sympathy gener-
ally with weakness and helplessness ; and we find it often
returned by the young themselves to the old and feeble. It is
essential to a soft kind attendant on the sick, to a nurse or
nursery-maid, and to a teacher of youth. It induces women
to make pets of small and gentle animals, when tyrant circum-
stances have kept them single, and denied them offspring of
their own. Its feelings are, by a kind Providence, rendered
so delightful, that they are extremely apt to be carried the
length of excess ; and spoiling and pampering children into
vicious selfishness is the ruinous consequence.

No. 3. — Inhabitiveness — Concentrativeness. — The
organ is situated immediately above the preceding. The pur-
pose of a faculty which prompts men to se/f/e instead of roam-
ing, which latter habit is inconsistent with agriculture, com-
merce, and civilization, is obvious ; nostalgia, or home-sick-
ness, is the disease of the feeling.

No. 4. — Adhesiveness. — This organ is at the middle of
the posterior edge of the parietal bone. It attaches men, and
even animals, to each other, and is the foundation of that
pleasure which we feel, not only in bestowing but receiving
friendship. It is the faculty which prompts the embrace and
the shake of the hand, and gives the joy of being reunited to
friends. Acting in conjunction with Amativeness, it gives
constancy and duration to the attachments of the married.

Amativeness alone will not be found sufficient for this. Hence
the frequent misery of sudden love marriages, as they are
called, founded on that single impulse. The feeling attaches
many persons to pets, such as birds, dogs, rabbits, horses, and
other animals, especially when combined with Philoprogeni-
tiveness. With this combination, the girl lavishes caresses on
her doll and on her little companions.

No. S- — Combativeness. — The organ of this propensity is
situated behind, and a little upward from, the ear ; anatomi-
cally, at the posterior-inferior angle of the parietal bone. A
small endowment of this faculty manifests itself in that over-
gentle and indolent character, which is easily aggressed upon,
easily repelled by the appearance of difficulty and trouble, and
which naturally seeks the shades and eddy-corners of life.
Nations so organized — the Hindoos, for example — are easily
conquered by others, under whom they naturally sink into a
condition more or less of servitude. A large endowment, on
the other hand, shows itself in a love of danger for its own
sake, a delight in adventurous military life, and a tendency to
bluster, controversy, and turmoils of all kinds. Persons with
large combativeness may be readily recognized in private
society by their disposition to contradict and wrangle. They
challenge the clearest propositions, and take a pleasure in
doubting where everybody else is convinced. The generality
of boys manifest an active combativeness in their adventurous
spirit, hence their disposition to fighting, and to the working of
all kinds of petty mischief. To control and guide the propen-
sity is one of the most delicate, but almost most important,
duties of the educator. When combativeness is deranged, we
have a violent and noisy, and often a dangerous patient.
Intoxication generally affords a great stimulus to it, hence,
drunken quarrels and fightings.

No. 6. — Destructiveness. — This organ is situated on both
sides of the head, immediately over the external opening of the
ear, extending a little forward and backward from it, and
rising a trifle above the top or upper flap of the ear. It cor-
responds to the lower portion of the squamous plate of the
temporal bone. When the organ is large, the opening of the
ear is depressed. It is still generally considered as giving the
impulse to kill and destroy ; but, in man, this propensity is
shown to have, under the control of the higher sentiments
and intellect, a legitimate sphere of exercise. It prompts
beasts and birds of prey to keep down the redundant breeds
of the lower animals, and enables man to " kill " that he may
' ' eat." Anger, resentment, and indignation, in all their shapes,
likewise spring from this faculty.

A small endowment of this faculty is one of the elements of
a " soft " character. Persons so organized seem to want that
which gives momentum to human operations, like an axe want-
ing in back weight.

Aliraentiveness, or Appetite for Food. — Alimentive-
ness is the desire of, or appetite for, food. In this feeling, as
such, the stomach is not concerned ; its functions are strictly
confined to the reception and digestion of our food,

Alimentiveness, from its near neighborhood to Destructive-
ness, seems to have a peculiar influence on that faculty, rousing
it to great energy when its own enjoyments are endangered or
interruj)ted.

.^r-

-<^

474

PHRENOLOGY.

kr-

Love of Life. — The self-preservation involved in the love
of life is certainly not accounted for by any known organ or
comb'ination of organs. Cautiousness is fear of injury, fear
of death ; but it is not love of life. This feeling is powerfully
manifested by some when their life is in no danger, but who
look upon the close of life as a very great evil.

No. 7. — Secretiveness. — The order of this faculty will be
observed to be situated immediately above that of Destructive-
ness, at the inferior edge of the parietal bone, or in the middle
of the side of the brain. The legitimate use of the faculty is
to exercise that control over the outward manifestation of the
other faculties which is necessary to a prudent reserve.
Without it, and of course, in those in whom the organ is small
and the manifestation weak, the feelings express themselves
too openly.

No. 8. — Acquisitiveness. — The organ of this faculty is
situated farther forward than, and a little above, Secretiveness,
at the anterior-inferior angle of the parietal bone.

The faculty of Acquisitiveness could not, and no faculty
could, be given to man by his Creator for a mean, groveling,
and immoral use ; accordingly, when we consider it aright, we
recognize in it the dignity of the greatest utility. In a word,
it is the faculty through whose impulse man accumulates capital,
and nations are rendered rich, great, and powerful. Without
the faculty, man would be content to satisfy his daily wants,
although even in this he would fail ; but the surplus which,
under the impulse of this faculty, he contributes to the store
of wealth which accumulates from generation to generation,
would not exist. Under proper regulation, then, the faculty
is of the greatest value to man ; by means of it he " gathers
up the fragments, that nothing may be lost." Excessive pur-
suit of wealth is, however, an abuse of the faculty, and too
much the vice of civilization, when it advances, as it has
hitherto done, without adequate moral improvement.

No. 9. — Constructiveness. — The situation of this organ
is immediately behind the temples, in the frontal bone, above
the spheno-temporal suture. The faculty of which this or^an
is the instrument, is the power of mechanically making, con-
structing, and fashioning, by changing the forms of matter.
Many of the inferior animals possess it, as the bee, the beaver,
birds, and insects. Some savages have it in such small en-
dowments as never to have built huts or made clothes, or
even the simplest instruments for catching fish. In all opera-
tives who excel in their arts — engravers, joiners, tailors, &c. —
and in children who early manifest a turn for drawing figures,
and cutting them out in paper, the organ is large.

GENUS II.— SENTIMENTS.

I. SENTIMENTS COMMON TO MAN AND
THE LOWER ANIMALS.

No. 10. — Self-Esteem. — The situation of this organ is at the
top of the back of the head, at the center ; forming, as it were,
the curve or turn between the back and top of the head.
Technically, it is a little above the posterior or sagittal angle
of the parietal bones. When it is large, the head rises far up-
ward and backward from the ear, in the direction of the or-
gan. The legitimate use of the faculty of Self-Esteem, or
Self-Love, is that degree of self-complacency which erjjiances

the pleasures of life, and which gives the individual confidence
in his own powers, and leads him to apply them to the best
advantage. It is sometimes called proper pride, or self-respect,
in which form it aids the moral sentiments in resisting tempta-
tions to vice and self-degradation ; this is called being aiove
doing a criminal, a vicious, or a mean action. Its deficiency
renders an individual too humble, and the world take him at
his word, and push him aside. In large and uncontrolled en-
dowment, it produces great abuses, and causes much annoyance
and often misery to others. It is the quarreling, insulting,
domineering, tyrannizing, dueling faculty. In children it is
pettishness, forwardness, and self-will, and produces disobedi-
ence. In adults, it gives arrogance, superciliousness and sel-
fishness.

No. II. — Love of Approbation. — This organ is situated on
each side close to Self Esteem, and commences about half an
inch from the lambdoidal suture. It gives, when large, a
marked fullness to the upper part of the back of the head.

The faculty, unless kept in subordination by a very large and
vigilant Conscientiousness, prompts to all the conventional
insincerities and flatteries of society, from the dread that the
truth will offend Self-Esteem, and draw down on the teller of
it disapprobation. When Secretiveness is large and Conscien-
tiousness small. Love of Approbation is profuse in the un-
meaning compliments of society.

No. 12. — Cautiousness. — The organ of this faculty is situat-
ed about the middle of the parietal bone on both sides.

It has been said that /ear is the fundamental feeling of this
faculty. It is an important element in prudence, which
places the individual on his guard and warns him not to be rash
in his moral as well as his physical movements. In general,
the organ is large in children — a wise and beneficent provision
for their protection. The organ is often diseased, and then pro.
duces causeless dread of evil, despondency, and often suicide.

II, SUPERIOR SENTIMENTS PROPER TO
MAN.

No. 13. — Benevolence. — The organ of this sentiment is situ-
ated at the upper part of the frontal bone, immediately before
the fontanel, in the middle of the top of the forehead, where it
turns to form part of the top of the head, or coronal surface. It
is easily distinguished ; and when large, gives a round elevated
swell to that region. When the organ is small the forehead or
top-front is low, flat, and retreating.

The faculty of Benevolence gives more than compassion for,
and a desire to relieve, suffering ; it gives a wish that others
should be positively happy ; prompts to active, laborious, and
continued exertions ; and, unless Acquisitiveness be very large
and powerful, to liberal giving to promote its favorite object.
It differs essentially in its charity, "which sufferethlong and is
kind," " and vaunteth not itself," from that which springs from
Love of Approbation.

No. 14. — Veneration. — The organ of this faculty occupies
the center of the coronal region just at the fontanel — the cen-
ter of the top of the head. The function of the faculty is the
sentiment of veneration, or deference in general for superior-
ity, for greatness, and goodness. Its highest object is the
Deity. It is remarkable in how many instances the painters

PHRENOLOGY.

475

of sacred subjects have given large development of this organ
in the heads of their apostles and saints — no doubt, because
the pious individuals whom they would naturally select as
studies for such characters, possessed the organ large. Vener-
ation has no special object ; it finds appropriate exercise with
regard to whatever is deemed superior. Without this sentiment
to make man look up to man, a people would be like a rope
of sand, and society could not exist.

No. 15. — Firmness. — The organ of this faculty occupies
the top of the head, behind Veneration, in the middle line.
It is a faculty of peculiar character. It gives fortitude, con-
stancy, perseverance, and determination ; and when too pow-
erful, it produces obstinacy, stubbornness, and infatuation.
With Self-Esteem, it renders the individual absolutely im-
practicable. The want of it is a great defect in character ; it
is unsteadiness of purpose.

No. 16. — Conscientiousness. — The organ of this senti-
ment is situated on each side of the organ of Firmness, between
the latter organ and that of Cautiousness.

Conscientiousness gives the emotion of justice, but intellect
is necessary to show on which side justice lies. The judge
must hear both sides before deciding, and his very wish to be
just will prompt him to do so. This faculty regulates all the
other faculties by its rigid rules. Conscientiousness not only
curbs our faculties when too powerful, but stimulates those
that are too weak, and prompts us to duty even against strong
inclinations. To cultivate it in children is most important.

No. 17. — Hope. — The organ of this faculty has its place
on each side of Veneration, partly under the frontal, and partly
under the parietal bone. When not regulated by the intellect,
Hope leads to rash speculation, and, in combination with
Acquisitiveness, to gambling, both at the gaming-table and
in the counting-house. It tends to render the individual
credulous, and often indolent. In religion, hope leads to faith,
and strongly disposes to a belief in a happy life to come.

No. 18. — Wonder. — The organ of this faculty is situated
on each side of that of Benevolence, with one other organ,
that of Imitation, interposed. Technically, it has its place in
the lateral parts of the anterior region of the vertex.

Persons with the faculty powerfully developed are fond of
news, especially if striking and wonderful, and are always ex-
pressing astonishment ; their reading is much in the regions
of the marvelous, tales of wonder, of enchanters, ghosts, and
witches.

No. 19. — Ideality. — The organ of this faculty is situated
farther down, but close to that of Wonder, along the temporal
ridge of the frontal bone.

The faculty delights in the perfect, the exquisite, the beau-
ideal — something beyond the scenes of reality — something in
the regions of romance and fancy — of the beautiful and the
sublime. Those writers and speakers who possess it large,
adorn all they say or write with its vivid inspirations. It is
the organ of imagery. The faculty renders conversation ele-
vated, animated, and eloquent, the opposite of dry and dull.

No. 20. — Wit, or the Ludicrous. — The organ of this
faculty is situated before, and a little lower than that of Ideal-
ity. When large, it gives a breadth to the upper region of
the forehead.

No. 21. — Imitation. — This organ is situated on each side
of that of Benevolence. The Imitative arts depend on this
faculty ; and its organ is found large, accordingly, in painters
and sculptors of eminence.

ORDER SECOND.— INTELLECTUAL FACUL-
TIES.

By these faculties man and animals perceive or gain knowl-
edge of the external world, and likewise of their own mental
operations. The object of the faculties is to know what ex-
ists, and to perceive qualities and relations. Dr. Spurzh'eim
divided them into three genera : — i. The External Senses ;
2. The Internal Senses, or Perceptive Faculties, which procure
knowledge of external objects, their physical qualities and re-
lations ; 3. The Reflecting Faculties.

Genus I.— External Senses. — By these, man and the
inferior animals are brought into communication with the ex-
ternal material world. The Senses, as generally received, are
five in number — Touch, Taste, Smell, Heating, and Sight.
There are certainly two more, namely, the sense of Hunger
and Thirst, and the Muscular sense, or that by which we feel
the state of our muscles as acted upon by gravitation and the
resistance of matter. Without this last sense we could not
keep our balance, or suit our movements to the laws of the
mechanical world.

Genus II. — Intellectual Faculties, which Procure
Knowledge of External Objects, of their Physical
Qualities, and Various Relations. — These faculties corre-
spond in some degree with the perceptive powers of the meta-
physicians, and form ideas.

No. 22. — Individuality. — The organ of this faculty is situ-
ated in the middle of the lower part of the forehead, imme-
diately above the top of the nose. It takes cognizance of
individual existences — of a horse for example. As Individu-
ality merely observes existences without regard to their modes
of action, it is the faculty of the naturalist. Those who
possess it large and active, observe the minutest objects ;
nothing escapes them, and they remember even the minutest
objects so well, that they will miss them when taken away.
On the contrary, those who have it small, observe nothing,
and give the most imperfect account of the objects which
have been in their way.

No. 23. — Form. — This organ is situated on each side of,
and close to the crista galli, and occupies the space between
the eyes. In those who have it large, the eyes are wide
asunder and vice versa. As every material object must have
a form, regular or irregular, this faculty was given to man and
animals to perceive forms, and they could not exist without
it. When large, it constitutes an essential element in a talent
for drawing, but requires Size and Constructiveness to perfect
the talent.

No. 24. — Size. — Every object has a size or dimension.
Hence a faculty is necessary to cognize this quality. The or-
gan is situated at the inner extremities of the eyebrows, where
they turn upon the nose. A perception of Size is important to
our movements and actions, and essential to our safety. There
is no accuracy in drawing or perspective without this organ.

4r-

--^

476

PHRENOLOGY.

No. 25. — Weight. — Weight is a quality of matter quite dis-
tinct from all its other qualities. The weight of any material
object is only another name for its degree of gravitating ten-
dency — its attractability to the earth. A power to perceive the
different degrees of this attraction is essential to man's move-
ments, safety, and even existence; There must be a faculty for
that perception, and that faculty must have a cerebral instru-
ment or organ. Phrenologists have generally localized that
organ in the superorbital ridge or eyebrow, immediately next
to Size, and farther from the top of the nose.

No. 26. — Coloring. — As every object must have a color in
order to be visible, it seems necessary that there should be a
faculty to cognize this quality. The organ is the next outward
from Weight in the eyebrows, occupying the precise center of
each eyebrow.

No. 27. — Locality. — Objects themselves are cognized by In-
dividuality; but their place, the direction where they lie, the
way to them depend on another faculty, a faculty given for that
purpose. Without such a power, men and animals must, in
situations where objects were numerous, and complicated in
their positions, as woods, have lost their way. No man could
find his own home, no bird its own nest, no mouse its own
hole. The faculty, when active, prompts the individual to
localize everything, and think of it as in its place. One glance
at a paragraph or advertisement in a newspaper fixes its place
in their minds, so that they will turn overt he largest and most
voluminous newspaper, and know in v/hat column, and partof
a column, they will find it ; or direct others to do so. A per-
son with the faculty powerful, will go in the dark to find what
he wants, and will find it if in its place. Skillful chess-players
invariably have the organ of Locality large, and it is believed
that it is the organ of which they make the principal use ; for
it gives the power of conceiving, before making a move, the
effect of new relative positions of the pieces.

No. 28. — Number. — The organ of this faculty is placed at
the outer extremity of the eyebrows and angle of the eye. It
occasions, when large, a fullness or breadth of the temple, and
often draws downward the external corner of the eye. When
it is small, the part is flat and narrow between the eye and
the temple. Their number is a very important relation or con-
dition of things, and requires a distinct perspective power.
Our safety, and even existence, may depend on a clear percep-
tion of Number.

No. 29. — Order. — The organ of this faculty is placed in the
eyebrow, between Coloring and Number, and is large and
prominent, and often pointed like a limpet-shell, in those who
are remarkable for love of method, arrangement, and symme-
try, and are annoyed by confusion and irregularity. The
marked love of order in some persons, and their suffering from
disorder, are feelings which no other faculty, or combination of
faculties, seems to embrace.

No. 30. — Eventuality. — The organ of this faculty is situated
in the very center of the forehead, and when large, gives to
this part of the head a rounded prominence. Individuality
has been called the faculty of nouns: Eventuality is the faculty
of verbs. The first perceives mere existence ; the other motion,
change, event, history. All knowledge must be of one or the
other of these two descriptions — either things that are or

things that happen. In the following examples — the MAN
speaks, the WIND blows, the DAY dawns, the nouns cognized by
Individuality are printed in capitals, while the verbs, addressed
to Eventuality, are in italics.

No. 31. — Time. — Whatever be the essence of time as an en-
tity, it is a reality to man, cognizable by a faculty by which he
observes its lapse. Some persons are called walking time-
pieces ; they can tell the hour without looking at a watch ; and
some even can do so, nearly, when waking in the night. The
faculty also marks the minute divisions of duration, and their
relations and harmonies, which are called time in music, and
rhythm in versification.

No. 32. — Tune. — The organ of this faculty is situated still
further out than that of Time, giving roundness to the point
where the forehead turns to form the temples. It is large in
great musicians ; and when small and hollow, there is an utter
incapacity to distinguish either melody or harmony.

No. 33. — Language. — A faculty is given to man and ani-
mals which connects feelings with signs and cries ; but to man
alone is given articulate speech. The comparative facility with
which different men clothe their thoughts in words, depends
on the size of this organ, which is situated in the super-orbital
plate, immediately over the eyeball, and when large, pushes the
eye outward, and sometimes downward, producing, in the
latter case, a wrinkling or pursing of the lower eyelid. There
is no fluent speaker deficient in this organ.

Internal Excitement of the Knowing Organs — Spec-
tral Illusions. — The Knowing Organs are for the most part
called into activity by external objects, such as forms, colors,
sounds, individual things, &c. ; but internal causes often excite
them, and when they are in action objects will be perceived which
have no external existence, and which, nevertheless, the indi-
vidual will believe to be real. This is the explanation of
visions, specters and ghosts, and at once explains the firm be-
lief of many that they have appeared to them, and the fact that
it never happens that two persons see the same specters at the
same time.

GENUS III.—REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.

The Intellectual Faculties already considered, give us
knowledge of objects, and the qualities and relations of ob-
jects, also of the changes they undergo, or events.

No. 34. — Comparison. — Every faculty can compare its own
objects. Coloring can compare colors ; Weight, weights ;
Form, forms ; Tune, sounds ; but Comparison can compare a
color with a note, or a form with a weight, &c. Analogy is a
comparison not of things but of their relations.

No. 35. — Causality. — This is the highest and noblest of the
intellectual powers, and is the last in the phrenological analysis
of the faculties. Dr. Spurzheim so named it, from observing that
it traces the connection between cause and effect, and sees the re-
lation of ideas to each other in respect of necessary consequence.
Its organs are situated on each side of Comparison. With a
powerful perception of causation, the individual reasons from
cause to effect by logical or necessary consequence. It is the fac-
ulty which sees principles and acts upon them, while the other
two faculties only try experiments. Resource in difficulties, and
sound judgment in life, are the result of powerful Causality.

--^

KNOTS AND SPLICES.

477 f

HE mode of forming ropes
and cables is shown in
Fig. I. A number of
fibers, a, are spun right-
handed (with the sun, or
from left to right) into the yarn,
b. A number of yarns, varying
according to the size and quality
of the strand required (ropes
made of small fine yarn are the
strongest and best), are then twist-
ed, /(?/"/-handed, into the strand, c.
Three strands laid together, right-
handed, form the rope, d. (At e is the vacant space
caused by the strand c being " unlaid " to show its
structure.) This three-strand right-handed rope is the
rope used for general purposes and for the " running
rigging " of ships. For " standing rigging " — shrouds
and stays — it is customary to use right-handed rope
composed of four strands laid round a fifth smaller
strand, called the heart, which passes straight up the
middle. Left-handed rope is sometimes met with,
but not often. Ropes are built up in this way for
the sake of getting the twist right and left alter-
nately, which is the only way of preventing them
from untwisting under strain. Without the twist the
fibers would fall to pieces.

Three ropes like d, laid together left-handed,
form the cable, /, the largest kind of rope. All left-
handed rope is called cable-laid ; but, strictly speak-

ing, only nine-stranded rope like / should be so
called. Formerly, ordinary right-handed rope was
called hawser-laid, but that term is obsolete or has
come to mean the same as " cable-laid."

There are many kinds of cord, such as window-
sash lines, &c., which are not "laid," but "plaited,"
and are therefore in no sense rope. These cannot
be spliced or made into the more complicated knots.
Miniature rope, called humber-line, is about the
smallest genuine laid rope, and is good for practic-
ing knots upon. The smallest rope so called by
sailors is inch-rope, /. e., i in. in circumference, not

Fig. I. Fig. 2.

diameter. Rope exposed to the wet should be
made of yams soaked in tar. This makes the neat-
est knots and splices, the fibers sticking together
better, but it makes the fingers in a sad mess. Un-
tarred rope is nearly as good for practicing on.

478

KNOTS AND SPLICES.

String is composed of two or three yarns laid
either way.

Spun-yarn is a kind of soft string, made by twist-
ing, right-handed, two or three yarns from old rope.

Worrning is filling up the channels between the
strands of a rope, either to improve its appearance
or to fit it for serving or parcelUng {a, Fig. 2).

Parcelling is covering the rope with strips of old
canvas soaked in tar to keep out the wet. Follow
the " lay " of the strands from left to right (4 Fig.
2), then cover over or serve the parcelling with

Fig.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7

Fig. g.

spun-yarn {b, Fig. 2), going against the lay, or from
right to left, " Service " is also put on without
parcelling, over a plain rope or over worming.

Marling is used instead of service to keep parcel-
ling in its place. It is a kind of " chain-stitch " as
known to ladies {c, Fig. 2). Work it towards you.

Any bend or loop in a rope is called a bight, as a
or b in Fig. 3. The standing part is that which is
not bent about in forming the knot ; the base, in
fact, upon which the end — the part being manipu-
lated — is worked. If you seize one of the bends of
a coil of rope, and draw it out without finding the
ends, you have hold of the " bight " of it.

The plain Overhand Knot (Fig. 4) is the
simplest of all. It is made at the end of a rope, to
prevent it passing through a hole (as in sewing) or
to prevent the strands from separating too far.

The Figure of Eight Knot (Fig. 5) is better
than the overhand, as it does not " jam " under strain
and is easy to undo.

The Boat Knot or Marlingspike Hitch (Fig,
6) is simply an overhand knot with the end held by

a piece of wood instead of being taken through the
bight. On withdrawing this the knot falls to pieces.

The Bowline is the best of all knots. It forms a
loop which neither jams nor slips, and is easy to
undo. Two ropes may be joined by a bowline at
the end of each. It may be thrown over or made
fast round a post, it forms a sling for a cask, and
fifty other things. Having formed a bight as in Fig.
7, hold the crossing b in the right finger and thumb;
with the left hand take the bight at a, and draw it
over the end as in Fig, 8: being twisted by this
operation, it tends to take the shape shown in Fig. 9;
let it do so, but still keep the crossing in order be-
tween the finger and thumb ; now draw out the end
a little, and work it in as in Fig. 10; adjust the loop
to the size required, and pull it tight,

A Running Bowline is begun as in Fig. 11. tak-
ing c as the crossing and d as the bight described
above. Fig. 12 shows it finished, — the best slip-
knot known, free from any risk of jamming.

Fig. II. Fig. 12. Fig. 13. Fig, 14.

One merit of the bowline is that it can be made
on a rope with one end fixed and out of reach ; but
it can even be made in the middle of a rope when
there is no time to look for the ends. This is a
bowline on a bight. When a sailor hears the cry,
" Man overboard ! " he seizes a bight in the first
coil of rope he meets with, forms a bowline on it,
and throws it to the drowning man in less time than
it takes to describe it, because he is not detained

Fig. is

Fig. 17.

looking for the end. Figs, 13 and 14, correspond-
ing to 7 and 9, show that it is commenced as a com-
mon bowline, only with a double instead of a single

KNOTS AND SPLICES.

479 f

rope ; but instead of treating the looped end, e, like
the end in Fig. lo, open it out and pass it round or
behind the whole thing (see the dotted lines); then
draw tight again, as in Fig. 15.

A Bowline with Four Bights is made with
two double ropes. It has four lafge loops, instead
of the two in Fig. 15, and may be used, for instance,
to support the different parts of a man's body while
being drawn out of the water insensible.

Figs. 16 and 17 show two ways of slinging a cask,
&c., in the loop of a single bowline. In Fig. 17 the
rope must be arranged before the bowline is made.

Fig. 18 is a simple running knot, but inferior to
the bowline. It is often used for tying up parcels,
when an overhand knot at a is made to prevent the
end slipping through.

The Hangman's Knot is useful for the same

Fig. 18.

Fig. 20.

Fig. 19.

Fig.

and other purposes and does not jam so much, besides
being more ornamental. Form bights as in Fig. 19;
work the end round and round, as many times as
you like, 'towards the loop a, Fig. 20; pass it through
a ; pull b so as to nip the end tightly in a (Fig. 21).
When made with care this is a pretty knot.

A rope may be secured to a post or spar by a bow- ,
line, as to the cask in Fig. 16, or by

The Clove Hitch or Builder's Knot, Figs. 22

Fig. 23.

and 23, which holds very tight, especially if the end
is " seized " or " stoppered " down with spun-yam,

or secured to the standing part by a " half -hitch," as
at a in the latter figure. You can form this knot
either by twisting the end of the rope round the
post, in the manner shown in Fig. 23, or by forming
a double loop as in Fig. 22, and passing the post or
spar through the opening a, and then drawing tight.
In either case the result is the same.

The Timber Hitch (Fig 24) holds tight while
the strain is on, but not otherwise. It is useful in a
hurry, and easily made.

The Rolling Hitch (Fig. 25) holds so securely
that a weight may be suspended by it from a per-
pendicular pole, or the pole may be slung by it in
the same position. At a it is shown drawn tight.
In Fig. 26 an extra turn is taken, which adds to the

Fig. 24.

Fig. 25.

Fig. 26.

Fig. 27.

strength. There is also another more complicated
form of the rolling hitch.

In all these figures the knot is drawn loose to
show the structure.

The Cat's-paw (Fig. 27) is used for hitching the
bight or any part of a rope to a hook, &c. Form
two bights, twist them in opposite directions, and
pass the hook through the loops. A weight may
now be hung to either part of the rope. There are
several cat's paws, but this is the commonest.

Fig. 28.

Fig. 2<).

The Sheepshank or Dogshank (Fig. 28) ex-
plains itself. It is used for shortening ropes when

480

KNOTS AND SPLICES.

it is undesirable to cut them to the length required.
It comes apart again when the strain is removed.

A Blackwall Hitch (Fig. 29), simple as it is, is
a safe way of hanging a weight from a hook. The
greater the weight the tighter the end is jammed
against the hook, though there is no knot in it.

The neatest join for two ropes is the Reef Knot,
or Right or True knot. Twist the ends as in
Fig. 30, then make an overhand knot as in Fig. 31.
If the latter is twisted in the right direction, the
ends will lie close as in Fig. 32; if not, they will
stick out sideways. When this happens the knot is
useless, and is called a " granny knot," or false knot.
Neat as the true reef knot is, it is only suited for
small ropes with no great strain on them : under
much strain it jams and is difficult to undo. To

Fig. 30. Fig. 31. Fig. 32. Fig. 33. Fig. 34. Fig. 35.

join large ropes, hold one in the left hand as at a in
I^ig- ZZ\ then work the other through in the direc-
tion of the arrow. This is the Common or Sheet
Bend, or Weaver's Knot. The reef knot is that
used to join the ends of each pair of '* reef points "
in reefing a sail. Of course joining the two ends of
a rope together is the same as joining two separate
ropes. The weaver's knot is easy to undo, especi-
ally if made as in Fig. 34.

Fig. 35 is a Carrick Bend, for joining two cables
for towing ships, &c. ; but a bowline bend is more
general.

A permanent junction between two ropes should

Fig. 36.

Fig. 37.

always be made by splicing. Fig. 36 shows the com-
mencement of a

Short SPLrcE. — Open out or unlay the strands,

and " crutch " or inter-lock the ends (tightly, not
loosely as in the drawing); take any strand, a, pass
it over the opposing strand next before it, /, and
stick it in between that and the next, e (which must
be lifted up by a pointed piece of wood or iron
called a marlingspihe). Pass it under e and up be-
tween e and d. Treat all six strands in a similar
manner. If great strength is required, pass them all
a second time. When the ends reappear, untwist
each into yarns ; cut out half of each yarn ;
twist up the yarns again ; then pass the six reduced
strands once more, and cut off the ends. This is to
taper the splice, to make it more sightly (Fig. 37.)
If the description seems obscure, try it as you read:
the principle is to embed or burrow each strand of
a into the substance of b and vice versa. Splicing
large ropes is very hard work.

An Eye Splice (Fig. 38) is easily made by any
one who has mastered the short splice, the difference
being that you have only the strands of one rope to
work in amongst the strands of its own " standing
part." Both these splices should be parcelled and
served if exposed to wet.

Fig. 39.

Fig. 38.

Fig. 40.

The Long Splice is stronger and more elegant
than the short splice, and must-'te used if the rope
has to run through pulleys, &c., as it does not in-
crease its thickness. Unlay a much greater length
of each rope than is shown in Fig. 36 ; inter-lock or
" crutch " the strands as before. Now untwist a
still further — for several whole turns along its own
rope A, which will then consist, so to speak, of two
strands and a vacancy. Into the vacant space left
by the removal of a lay the corresponding strand f,
of the opposite rope (Fig. 36); twist / tighter as
you lay it in A, for part of its length is now com-
posed of two strands of its own, b and c, and one of
its neighbor's, /. At the point where the untwist-
ing of a ceases — and where, of course, the laying in
of / ceases also — join a and f; cut off all but a few
inches of each; untwist them, and cut off about one-
fourth of the yarns from each. Tie the reduced

KNOTS AND SPLICES.

481

strands with an overhand knot (as in Fig. 39), which
must be coaxed into the vacant place as neatly as
possible; beyond the knot reduce a and / by another
fourth; pass the end of a over / and the end of /
over a, and each under the two next strands (Fig.
40): when you have well stretched the rope, cut off
the ends where they appear. Sometimes the two
are reduced by half before knotting; sometimes the
extreme end is reduced to a fourth, and " stuck "
once more. In the same way work one of a's strands
— say b — into the rope b, untwisting d to make room
for it, and joining them like a and /. You will now
have e and c to dispose of. Reduce them, and tie
their ends together Hke the others, but at the original
point of junction, without laying them into either
rope: your three pair of strands will now be united
at three different points in the rope, some distance
apart, and there will be no material increase of
thickness.

A Grommet — (see engraving in the article on

Sailing) — is a rope ring made by unlaying one strand
from a rope. Form a bight of the required size at
one end, and work the loose end twice round it, fol-
lowing the natural crevices of the strand. You will
now have a solid three-strand rope in the form of a
ring, and a pair of ends to join. Join them by an
overhand knot, first tapering them, and " stick " the
ends just as in a long splice.

Sailors have many ornamental knots for finishing
the ends of ropes, to prevent the strands from sep-
arating: amongst the others are the Matthew Walker,
the Single Wall, the Single Wall Crowned, the Double
Wall, the Double Wall Double Crowned, the Single
Diamond, the Double Diamond, the Stopper Knot,
and others, which space does not admit of our de-
scribing. All the knots and splices in common use
we have given, and the reader may be sure that few
pieces of stray information repay the trouble of
learning — and practicing — ^better than a knowledge
of the Art of Cordage.

482

A FULL RIGGED SHIP.

The foremast
Foretopmast
Foretop -gal 1 antmast
Foretop-gallant-yard
Fore topsa i 1 -yard
Fore yard
Mainmast
Main topmast
Maintop-gallantmast
Maintop-gallant-yard
Maintopsail-yard
Main yard
Mizzenmast
Mizzentopmast
Mizntp. -gallantmast
Mizntp. -gallant-yard
Mizntp. -sail-yard
Cross-jack yard
The gaff

The spanker-boom
Forecnain, or channels

V The main ditto
W The mizzen ditto

X The quarter galleries

Y The chain or channel

wales
Z Main channel wales

Cutwater and figure-
head
Fore-shrouds and rat-
lines
Ditto topmast ditto
Top-gallant-shrouds
Top-gallant backstay
Topmast backstay
Topsail ties
ain shrouds, &c., or
main rigging
Ditto topmast ditto

L Ditto top-gallant ditto
Ditto ditto backstay
1 Ditto topmast ditto
m Mizzen shrouds
n Ditto topmast ditto
o Ditto top-gallant ditto
p Ditto ditto backstay
q Ditto topmast ditto
r r r Mizzen. mizzen-top,
and mizzen-top-gal-
lant-stays
s s s Main ditto ditto
Stay tackles
Fore and main-yard
tackles

V V V Fore, main, and miz-

zentops (round tops)

www Fore, main, and

mizzen cross-trees
XXX Fore, main, and miz-
zen trucks

t t
u u

Stun-sail, or stud-
ding-sail, booms, on
the fore and main
yards

1 The jib-boom

2 Bowsprit

3 Spritsail-yard

4 Dolphin-strikers

5 Bobstays

6 Jib-boom, guys,

stays

7 Foretop-gallant-stay

8 Jib-stay

9 Foretopmast-stay

10 Forestay

11 II II Lifts of the fore,

and

main, and mizzen
yards

12 12 12 Ditto ditto top-

sailyards

13 13 13 Ditto ditto, top-

gallant-yards

14 14 Fore, main, and miz-

ntp. -gallant braces

15 IS Ditto, ditto ditto

topsail-braces

16 16 Fore-traces

17 17 Main-braces

18 18 Cross - jack - yard -

braces

19 Topping-lift

20 Vangs

21 Signal halyards

22 Peak or gaff halyards

23 Foot-ropes

24 Fore, main, and mizzen

royals

kr-

HOME STUDIES FOR YOUNG LADIES.

483 ^

LL girls have not their
whole time engrossed by
their teachers ; and most
have spaces of holiday
— either they are at
school and come home
for the vacation, or the
governess goes to visit her
friends, or the whole family
goes to the sea-side, and
there is a general relaxa-
tion, or there are sojourns
with friends and a suspen-
sion of lessons. And in pro-
cess of time, governesses
cease to educate them, and
they are left to educate themselves.

In the school-room it is necessary to teach the
rudiments of many things, without which, in these
days, it would hardly be possible to pass in the
crowd. Therefore, much must there be acquired
for which there is no natural bent. The unmathe-
matical must learn arithmetic, enough at least, to cast
up accounts ; the unmusical ought to learn the first
rules of music; the unhistorical must know the outlines
of the events of the world ; those with no turn for lan-
guage must acquire French enough to understand,
and not mispronounce the phrases they meet ; and
what is least congenial is necessarily hammered in
with the most pains, and forms the best discipline.

However, in the voluntary studies of which we
are speaking, taste is the safest guide, for it gener-
ally indicates what you best can excel in. No, the
superlative is not quite right, for the safest guide is
what your parents may wish you to improve in, or
what may help your brothers and sisters most.
Many a brother is encouraged to face his holiday

task or preparation for an examination by a sister
working with him, and what she acquires in this
way, for pure love, is of use to her throughout her life.

But where there is no inducement of this kind, it
is the wisest way, in all cases of long holidays, to
resolve upon spending a certain time every day upon
some solid occupation. It is a very good rule not
to take up a story-book in the forenoon, or till a cer-
tain portion of useful reading has been gone through.
It is the only way, we believe, to avoid being either
dull, vacant, or frivolous, or what may lead to any
or all of these — desultory. The way to have the
most enjoyment is to have some real study to " break
one's mind upon," and give a sense of duty done —
some reasonable pursuit to engage the lively interest
of eye, ear, and hand, occupy leisure moments, and
afford wholesome zest and delight to all the amuse-
ments of mind and body that may offer.

The study may be of many kinds. Some young
ladies will take delight in pursuing their fractions,
working cube root, learning algebra or Euclid, and
feeling new ideas delight them when they perceive
how algebra and geometry work into one another.
Such tastes, however, look very frightful to others,
and for their sakes we will not pursue the subject
farther than to say that those who have these hk-
ings will have special comprehension, and therefore
enjoyment, of astronomy and other branches of phys-
ical science that cannot be appreciated at all with-
out some knowledge of mathematics. Everybody
learns some astronomy — at least as much as is con-
nected with school-room geography ; but, beyond
this, every person ought to try to understand some-
thing of that wonderful mechanism and order which,
above all things, seems to expand the mind to some
idea of the vastness of the power and wisdom of
the Creator.

484

HOME STUDIES FOR YOUNG LADIES.

But without making astronomy a s^udy, it is a se-
rious loss not to make it a pursuit — we mean so far
as to learn to know the changes of the moon, and
to distinguish a planet from a star ; to observe enough
not to inform one's neighbors *' that we have seen
^e comet beautifully," when we have been looking
at Jupiter, whom we might have seen every night
for a month. It is a great loss of pleasure not to
know the constellations, and every one can learn
these with a very little attention, by tracing the
stars they have observed either on the celestial globe
or upon maps. The love and delight one thus wins
for the glorious hunter Orion — our Lady's Distaff, as
the North calls it — the Pleiades like " fireflies in a
golden net," the grand, glittering Vega, the Lion's
red heart, the little diamond-twinkling Dolphin — all
returning in their seasons like dear old friends — are
not to be thrown away out of mere indifference and
inattention to some of the most glorious works of
the Maker of all things.

We have said that astronomy may be a study or
may be a pursuit. This would be the case with al-
most everything worth doing at all. The thorough-
going generally turn their amusement into a study
by their resolution really to go to the bottom of
things, and understand the principle. Truly, they
only find that " the mystery is gone farther ; " but
they have learned to woiider at the mystery, which
they will never be able to do without study. The
maid-servant who tells the child to fling away its
handful, for it is " only nasty littering moss," sees
no mystery, while the botanist sees marvels inexpli-
cable.

While, however, you are a little busy "scholar,"
as the census calls you, you will generally find pur-
suits quite enough for your brain. Collections of
flowers, shells, minerals, fossils, coins — all, if prop-
erly arranged in accordance with some easy guide-
book, will lead you through much interesting knowl-
edge to the threshold of sciences that you may pur-
sue to some purpose when your time is more your
own. The collections should be always well sorted
and kept in good order, without which they become
absolute rubbish — a burden to the proprietor, a
nuisance to everybody, and such an exasperation to
the housemaids and the authorities, that they will
probably be confiscated, and the whole pursuit
quashed, perhaps never to be resumed. Collecting
is delightful work ; only, as you grow past child-

hood, it is just as well, before beginning a collection,
to ask, " Is this a rational thing .'* " There is much
to be said in favor of foreign postage stamps, and of
autographs (except that collectors get hardened into
importuning perfect strangers for them) ; but every
one now laughs at the old mania for amassing used
English queen's heads, and in a dozen years people
will be wondering what was the pleasure of finding
in how many different ways the letters of the alpha-
bet can be twisted together on the top of a sheet of
note-paper. Some collections will have served to
give you interest in the studies they are connected
with, will make you enjoy your walks, see with your
eyes, and read with an object. If you have a
brother in a fit of chemistry, he will probably make
you help him, and you had better learn to under-
stand his intentions, and the principles on which he
works; or, if not, "The Chemistry of Creation,"
and other like books, should be read, both to fill
your mind with wonder at the marvelous things of
this earth, and to give you clear and accurate knowl-
edge, so that you may not fall into absurd blunders
about gases, etc.

One class of minds delights chiefly in these pres-
ent tangible things ; there is another class which is
more interested in men than in things ; and of
course there are also many, and these the more ac-
tive spirits, which have room for both.

It is most advisable that part of the day's deeper
reading should be historical. Those who really can-
not bring themselves to care about things past, nor
remember them, may perhaps more profitably spend
their time over what they do care about ; but this is
not common among educated people, because there
is so much in their daily lives that requires a refer-
ence to the past. Scarcely an ornament do they see
but has a Greek or Gothic model ; they are sur-
rounded with pictures of historical scenes ; the
fields, houses, towns, or ruins around them have wit-
nessed the great events that still influence our lives.
It must be a very callous mind that does not heed
all this ; and besides, how great is the enjoyment of
thinking about great characters and gallant men of
old ! If you never read anything except about lit-
tle boys and girls, how they tore their frocks and
were put in the corner, and the like, your mind will
grow down to them, and you will think Leonidas
guarding Thermopylae, or Cornelia showing her
jewels, or Bruce baffling the bloodhounds, only

HOME STUDIES FOR YOUNG LADIES.

485

stupid' things, never to be thought of out of lesson-
time ; and you may end by being like the lady who
thought " Plutarch's Lives " very entertaining, till
she found they were all true, when they at once
grew stupid !

But one thing let us advise you, and that is, don't
keep to small books. It is quite a mistake to be
afraid of a big book, and think it must be dry. You
are set to read abridgments in the school-room, be-
cause you must there learn the framework in as
small compass as possible, and of course it is very
likely to be dull and dry ; but go to the places
where the abridgments are taken from, and there
you win find that the people have room to spread
out and seem to be alive, so that we can care
about them.

You should also try to read the real great poems.
Some you have learned in fragments in the school-
room ; but there is no time there to let you really
get acquainted with them. You should read a trans-
lation of the " Iliad " and *' Odyssey," which you
can enjoy quite young ; Tasso and Dante you may,
we hope, one day read in Italian ; but you should es-
pecially aspire to Shakespeare and Spenser so soon
as ever you are thought old enough to be trusted
with them. The earlier and the better you know
both them and Milton, the greater will be your en-
joyment of them, and the better your taste. It is the
same with Scott and Southey. There is something
specially engaging to young minds in the chivalrous
freshness and animated life of Scott, his ringing
verses, and high spirit of honor ; and so, too, the noble
sentiments and beautiful self-devotion throughout
Southey's " Roderick," and the wild beauty and
strange adventure in his" Thalaba " and " Kehama,"
willmakethem very charming reading to you ; audit
is much the best way to read poems like these while
you are young and have time, before you get whirled
off by the literature of the day.

Languages are in general so much the chief study
in the school-room, that they would hardly come
under the class of what a young lady would work at
alone, unless, indeed, she has not the usual amount of
lessons required of her. Except the picking up of
Latin to help a brother, very little had better be done
in that way before the schooling has ceased. Then,
it may be feared, it is too much the usual habit to
make very little use of what has been acquired with
so much trouble. It is not always easy to get foreign

books, and nobody ever thinks of looking at the rows
or French memoirs and histories, with tarnished gold
backs, in the drawing-room book-case. Perhaps the
French master has said " they are old French," and
set his pupil to read the " Recueil,'' with which he is
most familiar. So she never becomes acquainted with
the beautiful, idiomatic, carefully studied French that
prevailed before the Revolution; and as, quite rightly,
her mother will not let her read a modern French
novel till she has heard its character, that language,
the most familiar of all, remains useless, excepting
if she goes abroad. Now, French is particulary well
suited to history and biography ; and any good li-
brary will supply you with long lists of books that
will furnish very useful reading — Capefigue, Thierry,
Sandeau,and many another among the moderns, to say
nothing of the crowds of most entertaining memoirs of
older date. Or the beautiful journals of Eugenie
de Guerin should be read by all ; while, among
lighter books, Souvestre's are nearly all sure to be
safe reading ; and besides these we might mention
F^val's " Fee des Greves," Lady Georgiana Fuller-
ton's "Comtesse de Bonneval," Mme. Reybaud's
" Cabaret de Gaubert," as thoroughly interesting
and unexceptionable.

German ought likewise to be kept from dropping
out of use, which it is extremely disposed to do, al-
though universally learnt. It is best to get lists of
German books from trustworthy friends ; or failing
these, you are always on safe ground with history.
Fouque's exquisite tales are despised by German
masters, as not being in perfect language ; but those
who read for the sake of beauty and poetic ideas,
should assuredly not neglect the more celebrated of
these.

Either German or Italian is sometimes omitted in
the school-room, and thus affords a field of enterprise
for after-study. The great Italian poet will furnish
you with years of study, when once you have worked
your way to him ; and Italian, too, owns the most
high-minded of modern novels — " I Promessi Sposi,"
which ought not to be read till the first difficulties of
the language are mastered.

We must not, however, be understood to urge the
study of either of these languages. Neither of them
is absolutely necessary to the education of an Amer-
ican lady. What we do urge is the habit of disci-
plining the mind to a daily habit of exertion. And
this is infinitely more necessary after the age is past

■^

486

HOME STUDIES FOR YOUNG LADIES.

in which hours and tasks are prescribed for you.
The first impulse is to shake yourself free from re-
straint, and idle, trifle, or amuse yourself merely by
way of feeling your liberty ; but by the time this
has gone on a few months, unless some fresh excite-
ment has carried you off, you will feel a great
tedium, and yet a disinclination to exert yourself,
which you would not have felt when your habits of
application were not disused.

Try, then, to look forward to going on with some-
thing for yourself, or with a sister or friend. There
ought to be each day one short interval of study re-
quiring close accuracy — such as may be found in
grammar, logic, mathematics ; and another space of
steady reading, to inform the mind and keep up the
power of attention ; and probably likewise some ac-
complishment to be worked up, such as music or
drawing. These, and whatever besides may please
you, are likely to hinder you from becoming frivo-
lous and unsettled, and to afford you infinitely more
pleasure than " all play and no work." Young girls of
your own age, when visiting you, will often be well
pleased to join in some such occupation, and the
day will thus have a sort of ballast, besides that the
very passage you have read together will ever after
seem illuminated by the talk that it occasions.

A friendship will thrive far better on substantial
food shared together, than on nothing but trifles.
Nay, we believe that nonsense has not the power to
be vigorous and merry without sense from which to
rebound ; it certainly can hardly be wholesome or
innocent.

Girls have lately found out a very pleasant way
of supplying the stimulus that is apt to be wanting
on leaving the school-room, by forming themselves
into little societies for improvement. Essay So-
cieties is the generic title, but they generally have a
private one of their own, such as the Kitten Club,
the Querists, Spinsters, and the like. Essay So-
cieties is hardly a good name, for few women are ca-
pable of writing essays at all, and certainly not
under twenty ; and it is better that the subject
should be such as can be elucidated by intelligent
diligence, instead of by knowledge of the world, such
as only can be gained by experience.

Let us, then, suppose the society to be called
the Querist Company. The members should not be
too diverse in age. Eighteen and fifteen, or eight-
een and five-and-twenty, can work together very well,

but hardly fifteen and five-and-twenty, and in general
a girl in the school-room has not time for such ex-
tra work. The exceptions are when there are no
regular lessons, or at least comparatively few, and a
girl, taught by a father or mother, can obtain free
access to books, but wants motive and direction in
making use of them. Otherwise the members should
be all girls "-come out," that is, with their educa-
tion left to themselves. They should be in some
degree known to one another, the more intimate the
better for the interest and liveliness of the affair.
Some are cousins living at a distance from one an-
other, others friends in the same neighborhood ; but
to be well known to at least two members is a good
rule, or the society loses its coherence and privacy.
It is well to have a head and referee. The Querists
have secured a cousin of some of the parties, who,
as the chief querist, queerest of all, as they say, goes
by the official name of Columbine. The Kitten
Club, on the other hand, make one of their mem-
bers, in rotation, into " Grimalkin," and commit the
management to this ruling power for the time being,
making her dispense the questions, and decide which
is the best answer.

The questions or subjects are propounded by the
Querists in rotation, two a month. More have been
tried, but it was found that no one had time to
attend to more than two questions ; indeed, the
chief reason for sending out two is that there may be
a choice between them.

The questions are submitted to Columbine before
they are sent round ; each member receives hers at
the beginning of the month, and returns her replies
at the end to Columbine, who either chooses out the
best, or, when two or three bring in varieties of in-
formation, selects these, writes a letter explaining
the grounds of the choice, and sends them to the
nearest member, who passes them to the next, and
so on round the whole party. The best answers are
carefully preserved in the archives of the society,
and are sometimes made quite ornamental by the
drawing members of the club. A few questions
shall be mentioned as specimens.

Write a short life of St. Ambrose.

Describethecourseandinfluenceofthe Gulf Stream.

Translate into verse or prose, Uhland's '* Schloss
am Meer.'

Collect the passages of poetry that best describe
the song of the nightingale.

HOME STUDIES FOR YOUNG LADIES.

487

What celebrated horses are mentioned in history ?
Parse and give the derivation of the words in the
lines —

" Mountains on whose barren breast
The laboring clouds do often rest."

Which king do you think was most correctly
termed Great, and why ?

How does the story of " Quentin Durward " de-
part from history ?

What is the difference between genius and talent ?

Write a story to illustrate the saying that every
cloud has a silver lining.

Give an account of the American forest-trees.

These are such questions as the Querists put to one
another. In answering, the rule is that there must
be no direct assistance from elders in the family,
except in suggesting books ; and books, though
freely consulted, must not be copied, except in
making acknowledged quotations. The authorities
consulted are written at the foot of the paper.
Much information is thus gained and put together
in a very pleasant manner, and it is well worth com-
paring the various opinions, or the different infor-
mation that each can obtain.

488

ARCHITECTURE.

iRCHITECTURE, o r
the art of planning and
raising edifices, appears
to have been among the ear-
liest inventions. The first
habitations of men were such
as nature afforded, with but
little labor on the part of the
occupant, and sufficient to
supply his simple wants —
grottoes, huts, and tents. In
early times, the country of
Judea, which is mountainous
and rocky, offered cavernous
retreats to the inhabitants,
who accordingly used them instead of artificial
places of shelter. From various passages in Scrip-
ture, it appears that these caves were often of great
extent, for, in the sides of the mountain of Engedi,
David and six hundred men concealed themselves.
In the course of time, art was employed to fashion
the rude cavernous retreats, and to excavate blocks
by which rude buildings were compiled in more
convenient situations. The progress of architecture,
however, from its first dawn, differed in almost every
different locality. Whatever rude structure the
climate and materials of any country obliged its
early inhabitants to adopt for their temporary shelter,
the same structure, with all its prominent features,
was afterward kept up by their refined and opulent
posterity.

From the cause now mentioned the Egyptian
style of building had its origin in the cavern and
mound ; the Chinese architecture, with its pavilion
roofs and pointed minaret, is moulded from the Tar-

tar tent ; the Grecian is derived from the wooden
cabin ; and the Gothic from the bower of trees. It
is evident that necessity as much as choice or chance
led to the adoption of the different kinds of edifices.

After mankind had learned to build houses, they
commenced the erection of temples to their gods,
and these they made still more splendid than private
dwellings. Thus architecture became a fine art,
which was first displayed on the temples, afterward
on the habitations of princes and public buildings,
and at last became a universal want in society.

Traces of these eras of advancement in the art of
erecting buildings are found in various quarters of
the globe, especially in Eastern countries, where the
remains of edifices are discovered of which fable and
poetry can alone give any account. The most re-
markable of these vestiges of a primitive architecture
are certain pieces of masonry in the island of Sicily,
as well as in some other places, called the works of
the Cyclops, an ancient and fabulous race of giants,
mentioned by Homer in his Odyssey. By whom
these walls were actually erected is unknown.

Of the progressive steps from comparative rude-
ness to elegance of design, history affords no certain
account, and we are often left to gather facts from
merely casual notices. The most ancient nations
known to us, among whom architecture had made
some progress, were the Babylonians, whose most
celebrated buildings were the temple of Belus, the
palace and the hanging gardens of Semiramis ; the
Assyrians, whose capital, Nineveh, was rich in splen-
did buildings ; the Phoenicians, whose cities, Sidon,
Tyre, Aradus, and Sarepta, were adorned with equal
magnificence ; the Israelites, whose temple was con-
sidered as a wonder of architecture ; the Syrians

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or THE

^NlVERSfT

ARCHITECTURE.

489

and the Philistines. No architectural monument of
these nations has, however, been transmitted to us ;
but we find subterraneous temples of the Hindoos,
hewn out of the solid rock, upon the islands Ele-
phanta and Salsetta, and in the mountains of Elora.
These temples may be reckoned among the most
stupendous ever executed by man. The circuit of
the excavations is about six miles. The temples are
100 feet high, 145 feet long, and 62 feet wide. They
contain thousands of figures, appearing, from the
style of their sculpture, to be of ancient Hindoo
origin. Every thing about them, in fact, indicates
the most persevering industry in executing one of the
boldest plans.

EGYPTIAN STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE.

All the architectural remains of ancient times sink into in-
significance when compared with those of Egypt. The obe-
lisks, pyramids, temples, palaces, and other structures of this
country, are on the grandest scale, and such as could only have
been perfected by a people considerably advanced in refine-
ment. The elementary features of Egyptian architecture were
chiefly as follows : i. Their walls were of great thickness, and
sloping on the outside. This feature is supposed to have been
derived from the mud walls, mounds, and caverns of their an-
cestors. 2. The roofs and covered ways were flat, or without
pediments, and composed of blocks of stone, reaching from one
wall or column to another. The principle of the arch, although
known to the Egyptians, was seldom if ever employed. 3.
Their columns were numerous, close, short, and very large,
being sometimes ten or twelve feet in diameter. They were
generally witheut bases, and had a great variety of capitals,
from a simple square block, ornamented with hieroglyphics or
faces, to an elaborate composition of palm-leaves, not unlike
the Corinthian capital. 4. They used a sort of concave entab-
lature or cornice, composed of vertical flutings or leaves, and
a winged globe in the center. 5. Pyramids, well known for
their prodigious size, and obelisks, composed of a single stone,
often exceeding seventy feet in height, are structures peculiarly
Egyptian. 6. Statues of enormous size, sphinxes carved in
stone, and sculptures in outline of fabulous deities and ani-

FlG.

Fig. :

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

mals, with innumerable hieroglyphics, are the decorative objects
which belong to this style of architecture.

The main character of Egyptian architecture is that of great
strength with irregularity of taste. This is observable in the
pillars of the temples, the parts on which the greatest share of
skill has been lavished. The preceding figures are examples.

In these columns we may notice that sturdiness is the pre-
vailing characteristic. The design has been the support of a
great weight, and that without any particular regard to propor-
tion or elegance, either as a whole or in parts. When assem-
bled in rows or groups, the columns had an imposing effect,
because, from their height and thickness, they filled the eye
and induced the idea of placid and easy endurance. In Fig.
5, which represents the exterior of a temple, this simple and
imposing character is conspicuous.

Fig. 5.

GRECIAN STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE.

From Egypt, the architectural art spread to Greece, where it
passed from the gigantic to the chaste and elegant. The
period in which it flourished in the greatest perfection was that
of Pericles, about 440 before Christ, when some of the finest
temples at Athens were erected. After this, it declined with
other arts, and was carried to Rome, where, however, it never
attained the same high character. Before describing the vari-
ous orders of Grecian and Roman architecture, it will be ad-
vantageous to explain the terms ordinarily employed in refer-
ence to the component parts of buildings.

EXPLANATION OF TERMS.

The front or fafade of a building, made after the ancient
models, or any portion of it, may represent three parts, occu-
pying different heights : The pedestal is the lower part, usually
supporting a column ; the single pedestal is wanting in most
antique structures, and its place supplied by a stylobate ; the
stylobate is either a platform with steps, or a continuous
pedestal, supporting a row of columns. The lower part of a
finished pedestal is called the plinth / the middle part is the
die, and the upper part the cornice of the pedestal, or surbase.
The column is the middle part, situated upon the pedestal or
stylobate. It is commonly detached from the wall, but is some-
times buried in it for half its diameter, and is then said to be
engaged. Pilasters are square or flat columns attached to
walls. The lower part of a column, when distinct, is called
the base ; the middle, or longest part, is the shaft ; and the
upper or ornamented part, is the capital. The swell of the
column is called the entasis. The height of columns is meas-
ured in diameters of the column itself, taken always at the
base. The entablature is the horizontal continuous portion
which rests upon the top of a row of columns. The lower part

^ 490

ARCHITECTURE.

kr-

of the entablature is called the architrave or epistylium. The
middle part is the frieze^ which, from its usually containing
sculpture, was called zophorus by the ancients. The upper or
projecting part is the cornice. Kpediment is the triangular
face produced by the extremity of a roof. The middle or flat
portion inclosed by the cornice of the pediment is called the
tympanum. Pedestals for statues, erected on the summit and
extremities of a pediment, are called acroteria. An attic is an
upper part of a building, terminated at top by a horizontal line
instead of a pediment. The different mouldings in architec-
ture are described from their sections, or from the profile which
they present when cut across. Of these, the torus is a convex
moulding, the section of which is a semi-circle, or nearly so ;
the astragal is like the torus, but smaller ; the ovalo is convex,
but its outline is only the quarter of a circle ; the echinus re-
sembles the ovalo, but its outline is spiral, not circular ; the
scotia is a deep concave moulding ; the cavetto is also a con-
cave, and occupying but a quarter of a circle ; the cymatium is
an undulated moulding, of which the upper part is concave
and the lower convex ; the ogee or talon is an inverted cyma-
tium ; \he Jillet is a small square or flat moulding. In archi-
tectural measurement, a diameter means the width of a column
at the base. A module is half a diameter. A minute is a
sixtieth part of a diameter.

In representing edifices by drawings, architects make use
of the plan, elevation, section, and perspective. The plan is
a map or design of a horizontal surface, showing the ichno-
graphic projection, or groundwork, with the relative position
of walls, columns, doors, etc. The elevation is the ortho-
graphic projection of a front or vertical surface ; this being
represented, not as it is actually seen in perspective, but as it
would appear if seen from an infinite distance. The section
shows the interior of a building, supposing the part in front
of an intersecting plane to be removed. The perspective shows
the building as it actually appears to the eye, subject to the
laws of scenographic perspective. The three former are used
by architects for purposes of admeasurement ; the latter is
used also by painters, and is capable of bringing more than
one side into the same view, as the eye actually perceives
them. As the most approved features in modern architecture
are derived from buildings which are more or less ancient, and
as many of these buildings are now in too dilapidated a state
to be easily copied, recourse is had to such initiative restora-
tions, in drawings and models, as can be made out from the
fragments and ruins which remain. In consequence of the
known simplicity and regularity of most antique edifices, the
task of restoration is less difficult than might be supposed.
The groundwork, which is commonly extant, shows the length
and breadth of the building, with the position of its walls,
doors, and columns. A single column, whether standing or
fallen, and a fragment of the entablature, furnish data from
which the remainder of the colonnade, and the height of the
main body, can be made out.

Grecian temples are well known to have been constructed
in the form of an oblong square or parallelogram, having a col-
onnade or row of columns without, and a walled cell within.
The part of the colonnade which formed the front portico was
called the pronaos, and that which formed the back part the

posticus. There were, however, various kinds of temples,
the styles of which differed ; thus, the prostyle had a row of
columns at one end only ; the amphiprostyle had a row at each
end ; \.h& peripteral had a row all round, with two inner ones at
each end ; and iht dipteral h.2id a double row all round, with two
inner ones at each end, making the front three fcolumns deep.
The theater of the Greeks which was afterward copied by the
Romans, was built in the form of a horseshoe, being semicir-
cular on one side and square on the other. The semicircular
part, which contained the audience, was filled with concentric
seats, ascending from the center to the outside. In the mid-
dle or bottom was a semicircular floor, called the orchestra.
The opposite, or square part, contained the actors. Within
this was erected, in front of the audience, a wall, ornamented
with columns and sculpture, called the scena. The stage or
floor between this part and the orchestra was called the pros-
cenium. Upon this floor was often erected a movable wooden
stage, called by the ^ovcia.ns pulpitum. The ancient theater
was open to the sky, but a temporary awning was erected to
shelter the audience from the sun and rain.

ORDERS.

Aided, doubtless, by the examples of Egyptian art, the
Greeks gradually improved the style of architecture, and orig-
inated those distinctions which are now called the " Orders of
Architecture." By this phrase is understood certain modes
of proportioning and decorating the column and its entabla-
ture. They were in use during the best days of Greece and
Rome, for a period of six or seven centuries. They were lost
sight of in the dark ages, and again revived by the Italians at
the time of the restoration of letters. The Greeks had three
orders, called the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthan. These were
adopted and modified by the Romans, who also added two
others called the Tuscan and Composite.

The Doric Order. — This is the earliest of the Greek orders,
and we see in it aTioble simplicity on which sub-
sequent orders were founded. One of the most
correct examples is that given in Fig. 6. The
shaft of the Doric column had no base, orna-
mental or otherwise, but rose directly from the
smooth pavement or stylobate. It had twenty
flutings, which were superficial, and separated by
angular edges. The perpendicular outline was
nearly straight. The Doric capital was plain,
being formed of a few annulets or rings, a large
echinus, and a flat stone at top called the abacus.
The architrave was plain ; the frieze was inter-
sected by oblong projections called triglyphs, di-
vided into three parts by vertical furrows, and or-
namented beneath by gutta, or drops. The
spaces between the triglyphs were called metopes
Fig. 6. and commonly contained sculptures. To have a
just idea of the Doric, therefore, we must go back to the pure
Grecian era. The finest examples are those of the temple of
Theseus and the Parthenon (Fig. 7) at Athens. The Parthe-
non, which is now a complete niin, has formed a model
in modern architecture. It was built by the architect Ictinus,
during the administration of Pericles, and its decorative sculp-

ARCHITECTURE.

491

Fig. 7.— Facade of the Parthenon.

tures are supposed to have been executed under direction of
Phidias. The platform or stylobate consists of three steps,
the uppermost of which
is 227 feet in length
and loi in breadth.
The number of col-
umns is eight in the
portico of each front,
and seventeen in each
flank, besides which
there is an inner row
of six columns, at each
end of the cell.

The Ionic Order. — In this order the shaft begins to
lengthen, and to possess a degree of ornament, but still pre-
serving a great degree of simplicity of outline. In the best
examples, as represented in Fig. 8, the column was eight or nine
diameters in height. It had a base often com-
posed of a torus, a scotia, and a second torus,
with intervening fillets. This is called the
Attic base. Others were used in different parts
of Greece. The capital of this order consisted
of two parallel double scrolls, called volutes, oc-
cupying opposite sides, and supporting an
abacus, which was nearly square, but moulded
at its edges. These volutes have been consid-
ered as copied from ringlets of hair, or per-
haps from the horns of Jupiter Ammon. The
Ionic entablature consisted of an architrave and
frieze, which were continuous or unbroken, and
a cornice of various successive mouldings, at
the lower part of which was often a row of den-
tels, or square teeth. The examples at Athens
of the Ionic order were the temple of Erec-
theus, and the temple on the Ilissus, both now
destroyed. Modern imitations are common in public edifices.

The Corinthian order. — This was the lightest and most
highly decorated of the Grecian orders. The base of the
column resembled that of the Ionic, but was more compli-
cated. The shaft was often ten diameters in B
height, and was fluted like the Ionic. The cap-
ital was shaped like an inverted bell, and cov-
ered on the outside with two rows of leaves of
the plant acanthus, above which were eight pairs
of small volutes. lis abacus was moulded and
concave on its sides, and truncated at the cor-
ners, with a flower on the center of each side.
The entablature of the Corinthian order resem-
bled that of the Ionic, but was more complicated
and ornamented, and had, under the cornice, a
row of large oblong projections, bearing a leaf or
scroll on their under side, and called modillions.
No vestiges of this order are now found in the
remains of Corinth, and the most legitimate
example at Athens is in the choragic monument
of Lysicrates. The Corinthian order was much
employed in the subsequent structures of Rome and its col-
onies. The finest Roman example of this order is that of

Fig. 8.

Fig. 9.

three columns in the Campo Vaccina, at Rome, which are com-
monly considered as the remains of the temple of Jupiter Stator.
Caryatides. — The Greeks sometimes departed so far from
the strict use of the orders as to introduce statues, in the place
of columns, to support the entablature. Statues of slaves,
heroes, and gods, appear to have been employed occasionally
for this purpose. The principal specimen of this kind of
architecture which remains, is in a portico called Pandroseum,
attached to the temple of Erectheus at Athens, in which stat-
ues of Carian females, called Caryatides, are substituted for
columns.

ROMAN STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE.

Roman architecture possessed no originality of any value ;
it was founded on copies of the Greek models, and
these were modified to suit circumstances and
tastes. The number of orders was augmented by
the addition of the Tuscan and Composite.

Tuscan order. — This order is not unlike the
Doric, and is chaste and elegant. As represented
in Fig. 10, the shaft had a simple base, ornamented
with one torus, and an astragal below the capital.
The proportions were seven diameters in height.
Its entablature, somewhat like the Ionic, consisted
of plain running surfaces.

The Composite order. — Of this there were
various kinds, diff"ering less or more either in the
ornaments of the column or in the entablature.
The simplest of this hybrid order was that which
we represent in Fig. 11, which may be observed
to combine parts and proportions of the Doric,
the Ionic, and the Tuscan.

The temples of the Romans
sometimes resembled those of
the Greeks, but often differed
from them. The Pantheon,
which is the most perfectly pre-
erved temple of the Augustan
age, is a circular building,
lighted only from an aperture in
the dome, and having a Corin-
thian portico in front. The
amphitheater differed from the
theater, in being a completely
circular or rather elliptical build-
ing, filled on all sides with as-
cending seats for spectators, and
leaving only the central space,
called the atena, for the com-
batants and public shows. The
Coliseum is a stupendous structure of this kind. The aque-
ducts were stone canals, supported on massive arcades, and
conveying large streams of water for the supply of cities. The
triumphal arches were commonly solid oblong stnictures orna-
mented with sculptures, and open with lofty arches for pas-
sengers below. The edifice of this kind most entire in the
present day is the triumphal arch of Constantine, at Rome,
reprasented in Fig. 13.

Fig. 10.

Fig.

Fig. 12.

492

ARCHITECTURE.

4r-

The basilica of the Romans was a hall of jaslice, used also

as an excliange or place of
meeting for merchants. It
was lined on the inside with
colonnades of two stories, or
with two tiers of columns,
one over the other. The
earliest Christian churches at
Rome were sometimes called
hasiliccB, from their possessing
an internal colonnade. The
monumental pillars were
Fig. 13. towers in the shape of a col-

umn on a pedestal, bearing a statue on the summit, which
was approached by a spiral staircase within. Sometimes,
however, the column was solid. The ihermce, or baths, were
vast structures, in which multitudes of people could bathe at
once. They were supplied with warm and cold water and
fitted up with numerous rooms for purposes of exercise and
recreation.

ITALIAN STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE.

After the dismemberment of the Roman empire, the arts
degenerated so far that a custom became prevalent of erecting
new buildings with the fragments of old ones, which were di-
lapidated and torn down for the
purpose. This gave rise to an ir-
regular style of building, which con-
tinued to be imitated, especially in
Italy, during the dark ages. It
consisted of Grecian and Roman
details, combined under new forms,
and piled up into structures wholly
unlike the unique originals. Hence
the names Grasco-Gothic and Rom-
a n e s q u e architecture have been
given to it. After this came the Italian style, which was pro-
fessedly a revival of the classic styles of Greece and Rome, but
adopted to new manners and wants— a kind of transition
from ancient to modern times. Its great master was Andrea
Palladio, a Venetian (born 1518 — died 1580).

There is considerable variety and beauty in the foliate and
other enrichments of an architectural character in many struc-
tures in Italy, but very little ornament enters into the colum-
nar composition of Italian architecture. Friezes, instead of
being sculptured, are swollen ; the shafts of columns are very
seldom fluted, and their capitals are generally poor in the ex-
treme ; mouldings are indeed sometimes carved, but not often ;
rustic masonry, ill-formed festoons, and gouty balustrades, for
the most part supply the place of chaste and classic orna-
ments.

THE CHINESE STYLE.

The ancient Tartars and wandering shepherds of Asia appear
to have lived from time immemorial in tents, a kind of habita-
tion adapted to their erratic life. The Chinese have made the
tent the elementary feature of their architecture ; and of their

Fig. 14.

style any one may form an idea, by inspecting the figures which
are depicted upon common
China ware. Chinese roofs are
concave on the upper side, as if
made of canvas instead of wood.
A Chinese portico is not unlike
the awnings spread over shop
windows in summer time. The
veranda, sometimes copied in
dwelling-houses, is a structure of
this sort. The Chinese towers
and pagodas have concave roofs,
like awnings, projecting over
F"^' '^S- their several stories. A repre-

sentation of this barbaric style of erection is given in Fig. 15.
Such structures are built with wood or brick ; stone is seldom
employed.

THE SARACENIC, MOORISH, AND BYZAN-
TINE STYLES.

The Arabs, or Saracens, as they are more usually called, and
the Moors, introduced into Spain certain forms of architecture
which differed considerably from the Grecian in appearance,

though founded on its rc-

= ^

MM.

Fig. 16.

mains in Asia and Africa.
The chief peculiarity of this
architecture was the form of
the arch ; the Saracens are
understood to have made it
of greater depth than width,
thus constituting more than
half a circle or ellipse, and
therefore unphilosophical and
comparatively insecure (Fig.
16) ; while the Moorish style
was principally distinguished
by arches in the form of a
horse-shoe or a crescent.

We associate with these
styles another, which arose at
Constantinople, called the
Byzantine, likewise formed on the remains of Grecian art, and
partaking of a slightly Eastern character. It became known
in western Europe along with the Lombard, another degener-
ate Grecian style, about the ninth and tenth centuries.

SAXON STYLE.

This style commenced at the establishment of Christianity
among the Saxons in the sixth century, and is called Saxon,
from its having prevailed during the reigns of the Saxon and
Norman kings in England.

GOTHIC OR POINTED STYLE.

The term Gothic is a modern error, which, being now im-
possible to correct, is suffered to remain as the generally dis-
tinguishing appellation of the kind of architecture possessing
pointed arches. This style originated in Germany about the

ARCHITECTURE.

493

middle of the thirteenth century, and was zealously pursued as
the leading fashion for ecclesiastical struciures all over Europe.
Executed by a class of skilled artisans, who wandered from
country to country, the finest specimens of the pointed style
are the cathedrals of Strasburg, Cologne, and Antwerp, and
the splendid abbeys of Melrose and Westminster.

In this fanciful and picturesque style of architecture, the
slender columns, always united in groups, rise to a lofty height,
resembling the giants of the grove, in whose dark shade the
ancient Teuton used to build his altar. In the obscure depth
of the dome, the mind is awakened to solemn devoLional
feelings.

When the circular arch totally disappeared in 1220, the early
English style commenced. The windows of this style were at
first very narrow in comparison with their height ; they were
called lancet-shaped, and were considered very elegant ; two
or three were frequently seen together, connected by dripstones.
In a short time, however, the windows became wider, and di-
visions and ornaments were introduced. Sometimes the same
window was divided into several lights, and frequently finished
at the top by a light in the form of a lozenge, circle, trefoil, or
other ornament.

About the year 1300, the architecture became more orna-
mental, and from this circumstance received the name of the
decorated English style, which is considered the most beauti-
ful for ecclesiastical buildings.

The transition from the decorated to the florid or perpendic-
ular style was very gradual. Ornament after ornament was
added, till simplicity disappeared beneath the exti-avagant ad-
ditions ; and about the year 1380, the architecture became so
overloaded and profuse, that it obtained the title of florid,
which by some persons is called the perpendicular, because the
lines of division run in upright or perpendicular lines from top
to bottom, which is not the case in any other style.

DEFINITIONS OF PARTS.

Gothic architecture being for the most part displayed in
ecclesiastical edifices, it may be of service to explain the usual
plan of construction of these buildings. A church or cathedral
is commonly built in the form of a cross, having a tower, lan-
tern, or spire, erected over

North
Transept.

N«Tfii

Choir.

South
Transept.

the place of intersection.
The part of the cross situ-
ated toward the west is
called the nave. The op-
posite or eastward part is
called the choir, and within
this is the chancel. The
transverse portion, forming
the arms of the cross, is
called the transept, one limb being called the northern and the
other the southern transept.

Generally, the nave is larger than the choir. If the nave,
choir, and transepts l)e all of the same dimensions the form is
that of a Greek cross. When the nave is longer than the other
parts, forming a cross of an ordinary shape, the edifice is said
to be in the form of a Latin cross. The different open parts
usually receive the name of ailes or aisles, from a word signi-

fying a wing ; the nave or largest open space is called the main
aisle. Originally, the floors of all such edifices were open and
unencumbered with fixed pews or seats, and as the floors were
ordinarily of mosaic or tesselated pavement, the effect was ex-
ceedingly grand.

The roofing of Gothic
churches is of stone, in the
form o{ groins, in which the
arches are poised with in-
tersecting points, and the
whole skillfully adjusted so
as to bear on the side rows
of pillars. Any high build-
ing erected above the roof
is called a steeple ; if square
topped, it is a tower ; if
long and acute, a spire;
and if short and light, a
lantern. Towers of great
height in proportion to
their diameter are called
turrets.

The walh of Gothic F"^- '7

churches, on which the outer strain of the roof arches ulti-
mately rests, require to be of great strength ; and the impart-
ing this necessary degree of resistance without clumsiness is
the glory of this style of architecture.
The plan adopted is to erect exterior
buttresses (Fig. 18). These rise by
gradations from a broad basis to
narrow pointed pinnacles, and
placed opposite the points of pres-
sure, secure, without the slightest
appearance of clumsiness, the gen-
eral stability of the building. Slant-
ing braces, which spring from the
buttresses to the upper part of the
roof, are called flying buttresses ;
such, however, are not always re-
quired in those modern edifices in
which the roof is of wood and lead.

The summit or upper edge of the
wall, if straight, is called a. parapet ;
if indented, a battlement. Gothic win-
dows were commonly crowned with
an acute arch ; they were long and narrow, or, if wide, were
divided into perpendicular lights by mullions. The lateral
spaces on the upper and outer side of the arch afe spandrelles;
and the ornaments in the top, collectively taken, are the tra-
cery. An oriel, or hay window, is a window which projects from
the general surface of the wall. A wheel, or rose window, is
large and circular. A corbel is a bracket or short projection
from a wall, serving to sustain a statue or the springing of an
arch. The Gothic term gable indicates the erect end of a roof,
and answers to the Grecian pediment, but is more acute.

NORMAN, TUDOR, AND MODERN GOTHIC.

Throughout England may be seen many aged castles, some

494

ARCHITECTURE.

still in a state of good preservation, but the greafer number in
ruins, and occupying, with their picturesque remains, the sum-
mit of a rising ground or rocky precipice. These castles are
of a style which prevailed during the feudal ages in Europe,
and was brought to this country by the Normans, who erected
them as fastnesses, into which they might retire and oppress
the country at pleasure.

The feudal castles in England, like those on the Rhine,
consisted for the most part of a single strong tower or keep,
the walls of which were from six to ten feet thick, and the
windows only holes of one or two feet square, placed at irreg-
ular intervals. The several floors were built on arches, and
the roof was flat or battlemented, with notches in the parapet,
from which the inhabitants or retainers of the chieftain might
defend themselves with instruments of war. The accommo-
dations for living were generally mean, and what would now
be called uncomfortable. Around or in front of the main
tower there was usually a court-yard, protected by a high wall,
and the arched entrance was carefully secured by a falling gate
or portcullis. Outside, there was in many cases a regular wet
ditch or fosse. Castles of greater magnitude consisted of two
or more towers and inner buildings, including a chapel and
offices for domestics, and stables for horses and other animals.
Some of them were on a greaj; scale, and possessed consider-
able grandeur of design.

As society advanced and civil tranquillity was established,
these military strengths gradually assumed a character of
greater elegance and less the appearance of defense. The wet
ditch disappeared, and was superseded by a lawn or shrub-
bery. Instead of the draw-bridge and portcullis, there was a
regular approach and gate of ordinary construction. The win-
dows became larger, and were fitted with glass frames, and
stone was abandoned for the greater comfort of wooden floors.
Instead, also, of a bare region around, in which no foe might
lurk, gardens were established, and a long avenue of trees led
to the front of the modernized mansion. In some instances,
the pepper-box turrets at the upper corners of the building
remained. Of the class of structures that sprung up in this
period of transition, which we may refer in England to the
fifteenth and sixteenth, and in Scotland to the seventeenth
centuries, there are several highly interesting remains. These
edifices of the nobility and gentry were no longer called cas-
tles ; they took the name of halls, and as such had attained so
great a pitch of magnificence in the reigns of Henry VIII.
and Elizabeth, as to have subsequently given a name to a new
style — the Tudor or Elizabethan. Latterly, and with no very
distinct reference to any particular period, this remarkable

fashion of building has been pretty generally called the old
English style of architecture. One of the best existing speci-
mens of the Tudor era of architecture is Haddon Hall in
Derbyshire, the property of the Duke of Rutland.

MODERN BRITISH ARCHITECTURE.

During the sixteenth century, an extraordinary effort was
made in Italy to restore the purity of Grecian architecture ;
and in this attempt Palladio was followed by the not less emi-
nent Michael Angelo Buonarotti, who, at an advanced age, in
1546, undertook the continuation of the building of St. Peter's
at Rome, a work on which the greatest splendors of the
Italian style are lavished. Into England, this revived taste
for the Grecian was introduced at the beginning of the seven-
teenth century by Inigo Jones, to whose contemptuous obser-
vations on the German or pointed style the term Gothic has
been traced ; and after his decease, the Grecian, or more prop-
erly the Italianized Grecian, was perpetuated on a scale still
more extensive by Sir Christopher Wren. The edifices erected
by this great master are characterized by the finest taste, and
his spires in particular are models of elegance. The greatest
work of Wren was St. Paul's Cathedral in London, in which
the Italian is seen in all its glory.

The eighteenth century was an era of decline in architec-
tural taste. Every other style merged in that of a spiritless
and often mean Grseco-Italian, out of which the architects of
the nineteenth century have apparently had a difficulty to
emerge. Latterly, there has been a revival in England of a
purer kind of Grecian, and also, as we have already said, of
old English, and the Gothic or pointed style, and in most in-
stances with good effect. It is only to be lamented that, by
the manner in which state patronage is distributed in this
branch of the fine arts, some of the largest and most expensive
structures — Buckingham Palace and the National Gallery, for
example — have been erected on the poorest conceptions of the
Grecian style, and with a general effect far from pleasing. In
Paris, there now exist some modern structures after correct
Grecian models, which cannot be too highly praised ; we
would, in particular, instance the building called the Madel-
eine, the Bourse, and the interior of the church of St. Gene-
vieve, which are exceedingly worthy of being visited by
young and aspiring architects from Britain. Of the superb
buildings springing up on all sides of this vast continent, it is
imnecessary to speak. While those already in existence, not-
ably in Washington, are admirable copies of the great Greek
and Roman periods, the so-called Queen Anne is now the
especial craze.

THE ATMOSPHERE.

495

PROPERTIES AND USES.

HE atmosphere, the vapor of the sphere, is that
transparent, elastic, and invisible fluid
which encompasses the earth on all sides
to the height of about forty-five miles. It

revolves with the earth round its axis, and is car-
ried with it in its orbit or course round the sun.
The existence of this fluid is essential not only to
animal, but also to vegetable life. Where it is
very rare, as on the tops of lofty mountains, re-
spiration or breathing is found to be very difficult ; and it is
known that if an animal be placed within the exhausted re-
ceiver of an air-pump, it will immediately die.

Without an atmosphere there would be neither rain nor
dews to refresh and fertilize the earth. It decomposes and
dissipates the mephitic or infectious vapors which are con-
tinually exhaling from the earth ; and it is the grand agent
which, by tempering the extremes of heat and cold, renders
every clime habitable to man. It is to its reflecting and
refracting powers that we owe the morning and the evening
twilight, and the general diff"usion of the sun's light over the
whole heavens. If it were divested of these powers, instead
of the gradual approach of night which prepares the world for
the change, the transition from the brightness of day to the
darkness of midnight would be instantaneous. And it is en-
tirely owing to the reflective powers of the atmosphere that
the sun is enabled to light up the heavens. For if his rays
were not reflected and diff'used through the heavens, only that
part of the sky in which he appears would be enlightened,
while in every other direction the sky would be as dark as
midnight, and the stars would be visible at noonday.

REFLECTION— TWILIGHT.

In the morning, when the sun is eighteen degrees below the
horizon, his rays pass over our heads into the higher regions of
the atmosphere, from which they are reflected toward the earth.
The day is then said to dawn ; and the light continues to in-
crease till the sun appears above the horizon. In the even-
ing, in like manner, we have light from the sun till after he
has sunk eighteen degrees below the horizon. This light,
which grows fainter and fainter till it is lost in the darkness of
night, is called tvirilight.

REFRACTION.

The density of the atmosphere increases in proportion to its
proximity to the earth; for the nearer any portion of the at-
mosphere is to the earth, the more it is compressed by the
parts which lie above it ; just as if a quantity of wool were
piled up upon a floor, those flakes which are lower would be
more pressed, and therefore heavier or denser than the flakes
or layers which are above them. Hence, when the rays of
light enter the atmosphere, they are refracted or bent toward
the earth, or the eye of the observer, in a curved line.

WEIGHT OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

Compared with the more solid parts of the earth the at-
mosphere is exceedingly light ; but as a whole it presses upon
the earth's surface with an amazing weight. The mercury in
a barometer is supported by the weight of the atmosphere;
and by this instrument it appears that a column of the atmo-
sphere of any given diameter, from its highest boundary down
to the level of the sea, is equal in weight to a column of mer-
cury of the same diameter of the height of thirty inches. It
also appears (and upon this principle the common pump is
constructed) that a column of the atmosphere is equal in
weight to a column of water having the same base, thirty-two
feet high. Hence it follows that the whole atmosphere would
be equal in weight to a stratum of mercury covering the earth
to the depth of thirty inches ; or to an ocean of water sur-
rounding it to the depth of thirty-two feet ; or to a globe of lead
sixty miles in diameter. It has also been calculated that the
pressure of the atmosphere upon every square inch of the
earth's surface is equal to a weight of about fifteen pounds ;
and consequently the pressure which it exerts upon an ordi-
nary-sized man, the surface of whose body amounts to about
fifteen square feet, will be 32,505 pounds, or in other words,
upwards of fourteen tons ! This pressure, which we do not
even feel, would crush and destroy us were it not equal in
every part, and counterbalanced by the spring or elasticity of
the air within us.

EVAPORATION— CLOUDS— RAIN— DEW-
SNOW— HAIL.

That process by which water is raised in vapors by the
agency of the sun and air from seas, lakes, rivers, and moist
places of the earth, is called evaporation. These vapors
being specifically lighter than the air which is near the earth's

496

THE ATMOSPHERE.

surface, ascend in it till ihey reach a stratum of their own
weight, when they remain stationary. As long as they are
blended and united with the air, or, as is said, are held in
solution by it, they continue invisible, just as salt when dis-
solved in water is invisible. But when the air becomes satur-
ated by the accession of fresh vapors, or when its dissolving
power is diminished by a decrease of temperature, they are
condensed, and the watery particles of which they are com-
posed become visible, either in the form of clouds or mists
floating through, or suspended in the atmosphere, — or in that
of rain, hail, or snow, falling to the ground.

Though there appears to be an endless variety in the fig-
ures of the clouds, yet they are found to assume regular and
systematic forms, which has led to their classification into
cirrus, cumulus, and stratus, with their combinations,
cirro-cumulus, cirro-stratus, etc. The cirrus clouds are
those of the least density, and consequently of the greatest
elevation. The term in Latin signifies curled or frizzled hair;
also fringed or Jibrotis, The cumulus are those convex and
conical masses which are formed in the lower regions of the
atmosphere. The term in Latin means piled ox heaped up.
The stratus is a widely extended sheet of clouds often reach-
ing to the earth. It is properly the, cloud of the night. The
term in Latin signifies spread or extended. To these may be
added the nimbus or rain cloud.

Clouds extending to, or in contact with, the earth, are called
mists or fogs. They are produced by a certain degree of
chillness in the lower stratum of the atmosphere ;* and in the
warmer regions of the earth, they either vanish before the
sun, or rise higher into the air as clouds. In cold climates,
particularly in the polar regions, they are very frequent ; and
in some places, as off the coasts of Newfoundland, they are
almost continual. This rendei-s navigation very dangerous in
those seas, particularly during the season of the icebergs.

To the vapors which fall from the atmosphere in the form
of rain, hail, and snow, the earth is indebted for its springs,
brooks, and rivers, which, flowing into the sea, restore to it
the waters formerly drawn from it by evaporation. Hence we
see that a constant circulation of water is carried on, for the
benefit of mankind, between the earth and the sky. The
water that is raised by evaporation from the sea is purified in
the air, and distributed over the earth by the clouds for the
purpose of vegetation ; and it is still further prepared for the
use of men and animals, by being impregnated with the min-
eral particles which it meets with in filtering through the earth
before it makes its appearance again in the form of springs.
Rainwater, though the purest kind of water, is from that very
circumstance too insipid for drinking.

RAIN— DEW— SNOW— HAIL.

In the warm regions of the earth evaporation is most
abundant ; and so, as we should expect, is the quantity of rain.

* That is, when the lower stratum of the atmosphere is cooler than the
land or the water over which it rests. The temperature of the surface of
the sea in those p.irts of the world is greater than that of the air which is
over it, because when the upper stratum of water is cooled, it descends, be-
ing heavier, and iLs place is supplied by warmer water from below. But
the high temperature of the waters brought by the Gulf Stream is the chief
cause of the fogs in this part of the Atlantic.

In the torrid zone the annual average quantity of rain has been
computed to be about one hundred inches, while in the north
temperate zone it is little more than thirty inches, that is, less
than one-third. By inches of rain is meant the depth which
rain falling upon a square inch of surface would acquire sup-
posing none of it to be absorbed by the ground.*

In the torrid zone, the temperature ranges within compara-
tively small limits ; and the phenomena of the atmosphere
occur from year to year with a regular and uniform succession
unknown in this part of the world. The winds are either
permanent or periodical ; and the rains regularly descend at
a certain season of the year, and never at any other. In fact,
the only divisions of the year in those regions are the dry and
rrtzwjj/ seasons. f In the northern half of the torrid zone it is
the rainy season, when the sun is north of the equator; and
the dry season, when the sun is south of the equator. And in
the southern half of the torrid zone, the seasons, in like man-
ner, depend upon the place of the sun. Wherever the sun is
vertical or overhead, the rains and clouds are almost con-
stant,J because the atmosphere is not able to contain all the
vapors which are raised by the increased heat ; and thus we
see that a provision has been made for protecting the earth
from the perpendicular rays of the sun.

Generally speaking, in all parts of the world, mountains and
elevated regions are more subject to rain than plains and
level countries in the same latitude ; and the same may be
said of places near the sea, as islands and coasts, when* com-
pared with places remote from the sea (as the interior of a
country) though under the same parallel. The reason is ob-
vious ; the mountains intercept the clouds and bring them
down in rain ; and thus they are often almost all brought
down before they are carried over countries very remote from
the sea ; so that the nearer a place is to the sea, from which
the vapors arise, the more frequently is its atmosphere satu-
rated with them ; and, of course, the more likely it is to re-
ceive a large portion of them in rain.

DEW.

That moisture which in warm and dry weather, after sunset,
is insensibly precipitated from the atmosphere upon the sur-
face of the earth, is called dew. In the warm regions of the
earth, particularly in tracts of country destitute of rain, the
dews are exceedingly heavy ; and it need scarcely be ob-
served that they are of the greatest use in refreshing the earth
and promoting vegetation.

When the dew which falls upon the earth is frozen by the
cold, it is called hoar-frost. But mildew is not of atmos-
pheric origin.

* The instrument for measuring the depth of rain is called ^pluviometer
or rain-gauge.

+ It is only in the temperate zones that the four seasons are known.
From the sixtieth degree of latitude to the poles only two seasons take
place, a long and severe winter, and a short, warm, but ineffectual sum-
mer ; and within the tropics, it may be said to be perpetual summer.

$The rain does not fall during the night, nor till about the middle of the
day, and it ceases in four or five hours.

HOW TO GET UP A FAIR.

497

How to arrange a Fancy Fair — Amusements — Refreshment
Stall— Flower Stall— Live Stock Stall— Poor People's Stall.

HE IDEA OF OR-
GANIZING A
FANCY FAIR, oa

the occasion of subscrib-
ing to any charitable in-
stitution has become a
great feature of the present age.
It affords opportunities to many
idle people of pleasantly exerting
themselves, discovers and brings
forward obscure talents, promotes
intercourse and amusement, and
frequently insures most advan-
tageous returns.
How to Get up a Fair. — The purpose for
which the funds realized are intended should be
clearly stated and circulated among all who are wanted
to take part in conducting the bazaar, and every
means should be employed to secure profitable assist-
ance in the enterprise. A committee of ladies should
be formed, and their decisions, when duly weighed
and approved, carefully carried out. To them belongs
the onus of providing the field of operations and ap-
pointing the workers therein.

The two most popular stalls are always the
refreshment-stall and the flower-stall. The holders
of these must be chosen with much care, or but in-

different results will ensue. The latter require
special talent for artistic decoration and arrange-
ment, the former for quickness, skill, and neatness.
The other stalls are apportioned to such ladies as are
willing to undertake them.

A suitable room must now be hired. One long,
large room, with smaller ones opening into it, is the
best. These latter are used for exhibitions, conjuring-
rooms, cloak-rooms, etc. School-rooms are just the
kind of room required, and are frequently lent for
this purpose. .

How to Arrange a Fair. — The room must be
made to look as artistic and inviting as possible. If
evergreens can be easily and inexpensively procured
to festoon the walls and wreathe pillars, they look
very handsome. The effect can be enhanced by the
introduction of natural or artificial flowers.

Sometimes flags and banners are arranged singly
or in groups on the walls. They look very well.
Appropriate mottoes worked on perforated card-
board with shaded wools, or of grouped autumn
leaves, or of wadding frosted with glass-powder, add
much to the appearance.

The center of the room may be arranged to form
a rockery, through which, if practicable, a waterpipc
may be conducted, having a jet fixed to the upper
end. This serves to keep the plants from withering,
and is very cool and refreshing to the assembly. Ferns,
geraniums, mosses, and almost any flowers save those
with a very powerful odor, may be employed for

498

HOW TO GET UP A FAIR.

this purpose ; and when the pots are concealed by
means of virgin cork a very pretty effect can be pro-
duced.

A very easily-made ornament consists of an ordi-
nary wooden bucket covered with fir-cones, nutshells,
short bits of wood, etc. When these have been firmly
glued on, varnish the whole with mahogany varnish,
or gild it with gold paint. A row of cones placed
round the top stands up as an edge. Now get some
of the large hedge-ferns and place them in the bucket,
concealing the earth by means of moss. If a hole
has been made in the bottom of the bucket, the ferns
will take no harm. A few such buckets, placed in
nooks and corners where they will not inconvenience
any one, will look very well. The ferns and buckets
can be offered for sale also, to be taken away at the
close of the bazaar.

All the windows in the room should be hung
with curtains either of lace or muslin, held back by
bows of ribbon. They serve to temper the light and
give a cooler look to the room.

A platform, if the room has not one already,
must be put up, with a piano, harp, etc., placed there-
on for the amusement of the company. Programmes
should be drawn up, and sold to add to the funds.
An agreeable little entertainment can be provided,
consisting of recitations, vocal and instrumental
music ; or a music-stall may be provided, at which a
competent pianist shall preside, to play over new
music. This will be found amusing to all present,
and the music will sell readily. The piano provided
must be a good one, but not too loud in tone, so that
it may not interfere with what is passing in other
parts of the room.

It is a fallacy to suppose that people do not require
further amusement than what appertains to the fair
proper. When a visitor has made the tour of the
room once or twice, examined the articles, and pur-
chased such as please her, she naturally wishes for
something more to do. Raffles, etc., are very amusing,
it is true, but then all cannot join in every raffle, and
somehow things lose their interest when one is not
part of it oneself, so to speak. It is very usual to
have what is known as a " Fine Art Exhibition. "

When skillfully and originally managed this is very amusing.
Most people will know what this is, but for the benefit of those
who have not seen one, the following explanation may be use-
ful : — If a small room can be spared for the purpose, so much
the better, but if not, a screen placed in one corner will answer
the purpose quite as well. Near this stands the keeper with a

number of catalogues, which she sells to the passers-by. She
should occasionally call out some of the most attractive features
of the exhibition. Behind the screen shelves must be fixed, on
which the articles are placed in the order in which they are
mentioned in the catalogue. The ingenuity of the keeper of
the exhibition must be exercised to provide new ideas, as many
of them are now well known, and unless originality is shown
the interest will flag. Such articles as a ball of different shades
of wool, designated in the catalogue as "A Fancy Ball,"
" Ruins in China " (a broken plate), " A Peer of Great Britain "
(a photograph of Brighton Pier), " The Belle of the Village " (a
large dinner-bell), and so on, are all somewhat hackneyed now,
but they give some idea of the plan to be followed.

Another amusement, especially for children, is
a show called " The Zoological Gardens," or a me-
nagerie. Another screen or room is devoted to this
purpose. In the show are several clock-work toys
representing various animals. These, when wound
up, walk after one another along a shelf or table
prepared for them. Sometimes the show is called
*' Noah's Ark," in which case an ark is provided, into
which the animals retire after promenading round
the table. This is a source of great amusement to
children, and shrieks of delight are frequently heard
as each little animal steadily proceeds on its way.
The toys can be offered for sale when the bazaar is
closing, or be packed away to do duty at some future
period.

Frequently one of the side rooms is set apart as a
Hall of Magic, in which a conjurer with mysterious
feats and witty words charms both old and young.

Of course all these amusements add greatly to the
funds, and no pains should be spared to augment
them. A good band is always an attraction to any
assembly, and if the bazaar be held in the open air
it is especially desirable.

The Refreshment-Stall may be said to be the
busiest and most prominent stall in the room, and it
usually proves very remunerative ; the corner in which
it is placed is rarely deserted. Everything should
be made to look as dainty and tempting as possible.
Several assistants are absolutely necessary, each pre-
siding over a different department. One should take
the urns, another the sweetmeats, a third the more
substantial fare, and a fourth should be appointed ex-
clusively to take the money and keep the accounts.
This last is a most important rdle^ and should not be
allotted to any but the most conscientiously care-
ful.

This stall can be rendered especially attractive by bonbon-
ni^res, which can be made in any shape, either as books or

HOW TO GET UP A FAIR.

499

little cases, and should be filled with sweetmeats or preserved
fruit. Many useful and pretty articles may be attached to boxes
of sweets, and thus sold. For boys, boxes of sweets, etc., have
an especial attraction ; and as there is not much for a boy in a
bazaar, this feature of the refreshment-stall should not be ex-
cluded, if only for their sakes.

The Flower-Stall. — This stall is always, and
deservedly, the most attractive. It looks charming
indeed if only a little taste and skill be brought to
bear upon it. In any large city or town, flowers form
one of the most profitable features of the Fair.

The stall may be of a variety of forms. We have
seen one in the shape of a huge basket with wreaths
and festoons of ivy round the edge, the center being
composed of bouquets of growing plants. In an-
other instance it was a ship freighted with flowers.
The prettiest style is a kind of grotto, formed of
light woodwork entirely hidden by bark and cork.
In all the nooks and crevices of the framework pots
of ferns must be placed, to appear as though growing
there. The flowers rise above this in the form of a
tower. Baskets and ornamental flowerpots should
be hung from the roof, and filled with ferns, flowers,
moss, etc. Another Avay which has an exceedingly
good effect is to have the stall arranged as a bank
on which the flowers appear growing, interspersed
with ferns, small shrubs, etc. Button-holes, however,
find the most ready sale. Almost any gentleman
will at least buy a button-hole, though he may be
one of those who are perfectly dismayed at the idea
of buying anything else.

It will be as well to have a zinc tray to hold the
flowers, that they may be kept fresh after having been
made up into tiny bouquets.

The stall-keeper, too, must be very careful to
notice when any flowers begin to droop and wither.
These should at once be removed and replaced by
fresh ones if possible ; but in any case they must not
be allowed to remain, or the whole stall will look
shabby.

Live-Stock Stall. — This is rather a novelty, and
generally a success. The stall should be rather apart
from the others, and not so much decorated, or it will
prove inconvenient. A long table, on which to place
the various cages and hampers, is essential. Puppies,
squirrels, guinea-pigs, kittens, canaries and other
birds, white mice, and a parrot previously educated
in a manner appropriate to the occasion. These, and
many more that will doubtless suggest themselves,
will be found to sell easily. They must be carefully

tended during the time they are ofl'ered for sale.
Food and water must be given when required, and
no one should be allowed to tease them.

Poor People's Stall. — This stall, as its name
implies, should be devoted to those articles which
are intended to be sold for giving away to the poor.
Many ladies living in both town and country have
not time for making garments for the poor, but are
pleased to buy them when ready-made. Every kind
of garment for children — nightdresses, chemises,
pinafores, socks, dresses, capes, hoods, babies' caps,
comforters, knitted gloves and mittens, aprons, be-
sides garments for adults — will be readily sold. This
stall cannot, of course, present the attractive appear-
ance common to the others, but the usefulness of
the articles displayed will prevent the returns being
insignificant.

HOW TO PREPARE ARTICLES.

Soliciting Contributions from Friends— HcJw to Sell—Marking Prices.

What can I make for the Fair? is a question that is asked
by hundreds of persons every year : a question that is rarely
found easy to answer. To combine salable qualities with
ornamental — both being necessary in this case — is not always
a simple matter. For those who have a table of their own,
the difficulty is, of course, increased. They may ask their
friends to contribute, but the chief onus falls on the possessor
of the stall, and unless abundance of money helps them to a
fair haven, there will be many contrary winds to blow them
from port.

Soliciting Contributions from Friends. — As in planning
a picnic one promises to provide wine, another fruit, a third
sweetmeats and so on, so, in making collections for bazaars,
the same system should be established ; other\vise the unfor.
tunate collector finds her stall covered with crewel-work, cro-
chet, etc., as the case may be, while it is destitute of any other
attraction. This would be very disheartening, for how is it
possible to make the stall attractive with but one feature ?
The fair canvasser, therefore, must be very careful to obtain
the greatest possible variety of contributions in order to in-
sure a ready sale. One friend, perhaps, is gifted with a talent
for etching. She should be asked to supply d'oyleys, comb-
bags, brush-bags, &c. Another is a good designer. Let her
trace designs on velvet, canvas, etc., for mantel-boards, sofa
cushions, footstools, etc., etc. These designs may be worked
by some other friend or offered for sale as they are, and will
prove very acceptable to many people who wish to work their
own cushions, etc., but who cannot design their patterns.

Another friend, who has a talent for flower-painting, could
doubtless be induced to provide handscreens, mats, lamp-
shades, etc., with groups of flowers painted thereon, either in
silk, satin, velvet, muslin, or cardboard. Another could sup-
ply crewel-work, another lace, and so on.

Many clever-fingered girls are unable to aid in a chariuble purpose,

500

HOW TO GET UP A FAIR.

4r-

not from disinclination but because they cannot afford to buy the requi-
site materials. A good plan, therefore, by means of which their help
may be utilized would be to ascertain what they would like to make,
and then cither give them the materials yourself, or let some opulent
but otherwise useless individual do so. Much may be procured in this
manner, and great pleasure will be experienced by these willing helpers,
who would otherwise be debarred from such enjoyment.

School-girls are often powerful allies in this work, as they
canvass among their numerous friends, often obtaining thus a
fair number of salable little articles. It is wonderful how
many tasteful and useful additions can be made by means of
a little ingenuity, a skillful hand, and a willing heart.

It is a very great mistake to pile up a stall with a heteroge-
neous mass of little elegant nothings, which are ornamental
doubtless, but certainly not useful ; equally absurd, too, is it
to exclude them. The great object is to combine utility and
elegance ; when that is arrived at the stall-holder may congrat-
ulate herself upon her success. Let it be well remembered,
the most practical articles always sell the best.

How to Sell. — There are always several assistants to every
stall. These assistants are of great use in selling articles, as
they are not obliged to remain at the stall, but can go freely
about the room, carrying articles for sale to every part. They
should endeavor to sell as much as possible without annoying
people. To be teased and worried to buy irritates most
people, and does much harm to the cause. The medium be-
tween persecution and diffidence must be aimed at, and when
attained great results may be expected.

Marking Prices. — This very important matter is often
mismanaged, and has caused the failure of more than one ven-
ture. The tendency to over-price the articles is gfeat, and
too frequently yielded to. It is absurd to suppose that people
AVill give extravagant prices for things whose value is not
more than half the money asked, just because the object is
a charitabh one. They do not object to give the full value,
but more than that is felt to be an imposition, and the conse-
quence is that the loose purse-strings are tightly drawn, and
no persuasion avails to slacken them.

Let the prices, therefore, be reasonable ; look over all that
are sent ready-priced by friends, altering such as are exorbi-
tant. The results of the sale will be greater, and the number
of articles left on hand at the close of the bazaar much dimin-
ished.

With the articles remaining after the close of the bazaar it
is usual to have a sale by auction, thus disposing of many
more. The mode of conducting an auction needs no descrip-
tion. The auctioneer chosen must be one who possesses
plenty of humor and a good voice, or his efforts will not be suc-
cessful. The surplus of the refreshment-stall may also be got
rid of by the same means.

HOW TO ARRANGE AND PLAN A STALL.

Drapery— Color— Open-air Stalls— Fitting up.

Tne first consideration is the arrangement and decoration
of the stall. A long table is the only thing supplied, as a
rule, upon which one may exercise one's ingenuity and taste.
The ordinary plan is to have poles fastened by carpenters —
four of medium height to the four corners of the table, and

four higher ones at the back and front. Over these the dra-
pery is arranged ; and it must be confessed that as regards
this part of the affair a considerable want of variety and origi-
nality may be noticed. White muslin over glazed pink calico
carries all before it as a general rule. It looks very pretty,
fresh, and clean, no doubt ; but after along course of bazaars,
all white muslin and pink calico, the eye longs for variety.

But we must first describe the mode of arranging the dra-
pery. In the first place, pink glazed calico is rolled tightly
round all the poles, and these may be covered again with
sprigged muslin, if desired. Pink calico is then nailed all along
the table ; then white lace curtains are hung over the poles,
hanging down at either end of the stall, giving a light and
graceful look to the whole. This is a much better plan than
making a roof to the stall of pink calico, which adds grea ly
to the heat and very little to the appearance. A valance of
pink calico is then nailed along the edges of the table, and
covered with white lace like the curtains, slightly fulled in.
The stall is then ready for arrangement.

In some cases the poles are arranged in such a manner that
the stall looks like a gabled cottage, or resembles (as in one
instance we have observed) a Noah's Ark with the front out.

A variety is sometimes made by substituting calico of a pale
green shade for the pink. The effect is much cooler, but the
green will never be very popular, as it proves so very unbe-
coming to the owners of the stalls, casting jDale yellow reflets
which would prove trying to the most perfect complexion.
The pink calico is, on the contrary, becoming, subdued as it
is by the white lace, leno, or muslin over it.

Another way of arranging a stall is to have a pair of curtains fastened
over a pole fixed to the wall and looped back slightly by ribbon, so as
to display the wares effectively. There should be a handsome valance
of lace at the top of the curtains,which last being transparent it is neces-
sary to line with calico or some such material. We have seen stalls so
arranged, the lining in each case being of a different color — blue, pink,
mauve, green, crimson, etc. The effect was very striking. The front
of the stall may be trimmed with ribbon bows to match the lining, or
what is still prettier, with bunches of flowers or dried grasses.

When the stalls are placed in a row a very pleasing effect is
produced when ivy is so arranged as to bear twining up the
sides and over the front of the stall. This is doubtless a
troublesome undertaking, but it well repays the labor expend-
ed, and its charming effect is well worth some pains. The
introduction of a few berries and tinted autumm leaves is an
artistic addition. When the bazaar is held in the open air
the stalls look very pretty if arranged in the Eastern fashion,
having only the roof and the back covered with Indian mat-
ting, either entirely white or with colored borders. This, of
course, is practicable only in very fine settled weather.

A variety in arranging the position of the stalls will be wel-
come. We have seen them placed in the form of a crescent or
horseshoe ; this looks better than the hollow square or straight
row usually seen.

An important point in the fitting-up of a stall is the provi-
sion of some nook to which the stall-holder may retire to par-
take of refreshment or to enjoy a few moments' rest from the
heat, noise, and bustle that pervade the room. This can
easily be done by having only half of the stall exposed. A
second pair of curtains should be fixed to the center poles,

HOW TO GET UP A FAIR.

SOI

and slightly looped in the middle. In front of these curtains
the buying and selling takes place, while behind them is the
cool and shady nook so much desired.

Arrangement of the Stalls. — Good taste and ingenuity
are essential to success in this matter. Every article must be
so placed that its best effect is at once perceived. The danger
of hiding anything by crowding together must be avoided.
Much depends on the grouping of the objects. The effect of
many pretty things is often lowered and altogether destroyed
by careless or inartistic arrangement. Indiscriminate heap-
ing together of bright greens, flaming reds, and crude blues,
frightens away the intending purchaser, who sees at a glance
all the worst points instead of the best. Bright-hued Oriental
silks and broches, Japanese fans, parasols, etc., add a very ele-
gant appearance to the stall, and the various articles can be
arranged with them as a background. The silks take no harm
from the exposure, and do not require cutting. Those who
are fortunate enough to possess any old-fashioned brocades,
etc., can thus add much to the artistic appearance of their
stalls.

ARTICLES SUITABLE FOR A BAZAAR.

Doyleys- Baskets— Tennis-Aprons— Caps— Pictures — Cosies.

First and foremost, there is the still fashionable crewel em-
broidery ; and so various are the articles for which it can be
used that this book could be filled with descriptions of them
alone. Perhaps, for certain things, outline stitch is rather
superseding the regular embroidery, and very pretty and inex-
pensive are the chair-covers made of oatmeal cloth or coarse
hoUand, embroidered at one end with little figures, in the
style of Kate Greenaway's drawings. Most of these outline
sketches are executed all in one color ; but the work is, as may
be imagined, chiefly suitable for figures or geometric designs :
flowers do not look at all well so worked. Dessert doyleys are
very pretty embroidered in this stitch and fringed at the edges,
while the same designs look well carried out in etching with
marking-ink. Some of these doyleys are etched on pale blue
or pink jean, and edged with a frill of white Valenciennes
lace, put on just full enough to enable it to sit flat. Tennis
aprons are well adapted to ornamentation with this stitch,
suitable designs being embroidered on the bottom of the skirt,
bib, and pocket. The great advantage of the stitch for fair
purposes is that it is so very quickly done, a few hours being
quite sufficient to complete a chair-cover at least. Of more
elaborate embroidery there are some beautiful designs to be
had ; but how poor and miserable do they look unless well
carried out ! One of the prettiest we have seen lately wa»,
perhaps, hackneyed as far as the pattern went, but was lovely
as to work — a group of scarlet poppies, corncockles, ears of
corn, and ox-eye daisies. Another piece of work, intended
for a mantel valance, was a flowing trail of white arums and
leaves, very handsome indeed for a large room. A group of
water-lilies, for a screen, was also handsome.

Baskets innumerable, of all shapes and sizes, are fashion-
able and always salable. Trimmed up in all sorts of differ-
ent ways, they are used for any imaginable purpose. Waste-
paper baskets are no longer the typical lattice-work baskets
seen in pictures of a few years ago ; they are ornamented with

scallops of different-colored cloth, finished with a tassel at each
point, or between each point. Some of them are covered with
rows of ball-fringe or colored braid, interlaced in a pattern
amongst the wicker-work. The flat baskets with two handles,
so useful for shopping purposes, may now be bought
for a few cents ; and when embroidered at the side with
a bunch of flowers worked with coarse wool and a large
needle, and nicely finished off with bows of ribbon to match
the lining, are easily sold for as many quarters as they were
purchased for cents originally. One of the most effective ways
of ornamenting these baskets is to cut out of dark green cloth
some leaves, the veins being outlined with silk and the edges
button-holed over if the cloth seems likely to ravel ; fix them
to the basket either by stitching or gumming, and work the
stalks in chain-stitch ; then make, in the same way as the soft
balls for children are made, little red cherries (it will look bet-
ter to have some of the fruit paler in color than the rest, and
some small ones quite green), and fasten them to the basket
by a soft hanging stalk.

Lawn-tennis aprons of all sorts and sizes are always in re-
quest, and very various are the materials of which they may
be made and the different modes of ornamenting them — out-
line stitch, embroidery, applique, and lace ; last, but certainly
not least, must be mentioned those made of pocket-handker-
chiefs.

Caps, lace ties, and jabots, smart muslin pinafores for babies,
and such little daintinesses, are sure to find favor at a bazaar.
Caps may be made of almost any material at a minimum ex-
penditure of time and money. The simplest are those made
from embroidered handkerchiefs. The first thing to be done
is to make a shape of crinoline or other stiff muslin, and run
ribbon wire inside to make it keep in form and fit well to the
head. The handkerchief is very easily made up over the shape ;
one corner is placed at the back and the two sides brought
round the side of the cap as far as they will go toward the
front ; the rest of the handkerchief must lie in loose folds over
the crown, and the other two comers form a trimming in the
front. Here and there it may be found difficult to completely
hide the foundation, but such little inequalities are easily con-
cealed with a few loops of ribbon to match the embroidery of
the handkerchief. The look of the cap is greatly improved by
a frill of lace or lisse frilling tacked inside, so that it rests
against the hair and saves the cap itself from getting dirty.
It is easily renewed, and the cap wears much longer with it
than without it.

Smarter caps look very nice made of nothing but pleatings
of Breton lace (or lisse for mourning), overlapping each other,
and with no trimming but a knot of flowers in front. Many
ladies like the turban caps made of nothing but a piece of In-
dia silk, and care should be taken to have some on the stall
suitable for fair as well as dark complexions. Odds and ends
of lace may be used up in a dozen different ways. One yard
of India muslin at 50 cents will make at least six articles with
the help of lace. Ties of different lengths and little lace bows
for the front of a dress are very quickly tacked together. The
prettiest bows are made by taking about three-quarters of a
yard of lace, about six inches wide or a little less, cutting it in
half and joining both pieces in a circle. Take a piece of In-

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dia muslin the same size as the circles of lace, and about four
inches wide, and join tliat also in a circle. Trim each end of
the muslin with the lace, so that when progress so far has been
made you have a circular piece of muslin trimmed with lace at
each end, and looking like a sleeve. Then, in the exact
middle of the muslin, run a gathering-thread and draw it up
tight, fasten it off securely, and finish off the bow by a tie or
knot of lace in the center to hide the draw thread. These
bows sell much better if a spray of artificial flowers be fast-
ened carelessly on them, or if a tube be fixed at the back to
hold a natural flower when worn.

A novelty at a bazaar is to sell household articles, such as
tea-cloths, and dusters done up in packets of a dozen, smart
cooking-aprons, jelly-bags, gay afternoon tea-cloths, and any
other household necessaries ingenuity may suggest. If a ba-
zaar is to take place anywhere near Christmas, it is a good
plan to have a stall devoted to Christmas and New Year's
cards.

Occasionally at a bazaar one stall is devoted to the sale of ar-
ticles of dress, and this has proved very successful. Hats of
plush, straw, or velvet, of all sizes, shapes and styles, tea-
gowns, children's costumes, gloves, and even tiny boots, knit-
ted petticoats and hoods are among the most salable articles.

Pictures are an attractive feature in a bazaar, and if a good
number of choice pictures can be obtained and hung in one of
the side rooms, it may prove a successful picture gallery ; and
many people will doubtless be willing to lend their pictures
for such exhibition. It is a very usual practice to hang pic-
tures in the room where the bazaar is held, especially just
above the stalls.

Tea and egg cosies in crewels or braiding ; screens, banner-
ets, in feathers or water colors ; shaving tidies of white jean,
with a group of flowers painted or embroidered on them ;
paintings on white silk to be finished for antimacassars by the
addition of a lace border; knitted or patch-work quilts, af-
ghans, and carriage-rugs will all sell profitably.

All kinds of cane, rush, and wicker-work ; hanging-baskets
for ferns, made of cones or acorns ; photographs and picture
frames of paper stars, cardboard, or straw work ; papier-mache
blolting-books, card trays, crumb trays, and brushes ; fancy
china, terra-cotta ; tiny statuettes in bronze, Parian marble,
or alabaster; Indian and Japanese trinkets and curiosities
will be eagerly sought after.

NOVELTIES FOR BAZAARS.

Daisy Mats— Mottoes- Moss-Frames— Wall- Pockets—Letter-Cases.

Daisy Mats.— Carry the wool across the frame from peg to
peg till one side is full ; then turn the frame and work across
in the same manner. "When all the pegs are covered break
and fasten off the wool. Take a meshful of coarse knitting
cotton, and secure each place where the strands cross. each
other. When this is done, cut half the thickness of the work
between each fastening, and with the points of the scissors
shape it into a smooth ball. Remove the mat from the frame
by lifting the wool off the pegs.

A pretty novelty for holding a thimble is a small top-boot.
Round the sole are places for pins. This is not at all difficult

to make. The shape is cut in cardboard, and then covered
with velvet or silk.

Etched doyleys, when well done, are very effective. The
best material for etching upon is satin jean. A fine-pointed
steel pen and good marking-ink are necessary. Care must be
taken to work the right way of the jean, or spluttering will
disfigure it. Hold the work to the fire while in progress, and
when finished iron on the wrong side. This will prevent the
ink from turning brown when the doyley is washed.

Kettle-holders made of a variety of materials are found to
sell well ; they may be made of spatter-work on jean, on can-
vas embroidered with crewels, of crash, of plaited ribbons,
etc. They should be lined with flannel of a contrasting color
and finished with a ruche. A very good idea is to make tea-
cosies and kettle-holders to match, to sell together.

Work-bags for children, made of holland, are very accept-
able. They are made in the shape of a round apron. A part
of the bottom is turned up and cut into large scallops. The
points are fastened down. A band round the waist completes
the bag. The edges look well if bound with red braid or cot-
ton Scotch plaid.

Very pretty tea-cosies can be made in the following manner :
Buy some cotton-backed satin, and quilt it, lining it with sar-
cenet and edging with a silk cord. Fasten a spray of artificial
leaves on the outside, or a cluster of acorns, berries, etc.
Pale blue and cherry color show the leaves to the best advan-
tage.

Children's scrap-books made of holland sell well. The
pages should be well filled with gaily-colored pictures.

Pretty tidies are easily made of net or spotted muslin, with
the addition of a frill all round and bows at the corners.

Note-cases of brown holland bound with braid are very
popular with children at bazaars. They should be made of
the size and shape of blotters, with a pocket at one end, into
which note-paper is slipped. A piece of elastic down the
middle holds some sheets of blotting-paper in their place. Simi-
lar cases, made of leather, crash, or toilc cire'e, with a design
in crewels, serve to hold letters, photographs, etc.

An exceedingly pretty little pincushion consists of a bunch
of tiny hearts in cardboard, each covered with a different
shade of silk or velvet. The pins are put in all round. A
bright-colored ribbon, to which each heart is attached by a
little string, is tied in a bow connecting all together.

Emery cushions can be made very easily, and gummed into
acorn-cups, beechnut-cups, or walnut-shells. They are very
neat and pretty,

Dolls' bedsteads are ingeniously made out of small, oblong
boxes by placing the lid at right angles to the box, and then
covering all with a valance and curtains. The coverings and
pillows must just fit the box, and can be trimmed round with
very narrow imitation Valenciennes lace.

Menu-cards in packets of a dozen will be found to sell well.
These can be made in a variety of elegant designs. Autumn
leaves well arranged and gummed on to the cards, pretty
groups of hand-painted flowers or miniature landscapes, pen-
and-ink sketches, etc., will all be suitable. The greater origi-
nality displayed the better.

A decided novelty in crosses, frames for small pictures, and

HOW TO GET UP A FAIR.

503

similar ornaments, and one that strongly resembles carved jet,
can be made by pounding thick black glass into fragments,
heating them very hot in the fire to soflen the sharp edges, and
then attaching them to the surface of the article you wish to
decorate by means of strong glue.

In making picture frames or crosses, a light wood founda-
tion is preferable to cardboard, as it is less likely to warp.

Blue, green, crimson, or other colored glasses may be sub-
stituted for black in making ornamental work, if the surface
of the article first be colored the same shade as the glass. A
very transparent glue must be used to fasten the particles.

Mottoes. —Exquisite mottoes can be made as follows : —
Cut a piece of very stiff cardboard the desired shape and size
of your motto. Give the upper surface a thick coat of muci-
lage, and over this press the thickest and best pure white cot-
ton wadding. When this is firmly attached and the gum quite
dry, gently pull off the smooth upper surface of the wadding,
and very gently pull up, here and there, that which is attached
to the cardboard and sprinkle with diamond-dust, such as is
used for wax flowers, and you have what looks like snow.
This for the foundation. Having ready your letters or other
designs for the motto, cut in thin cardboard, cover them with
glass of the desired color — different colors mixed are pretty —
fasten on the cotton foundation, and frame with a border of
black glass. Christmas and New Year's mottoes are very
pretty with the border and lettering made of evergreens mixed
with white and scarlet berries. Another beautiful motto is
made by covering a heavy cardboard foundation with pale
blue frosted plush or velvet, the lettering, etc., made of white
cotton wadding, frosted with diamond-dust, and the frame of
the motto made of white glass. Exceedingly unique'and rus-
tic-looking mottoes and other ornaments can be made by
fastening on to a cardboard foundation the dry, greenish-gray
moss found on wood's bark as a background, and making the
lettering, designs, etc., of light green moss that has been
pressed for the purpose, and tiny autumn leaves and such
pressed flowers as retain their colors. Frame with cedar spray
or the slender branches of the pine tree, from which the
needles have been removed.

Moss Frames. — Very pretty frames for small photographs
or engravings may be made of the wood's moss before referred
to that is found on the bark of most forest trees, and in profu-
sion on that of apple-trees. To make these frames, make stiff
cardboard foundation, attach the moss with glue, commencing
with the lightest shades of moss for the inside edges of frames
and the darkest for the outer edges. Now go over the surface
of the moss with a brush that has been dipped in very thin
mucilage, and whilst yet damp sift over it diamond-dust or the
fine glass that may be had at any glass factory.

Artificial Moss. — Take green single wool shaded in the
skein, or you may mix the shades to suit yourself, and split it
carefully. With a medium-sized steel crochet-hook make, on
a foundation chain of seven stitches, strips a yard or more in
length in single crochet. When you have crocheted as much
as you think you will need, wet it thoroughly in the following
solution : One cup of warm soft water, one tablespoonful of
alcohol, one teaspoonful of strong spirits of ammonia, and the
whole stirred with a bit of white soap until it makes a slight

lather. When thoroughly wetted squeeze out the strips, and
press between thick cloths or papers with heavy warm irons
until every bit of moisture has been absorbed. Let it lie ^
few days, the longer the better, before using. When you wish
to use the crocheted strip, overhand it very closely lengthwise
of one edge with green thread or wool, cut the other edge of
the entire length, wasting as little as possible. Now cut in
slits, half an inch apart, to within one-eighth of an inch of the
over-seamed edge, and ravel out, and you will .find that you
have a lovely imitation of moss. Sew in alternate strips on
your foundation for frame or mat, and you may frost, if you
choose, the same as the real moss. This artificial moss is
especially pretty for lamp-mats, or as a binder for rugs that
have been worked on canvas. For this latter purpose, it is
pretty knitted in shaded brown. Instead of the crochet-hook
this moss may be made with coarse steel knitting-needles in
plain knitting.

Wall Pockets. — Very effective pockets or catch-alls are
made of cheap straw wide-brimmed hats. Buy at the drug-
gist's or fancy dealer's, a bottle of liquid-gilt, and put it all
over the outside of the hat with a camel's-hair brush. Let it
dry thoroughly, and then line the brim with satin, and in place
of a crown lining make the satin to form a bag and draw with
a drawing-cord and tassels. Turn the hat up on one side, and
put on a large bunch of dried grasses and ribbon, also a few
wild-flowers. For those who have not seen them, children's
little wooden pails with fancy pictures on or painted in water-
colors, and finished at the top with satin frilled on to form a
bag, are very pretty and inexpensive.

Cap Basket. — A basket of this description is very useful
for elderly ladies who dwell in the country and carry their caps
when dining out, and it is also useful for carrying about fancy
work, etc. A round is formed of silver paper, it is lined, and
at each side there is a crimson silk or satin bag, drawn with a
silk cord. If preferred, cardboard covered with Java canvas
and worked in cross-stitch can be substituted for the silver
paper.

Chinese Penwiper. — Take a diminutive Chinese fan with
very long handle, cover the fan with silk on both sides, then
cut several pieces of black cloth and fasten each side of
fan. For the outside cut off cardboard, cover with silk, and
transfer a Chinese picture in the center. To complete the
ornamentation, fasten a few light feathers turning toward the
handle, and finish with a fine cord and small tassels.

Curtain-Band — Knitting. — (White cord and coarse steel
needles.) Begin by crocheting a loop loosely with iS chain
and 1 slip stitch ; then place the stitch on the knitting-needle
and knit to and fro as follows : First row — Twice alternately
cotton forward, and decrease i (that is, slip i as if for purling,
knit I, and pass the slipped stitch over the knitted one).
Second row — Twice alternately cotton forward, decrease i ;
repeat the second row as often as necessary, cast off, and cro-
chet a loop of 18 chain as above. This is also pretty, used for
a border on table-covers or brackets, and hang tassels in the
loops to form a fringe.

Fan or Hand-Screen. — Cover two pieces of very thin card-
board on one side with silk. Paint or embroider a floral de-
sign in the center of each. For the handle use the end of an

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HOW TO GET UP A FAIR.

old parasol handle, or purchase a handsome carved tooth-brush
and cut the bristles off, and glue it firmly between the two
card-boards. Finish the edge with chenille and gold braid,
and at the top, glue in any kind of fancy feathers, cord and
tassels to correspond with the silk and painting.

Herring-Bone Purse. — Only two needles are required for
this knitting. Cast on eighty-eight stitches, begin with the
silk forward, slip a stitch, knit a stitch, pass the first over the
second, knit a.stitch, bring the silk forward and rib the next ;
when this is done the silk will be forward ; begin again. If
the purse is required to be longer, cast on as many stitches as
are necessary, only it must be a number which can be divided
by /our.

Porcupine Knitting for a Purse. — Four fine needles,
nearly three skeins of silk, and one string of gold beads are
required. Thread some of the beads on the silk before you
begin. Cast 36 stitches on each of three needles, knit a plain
round ; knit 4 stitches, bring the silk forward, knit a stitch —
this is the center stitch of the pattern — bring the silk forward,
knit 4 stitches, slip a stitch, taking it under, knit 2 taken to-
gether, pull the slipped stitch over it, then begin knitting the
4 slitches again, etc. It is better, at the end of each needle,
to knit a stitch off the next one, as it prepares for the next
round. Continue thus for six rounds, increasing before and
after every center stitch, and knitting till within one of where
you decreased, which stitch slip, knit the next two together,
and pull the slipped slitch over it ; knit a plain round, knit
another round plain, excepting over (he center stitches, where
you are to knit a bead, bringing it through the stitch ; knit a
plain round, keeping the beads on the outside of the purse
(this purse is knitted wrong side outward) ; knit to within one
stitch of the bead slitch, which slip ; knit two together. These
six rounds increase each side of the stitch you decreased with
in the last pattern, which makes that the center stitch for the
bead. It is easy to count the number of rounds you have done
at the place where you decreased.

A very pretty chatelaine pocket may be made by cutting the
shape first in cardboard, one for the front and another for the
back, similar in shape to the first, only with a pointed piece to
turn over and button envelope fashion. A third piece, an inch
and a half wide, must surround the first piece of cardboard and
be joined to it on one side, and the second piece on the other
side. Line each of these pieces with silk or cambric, and
cover the outside with velvet or corded silk before joining to-
gether. Edge the seams with a small gold or silk cord, leav-
ing a loop at the point of the envelope, which must fasten to a
corresponding button on the first piece. If the bag is velvet
the belt must be the same, if of silk then the belt must be silk.
The bag must be hung to the belt by two cords, from either
side, of the same kind as trims the seams, and joined at the
waist by a button or hook.

A neat work-case maybe made of Java canvas twelve inches
long and seven broad, a bit of silk the same size for lining,
and six skeins of worsted or floss, any color best liked. Work
a border down both sides of the canvas and across one end,
leaving space to turn in the edge of the material. The border
may be as simple as you like ; four rows of cross-stitch will do.
When the border is done, baste on the lining, turn in the edges,

and seam it very neatly. Then turn up the lower end of this
strip to form a bag, and sew the edges together firmly. Tho
embroidered end folds over to form a flap like a pocket-book,
and must have two small buttons and loops to fasten it down.

Knitting-bags made of Turkish toweling are very conve-
nient to hang on the back of a chair and hold knitting-work
when not needed. They are made 01 four pieces, each one a
foot long, pointed at the top and bottom, and slightly curved
toward the middle on both sides. The pieces are braided or
embroidered in silk or worsted in some simple pattern, bound
with narrow ribbon of bright color, and sewed together with a
tassel to finish the bottom and a drawing ribbon at the top.

Work-aprons may be made like any aprons, secured by a
band around the waist, except that they are cut ten inches
longer. This extra ten inches of length is to be turned up
from the bottom and divided off by stitching, so as to form four
or more oblong pockets open at the top. These pockets are
handy for balls of worsted, patterns, or unfinished work.

Scent-cases, for the top of a trunk or drawer, may be made
of large silk or muslin cases, quilted with orris-root or sachet-
powder, and are acceptable to almost all ladies. Pocket
sachets of silk, quilted and trimmed with gold twist, or braided
and scented, are pretty presents for gentlemen. A glove-
sachet should be the length and width of an ordinary pair of
gloves. It must be quilted and edged with narrow .silk cord,
with a small loop at each corner. A necktie-sachet is made
narrow and just long enough to hold an evening tie folded in
half. Articles which will be found useful and acceptable to
clergymen are sermon-covers of either silk or velvet, a trifle
larger than ordinary sermon paper, lined with silk, and hav-
ing a cross or monogram embroidered or braided on them. A
bit of fine elastic should be placed inside from top to bottom
to hold the leaves in their place.

For comforters, those knitted in brioche stitch in single
Berlin wool are the softest, most pliable and elastic. It is an
easy stitch to knit, as every row is the same. It is * over, slip
I as if about to purl, knit 2 together, repeat from*. The next
row is the same, * over, slip i, knit 2 together, repeat from *,
but the slipped stitch is the one made by " knit 2 together "
in the last row, and the over and the slipped stitch of the last
row are knitted together. It tjikes two rows to make a com-
plete stitch, one each side of the work. Seventy-two stitches
make a wide comforter, and any color looks well with stripes
of black at the end. A- fringe should finish it.

Hairbrush-cases are useful, and may be made ornamental
also. A pretty one is made of a length of blue cambric or
sateen, covered with spotted muslin, sufficiently long and wide
to lie on a table under brushes, and fold across above them.
An edging of lace and ruche of blue satin ribbon is added all
round as a finish, but must be on alternate sides, making a divi-
sion in the center where the folding is, as the side that passes
over the brushes must be trimmed on the outside. Sometimes
the ruche is put on both sides. Another pattern is to make the
case to fit the brushes easily, with a flap to fold over, and to
work designs on the case and flap. Add a band of elastic on
the flap below the pattern for the comb. For traveling, the
flap turns over and buttons up. Such cases look well in linen,
neatly braided.

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505

Tasteful flowerpot-covers may be made of four pieces of
card-board the height of ordinary flowerpots, and from five to
eight inches in width, according to the size of the pot. Lace
them together at the sides with fine gold or silver cord, and
tie the cords at the top in a bow, with a little gold or silver
tassel attached to each end. The four sides of the cover
should be ornamented in the center of each with drawings,
colored pictures, groups of dried flowers, ferns; seaweed, or
autumn leaves, as fancy may dictate.

Letter-cases to hang on the walls are made by cutting a
piece of white card-board twelve inches long. Make a point
at the top, like the flap of an envelope, and bind it all round
with narrow, bright colored ribbon ; turn up four inches at
the bottom to make a sort of flap-pocket ; lace it up each side
with ribbon or cord, and bore a round hole in the point by
which to hang it.

Cases similar to these, on a larger and stronger scale, are
useful for hanging in libraries or sitting rooms, as a depository
for newspapers, periodicals, etc. They offer great oppor-
tunities for a display of taste in decoration. Pockets, the
same shape, of holland or crash, are handy to hang in closets
for boots and shoes, and larger ones, divided into compart-
ments for patterns or scrap-bundles, are invaluable.

A strong and neat music-case is made as follows : — Cut a
piece of the leather some inches larger than an open piece of
music, bind it all round, double it, and sew together at the
edges. The music lies flat inside. Another shape is to cut
it the size of the music with a good margin, line it, sew elastic
in the center, under which the music is fastened, and then roll
music and case together.

In lamp-shades, one has quite a play for ingenuity. Cut a
shape in card-board and ornament with pictures, or prick a
design with a pen-knife, which has an admirable effect. Dried
flowers or ferns arranged on silk or card-board, and covered
with prepared muslin to keep them from breaking off, are
lovely and somewhat of a novelty. For a silk or thin ground,
a brass wire of given circumference for the top, and another
much wider for the bottom, are required. Very elegant
shades may be made of pink crape. Cut a circle of the crape ;
let the diameter of this circle be exactly double the depth you
wish the shade to be ; cut a round hole in the center for the
chimney of the lamp to pass through. Ornament the crape
with small bunches of flowers cut out of cretonne, tacked on
and buttonholed round. Edge the bottom of the shade with
pink silk fringe about three inches wide, and finish by putting
a close niching of pink silk round the top, and you will have
an uncommon-looking shade, and one which will shed a
pleasing light through the room.

Children's reins for play, made from the following direc-
tions, are strong and pretty : — Cast, on a pair of bone knitting-
needles, twenty stitches in double Berlin, and knit, in plain
knitting, as tripe ten inches in length, always slipping the first
stitch of every row ; cast off. To each end of this stripe is
attached a circle for the arms, which is made thus : Take a
piece of cord, the kind used in hanging pictures, and make
circle the size of a child's arm at the shoulder ; sew the ends
firmly together, splicing one a little past the other ; then cover
the cord with cotton, wool, or flannel, to make it soft ; then

cover lastly with a stripe of knitting, casting on eight stitches
and knitting the length required, plain every row ; sew it on
overcast on the inner side. Before attaching the stripe first
knitted to the armholes, there ought to be sewed upon it some
name, such as" Beauty," or " Fairy," and to the under edge,
should be fastened three or four little bells. When fastening
the stripe for the chest to the armholes, do not let the sewing
be seen, but overcast on the inner side to the overcasting on
the armholes. Cast on eight stitches and knit, in plain knit-
ting, a rein the length required, two and a half yards being
enough, as it stretches in use. Attach the ends to the armholes
at the back, sewing to the overcasting ; then finish by knit-
ting a stripe twenty stitches in breadth and ten inches in length,
the ends of which sew to the armholes at the back, at the
same place as the rein.

Dolls of all sizes, and dressed in every costume, from the
bald-headed baby in long clothes to the young lady in Parisian
attire, are not to be forgotten. One dressed in white cotton
wool, or Canton flannel, as an Esquimaux, is an excellent toy
for a baby. So also are the knitted dolls. These are knitted
in fine worsted on No. 16 or 18 needles, and should be knitted
to a shape. It would take too long to give exact directions,
but you cannot go far wrong, if you lay a doll down and draw
the outline. Knit, by this outline, two pieces and join them.
A face is knitted with an oval piece of knitting, and drawn
over an old face. With judicious dressing, you may have a
fair result, even the first time of trying. Rabbits, cats, and
dogs are all made in the same manner : they should be knitted
in loop-stitch or looped crochet, then cut, combed, and stuffed.
Rabbits, too, are very pretty made of gray velveteen and white
plush, stuffed with wool, and pink or black beads used for
eyes.

Dancing-men may be made of cork, dressed up, and with
black silk strings to make them dance. Men and animals cut
out of card-board, painted, and joined together with strong
twine, afford great amusement, and are just as good as any
you purchase.

Balls are made in various ways, and use up the various odds
and ends to great advantage. The soft, fluffy balls made over
cardboard are the best for this purpose. For one of these
balls you trace a circle, the diameter of which must be the size
you wish the ball. Say the diameter is three inches : inside
this, and from the same point in the center, trace a smaller
circle of one and a quarter inches in diameter. Cut this inner
circle out, draw another exactly like the large one, keep the
two together, and wind the wool you use over and over these
two pieces of card, until you can draw no more wool through,
even with a crochet-hook. You next cut the wool just over
the outer rim of the two circles, and between the pieces of
cardboard tie all the wool together securely with strong twine
or with thick silk, if you wish to make the balls hang together.
This silk must be left with long ends and crocheted up into a
very fine cord in chain stitch. You next remove the cardboard
and proceed to cut the wool and shape it round with a scissors :
this is the only difficult part of the manufacture of these soft
balls. Another method is to knit them in brioche stitch in
one, two, or three colors, in single Berlin wool. Take a pair
of No. 14 needles and cast on 28 stitches ; knit back. The

5o6

HOW TO GET UP A FAIR.

first row : * wool forward, slip the next stitch, knit the second ;
repeat from * to the end of the row. Second row : * wool
forward, slip as if you intended to purl the next stitch, knit
the 2 stitches together, lying over each other ; repeat from *
twelve times more, leaving 3 stitches unworked. Third row :
Turn, wool forward, slip i, knit 2 together twelve times,
leaving 3 unwoiked at the other end of the needle. Fourth
row : Turn, work as before eleven times. Fifth row : Turn,
work as before ten times, and so on, leaving 3 more stitches,
or another rib, until you have only two ribs in the center ;
knit these two ribs, turn, and knit all the stitches off ; then
knit two whole rows of the 28 stitches. Join now your second
color, knit two whole rows, and then repeat from the second
row. Eight of these little pieces will be required ; knit the
two pieces together to join them, stuff it with lamb's-wool
combed, or the shavings of other soft balls, and draw up the
centers.

A third kind of ball is made by cutting pieces of kid or
leather in the same shapes as those described above. Draw a
circle the size you require the ball, and divide it into four or
eight sections ; cut these out, then cut your pieces the same
size, sew them together, stuff with hair or wool, and ornament
with braid. Such balls may be made from old kid gloves.

Fancy Pincushion. — Take three small cane rods and put
brass knobs at all the ends. Make the foundation of cushion
of a large-size collar-box, cover the sides with velvet, upon
which diamond-shaped pieces of perforated board are placed,
worked round the edge with colored floss. Fill the box with
bran, and cover the top with velvet. The canes are wound
round, and the pincushion is crossed by a narrow strip of per-
forated card laid on to a narrow blue ribbon. Bows of blue
ribbon are then tied on, and the stand is finished. A sharp
knife is needed to cut the cardboard.

Box for Playing-Cards. — Materials: cardboard, wire,
velvet, silk, ribbon, purse-silk or gold cord, and coarse sewing-
silk. The box is intended to hold two packs of cards. There
is an inner case, into which the cards are placed. This case
lifts out, if desired ; but a little half-circle is cut out on each
side of it to lift the cards out more readily. Both the outer
and inner edges are worked round with a small zigzag pattern,
or a row of herring-bone stitch will answer. The inner case
is covered inside and out with silk. The sides of the inner
case measure four and a half inches in width, and two and a
half inches in depth, with the half-circle cut in the middle.
The ends are two and a half inches deep, and two and a half
inches wide. The bottom is cut to fit. Cover all inside and
out with silk the color of the velvet, and work round the top with
a little pointed pattern. Ribbon is put on to lift the case out
by, and the cards may be tied in to keep them in place. For
the outer case : — The cardboard ends are five inches high in
the middle, and are rounded off toward the sides. They are
three inches wide. The front and back are each five inches
long and six inches deep. The back is joined to the ends
four inches in depth. Previous to covering, the cardboard
must have a cut made in it, so that it will bend, and wire must
be sewn on to the part above the cut, so as to give it a proper
curve to fit the arch of the ends. The front is joined to the
ends two and a half inches in depth, and the card must here

be cut. If by accident it is cut through, some hinges of ribbon
must be glued on. The wire is put on from this part, and
must be bent to the exact curve of the ends. The bottom is
cut to fit. When the separate parts are cut they are all lined
with silk, covered with velvet, and bound with ribbon. Rib-
bon is laid on flat, and worked down with the embroidery
pattern at the hinges of the lid. The box is fastened at the
top with two buttons and loops of cord placed under the
ribbon bows.

Gentleman's Dressing-Case. — A straight piece of cloth
doubled eleven inches broad and nineteen inches long. The
ends are turned up to form pockets, and bound with ribbon
or braid. A strip of leather with slits cut in it is stitched
through the center of case, through which a strap sixteen
inches long is slipped. Slope it a trifle at one end that it can
go through readily, and make several buttonholes at the end,
so that, after placing in the necessary articles, it may be drawn
tightly and buttoned. On the outside is a strap bound with
ribbon or braid to fasten the case when rolled.

Child's Worsted Horse-Reins. — Work with scarlet fin-
gering wool over a crocheted chain as follows : — Make a long
chain for insertion ; then, on a chain of 13 stitches, work,
passing over the first stitch a row of double on the front thread
of the previous row, inserting the chain cord ; at the end of
the row, i chain, * turn the work, i slip stitch on the back
thread of the previous row, without inserting the chain cord,
at the end of the row, i chain ; repeat from * till the reins
are the required length. Now work over the loops formed by
the chain cord along both sides of the reins as follows : * i
double over the first loop, 5 treble over the following loop ;
repeat from*.

Comb-Case. — Take two pieces of silver perforated paper
four inches long, and one and a quarter inches broad. Work
them with purple and canary-colored worsted. Bind them
with narrow purple ribbon, and ornament this binding at
regular distances with little knots of canary twist, then over-
hand the two pieces together.

Child's Ball. — Take a large ball of yarn or a very thin
india-rubber one. Commence the cover of worsted by making
a chain of four stitches joined to a circle, and work in double
stitches, increasing at regular intervals till the work is large
enough to cover one-half the ball ; then work a few rows
without increase, draw the cover over the ball, letting the
wrong side of the work be outside, and work the other half to
correspond with the first half, decreasing at regular intervals,
and putting the needle in from the inside. A pattern of bright
flowers worked with worsted round the center adds greatly to
the ball's attractions for a child.

Glove-Case. — Materials : Silver-colored leather canvas ;
lilac cashmere or llama ; i^ yards lilac sarcenet ribbon, i inch
broad ; black and lilac Berlin wool in two contrasting shades ;
twenty-four little enamel buttons ; white sewing-silk. The
outer covering of the case consists of a piece of silver-colored
leather canvas, 21 inches long and 6j inches broad, sloped off
equally on each side, and measuring 16 inches in length at the
sides. The pattern is worked in cross and loose stitch in
Berlin wool. The lining is lilac llama, fastened with wide
button-hole stitch in white silk, ornamented with herring-bone

HOW TO GET UP A FAIR.

507

kr-

stitch of the same silk ; ij inches from the edge on each side
are straps of white llama, ^ inch broad, which button over
each other to form six divisions for placing gloves. At the
sloped ends are a ribbon with a knot and two uneven ends
for fastening the case when rolled up.

Pretty, simple sachets for handkerchiefs are made in
colored cardboard, crimson for instance. A square the neces-
sary size is bound with very narrow black ribbon, and to this
is sewed a ribbon about an inch and a half wide. Four semi-
circular pieces of cardboard are then bound with the narrow
black ribbon, and sewed to the upper edge of the wide. Two
of these have ribbon to tie, and on them may be designed any
pretty device in gold leaf or otherwise.

SUGGESTIONS AS TO DRESS, ETC.

How to Dress for a Fair — Raffles— Bran-Tubs— Fish-Ponds — Articles
supplied from Stores.

How to Dress for a Fair. — The dress of the
stall-holder should always be as neat and simple as
possible. Heavy material, profuse trimming, trains
and fringes encumber and harass the wearer, making
her hot, tired and dusty ; the fringes catch in every-
thing, the trains are continually in the way, and the
thickness of the dress makes the whole business a
weary work.

In these days of light and pretty fabrics, there will
be no difficulty in selecting such as will be tasteful
and appropriate, giving satisfaction to the wearer
and to others. Washing materials are decidedly the
best ; they do not catch and hold the dust, and they
keep a cool and refreshing appearance throughout.
Cambric, percale, batiste, chintz, oatmeal cloth, hol-
land, or sateen will afford ample variety of choice.
Foulard, too, is exceedingly suitable. The dress
should be short and as waitress-like as possible. It
is customary to wear aprons or the pretty pinafore
costume, giving a graceful effect. These aprons can
be of any suitable material. Many are made of the
bright-hued Indian handkerchiefs, others of shep-
herd's plaid, or muslin. We noticed a very pretty
apron made of white muslin, with a bib and bretelles
passing over the shoulders to fasten at the back.
These bretelles are only an inch wide, and are
edged on each side with lace. A belt or sash can
be worn if preferred, but the prettier style is as de-
scribed.

In the matter of head-gear there is no limit. Caps
are sometimes seen, but hats are most in favor.
These may be as large and eccentric as the wearer
pleases. Any bizarre style, or a hat worn with a
fancy costume, will be just the thing. They should

be profusely trimmed with feathers, lace, flowers,
ribbon, etc. Gloves, of course, are not worn, though
mittens may be.

Raffles, Bran-Tubs, etc. — These require
much patience and good temper, since there is great
trouble in getting them up and much disappointment
in the drawing of lots.

The ugliest and least saleable articles should be
raffled at the commencement of the Fair, or they
remain unsold and in the way.

Towards the close of a Fair a number of articles
should be put in a giant lottery in which are no
blanks, so that none go away empty-handed. This
form of raffling is usually popular.

The manner of conducting these raffles is to make
so many shares of the value of fifty cents, or twenty-
five cents, etc. When the full value of the article
has been attained by means of the shares, as many
slips of paper as there are shareholders are put in a
hat, a basket, or bag, and each in turn draws out a
ticket. The one who draws out the slip with the
word " prize " written on it becomes the owner of
the article and the lottery is over.

Bran-Tubs and Fish-Ponds are, however,
those most chiefly patronized, and especially by
juveniles. The prices will vary, of course, accord-
ing to the value of the articles. The usual charge
is ten cents a dip, though sometimes it is necessary
to make it twenty-five cents, or lower it to a cent.
A bran-tub at which the charge is so low as this last
is always a success. A large tub must be procured,
care being taken that it is first well scrubbed and
cleaned ; then cover it with glazed calico of a color
corresponding or contrasting with the prevailing tone
of the room, and further ornamented with flounces
of lace or muslin and bows of ribbon. The bottom
is then strewn with sawdust, and the articles, neatly
wrapped in white paper, are packed in it. Now put
more sawdust, pack in more prizes, and so on until
the tub is filled.

The drawing of prizes takes place on the payment
of the fee. Each subscriber plunges his hand into
the tub, withdrawing it on securing a parcel. The
chief amusement derived from this lottery is the ab-
surd incongruity between the prize-winner and the
prize. An old gentlemen may be seen parading
with a toy drum, or a grandmamma of sixty with a
rosy-cheeked doll.

A Fish-Pond is managed in much the same

508

HOW TO GET UP A FAIR.

manner. One comer of the room is generally set
apart for the pond, which, like the bran-tub, is but
a pond in name. A light wooden partition covered
with calico, and made to look as attractive as possi-
ble, separates this corner from the rest of the room.
Behind this screen a number of prizes are ranged,
all wrapped in paper as in the bran-tub. A rod with
a firm line and strong hook is also provided, which is
delivered to each one on the payment of the fee. The
angler then casts the line over the partition, and re-
ceives the prize on which the hook rests. This the
keeper of the stall fixes in the parcel, which is then
drawn over the partition.

We have seen a very pretty fish-pond at one
fair which deserves mention. A small space at the end
of the room was arranged like a small grotto with
seaweed, shells, and ferns, leaving a clear space in
the middle in which the prizes were placed. This
had really the appearance of a pond at some
little distance, and was decidedly ornamental and
novel.

When a bazaar is held near the close of the year, a
Christmas-tree will be found an appropriate feature.
Procure a well-grown shapely fir-tree, and have it
watered with a watering-pot. Then shake a flour-
dredger over it ; this gives a snowy appearance in

keeping with the season. The flour will not shake
off if ordinary care be taken. The smaller gifts can
be hung on the branches, the weightier laid round
the foot of the tree. Candles and lanterns can be
introduced at will.

For any season of the year the following idea will
be suitable : A large baske-t made in the shape of a
ship, with masts and rigging complete, and well filled
with gifts. The masts and rigging will bear some
of the lighter articles ; the others should be stored
in the hold.

Articles supplied from Stores. — It is a fre-
quent occurrence now to have a stall exclusively
composed of articles either bought at a cheap rate
and sold with profit, or, as it frequently happens,
if the object be a charitable one, storekeepers
will supply the different articles free, thus giving
their share towards the fund. This stall is always
very attractive, and should consist of useful novel-
ties — such articles as belts, baskets, ornaments of all
kinds, gloves, books, appliances for every kind of
work, novelties in jewelry, pencils, scent-bottles,
fans, etc., etc., and everything pretty, original, and
iiseful that ingenuity will suggest and generosity
supply. Inexpensive trinkets and Circassian jewel-
ry, Siberian crystals, etc., find a ready sale.

PROVERBS AND OLD SAYINGS.

509

--%

^PeOVEIiBSAraOLDSAyitiGS,

4r-

^driptui^kl PfoveA^.

FALSE balance is an abomination to the Lord ; but a

just weight is his delight.
A fool uttereth all his mind ; but a wise man keepeth

it till afterwards.
A fool's wrath is presently known ; but a prudent man

covereth shame.
A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches,
and loving favor rather than silver and gold.
A man that has friends must show himself friendly ; and
there is a friend that sticketh closer than a brother.
A man of understanding holdeth his peace.
A man's pride shall bring him low; but honor shall uphold the

humble in spirit.
A merry heart doeth good like a medicine ; but a broken spirit drieth

the bones.
A righteous man regardeth the life of his beast ; but the tender mer-
cies of the wicked are cruel.
A soft answer turneth away wrath ; but grievous words stir up anger.
A virtuous woman is a crown to her husband ; but she that maketh

ashamed is as rottenness in his bones.
A wise son maketh a glad father; but a foolish son is the heaviness

of his mother.
A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures of silver.
As a bird that wandereth from her nest, so is a man that wandereth

from his place.
As a dog retumeth to his vomit, so a fool retumeth to his folly.
As a jewel of gold on a swine's snout, so is a fair woman who is with-
out discretion.
As a madman who casteth firebrands, arrows, and death, so is the man

that deceiveth his neighbor, and saith. Am not I in sport?
As the crackling of thorns under a pot, so is the laughter of a fool.
As the whirlwind passeth, so is the wicked no more ; but the righteous

is an everlasting foundation.
As vinegar to the teeth, and as smoke to the eyes, so is the sluggard

to them that send him.
Be thou diligent to know the state of thy flocks, and look well to thy

herds ; for riches are not forever.
Before honor is humility.
Better is a dry morsel and quietness therewith, than a house full of

sacrifices with strife.
Better is a dinner of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox and hatred

therewith.
Better is a little with righteousness, than great revenues without right.
Blessings are upon the head of the just ; but violence covereth the
mouth of the wicked.

Boast not thyself of to-morrow ; for thou knowest not what a day may

bring forth.
By much slothfulness the building decayeth ; and through idleness of

the hands the house droppeth through.
By pride cometh contention.

Cast thy bread upon the waters, for thou shall find it after many days.
Even a fool, when he holdeth his peace, is counted wise ; and he that

shutteth his lips is esteemed a man of understanding.
Faithful are the wounds of a friend ; but the kisses of an enemy are

deceitful.
Favor is deceitful, and beauty is vain ; but a woman that feareth the

Lord, she shall be praised.
Fear God, and keep his commandments ; for this is the whole duty of

man.
For men to search their own glory * is not glory.
Go from the presence of the foolish man, when thou perceivest not in

him the lips of knowledge.
Go to the ant, thou sluggard ; consider her ways and be wise.
God hath made man upright, but they have sought out many inven-
tions.
He becometh poor that dealeth with a slack hand ; but the hand of the

diligent maketh rich.
He that observeth the wind shall not sow, and he that reg^ardeth the

clouds shall not reap.
He that passeth by, and meddleth with strife belonging not to him, is

like one that taketh a dog by the ears.
He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty, and he that ruleth

his spirit than he that taketh a city.
He that loveth pleasure shall be a poor man : he that loveth wine and

oil shall not be rich.
He that is greedy of gain troubleth his own house ; but he that hateth

gifts shall live.
He that is of a merry heart hath a continual feast.
He that is first in his own cause seemeth just ; but his neighbor com-
eth and searcheth him.
He that hath pity ujxm the jjoor lendeth to the Lord ; and that which

he hath given will he pay him again.
He that hideth hatred with lying lips, and he that uttereth a slander, is

a fool.
He that spareth the rod hateth his son ; but he that loveth him chasten-

eth betimes.
He that gathereth in summer is a wise son ; but he that sleepeth in

harvest i^a son that causes shame.
He that walketh uprightly walketh surely ; but he that perverteth his

ways shall be known.
He that is surety for a stranger, shall smart for it ; and he that hateth

suretyship is sure.

* To talk of their own doings.

-•^

1 5*0

PROVERBS AND OLD SAYINGS.

He that keepeth [silent] his mouth, keepeth his life ; but he that openeth

wide his lips shall have destruction.
He that troubleth his own house shall inherit the wind ; and the fool

shall be servant of the wise of heart.
Heaviness in the heart of a man maketh it stoop ; but a good word

maketh it glad.
Hell and destruction are never full ; so the eyes of man are never satis-
fied.
His own iniquities shall take the wicked himself, and he shall be holden

with the cords of his own sins.
Hope deferred maketh the heart sick.
If sinners entice thee, consent thou not.
If the iron be blunt, and he do not whet the edge, then must he put to

more strength ; but wisdom is profitable to direct.*
If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat ; and if he be thirsty,

give him water to drink : for thou shalt heap coals of fire upon his

head, and the Lord shall reward thee.
If thou faint in the day of adversity, thy strength is small.
If ye cast jjearls before swine, they will turn again and rend you.
In all labor there is profit ; but the talk of the lips tendeth only to

penury.
Iron sharpeneth iron ; so a man sharpeneth the countenance of his

friend.
It is nought, it is nought, saith the buyer ; but when he is gone his

way, then he boastelh.
It is better to dwell in a corner of the house-top, than with a brawling

woman in a wide house.
Let cuiother man praise thee, and not thine own mouth ; a stranger, and

not thine own lips.
Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty : open thine eyes, and thou

shalt be satisfied with bread.
Much food is in the tillage of the p)Oor ; but there is that is destroyed

for want of judgment.
Of making many books there is no end ; and much study is a weariness

of the flesh.
Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall.
Remove not the old land mark ; and enter not into the fields of the

fatherless.
Reprove not a scorner lest he hate thee ; rebuke a wise man and he

will love thee.
Righteousness exalteth a nation ; but sin is a reproach to any people.
Say not unto thy neighbur. Go, and come again, and to-morrow I will

give, when thou hast it by thee.
Seest thou a man diligent in his business : he shall stand before kings ;

he shall not stand before mean men.t
Seest thou a man that is hasty in his words : there is more hope of a

fool than of him.
Strive not with a man without cause, if he have done thee no harm.
The blessing of the Lord, it maketh rich, and he addeth no sorrow

with it.
The curse causeless shall not come.
The drunkard and the glutton shall come to poverty : and drowsiness

shall clothe a man with rags.
The hand of the diligent shall bear rule ; but the slothful shall be under

tribute.
The labor of the righteous tendeth to life, the fruit of the wicked to

sin.
The memory of the just is blessed ; but the name of the wicked shall rot.
The race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong.
The rich man is wise in his own conceit ;but the poor that hath under-
standing searcheth him out.
The rich man's wealth is his strong city ; the destruction of the poor is

their poverty.
The rich ruleth over the poor ; and the borrower is servant to the lender.
The simple believeth every word ; but the prudent man looketh well to

his going.
The sleep of the laboring man is sweet, whether he eat little or much ;

but the abundance of the rich will not suffer him to sleep.

* Knowledge is power. — Bacon.

t Anciently, in the East, it was an honor to be permitted to stand in
the presence of kings, as it is to sit before them in our own times.

The sluggard will not plow by reason of the cold ; therefore shall he
beg in harvest, and have nothing.

The slothful man saith. There is a lion without ; I shall be slain in the
streets.

The poor is hated even of his neighbor ; but the rich hath many friends.

The profit of the earth is for all ; the king himself is served by the field.

The upright shall dwell in the land, and the perfect shall remain in it;
but the wicked shall be cut off from the earth, and the transgressor
shall be rooted out of it.

The wicked flee when no man pursueth ; ♦ but the righteous are bold as
a lion.

The wise shall inherit glory ; but shame shall be the promotion of fools.

There is that maketh himself rich, yet hath nothing ; there is that mak-
eth himself poor, yet hath great riches.

There is that scattereth, and yet increaseth ; and there is that with
holdeth more than is meet, but it tendeth to poverty.

To all the living there is hope : a living dog is better than a dead lion.

Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not
depart from it.

Treasures of wickedness profit nothing ; but righteousness delivereth
from death.

Wealth makes many friends ; but the poor is separated from his neigh-
bor.

Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might, for there is
no work, nor device, nor knowledge, nor wisdom in the grave,
whither thou goest.

When goods increase, they are increased that eat them ; and what good
is there to the owners thereof, saving the beholding of them with
their eyes.

Where no counsel is, the people fall ; but in the multitude of counsel-
lors there is safety.

Where no wood is, then the fire goeth out ; so where there is no tale-
bearer, the strife ceaseth.

When pride cometh, then cometh shame ; but with the lowly is wisdom.

Who can find a virtuous woman ? for her price is far above rubies.

Whoso findeth a wife findeth a good thing, and obtaineth favor of the
Lord.

Wine is a mocker, strong drink is raging ; and whosoever is deceived
thereby is not wise.

Withdraw thy foot from thy neighbor's house, lest he be weary of thee,
and so hate thee.

Withhold not good from them to whom it is due, when it is in the powef
of thine hand to do.

Yet a little sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of the hands to sleep :
so shall thy poverty come as one that traveleth, and thy want as an
armed man.

BAD workman quarrels with his tools.

A bird in the hand is worth two in a bush.

A happy heart makes a blooming visage.

Absence cools moderate passions, and inflames violent
ones.

A burden which one chooses is not felt.
A cat may look at a king.
Aching teeth are ill tenants.
A chip of the old block.
A clear conscience fears no accusation.
A contented mind is a continual feast.
A creaking door hangs long on the hinges.
A day after the feast.

* Conscience makes cowards of us all. — Skakesfeare.

PROVERBS AND OLD SAYINGS.

■y

A drowning man will catch at a straw.

Adversity flattereth no man.

A fat kitchen makes a lean will.

A fault confessed is half redressed.

A fool and his money are soon parted.

A fool can make money ; it requires a wise man to spend it.

A fool may give a wise man counsel.

A fool's bolt is soon shot.

After death the doctor.

After dinner sit a while, after supper walk a mile.

After meat, mustard.

A friend in need is a friend indeed.

A full purse never lacks friends.

A gentleman without a living is like a pudding without suet.

A good layer-up is a good layer-out.

A good maxim is never out of season.

A good name keeps its luster in the dark.

A good servant makes a good master.

A good word is as soon said as an ill one.

A goose cannot graze after him.

A great dowry is a bed full of troubles.

Agues come on horseback, but go away on foot.

A guilty conscience needs no accuser.

A hair of the dog that bit him.

A handful of good life is better than a bushel of learning.

A hungry man's an angry man.

A king's favor is no inheritance.

A libertine's life is not a life of liberty.

A lie has no legs, but scandal has wings.

A light-heeled mother makes a heavy-heeled daughter.

A light purse is a heavy curse.

A little body doth often harbor a great soul.

A iittle leak will sink a great ship.

A little pot is soon hot.

All are not friends that speak us fair.

All are not hunters that blow the horn.

All are not thieves that dogs bark at.

All feet tread not in one shoe.

All gone to sixes and sevens [confusion and ruin].

All is fish that comes to the net.

All is not gain that is got into the purse.

All is not gold that glitters.

All lay hold on the willing horse.

All the honesty is in the parting.

All the fat's in the fire.

AIJ things are soon prepared in a well-ordered house.

All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

Almost and very nigh, save many a lie.

Always put the saddle on the right horse.

A man forewarned is forearmed.

A man may buy gold too dear.

A man may cause his own dog to bite him.

A man may hold his tongue in an ill time.

A man may lose his goods for want of demanding them.

A man must ask his wife leave to thrive.

A man never surfeits of too much honesty.

A man without reason is a beast in season.

A miss is as good as a mile.

An apple, an egg, and a nut, you may eat after a slut.

An empty purse fills the face with wrinkles.

An evil lesson is soon learned.

Anger dieth quickly with a good man.

An honest man's word is as good as his bond.

An hour in the morning is worth two in the afternoon.

A nice wife and a backdoor often make a rich man poor.

An idle brain is the devil's workshop.

An oak is not felled with one blow.

An obedient wife commands her husband.

A nod from a lord is a breakfast for a fool.

An old knave is no babe.

An old sack asketh much patching.

An otmce of mother wit is worth a pound of clergy.

Antiquity is not always a mark of verity.

An unlawful oath is better broke than kepi.

Anything for a quiet life.

A penny saved is a penny earned.

A pin a day is a groat a year.

A pitcher goes often to the well, but is broken at last.

A quiet conscience sleeps in thunder.

A quiet tongue shows a wise head.

A rolling stone gathers no moss.

A rotten apple injures its companions.

A rotten sheep infects the whole flock.

A single fact is worth a ship-load of argument,

A small pack becomes a small peddler.

A steall spark makes a great fire.

A smart reproof is better than smooth deceit.

A spur in the head is worth two in the heel.

As the bell is, so is the clapper.

As the crow is, the egg will be.

As the fool thinks the bell clinks.

As the old cock crows, the young cock learns.

A stitch in time saves nine.

As welcome as flowers in May.

As you make your bed, so must you lie on it.

As you sow, so you shall reap.

A tree is known by its fruit.

A wager is a fool's argument.

A willful man will have his way.

A willing mind makes a light foot.

A word before is worth two behind.

Aye be as merry as you can.

Bachelors' wives and maids' children are always well taught.

Beauty is a blossom.

Beauty is no inheritance.

Before thou marry, be sure of a house wherein to tarry.

Beggars have no right to be choosers.

Be it for better, or be it for worse, be ruled by him that beareth the

purse.
Be not too hasty to outbid another.
Be slow to promise, and quick to perform.
Better do it than wish it done.
Better go around than fall into the ditch.
Better known than trusted.
Better late than never.

Better ride on an ass that carries me, than a horse that throws me.
Better to be alone than in bad company.
Better to be beaten than to be in bad company.
Better to bend than to break.

Better to go to bed supjjerless than to rise in debt.
Between two stools we come to the ground.
Birds of a feather flock together.
Birth is much, but breeding is more.
Borrowed garments never fit well.
Brag is a good dog, but Holdfast is better.
Bread at pleasure, drink by measure.
Brevity is the soul of wit.

Building and marrying of children are great wasters.
Burning the candle at both ends.
Business is the salt of life.
Buy at a market, but sell at home.
By others' faults wise men correct their own.
" Can do," is easily carried".
Care killed a cat.
Carrying coals to Newcastle.
Catch not at the shadow, and lose the substance.
Catch the bear before you sell his skin.
Change of fortune is the lot of life.
Charity begins at home, but does not end there.
Cheating play never thrives.
Children and chickens must be always picking.
Children are uncertain comforts.
Children suck the mother when they are young, and the father when

they are old.

f^ —

512

PROVERBS AND OLD SAYINGS.

Climb not too high, lest the fall be the greater.

Confession of a fault makes half amends for it.

Confine your tongue, lest it confine you.

Conscience is never dilatory in her warnings.

Conscience is the chamber of justice.

Constant occupation prevents temptation.

Content is the true philosopher's stone.

Contentment to the mind is as light to the eye.

Conviviality should ever be free from intemperance.

Courtesy on one side never lasts long.

Covet not that which belongs to others.

Craft bringeth nothing home.

Custom is a second nature.

Cut and come again.

Cut your coat according to your cloth.

Daub yourself with honey, and you will have plenty of flies.

Death is deaf, and hears no denial.

Death keeps no calendar.

Debt is the worst kind of poverty.

Deeds are fruits, words are but leaves.

Deep rivers move with silent majesty, shallow brooks are noisy.

Defer not till the evening what the morning may accomplish.

Delays are dangerous.

Deliberate slowly, execute promptly.

Depend not on fortune, but on conduct.

Dependence is a poor trade to follow.

Deride not any man's infirmities.

Desires are nourished by delays.

Deserve success, and you shall command it.

Despise none, despair of none.

Diligence is the mistress of success.

Diseases are the interests paid for pleasures.

Do as the most do, and fewest will speak evil of you.*

Do as you would be done by.

Dogs wag their tails not so much in love to you as to your bread.

Doing nothing is doing ill.

Do not burn daylight upon it.

Do not halloo till you are out of the wood.

Do not make fish of one and flesh of another.

Do not rip up old sores.

Do not spur a free horse.

Do not throw your opinions in everybody's teeth.

Don't be all your days trotting in a cabbage leaf.

Don't buy a pig in a poke.

Don't measure other people's corn by your bushel.

Don't neglect to feather your nest.

Don't run away with more than you can carry.

Don't value a gem by what it is set in.

Do what thou oughtest,and come what can.

Down with the dust [pay with the money].

Drunkenness is a pair of spectacles to see the devil and all his works.

Drunkenness reduces a man below the standard of a brute.

Eagles fly alone, but sheep flock together.

Early to bed and early to rise.

Makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.
Eat what you like, but pocket nothing.
Empty vessels make the greatest sound.
Enough is as good as a feast.

Entertain honor with humility, and poverty with patience.
Evening oats are good morning's fodder.
Ever drunk ever dry.
Ever spare and ever have.
Every bean has its black.
Every dog hath his day.
Everybody's business is nobody's business.
Every couple is not a pair.
Every herring must hang by its own head.
Every Jack has his Jill.
Every man is the architect of his own fortune.

* In most cases this would be a bad advice.

Every one for himself, and God for us all.

Every one puts his fault on the times.

Every one to his liking, as the old woman said when she kissed her

cow.
Every path hath a puddle.
Every shoe fits not every foot.
Everything hath an end, and a pudding hath two.
Everything is good in its season.
Everything is the worse for wearing.
Example teaches more than precept.
Experience is the mother of science.
Experience teaches fools.
Evil communications corrupt good manners.
Evil gotten, evil spent.
Faint heart never won fair lady.
Fair and softly go far in a day.
Fair words make fools fain.
Fall not out with a friend for a trifle.
False friends are worse than open enemies.
Fancy may bolt bran and think it flour.
Far-fetched and dear-bought is good for ladies.
Fat paunches make lean pates.
Fat sorrow is better than lean sorrow.
Few take care to live well, but many to live long.
Fiddler's fare — meat, drink, and money.
Fine feathers make fine birds.
Fine words butter no parsnips.
Fire and water are good servants, but bad masters.
Fire is not to be quenched with tow.
First deserve and then desire.
Fly pleasure and it will follow thee.
Fools make feasts, and wise men eat them.
Fools should never see half-done work.
Fools tie knots, and wise men loose them.
Fools will be meddling.
Forebearance is no acquittance.
Forgive and forget.
Forgive any sooner than thyself.
Fortune favors the brave.
Fortune has no power over discretion.
Fortune knocks once at least at every man's gate.
For want of company, welcome trumpery.
From fame to infamy is a beaten road.
Gather thistles except prickles.

Gentry sent to market will not buy one bushel of corn.
Get thy spindle and distaff ready, and God will send flax
Give a dog an ill name and hang him.
Give a rogue rope enough, and he will hang himself.
Give it plenty of elbow grease [hard rubbing].
Give the devil his due.
God help the rich, the poor can beg.
God helps those who help themselves.
God send you more wit, and me more money.
God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb.
Go farther and fare worse.
Good counsel is above all price.

Good harvests make men prodigal, bad ones provident.
Good to be merry at meat.
Good ware makes quick markets.
Good wine needs no bush.
Good words cost nothing, but are worth much.
Goods are not theirs who enjoy them.
Gossiping and lying go hand in hand.
Grasp all, lose all.
Great barkers are no biters.
Great cry and little wool.

Great gain and little pain make a man soon weary.
Half a loaf is better than no bread.
Handsome is that handsome does.
Happy is he whose friends were born before him.
Happy is he who knows his follies in his youth.
Happy is the wooing that is not long in doing.

PROVERBS AND OLD SAYINGS.

— %

5'3 I

Harm watch, harm catch.

Hasty resolutions seldom speed well.

Have not thy cloak to make when it begins to rain.

Hear twice before you speak once.

He dances well to whom fortune pipes.

He doubles his gift who gives in time.

He fights with his own shadow.

He giveth twice that gives in a trice.

He has a bee in his bonnet.

He has brought his noble to ninepence.

He has had a bit upon his bridle.

He is a wise man who speaks little. ^

He is proper that hath proper conditions.

He knows not a B from a bull's foot.

He knows not a hawk from a hand-saw.

He lacks most that longs most.

Hell is paved with good intentions.

Help the lame dog over the stile.

He liveth long that liveth well.

He'll find some hole to creep out at.

He loses nothing for the asking.

He loseth his thanks who promiseUi and delayeth.

He loseth nothing that keeps God for his friend.

He loves roast meat well that licks the spit.

He may well be contented who needs neither borrow nor flatter.

He must needs run whom the devil drives.

He must stoop that hath a low door.

He plays well that wins.

He's a Jack in office.

He's gone upon a sleeveless errand.

He that always complains is never pitied.

He that blows in the dust fills his eyes.

He that falls in an evil cause, falls in the devil's frying-pan.

He that goes a-borrowing goes a-sorrowing.

He that has no shame has no conscience.

He that has no silver in his purse should have silver on his tongue.

He that hath a good harvest may be content with some thistles.

He that is angry is seldom at ease.

He that is warm thinks all are so.

He that lendeth looseth double. [Loses both his money and his friend.]

He that licks honey from thorns pays too dear for it.

He that lies down with dogs, must expect to rise with fleas.

He that lives not well one year sorrows for it seven.

He that liveth wickedly can hardly die honestly.

He that reckons without his host must reckon again.

He that runs fast will not run long.

He that runs in the night stumbles.

He that plants not corn sows thistles.

He that stays in the valley will never get over the hill.

He that will not be saved needs no preacher.

He that will not be counseled cannot be helped.

He that will steal an egg will steal an ox.

He that would thrive must rise at five; he that has thriven may lie till

seven.
He was bom with a silver spoon in his mouth.
He who is hasty fishes in an empty pond.
He who knows himself best esteems himself least.
He who lies long in bed his estate feels it.
He who marries for wealth doth sell his liberty.
He who rises late never does a good day's work.
He who runs after a shadow has a wearisome race.
He who sows brambles must not go barefoot.
He who spends all he gets is in the highroad to beggary.
He who swims in sin will sink in sorrow.
He who would catch fish must not mind getting wet.
He who would reap well must sow well.
Hiders are good finders.
His bread is buttered on both sides.
His eye is bigger than his belly.
His tongue's no slander.
Home is home though it be evei so homely.
Hope is a g»od breakfast but a bad supper.

Hot love is soon cold.

Hot sup, hot swallow.

Humility is the foundation of all virtue.

Hunger is the best sauce.

Hungry dogs eat dirty puddings.

I can see as far into a millstone as the picker.

Idle folks have the most labor.

Idle folks have the least leisure.

Idleness is the greatest prodigality.

Idleness is the parent of want and shame.

Idleness is the root of all evil.

Idleness is the sepulchre of a living man.

If every one would mend one, all would be amended.

If the brain plants not corn, it sows thistles.

If the cap fit, wear it.

If the mountain will not come to Mahomet, Mahomet must go to the

mountain.
If things were to be done twice, all would be wise.
If we subdue not our passions, they will subdue us.
If wishes were horses, beggars would ride.
If you give an inch, he will take an ell.

If you have too many irons in the fire, some of them will bum.
If you would enjoy the fruit, pluck not the flower.
Ignorance is the parent of many injuries.
I have a crow to pluck with you.
I have lived too near a wood to be frightened by owls.
I have other fish to fry.
I'll trust him no farther than I can fling him.
Ill examples are like contagious diseases.
Ill gotten goods seldom prosper.
Ill news travel apace.

Ill wedding and ill wintering tame both man and beast.
Ill weeds grow apace.
In a calm sea every man is a pilot.
In at one ear and out at the other.
In vain he craves advice that will not follow it.
Inconstancy is the attendant of a weak mind.
It costs more to revenge injuries than to bear them.
It cuts both ways, like a two-edged sword.
It is a bad horse that refuses to carry his provender.
It is a long road that has no turning.
It is an ill wind that blows nobody good.
It is better to do well than to say well.
It is good to begin well, but better to end well.
It is less painful to learn in youth than to be ignorant in age.
It is never too late to learn.
It is no small conquest to overcome yourself.
It is not the cowl that maketh the friar.
It's a bad cause that none dare speak in.
It's a bad sack will abide no clouting.
It's a good horse that never stumbles.
It's poor sport that's not worth the candle.
It's a sad heart that never rejoices.
It's a wise child that knows its own father.
It's an ill procession where the devil holds the candle.
It's easy to bowl down hill.
It's ill healing an old sore.
It's ill shaving against the wool.
It's merry in the hall when beards wag all.
It's more painful to do nothing than something.
It's not the gay coat makes the gentleman.
It's possible for a ram to kill a butcher.

It's wit to pick a lock and steal a horse, but wisdom to let them alone.
Jack Nokes and Tom Stiles.
Jack of all trades and master of none.
Jesting lies bring serious sorrows.
Judge not of a ship as she lies on the stocks.
Judge not of men or things at first sight.
Keep a thing seven years and you will find a use for it.
Keep counsel thyself first.

Keep good men company, and you shall be of the number.
Keep no more cats than will catch mice.

i 514

PROVERBS AND OLD SAYINGS.

4r-

Keep the bowels open, the head cool, and the feet warm, and a fig for
physicians.

Keep thy shop, and thy shop will keep thee.

Keep your tongue within your teeth.

Kill two birds with one stone.

Kindness is lost upon an ungrateful man.

Kindness, like grain, increases by sowing.

Kissing goes by favor.

Knavery may serve a turn, but honesty is best in the end.

Land was never lost for want of an heir.

Lazy folks take the most pains.

Least said is soonest mended.

Lend thy horse and thou mayest have back his skin.

Let every peddler carry his own burden.

Let every tub stand on its own bottom.

Let not your tongue cut your throat.

Let sleeping dogs lie.

Let the cobbler stick to his last.

Let them laugh that win.

Life is half spent before we know what it is.

Life without a friend is death without a witness.

Light come, light go.

Lips however rosy must be fed.

Little and often fills the purse.

Little boats must keep near shore.

Little pitchers have great ears.

Little sticks kindle the fire, but great ones put it out.

Live and let live.

Live not to eat, but eat to live.

Lowly set, richly worn.

Lock the stable door when the steed is stolen.

Long looked-for comes at last.

Look before you leap.

Look to the main chance.

Look twice ere you determine once.

Lookers-on see more than players.

Losers are always in the wrong.

Love asks faith, and faith asks firmness.

Love me, love my dog.

Lovers live by love as larks by leeks. [Ironical.]

Lucky men need little counsel.

Make a virtue of necessity.

Make hay while the sun shines.

Make not your sail too large for your ship.

Make the best of a bad bargain.

Making a toil of a pleasure.

Man doth what he can and God what he will.

Man proposes, God disposes.

Manners often make fortunes.

Many a slip betwixt the cup and the lip.

Many a true word is sp)oken in jest.

Many can pack the cards that cannot play.

Many go out for wool and come home shorn.

Many hands make light work.

Many words will not fill the bushel.

Marry in haste and repent at leisure.

Marry you' sons when you will, your daughters when you can.

Mills and wives are ever wanting.

Mischiefs come by the pound and go away by the ounce.

Misfortunes seldom come alone.

Misreckoning is no payment.

Modesty is the handmaid of virtue.

Money makes the mare to go.

Money will do more than my lord's letter.

More afraid than hurt.

Much is expected where much is given.

Much water goes by the mill the miller knows not of.

Much would have more and lost all.

Muffled cats are bad mousers.

Murder will out.
My son is my son till he gets him a wife.
But my daughter's my daughter all the days of her life.

Necessity is the mother of invention.

Neither praise nor dispraise thyself ; thine actions serve the turn.

Never carry two faces under one hood.

Never fall out with your bread and butter.

Never find anything before it is lost.

Never fish in troubled waters.

Never light your candle at both ends.

Never look a gift horse in the mouth.

Never make a mountain of a mole-hill.

Never quit certainty for hope.

Never ride a free horse to death.

Never sound the trumpet of your own praise

Never split against the grain.

Never tread on a sore toe.

Never trust to a broken staff.

Never venture out of your depth till you can swim.

Never wade in unknown waters.

New brooms sweep clean.

New lights often come through cracks in the ceiling.

New lords, new laws.

Next to love, quietness.

No alchemy is equal to saving.

No man can serve two masters.

No man should live like a toad under a harrow.

No mill, no meal.

None are so deaf as those that will not hear

None knows the weight of another's burden.

None so olind as those who will not see.

No pot is so ugly as not to find a cover.

No receiver, no thief.

No rose without a thorn.

Nothing comes out of the sack but what was in it.

Nothing dries sooner than tears.

Nothing down nothing up.

Nothing is impossible to a willing mind.

Nothing venture nothing win.

Of all studies, study your present condition.

Of all the crafts to be an honest man is the master craft.

Of all prodigality, that of time is the worst.

Of two evils choose the least.

Old bees yield no honey.

Old birds are not to be caught with chaff.

Old friends and old wines are best.

Old friends to meet, old wine to drink, and old wood to burn.

Old reckonings breed new disputes.

One bad example spoils many good precepts.

One barber shaves not so close but another finds work.

One eye-witness is better than ten hearsays.

One flower makes no garland.

One good turn deserves another.

One half the world knows not how the other half lives.

One hour's sleep before midnight is worth two after.

One is not so soon healed as hurt.

One man may steal a horse, when another may not look over the hedge.

One man's meat is another's poison.

One nail drives out another.

One never loses by doing a good turn.

One ounce of discretion is worth a pound of wit.

One scabbed sheep will mar a flock.

One swallow makes not a spring, nor one woodcock a winter.

One tale is good till another is told.

Open rebuke is better than secret hatred.

Opportunity makes the thief.

Opportunities neglected are irrecoverable.

Our own opinion is never wrong.

Out of debt, out of danger.

Out of sight, out of mind.

Out of the frying-pan into the fire.

Passion is a fever that leaves us weaker than it finds us.

Passion is ever the enemy of truth.

Patience and time run through the longest day.

Patience is a flower that grows not in every one's garden.

Patience is a plaster for all sores.

Pay as you go.

Penny wise and pound foolish.

People who live in glass houses should never throw stones.

Perfection is the point at which all should aim.

Petulant contentions engender malice.

Plain dealing's a jewel.

Positive men are most often in error.

Possession is nine points of the law.

Poverty makes a man acquainted with strange bedfellows.

Poverty parts friends.

Praise a fair day at night.

Praise the sea but keep on land.

Prevention is bettter than cure.

Prettiness dies quickly.

Pride of hear*, foreruns destruction.

Pride will have a fall.

Procrastination is the thief of time.

Promise little and do much.

Promises are too much like pie-crust.

Provide for the worst ; the best will save itself.

Pry not into the affairs of others.

Pull hair and hair, and you'll make the carle bald.

Put no faith in tale-bearers.

Quick at meat, quick at work.

Quick resentments are often fatal.

Quick returns make rich merchants.

Quit not certainty for hope.

Raise no more spirits than you can conjure down.

Ratify p-"mises by performances.

Ready money will away.

Reckless youth makes rueful age.

Remove an old tree and it will wither.

Rome was not built in a day.

Rule the appetite and temper the tongue.

Safe bind, safe find.

Sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander.

Saving at the spigot and spending at the bung.

Say no ill of the year till it be past.

Saying and doing are two things.

Search others for their virtues, thyself for thy faults.

See a beggar and catch a louse.

Seeing is believing.

Seek till you find, and you'll not lose your labor.

Seldom seen, soon forgotten.

Self-preservation is the first law of nature.

Set a thief to take a thief.

Shameless craving must have shameless way.

Sharp stomachs make short graces.

She shows many more airs than graces.

Show me a liar, and I will show you a thief.

Short reckonings make long friends.

Silence does seldom any harm.

Silks and satins put out the fire in the kitchen.

Sit in your place and none will make you rise.

Sleep without supper and wake without owing.

Sloth is the mother of pioverty.

Soldiers in peace are like chimneys in summer.

Soon ripe, soon rotten.

Soon well, long ill.

Sooner said than done.

Sorrow will pay no debt.

Sour grapes, as the fox said when he could not reach tbrai.

Spare well and sp>end well.

Spare when you are young, and spend when you ars o'a.

Speak the truth and shame the devil.

Speech is the gift of all, but thought of few.

Stars are not seen by sunshine.

Stick your opinions on no person's sleeve.

Stretch your legs according to your coverlet.

Strike while the iron is hot.

Study to be worthy of your parents.

Such a welcome, such a farewell.

Such as the tree is, such is the fruit.

Take care of the pence, and the pounds will take care of themselves.

Take heed of an ox before, an ass behind, and a knave on all sides.

Take heed will surely speed

Take the will for the deed.

Take time by the forelock.

Talk of the devil and he'll appear.

Talking pays no toll.

Tell me the company you keep, and I'll tell you what you are.

Temjjerance is the best physic.

That is well spoken that is well taken.

That penny is well spent that saves a groat.

That's placing the cart before the horse.

That was laid on with a trowel.

The absent party is still faulty.

The ass that brays most eats least.

The best physicians are Dr. Diet, Dr. Quiet, and Dr. Merryman.

The better day, the better deed.

The blind man's wife needs no painting.

The cobbler's wife is the worst shod.

The comforter's head never aches.

The covetous man is his own tormentor.

The crow thinks her own bird the fairest.

The devil is not as black as he is painted.

The devil was sick, the devil a monk would be ;

The devil grew well, the devil a monk was he.
The end of a feast is better than the beginning of a fray.
The eye of the master does more work than both his bands.
The farthest way about is often the nearest way home.
The faulty stands on his g^ard.
The foremost dog catches the hare.
The galled jade will wince.

The goodness of a pudding is known in the eating.
The gray mare is the better horse.
The greatest burdens are not the gainfullest.
The greatest strokes make not the best music.
The greatest wealth is contentment with little.
The groat is ill saved that shames the master.
The guilty mind needs no accuser.
The handsomest flower is not the sweetest.
The hasty hand catches frogs for fish.

The hastiest man that is must wait while his drink is drawini^
The highway is never about.
The highest branch is not the safest roost.
The hotter war the sooner peace.
The last drop makes the cup run over.
The last suitor wins the maid.
The lion's skin is never cheap.
The longest day must have an end.
The market is the best garden.
The married man must turn his staff into a stake.
The mill cannot grind with the water that is past.
The mob has many heads but no brains.
The more noble the more humble.
The more the merrier, the fewer the better cheer.
The more you heap, the worse you keep.
The nearer the church the farther from God.
The offender never pardons.
The path of virtue is the path of peace.
The rat which has but one hole is soon caught.
The receiver is as bad as the thief.
The still sow sucks the most wash.
The sweetest wine makes the sharpest vinegar.
There is a tide in the affairs of men, which taken at the flood leads oa

to fortune.
There is luck in leisure.
There is reason in roasting eggs.
There's a salve for every sore.
There's no compassion like the penny.
There's no fool like an old fool.
There's no general rule without an excepticm.

^ 516

PROVERBS AND OLD SAYINGS.

■^

There's no joy without alloy.

The table robs more than the thief.

The truest jests sound worst in guilty ears.

The truth may be blamed but not shamed.

The weakest must go to the wall.

The wearer best knows where the shoe pinches him.

There would be no ill language if it were not ill taken.

There would not be great ones if there were no little.

They love too much that die for love.

They must hunger in frost, that will not work in heat

They need much whom nothing will content.

Think of ease, but work on.

Those who live longest will see most.

Those who play with edged tools must expect to be cut.

Threatened folks live long.

Time and tide stay for no man.

Time is a file that wears and makes no noise.

Timely blossom, timely fruit.

'Tis the second blow that makes the fray. ^

To a child all weather is cold.

To a crazy ship all winds are contrary.

To be hail fellow well met with one. [In good fellowship.]

To be in a merry pin.

To dine with Duke Humphry. [To go without dinner.]

To err is human, to forgive divine.

To find a mare's nest. [To discover something already well known-]

To give and keep there is need of wit.

To go through thick and thin. [Stick at nothing.]

To go to pot.

To have nothing but one's labor for one's pains.

To have the law in one's own hand .

To have two strings to one's bow.

To kill two birds with one stone.

To laugh in one's sleeve.

To leave a morsel for the Duke of Rutland. [That is — to leave it

for the sake of manners. Manners being the family surname of the

Duke of Rutland.]
Too many cooks spoil the broth .
Too much familiarity breeds contempt.
To play the dog in the manger. [Not to eat yourself nor let anybody

else.]
To put one's nose out of joint.
To rob Peter to pay Paul.
To seek a needle in a bottle of hay.
To send one away with with a flea in his ear. [In a state of trepidation

and astonishment.]
To set up one's staff of rest. [To propose to abide in a place.]
To stand in one's own light.
To starve in a cook-shop.
To strain at a gnat and swallow a camel.
To take a wrong sow by the ear.
To tell tales out of school .

To throw the helve after the hatchet. [Giving up a thing in despair.]
To twist a rope of sand.
Trade is the mother of money.
Tread on a worm and it will turn.
Trim-tram, like master, like man.
True praise takes root and spreads.
Truth has always a fast bottom.
Two heads are better than one.
Two of a trade seldom agree.
Two swallows do not make a summer.
Unknown, unmissed.
Unminded, unmoved.

Use the means and God will give the blessing.
Valor is worth little without discretion.
Valor that parleys is near yielding.
Venture a small fish to catch a great one.
Venture not all in one bottom.
War is death's feast.
Waste not, want not.
Wealth makes worship.

Welcome is the best cheer.

We must eat a peck of salt with a man before we know him.

We never know the worth of water till the well is dry.

What cannot be cured must be endured.

What is bred in the bone will not come out of the flesh.

What is got over the devil's back is spent under his belly.

What the eye sees not the heart rues not.

What the good wife spares the cat eats.

When a dog is drowning every one offers him water.

When all is consumed, repentance comes too late.

When fortune smiles on thee, take the advantage.

When many strike on an anvil, they strike by measure.

When poverty comes in at the door, love flies out at the window.

When rogues fall out, honest men get their own.

When sorrow is asleep, wake it not.

When the cat's away the mice play.

When the goodman's from home the goodwife's table is soon spread.

When wine's in wit's out.

When two Sundays meet. [Never.]

When you are at Rome, do as they do at Rome.

When we have gold we are in fear, when we have none we are in

danger.
When drink enters, wisdom departs.
Where much smoke is there must be some fire.
Where the carcass is, there the ravens will collect together.
Where the king is, there is the court.
Where the will is ready the feet are light.
Where there is a will there is always a way.
Write injuries in dust, but kindnesses in marble.
While the grass grows the cow starves.
While there's life there's hope.
Who dainties love shall beggars prove.
Who loseth his due getteth no thanks.
Who perisheth in needless danger is the devil's martyr.
Who spends more than he should, shall not have to spend whea iic

would.
Who spits against the wind spits in his own face.
Wide will wear, but narrow will tear.
Wilful waste makes woful want.
Wise men care not for what they cannot have.
Wisely and slow : they stumble who run fast.
Wool sellers know wool buyers.
Words may pass, but blows fall heavy.
Wranglers never want words.
York — every man pay his share.
You are busy as a hen with one chick.
You come like a godfather after the christening.
You can look at teeth and not be bitten.
You can't see green cheese but your teeth must water.
You cannot catch old birds with chaff.
You cannot eat your cake and have it also.
You cannot have blood out of a stone.
You cannot hide an eel in a sack.
You cannot kill a dog with a bone.
You cannot make a silk purse out of a sow's ear.
You cannot wash the blackamore white.
You need not grease a fat sow.
You taste the broth as soon as the meat is put in.

SCOTS PROVERBS.

517

^\ v- ^. ^ ". ." -V .'- -V «^ ". .^ -St .- -V .- ^. ." ". ." j^ jBt

BEGUN turn is half ended.

A bit is often better gi'en than eaten.

A blate cat makes a proud mouse.

A black hen lays a white egg.
^ A borrowed len' should gae laughing hame.
A fidging mare should be weel girded.
Affront your friend in daflfin', and tine him in earnest.
A fou man and a hungry horse aye mak haste hame.
A friend's dinner's soon dished.
Aft ettle, whiles hit.
After a storm comes a calm .
A gi'en horse shouldna be looked i' the mouth.
A gi'en piece is soon eaten.
A greedy e'e ne'er gat a gude pennyworth.
A green Yule maks a fat kirk-yard.
A gude cause maks a strong arm.
A handfu' o' trade is worth a gowpen o' gowd.
A hantle cry murder, yet are aye uppermost.
A hasty man never wanted wae.
A hunger and a burst.

A kiss and a drink o' water mak but a poor breakfast. .
A man's weel or wae as he thinks himself sae.
Ane cannot wive and thrive baith in ae year.

Ane may lo'e a haggis, that wadna hae the bag thrown in his teeth.
Ane ne'er tines by doing guide.
An ilka-day braw makes a sabbath-day daw.
An ill shearer never got a gude huek.
An ill wife and a new-kindled candle should hae their heads hadden

down.
An inch o' gude fortune is worth a fathom o' forecast.
An inch o' a miss is as gude as a span.
A nod o' honest men is enough.
A pound o' care winna pay an ounce o' debt.
A rough bane makes a fou wame.
As dark as a Yule midnight.
As gude fish in the sea as e'er came out o't.
As gude may haud the stirrup as he that loups on.
A Scotch mist will wet an Englishman to the skin.
A sillerless man gangs fast through the marke''
A sorrowfu' heart is aye dry.
A' Stewarts are no sib to the king.
A tale never tines in the telling.
A tarrowing hen was never fat.
A tocherless dame sits lang at hame.
At open doors dogs gae ben.
A wee mouse can creep under a great corn stack.
A wee thing puts your beard in a bleeze.

A wight man ne'er wanted a weapon. •

A wilfu' man should be unco wise.
Auld men are twice bairns.
Auld sparrowsAre ill to tame.
Auld springs gie nae price.

Bairns speak in the field what they hear in the ha'.
Bargain is bargain.

Be a friend to yoursel, and others will.
Bear and forbear is gude philosophy.
Bear wealth weel, f)oortith will bear itsel.
Be aye the same thing you would be ca'd.
Be lang sick that ye may be soon hale.

Best to be oft with the old love before we be on with the new.
Be thou weel, be thou wae, thou wilt not be aye sae.
Better a bit in the morning than fast a' day.

Better a finger off than aye wagging.

Better a tocher in her than on her.

Better a toom house than an ill tenant.

Better a wee bush than nae bield.

Better a wee fire to warm you than a big fire to burn you

Better be blithe wi' little than sad wi' naething.

Better buy than borrow.

Better lang something than soon naething.

Better skaith saved than mends made.

Better sma' fish than nane.

Better to haud than draw.

Better wear shoon than wear sheets.

Blind men shouldna judge o' colors.

Bode for a silk gown and ye'll get a sleeve o't.

Broken bread makes hale bairns.

Burning a halfpenny candle seeking a farthing.

Burnt bairns dread the fire.

By chance a cripple may catch a hare.

Cadgers have aye mind of lade saddles.

Canny stretch, soon reach.

Carrying saut to Dysart.

Cast a bane in a diel's teeth.

Cast not a clout till May be out.

Castna out the dowed water till ye get the fresh.

Cauld cools the love that kindles ower het.

Change your friend ere you hae need.

Cheatery kythes.

Cleanliness is nae pride, dirt's nae honesty.

Come unci, d sits unserved.

Come wi' thi wind and gang wi' the water.

Confess and be hanged.

Confess debt and crave days.

Com him weel, he'll work I better.

Count again is not forbidden

Count siller after a' your kin.

Courtesy is cumbersome to him who kens it a.

Covetousness brings naething hame.

Craft maun hae claes, but truth gaes naked.

Credit is better than ill luck.

Credit is better than ill-won gear.

Credit keeps the crown o' the causey.

Credit lost is like a broken glass.

Daffin and want o' wit maks auld wives donart.

Dame, deem warily, yet watna wha wytes yourseL

Darning and laving is good sure fishing.

Daughters and dead fish are nae keeping ware.

Dawted bairns dow bear little.

Daylight will peep through a sma' hole.

Deal sma' an' serve a'.

Death and marriage break term-day.

Death at ae door and hardship at the othe

Deil be in the house that ye're beguiled in.

Deil stick pride, for my dog died o't.

Ding down the nest, and the rooks will flee away.

Dinna cast awa' the cog when the cow flings.

Dirt bodes luck.

Dinna gut your fish till ye get them.

Do as the lasses do, say Na, an' tak it.

Dogs bark as they are bred.

Dogs an' bairns are aye fond o' fools.

Do not meddle wi' the diel an' the laird's bairns.

Do not touch him on the sair heel.

Dool an' ill life soon make an auld wife.

Double drinks are aye good for drowth.

Do weel an' doubt nae man, do ill an' doubt a' men.

Do weel an' hae weel.

Dows an' dominies leave aye a foul house.

Do your turn weel, an' nane will sf)eer what time ye took.

Draff he sought, but drink was his errand.

Dree out the inch when ye have tholed the span.

Drink and drowth come nae aye thegither.

Drink little that ye mSy drink lang.

■^

518

PROVERBS AND OLD SAYINGS.

kr-

Drive a cow to the ha', she'll run to the b3n-e.

Early birds catch the worms.

Early master, soon knave.

East or west, hame is best.

Easy learned, soon forgotten.

Easy learning the cat the road to the kirn.

Easy to that thine ain heart wills.

Easily working when will's at hame.

Eat in measure, an' defy the doctor.

Eat peas wi' a prince, an' cherries wi' a chapman.

Eat-weel's Drink-weel's brither.

Eating an' cleaning only require a beginning.

Eating and drinking puts awa the stamach.

Ell and tell is good merchandise.

Envy IS the rack of the soul and torture of the body.

Envy ne'er does a good turn but when it means an ill ane.

Even as you won it sae may you wear it.

Ever busy ever bear.

Every ane loups the dyke where it's laighest.

Every one to his trade, quoth the browster to the bishop.

Every bird thinks its ain nest best.

Every cock craws crousest on his ain midden head.

Every day's no Yule-day — cast the cat a castock.

Every fault has its fore.

Every flow has its ebb.

Every inch of joy has an ell of annoy.

Every man bows to the bush he gets bield frae.

Every man buckles his belt his ain gate.

Every man can guide an ill wife weel but him that has her.

Every man can tout best on his ain horn.

Every man has his ain draff pock.

Every man's tale's gude till anither's be tauld.

Every May-be hath a May-not be.

Every miller wad weise the water to his ain mill.

Every play maun be played, an' some maun be the players.

Fair words brake na banes, foul words mony.

Fancy flees before the wind.

Far-awa fowls hae fair feathers.

Farther east the shorter west.

Fause folk should hae mony witnesses.

Fausehood makes ne'er a fair hinder-end.

Favor unused is favor abused.

Fill fu' an' baud fu', that makes a man stark.

Flaes an' a girning wife are waukrife bed-fellows.

Flee ne'er so fast, your fortune will be at your tail

Fleeing a bird is not the way to grip it.

Fling-at-the-goad was ne'er a gude ox.

Flitting o' farms mak matlens dear.

Fools are aye fond o' flitlin'.

Fools are aye seeing ferlies.

Fool's haste is nae speed.

Fools laugh at their ain sport.

Fools set far trysts.

Fools shouldna hae chappin' -sticks.

For fashion's sake, as dogs gang to the marke

For want of a steek a shoe may be tint.

Forbid a fool a thing, an' that he will do.

Frae saving comes having.

Fresh fish and poor friends grow soon ill-faured.

Friends are like fiddle strings, they maunna be screwed ower tight.

Friends gree best at a distance.

Friendship canna stand aye on ae side.

Fry stanes wi' butter, and the broe will be gude.

Gathering gear is a pleasant pain.

Gaily wad be better.

Gear is easier gotten than guided.

Grentle partans hae lang taes.

Gentle servants are f)oor men's tinsel.

Get weel, keep weel.

Gie a bairn its will an' a whelp its fill, and neither will do weel.

Gie your tongue mair holidays than your head.

GifE-gaff maks gude friends.

Glasses and lasses are brittle ware.

Glowering's no gainsaying.

God ne'er sent the mouth but he sent the meat wi't.

God send water to that well that folk think will ne'er rin dry.

God shapes the back for the burden.

Good wine makes a bad head and a lang story.

Gratitude is a heavy burden.

Great comfort is like ready gold in need.

Greedy folks hae lang arms.

Griening wives are aye greedy.

Guessed work's best if weel done.

Gude advice is ne'er out o' season.

Gude ale needs nae wisp.

Gude bairns are eith to lear.

Gude breeding and siller mak our sons gentlemen.

Gude claes open a' doors.

Gude company on a journey is worth a coach.

Gude gear's not to be gapped.

Gude fishing in drumly water.

Gude folk are scarce, take care o' ane.

Gude forecast fathers the wark.

Gude health is better than wealth.

Gude kail is half meat.

Gude watch prevents harm.

Gude will ne'er wants time to show itsel.

Gude will should be ta'en in part payment.

Gudely cow, gawsy calf.

Hae, gars a deaf man hear.

Hand-in-use is father o' lear.

Hang a thief when he's young, an' he'll no steal when he's auld.

Hang hunger an' drown drouth.

Hankering an' hinging-on is a poor trade.

Happy the wife that's married to a motherless son.

He can hide his meat and seek mair.

He can say Jo, and think it no.

He can see an inch before his nose.

He cares na wha's bairns greet if his laugh.

He comes oftener wi' the rake than the shool.

He complains early that complains of his kain.

He doesna ken what end o' him's uppermost.

He doesna aye ride when he saddles.

He doesna like his wark that says now when it's done.

He eats the calf i" the cow's wame.

He gangs awa in an ill time that ne'er comes again.

He gangs lang barefoot that wears dead men's shoon.

He girns like a sheep-head in a pair o' tangs. ^

He has a coup for a' corn.

He has a gude judgment that doesna lippen to his ain.

He has a hearty hand for gieing a hungry mealtith.

He has a slid grip that has an eel by the tail.

He has been rowed in his mither's sark tail.

He has brought his pocket to a braw market.

He has come to gude by misguiding.

He has coosten his cloak on his ither shoulder.

He has coupit the meikle pot into the little.

He has faut o' a wife that marries mam's pet.

He has feathered his nest, he may flee when he likes.

He has»gotten the whip hand of him.

He has lain on his wrang side.

He has licked the butter off my bread.

He has mair wit in his little finger than ye hae in a' your bouk.

He has muckle prayer but little devotion.

He has some wit, but a fool hath the grinding o't.

He has the best end of the string.

He has wit at will that wi' an angry heart can sit still.

He has't o' kind, he coft it not.

He hears wi' his heel, as geese do in harvest.

He kens his ain goats among ither folk's kail.

He kens whilk side his cake is buttered on.

He'll gie you the whistle o' your groat.

He'll have eneugh some day, when his mouth's fu' o' mools.

He'll mak an ill runner that canna gang.

-S5

SCOTS PROVERBS.

519

He*n mead when he grows better, like sour ale in summer.

He'll neither dance nor baud the candle.

He'll no gie an inch o' his will for a span o' his thrift.

He'll no let grass grow at his heels.

He'll no sell his hen on a rainy day.

He'll soon be a beggar that canna say No.

He'll tell it to nae mair than he meets.

He lo'ed mutton weal that licked where the ewe lay.

He lo'es me for little that hates me for nought.

He looks like the far end of a French fiddle.

He maun be soon up that cheats the tod.

He maun hae leave to speak that canna baud his tongue.

He may find fault that canna mend.

He needs a long spoon that sups wi' the deil.

He ne'er did a gude darg that gaed grumbling about it.

He reads his sin in his punishment.

He rides sicker that never fa's.

He's a fool that forgets himsel.

He's a fool that marries at Yule ; for when the bairn's to bear, the corn's
to shear.

He's a hawk of a right nest.

He's a man of a wise mind that of a foe can mak a friend.

He's a proud cook that maunna lick his ain fingers.

He's a proud fox that winna scrape his ain hole.

He's a silly chiel that can neither do nor say.

He's a worthless guidman that's no miss'd.

He's as welcome as water in a riven ship.

He's horn deaf on that side o' the head.

He should sit close that has riven breeks.

He sleeps as dogs do when wives sift meal.

He's like a flae in a blsmket.

He's like the singet cat, better than he's likely.

He's no the best wright that casts maist spalls.

He's no sae daft as he lets on.
" He's ower soon up that's hanged e'er noon.

He's poor eneugh that's ill lo'ed.

He's sairest dung that's paid wi' his ain wand.

He starts at straes, and lets windlins gae.

He's the gear that winna traik.

He's imco f u' in his ain house that canna pick a bane in his neighbor's.

He's weel worthy o' sorrow that buys it.

He'sweel boden there ben, that will neither borrow nor len'.

He's wise that's timely wary.

He's worth nae weel that can bide nae wae.

He that blaws best let him beat the horn.

He that buys nuts buys shells, but he that buys gude ale buysnaething

else.
He that canna mak sport should mar nane.
He that cheats me ance, shame fa' him ; if he cheat me twice, shame

fa' me.
He that counts a' costs will ne'er put plough i' the ground.
He that deals in dirt has aye foul fingers.
He that does you an ill turn will ne'er forgie you.
He that forcasts a' perils will win nae worship.
He that fa's a gutter, the langer he lies the dirtier he is.
He that fishes before the net, fishes lang or he fish get.
He that gets, forgets, but he that wants thinks on.
He that gets gear before he gets wit, will die e'er he thrive.
He that has a mickle nose thinks'iUc ane speaks o't.
He that has but ae e'e maun tent that weel.
He that has mickle wad aye hae mair.
He that has nae gear to tine may hae shins to pine.
He that has twa hoards will get a third.
He that keeks through a hole may see what will vex him.
He that lends his pot may seethe his kail in his loof.
He that looks to freets, freets will follow him.
He that rides or he be ready, wants aye some o' his graitb.
He that's aught the cow gangs nearest the tail.
He that's ill to himsel will be gude to naebody.
He that seeks motes gets motes.
He that shows his purse bribes the thief.
He that speers all opinions comes ill speed.

He that steals can hide too.

He that tholes overcomes.

He that will cheat in play winna be honest in earnest.

He that will not tole maun flit mony a hole.

He that will to Cupar maun to Cupar.

He that winna when he may, shanna when he wad.

He that would eat the kimal maun crack the nut.

He wad gang a mile to flit a sow.

He wad gar you trow that the moon's made o' gfreen cheese.

He wad tine his lugs if they were not tacked to him.
. He was mair fleyed than hurt.

He was scant o' news that tauld his father was hanged.

He was the bee that made the honey.

He winna send you awa' wi' a sair heart.

Highlanders — shoulder to shoulder.

I canna sell the cow an' sup the milk.

I hae mair to do than a dish to wash.

I ken by my cog my cow's milked.

If ae sheep loup the dyke, aye the rest will follow.

If the deil be laird, ye'U be tenant.

If the deil find you idle, he'll set you to wark.

If the lift fa' the laverocks will be smoored.

If you win at that, you'll lose at naething.

If ye sell your purse to your wife, gie her your breeks to the bargain.

Ill bairns are aye best heard at hame.

Ill bairns aye get broken brows.

Ill beef ne'er made gude broe.

Ill comes upon waur's back.

Ill counsel will gar a man stick his ain mare.

Ill doers are aye idle dreaders.

Ill getting het water frae 'neath cauld ice.

Ill hearing maks wrang rehearsing.

lU herds mak fat foxes.

Ill laying up maks mony thieves.

Ill payers are aye gude cravers.

Dl will ne'er spak weel.

El-won gear winna enrich the third heir.

Ill workers are aye gude onlookers.

I'll ne'er brew drink to treat drunkards.

I'll ne'er keep a cow when I can get milk sae cheap.

I'll ne'er keep a dog and bark mysel.

I'll ne'er lout sae laigh and lift sae little.

I'll ne'er put the rogue aboon the gentleman.

I'll rather strive wi' the lang rigg than the ill neighbor.

I'll serve ye when ye hae least to do.

I'll tak the best first, as the priest did o' the pliuns.

I might bring a better speaker frae hame than you. ^ •*

I'm no every man's dog that whistles on me.

I'm no obliged to summer an' winter it wi' you.

I'm no sae blind as I'm blear-eyed.

I'm no sae scant o' clean pipes as to blaw wi' a burnt cutty.

I'm o'er auld a cat to draw a strae before.

I'm speaking o' hay and you o' horse com,

I ne'er sat on your coat-tail.

I think mair o' your kindness than it's a' worth.

It mavm be true what a' folks says.

It's a far cry to Lochaw.

It's a hard task to be poor and leal.

It's a mean mouse that has but ae hole.

It's a nasty bird that files it's ain nest.

It's a silly hen that canna scrape for ae bird.

It's an ill pack that's no worth the custom.

It's better to sup wi' a cutty than want a spoon.

It's by the head that the cow gies milk.

It's far to seek and ill to find.

It's gude baking beside the meal.

It's gude sleeping in a hale skin.

It's gude to be sib to siller.

It's glide gear that pleases the merchant.

It's gude to be in your time, ye kenna how lang it may last.

It's gude to dread the warst, the best will be the welcomer.

It's hard both to have and want.

520

PROVERBS AND OLD SAYINGS.

t's hard for a greed ye'e to have a leal heart.

t's hard to sit in Rome and strive wi' the pope.

t's ill bringing butt what's no ben.

t's ill sfjeaking between a fu' man and a fasting.

t's ill wared that wasters want.

t's kittle for the cheeks when the hurlbarrow gaes o'er the brig o' the

nose.

t's kittle shooting at corbies and clergy,
t's kittle to waken sleeping dogs,
t's lang before the deil be found dead at the dyke-side.
t's lang ere the deil dee.
t's nae laughing to gim in a widdy.
t's nae play when ane laughs and anither greets.
it's needless to p)our water on a drowned mouse.
t's no lost what a friend gets,
t's not what is she but what has she.
t's ower far between the kitchen an' the ha'.
t's ower late to spare when the back's bare.
t's past jouking when the head's aff.
t's stinking praise that comes out o' ane's ain mouth,
t's the best spoke in your wheel,
t's well that our faults are not written in our faces,
t was never for naething that the gleg whistled,
t will be feathered out o' your wing,
t will be lang ere ye wear to the knee lids.

wad be scant o' claith to sole my hose wi' dock

would rather see't than hear tell o't.

wadna be deaved wi' ye're keckling for a' your eggs.

wadna ca' the king my cousin.

wish you readier meat than a rinnin hare,
oke at leisure, you kenna wha may jibe yoursel.
ouk and let the jaw gang by.

Keep out o' his company that cracks o' his cheatery.
Keep something for a sore foot.
Keep the feast till the feast day.
Keep the staff in your ain hand.
Keep your ain fish guts to your ain sea-maws.
Keep your breath to cool your own porridge.
Keep your mouth shut and your e'en open.
Ken when to spend and when to spare, and ye needna be busy, and ye'U

ne'er be bare.
Ken yoursel, and your neighbor winna misken you.
Kend folk's nae company. ,

Kings and bears aft worry their keepers.
Kings' chaff's worth other folk's corn.
Kings' cheese gaes half way in parings.
Kings'hae lang hands.

Kindle a candle at baith ends, it will soon be done.
Kindness comes o' will, it canna be coft.
Kindness will creep where it canna gang.
Kiss a carle and clap a carle, that's the way to tine a carle.
Kythe in your ain colors, that folk may ken you.
Laith to bed and laith to rise.
Lang fasting gathers wind.
Lang fasting hains nae meat.

Lang standing and little offering maks a poor priest.
Lang straes are nae motes.
Laugh at leisure, ye may greet ere night.
Law's costly, tak a pint and gree.
Law makers shouldna be law breakers.
Lay the head o' the sow to the tail of the grice.
Lay your wame to your winning.
Leal heart never lied.

Learn the cat the road to the kirn, and she'll aye be lickin.
Learn you to an ill habit, and ye'll ca't custom.
Learn young, learn fair.

Let a' trades live, quoth the wife, when she brunt her bosom.
Let alane, maks mony a loon.
Let byganes be byganes. .
Let him cool in the skin he het in.
Let him tak a spring on his ain fiddle.
Let his ain wand ding him.

Let ilka ane soop before their ain door.

Let ilka sheep hang by its ain shank.

Let na the plough stand to kill a mouse.

Let the horns gang wi' the hide.

Let the mickle horse get the mickle windlin.

Let the tow gang wi' the bucket.

Let them care that come behind.

Let your meat dit your mouth.

Light burdens break nae banes.

Like a cow on an unco loan.

Like a sow playing on a trump.

Like butter in the black dog's hause.

Like hens, ye rin aye to the heap.

Like the bairns o' Falkirk, ye mind naething but mischief.

Like the cat, fain fish wad ye eat, but ye are laith to weet your feet.

Like the wife that aye took what she had, and never wanted.

Like the wife that ne'er cries for the ladle till the pot rins o'er. ♦

Like the wife wi' the mony daughters, the best comes hindmost.

Like's an ill mark.

Lippen to me, but look to yoursel.

List to meat's gude kitchen.*

Little dogs hae lang tails.

Little folk are soon angry.

Little Jock gets the little dish, and that hauds him lang little.

Little kennel the less cared for.

Little meddling maks fair parting.

Little wats the ill-willy wife what a dinner may baud in.

Little wit in the head maks mickle travel to the feet.

Little mense to the cheeks to bite aff the nose.

Living at heck and manger.

Lock your door that you may keep your neighbors honest.

Lo'e me little, an' lo'e me lang.

Love and lairdships like nae marrows [equals].

Love is as warm among cottars as among courtiers.

Love o'erlooks mony faults.

Maidens should be mild and meek, quick to hear and slow to speak.

Mair by luck than good guideing.

Mair haste the waur speed, quoth the tailor to the lang thread.

Mair than eneugh is ower mickle.

Mak a kirk an' a mill o't. " •

Mak nae toom ruse.

Malice is aye mindfu'.

Marriage and hanging go by destiny.

Marry a beggar, and get a louse for your tocher.

Marry aboon your match, and get a master.

Marry for love, and work for siller.

Master's will is gude wark.

Mastery maws the meadows down.

Maun-do is a fell fallow.

May-be's are no aye honey-bees.

Measure twice, but cut ance.

Meat feeds, claith cleads, but manners mak the man. ^

Mickle musing mars the memory.

Mickle power maks mony faes.

Mickle about ane, quoth the deil to the collier.

Mickle gifts mak beggars bauld.

Mickle head, little wit.

Mickle maun a gfude heart thole.

Mickle meat, mony maladies.

Mess and meat ne'er hinder'd wark.

Mettle's dangerous in a blind mare.

Money is like the muck midden, it does nae good till it be spread.

Money is welcome any way.

Money maks a man free ilka where.

Mony an honest man needs help that hasna the face to seek it.

Mony ane kisses the bairn for love o' the nurse.

Mony ane lacks what they would fain hae in their pack.

Mony ane serves a thankless master.

Mony ane speers the gate they ken fu' weel.

Mony ane's gear is mony ane's death.

SCOTS PROVERBS.

5*1

Mony gude-nights is laith away.

Many kinsfolk, but few friends.

Mony littles mak a mickle.

Mony purses baud friends lang thegither.

Mony ways to kill a dog, though you dinna hang him.

Mony wyte their wife for their ain thriftless life.

Nae fleeing without wings.

Nae man can live langer in p)eace than his neighbors like.

Nae man can mak his ain ban.

Nae man has a tak o' his life.

Nae wonder to see wasters want.

Naething but fill and fetch mair.

Naething is a man's truly but what he comes by duly.

Naething is got without pains but dirt and lang nails.

Naething is sae difficult but we may overcome by perseverance

Naething sae bauld as a blind mare.

Naething to be done in haste but gripping flaes.

Naething to do but draw in your stool and sit down.

Nane are sae weel but they hope to be better.

Nane can play the fool sae weel as a wise man.

Need maks greed.

Need will gar an auld wife trot, and a naked man rin.

Ne'er draw your dirk when a dunt will do.

Ne'er fash your thoom.

Ne'er let on, but laugh in your ain sleeve.

Ne'er lippen ower mickle to a new friend or an auld enemy.

Ne'er marry a widow unless her first man was hanged.

Ne'er owre auld to learn.

Ne'er put a sword in a madman's hand.

Ne'er put the plough before the owsen.

Ne'er put your hand farther out than your sleeve will reach.

Ne'er rax aboon your reach .

Ne'er sca'd your lips in other folk's kale.

Ne'er seek a wife till ye ken what to do wi' her.

Ne'er shaw me the meat but the man.

Ne'er shaw your teeth unless ye can bite.

Ne'er speak ill o' them whase bread ye eat.

Ne'er strive against the stream.

Ne'er tak a forehammer to break an egg.

Ne'er tell your fae when your foot sleeps.

Neither to baud nor to bind.

Neither sae sinfu' as to sink nor sae haly as to swim.

Next to nae wife, a gude wife is the best.

Nobility without ability is like a pudding without suet.

O' a' sorrow, afu' sorrow's the best.

Owre braw a purse to put a plack in.

Owre reckless may repent.

Owre sicker, owre loose.

Owre strong meat for your weak stamach.

Of a' flatterers, self love is the greatest.

Of ae ill comes mony.

Of ill debtors men get aiths.

Ony thing for you about an honest man's house but a day's work.

Open confession is gude for the soul.

Our sins and debts are often mair than we think.

Out o' the peat pot into the gutter.

Owre mony grieves only hinder the wark.

Pay him in his ain coin.

Placks and bawbees grow i>ounds.

Play's good while it's play.

I*leas« your kimmer, and you'll easily guide your gossip.

Plenty maks dainty.

Poor folk's friends soon misken them.

Poverty is the mother o' a' arts.

Pride and grace ne'er dwell in ae place.

Pride finds nae cauld.

Pride ne'er leaves its master till he gets a fa'.

Pride that dines wi' vanity sups wi' contempt.

Provision in season makes a bien house.

Put a coward to his metal and he'll fight the deiL

Put on your spurs and be at your speed.

Put twa pennies in a purse and they'll keep thegither.

Put your finger in the fire, and say it was your fortune.

Put your hand twice to your bonnet for ance to your pouch.

Quality without quantity is little thought of.

Quey calves are dear veal.

Quick, for you'll ne'er be cleanly.

Quietness is best.

Rather spoil your joke than tine your friend.

Raw dads mak fat lads.

Raw leather raxes weel.

Reckon up your winning at yourbed-«tock.

Red wood maks good spindles.

Reputation is often got without merit and lost without crime.

Rich folk hae routh o' friends.

Rich mixture maks gude mortar.

Riches are got wi' pain, kept wi* care, and tint wi' grief.

Ride fair and jap nane.

Right wrangs nae man.

Rob Gib's contract — stark love and kindness.

Roose the fair day at e'en.

Rue and thyme grow baith in ae garden.

Rule youth weel, foreild will rule itsel.

Saut, quoth the souter, when he had eaten a cow a* but the tail.

Saw thin, shear thin.

Say still No, and ye'll ne'er be married.

Scanty cheeks mak a lang nose.

Scart-the-cog wad sup mair.

Send your gentle bluid to the market, and see what it will buy.

Serve yoursel till your bairns come of age.

Set a stout heart to a stey brae.

Shame fa' them that think shame to do themselves a gude turn.

She brak her elbow at the kirk door.

She bauds up her head like a hen drinking water.

She looks as if butter wadna melt in her mouth.

She looks like a lady in a landward kirk.

She that gangs to the well wi' an ill will, either the pig breaks or tha

water will spill.
She'll keep her ain side o' the house, and gang up and down yours.
She'll wear like a horseshoe, aye the langer the clearer.
She's better than she's bonny.
Show me the man, and I'll show you the law.
Sic as ye gie, sic will ye get.
Silence grips the mouse.
Slander leaves a sair behind.
Smooth waters run deep.
Soon eneugh if weel eneugh.

Soon eneugh to cry Chuck, when it's out o' the shelL
Sorrow and ill weather come unsent for.
Serrow is soon eneugh when it comes.
Speak good of pipers, your father was a fiddler.
Spilt ale is waur than water.

Stay nae langer in a friend's house than you're welcome.
Stuffing bauds out storming.
Tak a man by his word and a cow by her horn.
Tak the bit and the buffet wi't.
Tak time ere time be tint.
Tak wit wi' your anger. *
Tak your ain will, and ye'll no die o' the pet.
Tak your thanks to feed your cat.
Tak your venture, as mony a gude ship has done.
That's Halkerston's cow.*
The black ox ne'er trod on his foot.t
The book o' maybes is very braid.
The cost owergangs the profit.
The deil aye drives his hogs to an ill market.
The deil doesna aye show his cloven cloots.
The deil gaes awa when he finds the door steekit against him.
The deil's bairns have aye their daddy's luck.
The deil's aye gude to his kin.

f A story told the reverse of the real occurrences,
t Death never gave him sorrow.

522

PROVERBS AND OLD SAYINGS.

The deil's gane ower Jock Wabster.*

The deil will take little ere he want a'.

The deil's aye busy wi' his ain.

The first fuf o' a fat haggis is the bauldest.

The foot at the cradle and the hand at the reel, is a sign that a woman

means to do weel.
The grace o' a gray bannock's in the baking o't
The head for the washing.
The higher the hill the laigher the grass.
The hurt man writes wl' steel on marble stane.
The king may come in the cadger's gate.
The kirk's mickle, but you may say mass in the end o't.
The laird may be laird, and yet need his hind's help.
The master's foot's the best measure.
The o'ercome only fashes folk to keep.
There is an act in the Laird o' Grant's court, that no aboon eleven speak

at ance.
There was a wife that kept her supper for her breakfast, and she was

dead ere day.
There was ne'er a gude town but there was a dub at the end o't.
There was never a silly Jocky but there was as silly a Jenny.
There was ne'er a thrifty wife wi' a sheet about her head.
There's a dub before every door.
There's a tough sinew in an auld wife's heel.
There's a whaup i' the raip.t
There's aye some water where the stirkie drowns.
There's beild aneath an auld man's beard.
There's steel in the needle point, though little o't.
There's the end o' an auld sang.
The simple man's the beggar's brither.

The smith's mare and the souter's wife are aye the warst shod.
The tod ne'er sped better than when he gaed his ain errand.
The thing that lies na in your gate breaks na your shins.
The thrift o' you and the woo o' a dog wad mak a braw web.
The worm o' a thing is best kenned by the want o't.
The wife's aye welcome that comes wi' a crooked oxter, f
They'll gree better when they gang in by different kirk doors.
They that board wi' cats maun count upon scarts.
They that bum you for a witch lose a' their coals.
They that gie you hinder you to buy.
They that lie down for love should rise up for hunger.
They that love maist speak least.
They were scant o' bairns that brought you up.
They are sad rents that come in wi' tears.

They hae need o' a canny cook that hae but ae egg to their dinner.
They may ken by your beard what has been on your board.
They ne'er saw great dainties that think a haggis a feast.
They should kiss the guidwife that wad win the guidman.
They speak o' my drinking, but ne'er think o' my drouth.
They that get a word o' soon rising may lie a' day.
They that see you a' day winna break the house for you at night.
Three can keep a secret when twa are away.
Thrift is a guide revenue.
Time tint is ne'er to be found .
Time and thinking tame the strongest grief.
Time tries a'.
Tine heart and a's gane.
Tine thimble, tine thrift.
Tit for tat's fair play.

To him that wills, ways are seldom wanting.
Toom stalls mak biting horses.
Truth will aye stand without a prop.
Try your friend ere you need him.
Twa words maun gang to that bargain.
Virtue never grows auld.

Waes the wife that wants the tongue, but weel's the man that gets her.
Want o' wit is waur then want o' wealth.

* All things are gone wrong.

t Something amiss.

i Bringing something tinder her arm.

War maks thieves, and peace hangs them.

We are aye to learn as lang as we live.

We are bound to be honest and no to be rich.

Wealth has made mair men covetous than covetousness has made men

wealthy.
Wealth makes wit waver.
Weans maun creep ere they gang.
We canna baith sup and blaw.

Wedding and ill wintering tame baith man and beast.
Weel kens the mouse when the cat's out o' the house.
Weel is that weel does.

We'll never ken the worth o' water till the well gae dry.
We maun live by the living and no by the dead.
Wha can haud what will be away.
Wha can help misluck.

Wha can help sickness, quoth the wife when she lay in the gutter.
Wha comes of tener and brings you less.
Wha daur bell the cat.
Wha invited you to the feast.

Wha wad misca' a Gordon on the raws of Strathbogan.
What better's the house when the daw rises soon.
What may be done at ony time will be done at nae time.
What put that i' your head, that didna put the sturdy will.
What's my case the day may be yours the mom.
What's waur than ill-luck.
What we first learn we best ken.
What winna do by might do by flight.

What ye do when you're drunk ye may pay for when you're dry
What ye want up and down ye hae hither and yont.
When a' man speaks, nae man hears.
When ae door steeks, anither ane opens.
When friends meet, hearts warm.
When he dies of age ye may quake for fear.
When ilka ane gets his ane, the thief will get the widdy.
When my head's down my house is theiked.
When petticoats woo, breeks come speed.
When the barn's fu' ye may thresh before the door.
When the cap's fu', carry't even.
When the cow's in the clout she soon runs out.
When the guidman drinks to the guidwife, a' wad be weel.
When the guidwife drinks to the guidman a's weel.
When the heart's fu' o' lust, the mouth's fu' o' leasing.
When the tod preaches, tak tent o' the lambs.

When the tod wins to the wood, he caresna how mony keek at his tail.
When the wame's fu', the banes wad be at rest.
When the well's fu' it will rin owre.
When wine sinks, words swim.
When ye're gaun an' comin' the gate's no toom.
When ye are weel, haud yoursel sae.
When ye win at that, ye may lick afl a het girdle.
When you're served, a' the geese are watered.
When drums beat, laws are dumb.
Where the buck's bound there he maun bleet.
Wrang has nae warrant.
Ye're like auld maidens, ye look sae high.
Ye're like gude maut, ye're lang o' coming.
Ye're like Macfarlane's geese, ye hae mair mind o' your play than your

meat.
Ye're like the chapman, ye're aye to handsel.

Ye're like the miller's dog, ye lick your lips ere the pock be o{>ened.
Ye'r like the cow's tail, ye grow backward.
Ye're like the tod, ye grow gray before ye grow gude.
Ye fand it where the Highlandman fand the tangs.
Ye hae fasted lang and worried on a midge.
Ye hae gotten the chapman's drowth.*
Ye hae gotten a ravelled hesp o't.
Ye hae ower foul feet to come sae far ben.
Ye hae put a toom spoon in my mouth.
Ye hae stayed lang and brought little wi' ye.

* Hunger.

LATIN PROVERBS AND PHRASES.

523

Ye bae taen the meetsure o' his foot.

Ye hae tint the tongue o' the trump.

Ye' 11 get nae mair o' the cat but the skin.

Ye'U bae baith your meat and your mense.*

Ye'll sit till ye sweat, and work till ye freeze.

Ye'll worry i' the hand, like M'Ewan's calf.

Ve look as sharp as a Lochaber axe new come frae the grindstane.

Ye look like Let-me-be.

Yelping curs will raise mastiffs.

Ye maun have it simmered and wintered.

Ye're a gude seeker, but an ill finder.

Ye're best when ye're sleeping.

Ye're bonny enough to them that lo'e ye, and ower bonny to them that

lo'e ye and canna get ye.
Ye're busy seeking the thing that's no tint.
Ye're come o' bluid, and sae's a pudding.
Yer een's yer merchant.
Ye're feared for the day ye never saw.
Ye're gear will ne'er owergang ye.
Ye're never pleased, fu' nor fasting.
iTe're of sae mony minds, ye'll never be married.
Ye're sair fashed hauding naething thegither.
Ye're teeth's langer than yer beard.
Ye shape shoon by your ain shachled feet.
Ye wad be a gude piper's dog, for smelling out bridals.
Ye wad be gude to fetch the deil a drink.
Ye wanta where a blessing may light.
Ye are a sweet nut, if ye were weel cracked.
Young folk may die, and auld folk maun die.
Your head will never fill your father's bonnet.
Your purse was steekit when that was paid for.
Your tongue rins aye before your wit.

';rncixT:cnr.Yjri:rrxjxT:n!xi:nn^:nEE^EnsnEi^

Latin Proverlis and PlrasBS.

B iilitio. From the beginning.

Ab uno disce omnes. From a single instance you may
infer the whole.

Ad captandum vulgus. To catch the rabble.

Ad finem esto fidelis. Be faithful to the end.
Ad Graecas-kalendas. Never.
Ad infinitum. To infinity.
A fortiori. With stronger reason.
Alias. Otherwise ; as Allen alias Thompson.
Alibi. Elsewhere.

Alma mater. A benign mother ; applied to a college or university.
A mensa et thoro. Divorced from bed and board.
Amor patriae. The love of our country.

Animus conscius se remordet. A guilty mind punishes itself.
Anno Domini (a.d.). In the year of our Lord.
Anno Mundi (a.m.). In the year of the world.
A posteriori. From the effect to the cause.
A priori. From the cause to the effect.
Arbiter eleg^antiarum. Master of the ceremonies.
Argumentum ad hominem. An argument to the man.
Ars est celare artem. True art is to conceal art.
Audi alteram partem. Hear the other part.
Audito multa, sed loquere pauca. Hear much but say little.
Auri sacra fames. The accursed appietite for gold.
Aut Caesar aut nullus. Either Caesar or nobody.
Basis virtutis constantia. Constancy is the foundation of virtue.

• Offer a person a thing, and, as he will not take it, you will at least
have the credit of having made the offer.

Beat! illi qui procul negotiis. Blessed are they who retire from toil.

Bona fide. In good faith ; in reality.

Brutum fulmen. A harmless thunderbolt.

Cacoethes. An evil custom. Thus, cacoethes loquendi — scribendi. A

rage for talking — scribbling.
Casus belli. The cause or reason for war.
Caput mortuum. The worthless remains.
Cede Deo. Submit to God.
Cede magnis. Give way to the powerful.
Cedant anna togae. Let arms yield to eloquence.
Certum pete finem. Aim at a sure end.

Communia proprie dicere. To express common things with propriety.
Compos mentis. In a state of sane mind.

Concordia res parvae crescunt. Small things increase by union.
Confide recte agens. Fear not while acting justly.
Contra bonos mores. Against good morals.
Corpus delicti. The body of the crime.
Credat Judaeus ap>ella. Let the circumcised Jew believe that.
Cui bono ? To what good.
Currente calamo. With a running pen.
Data. Things given or granted.
De facto — de jure. From ^le fact — from the law.
Delectando pariterque monendo. By imparting at once pleasure and

instruction.
Delenda est Carthago. Carthage must be destroyed. (The words of

Cato.)
De mortuis nil nisi bonum. Of the dead say nothing except what i»

good.
Deo favente— juvante — ^volente. With God's favor— help— will.
Desideratum. The thing desired.
Desipere in loco. To play the fool at the right time.
Desunt caetera. The remainder is wanting.
Deum cole, regem serva. Worship God, serve the king.
Deus protector noster. God is our protector.
Dilige amicos. Love your friends.
Divide et impera. Divide and govern.
Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori. It is sweet and glorious to die

for one's country.
Dum vivimus vivamus. Let us live while we live.
Est modus in rebus. There is a medium in all things.
Esto perpetua. Be thou perpetual.
Esto quod videris Be what you seem to be.
Ex cathedra. Fi om the chair ; authoritatively.
Exempli gratia (E. g. and Ex. gr.). By way of example.
Ex nihilo nihil fit. Nothing produces nothing.
Ex officio. By virtue of his office.
Ex parte. On one part.
Ex pede Herculem. Judge of the size of the statue of Hercules by the

foot.
Experto crede. Believe an experienced man.
Extempore. Without premeditation.

Fac simile. Do the like : an engraved resemblance of handwriting.
Fama semper viret. A good name will shine for ever.
Familias firmat pietas. Devotion strengthens families.
Fas est et ab hoste doceri. It is allowable to derive instruction even

from an enemy.
Felo de se. A suicide.
Fiat justitia, ruat coeium. Let justice be done, though the heavens

should fall.
Fortuna favet fortibus. Fortune favors the bold.
Fruges consumere nati. Men born only to consume food.
Hand passibus sequis. With unequal steps.
Hinc illae lachrymae. Hence proceed these tears.
Id est (i. e.). That is.

Id genes omne. All persons of that description.
Imprimatur. Let it be printed.
Impromptu. Without study.
In forma pauperis. In the form of a poor man.
In propria persona. In f>erson.
In re. In the matter of.
In terrorem. In terror.
In transitu. In passing.

524

LATIN PROVERBS AND PHRASES.

Ipse dixit. He himself said it : dogmatism.

Judex damnatur cum nocens absolvilur. Guilt attaches to a judge
when the guilty are suffered to escape.

Jure divino— humano. By divine— by human law.

Labor omnia vincit. Labor conquers every thing.

Lapsus linguae. A slip of the tongue.

Lex talionis. The law of retaliation.

Locum tenens. A deputy or substitute.

Magna est Veritas, et prsevalebit. The truth is powerful, and will ulti-
mately prevail.

Materiam superabat opus. The workmanship surpassed the materials.

Medio tutlssimus ibis. A medium course will be the safest.

Memento mori. Remember death.

Mens sibi conscia recti. A mind conscious of rectitude.

Mirabile dictu. Wonderful to tell.

Multum in parvo. Much in little.

Mutatis mutandis. After making the necessary changes.

Necessitas non habet leges. Necessity has no law.

Nem. con. An ahbreviaXion oi nemine ioniradtcen^e. Without dissent
or opposition.

Ne plus ultra. Nothing beyond — the utmost point.

Ne quid nimis. Too much of one thing is good for nothing.

Ne sutor ultra crepidam. Let not the shoemaker go beyond his last.

Nisi Dominus frustra. Unless the Lord assist you, all your efforts are
in vain.

Noscitur ex sociis. He is known by his companions.

Nota Bene (N. B.). Mark well.

Obiter dictum. A thing said by the way or in passing.

Onus probandi. The weight of proof ; the burden of proving.

O si sic omnia ! Oh that he had always done, or spoken thus !

O tempora, O mores ! Oh the times, oh the manners !

Otium cum dignitate. Ease with dignity.

Palmam qui meruit ferat. Let him who has won bear the palm.

Pari passu. By a similar gradation.

Par nobile fratrum. A pair of noble brothers.

Particeps criminis. An accomplice.

Passim. Everywhere.

Per fas et nefas. Through right and wrong.

Per se. By itself.

Poeta nascitur non fit. Nature, not study, must form a poet.

Primi facie. On the first view, or appearance.

Primae vise. The first passages ; the upper part of the intestinal canal.

Primum mobile. The main spring ; the first impulse.

Principiis obsta. Oppose the first appearance of evil.

Pro aris et focis For our altars and firesides

Pro bono publico. For the public good.

Pro et con. For and against.

Pro re nata. For a special business.

Pro tempore. For the time.

Quid nunc ? What now ? — applied to a news-hunter.

Quid pro quo. What for what ; tit for tat.

Quoad hoc. To this extent.

Quod erat demonstrandum. Which was meant to be shown.

Rara avis in terris. nigroque simillima sygno. A rare bird in the earth

very like a black swan.
Reductio ad absurdum. A reducing to an absurdity.
Re infecta. Without attaining his end.
Requicscat in pace. May he rest in peace.
Res angusta domi. Narrow circumstances at home.
Rcspice finem. Look to the end.
Seriatim. In order.

Sic itur ad astra. Such is the way to immortality.
Sic passim. So everywhere.

Sic transit gloria mundi. Thus the glory of the world passes away.
Sine die. To an indefinite time.
Sine qua non. An indispensable condition.
Status quo antfe bellum. The state in which both parties were before

the war.
Suaviter in modo, fortiter in re. Gentle in the manner, but vigorous in

the deed. *

Sub silentio. In silence.
Summum bonum. The chief good.
Suum cuique. Let every man have his own.
Tabula rasa. A smoothed tablet.
Tempora mutantur, et nos mutamur in illis. The times change, and we

change with them.
Toties quoties. As often as.
Ubi supri. Where above mentioned.
Vade mecum. Go with me : a constant companion. (Usually applied

to a pocket-book.)
Veluti in speculum. As if in a mirror.
Veni, vidi, vici. I came, I saw, I conquered.
Vis inertiae. Force or property of inanimate matter.
Versus (v.). Against.

Vice versa. The terms or cases being changed.
Vi et armis. By main force.
Viva voce. By or with the living or loud voice.
Viz. (videlicet). Namely.

Vox et praeterea nihil. A voice and nothing more.
Vox (Ktpuli, vox Dei. The voice of the people is the voice of God.

AGRICULTURE.

525 )

GRICULTURE is the
art of cultivating the
ground, and of obtain-
ing from it the product nec-
essary to sustain animal life.
The change from a state
of nature, in which the hu-
man race must have first
lived, to the pastoral, or to
any high mode of living,
must have been gradual, the
work, perhaps, of ages. The
race was doomed to toil, and
necessity soon sharpened the
power of invention. The
agriculture of a people must be influenced by the cli-
mate and natural features of the country. Formerly
its progress largely depended on the density of the
population, but now, the iron horse and the giant
steamer bear away the product of the farm, and the
results of the labor of a few are reaped by the many,
hundreds and thousands of miles away. This vast
continent has been justly called the granary of the
world. We shall now see how an infinitesimally
small portion of it should be worked so as to enable
the toiler to become the bread-winner, how the farm
may be managed so as to produce the all-mighty
dollar.

In selecting a farm, or entering upon the cultiva-
tion of one already in possession, the farmer should,
first of all, turn his attention to an investigation of
the various soils of which its surface is composed.
All soils adapted to agricultural purposes are com-

posed of two classes of substances — organic and in-
organic. The inorganic parts are derived from the
decay of animal and vegetable matter. The organic
part of the soil is generally called vegetable mold,
but scientific writers designate it as humus. To be
fertile, a soil must contain a considerable portion of
this organic matter. More than fifty per cent, of
humus, however, in a moist soil has an injurious
effect, rendering it what is called sour.

Of the various soils several distinct classifications
may be made. It will be well, at the outset, to con-
sider them all as embraced in two grand classes —
heavy or light. The distinction indicated by these
terms is familiar to every farmer. He knows, too,
that it is a predominance of clay which constitutes
a soil heavy, and that an excess of sand or gravel
makes a soil what is called light.

Heavy soils, also often denominated cold and wet, are dis-
tinguished for their affinity for water, their tenacity, their soft-
ness when wet, and their hardness when dry. They are ad-
mirably adapted to wheat, oats, Indian corn, and the various
grasses ; hence they are sometimes styled grass lands, and are
generally susceptible of being made highly productive.

Light soils are easily cultivated, friable, dry, and warm ;
but their porousness renders them liable to drouth and exhaus-
tion. They are particularly adapted to rye, barley, buckwheat,
and the tap-rooted plants.

Soils are chiefly made up of what are sometimes called the
three primitive earths — silex (including sand and gravel), clay,
and lime. As either of these predominates, it gives its pecu-
liar character to the soil, whence we have the arrangement
into three grand classes — sandy, clayey, and limy soils.

I. Sandy Sails. — A soil containing not less than seventy
per cent, of sand may be considered sandy, in the sense in
which the term is here used.

526

AGRICULTURE.

-y,

2. C/a}>ey Soils. — Clay with a mixture of not more than
twenty per cent, of sand forms a clayey soil.

3. Limy Soils. — Limy or calcareous soils are those in which
lime, exceeding twenty per cent., becomes the distinguishing
characteristic. Calcareous soils may be either calcareous
clays, calcareous sands, or calcareous loams, according to the
proportions of clay or sand that may be present in them.

4. Loamy Soils. — Loamy soils are intermediate between
those denominated sandy and those with predominant clayey
characteristics. There are sandy loams, clayey loams, calcare-
ous loams, and vegetable loams.

5. Marly Soils.— ^o\\s containing lime, but in which the
proportion does not exceed twenty per cent., are sometimes
called marly.

6. Alluvial Soils. — Soils made up of the washings of streams
are called alluvial. They contain portions of every kind of
soil existing in the surrounding country, and are generally
loamy and very fertile.

7. Vegetable Molds. — When decayed vegetable and animal
matter or humus exists, in so great a proportion as to give the
predominant character to a soil, it sometimes receives the name
of vegetable mold.

8. Subsoils. — The stratum or bed on which a soil immedi-
ately rests is called the subsoil. Subsoils, like soils, may be
either silicious, argillaceous, or calcareous.

ANALYSIS OF SOILS.

Chemical analysis shows that the organic parts of a soil are
composed or carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen. The in-
organic parts of a fertile soil, in addition to the silex, clay,
and lime, of which we have already spoken, contain smaller
quantities of magnesia, potash, soda, sulphur, phosphorus,
chlorine, oxyd of iron, and oxyd of manganese. All these are
essential to independent fertility.

To ascertain the percentage of sand which a soil may con-
tain, dry a quantity thoroughly ; weigh it ; boil it in water ;
stir it in a convenient vessel, and when the sand has settled
pour off the liquid, which will hold the fine clay, etc., in sus-
pension ; after doing this a few times, nothing will remain in
the bottom of the vessel but nearly pure sand, which may be
dried and weighed, and the quantity will show whether the
soil be sandy, loamy, or clayey.

Any considerable quantity of lime in a soil is readily detected
by pouring upon it a little muriatic acid, which may be ob-
tained at any apothecary shop. So soon as this acid comes in
contact with lime, if there be any, a brisk effervescence will
take place, owing to the bubbling up and escape of carbonic
acid gas.

I. Texture of Soils. — Considered in reference to texture, a
soil may be described as essentially a mixture of an impalpa-
ble powder with a greater or smaller quantity of visible par-
ticles of all sizes and shapes. Now, although the visible
particles are absolutely essential, their effects are, as it were,
indirect ; the impalpable powder alone exerting a direct in-
fluence upon vegetation, by entering into solution with the
water and acids with which it comes in contact ; (ox plants are
incapable of taking in solid matter, however minutely divided ;
and it is in a liquid or gaseous form only that their food can

be received. From this it will be readily understood how a
soil may possess all the elements of fertility and yet be barren,
on account of some of these elements being locked up in it, as
it were, in an insoluble condition. The stones and smaller
visible portions of the soil are gradually but constantly crumb-
ling down under the action of air, moisture, and other chemi-
cal agents, thus adding, from year to year, new impalpable
matter to the soil. The greater the proportion of this impal-
pable matter, all other things being equal, the greater will be
the fertility of the soil.

Soils must also be examined in reference to their consistency
or tenacity, which is nothing more than the strength with
which their molecules or particles are bound to each other by
what is called, in the language of natural philosophy, the at-
traction of cohesion. Clayey soils have the greatest degree of
consistency, and sandy soils the least. Both extremes are
unfavorable, a medium in this respect agreeing best with
vegetation.

2. Depth of Soil. — A deep soil has not only the advantage
of giving the roots of plants a wider range and a greater mass
of food, but it retains moisture better in seasons of drouth,
and is not so readily saturated in rainy weather. For the tap-
rooted plants, such as beets, carrots, parsnips, etc., depth of
soil is particularly important.

3. Colors of Soils. — The brown and red soils are generally
the best. They are termed warm, and are mostly loamy and
fertile. Yellow and gray indicate clayey soils, which are cold
in their nature. Black generally indicates peat or deep vegeta-
ble mold. Dark-colored earths absorb heat more rapidly than
others, but they also allow it to escape with equal readiness.

4. Humidity of Soils. — Too great moisture is not less in-
jurious to a soil than extreme dryness. The proper medium
should be sought, and where land is too wet, thorough under-
draining should be practiced.

5. Influence of Subsoils. — A subsoil of clay beneath a clayey
soil is unfavorable ; but beneath a sandy soil it is beneficial,
especially if deep plowing and subsoiling be resorted to for
the purpose of improving the latter. On the same principle a
sandy or gravelly subsoil is desirable under clayey soils. A
calcareous or limy subsoil is beneficial to both clayey and
sandy soils.

6. Position and Form of Surface. — Sandy soils are most
fertile when flat and situated lower than the surrounding
country. On the declivities of hills, such soil is of less value,
as it is liable to become parched by drouths and washed away
by rains. Clayey soils, on the contrary, especially where the
subsoil is impermeable, are favorably situated when on a hill-
side. Southern and eastern exposures are favorable to early
vegetation, and in a cold climate or with a clayey soil are very
desirable for many crops.

I. Iiitproving Clayey Soils. — One of the principal defects of
clayey soils, especially where they rest upon a subsoil of the
same nature, is the excess of water which is held in them.
The only effectual way, in a majority of cases, to get rid of
this is by thorough underdraining. Open drains or ditches,
though less effectual, are useful. In some cases " water fur-
rows." terminating in some ravine or ditch, serve a very good
purpose.

AGRICULTURE.

527

Lime is exceedingly useful as an ameliorator of clayey soils.
Gypsum or plaster of Paris, ashes, coarse vegetable manures,
straw, leaves, chips, etc., are also very useful, adding new
materials to the soil, and tending to separate its particles and
destroy their strong cohesion. In cold climates, plowing
clayey lands in the fall, and thus exposing them to the action
of the frosts and snows, has a beneficial effect. At the South,
where there is little frost, and frequent and heavy rains occur
during the winter, the effect of fall plowing is very injurious.
Clayey lands must never be plowed when wet.

Where a clayey soil rests upon a sandy subsoil, its improve-
ment is easier, as deep plowing, by which a portion of the
subsoil is turned up and mixed with the soil, soon modifies it
very sensibly.

2. Improving Sandy Soils. — Sandy soils require a treatment
in most respects the reverse of that applied to clayey soils.

Lime and gypsum, which render clayey soils more friable,
increase the adhesiveness of sandy soils, and when cheaply
obtained furnish a profitable dressing. Ashes may also be ap-
plied with great benefit, as may vegetable manures and vege-
table mold. Sandy soils are plowed to the greatest advantage
when wet, and are improved by the frequent use of a heavy
roller. Pasturing sheep upon them is very beneficial.

Gravelly soils (except calcareous gravels) are more difficult
of improvement than sandy soils, and are most profitably ap-
propriated to pasturage. Sheep will keep them in the most
useful condition of which they are capable.

3. Improvement of Vegetable Soils. — Soils composed mainly
of humus or vegetable mold, should be drained from all ex-
cess of water. Then the hommocks, if any, must be cut off,
dried, and burned, and the ashes spread over the surface ;
after which sand, fine gravel, ashes, air-slaked lime, and
barn-yard manure should be liberally added.

4. Management of Subsoils. — In subsoil plowing a common
plow goes first and is followed in the same furrow by the sub-
soil plow, which thoroughly breaks up the subsoil to the depth
of from twelve to sixteen inches, without displacing it. At
subsequent plowings portions of this subsoil are turned up by
allowing the common plow to run more deeply than before ;
but care should be taken not to bring it up too rapidly or in
too large quantities.

Subsoil plowing should be repeated once in five or six years;
going each time a little deeper than before, till the greatest
practical depth is attained.

Subsoil plowing is not applicable, however, to all lands.
Where the subsoil is loose and leachy, consisting of an excess
of sand or gravel, it is not only unnecessary but positively in-
jurious.

The gradual mixing of the subsoil with the soil which re-
sults from subsoil plowing is especially beneficial to lands
which have been for a long time under cultivation, and have
become partially exhausted.

Where underdraining is required, it should precede the
subsoiling, and the surface of the drains should be sufficiently
below the surface not to be disturbed by the subsoil plow.

With the exception we have noted, where the subsoil is loose
and leachy, subsoil plowing, though expensive, will most cer-
tainly "pay," as experience has amply proved.

HE productive power of soils subjected
to cultivation is gradually exhausted by
the process. Some of the alluvial lands
of Virginia produced large annual crops
of corn and tobacco for more than a cen-
tury, without any return being made to them
for the elements of fertility abstracted ; but
these lands are now nearly valueless.

The average yield, per acre, of the cultivated lands
of the State of New York has decreased considerably
since 1844, when the records on which these tables
are founded were commenced. In corn the decrease
is nearly four bushels per acre ; in wheat nearly two
bushels ; and in potatoes, partly owing to the rot,
no doubt, twenty-two and a half bushels.

These are instructive facts, and should cause the
farmer to pause and reflect.

Both the organic and inorganic parts of plants are
made up from their food, which must of course con-
sist of both organic and inorganic materials. The
former are obtained partly from the soil and partly
from the air ; the latter come exclusively from the
soil. A fertile soil must therefore contain, in suf-
ficient quantity and in an available form, all the con-
stituents of plants ; and to maintain its fertility under
cultivation, these constituents must be supplied in
the form of manures so fast as they are taken up by
the crops produced.

L VEGETABLE MANURES.

Vegetable manures are not so energetic in their action as
those of animal or mineral origin, but their effects are more
durable ; and the wise agriculturist will avail himself largely
of the cheap means of ameliorating his soil which they afford.

I. Green Crops. — Plowing in green crops, such as clover,
spurry, sainfoin, buckwheat, cow-peas, turnips (sown thickly),
Indian corn, etc. , is one of the best modes of renovating and
sustaining a soil. Worn-out lands, unsalable at ten dollars an
acre, have by this means, while steadily remunerating their
proprietors by their returning crops for all the outlay of labor
and money, been brought up in value to fifty dollars an acre.

For the Northern States red clover has been found best fitted
for a green manure ; but in particular cases some other crop
may be used with greater advantage. At the South, the cow-

%r-

528

AGRICULTURE.

pea (which is no pea, but a bean) is considered the best
fertilizer.

Clover and most broad-leaved plants draw largely for their
sustenance from the air, especially when aided by the applica-
tion of gypsum. By its long tap-roots, clover also draws much
from the subsoil.

The proper time to turn in most plants used as green manure
is at the season of blossoming.

The same effects follow the plowing of grass lands, and
turning under the turf ; and the thicker and heavier the sward
the better.

2. Straw, Leaves, etc. — Straw, leaves, hay, are usually ap-
plied to the lands after they have either been worked over by
animals and mixed with their manures, or composted with
other substances and decomposod ; but clayey soils are bene-
fited by their application in an undecayed state.

Potato-tops or haulm ; bean haulm ; weeds, pulled before
they have seeded, and all kinds of vegetable refuse, are readily
decomposed by the addition of a small quantity of animal sub-
stances or lime, and should be carefully composted.

3. Sea-weed. — Sea -weed and pond-weed form valuable ma-
nures. The former is particularly rich in the substances most
needed by our crops.

4. Cotton Seed. — At the South, cotton seed is inuch used as
a manure, and is very valuable for that purpose. It is applied
at the rate of from eighty to a hundred bushels per acre. It
may be sown broadcast and plowed in during the winter, when
it will rot before spring, or it may be left in heaps to heat till
its vitality is destroyed, when it may be thrown upon the corn
hills and covered with the hoe or plow.

5. Turf, Miuk, Mud, etc. — Rich turf, full of the roots of
the grasses and decayed vegetable matter, is valuable as an
absorbent of animal or other manures in compost heaps. Mix-
ing it with lime, and leaving it several weeks to decompose, is
a good preparatory process.

Swamp muck, pond mud, and the scourings of old ditches,
are exceedingly rich in vegetable matter, and are all exceed-
ingly useful as manures.

II. ANIMAL MANURES.

These comprise the flesh, blood, hair, bones, horns, excre-
ments, etc., of animals. They contain more nitrogen than
vegetable manures, and are far more powerful.

I. Stable Manures. — The standard manure of this country
is that from the stable and barn-yard. The principal varieties
are those of the ox, the cow, the horse, and the sheep. Of
these, that of the horse is the most valuable in its fresh state,
but is very liable, as ordinarily treated, to loose much of its
value by fermentation ; that of the sheep comes next ; while
that of the cow is placed at the bottom of the list, because the
enriching substance of her food goes principally to the forma-
tion of milk. That of the ox is better.

All the urine, as well as the solid excrements of animals,
should be carefully preserved. The urine of three cows for
one year is worth more than a ton of guano, which would cost
from fifty to sixty dollars. Various methods of preserving and
applying it will suggest themselves to the intelligent farmer.

Stable manures should be sheltered from the sun and rain, and

fermenting heaps so covered with turf or loam as to prevent the
escape of the fertilizing gases. Plaster, as in the case of urine,
will aid in retaining the ammonia.

2. Hog Manure. — The manure of swine is strong and valu-
able. Swamp muck, weeds, straw, leaves, etc., should be
thrown into the sty in liberal quantities, to be rooted over and
mixed with the dung. In this way from five to ten loads of
manure per annum may be obtained from a single hog.

3. The Manuff of Fowls, etc. — The manure of hens, turkeys,
geese, ducks, and pigeons should be carefully collected and
preserved. Professor Norton says that three or four hundred
pounds of such manure, that has not been exposed to the rain of
sun, is equal in value to from fourteen to eighteen loads of
.stable manure.

4. Guano. — Of its value as a manure there can be no doubt ;
but circumstances must determine whether in any given case
it can profitably be purchased and applied at the prices at
which it is held.

In applying guano, care should be taken that it do not
come in contact with any seed, as it might destroy its vitality.

5. Fish Manures. — These are available near the sea-coast
only, where they furnish an important source of fertility, which
should not be neglected. The flesh of fish acts with great
energy in hastening the growth of plants. It decomposes
rapidly, and should be at once plowed under, or made into a
well-covered compost heat.

6. Flesh, Blood, Hair, etc. — Dead animals, the blood and
offal from slaughter-houses, are among the most powerful of
fertilizers — equal to guano and the other costly manures.
Every animal that dies should be made into compost at once.

Hair, woolen rags, leather shavings from the shoe-shops,
and all other refuse animal matters, should be carefully pre-
served and composted, as they make very rich manure.

7. Bones. — The value of bones as a manure is just beginning
to be appreciated in this country. They unite some of the
most efficacious and desirable organic and inorganic manures.

Bones make a cheap as well as a rich manure, and no
thoughtful farmer will suffer one to be wasted about his house.

IIL MINERAL MANURES.

1. Lime. — Lime is applied to land in three different states —
as quick-lime, slaked lime, and mild or air-slaked lime.
To cold, stiff, newly drained land, especially if there exist in
it much of acid organic compounds, it is best to apply quick-
lime or caustic hydrate (slaked lime), as it will have a more
energetic effect in ameliorating it. On light soils mild or air-
slaked lime is considered most beneficial. It is best to apply
lime frequently and in small quantities, so as to keep it near
the surface and always active.

2. Marls. — In true marl the principal element of fertility is
the lime which it contains ; but its value is increased by the
greater or less proportion of magnesia and phosphoric acid
which are usually combined with it.

A valuable mineral fertilizer generally called marl, but
which contains comparatively little lime, abounds in parts of
New Jersey and Delaware. Its effects upon the light sandy
soils of New Jersey is very striking indeed.

3. Gypsum. — Gypsum, or plaster of Paris, is a sulphate of

AGRICULTURE.

529

4r-

lime, and has been found one of the cheapest and most
powerful fertilizers derived from the mineral kingdom. On
grass lands it is best to sow it in damp weather or while the
dew is on. Sow broadcast at the rate of a bushel to the acre.
Seed potatoes may be wet and rolled in plaster before planting
with decided advantage ; and we know of no better way of
applying it to corn than to give the seed a coat before putting
it in the ground.

4. Common Salt, etc. — Common salt, as an ingredient in
compost, is of great service. As a top dressing for grass
lands — especially those of a loamy texture — it is invaluable.
Mixed with wood ashes and lime, in the proportion of one
bushel of salt to three of ashes and five of lime, it constitutes
a very energetic manure for Indian com.

A very useful and energetic mixture is made by the following
simple process :

' ' Take three bushels of unslaked lime, dissolve a bushel of
salt in as little water as will dissolve it, and slake the lime
with it. If the lime will not take up all the brine at once —
which it will if good and fresh burned — turn it over and let it
lie a day and add a little more of the brine ; and so continue
to do till it is all taken up."

Brine which has been used for salting meat or fish is still
more valuable than that newly made, as it contains a portion
of blood and other animal matter.

Whenever refuse nitrate of potash — that is, common salt-
peter — or refuse liquid in which it has been dissolved for
pickling meat, can be procured, it should be carefully pre-
served and mixed into a compost heap.

5. Askes. — Ashes compose the entire inorganic parts of
plants. Returned to the soil, they may again be taken up by
the growing vegetation. Their great usefulness as a manure
is evident and undisputed.

Leached ashes have lost some of their value, being deprived
of the greater portion of their potash and soda, but are still
very useful as manures.

Coal ashes are less valuable than wood ashes, but are by no
means to be neglected by the farmer.

Soot is exceedingly valuable as a manure, and the small
quantity produced should be carefully saved.

IV.— MANAGEMENT OF MANURES.

1. Fermentation. — That great loss takes place when manure
ferments uncovered by some absorbent of the fertilizing gases is
clear to every observer and thinker. See to it, then, that all
fermenting manure is covered with turf, muck, charcoal dust,
sawdust, or plaster, to take up and retain the ammoniacal
gases as they arise.

2. Digging over Manures. — The frequent digging over of
barn-yard manure, practiced by some farmers, while it pro-
motes decomposition, also leads to great waste.

3. Hauling Manure in Winter. — The opinion is now gain-
ing ground that, when it can be conveniently done, the best
way to secure to the land the greatest possible benefit from
stable and barn-yard manure is to draw them at once, so fast
as they are produced, to the fields where they are to be used,
and either spread them at once or deposit them in heaps so

small that no putrefactive fermentation will take place. In
many cases, manures may be hauled in the winter with great
economy, as the labor of the teams and hands is in less demand
elsewhere.

4. A Caution. — Never mix quick-lime ■with any animal
manure, as it will greatly deteriorate the manure.

5. Burying Manure. — Here again doctors disagree. Some
advocate burying manure very deeply, others slightly, and
still others would leave it upon the surface. The best gen-
eral rule, we believe, is to mix it so thoroughly as possible
with every part of the soil. The roots will then be sure to
find it. A few crops — onions and some of the grasses, for
instance — must find their nutriment near the surface, as the
roots do not extend deeply ; for these a top dressing may be
best.

6. Importance of Texture. — Far more important than the
mere presence of fertilizing ingredients, or even the chemical
condition of those ingredients, in many cases, is their mechan-
ical texture and degree of pulverization. Hence it may be
reasonably believed that the general introduction and free use
of pulverizers, as the most effective harrows, clod-crushers,
and subsoilers, assisted by tile-draining, may be of greater
benefit to the whole country than the importation of a million
tons of gu^no.

v.— COMPOSTS.

Let nothing that is capable, when decomposed, of furnishing
nutriment to your growing crops be permitted to go to waste
about your premises. A compost heap should be at hand to
receive all decomposed refuse. The best basis for this heap
is well-dried swamp muck ; but where this is not readily
obtained, procure rich turf scraping from the roadside, leaves
and surface soil from the wood lands and the sides of fences,
straw, chips, corncobs, weeds, etc., aiding the decay of the
coarser materials by the addition of urine or the lime and salt
mixture mentioned in the previous section. Let this be com-
posted with any animal matter found about the premises, or
in the vicinity.

VI.— IRRIGATION.

Irrigation is manuring by means of water. "The manner
of irrigation must depend on the situation of the surface and
the supply of water. When it is desirable to bring more
water on to meadows than is required for saturating the
ground, and its escape to the fields below is to be avoided,
other ditches should be made on the lower sides, to arrest and
convey away the surplus water."

Irrigation contributes to the growth of plants in several
ways.

" The advantages of irrigation are so manifest that they
should never be neglected, when the means for securing them
are within economical reach.

" The increase from the application of water is sometimes
fourfold, when the soil, the season, and the water are all
favorable, and it is seldom less than doubled.

"Light, porous soils, and particularly gravels and sands,
are the most benefited by irrigation."

530

AGRICULTURE.

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UPPOSE the farmer to have a soil which
requires, as almost all soils do, the appli-
cation of manure to render it fertile.
He adds a good coating of manure, and
then takes off a crop of corn or wheat.
This crop will carry away the largest part of
the phosphates that were added in the manure.
In most cases, therefore, a second crop of the same
kind would not be so good as the first ; and the
third would be still less. There yet remain, how-
ever, from the manure, considerable quantities of
other substances, which the grain crops did. not so
particularly require, such as potash and soda. With
this a good crop of potatoes, turnips, or beets may
be obtained ; and after this there is probably still
enough lime, etc., left to produce an excellent crop
of hay, if the ground be seeded down with another
crop of grain of a lighter character than Indian corn
or wheat.

We perceive, then, that any good rotation must
be founded upon the principle that different classes
of crops require different proportions of the various
substances which are present in soils, and in the nu-
merous fertilizers which are applied for the purpose
of enriching them. Thus the crops may be made
to succeed each other with the least possible injury
to the soil, and with the greatest economy in the use
of manures.

It would be useless to recommend here any par-
ticular system of rotation as best; for that must be
determined by experience in each section of country,
under the various circumstances of climate, location,
and value of crops. Attention may, however, be
again called to the fact that there are several dis-
tinct classes of crops, considered with reference to
the substances which they take from the soil, and
that these classes of crops should bear a part in
every system of rotation. The principal of these
are grain crops, root crops, and grass crops.

^DRAINING.-iJ^

OROUGH drainage implies covered
drains, and it is to the advantage of
these mainly that we now desire to
call the reader's attention ; although
open ditches and water-furrows are
useful in certain situations.
The principal benefits of a system of
covered drains are succinctly and clearly
stated in the following —

"TEN REASONS FOR UNDERDRAIN-
ING.

" I. It prevents water which falls from resting on
or near the surface, and renders the soil dry enough
to be worked or plowed at all times.

" 2. By rendering the soil porous or spongy, it
takes in water without flooding in time of rain, and
gives it off again gradually in time of drouth.

" 3. By preventing adhesion and assisting pulver-
ization, it allows the roots to pass freely through all
parts of the soil.

" 4. By facilitating the mixture of manure through
the pulverized portions, it greatly increases its value
and effect.

"5. It allows water falling on the surface to pass
downward, carrying with it any fertilizing substances
(as carbonic acid and ammonia), until they are
arrested by the absorption of the soil.

" 6. It abstracts in a similar manner the heat con-
tained in falling rains, thus warming the soil, the
water discharged by drain-mouths being many de-
grees colder than ordinary rains.

" 7. The increased porosity of the soil renders it
a more perfect non-conductor of heat, and the roots
of plants are less injured by freezing in winter.

"8. The same cause admits the entrance of air,
facilitating the decomposition of enriching portions
of the soil.

"9. By admitting early plowing crops may be
sown early, and an increased amount reaped in con-
sequence.

AGRICULTURE.

sir

" lo. It economizes labor, by allowing the work
to go on at all times without interruption from sur-
plus water in spring, or from a hard-baked soil in
summer."

CONDITIONS REQUIRING DRAIN-
AGE.

The conditions from which arise the principal
causes of mischief to undrained land are thus
stated by Munn in " The practical Land- Drainer ; "

" I. Where water has accumulated beneath the
surface and originated springs.

" 2. Where, from the close nature of the sub-
strata, it cannot pass freely downward, but accumu-
lates and forms its level or water line at a short dis-
tance below the surface ; and

" 3. Where, from the clayey or close texture of
the soil, it lies on the surface and becomes stag-
nant."

Farmers are apt to consider land in which the
second condition mentioned exists, to be too dry to
need draining, yet it is co/d and sour, late in spring,
apt to bake hard in summer, and very liable to suf-
fer from early frosts in autumn. There is no remedy
but underdraining.

PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS.

1. Preliminary. — The first thing to be done is to examine
the field to be drained and determine the plan of drainage
best adapted to effect the object in view, and the materials
which may most economically be used in constructing the
drains.

2. Draining Springy Soils. — Where the wetness to be reme.
died results from springs having their source in higher grounds
above the field to be drained, the desired result is generally
attained by making one or more drains across the declivity
about where the low grounds of the valley begin to form, thus
intercepting or cutting off the springs. These transverse
drains must be connected with others made for the purpose of
conveying the water collected in them into some brook,
ravine, or other outlet which may be near.

3. Direction of Drains. — In cases characterized by either of
the other conditions specified in the previous section, parallel
drains should be cut directly up and down the inclination of the
field, and emptying into a main cross drain at the lower side.

4. Depth and Distance Apart. — The experience of some of
the most extensive drainers, both in this country and in
Europe, seems to indicate, however, that for very heavy,
clayey soils, from two and a half to three feet in depth and
from twelve to thirty feet apart generally produce the most
satisfactory results. More porous and friable soils may be
successfully drained at greater depth and distance.

5. Materials and Construction. — The ditch excavated must
be furnished with a permanent duct through which water may
at all times pass freely off. This may be constructed of various
substances — brushwood, straw, turf, clinkers from furnaces,
wood, brick, stone, and tiles of burned clay. Of these, stone
and tiles in their various forms, when they can be procured,
are the only materials which we can unconditionally recom-
mend.

Brushwood D/ains.-^WheK no better materials are avail-
able, these will be found, while they last, quite effective, and
they are far more permanent than might be supposed.

Stone Drains. — In reference to their mode of construction,
stone drains are of various kinds. The simplest form is that
in which the ditch or cutting is filled to the depth of nine or
ten inches with small stones, covered with inverted turf, shav-
ings, or something of the kind. The stones should be about
the size of a hen's egg. Where larger ones are used, the earth
is apt to fall into the cavities, or mice or rats make their bur-
rows there, and the drain becomes choked. The water should
find its way into the drain from the sides, and not from
the top. In making stone drains in swampy or very soft
ground it is sometimes necessary to lay a plank or slab on
the bottom before putting in the stones, to prevent them
from sinking before the soil shall become dry enough to be
firm.

Tile Drains. — The first form of tile drain used was .arched
and made to rest on a sole or flat tile laid under it ; but the
more modern tile pipes are to be preferred, as they are
smaller, cheaper, and more easily laid. Those with an oval
bore are considered better than those with a round one. The
tiles are, of course, placed in the bottom of the ditch, which
must be smooth and straight. They are simply placed end to
end and wedged a little with small stones, if necessary, and
the earth packed hard over them. The water very readily
finds its way through the pores of the matetial and at the joints.
Collars or short outer tiles are sometimes used to go over the
joints, to secure them against getting displaced. An inch
pipe is sufficient for most situations.

The drains should be connected at the upper end of the
field by a small drain running at right angles with them. It
should be of the same depth as the other drains.

WILL UNDERDRAINING PAY?

This depends on circumstances. If naturally good under-
drained land can be obtained in your neighborhood for from
$15 to $20 per acre, it would not pay in all probability to ex-
pend $30 per acre in underdraining low, wet, or springy land ;
but in all districts where land is worth $50 per acre, nothing
can pay better than to expend from $20 to $30 per acre in
judicious underdraining. The labor of cultivation is much
reduced, while the produce is generally increased one-half, and
is not unfrequently doubled, and it must be remembered that
the increase is net profit.

In reference to tile-pipe drains, it must be remembered
that the ditch may be much narrower than when stones are
used, thus making a considerable saving in the expense of
digging.

53^

AGRICULTURE.

VARIOUS KINDS OF FENCES.

1. Stone i^^«f^.— Wherever there is plenty of stone, and
especially where loose stones abound and must be removed
before the land can be properly cultivated, stone fences are
the best and most economical that can be constructed.

Where stone is not very abundant, a combination of stone
and rail fence is often economically constructed. A substan-
tial foundation of stones is laid, reaching two or two and a
half feet above ground, in which posts are placed at proper
distances, with two or three bar holes above the wall, for the
insertion of an equal number of rails, which for convenience
should be put in when the posts are set.

2. The Zig-zag or Wortti Fence. — In large portions of our
country, where there is a superabundance of timber and
economy of space is of little importance, the common zig-zag
or worm fence of the West and South is probably the most
economical that can be erected.

3. Post-and-rail Fences. — As timber becomes somewhat
more valuable, it ceases to be economical to use it so lavishly
as the worm fence requires, and the post-and-rail fence takes
its place. This is, in many respects, the best of all the
wooden farm fences.

The best timber for posts in the order of its durability is
red cedar, yellow locust, white oak and chestnut, for the
Northern and Middle States.

In some cases boards may be economically substituted for
rails, and firmly nailed to suitably prepared posts.

4. The Sunken Fence, — The sunken fence or wall consists
of a vertical excavation on one side, about five feet in depth,
against which a wall is built to the surface of the ground.
The opposite side is inclined at such an angle as will preserve
the sod against sliding, from the effects of frost or rain, and
is then turfed over.

5. Iron Fences. — Wire and other forms of iron fence are
now in extensive use. Where there is a deficiency of both
timber and stone, the wire fence is probably the best and
most economical that can be made.

No ordinary domestic animal will break through fences of
considerably less than one-quarter inch wrought wire, while
still larger sizes may be used with the same facility if required.
The bright or hard wire is now generally used.

Another style of iron farm fence is called the " Corrugated
Flat Rail Fence." It is in some respects preferable to the
round rail or wire, being visible at a greater distance and less
liable to sagging.

6. Hurdle Fence. — The hurdle, or light, movable fence, is
formed in short panels, and firmly set in the ground by sharp-
ened stakes at the end of each panel, and these are fastened
together. This is a convenient addition to farms where

heavy green crops of clover, lucern, peas, or turnips are re-
quired to be fed off in successive lots by sheep, swine, or
cattle. It is variously constructed of wood or iron, and is
much less expensive than might be supposed.

7. Hedges. — The live fence, almost universal in England,
is still an experiment here. There have been a few successes
and many failures in the cultivation of hedges. The causes
of failure have been various — a wrong choice of trees, the
dryness of our climate, lack of experience in planting, neglect
of proper after cultivation and pruning, etc. But the few ex-
amples of complete success which may be pointed out prove
conclusively that, under proper and easily attainable condi-
tions, live fences are perfectly practicable in this country, and
in some parts of it they are doubtless economical. When well
kept they are certainly very beautiful.

The soil for a hedge row must be deeply plowed or spaded,
and, if poor, manured a little.

Evergreens make the handsomest hedges ; and although less
stout, yet by shutting out of sight are usually quite safe. The
Norway fir is the fastest grower — the hemlock most beautiful,
and the best of any for the shade of trees ; the growth is,
however, rather slow. It shears finely, and its interior is, dense.
The Norway fir also does well on these points.

At the South we should choose the single white Macartney
rose for general cultivation ; although the Cherokee rose, when
properly treated, the evergreen thorn, the honey locust, the
jujube, and the Spanish bayonet ( Yucca gloriosd) all form effi-
cient and beautiful hedges.

A really good and perfect hedge should form a rounded
pyramid, branching out broadly and close to the ground, and
tapering up either sharply or obtuse, as the taste of the culti-
vator may determine. This is a fundamental principle in all
hedging, and unless it is secured at the outset by proper trim-
ming, it can never be done afterward.

History does not inform us when plows were first used ; but
there are traces of them in the earliest of all written authori-
ties — the Bible.

One of the best of the improved harrows is the hinge har-
row. This harrow may be folded double, or separated into
two parts, for the convenience of transportation or other pur-
pose. Either half may be lifted for any purpose while the im-
plement is in motion ; and the easy and independent play of
the parts up and down upon the hinges enables the instrument
to adapt itself to the surface of the ground in all places, so that
whether going through hollows, or over knolls or ridges, it is
always at work, and every tooth has an operation upon the
soil.

The Geddes harrow and the Han ford harrow, triangular in

AGRICULTURE.

533

shape, are also excellent implements ; and for light grounds,
free from stones and other obstructions, the Scotch or square
harrow serves it purpose admirably.

THE CULTIVATOR.

This is a useful implement for stirring the soil and killing
weeds. It saves a great deal of hard labor ; but must not be
allowed to usurp the place of the plow where deep cultivation
is required.

THE HORSE HOE.

Allied to the cultivator is the horse hoe in its various forms.
" Knox's patent has four teeth. The forward one is simply a
coulter, to keep the implement steady and in a straightforward
direction ; the two sides or middle teeth are miniature plows,
which may be changed from one side to the other, so as to turn
the earth from the rows at first weeding, when the plants are
small and tender, or toward them in later cultivation, at the
option of the operator ; the broad rear tooth effectually dis-
poses of grasses and weeds, cutting off or rooting up all that
come in its way. It is a thorough pulverizer of the surface,
sifting the earth and weeds through its iron prongs or fingers
in the rear, leaving the weeds on the surface to wilt and die,
and the ground level and mellow. For hoeing carrots, tur-
nips, etc., where the rows are narrow, the side teeth are taken
out, and the rear tooth, with the forward one as a director to
guide the instrument, hoes and mellows the ground between
the rows very perfectly."

THE FIELD ROLLER.

No good farmer will omit this useful implement from his
list. In spring there is frequently great advantage in rolling
lands recently sowed to grain and grass, as the earth that has
been raised by the frost, exposing the roots of plants, is re-
placed by the operation, with benefit to the growing crop.
The roller is particularly beneficial on light lands, of soil tco
loose and porous to retain moisture and protect the manure
from the effects of drying winds and a scorching sun, and too
light to allow the roots of plants a firm hold in the earth.

SEED SOWERS.

Every farmer or gardener needs a seed-sower of some sort ;
but one of the smallest and simplest of the many kinds manu-
factured will serve the purpose of the majority of agricul-
turists.

THE HORSE RAKE.

The utility of this simple implement is not fully realized, we
are sure, or it would be more generally employed. A horse-
rake is not an expensive implement, and every farmer should
have one. The old revolver is perhaps the best for general
use.

MOWERS, REAPERS, ETC.

Of the expensive labor-saving agricultural implements, like
the mower, the reaper and the thresher, it does not fall within
our purpose to speak, further than to recommend our readers
to avail themselves of the grand economies which they afford,
whenever they can, by combinations with their neighbors for
joint ownership of such machines, or by employing those kept
for the purpose of being hired out.

H-r J- ', ,■ -r ,■ V ,■ -r ,- V ,- ■■ • V ^" V .■ "r ^ V ^ ■»■ ' '
»t V ." V .' '. V- s V. .^ \ n' \ ^ -J, V -. V- ^ V- -V JaJ

A little farm well tilled ;
A little bam well filled ;
A little wife well willed.

The first requisite in all undertakings of magnitude is to
" count the cost."

The importance of possessing the means of doing everything
at exactly the right season cannot be too highly appreciated.

Admitting that the farm is already purchased and paid for, it
becomes an object to know what else is needed and at what
cost, before cultivation is commenced. If the buildings and
fences are what they should be, which is not often the case,
little immediate outlay will be needed for them. But if not,
then an estimate must be made of the intended improvements,
and the necessary sum allotted for them.

Size of Fartiis. — The cultivator will perceive in part the
advantages of moderately-sized farms for men in moderate cir-
cumstances. The great disadvantage of a' superficial, skim-
ming culture is obvious with a moment's attention. Take the
corn crop as an illustration. There are a great many farmers
whose yearly product per acre does not exceed an average of
twenty-Jive bushels. There are other farmers who obtain gen-
erally not less than sixty bushels per acre, and often eighty to
ninety-five. Now observe the difference in the profits of each.
The first gets 250 bushels from ten acres. In doing this he
has to plow ten acres, harrow ten acres, mark out ten acres,
find seed for ten acres, plant, cultivate, hoe, and cut up ten-
acres, besides paying the interest on ten acres, worth from
three to five hundred dollars. The other farmer gets 250
bushels from four acres at the farthest ; and he only plows,
plants, cultivates, and hoes, to obtain the same amount, /out
acres, which from their fine tilth, and freedom from grass and
weeds, is much easier done, even for an equal surface. The
same reasoning applies throughout the farm. Be sure, then,
to cultivate no more than can be done in the best manner,
whether it be ten, fifty, or five hundred acres.

But let me not be misunderstood. Large farms are by no
means to be objected to, provided the owner has capital
enough to perform all the work as well as it is now done on
the best farms of small size.

Laying out Farms. — This department is very much neg-
lected.

Many suppose that this business is very quickly disposed of ;
that a very few minutes, or hours at most, will enable a man
to plan the arrangement of his fields about right. But this is
a great error. Even when a farm is of the simplest form, on
a flat, uniform piece of ground, many things are to be borne
in mind in laying it out.

In the first place we all know that the fencing of a moder-
ately sized farm costs many hundred dollars. It is very de-
sirable to do it well, and use at the same time as little mate-

-<^

534

AGRICULTURE.

kr-

rial as possible. To do this much will depend on the shape of
the fields. A certain length of fence will inclose more land
in the form of a square than in any other practical shape.
Hence fields should approach this form as nearly as possible.
Again, the disposition of lanes is a matter of consequence,
so as to avoid unnecessary length and fencing and occupy the
least quantity of ground.

In laying out a farm with a very uneven surface or irregular
shape, it would be best to draw, first, a plan adapted to smooth
ground, and then vary in size and shape of the fields, the dis-
tance of the lane from the center, its straightness, etc., accord-
ing to the circumstances of the case.

Fences. — The kind of fence used, and the materials used for
its construction, must depend on circumstances and localities.
A good fence is always to be preferred to an imperfect one ;
though it will cost more, it will more than save that cost, and
three times the amount in vexation besides, by keeping cattle,
colts and pigs out of fields of grain.

Cafes. — Every field on the farm should be entered by a good
self-shutting and self-fastening gate. Let the farmer who has
6ars instead of gates, make a trial of their comparative con-
venience, by taking them out and replacing them without stop-
ping as often as he does in one year on his farm, say about six
hundred times, and he cannot fail to be satisfied which is the
cheapest for use.

Buildings. — These should be as near the center of the farm
as other considerations will admit. The buildings should not,
however, be too remote from the public road, and a good, dry,
healthy spot should be chosen.

The bam and outbuildings should be of ample extent. The
barn should have space for hay, grain, and straw. It is a mat-
ter of great convenience to have the straw for littering stables
housed and close at hand, and not out of doors, under a foot of
snow. There should be plenty of stables and sheds for all
domestic animals.

A small, cheap, movable horse-power should belong to every
farm, to be used in churning, sawing wood, driving washing
machine, turning grindstone, cutting straw, and slicing roots.

There should be a large root-cellar under the barn, into
which the cart may be dumped from the outside. One great
objection to the culture of roots in this country — the difficulty
of winter keeping — would then vanish.

Both barns and house cellars should be well coated, on the
bottom and sides, with water-lime mortar, which is a very
cheap and effectual way to exclude both water and rats.

Choice of Implements. — Of those which are much used, the
very best only should be procured. A laborer who, by the
use of a good hoe for one month, can do one quarter more
each day, saves, in the whole time, an entire week's labor.

Choice 0/ Animals. — The best of all kinds should be selected,
even if costing something more than others. Not "fancy"
animals, but those good for use and profit. Cows should be
productive of milk, and of a form adapted for beef ; oxen
hardy, and fast working ; sheep, kept fine by never selling the
best ; swine, not the larg^esl merely, but those fattening best
on least food. A Berkshire at 200 pounds, fattened on 10
bushels of corn, is better than a " land pike " of 300, fattened
on 50 bushels.

Soils, and their Management. — Soils are of various kinds
as heavy and light, wet and dry, fertile and sterile
They all require different management in a greater or less
degree.

Heavy soils are often stronger and more productive than
light ; but they require more labor for pulverization and till-
age. They cannot be plowed when very wet, nor so well
when very dry.

Sandy and gravelly loams also contain clays, but in smaller
quantity ; so that they do not present the cloddiness and ad-
hesiveness of heavy soils. Though possessing, generally, less
strength than clay soils, they are far more easily tilled, and
may be worked without difficulty in wet weather. They do
not crack or break in drouth. Indian corn, ruta-bagas, and
some other crops, succeed best upon them. Sandy soils are
very easily tilled, but are generally not strong enough. When
made rich, they are fine for some succulent crops. Peaty soils
are generally light and free, containing large quantities of de-
cayed vegetable matter. They are made by draining low and
swampy grounds. They are fine for Indian corn, broom com,
barley, potatoes, and turnips. They are great absorbers, and
great radiators of heat ; hence they become wami in sunshine
and cold in clear nights. For this reason they are peculiarly
liable to frosts. Crops planted upon them must, consequently,
be put in late, after spring frosts are over. Com should be of
early varieties, that it may not only be planted late, but ripen
early.

Each of these kinds of soil may be variously improved.
Heavy soils are much improved by draining ; open drains to
carry off the surface-water, and covered drains, that which
settles beneath. Heavy soils are also made lighter and freer
by manuring ; by plowing under coatings of straw, rotten
chips, and swamp muck ; and, in some rare cases, by carting
on sand, though this is usually too expensive for practice.
Subsoil plowing is very beneficial both in wet seasons and in
drouth ; the deep, loose bed of earth it makes, receiving the
water in heavy rains, and throwing it off to the soil above,
when needed ; but a frequent repetition of the operation is
needed, as the subsoil gradually settles again.

Sandy soils are improved by manuring, by the application
of lime, and by frequently plowing in green crops.

The great art of saving and manufacturing manure consists
in retaining and applying to the best advantage those soluble
and gaseous portions Probably more than one-half of all the
materials which exist in the country are lost, totally lost,
by not attending to the drainage of stables and farm-yards.
This could be retained by a copious application of straw ; by
littering with sawdust, when saw-mills are near ; and more
especially by the frequent coating of yards and stables with

AGRICULTURE.

535

dried peat and swamp muck, of which many parts of our
States furnish inexhaustible supplies.

Our limits do not admit of many remarks on the principles
of rotation. The following courses, however, have been
found among some of the best adapted to our Slate :

I. 1st year-MZ!orn and roots, well manured.

2d year — Wheat, sown with cloverseed ; I5lbs. an

acre.
3d year — Clover, one or more years, according to fer-
tility and amount of manure at hand.
II. 1st year — Com and roots, with all the manure.
2d year — Barley and peas.
3d year — Wheat, sown with clover.
4th year — Clover, one or more years.
III. 1st year — Com and roots, with all the manure.
2d year —Barley.

3d year — Wheat, sown with clover.
4th year — Pasture.
5th year — Meadow.
6th year — Fallow.
7th year — Wheat.
8th year — Oats, sown with clover,
gth year — Pasture or meadow.

The number of the fields must correspond with the number
of the changes in each course, the first needing three fields to
carry it out, the second four, and the third nine. As each
field contains a crop each, in the several successive stages of
the course, the whole number of fields collectively comprise
the entire series of crops every year. Thus, in the list above
given, there are two fields of wheat growing at once, three of
meadow and pasture, one of com and roots, one of barley,
one of oats, and one in summer fallow.

Operations in the Order of Time. — The vital consequence of
doing everything in the right season is known to every good
farmer.

In reviewing the various items which are most immediately
essential to good farm management, some of the most obvi-
ous will be — capital enough to buy the farm and to stock it
well ; to select a size compatible with these requisites ; to lay
it out in the best manner ; to provide it well with fences,
gates, and buildings ; to select the best animals aijd the best
implements lo be had reasonably ; to bring the soil into good
condition, by draining, manuring, and good culture ; to have
every part under a good rotation of crops, and every operation
arranged so as all to be conducted systematically, without
clashing or confusion. An attention to all these points would
place agriculture on a very different footing from its present
condition in many places and with most farmers. The busi-
ness then, instead of being repulsive, as it so frequently is to
our young men, would be attended with real enjoyment and
pleasure. —

But in all improvements, in all enterprises, the great truth
must not be forgotten, that success is not to be expected with-
out diligence and industry. We must sow in spring and cul-
tivate weU in summer if we would reap an abundant harvest
in autumn.

I. THE EDIBLE GRAINS.

INDIAN CORN— Z^a Mays.

The principal varieties of Indian corn in extensive use for
field culture in the United Stales are the Big White, Big Yel-
low, Little White, Little Yellow, and Virginia Gourd Seed (yel-
low and white). Of each of these there are many sub-varieties.
The King Philip, or Brown Corn, a very early and small grow-
ing but productive vaiiely, is much approved in the more North-
em States ; and Peabody's Piolific or Tillering Corn, said to
be a wonderfully productive soit, is adapted to the Southern
and Middle States ; but it has not yet been extensively tested.
In the selection of varieties, choose for general planting those
that have h^en proved in your own vicinity, as the best sort of
one locality may prove inferior in another. For trial, get new
sorts from a moie northern latitude, especially where earliness
is particularly desirable.

The best soil for com is a rich loam, but good crops are
produced, with proper manuring, on light, sandy land. A
strong clay, or a poor, wet soil will not produce a good crop.
Corn is a gross feeder, and, except on very light, sandy soils,
fresh, unfermented manure is best for it. Ashes may be
added or applied as a top dressing, with great advantage, also
the salt and lime mixture.

The after culture of Indian corn may mostly be performed
with a light plow and a good cultivator. It should be com-
menced soon after the plants show themselves above ground,
but deep culture of every kind should be discontinued after
the roots have spread through the soil, as they cannot be dis-
turbed without great injury. Hilling or heaping the earth
about the plants is an absurd and injurious process, which,
instead of helping to support them, as many suppose, greatly
weakens the stalks, by destroying or covering up the prop-
roots with which nature has supplied them.

Com should be perfectly dried in the field, husked, and
stored in an airy loft, or in a properly constmcted granary or
crib.

The proper selection and saving of seed is of great import-
ance. It should be selected in the field from the earliest and
lai^est ears of the most prolific stalks. In this way astonish-
ing improvements in a variety may be gradually made.

^THE AT— Triiicum of species.

Botanists describe about thirty species of wheat and some
hundreds of varieties. The species mainly cultivated in the
United States are the Winter Wheat and the Spring Wheat,
in their numerous varieties.

In your choice of varieties it is best to be governed, as in
the case of Indian com, by the experience either of yourself
or others. Depend upon known and tried sorts till, by experi-

536

AGRICULTURE.

•^

ments on a small scale, you are satisfied that you have ob-
tained something better.

"Wheat thrives best on a strong, clayey loam, but many light
and all calcareous soils, if in a proper condition, will give a
good yield. The soil should be deep, and well pulverized
with the plow and the harrow. Underdraining and subsoil
plowing add greatly to the amount of the crop.

' ' Select seed that is free from the seeds of weeds and from
smut, if this be possible ; but in any event it is well, previous
to sowing, to wash it in a strong brine made of salt and
water, taking care to skim off all light and foreign seeds. If
the grain be smutty, repeat the washing in another clean
brine, when it may be taken out and intimately mixed with
about one twelfth of its bulk of pulverized quicklime.

" Wheat is subject to the attack of the Hessian fly if sown too
early in the fall, and again the ensuing spring, there being
two annual swarms of the fly, early in May and September.
When thus invaded, harrowing or rolling, by which the mag-
gots or flies are displaced or driven off, is the only remedy of
much avail. Occasionally other flies and sometimes wheat
worms, commit great depredation. There is no effectual
remedy known against any of these marauders, beyond roll-
ing, brushing, and harrowing."

The grain should be cut immediately after the lowest part
of the stalk becomes yellow, while the grain is yet in the
dough state, and easily compressible between the thumb and
finger. Repeated experiments have demonstrated that wheat
cut at this time will yield more in measure, of heavier weight,
and a larger quantity of sweet, white flour. If early cut, a
longer time is required for curing before storing or threshing.

Spring wheat should be sown as early as the ground will
admit. The best crops are raised on land that has been
plowed the previous fall, and sown without additional plow-
ing, but harrowed-in thoroughly.

RYE—Seca/e Cereale.

This plant will flourish on soils too poor or too destitute of
lime for wheat. It has taken the place of wheat in many por-
tions of the country, where repeated crops of the latter have ex-
hausted the soil of some of the requisite elements for its growth.
The best soil for it is a rich, sandy loam, but it grows freely on
the lightest sandy and gravelly soils that are capable of sustain-
ing any kind of vegetation. The directions for the preparation
of soil and seed, and for cultivation, harvesting, etc., are the
same as for wheat, but it is sometimes sown among standing
corn and hoed in, the ground being left as level as possible.
So soon as the corn is matured it is cut up by the roots and
removed to the sides of the field, when the ground is thor-
oughly rolled.

THE OKl—Avena Sativa.

This grain will grow on any soil, and in almost any climate.
It is affected less by disease, and has fewer insect enemies
than most of the cereals. The wire worm, however, occa-
sionally proves destructive to it, when sown on fresh sod.
The remedy in this case is to turn over the sod late in the
fall, just before the severe winter frosts.

There are many varieties and sub-varieties of the oat.

The heaviest oat cultivated in the United States is the Im-
perial ; and it is preferred by many to all others. It is bright
and plump, and yields a large proportion of nutritive matter.
It has proved very productive in the Northern and Middle
States. But the variety most cultivated is the common White
Oat, which is hardy and a good bearer.

The only oat that will mature with certainty in the Southern

States is the Egyptian. It is sound, hardy, and moderately

productive. It is sown in* autumn. On most soils rolling is

beneficial.

BARLEY — Hordeunt of species.

In Europe this grain ranks next to wheat in importance ;
but it is much less extensively cultivated in the United States.

A loam of medium consistency, between light and heavy,
is best for it. Barn-yard manures must never be applied di-
rectly to this grain. Steeping the seed twenty-four hours in a
weak solution of saltpeter is beneficial. The roller is some-
times applied to the field, when the plants are two or three
inches high, with great benefit.

It is of great importance to harvest barley at the proper
time.

RICE— Cryza Sativa.

Rice probably affords food for more human beings than any
other plant.

The varieties of rice most grown in South Carolina and
Georgia, which have hitherto been the greatest rice-producing
States of the Union, are the Gold-seed rice, the Guinea, the
Common White, and the White-bearded. There are several
other varieties, but generally inferior to the foregoing. The
best are produced by careful cultivation on soils suited to this
grain, and by a careful selection of seed.

The method of cultivation pursued on the rice lands of the
lower Mississippi, as detailed by Dr. Cartwright, a practical
planter, is as follows :

" The seed is sown broadcast about as thick as wheat, and
harrowed-in with a light harrow, having many teeth ; the
ground being first well plowed and prepared by ditches and
embankments for inundation. It is generally sown in March,
and immediately after sowing, the water is let on, so as barely
to overflow the ground. The water is withdrawn on the
second, third, or fourth day, or as soon as the grain begins to
swell. The rice very soon after comes up and grows finely.
When it has attained about three inches in height, the water
is again let on, the top leaves being left a little above the
water. Complete immersion would kill the plant. A fort-
night previous to harvest the water is drawn off to give the
stalks strength, and to dry the ground for the convenience of
the reapers."

BUCKWHEAT— /Vi/yjewwww Fagopyrum.

Buckwheat is extensively cultivated in the United States,
as it affords a flour which is much esteemed as an article of
food. It will grow with considerable luxuriance on the poor-
est land. When intended for seed it should be sown suffi-
ciently early to allow the kernel to become perfectly ripe —
say from the middle of June to the first of July.

Buckwheat is often used for plowing under as a green ma-
nure. This can be done where the land is too poor to pro-

^3^
^

AGRICULTURE.

537

duce clover for that purpose. When in flower, it should be
first rolled, and then plowed in.

MILLET — Panicum of species.

The species generally cultivated for the seed is the P. viil-
liaceum. As a forage crop, the German millet (/*. Gernian-
icum) is preferable, and is coming into extensive use, espe-
cially at the West.

II. HOW TO SHOCK GRAIN.

Many a valuable harvest may be preserved from ruin by
taking heed to the following hints :

1. Grain should be firmly bound in smaller sheaves than it
is almost universally found. Loosely bound sheaves cannot
be well shocked. They also admit more rain than tightly
bound ones.

2. Two men can shock better and more advantageously
than one.

3. Let the shocker always take two sheaves at a time, holding
them with his elbow against his side, bringing the heads to-
gether with hands well spread upon them. Lift them as high
as possible, bringing them with force, in as nearly a perpen-
dicular position as can be, to the ground. Never make the
second thrust, if the sheaves stand erect, for every one after
the first, by breaking the butts, makes the matter worse.

4. Then let two persons bring down two sheaves each at the
same time, as before described, being extremely careful to keep
them perpendicular. The form of shock at this * * *
period may be represented thus : * * *

5. As lastly stated, two more each, thus : * *
The reader will perceive we now have ten sheaves, * ^ ^ *
forming a circle as nearly as can be. # 4:

6. While one man presses the head of the ^ ^f.
shock firmly together, let the other break, not bend, the two
cap sheaves, and place them on, well spreading heads and
butts.

The main points are, to have grain well bound, sheaves
made to stand in an erect position, and then to put cap sheaves
on firmly, and every gust of wind will not demolish your
work.

Grain is usually shocked in this manner : One sheaf is made
to stand alone, another is leaned against it, and another, some-
times at an angle of forty-five degrees, " to make them stand
up," until a sufficient number is thought to be leaned up.

Now the probability is, that there is but one sheaf in the
whole shock that has its center of gravity within its base ; as
a matter of course, each depends on some other to hold it up.
Consequently they twist ; and if the shock does not fall down
before the hands get the next one up, it most certainly will
during the fir?t rain, just when the perpendicular position is
most necessary.

in. THE LEGUMES.

THE KIDNEY 'Q^Kn—Phaseolus Vulgaris.
The bush or dwarf kidney bean is frequently cultivated as a
field crop. There are many sorts that may be profitably used
for thii purpose, but the Small White is generally preferred.

as it is very prolific, quite hardy, will grow in light, poor soil,
and is more delicately flavored than the colored varieties.
The Long White garden bean is also good.

The bean succeeds best on a light, warm, and moderately
fertile soil. A strong soil, or too much manure, induces a
tendency to run to vine, without a corresponding quantity of
fruit.

Plant either in hills or in drills. If you have a sower, or

drill for putting them in, the latter is the best mode. The

drills may be from two to three feet apart, the hills from

eighteen inches to two feet each way. From five to eight

plants are enough for a hill. They must be kept clear from

weeds by the use of the hoe or cultivator ; but should be

earthed up very slightly, if at all. The first of June is sufii-

ciently early to plant them. They are sometimes planted with

corn, putting three or four beans in each hill. This may be

done either at the time of planting the corn, or at the first

hoeing.

THE PEA— /'/jKwi Sativum.

The Marrowfat and Small Yellow peas are the sorts gener-
ally used for field culture. The Marrowfat is the richer and
better pea, and is to be preferred for good soils. The Small
Yellow thrives on poorer soils, and is therefore, in some cases,
more profitably cultivated. In some parts of the South a
very prolific bush pea is cultivated and much esteemed for the
table, both green and dry.

Prepare the ground as for any other spring crop, by plow-
ing and harrowing, and sow broadcast, at the rate of two or
two and a half bushels to the acre. Cover them with the har-
row or the cultivator, the latter implement being preferable,
and smooth the ground by the use of the roller.

The great enemy of the pea is the pea-weevil or pea-bug,
which is too well known to require description. As a remedy,
some recommend keeping the seed in tight vessels over one
year. This plan, if universally adopted, would probably lead
to the total extermination of this destructive insect ; but as
tkis is not likely to be the case, the only practicable way to
avoid its ravages is by late sowing.

THE PEA-NUT- /I rack is HyJ/oga-a.

This is a legume bearing its pods under the surface of (he
ground. It was originally brought from Africa.

A North Carolina planter thus describes the mode of cultiva-
tion : "So soon as the frost is out of the ground, the land is
broken up, and about the middle of April laid off with the
plow thirty-three inches each way ; two or three peas are then
dropped in the crosses thus made. The plants are kept clean
with hoes and plows until the vines cover the ground ; but no
dirt is put on the vines. In October they are dug wiih a rake
or plow. Hogs are then turned into the field, and they soon
fatten upon the peas left upon the ground. When the vines
are left upon the land for the hogs to feed upon, there is no
crop that improves the land so much."

IV. ESCULENT ROOTS.

THE POTATO—Satanum Tuberosum.
In reference to the choice of varieties for planting, the best
advice we can give will be simply a repetition of our recom-

538

AGRICULTURE.

mendations in tespect to several other plants : Choose such as
have been well tested by yourself or others, and found adapted
to the soil and purposes for which they are to be cultivated.
Try your experiments with new sorts, on a small scale, and
with close observation of the results. Experiment, also, if
leisure serve, in the production of new varieties from the seeds
found in the balls.

A fair crop of potatoes may be produced on almost any soil,
properly manured and prepared and well cultivated, but a rich
loam, of medium humidity, is best. If fresh or unfermented
manures be used, they should be spread on the land, and
plowed under, and not scattered in the drills or hills, as they
are apt to injure the flavor of the potatoes. Lime, crushed
bones, gypsum, salt, and ashes are excellent special manures
for the potato. The soil should be made loose and mellow
before planting.

THE SWEET VOIKTO— Convolvulus Batatas.

This is the potato of the South, and is much cultivated in
the Middle and Western States. In its perfection, as it grows
in South Carolina and the other extreme Southern States, it is
the best of all the esculent roots.

The varieties most cultivated are the Small Spanish, long,
purplish color, grows in clusters, very productive, and of good
quality ; Brimstone, sulphur-colored, long, large and excellent ;
Red Bermuda, the best early potato ; Common Yam, root ob-
long and large, the best keeper., and very productive.

A dry, loamy soil, inclining to sand, is best for the sweet
potato. The manure should be plowed in, and the ground
well pulverized. A top-dressing of wood ashes is very bene-
ficial.

So soon as the tops are dead or touched by the frost, the
crop should be gathered.

Sweet potatoes are difficult to keep.

THE TURNIP— ^r<M«V« Repa.

The varieties of the turnip are numerous. The flat Eng-
lish turnip has been longest in cultivation, and still holds its
place among most farmers as a field crop. It thrives best on
new land and freshly turned sod, but will grow wherever In-
dian com can be raised.

English turnips are often sowed among Indian com at the
last hoeing, producing, in many cases, a fair crop.

The Ruta Baga or Swedes turnip is a far more valuable root
than the English, but requires a little more attention in culti-
vation. It will grow on a heavier soil, yield as good a crop,
furnish a more nutritive root, and keep longer.

The turnip is exposed to numerous depredators, of which
the tumip flea-beetle is the most inveterate. It attacks the
plant as soon as the first leaves expand, and often destroys two
or three successive sowings. When the fly or bug is discov-
ered, the application of lime, ashes, or soot, or all combined,
should be made upon the leaves, while the dew or a slight
moisture is on them.

Harvesting should be deferred till the approach of severe
frosts, and at the South the crop may remain in the ground
till wanted in the winter.

The Purple-Topped Swede, Skirving's Swede, and Ash-
croft's Swede, are approved varieties.

THE CARROT— Z)a«c«j Carota.

The varieties mostly used for field culture are the Altring-
ham, the Orange, and the White Belgian. The last-named is
very productive, and, growing high out of ground, is more
easily harvested than the other sorts ; but, on the other hand,
it is considered below the others in nutritive value.

It is very important to have both the soil and the manure
for carrots free from the seeds of weeds and grasses ; the
plants in the early stages of their growth are small and feeble,
which makes it a slow and expensive process to eradicate the
weeds, if abundant. Well manured sandy, or light, loamy
soils are best adapted to the carrot crop. The ground should
be deeply worked, and brought to a fine tilth before sowing
the seed.

THE PARSNIP— /'<w//«a<ra Sativa.

The parsnip is one of the best of all our table vegetables,

and is also excellent for cattle, sheep and swine. The leaves

of both parsnips and carrots are good for cattle, either green

or dried.

THE BEET— ^f/a Vulgaris.

The varieties most in use for field culture are the Sugar beet
and the Mangold-Wurzel, of both of which there are several
sub-varieties.

Beets do well in any soil of sufiicient depth and fertility, but
they are perhaps most partial to a strong loam. If well tilled,
they will produce large crops on a tenacious clay. We have
raised at the rate of 800 bushels per acre, on a stiff clay, which
had been well supplied with unfermented manure. The soil
cannot be made too rich ; and for such as are adhesive, fresh
or unfermented manures are much the best.

The culture is similar to that of carrots and parsnips.

V. THE GRASSES.

The grasses cultivated for the food of animals are too nu-
merous to admit of a description in such a work as this.

We will speak briefly of a few of the leading species culti-
vated among us, noting some of their peculiar excellences and
adaptations.

TIMOTHY— /%/*«»« Praiense.

Allen says : ' ' For cultivation in the northern portion of the
United States, I am inclined to place the Timothy first in the
list of the grasses. It is indigenous to this country, and flour-
ishes in all soils except such as are wet, too light, dry, or
sandy ; and it is found in perfection on the rich clays and clay
loams which lie between 38° and 44° north latitude. It is a
perennial, easy of cultivation, hardy and of luxuriant growth,
and on its favorite soil yields from one and a half to two tons
of hay per acre at one cutting."

It may be sown either in August or September with the
winter grains, or in the spring. " Twelve quarts of seed per
acre on a fine mellow tilth are sufficient ; and twice this quan-
tity on a stiff clay. " This is the Herds grass of New England.

THE SMOOTH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS— /V« Pratensis.

This is one of the best of grasses, both for hay and for pas-
ture. It is a native species, and is found almost everywhere,
but does not grow in its greatest perfection north of the valley

AGRICULTURE.

539

of the Ohio. It is seen in all its glory on the fertile soils of
Kentucky and Tennessee. Every animal that eats grass is
fond of it.

The Roughish Meadow grass {F. trivialis) has the appear-
ance of the smooth variety, but is rough to the touch, and pre-
''ers moist situations and clayey soils. This, also, is an excel-
lent grass.

RED TOP— Agrosiis Vulgaris.

A hardy and luxuriant species, much relished by cattle, but
possessing only a moderate nutritive value. It is much culti-
vated in some portions of New England and elsewhere ; but
where better grasses will grow, this should be rejected. It is
sometimes called Foul Meadow and Bent Grass.

TALL OAT GKhSS—Avena Elatior.

An early and luxuriant grass, flourishing in a loamy or
clayey soil, and making good hay. It grows to the height of
four or five feet on good soils. It is well suited to pasture.

THE FESCUE GRASSES— /^«/f«fa of species.

The Tall Fescue grass {F. elafior), according to some exper-
iments made in England, yields more nutritive matter per
acre, when cut in flower, than any other grass cut either in
flower or seed. It is an American grass, but has found less
favor at home than abroad.

The Meadow Fescue {F. pratensis) ; the Spiked Fescue (/\
loleacea) ; the Purple Fescue (^F. rubra) ; and the Floating
Fescue {F. Jluitans), are all indigenous grasses of fine qual-
ities and great value.

ORCHARD GRASS— ZJrtc/y/M Glomerata.

The Orchard or Cock's Foot grass is excellent for shaded
situations. It should be cut before it is ripe, and will furnish
three or four crops a year.

THE EGYPTIAN GKK'S&— Sorghum Haipense.

A cane like grass which grows in profusion in some of the
Southern States. It is a superior stock-sustaining plant ; but
as it is difficult to remove when once imbedded in the soil, its
introduction into cultivated fields is considered a great evil.

GERMAN MILLET— Paw/VMW Germanicum.

This plant, known at the West as Hungarian grass, seems
to have been introduced into Iowa by a Hungarian immigrant,
and to have spread thence to other parts of the country. It
had, however, been previously cultivated in small quantities
under its proper name of German. Millet. As a forage crop,
for the West at least, its value seems to be well proved. It
has been less extensively tested art the East.

THE CLOVERS— rr//o//a»i of species.

The Common Red clover {T- pratense) is a hardy and easily
cultivated species, of which there are several varieties. It
grows luxuriantly on every well-drained soil of sufficient
strength to afford it nutriment.

Clover should be cut after having fully blossomed and as-
sumed a brownish hue.

Southern Clover ( T. nudiuni) is a smaller species than the

common Red, and matures earlier. It succeeds better on a
light soil than the latter, and should be sown more thickly.

The White or Creeping clover (T'. repeni), of which there
are several varieties, is a self-propagating plant, and adds
greatly to the richness of many of our pastures, especially
on clayey soils. It is very nutritious, and cattle, sheep, and
horses are all fond of it.

Dr. Darlington, of Pennsylvania, gives the following as the
species of grasses most valuable in our meadows and pastures,
naming them in the order of their excellence :

I. Meadow or green grass {^Poa pratensis). 2. Timothy
(Phleum pratense). 3. Orchard grass {Dactylis glomerata).
4. Meadow Fescue {Festuca pratensis). 5. Blue grass (Poa
compressa). 6. Ray gass {Lolium petenne). 7. Red top
{Agrostis vulgaris). 8. Sweet-scented vernal grass {Anthox-
anthum odoratum).

BROOM ZOTCt\— Sorghum Saccharatum.

Broom corn requires similar soil to Indian com. A green
sward turned over late in the fall is best. Well-rotted horse
or sheep manure and wood ashes may be liberally scattered in
the drills or hills. A situation not subject to early or late
frosts should be chosen. Clayey lands are not suitable.

FLAX — Linum Usitatissitnunt.

A deep, rich loam or alluvial soil is best for flax. The
proper fertility should be secured by a surplus of manure ap-
plied to a previous crop, as fresh manures are injurious to it.

HEMP — Cannabis Sativa.

This is a plant of the nettle tribe, and came originally from
India. The Russians are at present its chief cultivators ; but
in our Western States, and especially in Kentucky, it is begin-
ning to be widely raised.

A rich loam or vegetable mold suits the hemp plant. The
ground should be carefully prepared by plowing and harrow-
ing till it is perfectly pulverized, smooth, and even. The
seeds are sown broadcast at the rate of a bushel and a half to
the acre, and plowed or harrowed in. Plowing is best on
ground liable to bake. In Kentucky they sow any time from
the first of April to the tenth of May. It is desirable to sow
just before a rain.

T H E H O P—Humulus L upulus.

The hop is found growing spontaneously on the banks of
rivers and brooks in various parts of this country.

The best soil for the cultivation of hops is a sandy loam,
rather low and moist, but they will grow on soils very differ-
ent from this. New lands are to be preferred.

If the land has been long in use, it should be dressed with
a compost of alkaline manures, or, what is nearly equivalent,
with fresh barn-yard manures, on a previously well-hoed crop,
and made perfectly free from all weeds, and deeply plowed
and harrowed.

After gathering in the fall, the hops should be hilled or
covered with compost, and all the vines removed. The fol-
lowing spring, when the ground is dry, the surface is scraped
from the hill and additional compost is added, when a plow is

S40

AGRICULTURE.

run on four sides, as near as possible without injury to the
plants.- All the running roots are laid bare and cut with a
sharp knife within two or three inches of the main root, and
the latter are trimmed if spreading too far. It is well to
break or twist down the first shoots, and allow those which
succeed to run, as they are likely to be stronger and more pro-
ductive. Cutting should be avoided, unless in. a sunny day,
as the profuse bleeding injures them. The poles will keep
much longer if laid away under cover till again wanted the fol-
lowing spring. Drying may be done by spreading the hops
thinly in the shade, and stirring them often enough to pre-
vent healing ; but when there is a large quantity they can
be safely cured only in a kiln.

*i* Tp 0^CH?I^D. -*n

LAYING OUT ORCHARDS.

We have often observed a good deal of inconvenience and
perplexity in measuring off and laying out orchards, from a
want of accuracy at the commencement. If the rows are
begun crooked, stake after stake may be altered, without
being able to form straight lines, and with only an increase of
the confusion. If the first tree in a row of fifty be placed
only six inches out of the way, and be followed as a guide for
the rest, the last one will deviate fifty times six inches, or
twenty-five feet from a right line, even if the first error is not
repeated.

The most simple and convenient arrangement for orchards
in all ordinary cases is in squares.

The second mode of arranging trees Is in the old quincunx
form, which is nothing more than a series of squares laid off
diagonally, and has no special advantage to recommend it ex-
cept novelty.

The hexagonal or viodem quincunx possesses two important
advantages. One is its more picturesque appearance, and its
consequent fitness for proximity to ornamental plantations,
and the other is its greater economy of space, as the trees are
more evenly distributed over the ground.

One principal reason why the hexagonal mode is so little
adopted is the supposed difficulty in l^ing out the ground.
But. like many other apparent difficulties, it becomes very
simple and easy when once understood.

SOIL AND SITUATION.

Downing says that strong loams, by which is meant loams
with only just sufficient sand to render them friable and easily
worked, are, on the whole, by far the best for fruit in this
country. The trees do not come into bearing so soon as on a
light, sandy soil, but they bear larger crops, are less liable to
disease, and are much longer lived. Clayey loams, when well
drained^ are good, and trees growing on them are generally
free from insects.

It is difficult to give any precise rules in reference to aspect.
Good orchards may be found in all aspects, but a gentle slope
to the southwest is generally to be preferred to any other.
Where fruit is very liable to be killed by late spring frosts,
and the season is long and warm enough to ripen it in any ex-
posure, planting on the north sides of hills is practiced with
advantage. Deep valleys with small streams of water should
be avoided, as the cold air settles down in such places, and
frosts are apt to prove fatal ; but the borders of large rivers
and lakes are favorable for orchards, as the climate is rendered
milder by the presence of large bodies of water.

PLANTING AND CULTIVATING AN
ORCHARD.

The first thing is to prepare the ground by underdraining
(if it require it, as most land does), subsoiling, or trench plow-
ing, harrowing, manuring, etc.

Choose sound, healthy trees for planting, and set them out
carefully. Apple trees should be thirty feet apart in orchard
culture. Set the same kind in rows together. This will facil-
itate the gathering of the fruit, and improve the appearance of
the orchard.

It is an indispensable requisite in all young orchards to
keep the ground mellow and loose by cultivation, at least for
the first few years, until the trees are well established.

Fallow crops are best for orchards — potatoes, beets, carrots,
bush beans, and the like ; but, whatever crops may be grown,
it should be constantly borne in mind that the roots of the tree
require the sole occupancy of the ground so far as they extend,
and therefore that an area of more than the diameter of the
head of the tree should be kept clean of crops, weeds, and
grass.

To keep the trees in a healthy bearing state, regular manur-
ing is requisite. They exhaust the soil, like any other crop.
Top-dressings of marl or mild lime may alternate with barn-
yard manure, muck composts, etc.

To prevent the attacks of the apple-borer, place about the
trunks early in the spring a small mound of ashes or lime.
Nursery trees may be protected by washing the stems in May,
quite down to the ground, with a solution of two pounds of
potash in eight quarts of water.

Ar-

^r^^p^^if^^i ^ ^-v ^ " ^ t w - " - ^ ti^^^

fi P ' -^^'-^^ ' -^^i^ "- ^^^

VARIETIES OF CATTLE.

HE Ox belongs to the
fourth class of vertebrate
animals, and is of the or-
der Ruminantia. It is a
ruminant, with hollow
horns, which are directed
sideways, and then twine upwards
in form of a crescent. It is a
large animal, with a broad
muzzle, low stature, and stout
legs. It is also distinguished by
a fold of skin which hangs be-
neath the neck, and is called the
dewlap.

The male and female of this species are respect-
ively the Bull and the Cow. The young males are
called Steers, and the females Heifers.

Beef is the most useful product which the ox
affords.

The problem of utilizing the ox to the greatest
extent simply consists in producing, as quickly and
economically as possible, an animal excelling to the
highest degree both in the quantity and quality of
its meat. Care, tl.erefore, must be taken particu-
larly to develop those parts which furnish the joints
which are most esteemed.

The type of the ox best fitted for the butcher is
that in which flesh surpasses bone in proportion, and

in which the hinder parts are more fully developed
even at the expense of the neck and shoulders ; for
the latter joints furnish an inferior article of food, so
that their reduction, if compensated for by an in-
crease of the more valuable portions, must be a great
desideratum.

What, therefore, are the points by which we can
discern when an ox approaches the butcher's ideal ?
The answer is, great width combined with depth and
length.

" The deeper the animal is in the thorax, in pro-
portion to its size — the closer it is to the ground, ir. .
vulgar terms ; added to this, the longer it is in body
and rump ; and the thicker it is, or, as is com-
monly said, * the better it is made up,' the greater
amount of clear meat it gives in comparison with its
absolute or living weight, and the better it approaches
to the desired type."

There are certain accessory characteristics which
must have their due importance, as likewise forming
a prominent feature in the type of the ox which is
intended for the butcher. It must have slenderly
made bones, a fine head, skin supple and not too
thick, moderate dewlap, thin and downy hair, calm
visage, quiet and mild look. It may be regarded as
a certainty that the ox which combines these and the
former attributes possesses a special fitness for be-
coming good beef.

Next -to meat, milk is the most valuable product
with which this race furnishes us — a source of wealth

542

CATTLE.

to the producers, for it is an article of universal con-
sumption. Thus it may be easily understood how
important it is for the buyer to be able to distinguish,
h priori, in the market, from certain outward signs,
what are the milking qualities of a cow, and to be
able to arrive at a correct conclusion, even in a
heifer, whether she will be a good or bad milker.

There are both good and bad milkers in every
race ; the proportion, however, of each presents a
certain constant character, by which some breeds
may be recognized as possessing a decided milking
superiority. Climate and nature of pasturage have
also great influence on the lacteous qualities of dif-
ferent races.

The principal breeds of oxen and cows are the
Shorthorn, Hereford and Devon ; and besides these
we have the Sussex, the Longhorned, the Galloway,
the Angus and the Kyloe.

The Shorthorn is now undoubtedly the dominant breed.
Originating in Teeswater, and carefully bred years before the
existence of any herd-book recording descent, it soon reached
the highest reputation for its early precocity and meat-pro-
ducing qualities.

The Herefords, another leading breed of cattle, character-
ized by red body and white or mottled face, come almost as
early to maturity as the shorthorn, and, attaining great weight,
are certainly one of the best breeds. They have as great
an antiquity as the shorthorn. As much as $5,000 have
been given for a Hereford bull and cow ; and high prices
are fetched still, though not so high as those of the shorthorn
stock, for well-bred bulls and cows.

The breed has now a herd-book of its own, and it is in the
hands of as much enthusiasm and ability as has characterized
the history of the shorthorns. For early maturity, and large
size, accordingly, it now almost equals the shorthorn ; and for
quality of meat it probably excels it.

The Devon. — The North Devon ox is a small animal, of a
light red color, without any white, with long yellowish horns,
and a well-made symmetrical frame. Hardy, light and active,
it is an excellent worker, and is worked in harness until five or
six years old, and then fattened.

The Sussex is a larger, coarser animal than the Devon, but
otherwise resembles it.

The Longhorned, a dairy breed, rather than one adapted
for the feeding-house, is gradually disappearing from the mid-
land and western counties, where it prevailed.

The Kyloe, or West Highlander, adapted to the rough
pastures of the districts where it is bred, is driven south to be
fattened on English grazing-grounds, where it yields the very
best of beef at four and five years old. It is characterized by
long, upturned horns, a shaggy coat of a yellow, dun, or black
color, and well-made, compact little body.

The Galloway, resembling a Kyloe without horns, with a
less shaggy coat, is, when well bred, one of the best-made and
most symmetrical of our breeds of cattle. It, too, is driven

south in large numbers to be fattened, and yields excellent
beef.

The Angus, also a polled breed, of a red or black color, is a
much larger animal, and when crossed with the pure-bred
shorthorn breed, furnishes one of the best crosses for the feed-
ing-stall that we have.

Besides these, there are other sorts especially adapted to
the daily.

Different Kinds of Cows. — The large kinds of cows are
generally chosen where there are rich fertile pastures ; and no
doubt the dominant breed throughout the country, both for in-
door and outdoor feeding, is, as has been said, the shorthorn.
This breed is divided into several varieties — the Holderness,
Northumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, etc. The Yorkshire is
thought to be the best for the dairy. These fine animals ap-
pear to have descended from the Teeswater breed. There are
a great many varieties of the large cows in this country that
have been bred by shorthorn bulls. An excellent cross is
common in the eastern counties between the best Suffolk
cows and shorthorn animals of the best blood. They are good
milkers, harmless, and very quiet, and consequently much
approved of for pasture-feeding. Cows of this breed will pro-
duce from ten to twelve pounds of butter per week each, when
well managed ; and for butter dairying the quantity and quali-
ty of cream produced is of greater importance than the quan-
tity of milk.

Cheshire Cows. — The Cheshire dairy farms are mostly
stocked with a mixed breed of cows, between the Cheshire,
Lancashire, and other crosses.

Lancashire. — The Lancashire are distinguished by their long
horns, deep fore-quarters, and long hair. They, as well as
other long-horned cows, are said to give richer milk than
polled cows, but not so much of it. Besides the milking prop-
erties of a breed of cows, their hardy qualities must be thought
of, where they are exposed to bleak situations ; and no doubt
the long-horned Lancashire and other coarse skinned animals
are the most hardy.

Devons. — The middle-horned breed of cows may include
the Devons, the Herefords, and the Sussex. The two latter are
the largest, but neither of them excel the best shorthorn in
their produce of milk. The Devons are of a light red color,
with yellowish colored horns, well made, and their milk is rich
— or we should not have such rich Devonshire cream.

Hereford. — The Hereford, next in size to the shorthorn
breed, is a fine animal and a pretty good one for dairy stock,
but better, perhaps, for fattening purposes. The Sussex do
not differ much from the Herefords ; they are both of a darker
color than the Devons, with horns of a moderate length, turn-
ing up at the points, having wide hips and smallish bones.
They are middling cows for the dairy.

Calloway. — The polled Galloways are very nice animals for
grazing purposes ; they are mostly black, well proportioned in
form, and yield an average quantity of milk, when carefully
used, for dairy purposes.

Highland. — The Highland are not thought to be better milk-
producera than the Galloways, but more hardy.

Ayrshire. — The Ayrshire cow is a favorite in some places,
but not preferred by cow-keepers in general. It is, however,

va>-

CATTLE.

543 ^

a good animal for the dairy, and almost equal to the Alderney
in the richness of its milk. It has fine wrinkled horns, is larger
than the Alderney, and somewhat like it in appearance. Its
color is usually red and white.

Shetland, — The Shetland cattle are very small, and inferior
in shape to those of the Western Highlands. They are hardy,
small consumers of food, and yield about two quarts of milk a
day.

Welsh. — The Pembrokeshire cow is small and hardy. It is
fine-boned, with clean light head and neck, small yellow horn,
good chine, long round barrel, thin thigh, and short fine legs,
always in good condition if tolerably kept, and has a rich wave
in her hair which ever denotes thriftiness of kind. Its pro-
duce is from five to seven pounds of butter a week during the
dairy season.

Irish. — The Kerry cattle, in size and shape, resemble some
of those from the Western Islands, of a high-bred deer-like
shape, not so broad or so low in the leg as the native High-
land Stots. These cattle are very hardy, being reared in a
country of rocks and hills. Their properties are said to be
that of giving the largest quantity of milk, which is also
of the richest quality for the amount of sustenance they
require.

Alderney. — The little Alderney cow is a slender-made animal,
not very well shaped, though admired for its deer-like mild
face and fine bone ; it is mostly of a red and white color, with
a mottled face. The Alderney gives the richest milk of any
kind, and some of them have been known to produce ten and
eleven pounds of butter a week of the finest quality. They
are rather tender, and require to be well housed in the
winter.

Suffolk. — The Suffolk cow is believed to be the best of the
polled breeds for the dairy where the pastures are not very
rich. They are quiet, hardy, and suitable for upland fields.
It is thought that the Dun-colored originally descended from
the Galloway ; they do not, however, generally appear to be so
uniformly well-shaped as the Galloway, although they have
been vastly improved of late years by careful breeders. Various
crosses between them and the Ayrshire, and other varieties,
have increased the produce of the dairy in many places ; but it
is believed that for large dairies, no cross is superior to that of
the Suffolk cow and the shorthorn bull.

Whichever breed is made choice of to improve the stock,
both male and female should be of the best animals. By a first-
class bull a hardy, well-informed, and abundant milk-producing
cow is almost sure to produce valuable calves to bring up for
the future supply of the dairy.

THE COW AND CALF.

Rearing Cow Stock. — Where there is accommodation for
rearing young cow stock, the best males and females should be
selected for propagating a good breed. It would not do, how-
ever, for thsoe who expect to make a profit by dairy-farming,
to purchase animals at the fabulous prices of hundreds and
thousands of dollars, such as we read of at the sales of first-
class breeders. Very excellent animals can be foiyjd now of
various breeds, and calves chosen from the best of them, though
not very high in price, will be as good for dairy purposes as I

the most celebrated stock. A selection should be carefully
made from mothers which are the best milkers, with full-size
udders, wide rounded hips, straight backs, and broad chests,
with small tapering legs ; and bulls with broad breast, project-
ing a little before their legs, with neck rising from their
shoulders, moderate-sized heads, flat, broad, straight backs,
well filled up behind their shoulders and between their ribs
and hips, with small straight legs and rounded bodies. Large
sunken bodies are generally brought on by poor keep.
Animals kept on straw and sedgy meadows only, while young,
are usually disfigured by their bodies becoming unnaturally
protruded.

Watchftibiess required. — When cows are expected to calve
(at the end of forty weeks) they should be carefully watched
night and day, and where the weaning of the calf is intended,
it would be best for them to calve at the beginning of March,
as they would then have the whole of the grass season before
them. When the cow has had a protracted and difficult calv-
ing-time, she will require careful treatment. In common
natural cases she will soon be all right ; but in difficult cases
brushing of the belly and loins with a wisp is serviceable —
gentle walking exercise for a short time in fine weather is use-
ful. Gruels and cordial drinks should also occasionally be given.
The latter might consist of a quart of ale mixed with sugar or
treacle, and diluted with water, to be given warm. She must
have her warm water mixed with a little meal. Should fever
intervene, it is best to send for the veterinary surgeon, and
commit the case to his care.

Cows after calving should be carefully fed with nutritious
food, in small quantities often repeated ; and it is certainly
best to give cooked or boiled food, as it prevents more gene-
rally indigestion and flatulent colic. At all events, sweet and
easily digested food should be given, or material injury may
arise. Should the udder swell from excess of milk, or the in-
capacity of the calf to draw it all away, frequent milking is
requisite, and it should be hand-rubbed well, with frequent
washings of warm water and soft soap, or with warm bran-
water. The teats occasionally become sore ; the same applica-
tions should be resorted to, and, in addition, a little lard,
olive-oil, or even cream, should be gently rubbed on, particu-
larly in cases of pustules arising, or scab.

Calves will soon learn to drink from a pail ; but it is generally
thought best to allow them to suck from their mothers for a
few days, while the herdsman milks on the opposite side. The
cow will give down her milk the better for it, and become
reconciled to his milking her without the calf afterwards, if
treated with gentle kindness.

The calf should have new milk for a fortnight twice a day ;
then skimmed milk mixed with oatmeal or linseed meal, boiled
for half an hour, during another fortnight or three weeks. It
will require about two gallons a day till it begins to eat well,
which it will do when it is five or six weeks old, if some sweet
hay be given it daily, or some hay chaff with pulped mangold
or swedes mixed with it. Skimmed milk, or whey mixed with
a little linseed meal, will then do for its drink,* which may be
continued till it is twelve weeks old, when it would live very

* The milk may be taken from the quantity set up for butter and once
skimmed after standing twelve hours-

544

CATTLE.

well on a pasture or on natural food. Some people wean calves
almost entirely on linseed tea.

Summer Treatment. — When the weather is warm and the
flies become troublesome, they ought not to be left in their
pasture without shade or shelter. If \\'ell shaded during the
heat of the day, and supplied with pure water and some green
food in their cribs, they will most likely continue to thrive ;
but if left to be tormented with flies, huddled together in a
corner of their pasture, or in a wet ditch, they will probably
become unhealthy. It may here be remarked that, on first
leaving the cow-house, the calf should be confined in a safe place
in the yard or elsewhere for a day or two, until it becomes accus-
tomed to the bright light of day, as on its first introduction it
appears almost blind, and would be likely to run into danger.

A change of pasture now and then is desirable, but calves
should not be put into low wet meadows, as it is generally in
such situations that they get diseased with a husky cough. As
the fall approaches the grass will be less nutritious, it will then
be necessary to give them some food in their yard or shed, such
as pulped roots mixed with cut straw chaff, every night. A
little salt mixed with their chaff is a good thing, and is believed
by some people to prevent " hove."

When frost begins they should not be turned into their pas-
ture till nine or ten o'clock, or till it disappears. Their racks,
cribs, and mangers, or whatever they feed or drink from, should
constantly be kept clean, and the herdsman should be urged
to feed and water them regularly, and to keep them well sup-
plied with dry bedding.

As winter approaches they would be best confined to the
yard and shed, where, if well sheltered and fed regularly with
a proper quantity of pulped roots, turnips or mangold, mixed
with straw chaff spiinkled with a little salt, they will thrive fast
enough till the spring, when they can return to their pastures,
or be provided with green food ; they should be carefully
treated as before recommended. The upland pastures are best
for young stock.

Some people allow heifers to have calves when only two
years old, but they seldom (if ever) make such good cows as
those that are left free till they are three years of age.

Young stock brought up as here recommended will generally
thrive fast, and be free from disease.

Cost of Keep. — Cows are large consumers of food, and should
not be stinted when in milk. Heifers will require nothing but
green food in the dry summer months ; but as the winter ap-
proaches they should be sheltered in a yard at night, and a little
fresh barley or oat straw given them in their cribs ; whenever
the pastures become injured by frost, both young and old cows
require improved food in their sheds. A few Swedish turnips
or mangold roots should then be given them, which, if pulped
and mixed with sweet chaff (one-fourth hay), would be sufiicient
to keep them in healthy condition ; but this applies only to
those that are not in milk. When within two months of calving,
all cows should be dried, for, if not then dried, they will not
produce so much milk the next year. They should afterwards
have their food improved by an additional weight of roots with
their chaff, which should be mixed in a heap over-night. By
the morning it will be found to have heated a little, which im-
parts a flavor that is much relished by the cows.

Consumption of Food. — As was before remarked, " cows are
large consumers of food," and no wonder that they should re.
quire an abundance, to enable them to supply so rich a sus-
tenance for mankind, as well as to support themselves. Where
there are no good dry pastures to provide them with plenty for
their summer keep, they would do very well in a proper feeding-
house (enclosed on the north and south sides) with a door at
each end, if they were liberally .supplied with green food, cut
for them and put in racks : such as rye grass, clover, tares. It
has been found that milk as abundant and butter quite as
good have been produced by cows so fed, as by those which
had the run of rich pastures. But where there are pastures it
would be well to have the cows housed in hot weather, when
insects are troublesome; or else they will be worried and heated
and unable to feed, and will fall off in their produce of
milk.

A large cow will consume a cwt. of green food per day.

When green food is scarce, as is generally the case at the
end of a dry summer, a little linseed-cake or bean-meal, mixed
with cut chaff (one third hay), should be given them to keep up
the produce of milk, lest part of the best season for dairying
should be lost by its failure.

It is not good economy to feed cows on much uncut hay, for
they would consume and spoil a cwt. a day, if fed entirely on
it. Much less expensive and more natural condiments can
be made by a mixture of bean, barley, maize, or linseed-
meal, and other produce of the soil by cow-keepers them-
selves.

Milk Dairies. — When cows are kept only for the purpose of
producing a large quantity of milk, brewers' grains are given
them, with a small portion of hay, for ruminating purposes. On
this they do tolerably well, but it will be found to their advan-
tage if about three or four pounds of bean-meal be mixed with
the grains for each cow per day.

Winter Food. — In winter and spring, Swedish turnips, man-
gold, and other root crops would be found more economical
food than the grains, meal, and hay last mentioned. A bushel
of pulped roots mixed with about fourteen pounds of cut chaff,
one-third hay, and given them twice a day, would be found
sufficient to satisfy a moderate-sized cow, but they should not
be stinted or confined to any quantity if they are found to
require more. Cabbages, carrots, and parsnips are very good
food for milch cows if given in moderate quantities with other
food. It is important that all roots should be freed from
earth before pulping, or given to the cows, otherwise it would
impart an unpleasant flavor to the cream. When cows are fed
on pulped roots, with cut chaff, a peck or two of malt-dust
(" combs") would be a nice addition, as it would give a zest
to the mixture. A sufficient quantity for the whole herd should
be put into a heap about twelve hours before it would be
wanted, when it would be found to have acquired a little
warmth and a fragrant smell, which would give the cows a
greater relish for it.

A change of green or succulent food appears to promote the
secretions of the system, and to give stimulus to their action
Such as would injure the flavor of milk should be avoided.
White turnips and cabbages will do this, if given without a
good supply of other food with them.

^N»VER8(Ty

THE HORSE.

545 ^

EARLY HISTORY AND HABITS OF
THE HORSE.

HE Early History and
Origin of the Horse
is wrapped in obscurity
and fable, and we really
know little or nothing of
it, except that we have
reason to believe that he first
came from Asia, like man, and,
according to the Mosaic account,
all other animals now existing ;
and that he was used in Egypt
more than 1600 years before
Christ. But with the history of
the horse we shall not encumber
this book, which might be enlarged to an enormous
extent if this department were entered into at length.
Suffice it, then, to discuss the present condition of
the horse, and its more recent origin, in addition to
his general habits.

The Habits of the Horse, in all countries, and
of all varieties, are pretty much alike. Wherever he
is at large, he is bold, but wary, and easily taking
note of the approach of man, to give him as wide a
berth as he possibly can, or rather show him a clean
pair of heels. Wild horses exist to the present day
35

in the interior of Asia and in South America. But
both the horses of the Tartars and those of La Plata
are descended from the domesticated animals, and
can scarcely be called wild in the ordinary accepta-
tion of the term. From their constant state of liberty,
and their roving habits, in order to obtain food and
water, they are inured to fatigue, and can bear an
enormous amount of long-continued fast work, with-
out failing under it, and without that training which
the domesticated animal must have. The walk and
the gallop are the horse's natural paces, and all others
are acquired ; but nothing can exceed the fiery ani-
mation and elegance of movement of the free horse ;
and in these two paces art has done nothing to im-
prove his form, except, perhaps, in slightly increasing
the speed of the latter. In all countries, and in
every age, the horse feeds upon grain or grass, though
it is said that in Arabia he is occasionally supported
upon camel's milk, when food such as he usually lives
upon is not to be had.

It may be useful to specify the terms employed to
describe the principal parts of the horse. These
details will not prove altogether superfluous, as some
of the words we are about to explain not unfrequently
occur in conversation.

The two parts of the head of the horse which cor-
respond to the temples in a man are above the eyes.
The eyes themselves have a loose crescentiform fold
of the conjunctiva at the inner angle, often errone-

546

THE HORSE.

oasly called membrana nictitans, but it neither per-
forms its office or possesses its muscular apparatus.
The orbit, which is formed of seven bones, four
cranial and three facial, contains the globe of the
eye, on the inner angle of which is situated the haw.
The eye-pits are deep indentations which lie between
the eye and the ear, above the eyebrows on each
side.

The face is the front of the head from the eyes to
the nostrils ; this part corresponds to the upper part
of a man's nose. This name is, however, generally
applied to that portion that surrounds the curl or
centre on the forehead from whence the hair radiates.

The neck of the horse is designated by the word
crest J it is comprised from one end to the other be-
tween the mane on the upper side and the gullet on
the lower. The fore-lock is the portion of the mane
which is on the top of the head and falls over on the
forehead between the eyes.

The withers is the spot where the shoulders meet
up above, between the back and the neck, at the
point where the neck and the mane come to an end.

The chest is that part which is in front between
the shoulders and below the throat.

"Y^x&back com.mences at the withers and extend'
all along the spine as far as the crupper. When the
horse is fat, the whole length of the spine forms a
kind of hollow which is said to be channeled.

The space which is included within the ribs is
called the barrel ; the name of stomach is also given
to the lower part of the body which joins the os ster-
num and the bottom of the ribs.

The flanks lie at the extremity of the stomach and
extend as far as the hip-bones. The tail is divided
into two parts : the stump or dock, and the hair.

The upper part of the front leg of the horse is
called the shoulder although it corresponds with the
fore-arm in a man ; the fore-arm follows it lower
down.

The joint which is below the fore-arm is called the
knee ; it corresponds to the place of the wrist in man,
forms an angle turning inwards when the leg is bent.

The shank forms the second portion of the fore-
leg ; it commences at the knee-joint, and corresponds
to the metacarpus in man.

Behind the shank is a tendon, which extends from
one end to the other, and is called the back-sinew.

The fetlock-Joint is the articulation immediately
below the shank.

kr-

The fetlock itself is a tuft of hair covering a sort
of soft horny excrescence, which is called the ergot.

The pastern is the portion of the leg between the
fetlock-joint and the foot.

The coro?iet is an elevation lying below the pastern,
and is furnished with long hair falling over the hoof,
all round the foot.

The hoofs form, so to speak, the nails of the horse,
and consist of a horny substance.

In order to describe the parts which make up the
hind legs of the horse, we must go back to the haun-
ches. Each of these contains the femur, and corre-
sponds to the thigh of a man. It is, therefore, the
thigh of the horse, which is joined on to the body,
and bears the name of buttocks. It is terminated
below and in front by the stifle which is the joint of
the knee containing the knee-pan. It is situated be-
low the haunch, on a level with the flank, and shifts
its place when the horse walks.

The highest part of the hind leg, which is detached
from the body, is called the thigh, or gaskins, and
corresponds to the leg of a man. It e)^nds from
the stifle and lower part of the buttocks down to the
hock.

The hock is the joint which is below the thigh,
and bends forward. This joint represents the instep
in a man : the hinder part of the hock, which is called
the point of the hock, is the heel.

Below the hock are the shank, the fetlock-joint,
the pastern, and the foot, just the same as in the
fore-legs.

We will now say a few words as to the diversity
of color in the coat of the horse, in order to fix the
meaning of the terms which are generally employed
to designate the various hues which the coat pre-
sents.

Bay is a reddish nut-brown color, with various
shades. Dark bay horses are of a very dark brown,
almost black, except on the flanks and tip of the
nose, where they are of a reddish color. The golden,
or light bay, is a yellow sun-light hue. Dappled bay
horses have on their rumps spots of a darker bay
than on the rest of their bodies. In bay horses the
extremities, the mane, and the tail are always black.

There are three kinds of black horses : the ri/sty
black, which is of a brownish tinge, more or less con-
spicuous in various lights ; the black, and the coal-
black, which is the darkest of all.

Dun-co\oxed horses, of which there are several

THE HORSE.

547

shades, are of a yellowish-sandy hue ; the mane and
tail of these are either white or black. Some of the
latter have a black line along the vertebrae, which is
called a mules, or eel-stripe.

Chestnut is a kind of reddish or cinnamon-colored
bay. There are several shades t)f it, among which
are the bright chestnut, which is the color of a red
cow's coat ; the common chestnut, which is neither
dark nor bright ; the bay chestnut, which verges upon
the red ; the burnt chestnut, which is dark, and nearly
approaches black. Some chestnut horses have white
manes and tails, others black. The roan is a mixture
of red and white.

Gray horses have white hair mixed with black or
bay. There are several modifications of this color ;
the dappled-gray, the silver-gray, the iron-gray, etc.
Dapple-gray horses have on the back and other parts
of the body a number of round spots, in some cases
black in others of a lighter hue ; these spots are
somewhat irregularly distributed. Gray horses as
they increase in age become lighter in color, ulti-
mately becoming white.

Piebald and skewbald horses are white, with large
irregular spots and stripes of some other color irreg-
ularly arranged. The different kinds are distinguished
by the color that is combined with the white, as the
piebald proper, which are white and black ; the
skeiobald, which are white and bay ; the chestnut
piebald, which are white and chestnut.

The horses which have small black spots on a white
or gray coat are called flea-bitten, particularly preva-
lent in India among Arabs.

We have hitherto considered the wild and domestic
horse in common, both as regards their structure and
their color, in short, their outward appearance gen-
erally, without noticing the different breeds, which
must soon occupy our attention. But before we en-
ter upon the study of the various equine races, it is
necessary to give a short explanation as to the way in
which the bit regulates the paces of the horse. By
this we are led to speak of the construction of the
mouth, a knowledge of which is most useful.

The horse either walks, trots, gallops, or ambles.

The paces of the horse are essentially modified by
means both of the bit and spur. The spur excites
a quickness of movement ; the bit communicates to
this movement a due amount of precision. The mouth
of the horse is so sensitive that the least movement
or the slightest impression which it receives warns

and regulates the motion of the animal. But to pre-
serve the full delicacy of this organ, it is highly ne-
cessary to treat tenderly its extreme sensibility.

The position of the teeth in the jaw of the horse
affords to man the facility which exists in placing a
bit in its mouth, by which instrument this high-
spirited and vigorous animal is broken in and guided.
Let us, therefore, in the first place, study the arrange-
ment of its mouth.

There are in each jaw six incisors, or fore-teeth,
followed on either side by a tush, which is generally
deficient in mares, especially in the lower jaw. Next
comes a series of six grinders on each side in both
jaws ; these teeth have a square crown, marked with
four crescents, formed by the lamince of enamel which
are embedded on them. Between the tushes and
the grinders there is a considerable space called the
bar, which corresponds to the angle of the lips ; and
it is in this interval that the bit is placed.

It is also by means of the teeth that we are enabled
to know a horse's age — a knowledge which is of the
highest utility ; for a horse increases in value in pro-
portion as he approaches maturity, again decreasing
in worth as he becomes older. Up to nine years the
age can be determined pretty accurately by means
of the changes which take place in the teeth.

The foal, at his birth, is usually devoid of teeth
in the front of the mouth, and has only two grinders
on each side in each jaw. At the end of a few days,
the two middle fore-teeth, ox pincers, make their ap-
pearance. In the course of the first month a third
grinder shows itself, and in four months more the
two next fore-teeth also emerge ; within six and a
half or eight months the side incisives, or corner teeth,
show, and also a fourth grinder. At this period the
first dentition is complete. The changes which take
place up to the age of three years depend only on
the fore-teeth being worn away more or less, and the
black hollows being obliterated gradually by contact
with food. In thirteen to sixteen months the cavities
on the surface of the pincers are effaced ; they are
then said to be razed. In sixteen to twenty months
the intermediate fore-teeth are likewise razed, and
in twenty to twenty-four months the same thing takes
place with the corner teeth.

The second dentition commences at the age of
two and a half or three years. The milk-teeth may
be recognized by their shortness, their whiteness, and
the construction round their base, called the neck of

548

THE HORSE.

the tooth. The teeth which replace them have no
necks, and are much larger. T\\q pincers are the first
to fall out and be replaced by new ones. At the age
of from three years and a half to four years the in-
termediate fore-teeth experience the same change,
and the lower tushes begin to make their appearance.
The corner teeth are also renewed when between four
and a half to five years ; the upper tushes likewise
pierce the gums, and about the same date the sixth
grinder shows itself.

A depression, or small hollow, may be noticed on
the surface of the crown of the second growth of
fore-teeth, just as in the milk-teeth, and these hol-
lows are gradually worn away in the same fashion.

The pincers of the lower jaw lose their cavities
when the horse is five or six years old ; the inter-
mediate fore-tef th are the next to raze. The marks
in the coriier-teeth are obliterated at the age of seven
or eight years. The process of destruction of the
marks in the upper fore-teeth goes on in the same
order, but more tardily.

When all these various changes have taken place,
the horse is looked upon as aged, because the teeth
no longer furnish any certain indications as to the
age of the animal. Only approximate inferences
can now be drawn from the length and color of the
tusks, which become more and more bare and pro-
jecting from the gum, etc.

The domestication of the horse appears to date
back to the very earliest period of his appearance on
earth ; and as this animal adapts itself to every ne-
cessity, every want, and every climate, its subjection
has resulted in a considerable number of races, dis-
tinguished by more or less prominent characteristics
of shape, strength, temper, and endurance. Although
generally intelligent, affectionate, and endowed with
considerable powers of memory, these qualities in
the horse are essentially modified by education and
climate. And for the full development of his intelli-
gence and his high qualities,- it is requisite that man
should be his companion and his friend, as well as
his master, but never his tyrant. Under the whip of
an unfeeling driver, the horse becomes brutalized,
and rapidly degenerates, morally even more than
physically.

The attachment of the horse for those who treat
it kindly is a well-known fact.

The influence of memory on the horse is shown
by the sense it retains of injuries and ill-treatment it

has suffered. Many a horse is restive with persons
^ho have misused it, while perfectly docile with
others, proving a consciousness of good and evil, and a
natural insubordination against tyranny and injustice.

PRESENT VARIETIES OF THE HORSE.
The Arabian is still one of the most distinct varieties of
this noble animal, and also one of the most prized, being eagerly
sought for by Turks and Christians in Asia, Southern Russia,
India, and even in Australia. In his native deserts he is still
sometimes to be seen in a half- wild state, though most probably
owned by some of the " dwellers in tents " peculiar to that re-
gion. But it is the more domestic breed with which we have
chiefly to do, and which is carefully preserved in a pure state
by the chiefs of the various tribes, though it is supposed not so
free from stain now as was formerly the case. The head of the
Arab is the most beautiful model in nature, giving the idea of
courage, tempered with docility and submission to man, better
than any other animal, and even more so than the dog. It is
seldom, perhaps, that so beautiful a frame exists ; but examples
are not wanting of such a union of elegance with perfectly good
and useful points. The length and muscularity of the fore-arm
are also remarkable, and the setting on of*he tail is peculiarly
high — points which have generally been transmitted to our
thorough-bred horses descended from Arabian blood. Many
imported horses of this, breed are exceedingly wicked and full
of tricks, but in India, as a rvile, he is quite the reverse. To
the modern sportsman also he is valuable, because he faces the
elephant and the tiger better than any other breed. In height
he is generally a little under fifteen hands ; and in color either
bay, black, or gray. It is said that there are three distinct
breeds of Arabians even now — the Attechi, a very superior
breed ; the KadiscJii, mixed with these, and of little value ;
and the Kochlani, highly prized, and very difficult to procure.
If this is true, it may account for the very different results
produced by breeding from modern Arabs and those introduced
in the eighteenth century.

The Barb is an African horse, of smaller size but coarser
make than the Arabian, and evidently fed upon more nutritious
food. As his name implies, his native land is Barbary ; but
there 'is always great doubt about the particular breed to
which imported horses belong, because they are carried con-
siderable distances from their native plains, and are also even
then much mixed in blood. It has frequently been said that
the Barb is the progenitor of one root of the best English stock,
and that the Godolphin Arabian, as he was called, belonged
to this blood ; but the disputed point cannot possibly be settled,
and there seems only one argument in favor of the supposition,
founded upon his enormously high crest ; while his superior
size, being 15 hands high, argues just as strongly in favor of
Arab descent. But the Spanish horse is no doubt descended
from the Barb, this breed having been carried into Spain by
the Moors when they overran the country ; and, as the appear-
ance of the Spanish horse is totally opposed to that of the de-
scendants of Godolphin, it is a still stronger proof of his Arabian
ancestry, or, at all events, an argument against his claim to
Barl^ary as a native clime.

THE HORSE.

549

The Dongola horse is another African variety, of a much
larger size than either the Arab or the Barb, but more
leggy. I am not aware that any of this breed have reached
this country.

The Persian is a small-sized horse, and quite as elegant as
the Arabian, but not nearly so enduring.

The Turkooman, again, is a larger breed, but without the
elegance of form of the Arab and Persian. They are light in
the barrel, and leggy, with coarse heads and ewe-necks ; yet
they are endowed with very stout and lasting qualities, and
they are said to travel very long distances without distress.
This is only another instance of the oft-quoted adage, " that
the horse can go in all forms."

The Cossack horses are reared at liberty, and in .large
herds, and they were long said to be, in consequence of this
fact, of unrivaled speed and stoutness.

The Turkish horse is supposed to be nearly pure Arab, with
a cross of the Persian and Turkooman. He is a very fine,
high-spirited, and elegant horse.

The East-Indian and Australian horses are of various
mixed breeds, some being Arabs, some Persians, and others
Turks and Barbs ;.v/hile others again are of English blood, but
these degenerate rapidly, and though serviceable in crossing
with the Arabian or the Barb, yet they cannot long be main-
tained in their original purity without injury.

The Belgian and Dutch horses for slow work are very
serviceable. They are, however, most of them too heavy and
lumbering for anything but machiners, and even in that de-
partment they require care not to over-drive them.

The Norman horse, again, is a much more hardy and com-
pact animal. He is, however, gifted with an excellent con-
stitution, and with legs and feet which will stand rattling to
any extent. These horses are generally low and short-legged,
as compared with the Belgians.

The Spanish horse is much crossed with the Barb, and has
the good head and neck of that breed, but coupled with a weak
and drooping hind-quarter and a very light middle-piece. The
shoulders and legs are, however, good.

The American and Canadian breeds vary a great deal,
and are made up of the original Spanish stock crossed with
English, Arabian, and Barb importations. Climate, however,
has done much for them ; and they have all the wiriness of
frame and elasticity of muscle which their masters possess. As
trotters they are unrivaled, and in endurance stand very high ;
but they are not remarkable for beauty, though not showing
any peculiarly unsightly points. Some of the best breeds of
horses have been imported by us, especially in Virginia, where
Tranby, Priam, and many others have done good service. Our
importers have always been careful to select sound us well as
stout blood, and have not hesitated to invest large sums in order
to procure it.

The English Thorough-bred. — England is indebted to
the Stuarts for the first great improvement made in the breed
of her horses, James I. and Charles I. having introduced the
Arabian blood, and Charles II. laying the foundation of her
present breeds by importing several mares (called Royal Mares,
from their master), to which may be traced the celebrated
horses of the latter end of the last century, and some of her

best modern breeds. Numerous Eastern horses were also
imported at various times.

The Thorough-bred horse is intended for racing only.
The height of the race horse varies from 15 hands to 16^
hands, or even 17 hands ; but the general height of our best
horses is about 15 hands 3 inches.

The head and neck should be characterized by lightness,
which is essential to this department. Whatever is unneces-
sary is so much dead weight, and we know the effect of 7 lbs.
in impeding the horse over a distance of ground. Now 7 lbs.
are easily bestowed upon a neck which may differ in at least
20 or 30 lbs. between the two extremes of lightness and exces-
sive weight. Thus, it may be considered as indubitable that
whatever is met with in the head and neck, which is not
necessary for the peculiar purposes of the race horse, is so
much weight thrown away, and yet it must be carried by the
horse. Such is the general character of this part ; but, in
detail, the head should be lean about the jaw, yet with a full
development of forehead, which should be convex and wide, so
as to contain within the skull a good volume of brain. Sup-
posing this fullness to exist, all the rest of the head may be as
fine as possible ; the jaws being reduced to a fine muzzle, with
a slight hollowing out in front, but with a width between the
two sides of the lower jaw where it joins the neck, so as to
allow plenty of room for the top of the windpipe when the
neck is bent. The ears should be pricked and fine, but not
too short ; eyes full and spirited ; nostrils large, and capable
of being well dilated when at full speed, which is easily tested
by the gallop, after which they ought to stand out iirmly, and
so as to show the internal lining fully. The neck should be
muscular and yet light ; the windpipe loose and separate from
tlie neck — that is, not too tightly bound down by the fascia, or
membrane of the neck. The crest should be thin and wiry,
not thick and loaded, as is often seen in coarse stallions, or
even in some mares. Between the two extremes of the ewe-
neck and its opposite there are many degrees, but for racing
purposes we should prefer, of the two, the former to the latter ;
for few horses can go well with their necks bent so as to draw
the chin to the bosom ; but here, as in most other cases, the
happy medium is to be desired.

The body, or viiddlc-piece, should be moderately long, and
not too much confined between the last rib and the hip bone.
So long as the last or back-ribs are deep, it is not of so much
importance that they should be closely connected to the hip-
bone, for such a shape shortens the stride ; and though it en-
ables the horse to carry great weight, yet it prevents him from
attaining a high rate of speed. The back itself should be
muscular, and the hips so wide as to allow of a good develop-
ment of the muscular department. The withers may rise
gently, but not too high, with that thin razor-like elevation
which many people call a good shoulder, but which really has
nothing to do with that part, and is only an annoyance to the
saddler, who has to prevent its being pinched by the saddle.
The chest itself should be well developed, but not too wide and
deep : no horse can go a distance without a fair " bellows-
room ; " but, supposing the heart to be sound and of good
quality, the amount of lung will suffice which may be contained
in a medium-sized chest : and all above that is wasted, and is

55°

THE HORSE.

extra weight. If the chest be too wide, it materially affects the
action of the fore-legs, and, therefore, in every point of view,
theoretically and practically, there is a happy medium between
the too great contraction in this department, and the heavy,
wide, lumbering chests sometimes seen even in the thorough-
bred race horse, especially when reared upon rich, succulent
herbage, more fitted for the bullock than the Eastern horse.
In the formation of the hips, the essential point is length and
breadth of bone for muscular attachment, and it matters little
whether the croup droops a little, or is pretty straight and level,
so that there is a good length from the hip to the haunch-bone ;
the line between which two points may either be nearly
horizontal, or form a considerable angle with the ground ;
but still in both cases it should be a long line, and the longer
it is the more muscular substance is attached to it, and the
greater leverage will the muscles have.

The fore-<]uarter, consisting of the shoulder, upper and lower
arm, and leg and foot, should be well set on to the chest ; and
the shoulder-blade should lie obliquely on the side of that
part, with a full development of muscle to move it, and thrust
it well forward in the gallop. Obliquity is of the greatest
importance, acting as a spring in taking off the shock of the
gallop or leap, and also giving a longer attachment to the
muscles, and in addition enabling them to act with more
leverage upon the arm and leg. The shoulder should be very
muscular, without being overdone or loaded, and so formed as
to play freely in the action of the horse. The point of the
shoulder, which is the joint corresponding to the human
shoulder, should be free from raggedness, but not too flat ; a
certain degree of development of the bony parts is desirable,
but more than this leads to a defect, and impedes the action
of this important part. The upper arm, between this joint
and the elbow, should be long, and well clothed with muscles ;
the elbow set on quite straight, and not tied to the chest ; the
lower arm muscular and long ; knees broad and strong, with
the bony projection behind well developed ; legs flat, and
showing the suspensory ligament large and free ; pasterns long
enough without being weak ; and the feet sound, and neither
too large nor too small, and unattended with any degree
of contraction, which is the bane of the thorough-bred
horse.

The hind-quarter is the chief agent in propulsion, and is
therefore of the utmost consequence in attaining high speed.
It is often asserted that the oblique shoulder is the grand re-
quisite in this object, and that it is the part upon which speed
mainly depends, and in which it may be said to reside. This
is to some extent true, because there can be no doubt that with
a loaded shoulder high speed is impracticable ; for, however
powerfully the body may be propelled, yet when the fore-
quarter touches the ground, it does not bound off again as
smartly as it ought to do, and the pace is consequently slow.
For the full action of the hind-quarter two things are neces-
sary, viz. : — first, length and volume of muscle ; and secondly,
length of leverage upon which that muscle may act. Hence,
all the bones comprising the hind-quarter should be long, but
the comparative length must vary a good deal, in order that
the parts upon which the muscles lie may be long, rather than
those connected with the tendons, which are mere ropes, and

have no propelling power residing in them, but only transmit
that which they derive from the muscles themselves. Thus, the
hips should be long and wide, and the two upper divisions of
the limb — viz., the stifle and lower thigh — should be long,
strong, and fully developed. By this formation the stifle-joint
is brought well forward, and there is a considerable angle
between these two divisions. The hock should be bony and
strong, free from gum or spavin, and the point long, and so
set on as to be free from weakness at the situation of curb. In
examining the hind-quarter to judge of its muscular develop-
ment, the horse should not be looked at sideways, but his tail
should be raised, and it should be ascertained that the muscles
of the two limbs meet together below the anus, which should
be in fact well supported by them, and not left loose, and, as
it were, in a deep and flaccid hollow. The outline of the outer
part of the thigh should be full, and in ordinary horses the
muscle should swell out beyond the level of the point of the
hip. This fullness, however, is not often seen to this extent in
the thorough-bred horse until he has arrived at mature age,
and is taken out of training. The bones below the hock should
be flat and free from adhesions ; the ligaments and tendons
fully developed, and standing out n^ee from the bone ; and the
joints well formed and wide, yet without any diseased enlarge-
ment ; the pasterns should be moderately long and oblique ; the
bones of good size; and lastly, the feet should correspond with
those already alluded to in the anterior extremity.

The totality of these points should be in proportion to one
another — that is to say, the formation of the horse should be
" true." He should not have long, well-developed hind-quar-
ters, with an upright, weak, or confined fore-quarter. Nor
will the converse serve ; for, however well formed the shoulder
may be, the horse will not go well unless he has a similar
formation in the propellers. It is of great importance, there-
fore, that the race horse should have all his various points in
true relative development, and that there shall not be the hind-
quarter of a long racing-like horse with the thick, confined
shoulder whith would suit a stride less reaching in its nature,

THE COLOR, SKIN, HAIR, ETC.

The color of the thorough-bred horse is now generally bay,
brown, or chestnut, one or other of which will occur in ninety-
nine cases out of a hundred. Gray is not common, but some-
times appears. Black also occasionally makes its appearance, but
not more frequently than gray. Roans, duns, sorrels, etc., are
now quite exploded, and ihe above five colors may be said to
complete the list of colors seen on the race-course. Sometimes
these colors are mixed with a good deal of white, in the shape
of blazes on the face, or white legs and feet ; or even both may
occur, and the horse may have little more than his body of a
brown, bay, or chestnut. Most people, however, prefer the
self color, with as little white as possible ; andnothing but the
great success of a horse's stock would induce breeders to resort
to him if they were largely endowed with white. Gray hairs
mixed in the coat, as in the Venisons, are rather approved of
than otherwise ; but they do not amount to a roan, in which the
gray hairs equal, or even more than that, the other color mixed
with them.

The texture of the coat and skin is a great proof of high

&v-

THE HORSE.

551

breeding, and in the absence of the pedigree would be highly
regarded ; but when that is satisfactoiy it is of no use descend-
ing to the examination of an inferior proof; and therefore,
except as a sign of health, the skin is seldom considered. In
all thorough-bred horses, however, it is thinner, and the hair
more silky than in common breeds ; and the veins are more
apparent under the skin, partly from its thinness, but also from
their extra size and number of branches. This network of
veins is of importance in allowing the circulation to be carried
on during high exertions, when, if the blood could not accu-
mulate in them, it would often choke the deep vessels of the
heart and lungs ; but, by collecting on the surface, great relief
is afforded, and the horse is able to maintain such a high and
long-continued speed as would be impracticable without their
help. Hence, these points are not useful as a mere mark of
breed, but as essential to the very purpose for which that breed
was established.

The 7iiane and tail should be silky and not curly, though a
slight wave is often seen, A decided curl is almost universally
a mark of degradation, and shows a stain in the pedigree as
clearly as any sign can do. Here, however, as in other cases,
the clear tracing of that all-powerful proof of breeding will up-
set all reasoning founded upon inferior data. The setting on
of the tail is often regarded as of great importance, but it is
chiefly with reference to appearances ; for the horse is not de-
pendent for action or power upon this appendage.

The various breeds of Wagon horses are exceeding numer-
ous. Most of the larger and heavier breeds of these animals
are crossed with the Flemish horses, and are thereby rendered
heavier and more capable of moving heavy weights, which their
bulk and readiness to try a "dead pull" render them well
adapted for.

Carriage horses are either ponies, gig horses. Brougham
horses, or coach horses ; being gradually larger and heavier
from one end to the other of the line, which begins at the size
of a small pony and extends up to the carriage horse of 17 hands.
Ponies are of various breeds, some of which are of wonderful
powers of endurance, with good symmetry and action, and
with never-failing legs and feet. In general soundness they
far excel the larger varieties of the horse, for which there is no
accounting, as they are much more neglected and frequently
very ill-used. A broken-winded pony, or a roarer, is a very
uncommon sight, and even a lame one is by no means an
everyday occurrence. Some are good trotters and yet bad
gallopers, and they are consequently as well fitted for harness
work as they are unfitted for hunting.

The Shetland Pony is the least of the species, and often
under 1 1 hands. These ponies are very quick and active, and
will walk, canter, and gallop, with good action, but seldom
trot well.

THE STABLE-YARD AND ITS OCCUPANTS.
Stable. — Every one will prefer to have the stables near his
house, if not on his own premises ; in either case, if they are
already built, he must do the best he can with them. Old
buildings are for the most part very defective, badly drained,
and badly ventilated. This must at once be remedied, and
may generally be done at a moderate expense, which will be

amply repaid by the improved health and comfort of the
horses. New stables are better, but they also frequently require
alteration.

Aspect. — When about to build a stable, the first considera-
tion will naturally be the selection of a site. We need not
insist on the advantages of a southerly aspect : they are almost
self-evident. The stables will be much more cheerful, and
much warmer, and enable the groom to avail himself of every
gleam of sunshine to open the windows and thoroughly venti-
late the interior.

Unfortunately it is not always possible, from the di«position
of the ground and premises, to manage this. However, let it
be borne in mind that such is the best, the west the next best,
and the north-east the very worst.

It should not be forgotten, also, that a thorough drainage is
one of the most important points, and every natural slope of
the land should be taken advantage of in this respect.

Drainage. — Having settled the site and the plans of the
stables, to which we will refer further on, the first works to be
provided for will be the drainage, for these will have to be
carried out simultaneously with the foundations. The drains
will be of two sorts, which should be kept as far away from one
another as it is possible to manage : first, those connected with
the drainage of the interior of the stables ; second, those in-
tended to carry away the surface-water and collect the rain-
water from the roofs, etc.

Se'wers. — There are four conditions which are to be re-
garded as indispensable in the construction of all drains from
all buildings whatsoever. These conditions are : Firstly, that
the entire length of drain is to be constructed and maintained
with sufficient declivity toward the discharge into the cesspool,
to enable the average proportion and quantity of liquid and
solid matters committed to it to maintain a constant and un-
intenupted motion, so that stagnation shall never occur.
Secondly, that the entire length of the drain is to be constructed
and maintained in a condition of complete impermeability, so
that no portion of the matters put into it shall accidentally
escape from it. Thirdly, that the head of the drain shall be
so efficiently trapped that no gaseous or volatile properties or
products can possibly arise from its contents. And, fourthly,
that the low extremity of the drain or point of communication
with the cesspool shall be so completely and durably formed,
that no interruption to the flow of the drainage or escape shall
there take place, and that no facility shall be offered for the
upward progress of the sewage in case of the cesspool becoming
surcharged.

For most purposes a fall of 2\ inches in ten feet will be
sufficient, and the drain should be of 3-inch glazed stoneware
pipes (4 inches for w.c), with carefully-made socket-joints laid
in the direction of the current, and cemented. For the head
of the drain we would recommend the bell-trapped horse pots,
which are to be had at all stable-furnishing ironmongers,
taking care that they are sufficiently large and of good strong
quality.

The cesspool for sewage should be well away from the tank
provided for the reception of the rain-water, and well puddled
with clay on the outside and cemented inside. Precaution
should also be further taken that all sewage drains should be

552

THE HORSE.

laid below the rain-woter drains, so that, in case of any acci-
dental defects, no matter will, by any possibility, taint the
water supply.

Rain-water Drains. — These will subdivide themselves into
two : those laid to collect the drainage of yard, etc., and which
may be common pipes laid dry, and leading to an ordinary
cesspool made of bricks laid without mortar, where the water
will collect and gradually lose itself; the others connected with
the down pipes from roofs, and leading to a rain-water tank.
These should be laid with the same care as the sewer drains :
the tank constructed in the same way, with an overflow pipe to
lead to cesspool just mentioned.

Plans. — The plan of the building will vary very much
according to the aspect, disposition of land and other premises,
and other local circumstances. These should be very carefully
studied, and the plans well matured, as the success of the
building will greatly depend on the disposition of its various
parts. We will lay down as one of the first principles, that no
stall should be less than 6 feet wide by 10 feet long, no loose
box less than 10 feet square, and no stable less than 10 feet
high from floor to ceiling. Passage in rear of stalls 5 feet
wide.

The doors should be wide and high, and hung in two heights,
with fanlight over {4 feet by 7 feet at least), that the horses
may go in and out freely without a chance of knocking them-
selves about.

The light should be full, as tending greatly to the cheerful-
ness of the interior. The sashes, also, should be hung on
centers in their height, as the most advantageous method for
ventilation.

Ventilation. — To complete the ventilation, the only further
requirements will be an opening in the ceiling — not im-
mediately over the horses, but in the rear over the passage —
fitted with an ornamental ventilating grating, to be shut and
opened at will, leading to an air-flue laid between the joists,
and conducting the foul air from the stables to the outside
through an ornamental perforated air brick or iron grating.
A similar ventilating grating, to regulate the admission of fresh
air, will only be necessary where the doors and windows are
small, and fit very accurately.

Paving. — The materials for paving should be of the hardest
quality, on good sound ballast or concrete foundation. Any
absorbent materials must be rejected. The paving of boxes
and stalls should be laid with a regular gentle slope to the
drain, which should always be in the center. Irrespective of
other advantages, the horses stand on the level, and take their
rest more comfortably.

Partitions. — The partition for stalls will be match-lined
both sides, and about 4 feet 2 inches in rear, with a ramp, and
rising to 6 feet 2 inches toward the mangers ; with iron pillar at
the end next passage, with rings for pillar reins. Sometimes,
also, the match-lining will be carried through in a level line,
and by a cast iron the ramp form ornamental panel.

For loose boxes the boarding will be from 5 feet to about 5
feet 4 inches high at most, with a 2-feet ornamental iron panel-
ing over.

Mangers. — The best mangers are those containing hay-
rack, corn-manger, and water-trough in one, and we more

specially recommend that preference should be given to gal-
vanized iron.

The wall over the manger should be match-boarded to the
height of partitions, and lined with iron hoop bands, sheet zinc
over the joints of match-lining, or enameled tiles, to prevent
horses biting at it when being cleaned.

The manger will have two rings for halter reins, and a ring
and galvanized chain fitted in wall over same.

Harness-Room. — This should be at least 10 feet square,
and have in it a fireplace fitted with range with boiler attached.
A handy supply of hot water will be found most advantageous
in the management of the stables, and we need not point out
the necessity of a fire for drying the rugs, horse-cloths, saddles,
harness, etc., in winter-time.

This room should be fitted with convenient hooks and
brackets for the hanging and cleaning of harness. Tliese are
of all sorts of designs, in which individual taste will be the
best guide.

Hay-Loft and Corn-Chamber. — In most stables, in addi-
tion to the coachman's rooms, there are a corn chamber and hay-
loft over the table. The fornier is generally boarded off", liner),
all round with sheets of zinc or tin to keep out the vermin,
and the door is provided with a lock, of which the coachman
keeps the key, and gives out at stated times the corn for so
many horses for so many days. By this means he keeps a
check upon the consumption, and prevents waste and pilfering ;
both of which are more likely to occur when the supply is un-
limited and easy of access. When there is not a regular corn-
chamber, one must either be made or a large bin provided, and
the oats bought from the corn-chandler as required, in quanti-
ties of two or three quarters at a time, as many as the bin will
contain, which will be found a more expensive proceeding.
Hay, from being bulky, is almost invariably stowed away in
the loft, which should hold at least half a load ; it must be
stored away carefully, and nothing allowed to run about or
play on it. Hay will keep good and sweet for some time, if
in a dry place and not meddled with. If the loft be large
enough, it will be found better and cheaper to buy a load at
a time ; if not, or the loft be damp, a smaller quantity must
suffice.

Stable Utensils. — Under this head is included all that is
used in dressing the horse, and in cleansing the yard and stable.

The pitchfork is used to shake up the straw of which the
horse's bed is made ; to remove all that becomes soiled and
dirty ; and, in general, to set it fair and straight. The handle
should be kept clean, and the prongs bright.

The shovel removes the smaller particles, and the scrapings
of the stable-yard.

The besom, or broom, is used to sweep out the stable after
the damp soiled litter has been removed, and to keep the yard
neat and clean. Those made of birch are the best.

A manure basket to take up the droppings. This should be
done before trodden about, to keep the straw clean, and the
stable sweet.

The stable pail ^o\i\d.\it.xa.zAQ. of strong oak, bound with
iron, and neatly painted.

A sieve, to cleanse the oats and chaff" of all dust and small
stones.

THE HORSE.

553

A quartets and a half-quartern measure^ to measure out the
oats, beans, chaff, etc., for each horse's feed.

Tlie currycomb. — Horses of the present day are so much
better bred than formerly, consequently their coats and skin
are so much finer, there is now much less use for the currycomb,
except to remove the dust from the body-brush. On very
rough-coated horses it may occasionally be used, but no other
should ever be touched with it. In summer it is absolutely
unnecessary, and in these days of clipping and singeing, in the
winter it is almost equally so. It must always be used lightly,
or it will severely punish the horse, and on no account should
the teeth be sharp, or more than \ inch in length.

The body-brush, or horse-brush as it is sometimes called, is,
in the hands of a good groom, the most useful implement used
in dressing the horse, as it thoroughly removes all dust and
dirt, stimulates the skin, and imparts a gloss to the coat.

The water-brush is to wash all dirt and mud from the feet
and legs of the horse, and stains from his quarters, etc.

The mane-comb, as the name implies, is to comb the mane
and tail. It should be made of horn, have large teeth, and be
used carefully and only occasionally, as in a general way a
good brushing will answer the purpose without pulling out the
hair.

T/ie picker is a blunt iron hook for removing the grit and
stones from the horse's feet. Some are made to fold up for the
pocket. A good careful groom will always carry one of these.

A sponge, too, is always necessary to dry the legs, etc., after
washing, and for other purposes of cleanliness.

Leathers and rubbers are also indispensable for drying the
horse after work, and wiping him over after dressing.

An oil-brush, and tin to hold the oil, to rub round the hoofs
before leaving the stable to go to work.

A wooden box for holding the stopping.

A singeing-lamp and a pair of trimming-scissors are also
necessary.

To avoid loss and confusion, there should be a place for
everything, and everything in its place, and all the utensils
should be kept bright and clean.

Clothing, etc. — Every horse standing in a stable must have
a head-collar, with two reins long enouglf to go through the
two rings fastened to the manger, and to reach the ground
after being each attached to a weight or block made of hard
wood or iron, heavy enough to keep the reins from twisting or
curling up, but not so heavy as to be a weight or strain upon
the horse's head as he moves it. When in a box, too, a head-
collar is always handy on the quietest horse ; on a tricky or
unruly animal it is absolutely necessary, as he can then be
at any time easily secured without risk or trouble.

Halters. — Two good web-headed hempen halters are also
requisite in every stable, to lead the horse about without
having to use the head -collar.

Clothing. — There is a great variety of clothing, from the
comparatively inexpensive to the most expensive in make and
finish. These consist of blankets or rugs of different degrees
of warmth and thickness according to the time of year, a roller,
a suit of body-clothing, and a set of flannel bandages. The
best material will be the cheapest in the end, as wearing so
much longer than the cheaper kinds.

The blanket or rug should be cut back at the top of the
shoulder, with a projecting piece on each side coming round
and meeting in the center of the chest, where they fasten with
a buckle and strap. Each rug, too, should be bound with
some strong material to prevent the edges tearing out. Two
rugs will be found necessary for each horse.

A suit of body -clothing may be made of various materials, but
strong warm serge is best for winter, and a lighter kind for
summer wear. It consists of a quarter-piece, hood and breast-
piece, with roller to match. The roller must be well padded,
to pi-event bruising or injury to the back from pressure.

In winter, in a warm stable, a heavy rug and the body-
clothing will be found sufficient during the day, but at night
the latter should be removed to keep it clean, and another rug
substituted.

The flannel bandages are put on after the horse has had his
legs washed, to keep them dry and warm. They are also of
great service in illness, to keep up the circulation and warmth
in' the extremities. In hunting-stables, where the horses must
be occasionally sweated, it will be necessary to have two or
three spare rugs and hoods in use for that purpose, and which
should be carefully washed and dried. The price of clothing
varies so much according to the quality and finish, it is diffi-
cult to name any, but a respectable saddler will at any time
give an estimate for the kind required.

HOW TO PURCHASE A HORSE.

In his choice of a horse the purchaser will of course be guided
by whether he wants one for riding or driving purposes : if for
the former, he will be particular that the shoulder lies well
back, and if strong, not loaded at the top or points — that he
has a good back, deep body, clean, flat, wiry-looking legs, and
free from large splints, curbs, spavins, etc. ; that his feet are
firm and of moderate size — neither large and flat, and therefore
necessarily weak, nor strong and narrow like those of a mule.
When a horse has natural feet of the latter description they
are generally remarkably sound, and will stand a great deal of
work ; but, as a rule, that shape is produced by internal disease,
rendering the horse unsound when put to work.

If for driving purposes, he need not be so particular about
the shoulders ; for harness, they may be stronger, heavier, and
more upright, as many make capital harness horses that are,
from their formation, very uncomfortable to ride.

Having met with one suitable for his purpose, the purchaser
must not let a few dollars prevent him buying him, if rather
more than the price to which lie had proposed to go.

THE HACK, OR RIDING HORSE.

In selecting a riding horse much must depend upon the size
and weight of the rider. The best and most useful size is from
15 hands to 15 hands 2 inches. The most fashionable colors
are bay, brown, and dark chestnut. A really good riding
horse, with good action and fine manners, is very difficult to
find, as he must be good-looking, well made, sound, and tem-
perate, with breeding substance, action and courage. His
head should be lean, the eye bold and prominent, the muzzle
small, with large nostrils. The neck should be good, and

554

THE HORSE.

slightly aiched to bend to the bridle, shoulders lie well back
and strong, but not heavy and loaded at the points, the body
deep and round, strong back and loin, with good deep quarters
and good firm legs and feet. He must ride lightly in hand,
walk pleasantly and safely, trot freely, with good action, and
canter easily, yielding to the bit without pulling. He must
carry the saddle well back behind the shoulders ; nothing is so
uncomfortable or looks so badly in any description of riding
horse as sitting on the top of the shoulders instead of behind
them. The pi ice will vary according to his action, manners,
and appearance, as well as the weight he can carry. Many
horses of this class are veiy fast and can trot up to twelve and
fourteen miles an hour ; but if they do seven or eight miles
pleasantly and well, they will be fast enough, as few men care
to ride faster.

The great defects to be avoided in purchasing a riding horse
are : a loose weak neck — horses so formed invariably getting
their heads up, and being very uncomfortable to ride ; low
upright shoulders ; and twisted fore-legs — rendering the horse
liable to hit either the inside of the knee or fetlock joint,
which is very dangerous and likely to cause him to fall. Ashy,
nervous horse, too, should be avoided, as well as a hot, irritable
one. Horses of a light chestnut color are very often so, and
in company will not settle into any pace. Ten miles is a fair
average day's work.

THE LADIES' HORSE.

A perfect ladies' horse is of all descriptions the" most difficult
to find. So many good qualities, which, though desirable in
all riding horses, may be overlooked in those for men, are here
absolutely essential. Fine temper and courage, a light level
mouth, and fine manners, are indispensable. He should be
trom 15 hands to 15 hands 3 inches high, with a good head and
neck, fine oblique shoulders, rather long in the body, with a
good back and loin, deep strong quarters, firm sound legs and
feet. If the hind legs are rather bent, so much the better ; he
will get them more under him, and consequently his paces will
be easier — horses with straight hind legs invariably pitching
most unpleasantly in the canter, which must be easy and ele-
gant. As few ladies ride more than from 10 to 11 stone, includ-
ing a 19 or 20 lb. saddle, and ease and lightness in action are
indispensable, the ladies* horse should be very nearly thorough-
bred, if not quite so. He must walk well and freely, step
lightly but sharply in the trot, with a rather long easy canter.
He must be high-couraged and free, but at the same time docile
and temperate. A slow, lazy horse is as objectionable and
disagreeable to ride as a hot, irritable one. The latter will
sometimes go quietly and temperately in the hands of a lady,
though irritable and fidgety when ridden by men, owing to the
easier, lighter pull on their mouths. From the position of the
ladies' seat and from the great length and incumbrance of the
habit, it follows they cannot have the same power and control
over the horse that men have, and accidents to them are more
likely to be attended with dangerous results ; hence, greater
care is necessary in selecting a horse for their use free from all
tricks, nervousness, and vice.

Many are called good ladies' horses that have no other rec-

ommendation than their being very quiet, which with very
many will cover a multitude of faults.

A few years since ladies rode no pace but the walk and can-
ter, but lately the trot has become a favorite and fashionable
pace ; consequently a safe, sharp, easy trot is now essential in
all horses to carry a lady.

The ladies' hunter differs in some respects from the riding
horse for the road or park ; he may be less showy and stronger.
He must be eight or nine years old, have been well and regularly
ridden to hounds for at least two or three seasons, and thoroughly
understand his business ; not less than 15 hands 2 inches or more
than 16 hands high, well above the weight he has to carry,
well bred, and fast, but thoroughly quiet and temperate among
other horses and at his fences, which he should take freely and
cleverly, go well in the bridle without pulling, and turn readily
witb a motion of the hand.

Allot, irritable, fretful brute, or one with a weak, loose neck,
is uncomfortable enough for a man to ride, but it is absolutely
dangerous to allow any lady to ride such a one on the road —
to say nothing of riding him to hounds — however good he may
be represented to be.

The best colors for ladies' horses are bay, brown, dark chest-
nut, or black. There is an old saying, that "a good horse
cannot be a bad color ; " and though no purchaser should de-
cline to buy one that is likely to suit him on account of color,
those I have named are to be preferred.

The price of horses differs so greatly, and depends so much
on their make, style, and qualifications, that it is difficult to
name an average one.

THE HUNTER.

In selecting a hunter it is necessary to bear in mind the
country in which he is to be ridden.

The points essential to a hunter are a lean head and neck,
well set on to good oblique shoulders, a strong back and loin,
wide hips, a deep body and back ribs, good muscular quarters,
and gaskins well let down to the hocks, and clean, firm legs
and feet. He must be temperate, with plenty of courage, and
have a good mouth and manners. His size will vary from 15
hands i inch to 16 h^ds 2 inches, according to the weight he has
to carry and the description of country he has to cross. From
15 hands 3 inches to 16 hands 2 inches is perhaps the best size for
the flying grass countries, while from 15 hands i inch to 15 hands
3 inches will be found better and handier for the close deep
country.

THE CARRIAGE HORSE.

These horses are bought by the principal dealers and job-
masters at three and four years old, and are broken, driven,
and matched by them for some time before they are fit for the
carriage. They must be fully 16 hands high, with rather
long rainbow neck, strong but oblique shoulders, deep round
body, with long muscular quarters, carrying a good tail, clean
flat legs, and good firm feet. Being kept more for show than
work, grand stylish appearance and action are indispensable ;
and from being generally loaded with flesh, unless the feet and
legs are good, they will soon wear out.

The great defects to which carriage horses are liable, from
their size and general formation, are — defect of the wind, either

THE HORSE.

555

roaring or whistling; horses with long rainbow necks very fre-
quently becoming so after a bad cold or an attack of influenza.
All large horses, too, are more or less liable to their wind be-
coming affected after illness. Inflammation of the feet is
another common complaint with horses of this class. Loaded
with flesh to improve their style and appearance, and with high
action in addition to their weight — two great causes of inflam-
matory attacks — they are very liable to this complaint, unless
great care is- taken to guard against it. Many carriage horses,
too, have flat feet, rendering them doubly liable to an attack
of this desciiption ; in them the sole of the foot will sink, be-
coming convex instead of concave. When such is the case,
great care is requisite in shoeing, or the horse will not be work-
ably sound.

HORSES FOR LIGHT HARNESS.

In this class may be included horses suitable for buggies,
T-carts, liglit broughams, dog-carts, etc. They should be well-
bred, neck rather long and arched, with good back and quarters,
strong oblique shoulders, carry a good head and tail, and be of
a generally showy and stylish appearance, with high grand
action. Horses of this description are more fitted for the park
and for show than for real work.

COBS.

The cob is a strong little horse, about 14 hands high, and of
various descriptions. When well bred and good-looking, with
action, they are not only very useful, but very valuable for
carrying heavy and elderly men, as, being low, they are easy
to get on and off. A good cob must have a good head, a
strong but not heavy neck, good oblique and very strong
shoulders, not loaded at the top or points, a deep round body,
good loin and strong muscular quarters and thighs — short,
flat, firm legs, and good round feet ; he should walk freely
and well ; step sharp and high in the frot, and canter safely
and freely ; if, in addition to these qualifications, he is quiet
and does not shy or stumble, he is invaluable.

The faults to be avoided in purchasing a cob are upright
shoulders, want of courage, and want of action. Particular
attention must be paid to the shoulders — that they are well
formed and oblique, many horses of this class having low, up-
right shoulders, which renders them valueless as riding cobs,
and useful only for harness purposes — nothing being so un-
comfortable and looking so ugly as riding on the top of the
shoulders instead of weft behind them, which must necessarily
be the case with straight, low shoulders.

DEFECTS, DISEASES, AND FAULTS TO BE
AVOIDED IN ALL HORSES.

A loose, weak neck. — Horses so formed are extremely un-
pleasant to ride ; they get their heads up, cannot see where
they are going, and it is impossible to feel their mouths.

Twisted fore-legs. — Horses with this defect, when put to
work, hit the inside of the fetlock joint, and very often under
the knee as well. Both are highly dangerous, as the parts
soon become swelled and sore from repeated blows, rendering
the horse liable to fall.

Capped hocks are very unsightly, but seldom cause lameness.

Diseased eyes, from any cause, are sure to terminate in
blindness.

Slringhalt. — Catching up one or both the hind legs. When
considerable, it rendeis the horse very unpleasant either to
ride or drive.

All bony enlargements of the joints, \\z., spavin, ringbone,
sidebones, etc., as causing lameness, very difficult and doubtful
of cure.

Laiiiinitis, or inflammation of the laminae, generally result-
ing in pumiced or convex soles of the feet.

Corns, unless small, as, if not properly treated, they are very
troublesome, often causing temporary lameness, and rendering
the horse cramped in his action, and liable to fall.

Chronic cough. — Frequently terminates in broken wind.

Megrims. — An attack of giddiness, more or less violent,
that frequently attacks some horses, rendering them for the
time highly dangerous. Since condition has been better un-
derstood, and horses are fed more on manger food and do not
have so much hay, megrims are not so common as formerly.
Fast, free horses are more liable to it than others. The cause
is supposed to be determination of blood to the head.

Navicular disease. — Lameness in the navicular joint, and
incurable.

An unnerved horse, as showing the horse's feet are diseased.
Many unnerved horses will with care do a great deal of work
either on the road or in the field. It is a merciful operation
by which many horses can work and move about with ease and
comfort, that must otherwise have been destroyed, or lived in
pain and misery to the end of their days.

Roaring. — A disease of the respiratory organs, causing the
horse to make a noise when put to any exertion.

All enlargements of sinews and tendons, arising from break-
ing down or violent strains, unless the horse has been properly
fired for them, and is intended only for light, easy work, when
he may stand.

All horses that show any soH of vice, as rearing, kicking,
running away, being restive, and .shying badly, or are vicious in
the stable. Such animals are highly dangerous to all, but par-
ticularly so to the inexperienced.

THE GROOM.

There are several descriptions and classes of grooms em-
ployed in private stables. With the stud groom, for the
breaking and training of thorough-bred horses, we have here
nothing to do. The most important is the groom for the
training and management of hunters. For this purpose he
must be steady, respectable, and intelligent, and have had
considerable experience ; for, as the hunter, to carry a man
well and safely to hounds, must be very fit, it follows that the
groom must understand ndt only how to prepare him, but *
when he is fit.

STABLE MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE.

In the morning the first thing the groom does on entering
the stalile, which must not be later than six o'clock, if the
weather be warm and fine, will be to open the door and admit
some fresh air ; he will then give each horse a little water and
a piece of hay ; having eaten which, he will put on the hood

-<^

556

THE HORSE.

and the watering-bridle, and take him out for exercise. Wliile
out, the helpers will separate' the dry clean straw from the
damp and soiled, removing the latter to the manure-heap.
Thoroughly sweep and cleanse the floor of each stall and box,
allowing the straw to remain turned up until the retui-n of the
horses, when it may be partly littered down again. Each
horse will then have a feed of corn, and having eaten it, be
well dressed, and his stall or box set fair. When one groom
only is kept, or where the horses do a fair amount of work dur-
ing the day, early exercise is impossible and unnecessary.

In dressing the horse the first thing the groom does is to
turn him round in his stall, fold the rug back from his neck
and shoulders, then well and carefully brush his head, neck,
and shoulders with the body-brush, cleaning it with the curry-
comb as often as required. He is then turned back in the
stall, the clothing removed, and his body, hind-quarters, and
legs undergo the same careful and thorough brushing, care
being taken to keep the brush clean with frequent use of the
currycomb. He is next wiped all over with a damp wisp
made of hay-bands, which entirely removes any remaining
dust, and after being well wiped over with a linen rubber or
wash-leather, his clothes are put on and secured by the roller.
His eyes, nose, and anus are next sponged clean, his mane and
tail carefully combed or brushed, first with a dry and then
with a damp brush ; the feet are carefully picked out and
washed, the legs well brushed, and if dirty or stained, well
washed, and either rubbed dry or dried in flannel bandages.
The stall is then set fair, and the horse is ready -for use.

With gray or light-colored horses, or that have white legs,
the better plan will be to wash all stains off the quarters, etc.,
and to wash the legs with warm water and soap, rubbing the
first dry and well bandaging the latter before proceeding to
dress the horse, as by the time that operation is over the legs
will be dry and the horse warm and comfortable.

In the spring and autumn, when the horse is shedding his
coat and the hair is broken and thin, the body-brush must be
laid aside, the wisp and rubber being then quite sufficient for
the necessary dressing.

Before having the harness put on to go out, the horse must
again be wiped over, his mane and tail brushed, and his hoofs
rubbed round with the oil-brush. Some people object to the
use of the oil-brush to the feet, and only have them done
round with a wet brush.

On returning to the stable after work, if he be clean and
dry, his feet should be well picked out and washed, and he
should again be well dressed and set fair. But if he returns
hot and tired and wet and dirty, the best and quickest plan
is to wash him all over with tepid water, scraping him imme-
diately as dry as possible, clothing him up, and bandaging his
legs above his knees and hocks whh flannel bandages. If the
weather be warm, he may be washed in the open air, and a
light suit of clothes put on, to be replaced by fresh as soon as
he is dry ; but in winter, and if it be cold, he must be washed
in the stable, and a suit of warm clothing put on until he is
dry, when it must be changed. By this means the horse will
be got fresh and comfortable in a much shorter time and with
less fatigue to himself than if the dirt and sweat were removed
in any other way and he was rubbed dry.

At seven o'clock, the horses that have not been out or done
but little work may again have their clothing removed and
be wiped over, which must not be done when the horse is
tired with work and has been once made fresh. They may
then be fed, their heads let down, their feet stopped, and be
shut up for the night.

FEEDING.

Horses should have the corn four times a day — at about seven
eleven, three, and seven ; and the hay twice— at night and in
the morning. These times may be slightly varied to suit the
convenience. The quantity of each must depend, as we have
said, upon the size and description of the horse, and the amount
of work required of him. A full-sized carriage horse will require
at least five quarterns of corn, and about twelve or fourteen
pounds of hay, daily. These horses, being kept for show and
style rather than for work, are required to be full of flesh to give
them a grander and more imposing appearance.

Soiling is a term used for the feeding of horses on green food
indoors.

Turning out to grass is useful when the health is injured by
long-continued hard work and dry food, or when the legs are
sore, or the feet inflamed.

EXERCISE AND WORK.

Unless the weather is wet and bad, every horse, whether in a
stall or box, is better for going out every day.

The work of a carriage horse does not on an average exceed
seven or eight miles. They are very often out for three or four
hours in the day, but by far the greater part of the time they
are standing about, while the occupants of the carriage are
either shopping or making calls, etc. From their size and
weight they are generally unfit for long journeys and hard
work.

The work of a hunter is to carry a man to hounds, and in
order to render him fit to do so safely and well, he will require
a great deal of exercise.

Before the commencement of the hunting-season he will re-
quire three hours' steady walking and trotting exercise, with
occasional sweats and strong gallops; but afterwards, supposing
he is ridden to hounds three days a fortnight, he will require
but little fast exercise — from two to three hours a day good
steady walking will keep most horses quite fit.

The fair average day's work for a hack or harness horse is
nine or ten miles, in which case exercise is quite unnecessary.
More harm and injury are done to horses by the grooms when
at exercise than in any other way ; and unless the man can be
fully depended upon, the less they are exercised the better.
Where the horse is only occasionally worked, exercise is ot
course absolutely necessary, not only to preserve him in health,
but to keep him steady and from getting above himself.

CLIPPING OR SINGEING.

The best time to clip or singe a horse must depend principally
upon the state of his coat. Some shed their coat so much earlier
than others, while in some horses it is much thicker and coarser.
About the end of September is the best time for singeing, and
three weeks or a month later for clipping.

THE HORSE.

557 ^

Clipping requires much practice and very neatly doing to look
well; it is far more difficult than singeing, and consequently is
not so frequently used. The effect of both is the same — to
shorten the long rough winter coat to the length of the short
summer one, thereby preventing that extreme sweating which
is always consequent on a long winter coat. It is performed
with scissors and a comb. The former are generally curved,
and of various sizes, to suit the different parts of the body of
the horse for which they are used.

Singeing is performed with a lamp made for the purpose,
burning naphtha or some spirit of the same description, and
which is passed lightly over the whole body till the hair is re-
duced to the required length. It may be commenced as soon
as the winter coat is partly grown, and must be repeated about
every ten days or a fortnight till the coat is set and done grow-
ing, by which means the coat will not only be kept short, but
the hair will better retain the natural color. After Christmas,
about once in three weeks will generally be found sufficient to
keep down the long rough hairs.

MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET.

This department of stable management is often sadly neg-
lected by the groom, who is particular enough in every other
respect ; but if his master is only a judge of skin and condition,
he is too apt to leave the feet to take care of themselves.

An examination of the shoes should be carefully made every
morning when the horse comes in from exercise ; aiid if they
are at all loose, or the clenches are too high, or the shoes are
worn out, they should be renewed or removed at once.

Every night the feet should be well brushed out, and the
picker run round the shoe. If the horn is hard and dry, they
should be stopped with cow-dung and tar, in the proportion of
3 to I, called " stopping," which ought always to be kept by
the groom in a box for the purpose, called the "stopping-box ;"
but it is seldom necessary to do this more than once or twice a
week ; indeed, in most feet it will soften the horn too much if
used more frequently.

STABLE VICES.

Stable vices may be considered to include the following long
list of offenses against the code of laws made for the stabled
horse, and enforced by the stablemen. They are: i, getting
loose from the head-stall ; 2, Hanging back ; 3, Leaping into
the manger ; 4, Turning round in the stall; 5, Lying under
the manger ; 6, Halter-casting ; 7, Casting in the stall ; 8,
Kicking the stall-post; 9, Weaving; 10, Pawing; 11, Eatuig
the litter; 12, Kicking at man: 13, Biting; 14, Crib-biting ;
15, Wind-sucking.

Hanging hack in the collar is an attempt to get free by burst-
ing the throat-lash or collar-rein, and in some cases great force
is applied in thi^ way — so much so that many horses have
broken their hips from the sudden giving-way of the halter,
letting them back so that they fall over and injure themselves
irremediably. The only cure is a strong chain and a head-stall
that no force will break, after trying to burst which a few times,
the horse will almost always desist. If the manger is not very
firmly placed, another ring should be fixed in the wall by pierc-

ing it and screwing a nut on at the back. The groom should
likewise watch for the attempt, and well flog the horse from
behind immediately he sees him beginning. •

TRICKS AND VICES TO WHICH HORSES
ARE LIABLE OUT OF THE STABLE.

Kicking is another dangerous, vicious habit. Like rearing,
it may be cured by those who thoroughly understand horses ;
but even when perfectly quiet and manageable in their hands,
such horses are never to be trusted with less experienced
persons.

Running away is another very dangerous fault. It may
arise from vice or from the horse having been at some time
very seriously alarmed. In the former case, a ver)' sharp bit
and great care may prevent it ; but in the latter, when the
horse again becomes alarmed, nothing will stop him, as he is
for the time in a state of madness.

Bricking or Plunging'xs another dangerous habit. Sometimes
it arises from vice and sometimes only from freshness, the horse
being above himself from want of work ; in the latter case it is
soon cured by putting him to daily steady work.

Jibl)ing,ei\.\\ev in saddle or harness, is a very dangerous vice,
and is always the result of bad temper. In saddle the horse
rears, kicks, and rubs the rider against anything in his way.
He will go anywhere and rush anywhere but in the direction
in which h? is wanted to go. A good thrashing will sometimes
cure him, but it is not always easy to do it, as the horse in-
variably jibs in the most awkward and dangerous places in
which to fight him. In harness the jibber will not start, he
runs back, and if whipped or punished, will plunge and throw
himself down. Such animals are quite unfitted for private
use.

Shying. — This bad habit may arise from timidity, defective
eyesight, or bad temper. If from timidity, it can only be
overcome by gentle usage and allowing the horse to pass the
object without taking any notice of his fear beyond patting
and encouraging him ; to chastise him is worse than useless
and senseless. If it arise from defective vision, it will be in-
curable, as it will be impossible for the animal to see objects
otherwise than through a distorted medium. If it arise from
vice, which is frequently the case, the horse must be made
firmly but temperately to pass the object at which he shies ;
having passed it, continue the ride ; do not return and pass it
again and again, as that only irritates him ; and when he finds
he is mastered, he will daily improve.

HARNESS FOR SADDLE HORSES.

This consists of saddles, bridles, breast-plates, and martin-
gales.

Saddles may be had of almost any size and weight. They
may be made with either plain or padded flaps, according to
the seat and fancy of the rider. Some prefer the former, and
others the latter. For the generality of riders there cannot be
a doubt that the padded flaps are by far the better, as they
keep the knee more steadily in the proper place, prevent the
leg flying backwards and forwards, if the horse jumps or plunges;
while in hunting they are of very material assistance in taking

558

THE HORSE.

a drop jump, and also in steadying and recovering a horse
when blundering or falling at a fence. The plain flaps have
perhaps a smarter appearance, and a clever horseman may be
able to ride as well on them as on the padded flaps, but that is
almost all that can be said for them.

The saddle should be of sufficient length and breadth that
the weight of the rider may be pretty equally distributed over
it, or the back of the horse will suffer, and saddle-galls be the
result.

The stirrups should not be small, for in the event of a fall,
the foot is more likely to hang in them. All well-made saddles
liave spring bars, which should be occasionally oiled, that they
may work easily, and release the stirrup-leather should such an
accident occur. The stirrup-leather should be of the best,
close and strong, not too heavy, or it will look clumsy.

Every saddle requires two girths — which may either be of
the ordinary kind of the same width, with a buckle at each
end, or one broad, with two buckles at each end, which is put
on first, and a second, about half the width only, over it, with
one buckle at each end.

After use, the lining of the saddle must be thoroughly dried
in the sun or before the fire, and then well brushed, which will
keep it soft and clean.

This is particularly necessary with side-saddles. It is
for want of this care and attention that so many horses have
sore backs. When dirty, the saddle must be sponged clean,
but not made more wet than is absolutely necessary ; after
which a little soft soap rubbed on will preserve the leather
soft and pliable, and prevent it cracking.

In choosing a saddle, go to a first-rate maker ; he may be a
little more expensive, but you will get a good article, that will
wear three times as long as an inferior one, will fie the gene-
rality of horses, will never get out of form, and will look well
to the last.

T/ie Brcast-plaie or Hunting-plate is used to keep the saddle
in its place when hunting. It is also of great service on horses
with short back-ribs, to prevent the saddle working back,
which it is very likely to do. But on the road and in the field
no lady should ride without one, as it will keep the side-saddle
securely in its place, and prevent it turning round should the
girth get loosened, or one break.

The Martingale is used to steady the horse's head, and keep
it in its proper place.

It is generally used on loose weak-necked horses, and though
of service in the hands of the experienced, it is often dangerous
when used by others, as being apt to catch on the bit or buckles
of the bridle, and so cause serious accidents.

The Bridle. — There is a great variety . of bits suitable for
difi'erent descriptions and tempers of horses, but it is impossible
to describe them all'in so limited a space. They all belong
to one of two classes — the snaffle or the curb, and are of differ-
ent degrees of severity and power.

The Snaffle is a piece of steel with a joint in the middle ; it
may be smooth and plain, twisted, or double-jointed. The
smooth snaffle is the mildest form of bit there is, and, except
just for exercise, few horses ride pleasantly in one. The twisted
bit is sharper, and if drawn quickly backwards and forwards
through the mouth, is very punishing. The double-jointed is

the most severe ; it is formed of two plain snaffles one above
the other ; but the joints in each not lieing opposite each other,
cause a sharper and more narrow pressure on the tongue and
lower jaw. Very few horses ride well and pleasantly in a
snaffle of any kind, as they all cause a horse to raise his head
and open his mouth to take the pressure off his tongut^. In
addition to this there are the Chain-snaffle, which is a very
light bit, and the Gag, used for horses that get their heads
down.

The Curb-bit is a lever that, by means of a curb-chain, acti
upon the lower jaw, and may be made very "easy or very severe
according to the length of cheek or leverage, and the height
of the port or arch in the center of the mouth-piece. It is very
seldom used singly, but in conjunction with some kind of
snaffle, when it forms a double-rein bridle, and is by far the
most useful bit. All horses go better in it, when properly
handled, than in any other; as by lengthening or shortening
the curb-chain, and taking up or dropping the bit in the
mouth, it can be made either less or more severe, to suit most
horses.

The Pelham is a curb and snaffle in one ; it is a curb-bit
with a joint in the middle, instead of a port. It forms a double-
rein bridle, and is very light and easy.

Like saddles, the bridles should be of first-rate material and
workmanship ; the bits sewn on to the head-pieces and veins,
as being much neater and lighter than the buckles. The
leather must be kept clean and pliable with soft soap, and the
bits clean and bright with silver-sand and oil.

HARNESSING AND PUTTING-TO.

Harnessing. — In all cases the first thing to be done, after
the horse is dressed, is to put on the collar, which is effected by
turning the horse round in his stall, and slipping it over his
head, with the large end upward. This inversion is required
because the front of the head is the widest part, and is in this
way adapted to the widest part of the collar, which, even with
this an-angement, will in coarsely-bred horses hardly pass over
the cheek-bones. Before the collar is put in its place, the
hamesare put on and buckled ; for if this was delayed until
after it had been reversed, they would have to be held on while
the hame-straps were being drawn together, whereas in this
way their own weight keeps them in place. They are now
reversed altogether, and the pad put in its place, before buckling
the belly-band, of whidi the crupper is slipped over the tail
by doubling up all the hair, grasping it carefully in the
left hand while the right adapts the crupper. A careful exami-
nation should always be made that no hairs are left under it,
for if they are they irritate the skin, and often cause a fit of
kicking. After the crupper is set right the pad is drawn forwards,
and its belly-band buckled up pretty tightly ; the bridle is now
put on, and the curb-chain properly applied; the reins being
slipped through the terrets and buckled on both sides, if tor
single harness, or on the outside only if for double, and the
driving rein folded back and tied in the pad terret.

Ptitting-to is managed very differently according to whether
the horse is going in shafts or with a pole. If for shafts, they
are lilted up and held there by one person, while the other
backs the horse until he is under them, when they are dropped

THE HORSE.

559

down, and the tugs slipped under or over the ends of the shafts,
according to the foimation of the tugs, some being hooks, and
others merely leather loops. Care must be taken that they do
not slip beyond the pins on the shafts. The traces are now
attached to the drawing-bar, the breechen or kicking-strap
buckled, and the false belly-band buckled up pretty tighily, so
as to keep the shafts steady. In four-wheeled carriages it
should be left tolerably loose when a breechen is used, to allow
of this having free play. The reins are now untwisted from
the terret, and the horse is put-to. For double harness, the
first thing is to bring the horse round by the side of the pole,
and put the pole-piece through the sliding ring of the hames,
the groom holding it, or else buckling it at the longest hole
while the traces are being put-to ; as soon as this is done, the
pole-piece is buckled up to its proper length, each coupling-
rein buckled to the opposite horse's bit, the driving-reins un-
twisted from the terret, and the two buckled together, and the
horses are ready. The leaders of a tandem or four-in-hand
are easily attached, and their reins are passed through the rings
on the head of the wheelers, and through the upper half of the
pad terret.

Unharnessing is exactly the reverse of the above, everything
being undone exactly in the same order in which it was done.
The chief errors in either are — in double harness, in not at-
taching the pole-piece at once in putting-to, or in unbuckling it
altogether too soon, by which the horse is at liberty to get back
upon the bars, and often does considerable damage by kicking.

ORDINARY DRUGS USED FOR THE HORSE,
AND THEIR MODE OF ADMINISTRATION

The Action of Medicines, and the Forms in which they are gen-
erly prescribed.

ALTERATIVES.
Alteratives are intended to produce a fresh and healthy ac-
tion, instead of the previously disordered function. The pre-
cise mode of action is not well understood, and it is only by
the results that the utility of these medicines is recognized.

1. Stinking hellebore, 5 to 8 grs. ; powdered rhubarb, 2 t0 4grs. Mix,
and form into a pill, to be given every night.

2. In Disordered States 0/ the 5*/«.— Emetic tartar, 5 oz. ; powdered
ginger, 3 oz. ; opium, \ oz. Syrup enough to form 16 balls ; one to be
given every night.

3. Simply cooling.— ^axhiAoes aloes, i oz. ; Castile soap, ij oz. ; gin-
ger, \ oz. Syrup enough to form 6 balls ; one to be given every
morning.

4. In stran^^les.—Barhadoes aloes, i oz. ; emetic tartar, 2 drms. ; Cas-
tile soap, 2 drms. Mix.

5. Alterative Ball for General Of— Black sulphuret of antimony, 2
to 4 drms. ; sulphur, 2 drms. ; niter, 2 drms. Linseed meal and water
enough to form a ball.

6. For Generally Defective Secretions. — Flowers of sulphur, 6 oz. ;
emetic tartar, 5 to 8 drms. ; corrosive sublimate, 10 grs. Linseed meal
mixed with hot water, enough to form six balls, one of which may be
given two or three times a week.

7. In Debility of StomacA.— Calomel, 1 scruple ; aloes, 1 drm. ; cas-
carilla, gentian, and ginger, of each in powder, i drm. ; Castile soap, 3
drms. Syrup enough to make a ball, which may be gfiven twice a week,

or every other night.

ANODYNES.

Anodyne medicines are given either to soothe the general nervous
system, or to stop diarrhoea ; or sometimes to relieve spasm, as in colic v
or tetanus. Opium is the chief anodyne used in veterinary medicine,
and it may be employed in very large doses.

1. In Colic— Pov/dcTed opium, >i to 2 drms. ; Castile soap and cam-

phor, of each 2 drms. ; ginger, t)^ drm. Make into a ball with liquor-
ice powder and treacle, and give every hour while the pain lasts. It
should be kept in a bottle or bladder.

2. Anodyne Ball {ordinary).— Opium, >^ to i drm. ; Castile soap, 2 to
4 drms. ; ginger, i to 2 drms. ; powdered aniseed, >^ to i cz. ; oil of
carraway seeds, }4 drm. Syrup enough to form a ball, to be dissolved
in a half-pint of warm ale, and g'ven as a drench.

3^. Anodyne Drench in Superpiirgation, or ordinary Diarrhoea. —
Gum arabic, 2 oz. ; boiling water, i pint ; dissolve, and then add oil of
peppermint, 25 drops ; tincture of opium, ^ oz. Mix, and give night
and morning, if necessary.

4. In Chronic Diarrhoea. — Powdered chalk and gum arabic, of each
I oz. ; tincture of opium, yi oz. ; peppermint water, 10 oz. Mix, and
give night and morning.

ANTISPASMODICS.

Antispasmodics, as their name implies, are medicines which
are intended to counteract excessive muscular action, called
spasm, or, in the limbs, cramp. This deranged condition de-
pends upon a variety of causes, which are generally of an irritat-
ing nature ; and its successful treatment will often depend upon
the employment of remedies calculated to remove the cause,
rather than directly to relieve the effect. It therefore follows
that, in many cases, the medicines most successful in removing
spasm will be derived from widely separate divisions of the
materia medica, such as aperients, anodynes, alteratives,
stimulants, and tonics. It is useless to attempt to give many
formulas for their exhibition ; but there are one or two medi-
cines which exercise a peculiar control over spasm, and I shall
give them without attempting to analyze their mode of operation.

1. For Colic. — Spirits of turpentine, 3 oz. ; tincture of opium, i oz.
Mix with a pint of warm ale, and give as a drench.

2. Spirits of turpentine, 3>^ oz. ; tincture of opium, iX oz. ; Barba-
docs aloes, i oz. Powder the aloes, and dissolve in"\varm water ; then
add the other ingredients, and give as a drench.

3. Clyster in Colic. — Spirits of turpentine, 6 oz. ; aloes, 2 drms. Dis-
solve in 3 quarts of warm water, and stir the turpentine well into it.

4. Antispasmodic Drench. — Gin, 4 to 6 oz. ; tincture of capsicum, 2
drms. ; tincture of opium, 3 drms. ; warn water, ij^ pint. Mix, and
give as a drench, when there is no inflammation.

APERIENTS.

Aperients, or Purges, are those medicines which quicken or
increase the evacuations from the bowels, varying, however,
a good deal in their mode of operation. Some act merely by
exciting the muscular coat of the bowels to contract ; others
cause an immense watery discharge, which, as it were, washes
out the bowels ; whilst a third set combine the action of the
two. The various purges also act upon different parts of the
canal, some stimulating the small intestines, whilst others pass
through them without affecting them, and only act upon the
large bowels ; and others, again, act upon the whole canal.
There is a third point of difference in purges, depending upon
their influencing the liver in addition, which mercurial purga-
tives certainly do, as well as rhubarb and some others, and
which effect is partly due to their absorption into the circula-
tion, so that they may be made to act, by injecting into the
veins, as strongly as by actual swallowing, and their subsequent
passage into the bowels. Purgatives are likewise classed, ac-
cording to the degree of their effect, into laxatives, acting mild-
ly, and drastic purges, acting very severely.

APERIENTS FOR THE HORSE, COMMONLY CALLED

PHYSIC.

I. Ordinary Physic Balls.— "&as\aA<x& aloes, 3 to 8 drms. ; hard soap,

560-

THE HORSE.

/ XIIILC

4 drms. ; ginger, i drm. Dissolve in as small a quantityof boiling water
as will suffice ; then slowly evaporate to the proper consistence, by
which means griping is avoided.

2. A Warmer Physic ^«//.— Barbadoes aloes, 3 to 8 drms. ; carbonate
of soda, ]4 drm. ; aromatic powder, i drm. ; oil of carraway, 12 drops.
Dissolve as above, and then add the oil.

3. Gently Laxative Ball. — Barbadoes aloes, 3 to s drms. ; rhubarb
powder, i to 2 drms. ; ginger, 2 drms. ; oil of carraway, 15 drops. Mix,
and form into a ball, as in No. i.

4. Stomachic Laxative Balls., for Washy Horses. — Barbadoes aloes,
3 drms. ; rhubarb, 2 drms. ; ginger and cascarilla powder, of each i
drm. ; oil of carraway, 15 drops ; carbonate of soda, \}4 drm. Dissolve
the aloes as in No. i, and then add the other ingredients.

5. Purging Balls, with Calomel. — Barbadoes aloes, yXo 6 drms. ; cal-
omel, ^ 10 I drm. ; rhubarb, 1 to 2 drms. ; ginger, )4 to i.drm. Castile
soap, 2 drms. Mix as in No. i.

6. Laxative Drench.— Baxh&diOes aloes, 3 to 4 drms. ; canella alba, i
to 2 drms. ; salt of tartar, i drm. ; mint water, 8 oz. Mix.

7. Another Laxative Drench.— Castor oil, 3 to 6 oz.; Barbadoes aloes^
3 to 5 drms. ; carbonate of soda, 2 drms. ; mint water, 8 oz. Mix, by
dissolving the aloes in the mint water, by the aid of heat, and then
adding the other ingredients.

8. A Mild Opening Drench.— Castor o\\, 4 oz. ; Epsom salts, 3 to 5 oz. ;
gruel, 2 pints. Mix.

9. A Very Mild Laxative.— Castor oil and linseed oil, 4 oz. of each ;
warm water, or gruel, i pint. Mix.

10. Used in the staggers.— ^arha^o&'i aloes, 6 drms. ; common salt, 6
oz. ; flour of mustard, i oz. ; water, 2 pints: Mix.

11. A Gently Cooling: Drench in Sliffht Attacks 0/ Cold.— 'E^sora.sa\ts,
6 to 8 oz. ; whey, 2 pints. Mix.

12. Pur£-ative Clyster.— Commori salt, 4 to 8 oz. ; warm water, 8 to
16 pints.

ASTRINGENTS.

Astringents are supposed to produce contraction in all liring
animal tissues with which they come in contact, whether in the
interior or exterior of the body, and whether immediately ap-
plied or by absorption into the circulation. But great doubt
exists as to the exact mode in which they act ; and, as in many
other cases, we are obliged to content ourselves with their effects,
and to prescribe them empirically. They are divided into
astringents administered by the mouth, and those applied
locally to external ulcerated or wounded surfaces.

1. Astringent Wash for the Eyes.— Snlphats of zinc, 5 to 8 grs. ; water
2 oz. Mix.

2. Goulard extract, i drm. ; water, i oz. Mix.

3. Astringent Remedies /or the Horse. For Bloody Urine.— Vovideted
catechu, X oz. ; alum, >^ oz. ; cascarilla bark in powder, i to 2 drms.
Licorice powder and treacle, enough to form a ball, to be given twice
a day.

4. For Diaietes.—O^mm, X drm. ; ginger powdered, 2 drms. ; oak
bark powdered, i oz. ; alum, as much as the tea will dissolve ; camo-
mile tea, I pint. Mix for a drench.

5. External Astringent Powder for Ulcerated Sur/aces.-'Po-wdct&A
alum, 4 oz. ; Armenian bole, i oz.

6. White vitriol, 4 oz. ; oxide of zinc, i oz. Mix.

7. Astringent Lotion.— GovXaxd. extract, 2 to 3 drms. ; water, >^
pint.

8. Sulphate of copper, i to 2 drms. ; water, X pint. Mix.

Q. Astringent Ointment for Sore jYf^/y.— Superacetate of lead, i drm. •
lard, I oz. Mix. '

10. Another for the jaw<r.— Nitrate of silver powdered,;^ drm. ;
goulard extract, 1 drm. ; lard, 1 oz. Mix.

BLISTERS.

Blisters are applications which inflame the skin, and cause
viratery bladders to form upon it ; they consist of two kinds,
one for the sake of counter-irritation, by which the original
disease is lessened, in consequence of the establishment of this
irritation at a short distance from it. The other, commonly

called "Sweating "in veterinary surgery, by which a discharge
is obtained from the vessels of the part itself, which are in that
way relieved and unloaded ; there is also a subsequent process
of absorption in consequence of the peculiar stimulus applied.
BLISTERS FOR HORSES.
X. Mild Blister Ointment (counter-irritant).— Hog's lard, 4 oz. •
Venice turpentine, i oz. ; powdered cantharides, 6 drms. Mix and'
spread.

2. Stronger Blister CzVi^w^w/ (counter-irritant).— Spirits of turpentine
I oz. ; sulphuric acid, by measure, 2 drms. Mix carefully in an open
place, and add hog's lard, 4 oz. ; powdered cantharides, i oz. Mix and
spread.

3. Very strong Blister (counter-irritant).— Strong mercurial ointment,
4 oz. ; oil of origanum, y^ oz. ; finely-powdered euphorbium, 3 drms.
powdered cantharides, yi oz. Mix and spread.

4. i^a/zV/y^^c^/w^jSZ/j^^r (counter-irritant).— Best flour of mustard,
8 oz., made into a paste with water. Add spirits of turpentine, 2 oz. ;
strong liquor of ammonia, i oz. This is to be well rubbed into the
chest, belly, or back, in cases of acute inflammation.

5. Sweating Blister.— Strong mercurial ointment, 2 oz. ; oil of origa-
num, 2 drms. ; corrosive sublimate, 2 drms. ; cantharides, powdered, 3
drms. Mix, and rub in with the hand.

6. Strong Sweating Blister, for Splints, Ring-Bones, Spavins, etc.—
Red iodide of mercury, i to i>^ drm. ; lard, i oz. To be well rubbed in
the legs after cutting the hair short, and followed by the daily use of
arnica, in the shape of a wash, as follows, v/hich is to be painted on
with a brush : tincture of arnica, i oz. ; water, 12 to 15 oz. Mix.

7. Tincture of Iodine, which should be painted on with a brush dally,
until it causes the cuticle to exfoliate. It may then be omitted for a few
days, to be resumed after that interval.

CAUSTICS.

Caustics are substance which burn away the living tissues of
the body, by the decomposition of their elements. They are
of two kinds, viz. — first, the actual cautery, consisting in the
application of the burning iron, and called Firing ; and,
secondly, the potential cautery, by means of the powers of
mineral caustics, such as potash, lunar-caustic, etc.

//V/«^ is used extensively upon horses for inflammation of
the legs. A set of firing-irons is heated to a great heat, and,
one at a time, are lightly applied across the limb, or in lines up
and down, according to the nature of the disease. This excites
a very great amount of swelling and inflammation, by which
the mischief is often abated, and is followed also by a contrac-
tion of the skin, virhich appears to act as a bandage in the weak
state of the vessels of the legs which often occurs. The firing
is generally followed by blistering, in order to keep up the
inflammation, and at least three months must be consumed
before the fired horse, if thoroughly operated on, will be fit for
work.

Strong solid caustics are as follows : —

1. Fused Potass, difficult to manage, because it runs about in all direc-
tions, and little used in veterinary medicine.

2. Lunar-Caustic, or nitrate of silver, very valuable to the veterinary
surgeon, and constantly used to apply to profuse granulations.

3. Sulphate of Copper, almost equally useful, but not so strong as
lunar-caustic ; it may be well rubbed in to all high granulations, as in
broken knees, and similar growths.

4. Corrosive Sublimate in powder, which acts most energetically upon
warty growths, but should be used with great care and discretion. It
may safely be applied to small surfaces, but not without a regular prac-
titioner to large ones. It should be washed off after remaining on a few
minutes.

5. Yellow Orpiment, not so strong as the corrosive sublimate, and
may be ucsd with more freedom. It v/ill generally remove warty
growths, by picking off their heads and rubbing it in.

—^

THE HORSE.

S6i

Sfer-

Strong liquid caustics : —

6. Sulphuric acid, or nitric acid, may be used either in full strength
or diluted with an equal quantity of water ; but it must be used with
great caution, as it destroys the skin rapidly.

7. /n Canker 0/ the Foot. — Quicksilver, i oz. ; nitric acid, 2 oz. Mix
in an earthen vessel, and when cold put into a wide glass bottle, and
cork it. It may be mixed with lard, in the proportion of 1 to 3.

8. A similar application, which may be used alternately with the last-
— Copper filings, ^ oz. ; nitric acid, 1 oz. Mix, and use in the same
way..

9. Muriate of antimony, called butter of antimony ; a strong but
rather unmanageable caustic, and used either by itself or mixed with
more or less water.

Mild solid caustics :—

10. Verdigris, either in powder or mixed with lard as an ointment, in
the proportion of 1 to 3.

11. Red precipitate, do., do.

12. Burnt alum, used dry.

13. Powdered white sugar.
Mild liquid caustics : —

14. Solution of nitrate of silver, 5 to 15 grains to the ounce of distilled
water.

15. Solution of blue Vitriol, of about double the above strength.

16. Chloride of zinc, 3 grains to the ounce of water.

CHARGES.

Charges are adhesive plasters which are spread while hot
on the legs, and at once covered with short tow, so as to form
a strong and unyielding support while the horse is at grass.

1. Ordinary C4flr^.— Burgundy pitch, 4 oz. ; Barbadoes tar, 6 oz. ;
beeswax, 2 oz. ; red lead, 4 oz. The first three are to be melted together,
and afterwards the lead is to be added. The mixture is to he. kept con-
stantly stirred until sufficiently cold to be applied. If too stiff 'which
will depend upon the weather) it may be softened by the addition of a
little lard or oil.

2. Arnica CAar£:r.— Canada, balsam, 2 oz. ; powdered arnica leaves,
X oz. The balsam to be melted and worked up with the leaves,
adding spirits of turpentine if necessary. When thoroughly mixed, to
be well rubbed into the whole leg in a thin layer, and to be covered
over with the Charge No. i, which will set on its outside and act as a
bandage, while the arnica acts as a restorative to the weakened vessels.
This is an excellent application.

CORDIALS.

Cordials are medicines which act as warm temporary stim-
ulants, augmenting the strength and spirits when depressed,
and often relieving an animal from the ill effects of over-exer-
tion. They act much in the same way on the horse and dog,
but require to be given in different doses.

1. Cordial .5rt/&.— Powdered carraway seeds. 6 drms. ; ginger, 3
drms. ; oil of cloves, 20 drops. Treacle enough to make into a ball.

2. Powdered aniseed, 6 drms. ; powdered cardamoms, 2 drms. ;
powdered cassia, i drm. ; oil of carraway, 20 drops. Mix with treacle
into a ball.

3. Cordial Drench.— h. quart of good ale warmed and with plenty of
grated ginger.

4. Cordial and Expectorant.— PoyfAtTcd aniseed, )i oz. ; powdered
squills, I drm. ; powdered myrrh, iX drm. ; Balsam of Peru, enough to
form a ball.

5. Licorice powder, }4 oz. ; gum ammoniacum, 3 drms. ; balsam of
Tolu, i}4 drm. ; powdered squills, 1 drm. Linseed meal and boiling
water, enough to form into a mass.

DEMULCENTS.

Demulcents are medicines which are used in irritations of
the bowels, kidneys, and bladder.

I. Demulcent DrencA.—Gvua Arabic, }i oz. ; water i pint. The whole
to be given,

2. Linseed, 4 oz. ; water, 1 quart. Simmer ttTi a slrong and thick d&
coction is obtained, and give as above.

3. Marshmallow Drench. — Marshmallows, a double handful ; water,
I quart. Simmer as in No. 2, and use in the same way.

DIAPHORETICS.

Diaphoretics are medicines which increase the insensible
perspiration.

1. In Hide-Bound. — Emetic tartar, 1)4 drm. ; camphor, % drm. ; gin
ger, 2 drms. ; opium, }i drm. ; oil of carraway, 15 drops. Linseed meal
and boiling water, to form a ball, which is to be given twice or thrice a
week.

2. In Hide-Bound (but not so efficacious). — Antimonial powder, 2
drms. ; ginger, i drm. ; powdered carraways, 6 drms. ; oil of aniseed, 20
drops. Mix as above.

These remedies require exercise in clothing to bring out their effects
after which the horse should be wisped till quite dry.

DIGESTIVES.

Digestives are applications which promote suppuration, and
the healing of wounds or ulcers.

1. Digestive Ointment. — Red precipitate, 2 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 3
oz. ; beeswax, i oz. ; hog's lard, 4 oz. Melt the Icist three ingredients
over a slow fire, and, when nearly cold, stir in the powder.

DIURETICS.

Diuretics are medicines which promote the secretion and
discharge of urine, the effect being produced in a different
manner by different medicines ; some acting directly upon the
kidneys by sympathy with the stomach, while others are taken
up by the blood-vessels, and in their elimination from the blood
cause an extra secretion of the urine. In either case their
effect is to diminish the watery part of the blood, and thus
promote the absorption of fluid effused into any of the
cavities, or into the cellular membrane, in the various forms
of dropsy.

I Stimulating Diuretic Ball for the Horse. — Powdered resin,
sal ^prunelle, Castile soap, of each 3 drms. ; oil of juniper, i drm.
Mix.

■i. A more Cooling Diuretic Ball.— Powdered niter, >^ to i oz. ; cam-
phor and oil of juniper, of each i drm. ; soap, 3 drms. Mix, adding lin-
seed meal enough to form a ball.

3. Diuretic Powder for a .fl/ajA.— Niter and resin, of each %\.o\ oz.
Mix.

4. Another more Active Powder.— H'ller, 6 drms. ; camphor, i^ drm.
Mix.

EMBROCATIONS.

Embrocations or liniments are stimulating or sedative
external applications, intended to reduce the pain and in-
flammation of internal parts when rubbed into the skin with the
hands.

1. Mustard Embrocation.— "BesX. flour of mustard, 6 oz. ; liquor of am-
monia, iX oz. ; oil of turpentine, 1)4 oz. Mix with sufficient water to
form a thin paste.

2. Stimulating Embrocation.— CampboT, ^ oz. ; oil of turpentine and
spirits of wine, of each i oz. Mix.

3. Sweating Embrocation for IVindgalls, etc—Strong raercxiriaXomt.
ment, 2 oz. ; camphor, )i oz.; oil of rosemary, 2 drms. ; spirits of turpen-
tine, I oz. Mix.

4. Another, but stronger.— Strong raercMriaX ointment, 2 oz. ; oil of
bay, 1 oz. ; oil of origanum, >^ oz.; powdered cantharides, }i oz.
Mix.

5. A most Active Sweating Embrocation.— S.ed iodide of mercury,
}4 to I drm. ; powdered arnica leaves, i drm. ; soap liniment, 2 oz.
Mix.

562

THE HORSE.

6. This must be repeated until a blister is raised, which usually takes
two or three applications. It may then be omitted for a week.

EMULSIONS.

Emulsions are very useful in the chronic cough of the
horse.

1. Simple Eft/uision. —hlnseed oil, 2 oz. ; honey, 3 oz. ; soft water, i
pint ; subcarbonate of jxjtass, i drm. Dissolve the honey and potass in
the water ; then add the linseed oil by degrees in a large mortar, when
it should assume a milky appearance. It might be given night and
morning.

2. Another more Active Emultion. — Simple emulsion, No. i, 8 oz. ;
camphor, i dim. ; opium in powder, J4 drm. ; oil of aniseed, 30 drops.
Rub the last three ingredients together in a mortar with some white
sugar ; then add the emulsion by degrees.

EXPECTORANTS.

Expectorants excite or promote discharge of mucus from the
lining membrane of the bronchial tubes, thereby relieving in-
flammation and allaying cough.

I. In Ordinary Cough without Inflammation. — Gum ammoniacuro,
% oz. ; powdered squill, i drm. ; Castile soap, 2 drms. Honey enough
to form a ball.

2./« Old Standing Cough {Stomach). — Assafcetida, 3 drms. ; galba-
num, I drm.; carbonate of ammonia, }i drm.; ginger, i}4 drm. Honey
enough to form a ball.

3. A Strong Expectorant Ball. — Emetic tartar, }^ drm. ; calomel, 15
grs. ; digitalis, }4 drm. ; powdered squills, }4 drm. Linseed meal and
water enough to form a ball, which is not to be repeated without great
care.

FEBRIFUGES.

Fever medicines are given to allay fever, which they do by
increasing the secretions of urine and sweat, and also by re-
ducing the action of the heart.

1. Fever Ball. — Niter, 4 drms. ; camphor, i dr. ; calomel and opiiim,
of each i scruple. Linseed meal and water enough to form a ball.

2. Another.— 'Eva&xic tartar, i}i to 2 drms. ; compound powder of tra-
gacanth, 2 drms. Linseed meal as above.

3. A nother.— Niter; 1 oz. ; camphor, 2 drms. Mix as above.

4. Cooling Mash.— Niter., 1 oz., may be given in a bran mash.

5. Cooling Drench.— N\ter , i oz. ; sweet spirits of niter, 2 oz. ; tincture
of digitalis, 2 drms. ; whey, i pint-

CLYSTERS.

Clysters are intended either to relieve obstructions or spasm
of the bowels, and are of great use. They may in the general
way be of warm water or gruel, of which some quarts will be
required in colic. They should be thrown up with the proper
syringe, provided with valves and a flexible tube.

1. Turpentine clyster in colic, see Antispasmodics.

2. Aperient clysters, see Aperients.

■3,. Anodyne Clyster in Z>/arr/ia?rt.— Starch, made as for washing, i
quart ; powdered opium, 2 drms. The opium is to be boiled in water,
and added to the starch.

LOTIONS.

Lotions are liquids applied to the external parts when in-
flamed, and they act by reducing the temperature, and by
giving tone to the vessels of the part.

I. Cooling Lotion in Stiffness from Bruises or H^i>r>6.— Tincture of

arnica, i drm.; spirits of wine, 7 drm. Mix and rub well into the parts,
before the fire, with the hand.

2. Eor Internal Canker. — Nitrate of silver, 10 grs. ; distilled water, i
oz. Mix, and drop in every night.

3. Cooling Lotion for External Inflammation. — Goulard extract, 1
oz. ; vinegar, 2 oz. ; spirits of wine, or gin, 3 oz. ; water i>^ pint. Mix
and apply with a calico bandage.

4. Another., useful for Inflamed Legs or for Galled Shoulders or
Back.—^^ ammoniac, i oz. ; vinegar, 4 oz. ; spirits of wine, 2 oz. ;
tincture of arnica, 2 drms. ; water, y, pint. Mix.

5. Lotion for Foul 67c^7-f.— Sulphate of copper, i oz. ; nitric acid, yi
oz. ; water, 8 to 12 oz.

OINTMENTS.

Ointments are greasy applications, consisting of a powerful
drug mixed with lard, or some similar compound, and thus
applied to the sore; they are generally more properly described
under the several heads for which they are used, (See Astrin-
gents, Anodynes, etc.)

STIMULANTS.

By this term is understood those substances which excite the
action of the whole nervous and vascular systems ; almost all
medicines are stimulants to some part or other ; as, for in-
stance, aperients, which stimulate the lining of the bowels,
but to the general system are lowering. On the other hand,
stimulants, so called, excite and raise the action of the brain
and heart.

1. Old ale, I quart ; carbonate of ammonia, >^ to 2 drms. ; tincture of
ginger, 4 drms. Mix, and give as a drench.

2. For other stimulants, see Cordials.

STOMACHICS.

Stomachics are medicines given to improve the tone of the
stomach when impaired by bad management or disease.

1. Stomachic Ball.— Powdered gentian, }4 oz. ; powdered ginger, i}^
drm. ; carbonate of soda, i drm. Treacle to form a ball.

2. .^«o^/ifr.—Cascarilla powdered, i oz. ; myrrh, i^ drm.; Castile
soap. I drm. Mix, with syrup or treacle, into a ball.

3. Another. — Powdered Colombo, >^ to i oz. ; pov/dered cassia, 1 drm.;
powdered rhubarb, 2 drms. Mix as in No. 2.

TONICS.

Tonics augment the vigor of the whole body permanently,
whilst stimulants only act for a short time. They are chiefly
useful after low fever.

I. Tonic Ball. — Powdered yellow bark, i oz.; ginger, 2 drms.; carbo-
nate of soda, )4 drm. Form into a ball with linseed meal and
water.

Another.— 'S>v\^\\.2Lte of iron, ]4 oz. ; extract of camomile, 1 oz. Mix,
and form into a ball.

Another.— Krserixc, 10 grs. ; ginger, i drm. ; powdered aniseed, i oz. ,•
compound powder of tragacanth, 2 drms. ; syrup enough to form abalL
It is a very powerful tonic.

WORM MEDICINES.

Worm medicines are given in order to expel worms, which
they do partly from their specific action upon the worm itself,
and partly by their purgative qualities, which all ought to pos-
sess, or to be followed by medicines of that class.

1. Calomel, 1 to 2 drms. ; Barbadoes aloes, 3 to 6 drms. ; ginger, i
drm. ; soap, 3 drms. Mix.

2. Worm Drench.— K pint of linseed oil every day.

HEALTH AND CONDITION.

HE state of thriving pros-
perity in Poultry so well
known to connoisseurs as
condition, is of such pri-
mary importance that it
may justly claim first at-
tention.

When fowls get ill and die,
without any apparent cause, care-
ful observation may generally
trace it to one or other of a few-
fertile sources of evil to them.
They have been overcrowded,
they have had too much pamper-
ing, or they have had too little care. All fatal
faults in feeding come under one of the last two
heads.

If the apparent health and appearance of the fowls
be not satisfactory, visit the hen-house after it has
been some hours shut up at night, and if the air be
offensive there need be no further quest after the
cause of illness or other evil there may be among the
living beings breathing its close atmosphere for many
hours.

The remedy should at once be applied by decreas-
ing the number of fowls, and by giving increased
ventilation.

A hen-house 6 or 8 feet square will do well for
seven old fowls, or one large brood of chickens.
More crowding will not lead to a good result ; so if
the increase of the stock seems to render it neces-
sary, consider means for housing the youngsters out
of doors, in coops or by other contrivances, rather
than overfill the houses.

Fowls, even the tallest, live and breathe very near
the surface of the ground ; and when the earth be-
comes foul from having had live stock on it for some
time, they cannot fail to inhale the malaria engen-
dered by it. Human beings in such an atmosphere
would fall in as great proportional numbers as do the
fowls of the most unfortunate amateurs ; sanitary
measures in their case stop epidemics, and they are
the remedies to use with our fowls, or we must not
look to have them prosperous and healthy.

The most valuable sanitary measure for the k)wls
is to renew the surface of the runs by paring from
time to time. Spring is a good time to do it, when
the pared-off surface, rich with guano-like manure,
is a valuable strong fertilizer. Duck and pigeon
manure are the strongest.

Means must be taken to dry the runs, made pure
by paring. Low damp ground should be drained.
Excellent runs may be made by paring the ground
one spit deep, /. e., a foot, good measure, and filling
in with a depth of nine inches of chalk and three of
gravel.

Sometimes, when paring would be too trouble-

564

POULTRY.

. some, a sprinkle of lime over the surface will purify
it, but the fowls should be kept off it until after rain.
Where the fowls have extensive ranges the immedi-
ate neighborhood of the houses only will need this
cleansing process ; but the floors of the hen-houses
require renewal from time to time.

The kind of pampering which leads to over-feed-
ing fowls, giving them dainties, such as meat, greaves,
hemp-seed, Indian corn, and other fattening food,
and keeping them too warmly housed, is a fertile
source of ill-health. Poultry, to remain thoroughly
healthy, and not to become unhealthily fat, should
never have a grain more t)f food given than they can
eat up at once with a hungry, healthy appetite ; they
should not be fed too often, they should not have a
variety of food given at the same time, and they
should have to run for all the food they eat, and
have it so thrown abroad that they shall have plenty
of work, and consequently plenty of amusement, to
find it.

The well-being of fowls requires that they have
regular care as well as judicious economical feeding,
regular meals, a regular supply of water, and regular
cleaning. The real care that they require is not
pampering and superabundant, almost incessant,
feeding, and sometimes the less they are run after
the better they will thrive ; but the little care they
need should be administered with regularity. This
is the kind of care that will keep poultry in the
perfect health and good looks which amateurs
know so well, and so fully appreciate as good condi-
tion.

A fowl in good condition is free and bold in gait,
brisk in movement, and bright in the eye. The plu-
mage is full, firm, crisp, and glossy ; the bird feels
firm in handling ; it is neither too lean nor too fat,
and the comb is clear and bright in color, according
to the season.

When a bird is out of condition, in which case it
will do no good service to its owner, it handles
flabby, however fat it may be ; it is heavy and list-
less in movement, often craves continually for food,
and seems too lazy to wander far to seek any for it-
self. The comb and eye lack brightness, but the
plumage tells the tale most unmistakably ; it is dull,
ruffled, and broken, sets away from the body, and
either comes out with a touch, or adheres to the skin
with unnatural tenacity, fixed by a kind of leprous
scurfiness. A tendency to roup is often seen.

ARRANGEMENT OF STOCK.

The cheapest way to get up a stock, allowing time and work
for the matter, is to buy really first-class reliable eggs, from
sellers of established character. We must neither expect all
the eggs to hatch, all the chickens which are hatched to turn
out especially good, nor find fault with the seller if this be not
the case ; for if he is honest he will tell you that when eggs
are set at home, without the no small trial of a journey, the
hatching of two out of three is a pretty good proportion, and
a first-class pair from each brood is ample return for the out-
lay, reckoning the value of the eggs at the usual price charged
for eggs for setting, and the trouble of rearing.

If it be wished to get a good stock together, without the de-
lay of rearing chickens, it may be done by purchasing fowls.

An old rooster should be mated with pullets, or a fine cock-
erel of the year before with old hens. Good breeders consider
it better to mate a one year old bird with young hens, than
pullets with an old bird.

In-breeding, i. e., breeding among relations, must be care-
fully avoided. However fine the stock, it is altogether against
the laws of good breeding to keep the pullets and the cock-
erels, and go on year after year breeding from them without
the introduction of fresh blood. Doing so will produce de-
crease of size and weakly constitutions. In-breeding must, on
no account, be carried beyond the first remove. The mother
may be mated with her son, but the old game breeders did not
consider the union of a rooster with the pullets bred from him
nearly so good.

In the purchase of stock, therefore, take care to get hens and
roosters which are not related, either by buying from different
persons, or by asking the person of whom you purchase for
roosters and hens of different families, which most amateurs,
and all dealers, are able to manage.

It has not unfrequently happened that well-established, good
stocks of fowls have been greatly injured by a carelessly in-
troduced cross. When the introduction of fresh blood be-
comes necessary, the stock with which to cross should be
chosen with reference to the qualities most wanted, and great
care is necessary to prevent the increase of present failings by
it. The purity of the breed and its stamina must also be es-
pecially considered ; for mongrel crosses, or a weakly consti-
tution, may be introduced in one year, and may take a great
many to eradicate.

With regard to the number of hens to be allowed to run
with one rooster, various opinions have been given ; but while
ten or a dozen may form one group for the production of eggs
for that of really fine chickens the number should be limited
to four, or at most six. With four hens, almost all the eggs
which are laid will prove productive of fine strong chickens,
provided, of course, the stock birds are good.

At the breeding season the breeding stock, should most de-
cidedly be confined to runs, if purity and precision in breed-
ing be a desideratum ; and each family, consisting of a male
bird and his harem, should be kept distinct. This separation
from stock birds less to be depended upon than those which
are selected, should be arranged before Christmas, and con-
tinue until eggs are no longer wanted for setting, after

POULTRY.

565

which they may have a fuller range, when the houses they have
occupied will be valuable for other purposes.

So particular have some game breeders been in that impor-
tant point, purity of race, that they considered that the charac-
ter of the chickens might be influenced by the hen that
hatched them, and would set eggs only under the hen that laid
them, or one of the same breed, saying that roosters lost pluck
by being hatched by common hens.

HOUSES.

A simple construction is better for a hen-house than a very
elaborate air-tight building ; for too confined air, while the
fowls are at roost, makes the place offensive, and is more
prone to engender disease than almost anything.

Poultry amateurs would be much at a loss in their building
operations, if they could not have that useful commodity, the
patent felt roofing. It measures 32 inches wide, and is a cap-
ital water-tight covering for a roof, or any other part of a hen-
house ; it is like wood and brickwork to the builder of hen-
houses, and cheap withal.

About the cheapest regularly formed house may be made
w^ith it, stretched over a wooden frame, which should be rather
stout, and well put together. The roof should be made of
common boards, under the felt, which without that support is
apt to bag, make hollows for water to lodge in, and become
rotten in consequence. It nails most easily with iron tacks
heated in a frying-pan ; when up it requires tarring and thickly
sprinkling with sand, which should be repeated every year to
make it durable. In sunny weather a felt house is apt to be hot,
so that, to keep it refreshingly cool, as well as for appearance
sake, it is a good plan to plant quick-growing trees round it.

Tolerably stout wooden houses have done hundreds of am-
ateurs excellent service. For the house to keep in good order,
the wood should be well seasoned, and any amateur carpenter
can put it up at small cost and trouble. Shape the house with
a framework of battens. The lowest part maybe 5 feet high,
and the roof should have a good pitch, both to throw off the
wet, and to make it airy. The cheapest description of boards
will do for the roof under the felt, and scarcely any wooden roof
is good without that covering, from its being liable, after
being swelled with wet, to crack with the heat of the sun, and
so let in water. If it be entirely of wood, the boards can
either be placed horizontally, with an overlap of at least an
inch and a half, or vertically, edge to edge, with fillets of wood
nailed over the joints. A cheap roof, yet one which is tolera-
bly lasting, may be made by covering the boards with gas tar
and coarse brown paper. Lay on a coat of tar, then the brown
paper, lapping it over a full inch where the sheets meet, and
finish with another coat of tar. When the wooden roof is to
be covered with either felt or brown paper, there need be no
overlap of the boards, but they may lie edge to edge, either
from ridge to eaves, or across. The boards, too, for covering
the framework of sides, back and front of the house, can go
either upright or across, whichever will use the wood to the
best economy. Eaves should project well, to carry off wet.

If the boards are used rough, three-quarter inch planks will
do, but if they are planed, inch deal will be required to make
up for the waste.

A hatch for the fowls to go in and out, with a door to slip
down over it, should be made when the house is built ; some-
times two on different sides are found very useful, in case of
changes in the run, which can then be put to one side of the
house, instead of the other, without further alteration.

A more solid kind of house, as well as one which will be
more costly, can be built with regular walls of brick, stone,
rough stone, or earth. These may be more lasting, and the
first three more secure from the attacks of vermin, but, of
course, the cost both in material and labor will be greater.

For a brick wall, what bricklayers call half a brick thick is
sufficient, as .very great strength is not required. A pattern of
a few feet square, made by leaving out alternate bricks high
up on the side of the house, which will admit air that will not
be too cold, is a good means of ventilation, and of giving light
also.

Few amateurs would go to the expense of walls of hewn
stone, but in neighborhoods where rough blasted rock orslone
is pleritiful, and consequently cheap, it makes good walls,
which come rather cheaper than brickwork. To be sufficiently
solid and stable these walls should be rather over than under
a foot thick, and the stones fitted together with judgment, to
avoid interstices causing weakness, or great consumption of
mortar, of which, however well the stones may be fitted, a
great deal will be used. While building this kind of wall it
should be brought to a level*surface at the top every 16 inches
or so, which gives the stone a look of order in the arrange,
ment, greatly improving the appearance, and also giving
strength. All laminated stone, i. e., stone which has an ap-
pearance of being formed in layers, should have these layers
placed horizontally.

Where building materials of most kinds are difficult to ob-
tain, earth walls may be used with advantage, requiring, if
the material be at hand, little outlay except labor. The
proper earth is neither sand nor clay, but partaking of both.
Clay, chalk, any calcareous earth, or sand, is bad for the
purpose. The earlier in the season the building can be done
the better, that it may have time to dry ; but a time must be
chosen when the earth is sufficiently dry for working, and the
coarser and bolder it is the better. A foundation of brick or
stone must be used, which can be brought 9 inches above the
surface of the ground, or less if preferred. The wall is made
by ramming in the earth, supported during the process by a
mold formed of two planks of inch board. These planks for
a cottage or similar building should be 12 feet long and 20
inches wide, formed of two breadths, and strengthened with
cross pieces strongly nailed outside ; but for a hen-house, sum-
mer-house, or similar edifice of less importance, they might be
shorter. Cross-bolts fix these planks together (two near each
end), with as many inches between the two boards as the wall
is to be thick, say 14 or 16 inches, and the bolts have large
heads at one end to fix them, and eyelet holes and cross
pegs at the other. Place the planks above the brick founda-
tion, bolt them together, and fit bits of board into the ends, to
prevent the building material running out there, the little
boards fitting in between the top and bottom bolts, and mak-
ing (with them) the mold into a sort of box. Then work the
earth up well, a little at a time, mixing in cut straw or some

566

POULTRY.

similar material lo make it bind ; and when it is used it should
have just moisture enough to adhere together, under the pres-
sure of the thumb and finger. Ram in no more at a time than
will make an inch and a half when well rammed ; and the
rammer, to do its work well, should be no more than an inch
and a half wide. When the earth is well rammed down, as
high as the mold will allow, draw out the cross-bolts, remove
the planks, and fix the mold further on, the bolt at one end
being fitted into the hole left by that at the other, only one
end board being of course required. When each layer of the
wall is completed the mold must be placed higher, fitting the
bottom bolts into the holes left by* the top ones, and after each
course pour over the surface (to make the next course adhere,
and also to give a nice appearance) a small quantity of thick
grout composed of one-fifth lime and fourth-fifths earth.

Before the wall dries the holes left by the bolts must be
carefully filled up with mortar made of one-fourth lime and
three-fourths earth. If the same mixture be used for the wall,
it will dry almost like stone.

A stout frame of wood must be fixed to shape the door,
hatch and windows, and the building may have a smooth facing
given to it of the mortar above named, or one made with more
lime, or even a little cement. As a finish it may be washed with
a mixture of lime and sharp sand, mixed in small quantities,
and used while hot, which may easily be done by adding a
knob of lime and the sand a little at a time, as it is used.

The roofing for houses of regular walls, like those of brick,
stone, or earth, should be slates or tiles.

A slate or tile roof will be cold in winter and hot in summer
unless it has a lining of some kind, for which any of the fol-
lowing substances will do, unless a regular ceiling of plaster
be preferred : felt nailed to the under side of the rafters, and
tarred ; a kind of inner thatch of straw, kept in its place by
laths nailed to the rafters ; stout brown paper oiled or
painted and nailed to the rafters.

Every hen-house should have a good wide door, as it may
sometimes be useful to carry a hen-coop through it, especially
in wet ungenial seasons ; and the door should be so placed,
and so fixed on its hinges, that it will open back thoroughly.
A window, too, is necessary, as light within is quite wanted,
and it may not be advisable to fix the door open at all times
in our climate. Perforated zinc, or close lattice, is good, and
will give no more air than enough, except in very intense
weather, when it may be covered with a bit of thin board or a
sheet of brown paper.

Give the hen-houses a good lime-washing at first, to prevent
vermin making a settlement in the wood or small cracks to
be found about, and repeat it once a year at furthest.

When the house is complete, with door and window for
convenient access and ventilation, a hatch for the use of the
fowls, a good firm floor, which can neither be too cold, too
easily saturated with impurity, nor too facile a harbor for ver-
min, and which can be kept clean without difficulty, all sweet
from the hand of the whitewasher, it must be fitted with
perches and nests. All heavy fowls should have the perch
made of a fir pole, not less than 4 inches across. One pole
sawed in halves will make two perches ; they should be about
2 feet, or a little more, from the ground, and they should drop

into sockets, so that they can be taken down to clean or lime-
wash. Light active fowls often crave to soar higher for
roosting, but heavy birds should on no account be allowed to
do so.

Almost anything, provided it be steady and clean, does for
a nest. Some wild fowls like it to be secret and out of \\\z
way, but those that are tame and much noticed care little about
that ; only take care that it stands firm (lo provide again-it
losses), and that it is filled with clean sweet straw or hay.
Straw is best in warm weather, as hay is said to be heating,
and consequently to encourage vermin.

HOUSES AND RUNS.

With regard to the size of the hen-house, the important
point is that it should be sufficiently large for the air to keep
pure and sweet when the fowls are shut up at night. A house
of medium size, with a few fowls, is preferable to a large one
with a great many.

One favorite form for poultry houses, with many extensive
amateurs, has always been ranges of houses, side by side, each
having a run belonging to it. Another plan has been a circu-
lar, octagonal, or square building, of large size, parted into
several poultry houses, and with a run to each division, ar-
ranged round the building.

Every poultry run should have a shed. A felt roof on fixed
supports, with a pitch from 4 feet at the back to 3 feet in front,
will do. A little common boarding under the felt will make
it very good, or a roof of feather-edged board will do exceed-
ingly well. It should have a warm aspect ; under it should be
spread fine dust in which the fowls may roll and cleanse their
feathers, gravel to give small stones, without which fowls can-
not remain healthy, and lime rubbish, or lime in some shape
for eggshell, without a due supply of which they will not lay
well.

Where the range is necessarily small, the important point is
to have a small number of fowls in proportion to its size, and
to clear off all supernumeraries before winter. Grass is ex-
cellent for fowls, but it is impossible to keep a small run in
grass, as the constant tramp and scratching of even half a
dozen grown birds will make it bare.

A well laid run, kept clean, will do for fowls, but a grass
run is far preferable, if it can be managed.

FEEDING.

Perhaps there is no method of poultry feeding so injurious
as throwing down a lot of food, from which they can fill their
crops, scarcely moving from the spot where they stand.
Fowls thus fed will grow fat internally, but they will not put on
good firm meat, and strong useful muscle, nor will they ac-
quire stamina and good constitutions.

Good feeding rather requires good space, but if the run be
small, it must be made the most of by throwing the food as
far as can be, and making the fowls run the whole distance, as
many times as possible.

In a small run, where the green food must be given to the
fowls, instead of their going afar to seek it for themselves, it
is a good plan to tie up cabbage stumps and lettuces for them
to pull at, rather than to throw them on the ground.

POULTRY.

567

Three meals a day are quite enough for any grown fowls ;
those that have range enough to enable them to pick up much
for themselves will do well with two.

A good supply of clean pure water is as necessary as a reg-
ular supply of food. Perhaps there is nothing better in which
to give the water, than firm standing crockery pans. They
should be placed a little sunk in the ground, very firm and
steady, in some out-of-the-way corner, where the fowls are
least likely to step into them or overturn them, washed thor-
oughly inside and out once a day, filled once a day, and filled
up whenever they require it Each pan should hold as much
water as the fowls for whose use it is intended could consume
in twenty-four hours, but it should be replenished oftener in
case of accidents.

The diflerent kinds of food used in feeding poultry, are,
grain of many varieties, the meal made from ihem by grind-
ing, root and green vegetables, and meat, either given by hand,
or found by themselves in the shape of worms, grubs, and
such like. It is the best economy to buy food of the best
quality, for poor or damaged things are dear at any price.
The food, of whatever kind, should be fine of its kind, and in
good condition. Worm-eaten corn, and meal which is full of
mites, is deficient in nourishing properties and unwholesome.

Next in importance to good food is good variety in diet.
Animals need change of food, and always thrive best and pro-
duce best upon it. Barley, oats, wheat, buckwheat, Indian
corn, the meal made from all these, potatoes, lettuces, and all
kinds of garden stuff offer a good variety, and may be yet
further varied with rice, mangold, linseed, vetches, turnips,
etc. A change, altered week about, has often been found to
succeed.

Barley is used as whole corn more than almost any other
kind of food, and it is good, but the stock will not thrive on
it or any other grain, without variation.

Wheat is very nourishing, but rather too heating for poul-
try which has not full liberty.

Buckwheat makes an excellent change, and promotes lay-
ing ; on the continent it is more used than any other grain.
Fowls like it very much when they get used to it, but when it
is strange they will sometimes overlook it on account of its
dark color.

Indian corn is good as an occasional change ; its fault is that
it promotes internal fat rather than general plumpness, on
which account it should be used with caution, and not for too
long at a time.

The diet of fowls should never, however, be entirely corn.
Since their gizzards are made for getting nutriment from corn,
we do not think the use of it should be excluded, but they are
omnivorous, and it is best to feed them at all times partly on
soft food, /. (f. , meal, and such like, and partly on corn. If
two meals a day are given, we would give one of meal and
other soft food, and one of com ; if three, one of corn and two
of soft food, generally, and sometimes, for a change, two of
com and one of soft food.

Meal of different kinds is the staple material for soft food.
Perhaps the best of all is oats ground up, as already men-
tioned.

Barley meal is a good plain meal of moderate price, for

common use, and one which the fowls always seem to relish
well.

Oatmeal is dearer. Good round Scotch oatmeal is excellent
from its nourishing properties.

Malt dust is said to be very nourishing and good.

In buying meal, great care must be taken to get it good, as
if it be old, stale, and mity. or made from bad corn, no stock
can thrive upon it. It should be newly ground, from good
corn, and kept until used in a cool dry place.

Potatoes arc very good poultry food, in change with food
of other kinds. The more mealy they are the better they are
for food, so that if they are boiled they should be cooked in
an iron pot, and put to dry after the water is strained from
them. When they are given they may be broken to pieces,
and scattered far and wide, like other food. For developing
the mealiness, they may be better steamed than boiled, and yet
bett-cr, by far, baked.

In feeding young stock, take care that the food is thoroughly
good and appetizing, fresh and well made. Satisfy hunge"r at
every meal, leave time between the meals for hunger to re-
turn, and never pamper appetite. If the chickens refuse to
eat, they often know better what is good for them, than we do
when we try to press or force them.

As the chickens approach maturity they will eat enormously.
Let them do so. Let them have as much exercise as you can
give them, and plenty of food will not hurt them. If they be-
come too expensive, eat them or sell them ; clear them off any
way you can, and leave space at liberty for future use.

All fowls, old and young, want green food. Giving them
free access to grass is the best way of supplying it, and if we
have not the opportunity we may give them turfs of grass in
their runs. If the turfs are too large and heavy for the fowls
to knock to pieces, they may be removed to a safe place and
watered, and used again and again as often as the grass grows.
Fresh cuttings of a lawn may be thrown into the runs, and
will be relished.

Lettuces may be given to fowls and ducks ; turnip greens
are good for them, and cabbage leaves, and any refuse from
the garden may be given, if grass, lettuce, or turnip greens
are not to be had. In the absence of green, boiled roots are
better than no vegetable food.

Animal food also is necessary. That which they get for
themselves in the shape of worms, grubs, etc., is the best, and
in its absence the want must be supplied with a little cooked
meat, cut small.

Forcing breeding — wheat, beans, peas and meat — may in-
duce fowls to lay abundantly, but will not produce lastingly
strong healthy fowls, and those thus fed will seldom either live
out their natural term of life, or produce chickens of natural
strength and stamina.

EGGS AND HATCHING.

Warm housing and abundant feeding make the hens lay
early, provided they do not become too fat. Meat will bring
them on to lay, and buckwheat, oats fried in fat, and brewers'
grains are all good stimulants.

As the chicken season approaches, the best hens should be
watched, that their eggs may be known, written on, and put

568

POULTRY.

aside in order, as they are laid. If any have imperfect shells,
a smooch round mark on one side, an appearance of a grown
up crack, a look of weakness anywhere, or any irregularity of
shape, they had better be rejected for setting, as they
would be little likely to hatch, and very likely to break in the
nest before the term of incubation was up, thus doing harm by
soiling the other eggs, and possibly inducing the sitter to be-
come an egg-eater by the temptation of a cracked egg, too
strong to be resisted. The eggs, until they are wanted for
setting, may be arranged in a box, according to freshness, and
kept in a place where they will be cool, if the weather be
hot, and safe from the frost if the weather be severe.

Eggs should on no account be stale when they are set, as,
if they are, they will very likely not hatch, and if they do
hatch the produce will be weakly. If the eggs are set at once,
without becoming cold after they are laid, they will often
hatch a day sooner.

There is no doubt as to its being best for a hen to let her
set once a year, or even twice, especially if she be a good
layer, as the rest and good feeding she gets while she is on the
nest and rearing her chickens, prove very restorative. If,
however, it is necessary to break her of the wish to set, it may
best be done by changing her to a grass run, where she can
find no nest to take possession of, or coop her on the grass,
out of sight of her favorite nest, and avoid overfeeding.

If the broody hens are to be set, an appropriate place must
be prepared for them. It never answers to let hens sit in the
hen-house where other fowls are kept, as they will be contin-
ually interfering with them, and interrupting their work.
They must, therefore, be removed to some quiet place which
tliey can have to themselves, and even then they will want
watching until each one gets thoroughly established on her
own nest, lest they squabble together. The place for the sit-
ters should be warm in spring, and not excessively hot in
summer, as heat occasions too much evaporation for the well-
being of the eggs, and often besides makes the hen feverish
and ill, and consequently restless, and apt to come off too
often and to break or crack her eggs by fidgeting. A damp
warm atmosphere is that which is most favorable to incuba-
tion ; cold and dry heat are both bad.

A box or basket well filled with clearf straw, rammed down
tight, a foot or more in thickness, under the hen at first, is
good. Never use a nest, unless it be a hole in the earth, which
has not a good massive thickness of straw under the hen ; for
if her attention to her own arrangements displaces the straw,
and leaves the eggs on the bare bottom of the nest, there is
positively no chance of success. A good sod of turf, covered
with grass or close heather, the size of the nest, fitted to the
bottom of it, with a nest of straw over, makes a very good
nest.

Let every sitter have a clean new-made nest, as one taken
from the hen-house, or which has been in use before, may be
infested with insects ; and never let the same nest be used
twice for setting without having it thoroughly cleaned, washed
and filled with fresh straw. The nest should be quite full to
the top, so that the hen may never run the risk of breaking
the eggs by having to jump down upon them.

When the sitting place and nests are duly prepared, the sit-

ters must be removed to them. Place them on the new nests,
with not less than four nest eggs, or hard-boiled eggs, under
each, and cover them up, or hang things round them, so as to
keep them in the dark, until they are settled to the new nests.
Let them keep to the nest eggs until they have been off to feed
once only in the day, and returned to the right nests steadily
of their own accord. Then the eggs may be given to each,
from nine to thirteen, according to the size, with some cer-
tainty that the sitters will do well. It is a good plan to set
two hens at once, and three are still better, as, if the broods
are not large, they may be put together, or if any contretemps
happen to one hen the eggs may be saved. If two broods be
given to one hen to bring up, to save trouble, the second hen
may be broken off from sitting, taking care to place her where
she cannot hear the chickens ; it does not often answer to set
a hen on a second time with fresh eggs.

The requirements of the sitter are, fresh water, and a good
meal of barley every time she leaves her nest to feed, which is
generally once a day only, in the early part of the day. Bar-
ley is better than b?irley meal dough, and a sitting hen is very
hearty ; she will eat a good deal. It is best to let her come
off of herself, and to know when she leaves her nest. Give
lier down plenty of food, without keeping her wait'ng for it,
and see that she satisfies her hunger without molestation from
other fowls, and that she returns quietly to her eggs. Besides
food and water, the sitting hen wants a little green food,
stones to promote digestion, and dry dust in which to roll
and cleanse her feathers. If sitters have not the opportunity
of keeping themselves free from insects in the dust bath, they
will get infested with chickens' fleas, which torment them so
that it becomes quite impossible for them to remain quiet, and
they will often leave the nest and forsake the eggs. A good
heap of dust, in which to roll, is almost as necessary to a sit-
ting hen as her daily meal. After she gets thoroughly accus-
tomed to the place and the nest, a run out of doors to pick up
insects, and peck at grass, will do her good, care being taken
to see that she goes back in due time. Some hens return to
the nest in a very short time ; others remain off the great part
of an hour. It is better not to allow them to wander too long
or too far.

The eggs ought to hatch the day three weeks from that on
which they are set. Under favorable circumstances the
chickens make their appearance the day before.

The growing and expanding chicken does all the work of
breaking the shell ; the sitter takes no part in it, but only
gives her genial warmth. As soon as she hears the chick
within the shell her eye puts on a bright pleased look, by which
any one who watches hens closely, may know that the maternal
instinct is gratified by the certainty of success, and her note
changes to the pleased "took, took," the mother's call.

The first sound within the shell is a soft tapping, occasioned
by the first action of the lungs of the now fully formed chicken,
expanding with the air gaining admittance to the air cavity at
the broad end of the egg, through the pores of the shell. The
chick, growing, expanding, and unfolding from the cramped
closely-packed position in which it has grown, presses the tip
of the beak against the shell with sufficient force to start it.
Still expanding and unfolding, it extends the cracks which the

POULTRY.

569

little beak has made, until the shell opens completely into two
unequal parts, and the little wet weakly chicken emerges ; then
the mother's warmth nourishes it into dryness and strength.
When the chicken first comes out of the shell, the moist down
lies close to the skin, each particle enveloped in a kind of
sheath. As the down dries, it throws off these sheaths, which
may be seen scattered over the nest, and expands into the soft
full covering which clothes the young chickens in warmth and
beauty. The next thing is, it wants to eat ; but this does not
happen until it has been many hours hatched.

It is best not to interfere with the mother and vex her by
taking her chickens from her ; but as soon as the little ones
are seen to pop out from among her feathers, a little sopped
bread in a cup may be placed before her ; she will be hungry,
and will eat herself, and will feed her little ones as soon as
instinct tells her they require food. Offer her also a little
water to drink, which she will often be very glad of.

If the hatching is protracted, it is necessary sometimes to
take the hen off, and look at the eggs, in case of untoward ac-
cidents, such as a weakly chick falling to the bottom of the
nest, unable to recover itself, or an unhatched egg getting
firmly fixed inside an empty eggshell. This last is not very
unfrequent, as some hens have a habit of systematically pack-
ing away the eggshells, one in another, like market baskets,
and sometimes pu.sh in an egg by mistake, when the chicken
in it may be sacrificed. Hens which are so ill-temper«d that
they will not be touched without putting themselves in a tan-
tram, had better be left on the nest undisturbed, as, if
touched, they may do more mischief to the eggs and chickens
than is likely to arise from accident. Give the hen food while
you tidy the nest, if necessary, and remove the empty egg-
shells. Keep the chickens which are hatched warm while this
is done, let the hen go back, and when she is settled upon the
eggs give her her chickens, putting them carefully, one by one,
under her wings. Many hens are so good and quiet that you
may raise them up and look under them, without taking them
off, which is better.

The hen should never be unnecessarily interfered with.
On the day of hatching, get her off to feed at her usual time
in the morning, and then once in eight or twelve hours will be
often enough to go to her, to see how the hatching progresses ;
but do not take her off the nest as often as that, unless circum-
stances render it necessary.

The more the hatching is left to nature the better, but there
are rare instances when fine chickens would be lost, if not a
little helped out of the eggshell.

At the end of the twenty-first day, put the eggs which re-
main unhatched to the ear, give them a turn over, and if the
inside flops, take them away. If any eggs seem good, put
them under the hen again ; she will be more likely to hatch
them in the night, when she sits down closer, than by day,
when the early hatched chickens will be beginning to get ac-
tive, and to move about around her in the nest.

If it is wished to hatch a good many chickens, the eggs may
be examined when they have been set a week, when, if there
are many bad ones, two batches may be united, and new lots
given to the other hens. Hold the eggs, one by one, against
a circular hole, an inch and a quarter across, in a rather dark-

ened place, with the sun shining outside. The chickens in
the eggs, and the ramifications of veins inside the shells, will
be plainly seen, and the eggs which have no chickens in them
will show clear. So small an accident may interfere with the
growth of the chicken in the egg, that unless more sitters are
much wanted, I think it best to leave the nests undisturbed,
except in taking away unmistakably bad eggs when they are
known.

REARING CHICKENS.

When the hatching is done, the sooner the hen can be re-
moved to a clean nest, free from vermin, the better. That
which has been set in three weeks will have chickens' fleas,
encouraged and increased by the unusual warmth, and if the
chickens remain in it, they will swarm to their soft down in a
manner to preclude the comfort and health of the brood. As
soon, therefore, as the eggs are all hatched, or found not likely
to hatch, put the mother and her brood into a comfortable
warm clean nest.

An old clothes basket does as well as anything, for there
should be plenty of room, or the chickens may get crushed.

If the weather be cold, warm the straw before the fire for a
few minutes,'or warm it in the sunshine if there be any, that
the latest hatched, some of them possibly scarcely dry, may
not be chilled by the change ; and when the hen has settled
down quietly, with her little ones under her, place food and
water before her, that she may eat and feed her young family.
The food thus early may be chopped eggs (shell and all), and
bread crumbs, sop, oatmeal and barley meal mixed, dry and
, crumbly, and crushed com, giving now as later only one thing
at a time. The drinking-pan should be shallow, that the
chickens may not get wet by going into it, or turning it over ;
and constantly replenished, that the old hen may not want.

If the weather is mild and dry, the sooner mother and fam-
ily can be placed on the gravel, out of doors, the better ; but
at first it must not be for long at a time.- They may be put
down, with advantage to themselves, on the floor of a green-
house, and if the hen can be allowed a roll in some dust in
one corner, it will be good for her and for her chickens too.

Under a shed, where the ground is clean dust, mixed with
small stones, is a good place for cooping the hen for the first
ten days or so, and she may after that be placed on the grass
in dry weather, but not before the dew is off it. During a
portion of each day she should be cooped where she and her
little ones may enjoy a roll in dry dusty earth.

In choosing a place for cooping the hen, care should be
taken that she can have the shelter necessary for comfort.
^Vhen she is loose she can lead her chickens into the shade, or
into the sunshine, or to warm nooks sheltered from jold winds,
and it is cruel to confine her to one spot without consulting
her wants in these matters. The imprisonment alone is quite
bad enough for the poor hen to bear. In the kind of coop
used, and in placing the coop, take care that there is ample
and complete shelter from wet. When the wind is cold, place
the coop where the hen and her chickens may be sheltered
from its chilling influence. During the heat of the day, shade
from the broiling heat of the sun is as necessary as shelter from
wet and cold. It is good to attain these ends by moving the
coops about three times a day, or as of I en as necessary.

570

POULTRY.

If the brood is housed at night, the hen may brood them on
the ground, if it be bare earth, not cold pavement. She may
either have a little straw thrown down, or take the chickens
into a large shallow firm-standing basket. . The main thing is,
v/hatever the bed be, let it be clean and sweet ; whether it be
the earth or straw, let it be well cleaned every day, and re^
newed when it becomes soiled.

If two or more broods are put to roost in one hen-house, the
old hens should be confined with coops, or they may interfere
with each other, or injure each other's chickens.

The spite of hens towards chickens not belonging to them>
must always be guarded against. The best way is, if it can
be managed, to place the coops so that they cannot sec each
other.

From the time the hen is cooped out, especially after the
wing feathers begin to show, the chickens must be plentifully
fed on good food, well varied. Rice pudding, made of rice,
sharps, or Indian meal, and milk, and baked, makes excellent
nourishing food, to which eggs and chopped meat, one or both,
may be added. Rice, boiled, and rolled in sharps or Indian
meal, instead of the pudding, is good.. Other kinds of food
are oatmeal and barley meal, mixed into a dry "friable mass,
canary seed, crushed oats, and crushed barley. These may
be varied with cooked potatoes (baked are best), bread sopped
in milk or in water (brown bread is preferable to white) and
buckwheat. To get size, meat may be given every other day.
They should have green food of some kind every day. Vary-
ing the meals, and sometimes giving an entire change, feed
the chickens constantly, as often as they get hungry, with as
much food as they and the mother like, leaving none to get
stale, waste upon the ground, and encourage hosts of sparrows.
When they no longer eat eagerly, with a good appetite, throw
no more down. At first, they will want a bit about every hour,
and by degrees they will get hungry less often, until six meals
a day will be enough.

Chickens which are hatched before the natural time — that
is to say, before the nights become mild and the days sunny,
and before the earth teems with insects which they can catch
for themselves, and the absence of which no meat will com-
pensate — must have a little artificial warmth.

Chickens hatched thus early must be fed after dark, as a
fast from dark to daylight is too long. About ten o'clock at
night put down a candle or a lantern, and place food and
water before the hen, and the little ones soon get into the
habit of expecting a meal at that time, and of making a good
one.

It is a mistake to feed chickens on plenty of excellent food
for the first three weeks, and then to some extent leave them
to take their chance. As the fledging advances, they require
better and more nourishing food than they do while in the
down. The call which the growth of the feathers makes on
the resources of the cnickens is attested by the wonderfully
rapid growth which immediately commences as soon as they
are fledged, and this increased rate of growth renders good
feeding still no less necessary, and so on until growth is com-
plete.

About the best kind of coop is a wooden box, with a span
roof (either 2 or 3 feet square, according to the space at com-

mand, and the size of the stock kept), to give shelter and
shade, with a run of wirework rather larger to place in front
of it, to increase the range for the hen. She may make use of
both and the chickens have full liberty, running in and out
through the wirework.

By the time the chickens are turned off by their mothers, it
is generally necessary to clear them from the ground they
have hitherto occupied, to make room for more young broods.
It is far better if each brood can then have a hou.<;e and run to
itself. If so much room cannot be spared, care must, at any
rate, be taken only to put together chickens of about the same
age.

A few chickens well bred, well accommodated, well cared
for, and well fed, will turn out a pleasure and a credit ; a
good many chickens crowded together, however carefully
looked after and fed, will give a great deal of trouble, con-
stant work, constant care, and constant disappointment, and
make no commensurate return, either in satisfaction or profit.

The difference between cockerels and pullets may some-
times be detected while they are very young. In some the
cock's comb soon shows. In most kinds the arrangement of
the first wing feathers is rounder and wider in pullets than in
cockerels, whose first wing feathers come more to a point ;
the pullets' heads are often narrower and finer than the
roosters, and they fledge earlier on the back, down the sides of
the breast, and at the back of the head. In fine robust chick-
ens it is sometimes difficult to pick out the cockerels and pul-
lets until the back is partly feathered, when the pointed saddle
hackle feathers soon begin to sprout ; the surest test of all.

As the chickens approach maturity, good feeding must still
be continued, supplying the place of the rice puddings, canary
seed, and other young chicken dainties with abundant sup-
plies of oatmeal, barley meal, and good corn, and using dis-
cretion as to the supply of meat. The bits from the table
may always be collected and divided among the chickens.

As they approach maturity, too, they must be allotted to
their destinations.

The young birds which are picked out for the table may
also be put to their destination. Plenty of exercise develops
strength and firmness of muscle, and is good for chickens
which have the duties of a long life before them ; i. e., a life
which is long for chickens, four or five years or so. For eat-
ing we want tender, not strong, firm muscle ; therefore the
chickens which are to be eaten need not have an extensive
range. They may be made happy in a small run, and well
fed with several meals a day of oatmeal and barley meal
mixed, just so dry that the balls will fall to pieces when they
are thrown down, and a little corn, with good supplies of
clean fresh water. Those who like good chickens in natural
condition may follow this plan, giving them for a little time
before they are wanted rice boiled in water, in milk, or made
into puddings, as for young chickens ; but those who like to
fatten their fowls for the table can put them up in fatting
coops.

When they are put up, feed with moderation at first, as re-
pletion then, or at any time, would retard the fatting process.
As soon as they are reconciled to captivity, feed them on oat-
meal three times a day. Milk for mixing the oatmeal is best ;

POULTRY.

571 y

4r-

every meal must be given in a well scalded, clean trough ;
keep the coops supplied with clean water, and between the
meals place gravel before them, for them to peck at, and a
turf c£ grass. Keep the coops scrupulously clean, give the
first meal at sunrise, or thereabouts, and the last at roosting
time, and the chickens will be ready to kill in about ten days
or a fortnight. As soon as they are fat enough they must be
killed, or they will become unhealthy. When one lot is
fatted, take down the fattening coops, scrub and limewash
them, and put them out in the air for a time before using
them again.

Those who wish to make fowls very fat by the unpleasant
process of cramming, may either choose the finest and
healthiest from the fatting coop, or any good fleshy young
fowls. The food used is oatmeal, mixed stiff with milk,
made up into boluses the size to be put down the chicken's
throat without danger of choking it. To fatten more rapidly
mutton suet may be boiled in the milk used to mix the oat-
meal. The person employed in the cramming process opens
the chicken's beak, and puts six or eight boluses down its
throat morning and evening. If it seem to wish for food at
noon a little can be given it in the trough, which must be sup-
plied also with water and gravel. Those which have been put
up will be finished off in a week ; those which have to be
fatted by the cramming will take fourteen or sixteen days.
While they are fattening by either process they must be kept
free from draft, as they will fatten all the better for being
comfortably warm.

Some persons kill fowls by bleeding them in the mouth ;
others wring their necks. The quickest and most merciful
way is with a dexterous jerk to 6reaA the neck.

FANCY VARIETIES.

DORKINGS, SPANISH, AND COCHINS.

The chief large fowls occupying the attention of fanciers
are Dorkings, Spanish, Cochins, Brahmas, Malays, and Creve-
coeurs, and the other French breeds.

Dorkings. — The chickens are delicate until they get into
their feathers, and Dorkings of all ages are more subject to
roup than most kinds. Unless they have a good or well-
drained soil, or an extensive grass range, they do not lay well,
and do not thrive well. On the other hand, they are excel-
lent and economical for persons to keep who supply the
markets, provided they possess facilities for keeping and rear-
ing them with success, because they come forward early ; they
make their growth early in life, may be fatted off, and cleared
off early, and thus leave ^he ground at liberty soon, and en-
able the owner to realize his returns in a short time. If
Dorkings are kept, they must have great care in feeding, and
perfect cleanliness. The stamina of the chickens may be im-
proved by crossing with Brahmas, Cochins, or Game.

The hens are good sitters, and attentive good mothers, and
where the locality suits them, they are very good layers of
nice, well-flavored, and rather lai^e eggs. There are few
kinds which vary more, as layers, than they.

The white Dorking is the original type of the race. It

should have a square, plump, compact form, plumage of spot-
less white, delicate white skin, white legs, which should be
delicate, not coarse, five toes well developed, clear white or
pale yellow beak, and a well-formed, full-colored rose-comb.
Size is an important point, and one in which white Dorkings
have sometimes failed, but which the careful introduction of
fresh blood from time to time improves.

The fifth toe on each foot is a matter of primary importance
in all Dorkings, white and colored. Careful breeding has
firmly fixed this property in the Dorking, and no fowl without
it would have a chance of success at an exhibition, or of being
purchased as a Dorking fowl anywhere. The fifth toe should
be distinct and well developed on each foot ; a sixth is no
merit. The legs must have no suspicion of feathering.

The colored Dorkings, like the white, must be plump made,
compact, and wide, with plenty of meat on the breast, short
legs, and little offal. The comb may be single or rose, but
all the combs in a pen must match well. The legs must be
short, white, and delicate — /. f., not coarse in the scales.

The plumage of colored Dorkings varies much, as may be
expected in fowls which have been bred chiefly with reference
to useful properties.

Spanish. — Brilliant black plumage, bright scarlet combs
and wattles, and distinct and clear white faces make these
fowls very attractive, and they are among the oldest as well as
greatest favorites of poultry lovers ; for early in this century,
specimens which were at the time thought very choice, were
brought to England from Holland. It seems probable that
the kind may have been introduced into Holland from Spain,
and taken up and improved by the keen Dutch fanciers, but
now amateurs can find no vestige of the kind in the country
which gives them their name.

Spanish roosters, especially, have a tall, majestic carriage,
and the kmd have the merit of doing well, and looking hand-
some and ornamental, if kept in a confined place, provided it
be not overcrowded. They lay eggs which are very fine in
size, but they are apt to be more woolly and less delicate in
the white than those of many other fowls.

Cold, especially if it be damp cold, spoils the appearance of
the old birds, by injuring the combs and turning them black.
The combs of the hens shrink very much, and lose their
beauty, while they are moulting, or when they are laying.

Spanish hens do not sit, so other sitters must be provided to
liatch and rear the chickens ; and for this purpose it is best to
choose Dorkings, if possible, or, at any rate, some kind which
does not throw off the chickens early. Spanish chickens had
better not be hatched very early in the season, as they fledge
late, and are delicate until they get into feathers ; from March
to May is the best time.

The Minorca is a variety of the Spanish, which, althsugh
wanting in valuable fancy points, is a good-looking, useful
fowl, large in size, better for the table than Spanish, and a
good layer of fine large eggs.

The Andalusian fowl is rather an attractive-looking bird ; in
form and carriage much like the Spanish, and evidently of the
same family, with plumage either of a uniform slate color, or
slate shaded or laced with black, and showy, well-developed
scarlet combs and wattles. It has been stated that they were

572

POULTRY.

brought from Andalusia, but some affirm that they have been
bred from the Spanish — an accidental sport.

Cochins have the merit of being excellent layers. Good
Cochin hens will lay every day, or two days out of three,
until they want to sit ; and they have the merit of being good
layers in the winter, when fresh eggs are rarities.

The thing which most interferes with the production of eggs
is the Cochin's constant habit of wanting to sit ; but if she is
allowed to sit, she very soon lays again.

Cochins are tame, docile, and manageable ; little children
may tend them without a chance of getting hurt, and they are
friendly among themselves. When the hens sit, we may do
what we like with them, and they are kind mothers as long as
their nice little hardy chickens require their care. We can
keep Cochins where we can keep no other fowls, and make
them profitable with no other drawback to counteract all their
merits than a too-frequent wish to sit, and the character they
have of not being good for the table, which any careful breeder
might remedy to a great extent.

Cochins, like all fowls that lay so many eggs, are rather
greedy eaters, and they are very ready to fatten internally
(hence often the shelless eggs, and two eggs a day); so that in
feeding them care must be taken to feed moderately, and to
avoid food of too fattening a nature. The fowls and the
chickens will do well if fed and treated as recommended in the
chapters on feeding and chicken-rearing. The dangerous time
is from the time the wing-feathers are grown until the head
is covered ; and then they want plenty of good nourishing
food. They are nicest for the table at from five to seven or
eight months old : as young chickens, they are not nearly so
good, but are better fowls when nearer maturity.

COCHINS, BRAHMAS, MALAYS, AND THE
FRENCH FOWLS.

White Cochins must^ of course, be perfectly white in plu-
mage, and shown very clean.

Black Cochins have almost disappeared, on account of their
incorrigible habit of moulting to a mixture of colored feathers
among the black. The hens remain black, but the roosters
almost invariably display a mixture of red or yellow after the
first moult, if not before.

Brahmas. — No one knows the original stock ; no one
knows whence they came originally ; this is the accusation
that is brought against the Brahmas, the best fowls we have
ever had, as regards the number of useful properties they
possess.

The Brahmas are tame, docile, of a contented disposition,
and almost as easy to keep in as the Cochins ; but they like a
good range when they can get it, and make the most of it far
more industriously. The pullets do not lay so early as Cochin
pullets, but taking the year round, the Brahmas produce more
eggs than Cochins do, from not wanting to sit so often.
They are good sitters and mothers, lay early after hatching,
and often tend their chickens for weeks after they begin to
lay.

They are good table fowls, being ready in putting on flesh,
compact in make, full in the breast, juicy, and good in flavor.
They should be large and heavy, of a free majestic bearing.

removed alike from the waddle of the Cochin, and the upright
carriage of the Malay, compactly made, not long in the leg
or neck, wide and full in the breast, wide and deep in make ;
legs are yellow and well feathered. The head is delicate in
character, with a fullness over the,eye which gives breadth to
the top of the head, and a full clear eye. The tail is short and
full.

In color, Brahmas range from an almost white plumage,
with more or less black penciling on the hackle, and black in
the feathers of the tail and wings, to dark-gray plumage.
Perfection in a light Brahma is a white surface, with well-
marked hackle, wings and tail, and such uniform pearly-gray
under color, that the feathers cannot ruffle without showing it.

The Malay. Malays are great favorites with a few, but
from their peculiar gaunt form they are by no means gen-
erally liked or kept. They are large heavy birds, with such hard
close feathers that they are more bulky and weighty than they
look. They are tall, with an upright gait ; the tail is droop-
ing and small, with beautiful, but not long, sickle feathers.
The thighs are remarkably long, strong, and firm, and the
tarsi round, stout and yellow. Their head is snake-like, with
great fullness over the eye, giving it a flattened form on the
top. The Malay has a bold eye, a red skinny face, and a
strong curved hawk-beak. The comb is short, small, very
thick, and close to the head, resembling half a strawberry ; the
wattles are very small, and the wings rather set up.

The favorite colors are different shades of rich chestnut
brown, or cinnamon. There are also black-breasted reds,
black, and white.

As fowls to keep, they have the great merit of doing well in
any back-yard, and looking handsomer there than at a show.
The hens are often pretty good winter layers. The eggs are
of medium size, with tinted shells ; they are good in flavor
and hatch well. The Malay hen is a good sitter and a good
mother, that will hold her own, and defend her brood with
her good strong beak, if necessary. The chickens are hardy
little things, if well bred; but they fledge late, and look gaunt
and ugly when half grown.

Crevecoeurs and some other French breeds fill up our
list of large fowls. It is curious that the change from a
more favorable to a worse climate should seem to affect the
well-being of fowls detrimentally, in coming only across the
Channel, as the Crevecoeurs, La Fleche, and Houdans
do, and not in coming half the circumference of the
globe, as in the case of Cochins, Malays, and other Asiatics :
but so it is. As far as I have had an opportunity of judging,
importations from the farther side of Asia arrive here and do
well from the time of their arrival ; but many who have had
the French fowls have found the Cr^ecceurs more subject to
roup than even the Dorkings, and the La Fleche change from
the good productive fowls, which I suppose they are in their
own country, to but indifferent layers.

The Cr^vecoeur, when it thrives, is an excellent fowl for the
table, being square, plump-made, and large, ready to fatten
easily (if in thorough health and good condition), compactly
formed, and short in the leg. The hens are said to be good
layers ; their eggs are very large, and they are not sitters.
The chickens come to maturity early, and Mrs. F. Blair says

POULTRY.

573

the pullets often exceed the cockerels in size. They are evi-
dently allied to the Polish, which are nice tame fowls to keep,
but delicate in our damp chilly variable climate. For exhibi-
tion, the color of cocks and hens should be unvarying black
throughout, with metallic luster on the feathers, but to breed
them so, requires great care as they are very apt to have
a mixture of colored or white feathers. As in black Cochins
and some other black fowls, it is easier to breed the pullets
quite black than the cockerels. The crest is full, large,
and globular, and in front of it is a comb in the form of two
Well defined pikes, and these horns sometimes grow large and
spread into branches. The fowls are bearded, and the legs
blue and short.

The La Fleche is also a black fowl, with metallic luster,
large and plump-made. It is good for the table, but the legs
are long and dark — a great objection. The eggs are very
large, but the hen does not produce well, and she is a non-
sitter. The head is very peculiar, being graced with a comb
in the form of upstanding spikes, in front of a dark-crest, a
peculiar rising over the nostrils, large white ear-lobes, red
face, and long red wattles. The plumage is very close and
firm ; the tail large. The legs dark-blue or slate.

The Houdan is the last of the French fowls which have
gained a certain popularity among fanciers. It is compactly
made, the body round and well-formed, the legs short, thick,
and blue, or slate-colored, and five-toed. It is good for the
table.

HAMBURGHS.

The Hamburgh family is a large one, including two totally
distinct races of fowls, the Spangled and the Pencilled — Ham-
burghs they are both called — but they are about as distinct as
Cochins and Dorkins. Both kinds are divided into two — the
Golden and the Silver, thus making four distinct classes at our
shows.

The Golden-Spangled Hamburghs, or Golden Pheasant
Fowls, were very generally known by the last name until
recent fancy dubbed them Hamburghs.

They are good useful fowls to keep, and excellent layers,
and non-sitters. The eggs are not large, but larger than
those of the Pencilled Hamburghs. The fowls are pretty
hardy, and easy to keep in condition, but the chickens are
rather tender. They are nice plump fowls for the table,
although small. In breeding them the parents should be ex-
act in the marking and rich in color, the rooster darker than
the hen : it is best for maintaining precision in marking and
other points, to give the cock very few mates.

It is well to avoid stimulating food, when giving it may in-
duce precocious laying. A young fowl, be it pullet or cock-
erel, should be well developed in firmness of bone, muscle,
size, and furnishing, before it assumes the position of a pro-
ductive adult, that it may turn out one which will do us good
service for the natural term of its life.

All the Hamburghs are inherently fond of liberty ; they
want a good range, a trifle will not prevent their breaking
bounds to obtain it for themselves, and their lightness and
agility enable them to fly like sparrows.

Silver-Spangled Hamburghs are the same as the Golden,
in general properties. If there is any difference between

them, the Silver are the stronger ; they are the best layers,
and the eggs are rather the larger.

Golden and Silver Pencilled Hamburghs. — The Pen-
cilled Hamburghs are so distinct from the Spangled in some
important characteristics, that it seems wrong to include both
under one general name. They are more fragile in form and
constitution, and different in shape and in plumage, although
all the Hamburghs agree in comb, and several other points
before mentioned. The Pencilled fowls are known under the
different names of Bolton Bays and Grays (the gold and silver),
Chittiprats, Corals, Creoles, Dutch every-day layers, everlast-
ing layers, and many others.

THE POLISH AND THE VARIOUS CLASS.

The Polish fowls are pretty, compactly-made fowls, rather
under than over medium size ; for the Polish of the present
time are decidedly smaller than these fowls used to be from
twenty to thirty-five years back. The eggs, too, are smaller.
This degeneracy may be the result of in-and-in-breeding,
which may also account for their exceeding delicacy of consti-
tution.

Their beauty renders them great favorites ; they are mild-
tempered, timid birds, loving a genial sunny spot, and much
disliking to be handled. They are good layers of white eggs,
which are large for the size of the hens, and for the table
the flesh is white and tender, but the chickens are small for
that purpose. The hens are non-sitters.

All the Polish sub-varieties are decidedly fancy fowls, re-
quiring and repaying great care on the part of the amateur.

Silver-Spangled Polish. — The crest of the cock should be
white streaked with black ; that of the hen white laced with
black. The hackle of both cock and hen white streaked with
black, and the wings accurately barred and laced. In the
cock, the more the remainder of the plumage can be spangled
the better, and the tail should be white, with a rich, well de-
fined spangle at the end of each feather. In the hen, the re-
mainder of the plumage should be accurately spangled, and
the tail white, each feather spangled with black. The legs
are blue, and the head free from comb or gills.

Golden-Spangled Polish. — The ground color throughout
is a rich golden-brown. The hackle of both cock and hen
streaked with black, the wings barred and laced, the breast
spangled, and the tails black, so well bronzed with the rich
ground color of the plumage as to harmonize with it. If there
be a beard, a good mixture of the ground color is better than
a prevalence of black. The top-knot, too, should be streaked
in the cock and laced in the hen. Black feathers and white
in the crest are faults, but the white feathers zwV/ come in both
cocks and hens as they grow old.

The original Spangled Polish fowl appears to have been a
bird in character like our Polish, the ground color of the
plumage of a rich golden-brown, with spangles of white and
black united in each spot, and white legs. These and two
other beautiful varieties are entirely or almost lost to us.

BANTAMS.
The distinguishing characteristics of the Sebright bantam,
besides their exactly-laced plumage, are diminutive beauty,

4r-

^ 574

POULTRY.

and jaunty, impudent carriage. Roosters of a year old should
not exceed 21 oz. in weight, nor hens i8 oz. ; and some advo-
cate much smaller size still. Smallness of size is an important
point in all Bantams, so that the smaller they are the better.
To gain this point they are generally bred late in th-? season,
sometimes very late, but seldom earlier than July. Many
have been so dwarfed as to interfere with their reproductive
qualities, and the breeders have had recourse to larger speci-
mens as home stock-birds, reserving the very small ones
for exhibition and for show. To breed productive stock-
birds the in-breeding, which favors small size, must be
avoided.

The proud gait of the Sebright is like that of the fantail
pigeon ; the head and tail are held erect until they almost
touch each other ; the wing is not closely packed away, but is
allowed to droop with jaunty gallantry ; the body is plump,
and the breast protuberant.

The head should be small and delicate, with a well-formed,
firmly-set-rose-comb, close to the head, exactly in the center,
with a well-defined pike, a little turned up at the end. The
legs should be blue.

The rooster must have no hackle on neck or saddle, and no
sickle feathers in the tail.

The chicken should be bred from mature birds. They
must be kept from damp, but in a dry spot they are tolerably
hardy. Their diminutive size and compact beauty render
them the prettiest among chickens. There is scarcely a pret-
tier sight than a Sebright mother and her little brood. The
little ones fledge quickly, and require constant good feeding
during the process.

The Booted Bantam is probably the earliest type of the
Bantam race ; it is, at any rate, the one which has been the
longest known among us, having been introduced as long
back as the beginning of the seventeenth century. It is a
small, compactly-made, jaunty little bird, with abundant
furnishing in hackle, flowing tail, and heavily-booted legs.
The plumage is generally perfectly white, but there are also
some of other colors. In the early part of the present cen-
tury, Booted Bantams were more thought of than any others ;
afterwards they were almost lost sight of ; but within the last
very few years they have appeared again, and often win prizes
in a Bantam class for other varieties.

White and Black Bantams are beautifully diminutive,
bold and saucy in gait, plentifully furnished in hackle and
tail, and spotlessly white in plumage, or perfectly black, as
the case may be. The white and the black have each a dis-
tinct class at the shows, where they are always well repre-
sented: The white bantam rooster must have a fully sickled
tail of snowy whiteness, brilliantly red rose-comb and wattles,
and white beak and legs, — the last perfectly free from feathers.
The hen must agree. Many may be seen weighing, the rooster
not more than 15 ounces, and the hen 12 ounces, and smaller
weights are mentioned. The black Bantams are compact in
form and bold in carriage. They are hardier than the whites
very prolific, and often very small. The plumage should be
unr.iixed black with metallic luster. Other points are a rose-
comb, small but rather wide wattles, and rather short blue or
black legs. In both the white and the black the ear-lobes

should be white, but in the black especially ; they must be
pure in the white, and free from any tinge of red.

Game Bantams must be exact Game fowls in miniature.

TURKEYS AND WATER-FOWL.

TURKEYS.

When America was discovered, turkeys were found in a
domesticated as well as in a wild state, and the French name
Dinde (D'Inde) seems to indicate that they came from the
West Indies, the East Indies possessing no such bird.

Turkeys do not attain full growth and maturity until the
moult after they are two years old. The stock-birds should
therefore be not less than three years old, for poults bred
from young birds are sure to be tender. To obtain fine tur-
key poults, let the hen sit on the first eggs she lays in the
season, as soon as she will, that the brood may have all the
best of the year in which to make their growth. Some turkey
roosters are very spiteful to their hens, and to the young ones,
so that it is necessary to put the nest in a place of safety.
The presence of the rooster is not necessary after the early
part of the season, as the entire clutch of eggs is said on good
authority to be fertilized at once.

The turkey cock should be vigorous and healthy, broad
in the chest, clean in the legs, and with well developed wings
and tail. His eyes should be bright, and the corunculated
skin of the neck full, and rapid in its changes of color. He
is in his prime from three years old to seven or more. The
year he is appointed as master at home, or the year after, a
fine cock poult should be selected and reared to take his
place when necessary. From the peculiar property in turkeys
of the whole batch of eggs being fertilized at once, one turkey
cock would well serve a whole neighborhood ; but that he
should be a first-class mature bird is all-important.

The hen should, of course, match her lord ; she should be
plump, lively, and animated, and her plumage should be
correct. If she be black, white feathers are a fault. Her
eggs will produce the hardiest poults a/ter she is three years
old.

A number of companions may be allowed one cock in the
course of a year, but never let him have more than two mates
at the same time.

The hen foretells laying by a peculiar note and strut, and
by hunting about for a sly comer to lay in. In the dnmest:-
cated, as in the wild state, the cock is apt to destroy the eggs,
and the hen is commensurately anxious to hide them fro;.-,
danger. She should be watched and humored to the nest pre-
pared for her.

If the turkey hen is well settled to the nest before the eggs
are given to her, the poults may be looked for on the twenty-
sixth day ; but four weeks is the time of incubation usually
reckoned on for turkeys' eggs, and some persons say thirty-
one days. Whether the sitter is interfered with or not, when
she hatches must depend on her disposition.

The hen turkey will sometimes lay and hatch a second ti.iie
in the season ; but late broods require great care.

Even in a wild state the turkey poults are delicate, and un-
able to endure wet : the young of the domesticated race are

POULTRY.

575

yet more so, and must be kept from wet and cold. The little
poults will peck for themselves as soon as nature prompts the
necessity : until then leave them with what appears to be
their only requirement — their mother's warmth.

At first the little ones may be fed on hard-boiled eggs,
chopped fine and mixed with bread-crumbs and herbs finely
minced, or on curd and bread-crumbs. The herbs to use
with their food are chives, young onion tops, fennel, let-
tuce, nettles, and parsley. The water should be given in
shallow pans, that they may not get the down wet. As they
get older they will feed on food made of barleymeal and oat-
meal, and on grain. Meal boiled in milk until quite thick is
good food.

The little turkey poults want a tolerably free range, and
they must be so constantly well fed from the first, as never
to lose condition ; for if they once get poor they can never be
restored.

The most important thing of all is never to let the little
turkeys get wet, or even damp. Keep them in in the morn-
ing until the dew is off the grass, put them up before the damp
of evening, and never let them be out in the rain. Cottagers
in the country, who think it worth while to keep in the brood
in wet weather, and to drive them in when rain threatens,
rear them successfully, as it is generally after a wetting that
the little poults go bad.

When the turkeys are finished up with cramming, it may be
done by giving about six rolls of barleymeal and sugar before
roosting-time every night for a week or ten days. In France,
the usual food is meal paste mixed with chopped suet and
milk, or with ale and molasses. Whole pepper, garlic, ani-
seed, and tonic herbs are also given. Whole walnuts given
daily, from 4 to 40, are said to fatten well. If turkey chicks
look heavy and ruffled, a little crushed malt, or carroway or
coriander seed, will do good. Let them be fed very constantly,
and never be in want for an hour. If they do not run at
large; they must have a little meat, turves of grass, and gravel.
Most hens require cooping to prevent their running the chicks
too far. The old turkeys are very fond of Indian corn.

GEESE.

Common Goose. — It is almost superfluous to say that the
usual mode of keeping geese is to drive them out to pasture
in the morning, and to house them at night. If there be any
right of common to which the flock can be turned out, they
will almost get their own living, as grass is their main food.
Turning their heads sideways, they nip it off quite close, and
consume a good quantity. Whether it is worth while to keep
geese on land that would feed larger stock, is a question for
economists ; but they are worth keeping where they can partly
live on grass which cannot be turned to better account.

It is well to have a house for the geese and one for the
young stock, but any shed will do, and it need not be too
closely shut in. Care should be taken that the roof does not
let in rain, and that the shelter which the house affords excludes
bitter windy draughts upon the geese at night. The floors
should be dry, and if litter is used, it must be renewed as often
as cleanliness requires. If the geese can have a pond at com-

mand within the day's range, so much the better ; but they
will do without it.

Geese are essentially vegetable feeders ; they will eat any
kind of corn, pulse, or greens, such as cabbage, lettuce, man-
gold, lucern, tares, and now and then sliced carrots and tur-
nips.

The old geese require a little com twice a day ; a mere
sprinkle in the morning, if they have the opportunity of doing
much for themselves, and a good feed at night. In mild sea-
sons the goose will lay early : she should have a good, large
nest, in a secure, quiet comer, and she will cover about fifteen
eggs : the time of incubation is thirty days. Give her plenty
of food and water, to which to help herself, when she leaves
the nest. She is a patient, good sitter, and a good mother.

In choosing stock-birds, select those which are long in the
body and small in bone. The pouch sagging down loose behind
is generally a mark of age. Allow three geese to a gander ; let
all be of mature age, and they will all do well up to twenty
years old, if not longer.

DUCKS.

Ducks are very hardy, and easy to feed, as regards quality
of food ; for they will eat almost anything with appetite and
relish.

The humble accommodation of a mere shed offers quite
good housing enough. The roof should be water-tight, and
the ground of the shed pretty dry, to render it a good place for
the sitters ; as, if the nest be very damp, the eggs are apt to
break, however quiet the sitter may be.

Four ducks to a drake are better than a larger number. The
stock-birds should be long in the frame, fleshy (not fat), and
small in bone.

A good-sized duck will cover fourteen eggs well : according
to the size of the duck the number allotted her may be from
eleven to fifteen. Give her oats and water near her nest, that
she may come off and feed when she likes ; and a run down
to the pond and dip therein will do no harm to her eggs, but
rather the contrary, by imparting from the sitter's moist feath-
ers the warm damp which is favorable to incubation. Hens
may be set on ducks' eggs, when it is considered that the ex-
tra care which can be bestowed on them may realize greater
size for exhibition purposes ; but ducklings so reared had bet-
ter not be kept as stock-birds.

For the first few weeks it is better to let the ducklings have
no pan of water in which they can immerse themselves, so as
to wet the down underneath them.

The bill of fare for young ducks may include cold boiled
oatmeal porridge, cooked vegetables, mixed up with barley«
meal or sharps, crushed oats thrown into water, and a little
milk when convenient ; but in giving milk to young things,
scouring must always be guarded against.

Ducks, old and young, should have a little litter for a bed
— straw, dry fern, pea-haum, rushes, or anything which is dry
will do. The eggs do not keep so well as hens' eggs, so they
should be set as fresh as possible.

Aylesbury Ducks must be very large, perfectly white in
plumage, with yellow legs and feet, and flesh-colored bills.
Dark spots or streaks on the bills have lost many fine pens

576

POULTRY.

-y

their prizes. Such blemishes may arise from the ducks fre-
quenting peaty land ; to get fair unsullied bills is a great
trouble to exhibitors. A good pen of three drakes and two ducks
will weigh 23 lbs. or 24 lbs., and 26 1-4 lbs. have been reached.
Rouen Ducks, in plumage, resemble the wild duck, but
tliey are of splendid size.

The Buenos Ay res, or East Indian ducks, like Bantams
among fowls, are the dwarfs among ducks, and are bred
as small as possible, and shown young, to make the most of
this important point — diminutive size. They must be very
small, and quite black, with brilliant green metallic luster on
the plumage. They have dark legs and bills. They often
incline to mate in pairs, so that if only one drake is kept to
two or more ducks, many eggs will prove infertile ; the eggs
are colored, and, of course, small.

The Musk, Muscovy, or Brazilian Duck is very distinct.
They vary in color, the usual color being a dull black, with
white on the under surface, and some other portions of their
bodies. A curious red warty cere near the bill characterizes
them ; and the great difference of size between the drake and
the duck is peculiar.

A large black duck, with brilliant luster on the plumage,
called the Cnj/u^a Bhck duck, is mentioned. It is a native
of America, and is said to have been domesticated from some
wild stock.

Call Ducks. — The beautiful little Call or Decoy ducks are
ornamental and very small.

These are the kinds most frequently seen. There are
occasionally sent to the shows the Hook-billed, the Penguin,
and the Top-knotted ducks.

DISEASES.

There is little economy in an attempt to doctor sick fowls ;
as a labor of love and a matter of humanity, the case may be
different, and we often like to cure or lessen the sufferings of
a favorite.

Warmth, shelter, and safety from the molestation of other
fowls is often a main remedial measure. A bask by a kitchen
fire, for a few days, a retreat where tyrants cannot hunt or
peck the sufferer, and simple or nourishing food, according to
whether the patient is suffering from weakness or repletion, is
frequently by itself a curative treatment.

If little chickens pine and droop the wings, a pill of Barba-
does aloes, the size of a pea, or a pellet of rue and butter, may
do good if the ailment be taken in good time. Insects must
always be duly looked after, dislodged with a dusting of flour
of sulphur, and guarded against by cleanliness, and a good
provision of dust-bath. Most poultry diseases may be traced
to the effect of our chilly, damp, and variable climate, so that
a warm sheltered locality, and good shelter for young chick-
ens, are all important.

Douglass' mixture is excellent for giving strength and sta-
mina to old fowls, or young. Dissolve together with a little
water 1-2 lb. of sulphate of iron, and i oz. of diluted sul-
phuric acid, add spring water enough to make up two gallons,
let it stand for a fortnight, mix a teaspoonful of the mixture
with a pint of water, and give it to fowls or chickens to drink
instead of water.

Decoction of citrate of iron mixed with water in the pro-
portion to give it a very perceptible taste of iron, is also good
as a strengthener.

If inflammation in the egg passage be denoted by the produc-
tion of soft or misshapen eggs, give one grain of calomel, with
I-I2th of a grain of tartar emetic. It should be repeated
three times in a week at intervals.

If mature fowls appear feverish and drooping, and seem to
require a dose of medicine, give one of Plummer'spill, a bit of
Barbadoes aloes the size of a large pea, or five grains of jalap
in a bolus of barley meal, according to the strength of the
dose required. If, however, they are judiciously fed and
properly cared for, medical treatment will rarely be re-
quired.

niR,

THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT.

577 )

AVING decided upon
the cultivation of fruit
and establishing an
orchard, it becomes ne-
cessary to fix upon its
dimensions and extent. In
consideration of this ques-
tion of extent, two other
important matters are to
be taken into account —
these are, the quantity of
ground you may have
suitable and to spare, and
the amount of means you can set apart for the pur-
pose. In settling these points you should possess,
first, a knowledge of the kind of ground necessary ;
and second, a determination to do the work well, at
whatever cost.

For an ordinary family of five to ten persons, not
less than three acres will suffice for home consump-
tion use, and as many more as can be made profit-
able for market use. On these three acres can be
stocked from two to three hundred standard trees of
the different sorts of fruit, besides a due proportion
of all the smaller kinds — an amount which, if properly
managed, will in a few years afford an ample supply
for family use.

COST.

The cost of first planting will vary widely in dif-
ferent localities — depending on the condition of the
ground, the quality of the soil, prices of trees, price
of labor, etc. An approximate calculation may be
made, however, by estimating the cost of preparing
the ground and planting the trees, at an amount equal
to the cost of the trees in the nursery ; and, when
ditching and underdraining is necessary, at double
that amount. The following rule laid down by
Thomas Gregg in his admirable work on fruit culture
should be inflexibly observed in all cases : Never
slight the work, nor plant an inferior tree, because it is
cheaper to do so ! Work half done is very poor econ-
omy in planting an orchard, as well as in most other
things ; and a tree costing only half price in the
nursery may turn out to be a very dear one in the
end. The very best varieties (and these are not al-
ways the most costly), as well as the very best trees,
are those from which you must expect to realize the
most profit.

ESTIMATE FOR THREE ACRES.

The following estimate will answer for an orchard
of three acres of ground, with such variations as
circumstances may require. [The number of trees
will vary somewhat as the shape of the ground is

—<Vi

578

THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT.

-y

varied ; the calculation is based on a plat twenty-
four rods long by twenty wide.]

Eighty apple trees, thirty-three feet apart, covering
two acres.

Seventy peach-trees, sixteen and a half feet apart,
set around three sides of the whole.

There will then be left in front one acre, which
may be divided into two equal plats of 132 by 166
feet. These may be filled as follows :

In No. 1. — Twenty standard pears, thirty-three
feet apart, in continuation of the apple rows.

Thirty-two dwarf pears, in the same rows, seven
feet apart and thirteen feet from the standards.
And—

Twenty-seven pyramid and dwarf plums, quinces,
cherries, etc., in the alternate rows, sixteen and a
half feet apart.

In No. 2. — Such number of almonds, apricots,
grapes, nectarines, gooseberries, currants, raspberries,
blackberries, and strawberries, as fancy may dictate,
and as will stock it properly.

The above estimate will constitute an orchard of
about 250 orchard trees — standard and dwarf — and
perhaps as many more of the garden or bush
fruits.

DISTANCES.

Every planter has his own opinion regarding the distance
which trees should be planted from each other. Besides, some
kinds of soils and localities require greater distance than others ;
and some varieties will bear to stand closer than other varie-
ties of the same fruit. A good rule is that, when full grown,
the tops should not be nearer to each other than one third
their diameter. An apple-tree, for example, when fully grown,
will spread, on an average, to a distance of twenty-five feet ;
the rule will give thirty-three feet as the proper distance apart.
Peaches seldom spread, or should not, if properly pruned, more
than twelve to fifteen feet ; the rule gives sixteen to twenty feet
as the distance to plant. In planting an orchard of apples,
with plenty of ground, thirty-three feet is probably the safest
distance ; yet, if ground is an object, they will do at twenty-
five feet. Apples may be planted a little wider — say forty feet
— and rows of peach-trees planted both ways between : as the
peach, not being so long-lived, will die out before the apple
has attained to a large growth.

When the saving of ground is an important consideration,
and none but standard trees are to be planted, more space may
be obtained by planting in rows, according to the following
diagram :

Smaller trees may be set closely in rows, as represented in
the figure below :

*************

This last method is recommended for village plats, where it
is desirable to combine the raising of vegetables with that of
fruit ; as the spaces between the rows may be appropriated to
any kind of root crop, with decided advantage to the trees.

The following table of distances for the various kinds of
fruit, condensed from Thomas's Fruti Culturist, seems to have
been acquiesced in by most fruit-growers :

Apples. — For large trees 25 to 40 feet.

For pyramids and dwarfs 6 to 8 "

Pears. — Large trees on pear stocks 20 "

Pyramids on " " 8 to 10 "

Pyramids on quince " 6 "

Dwarf standards on quince 8 "

Peaches. — Full growth 20 "

Shortened in 12 to 15 "

Cherries. — Common standards 20 "

Pyramids on common stocks 10 "

(Dukes and Morellos require less).

Plums. — Standards 15 "

Pyramids 6 to 8 "

Apricots. 15 to 20 "

Quinces 6 to 8 "

Grapes.— On 8-feet trellis 25 '*

On 12 " " 16 "

Trimmed to stakes 4 to 6 "

Gooseberries AND Currants 4 to 5 "

Raspberries AND Blackberries 4 "

For the above distances, the following is the number of trees
required for an acre :

40 feet apart 27 trees. 12 feet apart 302 trees,

33 " " 40 " 10 " " 435 "

25 " " 69 " 8 " " 680 "

20 " " 108 " 6 " " . 1,208 "

15 " " 193 " 4 " " .....2,720 "

LOCATION

Much has been said and written concerning the location of
orchards. Situation and aspect doubtless have their effects,
yet no one should neglect to plant merely because he cannot
give his trees such an aspect as he may desire. Trees in favor-
able situations will undoubtedly produce more good crops than
those less fortunately situated ; yet many seasons occur when
the causes of the difference do not arise, and trees in any ex-
posure will produce abundantly. To this general rule there
can be very few exceptions, namely — Elevated situations are
better than lowlands, -and the brows and sides of hills are to be
chosen in preference to the valleys. Numerous proofs have been
adduced to show that the peach might be successfully grown
much farther north than it usually is, if the most elevated po-
sitions were chosen instead of the warm valleys. So, farther
south, frequent severe frosts cut off the crops on the low grounds.

THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT.

579 r

while those on the more elevated and exposed situations are
not afTected.

The old rule was to choose a southern or south-eastern ex-
posure. A northern exposure is now very generally preferred.
This is because the action of the warm sun, in a southern ex-
posure, will too soon thaw away the frost about the roots, and
occasion the buds to swell — leaving them exposed to alter-
nations of frost and thaw. In the West, the rolling prairies
near the woodland, the hazel ruffs that skirt the prairie and
wood, and the richest portions of the timbered bluffs or high-
lands that overlook the rivers, are regarded as the best loca-
tions. The best bearing orchards are those on the bluff over-
looking the Mississippi at the Lower Rapids.

SOIL.

Fruit trees, like corn and cabbages, will grow on almost any
kind of soil ; yet some soils are more suited to their natures than
others. They require a soil strong enough to give the tree a
vigorous growth, and the better and more vigorous the growth
of the tree, the better will be the character of the fruit. As a
general thing, any soil that will produce a good crop of com
will be good for fruit-trees. A strictly alluvial soil, however,
is not to be recommended ; as, while it will produce a rank
growth of wood, it will not make so hardy or fruitful a tree ;
nor will the quality of the fruit be equal to that grown on a less
fertile soil.' A calcareous soil is the best adapted to most kinds
of fruit; yet in other than limestone regions a gravelly or sandy
loam will be found to answer a good purpose. Stiff, clayey soils
are not promotive of a good growth ; yet they can be rendered
available by a proper incorporation of sand, manure, and vege-
table mold. Most soils — even those in the limestone region —
require an addition of more or less lime and potash, as these in-
gredients enter largely into the composition of most fruits.

PREPARATION OF THE GROUND.

Not one in a hundred of those who plant trees bestows the
necessary care and attention to the preparation of the ground.
A very common mode is to dig a hole about a foot wide and
five or six inches deep, stick in the tree, bending the roots or
cutting them off to bring them within the proper compass —
shovel in a few spadefuls of dirt or sod, tread it down with the
foot, and the job is done ! If the tree grows, well ; if not, the
planter has only been unlucky, and all the neighbors conclude
not to plant, it is so hard to make trees grow ! Is it any wonder
that three out of every four trees taken from the nursery die
without having reached the stage of fruit-bearing?

In the first place, the soil must be dry before planting. If not
so naturally, it must be made so by deep plowing, and, if this
will not suffice, then by underdraining. A clay subsoil should
be underdrained to the depth of three feet ; but any soil not
very retentive of water may be sufficiently drained by the use
of a subsoil plow and a strong team. With good underdrain-
ing and a proper admixture of manure, ashes, sand, and loam,
the toughest clay soils may be reduced to a proper condition for
fruit trees. All soils that are sufficiently porous to drain well
should be first prepared with the plow, harrow, and sub-soiler ;
and then the holes for the trees should be made only of proper
size and depth to admit the roots in their natural position, and

at two or three inches greater depth than they stood in the
nursery. Deep holes in a hard and tenacious subsoil will in-
jure the trees by retaining too much water. Such soils should
be avoided for a fruit orchard ; or if used, should first be prop-
erly underdrained. Many young trees die from the effects of
standing in deep holes, prepared for them at great expense.

Previous to planting, the soil should be enriched with well-
rotted barn-yard manure, thoroughly intermixed and pulverized
by the harrow. If planting is to be done in the spring, the
plowing should have been gone through with the fall previous,
and then thoroughly stirred again just before planting. When
the whole field is thoroughly prepared by the plow, it can be
cultivated to some useful crop, and the trees will be more likely
to receive the necessary tillage than they would if standing in
the field alone.

MANURING.

It is a quite common experience that the quality of fruit in
orchards will, after a few years, gradually decline, yielding only
small and imperfect specimens. Some varieties will show this
decline much sooner than others. Negligence in regard to
manuring is generally the cause of this deterioration. The
application of barn-yard manure will cure the evil, though, with
some fruits, other ingredients are very valuable. Ashes is a
good fertilizer for most fruits, and is worth more to the fruit-
grower, as such, than for any other purpose. In the peach
orchard there is little danger of getting too much. A free use
of lime on some soils is very beneficial, and in many cases salt
may be used to advantage. This latter has been strongly re-
commended as a preventive to blight in the pear.

TRANSPLANTING.
LAYING OFF THE GROUND.

The best way to lay off the ground, after it has been fully
prepared and the distances decided upon, is to measure along
the sides and ends, setting a stake at the proper distances, and
then driving small stakes, say one foot high, at all the points
where the lines thus indicated intersect each other. After the
ground is staked, commence digging the holes — and this
should be completed before the trees are removed from the
nursery.

SEASON FOR TRANSPLANTING.

The proper season for transplanting a tree is any time be-
tween the falling of the leaf in autumn and the swelling of the
buds in spring ; and, in the case of a hardy tree, as the apple,
it probably makes but little difference whether it be done be-
fore the winter or after it. With other trees it is different ,
the less hardy ones, with diminished strength, cannot so easily
withstand the severe frosts and piercing nor' westers of that
season. Hence they should be transplanted only in the spring.
Apples may be removed either in November or April, provided
it be done well, with probably about equal success.

SETTING OUT TREES.

It requires three men, or two men and a boy, to set out trees
as it should be done. Before inserting the roots into the hole

58o

THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT.

-y

prepared to receive them, they should first be dipped into mud
made of the rich surface mold, to cause the earth to adhere to
all their parts. This done, place the tree in its proper position
in the hole, shovel in a small quantity of the finely pulverized
mold, and then give it a gentle shaking suddenly up and down,
in order to settle the dirt closely about the roots — one person
to hold the tree to its proper position, while another shovels
in the earth. When a sufficient quantity of the earth has been
placed upon the roots to bring it level with the surface of the
ground, tread it down gently with the foot, and then add
more, rounding it to a slight mound, with the stem of the tree
for a center. The tree should be placed in the hole so as to
allow it to stand about as deep, when the earth becomes settled
around it, as it stood in the nursery.

It is recommended by some to plant the tree in the orchard
in the same relative position to the points of the compass that
it occupied in the nursery. This may or may not be bene-
ficial ; at any rate, it can do no harm, and it is quite an easy
matter to mark the tree before it is lifted, so as to indicate its
position.

If the planting be done in autumn, there should be a mound
of earth ten inches to a foot high, and three feet in diameter,
raised around the tree to steady it, and protect its roots from
frost and the bark from mice. When the ground becomes well
settled in the spring, the mound should be removed.

TRIMMING.

Before setting out, each tree should undergo a proper degree
of trimming. This requires considerable judgment. As the
branches and roots of a tree depend upon each other for sup-
port, it will readily be understood that neither should be over-
tasked. In removing it from the nursery, all the small fibrous
roots, and sometimes many of the larger, are lost ; hence the
top must be trimmed to correspond. To do this properly, all
the leading shoots should be shortened back one-half or two-
thirds of the current year's growth ; and, if the roots have been
much injured, the leading branches should be headed back still
more.

TAKING FROM THE NURSERY.

Trees should be injured as little as possible in removing
them from the nursery. Taking them from the row, and tying
in such a manner as to be easily transported, is properly the
nurseryman's business ; yet it is always best to keep a watchful
eye to the work. Especial care should be taken that the roots
are not broken or bruised, or cut away by the spade in taking
them from the ground ; and when any of the roots do become
injured, they should be nicely cut off" with a sharp knife. As
soon as dug, the trees should be carefully arranged in con-
venient bunches, as much damp earth as possible placed about
their roots, and then closely enveloped in some coarse sacking,
or other suitable thing, and firmly tied with strong cord. If
they are to be re-set at but a short distance from the nursery,
these precautions are unnecessary, though, if they are to be
carried any considerable distance, too much care cannot be
used in this respect. In all cases the roots should be carefully
secured against exposure to the air and sun.

If from any cause the trees are not to be immediately planted.

they should be placed in the ground, root and stock, by digging
a trench and shoveling loose dirt upon them, to a depth suffi-
cient to exclude the air. The weather will not always permit
of immediate re-planting, but it should in no case be delayed
longer than is absolutely necessary. This covering should be
done in the orchard or garden, and the trees should be removed
from the trench one by one as they are planted.

SELECTION OF TREES.
There is a great diversity of opinion in regard to the proper
size of a tree for transplanting, though the best informed and
most experienced planters now prefer a two-year-old tree rather
than one of a larger size. In thrifty, well-tilled nurseries, trees
of that age will average about five feet high ; and such a tree
can be more easily handled, and is also in a better condition
to sustain the violence done to its nature by transplanting, and
better able to recover from it, than those of an older and larger
growth. Care should also be taken to select trees of well-
branched and well-formed heads, and of as near the same size,
vigor, and general condition as possible.

AFTER-CULTURE.
PLOWING AND HOEING.

One of the most common errors among the people in regard
to fruit-growing is that pertaining to after-culture. Many sup-
pose that all that is necessary to get good fruit is to set the tree
in the ground, right end downward, to be sure, and nature will
do the rest. This is a most fatal error — nothing can be more
unreasonable. It is as absolutely necessary that the tree which
you have planted should receive culture and care afterward, as
that the corn which rustles in the breeze should be plowed and
hoed, and harrowed, to make it yield its golden harvest.
Trees, as well as vegetables, must have food and drink.
It is by culture that they obtain them.

Hence, in the orchard, the growing of some crop is very
desirable. Roots are perhaps the best of all. Potatoes, beets,
beans, carrots, parsnips, onions — all require thorough culture,
and do not shade the trees; while Indian corn, clover, grass,
and all the cereal grains, should be rigidly excluded.

PRUNING.

In the matter of pruning we find there is a great diversity of
opinion among experienced fruit- growers. Some advise a free
use of the knife ; others prune but little, or none at all. The
first are doubtless right, as regards some sorts of trees ; while,
in regard to other varieties, the second class are correct. And
the point must be settled between them by considering the
objects sought fo be attained by pruning.

To our mind there are four objects to be had in view in
pruning a fruit-tree. These are : —

1. To relieve it of its dead and decaying branches.

2. To promote the growth of the tree.

3. To encourage the production, and increase the size and
quality of the fruit.

4. To change its shape.

Now, the above being all the objects for which a tree ought
to be pruned (except as heretofore stated, under the head of
" Trimming," to preserve an equilibrium between roots and

THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT.

branches in transplanting), it is evident that, while a permanent
vigor and productiveness are maintained without it, the less
pruning the better. Many planters insist that a tree should
never be pruned except for the first of these objects ; because,
as they allege, if a tree be faithfully kept free from all dead
and decaying wood, its growth and productiveness will both
be promoted. This is doubtless true to some extent with some
sorts of fruit, and, unless some peculiar form is desired, it is
better to do but little other pruning. Yet withal it is some-
times necessary to prune more freely. Some varieties of the
apple, for instance, will grow, if left alone, to too thick a head,
and require thinning out ; others grow so straggling that it is
frequently necessary to cut away drooping, or crooked and
deformed branches, to give the tree some symmetry of appear-
ance. After the first object is attained, the apple, the pear,
and the cherry, as standards, require little more, except in the
cases last alluded to. Other trees require much more, which
will be treated of in the proper place.

PROTECTION.

All orchards and fruit gardens, whether of old or young
trees, should be carefully protected against the depredations
of cattle or other animals. Good fences to secure them are

indispensable, as it is utter folly to expend time and money in
planting and rearing a fine orchard, and then allow animals to
disfigure, maim, and destroy the trees. Cattle, horses, or
sheep should never be allowed to run in orchards ; nor should
swine be admitted except at intervals of very short periods, in
order that they may have time only to eat up the fallen fruit,
and not to bark the trees or root up the ground.

In some sections birds are great depredators upon fruit, but
as a general thing they do more good in devouring the insects
than harm in consuming the fruit. If they become too nu-
merous, they can be frightened away with guns.

MULCHING.

This is simply the process of distributing some proper ma-
terial around the root of each tree to retain the moisture.
When not thus protected, the ground will frequently bake and
greatly retard the growth of the tree. Any coarse litter, straw,
or forest leaves will be suitable for mulching. It should be
used plentifully — spread on to a depth of at least six inches.
When properly mulched, trees will retain moisture about their
roots, and make a vigorous growth, through the dry and sultry
summer months, while others not protected in this way cease
to grow altogether, and in many cases wither and die.

fk line.

S vine culture is so rapidly developing into a source
of national wealth, the following instructions will
be found of considerable value.

PROPAGATION.

The grape is easily grown from cuttings — some
sorts, however, much more readily than others. Those
that are not so easily produced in this way are usually grown
in the hot-house or hot-beds, bottom heat being required for
the production of roots. This method we shall leave to those
who are prepared for it.

For out-door growth the cuttings should be made late in the
fall, or during the winter, or in the early spring. They should
be cut from well-ripened wood of the new growth, and should
be made about a foot in length, including two eyes, one near
each end ; if the wood is short-jointed, more eyes may be used,
but in no case should a cutting be used with less than two.
When cut, they should be tied in bunches of fifty, with the
butts all one way, and should be protected from the weather
until time for planting. The safest plan to do this is to bury
in the ground in a well-drained soil, below the reach of frost.
Or they may be packed in very slightly moistened sawdust or
sand, in boxes, in a dry cellar.

In the spring, when the weather becomes sufficiently settled,
they may be taken up and planted in good garden soil, pre-
viously well-prepared. In planting, make a trench with the
plow, or spade, ten inches deep ; place the cuttings in the
trench at a slight angle, and from eight to twelve inches apart,

close against the side and with the top-bud just even with the
surface. Then fill in a few inches of earth at the bottom, and
press- tightly with the foot, continuing the process with less
pressure to the top. Level and smooth, and the work is
done.

In a favorable season and with free-growing sorts, nineteen-
twentieths of them will grow, and with proper tillage will be-
come good plants. The only cultivation necessary will be to
keep the weeds down with the hoe, and the ground mellow
and moist. If not intended for sale, or transplanting the next
season, they may remain another year. Otherwise they should
be taken up m the fall, and stored in cellar during winter,
packed in earth or sand.

In transplanting, the tops should be cut back to two buds,
and the roots shortened in to fifteen or twenty inches.

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL.

Much has been said and written about preparation of the
soil for grapes that is calculated to mislead the planter. Some
have urged the entire trenching of the ground to a depth of
three to five feet, with heavy manuring ; others require the
digging of deep holes, four by four feet, and filling in with
manure and other enriching material; while a third and more
reasonable class would only subsoil and drain, in addition to
good depth of culture. In all soils suited to the growth of a
good crop of corn or potatoes, grapes will flourish, and the
plow, harrow, and sub-soiler are the tools necessary for its
preparation.

If new ground is used, the stumps and roots should be care-
fully grubbed out, as they will be much in the way while plant-

582

THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT.

ing and in after-cultivation, and can be easier taken out before
than after planting.

The timbered lands of our bluffs are more suited to grapes
than the richer and heavier soils of the Western prairies, or the
alluvial soils of the river bottoms. Thin soils, with proper
cultivation, will produce grapes of a richer and better quality
than others, though the size may not be so great, or the growth
of wood so abundant.

TRANSPLANTING
may be safely done in spring or fall, according to latitude. In
northern locations spring planting is preferable. Southward,
fall is preferred. No certain line of division can be fixed ; but
we should say that, as a rule, all south of the latitude of Phila-
delphia, Columbus in Ohio, and Quincy in Illinois, may most
safely plant in the fall, while north of those points it is belter
to plant in the spring.

In fall planting there is this advantage — the young plants
can be taken directly from the nursery bed and planted, with-
out remaining out of ground for any great length of time.
Whereas, if planting be delayed till spring, the vines must
be taken care of for the winter — as heretofore noted —
with more or less loss. In any case it is important that the
roots shall not be exposed to the weather, or allowed to be-
come dry. In removing from the nursery row, they should be
securely packed in damp moss, straw, hay, or litter of some
sort, until they are finally disposed of by planting or packing
for the winter.

After frost, and the leaves have begun to fall, the fall plant-
ing may commence. In spring it should be done as early as
the weather becomes settled and the soil in good condition.
The last of October, and through November, will do for fall
planting ; in spring, the 1st of May.

Fall planting is preferable on this account also — that the soil
will become packed to the roots during winter, the new
growth of roots will be ready to start, and the plant will com-
mence growing by the usual time of spring planting.

To prevent heaving by the action of the frost, and throwing
out the plants — a very serious matter if not prevented — a furrow
should be turned on the plants from each side after planting in
fall ; or they should be mounded up with the hoe. This should
be leveled down again in the spring.

Having prepared the ground well, as before stated, with
plow, sub-soiler, and harrow, run off the distances for the rows
with a plow, making a clean furrow nine or ten inches deep —
being careful, if crooked, to straighten with a hoe or spade.
Then set stakes the proper distances along the furrow, and
plant at the stakes. Stand the plant at a slight angle against
the perpendicular side of the furrow, and spread the roots
nicely each way. Cover and pack the soil well around the
roots

DISTANCE.

Most vineyardists choose to plant in rows about eight feet
apart, and eight feet in the row. Some adopt six feet, or even
less — according to the variety, and the mode of training. Some
of the strong-growing sorts require greater distances. Concord,
Isabella, Hartford Prolific, Ives seedling, Clinton, and such,
need eight feet or more ; while the little Delaware may do
with four or five, and the Catawba, lona, and similar ones.

with five or six. Where ground is plenty, it is best to allow

plenty of room.

NUMBER PER ACRE.

An acre of ground contains 43,560 square feet, or 4,840
square yards. It will require for planting the numbers speci-
fied in the following estimate, viz. :

At distance of 10 by 10 feet 435 plants.

At distance of 9 by 9 feet 537 plants.

At distance of 8 by 8 feet 680 plants.

At distance of 6 by 6 feet T,2io plants.

For Concords 10 by 10 — certainly not less than g by 9 — is
desirable, giving plenty of room for the plow and cultivator,
and also sufficient distance to train on the trellis.

Where the ground is level, or nearly so, the rows should be
run north and south, thereby giving more sunshine and freer
circulation of air. If it be hilly — and it is presumed that
grapes will be more frequently planted on hilly and uneven
ground than elsewhere — the rows should be run across the
slope, so as to make the cultivation as near on a level as pos-
sible, in order that the ground shall not wash.

SELECTION OF PLANTS.
In purchasing from a nursery. No. i yearling plants are
generally preferred. Two-year-old plants cost more in price
and for transportation, and are not so likely to live, and will
gain little, if any, in point of time, Good No. i plants, from
honest nursery men, should have four to eight roots not less
than two feet long, and a corresponding growth of top. Before
transplanting, all roots should be cut back to eighteen or twenty
inches, and the top shortened to two eyes, and these should
be set nearly level with the ground.

CULTIVATION.

The young plant should be allowed to take its own course
the first year after transplanting. No pinching, no tying-up,
is necessary. But the ground should be kept well tilled and
clear of weeds, by the free use of the cultivator and hoe. A
row of early cabbages, beans, beets, or other root crop, may be
beneficially grown between. In a favorable season, the strong-
growing sorts will usually make a growth of five or six feet in
length, and, in some cases, as much as ten or fifteen feet, the
first year.

TRAINING AND AFTER-CULTURE.

We have now got our plants with two-year-old roots and
stems one year old. The after-management is various. It is
best, however, that this one-year vine should not be permitted to
bear fmit the next season : which it would do if left to itself.
It should now be cut back to two eyes, and protected during
winter by a slight covering of straw, or some other light litter.

And here comes up the question of winter protection. What
shall be done with our vines, now that we have got them
planted and growing? Shall they be protected, or shall they
be left exposed to the rigors of the winter, and run the risk of
life or death? Some will say — Let them alone; plant only
such varieties as will not need winter protection. Others,
claiming that whatever is worth doing at all, is worth doing
well, advise protection. It is very desirable, certainly, that
we shall be able to secure such varieties as vnll withstand the

THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT.

583

rigors of our winters without this labor and care ; and there
are such ; but it must be confessed that they — as in the case
of nvany other fruits — are not of the best sorts. It is also
equally evident that, as a rule, the great mass of grape-growers
— the million — will not, however much they may be urged, be
induced to adopt any system of winter protection that involves
care and trouble.

The Concords, the Clintons, the Ives, the Nortons, and
others, may get along safely through most winters without
protection. But if we expect to obtain the luscious Delaware,
the Rebecca, the Maxitawny, or even the Catawba, we must
make up our minds to protect.

The mode of protection usually practiced is to lay the vine
down upon the ground, and cover with earth to the depth of
an inch or two. This requires that the annual trimming shall
be done in the fall, before the freezing weather commences.
In most vineyards, where protection is not practiced, this work
is omitted till in the winter or early spring.

This question of protection we shall leave for each one to
judge for himself, according to circumstances ; with the addi-
tional remark, that of the varieties named in the succeeding list
probably one-half had better be protected, north of Ohio and
Pennsylvania, while the other half may get along without it.

Different modes of training are adopted. Some tie to stout
stakes, six or seven feet high, one to each plant. Where wood
is scarce and costly, this is an expensive mode. The most
common method is to use a trellis of wire. For this purpose
posts are set in the ground at proper distances — say twenty feet
— and wire fastened to these horizontally. The posts at the
ends should be firmly set and braced, in order that the strain
of the wire shall not loosen them. The wire is fastened to the
posts by means of small staples, to be had at the hardware stores.
Three wires are usually required, placed twenty inches or two
feet apart, and the lower one a foot "or so from the ground.

Manufacturers now supply a wire especially for the purpose.
This annealed wire, No. 12, is strong, and will answer ; but
No. 10 is heavier, and will last longer. To wire an acre of
trellis, the cost will bu from thirty to sixty dollars, while the
posts, at ten cents each, may bring the sum total form sixty to
one hundred dollars, according as wood and labor are costly
or cheap. Inferior trellis, made of split or sawed slats, may be
obtained at cheaper rates in places where wood is plentiful. A
primitive mode of building a trellis is to use split poles,
obtained from the woods when the bark will peel ; these, while
answering a preseiu~purpose, will be of short duration.

PRUN]

On this subject there is a great diversity of opinion, and the
limits of this work will not permit of a lengthy treatise on the
subject. It is proper to say, that the tendency to vine-growth
is a check to the fruiting ; and that cultivators consider itneces-
SJiry to counteract this excessive growth by pinching and
pruning. Many carry this practice to excess ; and with spring
and summer pinching, and fall and winter pruning, we believe,
very materially injure their vines.

In this description of the pruning process, we shall condense
from various treatises on the subject. Buchanan, a practical
Cincinnati vineyardist of several years ago, says : —

" In the second spring after planting, cut down to two or
three eyes, or joints, and the third year to four or five ; pinch-
ing off laterals and tying up. * * Pruning the fourth year
requires good judgment, as the standard stem or stalk has to
be established. * * Select the best stem or cane of last
year, and cut it down to six or eight joints ; * * the other
cane cut down to a spur of two or three eyes, to make bearing-
wood for the next season."

His mode has reference to tying to upright stakes, instead of
trellis, and must be varied accordingly. He says : " In the
succeeding and all subsequent years, cut away the old bearing-
wood, and form a new bow, or arch, from the best branch of
the new wood of the last year, leaving a spur as before, to pro-
duce bearing-wood for the coming year ; thus keeping the old
stalk of the vine down to within eighteen to twenty-four inches
from the ground. The vine is then always within reach and
control." This is the renewal system.

Spur pruning consists in continuing the old or main stem,
and annually cutting back the laterals to two or three good
buds. A blending of the two is often practiced.

For summer prunning, we can do no better than to quote
from Husmann, a noted grape-grower, and writer in Missouri.
He says ; —

" We are glad to see that the attention of the grape-growers
of the country is thoroughly aroused to the importance of this
subject, and that the practice of cutting and slashing the young
growth in July and August is generally discountenanced. It
has murdered more promising vineyards than any other prac-
tice. But people are apt to run into extremes, and many
are now advocating the 'let alone' doctrine. We think both
are wrong, and that the true course to steer is in the middle.

" I. Perform the operation EARLY. Do it as soon as the
shoots are six inches long. At this time you can oversee your
vine much easier. Every young shoot is soft and pliable. * *
Remember that the knife has nothing to do with summer
pruning. Your thumb and finger should perform all the work,
and they can do it easily if it is done early.

"2. Perform it thoroughly and systematically. Select the
shoots you intend for bearing wood for next year. These are
left unchecked ; but do not leave more than you really need.
Remember that each part of the vine should be thoroughly
ventilated, and if you crowd it too much, none of these canes
will ripen their wood as thoroughly, nor be as vigorous, as when
each has room, air, and light. Having selected these, com-
mence at the bottom of the vine, rubbing off all superfluous
shoots, and all which appear weak and imperfect. Then go
over each arm or part of the vine, pinching every fruit-bearing
branch above the last bunch of grapes.

"We come now to the second stage of summer pruning.
After the first pinching, the dormant buds in the axils of the
leaves, on fruit-bearing shoots, will each push out a lateral
shoot opposite the young bunches. Our second operation
consists in pinching each of these laterals back to one leaf at
soon as we can get hold of the shoot above the first leaf, so
that we get a young, vigorous leaf additional, opposite to each
bunch of grapes. These serve as elevators of the sap, and also
as an excellent protection and shade to the fruit. Remember,
our aim is not to rob the plant of its foliage, but to make two

584

THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT.

leaves grow where there was but one before, and at a place
where they are of more benefit to the fruit."

INSECTS AND DISEASES.

Mildew and rot are the chief diseases aflTecting the grape,
and are both believed to be caused by atmospheric influences.
Excessive rains and damp, sultry weather are deemed the chief
causes of these allied diseases. No specific remedy has been
found, as no means of preventing the recurrence of the unfavor-
able causes are within human reach.

Of insects, there are several that are quite destructive to the
grape plant, among which the most formidable is the phyl-
loxera, a tiny insect which, in its several stages, is lately making
deadly havoc among the vineyards of both Europe and America
— affecting the roots as well as the foliage. In its work upon
the foliage it does comparatively little injury, but its work upon
the roots is very destructive — eating away the fibrous portions,
and causing them to decay and die.

Against the ravages of this insect there is as yet no known
satisfactory remedy. Large rewards have been offered in
Europe to stimulate discovery, and in America the ento-

mologists and others are diligently pursuing their invesliga
tions.

The leaf-hopper is a troublesome insect on some varieties.
It is an active little beetle, and works on the underside of the
leaves, causing them to assume a deadiy appearance in spots,
and finally killing the leaf entirely. Soapsuds have been re-
commended as a remedy ; also tobacco infusion thrown upon
them with a syringe.

The leaf -folder is a green worm that folds itself up in the
leaf, where it goes into the chrysalis state. The parent moth
appears in the spring and deposits her eggs, v/hich hatch and
fold themselves up dur'ig the summer. The increase of both
this and the leaf hopper may be checked by raking up and
burning the leaves in the fall.

There is also a grape curculio, inferior in size to the plum
curculio, but with habits somewhat similar. It punctures the
fruit and deposits an egg, which hatches a worm to live on the
juices. This larva leaves the berr}' during summer, and passes
into the ground. It is believed, however, to issue again in the
fall as a beetle, and thus pass the winter.

Many other more or less destructive insect enemies of the
grape might be mentioned.

CARVING.

585

VERYBODY should
know how to carve.
Parents should instruct
their children in this neces-
sary art, and on given oc-
casions practically exercise
the youngsters in the use of
the ' ' big " knife and fork.

Ladies ought especially to make
carving a study ; at their own
houses they grace the table, and
should be enabled to perform the
task allotted to them with suffi-
cient skill to prevent remark, or
the calling forth of eager proffers
of assistance from good-natured visitors near, who
probably would not present any better claim to a
neat performance.

Carving presents no difficulties ; it simply requires
knowledge. All displays of exertion or violence are
in very bad taste ; for, if not proved an evidence
of the want of ability on the part of the carver, they
present a very strong testimony of the toughness of
a joint.

Lightness of hand and dexterity of management
are necessary, and can only be acquired by practice.
The flakes, which in such fish as salmon and cod are
large, should not be broken in serving, for the
beauty of the fish is then destroyed, and the appe-
tite for it injured. In addition to the skill in the
use of the knife, there is also required another de-

scription of knowledge, and that is an acquaintance
with the best part of the joint, fowl or fish being
carved. Thus in a haunch of venison the fat,
which is a favorite, must be served with each slice ;
in the shoulder of mutton there are some delicate
cuts in the under part. The breast and wings are
the best part of a fowl, and the trail of a woodcock
on a toast is the choicest part of the bird. In fish
a part of the roe, melt or liver should accompany
the piece of fish served. The list, however, is too
numerous to mention here ; and, indeed, the knowl-
edge can only be acquired by experience. In large
establishments the gross dishes are carved at the buffet
by the butler, but in middle society they are placed
upon the table. In the following directions, accom-
panied by diagrams, we have endeavored to be as
explict as possible ; but while they will prove as
landmarks to the uninitiated, he will find that prac-
tice alone will enable him to carve with skill and
facility.

Part of a Sirloin of Beef. — There are two modes of

helping this joint : either by carving long thin slices from 3

586

CARVING.

to 4, and assisting a portion of the marrowy fat, which is found
underneath the ribs, to each person ; or by cutting thicker
slices in the direction i to 2. When sent to the table the
joint should be laid down on the disli with the surface 2 up-
permost.

An Aitch-Bone of Beef. — This is a simple joint to carve,
but the slices from it must be cut quite even, and of a very
moderate thickness. When the joint is boiled, before cutting
to serve, remove a slice from the whole of the upper part of
sufficient thickness, say a quarter of an inch, in order to ar-
^«^ 3

AITCH-BONE.

rive at the juicy part of the meat at once. Carve from I to
2 ; let the slices be moderately thin — not too thin ; help fat
with the lean in one piece, and give a little additional fat
which you will find below 3 ; the solid fat is at i, and must be
cut in slices horizontally. The round of beef is carved in the
same manner.

Ham. — It is served as placed in the engraving, and should
come to the table ornamented. Carve from A to B, cutting
thin slices slantingly, to give a wedge-like appearance. Those

who prefer can carve the hock at D, in the same direction as
from A to B, then carve from D to c, in thin slices, as indicated
in the diagram.

The Sirloin of Beef. — The under part should be first
served, and carved as indicated in the engraving, across the

SIRLOIN OF BEEF,

bone. In carving the upper part the same directions should be
followed as for the ribs, or in the center, from A to B, and
helping the fat from D.

Sucking Pig. — The cook should send a roast pig to table
garnished with head and ears. Carve the joints, then divide the
ribs, serve with plenty of sauce ; should one of the joints be
too much, it may be separated : bread sauce and stuffing
should accompany it. An ear and the jaw are favorite parts
with many people.

Boiled Tongue. — Carve across the tongue, but do not cut
through ; keep the slices rather thin, and help the fat from
underneath.

Brisket of Beef must be carved in the direction i and 2
quite down to the bone, after cutting off the outside, which
should be about three-quarters of an inch thick.

Ribs of Beef are carved similar to the sirloin, commenc-
ing at the thin end of the joint, and cutting long slices, so as
to assist fat and lean at the same time.

Round or Buttock of Beef. — Remove the upper surface
in the same manner as for an aitch-bone of beef, carve thin
horizontal slices of fat and lean, as evenly as possible. It re-
quires a sharp knife and steady hand to carve it well.

Leg of Mutton. — The under or thickest part of the leg
should be placed uppermost, and carved in slices moderately
thin, from B to c. Many persons have a taste for the knuckle.

LEG OF MUTTON.

and this question should be asked, and, if preferred, should be
assisted. When cold the back of the leg should be placed up.
permost, and thus carved ; if the cramp bone is requested, and
some persons regard it as a dainty, hold the shank with your
left hand, and insert your knife at D, passing it round to E,
and you will remove it.

Ribs of Beef. — There are two modes of carving this joint.
The first, which is now becoming common, and is easy to an
amateur carver, is to cut across the bone commencing in the
center, and serving fat from A, as marked in the engraving
of the sirloin ; or it should be carved in slices from A to c,
commencing either in the center of the joint or at the sides.
Occasionally the bones are removed, and the meat formed into
a fillet ; it should then be carved as a round of beef.

The Loin of Mutton, if small, should be carved in chops,
beginning with the outer chop ; if large, carve slices the whole

CARVING.

587 ^

KOAST FOWL.

4r-

length. A neat way is to run the knife along the chine bone
and under the meat along the ribs : it may then be cut in
slices ; and by this process fat and lean are served together.
Your knife should be very sharp, and it should be done
cleverly.

Neck of Mutton, if the scrag and chine bone are re-
moved, is carved in the direction of the bones.

The Scrag of Mutton should be separated from the ribs
of the neck, and when roasted the bone assisted with the meat.
Haunch of Mutton is carved as haunch of venison.

Roast Fowl. — This
operation is a nice and
skillful one to perform ;
it requires both observa-
tion and practice. Insert
the knife between the
legs and the side, press
back the leg with the
blade of the knife, and
the joint will disclose itself : if young, it will part, but at best,
if judiciously managed, will require but a nick where the joints
unite. Remove your wing from D to B, cut through and lay
it back as with the leg, separating the joint with the edge of
your knife, remove the merrythought and neck bones next :
this you will accomplish by inserting the knife and forcing it
under the bones : raise it, and it will readily separate from the
breast. You will divide the breast from the body by cutting
through the small ribs down to the vent, turn the back upper-
most, now put your knife into about the center between the
neck and rump, raise the lower part firmly yet gently, it will
easily separate ; turn the neck or runip from you, take off the
side bones and the fowl is carved.

In separating the thigh from the drumstick, you must insert
the knife exactly at the joint, as we have in-
dicated in the engraving ; this, however, will
be found to require practice, for the joint
must be accurately hit, or else much difficulty
will be experienced in getting the parts
asunder. There is no difference in carving
roast and boiled fowls, if full grown ; but in
a very young fowl when roasted, the breast is
served whole. The wings and breast are in
the highest favor, but the leg of a young
fowl is an excellent part. Capons, when very
fine and roasted, should have slices carved
from the breast.
Geese. — Follow with your knife the lines marked in the

engraving, A to B,
and cut slices, then
remove the wing,
and if the party be
large, the legs must
also be removed, and
here the disjointer
will again prove ser-
viceable. The stuff-
ing, as in the tur-
key, will be obtained by making an insertion at the apron.

MIDDLE CUT OF SALMON.

Guinea Fow^l are carved in the same manner.
Quails, Landrail, Wheatears, Larks, and all small
birds are served whole.

Grouse and Plover are carved as partridges.
Snipe and Woodcock are divided into two parts ; the
trail being served on a toast.

Fish should never be carved with steel ; assisting requires

more care than knowl-
edge ; the principal
caution is to avoid
breaking the flakes.
In carving a piece of
salmon as here en-
graved, cut thin slices,
as from A to B, and
help with it pieces of
the belly in the direction marked from c to D. The best
flavored is the upper or thick part.

Haddock. — It is dressed whole, unless unusually large.
When sent to the table it is split its whole length, and served
one-half the head to the tail of the other part ; it is carved
across.

Mackerel should always be sent to table head to tail. Di-
vide the meat from
the bone by cutting
down the back length-
wise from I to 2 :
upper part is the best.
All small fish, such
as herrings, smelts,
etc. , are served whole.
Neck of Veal. — Were you to attempt to carve each chop
and serve it, you would not only place a gigantic bit upon the
plate of the person you intended to help, but you would waste
time, and if the vertebrae had not been jointed by the butcher.

MACKEREL.

NECK OF VEAL.

you would find yourself in the position of the ungraceful
carver, being compelled to exercise a degree of strength which
should never be suffered to appear ; very possibly, too, assist-
ing gravy in a manner not contemplated by the person unfor-
tunate enough to receive it. Cut diagonally from B to A, and
help in slices of moderate thickness ; you can cut from c to
D in order to separate the small bones ; divide and serve them,
having first inquired if they are desired.

The Breast of Veal. — Separate the ribs from A to B ;
these small bones, which are the sweetest and mostly chosen,
you will cut them as D D D, and serve. The long ribs are di-
vided as at c c c ; and having ascertained the preference of

-■^

588

CARVING.

the person, help accordingly. At good tables the scrag is not
served, but is found, when properly cooked, a very good slew.
CC

BREAST OF VEAL.

Calfs Head. — There is much more meat to be obtained
from a calf's head by carving it one way than another. Carve

CALF S HEAD.

from A to B, cutting quite down to the bone. At the fleshy
part of the neck end you will find the throat sweetbread, which
you can help a slice of with the other part ; you will remove
the eye with the point of the knife, and divide it in half, help-
ing those to it who profess a preference for it : there are some
tasty, gelatinous pieces around it which are palatable. Re-
move the jaw-bone, and then you will meet with some fine-
flavored lean ; the palate, which is under the head, is by some
thought a dainty, and should be proffered when carving.
Boiled Turkey is trussed in a different fashion to the

the roast, but the same
directions given for
the first apply to the
second. The legs in
the boiled turkey be-
ing drawn into the
body may cause some
little difficulty at first
BOILED TURKEY. jn thclr Separation,

but a little practice will soon surmount it.

Fillet of Veal.— Cut a slice off the whole of the upper
1 part in the same way

£s from a round of
beef : this being, if
well roasted, of a nice
brown, should be
helped in small pieces
with the slices you cut
for each person. The
stuffing is skewered
in the flap, and where
the bones come out

FILLET OF VEAL.

there is some placed ; help this with the meat, with a piece of

the fat.

SHOULDER OK MU'lTON.

Loin of Veal. — This joint is sent to table served as a sirloin
of beef. Having turned it over, cut out the kidney and the
fat, return it to its proper position, and carve it as in the neck of
veal, from B to A ; help with it a slice of kidney and fat. The
kidney is usually placed upon a dry toast when removed from
the joint.

Shoulder of Veal is sent to table with the under part
placed uppermost. Help it as a shoulder of mutton, begin-
ning at the knuckle end.

A Shoulder of Mutton. — This is a joint upon which a
great diversity of opinion exists, many professing a species of
horror at its insipidity, others finding much delicacy of flavor

in certain parts. In
good mutton there is no
doubt but that, if prop-
erly managed, it is an
excellent joint, and, if
judiciously served, will
give satisfaction to all
who partake of it. It
should be served hot.
It is sent to table lying
on the dish as shown in
the annexed engraving.
Commence carving from A to B, taking out moderately thin
slices in the shape of a wedge ; some nice pieces may then be
helped from the blade-bone, from c to B, cutting on both sides
of the bone. Cut the fat from D, carving it in thin slices.
Some of the most delicate parts, however, lie on the under
part of the shoulder ; take off thin pieces horizontally from B
to c, and from A ; some tender slices are to be met with at D,
but they must be cut through as indicated.

The shoulder of mutton is essentially a joint of titbits, and
therefore, when carving it, the tastes of those at the table
should be consulted. It is a very insipid joint when cold, and
should therefore be hashed if sent to table a second time.

Wild Duck and Widgeon. — The breast of these fowls,
being the best portion, is carved in slices, which being re-
moved, a glass of old port made hot is poured in, the half of
a lemon seasoned with cayenne and salt should then be
squeezed in, the slices relaid in their places, and then served,
the joints being removed the same as in other fowl.

Partridge. — Separate the legs, and then divide the bird
into three parts, leaving each leg and wing together. The
breast is then divided from the back, and helped whole, the
latter being assisted with any of the other parts. When the
party consists of gentlemen only, .the bird is divided into two
by cutting right through from the vent to the neck.

Pigeon. — Like woodcock, these birds are cut in half,
through the breast and back, and helped.

Roast Turkey.— Cut long slices from both sides of the
breast down to the ribs at the breast-bone. If a large bird
the legs may be removed, and the drumsticks taken off. The
stuffing may be removed by making an incision in the apron.
Boiled Fowl. — There is but little difference in the mode
of carving roast and boiled fowl, and that little lies in the
breast of the former being generally served entire — the thigh
bone, too, is preferred by many to the wing.

-<^

ETIQUETTE FOR LADIES.

589

^^V TIQUETTE may be defined
t ^ TMM J 1 ft^R^ ^^ *^^ minor morality of life.
\ /iPt^rai^^jd ^*s laws, like all other social
"^ laws, are the accumulated re-

sults of the wisdom and ex-
perience of many generations.
They form a code with which
every educated person is bound
to be acquainted ; and the ob-
ject of this portion of Collier's
Cyclopedia is to place that
code before the reader in as
succinct, as agreeable, and as
explanatory a light as the sub-
ject admits of. We hope and believe that it will be
found in all respects a trusty and pleasant guide.

INTRODUCTIONS.

To introduce persons who are mutually unknown is to
undertake a serious responsibility, and to certify to each the
respectability of the other. Never undertake this responsibility
without, in the first place, asking yourself whether the persons
are likely to be agreeable to each other ; nor, in the second
place, without ascertaining whether it will be acceptable to
both parties to become acquainted.

Always introduce the gentleman to the lady — never the lady
to the gentleman. The chivalry of etiquette assumes that the
lady is invariably the superior in right of her sex, and that the
gentleman is honored in the introduction.

Never present a gentleman to a lady without first asking her
permission to do so.

When you are introduced to a gentleman, never offer your
hand. When introduced, persons limit their recognition of
each other to a bow.

Persons who have met at the house of a mutual friend with-
out being introduced should not bow if they afterwards meet
elsewhere. A bow implies acquaintance ; and persons who
have not been introduced are not acquainted.

If you are walking with one friend, and presently meet with,
or are joined by, a second, do not commit the too frequent error
of introducing them to each other. You have even less right
to do so than if they encountered each other at your house
during a morning call.

There are some exceptions to the etiquette of introduction.
At a ball, or evening party where there is dancing, the mistress
of the house may introduce any gentleman to any lady without
first asking the lady's permission. But she should first ascer-
tain whether the lady is willing to dance ; and this out of
consideration for the gentleman, who may otherwise be refused.
No man likes to be refused the hand of a lady, though it be
only for a quadrille.

A sister may present her brother, or a mother her son, with-
out any kind of preliminary.

Friends may introduce friends at the house of a mutual
acquaintance ; but, as a rule, it is better to be introduced by
the mistress of the house. Such an introduction carries more
authority with it.

Introductions at evening parties are now almost wholly
dispensed with. Persons who meet at a friend's house are
ostensibly upon an equality, and pay a bad compliment to the
host by appearing suspicious and formal. Some old-fashioned
country hosts still persevere in introducing each new comer to
all the assembled guests. It is a custom that cannot be too
soon abolished, and one that places the last unfortunate visitor
in a singularly awkward position. All that she can do is to
make a semicircular courtesy, like a concert singer before an
audience, and bear the general gaze with as much composure
as possible.

An introduction given at a ball for the mere purpose of
conducting a lady through a dance does not give the gentleman
any right to bow to her on a future occasion. If he commits
this error, she may remember that she is not beund to see, or
return, his salutation.

590

ETIQUETTE FOR LADIES.

LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION.

Do not lightly give or promise letters of introduction.
Always remember that when you give a letter of introduction
you lay yourself under an obligation to the friend to whom it
is addressed. If she lives in a great city, such as Chicago or
Boston, you in a measure compel her to undergo the penalty of
escorting the stranger to some of those places of public enter-
tainment in which the capital abounds. If your friend be a
married lady, and the mistress of a house, you put her to the
expense of inviting the stranger to her table. We cannot be
too cautious how we tax the time and purse of a friend, or weigh
too seriously the question of mutual advantage in the introduc-
tion. Always ask yourself whether the person introduced will
be an acceptable acquaintance to the one to whom you present
her ; and whether the pleasure of knowing her will compensate
for the time or money which it costs to entertain her. If the
stranger is in any way unsuitable in habits or temperament, you
inflict an annoyance on your friend instead of a pleasure. In
questions of introduction never oblige one friend to the discom-
fort of another.

Those to whom letters of introduction have been given
should send them to the person to whom they are addressed,
and inclose a card. Avoid delivering a letter of introduction
in person. It places you in the most undignified position
imaginable, and compels you to wait while it is being read,
like a servant who has been told to wait for an answer. If the
receiver of the letter be a really well-bred person, she will call
upon you or leave her card the next day, and you should return
her attention within the week.

If, on the other hand, a stranger sends you a letter of
introduction and her card, you are bound by the laws of polite-
ness and hospitality, not only to call upon her the next day, but
to follow up that attention with others. If you are in a posi-
tion to do so, the most correct proceeding is to invite her to
dine with you. Should this not be within your power, you can
probably escort her to some of the exhibitions, bazaars, or con-
certs of the season ; any of which would be interesting to a
provincial visitor. In short, etiquette demands that you shall
exert yourself to show kindness to the stranger, if only out of
compliment to the friend who introduced her to you.

If you invite her to take dinner with you, it is a better
compliment to ask some others to meet her than to dine with
her tete-h-tete. You are thereby giving her an opportunity of
making other acquaintances, and are assisting your friend in
still farther promoting the purpose for which she gave her the
introduction to yourself.

A letter of introduction should be given unsealed, not alone
because your friend may wish to know what you have said of
her, but also as a guarantee of your own good faith. As you
should never give such a letter unless you can speak highly of
the bearer, this rule of etiquette is easy to observe. By request-
ing your friend to fasten the envelope before forwarding the
letter to its destination, you tacitly give her permission to inspect
its contents.

VISITING CARDS.

Visits of ceremony should be short. If even the conversation
should have become animated, beware of letting your call ex-

ceed half-an-hour's length. It is always better to let your
friends regret rather than desire your withdrawal.

On returning visits of ceremony you may, without impolite-
ness, leave your card at the door without going in. Do not
fail, however, to inquire if the family be well.

Should there be daughters or sisters residing with the lady
upon whom you call, you may turn down a corner of your card,
to signify that the visit is paid to all. It is in better taste, how-
ever, to leave cards for each.

Unless when returning thanks for "kind inquiries," or
announcing your arrival in, or departure from, town, it is not
considered respectful to send round cards by a servant.

Leave-taking cards have P.P.C. {pour prendre cong/) written
in the corner. Some use P.D.A. {pour dire adieu).

Autographic facsimiles for visiting cards are affectations in
any persons but those who are personally remarkable for talent,
and whose autographs, or facsimiles of them, would be prized
as curiosities.

Visits of condolence are paid within the week after the event
which occasions them. Personal visits of this kind are made
by relations and very intimate friends only. Acquaintances
should leave caids with narrow mourning borders.

On the first occasion when you are received by the family
after the death of one of its members, it is etiquette to wear
slight mourning.

Umbrellas should invariably be left in the hall.

Never take favorite dogs into a drawing-room when you
make a morning call. Their feet may be dusty, or they may
bark at the sight of strangers, or, being of a too friendly dis-
position, may take the liberty of lying on a lady's gown, or
jumping on the sofas and easy chairs. Where your friend has
a favorite cat already established before the fire, a battle may
ensue, and one or both of the pets be seriously hurt. Besides,
many persons have a constitutional antipathy to dogs, and
others never allow their own to be seen in the sitting-rooms.
For all or any of these reasons, a visitor has no right to inflict
upon her friend the society of her dog as well as of herself.
Neither is it well for a mother to take young children with her
when she pays morning visits ; their presence, unless they are
unusually well trained, can only be productive of anxiety to
both yourself and your hostess. She, while striving to amuse
them, or to appear interested in them, is secretly anxious for
the fate of her album, or the ornaments on her e'tagere ; while
the mother is trembling lest her children should say or dc
something objectionable.

If other visitors are announced, and you have already re-
mained as long as courtesy requires, wait till they are seated,
and then rise from your chair, take leave of your hostess, and
bow politely to the newly arrived guests. You will, perhaps,
be urged to remain, but, having once risen, it is best to ga
There is always a certain air q{ gaticherie'\x\.x^%\ym\x\^ your seat
and repeating the ceremony of leave-taking.

If you have occasion to look at your watch during a call, ask
permission to do so, and apologize for it on the plea of other
appointments.

In receiving morning visitors, it is not necessary that the lady
should lay aside the employment in which she may be engaged,
particularly if it consists of light or" ornamental needle-work.

ETIQUETTE FOR LADIES.

591

Politeness, however, requires that music, drawing, or any
occupation which would completely engross the attention, be
at once abandoned.

You need not advance to receive visitors when announced,
unless they are persons to whom you are desirous of testifying
particular attention. It is sufficient if a lady rises to receive
her visitors, moves forward a single step to shake hands with
them, and remains standing till they are seated.

When your visitors rise to take leave you should rise also,
and remain standing till they have quite left the room.

A lady should dress well, but not too richly, when she pays
a morning visit.

CONVERSATION.

There is no conversation so graceful, so varied, so sparkling,
as that of an intellectual and cultivated woman. Excellence
in this particular is, indeed, one of the attributes of the sex,
and should be cultivated by every gentlewoman who a.spires to
please in general society.

In order to talk well, three conditions are indispensable,
namely — tact, a good memory, and a fair education.

Remember that people take more interest in their own
affairs than in anything else which you can name. If you wish
your conversation to be thoroughly agreeable, lead a mother to
talk of her children, a young lady of her last ball, an author of
his forthcoming book, or an artist of his exhibition picture.
Having furnished the topic, you need only listen ; and you are
sure to be thought not only agreeable, but thoroughly sensible
and well-informed.

Be careful, however, on the other hand, not always to make
a point of talking to persons upon general matters relating to
their profession. To show an interest in their immediate
concerns is flattering ; but to converse with them too much
about their own arts looks as if you thought them ignorant of
other topics.

Remember in conversation that a voice "gentle and low"
is, above all other extraneous acquirements, " an excellent
thing in woman." There is a certain distinct but subdued
tone of voice which is peculiar to only well-bred persons. A
loud voice is both disagreeable and vulgar. It is better to err
by the use of too low rather than too loud a tone.

Remember that all " slang " is vulgar.

The use of proverbs is equally vulgar in conversation ; and
puns, unless they rise to the rank of witticisms, are to be scru-
pulously avoided. A lady-punster is a most unpleasing phenom-
enon, and we would advise no young woman, however witty
she may be, to cultivate this kind of verbal talent.

Long arguments in general company, however entertaining
to the disputants, are tiresome to the last degree to all others.
You Should always endeavor to prevent the conversation from
dwelling loo long upon one topic.

Religion is a topic which should never be introduced into
society. It is the one subject on which persons are most likely
to differ, and least able to preserve temper.

Never interrupt a person who is speaking. It has been aptly
said that " if you interrupt a speaker in the middle of his
sentence, you act almost as rudely as if, when walking with a
companion, you were to thrust yourself before him, and stop
his progress."

To listen well is almost as great an art as to talk well. It
is not enough on/y to listen. You must endeavor to seem in-
terested in the conversation of others.

It is considered extremely ill bred when two persons whisper
in society, or converse in a language with which all present are
not familiar. If you have private matters to discuss, you
should appoint a proper time and place to do so, without pay-
ing others the ill compliment of excluding them from your
conversation.

If a foreigner be one of the guests at a small party, and does
not understand English sufficiently to follow what is said, good
breeding demands that the conversation shall be carried on in
his own language. If at a dinner-party, the same rule applies
to those at his end of the table.

If upon the entrance of a visitor you carry on the thread of
a previous conversation, you should briefly recapitulate to him
what has been said before he arrived.

Do not be always witty, even though you should be so hap-
pily gifted as to need the caution. To outshine others on every
occasion is the surest road to unpopularity.

Always look, but never stare, at those with whom you
converse.

In order to meet the general needs of conversation in
society, it is necessary that a gentlewoman should be acquainted
with the current news and historical events of, at least, the last
few years.

Never talk upon subjects of which you know nothing, unless
it be for the purpose of acquiring information. Many young
ladies imagine that because they play a little, sing a little,
draw a little, and frequent exhibitions and operas, they are
qualified judges of art. No mistake is more egregious or
universal.

Those who introduce anecdotes into their conversation are
warned that these should invariably be " short, witty, eloquent,
new, and not far-fetched."

Scandal is the least excusable of all conversational vulgari-
ties.

DRESS.

To dress well requires something more than a full purse
and a pretty figure. It needs taste, good sense, and refine-
ment. Dress may almost be classed as one of the fine arts.
It is certainly one of those arts the cultivation of which is in-
dispensable to any person moving in the upper or middle
classes of society. Very clever women are too frequently in-
different to the graces of the toilette ; and women who wish to
be thought clever affect indifference. In the one case it is an
error, and in the other a folly. It is not enough that a gentle-
woman should be clever, or well educated, or well-born. To
take her due place in society, she must be acquainted with all
that this little book proposes to tearh. She must, above all
else, know how to enter a room, how to perform a graceful
salutation, and how to dress. Of these three important quali-
fications, the most important, because the most observed, is
the latter.

Let your style of dress always be appropriate to the hour of
the day. To dress too finely in the morning, or to be seen in
a morning dress in the evening, is equally vulgar and out of
place.

4r-

^-^

592

ETIQUETTE FOR LADIES.

Light and inexpensive materials are fittest for morning wear ;
dark silk dresses for the promenade or carriage ; and low
dresses of rich or transparent stuffs for the dinner and ball. A
young lady cannot dress with too much simplicity in the early
part of the day. A morning dress of some simple material,
and delicate whole color, \vith collar and cuffs of spotless
linen, is, perhaps, the most becoming and elegant of morning
toilettes.

Never dress very richly or showily in the street. It attracts
attention of no enviable kind, and is looked upon as a want of
good breeding. In the carriage a lady may dress as elegantly
as she pleases. With respect to ball-room toilette, its fashions
are so variable, that statements which are true of it to-day may
be false a month hence. Respecting no institution of modern
society, is it so difficult to pronounce half-a-dozen permanent
rules.

We may, perhaps, be permitted to suggest the following
leading principles ; but we do so with diffidence. Rich colors
harmonize with rich brunette complexions and dark hair. Del-
icate colors are the most suitable for delicate and fragile styles
of beauty. Very young ladies are never so suitably attired as
in white. Ladies who dance should wear dresses of light and
diaphanous materials, such as tul/e, gauze, crape, net, etc.,
over colored silk slips. Silk dresses are not suitable for dan-
cing. A married lady who dances only a few quadrilles may
wear a d^coUet^ silk dress with propriety.

Very stout persons should never wear white. It has the
effect of adding to the bulk of the figure.

Black and scarlet, or black and violet, are worn in
mourning.

A lady in deep mourning should not dance at all.

However fashionable it may be to wear very long dresses,
those ladies who go to a ball with the intention of dancing,
and enjoying the dance, should cause their dresses to be made
short enough to clear the ground. We would ask them whether
it is not better to accept this slight deviation from an absurd
fashion, than to appear for three parts of the evening in a torn
and pinned-up skirt ?

Well-made shoes, whatever their color or material, and
faultless gloves, are indispensable to the effect of a ball-room
toilette.

Much jewelry is out of place in a ball-room. Beautiful
flowers, whether natural or artificial, are the loveliest ornaixients
that a lady can wear on these occasions.

At small dinner parties, low dresses are not so indispensable
as they were held to be some years since. High dresses of
transparent materials, and low bodices with capes of black
lace, are considered sufficiently full dress on these occasions.
At large dinners only the fullest dress is appropriate.

Very young ladies should wear but little jewelry. Pearls
are deemed most appropriate for the young and unmarried.

Let your jewelry be always the best of its kind. Nothing
is so vulgar, either in youth or in age, as the use of false orna-
ments.

There is as much propriety to be observed in the wearing of
jewelr}' as in the wearing of dresses. Diamonds, pearls,
rubies, and all transparent precious stones, belong to evening
dress, and should on no account be worn before dinner. In

the morning let your rings be of the more simple and massive
kind ; wear no bracelets ; and limit your jewelry to a good
brooch, gold chain, and watch. Your diamonds and pearls
would be as much out of place during the morning as a low
dress, 6r a wreath.

It is well to remember in the choice of jewelry that mere
costliness is not always the test of value ; and that an exquisite
work of art, such as a fine cameo, or a natural rarity, such as
black pearl, is a more ^zV/z'wfw/ possession than a large brilliant
which any rich and tasteless vulgarian can buy as easily as
yourself. Of all precious stones, the opal is one of the most
lovely and least common-place. No vulgar woman purchases
an opal. She invariably prefers the more showy ruby, emerald,
or sapphire.

A true gentlewoman is always faultlessly neat. No richness
of toilette in the afternoon, no diamonds in the evening, can
atone for unbrushed hair, a soiled collar, or untidy slippers at
breakfast.

Never be seen in the street without gloves. Your gloves
should fit to the last degree of perfection.

In these days of public baths and universal progress, we trust
that it is unnecessary to do more than hint at the necessity
of the most fastidious personal cleanliness. The hair, the
teeth, the nails, should be faultlessly kept ; and a muslin dress
that has been worn once too often, a dingy pocket-handker-
chief, or a soiled pair of light gloves, are things to be scrupu-
lously avoided by any young lady who is ambitious of preserving
the exterior of a gentlewoman.

Remember that the make of your corsage is of even greater
importance than the make of your dress. No dressmaker can
fit you well, or make your bodices in the manner most becom-
ing to your figure, if the corsage beneath be not of the best
description.

Your shoes and gloves should always be faultless.

Perfumes should be used only in the evening, and then in
moderation. Let your perfumes be of the most delicate and
recherche kind. Nothing is more vulgar than a coarse, ordinary
scent ; and of all coarse, ordinary scents, the most objectionable
are musk and patchouli.

Finally, every lady should remember that to dress well is a
duty which she owes to society ; but that to make it her idol
is to commit something worse than a folly. Fashion is made
for woman ; not woman for fashion.

MORNING AND EVENING PARTIES.

The morning party is a modern invention. It was unknown
to our fathers and mothers, and even to ourselves till quite
lately. A morning party is given during the months of
June, July, August, September, and sometimes October. It
begins about two o'clock and ends about seven, ahd the enter-
tainment consists for the most part of conversation, music, and
(if there be a garden) croquet, lawn tennis, archery, etc. The
refreshments are given in the form of &dejeiinera lafourchette.
Receptions are held during the winter season.

Elegant morning dress, general good manners, and some
acquaintance with the topics of the day and the games above
named, are all the qualifications especially necessary to a lady

ETIQUETTE FOR LADIES.

593 f

at a morning party, and " At Homes ; " music and elocution
at receptions.

An evening party begins about nine o'clock p.m., and ends
about midnight, or somewhat later. Good-breeding neither
demands that you should present yourself at the commencement,
nor remain till the close of the evening. You come and go as
may be most convenient to you, and by these means are at
liberty, during the height of the season when evening parties
are numerous, to present yourself at two or three houses during
a single evening.

When your name is announced, look for the lady of the
house, and pay your respects to her before you even seem to
see any other of your friends who may be in the room. At
very lai^e and fashionable receptions, the hostess is generally
to be found near the door. Should you, however, find your-
self separated by a dense crowd of guests, you are at liberty to
recognize those who are near you, and those whom you en-
counter as you make your way slowly through the throng.

If you are at the house of a new acquaintance and find your-
self among entire strangers, remembes that by so meeting under
one roof you are all in a certain sense made known to one
another, and should, therefore, converse freely, as equals. To
shrink away to a side-table and affect to be absorbed in some
album or illustrated work ; or, if you find one unlucky acquaint-
ance in the room to fasten upon her like a drowning man
clinging to a spar, are gattcheries which no shyness can
excuse.

If you possess any musical accomplishments, do not wait to
be pressed and entreated by your hostess, but comply imme-
diately when she pays you the compliment of inviting you to
play or sing. Remember, however, that only the lady of the
house has the right to ask you. If others do so, you can put
them off in some polite way, but must not comply till the
hostess herself invites you.

Be scrupulous to observe silence when any of the company
are playing or singing. Remember that they are doing this
for the amusement of the rest ; and that to talk at such a time
is as ill-bred as if you were to turn your back upon a person
who was talking to you and begin a conversation with some
one else.

If you are yourself the performer, bear in mind that in
music, as in speech, "brevity is the soul of wit." Two verses
of a song, or four pages of a piece, are at all times enough to
give pleasure. If your audience desire more they will ask for
it ; and it is infinitely more flattering to be encored than to
receive the thanks of your hearers, not so much in gratitude for
what you have given them, but in relief that you have left off.
You should try to suit your music, like your conversation, to
your company. A solo of Beethoven's would be as much out
of place in some circles as a comic song at a Quakers' meet-
ing. To those who only care for the light popularities of the
season, give Verdi, Suppe, Sullivan, or Offenbach. To con-
noisseurs, if you perform well enough to venture, give such
music as will be likely to meet the exigencies of a fine taste.
Above all, attempt nothing that you cannot execute with ease
and precision.

II the party be of a small and social kind and those games
called by the French ks jeux innocents are proposed, do not

object to join in them when invited. It may be that they de-
mand some slight exercise of wit and readiness, and that you
do not feel yourself calculated to shine in them ; but it is better
to seem dull than disagreeable, and those who are obliging can
always find some clever neighbor to assist them in the moment
of need.

Impromptu charades are frequently organized at friendly
parties. Unless you have really some talent for acting and
some readiness of speech, you should remember that you only
put others out and expose your own inability by taking part
in these entertainments. Of course, if your help is really needed,
and you would disoblige by refusing, you must do your best,
and by doing it as quietly and coolly as possible, avoid being
awkward or ridiculous.

Even though you may take no pleasure in cards, some knowl-
edge of the etiquette and rules belonging to the games most
in vogue is necessary to you in society. If a fourth hand is
wanted at euchre, or if the rest of the company sit down to a
round game, you would be deemed guilty of an impoliteness
if you refused to join.

The games most commonly played in society are euchre,
draw-poker, and whist.

THE DINNER-PARTY.

To be acquainted with every detail of the etiquette pertain-
ing to this subject is of the highest importance to every lady.
Ease, savoir-faire, and good-breeding are nowhere more in-
dispensable than at the dinner-table, and the absence of them
is nowhere more apparent. How to eat soup and what to do
with a cherry-stone are weighty considerations when taken as
the index of social status ; and it is not too much to say, that a
young woman who elected to take claret with her fish, or ate
peas with her knife, would justly risk the punishment of being
banished from good society.

An invitation to dinner should be replied to immediately,
and unequivocally accepted or declined. Once accepted, no-
thing but an event of the last importance should cause you to
fail in your engagement.

To be exactly punctual is the strictest politeness on these
occasions. If you are too early, you are in the way ; if too late
you spoil the dinner, annoy the hostess, and are hated by the
rest of the guests. Some authorities are even of opinion that
in the question of a dinner-party " never " is better than " late " ;
and one author has gone so far as to say, " if you do not reach
the house till dinner is served, you had better retire, and send
an apology, and not interrupt the harmony of the courses by
awkward excuses and cold acceptance."

When the party is assembled, the mistress or master of the
house will point out to each gentleman the lady whom he is to
conduct to the table.

The lady who is the greatest stranger should be taken down
by the master of the house, and the gentleman who is the
greatest stranger should conduct the hostess. Married ladies
take precedence of single ladies, elder ladies of younger ones,
and so forth.

When dinner is announced, the host offers his arm to the
lady of most distinction, invites the rest to follow by a few
words or a bow, and leads the way. The lady of the house

594

ETIQUETTE FOR LADIES.

should then follow with the gentleman who is most entitled to
that honor, and the visitors follow in the order that has been
previously arranged. The lady of the house frequently re-
mains, however, till the last, that she may see her guests go in
their prescribed order ; but the plan is not a convenient one.
It is much better that the hostesss should be in her place as
the guests enter the dining-room, in order that she may in-
dicate their seats to them as they enter, and not find them all
crowded together in uncertainty when she arrives.

The plan of cards, with the names of the guests on them, op-
posite their chairs, is a very useful one.

The lady of the house takes the head of the table. The
gentleman who led her down to dinner occupies the .seat on
her right hand, and the gentleman next in order of precedence,
that on her left. The master of the house takes the foot of
the table. The lady whom he escorted sits on his right hand,
and the lady next in order of precedence on his left.

As soon as you are seated at table, remove your gloves, place
your table napkin across your knees, and remove the roll which
you will probably find within it to the left side of your plate.

The soup should be placed on the table first. All well-
ordered dinners begin with soup, whether in summer or winter.
The lady of the house should help it, and send it round with-
out asking each individual in turn. It is as much an understood
thing as the bread beside each plate, and those who do not
choose it are always at liberty to leave it untasted.

In eating soup, remember always to take it from the side of
the spoon, and to make no sound in doing so.

If the servants do not go round with wine, the gentlemen
should help the ladies and themselves to sherry or sauterne
immediately after the soup.

You should never ask for a second supply of either soup or
fish ; it delays the next course, and keeps the table waiting.

Never offer to " assist" your neighbors to this or that dish.
Thfi word is inexpressibly vulgar — all the more vulgar for its
affectation of elegance. " Shall I send you some mutton ? " or
" may I help you to canvas back ? " is better chosen and better
bred.

As a general rule, it is better not to ask your guests if they
will partake of the dishes ; but to send the plates round, and
let them accept or decline them as they please. At very large
dinners it is sometimes customary to distribute little lists of
the order of the dishes at intervals along the table. It must
be confessed that this gives somewhat the air of a dinner at an
hotel ; but it has the advantage of enabling the visitors to
select their fare, and, as " forewarned is forearmed," to keep a
corner, as the children say, for their favorite dishes.

As soon as you are helped, begin to eat ; or, if the viands
are too hot for your palate, take up your knife and fork and
appear to begin. To wait for others is now not only old-
fashioned, but ill-bred.

Never offer to pass on the plate to which you have been helped.
In helping soup, fish, or any other dish, remember that to
overfill a plate is as bad as to supply it too scantily.

Silver fish knives will now always be met with at the best
tables ; but where there are none, a piece of crust should be
taken in the left hand, and the fork in the right. There is no
exception to this rule in eating fish.

We presume it is scarcely necessary to remind our fair
reader that she is never, under any circumstances, to convey
her knife to her mouth. Peas are eaten with the fork ; tarts,
curry, and puddings of all kinds with the .spoon.

Always help fish with a fish-slice, and tart and puddings with
a spoon, or, if necessary, a spoon and fork.

Asparagus must be helped with the asparagus-tongs.

In eating asparagus, it is well to observe what others do,
and act accordingly. Some very well-bred people eat it with
the fingers ; others cut off the heads, and convey them to the
mouth iipon the fork. If would be difficult to say which is
the more correct.

In eating stone fruit, such as cherries, damsons, eic, the
same rule had better be observed. Some put the stones out
from the mouth into a spoon, and so convey them to the plate.
Others cover the lips with the hand, drop them unseen into the
palm, and so deposit them on the side of the plate. In our
©wn opinion, the latter is the better way, as it effectually con-
ceals the return of the stones, which is certainly the point of
highest importance. Of one thing we may be sure, and that
is, that they must never be dropped from the mouth to the
plate.

In helping sauce, always pour it on the side of the plate.

If the servants do not go round with the wine (which is by
far the best custom), the gentlemen at a dinner-table should
take upon themselves the office of helping those ladies who sit
near them.

Unless you are a total abstainer, it is extremely uncivil to
decline taking wine if you are invited to do so.

It is particularly ill bred to empty your glass on these
occasions.

Certain wines are taken with certain dishes, by old-establish-
ed custom — as sherry or sauterne, with soup and fish ; hock
and claret with roast meat ; punch v/ith turtle ; champagne with
sweet-bread or cutlets ; port with venison ; port or burgundy,
with game ; sparkling wines between the roast and the confec-
tionery ; madeira with sweets ; port with cheese ; and for des-
sert, port, tokay, madeira, sherry, and claret. Red wines
should never be iced, even in summer. Claret and burgundy
should always be slightly warmed ; claret-cup and champagne
shoul.l, of course, be iced.

Instead of cooling their wines in the ice-pail, some hosts intro-
duce clear ice upon the table, broken up in small lumps, to be
put inside the glasses. This cannot be too strictly reprehended.
Melting ice can but weaken the quality and flavor of the wine.
Those who desire to drink wine and water can ask for iced
water if they choose ; but it savors too much of economy on
the part of a host to insinuate the ice inside the glasses of hi.s
guests when the wine could be more effectually iced outside
the bottle,

A silver knife and fork should be placed to each guest at
dessert.

It is wise never to partake of any dish without knowing of
what ingredients it is composed. You can always ask the
servant who hands it to you, and you thereby avoid all danger
of having to commit the impoliteness of leaving it, and show-
ing that you do not approve of it.

Never speak while you have anything in your mouth.

ETIQUETTE FOR LADIES.

595

Be careful never to taste soups or puddings till you are sure
they are sufliciently cool ; as, by .disregarding this caution, you
may be compelled to swallow what is dangerously hot, or be
driven to the unpardonable alternative of returning it to your
plate.

When eating or drinking, avoid every kind of audible tes-
timony to the fact.

Finger-glasses, containing water slightly wanned and per-
fumed, are placed to each person at dessert. In these you
may dip the tips of your fingers, wiping them afterwards on
your table-napkin. If the finger-glass and doyley are placed
on your dessert-plate, you should immediately remove the
doyley to the left of your plate, and place the finger-glass upon
it. By these means you leave the right for the wine-glasses.

Be careful to know the shapes of the various kinds of wine-
glasses commonly in use, in order that you may never put for-
ward one for another. High and narrow, and very broad and
shallow glasses, are used for champagne ; large goblet-shaped
glasses for burgundy and claret ; ordinary wine-glasses for
sherry and madeira ; green glasses for hock ; and somewhat
large, bell-shaped glasses for port.

Port, sherry, and madeira are decanted. Hocks and cham-
pagnes appear in their native bottles. Claret and burgundy
are handed round in a claret-jug.

The servants leave the room when the dessert is on the
table.

Coffee and liqueurs should be handed round when the des-
sert has been about a quarter of an hour on the table. After
this the ladies generally retire.

The lady of the house should never send away her plate, or
appear to have done eating, till all her guests have finished.

If you should unfortunately overturn or break anything, do
not apologize for it. You can show your regret in your face,
but it is not well-bred to put it into words.

To abstain from taking the last piece on the dish, or the last
glass of wine in the decanter, only because it is the last, is
highly ill-bred. It implies a fear on your part that the vacancy
cannot be supplied, and almost conveys an affront to your
host.

To those ladies who have houses and servants at command,
we have one or two remarks to offer. Every housekeeper
should be acquainted with the routine of a dinner and the eti-
quette of a dinner-table. No lady should be utterly depend-
ent on the taste and judgment of her cook. Though she need
not know how to dress a dish, she should be able to judge of
it when served. The mistress of the house, in short, should
be to a cook what a publisher is to his authors — that is to say,
competent to form a judgment upon their works, though him-
self incapable of writing even a magazine article.

If you wish to have a good dinner, and do not know in
what manner to set about it, you will do wisely to order it from
some first-rate restaurateur. By these means you insure the
best cookery and a faultless carte.

Bear in mind that it is your duty to entertain your friends

in the best manner that your means permit. This is the least

you can do to recompense them for the expenditure of time

and money which, they incur in accepting your invitation.

" To invite a friend to dinner," says Brillat Savarin, " is to

become responsible for his happiness so long as he is under
your roof."

A dinner, to be excellent, need not consist of a great variety
of dishes ; but everything should be of the best, and the cook-
ery should be perfect. That which should be cool should be
cool as ice ; that which should be hot should be smoking ; the
attendance should be rapid and noiseless ; the guests well as-
sorted ; the wines of the best quality ; the host attentive and
courteous ; the room well lighted, and the time punctual.

Every dinner should begin with soup, be followed by fish,
and include some kind of game. " The soup is to the dinner,"
we are told by Grisnod de la Regniere, " what the portico is
to a building, or the overture to an opera."

To this aphorism we may be permitted to add that a chasse
of cognac or cura9oa at the close of a dinner is like the epi-
logue at the end of a comedy.

Never reprove or give directions to your servants before
guests. If a dish is not placed precisely where you would
have wished it to stand, or the order of a course is reversed,
let the error pass unobserved by yourself, and you may de-
pend that it will be unnoticed by others.

The duties of hostess at a dinner-party are not onerous ; but
they demand tact and good breeding, grace of bearing, and
self-possession of no ordinary degree. She does not often
carve. She has no active duties to perform ; but she must neg-
lect nothing, forget nothing, put all her guests at their ease,
encourage the timid, draw out the silent, and pay every possi-
ble attention to the requirements of each and all around her.
No accident must ruffle her temper. No disappointment must
embarrass her. She must see her old china broken without a
sigh, and her best glass shattered with a smile.

STAYING AT A FRIEND'S HOUSE— BREAK-
FAST, LUNCHEON, ETC.

A visitor is bound by the laws of social intercourse to con-
form in all respects to the habits of the house. In order to do
this effectually, she should inquire, or cause her personal ser-
vant to inquire, what those habits are. To keep your friend's
breakfast on the table till a late hour ; to delay the dinner by
want of punctuality ; to accept other invitations, and treat his
house as if it were merely an hotel to be slept in ; or to keep
the family up till unwonted hours, are alike evidences of a
want of good feeling and good-breeding.

At breakfast and lunch absolute punctuality is not impera-
tive ; but a visitor should avoid being always the last to appear
at table.

No order of precedence is observed at either breakfast or
luncheon. Persons take their seats as they come in, and,
having exchanged their morning salutations, begin to eat with-
out waiting for the rest of the party.

If letters are delivered to you at breakfast or luncheon,
you may read them by asking permission from the lady who
presides at the urn.

Always hold yourself at the disposal of those in whose house
you are visiting. If they propose to ride, drive, walk, or
otherwise occupy the day, you may take it for granted that
these plans are made with reference to your enjoyment. You

— -^

596

ETIQUETTE FOR LADIES.

should, therefore, receive them with cheerfulness, enter into
them with alacrity, and do your best to seem pleased, and be
pleased, by the efforts which your friends make to entertain
you.

You should never take a book from the library to your own
room without requesting permission to borrow it. When it is
lent, you should take every care that it sustains no injury while
in your possession, and should cover it, if necessary,

A guest should endeavor to amuse herself as much as pos-
sible, and not be continually dependent on her hosts for en-
tertainment. She should remember that, however welcome
she may be, she is not always wanted.

A visitor should avoid giving unnecessary trouble to the ser-
vants of the house.

The signal for retiring to rest is generally given by the ap-
pearance of the servant with wine, water, and biscuits, where
a late dinner hour is observed and suppers are not the custom.
This is the last refreshment of the evening, and the visitor will
do well to rise and wish good night shortly after it has been
partaken of by the family.

GENERAL HINTS.

Do not frequently repeat the name of the person with whom
you are conversing. It implies either the extreme of hauteur
or familiarity.

Never speak of absent persons by only their Christian or

surnames ; but always as Mr. , or Mrs. . Above all,

never name anybody by the first letter of his name. Married
people are sometimes guilty of this flagrant offense against taste.'

Look at those who address you.

Never boast of your birth, your money, your grand friends,
or anything that is yours. If you have traveled, do not intro-
duce that information into your conversation at every oppor-
tunity. Any one can travel with money and leisure. The
real distinction is to come home with enlarged views, improved
tastes, and a mind free from prejudice.

If you present a book to a friend, do not write his or her
name in it, unless requested. You have no right to presume
that it will be rendered any the more valuable for that addi-
tion ; and you ought not to conclude beforehand that your gift
will be accepted.

Never undervalue the gift which you are yourself offering ;
you have no business to offer it if it is valueless. Neither say
that you do not want it yourself, or that you should throw it
away if it were not accepted, etc., etc. Such apologies would
be insults if true, and mean nothing if false.

No compliment that bears insincerity on the face of it is a
compliment at all.

Presents made by a married lady to a gentleman can only be
offered in the joint names of her husband and herself.

Married ladies may occasionally accept presents from gentle-
men who visit frequently at their houses, and who desire to
show their sense of the hospitality which they receive there.

Acknowledge the receipt of a present without delay.

Give a foreigner his name in full, as Monsieur de Vigny —
never as Monsieur only. In speaking of him, give him his
title, if he has one. Foreign noblemen are addressed viva voce
as Monsieur. In speaking of a foreign nobleman before his
face, say Monsieur le Comte, or Monsieur le Marquis. In his
absence, say Monsieur le Comte de Vigny.

Converse with a foreigner in his own language. If not com-
petent to do so, apologize, and beg permission to speak Eng-
lish.

To get in and out of a carriage gracefully is a simple but im-
portant accomplishment. If there is but one step, and you are
going to take the seat facing the horses, put your left foot on
the step, and enter the carriage with your right, in such a man-
ner as to drop at once into your seat. If you are about to sit
with your back to the horses, reverse the process. As you step
into the carriage, be careful to keep your back towards the
seat you are about to occupy, so as to avoid the awkwardness
of turning when you are once in.

ETIQUETTE FOR GENTLEMEN.

597 r

INTRODUCTIONS.

O introduce persons who are mutually unknown
is to undertake a serious responsibility, and to
certify to each the respectability of the other.
Never undertake this responsibility without
in the first place asking yourself whether the
persons are likely to be agreeable to each
other ; nor, in the second place, without ascertain-
ing whether it will be acceptable to both parties to
become acquainted.
Always introduce the gentleman to the lady — never the
lady to the gentleman. The chivalry of etiquette assumes
that the lady is invariably the superior in right of her sex, and
that the gentleman is honored by the introduction.

Never present a gentleman to a lady without first asking
her permission to do so.

When you are introduced to a lady, never offer your hand.
When introduced, persons limit their recognition of each
other to a bow.

Persons who have met at the house of a mutual friend
without being introduced, should not bow if they afterwards
meet elsewhere ; a bow implies acquaintance, and persons
who have not been introduced are not acquainted.

If you are walking with one friend, and presently meet with,
or are joined by, a second, do not commit the too frequent
error of introducing them to each other. You have even less
right to do so than if they encountered each other at your
house during a morning call.

There are some exceptions to the etiquette of introductions.
At a ball or evening party, where there is dancing, the mis-
tress of the house may introduce any gentleman to any lady
without first asking the lady's permission. But she should
first ascertain whether the lady is willing to dance ; and this
out of consideration for the gentleman, who may otherwise be
refused. No man likes to be refused the hand of a lady,
though it be only for a quadrille.

A brother may present his sister, or a father his son, with-
out any kind of preliminary : but only when there is no infe-

riority on the part of his own family to that of the acquaint-
ance.

Friends may introduce friends at the house of a mutual ac-
quaintance, but, as a rule, it is better to be introduced by the
mistress of the house. Such an introduction carries more
authority with it.

Introductions at evening parties are now almost wholly dis-
pensed with. Persons who meet at a friend's house are osten-
sibly upon an equality, and pay a bad compliment to the host
by appearing suspicious and formal. Some old-fashioned
country hosts yet persevere in introducing each newcomer to
all the assembled guests. It is a custom that cannot be too
soon abolished, and one that places the last unfortunate visitor
in a singularly awkward position. All that he can do is to
make a semicircular bow, like a concert singer before an audi-
ence, and bear the general gaze with as much composure as
possible.

If, when you enter a drawing-room, your name has been
wrongly announced, or has passed unheard in the buzz of con-
versation, make your way at once to the mistress of the house,
if you are a stranger, and introduce yourself by name. This
should be done with the greatest simplicity, and your profes-
sional or titular rank made as little of as possible.

An introduction given at a ball for the mere purpose of
conducting a lady through a dance does not give the gentle-
man any right to bow to her on a future occasion. If he com-
mits this error, he must remember that she is not bound to see
or return his salutation.

LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION.

Do not lightly give or promise letters of introduction.
Always remember that when you give a letter of introduction
you lay yourself under an obligation to the friend to whom it
is addressed.

No one delivers a letter of introduction in person. It
places you in the most undignified position imaginable, and
compels you to wait while it is being read, like a footman
who has been told to wait for an answer.

If, on the other hand, a stranger sends you a letter of in-

598

ETIQUETTE FOR GENTLEMEN.

troduction and his card, you are bound by the laws of polite-
ness and hospitality, not only to call upon him the next day,
but to follow up that attention with others. If you are in a
position to do so, the most correct proceeding is to invite him
to dine with you. Should this not be within your power, you
have probably the entree to some private collections, club-
houses, theaters, or reading-rooms, and could devote a few
hours to showing him these places.

A letter of introduction should be given unsealed, not
alone because your friend may wish to know what you have
said of him, but also as a guarantee of your own good faith.
As you should never give such a letter unless you can speak
highly of the bearer, this rule of etiquette is easy to observe.
By requesting your friend to fasten the envelope before for-
warding the letter to its destination you tacitly give him per-
mission to inspect its contents.

Let your note paper be of the best quality and proper size.

VISITING.— MORNING CALLS.— CARDS.

A morning visit should be paid between the hours of 2
and 4 p.m. in winter, and 2 and 5 in summer.

Visits of ceremony should be short. If even the conversa-
tion should have become animated, beware of letting your call
exceed half an hour's length. It is always better to let your
friends regret rather than desire your withdrawal.

On returning visits of ceremony you may, without impolite-
ness, leave your card at the door without going in. Do not
fail, however, to inquire if the family be- well.

Should there be daughters or sisters residing with the lady
upon whom you call, you may turn down a corner of your
card, to signify that the visit is paid to all. It is in better
taste, however, to leave cards for each.

Unless when returning thanks for "kind inquiries," or
announcing your arrival in, or departure from, town, it is not
considered respectful to send cards round by a servant.

Leave-taking cards have P.P. C. {pour J>rendre cong/) wnHQn
in the comer. Some use P.D.A. {pour dire adieu).

The visiting cards of gentlemen are half the size of those
used by ladies.

Visits of condolence are paid within the week after the
event which occasions them. Personal visits of this kind are
made by relations and very intimate friends only. Acquaint-
ances should leave cards with narrow mourning borders.

On the first occasion when you are received by the family
after the death of one of its members, it is etiquette to wear
slight mourning.

When a gentleman makes a morning call, he should never
leave his hat or riding-whip in the hall, but should lake both
into the room. To do otherwise would be to make himself
too much at home. The hat, however, must never be laid on
a table, piano, or any article of furniture, it should be held
gracefully in the hand. If you are compelled to lay it aside
put it on the floor.

Umbrellas should invariably be left in the hall.

Never take favorite dogs into a drawing-room when you
make a morning call. Their feet may be dusty, or they may
bark at the sight of strangers, or, being of too friendly a dis-
position, may take the liberty of lying on a lady's gown, or

jumping on the sofas and easy chairs. Where your friend has
a favorite cat already established before the fire, a battle may
ensue, and one or both of the pets be seriously hurt. Be-
sides, many persons have a constitutional antipathy to dogs,
and others never allow their own to be seen in the sitting-
rooms. For all or any of these reasons a visitor has no right
to inflict upon his friend the society of his dog as well as of
himself.

If, when you call upon a lady, you meet a lady visitor in her
drawing-room, you should rise when that lady takes her leave.

If other visitors are announced, and you have already re-
mained as long as courtesy requires, wait till they are seated,
and then rise from your chair, take leave of your hostess, and
bow politely to the newly arrived guests. You will, perhaps,
be urged to remain, but, having once risen, it is always best
to go. There is always a certain air of gaucherie in resuming
your seat and repeating the ceremony of leave taking.

If you have occasion to look at your watch during a call, ask
permission to do so, and apologize for it on the plea of other
appointments.

CONVERSATION.

Let your conversation be adapted as skillfully as may be to
your company. Some men make a point of talkipg common-
places to all ladies alike, as if a woman could only be a trifler.
Others, on the contrary, seem to forget in what respects the
education of a lady differs from that of a gentleman, and
commit the opposite error of conversing on topics with which
ladies are seldom acquainted. A woman of sense has as much
right to be annoyed by the one, as a lady of ordinary educa-
tion by the other. You cannot pay a finer compliment to a
woman of refinement and esprit than by leading the conversa-
tion into such a channel as may mark your appreciation of her
superior attainments.

In talking with ladies of ordinary education, avoid political,
scientific, or commercial topics, and choose only such subjects
as are likely to be of interest to them.

Remember that people take more in'^erest in their own
affairs than in anything else which you can name. If you wish
your conversation to be thoroughly agreeable, lead a mother
to talk of her children, a young lady of her last ball, an au-
thor of his forthcoming book, or an artist of his exhibition
picture. Having furnished the topic, you need only listen ;
and you are sure to be thought not only agreeable, but
thoroughly sensible and well-informed.

Be careful, however, on the other hand, not always to make
a point of talking to persons upon general matters relating to
their professions. To show an interest in their immediate
concerns is flattering ; but to converse with them too much
about their own arts looks as if you thought them ignorant of
other topics.

Do not use a classical quotation in the presence of ladies
without apologizing for, or translating it. Even this should
only be done when no other phrase would so aptly express
your meaning. Whether in the presence of ladies or gentle-
men, much display of learning is pedantic and out of place.

There is a certain distinct but subdued tone of voice which
is peculiar to only well-bred persons. A loud voice is both

^
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ETIQUETTE FOR GENTLEMEN.

599 r

disagreeable and vulgar. It is better to err by the use of too
low rather than too loud a tone.

Remember that all " slang" is vulgar.

Do not pun. Puns unless they rise to the rank of wit-
ticisms, are to be scrupulously avoided.

Long arguments in general company, however entertaining
to the disputants, are tiresome to the last degree to all others.
You should always endeavor to prevent the conversation from
dwelling too long upon one topic.

Religion is a topic which should never be introduced in
society. It is the one subject on which persons are most likely
to differ, and least able to preserve temper.

Never interrupt a person who is speaking.

To listen well, is almost as great an art as to talk well. It
is not enough only to listen. You must endeavor to seem in-
terested in the conversation of others.

It is considered extremely ill-bred when two persons whisper
in society, or converse in a language with which all present
are not familiar. If you have private matters to discuss, you
should appoint a proper time and place to do so, without pay-
ing others the ill compliment of excluding them from your
conversation.

If a foreigner be one of the guests at a small-party, and does
not understand English sufficiently to follow what is said,
good-breeding demands that the conversation shall be carried
on in his own language. If at a dinner-party, the same rule
applies to those at his end of the table.

If upon the entrance of a visitor you carry on the thread of
a previous conversation, you should briefly recapitulate to him
what has been said before he arrived.

Always look, but never stare, at those with whom you con-
verse.

In order to meet the general needs of conversation in society,
it is necessary that a man should be well acquainted with the
current news and historical events of at least the last few
years .

Never talk upon subjects of which you know nothing, un-
less it be for the purpose of acquiring information . Many
young men imagine that because they frequent exhibitions and
operas they are qualified judges of art. No mistake is more
egregious or universal.

Those who introduce anecdotes into their conversation are
warned that these should invariably be ' ' short, witty, elo-
quent, new, and not far-fetched."

Scandal is the least excusable of all conversational vulgari-
ties.

In conversing with a man of rank, do not too frequently
give him his title.

THE PROMENADE.

A well-bred man must entertain no respect for the brim of
his hat. " A bow," says La Fontaine, " is a note drawn at
sight." You are bound to acknowledge it immediately, and
to the full amount. True politeness demands that the hat
should be quite lifted from the head.

On meeting friends with whom you are likely to shake
hands, remove your hat with the left hand in order to leave
the right hand free.

If you meet a lady .in the street whom you are sufficiently
intimate to address, do not stop her, but turn round and walk
beside her in whichever direction she is going. When you
have said all that you wish to say, you can take your leave.

If you meet a lady with whom you are not particularly well
acquainted, wait for her recognition before you venture to bow
to her.

In bowing to a lady whom you are not going to address, lift
your hat with that hand which is farthest from her. For in-
stance, if you pass her on the right side, use your left hand ;
if on the left, use your right.

If you are on horseback and wish to converse with a lady
who is on foot, you must dismount and lead your horse, so as
not to give her the fatigue of looking up to your level.
Neither should you subject her to the impropriety of carrying
on a conversation in a tone necessarily louder than is sanc-
tioned in public by the laws of good breeding.

When you meet friends or acquaintances in the streets, at
the exhibitions, or any public places, take care not to pro-
nounce their names so loudly as to attract the attention of the
passers-by. Never call across the street ; and never carry on
a dialogue in a public vehicle, unless your interlocutor occu-
pies the seat beside your own.

In walking with a lady, take charge of any small parcel,
parasol, or book with which she may be encumbered.

DRESS.

A gentleman should always be so well dressed that his dress
shall never be observed at all. Does this sound like an enig-
ma ? It is not meant for one. It only implies that perfect
simplicity is perfect elegance, and that the true test of taste
in the toilet of a gentleman is its entire harmony, unobtrusive-
ness, and becomingness. If any friend should say to you,
"What a handsome waistcoat you have on ! " you may de-
pend that a less handsome waistcoat would be in better taste.
If you hear it said that Mr. So-and-So wears superb jewelry,
you may conclude beforehand that he wears too much. Dis-
play, in short, is ever to be avoided, especially in matters of
dress. The toilet is the domain of the fair sex. Let a wise
man leave its graces and luxuries to his wife, daughters, or
sisters, and seek to be himself appreciated for something of
higher worth than the stud in his shirt or the trinkets on his
chain.

To be too much in the fashion is as vulgar as to be too far
behind it. No really well-bred man follows every new cut
that he sees in his tailor's fashion-book.

In the morning wear frock coats, double-breasted waist-
coats, and trousers of light or dark colors, according to the
season.

In the evening, though only in the bosom of your own fam-
ily, wear only black, and be as scrupulous to put on a dress
coat as if you expected visitors. If you have sons, bring them
up to do the same. It is the observance of these minor trifles
in domestic etiquette which marks the true gentleman.

For evening parties, dinner parties, and balls, wear a black
dress coat, black trousers, black silk or cloth waistcoat, white
cravat, white or gray kid gloves, and thin patent leather boots.

^ 600

ETIQUETTE FOR GENTLEMEN.

4r-

A black cravat may be worn in full dress, but is not so elegant
as a while one.

Let your jewelry be of the best, but the least gaudy descrip-
tion, and wear it very sparingly. A single stud, a gold watch
and guard, and one handsome ring, are as many ornaments as
a gentleman can wear with propriety.

It is well to remember in the choice of jewelry that mere
costliness is not always the test of value ; and that an exqui-
site work of art, such as a fine cameo, or a natural rarity, such
as a black pearl, is a more distinguJ possession than a large
brilliant, which any rich and tasteless vulgarian can buy as
easily as yourself. For a ring, the gentleman of fine taste
would prefer a precious antiqe intaglio to the handsomest dia-
mond or ruby that could be bought at Tiffany's.

Of all precious stones, the opal is one of the most lovely
and the least common-place. No vulgar man purchases an
opal. He invariably prefers the more showy diamond, ruby,
sapphire, or emerald.

Unless you are a snufl-taker, never carry any but a white
pocket-handkerchief;

If in the morning you wear a long cravat fastened by a pin,
be careful to avoid what may be called alliteration of color.
We have seen a turquois pin worn in a violet-colored cravat,
and the effect was frightful. Choose, if possible, complemen-
tary colors, and their secondaries. For instance, if the stone
in your pin be a turquois, wear it with brown, or crimson
mixed with black, or black and orange. If a ruby, contrast it
with shades of green. The same rule holds good with regard
to the mixture and contrast of colors in your waistcoat and
cravat. Thus, a buff waistcoat and a blue tie, or brown and
blue, or brown and green, or brown and magenta, green and
magenta, green and mauve, are all good arrangements of
color.

Colored shirts may be worn in the morning ; but they should
be small in pattern and quiet in color.

In these days of public baths and universal progress, we
trust that it is unnecessary to do more than hint at the ne-
cessity of the most fastidious personal cleanliness. The hair,
the teeth, the nails, should be faultlessly kept ; and a soiled
shirt, a dingy pocket-handkerchief, or a light waistcoat that
has been worn once too often, are things to be scrupulously
avoided by any man who is ambitious of preserving the ex-
terior of a gentleman.

RIDING AND DRIVING.

riding, as in walking, give the lady the wall.

If you assist a lady to mount, hold your hand at a conven-
ient distance from the ground that she may place her foot in
it. As she springs, you aid her by the impetus of your hand.
In doing this, it is always better to agree upon a signal, that
her spring and your assistance may come at the same moment.

For this purpose there is no better form than the old dueling
one of " one, two, three."

When the lady is in the saddle, it is your place to find the
stirrup for her, and guide her left foot to it. When this is
done, she rises in her seat and you assist her to draw her habit
straight.

Even when a groom is present, it is more polite for the

gentleman himself to perform this office for his fair compan-
ion ; as it would be more polite for him to hand her a chair
than to have it handed by a servant.

If the lady be light, you must take care not to give her too
much impetus in mounting. We have known a lady nearly
thrown over her horse by a misplaced zeal of this kind.

If a gate has to be opened, we need hardly observe that it
is your place to hold it open till the lady has passed through.

In driving, a gentleman places himself with his back to the
horses, and leaves the best seat for the ladies.

When the carriage stops, the gentleman should alight first,
in order to assist the lady.

To get in and out of a carriage gracefully is a simple but
important accomplishment. If there is but one step, and you
are going to take your seat facing the horses, put your left
foot on the step, and enter the carriage with your right in
such a manner as to drop at once into your seat. If you are
about to sit with your back to the horses, reverse the process.
As you step into the carriage, be careful to keep your back
towards the seat you are about to occupy, so as to avoid the
awkwardness of turning when you are once in.

A gentleman cannot be too careful to avoid stepping on
ladies' dresses when he gets in or out of a carriage. He should
also beware of shutting them in with the door.

MORNING AND EVENING PARTIES.

Elegant morning dress, general good manners, and some
acquaintance with the to'pics of the day and the games above
named, are all the qualifications especially necessary to a
gentleman at a morning party.

An evening party begins about nine o'clock P.M., and ends
about midnight, or somewhat later. Good-breeding neither
demands that you should present yourself at the commence-
ment, nor remain till the close of the evening. You come and
go as may be most convenient to you, and by these means are
at liberty, during the height of the season when evening parties
are numerous, to present yourself at two or three houses
during a single evening.

At very large and fashionable receptions, the hostess is
generally to be found near the door. Should you, however,
find yourself separated by a dense crowd of guests, you are at
liberty to recognize those who are near you, and those whom
you encounter as you make your way slowly through the
throng.

If you are at the house of a new aoquaintance and find
yourself among entire strangers, remember that by so meeting
under one roof you are all in a certain sense made known to
one another, and should therefore converse freely, as equals.
To shrink away to a side-table and affect tO be absorbed in
some album or illustrated work ; or, if you find one unlucky
acquaintance in the room, to fasten upon him like a drowning
man clinging to a spar, are gaucheties which no shyness can
excuse. An easy and unembarrassed manner, and the self-
possession requisite to open a conversation with those who
happen to be near you, are the indispensable credentials of
a well-bred man.

At an evening party, do not remain too long in one spot

ETIQUETTE FOR GENTLEMEN.

60 1

To be afraid to move from one drawing-room to another is the
sure sign of a neophyte in society.

If you have occasion to use your handkerchief, do so as
noiselessly as possible. To blow your nose as if it were a
trombone, or to turn your head aside when using your hand-
kerchief, are vulgarities scrupulously to be avoided.

Never stand upon the hearth with your back to the fire or
stove, either in a friend's house or your own.

Never offer any one the chair from which you have just
risen, unless there be no other disengaged.

If, when supper is announced, no lady has been specially
placed under your care by the hostess, offer your arm to which-
ever lady you may have last conversed with.

If you possess any musical accomplishments, do not wait to
be pressed and entreated by your hostess, but comply immedi-
ately when she pays you the compliment of inviting you to
play or sing. Remember, however, that only the lady of the
house has the right to ask you. If others do so, you can put
them off in some polite way ; but must not comply till the
hostess herself invites you.

If you sing comic songs, be careful that they are of the
most unexceptionable kind, and likely to offend neither the
tastes nor prejudices of the society in which you find yourself.

If the party be of a small and social kind, and those games
called by the French les jeux innocents are proposed, do not
object to join in them when invited. It may be that they
demand some slight exercise of wit and readiness, and that
you do not feel yourself calculated to shine in them ; but it is
better to seem dull than disagreeable, and those who are
obliging can always find some clever neighbor to assist them
in the moment of need. The game of " consequences "
is one which unfortunately gives too much scope to liberty
of expression. If you join in this game, we cannot too
earnestly enjoin you never to write down one word which
the most pure-minded woman present might not read aloud
without a blush. Jests of an equivocal character are not only
vulgar, but contemptible.

Impromptu charades are frequently organized at friendly
parties. Unless you have really some talent for acting and
some readiness of speech, you should remember that you only
put others out and expose your own inability by taking part in
these entertainments. Of course, if your help is really needed
and you would disoblige by refusing, you must do your best,
and by doing it as quietly and coolly as possible, avoid being
awkward or ridiculous.

Should an impromptu polka or quadrille be got up after
supper at a party where no dancing was intended, be sure not
to omit putting on gloves before you stand up. It is well
always to have a pair of white gloves in your pocket in case of
need ; but even black are better under these circumstances
than none.

Even though you may take no pleasure in cards, some
knowledge of the etiquette and rules belonging to the games
most in vogue is necessary to you in society.

Never let even politeness induce you to play for high
stakes. Etiquette is the minor morality of life ; but it never
should be allowed to outweigh the higher code of right and
wrong.

If you are yourself the performer, bear in mind that in
music, as in speech, "brevity is the soul of wit." Two verses
of a song, or four pages of a piece, are at all times enough to
give pleasure. If your audience desire more they will ask for
it ; and it is infinitely more flattering to be encored than
to receive the thanks of you hearers, not so much in gratitude
for what you have given them, but in relief that you have left
off. You should try to suit your music, like your conversa-
tion, to your company. A solo of Beethoven's would be as
much out of place in some circles as a comic song at a
Quakers' meeting. To those who only care for the light
popularities of the season, give Verdi. To connoisseurs, if
you perform well enough to venture, give such music as will
be likely to meet the exigencies of a fine taste. Above all,
attempt nothing that you cannot execute with ease and precis-
ion.

In retiring from a crowded party it is unnecessary that you
should seek out the hostess for the purpose of bidding her a
formal good-night. By doing this you would, perhaps, remind
others that it was getting late, and cause the party to break
up. If you meet the lady of the house on your way to the
drawing-room door, take your leave of her as unobtrusively as
possible, and slip away without attracting the attention of her
other guests.

THE DINNER TABLE.

To be acquainted with every detail of the etiquette pertain-
ing to this subject is of the highest importance to every gentle-
man. Ease, savoir faire, and good-breeding are nowhere
more indispensable than at the dinner-table, and the absence
of them is nowhere more apparent.

An invitation to dine should be replied to immediately, and
unequivocally accepted or declined. Once accepted, nothing
but an event of the last importance should cause you to fail in
your engagement.

To be exactly punctual is the strictest politeness on these
occasions. If you are too early, you are in the way ; if too
late, you spoil the dinner, annoy the hostess, and are hated by
the rest of the guests. Some authorities are even of opinion
that in the question of a dinner-party ' ' never " is better than
" late " ; and one author has gone so far as to say, " if you do
not reach the house till dinner is served, you had better retire
to a restaurateur's, and thence send an apology, and not inter-
rupt the harmony of the courses by awkward excuses and cold
acceptance."

When the party is assembled, the mistress or master of the
house will point out to each gentleman the lady whom he is
to conduct to table. If she be a stranger, you had better
seek an introduction ; if a previous acquaintance, take care to
be near her when the dinner is announced ; offer your arm,
and go down according to precedence. This order of prece-
dence must be arranged by the host or hostess.

602

ETIQUETTE FOR GENTLEMEN.

-y

When dinner is announced, the host offers his arm to the
lady of most distinction, invites the rest to follow by a few
words or a bow, and leads the way. The lady of the house
should then follow with the gentleman who is most entitled to
that honor, and the visitors follow in the order that the master
of the house has previously arranged. The lady of the house
frequently remains, however, till the last, that she may see
her guests go down in their prescribed order ; but the plan is
not a convenient one. It is much better that the hostess
should be in her place as the guests enter the dining-room, in
order that she may indicate their seats to them as they come
in, and not find them all crowded together in uncertainty when
she arrives. If cards with names are on the table seek that of
the lady whom you have taken to dinner.

The number of guests at a dinner-party should always be
determined by the size of the table. When the party is too
small, conversation flags, and a general air of desolation per-
vades the table. When they are too many, every one is in-
convenienced. A space of two feet should be allowed to each
person. It is well to arrange a party in such wise that the
number of ladies and gentlemen be equal.

The lady of the house takes the head of the table. The
gentleman who led her down to dinner occupies the seat on
her right hand, and the gentleman next in order of precedence
that on her left. The master of the house takes the foot of
the table. The lady whom he escorted sits.on his right hand,
and the lady next in order of precedence on his left.

The gentlemen who support the lady of the house should
offer to relieve her of the duties of hostess. Many ladies are
well pleased thus to delegate the difficulties of carving, and all
gentlemen who accept invitations to dinner should be pre-
pared to render such assistance when called upon. To offer
to carve a dish, and then perform the office unskillfully, is an
unpardonable gaucherie. Every gentleman should carve, and
carve well.

As soon as you are seated at table, remove your gloves, place
your table napkin across your knees, and remove the roll which
you find probably within it to the left side of your plate.

The soup should be placed on the table first.

In eating soup, remember always to take it from the side of
the spoon, and to make no sound in doing so.

If the servants do not go round with wine the gentlemen
should help the ladies and themselves to sherry or sauterne
immediately after the soup.

You should never ask for a second supply of either soup or
fish ; it delays the next course and keeps the table waiting.

Never offer to " assist " your neighbors to this or that dish.
The word is inexpressibly vulgar — all the more vulgar for its
affectation of elegance. "Shall I send you some mutton?"
or " may I help you to canvas back?" is better chosen and
better bred.

If you are asked to take wine, it is polite to select the same
as that which your interlocutor is drinking. If you invite a
lady to take wine, you should ask her which she will prefer,
and then take the same yoiirself. Should you, however, for
any reason prefer some other vintage, you can take it by cour-
teously requesting her permission.

As soon as you are helped, begin to eat ; or, if the viands

are too hot for your palate, take up your knife and fork and
appear to begin. To wait for others is now not only old-
fashioned, but ill-bred.

Never offer to pass on the plate to which you have been
helped.

In helping soup, fish, or any other dish, remember that to
overfill a plate is as bad as to supply it too scantily.

Silver fish-knives will now always be met with at the best
tables ; but where there are none, a piece of crust should be
taken in the left hand, and the fork in the right. There is no
exception to this rule in eating fish.

We presume it is scarcely necessary to remind the reader
that he is never, under any circumstances, to convey his knife
to his mouth. Peas are eaten with the fork ; tarts, curry, and
puddings of all kinds with the spoon.

Always help fish with a fish-slice, and tart and puddings
with a spoon, or, if necessary, a spoon and fork.

Asparagus must be helped with the asparagus-tongs.

In eating asparagus, it is well to observe what others do,
and act accordingly. Some very well-bred people eat it with
the fingers ; others cut off the heads, and convey them to the
mouth upon the fork. It would be difficult to say which is the
more correct.

In eating stone fruit, such as cherries, damsons, etc., the
same rule had better be observed. Some put the stones out
from the mouth into a spoon, and so convey them to the plate.
Others cover the lips with the hand, drop them unseen into
the palm, and so deposit them on the side of the plate. In
our own opinion, the litter is the better way, as it effectually
conceals the return of the stones, which is certainly the point
of highest importance. Of one thing we may be sure, and
that is, that they must never be dropped from the mouth to
the plate.

In helping sauce, always pour it on the side of the plate.

If the servants d« not go round with the wine (which is by
far the best custom), the gentlemen at a dinner table should
take upon themselves the office of helping those ladies who sit
near them. Ladies take more wine in the present day than
they did fifty years ago, and gentlemen should remember this,
and offer it frequently. Ladies cannot very well ask for wine,
but they can always decline it. At all events they do not like
to be neglected, or to see gentlemen liberally helping them-
selves, without observing whether their fair neighbors' glasses
are full or empty.

The habit of taking wine with each other has almost wholly
gone out of fashion. A gentleman may ask the lady whom he
conducted down to dinner, or he may ask the lady of the
house to take wine with him. But even these last remnants
of the old custom are fast falling into disuse.

Unless you are a total abstainer, it is extremely uncivil to
decline taking wine if you are invited to do so. In accepting,
you have only to pour a little fresh wine into your glass, look
at the person who invited you, bow slightly, and take a sip
from the glass.

It is particularly ill-bred to empty your glass on these oc-
casions.

Certain wines are taken with certain dishes, by old-estab-
lished custom — as sherry or sauterne, with soup and fish ;

ETIQUETTE FOR GENTLEMEN.

603

hock and claret, with roast meat ; punch with turtle ; cham-
pagne with sweet-bread and cutlets ; port with venison ; port
or burgundy, with game ; sparkling wines between the roast
and the confectionery ; madeira with sweets ; port with cheese ;
and for dessert, port, tokay, madeira, sherry and claret. Red
wines should never be iced, even in summer. Claret and bur-
gundy should always be slightly warmed ; claret-cup and
champagne-cup should, of course, be iced.

Instead of cooling their wines in the ice pail, some hosts
introduce clear ice upon the table, broken up in small lumps,
to be put inside the glasses. This cannot be too strongly rep-
rehended. Melting ice can but weaken the quality and flavor
of the wine. Those who desire to drink wine atid water, can
ask for iced water if they choose, but it savors too much of
economy on the part of the host to insinuate the ice inside the
glasses of his guests when the wine could be more effectually
iced outside the bottle.

A silver knife and fork should be placed to each guest at
dessert.

If you are asked to prepare fruit for a lady, be careful to do
so by means of the silver knife and fork only, and never to
touch it with your fingers.

It is wise never to partake of any dish without knowing of
what ingredients it is composed. You can always ask the ser-
vant who hands it to you, and you thereby avoid all danger of
having to commit the impoliteness of leaving it, and showing
that you do not approve of it.

Never speak while you have anything in your mouth.

Be careful never to taste soups or puddings till you are sure
they are sufficiently cool ; as, by disregarding this caution,
you may be compelled to swallow what is dangerously hot, or
be driven to the unpardonable alternative of returning it to
your plate.

When eating or drinking, avoid every kind of audible testi-
mony to the fact.

Finger-glasses, containing water slightly wanned and per-
fumed, are placed to each person at dessert. In these you
may dip the tips of your fingers, wiping them afterwards on
your table-napkin. If the finger-glass and doyley are placed
on your dessert-plate, you should immediately remove the
doyley to the left of your plate, and place the finger-glass
upon it. By these means you leave the right for the wine-
glasses.

Be careful to know the shapes of the various kinds of wine-
glasses commonly in use, in order that you may never put for-
ward one for another. High and narrow, and very broad and
shallow glasses, are used for champagne ; large, goblet-shaped
glasses for burgundy and claret ; ordinary wine-glasses for

sherry and madeira ; green glasses for hock ; and somewhat
large, bell-shaped glasses for port.

Port, sherry, and madeira are decanted. Hocks and cham-
pagnes appear in their native bottles. Claret and burgundy
are handed around in a claret jug.

Coffee and liqueurs should be handed round when the des-
sert has been about a quarter of an hour on the table. After
this, the ladies generally retire.

Should no servant be present to do so, the gentleman who is
nearest the door should hold it for the ladies to pass through.

When the ladies are leaving the dining-room, the gentle-
men all rise in their places, and do not resume their seats till
the last lady is gone.

If you should unfortunately overturn or break anything, do
not apologize for it. You can show your regret in your face,
but it is not well-bred to put it into words.

Should you injure a lady's dress, apologize amply, and
assist her, if possible, to remove all traces of the damage.

To abstain from taking the last piece on the dish, or the
last glass of wine in the decanter, only because it is the last, is
highly ill-bred. It implies a fear that the vacancy cannot be
supplied, and almost conveys an affront to your host.

In summing up the little duties and laws of the table, a
popular author has said that — " The chief matter of consider-
ation at the dinner-table — as, indeed, everywhere else in the
life of a gentleman — is to be perfectly composed and at his
ease. He speaks deliberately ; he performs the most impor-
tant act of the day as if he were performing the most ordinary.
Yet there is no appearance of trifling or want of gravity in his
manner, he maintains the dignity which is so becoming on so
vital an occasion. He performs all the ceremonies, yet in the
style of one who who performs no ceremonies at all. He
goes through all the complicated duties of the scene as if he
were ' to the manner born.' "

To the giver of a dinner we have but one or two remarks
to offer. If he be a bachelor, he had better give his dinner
at a good hotel. If a married man, he will, we presume,
enter into council with his wife and his cook. In any case,
however, he should always bear in mind that it is his duty
to entertain his friends in the best manner that his means
permit ; and that this is the least he can do to recompense
them for the expenditure of time and money which they
incur in accepting his invitation.

In conclusion, we may observe that to sit long in the dining-
room after the ladies have retired is to pay a bad compliment
to the hostess and her fair visitors ; and that it is still worse
to rejoin them with a flushed face and impaired powers of
thought. A refined gentleman is always temperate.

"^ 604

PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE.

-HOW TO ORGANIZE A DANCING PARTY
OR BALL.

S the number of guests at a dinner-party is regu-
lated by the size of the table, so should the num-
ber of invitations to a ball be limited by the
proportions of the dancing or ball-room. A pru-
dent hostess will always invite a few more guests
than she really desires to entertain, in the certainty
that there will be some deserters when the appointed
^^*°' evening comes round ; but she will at the same time

remember that to overcrowd her room is to spoil the pleasure
of those who love dancing, and that a party of this kind when
too numerously attended is as great a failure as one at which
too few are present.

A room which is nearly square, yet a little longer than it is
broad, will be found the most favorable for a ball. It admits
of two quadrille parties, or two round dances, at the same
time. .In a perfectly square room this arrangement is not so
practicable or pleasant. A very long and narrow room, and
their number in this country is legion, is obviously of the
worst shape for the purpose of dancing, and is fit only for
quadrilles and country dances.

The top of the ball room is the part nearest the musicians.
In a private room, the top is where it would be if the room
were a dining-room, Pt is generally at the farthest point from
the door. Dancers should be careful to ascertain the top of
the room before taking their places, as the top couples always
lead the dances.

A good floor is of the first importance in a ball-room. In a
private house, nothing can be better than a smooth, well-
stretched hoUand, with the carpet beneath.

Abundance of light and free ventilation are indispensable to
the spirits and comfort of the dancers.

Good music is as necessary to the prosperity of a ball as
good wine to the excellence of a dinner. No hostess should
tax her friends for this part of the entertainment. It is the
most injurious economy imaginable. Ladies who would pre-
fer to dance are tied to the pianoforte ; and as few amateurs

have been trained in the art of playing dance music, with that
strict attention to time and accent which is absolutely neces-
sary to the comfort of the dancers, a total and general discon-
tent is sure to be the result. To play dance music thoroughly
well is a branch of the art which requires considerable prac-
tice. It is as different from every other kind of playing as
whale fishing is from fly fishing. Those who give private
balls will do well ever to bear this in mind, and to provide
skilled musicians for the evening. For a small party, a piano
and cornopean make a very pleasant combination. Unless
where several instruments are engaged we do not recommend
the introduction of the violin ; although in some respects the
finest of all solo instruments, it is apt to sound thin and shrill
when employed on mere inexpressive dance tunes, .and playcu
by a mere dance player.

Invitations to a ball or dance should be issued in the name of
the lady of the house, and written on small note-paper of the
best quality. Elegant printed forms, same of them printed in
gold or silver, are to be had at every stationer's by those who
prefer them. The paper may be gilt-edged, but not colored.

An invitation to a ball should be sent out at least ten days
before the evening appointed. A fortnight, three weeks, and
even a month may be allowed in the way of notice.

Not more than two or three days should be permitted to
elapse before you reply to an invitation Of this kind. The
reply should always be addressed to the lady of the house,
and should be couched in the same person as the invitation.
The following are the forms generally in use ; —

Mrs. Molyneux requests the honor of Captain Hamilton's company
at an evening party, on Monday, March the nth instant.

Dancing ■will begin at Nine o^ clock.

Thursday, March ist.

Captain Hamilton has much pleasure in accepting Mrs. Molyneux's
polite invitation for Monday evening, March the nth instant.

Friday, March zd.

The old form of " presentmg compliments" is now out of
fashion.

If Mrs. Molynaux writes to Captain Hamilton in the first

PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE.

605 y

4r-

person, as " My dear Sir," he is bound in etiquette to reply
•' My dear Madam."

The lady who gives a ball * should endeavor to secure an
equal number of dancers of both sexes. Many private parties
are spoiled by the preponderance of young ladies, some of
whom never get partners at all, unless they dance with' each
other.

A room should in all cases be provided for the accommoda-
tion of the ladies. In this room there ought to be several
looking-glasses ; attendants to assist the fair visitors in the
arrangement of their hair and dress ; and some place in which
the cloaks and shawls can be laid in order, and found at a
moment's notice. It is well to aflfix tickets to the cloaks, giv-
ing a duplicate at the same time to each lady, as at the public
theaters and concert rooms. Needles and thread should also
be at hand, to repair any little accident incurred in dancing.

Another room should be devoted to refreshments, and kept
amply supplied with coffee, lemonade, ices, wine, and biscuits
during the evening. Where this cannot be arranged, the re-
freshments should be handed round between the dances.

The question of supper is one which so entirely depends on
the means of those who give a ball or evening party, that very
little can be said upon it in a treatise of this description. Where
money is no object, it is of course always preferable to have
the whole supper, " with all appliances and means to boot,"
sent in from some first-rate house. It spares all trouble
whether to the entertainers or their servants, and relieves the
hostess of every anxiety. Where circumstances render such a
course imprudent, we would only observe that a home-provided
supper, however simple, should be good of its kind, and
abundant in quantity. Dancers are generally hungry people,
and feel themselves much aggrieved if the supply of sand-
wiches proves unequal to the demand.

II.-BALL-ROOM TOILETTE.

LADIES.

The style of a lady's dress is a matter so entirely dependent
on age, means, and fashion, that we can offer but little advice
upon it. Fashion is so variable, that statements which are
true of it to-day may be false a month hence. Respecting no
institution of modem society is it so difficult to pronounce
half-a-dozen permanent rules.

We may perhaps be permitted to suggest the following lead-
ing principles ; but we do so with diffidence. Rich colors
harmonize with rich brunette complexions and dark hair.
Delicate colors are the most suitable for delicate and fragile
styles of beauty. Very young ladies are never so suitably
attired as in white. Ladies who dance should wear dresses of
light and diaphanous materials, such as tu/le, gauze, crape,
net, etc., over colored silk slips. Silk dresses are not suitable
for dancing. A married lady who dances only a few quadrilles
may wear a decolletee silk dress with propriety.

Very stout persons should never wear white.' It has the
effect of adding to the bulk of the figure.

* It will tie understcxxl that we use the word " ball " to signify a
private party where there is dancing, as well as a public ball.

Black and scarlet or black and violet are worn in mourn-
ing.

A lady in deep mourning should not dance at all.

However fashionable it may be to wear very long dresses,
those ladies who go to a ball with the intention of dancing
and enjoying the dance, should cause their dresses to be made
short enough to clear the ground. We would ask them
whether it is not better to accept this slight deviation from an
absurd fashion, than to appear for three parts of the evening
in a torn and pinned-up skirt.

Well-made shoes, whatever their color or material, and
faultless gloves, are indispensable to the effect of a ball-room
toilette.

Much jewelry is out of place in a ball-room. Beautiful
flowers, whether natural or artificial, are the loveliest orna
ments that a lady can wear on these occasions.

GENTLEMEN.

A black suit, thin enameled boots, a white neckcloth, and
white or delicate gray gloves, are the chief points of a gen-
tleman's ball-room toilette. He may wear a plain-bosomed
shirt with one stud. White waistcoats are now fashionable.
Much display of jewelry is no proof of good taste. A hand-
some watch-chain with, perhaps, the addition of a few costly
trifles suspended to it, and a single shirt-stud, are the only
adornments of this kind that a gentleman should wear.

A gentleman's dress is necessarily so simple that it admits
of no compromise in point of quality and style. The material
should be the best that money can procure, and the fashion
unexceptionable. So much of the outward man depends on
his tailor, that we would urge no gentleman to economize in
this matter.

ETIQUETTE OF THE BALL-ROOM.

On entering the ball-room, the visitor should at once seek
the lady of the house, and pay his respects to her. Having
done this, he may exchange salutations with such friends and
acquaintances as may be in the room.

If the ball be a public one, and a gentleman desires to
dance with any lady to whom he is a stranger, he must apply
to a member of the floor committee for an introduction.

Even in private balls, no gentleman can invite a lady to
dance without a previous introduction. This introduction
should be effected through the lady of the house or a member
of her family.

No lady should accept an invitation to dance from a gen-
tleman to whom she has not been introduced. In case any
gentleman should commit the error of so inviting her, she
should not excuse herself on the plea of a previous engage-
ment or of fatigue, as to do so would imply that she did not
herself attach due importance to the necessary ceremony of
introduction. Her best reply would be to the effect that she
would have much pleasure in accepting his invitation if he
would procure an introduction to her. This observation may
be taken as applying only to public balls. At a private party
the host and hostess are sufficient guarantees for the respect-
ability of their guests ; and although a gentleman would show
a singular want of knowledge of the laws of society in acting

606

PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE.

4r-

as we have supposed, the lady who should reply to him as if
he were merely an impertinent stranger in a public assembly-
room would be implying an affront to her entertainers. The
mere fact of being assembled together under the roof of a mutual
friend, is in itself a kind of general introduction of the guests
to each other.

An introduction given for the mere purpose of enabling a
lady and gentleman to go through a dance together does not
constitute an acquaintanceship. The lady is at liberty, should
she feel like doing so, to pass the gentleman the next day
without recognition.

To attempt to dance without a knowledge of dancing is not
only to make one's self ridiculous, but one's partner also. No
lady or gentleman has a right to place a partner in this ab-
surd position.

Never forget a ball-room engagement. To do so is to com-
mit an unpardonable offense against good breeding.

It is not necessary that a lady or gentleman should be ac-
quainted with the steps in order to walk gracefully and easily
through a quadrille. An easy carriage and a knowledge of
the figure is all that is requisite. A round dance, however,
should on no account be attempted without a thorough know-
ledge of the steps and some previous practice.

No person who has not a good ear for time and tune need
hope to dance well.

At the conclusion of a dance the gentleman bows to his
partner, and either promenades with her lound the room or
takes her to a seat. Where a room is set apart for refresh-
ments he offers to conduct her thither. At a public ball no
gentleman would, of course, permit a lady to pay for refresh-
ments. Good taste forbids that a lady and gentleman should
dance too frequently together at either a public or private ball.
Engaged persons should be careful not to commit this con-
spicuous solecism.

If a lady happens to forget a previous engagement, and
stands up with another partner, the gentleman whom she has
thus slighted is bound to believe that she has acted from mere
inadvertence, and should by no means suffer his pride to
master his good temper. To cause a disagreeable scene in a
private ball-room is to affront your host and hostess, and to
make yourself absurd. In a public room it is no less repre-
hensible.

Always remember that good breeding and good temper (or
the appearance of good temper) are inseparably connected.

Young gentlemen are earnestly advised not to limit their
conversation to remarks on the weath«r and the heat of the
room. It is to a certatin extent incumbent on them to do
something more than dance when they invite a lady to join a
quadrille. If it be only upon the news of the day, a gentle-
man should be able to afford at least three or four observations
to his partner in the course of a long half hour.

Gentlemen who dance cannot be too careful not to injure
the dresses of the ladies who do them the honor to stand up
with them. The young men of the present day are singularly
careless in this respect, and when they have torn a lady's deli-
cate skirt appear to think the mischief they have d<me scarcely
worth the trouble of an apology.

A gentleman conducts his last partner to the supper-room.

and having waited upon her while there, re-conducts her to
the ball-room.

Never attempt to take a place in a dance which has been
previously engaged.

A thoughtful hostess will never introduce a bad dancer to a
good one, because she has no right to punish one friend in
order to oblige another.

It is not customary for married persons to dance together in
society.

IV.-THE QUADRILLE.

The Quadrille is the most universal, as it is certainly the
most sociable of all fashionable dances. It admits of pleasant
conversation, frequent interchange of partners, and is adapted
to every age, the young or old ; the ponderous paterfamilias
or his sylph-like daughter, may with equal propriety take
part in its easy and elegant figures. Even an occasional blunder
is of less consequence in this dance than in many others,
for each personage is in some degree free as to his own move-
ments, not being compelled by the continual embrace of his
partner to dance either better or worse than he may find con-
venient.

People now generally walk through a quadrille. Nothing
more than a perfect knowledge of the figure, a graceful
demeanor, and a correct ear for the time of the music are
requisite to enable any one to take a creditable part in this
dance.

As soon as a gentleman has engaged his partner for the
quadrille, he should endeavor to secure as his vis-a-vis some
friend or acquaintance and should then lead his partner to the
top of the quadrille, provided that post of honor be still
vacant. He will place the lady always at his right hand.

Quadrille music is divided into eight bars for each part of
the figure ; two steps should be taken in every bar ; every
movement thus invariably consists of eight or four steps.

It is well not to learn too many new figures : the memory is
liable to become confused among them ; besides which, it is
doubtful whether your partner, or your vis-a-vis, is as learned
in the matter as yourself. Masters are extremely fond of in-
venting and teaching new figures ; but you will do well to
confine your attention to a few simple and universally received
sets, which you will find quite sufficient for your purpose. We
begin with the oldest and most common, the

FIRST SET OF QUADRILLES.

First Figure. — Le Pantalon.

The couples at the top and bottom of the quadrille cross to
each other's places in eight steps, occupying four bars of the
time ; re -cross immediately to their own places, which com-
pletes the movement of eight bars. This is called the Chaine
Anglaise. The gentleman always keeps to the right of vis-a-
vis lady in crossing, thus placing her inside.

Set to partners, or balanccz ; turn your partners. (This oc-
cupies the second eight bars.) Ladies chain, or chaine des
dames, (Eight bars more.) Each couple crosses to opposite
couple's place, gentleman giving his hand to his partner : this
is called half-promenade. Couples recross right and left to

PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE.

607

•^

their places, without giving hands, which completes another

eight bars, and ends the figure.

The side couples repeat what the top and bottom couples

have done.

Second Figure.— L'Ettf.

The ladies in all the top couples, and their vis-h-vis gentle-
men, advance four steps, and retire the same, repeating this
movement once again, which makes the first eight bars.

Top ladies and vis-a-vis gentlemen cross to each other's
places ; advance four steps ; retreat ditto ; cross back towards
partners, who set to them as they advance ; turn partners,
which ends first half of figure.

Second ladies and top vis-a-vis gentlemen execute the same
movements. Then side couples begin, the privilege of com-
mencement being conferred on those ladies who stand at the
fight of the top couples.

This figure is sometimes performed in a different manner,
known as double L'Ete. Instead of the top lady and vis-a-vis
gentleman advancing alone, they advance with partners, join-
ing hands ; cross and return, as in the single figure. This
variation is, however, somewhat out of vogue, except (as will
presently be seen) in the last figure of the quadrille, where it
is still frequently introduced.

Third Figure.— La Poule.

Top lady and vis-a-vis gentleman cross to each other's places,
giving right hand in passing ; cross back again with left hand.
(Eight bars.) The two couples form in a line, and join hands,
the left hand of one holding the right hand of his or her
neighbor, so that each faces different ways ; in this position
all four balancez, then half promenade with partner to opposite
place : top lady and vis-a-vis gentleman advance four steps and
retire ditto. (2d eight bars.) Both top and bottom couples
advance together, and retire the same ; then re-cross right and
left to places. (3d eight bars.) Second lady and first oppos-
ite gentleman repfeat figure. Side couples repeat, observing
same rule for commencement as in VEtd.

Fourth Figure.- La Trenise.

Top couples join hands, advance four steps and retreat
ditto ; advance again, gentleman leaving lady at left hand of
vis-a-vis gentleman, and retiring alone. (ist eight bars.)
Two ladies advance, crossing to opposite side ; gentleman ad-
vances to meet his partner, vis-a-vis lady returns to hers. (2d
eight bars.) Balancez; turns partners to places. (3d eight
bars.) Second couple performs same figure ; side couples re-
peat as before.

If La Pastorale be preferred, it will be performed thus : —
Top couples advance and retreat ; advance, gentleman leading
lady to left hand of vis-a-vis gentleman ; he advances with
both ladies four steps, retreating ditto ; again advancing he
leaves both ladies with first gentleman, retreating alone ; top
gentleman and both ladies advance and retreat ; again ad-
vance, joining hands in ciiole, go half round, half promenade
to opposite places, then return right and left to their own.
Second couples and side couples repeat as before.
Fifth Figure.- La Finale.

Begin with the grand rond or great round ; that is, the
whole quadrille ; first and second couples and sides join hands

all around, advance four steps, and retreat ditto. L' Et/'is now
sometimes introduced, iht grand rond hG.ing repeated between
each division of the figure. But it gives a greater variety and
brio to the quadrille if, after the first grand rond, the follow-
ing figure be performed, the galop step being used throughout.
Each gentleman (at top and bottom couples) takes his lady
round the waist, as for the galop ; advance four steps, retreat
ditto, advance again, cross to opposite places ; advance, re-
treat, re-cross to own places. Ladies chain ; half promenade
across ; half right and left to places ; grand rond. Side
couples repeat figure. Grand rond between each division and
at the conclusion. Bow to your partners, and conduct your
lady to seat.

v.— THE LANCERS.

The Lancers Quadrille is perhaps the most graceful and
animated of any. Within the last few years it has become
a great favorite in fashionable circles. It admits of much
skill and elegance in executing its quick and varied figures, a
correct acquaintance with which is absolutely requisite to all
who take part in it. Unlike the common quadrille, the Lan-
cers must be danced by four couples only in each set ; though
of course there can be many sets dancing at the same time.
The number being so limited, one awkward or ignorant person
confuses the whole set ; therefore, it is indispensable that
every one who dances in this quadrille should have a thorough
mastery of its graceful intricacies. We have observed that of
late it has become the fashion to substitute new tunes and
new figures for the old well-known music of the Lancers
Quadrille, We cannot consider this an improvement. The
old simple melodies are peculiarly fitted to the sprightly, joy-
ous character of the dance ; which is more than can be said
for any of the modern substitutes. When these are used,
the Lancers, in our opinion, loses its individuality and spirit,
becoming almost like a common quadrille. We should be
heartily glad to see the old tunes restored, once for all, to their
rightful supremacy.

The sets of four couples, top, opposite, and sides, having
been arranged, the dance begins as follows : —

ist Figure. — First lady and opposite gentleman advance
and retreat ; advance again, joining their hands ; pass round
each other and back to places, (ist eight bars.) Top couple
join hands, and cross, opposite couple crossing at the same
time, separately, outside them ; the same reversed, back to
places. (2d eight bars.) All the couples balancez to corners ;
each gentleman turns his neighbor's partner back to places.
(3d eight bars.) Second couple repeat figure from beginning;
after them side couples, those who stand to the right of top
couple having always the priority, as in the common quad-
rille.

2d Figure. — First couple advance and retreat, gentleman
holding lady's left hand ; advance again ; gentleman leaves
his partner in the center of the quadrille, and retires to place,
(ist eight bars.) Balancez to each other and turn to places.
(2d eight bars.) Side couples join first and second couples,
forming a line of four on either side. Each line advances
four steps, retreats ditto ; then advances again, each gentle-
man reclaiming his partner, and all turn to places. Second
and side couples repeat figure in succession.

6o8

PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE.

2,d Figure. — First lady advances four steps alone, and stops;
vis-d-vis gentleman does the same ; first lady retires, facing
gentleman, to whom she makes a slow profound courtesy.
(The courtesy must occupy a bar or two of the music ; and as,
if made with grace and dignity, it is most effective, we would
recommend ladies to practice it carefully beforehand.) The
gentleman at the same time bows and retires (ist eight bars).
All four ladies advance to center, give right hands across to
each other (which is called the double chain), and left hand to
vis-a-vis gentleman ; then back again, left hands across in the
middle, and right hands to partners back to places, (ad eight
bars.) Second and side couples repeat figure from commence-
ment.

A more recent fashion for dancing this figure is as follows :
Instead of one lady advancing at first, all four advance, and
courtesy to each other ; then turn and courtesy to their part-
ners. Ladies do the moulinet in the center ; that is, give
right hands across to each other, and half round ; left hands
across back again, and return to places. Gentlemen meantime
all move round outside the ladies, till each has regained his
place. Figure as usual repeated four times ; but the second
and fourth time the gentlemen advance instead of the ladies,
and bow, first to each other, then to their partners; continuing
as before through the rest of the figure.

^th Figure. — Top gentleman, taking partner's left hand,
leads her to the couple on their right, to whom they bow and
courtesy (which civility must be met with the like acknowledg-
ment), then cross quickly to fourth couple, and do the same,
(ist eight bars.) All four couples chassez croisez right and left
(gentleman invariably passing behind his partner), then turn
hands {tour des mains) back to places. (2d eight bars.) First
and opposite couples right and left across and back again to
places. (3d eight bars.) Second and sides repeat as usual.

5M Figure. — This figure commences with the music. Each
couple should stand ready, the gentleman facing his partner,
his right hand holding hers. If every one does not start di-
rectly the music begins, and does not observe strict time
throughout, this somewhat intricate figure becomes hopelessly
embarrassed ; but, when well danced, it is the prettiest of the
set. It commences with the grande chaine all round ; each
gentleman giving his right hand to his partner at starting, his
left to the next lady, then his right again, and so all round,
till all have returned to their places. (This occupies sixteen
bars of the music.) First couple promenade inside figure, re-
turning to places with their backs turned to opposite couple.
The side couple on their right falls in immediately behind
them ; the fourth couple follows, the second couple remaining
in their places. A double line is thus formed — ladies on one
side and gentlemen on the other. (3d eight bars.) All chassez
croisez, ladies left, gentlemen right, behind partners. First
lady leads off, turning sharply round to the right ; first gentle-
man does the same to the left, meeting at the bottom of the
quadrille, and promenade back to places. All the ladies fol-
low first lady ; all the gentlemen follow first gentleman ; and
as each meets his partner at the bottom of the figure, they
touch hands, then fall back in two lines — ladies on one side,
gentlemen on the other — facing each other. (4th eight bars.)
Four ladies join hands, advance, and retreat ; four gentlemen

ditto at the same time ; then each turns his partner to places.
(5th eight bars.) Grande chaine again. Second and side
couples repeat the whole figure in succession, each couple tak-
ing its turn to lead off, as the first had done. Grande chaine
between each figure and in conclusion.

VI.-THE LANCERS FOR SIXTEEN, OR
DOUBLE LANCERS.

\st Figure. — Two first ladies and vis-a-vis gentlemen begin
at the same moment, and go through the figure as in Single
Lancers. All balancez to corners ; in other words, each lady
sets to gentlemen at her right, who turns her to her place.
Second couples and sides repeat as usual.

"Zd Figure. — First couples advance, retreat, advance again,
leaving ladies in center ; set to partners and turn to places.
Two side couples nearest first couples join them ; two side
couples nearest second couples do the same, thus forming eight
in each line. They all advance and retreat, holding hands,
then turn partners to places. Repeated by second and side
couples as usual.

3af Figure. — First ladies advance and stop ; vis-a-vis gen-
tlemen ditto ; courtesy profoundly, bow, and back to places.
Ladies do the moulinet, gentlemen go round outside, and back
to places. Or, ladies advance and courtesy to each other and
then to partners ; gentlemen doing the same when the second
and fourth couples begin the figure, as in Single Lancers.

^ih Figure. —'^irst couples advance to couples on their right ;
bow and courtesy ; cross to opposite side, bow and cour-
tesy, chassez croisez, and return to place. Right and left to
opposite places, and back again. Second couples and sides
repeat figure.

e,th Figure. — Grande chaine all round, pausing at the end of
every eight bars to bow and courtesy ; continue chaine back to
places, which will occupy altogether thirty-two bars of the
music. Figure almost the same as in Single Lancers. Both
first couples lead around, side couples falling in behind, thus
forming four sets of lines. Figure repeated by second and
side couples ; grande chaine between each figure and at the
conclusion.

VIL DOUBLE QUADRILLE.

This quadrille contains the same figures as the common
quadrille, but so arranged that they are danced by fou>-
instead of two couples. All quadrille music suits it ; and it
occupies just half the time of the old quadrille. It makes
an agreeable variety in the movements of the dance, and is
easily learned. It requires four couples.

First Figure. — Pantalon.

First and second couples right and left, whilst side couples
dance the chaine Anglaise outside them. All four couples set
to partners and turn them. Four ladies form ladies' chain, or
hands across in the middle of the figure, giving first right
hands, and then left, back to places. Half promenade, first
and second couples do chaine Anglaise, while side couples
do grande chaine round them. This leaves all in their right
places, and ends figure.

PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE.

609

Second Figure. — L'Etc.

First lady, and lady on her right hand, perform the figui-e
with their vis-^-zis gentlemen, as ui common L'Ete ; taking
care, when they cross, to make a semi-circle to the left.
Second couple and second side cor.ple repeat figure, as in com-
mon L'Et^,

Third Figure.— i^a Poule.

Top lady and vis-a-vis gentleman, lady at her right, and
her opposite gentleman, perform figure at the same time, set-
ting to each other in two cross lines. Other couples follow as

usual.

Fourth Figure.— La Pastorale.

The first and opposite couples dance the figure, not with
each other, but with the couples to their right. The latter do
the same with first and second couples.

Fifth Figure.— Finale.

Galopade all round. Top and opposite couples galopade
forwards, and retreat. As they retreat side couples advance ;
and, as they retreat in their turn, first and second couples gal-
opade to each others places. Side couples the same. First
and second couples advance again ; side couples the same as
the others retreat ; first and second back to places as side
couples retreat. Side couples back to places. Double chaine
des dames, and galopade all round. Then side couples repeat
figure as usual, and galop all round in conclusion.

It is requisite to keep correct time and step in this quad-
rille, which would otherwise become much confused.

VIII. THE POLKA.

The origin of this once celebrated dance is difficult to ascer-
tain. It is believed by some to be of great antiquity, and to
have been brought into Germany from the East. Others affirm
that its origin is of more recent date, and its birthplace con-
siderably nearer home. An authority on these matters re-
marks : "In spite of what those professors say who proclaim
themselves to have learned the Polka in Germany, or as being
indebted for it to an Hungarian nobleman, we are far from
placing confidence in their assertions. In our opinion Paris
is Its birthplace, and its true author, undoubtedly, the now
far-famed Monsieur Cellarius, for whom this offspring of his
genius has gained a European celebrity."

Whatever we may be inclined to believe with regard to this
disputed question, there can be no doubt of the wide-spread
popularity which for many years was enjoyed by the Polka.
When first introduced in 1843, it was received with enthusi-
asm ; and it effected a complete revolution in the style of
dancing which had prevailed up to that period. A brisk,
lively character was imparted even to the steady-going quad-
rille ; the old Valse a Trois Temps was pronounced insuffera-
bly " slow " ; and its brilliant rival, the Valse h Deux Temps,
which had been recently introduced, at once established the
supremacy which it has ever since maintained. The galop,
which had been until this period only an occasional dance,
now assumed a prominent post in every ball-room, dividing
the honors with the valse.

Perhaps no dance affords greater facilities for the display of

ignorance or skill, elegance or vulgarity, than the Polka. The
step is simple and easily acquired, but the method of dancing
it varies ad infinitum. Some persons race and romp through
the dance in a manner fatiguing to themselves and dangerous
to their fellow-dancers. Others (though this is more rare)
drag their partner listlessly along, with a sovereign contempt
alike for the requirements of the time and the spirit of the
music. Some gentlemen hold their partner so tight that she is
half suffocated ; others hold her so loosely that she continually
slips away from them. All these extremes are equally objec-
tionable, and defeat the graceful intention of the dance. It
should be performed quietly, but with spirit, and always in
strict time. The head and shoulders should be kept still, not
jerked and turned at every step, as is the manner of some.
The feet should glide swiftly along the floor — not hopping or
jumping as if the boards were red-hot.

You should clasp your partner lightly but firmly round the
waist with your right arm.

Your left hand takes her right hand ; but beware of elevat.
ing your arm and hers in the air, or holding them out straight,
which suggests the idea of windmills.

Above all, never place your left hand on your hip or behind
you. In the first place, you thus drag your partner too much
forward, which makes her look ungraceful ; in the next, this
attitude is never used except in casinos, and it is almost an
insult to introduce it in a respectable ball-room.

Let the hand which clasps your partner's fall easily by your
side in a natural position, and keep it there. Your partner's
left hand rests on your right shoulder ; her right arm is thrown
a little forwards toward your left.

The Polka is danced in \ time. There are three steps in
each bar ; the fourth beat is always a rest.

It is next to impossible to describe in words the step of the
Polka, or of any circular dance : nothing but example can
correctly teach it ; and although we shall do our best to be as
clear as possible, we would earnestly recommend those of our
readers who desire to excel, whether in this or the following
dances, to take a few lessons from some competent instructor.
The gentleman starts with his left foot, the lady with her
right. We shall describe the step as danced by the gentle-
man ; the same directions, reversing the order of the feet, will
apply to the lady.

1st beat. — Spring slightly on right foot, at the same time
slide left foot forward.

2d beat. — Bring right foot forward by glissade, at the same
time raising left foot.

2d beat. — Bring left foot slightly forward and fall upon it,
leaving right foot raised, and the knee slightly bent, ready to
begin the step at the first beat of the next bar.

4M beat. — Remain on left foot. Begin next bar with the
right foot, and repeat the step to end of third beat. Begin
the following bar with left foot, and so on ; commencing
each bar with right or left foot alternately.

The Polka is danced with a circular movement, like the
Valse ; in each bar you half turn, so that by the end of the
second bar, you have brought your partner completely round.

The circular movement of the Polka admits of two direc-
tions — from right or left or from left to right. The ordinary

6io

PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE.

•^

direction is from right to left. The opposite one is known as
the reverse step. It is more difficult to execute, but is a pleas-
ant change for skilled dancers, if they have become giddy from
turning too long in one direction.

In dancing the Polka, or any circular dance where a large
number of couples are performing at the same time, the gen-
tleman must be careful to steer his fair burden safely through
the mazes of the crowded ball-room. A little watchfulness
can almost always avoid collisions, and a good dancer would
consider himself disgraced if any mishap occurred to a lady
under his care. Keep a sharp lookout, and avoid crowded
corners. Should so many couples be dancing as to render
such caution impossible, stop at once and do not go on until
the room has become somewhat cleared. In a few minutes
others will have paused to rest, and you can then continue. Your
partner will be grateful that your consideration has preserved
her from the dismal plight in which we have seen some ladies
emerge from this dance — their coiffeurs disordered, their dresses
lorn, and their cheeks crimson with fatigue and mortification,
while their indignant glances plainly showed the anger they
did not care to express in words, and which their reckless
partner had fully deserved. A torn dress is sometimes not
the heaviest penalty incurred : we have known more than one
instance where ladies have been lamed for weeks through the
culpable carelessness of their partners ; their tender feet having
been half crushed beneath some heavy boot in one of these awk-
ward collisions. This is a severe price to pay for an even-
ing's amusement, and gentlemen are bound to be cautious how
they inflict it or anything approaching to it, upon their fair
companions. Ladies, on the other hand will do well to re-
member that by leaning heavily upon their partner's shoulder,
dragging back from his encircling arm, or otherwise impeding
the freedom of his movements, they materially add to his
labor and take from his pleasure in the dance. They should
endeavor to lean as lightly, and give as little trouble as possi-
ble ; for, however flattering to the vanity of the nobler sex
may be the idea of feminine dependence, we question whether
the reality, in the shape of a dead weight upon their aching
arms throughout a Polka or a Valse of twenty minutes' dura-
tion, would be acceptable to even the most chivalrous among
them.

We have been thus minute in our instructions, because they
not only apply to the Polka, but equally to all circular dances
where a great number stand up to dance at the same time.
We now pass on to the Mazourka.

The time of the Mazourka is f , like the common valse ; but
it should be played much more slowly ; if danced quickly, it
becomes an unmeaning succession of hops, and its graceful
character is destroyed.

We describe the step as danced by the lady ; for the gen-
gentleman it will be the same, with the feet reversed ; that is,
for right foot read left, and so on.

First Step.

\st and 2d beats. - Spring on left foot, sliding forward right
foot at the same time, and immediately let your weight rest on
the forward foot. This occupies two beats.

id beat. — Spring on right foot ; this ends the bar.

2d bar, 1st and 2d beats. — Spring again on right foot, and
slide forward left at same time. Rest on it a moment as be-
fore during second beat ; at third beat spring on it ; which
ends second bar. Continue same step throughout. You will
perceive that, at the first and third beats of the time, you hop
slightly, resting, during the second beats, on the foremost foot.

Second Step.

1st beat. — Spring on left foot, slightly striking both heels
together.

2d beat. — Slide right foot to the right, bending the knee.

2d beat. — Bring the left foot up to right foot with a slight
spring, raising right foot ; which ends the first bar.

2d bar, 1st beat. — Spring again on left foot, striking it with
heel of right.

2d beat. — Slide right foot to the right.

2,d beat. — Fall on right foot, raising left foot behind it,
which ends the second bar. Reverse the step by springing
first on the right foot, and sliding the left, etc. The music
generally indicates that this step should be repeated three
times to the right, which occupies three bars then rest during
the fourth bar, and return with reverse step to the left during
the three bars which follow, resting again at the eighth bar.

Third Step.

1st beat. — Spring on left foot, and slide right foot to the
right.

2d beat. — Rest on right foot.

^d beat. — Spring on right foot, bringing left foot up be-
hind it.

2d bar, 1st beat. — Spring on right foot, sliding left foot to
the left.

2d beat. — Rest on left foot.

3(/ beat, — Hop on left foot, bringing right behind as before.
Continue at pleasure.

The first of these three steps is most commonly used in the
valse ; but the second is an agreeable change for those who
may have grown giddy or weary in doing the Jigure en tour-
nant (circular movement).

Be careful not to exaggerate the slight hop at the first and
third beats of each bar ; and to slide the foot gracefully for-
ward, not merely to make a step, as some bad dancers do.

IX. THE MAZOURKA QUADRILLE.

This elegant quadrille has five figures, and can be performed
by any even number of couples. The music, like the step,
is that of the Mazourka. The couples are arranged as in the
ordinary quadrille.

Join hands all round ; grand rond to the left (four bars),
then back again to the right (four bars), employing the secoftd
step of the Mazourka. Each couple does the petit tour ior-wards
and backwards, still using the second step, and repeating it
three times to the right — then resting a bar ; three times to
the left — then resting another bar ; which occupies eight bars
of the music. These figures may be considered as prelimi.
nary.

1st Figure. — Top and bottom couples right and left (eight

PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE.

6ii

bars), with Redowa step ;* then they advance, the ladies cross
over, the gentlemen meanwhile pass quickly round each other,
and return to own places (four bars) ; /if/// tour forward with
opposite ladies (four bars) ; right and left (eight bars) ; ad-
vance again ; the ladies return to own places, and the gentle-
men pass again round each other to their own ladies (four
bars ; petit tour backward (four bars). Side couples do like-
wise.

zd Figure. — (Eight bars rest). Top and bottom couples
advance and retire, hands joined (four bars). All cross over
into opposite places, each going to each other's left (four
bars) ; petit tour forward (four bars) ; advance and retire (four
bars), and return to places (four bars) ; petit tour (four bars).
Side couples do likewise.

yl Figure. — (Eight bars rest.) Top and bottom ladies cross
over into opposite places (four bars) ; return, presenting left
hand to each other, and right hand to partner, as in La Foule
(four bars) ; pass round with partners into opposite places
(four bars) ; petit tour backward (four bars) ; vis-a-vis couples
hands across, round (six bars) ; retire (two bars) ; top and
bottom ladies cross over (four bars) ; ladies cross again, giv-
ing each other left hands, and right to partners (four bars).*
All pass round to ovija. places (four bars) ; petit tour backward
(four bars).

^th Figure. — (Eight bars rest.) Top couple lead round in-
side the figure (eight bars) ; petit tour forward and backward
(eight bars) ; advance to opposite couple ; the gentleman
turns half round without quitting his partner, and gives his
left hand to opposite lady ; the two ladies join hands behind
gentleman (four bars) ; in this position the three advance and
retire (eight bars). The gentleman passes under the ladies'
arms ; all three pass round to the left, with second step of
Mazourka, the opposite lady finishing in her own place (four
bars). The top couple return to places (four bars) ; petit tour
forward (four bars). Opposite couple and side couples do
likewise.

<itk Figure. — (Eight bars rest.) Top and bottom couples
half right and left (four bars) ; petit tour backward (four bars) ;
half right and left to places (four bars) ; petit tour backward
(four bars) ; vis-a-vis couples hands round to opposite places
(four bars) ; petit tour forward (four bars) ; hands round to
own places (four bars) ; petit lour (four bars) ; right and left
(eight bars).

Side couples do likewise.

Finale. — Grand round all to the left, and then to the right
(sixteen bars) ; grand chain, as in the Lancers, with first step
of Mazourka (sixteen bars). But if there are more than eight
in the quadrille, the music must be continued until all have
regained their places.

N.B. — Music continues during rests.

X.— THE POLKA MAZOURKA.

The step of this dance is, as its name implies, a mixture of
the steps of the Polka and the Mazourka. The time is |
quicker than that of the Mazourka.

Gentleman takes his partner as in the valse. Figure en

•This step will be found farther on under the head of Redowa Valse.

toumant. We describe the steps for the gentleman ; the lady
simply reverses the order of the feet, using left foot for right
throughout.

\st beat. — Rest on right foot, with left foot a little raised
behind, and slide left foot to the left.

id beat, — Spring on the right foot, bringing it up to where
left foot is, and raising the latter in front.

"id beat. — Spring once more on right foot, passing left foot
behind without touching the ground with it ; this ends first
bar.

2d bar, 1st beat. — Slide left foot to the left, as before.

2d beat. — Spring on right foot, as before, and bring it up
to the place of left foot, raising latter at same moment.

2d beat. — Fall on the left foot, and raise the right foot
behind ; end of second bar.

Begin third bar with right foot, and continue as before.
You turn half round in the first three beats, and complete the
circle in the second three.

XI -THE REDOWA, OR REDOVA.

The step of this valse somewhat resembles that of the
Mazourka, and is used, as we have seen, in dancing the Ma-
zourka Quadrille. It is an elegant valse, not so lively as the
Polka Mazourka, but, if danced in correct time, not too
slowly, is very graceful and pleasing. The step is not so diffi-
cult as that of the Mazourka : it is almost a Fas de Basque,
with the addition of the hop. In all these dances, which par-
take of the nature of the Mazourka, it is requisite to mark
distinctly the first and third beats of every bar, otherwise the
peculiar character of the movement is completely lost. We
describe the step for the lady as it is employed in the forward
movement.

1st beat. — Stand with right foot slightly forward ; spring
upon it, bringing it behind left foot, which is raised at same
time.

2d beat. — Slide your left foot forward, bending the knee.

2d beat. — Bring your right foot, with a slight hop, up behind
your left foot, raising the latter and keeping it in front. (One
bar.) ■

1st beat. — Spring upon your left foot, passing it behind your
right, and raising latter.

2^fefl/.— Slide right foot forward, bending the knee.

^d beat. — Bring left foot up to right, with slight hop, and
raise right foot at same moment, keeping it in front as be-
fore.

WTien the figure en toumant (circular movement) is em-
ployed, the lady begins by sliding the left foot forward, and
the right foot backward. Gentleman always does the same,
with order of feet reversed.

This dance has been very popular in Paris ; in England it is
now seldom seen.

XII.— THE SCHOTTISCHE.

The Schottische was introduced about the same time as the
Polka Mazourka. Its origin is as uncertain as that of the
Polka, and it is believed to be a very ancient national dance.
It is a great favorite with the Gennan peasantry ; and although
its name, Schottische, would seem to imply that it came form

'%r-

-<^

6l2

PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE.

Scotland, there is no doubt that it is essentially German alike
in character and in music.

The step, although easy to learn, requires great precision.
We would recommend our readers to adhere throughout to the
circular movement. Some dancers begin by four steps to the
right, then back again, not turning until they commence the
second half of the figure. But when many couples are danc-
ing this practice involves a risk of collisions, and it is safer to
begin at once with the figure en toumant. The second part
of the step consists of a series of slight hops, which must be
made exactly at the same moment by both parties, otherwise a
break-down is inevitable. They should be executed as quickly
as possible, so as to avoid iht jigging effect which bad dancers
impart to the Schottische. When well performed it is a very
animated and elegant dance, forming an agreeable variety to
the Polka and Valse.

The time is ^ ; it should be played a good deal slower than
the Polka ; when hurried it becomes ungraceful and vulgar.
The first and third beat in each bar should be slightly marked.

We proceed to describe the step as danced by the gentle-
man.

Slide the left foot forward ; bring right foot close behind
left foot. Slide left foot forward a second time. Spring
upon left foot. Then do the same with right foot.

Having completed four steps, first with the left foot, and
then with the right, you come to the second part, which con-
sists of a series of double hops, two on each foot alternately.
Hop twice on the left foot (one hop for each beat of time),
and half turn round ; then twice on the right, completing the
circular movement. Repeat the same through another four
beats ; then resume first step through the next two bars, and
continue to alternate them every second bar. You can also
vary the dance at pleasure, by continuing the first step with-
out changing it for the hops ; or you can likewise continue
these throughout several bars in succession ; taking care, of
course, to appraise your partner of your intention. Even when
well and quietly danced, there is something undignified in the
hopping movement of the second step ; and we have observed
with satisfaction that for some time past it has been replaced
by the step of the Valse a Deux Temps, which is now gener-
ally used instead of the double hops.

XIII.— LA VARSOVIENNE.

This is a round dance for two, which, like the Polka Ma-
zourka, is a combination of the steps of one or two other
dances. Since the introduction of the Polka and the Ma-
zourka, several dances have been invented which partake
largely of the character of both. La Varsovienne is very
graceful. It is not often danced now.

Take your partner as for the valse. Count three in each
bar. Time much the same as in Polka Mazourka. The
music is generally divided into parts of sixteen bars each.
The step for the gentleman is as follows in the first part : —

Slide left foot to the left ; slightly spring forward with
right foot, twice, leaving the left foot raised behind, in readi-
ness for next step, (ist bar.) Repeat the same. (2d bar.)
One polka step, during which turn. (3d bar.) Bring your

right foot to the second position, and wait a whole bar. (4th
bar.) Resume first step with right foot, and repeat through-
out, reversing order of feet. Lady, as usual, begins with her
right foot, doing the same step.

Second step in second part. 1st bar. — Gentleman, beginning
with his left foot, does one polka step to the left, turning
partner.

"id bar. — Bring right foot to the second position, and bend
towards it ; wait a whole bar.

3^ bat. — One polka step with right foot to the right, turn-
ing partner.

4M bar. — Left foot to second position ; bend towards it,
and wait as before.

Third part. — Take three polka steps to the left. (This
occupies three bars.) Bring right foot to second position, and
wait one bar. Repeat the same, beginning with right foot to
the right.

XIV.— THE GORLITZA.

This is a Polish round dance for two. Like the Varsovienne,
it is now seldom seen beyond the walls of the dancing acad-
emy. Perhaps one reason of its short-lived popularity is to
be found in the fact that it is rather troublesome to learn, the
steps being changed continually. The time is the same as
the Schottische, but not quite so quick. Take your position as
for the Polka.

\st bar. — One polka step to the left, beginning with left
foot, and turning half round.

id ^ar.— Slide your right foot to right ; bring left foot up
close behind it, as in the fifth position ; make a glissade with
your right foot, ending with your left in front.

3^ bar. — Spring on your right foot, raising your left in
front. Fall on your left foot, passing it behind your right
foot. Glissade right with right foot, ending with left in front.

^th bar. — Again spring on right foot, raising left in front.
Fall on left foot, passing it behind right. Glissade to right,
with your right foot ; end with same foot in front. Then re-
peat from beginning during the next four bars, but the second
time be careful to end with the left foot in front. During the
last two bars you turn round, but do not move forward.

The step for the lady is the same, with the order of the
feet, as usual, reversed ; except, however, in the last two bars
of this figure, which both begin with the same foot.

The Gorlitza, like the preceding dance, is divided into parts.
The first part occupies eight bars of the music ; the second
sixteen bars. The step for the second part is as follows : —

\st four bars. — Commence with Polka Mazourka step, with
left foot to the left, and turn half round. Then do the step of
Mazourka to the right, beginning with the right foot. Fall on
left foot, keeping it behind right foot ; glissade with right
foot, and end with same in front.

id four bars. — Polka Mazourka with right foot to the right,
and turn half round. Mazourka step with left foot to the left.
Fall on right foot, keeping it behind ; glissade with left foot,
bringing it behind.

Repeat from beginning, which completes the sixteen bars of
second half of the figure.

Lady does the same steps, with order of feet reversed.

PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE.

613

XV.— THE VALSE A TROIS TEMPS.

Forty years ago, the Valse (or as it was then pronounced,
Waltz) was a stately measure, danced with gravity and delib-
eration. Each couple wheeled round and round with digni-
fied composure, never interrupting the monotony of the
dance by any movements forward or backward. They conse-
quently soon became giddy, although the music was not played
above half as fast as the valse music of our day. We are
bound to admit that this stately fashion of waltzing was in-
finitely more graceful than the style which has superseded it.
But having confessed so much, we may venture to add that
Valse, as danced by the present generation, possesses a spirit,
lightness, and variety quite unknown to its stately predecessor.

Although we cannot regret the introduction of a more ani-
mated style of dancing, we are sorry that the old Waltz has
been so entirely given up. When restored to its original
temps, the Valse a Trois Temps is nearly as spirited as the
Valse a Deux ; and twice as graceful. It has the additional
advantage over the latter, that it contains in each bar three
steps to three beats of the time ; whereas the Deux Temps,
as its name implies, numbers only two steps in a bar of three
notes ; and is thus incorrect in time. We venture to predict
that the old Waltz will, at no distant day, be restored to pub-
lic favor.

Gentleman takes his partner round the waist with his right
arm ; his left hand holds hers, as in the Polka. Lady places
left hand on his shoulder, and right hand in his left hand.
Begin at once with the figure en toumant. Time f ; one step
to each beat. First beat in each bar should be slightly marked
by the dancers.

1st beat. — Slide left foot backwards, towards the left.

2d beat. — Slide your right foot past your left in same di-
rection, keeping right foot behind left, and turning slightly to
the right.

3</ beat. — Bring left foot up behind right (one bar). »

i.r/ beat. — Slide right foot forward toward the right.

2d beat. — Slide left foot forward, still turning towards right.

2d beat. — Bring right foot up to right, turning on both feet,
so as to complete the circle (two bars). Remember to finish
with right foot in front. Repeat from first beat of first bar.
Gentleman always turns from left to right ; lady from right to
left.

The step of the old Waltz is simple enough ; nevertheless
some practice is required to dance it really well. Remember
always to slide, not to step, forward ; for the beauty of this
valse consists in its gliding motion. It is not at first easy to
dance swiftly and quietly at the same time ; but a little pa-
tience will soon enable you to conquer that difficulty, and to
do full justice to what is, in our opinion, the most perfectly
graceful of all the round dances, without a single exception.

XVI. THE VALSE A DEUX TEMPS.

We are indebted to the mirth-loving capital of Austria for
this brilliant Valse.

This Valse is incorrect in time. Two steps can never properly
be made to occupy the space of three beats in the music.
The ear requires that each beat shall have its step. This in-

accuracy in the measure has exposed the Valse a Deux Temps
to the just censure of musicians, but has never interfered with
its. success among dancers. We must caution our readers,
however, against one mistake often made by the inexperienced.
They imagine that it is unnecessar)' to observe any rule of
time in this dance, and are perfectly careless whether they
begin the step at the beginning, end, or middle of the bar.
This is quite inadmissible. Every bar must contain within its
three beats two steps. These steps must begin and end strictly
with the beginning and end of each bar ; otherwise a hopeless
confusion of the measure will ensue. Precision in this matter
is the more requisite, because of the peculiarity in the meas-
ure. If the first step in each bar be not strongly marked, the
valse measure has no chance of making itself apparent ; and
the dance becomes a meaningless galop.

The step contains two movements, a glissade and a chassez,
following each other quickly in the same direction. Gentle-
man begins as usual with his left foot ; lady with her right.
1st beat. — Glissade to the left with left foot.
2d and ^dieats. — Chassez in the same direction with right
foot ; do not turn in this first bar.

2d bar, 1st beat — Slide right foot backwards, turning half
round.

2d and 2d beats. — Pass left foot behind right, and chassez
forward with it, turning half round to complete the figure en
toumant. Finish with right foot in front, and begin over
again with left foot.

There is no variation in this step ; but you can vary the
movement by going backward or forward at pleasure, instead
of continuing the rotary motion. The Valse a Deux Temps,
like the Polka, admits of a reverse step ; but it looks awkward
unless executed to perfection. The first requisite in this Valse
is to avoid all jumping movements. The feet must glide
smoothly and swiftly over the floor, and be raised from it as
little as possible. Being so very quick a dance, it must be
performed quietly, otherwise it is liable to become ungraceful .
and vulgar. The steps should be short, and the knees slightly
bent.

As the movement is necessarily very rapid, the danger of
collision is proportionately increased ; and gentlemen will do
well to remember and act upon this hint.

They should also be scrupulous not to attempt to conduct
a lady through this valse until they have thoroughly mastered
the step and well practiced \^^ figure en toutnant. Awkward-
ness or inexperience doubles the risks of a collision ; which,
in this extremely rapid dance, might be attended with serious
consequences.

The Deux Temps is a somewhat fatiguing valse, and after
two or three turns around the room,. the gentleman should
pause to allow his partner to rest. He should be careful to
select a lady whose height does not present too striking a con-
trast to his own ; for it looks ridiculous to see a tall man danc-
ing with a short woman, or vice versd. This observation ap-
plies to all round dances, but especially to the valse, in any
of its forms.

XVII. THE FINE STEP VALSE.
The step is extremely simple.

^SW-

^ 6u

PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE.

XVIII.— THE GALOP.

The Galop, as its name implies, is the quintessence of all
the " fast " dances. At the time of the Polka mania it was
very much in vogue, and almost as great a favorite as the
Dettx Temps. Although its popularity has greatly declined of
late, it generally occurs twice or thrice in the programme of
every ball-room ; and the music of the Galop is, like the dance
itself, so gay and spirited, that we should regret to see it
wholly laid aside. The step is similar to that of the Deux
Temps Valse, but the time is f, and as quick as possible.
Two chassez steps are made in each bar. The figure can be
varied by taking four or eight steps in the same direction, or
by turning with every two steps, as in the Deux Tetnps.
Like all round dances, it admits of an unlimited number of
couples. Being, perhaps, the most easy of any, every one
takes part in it, and the room is generally crowded during its
continuance. A special amount of care is therefore necessary
on the part of the gentleman to protect his partner from acci-
dents.

XIX.— THE COTILLON.

The Cotillon is never commenced till toward the close of
the ball, at so advanced an hour that all the sober portion of
the assembly have retired, and only the real lovers of dancing
remain, who sometimes prolong this their favorite amusement
till a late hour in the morning.

It is customary for gentlemen to select their partners for the
Cotillon early in the evening, while the other dances are in
progress ; for, as it lasts so long a time, it is necessary to know
beforehand how many ladies feel inclined to remain during its
continuance.

A circle of chairs is arranged round the room, the center
being left clear ; the spectators stand behind the chairs, so as
not to interfere with the dancers. Each gentleman leads his
partner to a seat, taking another beside her. To these same
seats they return after eVery figure, it being the etiquette of
the dance that no couple should appropriate any chairs but their
own, taken at the commencement. Wlben the dancers are
arranged round the room, the orchestra strikes up the spirited
music of the Cotillon, which consists of a long series of valse
movements at the usual tempo of the Deux Temps. There are
generally several leaders of the Cotillon, who decide upon the
succession of the figures. If there are many couples dancing,
one leader attends upon a group of six or eight couples, to in-
sure that all shall take part. Wc are av/are of no fixed rule
for the succession of the figures, which depends upon the ca-
price of the leaders. A good leader will invent new combina-
tions, or diversify old figures ; thus securing an almost endless
variety. One of the most popular is the following : —

Several gentlemen assume the names of flowers or plants,
such as the honeysuckle, woodbine, ivy, etc. A lady is then
requested to name her favorite flower, and the fortunate sv/ain
who bears its name springs forward and valses off with her
in triumph. It is usual to make one, or at most two, turns
round the room, and then restore the lady to her own partner,
ivho in the meantime has perhaps been the chosen one of
another lady. All having regained their places, each gentle-

man valses with his own partner once round the room, or re-
mains sitting by her side, as she may feel inclined.

Baskets filled with small bouquets are brought in. Each
gentleman provides himself with a bouquet, and presents it
to the lady with whom he wishes to valse.

Sometimes a light pole or staff is introduced, to the top of
which are attached long streamers of different colored rib-
bons. A lady takes one of these to several of her fair com-
panions in turn, each of whom chooses a ribbon, and, holding
it firmly in her hand, follows the leading lady to the center of
the room. Here they are met by an equal number of gentle-
men, likewise grouped round a leader who carries the pole,
while each holds a streamer of his favorite color, or that
which he imagines would be selected by the dame de sespense'es.
The merry groups compare notes : those who possess stream-
ers of the same color pair off in couples, and valse gaily round
the room, returning to places as before.

Six or eight ladies, and the same number of gentlemen, form
in two lines, facing each other. The leading lady throws a
soft worsted ball of bright colors at the gentleman with whom
she wishes to dance. He catches it, throws it back to the fair
group, and valses off with his partner. Whoever catches the
returning ball has the right to throw next ; and the same
ceremony is repeated until all have chosen their partners, with
whom they valse round the room, returning to places as usual.
Sometimes a handkerchief is substituted for the ball ; but
the latter is better, being more easily thrown and caught.

Six or eight chairs are placed in a circle, the backs turned
inwards. Ladies seat themselves in the chairs, gentlemen
move slowly round in front of them. Each lady throws her
handkerchief or bouquet at the gentleman with M'hom she
wishes to dance as he passes before her ; Valse round as usual,
and return to places. Sometimes a gentleman is blindfolded
and placed in a chair. Two ladies take a seat on either side
of him, and he is bound to make his selection without seeing
the face of his partner. Having done so, he pulls the cover-
ing from his eyes and valses off with her. It is a curious cir-
cumstance that mistakes seldom occur, the gentleman being
generally sufficiently clairvoyant to secure the partner he
desires.

We have here described a few of the most striking figures
of the Cotillon. We might multiply them to an extent which
would equally tax the patience of our readers and our own
powers of remembrance, but we forbear. Gifts and souvenirs
are usually freely distributed.

XX.— THE SPANISH DANCE.

This pretty, though now somewhat old-fashioned, dance
was, before the introduction of the Deux Temps B.nA polka, a
principle feature in every ball-room. It is danced with the
step and music of the old Valse a Trots Temps, played slower
than the music of the Deux Temps.

Sometimes the couples stand in two long parallel lines, as
in a country dance ; sometimes they are arranged in a circle.
The leading gentleman must be on the ladies' side, and his
partner on the gentlemen's side. Every fourth lady and gen-
tleman change places, to avoid the necessity of keeping the

PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE.

615

other couples waiting. The whole set can thus begin at the
same moment.

Leading gentleman and second lady advance and retreat
with valse step and change places. Leading lady and second
gentleman do the same at the same time. Leading gentleman
and his partner advance and retreat, and change places. Sec-
ond lady and gentleman do the same at the same time. Lead-
ing gentleman and second lady repeat this figure, first lady
and second gentleman likewise, at same time.

Leading gentleman and first lady repeat same figure ; sec-
ond gentleman and lady repeat at same time.

All four, joining hands, advance to center and retreat.
Ladies pass to the left. Repeat three times. Each gentle-
man takes his partner, and the two couples valse round each
other once or twice at pleasure, the second lady and gentle-
man being left at the top of the figure, as in a country dance.
Leading gentleman and partner repeat same figure with suc-
ceeding couple to end of dance.

It is obvious that there must be an equal number of couples,
and that they must be arranged in sets of four, eight, sixteen,
twenty, twenty-four, and so on.

XXL— LA TEMPETE.

La Tempete is divided into parties of four couples, like the
quadrille, but their arrangement is different. Two couples
stand side by side, facing their respective vis-a-vis ; there are
not any side couples. As many sets of four couples can be
thus arranged as the room will accommodate. Each new set
turns its back upon the second line of the prsceding set.
Thus the dance can be the whole length of the room, but it is
only the breadth of two couples. The figure is as follows -.-^

Place two couples side by side, the lady standing at the
right hand of the gentleman. Place two other couples as
their vis-a-vis. Next place two couples with their backs
turned to the first set ; two couples opposite them for their
vis-a-vis, and continue arranging more sets of four couples,
according to the number of the dancers and the size of the
room.

First part. — All the couples begin at the same moment, by
advancing and retreating twice, with joined hands. First
couples (that is all whose backs are turned to the top of the
room), cross with hands joined to the places of their vis-a-vis.
The latter cross at the same time, but, separating, pass out-
side two couples at the top, where they join hands, return to
own places, and back again to the top without separating,
the top couples crossing separately at the same time outside
the second couples. Top couples then join hands, and all
return to their own places, second couples separating to allow
the others to pass between them.

Ladies and gentlemen in the center of each line join hands,
giving their disengaged hands to their two vis-a-vis. All four
half round to the left, then half-round back again to places.
Meantime the outside lady and gentleman perform the same
with their respective vis-a-vis, making a circle of two instead
of four. Circle of four give hands across round ; change
. hands ; round once more, and back to places. Outside couples
perform same figure in twos. All the sets perform the figure
at the same moment.

Second part. — All advance, retreat, and advance again, all
the top couples passing the second couples into the next line,
where they recommence the same figure, their former vis-a-vis
having passed to the top, and turned round to wait for a fresh
vis-a-vis, gentleman always keeping lady at his right hand.
An entire change of places is thus effected, which is continued
throughout this figure, until all the top lines have passed to
the bottom, the bottom lines at the same time passing to the
top, and then turning round, all go back again by the same
method reversed, till all have regained their original places.
The dance may terminate here, or the last figure may be re-
peated at pleasure. When the first exchange of vis-a-vis takes
place the new lines at the top and bottom find themselves for
a moment without a vis-a-vis ; but at the next move forward
they are provided, and can continue the figure as above
described. We extract from a contemporary the following
graceful variation in the first half of this dance : — "All ad,
vance and retire twice (hands joined). All vis-a-vis couples
chassez croisez en double, each gentleman retaining his partner's
left hand ; eight galop steps (four bars) ; dechassez eight steps
(four bars) ; the couple on the right of the top line passing in
front of the couple on the left the first time ; returning
to place, passing behind. Thus, two couples are moving to
the right and two to the left. This is repeated. The vis-
a-vis couples do likewise at the same time. This, of course,
applies to all the couples, as all commence at the same
time."

La Tempete is danced to quick music in \ time. The
step is the same as in quadrilles, varied some'.Imes by the in-
troduction of \}[ie: galop step, when the couples cross into each
others' places or advance into the lines of the next set.

XXIL— SIR ROGER DE COVERLEY AND A
VIRGINNY REEL.

Sir Roger de Coverley or the Virginny Reel is always intro-
duced at the end of the evening, and no dance could be so
well fitted to send the guests home in good humor with each
other and with their hosts. We describe it as it is dance i in
the present day, slightly modernized to suit the taste of our
time. Like the quadrille, it can be danced with equal pro-
priety by old or young, and is so easy that the most inexperi-
enced dancer may fearlessly venture to take part in it.

Form in two parallel lines ; ladies on the left, gentlemen on
the right, facing their partners. All advance ; retreat (which
occupies the first four bars); cross to opposite places (four
bars more) ; advance and retreat (four bars) ; re-cross to places
(four bars).

The lady who stands at the top and the gentleman who
stands at the bottom, of each line, advance towards each
other, courtesy and bow, and retire to places. The gentleman
at the top and the lady at the bottom do the same. Lady at
top and gentleman at bottom advance again, give right hands,
and swing quickly round each other back to places. Gentle-
man at top and lady at bottom do the same. Top lady
advances, gives right hand to partner opposite, and passes
behind the two gentlemen standing next to him. Then through
the line and across it, giving left hand to partner, who meets
her half way between the two lines, having in the meantime

6i6

PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE.

passed behind the two ladies who stood next his partner.
Lady then passes behind the two ladies next lowest ; gentle-
man at same time behind the two gentlemen next lowest ; and
so on all down the line. At the bottom, lady gives left hand
to her partner, and they promenade back to places at the top
of the line, (This figure is frequently ommitted.) Top
couple advance, courtesy and bow, then lady turns off to the
right, gentleman to the left, each followed by the rest of her
or his line. Top couple meet at the bottom of figure, join
hands, and raising their arms, let all the other couples pass
under them towards the top of the line, till all reach their own
places, except the top, who have now become the bottom
couple. Figure is repeated from the beginning, until the top
couple have once more worked their way back to their orig-
inal places at the top of the line.

GLOSSARY.

We subjoin a Glossary of all the French words and expressions that

have long since been universally accepted as the accredited phraseol-
ogy of the Ball-room.

A vos places, back to your own placet,

A la fin, at the end.

A droite, to the right.

A gauche, to the left.

Balancez, set to your partners.

Balancez aux coins, set to the corners.

Balancez quatre en ligne, four dancers set in a line, joining hands, as
in La Pottle.

Balancez en mouVmet, getttlemen and their partners give each other
right hands across, a«^ balancez in the form of a cross.

Balancez et tour des mains, all set to partners, and turn to places. (See
Tour des mains.)

Ballotez, do the same four times without changing your places.

Chaine Anglaise, opposite couples right and left.

Chaine des dames, ladies' chain.

Chaine Anglaise double, double right and left.

Chaine des dames double, all the ladies perjorm the ladies' chain at
the same time.

Chassez croisez, do the chassd step from left to right, or right to left,
the lady passing before the gentleman in the opposite direction, that
is, moving right if he moves left, and vice versa.

Chassez croisez et d^chassez, change places with partners, ladies pass-
ing in front, first to the right, then to the left, back to places. It may
be either k quatte— _/b«r couples— or les huit — eight couples.

Chassez k droite — k gauche, move to the right— to the left-

Le cavalier seul, gentleman advances alone.

Les cavaliers seuls deux f ois, gentlemen advance and retire twice with-
out their partners.

Changez vos dames, change partners.

Contre partie pour les autres, the other dancers do the same figure,

Demi promenade, half promenade.

Demi chaine Anglaise, half right and hft.

Demi moulinet, ladies all advance to center, right hands across, and
back to places.

Demi tour k quatre, four hands half round.,

Dos-i-dos, lady and opposite gentleman advance, pass round each other
back to back, and return to places.

Les dames en moulinet, ladies give right hands across to each other,
half round, and back again with left hands.

Les dames donnent la main droit— gauche — k leurs cavalier, ladies give
the right — left — hands to partners.

En avant deux et en axrihre, first lady and vis^-vis gentleman advance
and retire. To secure brevity, en avant is always understood to im-
ply en arri^re when the latter is not expressed.

En avant deux fois, advance and retreat twice.

En avant quatre, first couple and their vis-i-vis advance and retire.

En avant trois, three advance and retire, as in La Pastorale.

Figurez devant, dance before.

Figurez k droite — k gauche, dance to the right — to the left.

La grande tour de rond, all join hands and dance completely round the
figure in a circle back to places.

Le grand rond, all join hands, and advance and retreat twice, as in La
Finale.

Le grand quatre, all eight couples form into squares.

La grande chaine, a// /A^ couples move quite round the figure, giving
alternately the right and left hand to each in succession, beginning
with the right, until all have regained their places, as in last figure
of the Lancers.

La grande promenade, all eight (or more) couples promenade all around
the figure back to places.

La main, the hand.

La meme pour les cavaliers, gentlemen do the same.

Le moulinet, hand across. The figure will explain whether it is the
gentlemen, or the ladies, or both, ivho are to perform it.

Pas de AUemande, the gentleman turns his partner under each arm in
succession.

Pas de Basque, a kind of sliding step forward, performed with both
feet alternately in quick succession. Used in the Redowa and other
dances. Comes from the South of France.

Glissade, a sliding step.

Le Tiroir,^rj/ couple cross with hands joined to opposite couple's place,
opposite couple crossing separately outside them: then cross back to
places, satne figure reversed.

Tour des mains, give both hands to partner, and turn her round with-
out quitting your places.

Tour sur place, the same.

Tournez vos dames, the same.

Tour aux coins, turn at the corners, as in the Caledonians, each gentle-
man turning the lady who stands nearest his left hand, and immed-
iately returning to his own place.

Traversez, cross over to opposite place.

Retraversez, cross back again.

Traversez deux, en donnant la main droite, lady and vis-4-vis gentle,.
tnan cross, giving right hand, as in La Poule.

Vis-i-vis, opposite.

Figure en toumant, circular form.

4r-

ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY.

617

our{s})ip au^ Mafeimony;

FIRST STEPS IN COURTSHIP.

T would be out of place in these pages to grapple
with a subject so large as that of Love in its
various phases : a theme that must be left to
poets, novelists, and moralists to dilate upon.
It is sufficient for our purpose to recognize the
existence of this, the most universal — the most
powerful — of human passions, when venturing to
offer our counsel and guidance to those of both sexes
who, under its promptings, have resolved to become votaries
of Hymen, but who, from imperfect knowledge of conven-
tional usages, are naturally apprehensive that at every step
they take they may render themselves liable to misconception,
ridicule, or censure.

We will lake it for granted, then, that a gentleman has in
one way or another become fascinated by a fair lady — possibly
a recent acquaintance — whom he is most anxious to know more
particularly. His heart already feels " the inly touch of love,"
and his most ardent wish is to have that love returned.

At this point we venture to give him a word of serious
advice. We urge him, before he ventures to take any step
towards the pursuit of this object, to consider well his position
and prospects in life, and reflect whether they are such as to
justify him in deliberately seeking to win the young lady's
affections, with the view of making her his wife at no distant
period. Should he, after such a review of his affairs, feel
satisfied that he can proceed honorably, he may then use fair
opportunities to ascertain the estimation in which the young
lady, as well as her family, is held by friends. It is perhaps
needless to add, that all possible delicacy and caution must be
observed in making such inquiries, so as to avoid compromis-
ing the lady herself in the slightest degree. When he has
satisfied himself on this head, and found no insurmountable
impediment in his way, his next endeavor will be, through the
mediation of a common friend, to procure an introduction to
the lady's family. Those who undertake such an office incur
no slight responsibility, and are, of course, expected to be

scrupulously careful in performing it, and to communicate all
they happen to know affecting the character and circumstances
of the individual they introduce.

We will now reverse the picture, and see how matters stand
on the fair one's side.

First, let us hope that the inclination is mutual ; at all events
that the lady views her admirer with preference, that she
deems him not unworthy of her favorable regard, and that his
attentions are agreeable to her. It is tioie her heart may not
yet be won : she has to be wooed ; and what fair daughter of
Eve has not hailed with rapture that brightest day in the
springtide of her life? She has probably first met the gentle-
man at a ball, or other festive occasion, where the excitement
of the scene has reflected on every object around a roseate
tint. We are to suppose, of course, that in looks, manners,
and address, her incipient admirer is not below her ideal
standard in gentlemanly attributes. His respectful approaches
to her — in soliciting her hand as a partner in the dance, etc. —
have first awakened on her part a slight feeling of interest
towards him. This mutual feeling of interest, once established,
soon "grows by what it feeds on." The exaltation of the
whole scene favors its development, and it can hardly be won-
dered at if both parties leave judgment " out in the cold "
while enjoying each other's society, and possibly already pleas-
antly occupied in building " castles in the air." Whatever
may eventually come of it, the fair one is conscious for the
nonce of being unusually happy. This emotion is not likely
to be diminished when she finds herself the object of general
attention — accompanied, it may be, by the display of a little
envy among rival beauties — owing to the assiduous homage of
her admirer. At length, prudence whispers that he is to her,
as yet, a comparative stranger ; and with a modest reserve she
endeavors to retire from his observation, so as not to seem to
encourage his attentions. The gentleman's ardor, however, is
not to be thus checked ; he again solicits her to be his partner
in a dance. She finds it hard, very hard, to refuse him ; and
both, yielding at last to the alluring influences by which
they are surrounded, discover at the moment of parting that

6iS

ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY.

a new and delightful sensation has been awakened in their
hearts.

At a juncture so critical in the life of a young, inexperi-
enced woman as that when she begins to form an attachment
for one of the opposite sex — at a moment when she needs the
very best advice, accompanied with a considerate regard for her
r;ver\vrought feelings — the very best course she can take is to
confide the secret of her heart to that truest and most loving of
friends— her mother. Fortunate is the daughter who has not
been deprived of that wisest and tenderest of counselors —
whose experience of life, whose prudence and sagacity, whose
anxious care and appreciation of her child's sentiments, and
whose awakened recollections of her own trysting days, qualify
and entitle her, above all other beings, to counsel and com-
fort her trusting child, and to claim her confidence. Let the
timid girl then pour forth into her mother's ear the flood of
her pent-up feelings. Let her endeavor to distrust her own
judgment, and seek hope, guidance, and support from one
who, she well knows, will not deceive or mislead her. The
confidence thus established will be productive of the most
beneficial results — by securing the daughter's obedience to her
parent's advice, and her willing adoption of the observances
prescribed by etiquette, which, as the courtship progresses,
that parent will not fail to recommend as strictly essential in
this phase of life. Where a young woman has had the mis-
fortune to be deprived of her mother, she should at such a
period endeavor to find her next best counselor in some
female relative, or other trustworthy friend.

We are to suppose that favorable opportunities for meeting
have occurred, until, by and by, both the lady and her ad-
mirer have come to regard each other with such warm feelings
of inclination as to have a constant craving for each other's
society. Other eyes have in the meantime not failed to notice
the symptoms of a growing attachment ; and some " kind
friends " have, no doubt, even set them down as already
engaged.

The admirer of the fair one is, indeed, so much enamored
as to be unable longer to retain his secret within his own
breast ; and not being without hope that his attachment is
reciprocated, resolves on seeking an introduction to the lady's
family preparatory to his making a formal declaration of
love.

It is possible, however, that the lover's endeavors to pro-
cure the desired introduction may fail of success, although
where no material difference of social position exists, this
difficulty will be found to occur less frequently than might at
first be supposed. He must then discreetly adopt measures to
bring himself, in some degree, under the fair one's notice :
such, for instance, as attending the place of worship which
she frequents, meeting her, so often as to be manifestly for
the purpose, in the course of her promenades, etc. He will
thus soon be able to judge— even without speaking to the
lady— whether his further attentions will be distasteful to her.
The signs of this on the lady's part, though of the most
trifling nature, and in no way compromising her, will be un-
mistakable : for, as the poet tells us in speaking of the sex :—

" He f^ve them but one tongue to say us ' Nay,'
And two fond eyes to grant ! "

Should her demeanor be decidedly discouraging, any perse-
verance on his part would be ungentlemanly and highly inde-
corous. But, on the other hand, should a timid blush intimate
doubt, or a gentle smile lurking in the half-dropped eye give
pleasing challenge to further parley, when possible he may
venture to write — not to the lady — that would be the opening
of a clandestine correspondence ; an unworthy course, where
every act should be open and straightforward, as tending to
manly and honorable ends — but to the father or guardian,
through the agency of a common friend where feasible, or,
in some instances, to the party at whose residence the lady
may be staying. In his letter he ought first to state his posi-
tion in life and prospects, as well as mention his family con-
nections ; and then request permission to visit the family,
as a preliminary step to paying his addresses to the object of
his admiration.

By this course he in no wise compromises either himself or
the lady, but leaves open to both, at any future period, an
opportunity of retiring from the position of courtship taken up
on the one side, and of receiving addresses on the other,
without laying either party open to the accusation of fickle-
ness or jilting.

ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP.

In whatever way the attachment may have originated,
whether resulting from old association or from a recent ac-
quaintanceship between the lovers, we will assume that the
courtship is so far in a favorable train that the lady's admirer
has succeeded in obtaining an introduction to her family, and
that he is about to be received in their domestic circle on the
footing of a welcome visitor, if not yet in the light of a pro-
bationary suitor.

In the first place, matters will in all probability be found to
amble on so calmly, that the enamored pair may seldom find
it needful to consult the rules of etiquette ; but in the latter,
its rules must be attentively observed, or " the course of true
love " will assuredly not run smooth.

Young people are naturally prone to seek the company of
those they love ; and as their impulses are often at such times
impatient of control, etiquette prescribes cautionary rules
for the purpose of averting the mischief that unchecked inter-
course and incautious familiarity might give rise to. For
instance, a couple known to be attached to each other should
never, unless when old acquaintances, be left alone for any
length of time, nor be allowed to meet in any other place
than the lady's home — particularly at balls, concerts, and
other public places — except in tbe presence of a third party.
This, as a gener:;l rule, should be carefully observed, although
exceptions may occasionally occur under special circumstances.

WHAT THE LADY SHOULD OBSERVE
DURING COURTSHIP.

A lady should be particular during the early days of court-
ship — while still retaining some clearness of mental vision —
to observe the manner in which her suitor comports himself
to other ladies. If he behave with ease and courtesy, without
freedom or the slightest approach to license in manner or
conversation ; if he never speak slightingly of the 'Sex, and

ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY.

619

is ever ready to honor its virtues and defend its weakness ;
she may continue to incline towards him a willing ear. His
habits and his conduct must awaken her vigilant attention
before it be too late. Should he come to visit her at irregular
hours ; should he exhibit a vague or wandering attention —
give proofs of a want of punctuality — show disrespect for ^e
— sneer at things sacred, or absent himself from regular at-
tendance at divine service — or evince an inclination to expen-
sive pleasures beyond his means, or to low and vulgar amuse-
ments ; should he be foppish, eccentric, or very slovenly in
his dress ; or display a frivolity of mind, and an absence of
well-directed energy in his worldly pursuits ; let the young
lady, we say, while there is yet time, eschew that gentleman's
acquaintance, and allow it gently to drop. The effort, at
whatever cost to her feelings, must be made, if she have any
regard for her future happiness and self-respect. The proper
course then to take is to intimate her distate, and the causes
that have given rise to it, to her parents or guardian, who will
be pretty sure to sympathize with her, and to take measures
for facilitating the retirement of the gentleman from his pre-
tensions.

WHAT THE GENTLEMAN SHOULD OBSERVE
DURING COURTSHIP.

It would be well also for the suitor, on his part, during the
first few weeks of courtship, carefully to observe the conduct
of the young lady in her own family, and the degree of esti-
mation in which she is held by them, as well as among her
intimate friends. If she be attentive to her duties ; respectful
and affectionate to her parents ; kind and forbearing to her
brothers and sisters ; not easily ruffled in temper ; if her mind
be prone to cheerfulness and to hopeful aspiration, instead of
to the display of a morbid anxiety and dread of coming evil ;
if her pleasures and enjoyments be those which chiefly center
in home ; if her words be characterized by benevolence, good-
will, and charity : then we say, let him not hesitate, but
hasten to enshrine so precious a gem in the casket of his affec-
tions. But if, on the other hand, he should find that he has
•been attracted by the tricksome affectation and heartless al-
lurements of a flirt, ready to bestow smiles on all, but with a
heart for none ; if she who has succeeded for a time in fas-
cinating him be of uneven temper, easily provoked, and slow
to be appeased ; fond of showy dress, and eager for admira-
tion ; ecstatic about trifles, frivolous in her tastes, and weak
and wavering in performing her duties ; if her religious ob-
servances are merely the formality of lip-service ; if she
be petulant to her friends, pert and disrespectful to her par-
ents, overbearing to her inferiors ; if pride, vanity, and afi^ec-
tation be her characteristics ; if she be inconstant in her
friendships ; gaudy and slovenly, rather than neat and scru-
pulously clean, in attire and personal habits ; then we counsel
the gentleman to retire as speedily, but as politely, as possible
from the pursuit of an object unworthy of his admiration and
love ; nor dread that the lady's friends— who must know her
better than he can do — will call him to account for withdraw-
ing from the field.

But we will take it for granted that all goes on well ; that
the parties are, on sufficient acquaintance, pleased with each

other, and that the gentleman is eager to prove the sincerity
of his affectionate regard by giving some substantial token of
his love and homage to the fair one. This brings us to the
question of

PRESENTS,

a point on which certain observances of etiquette must not be
disregarded. A lady, for instance, cannot with propriety ac-
cept presents from a gentlemsm previous/y to his having made
proposals of marriage. She would by so doing incur an obli-
gation at once embarrassing and unbecoming. Should, how-
ever, the gentleman insist on making her a present — as of
some trifling object of jjewelry, etc. — there must be no secret
about it. Let the young lady take an early opportunity of
saying to her admirer, in the presence of her father or mother,
" I am much obliged to you for that ring (or other trinket, as
the case may be) which you kindly offered me the other day, and
which I shall be most happy to accept, if my parents do not
object ; " and let her say this in a manner which, while it in-
creases the obligation, will divest it altogether of impropriety,
from having been conferred under the sanction of her parents.
We have now reached that stage in the progress of the
Courtship, where budding affection, having developed into
mature growth, encourages the lover to make

THE PROPOSAL.

When about to take this step, the suitor's first difficulty is
how to get a favorable opportunity ; and next, having got the
chance, how to screw his courage up to give utterance to the
"declaration." A declaration in writing should certainly be
avoided where the lover can by any possibility get at the lady's
ear. But there are cases where this is so difficult that an im-
patient lover cannot be restrained from adopting the agency
of a billet-dotix in declaring his passion.

The lady, before proposal, is generally prepared for it. It
is seldom that such an avowal comes without some previous
indications of look and manner on the part of the admirer,
which can hardly fail of being understood. She may not, in-
deed, consider herself engaged; and although nearly certain of
the conquest she has made, may yet have her misgivings.
Some gentlemen dread to ask, lest they should be refused.
Many pause just at the point, and refrain from anything like
ardor in their professions of attachment until they feel confi-
dent, that they may be spared the mortification and ridicule
that is supposed to attach to being rejected, in addition to the
pain of disappointed hope. This hesitation when the mind is
made up is wrong ; but it does often occur, and we suppose
ever will do so, with persons of great timidity of character.
By it both parties are kept needlessly on the fret, until the
long-looked-for opportunity unexpectedly arrives, when the
flood-gates of feeling are loosened, and the full tide of mutual
affection gushes forth uncontrolled. It is, however, at this
moment— the agony-point to the embarrassed lover, who
"'doats yet doubts "—whose suppressed feelings rendered him
morbidly sensitive— that a lady should be especially careful
lest any show of either prudery or coquetry on her part should
lose to her forever the object of her choice. True love is
generally delicate and timid, and may easily be scared by af-

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020

ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY,

fected indifference, through feelings of wounded pride. A
lover needs very little to assure him of the reciprocation of his
attachment : a glance, a single pressure of the hand, a whis-
pered syllable, on the part of the loved one, will sufSce to con-
firm his hopes,

REFUSAL BY THE YOUNG LADY.

When a lady rejects the proposal of a gentleman, her
behavior should be characterized by the most delicate feeling
toward sone who, in offering her his hand, has proved his
desire to confer upon her, by this implied preference for her
above all other women, the greatest honor it is in his power to
offer. Therefore, if she have no love for him, she ought at
least to evince a tender regard for his feelings ; and in the
event of herbeing previously engaged, should at once acquaint
him with the fact. No right-minded man would desire to
persist in a suit, when he well knew that the object of his
admiration had already disposed of her heart.

When a gentleman makes an offer of his hand by letter, the
letter must be answered, and certainly not returned, should
the answer be a refusal ; unless, indeed, when from a previous
repulse, or some other particular and special circumstance,
such an offer may be regarded by the lady or her relatives as
presumptuous and intrusive. Under such circumstances, the
letter may be placed by the lady in the hands of her parents
or guardian, to be dealt with by them as they may deem most
advisable.

No woman of proper feeling would regard her rejection of
an offer of marriage from a worthy man as a matter of tri-
umph ; her feeling on such an occasion should be one of
regretful sympathy with him for the pain she is unavoidably
compelled to inflict. Nor should such a rejection be
unaccompanied with some degree of self-examination on
her part, to discern whether any lightness of demeanor or
tendency to flirtation may have given rise to a false hope of
her favoring his suit. At all events, no lady should ever treat
the man who has so honored her with the slightest disrespect
or frivolous disregard, nor ever unfeelingly parade a more
favored suitor before one whom she has refused.

CONDUCT OF THE GENTLEMAN WHEN HIS
ADDRESSES ARE REJECTED.

The conduct of the gentleman under such distressing cir-
cumstances should be characterized by extreme delicacy and a
chivalrous resolve to avoid occasioning any possible annoyance
or uneasiness to the fair author of his pain. If, however, he
should have reason to suppose that his rejection has resulted
from mere indifference to his suit, he need not altogether
retire from the field, but may endeavor to kindle a feeling of
regard and sympathy for the patient endurance of his disap-
pomtment. and for his continued but respectful endeavors to
please the lukewarm fair one. But in case of avowed or evi-
dent preference for another, it becomes imperative upon him
as a gentleman, to withdraw at once, and so relieve the lady
of any obstacle, that his presence or pretensions may occasion,
to the furtherance of her obvious wishes. A pertinacious con-
tinuance of his attentions, on the part of one who has been

distinctly rejected, is an insult deserving of the severest repro-
bation. Although the weakness of her sex, which ought to
be her protection, frequently prevents a woman from forcibly
breaking off an acquaintance thus annoyingly forced upon her,
she rarely fails to resent such impertinence by that sharpest of
woman's weapons, a keen-edged but courteous ridicule, which
few men can bear up against,

REFUSAL BY THE LADY'S PARENTS OR

GUARDIANS.
It may happen that both the lady and her suitor are willing,
but that the parents or guardians of the former, on being re-
ferred to, deem the connection unfitting, and refuse their con-
sent. In this state of matters, the first thing a man of sense,
proper feeling, and candor should do, is to endeavor to learn
the objections of the parents, to see whether they cannot be
removed. If they are based on his present insufficiency of
means, a lover of a persevering spirit may effect much in
removing apprehension on that score, by cheerfully submit-
ting to a reasonable time of probation, in the hope of amelio-
ration in his worldly circumstances. Happiness delayed will
be none the less precious when love has stood the test of con-
stancy and the trial of time. Should the objection be founded
on inequality of social position, the parties, if young, may
wait until matured age shall ripen their judgment and place
the future more at their own disposal. A clandestine mar-
riage should be peremptorily declined. In too many cases it
is a fraud committed by an elder and more experienced party
upon one whose ignorance of the world's ways, and whose
confiding tenderness appeal to him for protection even against
himself. In nearly all the instances we have known of such
marriages, the result proved the step to have been ill-judged,
imprudent, and highly injurious to the reputation of one
party, and in the long run detrimental to the happiness of
both.

CONDUCT OF THE ENGAGED COUPLE,

The conduct of the bridegroom-elect should be marked by a
gallant and affectionate assiduity towards his lady-love— a
denouement easily felt and understood, but not so easy to de-
fine. That of the lady towards him should manifest delicacy,
tenderness, and confidence : while looking for his thorough
devotion to herself, she should not captiously take offense
and show airs at his showing the same kind of attention to
other ladies as she, in her turn, would not hesitate to receive
from the other sex.

In the behavior of a gentleman towards his betrothed in
public, little difference should be perceptible from his
demeanor to other ladies, except in those minute attentions
which none but those who love can properly understand or
appreciate.

In private, the slightest approach to indecorous familiarity
must be avoided ; indeed it is pretty certain to be resented by
every woman who deserves to be a bride. The lady's honoi
is now in her lover's hands, and he should never forget in his
demeanor to and before her that that lq,dy is to be his future
wife.

It is the privilege of the betrothed lover, as it is also his

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ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY.

621 )

duty, to give advice to the fair one who now implicitly con-
fides in him. Should he detect a fault, should he observe
failings which he would wish removed or amended, let him
avail himself of this season, so favorable for the frank inter-
change of thought between the betrothed pair, to urge their
correction. He will find a ready listener ; and any judicious
counsel offered to her by him will now be gratefully received,
and remembered in after life. After marriage it may be too
late ; for advice on trivial points of conduct may then not im-
probably be resented by the wife as an unnecessary interfer-
ence ; now, the fair and loving creature is disposed like pliant
wax in his hands to mold herself to his reasonable wishes in
all things.

CONDUCT OF THE LADY DURING HER
BETROTHAL.

A lady is not expected to keep aloof from society on her
engagement, aor to debar herself from the customary atten-
tions and courtesies of her male acquaintances generally ; but
she should, while accepting them cheerfully, maintain such a
prudent reserve, as to intimate that they are viewed by her as
mere acts of ordinary courtesy and friendship. In all places of
public amusement — at balls, the opera, etc. — for a lady to be
seen with any other cavalier than her avowed lover, in close
attendance upon her, would expose her to the imputation of
flirtation. She will naturally take pains at such a period to
observe the taste of her lover in regard to her costume, and
strive carefully to follow it, for all men desire to have their taste
and wishes on such apparent trifles gratified. She should at the
same time observe much delicacy in regard to dress, and be
careful to avoid any unseemly display of her charms ; lovers
are naturally jealous of observation under such circumstances.
It is a mistake not seldom made by women, to suppose their
suitors will be pleased by the glowing admiration expressed by
other men for the object of tAeir passion. Most lovers, on
the contrary, we believe, would prefer to withdraw their prize
from general observation until the happy moment for their
union has arrived.

CONDUCT OF THE GENTLEMAN TOWARDS
THE FAMILY OF HIS BETROTHED.

The lover, having now secured his position, should use dis-
cretion and tact in his intercourse with the lady's family, and
take care that his visits be not deemed too frequent — so as to
be really inconvenient to them. He should accommodate
himself as much as possible to their habits and ways, and be
ever ready and attentive to consult their wishes. Marked
attention, and in most cases affectionate kindness, to the
lady's mother ought to be shown ; such respectful homage
will secure for him many advantages in his present position.
He must not, however, presume to take his stand yet as a
member of the family, nor exhibit an obtrusive familiarity in
manner and conversation. Should a disruption of the engage-
ment from some unexpected cause ensue, it is obvious that
any such premature assumption would lead to very embarras-
sing results. In short, his conduct should be such as to win.
for himself the esteem and affe'ction of all the family, and dis-

pose them ever to welcome and desire his presence, rather
than regard him as an intruder.

CONDUCT OF THE LADY ON RETIRING
FROM HER ENGAGEMENT.

Should this step unhappily be found necessary on the lady's
part, the truth should be spoken, and the reasons frankly
given ; there must be no room left for the suspicion of its
having originated in caprice or injustice. The case should
be so put that the gentleman himself must see and acknowl-
edge the justice of the painful decision arrived at. Incom-
patible habits, ungentlemanly actions, anything tending to
diminish that respect for the lover which should be felt for
the husband ; inconstancy, ill-governed temper — all of which,
not to mention other obvious objections — are to be considered
as sufficient reasons for terminating an engagement. The
communication should be made as tenderly as possible ; room
may be left in mere venial cases for reformation ; but all that
is done must be so managed that not the slightest shadow of
fickleness or want of faith may rest upon the character of the
lady. It must be remembered, however, that the termination
of an engagement by a lady has the privilege of passing
unchallenged ; a lady not being bound to declare any other
reason than he» will. Nevertheless she owes it to her own
reputation that her decision should rest on a sufficient founda-
tion, and be unmistakeably pronounced.

CONDUCT OF THE GENTLEMAN ON RE-
TIRING FROM HIS ENGAGEMENT.

We hardly know how to approach this portion of our sub-
ject. The reasons must be strong indeed that can sufficiently
justify a man, placed in the position of an accepted suitor, in
severing the ties by which he has bound himself to a lady with
the avowed intention of making her his wife. His reasons for
breaking off his engagement must be such as will not merely
satisfy his own conscience, but will justify him in the eyes of
the world. If the fault be on the lady's side, great reserve
and delicacy will be observed by any man of honor. If, on
the other hand, the imperative force of circumstances, such as
loss of fortune, or some other unexpected calamity to himself,
may be the cause, then must the reason be clearly and fully
explained, in such a manner as to soothe the painful feelings
which such a result must necessarily occasion to the lady and
her friends. It is scarcely necessary to point out the necessity
for observing great caution in all that relates to the ante-
cedents of an engagement that has been broken off ; especially
the return on either side of presents and of all letters that
have passed.

This last allusion brings us to the consideration of

CORRESPONDENCE.

Letter-writing is one great test of ability and cultivation, as
respects both sexes. The imperfections of education may be
to some extent concealed or glossed over in conversation, but
cannot fail to stand out conspicuously in a letter. An dl-
written letter infallibly betrays the vulgarity and ignorance
indicative of a mean social position.

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622

ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY.

si&-

But there is something more to be guarded against than
even bad writing and worse spelling in a correspondence :
saving too much— yfnixng that kind of matter which will not
bear to be read by other eyes than those for which it was
originally intended. That this is too frequently done is amply
proved by the love letters often read in a court of law, the
most affecting passages from which occasion " roars of laugh-
ter" and the derisive comments of merry-making counsel.
Occurrences of this kind prove how frequently letters are not
returned or burned when an affair of the heart is broken off.
Correspondence between lovers should at all events be tem-
pered with discretion ; and on the lady's part particularly, her
affectionate expressions should not degenerate into a silly
style of fondness.

It is as well to remark here, that in correspondence between
a couple not actually engaged, the use of Christian names in
addressing each other should be avoided.

DEMEANOR OF THE SUITOR DURING
COURTSHIP.

The manners of a gentleman are ever characterized by ur-
banity and a becoming consideration for the feelings and
wishes of others, and by a readiness to practice self-denial. But
the very nature of courtship requires the fuUest^exercise of these
excellent qualities on his part. The lover should carefully ac-
commodate his tone and bearing, whether cheerful or serious,
to the mood for the time of his lady-love, whose slightest wish
must be his law. In his assiduities to her he must allow of
no stint ; though hindered by time, distance, or fatigue, he
must strive to make his professional and social duties bend to
his homage at the shrine of love. All this can be done,
moreover, by a man of excellent sense with perfect pro-
priety. Indeed, the world will not only commend him for
such devoted gallantry, but will be pretty sure to censure him
for any short-coming in his performance of such devoirs.

It is, perhaps, needless to observe that at such a period a
gentleman should be scrupulously neat, without appearing par-
ticular, in his attire. We shall not attempt to prescribe what
he should wear, as that must, of course, depend on the times
of the day when his visits are paid, and other circumstances,
such as meeting a party of friends, going to the theater, etc.,
with the lady.

SHOULD A COURTSHIP BE SHORT OR LONG?

The answer to this question must depend on the previous
acquaintanceship, connection, or relationship of the parties,
as well as on their present circumstances, and the position of
their parents. In case of relationship or old acquaintance-
ship subsisting between the families, when the courtship, decla-
ration, and engagement have followed each other rapidly, a
short wooing is preferable to a long one, should other circum-
stances not create an obstacle. Indeed, as a general rule, we
are disposed strongly to recommend a short courtship. A
man is never well settled in the saddle of his fortunes until
he be married. He wants spring, purpose, and aim ; and,
above all, he wants a home as the center of his efforts. Some
portion of inconvenience, therefore, may be risked to obtain
this ; in fact, it often occurs that by waiting too long the

freshness of life is worn off, and that the generous glow of
early feelings becomes tamed down to lukewarmness by a too
prudent delaying ; while a slight sacrifice of ambition or self-
indulgence on the part of the gentleman, and a little descent
from pride of station on the lady's side, might have insured
years of satisfied love and happy wedded life.

On the other hand, we would recommend a long courtship as
advisable when — the friends on both sides favoring the match
— it happens that the fortune of neither party will prudently
allow an immediate marriage. The gentleman, we will sup.
pose, has his way to make in his profession or business, and is
desirous not to involve the object of his affection in the dis-
tressing inconvenience, if not the misery, of straitened means.
He reflects that for a lady it is an actual degradation, how-
ever love may ennoble the motive of her submission, to de-
scend from her former footing in society. He feels, therefore,
that this risk ought not to be incurred. For, although the
noble and loving spirit of a wife might enable her to bear up
cheerfully against misfortune, and by her endearments soothe
the broken spirit of her husband ; yet the lover who would
willfully, at the outset of wedded life, expose his devoted
helpmate to the ordeal of poverty, would be deservedly
scouted as selfish and unworthy. These, then, are among the
circumstances which warrant a lengthened engagement, and it
should be the endeavor of the lady's friends to approve such
cautious delay, and do all they can to assist the lover in his
efforts to abridge it. The lady's father should regard the
lover in the light of another son added to his family, and
spare no pains to promote his interests in life, while the lady's
mother should do everything in her power, by those small
attentions which a mother understands so well, to make the
protracted engagement agreeable to him, and as endurable as
possible to her daughter.

PRELIMINARY ETIQUETTE OF A WEDDING.

Whether the term of courtship may have been long or short
— according to the requirements of the case — the time will at
last arrive for

FIXING THE DAY.

While it is the gentleman's province to press for the earliest
possible opportunity, it is the lady's privilege to name the
happy day ; not but that the bridegroom-elect must, after all,
issue the fiat, for he has much to consider and prepare for
beforehand : for instance, to settle where it will be most con-
venient to spend the honeymoon — a point which must depend
on the season of the year, on his own vocation, and other
circumstances. At this advanced state of affairs, we must not
overlook the important question of

THE BRIDAL TROUSSEAU AND THE WED-
DING PRESENTS.

Wedding presents must be sent always to the bfide, never
to the bridegroom, though they be given by friends of the
latter. They should be sent during the week previous to the
wedding day, as it is customary to display them before the
ceremony.

Two cards folded in the invitation in the envelope are sent

ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY.

623

with the wedding invitation. The invitation is in the name
of the bride's mother, or, if she is not living, the relative or
friend nearest the bride :

MRS. NICHOLAS RUTH

AT HOME,
Tuesday, November \%th,

FROM II TILL 2 O'CLOCK.

No. 86 W. 47TH Street.

The two cards, one large and one small, are folded in this
invitation. Upon the large card is engraved :

MR. AND MRS. W. F. JOHNSON

On the smaller one :

MISS ROSIE RUTH.

If the young people " receive " after their return from the
bridal tour, and there is no wedding-day reception, the follow-
ing card is sent out :

MR. AND MRS. W. F. JOHNSON

AT HOME,
Thursday, December T&th,

FROM II TILL 2 O'CLOCK,

No. 50 E. 63D Street.

Or,

MR. AND MRS. W. F. JOHNSON

AT HOME,
Thursdays in December.

FROM II TILL 2 O'CLOCK.

No. 50 E. 63D Street.

The bridal calls are not expected to be returned until the
last day of reception.

The bridegroom gives to the first groomsman the control of
the ceremony and money for the necessary expenses. The
first groomsman presents the bouquet to the bride, leads the
visitors up to the young couple for the words of congratula-
tion, gives the clergyman his fee, engages the carriages, se-
cures tickets, checks baggage, secures pleasant seats, if the
happy pair start by rail for the ' ' moon ; " and, in short, makes
all arrangements.

If the wedding takes place in church, the ffont seats in the
body of the church are reserved for the relatives of the young
couple. The bride must not be kept waiting. The clergy-
man should be within the rails, the bridegroom and grooms-
men should be in the vestry-room by the time the bride is due
at the church. The bridesmaids should receive the bride in
the vestibule.

The bridal party meet in the vestry-room. Then the bride,
leaning on the arm of her father, leads the procession ; the
bridegroom, with the bride's mother upon his arm, follows ;
then groomsmen and bridesmaids in couples follow.

At the altar the bridegroom receives the bride, and the cere-
mony begins. The groomsmen stand behind the bridegroom,
the bridesmaids behind the bride. In some churches, the
bride and bridegroom remove the right hand glove ; in others
it is not considered essential. The bride stands on the left of
the groom.

When the wedding takes place at the house of the bride,
the bridal party is grouped behind folding doors or curtains
ere their friends see them. If, however, this is not convenient,
they enter in the same order as in church.

The first bridesmaid removes the bride's, left hand glove
for the ring.

After the ceremony the bride and groom go in the same
carriage from the church to the house, or from the house to
the railway depot or boat.

The bride does not change her dress until she assumes her
traveling dress. Her wedding gown is worn at the breakfast.
Friends of the family should call upon the mother of the
bride during the two weeks after the wedding,

Mourning must not be worn at a wedding. Even in the
case of a widowed mother to either of the happy pair, it is
customary to wear gray, or some neutral tint.

It is no longer the fashion at a wedding or wedding recep-
tion to congratulate the bride ; it is the bridegroom who
receives congratulations ; the bride wishes for her future hap-
piness. The bride is spoken to first.

The day being fixed for the wedding, the bride's father now
presents her with a sum of money for her trousseau, according
to her rank in life. A few days jveviously to the wedding,
presents are also made to the bride by relations and intimate
friends, varying in amount and value according to their de-
grees of relationship and friendship — such as plate, furniture,
jewelry, and articles of ornament, as well as of utility, to the
newly-married lady in her future station. These, together
with her wedding dresses, etc., it is customary to exhibit to
the intimate friends of the bride a day or two before her mar-
riage.

DUTY OF A BRIDEGROOM-ELECT.

The bridegroom-elect has, on the eve of matrimony, no
little business to transact. His first care is to look after a
house suitable for his future home, and then, assisted by the
taste of his chosen helpmate, to take steps to furnish it in a
becoming style. He must also, if engaged in business, make
arrangements for a month's absence ; in fact, bring together
all matters into a focus, so as to be readily manageable when,
after the honeymoon, he shall take the reins himself. He
will do well to bum most of his bachelor letters, and to part
with, it may be, some few of his bachelor connections ; and
he should communicate, in an easy, informal way, to his ac-
quaintances generally, the close approach of so important a
change in his condition. Not to do this might hereafter lead
to inconvenience and cause no little annoyance.

We must now speak of

BUYING THE RING.

It is the gentleman's business to buy the ring ; and let him
take special care not to forget it ; for such an awkward mistake
has frequently happened. The ring should be, we need

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624

ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY.

scarcely say, of the very purest gold, but substantial. There
are three reasons for this : first, that it may not break — a
source of great trouble to the young wife ; secondly, that it
may not slip off the finger without being missed — few hus-
bands being pleased to hear that their wives have lost their
wedding rings ; and thirdly, that it may last out the lifetime
of the loving recipient, even should that life be protracted to
the extreme extent. To get the right size required is not one
of the least interesting of the delicate mysteries of love. A
not unusual method is to get a sister of the fair one to lend one of
the lady's rings to enable the jeweler to select the proper size.
Care must be taken, however, that it is not too large. Some
audacious suitors, rendered bold by their favored position, have
been even known presumptuously to try the ring on the
patient finger of the bride elect ; and it has rarely happened in
such cases that the ring has been refused, or sent back to be
changed.

WHO SHOULD BE ASKED TO THE WEDDING.

The wedding should take place at the house of the bride's
parents or guardians. The parties who ought to be asked are
the father and mother of the gentleman, the brothers and sis-
ters (their wives and husbands also, if married), and indeed
the immediate relations and favored friends of both parties.
Old family friends on the bride's side should also receive invi-
tations — the rationale or original intention of this wedding
assemblage being to give publicity to the fact that the bride is
leaving her paternal home with the consent and approbation
of her parents.

On this occasion the bridegroom has the privilege of asking
any friends he may choose to the wedding ; but no friend has
a right to feel affronted at not being invited, since, were all
the friends on either side assembled, the wedding breakfast
would be an inconveniently crowded reception rather than
an impressive ceremonial. It is, however, considered a matter
of friendly attention on the part of those who cannot be in-
vited, to be present at the ceremony in the church.

WHO SHOULD BE BRIDESMAIDS.

The bridesmaids should include the unmarried sisters of the
bride ; but it is considered an anomaly for an elder sister to
perform this function. The pleasing novelty for several years
past of an addition to the number of bridesmaids, varying
from two to eight, and sometimes more, has added greatly
to the interest in weddings, the bride being thus enabled to
diffuse a portion of her own happiness among the most inti-
mate of her younger friends. One lady is always appointed
principal bridesmaid, and has the bride in her charge ; it is
also her duty to take care that the other bridesmaids have the
wedding favors in readiness. On the second bridesmaid de-
volves, with her principal, the duty of sending out the cards ;
and on the third bridesmaid, in conjunction with the remain-
ing beauties of her choir, the onerous office of attending to
certain ministrations and mysteries connected with the wed-
ding cake.

.OF THE BRIDEGROOMSMEN.

It behooves a bridegroom to be exceedingly particular in the

selection of the friends who, as groomsmen, are to be his com-
panions and assistants on the occasion of his wedding. Their
number is limited to that of the bridesmaids ; one for each.
It is unnecessary to add that very much of the social pleasure
of the day will depend on their proper mating. Young and
unmarried they must be, handsome they should be, good-
humored they cannot fail to be, well dressed they will of
course take good care to be. Let the bridegroom diligently
con over his circle of friends, and select the comeliest and the
pleasantest fellows for his own train. The principal bride-
groomsman, styled his " best man," has, for the day, the
special charge of the bridegroom ; and the last warning we
would give him is, to take care that, when the bridegroom
puts on his wedding waistcoat, he does not omit to put the
wedding ring into the corner of the left-hand pocket. The
dress of a groomsman should be light and elegant ; a dress
coat, formerly considered indispensable, is no longer adopted.

ETIQUETTE OF A WEDDING.

The parties being assembled on the wedding morning in the
drawing-roQm of the residence of the bride's father (unless, as
sometimes happens, the breakfast is spread in that room), the
happy cortege should proceed to the church in the following
order : —

In the first carriage, the bride's mother and the parents of
the bridegroom.

In the second and third carriages, bridesmaids.

Other carriages with the bride's friends.

In the last carriage, the bride and her father,

COSTUME OF THE BRIDE.

A bride's costume should be white, or some hue as close as
possible to it.

COSTUME OF THE BRIDEGROOM.

Formerly it was not considered to be in good taste for a
gentleman to be married in a black coat. More latitude is
now allowed in the costume of a bridegroom, the style now
adopted being what is termed morning dress : a frock coat,
light trowsers, white waistcoat, ornamental tie, and white or
gray gloves.

THE MARRIAGE CEREMONY.

The bridegroom stands at the right hand of the bride. The
father stands just behind her, so as to be in readiness to give her
hand at the proper moment to the bridegroom. The principal
bridesmaid stands on the left of the bride, ready to take off
the bride's glove, which she keeps as a perquisite and prize of
her office.

THE WORDS "I WILL"

are to be pronounced distinctly and audibly by both parties,
such being the all-important part of the ceremony as respects
themselves ; the public delivery, before the priest, by the
father of his daughter to the bridegroom, being an evi-
dence of his assent ; the silence which follows the inquiry for
" cause or just impediment " testifying that of society in gen-
eral ; and the ' ' I will " being the declaration of the bride and

--^

ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY.

625

bridegroom that they are voluntary parties to their holy union
in marriage.

THE WORDS "HONOR AND OBEY"

must also be distinctly spoken by the bride. They constitute
an essential part of the obligation and contract of matrimony
on her part.

AFTER THE CEREMONY

the clergyman usually shakes hands with the bride and bride-
groom, and the bride's father and mother, and a general con-
gratulation ensues.

THE RETURN HOME.

The bridegroom now leads the bride out of the church, and
the happy pair return homeward in the first carriage. The
father and mother follow in the next. The rest " stand not
on the order of their going," but start ofif in such wise as they
can best contrive.

THE WEDDING BREAKFAST.

The bride and bridegroom sit together at the center of the
table, in front of the wedding cake, the clergyman who per-
formed the ceremony taking his place opposite to them. The
top and bottom of the table are occupied by the father and
mother of the bride. The principal bridesmaid sits to the left
of the bride, and the principal bridegroomsman on the left of
the bridegroom. It may not be unnecessary to say that it is
customary for the ladies to wear their bonnets just as they
came from the church. The bridesmaids cut the cake into
small pieces, which are not eaten until the health of the bride
is proposed. This is usually done by the officiating clergy-
man, or by an old and cherished friend of the family of the
bridegroom. The bridegroom returns thanks for the bride
and for himself. The health of the bride's parents is then
proposed, and is followed by those of the principal personages
present, the toast of the bridesmaids being generally one of
the pleasantest features of the festal ceremony. After about
two hours, the principal bridesmaid leads the bride out of the
room as quietly as possible, so as not to disturb the party or
attract attention. Shortly after — it may be in about ten min-
utes — the absence of the bride being noticed, the rest of the
ladies retire. Then it is that the bridegroom has a few w^/a«-
choly moments to bid adieu to his bachelor friends, and he then
generally receives some hints on the subject in a short address
from one of them, to which he is of course expected to re-
spond. He then withdraws for a few moments, and returns
after having made a slight addition to his toilet, in readiness
for traveling.

DEPARTURE FOR THE HONEYMOON.

The young bride, divested of her bridal attire, and quietly
costumed for the journey, now bids farewell to her bridesmaids
and lady friends. A few tears spring to her gentle eyes as she
takes a last look at the home she is now leaving. The ser-
vants venture to crowd about her with their humble but heart-
felt congratulations ; finally, she falls weeping on her mother's
bosom. A short cough is heard, as of some one summoning

up resolution to hide emotion. It is her father. He dares
not trust his voice ; but holds out his hand, gives her an af-
fectionate kiss, and then leads her, half turning back, down
the stairs and through th^ hall, to the door, where he delivers
her as a precious charge to her husband, who hands her quickly
into the carriage, springs in after her, waves his hand to the
party who appear crowding at the window, half smiles at the
throng about the door, then, amidst a shower of old slippers —
missiles of good-luck sent flying after the happy pair — gives
the word, and they are off, and started on the long-hoped-for
voyage !

PRACTICAL ADVICE TO A NEWLY-MARRIED
COUPLE.

Our advice to the husband will be brief. Let him have no
concealments from his wife, but remember that their interests
are mutual ; that, as she must suffer the pains of every loss, as
well as share the advantages of every success, in his career in
life, she has therefore a right to know the risks she may be
made to undergo. We do not say that it is necessary, or ad-
visable, or even fair, to harass a wife's mind with the details
of business ; but where a change of circumstances — not for the
better — is anticipated or risked, let her by all means be made
acquainted with the fact in good time. Many a kind husband
almost breaks his young wife's fond heart by an alteration in
his manner, which she cannot but detect, but from igno-
rance of the cause very probably attributes to a wrong motive ;
while he, poor fellow, all the while out of pure tenderness, is
endeavoring to conceal from her tidings — which must come out
at last — of ruined hopes or failure in speculation ; whereas,
had she but known the danger beforehand, she would have
alleviated his fears on her account, and by cheerful resignation
have taken out half the sting of his disappointment. Let no
man think lightly of the opinion of his wife in times of diffi-
culty. Women have generally more acuteness of perception
than men ; and in moments of peril, or in circumstances that
involve a crisis or turning-point in life, they have usually more
resolution and greater instinctive judgment.

We recommend that every husband from the first should
make his wife an allowance for ordinary household expenses —
which he should pay weekly or monthly — and for the expendi-
ture of which he should not, unless for some urgent reason,
call her to account. A tolerably sure guide in estimating the
amount of this item, which does not include rent, taxes, ser-
vants' wages, coals, or candles, etc., is to remember that in a
small middle-class family, not exceeding four, the expense of
each person for ordinary food amounts to fifteen shillings
weekly ; beyond that number to ten shillings weekly for each
extra person, servant or otherwise. This estimate does not,
of course, provide for wine or food of a luxurious kind. The
largest establishment, indeed, may be safely calculated on the
same scale.

A wife should also receive a stated allowance for dress,
within which limit she ought always to restrict her expenses.
Any excess of expenditure under this head should be left to the
considerate kindness of her husband to concede. Nothing is
more contemptible than for a woman to have perpetually to
ask her husband for small sums for housekeeping expenses — ■

^ 626

ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY.

nothing more annoying and humiliating than to have to apply
to him always for money for her own private use— nothing
more disgusting than to see a man " molly-coddling " about
marketing, and rammaging about for cheap articles of all
kinds.

Let the husband beware, when things go wrong with him
in business affairs, of venting his bitter feelings of disappoint,
ment and despair in the presence of his wife and family ; feel-
ings which, while abroad, he finds it practicable to restrain.
It is as unjust as it is impolitic to indulge in such a habit.

A wife having married the man she loves above all others,
must be expected in her turn to pay some court to him. Be-
fore marriage she has, doubtless, been made his idol. Every
moment he could spare, and perhaps many more than he could
properly so appropriate, have been devoted to her. How anx-
iously has he not revolved in his mind his worldly chances
of making her happy ! How often has he not had to reflect,
before he made the proposal of marriage, whether he should
be acting dishonorably towards her by incurring the risk, for
the selfish motive of his own gratification, of placing her in a
worse position than the one she occupied at home ! And still
more than this, he must have had to consider with anxiety the
probability of having to provide for an increasing family, with
all its concomitant expenses.

We say, then, that being married, and the honeymoon over,
the husband must necessarily return to his usual occupations,
which will, in all probability, engage the greater part of his
thoughts, for he will now be desirous to have it in his power
to procure various little indulgences for his wife's sake which
he never would have dreamed of for his own. He comes to
his home weary and fatigued ; his young wife has had but her
pleasures to gratify, or the quiet routine of her domestic duties
to attend to, while he has been toiling through the day to
enable her to gratify these pleasures and to fulfill these duties.
Let, then, the dear, tired husband, at the close of his daily
labors, be made welcome by the endearments of his loving
spouse — let him be free from the care of having to satisfy the
caprices of a petted wife. Let her now take her turn in pay-
ing those many little love-begotten attentions which married
men look for to soothe them — let her reciprocate that devo-
tion to herself, which, fiom the early hours of their love, he
cherished for her, by her ever-ready endeavors to make him
happy and his home attractive.

In the presence of other persons, however, married people
should refrain from fulsome expressions of endearment to each
other, the use of which, although a common practice, is really
a mark of bad taste. It is desirable also to caution them
against adopting the too prevalent vulgarism of calling each
other, or indeed any person whatever, merely by the initial
letter of their surname.

A married woman should always be very careful how she
receives personal compliments. She should never court them,
nor ever feel flattered by them, whether in her husband's
presence or not. If in his presence, they can hardly fail to be
distasteful to him ; if in his absence, a lady, by a dignified
demeanor, may always convince an assiduous admirer that his

attentions are not well received, and at once and for ever stop
all familiar advances. In case ot msult, a wife should imme-
diately make her husband acquainted therewith ; as the only
chance of safety to a villain lies in the concealment of such
things by a lady from dread of consequences to her husband.
From that moment he has her at advantage, and may very
likely work on deliberately to the undermining of her charac-
ter. He is thus enabled to play upon her fears, and taunt her
with their mutual secret and its concealment, until she may be
involved, guilelessly, in a web of apparent guilt, from which
she can never extricate herself without risking the happiness
of her future life.

Not the least useful piece of advice — homely though it be —
that we can offer to newly-married ladies, is to remind them
that husbands are men, and that men must eat. We can tell
them, moreover, that men attach no small importance to this
very essential operation, and that a very effectual way to keep
them in good humor, as well as good condition, is for wives to
study their husbands' peculiar likes and dislikes in this matter.
Let the wife try, therefore, if she have not already done so,
to get up a little knowledge of the art of ordering dinner, to
say the least of it. This task, if she be disposed to learn it,
will in time be easy enough ; moreover, if in addition she
should acquire some practical knowledge of cookery, she will
find ample reward in the gratification it will be the means of
affording her husband.

Servants are difficult subjects for a young wife to handle ;
she generally either spoils them by indulgence, or ruins them
by finding fault unfairly. At last they either get the better of
her, or she is voted too bad for them. The art lies in steady
command and management of yourself as well as them.

An observance of the few following rules will in all proba-
bility insure a life of domestic harmony, peace, and comfort : —

To hear as little as possible whatever is to the prejudice of
others ; to believe nothing of the kind until you are compelled
to admit the truth of it ; never to take part in the circulation
of evil report and idle gossip ; always to moderate, as far as
possible, harsh and unkind expressions reflecting upon others ;
always to believe that if the other side were heard, a very
different account might be given of the matter.

In conclusion, we say emphatically to the newly-wedded
wife, that attention to these practical hints will prolong her
honeymoon throughout the whole period of wedded life, and
cause her husband, as each year adds to the sum of his happi-
ness, to bless the day when he first chose her as the nucleus
round which he might consolidate the inestimable blessings
of HOME.

" How fair is home, in fancy's pictured theme,
In wedded life, in love's romantic dream !
Thence springs each hope, there every spring returns,
Pure as the flame that upward, heavenward burns ;
There sits the wife, whose radiant smile is given —
The daily sun of the domestic heaven ;
And when calm evening sheds a secret power,
Her looks of love iraparadise the hour ;
While children round, a beauteous train, appear,
Attendant stars, revolving in her sphere."

— Holland's Hopes 0/ Matrimony.

kr-

^s^^
^

ETIQUETTE OF MOURNING.

627

Etiquette of iWouming.

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'URING times of health and happiness, it is per-
haps rather trying to be asked to turn our
thoughts into doleful channels ; but sooner or
later in our lives the sad time comes, for " Who
breathes must suffer, and who thinks must
mourn," and we have perforce to turn our minds
to the inevitable and share " the common lot of man,"
In times of mourning it seems doubly hard to arouse
ourselves, and allow the question of what to wear?
to intrude itself. It is, however, necessary. Custom decrees, if
even inclination does not prompt us, to show in some outward
degree our respect for the dead by wearing the usual black.

We do not advise people to rush into black for every slight
bereavement, nor, on the other hand, to show the utter disre-
gard some do on the death of their relations, and only acknowl-
edge the departure of those near and dear to them, by a band
of crape round the arm. This is the mark of mourning adopted
by those in the services who have to wear uniform, but hardly
a fitting way of outwardly showing respect to the memory of
those who have been called away from us, and whose loss we
deplore. A short time since^ a lady appeared in a new ruby
satin dress, with a band of crape around her arm. The fact
of the dress being new, showed that poverty did not cause this
incongruity. It is hardly ever those who are styled " the poor,"
who err so against the accepted ideas of decency and respect.
They always, however straitened they may be in circumstances,
contrive to wear mourning for their deceased relatives. When
black is fashionable, no difficulty is found in wearing it, and
you meet all your friends so attired, but when it becomes a
question of duty, these objections are raised as to the unneces-
sary expense, and the inconvenience of so dressing. The ma-
jority adhere in this respect to the customs their parents have
followed ; but the advanced few are those who air such senti-
ments, talk of the "mourning of the heart, not mere outward

woe," and not wearing what is really mourning, go into

society on the plea, " Oh ! we know that those who are

gone would not wish us to grieve for them." This may be

all very well, but in the case of husbands, wives, parents,

brothers, sisters, aunts, uncles, and the nearer-related cousins,

decency

requires some outward mark of respect to their memory.

It will be as well to consider in succession the different de-
grees of mourning, and their duration.

The widow's is the deepest mourning of all. That old-
fashioned material, bombazine, is now no longer heard of.
Paramatta is in the most general use for widows. Barathea is
also worn, but the first-named is the most frequently used for
the first dresses ; but, whatever the material, it is hidden by
crape. The skirt, which is generally cut quite plain, and
slightly trained, is completely covered with crape, put on quite
plainly in one piece ; the body and sleeves are also hidden
with crape — the dress, in fact, presenting the appearance of
one of crape. The body can be cut eithtr en pi incesse, or have
a deep jacket bodice ; but whichever is preferred, crape should
cover it completely.

The best and most economical crape for all wear is the
rainproof crape, an improvement and development of the Al-
bert crape, which is now brought to the greatest perfection of
manufacture ; it costs about half what ordinary crape does, to
begin with, and is very much more durable ; its impervious-
ness to weather being, of course, its great feature. The best
make of this is quite suitable for widows' mourning. Its ap-
pearance equals that of much more expensive ordinary crape.
We see no reason ourselves why, especially if economy be an
object, the rainproof crape should not be worn for all degrees
of mourning. We have no hesitation in advising it. For a
second dress it would be a good plan to have some half-worn
black dress entirely covered with crape — the rainproof crape—

1 628

ETIQUETTE OF MOURNING.

this would save the better dress a little ; and as widows' first
mourning is worn for a year and a day, it would be advisable
to start with at least two dresses ; the crape on them could be
renewed when necessary.

Widows' mantles are either made of silk or Paramatta,
trimmed deeply with crape, or sometimes of Cyprus crape
cloth, or cloth crape trimmed. The Cyprus crape cloth is a
sort of crepe material, and wears well, neither dust nor wet
affecting it. In shape, the widow's mantle is a dolman, or long
cape of good size ; this for elderly widows. For those younger,
jackets or paletots, crape-trimmed of course, are worn for win-
ter wear, and for summer mantles made entirely of crape.
The bonnet for first mourning is all of crape, with widow's cap
tacked inside it, the small, close-fitting -shape, with long crape
veil hanging at the back ; besides this veil, a shorter one is
worn over the face. Hats cannot be worn by widows, how-
ever young they might be, during the period of their deepest
mourning.

The following list would be ample for a widow's outfit.
We have given rather a large one because, of course, it can
be curtailed as wished.

One best dress of Paramatta covered entirely with crape.

One dress, either a costume of Cyprus crape, or an old
black dress covered with rainproof crape.

One Paramatta mantle lined with silk and deeply trimmed
with crape.

One warmer jacket of cloth lined, trimmed with crape.

One bonnet of best silk crape, with long veil.

One bonnet of rainproof crape, with crape veil.

Twelve collars ahd cuffs of muslin or lawn, with deep hems.
Several sets must be provided, say six of each kind.

One black stuff petticoat.

Four pairs of black hose, either silk, cashmere, or spun
silk.

Twelve handkerchiefs with black borders for ordinary use,
cambric.

Twelve of finer cambric for better occasions.

Caps, either of lisse, tulle, or tarlatan, shape depending very
much on the age. Young widows wear chiefly the Marie
Stuart shape, but all widows' caps have long streamers. They
vary, of course, in price. Tarlatan are the easiest made at
home, but we do not fancy home-made widows' caps are an
economy, they soil so much more quickly than bought caps.
It is a good plan to buy extra streamers and bows for them ;
these can be made at home for the morning caps, very fine
thread and needles being used for the work, which should be
very fine, neat, and even. If in summer a parasol should be
required, it should be of silk deeply trimmed with crape,
almost covered with it, but no lace or fringe for the first year.
Afterward mourning fringe might be put on. A muff, if
required, would be made of Paramatta, and trimmed with
crape.

The first mourning is worn for twelve months. Second
mourning twelve months also ; the cap in second mourning is
left off, and the crape no longer covers the dresses, but is put
on in tucks. Elderly widows frequently remain in mourning
for long periods, if not for the remainder of their lives, retain-
ing the widow's cap, collar and cuffs, but leaving off the deep

crape the second year, and afterwards entirely discarding
crape, but wearing mourning materials such as Victoria cords,
Janus cords, cashmere, and so on.

No ornaments are worn in such deep mourning, except jet,
for the first year. Jet is, of course, allowable. Rich silk is,
of course, admissible in widows' mourning, especially for
evening wear, but it must always be deeply trimmed with
crape for the first year, and the quantity afterwards gradually
lessened. A silk costume is a very expensive item in a
widow's mourning ; therefore we only allude to it — do not set
it down as a necessity. The best silks for the purpose are
rich, heavy silks, such as grosgrain, drap du nord, satin mer-
veilleux. Furs are not admissible in widows' first mourning,
though very dark sealskin and astrachan can be worn when
the dress is changed. In other mournings, furs are now very
generally worn— that is, after the first few months, but only
dark furs.

Widows' lingerie, to be always nice, entails a considerable
amount of expense. If collars, cuffs and caps are made at
home, as we before said, they get soiled directly. As, how-
ever, it is not always possible to buy them when t^ey require
renewing, the following directions may prove of use : " Wid-
ow's cuffs, made in tarlatan, should be about nine inches long,
according to the size of the wrist. They are not intended to
overlap, but just to meet, fastened with two buttons and loops,
placed near the upper and lower edges. The ordinary depth
is five inches, with a wide hem at the top and bottom of an
inch and a half depth. The material being merely a straight
piece, they are easy to make. For the collar, the straight all-
round shape, turning down over the collar of the dress, is the
most usual. If any other shape is required, cut it in paper,
and make it accordingly with the wide hem of one and ahalf
inch. If the collar is straight, it will be merely necessary to
turn it down; if rounded at all, it must be cut to the shape,
run to the collar at the edge, and then turned down. Fine
cotton and needles and neat work are required."

If an attempt is made to make widows' caps at home, first
procure a good cap for a model, and copy it as exactly as pos
sible. It must be made on a " dolly " or wooden block of a
head, or it will never sit well.

To preserve widows' caps clean, fresh-looking, and of a good
color, when not in use they should be put on cap-holders on
a shelf in a cupboard, the long streamers turned up over the
cap, and a piece of blue paper (thin) laid over them. So
treated, they will with care last a long while, that, is, if there
are two or three worn in turn, and they are put away in this
manner when not in actual use.

It may be as well to sum up what we have said. Duration
of mourning : Widow's first mourning lasts for a year and a
day. Second mourning cap left off, less crape and silk for
nine months (some curtail it to six), remaining three months
of second year plain black without crape, and jet ornaments.
At the end of the second year the mourning can be put oft
entirely ; but it is better taste to wear half mourning for at
least six months longer ; and, as we have before mentioned,
many widows never wear colors any more, unless for some
solitary event, such as the wedding of a child, when they
would probably put it off for the day. Materials : —

ETIQUETTE OF MOURNING.

629

Dresses and Mantles. — Paramatta, Barathea, silk trimmed
with silk, Albert or rainproof crape.

Bonnets and Veils. — Crape.

Caps. — Lisse, tulle, tarlatan.

Collars and Cuffs. — Lawn and muslin.

Petticoats. — Black stuff or silk-quilted.

Pocket Handkerchiefs. — Cambric, black borders.

Hose. — Black Balbriggan, cashmere, or silk.

Gloves. — Black kid.

The mourning for parents ranks next to that of widows ; for
children by their parents, and for parents by their children,
these being of course identical in degree. It lasts in either
case twelve months — six months in crape trimmings, three in
plain black, and three in half-mourning. It is, however,
better taste to continue the plain black to the end of the year,
and wear half-mourning for three months longer. Materials
for first six months, either Paramatta, Barathea, or any of the
black corded stuffs, such as Janus cord, about thirty-eight
inches wide ; Henrietta cord about same price and width.
Such dresses would be trimmed with two deep tucks of crape,
either Albert or rainproof, would be made plainly, the body
trimmed with crape, and sleeves with deep crape cuffs. Col-
lars and cuffs, to be worn during the first mourning would be
made of muslin or lawn, with three or four tiny tucks in dis-
tinction to widows' with the wide, deep hem. Pocket hand-
kerchiefs would be bordered with black. Black hose, silk or
Balbriggan, would be worn, and black kid gloves. For out-
door wear either a dolman mantle would be worn or a paletot,
either of silk or Paramatta*, but in either case trimmed with
crape. Crape bonnets or hats ; if for young children, all
crape for bonnets, hats, silk and crape ; feathers (black) could
be worn, and a jet clasp or arrow in the bonnet, but no other
kind of jewelry is admissible but jet — that is, as long as crape
is worn. Black furs, such as astrachan, may be worn, or very
dark sealskin, or black sealskin cloth, now so fashionable, but
no light furs of any sort. Silk dresses can be worn, crape-
trimmed after the first three months if preferred, and if
expense be no object ; the lawn-tucked collars and cuffs
would be worn with them. At the end of the six months
crape can be put aside, and plain black, such as cashmere,
worn, trimmed with silk if liked, but not satin, for that is not
a mourning material, and is therefore never worn by those
who strictly attend to mourning etiquette. With plain black,
black gloves and hose would of course be worn, and jet, no
gold or silver jewelry for at least nine months after the com-
mencement of mourning ; then, if the time expires in the
twelve months, gray gloves might be worn, and gray ribbons,
lace or plain linen collar and cuffs take the place of the lawn
or muslin, and gray feathers might lighten the hat or bonnet,
or reversible black and gray strings.

Many persons think it is in better taste not to commence
half-mourning until after the expiration of a year, except in
the case of young children, who are rarely kept in mourning
beyond the twelve months.

A wife would wear just the same mourning for her husband's
relations as for her own ; thus, if her husband's mother died,
she would wear mourning as deep as if for her own mother.

For Grandparents , the first mourning (crape) is worn for three

months ; second mourning, black, without crape, also worn for
three months ; and half-mourning for three more, or nine
months in all. The same materials are worn. Paramatta, Bar-
athea, various cords with crape and cashmere, and merino when
the crape is left off.

For Sisters or Brothers, six months' mourning is usually worn.
Crape for three, plain black for two, and half mourning for
one month ; the same sort of stuffs, the crape being put on in
one deep tuck and two narrow tucks ; bodice, crape trimmed ;
mantle or dolman, crape trimmed ; bonnet of crape with fea-
thers or jet, hat of silk and crape. Veil of hat with crape tuck,
hose black silk, Balbriggan or cashmere, handkerchiefs black
bordered. Silks can be worn after the first month if trimmed
with crape.

For Uncles, Aunts, Nephews, or Nieces, crape is not worn,
but plain black, with jet for three months.

For Great Uncles or Aunts, mourning would last for two
months without crape.

For Cousins (first), six weeks are considered sufficient, three
of which would be in half-mourning.

For Cousins less closely related, mourning is hardly ever put
on unless they have been inmates of the house.

No invitations would be accepted before the funeral of any
relatives closely enough related to you to put on mourning for.
In the case of brothers, sisters, parents, and grandparents, sor
ciety would be given up for at least three months, if not more,
and it would be very bad taste to go to a ball or large festive
gathering in crape. Widows do not enter society for at least a
year — that is, during the period of their deepest mourning.
With regard to complimentary mourning — as worn by mothers
for the mother or father-in-law of their married children, black
would be worn for six weeks or so without crape ; by second
wives for the parents of the first wife, for about three weeks,
and in a few other cases.

It is better taste to wear mourning in making the first call
after a bereavement on friends, but this is not a decided rule,
only a graceful method of implying sympathy with those who
are suffering affliction. But calls are not made until the cards
with "thanks for kind inquiries" have been sent in return for
the cards left at the time of decease. Letters of condolence
should always be written on slightly black-edged paper, and it
would be kind to intimate in the letter that no answer to it
will be expected. Few realize the effort it is to those left to
sit down and write answers to inquiries and letters, however
kind and sympathizing they may have been.

Servants' Mourtiing. — Servants are not usually put into
mourning except for the members of the household in which
they are living, not for the relatives of their masters and mis-
tresses, and very frequently only for the heads of the house,
not for the junior members.

A best dress of Victoria cord or alpaca, two cotton dresses,
black for mourning wear while at work. A cloth jacket, in case
of master or mistress, with a slight crape trimming, a silk and
crape bonnet, pair of black kid gloves, and some yards of black
cap ribbon, would be the mourning given to the servants in
the house at.the time of the death of one of the heads of the
establishment, and their mourning would be worn for at least
six months, or even a year in some cases.

630

ETIQUETTE OF MOURNING.

'•^

The following is a list of suitable materials for mourning of
thpse relationships we have named, all of which can be obtained
at any good mourning establishment.

Silk crape, Paramatta.AIbert crape,Barathea, rainproof crape,
silk, Cyprus crape. Janus cord, Victoria cord, Balmoral
cloth, Cashmere Franjais, Kashgar Cashmere ; these last are
wide materials from 44 to 47 inches. Crape cloth looks pre-
cisely like crape, but is much lighter and cooler.

For summer wear drap d'ete, a mixture of silk and wool, is
suitable ; barege for dinner dresses ; nun's veil cloth, etc., etc.

The best all-black washing materials are cotton, satine,
foulardine ; black and white for slighter mourning, black with
tiny white spots or sprigs.

Children should be dressed in these black washing materials
— that is, for summer wear, in preference to the thicker mate-
rials, as for young children, crape is soon dispensed with.
Neither velvet, satin, nor plush can be worn in mourning — that is
in strict mourning — for they are not mourning materials. At-
tempts have been made to bring in some colors, such as red or
violet, and we consider them suitable to slight mourning ; but
the only color really admissible for half-mourning is gray, or the
palest lavender, gray gloves sewn with black, gray and black
reversible ribbons, gray and black feathers, gray flowers mixed
with black, and so on.

In all cases of mourning it is the best plan to write to some
well-known house for patterns; good mourning establishments

can afford to sell better materials at cheaper rates than small,
inferior houses. Large firms have always a good choice of
materials for mourning on hand ; and it is really far greater
economy to buy good materials when going into mourning, than
cheap flimsy stuffs, which give no wear at all ; besides, such
houses send out books of fashions and prices for making up
mourning costumes, which give a good idea of the expense to
be incurred, even if it is not found cheaper to purchase and
have mourning made up by them.

Mourning has generally to be purchased hurriedly, and too
often a dressmaker gets carte blanche almost to furnish the
mourning. If such is the case, no wonder mourning is con-
sidered expensive ; for things which are quite unnecessary, such
as expensive crape in the place of rainproof kinds, more crape
used than the degre of mourning requires, and many extrava-
gancies of a like nature, fiaturally swell such a bill into one of
large proportions, when by a little forethought the necessary
black could have been purchased at a far more reasonable rate.
It is not necessary to have very expensive mourning if our
means will not allow it ; we should learn to suit our require-
ment to the state of our purses. But we sincerely trust the old
custom of wearing decent mourning for those taken away from
us, will never be really discontinued in America, for it is one of
those proofs of our home affections which can never be dons
away with without a loss of national respect.

GOLDEN RULES OF ETIQUETTE.

631

■%,

. ■^■^■.^.^■^■^■■^■■^■^■^■^■^■■^■^■^■■^■^■^■^■^■^■^■^■■^■■^

INTRODUCTIONS.

HAKING hands after an introduction has taken
place is merely optional not necessary-
It is not necessary to introduce people who
meet at your house on morning calls.

It is optional after such an introduction, with
the parties introduced, to continue or drop the ac-
quaintance so formed.
A friend visiting at your house must be introduced
to all callers, who are bound to continue the acquaintance as
long as the friend is your guest.

A gentleman must always raise his hat, if introduced in the
street, to either lady or gentleman.

Letters of introduction to and from business men, for busi-
ness purposes, may be delivered by the bearers in person, and
etiquette does not require the receiver to entertain the person
introduced as the private friend of the writer.

BALL.

A hundred gents or over that number constitute a ball. The
lady of the house must stand near the door, so as to receive
her guests, to each of whom she must find something to say,
no matter how trifling. The host must also be near, to wel-
come arrivals, and the sons to introduce people. The young
ladies and their very intimate friends must see that the
dances are kept up, and should not dance themselves till they
have found partners for all their friends. They may with per-
fect propriety ask any gentleman present to be introduced to
a partner, and he is bound to accept the invitation ; but the
lady must be careful whom she asks. Some young ladies do
not dance at all, preferring to see their friends amused, and for
fear of causing jealousies.

If you escort a lady to a ball, call for her at the appointed
hour, in a carriage, and send a bouquet early in the day.
Upon arriving at the house where the ball is held, escort your
charge to the dressing-room door. She may or may not
dance the first dance with you. Ask her. You must see that

she gets her supper, and offer to leave the ball at any hour that
she may be desirous of so doing.

No gentleman should wait for the "fiddles to strike up" to
engage a partner.

At a public ball, a lady may refuse to have a gentleman pre-
sented to her.

Do not remain too late.

" May I have the pleasure of the waltz or quadrille with
you," is all that a gentleman need say on introduction. If the
lady says yes, he asks permission to write his name on her
card.

Always give your arm to a lady in crossing a ball-room.

Do not feel offended if your fair partner fails to bow to you
when you meet her after a ball. It is optional ; some young
ladies are very timid, and fear that gentlemen forget them.

Do not feel slighted if your fair companion does not invite
you to enter her home on returning from the ball. If she does
invite you, decline.

AT HOMES— RECEPTIONS— GIVING
PARTIES.

Parties in cities consist of — at homes, receptions, conversa-
ziones, private concerts, private theatricals, soirees, dramatic
tea-parties, matinees, or a gathering of people.

In the country, the in-door parties comprise small dancing-
parties, tea-parties, and conversaziones ; but the out-door occa-
sions are of much greater number and variety ; lawn-tennis
parties, croquet, sailing, and boating parties, picnics, private
fetes, berrying parties, nutting parties. May festivals. Fourth
of July festivals, anything for a day spent in out-door frolic.

For "Receptions " and " At Homes," and conversaziones in.
vitations should be sent out a week beforehand.

At a reception you have music and singing, perhaps recita-
tions. Light refreshments are served, and the hostess makes
the most of her rooms in display, etc.

Gentlemen should take elderly ladies into refreshments.

Let amateur performers learn something off by heart. Being
provided with notes is not stylish.

632

GOLDEN RULES OF ETIQUETTE.

4r-

Let no person offer to turn over the leaves of a music book
for a performer, unless he or she can read music rapidly.

If you play an accompaniment show off the singer not your-
self.

If you get up private theatricals, secure the best amateur
talent.

Be punctual at lawn-tennis and croquet parties^

Gentlemen at picnics must turn into waiters for the nonce,
and look to the appetites of the ladies.

SALUTATIONS.

Do not insult by offering two fingers when shaking hands.

Remove your right hatid glove in the street ; retain it in the
house.

Do not wring off the wrist of the person with whom you
shake hands.

The lady recognizes the gentleman first by bowing. The
gentleman must wait till he is bowed to by the lady.

When a lady is desirous of ending a conversation in the
street she should bow slightly, and the gentleman must in-
stantly take his leave.

If the lady " proceeds upon her way" without breaking up
conversation, then the gentleman is bound to join her in the
promenade.

At home, the lady extends her hand to every guest.

A gentleman is at liberty to bow to a lady seated at a win-
dow, but if he is in the window he is not to bow to a lady in
the street.

The gentleman never offers to shake hands with the lady. It
is her prerogative to stretch forth her hand to his.

A gentleman may at all times bow to a lady he may meet on
a stairway, even if not acquainted. If at the foot of the stairs,
he must bow, pass her and ascend before her. If at the head
of the stairs, he must bow, and wait for her to precede him in
the descent.

If a gentleman is walking with a friend, and the friend bows
to a lady, he is bound to bow although he may be unacquainted
with the lady.

CALLS.

If a lady has a particular day set aside for receiving callers,
call on that day only.

You can make a formal call in the morning, a friendly one
in the evening.

Gentlemen may call in the morning on the following ex-
cuses : —

After a breakfast, luncheon, dinner, reception, or ball.

On the occasion of any joy or grief.

After escorting a lady on the previous evening.

Be prompt on the first call.

In the morning, call after ten o'clock ; in the evening, not
later than eight.

In the evening informal call leave hat, coat, umbrella, cane,
and overshoes in the hall.

If you find your host or hostess attired for going out, beat a
hasty retreat.

Never put anything but your name and address on your
card when making a social call. Thus : —

295 Fifth Avenue, N. Y.

artin Sarkf, H.i.,

128 Lexington Avenue, JV. V.

(gajvimn Yeuei ^ojwnae^.

^. c^. 64.

%itnUnmit gcsBjepflx ^Xitxt.

U.S.JJ.

--^

GOLDEN RULES OF ETIQUETTE.

63J

Never consult your watch before taking your departure.

Leave a card before departing for the country or Europe
with th"; words P. P. C. {Pour Pendre Congi. To Take Leave)
on the left hand corner in pencil.

Leave a card during the illness of your friend.

Leave a card the day after a ball or big dinner party.

After a small party leave a card within -a week. Wives
leave the cards of their husbands.

The first callers are the residents in the place.

Call upon the gent who comes to stay with your friend.

Do not keep your callers waiting.

Do not remove your gloves when making a formal call.

No callers should fiddle with books, pictures, albums, win-
dow-blinds, etc.

When you call on a friend at a hotel or boarding-house write
his or her name above your own on your own card.

DINNER.

Gentlemen should stand behind their respective chairs until
all the ladies are seated, and then take their own seats. Care
should be taken that their chairs do not stand upon the dresses
of the ladies beside them,

Grace is said by a clergyman, if there is one present, if not,
by the host. The clergyman should be invited to say grace
by the host. People usually stand till grace is over.

If the dinner is h. la Russe, the carving will be done behind
a screen. Keep your servants from making a noise behind the
screen.

Always say "thanks," or " thank you," to the servant or
waiter.

Never decline wine by clapping your hand on top of your
glass.

Do not eat ravenously.

Do not smack the lips.

Never take a long, deep breath after yoii finish eating, as if
you were tired eating.

Make no noises in your mouth or throat.

Do not suck your teeth or roll your tongue around the out-
side of your gums.

Never, no NEVER, NEVER, put your knife into your mouth.

Do not pick your teeth, or plunge your finger into your
mouth.

Do not spit out fish-bones upon your plate.

Never take the bones of fowl or birds up in your fingeis to
gnaw or suck them. Remove the meat with your knife, and
convey it to your mouth with your fork. Do not polish or
scrape the bone.

Wipe your finger-tips upon the table napkin.

Do not use the tablecloth to wipe your mouth.

Do not either praise or dispraise what is placed before you.

Do not drink or speak when you have anything in your
mouth.

When you are helped begin to eat.

Never watch the dishes as they are uncovered, or cry out
when you perceive something dainty.

Do not attempt to tuck your napkin, bib fashion, into your
shirt collar. Unfold it partially and place it in your lap, cov-

ering your knees, A lady may slip a comer under her belt if
there is danger of its falling upon her dress.

Do not talk loudly. Do not whisper. Do not laugh too
loudly.

Use the table articles, such as spoon, butter-knife, etc., etc.

Never clean your plate. Leave something on it.

Never attempt to propose a toast or sentiment, at all events
till the dessert is well over. We have seen men attempt this
before the roasts appeared.

Take chatlis with your oysters or clams.

Take sherry with your soup.

Take champagne with the entrees.

Take Burgundy with game.

Take port with cheese.

Take claret after dessert.

Take a pousse cafd, a liqueur, after coffee.

Never spit the skins of grapes, the stones or pips of fruits.
Receive them upon the prongs of your fork, laid horizontally,
and place them as best you can upon the edge of your plate.

Do not play with your fingers upon the table.

Do not play with your knife and fork, fidget with your salt-
cellar, balance your spoon on your tumbler, or make pills o!
your bread.

Do not illustrate your anecdotes by plans drawn upon the
table with your nail.

Do not stretch your feet out under the table, so as to touch
those of your opposite neighbor.

Do not tilt your chair.

Endeavor to take an easy position at table, neither pressing
too closely up to it, nor yet so far away as to risk depositing
your food upon the floor.

Give your neighbor as much elbow room as possible.

If the dinner is for gentlemen guests alone, and the lady
of the house presides, her duties are over when she rises after
dessert. The gentlemen do not expect to see her again. Cigars
may be served with the coffee, and then the servants may re-
tire.

In case of a stag party, like this, the lady of the house is
much better away. Then the oldest friend of the host takes
her seat.

BAPTISM.

Let the godfather and godmother be of the same church as
the child that is to be baptized.

Never refuse to stand sponsor without good cause.

The godmother should select the godfather.

The godparents should make the infant a present, a silver
cup, or a set consisting of knife, fork and spoon.

Very young persons should not be asked to become sponsors.

The nurse carrying the child enters the church first, then
come the sponsors, then the happy father, and the guests.

The sponsors stand thus : godfather on the right of the child ;
godmother on the left.

The sponsors bow when the clergyman asks who the spon-
sors are. ^

Do not offer to act as sponsors. The parents make the
selection.

Praise the baby under all circumstances.

634

GOLDEN RULES OF ETIQUETTE.

FUNERALS.

Do not speak loudly in the house of mourning. Do not ask
to see the members of the bereaved family. Invitations are
printed, and in this form : —

You are respectfully invited to attend the funeral of Mr,
John Smith on Friday, June 28, 1882, at 9 o'clock a. m.,
from his late residence, 148 West 68th Street. To pro-
ceed to Cyprus Grove Cemetery,

If the services are at church : —

You are respectfully invited to attend the funeral of Mr.
John Smith, from the Church of the Nativity, Madison
Avenue, on Friday, June 28th, at 9 o'clock a. m. To
proceed to Cyprus Grove Cemetery.

No further notice need be sent, if the invitation is given
through the newspapers.

Do not go to the house of your dead friend until the hour
named. The last moments are, indeed, precious to the grief-
stricken relatives.

The clergyman leaves the house first, and enters the carriage
that precedes the hearse ; the coffin comes next ; then come
the relatives.

Do not salute the relatives.

The master of the ceremonies assists at the carriages, also at
the church.

Hats must be removed as the coffin passes from the hearse to
the church, and from the church to the hearse, and a double
line formed.

Wear black clothes, or as near to that color as may be.

Send a carriage for the clergyman.

Send only white flowers, and on the morning of the funeral.

Pall-bearers must be the immediate friends of the deceased.

Gloves and crape, if given, must be presented as the gentle-
men enter the house.

Leave cards for the family of the deceased during the week
following the obsequies. The proper person to purchase
mourning is the nearest lady friend of the family.

No member of the family of the deceased shall be seen out-
of-doors till after the funeral.

HOTELS.

Ladies traveling alone will request the escort of a waiter
from the dining-room door to the table.

Ladies will make up their minds quickly as to what dishes
they propose to order.

Ladies will accept table civilities from gentlemen, such as
passing salt, etc., etc.

The piano of the hotel is public property, but a lady should
be careful about monopolizing it.

Ladies will not linger in the hall, and will avoid the public
entrance.

•Recognition across the dining-room is not required.

AMUSEMENTS.

Gentlemen will always invite another lady to accompany a
young lady in taking her for the first time to a place of
amusement.

Give the ladies as long a notice as possible.

A lady does not bow across a theater, a gentleman does

Do not arrive late at any entertainment.

No lady stares round a theater with an opera glass.

During the performance speak in a low tone.

The gentleman walks before the lady until he reaches the
seat, then he bows her into her seat.

Never leave the lady alone.

Never stand in the way of others in picture galleries.

It is permissible for a gentleman to join ladies for a moment
or two between the acts.

Be careful to enter a place of amusement as quietly and
unostentatiously as possible.

Never laugh loudly, and if you applaud, do so earnestly, but
not too energetically.

BY BOAT AND RAIL.

Ladies will not permit their escorts to enter any apartment
reserved for ladies only.

Ladies traveling alone should consult conductors or captains.
Ladies will thank gentlemen who raise or lower windows,
coldly but politely.

If a person crushes or crowds you, and apologizes, accept
the apology by a cold bow.

Gentlemen escorts must pay the most delicate and earnest
care to the lady or ladies under their care. The attention
must be unremitting.

At a hotel, the escort must see to everything, rooms, etc. ,
etc.

Courtesies in traveling are always en r}gle, but there must
be no attempt at familiarity.

Gentlemen will commence conversations.

Gentlemen will assist ladies to alight from the cars.

A gentleman may offer to escort a lady to the refreshment
saloon.

A gentleman may offer his newspaper.

THE STREET.

Ladies bow first to gentlemen. The gentleman so saluted
lifts his hat and bows.

Gentlemen will offer to carry parcels for ladies.

Gentlemen will not smoke when walking with ladies.

Candy or bananas, or anything else, should not be eaten in
the street.

Ladies and old gentlemen are given the portion of the side-
walk next to the houses.

Ladies should not walk too rapidly.

Ladies may accept umbrella assistance from male friends
and acquaintances, but from strangers never.

In crossing through a narrow place, or across a plank, or
in-doors, or up-stairs, the lady goes first.

A gentleman may assist a lady to cross a puddle or across a
crowded street,

A gentleman should never let a lady stand in a railway car,
a street car, a stage, or a ferry-boat, if he has a seat to offer
her. A man remaining seated while a woman stands, is abso-
lutely hoggish.

§^

GOLDEN RULES OF ETIQUETTE.

635

A gentleman will pass a lady's fare in a street car or stage.
No lady will salute across a street.
A very stiff bow gives the " cut."

Young people must wait for recognition from their elders.
Gentlemen will open store, and all other doors for ladies to
pass, lifting hat at same time.

Do not bow from a store to a person in the street.

VISITS.

" You'll come and see me some time," is no invitation. Re-
collect this!

If you are asked by letter to make a visit, reply instanter.

If you are asked to visit friends for any period, write at
once and name the time most convenient to yourself.

Hosts should always have a guest room, and special care
should be given to it. It should be warmed in winter and
cooled in summer. Its comforts should be made a study.

Hosts should either meet or send to the depot for their
guests. The baggage should be looked after, and any trouble
spared the person invited.

If the guest arrives in the morning, special breakfast
should be prepared ; if at night, special supper. If the guest
is delicate or a late riser, special meals should be prepared.

Guests will conform as much as possible to the habits of
their hosts.

Hosts will amuse their guests as much as possible, by enter-

tainments, by taking them to places of interest, and by intro-
ductions to entertaining people.

The hostess need not appear between breakfast and lun-
cheon. She has her household duties to attend to.

No guest will make an outside engagement without con-
sulting the host.

Hosts will accept no invitations that do not include their
guests.

Guests should bring their own writing materials, sewing
materials, wools, etc., etc. Ladies should volunteer to assist
the hostess in sewing, etc.

Guests may use the servants as if they were their own, but
always in reason.

If a guest injures anything in the house at which he or she
maybe stopping, such as a glass bowl, a painting, etc., etc.,
he or she will repair the loss by sending an article similar to
that which has been injured.

Gentlemen may send gifts of flowers, candies, bonbons, etc.;
and guests may always present the baby with a gift.

Do not open any letters delivered to you in the presence of
your host and hostess without saying, " Have I your permis-
sion ? " Hosts will do the same toward their guests.

No lady guest pays for anything, carriage, boat, car, etc.

Hosts, when their guests are about to leave, will see that
the baggage is cared for, and will leave the guest at the depot
or boat.

Cs6

THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS.

'fi%fi5ff*^"^r

S'©1?W©

occeoc5©ooc

OW the universal heart
of man blesses flowers !
They are wreathed
round the cradle, the
j^,_ marriage-altar, and the
^ tomb. The Persian in
the far East delights in
their perfume, and writes
his love in nosegays ;
while the Indian child of
the far West claps his
hands with glee as he
gathers the abundant blos-
soms, — the illuminated
scriptures of the prairies. The Cupid of the ancient
Hindoos tipped his arrows with flowers, and orange-
flowers are a bridal crown with us, a nation of yes-
terday. Flowers garlanded the Grecian altar, and

hung in votive wreath before the Christian shrine. All
these are appropriate uses. Flowers should deck the
brow of the youthful bride, for they are in them-
selves a lovely type of marriage. They should twine
round the tomb, for their perpetually renewed beauty
is a symbol of the resurrection. They should festoon
the altar, for their fragrance and their beauty ascend
in perpetual worship before the Most High.

Flowers have a language of their own, and it is
this bright particular language that we would teach
our readers. How charmingly a young gentleman
can speak to a • young lady, and with what elo-
quent silence in this delightful language. How
delicately she can respond, the beautiful little flow-
ers telling her tale in perfumed words ; what a -deli-
cate story the myrtle or the rose tells ! How un-
happy that which basil, or the yellow rose reveals,
while ivy is the most faithful of all.

ALMOND-HOPE.
The hope, in dreams of a happier hour,

That alights upon misery's brow,
Springs out of the silvery almond flower,

That blooms on a leafless bough.

Abecedary Volubility.

Abatina Fickleness.

Acacia Friendship.

Acacia, Rose or White . . .Elegance.

Acacia, Yellow Secret love.

Acanthus The fine arts. Arti-
fice.

Acalia Temf)erance.

Achillea Millefolia War.

Aconite (Wolfsbane) Misanthropy.

Aconite, Crowfoot Luster.

Adonis, Flos Painful recollections

African Marigold Vulgar minds.

Agnus Castus Coldness. Indiffer-
ence.

Agrimony Thankfulness. Grat-
itude.

Almond (Common) Stupidity. Indiscre-
tion.

Almond (Flowering) Hope.

Almond, Laurel Perfidy.

Allspice Compassion.

Aloe Grief. Religious

superstition.

Althaea Frutex (Syrian
Mallow) Persuasion.

Alyssum (Sweet) , Worth beyond

beauty.

Amaranth (Globe) Immortality. Un-
fading love.

Amaranth (Cockscomb).. Foppery. Affecta
tion.

Amaryllis Pr.ide. Timidity.

Splendid beauty.

Ambrosia Love returned .

American Cowslip Divine beauty.

American Elm Patriotism-
American Linden Matrimony.

American Starwort Welcome to a stran-
ger. Cheerfulness
in old age.

Amethyst Admiration.

THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS.

637

Anemone (Zephyr Flower)Sickness. Expecta-
tion.

Anemone (Garden) Forsaken.

Angelica Inspiration.

Angrec Royalty.

Apple Temptation.

Apple (Blossom) Preference. Fame

speaks him great
and good.

Apple, Thorn Deceitful charms.

Apocynum (Dog's Vane) . Deceit.

Arbor Vitae Unchanging friend-
ship. Live for me.

Arum (Wake Robin) Ardor.

Ash-leaved Trumpet
Flower Separation.

Ash Tree Grandeur.

Asp)en Tree Lamentation.

Aster (China) Variety. After-
thought.

Asphodel My regrets follow

you to the grave.

Auricula Painting.

Auricula, Scarlet Avarice.

Austurtium Splendor.

Azalea . Temperance.

Bachelor's Buttons Celibacy.

Balm Sympathy.

Balm, Gentle Pleasantry.

Balm of Gilcad Cure. Relief.

Balsam, Red Touch me not. Im-
patient resolves.

Balsam, Yellow Impatience.

Barberry Sourness of temper.

Barberry Tree Sharpness.

Basil Hatred.

Bay Leaf I change but in

death.

Bay (Rose) Rhododen-
dron Danger. Beware.

Biy Tree Glory.

Bay Wreath Reward of merit.

Bearded Crepis Protection.

Beech Tree Prosperity.

Bee Orchis Industry.

Bee Ophrys Error.

BelladDnna Silence.

Bell Flower, Pyramidal.. Constancy.

Bell Flower (small white) Gratitude.

Belvedere I declare against you

Betony Surprise.

Bilberry Treachery.

Bindweed, Great Insinuation.

Bindweed, Small Humility.

Birch Meekness.

Birdsfoot, Trefoil Revenge.

Bittersweet; Nightshade. Truth.

Black Poplar Courage.

Blackthorn Difficulty.

Bladder Nut Tree Frivolity. Amuse-
ment.

Bluebottle (Century) Delicacy.

Bluebell Constancy.

Blue-flowered Greek Va-
lerian Rupture.

Bonus Henricus Goodness.

Borage Bluntness.

Box Tree Stoicism.

Bramble Lowliness. Envy.

Remorse.

Branch of Currants Yon please all.

Branch of Thorns Severity. Rigor.

Bridal Rose Happy love.

Broom Humility. Neatness

Buckbean Calm repose.

Bud of White Rose Heart ignorant of

love.

Bugloss Falsehood.

Bulrush Indiscretion. Do-
cility.

Bundle of Reeds, with
their Panicles Music.

Burdock Importunity. Touch

me not.

Buttercup (Kingcup).. ..Ingratitude. Child-
ishness.

Butterfly Orchis Gaiety.

Butterfly Weed Let me go.

Cabbage Profit.

Cacalia Adulation.

Cactus Warmth.

Calla .(Ethiopica. Magnificent Beauty.

Calycanthus Benevolence.

Camellia Japonica, Red . . Unpretending excel-
lence.

Camellia Japwnica, White. Perfected 1 o v e 1 i -
ness.

Camomile Energy in adversity.

Canary Grass Perseverance.

Candytuft Indifference.

Canterbury Bell Acknowledgment.

Cape Jasmine I'm too happy.

Cardamine Paternal error.

Carnation, Deep Red Alas! for my poor

heart.

Carnation , Striped Refusal.

Carnation, Yellow Disdain.

Cardinal Flower Distinction.

Catchflj- ....Snare.

Catchfly , Red Youthful love.

Catchfly , White Betrayed.

Cedar Strength.

Cedar of Lebanon Incorruptible.

Cedar Leaf I live for thee.

Celandine (Lesser) Joys to come.

Century Delicacy.

Cereus (Creeping) Modest genius.

Champignon Suspicion.

Chequered Fritillary Persecution.

Cherry Tree Good education.

Cherry Tree, White Deception.

Chestnut Tree Do me justice. Lux-
ury.

Chickweed Rendezvous.

Chicory Frugality.

China Aster Variety.

China Aster, Double I partake your senti-
ments.

China Aster, Single I will think of it.

China or Indian Pink. . . .Aversion.

China Rose Beauty always new.

Chinese Chrysanthemum. Cheerfulness under
adversity.

Christmas Rose Relieve my anxiety.

Chrysanthemum, Red .... I love.

Chrysanthemum, White.. Truth.

Chrysanthemum, Yellow. Slighted love.

Cinquefoil Maternal affection.

Circasa Spell.

Cistus, or Rock Rose Popular favor.

Cistus, Gum I shall die tomorrow.

Citron Ill-natured beauty.

Oematis Mental beauty.

Clematis, Evergreen Poverty. [acity.

Clotbur Rudeness. Pertin-

Cloves Dignity.

Clover, Four-leaved Be mine.

Clover, Red Industry.

Clover, White Think of me.

Cobaea Gossip.

Cockscomb Amaranth Foppery. Affecta-
tion. Singularity.

Colchicum, or Meadow My best days are
Saffron past.

Coltsfcjot Justice shall be done

Columbine Folly.

Columbine, Purple .Resolved to win.

Columbine, Red Anxious and trem-
bling.

Convolvulus Bonds.

Convolvulus, Blue(Minor)Repose. Night.

Convolvulus, Major Extinguished hopes.

Convolvulus, Pink Worth sustained by

judicious and ten-
der affection.

Corchorus Impatient of ab

sence.

Coreopsis Always cheerful.

Coreopsis Arkansa Love at first sight-
Coriander Hidden worth.

Corn Riches.

Com, Broken Quarrel.

Corn Straw Agreement.

Com Bottle Delicacy.

Corn Cockle Gentility.

Cornel Tree. . . .• Duration.

Coronella Success crown ycur

wishes.

Cowslip Pensiveness. Win-
ning grace.

Cowslip, American Divine beauty. You

are my divinity.

Cranberry Cure for heartache.

Creeping Cereus Horror.

Cress Stability. Power.

Crocus Abuse not.

Crocus, Spring Youthful gladness.

Crocus, Saffron Mirth.

Crown Imperial Majesty. Power.

Crowsbill Envy.

Crowfoot Ingratitude.

Crowfoot (Aconiteleaved) Luster.

Cocoa Plant Ardor.

Cudweed, American Unceasing rememb-
rance.

Currant Thy frown will kill

me.

Cuscuta Meanness.

Cyclamen Diffidence.

Cypress Death. Mcuming.

DAFFODIL— REGARD.

Fair Daffodils, we weep to see

You haste away so soon ;
As yet the early-rising sun
Has not attained his noon ;
Stay, stay,
Until the hastening day

Has run
But to the even song.
And, having prayed together, we
Will go with you along.

638

THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS.

We have short time to stay as ye,

We have as fleet a spring.
As quicic a growth to meet decay
As you or anything ;
We die
As your hours do, and dry

Away,
Like to the summer's rain,
Or as the pearls of morning's dew,
Ne'er to be found again.

Daffodil Regard.

Dahlia Instability.

Daisy Innocence.

Daisy, Garden I share your senti-
ments.

Daisy, Michaelmas Farewell.

Daisy, Party -col ored Beauty.

Daisy, Wild I will think of it.

Damask Rose Brilliant compl.ycion

Dandelion Rustic oracle.

Daphne, Odora Painting the lily.

Darnel (Ray grass) Vice.

Dead Leaves Sadness.

Dew Plant A serenade.

Dittany of Crete Birth.

Dittany of Crete, White.. Passion.

Dock Patience.

Dodder of Thyme Baseness.

Dogsbane Deceit. Falsehood.

Dogwood Durability.

Dragon Plant Snare.

Dragonwort Horror.

Dried Flax Utility.

Ebony Tree Blackness.

Eglantine (Sweetbrier). . ..Poetry. I wound to
heal.

Elder Zealousness.

Elm Dignity.

Enchanter's Nightshade.. Witchcraft. Sorcery.

Endive Frugality.

Eupatorium Delay.

Everflowering Candytuft. Indifference.

Evergreen Clematis Poverty.

Evergreen Thorn Solace in adversity.

Everlasting Never-ceasing re-
membrance.

Everlasting Pea Lasting pleasure.

Fennel Worthy of all praise.

Strength.

Fern. Fascination.

Ficoides, Ice Plant Your looks freeze

me.

Fig Argument.

Fig Marigold Idleness.

Fig Tree Prolific.

Filbert Reconciliation.

Fir Time.

Fir Tree Elevation.

Fl** Domestic industry.

Fate. I feel your

kindness.
Flax-leaved Goldy-locks. Tardiness.

Fleur-de-Lis Flame. I bum.

Fleur de-Luce Fire.

Flowering Fern Reverie.

Flowering Reed Confidence in Heav-

< Flower-of-an-Hour Delicate beauty.

Fly Orchis Error.

Flytrap Deceit.

Fool's Parsley Silliness.

Forget Me Not True love. Forget

•me not.

Foxglove Insincerity.

Foxtail Grass Sporting.

French Honeysuckle Rustic beauty.

French Marigold Jealousy.

French Willow Bravery and human-
ity.

Frog Ophrys Disgust.

Fuller's Teasel Misanthropy.

Fumitory Spleen .

Fuschia, Scarlet Taste.

Garden Anemone Forsaken.

Garden Chervil Sincerity.

Garden Daisy — I partake your senti-
ments.

Garden Marigold Uneasiness.

Garden Ranunculus You are rich in at-
tractions.

Garden Sage Esteem.

Garland of Roses Reward of virtue.

Germander Speedwell Facility.

Geranium, Dark Melancholy.

Geranium, Ivy Bridal favor.

Geranium, Lemon .' Unexpected meet-
ing.

Geranium, Nutmeg Expected meeting.

Geranium, Oak-leaved. . . True friendship

Geranium, Penciled Ingenuity.

Geranium, Rose-scented. .Preference.

Geranium, Scarlet Comforting. Stupid-
ity.

Geranium, Silver-leaved. .Recall.

Geranium, Wild Steadfast piety.

Gilliflower Bonds of affection.

Glory Flower Glorious beauty.

Goat's Rue Reason.

Golden Rod Precaution.

Gooseberry Anticipation.

Gourd Extent. Bulk.

Grape, Wild Charity.

Grass ..Submission. Utility.

Guelder Rose Winter. Age.

Hand Flower Tree Warning.

Harebell Submission. Grief.

Hawkwecd Qu icksightedness.

Hawthorn Hope.

Hazel Reconciliation.

Heath Solitude.

Helenium. Tears.

Heliotrope Devotion. Faithful-
ness.

Hellebore Scandal. Calumny.

Helmet Flower (Monks-
hood) Knight-errantry.

Hemlock You will be my

death .

Hemp Fate.

Henbane Imperfection.

Hepatica Confidence.

Hibiscus Delicate beauty.

Holly Foresight.

Holly Herb Enchantment.

Hollyhock Ambition. Fecun-
dity.

Honesty Honesty. Fascina-
tion.

Honey Flower Love, sweet and

secret.

Honeysuckle Generous and de-
voted affection.

Honeysuckle (Coral) The color of my fate

Honeysuckle (French) Rustic beauty.

Hop Injustice.

Hornbean Ornament.

Horse Chestnut Luxury.

Hortensia You are cold.

Houseleek Vivacity. Domestic

industry.

Houstonia Content.

Hoya Sculpture.

Humble Plant Despondency.

Hundred-leaved Rose . . . .Dignity of mind.

Hyacinth Sport. Game. Play.

Hyacinth , White Unobtrusive loveli-
ness.

Hydrangea A boaster. Heart-

lessness.

Hyssop Cleanliness.

Iceland Moss Health.

Ice Plant Your looks freeze

me.

Imperial Montague Power.

Indian Cress Warlike trophy.

Indian Jasmine (Ipomcea). Attachment.

Indian Pink (Double) Always lovely.

Indian Plum Privation.

Iris Message.

Iris German Flame.

Ivy Fidelity. Marriage.

Ivy, Sprig of, with ten-
drils Assiduous to please.

Jacob's Ladder Come down.

Japan Rose Beauty is your only

attraction.

Jasmine Amiability.

Jasmine, Cape Transport of joy.

Jasmine, Carolina Separation.

Jasmine, Indian I attach myself to

you.

Jasmine, Spanish Sensuality.

Jasmine, Yellow Grace and elegance.

Jonquil I desire a return of

affection.

Judas Tree Unbelief. Retraya7

Juniper Succor. Protection

Justicia The perfection of

female loveliness.

Kennedia Mental beauty.

King-cups Desire of riches.

Laburnum Forsaken. Pensive

beauty.

Lady's Slipper Capricious beauty.

Win me and wear
me.

Lagerstraemia, Indiar .... Eloquence.

Lantana Rigor.

Larch Audacity. Boldness.

Larkspur Lightness. Levity.

Larkspur, Pink Fickleness.

Larkspur, Purple Haughtiness.

Laurel Glorj-.

Laurel, Common, in
flower Perfidy.

Laurel, Ground Perseverance.

THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS.

639

Laurel, Mountain Ambition.

Laurel-leaved Magnolia.. Dignity.

Laurestina A token. I die if

neglected.

Lavender Distrust.

Leaves (dead] Melancholy.

Lemon Zest.

Lemon Blossoms Fidelity in love.

Lettuce Cold-hearted ness.

Lichen Dejection. Solitude.

Lilac, Field Humility.

Lilac, Purple First emotions of

love.

Lilac, White Youthful innocence.

Lily, Day Coquetry.

Lily, Imperial Majesty.

Lily, White Purity. Sweetness.

Lily, Yellow Falsehood. Gaiety.

Lily of the Valley , Return of happiness

Linden or Lime Trees Conjugal love.

Lint I feel my obligation.

Live Oak Liberty.

Liverwort Confidence.

Licorice, Wild I declare against

you.

Lobelia Malevolence.

Locust Tree Elegance.

Locust Tree (green) Affection beyond

the grave.

London Pride Frivolity.

Lote Tree Concord.

Lotus Eloquence.

Lotus Flower Estranged love.

Lotus Leaf Recantation.

Love in a Mist Perplexity.

Love lies Bleeding. . , Hopeless, not heart-
less.

Lucern Life.

Lupine Voraciousness.

Imagination-
Madder Calumny.

Magnolia Love of nature.

Magnolia, Swamp Perseverance.

Mallow Mildness.

Mallow, Marsh Beneficence.

Mallow, Syrian Consumed by love.

Mallow, Venetian Delicate beauty.

Manchineal Tree Falsehood.

Mandrake Horror.

Maple Reserve.

Marigold Grief.

Marigold, African Vulgar minds.

Marigold , French Jealousy.

Marigold, Prophetic Prediction.

Marigold and Cypress Despair.

Marjoram Blushes.

Marvel of Peru Timidity.

Meadow Lychnis Wit.

Meadow Saffron My best days are

past.

Meadowsweet Uselessness.

Mercury Goodness.

Mesembryanthemum Idleness.

Mezereon Desire to please.

Michaelmas Daisy Afterthought.

Mignionette Your qualities sui^

pass your charms.

Milfoil War.

Milkvetch Your presence soft-
ens my pains.

Milkwort Hermitage.

Mimosa (Sensitive Plant). Sensitiveness.

Mint Virtue.

Mistletoe I surmount difficul-
ties.

Mock Orange Counterfeit.

Monkshood (Helmet Chivalry. Knight-
Flower) errantry.

Moonwort Forgetfulness.

Morning Glory Affectation.

Moschatel Weakness.

Moss Maternal love.

Mosses Ennui.

Mossy Saxifrage Affection.

Motherwort Concealed love.

Mountain Ash Prudence.

Mourning Bride Unfortunate attach-
ment. I have lost
all.

Mouse-eared Chickweed.. Ingenuous simplici-
ty.

Mouse-eared Scorpion
Grass Forget me not.

Moving Plant Agitation.

Mud wort Tranquillity.

Mugwort Happiness

Mulberry Tree (Black).... I shall not survive
you.

Mulberry Tree (White). . .Wisdom.

Mushroom .-.Suspicion.

Musk Plant Weakness.

Mustard Seed Indifference.

Myrobalan Privation .

Myrrh Gladness.

Myrtle Love.

Narcissus Egotism.

Nasturtium Patriotism.

Nettle Burning Slander.

Nettle Tree Concert.

Night-blooming Cereus... Transient beauty.

Night Convolvulus Night.

Nightshade Truth.

Oak Leaves. Bravery.

Oak Tree Hospitality.

Oak (White) Independence.

Oats The witching soul

of music.

Oleander Beware.

Olive Peace.

Orange Blossoms Your purity equals

your loveliness.

Orange Flowers Chasti ty. Bridal fes-
tivities.

Orange Tree Generosity.

Orchis A Belle .

Osier Frankness.

Osmunda Dreams.

Ox Eye Patience.

Palm Victory.

Pansy Thoughts.

Parsley Festivity.

Pasque Flower You have no claims.

Passion Flower Religious supersti-
tion.

Patience Dock Patience.

Pea, Everlasting .An appointed meet-

ing. Lasting
pleasure.

Pea, Sweet Departure.

Peach Your qualities, like

your charms, are
unequaled.

Peach Blossom I am your captive.

Pear Affection .

Pear Tree..... Comfort.

Pennyroyal Flee away.

Peony Shame. Bashfulness.

Peppermint Warmth of feeling.

Periwinkle, Blue Early friendship.

Periwinkle, White Pleasures of mem-
ory.

Persicaria Restoration .

Persimon Bury me amid Na-
ture's beauties.

Peruvian Heliotrope Devotion.

Pheasant's Eye Remembrance.

Phlox L^nanimity .

Pigeon Berry Indifference.

Pimpernel Change. Assigna-
tion.

Pine Pity.

Pine-apple You are perfect.

Pine, Pitch Philosophy .

Pine, Spruce Hope in adversity.

Pink - Boldness.

Pink, Carnation Woman's love.

Pink, Indian, Double Always lovely.

Pink, Indian, Single Aversion.

Pink, Mountain Aspiring.

Pink, Red, Double Pure and ardent love

Pink, Single Pure love.

Pink, Variegated Refusal.

Pink, White Ingeniousness. Tal-
ent.

Plane Tree Genius.

Plum, Indian Privation.

Plum Tree Fidelity.

Plum, Wild Independence.

Polyanthus Pride of riches.

Polyanthus, Crimson The heart's mystery

Polyanthus, Lilac Confidence.

Pomegranate Foolishness.

Pomegranate Flower Mature elegance.

Poplar, Black Courage.

Poplar, White Time.

Poppy, Red Consolation.

Poppy, Scarlet Fantastic extrava-
gance.

Poppy, White Sleep. My bane.

My antidote.

Potato Benevolence.

Prickly Pear Satire.

Pride of China Dissension.

Primrose Early youth.

Primrose, Evening Inconstancy.

Primrose, Red Unpatronized merit.

Privet Prohibition.

Purple, Clover Provident.

Pyrus Japonica . . Fairies' fire.

Quaking-Grass Agitation.

Quamoclit Busybody.

Queen's Rocket You are the queen 0/

coquettes. Fash-
ion.

Quince Temptation.

Ragged Robin Wit.

Ranunculus ; You are radiant with

charms.

640

THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS.

Ranunculus, Garden You are rich in at-
tractions.

Ranunculus, Wild Ingratitude.

Raspberry Remorse.

Ray Grass Vice.

Red Catchfly Youthful love.

I^ged ^ Complaisance.

Music.

Reed, Split Indiscretion.

Rhododendron (Rosebay) Danger. Beware.

Rhubarb Advice.

Rocket Rivalry.

Rose Love.

Rose, Austrian Thou art all that is

lovely.

Rose, Bridal Happy love.

Rose, Burgundy. Unconscious beauty

Rose, Cabbage Ambassador of love.

Rose, Campion Only deserve my

love.

Rose, Carolina Love is dangerous.

Rose, China Beauty always new.

Rose, Christmas Tranquilize my anx-
iety.

Rose, Daily Thy smile I aspire to

Rose, Damask Brill iant compl exion

Rose, Deep Red Bashful shame.

Rose, Dog Pleasure and pain.

Rose, Guelder Winter. Age.

Rose, Hundred-leaved — Pride.

Rose, Japan Beauty is your only

attraction.

Rose, Maiden Blush If you love me, you

will find it out.

Rose, Multiflora Grace.

Rose, Mundi Variety.

Rose. Musk Capricious beauty.

Rose, Musk, Cluster Charming.

Rose, Single Simplicity.

Rose, Thornless Early attachment.

Rose, Unique Call me not beautiful

Rose, White I am worthy of you.

Rose, White (withered)... Transient impres-
sions.

Rose, Yellow Decrease of love.

Jealousy.

Rose, York and Lancaster War.

Rose, Full-blown, placed
over two Buds. ; Secrecy.

Rose, White and Red
together Unity.

Roses, Crown of Reward of virtue.

Rosebud , Red Pure and lovely.

Rosebud, White Girlhood.

Rosebud, Moss Confession of love.

Rosebay (Rhododendron) Beware. Danger.

Rosemary Remembrance.

Rudbeckia Justice.

Rue Disdain.

Rush Docility.

Rye Grass Changeable disptosi-

t'on.

Saffron Beware of excess.

Saffron Crocus Mirth.

Saffron, Meadow My happiest days

are past.

Sage Domestic virtue.

Sage, Garden Esteem.

Sainfoin Agitation .

St. John's Wort Animosity. Super-
stition.

Sardony Irony.

Saxifrage, Mossy Affection.

Scabious Unfortunate love.

Scabious, Sweet Widowhood.

Scarlet Lychnis Sunbeaming eyes.

Schinus Religious enthusi-
asm.

Scotch Fir Elevation.

Sensitive Plant Sensibility. Deli-
cate feelings.

Senvy Indifference.

Shamrock Light-heartedness.

Snakesfoot Horror.

Snapdragon Presumption.

Snowball Bound.

Snowdrop Hope.

Sorrel Affection.

Sorrel, Wild Wit ill-timed.

Sorrel, Wood Joy.

Southernwood Jest. Bantering.

Spanish Jasmine Sensuality, [ment-

Spearmint Warmth of senti-

Speedwell Female fidelity.

Speedwell, Germander.... Facility.

Speedwell, Spiked Semblance.

Spider Ophrys Adroitness.

Spiderwort Esteem, not love.

Spiked Willow Herb Pretension.

Spindle Tree Your charms are en-
graven on my heart.

Star of Bethlehem Purity.

Starwort Afterthought, [age.

Starwort, American Cheerfulness in old

Stock Lasting beauty.

Stock, Ten Week Promptness.

Stonecrop Tranquillity.

Straw, Broken Rupture of a con-
tract.

Straw, Whole Union.

Strawberry Tree Esteem and love.

Sumach, Venice Splendor. Intellec-
tual excellence.

Sunflower, Dwarf Adoration.

Sunflower, Tall Haughtiness.

Swallow-wort Cure for heartache.

Sweet Basil Good wishes.

Sweetbrier , American .... Simplicity.

Sweetbrier, European I wound to heal.

Sweetbrier, Yellow .Decrease of love.

Sweet Pea Delicate pleasures.

Sweet Sultan Felicity.

Sweet William Gallantry.

Sycamore Curiosity.

Syringa Memory.

Syringa, Carolina Disappointment.

Tamarisk Crime.

Tansy (Wild) I declare war

against you.

Teasel Misanthropy.

Tendrils of Climbing

Plants Ties.

Thistle, Common Austerity.

Thistle, Fuller's Misanthropy.

Thistle, Scotch Retaliation.

Thorn, Apple Deceitful charms.

Thorn, Branch of Severity.

Thrift Sympathy.

Throatwort Neglected beauty.

Thyme Activity.

Tiger Flower For once may pride

befriend me.

Traveler's Joy Safety.

Tree of Life Old age.

Trefoil Revenge.

Tremella Nestoc Resistance.

Trillium Pictum Modest beauty.

Truffle Surprise.

Trumpet Flower Fame . [ures .

Tuberose Dangerous pleas

Tulip Fame.

Tulip, Red Declaration of love.

Tulip, Variegated Beautiful eyes.

Tulip, Yellow Hopeless love.

Turnip Charity. [you.

Tussilage (Sweet-scented)Justice shall be done

Valerian An accommodating

disposition.

Valerian, Greek Rupture.

Venice Sumach Intellectual excel-
lence. Splendor.

Venus's Car Fly with me.

Venus's Looking-glass ...Flattery.

Ven^is's Trap... Deceit.

Vernal Grass Poor, but happy.

Veronica Fidelity.

Vervain Enchantment.

Vine Intoxication.

Violet, Blue Faithfulness.

Violet, Dane Watchfulness .

Violet, Sweet Modesty.

Violet, Yellow Rural happiness.

Virginian Spiderwort Momentary happi-
ness.

Virgin's Bower Filial love.

Volkamenia May you be happy.

Walnut Intellect. Stratagem

Wall-flower Fidelity in adversity

Water Lily Purity of heart.

Water Melon Bulkiness.

Wax Plant Susceptibility.

Wheat Stalk Riches.

Whin Anger.

White Jasmine Am iableness.

White Lily Purity and modesty.

White Mullein Good nature.

White Oak Independence.

White Pink Talent.

White Poplar Time.

White Rose (dried) Death preferable to

loss of innocence.

Wortleberry Treason.

Willow, Creeping Love forsaken.

Willow, Water Freedom.

Willow, Weeping Mourning.

Willow-Herb Pretension. [ity.

Willow, French Bravery and human

Winter Cherry Deception.

Witch Hazel A spell.

Woodbine Fraternal love.

Wood Sorrel Joy. Maternal ten-
derness.

Wormwood Absence.

Xanthium. Rudeness. Pertin-
acity.

Xeranlhemum Cheerfulness undef

adversity.

Yew Sorrow.

Zephyr Flov/er Expectation.

Zinnia Thoughts of absent

friends.

THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS.

641

•^

¥l|e ^oy^l ^o^d to tl\e I^ki|^k^e of S^lowef^.

Absence Wormwood.

Abuse not Crocus.

Acknowledgment Canterbury Bell.

Activity Thyme.

Admiration Amethyst.

Adoration Dwarf Sunflower.

Adroitness Spider Ophrys.

Adulation Cacalia.

Advice Rhubarb.

Affection Mossy Saxifrage.

Affection Pear.

Affection Sorrel.

Affection beyond the
grave. Green Locust.

Affection, maternal Cinquefoil.

Affectation Cockscomb Ama-
ranth.

Affectation Morning Glory.

Afterthought Michaelmas Daisy.

Afterthought Starwort.

Afterthought China Aster.

Agreement Straw.

Age Guelder Rose.

Agitation Moving Plant.

Agitation Sainfoin.

Alas ! for my poor heart . Deep Red Carnation

Always cheerful Coreopsis.

Always lovely Indian Pink (double)

Ambassador of love Cabbage Rose.

Amiability Jasmine.

Anger Whin.

Animosity St. John's Wort.

Anticipation Gooseberry.

Anxious and trembling. . .Red Columbine.

Ardor Cuckoo Plant.

Argument Fig.

Arts or artifice Acanthus.

Assiduous to please Sprig of Ivy with

tendrils.

Assignation Pimpernel.

Attachment Indian Jasmine.

Audacity Larch.

Avarice Scarlet Auricula.

Aversion China or Indian

Pink.

Bantering Southernwood.

B£iseness Dodder of Thyme.

Bashfulness Peony.

Bashful shame Deep Red Rose.

Beautiful eyes Variegated Tulip.

Beauty Party-colored Daisy

Beauty always new China Rose.

Beauty, capricious Lady's Slipper.

Beauty, capricious Musk Rose.

Beauty, delicate Flower of an Hour.

Beauty, delicate Hibiscus.

Beauty, divine American Cowslip.

Beauty, glorious Glory Flower.

Beauty, lasting Stock.

Beauty, magnificent Calla .iEthiopica.

Beauty, mental Clematis.

Beauty, modest Trillium Pictum.

Beauty, neglected Throatwort.

Beauty, pensive Laburnum.

Beauty, rustic French Honeysuckle

Beauty, unconscious Burgundy Rose.

Beauty is your only attrac-
tion Japan Rose.

Belle...* Orchis.

Be mine Four-leaved Clover.

Beneficence Marshmallow.

Benevolence Potato.

Betrayed White Catchfly.

Beware Oleander.

Beware Rosebay.

Blackness Ebony Tree.

Bluntness Borage.

Blushes Marjoram.

Boaster Hydrangea.

Boldness Pink.

Bonds Convolvulus.

Bonds of affection Gillyflower.

Bravery Oak Leaves.

Bravery and humanity ...French Willow.

Bridal favor Ivy Geranium.

Brilliant complexion Damask Rose.

Bulk „ Water Melon.

Bulk Gourd.

Busybody Quamoclit.

Bury me amid Nature's
beauties Persimon.

Call me not beautiful Rose Unique.

Calm repose Buckbean.

Calumny Hellebore.

Calumny Madder.

Change Pimpernel.

Changeable disposition. . .Rye Grass.

Charity Turnip.

Charming Cluster of Musk

Roses.

Charms, deceitful Thorn Apple.

Cheerfulness in old age. . .American Starwort.

Cheerfulness under adver-
sity Chinese Chrysan-
themum.

Chivalry Monkshood (Helmet

Flower).

Cleanliness Hyssop.

Coldheartedness Lettuce.

Coldness Agnus Casfus.

Color of my life Coral Honeysuckle.

Come down Jacob's Ladder.

Comfort Pear Tree.

Comforting Scarlet Geranium.

Compassion Allspice. '

Concealed love Motherwort.

Concert Nettle Tree.

Concord Lote Tree.

Confession of love Moss Rosebud.

Confidence Hepatica.

Confidence Lilac Polyanthus.

Confidence Liverwort.

Confidence in Heaven ...Flowering Reed.

Conjugal love Lime, or Linden

Tree.

Consolation Red Poppy.

Constancy Bluebell.

Consumed by love Syrian Mallow.

Counterfeit Mock Orange.

Courage Black Poplar.

Crime Tamarisk.

Cure Balm of Gilead.

Cure for heartache Swallow Wort.

Curiosity Sycamore.

Danger Rhododendron.

Rosebay.

Dangerous pleasures Tuberose.

Death Cypress.

Death preferable to loss of
innocence White Rose (dried).

Deceit Apocynum.

Deceit Flytrap.

Deceit Dogsbane.

Deceitful charms Apple, Thorn.

Deception White Cherry Tree.

Declaration of love Red Tulip.

Decrease of love Yellow Rose.

Delay Eupatorium.

Delicacy Bluebottle. Century

Dejection Lichen.

Desire to please Mezereon.

Despair Cypress.

Despondency Humble Plant.

Devotion Peruvian Heliotrope

Difficulty Blackthorn.

Dignity Cloves.

Dignity Laurel-leaved Mag-
nolia.

Disappointment Syringa, Carolina.

Disdain Yellow Carnation.

Disdain Rue.

Disgust Frog Ophrys.

Dissension Pride of China.

Distinction Cardinal Flower.

Distrust Lavender.

Divine beauty American Cowslip.

Docility Rush.

Domestic industry Flax.

Domestic virtue Sage.

Durability Dogwood.

Duration Cornel Tree.

Early attachment Thomless Rose.

Early friendship Blue Periwinkle.

Early youth Primrose.

Elegance locust Tree.

Elegance and grace Yellow Jasmine.

Elevation Scotch Fir.

Eloquence Lagerstrsemia, In-
dian.

Enchantment Holly Herb.

Enchantment Vervain.

Energy in adversity Camomile.

Envy Bramble.

Error Bee Ophrys.

Error Fly Orchis.

Esteem Garden Sage.

Esteem, not love Spiderwort.

Esteem and love Strawberry Tree.

Estranged love Lotus Flower.

Excellence Camellia Japonica.

Expectation Anemone.

%■-

642

THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS.

Expectation Zeph)rr Flower.

Expected meeting Nutmeg Geranium.

Extent Gourd.

Extinguished hopes Major Convolvulus.

F.
Facility Germander Speed-
well.

Fairies' fire Pyrus Japonica.

Faithfulness Blue Violet.

Faithfulness Heliotrope.

Falsehood Bugloss.

Falsehood Yellow Lily.

Falsehood Manchineal Tree.

Fame Tulip. Trumpet

Flower.
Fame speaks him greatApple Blossom,

and good

Fantastic extravagance. . .Scarlet Poppy.

Farewell Michaelmas Daisy.

Fascination Fern.

Fascination Honesty.

Fashion Queen's Rocket.

Fecundity Hollyhock.

Felicity Sweet Sultan.

Female fidelity Speedwell.

Festivity Parsley.

Fickleness Abatina .

Fickleness Pink Larkspur.

Filial love Virgin's bower.

Fidelity Veronica. Ivy,

Fidelity Plum Tree.

Fidelity in adversity Wall-flower.

Fidelity in love Lemon Blossoms,

Fire Fleur-de-Luce.

First emotions of love .... Purple Lilac.

Flame Fleur-de-lis. Iris.

Flattery Venus's Looking-
glass.

Flee away Pennyroyal.

Fly with me Venus's Car.

Folly Columbine.

Foppery Cockscomb Amar-
anth.

Foolishness Pomegranate .

F oresight Holly .

Forgetf ulness Moonwort.

Forget me not Forget me not.

For once may pride be-
friend me Tiger Flower.

Forsaken Garden Anemone.

Forsaken Laburnum .

Frankness Osier.

Fraternal love Woodbine .

Freedom Water Willow.

Freshness '. Damask Rose.

Friendship Acacia,

Friendship, early Blue Periwinkle.

Friendship, true Oak-leaved Geran-
ium,
Friendship, xinchanging .. Arbor Vitae,

Frivolity London Pride.

Frugality Chicory. Endive,

Gaiety Butterfly Orchis.

Gaiety Yellow Lily,

Gallantry Sweet William.

Generosity Orange Tree.

Generous and devotedFrench Honey-

aflfection suckle.

Genius Plane Tree.

Gentility Corn Cockle.

Girlhood White Rosebud.

Gladness Myrrh.

Glory Bay Tree.

Glory Laurel.

Glorious beauty Glory Flower,

Goodness Bonus Henricus.

Goodness Mercury.

Good education Cherry Tree.

Good wishes Sweet Basil.

Good nature White Mullein.

Gossip Coboea.

Grace Multiflora Rose.

Grace and elegance Yellow Jasmine .

Grandeur Ash Tree.

Gratitude Small White Bell-
flower.

Grief Harebell.

Grief Marigold .

Happy love Bridal Rose

Hatred Basil.

Haughtiness Purple Larkspur.

Haughtiness Tall Sunflower.

Health Iceland Moss,

Hermitage Milkwort.

Hidden worth Coriander.

Honesty Honesty.

Hope Flowering Almond.

Hope Hawthorn .

Hope Snowdrop .

Hope in adversity Spruce Pine.

Hopeless love Yellow Tulip .

Hopeless, not heartless. . .Love Lies Bleeding.

Horror Mandrake .

Horror Dragonswort.

Horror Snakesfoot.

Hospitality Oak Tree.

Humility Broom.

Humility Bindweed, Small.

Humility Field Lilac.

I am too happy Cape Jasmine.

I am your captive Peach Blossom.

I am worthy of you White Rose.

I change but in death Bay leaf.

I declare against you Belvedere.

I declare against you Licorice.

I declare war against you. Wild Tansy.

I die if neglected Laurestina.

I desire a return of affec-
tion Jonquil.

I feel my obligations Lint.

I feel your kindness Flax.

I have lost all M ourning Bride.

I live for thee Cedar Leaf. '

I love Re d Chrysanthe-
mum.

I partake of your senti-
ments Double China Aster

I partake your sentiments. Garden Daisy.

I shall die to-morrow Gym Cistus.

I shall not survive you... Black Mulberry.

I surmount difficulties Mistletoe.

Iwill think of it Single China Aster.

I will think of it Wild Daisy.

I wound to heal Eglantine (Sweet-
brier).

If you love me, you will
find it out Maiden Blush Rose.

Idleness Mesembryan.

themum.

Ill-natured beauty Citron.

Imagination Lupine.

Immortality Amaranth (Globe).

Impatience Yellow Balsam.

Impatient of absence Corchorus.

Impatient resolves Red Balsam.

Imperfection Henbane.

Importunity Burdock.

Inconstancy Evening Primrose.

Incorruptible Cedar of Lebanon.

Independence Wild Plum Tree.

Independence White Oak.

Indifference Candytuft, Ever-
flowering.

Indifference Mustard Seed.

Indifference Pigeon Berry.

Indifference Senvy.

Indiscretion Split Reed.

Industry Red Clover.

Industry Domestic Flax.

Ingeniousncss White Pink.

Ingenuity Penciled Geranium

Ingenuous Simplicity Mouse-eared Chick-
weed.

Ingratitude Crowfoot.

Innocence Daisy.

Insincerity Foxglove.

Insinuation Great Bindweed.

Inspiration Angelica.

Instability Dahlia.

Intellect Walnut.

Intoxication Vine.

Irony Sardony.

Jealousy French Marigold.

Jealousy ' Yellow Rose.

Jest Southernwood.

Joy Wood Sorrel.

Joys to come Lesser Celandine,

Justice Rudbeckia.

Justice shall be done to

you Coltsfoot.

Justice shall be done to

you Sweet-scented Tus-

silage.

Knight-errantry Helmet Flower

(Monks hood).

Lamentation Aspen Tree.

Lasting beauty Stock.

Lasting pleasures Everlasting Pea.

Let me go : Butterfly Weed-
Levity Larkspur.

Liberty Live Oak.

Life Lucern.

Lightheartedness Shamrock.

Lightness Larkspur.

Live for me Arbor vitae.

Love , Myrtle.

Love Rose.

Love, forsaken Creeping Willow.

Love returned Ambrosia.

Love is dangerous Carolina Rose.

Luster Aco nite-leaved

Crowfoot, or Fair
Maid of France.

Luxury Chestnut Tree.

THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS.

643

Magnificent beauty Calla ^thiopica.

Majesty Crown Imperial.

Malevolence Lobelia.

Marriage Ivy.

Maternal affection Cinpuefoil.

Maternal love Moss.

Maternal tenderness Wood Sorrel

Matrimony American Linden.

May you be happy Volkamenia.

Meanness Cuscuta.

Meekness Birch.

Melancholy Dark Geranium.

Melancholy Dead Leaves.

Mental beauty Clematis.

Mental beauty Kennedla.

Message Iris.

Mildness Mallow.

Mirth Saffron Crocus.

Misanthropy Aconite (Wolfsbane)

Misanthropy Fuller's Teasel.

Modest beauty Trillium Pictum.

Modest genius Creeping Cereus.

Modesty , Violet.

Modesty and purity White Lily.

Momentary happiness Virginian Spider-
wort.

Mourning ■ Weeping Willow.

Music ...Bundles of reed,

with their panicles

My best days are past C'olchicum.or Mead-
ow Saffron.

My regrets follow you to
the grave Asphodel.

Neatness Broom.

Neglected beauty Throatwort.

Never-ceasing r e m e m -
brance Everlasting.

Old age •. . . . .Tree of Life.

Only deserve my love Champion Rose.

Painful recollections Flos Adonis.

Painting Auricula.

Painting the lily Daphne Odora.

Passion White Dittany.

Paternal error Cardamine.

Patience Dock. Ox-eye.

Patriotism American Elm.

Patriotism Nasturtium.

Peace Olive.

Perfected loveliness Camellia Japonica,

White.
Perfidy Common Laurel, in

flower.

Pensive beauty Laburnum.

Perplexity Love in a mist.

Persecution Checkered F r i t i 1-

lary.

Perseverance Swamp Magnolia.

Persuasion Althea Frutex.

Persuasion Syrian Mallow.

Pertinacity Clotbur.

Pity Pine.

Pleasure and pain Dog Rose.

Pleasure, Lasting Everlasting Pea.

Pleasures of memory White Periwinkle.

Popular favor Cistust or Rock

Rose.

Poverty Evergreen Clematis

Power Imperial Montague.

Power Cress.

Precaution Golden Rod.

Prediction Prophetic Marigold.

Pretension Spiked Willow Herb

Pride , Amaryllis.

Pride Hundred-leaved

Rose.

Privation Indian Plum.

Privation Myrobalan.

Profit Cabbage.

Prohibition Privet.

Prolific Fig Tree.

Promptness Ten-week Stock.

Prosperity Beech Tree.

Protection Bearded Crepis.

Prudence Mountain Ash.

Pure love Single Red Pink.

Pure and ardent love Double Red Pink.

Pure and lovely Red Rosebud.

Purity Star of Bethlehem.

Quarrel Broken Corn-straw.

Quicksightedness Hawkweed.

Reason Goat's Rue.

Recantation Lotus Leaf.

Recall Silver-leaved Ger-.

anium.

Reconciliation Fil bert.

Reconciliation Hazel.

Refusal Striped Carnation.

Regard Daffod il.

Relief Balm of Gilead.

Relieve my anxiety Christmas Rose.

Religious superstition Aloe.

Religious superstition Passion Flower.

Religious enthusiasm Schinus.

Remembrance Rosemary.

Remorse Bramble.

Remorse Raspberry.

Rendezvous Chickweed.

Reserve Maple.

Resistance ; Tremella Nestoc.

Restoration Persicaria.

Retaliation Scotch Thistle.

Return of happiness Lily of the Valley.

Revenge Birdsf oot Trefoil .

Reverie Flowering Fern.

Reward of merit Bay Wreath.

Reward of virtue Garland of Roses.

Riches Corn.

Rigor Lantana.

Rivalry Rocket.

Rudeness Clotbur.

Rudeness Xanthium.

Rural happiness Yellow Violet.

Rustic beauty French Honeysuckle

Rustic oracle Dandelion.

Sadness Dead Leaves.

Safety Traveler's Joy.

Satire Prickly Pear.

Sculpture Hoya.

Secret love Yellow Acacia.

Semblance Spiked Speedwell.

Sensi ti veness Mimosa.

Sensuality Spanish Jasmine.

Separation Carolina Jasmine.

Severity Branch of Thorns.

Shame Peony.

Sharpness Barberry Tree.

Sickness Anemone (Zephyr

Flower).

Silliness Fool's Parsley.

Simplicity , American Sweet-
brier.

Sincerity Garden Chervil .

Slighted love Yellow Chrysanthe-
mum.

Snare Catchfly. Dragon

Plant.

Solitude Heath .

Sorrow Yew.

Sourness of temper Barberry.

Spell Circaea.

Spleen Fumitory.

Splendid beauty Amaryllis.

Splendor Austurtium .

Sporting Fox-tail Grass.

Steadfast piety Wild Geranium .

Stoicism Box Tree.

Strength Cedar. Fennel-
Submission Grass-
Submission Harebell-
Success crown your
wishes Coronella.

Succor Juniper.

Sunbeaming eyes Scarlet Lychnis.

Surprise Truffle.

Susceptibility Wax Plant.

Suspicion Champignon.

Sympathy Balm.

Sympathy Thrift.

Talent White Pink-
Tardiness Flax-leaved Goldy-

locks.

Taste Scarlet Fuschia.

Tears Helenium .

Temperance Azalea.

Temptation Apple.

Thankfulness Agrimony.

The color of my fate Coral Honeysuckle.

The heart's mystery Crimson Polyanthus

The perfection of female
loveliness Justicia.

The witching soul of
music Oats.

Thoughts Pansy.

Thoughts of absent
friends Zinnia.

Thy frown will kill me. ..Currant.

Thy smile I aspire to Daily Rose.

Ties Tendrils of Climb-
ing Plants.

Timidity Amaryllis.

Timidity Marvel of Peru.

Time . . . .White Poplar.

Tranquillity.. Mud wort.

Tranquillity Stonecrop.

Tranquilize my anxiety.. .Christmas Rose.

Transient beauty Night-b looming

Cereus.

Transient impressions Withered White

Rose.

Transport of I'ov Cape Jasmine.

S0fir

644

THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS.

Treachery Bilberry.

True love Forget me not.

True friendship Oak-leaved Geran-
ium.

Truth Bitter sweet Night-
shade.

Truth White Chrysanthe.

mum.

Unanimity . . Phlox.

Unbelief Judas Tree.

Unceasing remembrance. American Cudweed
Unchanging friendship. . .Arbor Vitae.

Unconscious beauty Burgundy Rose.

Unexpected meeting Lemon Geranium.

Unfortunate attachment. . Mourning Bride.

Unfortunate love Scabious.

Union Whole Straw.

Unity White and Red Rose

together.

Unpatronized merit Red Primrose.

Uselessness Meadowsweet,

Utility Grass.

Variety China Aster.

Variety Mundi Rose.

Vice Darnel (Ray Grass).

Victory Palm.

Virtue Mint.

Virtue, Domestic Sage.

Volubility Abecedary.

Voraciousness Lupine.

Vulgar minds African Marigold.

War York and Lancaster

Rose.

War Achillea Millefolia.

Warlike trophy Indian Cress.

Warmth of feeling Peppermint.

Watchfulness Dame Violet.

Weakness Moschatel.

Weakness Musk Plant.

Welcome to a stranger ..American Starwort

Widowhood Sweet Scabious.

Win me and wear me Lady's Slipper.

Winning grace Cowslip.

Winter Guelder Rose.

Wit Meadow Lychnis.

Wit ill-timed Wild Sorrel.

Witchcraft Enchanter's Night-
shade.

Worth beyond beauty.... Sweet Alyssum.

Worth sustained by judi-
cious and tender affec-
tion Pink Convolvulus.

Worthy all praise Fennel.

You are cold Hortensia.

You are my divinity American Cowslip.

You are perfect Pine Apple.

You are radiant with
charms Ranunculus.

You are rich in attractionsGarden Ranunculus

You are the queen of co-
quettes Queen's Rocket.

You have no claims Pasque Flower.

You please all Branch of Currants.

You will be my death Hemlock.

Your charms are en-
graven on my heart Spindle Tree.

Your looks freeze me Ice Plant.

Your presence softens my
pains Milkvetch.

Your purity equals your
loveliness Orange Blossoms.

Your qualities, like your
charms, are unequaled . . Peach.

Your qualities surpass
your charms Mignionette.

Youthful innocence White Lilac.

Youthful love Red Catchfly .

Zealousness Elder.

Zest Lemon

^
--^

HOW TO PRESERVE YOUR HEALTH.

— ^
645 ^

aoW TO ppM]^YE Yoil^ me^mmT

HE leading conditions essential to health
may be thus enumerated : — i. A con-
stant supply of pure air ; 2. A suffi-
ciency of nourishing food, rightly taken ;
3. Cleanliness ; 4. A sufficiency of ex-
ercise to the various organs of the system ;
A right temperature ; 6. A sufficiency of
cheerful and innocent enjoyments ; and, 7. Exemp-
tion from harassing cares.

AIR.

The common air is a fluid composed mainly of two gases,
in certain proportions ; namely, oxygen as twenty and nitrogen
as eighty parts in a hundred, with a very minute addition of
carbonic acid gas. Such is air in its pure and right state, and
such is the state in which we require it for respiration. When
it is loaded with any admixture of a different kind, or its natural
proportions are in any way deranged, it cannot be breathed
without producing injurious results. We also require what is
apt to appear a large quantity of this element of healthy ex-
istence. The lungs of a healthy full-grown man will inhale
the bulk of twenty cubic inches at every inspiration, and he
will use no less than fifty-seven hogsheads in twenty-four hours.

Now, there are various circumstances which tend to sur-
round us at times with vitiated air, and which must accordingly
be guarded against. That first calling for attention is the
miasma or noxious quality imparted to the air in certain dis-
tricts by stagnant water and decaying vegetable matter. It is
now generally acknowledged that this noxious quality is in
reality a subtle poison, which acts on th^ human system
through the medium of the lungs, producing fevers and other
epidemics.

Putrid matter of all kinds is another conspicuous source of
noxious effluvia. The filth collected in ill-regulated towns —
ill managed drains — collections of decaying animal substances,
placed too near or within private dwellings — are notable for
their effects in vitiating the atmosphere, and generating dis-
ease in those exposed to them. In this case also, it is a poison
diffused abroad through the air which acts so injuriously on
the human frame.

The human subject tends to vitiate the atmosphere for itself,
by the effect which it produces on the air which it breathes.

Our breath, when we draw it in, consists of the ingredients
formerly mentioned ; but it is in a very different state when we
part with it. On passing into our lungs the oxygen, forming
the lesser ingredient, enters into combination with the carbon
of the venous blood (or blood which has already performed its
round through the body) ; in this process about two-fifths of
the oxygen is abstracted and sent into the blood, only the re-
maining three-fifths being expired, along with the nitrogen
nearly as it was before. In place of the oxygen consumed,
there is expired an equal volume of carbonic acid gas, such
gas being a result of the process of combination just alluded
to. Now, carbonic acid gas, in a larger proportion than that
in which it is found in the atmosphere, is noxious. The vol-
ume of it expired by the lungs, if free to mingle with the air
at large, will do no harm ; but, if breathed out into a close
room, it will render the air unfit for being again breathed.
Suppose an individual to be shut up in an air-tight box : each
breath he emits throws a certain quantity of carbonic acid gas
into the air filling the box ; the air is thus vitiated, and every
successive inspiration is composed of worse and worse materi-
als, till at length the oxygen is so much exhausted that it is
insufficient for the support of life. He would then be sensible
of a great difficulty in breathing, and in a little time longer he
would die.

Most rooms in which human beings live are not strictly
close. The chimney and the chinks of the doors and windows
generally allow of a communication to a certain extent with
the outer air, so that it rarely happens that great immediate
inconvenience is experienced in ordinary apartments from want
of fresh air. But it is at the same time quite certain that, in
all ordinary apartments where human beings are assembled,
the air unavoidably becomes considerably vitiated, for in such a
situation there cannot be a sufficiently ready or copious supply
of oxygen to make up for that which has been consumed, and
the carbonic acid gas will be constantly accumulating. This
is particularly the case in bedrooms, and in theaters, churches,
and schools.

Perhaps it is in bedrooms that most harm is done. These
are gener.ally smaller than other rooms, and they are usually
kept close during the whole night. The result of sleeping in
such a room is very injurious. A common fire, from the
draught which it produces, is very serviceable in ventilating
rooms, but it is at best a defective means of doing so. The
draught which it creates generally sweeps along near the floor

646

HOW TO PRESERVE YOUR HEALTH'.

between the door and the fire, leaving all above the level of
the chimney-piece unpurified. Yet scarcely any other arrange-
ment is anywhere made for the purpose of changing the air in

ordinary rooms.

FOOD.

The second requisite for the preservation of health is a suffi-
ciency of nutritious food.

Organic bodies, in which are included vegetables as well as
animals, are constituted upon the principle of a continual
waste of substance- supplied by continual nuttition.

The Nutritive System of animals, from apparently the
humblest of these to the highest, comprehends an alimentary
tube or cavity, into which food is received, and from which,
after undergoing certain changes, it is diffused by means of
smaller vessels throughout the whole structure. In the form
of this tube, and in the other apparatus connected with the
taking of food, there are, in different animals, varieties of
structure, all of which are respectively in conformity with pecu-
liarities in the quality and amount of food which the particular
animals are designed to take. The harmony to be observed
in these arrangements is remarkably significant of that Creative
design to be traced in all things.

Man Designed to Live on a Mixed Diet.— Some ani-
mals are formed to live upon vegetable substances alone ;
others are calculated to live upon the flesh of other animals.
Herbivorous animals, as the former are called, have generally
a long and complicated alimentary tube, because the nutritious
part of such food, being comparatively small in proportion to
the whole bulk, requires a greater space in which to be ex-
tracted and absorbed into the system. The sheep, for example,
has a series of intestines twenty-seven times the length of its
body. For the opposite reasons carnivorous or flesh-devouring
animals, as the feline tribe of quadrupeds, and the rapacious
birds, have generally a short intestinal canal. The former
class of animals are furnished with teeth calculated by their
broad and flat surfaces, as well as by the lateral movement of
the jaws in which they are set, to mince down the herbage and
grain eaten by them. But the carnivorous animals, with wide-
opening jaws, have long and sharp fangs to seize and tear
their prey. These peculiarities of structure mark sufficiently
the designs of nature with respect to the kinds of food required
by the two different classes of animals for their support.

The human intestinal canal being of medium length, and the
human teeth being a mixture of the two kinds, it necessarily
follows that man was designed to eat both vegetable and ani-
mal food. As no animal can live agreeably or healthy except
in conformity with the laws of its constitution, it follows that
man will not thrive unless with a mixture of animal and vege-
table food. The followers of Pythagoras argued, from the
cruelty of putting animals to death, that it was proper to live
on vegetables alone, and many eccentric persons of modern
times have acted upon this rule. But the ordinances of Nature
speak a different language ; and, if we have any faith in these,
we cannot for a moment doubt that a mixture of animal food
is necessary for our well-being. On the other hand, we cannot
dispense with vegetable food, without injurious consequences.
In that case we place in a medium alimentary canal a kind of
food which is calculated for a short one, thus violating an

arrangement of the most important nature. A balance between
the two kinds of food is what we should observe, if we would
desire to live a natural and consequently healtliy life.

Rules Connected with Eating. — In order fully to un-
derstand how to eat, what to eat, and how to conduct ourselves
after eating, it is necessary that we should be acquainted in
some measure with i\\Q process of nutrition — that curious series
of operations by which food is received and assimilated by our
system in order to make good the deficiency produced by
waste.

Food, is first received into the mouth, and there the oper-
ations in question may be said to commence. It is there to
be chewed (or masticated), and mixed with saliva, pieparatoiy
to its being swallowed or sent into the stomach. Even in this
introductory stage, there are certain rules to be observed.
Strange as it may appear, to know hozu to eat is a matter of
veiy considerable importance.

Many persons, thinking it all a matter of indifference, or
perhaps unduly anxious to dispatch their meals, eat very fast.
They tumble their meat precipitately into their mouths, and
swallow it almost without mastication. This is contrary to an
express law of nature, as may be easily shown.

Food, on being received into the mouth, has two processes
to undergo, both very necessary to digestion. It has to be
masticated, or chewed down, and also to receive an admixture
of saliva. The saliva is a fluid arising from certain glands in
and near the mouth, and approaching in character to the gas-
ti-ic juice afterward to be described. Unless food be well
broken down or masticated, and also well mixed up with the
salivary fluid, it will be difficult of digestion. The stomach is
then called upon to do, beside its own proper duty, that which
properly belongs to the teeth and saliva, and it is thus over-
burdened and embarrassed, often in a very serious manner.
The pains of indigestion are the immediate consequt;nce, and
more remote injuries follow.

It is therefore to be concluded that a deliberate mastication
of our food is conducive to health, and that fast eating is inju-
rious, and sotnetimes even dangerous.

The food, having been properly masticated, is, by the action
of the tongue, thrown into the gullet. It then descends into
the stomach, not so much by its own gravity, as by its being
urged along by the contractions and motions of the gullet it-
self. The stomach may be considered as an expansion of the
gullet, and the chief part of the alimentary canal. It is, in
fact, a membranous pouch or bag, very similar in shape to a
bagpipe, having two openings, the one by which the food en-
ters, the other that by which it passes out. It is into the greater
curvature of the bag that the gullet enters ; it is at its lesser
that it opens into that adjoining portion of the canal into
which the half-digested mass is next propelled.

When food has been introduced, the two orifices close, and
that which we may term the second stage in the process of di-
gestion commences. The mass, already saturated with saliva,
and so broken down as to expose all its particles to the action
of the gastric juice, is now submitted to the action of that
fluid, which, during digestion, is freely secreted by the vessels
of the stomach. The most remarkable quality of this juice is
its solvent power, which is prodigious.

HOW TO PRESERVE YOUR HEALTH.

647

The food exposed to this dissolving agency is converted into
a soft, gray, pulpy mass, called chyme, which, by the muscular
contraction of the stomach, is urged on into the 'adjoining part
of the alimentaiy canal, called the duodenum. This is gener-
ally completed in the space of from half an hour to two or
three hours ; the period varying according to the nature and
volume of the food taken, and the mastication and insaliva-
tion it has undergone.

In the duodenum, the chyme becomes intimately mixed and
incorporated with the bile and pancreatic juice ; also with a
fluid secreted by the mucous follicles of the intestine itself.
The bile is a greenish, bitter, and somewhat viscid fluid, se-
creted by the liver, which occupies a considerable space on
the right side of the body, immediately under the ribs. From
this organ the bile, after a portion of it has passed up into the
adjacent gall-bladder, descends through a small duct, about
the size of a goose-quill, into the duodenam. The chyme,
when mixed with these fluids, undergoes a change in its ap-
pearance ; it assumes a yellow color and bitter taste, owing to
the predominance of the bile in the mass ; but its character
varies according to the nature of the food that has been taken.
Fatty matters, tendons, cartilages, white of eggs, etc., are not
so readily converted into chyme as fibrous or fleshy, cheesy,
and glutinous substances. The chyme, having undergone the
changes adverted to, is urged by the peristaltic motion of the
intestines onward through the alimentary canal. This curious
motion of the intestines is caused by the contraction of the
muscular coat which enters into their structure, and one of the
principal uses ascribed to the bile is that of stimulating them
to this motion. If the peristaltic motion be diminished, ow-
ing to a deficiency of bile, then the progress of digestion is
retarded, and the body becomes constipated. In such cases,
calomel, the blue pill, and other mediciives, are administered
for the purpose of stimulating the liver to secrete the biliary
fluid that it may quicken by its stimulating properties the
peristaltic action. But this is not the only use of the bile : it
also assists in separating the nutritious from the non-nutritious
portion of the alimentary mass, for the chyme now presents a
mixture of a fluid termed chyle, which is in reality the nu-
tritious portion eliminated from the food. The chyme thus
mixed with chyle arrives in the small intestines, on the walls
of which a series of exquisitely delicate vessels ramify in every
direction. These vessels absorb or take up the chyle, leaving
the rest of the mass to be ejected from the body. The chyle,
thus taken up, is carried into little bodies of glands, where it
is still further elaborated, acquiring additional nutritious prop-
erties ; after which, corresponding vessels, emerging from these
glands, carry along the fluid to a comparatively large vessel,
called the thoracic duct, which ascends in the abdomen along
the side of the back-bone, and pours it into that side of the
heart to which the blood that has already circulated through
the body returns. Here the chyle is intimately mixed with
the blood, which fluid is now propelled into the lungs, where
it undergoes, from being exposed to the action of the air we
breathe, the changes necessary to render it again fit for circu-
lation. It is in the lungs, therefore, that the process of diges-
tion is completed ; the blood has now acquired those nutrient
properties from which it secretes the new particles of matter

adapted to supply the waste of the different textures of the
body.

When food is received into the stomach, the secretion of
the gastric juice immediately commences ; and when a full
meal has been taken, this secretion generally lasts for about an
-hour. It is a law of vital action, that when any living organ
is called into play, there is immediately an increased flow of
blood and nervous energy toward it. The stomach, while se-
creting its fluid, displays this phenomenon, and the conse-
quence is, that the blood and nervous energy are called away
from other organs. This is the cause of that chilliness at the
extremities which we often feel after eating heartily. So great
is the demand which the stomach thus makes upon the rest of
the system, that, during and for some time after a meal, we are
not in a condition to take strong exercise of any kind. Both
body and mind are inactive and languid. They are so, simply
because that which supports muscular and mental activity is
concentrated for the time upon the organs of digestion. This
is an arrangement of nature which a regard to health requires
that we should not interfere with. V/e sho.uld indulge iti the
muscular and mental repose which is demanded : and this should
last for not much less than an hour after every meal. In that
time the secretion of gastric juice is nearly finished ; the new
nutriment begins to tell upon the general circulation ; and we
are again fit for active exertion. The consequence of not observ-
ing this rule is very hurtful. Strong exercise, or mental appli-
cation during or immediately after a meal, diverts the flow of
nervous energy and of blood to the stomach, and the proc-
ess of digestion is necessarily retarded or stopped. Confu-
sion is thus introduced into the system, and a tendency to the
terrible calamity of dyspepsia is perhaps established.

For the same reason that repose is required after a meal, it
is necessary, in some measure, for a little whi^e before. At
the moment when we have concluded a severe muscular task,
such, for example, as a long walk, the flow of nervous en-
ergy and of circulation is strongly directed to the muscular
system. It requires some time to allow this flow to stop and
subside ; and, till this takes place, it is not proper to bring
the stomach into exercise, as the demand it makes when
filled would not in that case be answered. Just so if we be
engaged in close mental application, the nervous energy and
circulation being in that case directed to the brain, it is not
right all at once to call another and distant organ into play ;
some time is required to allow of the energy and circulation
being prepared to take the new direction. It may, there-
fore, be laid down as a maxim, that, a short period of repose
9r at least of very light occupation, should be allowed before
every meal.

Kinds of Food. — It has been shown by a reference to the
structure of the human intestinal canal, that our food is
designed to be a mixture of animal and vegetable substances.

Inquiries with respect to the comparative digestibility of
diff'erent kinds of food, are perhaps chiefly of consequence to
those in whom health has already been lost. To the sound
and healthy it is comparatively of little consequence what
kind of food is taken, provided that some variation is observed,
and no excess committed as to quantity. Within the range of
fish, flesh, and fowl, there is ample scope for a safe choice.

648

HOW TO PRESERVE YOUR HEALTH.

There is scarcely any of the familiar aliments of these kinds,
but, if plainly dressed, will digest in from two to four hours,
and prove perfectly healthy. One rule alone has been pretty
well ascertained, with respect to animal foods, that they are the
more digestible the more minute and tender the fiber may be.
They contain more nutriment in a given bulk than vegetable
matters, and hence their less need for length of intestine to
digest them. Yet it is worthy of notice, that between the
chyle produced from animal and that from vegetable food, no
essential distinction can be observed.

Tendon, suet, and oily matters in general, are considerably
less digestible than the ordinary fiber ; and these are aliments
which should be taken sparingly. Pickling, from its effects in
hardening the fiber, diminishes the digestibility of meat.
Dressed shell-fish, cheese and some other animal foods, are
avoided by many as not sufliciently digestible.

Farinaceous foods of all kinds — wheat, oaten, and barley
bread, oaten porridge, sago, arrow-root, tapioca, and potatoes
— are highly suitable to the human constitution. They gener-
ally require under two hours for digestion, or about half the
time of a full mixed meal. The cottage children of Scotland,
reared exclusively upon oaten porridge and bread, with
potatoes and milk, may be cited as a remarkable example of a
class of human beings possessing in an uncommon degree the
blessing of health. Green vegetables and fruit, however
softened by dressing, are less digestible, and less healthy as a
diet. One important consideration here occurs. There is
need for a certain bulk in our ordinary food. Receiving nutri-
ment in a condensed form and in a small space will not serve
the purpose. This is because the organs of digestion are cal-
culated for receiving our food nearly in the condition in which
nature presents it, namely in a considerable bulk with regard
to its nutritious properties.

Quantity of Food. — Number and Times of Meals. —
With respect to the amount of food necessary for health, it is
difficult to lay down any rule, as different quantities are safe
with different individuals, according to their sex, age, activity
of life, and soipe other conditions.

The number and times of meals are other questions as yet
undetermined. As the digestion of a meal rarely requires
more than four hours, and the waking part of a day is about
sixteen, it seems unavoidable that at least three meals be taken,
though it may be proper that one, if not two of these, be com-
paratively of a light nature. Breakfast, dinner, and tea as a
light meal, may be considered as a safe, if not a very accurate,
prescription for the daily food of a healthy person. Certainly
four good meals a day is too much.

The interval between rising and breakfast ought not to be
great, and no severe exercise or task-work of any kind should
be undergone during this interval. There is a general pre-
possession to the contrary, arising probably from the feeling
of freedom and lightness which most people feel at that period
of the day, and which seems to them as indicating a prepared-
ness for exertion. But this feeling, perhaps, only arises from
a sense of relief from that oppression of food under which
much of the rest of the day is spent. It is quite inconsistent
with all we know of the physiology of aliment, to suppose that
the body is capable of much exertion when the stomach has

been for several hours quite empty. We have known many
persons take long walks before breakfast, under an impression
that they were doing something extremely favorable to health.
Others we have known go through three hours of mental task-
work at the same period, believing that they were gaining so
much time. But the only observable result was to subtract
from the powers of exertion in the middle and latter part of
the day. In so far as the practice was contrary to nature, it
would likewise of course produce permanent injury. Only a
short saunter in the open air, or a very brief application to busi-
ness or task-work, can be safely indulged in before breakfast.

With regard to the time for either breakfast or dinner,
nothing can be said with scientific authority.

Variety of Food. — A judicious variation of food is not only
useful, but important. There are, it is true, some aliments,
such as bread, which cannot be varied, and which no one ever
wishes to be so. But apart from one or two articles, a certain
variation of rotation is much to be desired, and will prove
favorable to health. There is a common prepossession respect-
ing one dish, which is more spoken of than acted upon. In
reality, there is no virtue in this practice, excepting that, if
rigidly adhered to, it makes excess nearly impossible, no one
being able to eat to satiety of one kind of food. There would
be a benefit from both a daily variation of food and eating of
more than one dish at a meal, if moderation were in both cases
to be strictly observed, for the relish to be thus obtained is use-
ful as promotive of the flow of nervous energy to the stomach,
exactly in the same manner as cheerfulness is useful. The
policy which would make food in any way unpleasant to the
taste, is a most mistaken one ; for to eat with languor, or
against inclination, or with any degree of disgust, is to lose
much of the benefit of eating. On the other hand, to cook
dishes highly, and provoke appetite by artificial means, are
equally reprehensible. Pi-opriety lies in the mean between the
two extremes.

Beverages, — The body containing a vast amount of fluids,
which are undergoing a perpetual waste, there is a necessity
for an occasional supply of liquor of some kind, as well as of
solid food. It remains to be considered what is required in
the character or nature of this liquor, to make it serve the end
consistently with the preservation of health.

When the digestion is good and the system in full vigor, the
bodily energy is easily sustained by nutritious food, and
"artificial stimulant only increases the wasting of the natural
strength." Nearly all physicians, indeed, concur in represent-
ing ardent liquors as unfavorable to the health of the healthy,
and as being in their excess highly injurious. Even the
specious defense which has been set up for their use, on the
ground that they would not have been given to man if they
had not been designed for general use, has been shown to be
ill-founded, seeing that vinous fermentation, from which they
are derived, is not a healthy condition of vegetable matter, but
a stage in its progress to decay. Upon the whole, there can
be little doubt that these liquors are deleterious in our ordinary
healthy condition ; and that simple water, toast water, whey,
ginger beer, or lemonade, would be preferable (the first being
the most natural and the best of all), if we could only consent
to deny ourselves further indulgence.

HOW TO PRESERVE YOUR HEALTH.

649

CLEANLINESS.

To keep the body in a cleanly condition is the third impor-
tant requisite for health. This becomes necessary in conse-
quence of a very important process which is constantly going
on near and upon the surface of the body.

The process in question is that oi perspiration. The matter
here concerned is a watery secretion produced by glands near
the surface of the body, and sent up through the skin by chan-
nels imperceptibly minute and wonderfully numerous. From
one to two pounds of this secretion is believed to exude through
these channels or pores in the course of twenty-four hours,
being in fact the chief form taken by what is called the waste
of the system, the remainder passing off by the bowels, kidneys,
and lungs. To promote the egress of this fluid is of great
consequence to health ; for when it is suppressed, disease is
apt to fall upon some of the other organs concerned in the
discharge of waste.

One of the most notable checks which perspiration experi-
ences is that produced by a current of cold air upon the skin,
in which case the pores instantly contract and close, and the
individual is seized with some ailment either in one of the
other organs of waste, whichever is in him the weakest, or in
the internal lining of some part of the body, all of which is
sympathetic with the condition of the skin. A result of the
nature of that last described is usually recognized as a cold or
catarrh. We are not at present called on particularly to notice
such effects of checked perspiration, but others of a less imme-
diately hurtful or dangerous nature.

The fluid alluded to is composed, besides water, of certain
salts and animal matters, which, being solid, do not pass away
in vapor, as does the watery part 01 the compound, but rest
on the surface where they have been discharged. There, if
not removed by some artificial means, they form a layer of
hard stuff, and unavoidably impede the egress of the current
perspiration. By cleanliness is merely meant the taking
proper means to prevent this or any other matter accumulating
on the surface, to the production of certain hurtful conse-
quences.

Ablution or washing is the best means of attaining this end ;
and accordingly it is well for us to wash or bathe the body
very frequently. Many leave by far the greater part of their
bodies unwashed, except, perhaps, on rare occasions, thinking
it enough if the parts exposed to common view be in decent
trim. If the object of cleaning were solely to preserve fair
appearances, this might be sufficient ; but the great end, it
must be clearly seen, is to keep the skin in a fit state for its
peculiar and very important functions. Frequent change of
the clothing next to the skin is of course a great aid to clean-
liness, and may partly be esteemed as a substitute for bathing,
seeing that the clothes absorb much of the impurities, and,
when changed, may be said to carry these off. But still this will
not serve the end nearly so well as frequent ablution of the
whole person. Any one will be convinced of this, who goes
into a bath, and uses the flesh-brush in cleansing his body.
The quantity of scurf and impurity which he will then remove,
from even a body which has changes of linen once a day, will
surprise him.

EXERCISE.

The constitution of external nature shows that man was
destined for an active existence, as, without labor, scarcely
any of the gifts of providence are to be made available. In
perfect harmony with this character of the material world, he
has been furnished with a muscular and mental system, con-
structed on the principle of being fitted for exertion, and re-
quiring exertion for a healthy existence. Formed as he is, it
is not possible for him to abstain from exertion without very
hurtful consequences.

Muscular Exercise. — With regard to merely bodily exer-
cise, it is to be observed, in the first place, that we have no
fewer than four hundred muscles, each designed to serve some
particular end in locomotion or in operating upon external
objects. A sound state of body depends very much upon
each of these muscles being brought into action in proper cir-
cumstances and to a suitable extent. There is even a law
operating within a certain range, by which each muscle will
gain in strength and soundness by being brought into a proper
degree of activity.

The process of waste and renovation may be said to be
always going on in the body, but it does not go on with per-
manent steadiness unless the muscular system be exercised.
Whenever one of the organs is put into exertion, this process
becomes active, and the two operations of which it consists
maintain a due proportion to each other. A greater flow, of
blood and of nervous energy is sent to the organ, and this
continues as long as it is kept in activity. When one state of
action follows close upon another, the renovating part of the
process rather exceeds the waste, and an accretion of new
substance, as well as an addition of fresh power takes place.
On the contrary, when an organ is little exercised, the process
of renovation goes on languidly, and to a less extent than that
of waste, and the parts consequently become flabby, shrunken,
and weak. Even the bones are subject to the same laws. If
these be duly exercised in their business of administering to
motion, the vessels which pervade them are fed more actively
with blood, and they increase in dimensions,* solidity, and
strength. If they be little exercised, the stimulus required
for the supply of blood to them becomes insufficient ; imper-
fect nutrition takes place ; and the consequences are debility,
softness, and unfitness for their office. Bones may be so
mucji softened by inaction, as to become susceptible of being
cut by a knife. In a less degree, the same cause will produce
languor and bad health.

It is of the utmost importance to observe, that the exercise
of any particular limb does little besides improving the
strength of that limb ; and that, in order to increase our gen-
eral strength, the whole frame must be brought into exer-
cise.

In order, then, to maintain in a sound state the energies
which nature has given us, and still more particularly, to in-
crease their amount, we must exercise them. If we desire to
have a strong limb, we must exercise that limb ; if we desire
that the whole of our frame should be sound and strong, we
must exercise the whole of our frame. It is mainly by these
means that health and strength are to be preserved and im-

650

HOW TO PRESERVE YOUR HEALTH.

proved. There are rules, however, for the application of these
laws of our being.

1. In order that exercise may be truly advantageous, the
parts must be in a state of sufficient health to endure the ex-
ertion. In no case must exercise be carried beyond what the
parts are capable of bearing with ease ; otherwise a loss of
energy, instead of a gain, will be the consequence.

2. Exercise, to be efficacious even in a healthy subject,
must be excited, sustained, and directed by that nervous stim-
ulus which gives the muscles the principal part of their
strength, and contributes so much to the nutrition of parts in
a state of activity.

3. The waste occasioned by exercise must be duly replaced
by food ; as, if there be any deficiency in that important
requisite, the blood will soon cease to give that invigoralion
to the parts upon which increased healtli and strength depend.

Kinds of Bodily Exercise. — Exercise is usually consid-
ered as of two kinds — active and passive. The active consists
in walking, running, leaping, riding, fencing, rowing, skating,
swimming, dancing, and various exercises, such as those with
the poles, ropes, &c., prescribed in gymnastic institutions.
The passive consists in carriage-riding, sailing, friction, swing-
ing, &c.

Walking is perhaps the readiest mode of taking exercise,
and the one most extensively resorted to. If it brought the
upper part of the body as thoroughly into exertion as the
lower, it would be perfect, for it is gentle and safe with nearly
all except the much debilitated. To render it the more
effectual in the upper part of the body it were well to walk at
all times, when convenient, singly and allow the arms and
trunk free play. It is best to walk with a companion, or for
some definite object, as the flow of nervous energy will be by
these means promoted, and the exercise be rendered, as has
been already explained, the more serviceable.

Very long or rapid walks should not be attempted by
individuals of sedentary habits, nor by weakly persons. Their
frames are totally unprepared for such violent exertion.

Running is an exercise which is intermediate between
walking and leaping ; it consists, in fact, of a series of leaps
performed in progression from one foot to another, and the
degree of its rapidity bears a constant proportion to the length
of the individual and successive leaps. Although this and
other gymnastic exercises, such as leaping, wrestling, throwing
heavyweights, etc., may, when judiciously had recourse to,
invigorate the body, yet, from apprehension of the evils and
accidents which may be so occasioned, young persons ought
not to be permitted to engage extensively in such exercises,
except under the care of some one well acquainted with gym-
nastics.

Fencing is of all active exercises that which is the most
commendable, inasmuch as it throws open the chest, and at
the same time calls into action the muscles both of the upper
and lower extremities. Add to this, that it improves very
much the carriage of the body ; for which reason it may be
reckoned a branch of polite education.

Dancing is exhilarating and healthful, and seems to be
almost the only active exercise which the despotic laws of
fashion permit young ladies to enjoy.

Riding is generally classed among the passive exercises, but
in reality it is one which involves much action of the whole
frame, and as such is very useful for health. Pursued solita-
rily, it has the drawback of being somewhat dull ; but, when
two or three ride in company, a sufficient flow of the nervous
energy may be obtained.

The amount of bodily exercise which should be taken must
vary according to the habits, strength, and general health of
the individual. It was an aphorism of Boerhaave, that every
person should take at least two hours' exercise in the day, and
this may be regarded as a good general rule.

Mental Exercise. — Having thus explained the laws and
regulations by which exercise may be serviceable to the phy-
sical system, we shall proceed to show that the same rules
hold good respecting the mental faculties. These, as is gen-
erally allowed, however immaterial in one sense, are connected
organically with the brain — a portion of the animal system
nourished by the same blood, and regulated by the same vital
laws, as the muscles, bones, and ners'es. As, by disuse, mus-
cle becomes emaciated, bone softens, blood-vessels are obliter-
ated, and nerves lose their natural structure, so, by disuse,
does the brain fall out of its proper state, and create misery
to its possessor ; and as, by over-exertion, the waste of the
animal system exceeds the supply, and debility and unsound-
ness are produced, so, by over-exertion, are the functions of
the brain liable to be deranged and destroyed. The processes
are physiologically the same, and the effects bear an exact re-
lation to each other. As with the bodily powers, the mental
are to be increased in magnitude and energy by a degree of
exercise measured with a just regard to their ordinary health
and native or habitual energies. Corresponding, moreover, to
the influence which the mind has in giving the nervous stimu-
lus so useful in bodily exercise, is the dependence of the
mind upon the body for supplies of.healthy nutriment. And,
in like manner with the bodily functions, each mental faculty
is only to be strengthened by the exercise of itself in particular.

It ought to be universally known, that the uses of our in-
tellectual nature are not to be properly realized without a just
regard to the laws of that perishable frame with which it is
connected ; that, in cultivating the mind, we must neither
overtask nor undertask the body, neither push it to too great
a speed, nor leave it neglected ; and that, notwithstanding
this intimate connection and mutual dependence, the highest
merits on the part of the mind will not compensate for mus-
cles mistreated, or soothe a nervous system which severe study
has tortured into insanity. To come to detail, it ought to be
impressed on all, that to spend more than a moderate number
of hours in mental exercise diminishes insensibly the powers
of future application, and tends to abbreviate life ; that no
mental exercise should be attempted immediately after meals,
as the processes of thought and of digestion cannot be safely
prosecuted together ; and that, without a due share of exercise
to the whole of the mental faculties, there can be no soundness
in any, while the whole corporeal system will give way be-
neath a severe pressure upon any one in particular. These
are truths completely established with physiologists, and upon
which it is undeniable that a great portion of human happi-
ness depends.

HOW TO PRESERVE YOUR HEALTH.

651

kr-

Repose a Condition Demanded by Exercise. — Exer-
cise demands occasional periods of repose, and, in particular,
that a certain part of every twenty-four hours be spent in sleep.
After having been engaged in daily occupations for fourteen or
sixteen hours, a general feeling of fatigue and weakness is in-
duced ; the motions of the body become difficult, the senses
confused, the power of volition or will suspended, and the rest
of the mental faculties, becoming more and more inactive, sink
at length into a state of unconsciousness. The sense of sight
first ceases to act by the closing of the eyelids ; then the senses
of taste and smell become dormant ; and then those of hearing
and touch. The muscles, also, dispose themselves with a cer-
tain reference to ease of position, those of the limbs having
grown indolent before those that support the head, and those
that support the head before those of the trunk. In propor-
tion as these phenomena proceed, the respiration becomes
slower and more deep, the circulation diminishes in impetus,
the blood proceeds in great quantity toward the head, and all
the functions of the internal organs become retarded. In this
state, shut out as it were from the external world, the mind '
still retains its wonted activity, deprived, however, of the guid-
ance of judgment and the power of distinct recollection ; in
consequence of which, it does not perceive the monstrous in-
congruities of the imagery which sweeps before it, and takes but
faint cognizance of the time which elapses.

It may be laid down as an axiom, that the more uninterrupted
sleep is, the more refreshing and salutary will be its effects ; for
during this period, the body undoubtedly acquires an accession
of nervous energy, which restlessness, however induced, must
disturb ; and therefore the state of the body before going to
sleep, the kind of bed, and the manner of clothing, require es-
pecial attention. As the functions of the body are performed
more slowly during our sleeping than our waking hours, a full
meal or supper, taken immediately before going to bed, imposes
a load on the stomach which it is not in a condition to digest,
and the unpleasant consequence of oppressive and harassing
dreams is almost certain to ensue. When the sleeper lies on his
back, the heart pressing, while pulsating, on the lungs, gives
rise to a sense of intolerable oppression on the chest, which
seems to bear down upon the whole body, so that in this pain-
ful state not a muscle will obey the impulse of the will, and
every effort to move appears to be altogether unavailing. This
constitutes incui>tts or nightmare; and it maybe observed, that,
as acidity on the stomach, or indigestion, gives rise to such
dreams, so all dreams of this disturbed character are converse
indications of indigestion ; for which reason the great physiolo-
gist Haller considered dreaming to be a symptom of disease.

The kind of bed on which we repose requires attention.
Some are advocates for soft, others for hard beds ; hence some
accustom themselves to feather-beds, others to mattresses. The
only difference between a soft and a hard bed is this — that the
weight of the body in a soft bed presses on a larger surface than
on a hard bed, and thereby a greater degree of comfort is en-
joyed. Parents err in fancying that a very hard bed contrib-
utes to harden the constitution of their children ; for which
reason they lay them down on mattresses, or beds with board-
ed bottoms. A bed for young children cannot be too soft,
provided the child does not sink into it in such a manner that

the surrounding parts of the bed bend over and cover the
body. The too great hardness of beds, says Dr. Darwin, fre-
quently proves injurious to the shape of infants, by causing
them to rest on too few parts at a time ; it also causes their
sleep to be uneasy and unrefreshing. Whatever be the time
chosen for sleep, it is evident that no person can with im-
punity convert day into night. Eight o'clock for children,
and eleven for adults, may be recommended as good hours
for retiring to rest. It is well known that children require
more sleep than adults ; and more sleep is requisite in win-
ter than in summer. The average duration of sleep which
may be Jrecomrnended for adults is eight hours; but much
depends upon habit, and many persons requii-e only six. It
is scarcely necessary to observe, that, on rising in the morn-
ing, the strictest attention should be paid to washing the
face, neck and hands ; the mouth and teeth should also be
well cleansed. The most simple powder for the teeth is finely
brayed charcoal, a little of which will clear away all impu-
rities, and preserve the teeth. On leaving the bedroom, the
windows should be opened, and the clothes of the bed turned
down, in order that the exhalations of the body during sleep
may be dissipated. If, instead of this, the bed be made im-
mediately after we have risen, these exhalations are again
folded up with the clothes — a practice which is not conson-
ant either with cleanliness or health.

TEMPERATURE,

The fifth important requisite for health is that the body be
kept in a temperature suitable to it.

The degree of heat indicated by sixty degrees of Fahren-
heit's thermometer, or that of a temperate summer day, is what
the human body finds it agreeable to be exposed to when in a
state of inactivity.

There is no period of life at which warmth is of more conse-
quence than in infancy. In a very young babe, the circulation
is almost altogether confined to the surface, the internal or-
gans being as yet in a very weak state. In such circumstances,
to plunge the child into cold water, from an idea of making it
hardy, as is customary in some countries, and among ignorant
persons in our own, is the height of cruelty and folly ; for the
unavoidable consequence is, that the blood is thrown in upon
the internal organs, and inflammation, bowel-complaints, croup,
or convulsions, are very apt to ensue. A baby requires to be
kept at a temperature above what is suitable to a grown per-
son ; it should be warmly, but not heavily clothed ; the room
where it is kept should be maintained at a good, but not op-
pressive heat ; and it should never be put into other than tepid
water. It should not be exposed to the open air for some days
after its birth.

At all periods of life, it is most desirable to avoid exposure
to very low temperatures, especially for any considerable
length of time. To sit long in cold school-rooms, or work-
rooms, with the whole body, and especially the feet, in a chilled
condition, is very unfavorable to the health of young people.

Clothing should be in proportion to the temperature of the
climate and the season of the year ; and where there are such
abrupt transitions from heat to cold as in our country, it is not
safe ever to go very thinly clad, as we may in that case be ex-

652

HOW TO PRESERVE YOUR HEALTH.

■^

posed to a sudden chill before we can effect the proper change
of dress. Very fatal eflects often result to ladies from incau-
tiously stepping out of heated rooms in the imperfect clothing
which they ludicrously style /«//-fl'/rjj-y all such injuries might
be avoided by putting on a sufficiency of shawls, and allowing
themselves a little time in the lobby to cool. The under-
clothing in this country should be invariably of flannel, which
is remarkably well calculated to preserve uniformity of tem-
perature, as well as to produce a healthy irritation in the skin.
IVet clothes applied to any part of the body, when it is in an
inactive state, have an instantaneous effect in reducing the
temperature, this being an unavoidable effect of the process of
evaporation which then takes place. Hence it is extremely
dangerous to sit upon damp ground, or to remain at rest for a
single minute with wetted feet, or any other part of the body
invested in damp garments. Dampness in the house in
which we live has the same effect, and is equally dangerous.
The chill produced by the evaporation from the wetted surface
checks the perspiration, and sends the blood inward to the
vital parts, where it tends to produce inflammatory disease.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

The fundamental principle of all efforts to improve and
preserve health has been thus stated : " Man, as an organized
being, is subject to organic laws, as much as the inanimate
bodies which surround him are to laws mechanical and
chemical ; and we can as little escape the consequences of neg-
lect or violation of those natural laws, which affect organic
life through the air we breathe, the food we eat, and the exer-
cise we take, as a stone projected from the hand, or a shot
from the mouth of a cannon, can place itself beyond the
bounds of gravitation." It maybe added, that "ail human
science, all the arts of civilized man, consist of discoveries
made by us of the laws impressed upon nature by the Author
of the universe, and the applications of those laws to the con-
ditions — which are laws also — in which man and the particular
bodies and substances around him are placed ; nor, it is mani-
fest, should any science concern us more than that which re-
lates to the conditions on which organic life is held by each in-
dividual."

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THE NURSERY.

653

T is a well-known fact that some of the greatest
blessings we enjoy are the least appreciated, and
this may be truly said of light. We are so accus-
tomed to it, that we fail to remember its impor-
tance, though did we but recollect that it is syn-
onymous with life we could not fail to be sensi-
of the inestimable value of this essential of our
being.

Deprived of its wholesome and enlivening stimulus
children become pale and sickly in appearance, the blood is
imperfectly oxygenated, and a proneness to disease or debility
arises. '

A dark, dull room, or one from which light is more or less
excluded, should by all means be avoided, for it is injurious
alike to the eyes, health and spirits of children. But neces-
sary as light is (it is the natural food of the eye), it requires
regulating according to the age. During early infancy the
eyes should not be exposed to a concentrated or strong
light ; the sun's light should be softened by window blinds,
and an infant ought never to be held too near a lamp or
candle.

The best arguments in favor of the beneficial effects of
light are found in the facts that nearly the whole of the
vegetable kingdom will cease to flourish if deprived of it,
and that those children brought up in the dreary dark slums
of cities, although quite as well fed as those of an agricul-
tural laborer, are invariably puny, sickly creatures, without a
vestige of color in their cheeks.

The pernicious custom which obtains so much amongst
the lower middle classes in the suburbs of living almost entire-
ly in the basement breakfast-room cannot be too strongly con-
demned, where, as is invariably the case, it is dark . The
room that is most in use should be " the best room," not on
account of the amount of furniture it contains but owing to its
being the lightest, and into this room the sun should be al-
lowed to freely enter, all ideas of excluding it on account of
the carpet being but false economy.

Notwithstanding, however, that a proper amount of light is
necessary for a child when awake, equal care should be
exercised in darkening the room when it (the child) is asleep,
as too much light then will not merely prevent or interrupt
sleep, but may act as a very injurious stimulus to the eyes and
brain. It goes without saying that the nursery must, of course,
have plenty of sunlight, and with this view should face the

south, east or west, but there is another place about which
great care should be taken — the school-room. There is no
doubt that the influence of a sunless schoolroom is most bane-
ful to a young mind, and the want of interest in their study
often displayed by children might in many instances be traced
to this cause.

BATHING.

Macbeth's maxim, " If it were done, when 'tis done, then
'twere well it were done quickly," is especially applicable to
the bathing of children. There should be no nonsense about
it. The object of bathing is not only for the purpose of
cleanliness but as a means of invigorating the capillary circu-
lation, and so fortifying the system as to enable it to resist at-
mospheric vicissitudes.

To do this, however, It is imperative that the child should
not remain in the bath (presuming it is not warm) more than a
minute or two, as when the body is immersed in water below
ninety degrees there is a sensation of cold, a shrinking of the
skin, and a rush of blood from the small capillary vessels of
the surface to the internal vessels, which state of things should
be speedily followed by a reaction by the heart and large ves-
sels forcing the blood back again to the surface, and indeed to
all the outlets ; so that the skin glows and perhaps perspires,
the secretory organs act more strongly, the liver and other or-
gans show an increased activity, and there is a general feeling
of liveliness and vigor.

But this will not be the case if there is any dawdling or de-
lay, not only while in the water but during the process of rub-
bing and drying, which must be performed with the greatest
briskness in order that the proper reaction, upon which the
virtue of the bath depends, should take place : otherwise the
child will get a chill, which will, in addition to nullifying the
good, do it absolute harm.

Up to the age of three months infants should in all
weathers be bathed in warm water, but after that age at the
warm seasons and during Summer cold may be used, provided
the child be strong enough, and is not frightened, but if the
experiment is attended with convulsive screaming and great
distress, discontinue it and substitute a warmer temperature.
In washing a very young child the head should always be the
first part damped, and a flannel is preferable for that purpose
rather than a sponge.

With regard to all children there are not two opinions on
the subject of a daily bath given immediately on rising being

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654

THE NURSERY.

beneficial, in fact it is a sine qua non of perfect health, pro-
vided, of course, the child is not too delicate, and for the elder
ones a large sponge is a necessity, as by its use a much larger
quantity of oxygen can be introduced into the skin than by any
other means.

The addition of sea-salt is a most desirable adjunct, es-
pecially when the hips are weak, but even when in good
health its occasional use will add greatly to the tonic proper-
ties of the bath. It should be added in such quantity to a bath
that the mineral ingredient is equal to that contained in salt
water ; it will be far more efficacious than a simple fresh water
bath, as it combines the advantages of temperature with the
stimulating action of the salt upon the skin.

The advantages of such a bath taken at the time mentioned
are twofold. It inures the body to a greater degree of cold
tlian it is likely to be exposed to during the rest of the day,
and so proves most serviceable in protecting it from atmos-
pheric influences ; and it tends to remove irregularities in the
circulation, and, by exciting the healfhy action of the skin, may
aid that organ in removing disease.

All, however, are not strong enough to stand the shock to
the system, and not only those who are extremely weak, or
who have any organic disease, especially the heart or lungs,
but there may be some idiosyncrasy or condition of the consti-
tution peculiar to the individual which would render it impos-
sible. The invariable test is that if after a bath the child re-
mains chilly, languid and dejected, or suffers from headache,
then it is not beneficial, but if the sense of cold rapidly passes
off and a glow of warmth and animation of spirits succeeds and
continues for some time, the cold bath cannot fail to be pro-
ductive of good.

SLEEP.

Although much has been written, and rightly so, on the
subject of laziness, there is as much, if not more, to be said
on the necessity of enough sleep, for it is as great a necessity
as eating and drinking.

Infants sleep almost continually, and (in this we know most
mothers will heartily concur) they cannot sleep too much,
owing to the necessity for providing the materials for growth.
When they are unable to sleep for any length of time their
condition is unnatural, and shows us that they are suffering in
some way or other, the cause of which should be ascertained
and removed ; but not by the use of sirups, elixirs, etc., which,
though they produce slumber, do not produce sleep.

For young children from twelve to fourteen hours' sleep is
necessary, and this must be regular, the proper time for bed
during the Winter months being about six o'clock, and in the
Summer months about seven.

A proper desire for sleep is only obtained by a due amount
of exercise, both mental and physical, which must not have
continued sufficiently long to produce prostration. Exercise
in moderation is most necessary before going to bed, but any-
thing of a violent nature, like romping, should be avoided for
at least half an hour before.

With regard to the hour at which children and others
should rise, that must be determined by the time of their
waking, and in order to wake at a proper time all that is
necessary is that you go to bed at some regular early hour,

and then, says an authority, "within a fortnight nature, with
almost the regularity of the rising sun, will unloosen the bonds
of sleep the moment enough repose has been secured for the
wants of the system." To remain in bed after this, to indulge
in that short morning doze into which so many allow them-
selves to fall because it is not, they think, quite time to get
up, is a baneful practice.

Care should also be taken with regard to the quantity of
bed-clothes indulged in, too much clothing having the effect
of relaxing the body, and it is right therefore to have only suf-
ficient to enable the individual to sleep, for it is better to
wake with an inclination to draw the clothes round you than
to feel oppressed by their weight and heat and a desire to
throw them off.

With regard to the proper position of a sleeper all are
agreed that it should be on the right or left side, because if
you sleep on ypur back, especially soon after a hearty meal,
the weight of the digestive organs and that of the food, resting
upon the great vein of the body, near the backbone, com-
presses it, and arrests the flow of the blood more or less. If
the arrest is partial, the sleep is disturbed, and there are un-
pleasant dreams, a state of things carefully to be avoided
when we remember that " the man who dreams does but half
sleep. The child who dreams scarcely sleeps at all."

Too much attention cannot be paid to the proper ventila-
tion of sleeping-rooms. In too many cases this important
subject is entirely neglected. The sleeper retires to rest in an
apartment from which every effort has been made to exclude
the outer air — until it seems almost hermetically sealed — and
rises with a dull headache and a feverish, unrefreshed sensa-
tion to go about the duties of the day.

ON CATCHING COLD.

It is a very common, but a very great, mistake to attach little
importance to catching cold. How frequently we hear the re-
mark in reference to some one being indisposed, " Oh, it's
nothing ; only a severe cold." Considering that in adults
severe cold is the cause of one-half " the ills that flesh is heir
to," it will readily be understood that colds with children are
of the greatest consequence, for, in the language of one whose
revered name is the synonym for nursing, "It is as easy to put
out a sick baby's life as it is to put out the flame of a candle."

The most common kind of cold is that in the head, profes-
sionally described as catarrh, which consists of inflammation
of the mucous membrane of the air passages, and is ordinarily
caused by the child having been exposed to a draught, having
got its clothes wet and not been able to have them changed,
or by not being sufficiently warmly clad when the body is get-
ting cool after being heated. The latter is the most to be
feared, as in this condition the body is incapable, from ex-
haustion, of reaction, and the exposure intensifies the depres-
sion.

Wet clothing does not frequently produce " a cold " if
the child is walking or running about, and is able to get the
things changed when the active exercise ceases, and avoids all
exposure for some little time ; but where exertion has been in-
dulged in, and the body is in a state of perspiration, then, if
the child receives a chill from wet feet or any other cause, and

THE NURSERY.

65s

does not continue its play or its active exercise, ra/arr/z is almost
inevitable.

When it is remembered that a neglected cold sometimes pro-
duces bronchitis, pneumonia, quinsy, rheumatism, erysipelas,
toothache, neutalgia, inflammatory fever, consumption, etc.,
it is scarcely possible to impress upon mothers too strongly the
great necessity for extreme care in this matter ; and as preven-
tion should be much more easy when the cause of a complaint
is understood, I propose to try and explain in as simple lan-
guage as possible the why and wherefore.

The action of cold is to partially close the pores of the skin,
check the natural perspiration by constricting and obstructing
the vessels of the skin, and so throw more blood inwardly,
producing internal congestions ; for the outer skin being in-
capable of performing its functions, and perspiration being an
absolute necessity, the inner skin, or mucous membrane, has
to do the work, and hence the inflammation.

The effect of cold is felt in a greater or less degree ac-
cording to the capillary circulation. If this be weak, or be
rendered so by excitement, exercise, or by sleep, the danger is
increased ; consequently children — and any one else, for mat-
ter of that — are most susceptible to cold when coming out of
a hot room, after being unduly heated by running, or when
sleeping.

From this it will be understood that the chilling influences
enumerated derange the balance of the circulation, and by de-
termining a corresponding amount of congestion inwardly, fix
it in some part previously weakened and made susceptible to
disease ; or, in still plainer language, the cold flies to the
weakest part, which accounts for one person getting rheu-
matism, another congestion of the lungs, a third a sore
throat, and a fourth, perhaps, merely a cold in the head or
chest.

To cure a cold is to restore the action of the skin and
induce perspiration, and this, if done at the proper time, when
the symptoms are first observed, is exceedingly simple. People
may sneer as they will at the mention of the word gruel, but a
basin-full of hot gruel, made thin, and taken when in bed, will
invariably arrest an ordinary catarrh. If the chill be severe,
the child's feet should be placed in warm water, a little extra
clothing be placed on the bed, and the patient allowed to lie
in bed a little longer than usual the next morning ; but the
apartment must not be too warm or close, or the additional
clothing be too great, as, though the cure may be accelerated
thereby, the susceptibility is increased, and the child rendered
more liable to a recurrence of the attack.

To those who will not believe in anything old-fashioned or
simple, the plan of a " wet sheet pack " will be found equally
efficacious. This is managed by spreading three blankets on
the bed and putting on the top a sheet, which has been satur-
ated in hot water and wrung out. The child is then placed
upon the sheet, enveloped in it, and the blankets wrapped
tightly round the whole body excepting the head, and allowed
to remain in this situation for about an hour, when a quick
sponging of cold water should be given, followed by a brisk
and thorough rubbing with dry towels.

Another remedy believed in by many of our medical breth-
ren is the " dry" plan, which, at any rate, has the merit of

simplicity, for it consists in merely abstaining from every kind
of liquid until the disorder is gone.

Although opinions may diff'er, however, as to the precise
method of cure, and any of those given will be found equally
efficient, there is no difference of opinion as to the cause and
prevention. The too frequent cause is simply the result of
carelessness or imprudence in not protecting the body against
the variation of temperature, an insufficient use of cold or
warm water to the body, or, plainly, uncleanliness, sleeping
under too much clothing, or by sleeping in badly-ventilated
rooms ; but the first mentioned, the passing from a hot room
out into the open air, or into a room where the temperature is
less, without being suitably attired, is the most frequent and
the most to be guarded against with children.

The prevention of cold is best achieved by diminishing the
susceptibility of the system by abstemious living, taking regu-
lar and daily exercise in the open air, and a morning bath of
cold water if the child be strong enough, and if not, a tepid
one ; but the best prevention and cure for colds is " the cold
water cure."

TEETHING

is one of the most distressing of the ordinary ailments of
children, for it comes to them at an age when they are incapa-
ble of making the nature of their sufferings known, and as
they do suffer most acutely sometimes during the process of
dentition, it is very trying to mothers and nurses to have to
witness their torture and be unable to alleviate it because the
poor little mites cannot explain their symptoms.

Being one of the very common ills that flesh is heir to, it is
a time frequently regarded by some as more troublesome than
important — a great mistake, to prevent which a simple state-
ment showing the action of one of the phases of the disease
may be advisable. The chief disorders of the first set of
teeth are caries and inflammation in the periosteal mem-
branes, terminating in abcess, or what is commonly called
gumboil. The first effect of inflammation in the periosteum is
to create pain, tenderness and swelling in that part of the gum
in close proximity to the tooth, and an effusion of fluid be-
tween the fang and its investing membrane, which is thus
converted into a sort of cyst or tiny sack of skin. Repeated
attacks of inflammation at length end in the formation of pus,
which either bursts through the tumor in the gum or may be
removed by lancing. Sometimes after the abscess has burst
or been opened, a fungus springs up from the diseased mem-
brane lining the cavity. With some children the presence of
the abscess having produced absorption of a portion of the
alveolar process at its lower part, it effuses its contents through
the aperture thus formed, and matter forces itself along the
surface of the lower jaw, and forms an external tumor near
its base.

With regard to the process of dentition in actual in-
fants, the time at which it takes place is naturally subject to
slight variation, when it is stated that many medical men give
instances in their experience of children being bom with
teeth, or having cut them almost immediately after birth-
Louis XIV., of France, and Richard III., of England, being
historic cases in point ; the usual time, however, when babies
begin to be troubled with the advent of teeth is at the seventh

656

THE NURSERY.

kr-

month, the period of the first dentition lasting up to the age
of two years or two and a half years.

The symptoms of teething in a healthy child are that for
some time before the gums are much swollen, there is an ex-
cessive flow of saliva from the mouth, and the child indulges
in what is known to most as "dribbling," at the same time
evincing a very strong desire to drag anything upon which it
can fix its tiny little clutch into its mouth, while, if we place
our finger into its mouth we perceive at once a decided
attempt to bite, which affords a relief to the irritation of the
gums. Where the child is inconvenienced only to the extent
described there is no remedy required provided there is no
constipation, but where this is the case small doses of castor
oil are the safest. As to the article it should be given to suck,
I personally prefer an ivory ring or a "finger" of crust of
bread, great care being observed in the latter case that it is
taken away before there is a possibility of its being broken or
bitten off.

When the child is extremely restless, cross and uneasy,
crying bitterly without any apparent cause, and refuses all
ordinary attempts at pacification, its suifering is very consid-
erable, which is increased by its ineffectual efforts to sleep for
any length of time. The cheeks become flushed at this time,
and if the local inflammation continue to increase the gums
may ulcerate ; in this case apply a little borax and honey to
them, but where the irritation continues and the pain is ob-
viously great it will be necessary to lance the gums, for which
purpose it is almost unnecessary to add the services of a sur-
geon should be secured at once. At this time it is more than
ever necessary to keep the bowels well open, a mild attack of
diarrhea being far more preferable under the existing circum-
stances than the reverse state of things.

All food requires to be carefully chewed in order that
the various organs may perfectly perform their proper func-
tions, and this can only be the case when the meat, or what-
ever it may be, is broken into minute portions and duly mixed
with saliva, without which it will not be properly digested.
The horrors and evils of indigestion are too well known to
need commenting upon here, but the necessity for a due at-
tention to the mastication of food by children will be seen
when it is stated that a weak stomach acts tardily and imper-
fectly upon anything introduced into it not properly chewed ;
and the consequences are, the warmth and moisture of the
stomach evolve gases, acids are formed, and then follow those
distressing symptoms such as loss of appetite, flatulence,
furred tongue, etc.

The period of "teething" is more than interesting, from
the fact that, at this stage of child-life, the whole organization
seems to undergo a transition. The features, hitherto more
or less expressionless, become decided and distinct ; the eye
becomes endued with expresMon, through which the mind
seems to speak, as it were ; the round appearance of the facial
outline appears elongated, the result of the teeth expanding
the jaws ; the forehead is perceptibly developed, and, in short,
the entire face assumes an animation previously unknown, but
most precious to mothers, on account of its being the ordinary
time when "baby is beginning to notice."

The order in which teeth usually make their appearance

is, first, the two central incisors of the loAver jaw appear ; then
shortly after those of the upper jaw, followed by the lower
lateral incisors, and then by the upper lateral incisors. At the
age of a year or fourteen months the four first molar teeth
should begin to show, and at the sixteenth to the twentieth
month the lower and upper canine teeth, followed by the four
last molars.

Although the suffering of infants from the process of denti-
tion arises mainly from irritation of the gums, owing to the
teeth working their way through, it is not in the mouth alone
that pain is caused ; and where this is excessive, or in children
whose constitutions are naturally irritable, the irritation is
reflected by the nervous system to some other organ or system
of organs.

The most ordinary effect of this is stomach-ache, or
diarrhea, with griping pain, which, if in a mild form, is the
least to be feared of all the unpleasantnesses arising from
teething ; and though its violence may be moderated, it should
not be entirely arrested. Under these circumstances, a child
soon gets weak and thin, and its flesh soft and flabby ; but,
generally speaking, this need not (except, of course, in an ex-
treme case) be viewed with alarm ; for, as soon as the teeth
are through, nature soon rights itself, and the little one will
resume its wonted good looks. When, however, the symp-
toms are very distressing, by the quantity and frequency of
the discharge, a chalk mixture, with a drop or two of laudanum
to the ounce, according to the age of the child, may be given,
in the event of a medical man not being procurable. Where
there is a great pain and flatulence, an occasional warm bath,
and the use of liniment, composed of half a drachm of lauda-
num to two ounces of compound camphor liniment, or a mus-
tard or linseed-meal poultice, composed of one-third of the
former to two-thirds of the latter. When the foregoing symp-
toms are accompanied by vomiting, it is exceedingly trouble-
some, and, if the sickness is not relieved by the division of
the gums, it should be checked by administering a half-drop
or a drop of laudanum.

Besides the maladies mentioned that are the outcome of
teething, there are many others, such as eruptions of the skin,
spasm of the glottis, and affections of the nervous system
generally, of too complicated a nature to treat in this article,
as the remedies necessitated are as complex as the diseases ;
but there is one serious disorder connected with dentition un-
fortunately too common. I allude to convulsions, the treat-
ment of which should be known to all.

Convulsions in their mild form consist of muscular twitch-
ings of the face, accompanied by an obvious difficulty in
breathing and a rolling of the eyes. When severe, the child
becomes insensible, and the muscles of the head, neck, and
extremities are convulsed in various directions. The eyes are
insensible to light, and turned rigidly up to one side. The
appearance and symptoms vary, of course, for, in addition to
those named, with some children the face is congested, but
sometimes pale, the lips livid, and there is frothing at the
mouth. The hands are usually tightly clinched, and the
thumbs turned inward, with the fingers on them, and in some
cases the soles of the feet are turned together, with the great
toe bent into the sole.

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657

The treatment for convulsions is, as a rule, a warm bath,
and, in the absence of a doctor, the best thing to be done is
to immerse the child in warm water of about ninety degrees
temperature for about ten minutes or a quarter of an hour,
applying at the same time a cold, wet towel for two or three
minutes to the little sufferer's head. Previous to the bath,
which will take a few minutes at least to get ready, loosen all
the clothing about the neck, chest and body, raise the head,
sprinkle the face with water, and admit plenty of fresh air.

With regard to the general treatment of children during
teething, their heads should be kept cool and their feet warm,
and, if the weather will admit, they should be bathed in cold
water, especially about the head, and taken out daily in the
open air. At night it is equally essential that their heads be
kept cool, and therefore no caps or coverings should be used.

As before stated, diarrhea during dentition, unless very
severe, should not be stopped, but regarded as an effort of
nature to relieve congestion to the head ; and where the oppo-
site effect is the case, purgatives should be avoided, and the
bowels regulated by suitable diet ; in obstinate cases by injec-
tions. Constipation in infants may be almost entirely at-
tributed to defective diet, and if, while nursing, mothers and
nurses would carefully avoid any article of food or drink of
an indigestible or stimulating character, this ailment would be
comparatively unknown.

HOOPING-COUGH.

This disease, almost absolutely confined to infants and
children, is, luckily for them, more distressing in its symptoms
than dangerous in its effects, a case of hooping-cough, /wr^^
simple, being rarely fatal. Like croup, it is more common
with very young children, the usual age when they are more
subject to it being from two to ten years ; but, unlike croup,
it is more common to girls than to boys, and appears but once
in a lifetime, though cases have been known where the cough
continued daily at a certain hour for several months, and,
after ceasing for some time, returned for two successive
seasons.

The symptoms which usually precede this malady are those
of ordinary influenza. First and foremost there is a languor,
restlessness, feverishness and unaccountable irritation, except
that the little one is thought " to have caught a slight cold,"
then loss of appetite, sneezing, coughing, follows, with a run-
ning at the nose ; this is in the case of an ordinar}' and not
severe attack. Where the disease is in an aggravated form
the fever is more intense, the thirst greater, the pulse quicker,
and the oppression and distress in proportion, the cough very
frequent and painful, dry at first, but with excessive expectora-
tion afterward. This may be called the first stage of the
disease, and is the customary prelude to hooping, but it is
perfectly possible to dispense with these preliminaries, and
for a child to be suddenly seized with the too well-known
cough. These symptoms ordinarily continue from ten days
to a fortnight.

The second stage is marked by the dying-out of the
symptoms of cold and the commencement of the fits of cough-
ing, which are best described as a number of expirations made
with such violence, and repeated in such quick succession, that

the child seems almost in danger of suffocation. The face
and neck are swollen and livid, the eyes protruded and full of
tears ; at length, one or two inspirations are made with similar
violence, and by them the peculiar hooping sound is produced ;
a little rest probably follows, and is succeeded by another fit
of coughing, and another hoop, until after a succession of
these actions, the paroxysm is terminated by vomiting, or a
discharge of mucus from the lungs, or perhaps both. The
duration of this stage is usually from six weeks to a couple
of months, but sometimes continues for a much longer period,
the disease, in some cases, lasting from the beginning of
Winter until the end of Spring.

The debilitating results of the disease depend to a great
extent upon the violence and duration of the attack, and the
strength or weakness of the constitution, but as a rule, if there
are no complications, these are of no great moment. The
frequent vomiting decreases the appetite, and disturbs diges-
tion, which interferes with nutrition, and the child naturally
loses flesh, which is more or less flabby, and the skin is unu-
sually dark, especially underneath the eyes.

The subsiding of the attack is marked by the fits of cough-
ing becoming less frequent, though possibly they may be as
fierce as ever, the paroxysms lasting from a minute to a quar-
ter of an hour. In proportion to their violence and duration
will be the child's breathlessness and fright and its efforts to
respire. If in a recumbent position it will suddenly jump up
and seize hold of whatever or whoever is nearest, in order to
be assisted in overcoming the spasm. When the fit is over
the child appears exhausted, and requires a short rest to
recover itself ; but then and during the inter\'al to the next
cough, it is comparatively easy and cheerful, often playing
about as usual, and not averse to food, except where the case
is a severe one, when extreme languor supen'enes.

The period at which these paroxysms recur varies consider-
ably ; during the early part of the attack they are very fre-
quent—about every half-hour, and in some extremely severe
cases as often as every ten minutes — the chief cause of their
return being the accumulation of mucus. Consequently, if
this be got rid of by the coughing, the fit will be light ; but if
it is expelled with diflficulty the efforts will be greater, and the
cough renewed almost immediately. These fits are produced
by many things — a hearty meal, a fit of passion, cr)ing, fright
or laughter, will either of them be sufficient to bring on an
attack.

Although we have stated that this disease is rarely attended
with fatal results, it must be distinctly understood that this
statement applies to hooping-cough per se ; it is perfectly cor-
rect, but for fear any one should not be sufficiently careful, it
is a disorder which, if improperly treated, or if the case be
one of an extremely acute character, may lead to something
of a complicated and highly dangerous nature.

It is a complaint which lends itself a great deal more to
careful nursing than to an elaborate course of medicine, for it
will run its course, and requires guiding and watching more
than checking, great care being necessary to note the symp-
toms, lest they assume a conspicuous or alarming character,
and by appropriate treatment prevent the affection having
those complications alluded to which constitute it a disease

-^1

658

THE NURSERY.

of danger. On the slightest appearance either of inflamma-
tory affection of the lungs or of a tendency to convulsion a
medical man should be sent for immediately.

During the first stage an emetic of ipecacuanha, followed
by an expectorant every four hours, should be given, the latter
consisting of ipecacuanha wine, sirup of squills, a little sirup
of white poppies and almond milk, and some mild aperient,
such as castor oil or salts and senna, the emetic only to be re-
peated occasionally. The rooms to which the child should
be confined should be of an equable temperature, about sixty-
five degrees, the bedroom being ventilated during the day and
the sitting-room during the night ; but the windows of the
apartment must on no account be opened while the patient is
in them.

When the second stage arrives, while proper attention is
paid to temperature, the cough will be found much
slighter and the expectoration much less than if the child were
permitted to be exposed to the external air, the emetic being
continued occasionally, and also the mixture, with a few drops
of laudanum added to it.

With regard to change of air, there is no doubt that
while the attack is unsubdued, no matter what the weather
may be, the patient should be confined not only to the house
but to rooms, as already stated, but when the disease is on
the wane the change from a cold situation to one of warm
temperature is most beneficial in accelerating a return to con-
valescence, though the greatest caution is needed in this
matter.

The diet of the child during the entire illness is a most im-
portant feature in connection with the treatment, and should
consist chiefly of milk and farinaceous foods, meat being of
too heating a nature, unless the child is very weak and low,
in which case tolerably good broth will be the best mode of
giving animal food.

VACCINATION.

Unfortunately that dangerous and much dreaded malady —
smallpox — is prevalent, and it would be well for parents and
others to be reminded of the necessity of revaccination every
seven years.

It is astonishing that though this discovery is undoubtedly
one of the very greatest blessings to poor humanity it should
now be thought so little of, and that there should be some
who actually decry and refuse to accept it as such, when there
is no doubt that if every one had followed the instructions as
to revaccination, by this time smallpox would have ceased
altogether.

No language can be too strong to depict the horrors of this
disease, or to denounce the culpable ignorance of those who,
blinding themselves to the blessings of vaccination, set the
law at defiance and thus endanger the lives of their fel-
low-creatures. Supposing it could be proved (which it can-
not) that in some cases it has been the means of imparting
disease, the overwhelming number of cases where it has not,
but has been a preventive of this terrible malady, ought to
show its necessity on the beneficent principle of studying the
greatest happiness of the greatest number.

To children smallpox has ever been distressingly fatal, and

though it is impossible to give any course of treatment for its
cure in an article of this character, as so much depends upon
the violence of the case, the state of the patient's constitution,
and the stage of the complaint, it may be said that the old
practice of close, hot rooms, warm clothing, and hot drinks
are proved mistakes ; cool, well-ventilated apartments, com-
fortably cool bedclothes and cooling drinks having been found
to be not only more pleasant but more successful in their re-
sults. When the disease first makes its appearance, if the
fever be moderate and no professional advice be procurable,
the patient should be confined to bed, and cool drinks and a
dose or two of purgative medicine administered.

FEVERS.

Measles. — An acute specific disease — febrile and infec-
tious, ushered in with catarrhal symptoms and characterized
by an eruption on the skin, which appears usually on the
fourth day.

Usual Symptoms. — After a period of incubation varying
from twelve to fourteen days (the period of incubation in cases
produced by inoculation is seven days), there is manifested
alternate chilliness and heat, a quickened pulse, aching in the
limbs, slight headache, soon followed by redness of the eyes,
coryza, huskiness and hoarse cough. On the fourth day there
is an eruption of soft, circular, very slightly elevated dusky
red spots, which appear first on the forehead, and extend over
the face, neck and whole body. The spots gradually coalesce
and present a peculiar crescentic or horseshoe shape. The
spots disappear on pressure. They attain their greatest in-
tensity on the fourth day from their invasion, and by the
seventh day they fade away with a slight desquamation of the
cuticle. As a rule the fever does not abate on the appearance
of the eruption.

The contagion of measles is active during the prodromic
stage. Red spots are visible on the velum palati four, five,
or six days before the eruption appears on the skin.

Occasional Symptoms. — There may be no prodromata
whatever, or the attack may be ushered in with convulsions
(especially in children), or there may be delirium, or there
may be a great amount of fever, or there may be and often
is sore throat ; more rarely severe headache, and sometimes
absence of the coryza.

The eruption may be scanty, or most abundant and con-
fluent, but the quantity of the eruption per se does not affect
the gravity of the attack ; the color of the eruption may be
dark, constituting so called "black measles" ; there may be
petechiae, which do not fade on pressure and resemble pur-
pura ; these do not per se affect the prognosis. Miliary vesi-
cles are often present, and when abundant the amount of des-
quamation will be greater.

Average Mortality. — One in fifteen.

Prognosis. — If uncomplicated, favorable. Unfavorable
signs are great fever, great dyspnoea, sudden vanishing of
the rash, together with an access of delirium ; brown dry
tongue, with special severity of some two or three symptoms ;
petechia, with a typhoid form of fever. Capillary bronchitis
and pneumonia are the most frequent proximate causes of
death.

THE NURSERY.

659

Treatment. — The child must be kept in bed in a large,
well-ventilated room, free from drafts — a point of vital im-
portance, looking to the frequency and danger of chest com-
plications. The diet must be low. Tepid drinks may be
freely given. It is very important in measles, as in all infec-
tious fevers, to remove all discharge and soiled linen instantly ;
the motions should be passed into vessels containing chloride
of lime, carbolic acid, or Condy's fluid ; this with ventilation
will go far to prevent infection. There is no objection, if it
be grateful to the patient, to have the body gently sponged
with warm water ; and if itching be much complained of, in-
unction with unsalted lard is useful. Cough is often the first
troublesome symptom which requires special treatment. A
mixture containing citrate of potash and ipecacuanha wine
with a few drops of nepenthe or Tinct. Camph. Co., will
usually quiet this. If the fever runs high, the weak mineral
acids sweetened and largely diluted will be very grateful. Or
a mixture of citrate of potash and Rochelle salt may be given
in an effervescing form. If the fever be of low type, with
brown tongue and failing powers, large doses of chlorate of
potash will be useful, and stimulants will be required. Yelk
of egg beaten up with wine is excellent in such cases. Pur-
gatives, as a rule, are not required ; if employed they should
be mere laxatives, remembering the diarrhea which usually
sets in toward the close of the disease. In cases attended with
much nervous excitability and convulsions or delirium, bro-
mide of potassium in full doses will be useful. This drug will
also procure sleep, and is better for the purpose than any
opiate. Sudden recession of the rash attended with an onset
of delirium should be met by plunging the child into a bath
containing mustard, and leaving it in until the surface becomes
red, which usually occurs in a few minutes. The child should
then be rolled in a blanket, and the strength supported by
nutritious diet, and stimulants are needed. For laryngitis, a
sponge wrung out of very hot water should be applied over
ih2 larynx, and inhalation of steam encouraged. Pneumonia
wiH call for a stimulating embrocation over its site, and the
administration of stimulants, expectorants — carbonate of am-
monia with senega is the best.

Lung and indeed all complications occurring during the
early stages are best treated by endeavoring, with external
stimulants, e.g., the mustard bath, and internal gentle
diaphoretics, to get the rash thrown out freely. Later on this
is, of course, inadmissible, and the strength must be supported
in every way.

As the disease declines the diet may be more solid, and
tonics will be of service. Convalescence from measles is often
slow, and as discharges from the ears, eyes, and nose are not
uncommon, sea-air is very beneficial in re-establishing the
health. Such discharges will require astringent lotions and
the use of cod-liver oil and steel.

SCARLATINA.

An acute specific disease — febrile, contagious, and infectious,
and accompanied by a peculiar eruption of the skin. After a
period of incubation varying according to different authors at
from four to forty days, and probably averaging from four to
six days, there appears in children vomiting ; in older persons

sore throat, and the onset is usually sudden. It is common
for adults to be able to fix the hour in which the sore throat
began. In children severe vomiting often prognosticates
severe throat affection. Next there is noticed fever, a fre-
quent pulse, commonly 130 — 170, a flushed face, a high
temperature (103 or 104 degrees F., even on the first day),
hurried breathing, furred tongue, hot skin and thirst. At the
same time there is lassitude and restlessness, headache, and at
night delirium. On the second day, usually about the root of
the neck and upper part of the chest, appears the eruption,
which is a scarlet efflorescence consisting of innumerable red
spots at first separated by natural skin, but soon coalescing
and producing a general redness; the skin is rendered pale by
pressure, but the redness immediately returns — the rash is not
elevated to the touch. It is most abundant about the hips and
loins, and the flexures of the joints — in fact where the papillae
of the skin are largest. The eruption reaches its maximum
intensity on the third or fourth day ; by the fifth it has begun
to fade, and by the eighth it disappears. It goes off in an
order corresponding with its invasion. Miliaria are often
present, perhaps more commonly in adults than in children ;
they in nowise affect the prognosis. The sore throat is very
important, especially in children. A child may die from
throat disease without any complaint about its throat having
been made. The throat should therefore always be carefully
examined. The tonsils will usually be found enlarged and in-
flamed, and often coated with a thick white tenacious mucus.

CROUP.

This disease is characterized by difficulty of breathing ;
hoarseness ; a ringing cough, which, when once heard, will be
distinctly remembered ; the cough is followed by a " cro-anng
inspiration."

There is inflammatory fever ; frequent and hard pulse ;
thirst.

The attack is most liable to come on in the night — either
altogether unexpected, or preceded by a cold, sore throat, or
catarrh.

Treatment. — Apply to the throat very cold wet cloths well
covered with dry. Keep the child in bed. Rub with the dry
hand the back and limbs, and continue this until a hot bath is
made ready ; renewing the cold cloths to the throat every few
moments. When the room is made ver}' warm and the bath
at hand, place the child in the hot water, as hot as can be
borne, and rub the chest and abdomen and the whole body
very briskly. Add more hot water, and keep the body (even
to the neck) immersed.

Plave a dry hot sheet ready in which to wrap and rub diy the
little patient. If fever is high, now put on the abdominal
bandage wrung from warm water. Cover well with dry flannel
— a small blanket or even a good-sized one is none too much.
Apply again the cold wet cloth to the throat. Keep the feet
warm ; and, if the breathing is not easier now, foment the
throat and upper part of the chest for twenty minutes alter-
nately with the cold compress.

Pat and rub the b.rck and chest. Manipulate flu arms ana
legs. Give drinks of hot water and of cold. Follow the
symptoms with " all diligence." Do not relax effort until the

-4

660

THE NURSERY.

■y

breathing is liberated. If the bowels are not free, give full
warm enema.

If there is tendency to coldness of extremities, give hot foot
bath occasionally ; also apply dry flannels heated very hot to
the throat, if they seem more agreeable than the hot fomenta-
tion.

Keep the patient in a warm, well-ventilated room. Give
only baked apple, or toast water, or gruel as food, until the
symptoms yield positively.

I have been told by my patrons that it often occurs in their
domestic practice with children, that, by the time the patient
is rubbed with the dry hand, having the cold compress on the
throat until the hot bath is made ready, there is no need of
the bath ; the breathing is relieved. But it is not always so.
I have treated cases of what is called "membranous croup,"
and it lasted persistently for days. I never lost a case of
croup. But it is a dreaded disease, and justly so.

MUMPS (PAROTITIS).

This disease often prevails epidemically.

It usually affects children and young persons, and is con-
tagious.

The parotid gland swells ; swelling beneath the ear, the
chin, and all around the neck, deforming the countenance cu-
riously.

It affects one side only sometimes, but usually both.

The swelling is hot, tender, and painful ; the lower jaw can
scarcely be moved. In about four days the disease begins to
decline, and usually lasts in all about ten days.

Sometimes the swelling suddenly becomes transferred to the
mammae in the female and to the testicle in the male, and
may oscillate between the throat and the mammce or testicle.
Metastasis to the brain is known to take place also, but this is
rare.

Treatment. — Very little treatment is necessary. Apply
warm cloths to the swelling ; let them be kept on constantly.

If there is general feverishness, a tepid sponge bath and
enema of tepid water. . A little gruel or bran tea as food.

Keep the patient comfortably warm and quiet. If metas-
tasis to the parts named occur, a warm sitz bath or fomenta-
tion to the affected region will give relief. Keep the feet
warm.

Should the brain become affected, give very hot sitz and foot
bath ten minutes. Follow this with enema of hot water. Ap-
ply cool cloths to the head, or, if more agreeable to the pa-
tient, warm spongings. Let the patient be kept in bed and
seek to induce perspiration by applying bottles of hot water
to the back and feet and drinking of hot water-
In fact, the treatment now should be the same as for inflam-
mation of the brain.

DIPHTHERIA.

In this to be dreaded and terrible disease, a false membraiie
forms in the throat, and if the larynx becomes affected the
chances of recovery are very few indeed. Frequent vomiting,
diarrhea, hemorrhage from the nostrils or elsewhere, fre-
quency and fullness of the pulse, convnlsions, delirium, and
coma, are symptoms which denote grea't danger. Occasionally
the muscles of both the upper and lower limbs are affected.

The chief objects in the treatment are to palliate symptoms,
and support the powers of life by the judicious employment
of tonic remedies, conjoined with alimentation and alcholic
stimulants. The latter are given in large quantities. The
best advice to give to mothers in regard to diphtheria is,
send instantly for the doctor. Do not delay one moment !

ACCIDENTS.

It is an accepted axiom that accidents will happen, no
matter how well regulated the household ; and though much
has been written with a view to avert the more serious calami-
ties supposed to be the outcome of accident, but which are
invariably the result of carelessness, children still manage to
burn themselves at fires, to scald themselves with hot water,
to cut their fingers, to break their heads, etc.

As a rule, the remedies required to be of any service should
be applied at once ; and it is, therefore, no earthly use sug-
gesting antidotes or appliances only to be met with in a
doctor's surgery. I shall, therefore, in the few suggestions I
make, more particularly dwell upon those simple remedies
which may reasonably be expected to be found in every home.

In the Summer months, when the weather is seasonable,
the heat is oftentimes sufficient to cause children to bleed at
the nose. In such cases, if the bleeding be not excessive or
too frequent, it is not desirable to stop it, as, when caused by
an undue fullness of the blood-vessels of the head, it afford::<
great relief. When, however, the bleeding is the result of a
knock or blow, cold applications should be applied to the nose
or forehead, and the child kept standing in the open air.

Another excellent way of arresting the bleeding is to cause
the arms tb be raised above the head, and kept so for a few
minutes, which will usually have the desired effect. In the
event of these remedies proving ineffectual, and it being evi-
dent that the bleeding is dangerous, the nostrils must be plug-
ged with pieces of linen rag made into stoppers of oval shape,
about one inch in the long diameter and half an inch in the
transverse, sufficient linen being left hanging in order to with-
draw them when necessary. The great thing to determine in
cases where the bleeding is not the result of accident is
whether it be a disease, or Nature's mode of assisting the re-
moval of one ; and this, of course, can only be arrived at by a
knowledge of the child's state of health at the time.

CUTS.

With regard to the bleeding caused by a cut from a knife,
or something similarly sharp, if it be only slight, after being
bathed with cold water, the edges or sides of the wound should
be brought together and bound with narrow strips of arnica
plaster, if this is to be had ; but if not, a simple band of
linen, smeared with the white of an egg, will be the best sub-
stitute. If the band becomes tight, and causes" pain owing to
the swelling, don't remove the bandage, but insert the bjade
of a pair of scissors underneath the binding on the opposite side
to the wound, and cut the linen across. Where it is necessary
to remove the strapping on account of there being pain and
throbbing, the part affected should be soaked in warm water,
and a soft, warm poultice applied. When the wound does
not show signs of infiamnaatioB, and the discharge is good, that

THE NURSERY.

66i

is to say, resembling cream in consistence and custard in
color, the bandage may be put on again ; but when the edges
are inflamed, or pale and flabby, and the discharge thin and
objectionable in its odor, a single strap of adhesive plaster
should be used to keep the edges together, and this should be
covered with a warm poultice.

When a mishap of this kind occurs, it is either a vein or an
artery that is cut. In the former case the blood is dark-colored,
and will flow in a steady stream, which can usually be stopped
by the application of cold water or ice, and by exposing the
wound to the open air. In the latter the blood is bright-red, and
flows in jets, when, if the bleeding is excessive, a strong
bandage should be tied around the limb, just above the wound,
and between it and the heart, and compressed sufficiently
tight (by means of a stick inserted underneath and twisted)
until the circulation be stopped.

When the wound is not a clean cut, and there is any foreign
substance, such as dirt, hair, etc., it must be carefully removed
by sponging with cold water.

BURNS.

Accidents caused by burning demand immediate attention,
and can only be cured in one way — by excluding the air from
the part affected. Where it is a case of the clothes having caught
fire, envelop the child in the heavest article available, such as
a blanket, tablecloth, curtain, etc., and roll it over and over
on the ground until the flames are extinguished, in the event
of there not being sufficient water at hand for that purpose.

This done, the charred garments should be quickly but most
gently removed, and cut away, instead of being torn, from
the body, in order that the damaged skin should not be un-
necessarily irritated ; but where a piece of the underlinen
happens to be burnt into the wound, or is not easily detached,
cut away all round it, and leave it to come away afterward.
Then immediately cover the injured surface with something
that will exclude the air, either with flour sprinkled thickly
over the wound, with cotton-wool steeped in oil, or with a
piece of linen on which is spread a layer of soap about the
sixteenth of an inch thick. When procurable, a better remedy
than either of those mentioned is to apply strips of lint
saturated in carron oil, which dressing should be left on as
long as possible until they become loosened or objectionable
from the discharges, it being most desirable that these band-
ages be changed as seldom as possible, as their removal is apt
to cause detachment of portions of the new skin, which is
most painful and undesirable. Where there is much discharge
it must be removed, and the place kept as clean as possible.

When the injury is of an extensive character, and a shock
ensues, the shivering is best checked by the application of hot
bottles to the hands and feet, and the administering of hot
drinks — either warm sherry or warm brandy and water. To
prevent disfigurement from accidents of this nature, the child
must be carefully watched until the part, is completely healed,
and must be prevented from sitting or lying in anything but a
straight posture, to avoid contraction of the skin.

The danger attending bums depends more upon their super-
ficial extent than the depth of the injury — those to the body.

head or neck being much more dangerous than those to the
hands or feet, the neck being the most risky portion of all.

Where the part is simply blistered, though these be exten-
sive in character and large in number, it is comparatively of
little moment as long as they are whole. They must con-
sequently not be broken, but allowed to remain, and the fluid
to accumulate till the new skin forms underneath. When this
formation takes place, the part becomes distended and pain-
ful, there is a red line round the edge of the blister, and the
contained fluid looks milky. It may then be let out by punc-
turing with a needle, so that it all escapes.

SCALDS.
Scalds from hot water, as a rule, are not so severe, as, ex-
cepting in extreme cases, the scurf skin is only raised like an
ordinary blister, and the dressing being wet, can be removed
without difficulty. Any of the remedies prescribed for burns
are equally efficacious for scalds, but if the scalded surface be
instantly covered with cotton-wool, it is, if the accident be of
a slight character, sufficient. Another admirable remedy,
more particularly on account of its usually being '* in the
house," is lard. That specially prepared by chemists is, of
course, the best ; but this only means the ordinary kind
divested of the salt by washing. It should be thickly spread
on pieces of old, soft linen, and when placed on the scald or
burn be kept in its place by bandages of lint, or, better still,
by strips of calico torn from an old garment, always bearing
in mind that the great thing is to protect the damaged part
from the air, and remembering on no account to apply cold
water or similar cold bandages.

BRUISES.

Bruises from knocks and tumbles are by far the most fre-
quent of the numerous accidents of the nursery, and where the
injury is slight and the skin not lacerated, a warm application
of arnica (which should always be kept where there are chil-
dren) and water, in the proportion of one part of arnica to ten
of water, is advisable ; but in the absence of this, the old-
fashioned remedy of covering the bruise with fresh butter
should be resorted to.

Jammed fingers, through the unexpected shutting of a
drawer or door, though not usually looked upon as at all
serious casualties, may sometimes be attended by the most
serious consequences, for if all the parts of the end of the
fingers be injured, the whole (bone and flesh) may mortify.
In ordinary cases of this kind the best and quickest way of
obtaining relief is to plunge the finger or fingers into warm
water as hot as the child can bear it. By this means the nail
is softened, and yields so as to accommodate itself to the blood
poured out beneath it, and the pain is speedily lessened ; the
finger should then be covered with a bread and water poultice
pending the surgical treatment necessary where the fingers
are badly crushed.

Instant care and attention in such cases will often prevent
the loss of the nail, a result to be avoided if possible, since the
formation and growth of the new nail are necessarily slow,
and changes of shape frequently occur, sometimes result-
ing in . permanent disfigurement.

kr-

662

HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS.

^ -^^^m^or^ms^^^M

piNTg T0 peUgEKEEPE^g.

CHOICE OF ARTICLES OF FOOD.

OTHING is more important in the affairs of
housekeeping than the choice of wholesome
food.

Mackerel must be perfectly fresh. The
firmness of the flesh and the clearness of the
eyes must be the criterion of fresli maclterel, as they
are of all other fish.

Flounders, and all flat white fish, are rigid and
firm when fresh ; the under side should be of a rich cream
color.

Cod is known to be fresh by the rigidity of the muscles (or
flesh) ; the redness of the gills, and clearness of the eyes.

Salmon. — The flavor and excellence of this fish depend
upon its freshness, and the shortness of time since it was
caught.

Herrings can only be eaten when very fresh.

Fresh Water Fish. — The remarks as to firmness and
clear, fresh eyes, apply to this variety of fish, of which there
are pike, perch, etc.

Lobsters recently caught have always some remains of
muscular action in the claws, which maybe excited by pressing
the eyes with the finger ; when this cannot be produced, the
lobster must have been too long kept. When boiled, the tail
preserves its elasticity if fresh, but loses it as soon as it be-
comes stale.

Crabs have an agreeable smell when fresh.

Prawms and Shrimps, when fresh, are firm and crisp.

Oysters. — If fresh, the shell is firmly closed; when the
shells of oysters are opened, they are dead and unfit for
food. The small -shelled oysters are the finest in flavor.
Larger kinds are generally considered only fit for stewing and
sauces, though some persons prefer them.

Beef. — The grain of ox beef, when good, is loose, the meat
red, and the fat inclining to yellow. When meat pressed by
the finger ri^es up quickly, it may be considered as that of an
animal which was in its prime ; when the dent made by pres-
sure returns .slowly, or remains visible, the animal hod prob-
ably past its prime, and the meat consequently must be of infe-
rior quality.

Veal should be delicately white, though it is often juicy
and well flavored when rather dark in color. On examining
the loin, if the fat enveloping the kidney be white and firm
looking, the meat will probably be prime, and recently killed.

Mutton. — The meat should be firm and close in grain, and
red in color, the fat white and firm. Mutton is in its prime
when the sheep is about five years old, though it is often
killed much younger. If too young, the flesh feels tender
when pinched, if too old on being pinched it wrinkles up, and
so remains. In young mutton, the fat readily separates ; in
old, it is held together by strings of skin.

Lamb. — This meat will not keep long after it is killed.
The large vein in the neck is bluish in color when the fore-
quarter is fresh, green when becoming stale. In the hind-
quarter, if not recently killed, the fat of the kidney will have a
slight smell, and the knuckle will have lost its firmness.

Pork. — When good, the rind is thin, smooth, and cool to
the touch ; when changing, from being too long killed, it be-
comes flaccid and clammy.

Bacon should have a thin rind, and the fat should be firm
and tinged with red by the curing; the flesh should be of a
clear red, without intermixture of yellow, and it should firmly
adhere to the bone. To judge the state of a ham, plunge a
knife into it to the bone ; on drawing it back, if particles of
meat adhere to it, or if the smell is disagreeable, the curing
has not been eflTcctual, and the ham is not good ; it should, in
such a state, be immediately cooked.

Venison. — When good, the fat is clear, bright, and of con-
siderable thickness.

Turkeys. — In choosing poultry, the age of the bird is the
chief point to be attended to. An old turkey has rough and
reddish legs ; a young one, smooth and black. Fresh killed,
the eyes are full and clear, and the feet moist. When it has
been kept too long, the parts about the vent begin to wear a
greenish, discolored appearance.

Common Domestic Fowls, when young, have the legs and
combs smooth ; when old, they are rough, and on the breast
long hairs are found instead of feathers. Fowls and chickens
should be plump on the breast, fat on the back, and white
legged.

Geese. — The bills and feet are red when old, yellow when
young. Fresh killed, the feet are pliable, stiff" when too long
kept. Geese are called green while they are only two or three
months old.

Ducks. — Choose them with supple feet and hard, plump
breasts. Tame ducks have yellow feet, wild ones red.

Pigeons are very indifferent food when they are too long
kept. Suppleness of the feet shows them to be young ; the

HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS.

663 y

kr-

state of the flesh is flaccid when they are getting bad from
keeping. Tame pigeons are larger than the wild.

Partridges, when young, have yellow legs and dark-col-
ored bills. Old partridges are very indifferent eating.

Woodcock and Snipe, when old, have the feet thick
and hard ; when these aie soft and tender, they are both
young and fresh killed. When their bills become moist, and
their throats muddy, they have been too long killed.

SEASONABLE FOOD.

There is an old maxim, " a place for everything, and ever>'-
thing in its place." To which we beg to add another, " A sea-
son for everything, and everything in season."

January.
[Fish, poultry, etc., distinguished by iia/ics are to be had in the high-
est perfection.]

Fish. — Cod, crabs, eels, flounders, herrings, lobsters, oys-
ters, perch, pike, sturgeon, porgies.

Meat. — Beef, house-lamb, mutton, pork, veal, and doe
venison.

Poultry and Game. — Capons, chickens, ducks, wild-ducks,
fowls, geese, partridges, pheasants, pigeons (tame), pullets,
rabbits, snipes, turkeys (hen), woodcock.

Vegetables. — Beets, sprouts, cabbage, cardoons, carrots,
celery, onions, parsnips, potatoes, turnips.

Fruit. — Almonds, apples.

February.

Fish. — Cod, crabs, flounders, herrings, oysters, perch, pike,
sturgeon, porgies.

Meat. — Beef, house-lamb, mutton, pork, veal.

Poultry and Game. — Capons, chickens, ducklings, fowl
(wild), green geese, partridges, pheasants, pigeons (tame and
wild), pullets, rabbits, snipes, turkeys, woodcock.

Vegetables. — Beets, cabbage, carrots, celery, mushrooms,
onions, parsnips, potatoes, turnips.

Fruit. — Apples, chestnuts, oranges.

March.

Fish. — Eels, crabs, flounders, lobsters, mackerel, oysters,
perch, pike, shrimp, smelts, sturgeon, porgies.

Meat. — Beef, house-lamb, mutton, pork, veal.

Poultry and Game. — Capons, chickens, ducklings, fowls,
green geese, pigeons, rabbits, snipes, turkeys, woodcock.

Vegetables. — Beets, carrots, celery, cresses, onions, pars-
nips, potatoes, turnip tops.

Fruit. — Apples, chestnuts, oranges.

April.

Fish. — Shad, cod, crabs, eels, flounders, halibut, herrings,
lobsters, mackerel, oysters, perch, pike, salmon, shrimps, smelts,
sturgeon, trout, porgies.

Meat. — Beef, house-lamb, mutton, pork, veal.

Poultry and Game. — Chickens, ducklings, fowls, green
geese, leverets, pigeons, pullets, rabbits, turkey-poults, wood-
pigeons.

Vegetables. — Onions, parsnips, spinach, small salad, tur-
nip tops, and rhubarb.

Fruit. — Apples, nuts, oranges, pears.

Msy.

Fish. — Shad, cod, crabs, eels, flounders, halibut, herring,
lobsters, mackerel, mullet, perch, pike, salmon, shrimps,
smelts, sturgeon, trout, clams.

Meat. — Beef, grass-lamb, house-lamb, mutton, pork, veal.

Poultry and Game. — Chickens, fowls, green geese, pig-
eons, pullets, rabbits.

Vegetables. — Artichokes, green peas, asparagus, kidney-
beans, cabbage, carrots, onions, peas, potatoes, radishes, rhu-
barb, salad, spinach, turnips.
■ Fruit. — Apples, pears.

June,

Fish. — Cod, shad, crabs, eels, flounders, herrings, lobsters,
mackerel, perch, pike, salmon, clams, smelts, sturgeon, trout,
cat-fish, black-fish.

Meat. — Beef, grass-lamb, mutton, pork, veal.

Poultry and Game. — Chickens, ducklings, fowls, green
geese, pigeons, pullets, rabbits.

Vegetables. — Asparagus, beans, white beet, cabbage, car-
rots, cucumbers, leeks, lettuce, onions, parsley, peas, potatoes,
radishes, salad of all sorts, spinach, turnips.

Fruit.^Apples, apricots, cherries, currants, gooseberries,
melons, pears, strawberries.

July-
Fish. — Cod, crabs, flounders, herrings, lobsters, mackerel,
perch, pike, salmon, trout, blue-fish, black-fish, bass, pickerel,
cat-fish, eels, clams, porgies.

Meat. — Beef, grass-lamb, mutton, veal, buck -venison.

Poultry and Game. — Chickens, ducks, fowls, green geese,
leverets, pigeons, plovers, rabbits, wild-pigeons.

Vegetables. — Artichokes, asparagus, balm, beans, carrots,
cauliflowers, celery, cucumbers, herbs of all sorts, lettuce,
mint, mushrooms, peas, potatoes, radishes, salads of all sorts,
spinach, turnips, tomatoes, Carolina potatoes.

For Drying. — Mushrooms.

For Pickling. — French beans, red cabb?ge, cauliflowers,
garlic, gherkins, onions.

Fruit. — Apples, apricots, cherries, currants, damsons, goose-
berries, melons, nectarines, peaches, pears, oranges, pine-
apples, plums, raspberries, strawberries,

August.

Fish. — ^Cod, eels, crabs, flounders, herrings, lobsters, mack-
erel, perch, pike, salmon, blue-fish, black-fish, vjeak-fish, sheep's
head, trout, porgies, clams.

Meat. — Beef, grass-lamb, mutton, veal, buck -venison.

Poultry and Game. — Chickens, ducks, fowls, green geese
pigeons, plovers, rabbits, wild ducks, wild pigeons, red-bird,
curlew.

Vegetables. — Artichokes, beans, white-beet, carrots, cauli-
flowers, cucumbers, pot-herbs of all sorts, leeks, lettuce,
mushrooms, onions, peas, potatoes, radishes, salad of all sorts,
spinach, turnips, tomatoes.

For Drying. — Basil, sage, thyme.

For Pickling. — Red cabbage, tomatoes, walnuts.

Fruit. — Apples (summer pippin), cherries, currants, dam-
sons, gooseberries, grapes, melons, mulberries, nectarines,
peaches, pears, plums ^greengages), raspberries.

■^

664

HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS.

September.

Fish. — Cockles, cod, crabs, eels, flounders, lobsters, oysters,
perch, pike, shrimps, porgies, black-fish, weak-fish.

Meat. — Beef, mutton, pork, veal, buck-venison.

Poultry and Game. — Chickens, ducks, fowls, green geese,
partridges, pigeons, plovers, rabbits, turkeys, wild ducks, wild
pigeons, wild rabbits, quail.

Vegetables. — Artichokes, beans, cabbages, carrots, cauli-
flowers, celery, cucumbers, herbs of all sorts, leeks, lettuce,
mushrooms, onions, parsnips, peas, potatoes, radishes, salad of
all sorts, turnips, tomatoes, Carolina potatoes.

Fruit. — Apples, damsons, grapes, hazel-nuts, medlars,
peaches, pears, pine-apples, plums, quinces, strawberries,
walnuts.

October.

Fish. — Cockles, cod, crabs, eels, gudgeons, halibut, lobsters,
mussels, oysters, perch, pike, salmon-trout, shi-imps, smelts,
porgies.

Meat. — Beef, mutton, pork, veal, doe-venison.
Poultry and Game. — Chickens, ducks, fowls, green geese,
larks, partridges, pheasants, pigeons, red-bird, black-bird,
robins, snipes, turkey, wild ducks, wild pigeons, wild rab-
bits, woodcock, teal.

Vegetables. — Artichokes, cabbages, cauliflowers, celery,
herbs of all sorts, onions, parsnips, peas, potatoes, radishes,
salad, spinach (winter), tomatoes, turnips, Carolina potatoes.

Fruit. — Almonds, apples, black and white damsons, hazel-
nuts, grapes, peaches, pears, quinces, walnuts,

November.

Fish. — Cockles, cod, crabs, eels, gudgeons, halibut, lob-
sters, mussels, oysters, perch, pike, salmon, shrimps, smelts,
porgies, flounders.

Meat. — Beef, house-lamb, mutton, pork, veal, doe-venison.

Poultry and Game. — Chickens, ducks, fowls, geese, larks,
partridges, pheasants, pigeons, rabbits, snipes, turkey, wild
ducks, woodcock, robins.

Vegetables. — Beets, cabbages, carrots, celery, herbs of all
sorts, lettuce, onions, parsnips, potatoes, salad, spinach, to-
matoes, turnips.

Fruit. — Almonds, apples, chestnuts, hazel nuts, grapes,
pears.

December.

Fish. — Cod, crabs, eels, gudgeons, halibut, lobsters, oysters,
perch, pike, salmon, shrimps, smelts, sturgeon.

Meat.— Beef, house-lamb, mutton, pork, veal, doe-venison.

Poultry and Game. — Capons, chickens, ducks, fowls,
geese, guinea-fowl, hares, larks, partridges, pea-fowl, pheas-
ants, pigeons, rabbits, snipes, turkey, wild ducks, woodcock.

Vegetables.— Beets, cabbages, carrots, celery, herbs of all
sorts, lettuce, onions, parsnips, potatoes, salad, spinach, tur-
nips.

Fruit. — Apples, chestnuts, hazel-nuts.

NAMES AND SITUATIONS OF THE JOINTS.

The method of cutting up the carcases varies. That which
we describe below is the most general.

Beef— 7^3;r Quarter. — Fore rib (five ribs) ; middle rib
(four ribs) ; chuck (three ribs). Shoulder piece (top of fore
leg) ; brisket (lower or belly part of the ribs) ; clod (fore
shoulder blade) ; neck ; shin (below the shoulder) ; cheek.

Hind Quarter. — Sirloin ; rump ; aitchbone — these are the
three divisions of the upper part of the quarter ; buttock and
mouse-buttock, which divide the thigh ; veiny piece, joining
buttock ; thick flank and thin flank (belly pieces) and leg.
The sirloin and rump of both sides form a baron. Beef is in
season all the year ; best in the winter.

Mutton. — Shoulder ; breast (the belly); over which are the
loin (chump, or tail end). Loin (best end) ; and neck (best
end) ; neck (scrag end). A chine is two necks ; a saddle, two
loins ; then there are the leg and head. Mutton is the best in
winter, spring, and autumn.

Lamb is cut into fore quarter and hind quarter ; a saddle, or
loin ; neck, breast, leg, and shoulder. Grass-lamb is in season
from Jutte to A ugust.

Pork is cut into leg, hand, or shoulder; hind-loin ; fore
loin ; belly part ; spare rib (or neck) ; and head. Fork is in
season nearly all the year.

Veal is cut into neck (scrag end) ; neck (best end) ; loin
(best end) ; loin (chump, or tail end) ; fillet (upper part of the
hind leg) ; hind knuckle (which joins the fillet knuckle of fore
leg; blade (bone of shoulder) ; breast (best end); breast
(brisket end) ; and hand. Veal is always in season, but dear
in the winter and spring.

Venison is cut into haunch (or back) ; neck, shoulder, and
breast. Doe-venison is best in January, October, November,
and December, and buck-venison in June, July, August, and
September.

Ox-tail is much esteemed for purposes of soup ; so also is
the CHEEK. The tongue is highly esteemed.

Calves' Heads are very useful for various dishes ; so also
their knuckles, feet, heart, etc.

Cooking. — Ten pounds of beef require from two hours to
two hours and a half roasting, eighteen inches from a good
fire.

Six pounds require one hour and a quarter to one hour
and a half, fourteen inches from a good clear fire.

Three ribs of beef, boned and rolled, tied round with paper,
will require two hours and a half, eighteen inches from the
fire ; baste once only.

The first three ribs of fifteen or twenty pounds, will take
three houi-s or three and a half ; the fourth and fifth ribs will
take as long, managed in the same way as the sirloin. Paper
the fat and the thin part, or it will be done too much, before
the thick part is done enough.

When beef is very fat, it does not require basting ; if very
lean, tie it up in greasy paper, and baste frequently and well.

Common cooks are generally fond of too fierce a fire, and of
putting things too near to it.

Slow roasting is as advantageous to the tenderness and fla-
vor of meat as slow boiling.

O^TMt

^NlVERs/T

HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS.

665

The warmer the weather, and the staler killed the meat is,
the less time it will require to roast it.

Meat that is very fat requires more time than other meat.

In the hands of an expert cook, " alimentary substances are
made almost entirely to change their nature, their form, con-
sistence, odor, savor, color, chemical composition, etc. ; eveiy-
ihing is so modified, that it is often impossible for the most
exquisite sense of taste to recognize the substance which makes
up the basis of certain dishes. The greatest utility of the
kitchen consists in making the food agreeable to the senses,
and rendering it easy of digestion."

Boiling extracts a portion of the juice of meat, which mixes
with the water, and also dissolves some of its solids ; the more
fusible parts of the fat melt out, combine with the water, and
form soup or broth. The meat loses its red color, becomes
more savory in taste and smell, and more firm and digestible.
If the process is continued too long, the meat becomes indigest-
ible, less succulent, and tough.

To boil meat to perfection, it should be done slowly, in
plenty of water, replaced by other hot water, as evaporation
takes place ; for, if boiled too quickly, the outside becomes
tough ; and not allowing the ready transmission of heat, the in-
ferior remains rare.

The loss by boiling varies from b\ to 16 per cent. The
average loss on boiling butcher's meat, pork, hams, and bacon,
is i-Z', and on domestic poultry, is 14 1.

The loss per cent, on boiling salt beef is 15 ; on legs of mut-
ton, 10; hams, I2j ; salt pork, 13J; knuckles of veal, 8§ ; ba-
con, 64; turkeys, 16; chickens, 13I.

The established rule as regards time, is to allow a quarter of
an hour for each pound of meat if the boiling is rapid, and
twenty minutes if slow. There are exceptions to this ; for in-
stance, ham and pork, which require from twenty to twenty-
five minutes per pound, and bacon nearly half an hour. For
solid joints allow fifteen minutes for every pound, and from ten
to twenty minutes over; though, of course, the length of time
will depend much on the strength of the fire, regularity in the
boiling and size of the joint. The following table will be use-
ful as an average of the time required to boil the various
articles.

H. M.

A ham, 20 lbs. weight, requires 6 30

A tongue (if dry), after soaking 4 00

A tongue, out of pickle 2\ to 3 00

A neck of mutton i 30

A chicken o 20

A large fowl o 45

A capon o 35

A pigeon o 15

The loss by roasting varies, according to Professor Dono-
van, from 14 3-5 ths to nearly double that rate, per cent. The
average loss on roasting butcher's meat is 22 per cent. ; and on
domestic poultry is 20i.

The loss per cent, on roasting beef, viz., on sirloins and ribs
together, is 19 l-6th ; on mutton, viz., legs and shoulders to-
gether, 24 4-5ths 5 on fore quarters of lamb, 22J ; on ducks,
27 i-5th ; on turkeys, 20^ ; on geese, 19J ; on chickens,
14 3-5ths.

Broiling requires a brisk, rapid heat, which, by producing
a greater degree of change in the afiinitits of the raw meat
than roasting, generates a higher flavor, so that broiled meat is
more savory than roast. The surface becoming charred, a
dark-colored crust is formed, which retards the evaporation of
the juices ; and therefore, if properly done, broiled may be as
tender and juicy as roasted meat.

Baking does not admit of the evaporation of the vapors so
rapitily as by the processes of broiling and roasting ; the fat is
also retained more, and becomes converted by the agency of
the heat into an empyreumatic oil, so as to render the meat
less fitted for delicate stomachs, and more difficult to digest.
The meat is, in fact, partly boiled in its own confined water,
and partly roasted by the dry hot air of the oven.

The loss by baking has not been estimated ; and, as the
time required to cook many articles must vary with their size,
nature, etc., we have considered it better to leave that until
giving the receipts for them.

Frying is of all methods the most objectionable, from the
foods being less digestible when thus prepared, as the fat em-
ployed undergoes chemical changes. Olive oil in this respect
is preferable to lard or butter.

Roast Beef. — The tender-loin and first and second cuts
off the rack are the best roasting pieces — the third and fourth
cuts are good. When the meat is put to the fire, a little salt
should be sprinkled on it, and the bony side turned toward
the fire first. When the bones get well heated through, turn
the meat, and keep a brisk fire — baste it frequently while
roasting. There should be a little water put into the dripping
pan when the meat is put down to roast. If it is a thick
piece, allow fifteen minutes to each pound to roast it in — if
thin, less time will be required.

Beef Steak. — The tender-loin is the best piece for broil-
ing — ^a steak from the round or shoulder clod is good and
comes cheaper. If the beef is not very tender, it should be
laid on a board and pounded, before broiling or frying it.
Wash it in cold water, then lay it on a gridiron, place it on a
hot bed of coals, and broil it as quick as possible without
burning it. If broiled slow, it will not be good. It takes
from fifteen to twenty minutes to broil a steak. For seven or
eight pounds of beef, cut up about a quarter of a pound of
butter. Heat the platter very hot that the steak is to be put
on, lay the butter on it, take up the steak, salt and pepper it
on both sides. Beef steak to be good, should be eaten as
soon as cooked. A few slices of salt pork broiled with the
steak makes a rich gravy with a very little butter. There should
always be a trough to catch the juices of the meat when
broiled. The same pieces that are good broiled are good for
frying. Fry a few slices of salt pork brown, th.-m take them
up and put in the beef. When brown on both sides, take it
up, take the pan off from the fire, to let the fat cool ; when
cool, turn in half a teacup of water, mix a couple of tea-
spoonfuls of flour with a little water, stir it into the fat, put
the pan back on the fire, stir it till it boils up, then turn it
over the beef,

Alamode Beef. — The round of beef is the best piece to
alamode — the shoulder clod is good, and comes lower ; it is
also good stewed, without any spices. For five pounds of

666

HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS.

beef, soak about a pound of bread in cold water till soft, then
drain off the water, mash the bread fine, put in a piece of
butter, of the size of a hen's egg, half a teaspoonful of salt, the
same quantity of ground cloves, allspice, and pepper, half a
nutmeg, a couple of eggs, and a tablespoonful of flour — mix
the whole well together ; then cut gashes in the beef, and fill
them with about half of the dressing, put the meat in a bake-
pan, with lukewarm water enough to cover it ; set it where it
will stew gently for a couple of hours ; cover it with a heated
bake-pan lid. When it has stewed a couple of hours, turn
the reserved dressing on top of the meat, heat the bake-pan
lid hot enougji to brown the dressing, stew it an hour and a
half longer. After the meat is taken up, if the gravy is not
thick enough, mix a teaspoonful or two of flour with a little
water, and stir it into the gravy ; put in a little butter, a
wineglass of wine, and turn it over the meat.

Beef Liver. — Liver is very good fried, but the best way
to cook it, is to broil it ten minutes with four or five slices of
salt pork. Then take it out, cut it into small strips together
with the pork, put it in a stew-pan, with a little water, butter
and pepper. Stew it four or five minutes.

To Corn Beef. — To evei-y gallon of cold water, put a
quart of rock salt, an ounce of saltpetre, quarter of a pound of
brown sugar (some people use molasses, but it is not as good) ;
no boiling is necessaiy. Put the beef in the brine. As
long as any salt remains at the bottom of the cask it is strong
enough. Whenever any scum rises, the brine should be
scalded, skimmed, and more sugar, salt, and saltpetre added.
When a piece of beef is put in the brine, rub a little salt over
it. If the weather is hot, cut a gash to the bone of the meat,
and fill it with salt. Put a heavy weight on the beef in order
to keep it under the brine. In very hot weather, it is difficult
to corn beef in cold brine before it spoils. On this account it
is good to corn it in the pot when boiled. It is done in the
following manner : to six or eight pounds of beef, put a teacup
of salt; sprinkle flour on the side that is to go up on the table,
and put it down in the pot, turn the water into the pot after
the beef is put in, boil it a couple of hours, then turn in more
cold water, and boil it an hour and a half longer.

Mutton. — The saddle is the best part to roast — the shoulder
and leg are good roasted ; but the best mode to cook the latter
is to boil it with a piece of salt pork. A little rice boiled with
it, improves the look of it. Mutton for roasting should have
a little butter rubbed on it, and a little salt and pepper
sprinkled on it — some people like cloves and allspice. Put a
small piece of butter in the dripping-pan, and baste it fre-
quently. The bony side should be turned towards the fire
first, and roasted. For boiling or roasting mutton, allow a
quarter of an hour to each pound of meat. The leg is good
cut in gashes, and filled with a dressing, and baked. The
dressing is made of soaked bread, a little butter, salt, and
pepper, and a couple of eggs. A pint of water with a little
butter should be put in the pan. The leg is also good, cut
into slices and broiled. It is good corned a few days, and
then boiled. The rack is good for broiling — it should be
divided, each bone by itself, broiled quick, and buttered,
salted and peppered. The breast of mutton is nice baked.
The joints of the brisket should be separated, the sharp ends

of the ribs sawed off, the outside rubbed over with a little
piece of butter — salt it, and put it in a bake-pan, with a pint
of water. When done, take it up, and thicken the gravy with
a little flour and water, and put in a small piece of butter.
A tablespoonful of catsup, cloves and allspice, improve it, but
are not essential. The neck of mutton makes a good soup.
Parsley or celery-heads are a pretty garnish for mutton.

Veal. — The loin of veal is the best piece for roasting. The
breast and rack are good roasted. The breast also is good
made into a pot-pie, and the rack cut into small pieces and
broiled. The leg is nice for frying, and when several slices
have been cut off for cutlets, the remainder is nice boiled with
a small piece of salt pork. Veal for roasting should be salted,
peppered, and a little butter rubbed on it, and basted fre-
quently. Put a little water in the dripping-pan, and unless
the meat is quite fat, a little butter should be put in. The
fillet is good baked, the bone should be cut out, and the place
filled with a dressing, made of bread soaked soft in cold water,
a little salt, pepper, a couple of eggs, and a tablespoonful of
melted butter put in — then sew it up, put it in your bake-pan,
with about a pint of water, cover the top of the meat with
some of the dressing. When baked sufficiently, take it up,
thicken the gravy with a little flour and water well mixed, put
in a small piece of butter and a little wine and catsup, if you
like the gravy rich.

Veal Cutlets. — Fry three or four slices of pork until
brown — take them up, then put in slices of veal, about an inch
thick, cut from the leg. When brown on both sides, take
them up ; stir half a pint of water into the gravy, then mix
two or three teaspoonfuls of flour with a little water, and stir
it in ; soak a couple of slices of toasted bread in the gravy,
lay them on the bottom of the platter, place the meat and
pork over it, then turn on the gravy. A very nice way to
cook the cutlets, is to make a batter with half a pint of milk,
an egg beaten to a froth, and flour enough to render it thick.
When the veal is fried brown, dip it into the batter, then put
it back into the fat, and fry it until brown again. If you have
any batter left, it is nice dropped by the large spoonful into
the fat, and fried till brown, then laid over the veal. Thicken
the gravy and tarn it over the whole. It takes about an hour
to cook this dish. If the meat is tough, it will be better to
stew it half an hour before frying it.

Calf s Head. — Boil the head two hours, together with the
lights and feet. Put in the liver when it has boiled an hour
and twenty minutes. Before the head is done, tie the brains
in a bag, and boil them with it ; when the brains are done,
take them up, season them with salt, pepper, butter, and
sweet herbs, or spices if you like — use this as a dressing for
the head. Some people prefer part of the liver and feet for
dressing ; they are prepared like the brains. The liquor that
the calfs head is boiled in, makes a good soup," seasoned in a
plain way like any other veal soup, or seasoned turtle fashion.
The liquor should stand until the next day after the head is
boiled, in order to have the fat rise, and skimmed off. If you
wish to have your calf's head look brown, take it up when
tender, rub a little butter over it, sprinkle on salt, pepper, and
allspice — sprinkle flour over it, and put before the fire, with a
Dutch oven over it, or in a brick oven where it will brown

HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS.

667

quick. "Warm up the brains with a little water, butter, salt,
and pepper. Add wine and spices if you like. Serve it up
as a dressing for the head. Calf's head is also good baked.
Halve it, rub butter over it, put it in a pan, with about a quart
of water ; then cover it with a dressing made of bread soaked
soft, a little butter, an egg, and season it with salt, pepper,
and powdered mace. Slice up the brains, and lay them in the
pan with the head. Bake it in a quick oven, and garnish it
with slices of lemon, or force-meat balls.

Force-Meat Balls. — Chop a pound or two of veal fine ;
mix it with one or two eggs, a little butter, or raw pork
chopped fine ; season it with salt and pepper, or curry powder.
Do it up into balls about the size of half an egg, and fry them
brown.

Calfs Feet. — Boil them with the head, until tender, then
split and lay them round the head, or dredge them with flour
after they have been boiled tender, and fry them brown. If
you wish for gravy for them, when you have taken them up,
stir a little flour into the fat they were fried in ; season it with
salt, pepper, and mace. Add a little butter and wine if you
like, then turn it over the feet.

Calfs Liver and Heart — Are good broiled or fried.
Some people like the liver stuffed and baked.

A Fillet of Veal. — Cut off" the shank of a leg of veal, and
cut gashes in the remainder. Make a dressing of bread, soaked
soft in cold water, and mashed ; season it with salt, pepper,
and sweet herbs ; chop a little raw pork fine, put it in the
dressing, and if you have not pork, use a little butter instead.
Fill the gashes in the meat with part of the dressing, put it in
a bake-pan, with just water enough to cover it ; put the re-
mainder of the dressing on top of the meat, and cover it with
a heated bake-pan lid. For six pounds of veal, allow two
hours steady baking. A leg of veal is nice prepared in this
manner, and roasted.

Lamb. — The fore and hind quarters are good roasting
pieces. Sprinkle salt and pepper on the lamb, turn the bony
side toward the fire first ; if not fat, rub a little butter on it,
and put a little in the dripping-pan ; baste it frequently.
These pieces are good stuff"ed like a fillet of veal, and roasted.
The leg is also good, cooked in the same manner ; but it is
better boiled with a pound of salt pork. Allow fifteen min-
utes boiling to each pound of meat. The breast of lamb is
good roasted, broiled, or corned and boiled ; it is also good
made into a pot-pie. The fore quarter, with the ribs divided,
is good broiled. The bones of this, as well as all kinds of
meat, when put down to broil, should first be put toward the
fire, and browned before the other side is broiled. A little
salt, pepper, and butter, should be put on it when you take it
up. Lamb is very apt to spoil in warm weather. If you wish
to keep a leg several days, put it in brine. It should not be
put with pork, as fresh meat is apt to injure it. Lamb's head,
feet, and heart, are good, boiled till tender, then cut off" the
flesh from the head, cut up the heart, and split the feet in two ;
put the whole into a pan, with a pint of the liquor they were
boiled in, together with a little butter, pepper, salt, and half a
teacup of tomato catsup ; thicken the gravy with a little flour ;
stew the whole for a few moments. Pepper-grass or parsley
is a pretty garnish for this dish.

Lamb's Fry. — The heart and sweetbread are nice fried
plainly, or dipped into a beaten egg and fine bread crumbs.
They should be fried in lard.

Turkey. — Take out the inwards, wash both the inside and
outside of the turkey. Prepare a dressing made of bread
soaked soft in cold water (the water should be drained from
the bread, and the bread mashed fine). Melt a small piece of
butter, and mix it with the dressing, or else put in salt pork
chopped fine ; season it with salt and pepper ; add sweet herbs
if you like. An egg in the dressing makes it cut smoother.
Any kind of cooked meat is nice minced fine, and mixed with
the dressing. If the inwards are used, they ought to be boiled
very tender, as it is very difficult to cook them through while
the turkey is roasting. Fill the crop and body of the turkey
with the dressing, sew it up, tie up the legs and wings, rub on
a little salt and butter. Roast it from two to three hours,
according to its size ; twenty-five minutes to every pound is
a good rule. The turkey should be roasted slowly at first,
and basted frequently. A little water should be put into the
dripping-pan, when the meat is put down to roast. For a
gravy to the turkey, take the liquor that the inwards are boiled
in, put into it a little of the turkey drippings, set it where it
will boil, thicken it with a little flour and water previously
mixed smooth. Season it with salt, pepper, and sweet herbs
if you like. Drawn butter is used for boiled turkey. A
turkey for boiling should be prepared in the same manner as
one for roasting. If you wish to have it look white, tie it up
in a cloth, unless you boil rice in the pot. If rice is used,
put in two-thirds of a teacup. A pound or two of salt pork,
boiled with the turkey, improves it. If you wish to make a
soup of the liquor in which the turkey is boiled, let it re-
main until the next day, then skim off" the fat. Heat and
season it.

Goose. — If a goose is tender under the wing, and you can
break the skin easily by running the head of a pin across the
breast, there is no danger of its being tough. A goose should
be dressed in the same manner, and roasted the same length
of time as a turkey.

Chickens. — Chickens for roasting or boiling should have a
dressing prepared like that for turkeys. Half a teacup of rice
boiled with the chickens makes them look white. They will
be less liable to break if the water is cold when they are put
in. A little salt pork boiled with the chickens improves them.
If you do not boil pork with them they will need salt. Chick-
ens for broiling should be split, the inwards taken out, and
the chicken washed inside and out. Put the bony side down
on the gridiron, and broil it Very slowly until brown, then
turn it, and brown it on the other side. About forty minutes
is required to broil a common-sized chicken. For roast
chicken, boil the liver and gizzards by themselves, and use the
water for gravy to the chickens ; cut the inwards in slices,
and put them in the gravy.

Fricassee. — The chickens should be jointed, the inwards
taken out, and the chickens washed. Put them in a stew-pan
with the skin side down ; on each layer sprinkle salt and pep-
per ; put in three or four slices of pork, just cover them with
water, and let them stew till tender. Then take them up, mix
a little flour and water together, and thicken the liquor they

668

HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS.

were stewed in, add a piece of butter of the size of a hen's
egg, then put the chickens back in the stew-pan, and let them
stew four or five minutes longer. When you have taken up
the chickens, soak two or three slices of toast in the gravy,
then put them in your platter, lay the chickens over the toast,
and turn the gravy on them. If you wish to brown the chick-
ens, stew them without the pork till tender, then fry the pork
brown, take it up, put in the chickens, and then fry until a
light brown.

Pigeons. — Take out the inwards, and stuff the pigeons
with a dressing prepared like that for turkeys, lay them in a
pot with the breast side down. Turn in more than enough
water to cover them. When stewed nearly tender, put in a
quarter of a pound of butter to every dozen of pigeons — mix
two or three teaspoonfuls of flour with a little water, and stir
into the gravy. If you wish to brown them, put on a heated
bake-pan lid, an hour before they are done, or else take them
up when tender, and fry them in pork fat. They are very
good split open and stewed, with a dressing made and warmed
up separately with a little of the gravy. Tender pigeons are
good stufTed and roasted. It takes about two hours to cook
tender pigeons, and three hours tough ones. Roast pigeons
should be buttered when put to the fire.

Ducks — Are good stewed like pigeons, or roasted. Two
or three onions in the dressing of wild ducks takes out the
fishy taste they are apt to have. If ducks or any other fowls
are slightly injured by being kept long, dip them in weak sale-
ratus water before cooking them.

Baked or Roast Pig. — A pig for roasting or baking should
be small and fat. Take out the inwards, and cut off the first
joint of the feet, and boil them till tender, then chop them.
Prepare a dressing of bread soaked soft, the water squeezed
out and the bread mashed fine ; season it with salt, pepper,
and sweet herbs, add a little butter, and fill the pig with the
dressing. Rub a little butter on the outside of the pig, to pre-
vent its blistering. Bake or roast it from two hours and a
half to three hours. The pan that the pig is baked in should
have a little water put in it. When cooked, take out a little
of the dressing and gravy from the pan, mix it with the chop-
ped inwards and feet, put in a little butter, pepper, and salt,
and use this for a sauce to the pig. Expose the pig to the
open air two or three minutes before it is put on the table, to
make it crispy.

Sweetbread, Liver, and Heart. — A very good way to
cook the sweetbread, is to fry three or four slices of pork till
brown, then take them up and put in the sweetbread, and fry
it over a moderate fire. When you have taken up the sweet
bread, mix a couple of teaspoonfuls of flour with a little water,
and stir it into the fat — let it boil, then turn it over the sweet-
bread. Another way is to parboil them, and let them get cold,
then cut them in pieces about an inch thick, dip them in
the yolk of an egg and fine bread crumbs, sprinkle salt, pep-
per, and sage on them before dipping them in the egg ; fry
them a light brown. Make a gravy after you have taken them
up, by stirring a little flour and water mixed smooth into the
fat, and spices and wine if you like. The liver and heart are
good cooked in the same manner, or broiled.

Tripe— After being scoured, should be soaked in salt and

water seven or eight days, changing the water every other day,
then boil it till tender, which will take eight or ten hours. It
is then fit for broiling, frying or pickling. It is pickled in the
same manner as souse.

Sausages. — Chop fresh pork very fine, the lean and fat to-
gether (there should be rather more of the lean than the fat),
season it highly with salt, pepper, sage, and other sweet herbs,
if you like them— a little saltpetre tends to preserve them.
To tell whether they are seasoned enough, do up a little into
a cake, and fry it. If not seasoned enough, add more season-
ing, and fill your skins, which should be previously cleaned
thoroughly. A little flour mixed in with the meat tends to
prevent the fat from running out when cooked. Sausage-meat
is good done up in small cakes and fried. In summer, when
fresh pork cannot be procured, very good sausage-cakes may
be made of raw beef, chopped fine with salt pork, and seasoned
with pepper and sage. When, sausages are fried, they should
not be pricked, and they will cook nicer to have a little fat put
in the frying-pan with them. They should be cooked slowly.
If you do not like them very fat, take them out of the pan
when nearly done, and finish cooking them on a gridiron.
Bologna sausages are made of equal weight each of ham, veal,
and pork, chopped very fine, seasoned high, and boiled in
casings till tender, then dried.

Ham. — A ham that weighs ten pounds should be boiled
four or five hours ; if very salt, the water should be changed.
Before it is put on the table, take off the rind. If you wish to
ornament it, put whole cloves, or pepper, in the form of
diamonds, over it. The Virginia method of curing hams
(which is considered very superior), is to dissolve two ounces
of saltpetre, two teaspoonfuls of saleratus, in a salt pickle, as
strong as possible, for every sixteen pounds of ham. Add
molasses in the proportion of a gallon to a hogshead of brine,
then put in the hams, and let them remain three or four weeks.
Then take them out of the brine, and smoke them with the
hocks downward, to preserve the juices. They will smoke
tolerably well in the course of a month, but they will be much
better to remain in the smoke-house two or three months.
Hams cured in this manner are very fine flavored, and will
keep good a long time.

Tongues. — Cut off the roots of the tongues; they are not
good smoked, but they make nice pies. Take out the pipes
and veins, boil them till tender, mince them fine, season the
meat with salt, cloves, mace, and cinnamon, put in a little
sugar and molasses, moisten the whole with brandy, put it in
a cool place, and it will keep good several months in cold
weather, and is good to make pies of at any time, with the
addition of apples chopped fine, and a little butter melted.
For the remainder of the tongues, make a brine in the follow-
ing manner — to a gallon of cold water put a quart of rock
salt, an ounce of saltpetre, quarter of a pound of sugar, and
couple of tablespoonfuls of blown salt. Put in the tongues,
let them remain in it a week, and then smoke them eight or
ten days.

Chicken Pie. — Joint the chickens, which should be young
and tender. Boil them in just sufficient water to cover them.
When nearly tender take them out of the liquor, and lay them
in a deep pudding-dish, lined with pie crust. To each layer

HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS.

669 ^

of chicken, put three or four slices of pork, add a little of the
liquor in which they were boiled, and a couple of ounces of
butter cut into small pieces — sprinkle a little flour over the
whole, cover it with nice pie crust, and ornament the top with
some of your pastry. Bake it in a quick oven one hour.

Beef and Mutton Pie. — Take tender meat, pound it out
thin, and broil it ten minutes — then cut off the bony and gristly
parts, season it highly with salt and pepper, butter it, and cut
it into small pieces. Line a pudding dish with pastry, put in
the meat, and to each layer add a teaspoonful of tomato catsup,
together with a tablespoonful of water — sprinkle over flour,
and cover it with pie crust, and ornament as you please with
pastry. Cold roast or boiled beef and mutton make a good
pie, by cutting them into bits, and seasoning them highly with
salt and pepper. Put them into a pie dish, turn a little melted
butter over them, or gravy, and pour in water till you can just
see it at the top.

Chicken and Veal Pot Pie. — If the pie is to be made of
chickens, joint them — boil the meat until about half done.
Take the meat out of the liquor in which it was boiled, and
put it in a pot, with a layer of crust to each layer of meat,
having a layer of crust on the top. The meat should be sea-
soned with salt and pepper — cover the whole with the boiled
meat liquor. If you wish to have the crust brown, keep the
pot covered with a heated bake pan lid. Keep a tea 'kettle
of boiling water to turn in as the water boils away — cold wa-
ter makes the crust heavy. The crust for the pie is good like
that made for fruit pies, with less shortening, but raised pie
crust is generally preferred to any other. It is made in the
following manner — mix together three pints of flour, a teacup
of melted butter, a teaspoonful of salt, then turn in half a tea-
cup of yeast — add cold water to make it sufficiently stiff" to roll
out. Set it in a warm place to rise, which will take seven or
eight hours, unless brewers'" yeast is used. When risen, roll it
out and cut it into small cakes. Potato pie crust is very nice.
To make it, boil eight or nine small potatoes, peel and mash
them fine, mix with them a piece of butter, of the size of a
hen's egg, a teaspoonful of salt, a tumbler full of milk, and
flour to render it of the right consistency to roll out. When
rolled out, cut them into cakes, and put them with the meat.
If you happen to have unbaked wheat dough, very good criist
may be made of it, by working into it a little lukewarm melted
butter. Let it remain, after you have rolled and cut it into
cakes, about ten or fifteen minutes, before putting it with the
meat.

Warmed-over Meats. — Boiled or roasted veal makes a
nice dish, chopped fine, and warmed up, with just sufficient
water to moisten it, and a little butter, salt, and pepper added.
A little nutmeg and the grated rind of a lemon improve it —
none of the white part of the lemon should be used. When
well heated through, take it up on a platter, and garnish it
with a couple of lemons cut in slices. Fresh or corned beef is
good minced fine, with boiled potatoes, and wanned up with
salt, pepper, and a little water — add butter, just before you
take it up. Some people use the gravy that they have left the
day before, for the meat, but it is not as good when warmed
over, and there is no need of its being wasted, as it can be
clarified, and used for other purposes. Boiled onions, or tur-

nips, are good mixed with mince-meat, instead of potatoes.
Veal, lamb, and mutton, are good cut into small strips, and
warmed with boiled potatoes cut in slices, pepper, salt, a lit-
tle water — add butter just before you take it up. Roast beef
and mutton, if not previously cooked too much, are nice cut
in slices, and just scorched on a gridiron. Meat, when
warmed over, should be on the fire just long enough to get
well heated through — if on the fire long, most of the juices of
the meat will be extracted, and render it very indigestible.
Cold fowls are nice jointed, and warmed with a little water,
then taken up and fried in butter till brown. A little flour
should be sprinkled on them before frying. Thicken the wa-
ter that the fowls were warmed in — add a little salt, pepper,
and butter, and turn it over the fowls.

Drawn Butter. — Mix two or three teaspoonfuls of flour
with a little cold water — stir it till free from lumps, thin it,
and stir it into half a pint of boiling water — let it boil two or
three minutes, then cut up about a quarter of a pound of but-
ter into small pieces, and put it with the flour and water —
set it where it will melt gradually. If carefully mixed, it will
be free from lumps — if not, strain it before it is put on the ta-
ble. If the butter is to be eaten on fish, cut up several soft
boiled eggs into it. A little curry powder sprinkled into it,
will convert it into curry sauce.

Burnt Butter. — Put a couple of ounces of butter into a
frying pan — set it on the fire — when of a dark brown color,
put in half a teacupful of vinegar, a little pepper and salt.
This is nice for fish, salad, or eggs.

Roast Meat Gravy. — Meat, when put down to roast,
should have about a pint of water in the dripping pan. A lit-
tle while before the meat is done, stir up the drippings, put it
in a skillet, and set it where it will boil. Mix two or three
teaspoonfuls of flour smoothly with a little water, and stir it
in the gravy when it boils. Lamb and veal require a little
butter in the gravy. The gravy for pork and geese should
have a little of the dressing and sage mixed with it. If you
wish to have your gravies look dark, scorch the flour that you
thicken them with, which is easily done by putting it in a
pan, setting it on a few coals, and stirring it constantly till it
is a dark brown color, taking care that it does not burn.
Enough can be burnt at once to last a long time.

Sauce for Cold Meat, Fish, or Salad. — Boil a couple of
eggs three minutes ; then mix it with a mustard-spoonful of
made mustard, a little salt, pepper, half a tea-cup of salad oil
or melted butter, and half a tea-cup of vinegar. A table-
spoonful of catsup improves it.

Wine Sauce for Venison or Mutton. — Warm half a pint
of the drippings or liquor the meat was boiled in ; mix a
couple of teaspoonfuls of scorched flour with a little water, and
stir it in when the gravy boils. Season it with salt, pepper,
and cloves ; stir a tablespoonful of currant jelly in, and, just
before you take it from the fire, half a tumbler of wine.
Many people prefer melted currant jelly to any other sauce for
venison or mutton.

Oyster Sauce. — Take the juice of the oysters, and to a
pint put a couple of sticks of mace, a little salt and pepper.
Set it on the fire ; whe 1 it boils, stir in a couple of teaspoon-
fuls of flour, mixed wi h milk. When it has boiled several

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670

HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS.

minutes, stir in half a pint of oysters, a piece of butter of the
size of a hen's egg. Let them scald through, then take
them up.

White Celery Sauce for Boiled Poultry.— Take five or
• six heads of celery, cut off the green tops, cut up the re-
mainder into small bits, and boil it tender in half a pint of
water ; mix two or three teaspoonfuls of flour smoothly with
a little milk ; then add half a teacup more of milk, stir it in,
add a small lump of butter and a little salt. When it boils,
take it up.

Brown Sauce for Poultry. — Peel two or three onions,
cut them in slices, flour and fry them brown in a little but-
ter ; then sprinkle in a little flour, pepper, salt, and sage ;
add half a pint of the liquor the poultry was boiled in, and a
tablespoonful of catsup. Let it boil up ; then stir in half a
wineglass of wine if you like.

Savory Jelly for Cold Meat. — Boil lean beef or veal till
tender. If you have any beef or veal bones, crack and boil
them with the meat (they should be boiled longer than the
meat), together with a little salt pork, sweet herbs, and pepper
and salt. When boiled sufficiently, take it off", strain it, and
let remain till the next day ; then skim off the fat, take up the
jelly, and scrape off" the dregs that adhere to the bottom of it ;
put in the whites and shells of several eggs, several blades of
mace, a little wine and lemon juice ; set it on the fire, stir it
well till it boils, then strain it till clear through a jelly bag.

Chicken Salad. — Boil a chicken that weighs not more
than a pound and a half. When very tender take it up, cut
it in small strips, and make the following sauce, and turn over
it : Boil four eggs three minutes ; then take them out of the
shells, mash and mix them with a couple of tablespoon fuls of
olive oil or melted butter, two-thirds of a tumbler of vinegar,
a teaspoonful of mixed mustard, a teaspoonful of salt, a lit-
tle pepper, and essence of celery if you have it — if not, it can
be dispensed with.

Apple and Cranberry Sauce. — Pare and quarter the ap-
ples — if not tart, stew them in cider — if tart enough, stew
them in water. When stewed soft, put in a small piece of
butter, and sweeten it to the taste with sugar. Another way;
which is very good, is to boil the apples, without paring them,
with a few quinces and molasses, in new cider, till reduced to
half the quantity. When cool, strain the sauce. This kind
of sauce will keep good several months. It makes very good
plain piss, with the addition of a little cinnamon or cloves.
To make cranberry sauce, nothing more is necessary than to
stew the cranberries till soft, then stir in sugar and molasses
to sweeten it. Let the sugar scald in it a few minutes. Strain
it if you like — it is very good without straining.

Pudding Sauce — Stir to a cream a teacup of butter, with
two of brown sugar, then add a wineglass of wine or cider ;
flavor it with nutmeg, rose-water, or essence of lemon. If
you wish to have it liquid, heat two-thirds of a pint of water
boiling hot, mix two or three teaspoonfuls of flour with a little
water and stir it into the boiling water. As soon as it boils
up well, stir it into the butter and sugar.

Mushroom Catsup.~Put a layer of fresh mushrooms in a
deep dish, sprinkle a little salt over them, then put in another
layer of fresh mushrooms and salt, and so on till you get in all

the mushrooms. Let them remain siiveral days ; then mash
them fine, and to each quart put a tablespoonful of vinegar,
half a teaspoonful of black pepper, and a quarter of a tea-
spoonful of cloves ; turn it into a stone jar, set the jar in a pot
of boiling water and let it boil two hours, then strain it with-
out squeezing the mushrooms. Boil the juice a quarter of an
hour, skim it well, let it stand a few hours to settle, then strain
it off" carefully through a sieve, bottle and cork it tight. Keep
it in a cool place.

Walnut Catsup. — Procure the walnuts by the last of June;
keep them in salt and water for a week, then bruise them,
and turn boiling vinegar on them. Let them remain covered
with vinegar for several days, stirring them up each day ; then
boil them a quarter of an hour with a little more vinegar,
strain them through a thick cloth, so that none of the coarse
particles of the walnuts will go through ; season the vinegar
highly with cloves, allspice, pepper and salt. Boil the whole a
few minutes, then bottle and cork it tight. Keep it in a cool
place.

Plain "Veal Soup. — A leg of veal, after enough has been
cut off" for cutlets, makes a soup nearly as good as calfs head.
Boil it with a cup two-thirds full of rice, and a pound and a
half of pork ; season it with salt, pepper, and sweet herbs, if
you like. A little celery boiled in it gives the soup a fine fla-
vor. Some people like onions, carrots, and parsley boiled in
it. If you wish for balls in the soup, chop veal and a little
raw salt pork fine ; mix it with a few bread crumbs and a
couple of eggs. Season it with salt and pepper ; add a little
curry powder if you like — doit up into small balls and boil
them in the soup. The veal should be taken up before the
soup is seasoned. Just before the soup is taken up, put in a
couple of slices of toast, cut into small pieces. If you do not
like your soup fat, let the liquor remain till the day after you
have boiled the meat, and skim off" the fat before heating the
liquor. The shoulder of veal makes a good soup.

Mock Turtle, or Calfs Head Soup. — Boil the head until
perfectly tender, then take it out, strain the liquor, and set it
away until the next day, then skim off the fat, cut up the
meat, together with the lights, and put it into the liquor, put
it on the fire, and season it with salt, pepper, cloves, and
mace, add onions and sweet herbs if you like ; stew it gently
for half an hour. Just before you take it up, add half a pint
of white wine. For the balls, chop lean veal fine, with a little
salt pork, add the brains, and season it with salt, pepper,
cloves, mace, sweet herbs or curry powder, make it up into
balls about the size of half an egg, boil part in the soup, and
fry the remainder, and put them in a dish by themselves.

Beef or Black Soup. — The shank of beef is the best part
for soup — cold roast beef bones and beef steak make very
good soup. Boil the shank four or five hours in water
enough to cover it. Half an hour before the soup is put on
the table, take up the meat, thicken the soup with scorched
flour mixed with cold water, season it with salt, pepper,
cloves, mace, a little walnut or tomato catsup improves it, put
in sweet herbs or herb spirit iif you like. Some cooks boil
onions in the soup, but as they are very disagreeable to many
persons, it is better to boil and serve them up in a dish by
themselves. Make force-meat balls of part of the beef and

--<^

HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS.

671 y

Siv

pork, season them with mace, cloves, pepper and salt, and
boil them in the soup fifteen minutes.

Chicken or Turkey Soup.— The liquor that a turkey or
chicken is boiled in makes a good soup. If you do not like
your soup fat, let the liquor remain till the day after the poul-
try has been boiled in it, then skim off the fat, set it where it
will boil. If there was not any rice boiled with the meat, put
in half a teacupful when the liquor boils, or slice up a few
potatoes and put in — season it with salt and pepper, and
sweet herbs, a little celery boiled in it improves it. Toast
bread or crackers, and put them in the soup when you take it
up.

Oyster Soup. — Separate the oysters from the liquor, to each
quart of the liquor put a pint of milk or water, set it on the
fire with the oysters. Mix a heaping tablespoonful of flour
with a little water, and stir it into the liquor as soon as it
boils. Season it with salt, pepper, and a Utile walnut or
butternut vinegar, if you have it, if not, common vinegar may
be substituted. Put in a small lump of biutter, and turn it as
soon as it boils up again on to buttered toast cut into small
pieces.

Pea Soup. — If you make your soup of dry peas, soak them
over night, in a warm place, using a quart of water to each
quart of the peas. Early the next morning boil them an hour.
Boil with them a teaspoonful of saleratus eight or ten minutes,
then take them out of the water they were soaking in, put them
into fresh water, with a pound of salt pork, and boil it till the
peas are soft, which will be in the course of three or four hours.
Green peas for soup require no soaking, and boiling only long
enough to have the pork get thoroughly cooked, which will be
in the course of an hour.

Omelet.— Beat the eggs to a froth, and to a dozen of eggs
put three ounces of finely minced boiled ham, beef, or veal ;
if the latter meat is used add a little salt. Melt a quarter of
a pound of butter, mix a little of it with the eggs — it should
be just lukewarm. Set the remainder of the butter on the
fire, in a frying or tin pan, when quite hot, turn in the eggs
beaten to a froth, stir them until they begin to set. When
brown on the under side, it is sufficiently cooked. The ome-
let should be cooked on a moderate fire, and in a pan small
enough to have the omelet an inch thick. When you take
them up, lay a flat dish on them, then turn the pan upside
down.

Poached Eggs. — Break the eggs into a pan, beat them to
a froth, then put them into a buttered tin pan, set the pan on
a few coals, put in a small lump of butter, a little salt, let
them cook very slowly, stirring them constantly till they be-
come quite thick, then turn them on to buttered toast.

Broiling, Boiling and Frying Fish. — Fish for boiling or
broiling are the best the day after they are caught. They
should be cleaned when first caught, washed in cold water,
and half a teacup of salt sprinkled on the inside of them. If
they are to be broiled, sprinkle pepper on the inside of them
— keep them in a cool place. When fish is broiled, the bars
of the gridiron should be rubbed over with a little butter, and
the inside of the fish put toward the fire, and not turned till
the fish is nearly cooked through, then butter the skin side
and turn it over ; fish should be broiled slowly. When fresh

fish is to be boiled, it should either be laid on a fish strainer,
or sewed up in a cloth, if not, it is very difficult to take it out
of the pot without breaking. Put the fish into cold water with
the back bone down. To eight or ten pounds of fish, put half
of a small teacup of salt. Boil the fish until you can draw
out one of the fins easily — most kinds of fish will boil suffi-
ciently in the course of twenty or thirty minutes ; some kinds
will boil in less time. Some cooks do not put their fish into
water till it boils, but it is not a good plan, as the outside gets
cooked too much, and breaks to pieces before the inside is
sufficiently done. Fish for frying, after being cleaned and
washed, should be put into a cloth to have it absorb the mois-
ture. They should be dried perfectly and a little flour rubbed
over them. No salt should be put on them, if you wish to
have them brown well. For five or six pounds of fish, fry
three or four slices of salt pork ; when brown, take them up
and if they do not make fat sufficient to fry the fish in, add a
little lard. When the fish are fried enough, take them up ;
for good plain gravy, mix two or three teaspoonfuls of flour
with a little water, and stir it into the fat the fish was fried in,
put in a little butter, pepper, and salt, if you wish to have
the gravy rich add spices, catsup, and wine, turn the gravy
over the fish. Boiled fish should be served up with drawn
butter, or liver sauce. Fish, when put on the platter, should
not be laid over each other if it can be avoided, as the steam
from the under ones makes those on the top so moist that they
will break to pieces when served out.

Great care and punctuality are necessary in cooking fish. If
not done sufficiently, or if done too much, they are not good.
They should be eaten as soon as cooked. For a garnish to the
fish, use parsley, a lemon, or eggs boiled hard, and cut in slices.

Chowder. — Fry three or four slices of pork till brown,
cut each of your fish into five or six slices, flour, and put a
layer of them into your pork fat, sprinkle on pepper and a lit-
tle salt — add cloves, mace, and sliced onions if you like — lay
on several bits of your fried pork, and crackers previously
soaked soft in cold water. This process repeat till you get in
all the fish, then turn on water enough to just cover them —
put on a heated bake pan lid. When the fish have stewed
about twenty minutes, take them up and mix a couple of tea-
spoonfuls of flour with a little water, and stir it into the gravy,
also a little butter and pepper. Half a pint of white wine,
spices, and catsup, will improve it. Bass and cod make the
best chowder, black fish and clams make tolerably good
ones. The hard part of the clams should be cut off and
thrown away.

Stuffed and Baked Fish. — Soak bread in cold water till
soft, drain off the water, mash the bread fine, mix it with a
tablespoonful of melted butter, a little pepper and salt — a
couple of raw eggs makes the dressing cut smoother — add
spices if you like. Fill the fish with the dressing, sew it up,
put a teacup of water in your bake pan, and a small piece of
buttery lay in the fish, bake it from forty to fifty minutes.
Fresh cod, bass, and shad, are suitable fish for baking.

Fish Cakes. — Cold boiled fresh fish, or salt codfish, is
nice minced fine, with potatoes, moistened with a little water,
and a little butter put in, done up into cakes the size of com-
mon biscuit, and fried brown in pork fat or butter.

672

HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS.

Fish Force-Meat Balls.— Take a little uncooked fish,
chop it fine, together with a little raw salt pork ; mix it with
one or two raw eggs, a few bread crumbs and season the
whole with pepper and spices. Add a little catsup if you like,
do them up into small balls, and fry them till brown.

Clams. — Wash and put them in a pot, with just water
enough to prevent the shells burning at the bottom of the pot.
Heat them till the shells open— take the clams out of them,
and warm them with a little of the clam liquor, a little salt,
butter, and pepper. Toast a slice or two of bread, soak it in
the clam liquor, lay it in a deep dish, and turn the clams on
to it. For clam pancakes, mix flour and milk together to form
a thick batter — some cooks use the clam liquor, but it does
not make the pancakes as light as the milk. To each pint of
the milk put a couple of eggs and a few clams — they are
good taken out of the shells without stewing, and chopped fine,
or stewed, and put into the cakes whole. Very large long clams
are good taken out of the shells without stewing, and broiled.

Stewed Oysters. — Strain the oyster liquor, rinse the bits
of shells off the oysters, then turn the liquor back on to the
oysters, and put them in a stew-pari — set them where they will
boil up, then turn them on to buttered toast — salt, pepper,
and butter them to your taste. Some cooks add a little wal-
nut catsup, or vinegar. The oysters should not be cooked
until just before they are to be eaten.

To Fry Oysters. — Take those that are large, dip them in
beaten eggs, and then in flour or fine bread crumbs — fry them
in lard, till of a light brown. They are a nice garnish for
fish. They will keep good for several months if fried when
first caught, salted and peppered, then put into a bottle, and
corked tight. "Whenever they are to be eaten, warm them in
a little water.

Oyster Pancakes. — Mix equal quantities of milk and oys-
ter juice together. To a pint of the liquor when mixed, put
a pint of wheat flour, a few oysters, a couple of eggs, and a
little salt. Drop by the large spoonful into hot lard.

Oyster Pie. — Line a deep pie-plate with pie crust ; fill it
with dry pieces of bread, cover it over with puff paste ; bake
it till a light brown, either in a quick oven or bake pan. Have
the oysters just stewed by the time the crust is done ; take off
the upper crust, remove the pieces of bread, put in the oysters,
season them with salt, pepper, and butter. A little walnut
catsup improves the pie, but is not essential— cover it with the
crust.

Scalloped Oysters.— Pound rusked bread or crackers
fine ; butter scallop shells or tins, sprinkle on the bread
crumbs, then put in a layer of oysters, a small lump of butten
pepper, salt, and a little of the oyster juice ; then put on
another layer of crumbs and oysters, and so on till the shells
are filled, having a layer of crumbs at the top. Bake them
till a light brown.

Directions for Pickling.— Vinegar for pickling should be
good, but not of the sharpest kind. Brass utensils should be
used for pickling. They should be thoroughly cleaned before
using, and no vinegar should be allowed to cool in them, as
the rust formed by so doing is very poisonous. Boil alum
and salt in the vinegar, in the proportion of half a teacup of
salt, and a tablespoonful of alum, to three gallons of vinegar.

Stone and wooden vessels are the only kind of utensils that
are good to keep pickles in. Vessels that have had any
grease in will not do for pickles, as no washing will kill the
grease that the pot has absorbed. All kinds of pickles
should be stirred up occasionally. If there are any soft ones
among them, they should be taken out, the vinegar scalded,
and turned back while hot — if very weak, throw it away
and use fresh vinegar. Whenever any scum rises, the
vinegar needs scalding. If you do not wish to have all
your pickles spiced, it is a good plan to keep a stone pot
of spiced vinegar by itself, and put in a few of your pickles
a short time before they are to be eaten.

Wheat Bread. — For six common sized loaves of bread,
take three pints of boiling water, and mix it with five or
six quarts of flour. When thoroughly mixed, add three
pints of cold water. Stir it till the whole of the dough is
of the same temperature. When lukewarm, stir in half a
pint of family yeast (if brewer's yeast is used, a less quantity
will answer), a tablespoonful of salt, knead in flour till stiff
enough to mould up, and free from lumps. The more the
bread is kneaded, the better it will be. Cover it over with
a thick cloth, and if the weather is cold, set it near a fire.
To ascertain when it has risen, cut it through the middle
with a knife — if full of small holes like a sponge, it is suf-
ficiently light for baking. It should be baked as soon as
light. If your bread should get sour before you are ready
to bake it, dissolve two or more teaspoonfuls of saleratus (ac-
cording to the acidity of it) in a teacup of milk or water,
strain it on to the dough, work in well — then cut off enough
for a loaf of bread, mould it up well, slash it on both sides
to prevent its cracking when baked, put it in a buttered
tin pan. The bread should stand ten or twelve minutes in
the pan before baking it. If you like your bread baked a
good deal, let it stand in the oven an hour and a half.
When the wheat is grown, it makes better bread to wet the
flour entirely with boiling water. It should remain till cool
before working in the yeast. Some cooks have an idea that
it kills the life of the flour to scald it, but it is a mistaken idea
— it is sweeter for it, and will keep good much longer. Bread
made in this way is nearly as good as that which is wet with milk.
Care must be taken not to put the yeast in when the dough
is hot, as it will scald it, and prevent its rising. Most ovens
require heating an hour and a half for bread. A brisk fire
should be kept up, and the doors of the room should be kept
shut if the weather is cold. Pine and ash, mixed together, or
birch wood, is the best for heating an oven. To ascertain if
your oven is of the right temperature, when cleaned, throw in
a little flour ; if it browns in the course of a minute, it is suf-
ficiently hot ; if it turns black directly, wait several minutes
before putting in the things that are to be baked, If the oven
does not bake well, set in a furnace of live coals.

Sponge Bread. — For four loaves of bread, take three
quarts of wheat flour and the same quantity of boiling water ;
mix them well together. Let it remain till lukewarm, then
add a teacupful of family, or half a teacup of distillery yeast.
Set it in a warm place to rise. When light, knead in flour
till stiff enough to mould up, then let it stand till risen again,
before moulding it up.

HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS.

673

4r-

Rye Bread. — Wet up rye flour with lukewarm milk (water
will do to wet it up with, but it will not make the bread so
good). Put in the same proportion of yeast as for wheat
bread. For four or five loaves of bread, put in a couple of
teaspoonfuls of salt. A couple of tablespoonfuls of melted
butter makes the crust more tender. It should not be kneaded
as stiff as wheat bread, or it will be hard when baked. When
light, take it out into pans without moulding it up ; let it re-
main in them about twenty minutes before baking.

Brown Bread. — Brown bread is made by scalding Indian
meal, and stirring into it, when lukewarm, about the same
quantity of rye flour as Indian meal ; add yeast and salt in
the same proportion as for other kinds of bread. Bake it be-
tween two and three hours.

Indian Bread. — Mix Indian meal with cold water, stir it
into boiling water, let it boil half an hour ; stir in a little
salt, take it from the fire, let it remain till lukewarm, then
stir in yeast and Indian meal to render it of the consistency of
unbaked rye dough. When light, take it out into buttered
pans, let it remain a few minutes, then bake it two hours and
a half.

Potato Bread. — Boil the potatoes very soft, then peel and
mash them fine. Put in salt and a very little butter ; then rub
them with the flour ; wet the flour with lukewarm water, then
work in the yeast and flour till stiff to mould up. It will rise
quicker than common wheat bread, and should be baked as
soon as risen, as it turns sour very soon. The potatoes that
the bread is made of should be mealy, and mixed with the
flour in the proportion of one-third of potatoes to two-thirds
of flour.

Rice Bread. — Boil a pint of rice till soft ; then mix it
with a couple of quarts of rice or wheat flour. When cool,
add half a teacup of yeast, a little salt, and milk to render it
of the consistency of rye bread. When light, bake it in small
buttered pans.

French Rolls. — Turn a quart of lukewarm milk on to a
quart of flour. Melt a couple of ounces of butter, and put
to the milk and flour, together with a couple of eggs, and a
teaspoonful of salt. When cool, stir in half a teacup of
yeast, and flour to make it stiff enough to mould up. Put
it in a warm place. When light, do it up into small rolls ;
lay the rolls on flat buttered tins ; let them remain twenty
minutes before baking.

Butter Biscuit. — Melt a teacup of butter, mix it with
two-thirds of a pint of milk (if you have not any milk, water
may be substituted, but the biscuit will not be as nice). Put
in a teaspoonful of salt, half a teacup of yeast (milk yeast is
the best, see directions for making it) — stir in flour till it is
stiff enough to mould up. A couple of eggs improve the bis-
cuit, but are not essential. Set the dough in a warm place ;
when risen, mould the dough with the hand into small cakes,
lay them on flat tins that have been buttered. Let them
remain half an hour before they are baked.

Buttermilk Biscuit. — Dissolve a couple of teaspoonfuls
of saleratus in a teacup of sour milk — mix it with a pint of
buttermilk, and a couple of teaspoonfuls of salt. Stir in
flour until stiff enough to mould up. Mould it up into small
cakes and bake them immediately.

Hard Biscuit. — Weigh out four pounds of flour, and rub
three pounds and a half of it with four ounces of butter, four
beaten eggs, and a couple of teaspoonfuls of salt. Moisten it
with milk, pound it out thin with a rolling-pin, sprinkle a little
of the reserved flour over it lightly, roll it up and pound it
out again, sprinkle on more of the flour — this operation con-
tinue to repeat till you get in all the reserved flour ; then roll
it out thin, cut it into cakes with a tumbler, lay them on flat
buttered tins, cover them with a damp cloth to prevent their
drying. Bake them in a quick oven.

Potato Biscuit. — Boil mealy potatoes very soft, peel and
mash them. To four good-sized potatoes put a piece of but-
ter of the size of a hen's egg, and a teaspoonful of salt. When
the butter has melted, put in half a pint of cold milk. If the
milk cools the potatoes, put in a quarter of a pint of yeast,
and flour to make them of the right con.sistency to mould up.
Set them in a warm place ; when risen, mpuld them up with
the hand — let them remain ten or fifteen minutes before bak-
ing them.

Sponge Biscuit. — Stir into a pint of lukewarm milk half
a teacup of melted butter, a teaspoonful of salt, half a tea-
cup of family, or a tablespoonful of brewers' yeast (the latter
is the best); add flour till it is a very stiff batter. When light,
drop this mixture by the large spoonful on to flat buttered
tins, several inches apart. Let them remain a few minutes
before baking. Bake them in a quick oven till they are a
light brown.

Crackers. — Rub six ounces of butter with two pounds of
flour — dissolve a couple of teaspoonfuls of saleratus in a wine-
glass of milk, and strain it on to the flour — add a teaspoonful
of salt, and milk enough to enable you to roll it out. Beat it
with a rolling-pin for half an hour, pounding it out thin — cut
it into cakes with a tumbler — bake them about fifteen minutes,
then take them from the oven. When the rest of your
things are baked sufiiciently, take them out, set in the crack-
ers, and let them remain till baked hard and crispy.

Cream Cakes. — Mix half a pint of thick cream with the
same quantity of milk, four eggs, and flour to render them just
stiff enough to drop on buttered tins. They should be dropped
by the large spoonful several inches apart, and baked in a
quick oven.

Crumpets. — Take three teacups of raised dough, and
work into it with the hand half a teacup of melted butter,
three eggs, and milk to render it a thick batter. Turn it into
a buttered bake pan, let it remain fifteen minutes, then put
on a bake pan heated so as to scorch flour. It will bake in
half an hour.

Rice Cakes. — Mix a pint of rice boiled soft with a pint
of milk, a teaspoonful of salt, and three eggs beaten to a
froth. Stir in rice or wheat flour till of the right consistency
to fry. If you like them baked, add two more eggs, and
enough more flour to make them stiff enough to roll out, and
cut them into cakes.

Buckwheat Cakes. — Mix a quart of buckwheat flour with
a pint of lukewarm milk (water will do, but is not as good),
and a teacup of yeast ; set it in a warm place to rise. When
light (which will be in the course of eight or ten hours if
family yeast is used ; if brewers' yeast is used they will rise

■^^

674

HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS.

much quicker), add a teaspoonful of salt — if sour, the same
quantity of saleratus, dissolved in a little milk and strained.
If they are too thick, thin them with cold milk or water. Fry
them in just fat enough to prevent their sticking to the
frying pan.

Green-Corn Cake. — Mix a pint of grated green corn with
three tablespoonfuls of milk, a teacup of flour, half a teacup
of melted butter, one egg, a teaspoonful of salt, and half a
teaspoonful of pepper. Drop this mixture into hot butter by
the spoonful, let the cakes fry eight or ten minutes. These
cakes are nice served up with meat for dinner.

Indian-Corn Cake. — Stir into a quart of sour or butter-
milk a couple of teaspoonfuls of saleratus, a little salt, and
sifted Indian meal to render it a thick batter — a little cream
improves the cake — bake it in deep cake pans about an hour.
When sour milk cannot be procured, boil sweet milk, and turn
it on to the Indian meal ; when cool, put in three beaten eggs
to a quart of the meal, add salt to the taste-
Indian Slap Jacks. — Scald a quart of Indian meal, when
lukewarm turn, stir in half a pint of flour, half a teacup of
yeast, and a little salt. When light, fry them in just fat
enough to prevent their sticking to the frying pan. Another
method of making them, which is very nice, is to turn boiling
milk or water on to the Indian meal, in the proportion of a
quart of the former to a pint of the latter, stir in three table-
spoonfuls of flour, three eggs well beaten, and a ceuple of tea-
spoonfuls of salt.

Johnny Cakes. — Scald a quart of sifted Indian meal with
sufficient water to make it a very thick batter ; stir in two or
three teaspoonfuls of salt, mould it with the hand into small
cakes. In order to mould them up it will be necessary to
rub a good deal of flour on the hands, to prevent their stick-
ing. Fry them in nearly fat enough to cover them. When
brown on the under side they should be turned. It takes
about twenty minutes to cook them. When cooked, split and
butter them. Another way of making them, which is nice, is
to scald the Indian meal, and put in saleratus, dissolved in
milk, and salt in the proportion of a teaspoonful of each to a
quart of meal. Add two or three tablespoonfuls of wheat
flour and drop the batter by the large spoonful into a frying
pan. The batter should be of a very thick consistency, and

there should be just fat enough in the frying pan to prevent
the cakes sticking to it.

Hoe Cakes. — Scald a quart of Indian meal with just water
enough to make a thick batter ; stir in a couple of teaspoon-
fuls of salt, and two tablespoonfuls of butter ; turn it into a
buttered bake pan, and bake it half an hour.

Mufifins. — Mix a quart of wheat flour smoothly with a pint
and a half of lukewarm milk, half a teacup of yeast, a couple
of beaten eggs, a heaping teaspoonful of salt, and a couple
of tablespoonfuls of lukewarm melted butter ; set the batter
in a warm place to rise ; when light, butter your mufiin cups,
turn in the mixture, and bake the muffins till a light brown.

Raised Flour Waffles. — Stir into a quart of flour suffi-
cient lukewarm milk to make a thick batter — the milk should
be stirred in gradually, so as to have it free from lumps — put
in a tablespoonful of melted butter, a couple of beaten eggs,
a teaspoonful of salt, and half a teacup of yeast ; when
risen, fill your waffle-irons with the batter, bake them on a
hot bed of coals. When they have been on the fire between
two and three minutes, turn the waffle-irons over ; when brown
on both sides, they are sufficiently baked. The waffle-irons
should be well greased with lard, and very hot, before each one
is put in. The waffles should be buttered as soon as cooked.
Serve them up with powdered white sugar and cinnamon.

Quick Waffles. — Mix flour and cold milk together, to
make a thick batter. To a quart of the flour put six beaten
eggs, a tablespoonful of melted butter, and a teaspoonful of
salt. Some cooks add a quarter of a pound of sugar, and half
a nutmeg. Bake them immediately.

Rice Waffles, — Take a teacup and a half of boiled rice,
warm it with a pint of milk, mix it smooth, then take it from
the fire, stir in a pint of cold milk and a teaspoonful of salt.
Beat four eggs, and stir them in, together with sufficient flour
to make a thick batter.

Rice Wafers. — Melt a quarter of a pound of butter, and
mix it with a pound of rice flour, a teaspoonful of salt, and a
wine glass of wine. Beat four eggs, and stir in, together with
just cold milk enough to enable you to roll them out easily.
They should be rolled out as thin as possible, cut with a wine
glass into cakes, and baked in a moderate oven, on buttered
flat tins.

kr-

COMMERCE.

675

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PRINCIPLES OF COMMERCE.

HE practice of commerce is in a great measure
dependent on mutual good faith, and the integ-
rity of seller and buyer, and can in no case
permanently flourish where these fundamental
qualities are wanting. The first or great leading
ility, therefore, in the character of a merchant,
jght to be scrupulous honesty both in word and deed,
article which he proposes to dispose of must
be exactly what he declares it to be, not inferior or in
any respect unsound in its nature. If it possess any blem-
ishes, these must be announced to the "buyer before the
bargain is concluded, and, if necessary, though at a con-
siderable loss, an allowance made for them. The mer-
chant is not less called on to be faithful in the fulfill-
ment of all promises which he may make, whether with respect
to goods or their payment ; because those to whom the prom-
ises have been made may on that account have made similar
promises to others, and, therefore, the breaking of a single
promise may prove injurious in every link of a whole train of
transactions. Perfect honesty or integrity is a fundamental
principle of trade ; and the next most important are, strict
regularity in all proceedings, according to established usage,
and also steady perseverance. The merchant must give regu-
lar attendance during the hours of business, be regular in exe-
cuting all orders and answering all letters ; regular in the keep-
ing of his books, and in the reckoning of his stock and moneys ;
in short, he must be methodic and careful in all branches
of his concerns, for without this species of attention, the best
business is apt to become confused, and to be ultimately
ruined. What is true of individuals is true when applied
to a whole nation. No people have ever attained opulence
and high mercantile consideration, who have not possessed a
character for integrity and regularity in all their dealings.

Besides these indispensable qualities in the individual char-
acter of a merchant or tradesman, there is required a happy
combination of enterprise and prudence with the utmost cool-
ness—enterprise to embrace favorable opportunities of buying
and selling, and prudence and coolness to restrain from en-
gaging in over-hazardous and ruinous speculations. In all his
transactions, the man of business is understood to proceed
upon a cool inflexible principle of doing that which is most
advantageous for himself, without fear or favor ; because in

commerce each party is supposed to be governed by motives
of self-interest (always within the rules of honesty and pro-
priety), and is under no obligation to deal from mere personal
regard, or any kind of friendly consideration. In commerce
there is, strictly speaking, no friendship. If there be friend-
ship among the parties concerned, it is a thing aloof from
business transactions — a matter of private arrangement — and
is only to be regarded as such. On this account, even among
the most intimate friends, there must be an exact mode of
dealing, and the most accurate counting and reckoning.

COMMERCIAL TERMS AND TRANSACTIONS.

The following explanations of the principal terms used in
commerce, will illustrate the mode of conducting business
transactions.

Firm. — Every business, whether private or public, is con-
ducted under a specified designation or title, called the name
of the firm. This name may be that of a single individual to
whom the business belongs, or of two or more individuals, or
any title which it may be found advisable to adopt. Some-
times the name of a firm remains long after all who are indi-
cated by it are dead ; in such a case, the business has passed
into the hands of new proprietors, who, though legally respon-
sible for its obligations, are not, for some private reason, in-
clined to change the old and well-known title of their firm.
A particular firm or business-concern is sometimes personified
in the term house — as, Such a house does a great deal of busi-
ness, etc.

Company. — Two or more individuals engaged in one busi-
ness constitute a company or copartnery, each individual be-
ing called a partner. Companies are of two kinds, private and
public. A private company is organized by a private arrange-
ment among the parties, each having certain duties to per-
form and a certain share in the concern. In companies of the
private and common description, no individual can leave the
concern at his own pleasure, for by doing so he might seri-
ously injure or embarrass his partners. He can withdraw
only 'after giving a reasonable warning, by which time is
allowed to wind up the concern, or place it in a condition to
pay him back the capital which he has risked, or the profits
which are his due. No partner, however, can transfer his
shares to another person, by which a new member would be
introduced into the firm without the consent of the partners.

The profits of partnerships are divided according to a

676

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specified agreement or deed of copartnery. Generally, in the
case of partnerships of two or three persons, each receives the
same share on the occasion of an annual division, but in
other cases, a partner may not be entitled to more than a
fourth or sixth part of what another receives. The amount of
capital which a partner invests in the concern, the service he
can be to the business, and other circumstances, regulate the
amount of his share. When each of two persons sinks the
same capital, but one takes the whole of the trouble, then he
on whom the trouble falls, who is called the active partner, is
entitled to receive a stated sum in the form of salary over and
above his share of profits. Whatever be the share which in-
dividual partners have in a concern, the whole are equally
liable for the debts incurred by the company, because the
public give credit only on the faith that the company gener-
ally is responsible. He who draws the smallest fraction of
profit, failing the others, may be compelled to pay the whole
debts.

Public companies are very different ; they consist of a large
body of partners, or proprietors of shares, the aggregate
amount of which forms a joint stock, and hence such associa-
tions are called joint-stock companies. They are public, from
being constituted of all persons who choose to purchase
shares, and these shares or rights of partnership are also pub-
licly salable at any time without the consent of the company.
The value of a share in a joint-stock company is always the
price it will bring in the market ; and this may be either
greater or less, in any proportion, than the sum which its
owner stands credited for in the stock of the company. Un-
less specially provided for in the fundamental deed of copart-
nery, every member of a joint-stock company is liable in his
whole personal property or fortune for the debts of the con-
cern.

It is an axiom in commerce, that business is much better
conducted by single individuals for their own behoof, than by
companies of any kind ; as respects joint-stock associations,
they are only useful in very great concerns requiring enormous
capital, and involving serious risks of loss.

Capital. — The capital of a merchant is strictly the amount
of money which he embarks in his trade, or trades upon, that
is, employs for buying goods, paying wages of servants, and
liquidating all debts when due. When trading within the
limits of his capital, business is done upon a secure footing ;
but if he proceeds beyond these in any material degree, he is
said to be over-trading, and is exposed to the chance of ruin
or very serious embarrassment. Trading beyond the amount
of available capital, is, nevertheless, a prevailing error, and
causes innumerable bankruptcies. With a comparatively
small capital, a tradesman may carry on a large business, by
receiving payments shortly after making his outlays. By this
means, there is a rapid turning over of money, and small
profits upon the various transactions speedily mount up to a
large revenue. For example, if a tradesman turn over his
capital twelve times in the year, at each time receiving money
for what he sells, he can afford to do business on a twelve
times less profit than if he could turn over the same capital
only once in a year. This leads to a consideration of credit.

Credit. — Credit in business is of the nature of a loan, and

is founded on a confidence in the integrity of the person cred-
ited, or the borrower. An individual wishes to buy an article
from a tradesman, but he has not money to pay for it, and re-
quires to have it on credit, giving either a special or implied
promise to pay its value at a future time. This is getting
credit ; and it is clear that the seller is a lender to the buyer.
In all such cases, the seller must be remunerated for makhig
his loan. He cannot afford to sell on credit on the same fa-
vorable terms as for ready money ; because, if he were to re-
ceive the money when he sold the article, he could lay it out
to some advantage, or turn it over with other portions of his
capital. By taking credit, the buyer deprives the seller of
the opportunity of making this profit, and accordingly he
must pay a higher price for the article, the price being in-
creased in proportion to the length of credit. It very ordi-
narily happens that the seller himself has purchased the article
on credit ; but this only serves to increase its price to the con-
sumer, and does not prevent the last seller from charging for
the credit which he gives and the risk of ultimate non-payment
which he iTins. Credit for a short period is almost essential in
all great transactions ; but when going beyond fair and reason-
able limits, it acts most perniciously on trade, by inducing
heedless speculation, and causing an undue increase in the
number of dealers with little or no capital. An excessive
competition among these penniless adventurers is the conse-
quence ; each strives to undersell the other, with the hope of
getting money to meet his obligations, and thus vast quantities
of goods are sometimes thrown upon the market below the
original cost, greatly to the injury of the manufacturer and
the regular trader. What are called "gluts in the market"
frequently ensue from causes of this nature.

Orders. — An order is a request from one dealer to another
to supply certain goods. An order, when in writing, should
be plain, explicit, and contain no more words than are neces-
sary to convey the sense in a simple, courteous manner. The
same rule applies to all letters of business, which, by the
practice of trade, are confined to their legitimate object.
A business man's letters should be plain, concise, and to the
purpose ; no quaint expressions, no book-phrases ; and yet
they must be full and suflScient to express what he means, so as
not to be doubtful, much less unintelligible.

Counting-house — In French bureau ; in Dutch kantoor.
The counting-house is the office in which a merchant's literary
correspondence, book-keeping, and other business is con-
ducted. The counting-house should be a model of neatness
and regularity. • Its furniture consists chiefly of desks for the
clerks and the books of the establishment, which are secured
at night in an iron or fire-proof safe. Almost every different
business requires a different set of books, but the mode of
keeping them is generally the same. The uspal set of books
comprises a day-book, in which sales or purchases on credit
are individually entered as they occur ; a ledger, into which
all these entries are engrossed in separate accounts ; a journal
or note book, for entering miscellaneous transactions ; a cash-
book, in which every payment or receipt of money is regularly
entered ; a letter-book, into which the letters are copied before
they are sent off; and a bill-book, for»the entering of bills
payable and receivable. In large concerns there are various

COMMERCE.

677

other books, as foreign ledger, town ledger, country ledger,
etc. The strictest care and accuracy are desirable. It is an
understood rule that no book should show a blot or eras-
ure ; a leaf, also, should never on any account be torn out,
whatever blotch or error it contains. The reason for
this scrupulous care is, that a merchant's books should
be a clear and faithful mirror of his transactions, and
an evidence of his integrity. In the case of misfortune in
trade, or other circumstance, the books may be subjected to
a rigid judicial examination, and the appearance of an
erasure or torn-out leaf may lead to conjectures of an unpleas-
ant nature and consequences. When an important error
occurs in book-keeping, it is better to let it remain and write
error below it, than to make a large erasure or to cut out the
leaf.

From the books kept by a merchant, a condensed view of
his affairs ought to be annually made up. This document
contains an inventory or list of goods, money, debts owing to
the merchant, or other available property, also a contra list of
all debts and other obligations due by the merchant. Both
being balanced, the residue, whether for or against the mer-
chant, is at once observable. Every man in trade, for at
least his own satisfaction and government, should piake up a
balance-sheet of this nature annually.

Bill of Parcels. — An account or list of items of goods,
with the price of each, given to their purchaser by the seller,
or delivered along with the goods at the purchaser's house.
Should a purchaser dispute the delivery of the goods, it is
necessary to produce proof of the fact; when delivered to car-
riers, a receipt is usually given by subscribing a parcel book.

Invoice. — A bill or account of goods, which is forwarded
separately, announcing the date of their dispatch and the par-
ticular conveyance by which they are sent. If the seller fail
to forward an invoice by mail, and the goods be lost at sea
while on their way, the purchaser is not answerable, for he is
not supposed to know how or when the goods were sent, and
therefore could not insure against their loss. The careful
sending of invoices forms an important duty of a merchant's
clerk.

Invoices of merchandise imported into the United States,
are required by law to be made out in the weights, measures,
and the currency of the country or place from which the im-
portation is made, and to be verified before a consul or com-
mercial agent ot the United States, if there be such officer at
the place, if not then before any public officer authorized to
administer oaths.

Bill of Lading. — A formal acknowledgment or receipt
given by sailing masters for goods put on board their vessels,
including a promise to deliver them safely as marked and
addressed to their designed destination, always, however, ex-
cepting loss or injury by the act of God, the nation's enemies,
fire, or the dangers or accidents of the sea. The certificates
generally in use in the United States except only the dan-
gers of the sea, and are made out in triplicate ; the master
retains one bill, the shipper one, and the third is forwarded
to the consignee. The receipt of a railroad freight agent, or
captain of a canal or steamboat, is equivalent to a bill of
lading as between the original parties, but in the hands of an

assignee there is a distinction. The bill of lading is assign-
able, and the assignee is entitled to the goods, subject
however to the shipper's right.

Lloyd's. — Lloyd is not the designation of any individual
or of any company : it is a name used in reference to a set of
subscription rooms or coffee-house, in London. Formerly the
place of resort was in the Royal Exchange, but since the de-
struction of that building by fire, the place of meeting is in
the neighborhood of that locality. One of the rooms at Lloyd's
is devoted to subscribers who follow the profession of marine
insurers, technically called underwriters, from their writing
under, or subscribing to, certain obligations in deeds presented
for their acceptance. When a person wishes to insure a ship,
or goods in a ship, against damage or loss at sea, he offers the
risk to these underwriters, and they are at liberty to accept it
for a specified premium. The policy or deed expressive of
the insurance is usually signed by more than one underwriter,
so as to divide the risk. Lloyd's is not only a center point in
the metropolis for all sea insurance business, but is the place
to which every species of intelligence respecting shipping is
forwarded from all parts of the world ; and this information is
exhibited publicly in one of the rooms, for the inspection of
all. The intelligence is for the most part sent by appointed
agents, one part of whose duty consists in investigating the
cause of damage to vessels, and taking charge of wrecked
property for behoof of the underwriters, whoever they may be.
The lists made up and exhibited at Lloyd's furnish authentic
information for the use of merchants and shippers of goods all
over the united kingdom,

Dutch Auction. — In common auction, the highest bidder
by competition is the purchaser : but according to the process
of sale called Dutch auction, there is different mode of deter-
mining the successful bidder. According to this plan, the
article is put up at a certain nominal price, which is gradually
lowered, and the first who speaks and offers the sum mentioned
by the auctioneer is at once knocked down as the purchaser.
This is the fairest mode of auctioneering ; it prevents com-
petition, and the article brings its exact value — that which it
is worth in the estimation of those present.

Insolvency, Bankruptcy. — When a person is not in
circumstances to pay his debts in full, he is insolvent, which is
nearly equivalent to being bankrupt ; the term bankrupt,
however, is more commonly applied to one who is legally an-
nounced as being insolvent. The term bankrupt is derived
from bancus a bench, and ruptus broken, in allusion to the
benches formerly used by the money-dealers in Italy, which
were broken in case of their failure to pay their debts. The
law prescribes a certain form of procedure in the case of com-
mercial insolvency, which has the effect of deliberately inves-
tigating the cause of the misfortune, and relieving the bank-
rupt from all obligations, on yielding up his entire property.
A bankrupt in the United States who has received a discharge
or certificate from a competent authority, being released from
all pecuniary claims, may again enter business for his own
behoof without any fear of molestation ; but a debtor who has
merely taken the benefit of the Insolvent Act in England, or
process of cessio bonorum in Scotland, though immediately
relieved from prison and left at liberty to pursue any line of

678

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industry, the property he may accumulate is at all times liable
to seizure by his former creditors.

A commission of bankruptcy in Scotland is entitled a seques-
tration, meaning that the property of the bankrupt is officially
sequestrated, or taken possession of, for behoof of creditors.

Customs. — The revenue duties levied on imported goods,
usually called customs duties. The place appointed by the
government at ports of entry where vessels and merchandise
are entered and duties upon imported goods are collected, and
where vessels obtain their clearance and other papers, is
called a custom-house j the collectors, appraisers, surveyors,
naval officers and their deputies, examiners, clerks at the
head of divisions, inspectors, gaugero and weighers, but not
subordinate clerks, are called custom-house officers, and are
sworn to faithful service ; the persons who act for merchants
in the business of entering and clearing goods and vessels,
and in the transactions of general business, are known officially
as custom-house brokers. A custom-house entry is a state-
ment made in writing to the collector of the district, by the
owners or consignees of the merchandise on board any ship or
vessel, which they desire to land. While the taxes or duties
laid on articles produced and consumed at home, are generally
qualified by the adjective " excise," and are best known in the
United States as " internal revenue " taxes — the tax imposed
upon retailers of liquors, wines, and beer, in the form of a
license to conduct such business, emanates in many of the large
cities from an appointive body known as a Board of Excise —
duties is the official name in the United States for the taxes
levied or imposed by the government on foreign goods im-
ported into the country ; also money paid to the government
on exporting goods. The former is called import duty, the
latter export duty. Foreign goods are said to be bonded, when
the payment of the duties is secured by a bond, or when
warehoused in a government store, and under the control of
the collector of the port until entered for consumption and
the duties are paid. Bonded warehouses are buildings in
which imported merchandise is stored until the importer
makes entry for withdrawal for consumption and pays the du-
ties, or until he withdraws the merchandise for re-exportation
to a foreign country without paying the duties. These stores
are owned and conducted by private individuals, and their oc-
cupation is termed " the storage business." Such stores are
required to be first-class fire-proof buildings, and to used for
no other business, and they must be approved by the Secre-
tary of the Treasury before receiving any merchandise. A
government officer is placed in charge of every store, at the
expense of the owner, and the business is conducted under
voluminous provisions and requirements established by the
government. The officer of the customs detailed to take charge
of a bonded warehouse, and under whose supervision bonded
goods are received and delivered from the store, is called a
bonded store-keeper. Goods, wares, and merchandise imported
into the United States, subject to the payment of ad valorem
duties, are required bylaw to be appraised at their "actual
market value," at the time and place of export. As it is fre-
quently very difficult -to establish an actual market value in a
foreign port, many goods being made only and expressly for
foreign markets, and not sold nor offered for sale at the place

of their manufacture or shipment, serious litigations often
arise between the merchant and the government. This diffi-
culty has led to the recognition by the commercial world of
the distinctions, cash value, market value, and intrinsic value,
although the laws name but one — the " actual market value."

Tonnage Duty is a duty imposed for the purpose of
revenue, and is levied upon all vessels engaged in foreign
commerce, and also, except in certain cases specially exempted
by law, on all vessels engaged in domestic trade. These duties
are required to be paid by vessels before clearance papers will
be granted, or on their arrival before permits will be given to
discharge their cargoes. Tonnage is the gauge of a ship's
dimensions, nominally understood to be the number of tons
burden that a ship will carry. The rates of duty fixed by law
on each article of merchandise imported from foreign coun-
tries, form the tariff, the details of which differ with every
country.

Debenture. — This is a formal certificate given by the col-
lector of a port of entry to an importer, for drawback of duties
on imported merchandise, the duties on which, when the
merchandise is exported, are to be refunded. Debentured
goods, are merchandise upon which the drawback has been
paid.

Bill of Health. — In order to prevent a spread of contagious
diseases, stringent laws are enforced throughout the United
States, through the medium of a National Board of Health
and State and City Boards. A bill of health is a certificate
from the mayor of a city, a board of health, consul, collector
of the port, or other authority constituted for the purpose, as
to contagious diseases in. the port of departure, and to the
state of health of a ship's crew and passengers at the time of
her leaving. A strict quarantine is established Ih the lower
bay of New York, at which all in-coming vessels are compelled
to report. If any contagious disease prevails, the vessel is de-
tained and fumigated until all danger is past.

Bill of Entry, a written account or inventory of goods
entered at the custom house, whether imported or intended for
exportation.

Bill of Sale, a writing given by the seller of goods or mer-
chandise to the purchaser, by which the seller conveys away
the right and interest he has in the goods therein named. In
the United States it may be given without a seal, but the laws
of Great Britain require it to be under seal.

Bill of Sight, in England, an order obtained by the con-
signee of goods, of the quantity and quality of which he is
ignorant, to enter them by bill of sight.

Trade and Commerce. — These words are nearly synony-
mous, but in their use thus connected the word " trade" conveys
the idea of home or domestic traffic, and the word " commerce "
the idea of more extensive traffic, foreign, varied, and whole-
sale.

Bill of Exchange. — The common bill of exchange is an
order drawn on a person or banking-house, requesting him or it
to pay money to some person, or to the order of a person named
therein. The person who draws the bill or draft is called the
drawer ; the one on whom the demand is made is called the
drawee ; and the person to whom the money is directed to be
paid is called the payee. The indorser writes his name on the

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back of the bill ; he to whom the bill is transferred by such
indorsement is the indorsee ; and whoever is entitled to receive
the' payment is the holder.

(Vide Forms of Commercial Papers.)

Promissory Note. — This is a promise or engagement in
writing to pay a specified sum at a time therein limited, or on
demand, or at sight, to a person therein named, or his order
or assigns, or to the bearer. If the note is given with a speci-
fied rate of interest, it is a negotiable note, and may be bought
and sold without difficulty.

A NEGOTIABLE NOTE.

I500. New York, N. Y., Dec. i, 1882.

Three months after date, for value received, I promise to
pay John Smith, or order, Five Hundred Dollars, with interest.

John Brown.

NOTE NOT NEGOTIABLE.

|i,ooo. Chicago, III., Nov. 30, 1882.

Nine months after date, for value received, I promise to pay
John Brown, One Thousand Dollars.

John Smith.

A MARRIED WOMAN'S NOTE (NEW YORK
STATE).

$330. Brooklyn, N. Y., Dec. 15, 1882.

For value received, I promise to pay James G. Sanderson, or
order, Three Hundred and Fifty Dollars, one year from date,
with interest. And I hereby charge my individual property
and estate with the payment of this note.

Louise R. Chandler.

NEGOTIABLE NOTE IN MISSOURI.

$100. St. Louis, Mo., Oct. 30, 1882.

Three months after date, I promise to pay to H. B. Brown,
One Hundred Dollars, for value received ; negotiable and pay-
able without defalcation or discount .

George Wilson, Jr.

A CASH DUE-BILL.

$50. Boston, Mass., Nov. 16, 1882.

Due Ralph S. Johnson, or order, on demand. Fifty Dollars,
value received. Chas. I. Jacobs.

A MERCHANDISE DUE-BILL.

$75. San Francisco, Cal., Sept. 29, 1882.

Due John F. Morton, Seventy-five Dollars, in merchandise
from our store. Smith & Townley.

A SIGHT DRAFT.

$700. New Orleans, \aK.,July ^, 1882.

At sight, pay to the order of Mrs. Jane Wilson, Seven
Hundred Dollars, value received, and charge the same to my
account. F. G. Alberson.

To First National Bank,

Rome, N. Y.

A TIME DRAFT.

$25. Syracuse, N. Y., Oct. i, 1882.

Thirty days after date, pay to the order of S. E. Buck,
Twenty-five Dollars, value received, and charge to our
account. MoORE & RiCHARDS.

To H. V. Rose,

Washington, D. C.

A BILL OF EXCHANGE.
I.

Exchange for

;^50o. New York, N. Y., Dec. 10, 1882.

Sixty days after sight of this First of Exchange (second and

third unpaid), pay to the order of

Stephen G. Reynolds Five Hundred Pounds

Sterling Value received, and charge the same

to account JOHN Y. St ANTON.

To Baring Bros.,

London, Eng,

No. 172.

Exchange for

;^5oo. New York, N. Y., Dec. 10, 1882.

Sixty days after sight of this Second of Exchange (first and

third unpaid), pay to the order of

Stephen G. Reynolds Five Hundred Pounds

Sterling Value received, and charge the same

to account JOHN Y. SXANTON.

To Baring Bros.,

London, Eng.

No. 172.

Exchange for

;^500. New York, N. Y., Dee. 10, 1882.

Sixty days after sight of this Third of exchange (first and

second unpaid), pay to the order of

Stephen G. . Reynolds Five Hundred Pounds

Sterling Value received, and charge the same

to account John Y. Stanton.

To Baring Bros.,

London, Eng.

No. 172.

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MONEY.

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KINS of wild animals cured constitute one of
the earliest forms of currency known, and while
employed in the most ancient times, are not yet
disused in some portions of the world. Such a
medium seems appropriate among those who
subsist by the chase, as all primeval peoples must
in some degree, and it is not, therefore, surprising to
find that in the transactions of the Hudson Bay Fur
Company with the Indians the unit of value by which the price
of other articles was reckoned was the beaver skin.

Pastoral people employ similarly the skins of tame animals,
originally delivering the entire skin, a cumbrous process de-
ficient in convenience and economy, but finally employing a
small disk cut from the leather as a representative of its value.
Live stock is also widely employed, as it has been from the
days of Abraham, and though a rude, it is still a substantially
uniform, denominator of value. The Greeks stamped the
image of an ox on a piece of leather, and the image had
thence the current value of the animal represented. In the
East, the camel, the ass and the sheep have been, ever since
they were subdued to the uses of mankind, employed to
reckon possessions or determine the amount of tribute or mar-
riage portions. In Lapland and some portions of Sweden and
Norway the amount of wealth possessed by a person is de-
nominated in reindeer. Among the Tartars the number of
mares similarly determines the opulence of their possessors.
Among the Esquimaux it is customary to speak of one another
as worth so many dogs.

Slaves have been employed to determine ratios of value
since the state of bondage was first established among men.
In New Guinea the slave is still the unit by which the value of
other possessions is recorded, as he used to be among the Por-
tuguese traders of the Gold Coast. The Portuguese also found
small mats called libongoes, valued at about i| pence each,
employed as currency on the African coast, and bunches of red
feathers serve by their comparative stability to mark the fluc-
tuations of yams and breech-clouts in some of the tropical
islands of the Pacific. Some tribes of North American Indians
found wampum as useful in their rather limited mercantile

transactions as the merchant of South street or Burling slip
finds greenbacks or bills of exchange.

Cowry shells are still extensively used in East India, Siam,
and among some of the islands of the Indian Archipelago.
Among the Fijians whales' teeth pass readily from hand to
hand, effecting all necessary interchanges, the red teeth being
taken at about twenty times the value of the white ones.

Ornaments of all kinds have in all times constituted meas-
ures of value. In Egypt, Phoenicia, Etruria, and many other
ancient countries, as well as in Ireland and Northumbria,
rings have been found which were designed to serve the
double purpose of ornament and currency, and the same dual
function may be ascribed to the anklets, armlets, and ear-rings
which are worn throughout, British India, Persia, Egypt, and
Abyssinia. The Goths and Celts fashioned their rings of
thick golden wire wound in spirals, from which various
lengths could be broken to accommodate the varying needs of
traffic. Gold chains have been similarly employed. In many
countries golden beads are yet hoarded, worn, and circulated,
fulfilling thus the triple functions of money, inasmuch as they
constitute at once a store of value, a standard of value, and an
instrument of exchange. Amber was used as currency by the
savage races of the Baltic in the period of the Roman domin-
ion, as it still is in some of the regions of the East. The
Egyptian scarabee carved on sard or nephrite or other precious
stones, circulated freely throughout the Mediterranean coasts
and islands probably before the first Phoenician coin was im-
pressed ; and engraved gems and precious stones were em-
ployed to transfer wealth as well from one country to another
as from hand to hand until a comparatively recent period. In
Africa ivory tusks pass to and fro in the processes of trade,
rudely defining the ratio of value of other articles. Among
the Tartars, bricks of tea, or cubes of that herb pressed into a
solid form, pass from hand to hand as freely as beaver skins
do at the trading posts of Hudson Bay or the Saskatchewan.
Among the Malayans the only currency entirely equal to the
requirements of trade consists of rough hardware, such as
hoes, shovels, and the like. Pieces of cotton cloth of a fixed
length, called Guinea cloth, for a long period constituted the
unit of value in Senegal, Abyssinia, Mexico, Peru, Siberia,

MONEY.

68 1

and some of the islands of the Pacific Ocean. In Sumatra,
cubes of bees-wax of a fixed weight ; in Scotland, hand-made
nails; in Switzerland, eggs ; in Newfoundland, dried cod-fish;
in Virginia, tobacco ; in Yucatan, cacao nuts ; in the Greek
Islands and the Levant, olive-oil ; in the regions of the Upper
Nile, salt, have all, at one time or another, served the pur-
poses of commercial interchange. In agricultural countries it
is not strange that com should have early been adopted as a
measure of value. The leases of the great school foundations
of Britain, Cambridge, Oxford, and Eaton, with probably
many others, were "com leases," that is, specifying that the
rental should consist of so many quarters of com. In Nor-
way, com is deposited in banks and lent and borrowed on
time or call loans, as money is with us. In Central America
and Mexico, maize was long employed to serve the uses of
currency.

In New England, in the early colonial days, leaden bullets
were employed to indicate value, and that metal is still coined
and circulated in Burmah. Pewter has often been coined, and
in many countries, though not to the same extent as tin. In
fact tin coins are not only of immense antiquity, but their im-
press has been sanctioned by government authority down- to a
recent period. The Phoenician mariners freighted their gal-
leys with the tin of Britain before Carthage was founded, and
coins of the same oiled the wheels of commerce in the marts
of Tyre and Sidon before Solomon built the temple at Jemsa-
lem. In England, as late as the period of William and Mary,
tin half-pence and farthings were stmck, though they failed
to become a permanent part of the circulation. In numismati-
cal collections, series of tin coins stamped with the effigy and
legend of several of the Roman emperors, are abundant. In
Java as well as Mexico, tin coins were once current, and the
metal, measured by weight, is still a sort of legal tender in the
Straits of Malacca.

METALLIC MONEY. .

In all civilized countries, gold, silvfer, and copper have
always constituted the main elements of coinage and the most
familiar forms of currency. The ratio of value between the
first two has probably varied less during the last 2,500 years
than that between any other known substances. Copper has
fluctuated more, but its function has always been subsidiary
and limited to small transactions. In the hierarchy of the
metals used as coins, gold may represent the king, silver the
lord, and copper the aiave. The latter is now practically
emancipated, bronze and nickel taking its place. Indium,
osmium, and palladium have been proposed as substitutes for
gold, and aluminum and manganese for silver, but without
any practical result thus far. Platinum, which is mainly found
in the Ural Mountains, has been coined to some extent by the
Russian Government ; but, although a beautiful and valuable
metal, possessing many of the qualities to render it acceptable
as coin, its employment as money has been found to be im-
practicable.

Great numbers of alloys have been employed in coinage,
and indeed it may be said that almost the entire system of
metallic currency throughout the world is composed of alloys.
The Tuscan sequin, the purest coin known in history, con-

tained 999 parts of gold in 1,000. The six-ducat piece of
Naples was next in purity, having only an alloy of 4, while
old Byzantine coins called bezants contained an alloy of 14
parts in 1,000. Pure gold and silver, however, are soft metals,
and untempered by others are subject to serious loss by abra-
sion. They are, therefore, rendered more useful by the ad-
mixture of a small portion of copper, which, in the English
system, in the case of gold, may be expressed decimally by
916.66, and of silver 925 parts in 1,000. Nickel is usually
alloyed with three parts of copper, and it is noteworthy that
its adoption as a subsidiary coinage in Germany, coincident
with the demonetization of silver, caused it to advance rapidly
in price, while the latter was as rapidly declining. The old
Roman as was made of the mixed metal called ces, a compound
of copper and tin, and in quality and value not unlike bronze.
Brass was also extensively used from the time of Hiram of
Tyre to that of the Emperor Otho. The old Kings of North-
umbria coined a small money called stycas out of a natural
alloy, composed of copper, zinc, gold, silver, lead, and tin,
which the metallurgists of that rude northern coast had not
enough chemical skill to separate.

Lycurgus established an iron coinage for Lacedsemon, not
only making the coins of such weight and bulk as to forbid
their export, but depriving them of their metallic value by
causing them while heated to be plunged into vinegar, thereby
destroying their malleability.

While these coins were the largest of which historic mention
is made, the Portuguese rei, too small to be actually coined, is
doubtless the smallest unit of value in the money systems of
the world. It is only about the nineteenth part of an English
penny, and. is considerably smaller than the Chinese cash,
which, of actual coins, is perhaps of the lowest value known^
In Sweden, during the last century, huge squares of copper
weighing between three and four pounds, with a stamp in
each comer and one in the center, M'ere issued as coin, and
curious specimens of them may still be seen in numismatical
collections. These, with the Maundy money, a small por-
tion of which is still annually struck at the British Mint and
distributed by her Majesty in alms, probably represent the
extremes! variation of dimensions known among modern
systems of coinage, the smallest piece of the Maundy money
being a silver penny.

The Chinese probably illustrate in the most extreme manner
the length to which loose views concerning currency can be
carried. The history of their currency presents that mingling
of the grotesque with the tragic -which most of their actions
have when viewed through Western eyes. Coined money was
known among them as early as the eleventh century before
Christ, but their inability to comprehend the principles upon
which a currency should be based has led them into all sorts
of extravagances, which have been attended by disorder,
famine, and bloodshed. Coins came at last to be made so
thin that one thousand of them piled together were only three
inches high ; then gold and silver were abandoned ; and cop-
per, tin, shells, skins, stones, and paper were given a fixed
value and used until, by abuse, all the advantages to be derived
from the use of money were lost, and there was nothing left
for the people to do but to go back to barter, and this they did

1 682

MONEY.

more than once. They cannot be said now to have a coinage ;
2,900 years ago they made round coins with a square hole in
the middle, and they have made no advance beyond that
since. The well-known casA is a cast-brass coin of that de-
scription, and although it is valued at about one mill and a
half of United States money, and has to be strung in lots of
one thousand to be computed with any ease, it is the sole
measure of value and legal tender of the country. Spanish,
Mexican, and the new trade dollars of the United States are
employed in China ; they pass because they are necessary for
larger operations, and because faith in their standard value
has become established ; but they are current simply as stamped
ingots, with their weight and fineness indicated.

The coined money of Great Britain is the most elegantly
executed, and among the purest in the world. The greater
part of the continental coinage is poorly executed and basely
alloyed. In Holland, and most of the German States, the
coins legally current as silver money are apparently one-third
brass, and resemble the counterfeit shillings and sixpences of
a former period in England. In France and Belgium, the
new gold and silver coins are handsome, and so likewise are
the large gold and silver pieces of Prussia. The coins and
medals executed by direction of Napoleon in France are in a
high style of art.

The Latin Monetary Union was established in December,
1865, for the purpose of maintaining the double standard of
metallic currency, or keeping silver at a constant ratio with
gold. The combination was formed by a union of France,
Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland.

The possible depreciation of silver was foreseen, and some
of its fluctuations had been experienced, but it was thought
that, by a close union of silver-using powers rating silver at a
common value, its price could be made permanent. At first
the combination proceeded boldly. It threw open the mints
of the Union to bullion owners, declaring that it would coin
silver at the ratio to gold that it had established of fifteen and
one-half to one, and proclaimed that the coins thus issued
should have in the markets both a legal tender efficiency and
an intrinsic efficiency in exchange exactly represented by that
proportion.

The plan worked well until the year 1S73, when Germany
demonetized silver. But in the mean time it was sought to
give the double standard a broader foundation by bringing
other nations into the combination. For this purpose, at the
invitation of the French government, forty-five representatives
of twenty-three countries met at Paris in 1867. The proposed
double standard was examined and discussed from every point
of view by men skilled in financial science, and was at last
rejected by a vote of forty-three to two. In 1870 there was a
second gathering of the same kind, which, by a smaller ma-
jority, arrived at the same conclusion. Meantime silver had
begun to accumulate, and depreciation to foreshadow itself
more clearly. The demonetization of the metal by Germany
gave the first sharp alarm. The Union was immediately
forced to limit the coinage for 1874 to $24,000,000. This
was increased to $30,000,000 in 1875, but again reduced in
1876 to $24,000,000, and in 1877 to $11,600,000. In the
mean time, also, France, Belgium, and Switzerland stopped

the coinage of five- franc pieces, thus reducing what silver they
had to a large subsidiary currency. Later signs of the dissolu-
tion of the Union with the defeat of its objects were supplied
by the failure of the monetary conference at Paris, and by the
withdrawal of Switzerland from the Union.

GREAT BRITAIN, COINED MONEY OF.

In Great Britain money of the current and standard coinage
is frequently signified by the term sterlvig, as "one pound
sterling," etc. With respect to the origin of the word sterling?
there are three opinions. The first is that it is derived from
Sterling Castle, and that Edward I., having penetrated so far
into Scotland, caused a coin to be struck there, which he called
Sterling. The second opinion derives it from the figure of a
bird called starling, which appears about the cross in the
ancient arms of England. The third most probably assigns
its true origin, by deducing it from Esterling ; for in the time
of Henry III. it is called Moneta Esierlingorum, the money of
the Esterlings or people of the East, who came hither to refine
the silver of which it was made, and hence it was valued more
than any other coin, on account of the purity of its substance.
The denomination of the weights and their parts is of the
Saxon or Esterling tongue, as pound, shilling, penny, and
farthing, which are so called in their language to the present
day. The term sterling is now disused in England in all
ordinary transactions, but is still used in Scotland to distin-
guish sums from the ancient money of the country, as referred
to in old deeds and notices of pecuniary transactions. The
old Scots' money, previous to the Union of 1707, was in
pounds, shillings, and pence, but these were only a twelfth of
the value of sterling money of the same denomination ; thus a
pound Scots was only twenty pence sterling. The word ster-
ling is also in use in the colonies, to distinguish the legal
standard of Great Britain from the currency money in these
places.

It is customary to estimate the purity of gold by an imagi-
nary standard of 24 carats. If in a piece of gold weighing 24
carats there be i-24th of alloy, then the piece is one below
the standard. What is called jewelers' gold is seldom purer
than 20 fine to 4 of alloy — the alloy being usually silver, but
sometimes copper, which gives a deeper red tinge to the metal.
Perfectly pure gold is never seen either in trinkets or coins,
for it is too ductile, and for that and other reasons requires a
certain quantity of alloy. Sovereigns, and other modem
English gold coins, contain one -twelfth of alloy, but this
twelfth is not reckoned as gold in point of value. At pres-
ent the gold coin of Great Britain is issued at very nearly its
precise market value as bullion. A pound weight of gold of
22 carats fineness produces coins to the amount of
£/[6 14s. 6d., which is about the price at which bullion sells
for in the market. Thus the gold of that country is coined
free of expense. In coining silver, the government is allowed,
by the Act of 56 Geo. III., a profit or seigniorage of about
six per cent. ; the pound weight of silver, which should pro-
duce 62 shillings, being coined into 66 shillings. The silver
coins being therefore of a little less real value than the sums
they represent, they are not liable to be melted down by silver-
smiths for the manufacture of articles in their trade.

MONEY.

683

The word money is from the Temple of Juno Moneta, in
which money was first coined by the ancients. Pecunimy is
from pecus, a flock — flocks and herds of animals being origi-
nally equivalent to money, or things constituting wealth. Cash,
in commerce, signifies ready money, or actual coin paid on the
instant, and is from the French word caisse, a coffer or chest
in which money is kept. Pound never was a coin ; the term
was originally employed to signify a pound weight of silver,
but afterwards it was employed to mean twenty shillings in tale,
or by counting. Guinea took its name from the coast of
Guinea in Africa, whence the gold for it was originally brought;
at first, the piece was current at twenty shillings, afterwards it
was equal to 2is. 6d., and finally settled at 2is. In the pres-
ent day the guinea is not coined, and the term only remains to
indicate 2 is. Honorary fees and gifts are still usually reck-
oned in guineas, though paid in other money. Shilling and
penny are both from Saxon words ; the penny was first coined
in silver. Groat was a name given to silver pieces equal to

four pennies in value, coined by Edward III. ; the word groat
is a corruption ol grosses or great pieces, and was given to dis-
tinguish this larger coinage from pennies or small coins.
Farthing is a corruption of foiirthing, or the fourth part of a
penny.

UNITED STATES, COINED MONEY OF THE.

What is termed money in the United States now consists of
gold, silver, nickel and composition coins, and the paper cur-
rency, or bills, issued by the banks under a national banking
law.

In compliance with the first section of the Act of March 3,
1873, the director of the mint made the subjoined estimate of
the value in United States money of the standard coins of
foreign countries, and by order of the Secretary of the Treas-
ury, January i, 1880, these rates were to be taken in estimat-
ing the values of all foreign merchandise made out in any of
said currencies, imported on and after that date.

Austria

Belgium

Bolivia

Brazil

British Pos. in N. A,
Central America. . . .

Chili

Denmark

Ecuador , ,

Egypt

France

Great Britain

Greece

German Empire

India

Italy

Japan

Liberia

Mexico

Netherlands

Norway

Peru

Portugal

Russia

Sandwich Islands. . .

Spain

Sweden

Switzerland

Tripoli

Turkey

U. S. of Colombia...

MONETARY UNIT.

Florin

Franc

Boliviano

Milreis, i.oooreis

Dollar

Peso

Peso.

Crown

Peso

Pound, 100 Piasters. . . .

Franc

Pound Sterling

Drachma

Mark

Rupee, 16 annas

Lira.

Yen (gold)

Dollar

Florin

Crown

Sol

Milreis, 1,000 reis

Rouble, 100 copecks . . .

Dollar

Peseta, lOO centimes. . .

Crown

Franc

Mahbub, 20 piasters.. . .

Piaster

Peso

STANDARD.

Silver

Gold and Silver. . .

Silver

Gold

Silver

Gold

Silver

Gold

Gold and Silver... .

Gold

Gold and Silver... .

Gold

Silver

Gold and Silver.. . .
Gold and Silver.. . .

Gold

Silver

Gold and Silver. . .

Gold

Silver

Gold

Silver

Gold

Gold and Silver. . . .

Gold

Gold and Silver

Silver

Gold

Silver

VAL. IN U.
MONEY.

•41,3
•19,3
•83,6

54,5

83,6

91,2

26,8

83,6

974

19,3

86,6J

•19,3

.23,8

.39,7

.19.3

.99.7

.00

.90,9

.40,2

.26,8

•83.6

.08

.66,9

.00

• 19.3
.26,8

•19.3
•74,8
.04.4
.83,6

STANDARD COIN.

5, 10, and 20 francs.
Boliviano.

Peso.

Condor, doubloon, and escudo.

lo and 20 crowns.

Peso.

5, 10, 25, and 50 piasters.

5, 10, and 20 francs.

^ sovereign and sovereign.

5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 drachmas.

5, 10, and 20 marks.

5, 10, 20, 50, and loolire.

1, 2, 5, 10, and 20 yen.

Peso or dollar, 5, 10, 25 and 50 centavo*.

10 and 20 crowns.
Sol.

2, 5, and 10 milreis.

4, i, and I rouble.

5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 pesetas.
10 and 20 crowns.

5, 10, and 20 francs. *

25, 50, 100, 250, and 500 piasters.
Peso.

The gold pieces are :

1. The double eagle, or $20 piece. Coinage of the double
eagle was authorized by the Act of March 3, 1849. Its weight is
516 grains. Its fineness is 900. (This technical form of ex-
pression means that 900 parts in 1,000 are pure metal,
the other 100 parts are alloy.) The amount of coinage of the
double eagle is far greater than that of all the other gold
pieces of the country.

2. The eagle, or $10 piece. Its coinage was authorized by

the Act of April 2, 1792. The weight was first established by
law at 270 grains, but was changed forty-two years afterward,
by the Act of June 28, 1834, to 258 grains, where it has re-
mained ever since. Its fineness was in the beginning made
9165, but was changed by the Act of June 28, 1834, the same
Act that lowered its weight, to 899.225. Two years and a half
subsequently its fineness was increased — less than one part in
a thousand — to 900. Its weight and fineness have remained
thus fixed to the present day.

684

MONEY.

4r-

3. The half eagle, or |5 piece. This elegant coin has un-
dergone the same vicissitudes as the eagle. Its coinage was
authorized by the same Act of April 2, 1792. Its weight was
135 grains and its fineness gi6J. By the Act of June 28,
i8j4, its weight was reduced to 129 grains and its fineness to
899.225. By the act of January 16, 1857, its fineness was
slightly raised to the uniform standard of 900. Its weight
and fineness have thus remained to our time.

4. The quarter eagle, or $2.50 piece. This fine coin be-
longs to the same family with the eagle and half eagle. Its
coinage was authorized, its weight and fineness correspond-
ingly altered by the same Acts. The statute of 1792 made its
weight 67.5 grains and its fineness 916^. Its weight was
reduced to 64.5 grains and its fineness to 800.225 by the Act
of 1834. The Act of 1837 raised its fineness to 900.

5. The dollar. This pretty little gold piece was created by
the Act of March 3, 1849, the same Act that authorized the
coinage of the double eagle. It has remained unchanged.
Its weight is 25.8 grains and its fineness 900.

6. Three-dollar piece. An act of February 21, 1853, estab-
lished this irregular coin. Its weight, 77.4 grains, and its
fineness, 900, are of the normal standard, and have not been
changed by subsequent Acts.

In gold coin the alloy was at first a compound of silver and
copper. It was forbidden by statute that the alloy should be
more than half silver. It is now nearly all copper, owing to
advances in the art of assaying and improved methods in
coinage.

There are four coining mints, located at Philadelphia, Pa. ;
San Francisco, Cal. ; Carson City, Nev. ; and New Orleans,
La., the last one being put in operation on January 20, 1879.
The largest proportion of assaying and refining is done at New
York City ; Helena, Montana ; Boise City, Idaho ; and Den-
ver, Colorado.

The Philadelphia Mint is capable of turning out about
$1,500,000 in coined money a month ; the San Francisco Mint
$1,000,000, the Carson City Mint $500,000, and the New
Orleans Mint about 500.000 pieces of various denominations.
Under the law of February 28, 1878, which required that be-
tween 2,000,000 and 4,000,000 of the new (" Bland ") dollars
should be turned out by the mints every month, the coining
facilities of the government were severely tested to produce
this particular silver coin, and maintain the usual supply of
gold and subsidiary coins. Silver is sent from the assay offices
to the mints pure, or 999 fine, which is about as pure as silver
can be. It is sent in large bars, and, when received at the
mint, is melted and alloyed with copper. Coin silver is 900
fine.

The first silver coins were struck in 1794 (authorized in
1792), at the Philadelphia Mint, and consisted of 1,758 dollars
and 10.600 half dollars, and a few half dimes (5 cents), more
for curiosities than use. In the succeeding year the issue was
203,033 dollars, 323,038 half dollars, no quarters, no dimes,
and 86,416 half dimes. In 1796 the mint coined only 72,920
dollars and 3,918 half dollars, with 2,948 quarters. In 1797
the number of dollars issued was 2,776, and the mint records
state that there were no half dollars and only 252 quarters.
Dollars only were coined in 1798. In 1796 the head of Liberty

was changed, and a new head, inferior in point of comeliness,
substituted. This also had flowing locks, but these were bound
by a broad fillet, and hence the name "fillet dollars." In'
1798 there were no halves nor quarters, and there were none
in 1799, "o'" again in 1800. But in .the following year the
half dollars were commenced again, being of the fillet series,
with the heraldic eagle on the reverse.

1804 is the annus mirabilis of the American silver coins.
According to the records, 19,570 dollars were issued, 156,519
halves, and 6,738 quarters. There are but two dollars of 1804
known to exist, and these are said to have been struck surrep-
titiously from the original die at the Philadelphia mint in 1827.
The value of these two to numismaticians is enormous ; as high
as $1,000 has been refused for one of them.

The first dollar pieces (1792) confained 416 grains of silver
of 892.7 fineness, and this proportion was maintained until
1873, when the quantity of silver was reduced to 412.5 grains,
and the fineness increased to 900. The fifty-cent pieces, from
1792 to 1837, contained 20S grains, 892.7 fineness, and the
twenty-five cent pieces a proportionate amount ; and both
were subjected to a reduction in number of grains and increase
in fineness in 1873. The ten-cent pieces contained 41.6
grains, of standard fineness, and now bear 38.58 grains under
the new standard of fineness. From 185 1 to 1853, the five-
cent pieces were composed of 12.375 grains, 750 fine, and from
1853 to 1873, when their coinage was abolished, 11.52 grains,
900 fine. The old copper cents, authorized in 1792, contained
264 grains ; the next year the amount was reduced to 208, and
three years later to 168. As a purely copper token this coin
was abolished shortly after the last reduction in the number of
grains. The two-cent piece of April, 1864, contained 96
grains of copper, zinc, and tin, and was discontinued in 1873.
The half-cent pieces were established in 1792, containing 132
grains ; this amount was reduced in 1793 to 104, and in 1796
to 84. None are coined now. An Act of March, 1875,
authorized the coinage of a silver twenty-cent piece, contain-
ing 77. 16 grains, 900 fine. This coin being but a trifle smaller
than the twenty-five cent piece, led to such a general confusion
of the two, that in 1878 its coinage was stopped. But few are
now found in circulation. The one-cent piece of present use
was authorized in 1857, and consisted of 72 grains of copper
and nickel, and in 1864 this composition was changed to 48
grains of copper, zinc, and tin. Finally, the five and three
cent nickel pieces were authorized in 1866 and 1865 respect-
ively ; the latter has a comparatively small circulation.

The amount of standard silver dollars coined from February
28, 1878, to October 31, 1882, was $128,329880, of which
$93,006,382 remained in the Treasury, and $35,323,498 was
placed in circulation. Of the $30,007,175 coined in the thir-
teen months preceding October 31, 1S82, $2,950,072 went
into circulation, and $27,057,103 remained in the Treas-
ury.

The total value of the minor coin in the Treasury on Sep-
tember I, 1882, was $504,515.29. The supply of five -cent
nickel coins in the Treasury, which three years previous
reached the sum of $1,184,252.95, had been exhausted, and
their coinage was resumed by the mint. None of these coins
are supplied by the Treasury, but the one-cent and five-cent

MONEY.

68s

■J

pieces are furnished in multiples of $20 by the Mint, which
hears the expense of their transportation.

Savings Banks. — These are banks for receiving and taking
charge of small sums, the savings of industry, and were insti-
tuted for the benefit of workmen and others, who were able to
spare a little from their earnings. It is believed that Quaker
thrift in Philadelphia, Pa., led to the inception of the idea,
and that the first savings bank in the world was founded in
that city in i8i6. As the scheme grew in popularity through-
out the United States, guardians of minor children, adminis-
trators of estates of deceased persons, and other holders of
trust funds, found the savings banks very serviceable as places
of deposit for money that had to be laid away for a specified
period of time. Hence, the exigencies of business transac-
tions forced an innovation upon the original plan. In the
United States this use of savings banks is still maintained ;
but during the past fifteen years Safe Deposit and Trust Com-
panies have been numerously established for the special pur-
pose of holding funds, both in trust and in legal dispute, be-
sides securities of all kinds, jewelry, diamonds, and articles
of like value. Thus a guardian, an administrator, or a society
will invest money in Government, State, or City bonds, or, if
permitted by the terms of trust, in real estate or stock of
various corporations, and place the bond, certificate of stock,
or other acknowledgment of the indebtedness, with a Safe De-
posit or Trust Company, for safe-keeping. The savings banks
are allowed by law to invest their money in first-class securi-
ties only, so as to prevent their officers from using the fund in
the irregular pursuit of "wild cat" speculations.

The average rate of interest allowed by savings banks in the
United States on deposits is four per cent. ; it is frequently
below that rate. Some of the larger banks will not permit in-
dividual deposits beyond a special amount at one time, while
others decrease the rate of interest as the amount of deposits
increases, claiming that their vast aggregates of deposits cannot
be invested, under the law, in a manner that will warrant the
maximum rate of interest after paying current expenses.

From Philadelphia the original conception or plan of the
savings bank extended all over the United States, throughout
the United Kingdom, France, and other countries. Several
Acts of Parliament were successively passed between 1817 and
1828 for the regulation of savings banks in England ; and in
the year last mentioned the whole of these were consolidated
in one statute (9 Geo. IV., chap. 92). This Act, together with
another passed in 1833, conferring additional and important
privileges on savings banks (3 Will. IV., chap. 14), constitutes
the existing law relative to these establishments. In 1835 the
Act was extended to Scotland.

Savings banks established according to the provisions of
these acts are entitled National Security Savings Banks, be-
cause the money deposited in them is paid into the Bank of
England on account of government, whereby the nation be-
comes security for the amount of deposits — a security reckoned
the best of all that could be given to the depositors. The in-
terest given by government on the sums so deposited is ^^3
l6s. o^d. per cent, per annum, whatever may be the fluctua-
tions in the value of the public funds during the term of in-
vestment. This rate of interest being higher than what gov-

ernment could otherwise borrow money for, it happens that
the public are really losing money annually by their generosity.
The rate of interest payable to the depositors is £2 8s. s^d.
per cent, per annum.

Deposits of from cfu shilling to thirty pounds may be re-
ceived by these banks ; but no individual depositor is allowed
to lodge more than thirty pounds in one year, or than ;^I50 in
whole. Charitable and provident institutions may lodge funds
to the amount of ;^ioo in a single year, or ^^300 in all ; and
friendly societies are permitted to deposit the whole of their
funds, whatever may be their amount. Compound interest is
given on the sums lodged, the interest being added to the
principal at the end of each year in some banks, and at the
end of each half-year in others, and interest afterwards allowed
on the whole. Any depositor may receive, on demand, the
money lodged by him, if it do not amount to a considerable
sum ; and even in that case it will be returned on a few days',
or at most two or three weeks' notice. Practically, payment
is always made on demand.

Several new features of taking care of small savings have
been instituted that deserve mention in this connection. Let
us glance first at the operations of the so-called creditors' loan
societies of Germany, founded by Schulze-Delitzsch, and which
practically discharge the function of banks for workingmen.
In 1S78 these numbered upwards of 1,800, and the balances
reported by 929 show aggregate advances for the year amount-
ing to $375,000,000 — a sum which, distributed among the
laboring population, should have afforded material relief in a
time of financial stringency. The 929 reporting societies
contain nearly half a million members, and the funds deposited
in the year ending January i, 187S, amounted to nearly
$90,000,000. It appears that the total transactions for that
twelvemonth exceeded those of 1S76 by over f6,ooo,coo, and
the proportion of capital to deposits was about two per cent,
better than in the year before. The aggregate capital of all
the co-operative societies organized by Schulze-Delitzsch, and
reporting to the central office (including those intended foi
production and consumption as well as credit) is $40,000,000.

Impressive testimony to the stability and usefulness of
these workmen's banks is the success with which they have
withstood the recent prostration of industry and commerce in
the German Empire. ^Indeed, the system is so well accred-
ited by experience that it has been introduced in other parts of
Europe, and especially in Italy and Belgium, where co-oper-
ative credit banks have become numerous enough to form
unions, and hold congresses.

The second of these novel schemes is the system of Penny
Banks, introduced into England in 1857, the first being
opened at Greenock, where five thousand depositors availed
themselves of its advantages in the first year. From year to
year penny banks have been on the increase, and from recent
statistics it has been shown that at the present time progress
is in every way satisfactory.

Rapid as has been the progress of the penny-bank move-
ment in England, it is far behind France and Belgium. In
both those countries, school banks have been instituted with
much greater success than has hitherto crowned the attempt
made in England, and it is to the development of these

--^

686

MONEY.

school-banks that the marvelous increase in the total amount
deposited in savings banks generally is to be attributed. In
France, the movement is of very recent origin ; nevertheless,
up to December, 1866, penny banks had been introduced into
fifty-three out of eighty-two departments, 3,200 school banks
were established, and no fewer than 230 000 scholars had de-
posited in excess of the total limit, and had transferred their
accounts to ordinary savings banks.

In Belgium an admirable plan is adopted. Prizes are given
by the government to elementary scholars for general profi-
ciency, in the shape of a deposit book, with a small sum en-
tered therein to the credit of the recipient. In this way good
conduct is rewarded, and in addition a practical lesson in
thrift is imparted. In the years 1873-5, 1. 051 deposit books
were distributed in this way.

Mr. Oulton, the chairman of the School Management Com-
mittee of the Liverpool School Board, advocates that a sav-
ings bank should be established in every school in the king-
dom ; not merely that the school building should be used for
the purpose, as it very properly is already in many neighbor-
hoods, but that the penny bank should be " an element in the
school routine, the text-book of thrift, the visible illustration

in the object lesson of economy Penny banks should be

to the lesson on thrift what pen, ink and paper are to the les-
son on writing — the necessary concomitant." He pointed, as
an evidence of the utility of these banks, to the Liverpool
Penny Savings Bank Association, formed to sustain and ex-
tend the system of penny banks in and around Liverpool, and
to promote their efficiency and good management. In the re-
port for the year ending November 20th, 1877, it was shown
that in seventy-four banks organized by this association, there
had been 295,800 transactions during the year, ;/^i4,93i lis.
lod. had been deposited, ;^9,40i I2s. sd. withdrawn, and
;^4,o63 13s. transferred to the Liverpool Savings Bank in the
depositors' own names. There was at the end of the year an
aggregate balance of ^■4,844 9s. id. due to 22,749 depositors.
One of the most pleasing features in connection with the
movement is that so many of these banks avail themselves of
the advantages offered by the Post Office Savings Bank as re-
gards the gratuitous supply of books and information, and the
investment of their funds with the government, thus obtaining
a guaranty for their absolute security. * This leads to a con-
sideration of a third scheme. The report of the Postmaster
General published in July, 1877, gives the following particu-
During 1876, authority was given for one hundred and

lars.

seventy-two penny banks in various parts of th'e United King-
dom to invest their funds in the Post Office Savings Bank, and
since that time the progress has been even more remarkable,
one hundred and seventeen penny banks having been author-
ized during the quarter ending March 31st, 1877, exceeding
by forty-one the number during the corresponding quarter in
1876. Of these two hundred and eighty-nine penny banks,
eighteen were in board schools, twenty in Sunday schools, and
thirty in other schools, one being in a Poor-law Union-
school, under the management of the master and chaplain of
the workhouse. Farthing deposits are received from these
pauper children, and as much as £^ i8s. was invested on be-
half of the penny bank between April and December, 1876.

In England, at the close of the year 1876, after sixteen years'
operation, the Postal Savings Bank had realized a net profit
of over $5,500,000.

Shortly after the confederation of the provinces of the Do-
minion, the Post Office Act of 1867 was adopted by Parliament,
and the formation of the Post Office Savings Bank was pro-
vided for. On the following ist of April, the system went
into operation, and at the end of the first quarter eighty-one
offices had been established throughout the Dominion. On
June 30th, 1869, two hundred and thirteen offices had been
opened, and that number has been increased gradually until
on June 30th, 1877, there were two hundred and eighty-seven
branches in existence.

At the close of the fiscal year 1877, there had been 324,662
deposits made, and they amounted in all to $16,504 252. Of
that amount $1,725,300 had been invested in Dominion five
per cent, stock ; $12,998,334 had been withdrawn, and the
balance, standing to the credit of open accounts, and drawing
interest, was $2,639,937. During the nine years and three
months in which the bank had been doing business 90,416 ac-
counts had been opened, 66,342 closed, and on June 30, 1877,
24,074 were open. The average amount of each account open
was $109.60. Interest to the amount of $859,319 had been
allowed depositors. Each deposit averaged about $50, and
the withdrawals $75. The average cost of each transaction —
viz. of each deposit or withdrawal — was less than twenty-three
cents, and the total expense of management, including sal-
aries, compensation to Postmasters, inspection, printing, sta-
tionery, and other items, was $117,563.78, or an average of
about $11,000 per annum.

Every post office, being a money-order office, is open for the
purpose of the savings bank, during the money-order office
hours. Deposits may be made in amounts of $1 or any number
of dollars (cents not being received),provided the deposits made
in any one year ending June 30 do not exceed $300, and pro-
vided the total amount standing in such depositor's name on
the books of the Postmaster General does not exceed $1,000
exclusive of interest. This provision is made to prevent the
system from clashing with the general banking business of the
country. The privilege of purchasing Dominion five per cent,
stock is allowed the depositor, so that if he desires to still use
the Post Office Savings Bank after he has accumulated $1,000,
he can have that amount, or any portion of it not less than
$100, transferred to Dominion stock, redeemable on three
months' notice, at the office of the Receiver General at Ot-
tawa, or at those of his deputies at Halifax, St. John, Mon-
treal, Toronto, Winnipeg or Victoria. Such stock is not
transferable, and no one depositor is allowed to be the holder
of more than $1,000 worth. It will thus be seen that the sav-
ings banks cannot be used for more than $2,C>oo by any one
person.

Every individual on making a first deposit is required to
give his name, occupation, and residence, and to sign a dec-
laration that he is not directly or indirectly entitled to any
sum or sums standing in his own name, or in that of any
other person on the books of the Post Office Savings Bank,
and consenting to his deposits being governed by the regula-
tions of the bank. A provision of the declaration is that if

MONEY.

687

any portion of it is not true, the depositor shall forfeit all the
right and title to his deposit. Interest calculated yearly at
the rate of four per cent, per annum is allowed on deposits, and
is computed from the first of the calendar month next fol-
lowing the deposit up to the first of the month in which
moneys are withdrawn. On the 30th of June, every year, in-
terest is calculated on the amount to the depositors' credit, and
is added to and becomes part of the principal money.

Postmasters of savings-bank offices add the deposits made
with them daily to their money-order funds, and likewise pay

savings-bank checks issued on their offices out of money-order
funds, and embody in their accounts to the money-order
branch a recapitulation of their savings-bank transactions, en-
closing as vouchers for payments on savings bank account the
checks paid during the period to which the account relates.
The balance of the business is adjusted between the money-
order and the savings-bank branches, the excess of deposits
over withdrawals being paid over by the money-order branch
to the Receiver General, on account of the Post Office Savings
Bank.

688

BANKS AND BANKING.

HE term bank, in reference to commerce, signi-
fies a place of deposit of money, and is derived
from the Italian banco, a seat or bench, because the
early custodians and dealers in money in Italy
were accustomed to sit on benches in the market
aces of the principal towns. During the middle ages,
which commerce was but little developed, there could
: no field open for banking as a business ; but on the
revival of business in the I2th century, and when the cities of
Italy engrossed nearly all the trade of Europe, the necessity
arose again for the employment of bankers. The successful
manufacturing efforts of the Florentines brought them into com-
mercial dealings with different countries in Europe, and thence
arose the establishment of ])anks as private concerns. The
earliest public bank established in modem Europe was that of
Venice, which was founded in 1157. About the year 1350, the
cloth merchants of Barcelona, then a vj^eallhy body, added the
business of banking to their other commercial pursuits ; being
authorized so to do by an ordinance of the King of Aragon,
which contained the important stipulation that they should be
restricted from acting as bankers until they should have given
sufficient security for the liquidation of their engagements. In
1401, a bank was opened by the functionaries of the city, v/hich
was both a bank of deposit and of circulation, the first of the
kind ever established in Europe.

The Bank of Genoa, was planned and partially organized
in 1345, but was not brought into operation until 1407, when
the numorous loans which the Republic had contracted with
its citizens were consolidated, and formed the nominal capital
stock of the bank. As security for its capital in the hands of
the Republic, this bank, which was given the name of the
Chamber of St. George, received in pledge the island of Cor-
sica and several other dependencies of Genoa. Since 1800,
when the French, besieged in Genoa, appropriated its treas-
ure to the payment of their troops, the bank has had little
than a nominal existence.

The banks of note next established, of which records re-
main, were opened in Holland and in Hamburg. The most
celebrated of these was the Bank of Amsterdam, established

in i6og, simply as a bank of deposit, under the guaranty of
the city. The credit given in the bank for foreign coin and
the worn coin of the country, was called bank-money, to dis-
tinguish it from current money of the place ; and as the regu-
lations directed that all bills drawn upon or negotiated at
Amsterdam, of the value of 600 guilders and upwards, must
be paid in bank-money, every merchant was obliged to keep
an account with the bank, in order to make his ordinary pay-
ments. The Bank of Hamburg was established in i6ig,
on the model of that of Amsterdam originally. Deposits are
received only in bullion, and a charge is made for their safe-
keeping. It advances money on jewels up to three-fourths of
their value. The city is responsible for all deposits, which
may be sold at auction if they remain eighteen months with-
out payment of charges. If the value is not claimed within
three years, the property in the deposits is lost, and passes to
the poor fund of the city.

Next in point of date among these establishments is the
Bank of England, which was opened in 1694. It was
originally chartered for ten years, and the charter has since
been prolonged, by various renewals, till August i, 1879, ^i^<^>
from that date, subject to a year's notice. The Bank of Eng-
land is, and always has been, the government bank, transact-
ing for it all the banking business of the nation, receiving the
produce of the taxes, loans, etc., and paying the interest of
the public debt, the drafts of the Treasury, and other public
departments, transferring stock, etc. For this service the
bank receives, exclusive of the use of the balances of the pub-
lic money in its hands, about £95,000 a year.

Down to 1797 the bank always had paid its notes on de-
mand. But in 1796 and the early part of 1797, owing to
rumors of a French invasion, there was a run made on the
bank, and it was feared that a suspension was inevitable. In
February, 1797, Mr. Pitt, apprehensive that he might not be
able to obtain sufficient specie for foreign payments, in conse-
quence of the low state of the bank reserve, procured the issue
of an order in council, requiring the bank to suspend specie
payments. The suspension lasted till 1819, and is known to
writers on finance as "the period of the bank restriction."
The bank's notes, however, continued to circulate, and a

BANKS AND BANKING.

689

committee of the House of Commons reported soon after the
suspension that the bank was not merely possessed of the most
ample funds to meet all its engagements, but that it had a
surplus stock, after the deduction of all demands, of no less
than ;,i;i5,5i3,ooo.

The panic of 1825 subjected the bank to a severe strain.
AH England had been possessed with a rage for speculation.
The provincial bankers gave in to the infatuation and made
the mos tsudden and excessive additions to their advances.
The curreqcy was inflated, and there resulted a drain for gold
on the Bank of England. In that year the Directors allowed
their stock of bullion to fall from ;i^io, 721,000 to ;^i, 260,000.
The result was a tremendous panic. In less than six weeks
over seventy banks were prostrated, and a vacuum created in
the currency that absorbed nearly ;^io, 000,000 of additional
issues by the Bank of England. Parliament enacted that
thereafter no note for less than £5 should be issued.

In the commercial crisis of 1837-9 the bank was forced to
draw for ;^2, 000,000 on the Bank of France, and even after
that aid, says Mr. Bagehot, the Directors permitted their bull-
ion, which was still the currency reserve, as well as the bank-
ing reserve, to be reduced to ;^2,400,ooo. A great alarm per-
vaded society, and generated an eager controversy, out of
which ultimately emerged the act of 1844, devised by Sir
Robert Peel . This law divided the Bank of England into two
distinct departments, an issue department and a banking de-
partment. The issue department issues nothing but notes,
and can only put out ;^i 5,000,000 on Government securities,
and for all the rest of its notes it must have bullion deposited.

The bank department received from the issue department
;^i 5,000,000 in currency, which amount is loaned or issued to
the government, on which the bank receives 3 per cent, inter-
est. The bank, however, pays to the government ;^i8o,ooo
annually for the exclusive privilege of issue, and the profit of
the bank, after deducting the expense of management, is
estimated at from ;^8o,ooo to ;^i 00,000 annually.

Peel's act, dividing the bank into two distinct departments,
has been suspended three times in order to allow the banking
department to employ the coin and bullion of the issue depart-
ment. In other words, the act has thrice been placed in
abeyance to save the credit of the banking department. The
redeemability of the notes, however, has never been questioned
for a moment since the passage of the act. The suspensions
occurred in 1847, 1S57 and 1866.

The Bank of England is the custodian of the reserves of the
several London banks and private bankers. These deposited
reserves are, for the most part, loaned out by the bank. Then,
again, the reserves of the countiy banks, and of the Scotch
and Irish bankers as well, are deposited with the great Eng-
lish banks, which, in their turn, keep their reserves at the
bank of England. Therefore the reserve in the banking de-
partment of the Bank of England is the banking reserve not
only of the Bank of England but of all London, and not only
of all London, but of all England, Ireland and Scotland. The
credit system of Great Britain depends upon the security of
the Bank of England.

The Bank of Vienna, established in 1703 as a bank of de-
posit and circulation, became a bank of issue in 1 793. This

institution now does comparatively little commercial business,
being recognized as a means of the government for manag-
ing the public debt and finances.

The Banks of Berlin and Breslau were founded in 1765
under the direct authority of the government. They are
banks of deposit and issue, and also discount bills of exchange.
In some important particulars the banking system of Germany
resembles that of the United States, the Imperial Bank and its
branches in nearly every town corresponding to the American
chain of National Banks. The Imperial Bank enjoys an enor-
mous monopoly of immunities and powers.

Premising that the original capital is $30,000,000, divided
into 40.000 shares, it may be said that the management is
vested in a committee of three, representing the stockholders,
subject, however, to the oversight of a directory consisting of
the Chancellor and four other members. As regards the limits
of the circulation, it is provided that one-third of the issues
must be covered by reserves in current German money or bull-
ion, and the remaining two-thirds by discounted bills of ex-
change, having not more than three months to run. These
notes must be redeemed on presentation at the bank or at any
of its branches. The Reichs-bank is authorized to discount not
only bills, but obligations of German States and municipalities,
running not more than three months from date, and it may
purchase and sell securities both on its own account and on
commission. It is likewise a trust company, empowered to
undertake the custody and administration of estates. As for
the reception of deposits, the sole restriction is that the total
amount of interest-bearing debts shall not exceed the total
capital, plus the reserves. Against all these privileges may be
set a certain limitation on the pecuniary advantages accruing
to shareholders. From the net profits maybe paid an ordinary
dividend of 4I per cent, on the original capital, while 20 per
cent, may be turned into the reserves, so long as these do not
equal one-quarter of the capital. Of the remainder, half be-
longs to the imperial treasury, and half to the share owners,
except when the latter's dividend reaches 8 percent,, in which
case the surplus beyond that goes, one quarter to the stock-
holders and three-quarters to the treasury.

During the reign of the Empress Catharine, three different
banks were established in St. Petersburg : the Loan Bank,
the Assignation Bank ; and the Loan Bank for the nobility
and towns. The first, opened in 1772, made advances upon
deposits of bullion and jewels, and allowed interest upon all
sums remaining for one year and over. At present the oper-
ations of this bank are carried on for the benefit of the Found-
ling Hospital in St. Petersburg. The Assignation Bank was
opened in St. Petersburg in 1768, and in Moscow in 1770. It
issues paper money, and is really an imperial institution. The
Loan Bank for the nobility and towns, advances money on
real security, discounts commercial paper, and carries on an
insurance business. In 1797 the Aid Bank was established for
the purpose of advancing money to relieve estates from mort-
gages, and to provide for their improvement. There is also
the Commercial Bank of Russia, whose capital is declared to
be sacred by the Government, and free from all taxes, attach-
ments and calls from the State. It has numerous branches
throughout the empire, receives deposits of coin and bullion.

690

BANKS AND BANKING.

discounts paper, and makes advances upon merchandise of
domestic production.

The Bank of Stockholm was founded in 1688, when its
direction was assumed by the Assembly of the States of the
Kingdom of Sweden, and became a bank of deposit, discount
and circulation. Since 1766, when the affairs of the bank fell
to a very low state, and the Assembly assisted it with a
large loan, a committee composed of members of each of the
three States, nobles, clergy and burghers, is appointed trien-
nially to inspect its condition, securities and prospects.

The Bank of France, originally formed in 1800, was placed
on a solid basis in 1806, when its capital was raised to 90,000,-
000 francs. The bank is now the only authorized source of
paper money in France. Its charter and exclusive privileges
have been conferred, varied, or continued by difi"erent govern-
ments and under various laws ; at present 1897 is the time
fixed at which the terms made with the bank by the public may
be ended. The bank has branches scattered throughout all the
departments. Besides discounting, the Bank of France ad-
vances upon deposits of stock and pledges of a miscellaneous
kind. It also undertakes the safe custody of valuables. A
council of twenty-one members conducts the direction of af-
fairs, viz.: a governor and two sub-governors, who are to be
nominees of the head of the government ; fifteen directors and
three censors, nominated by the shareholders.

The banks of the United States of a public character are
organized under the National Banking Act, and the word
" National " appears in the corporate name of e^ch. The
notes are prepared by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing
at Washington, D. C, and each bank is entitled to issue and
circulate bills aggregating 90 per cent, of its capital stock ; at
the same time it must deposit with the government a definite
sum as security for its circulation. The total number of
national banks in the United States on Oct. 31, 1882, was
2,269, which on July i, previons, reported a capital of $477,-
184,390, not including surplus, which fund at that date
amounted to more than $131,000,000 ; while the average capi-
tal of all the State banks, private bankers, and savings banks,
for the six months ending May 31, 1882, was only $234,929,-
956. The latter amount is less than two-fifths of the combined
capital and surplus of the national banks.

The total amount of the circulating medium of the country
on Nov. I, 1882, is given as follows :

Treasury notes outstanding $346,681,016

National bank notes outstanding 362,727,747

Gold in the Treasury, less certificates held by

the banks 148,435,473

Standard silver dollars in the Treasury 92,414,977

Subsidiary silver coin and silver bullion in the

Treasury 30,76l,935

Coin in the national banks 102,362,063

Coin in State and savings banks 17,892,500

Estimated amount of coin held by the people. . 387,562,793

Total $1,488,838,554

The estimated total currency of the country, on November i,
thus appears to have been more than $1,488,000,000, which is
$433,000,000 in excess of the amount held on January i.

1879, and $186,000,000 in excess of the amount held on No-
vember I, 1S80. The gain in gold coin since the resumption
of specie payments alone has been $288,000,000, and in gold
and silver coin $394,000,000. The increase in national bank
notes has been nearly $39,000,000.

The interest-bearing bonded debt of the United States has
been rapidly reduced since 1869, at which time the funding of
miscellaneous obligations of the government had been success-
fully accomplished. The reduction of this debt during the
twelve years ending June 30, 1881, has been $648403,668,
and the amount of interest paid $1,270,596,784; the average
annual payment of the principal being $54,433,639, and of in-
terest $105,883,065.

The security of the national bank notes under the present
system is perfect. In twenty years not a single bank note has
failed to be redeemed at its face value. Banks organized un-
der a general law, located so often at great distances from com-
mercial centers, render a security for circulation of uniform
and positive value an absolute necessity.

The banks hold $40,000,000 of 3^ per cents., and nearly
$iSo,ooo,ooo of 3 per cents., as security for their circulation.

The National banks held on November, i, 1882, bonds for
circulation not payable at the pleasure of the government,
as follows : Four and one-half per cent, bonds, $33,754,650;
Pacific Railway sixes, $3,526,000 ; four percent. bonds,$i04,-
917,500 ; total, $142,198,150.

They also held $220,000,000 of United States bonds which
are subject to the call of the government.

The total amount of bonds outstanding, held by the banks
and by the people, which are available for circulation, and not
payable at the pleasure of the government, and cannot be re-
deemed except by purchase in the market, is as follows :

Four per cents, payable July i, 1907 $738,929,600

Four andone-half per cents, payable September i,

1891 250,000,000

Pacific Railway Sixes, payable September i, 1895 3,002,000
Pacific Railway Sixes, payable September i, 1896 8,000,000
Pacific Railway Sixes, payable September i, 1897 9,712,000
Pacific Railway Sixes, payable September i, i8g8 29,383,000
Pacific Railway Sixes, payable September i, 1899 14,526,512

Total $1,053,553,112

The public funds deposited with national bank depositaries
amounted to $143,261,541.41, making the total receipts of
public moneys by these depositaries, since the establishment of
the national banking system, $3,182,722,588,02. The bal-
ance remaining with them at the close of the year to the credit
of the treasurer was $9,610,432.86, and the balance to the
credit of disbursing officers amounted to $3,152,254.56, mak-
ing a total deposit of $12,762,687.42, which is protected by
$15,925,000, in United States bonds lodged with the Treas-
urer. At the close of the fiscal year 18S2, the United States
bonds held in trust for the national banks amounted to $376,-
627,500. Of this amount $360,722,700 was held to secure cir-
culation, and .$15,925,000 to secure public moneys.

The number of notes outstanding at the close of the fiscal
year ending June 30, 1882, was 63,083,047, as against 59,839,-
069 outstanding on June 30, 1881. The amount of ones and

BANKS AND BANKING.

691

twos outstanding increased $14,040,945 in three years. The
amount of United States notes received in payment of duties
on imports was $24,650,576, as against $19,079,753 in the
year ending October 31, 1881. The total amount so received
since the resumption of specie payments is $185,053,930, an
average of $4,044,650 a month. The amount of silver certi-
ficates nominally outstanding on October 31, 1882, was $73,-
607,710, of which $7,987,260 is held by the Treasury.

Of the old issue of gold certificates under the Act of March
3, 1863, there was redeemed $745,800,000, making the total
redemptions $976,097,790.46, and reducing the amount out-
standing to $5,037,120. Of the issue authorized by the Act
of July 12, 1882, $138,000,000 have been printed for issue by
the Assistant Treasurer of the United States in New York.
Of these there were issued to October 31, 1882, $21,790,000,
of which $14,827,720 was held in the cash of the various Sub-
Treasuries, leaving the amount actually outstanding $6,962,-
280. The amount of fractional currency outstanding at the
close of the fiscal year 1882 was $15,420,186.10.

The Clearing House system was first established in London
in 1790. The New York Clearing House was the first of the
kind established in America, and began its operations Oct. ir,
1853. It then consisted of fifty-two banks. Since that time
clearing houses have been established in all the principal cities
of the countr}'. The increasing business of exchanges by the
banks, it is claimed by bankers, made the organization of such
an association a necessity. Each bank in its daily dealings re-
ceives many bills of other banks, and checks drawn on them, so
that at the close of the day's business every bank has in its
drawers various sums thus due to it by other banks. It is, in
like manner, the debtor of other banks which have received its
bills and checks. Before the Clearing House was established
it was necessary for each bank every morning to make up its
accounts with every other bank and to send a messenger to
the debtor banks to present accounts and to receive balances,
which were adjusted in gold. This finally became so labori-
ous, dangerous and complicated, that balances were arranged
weekly every Friday. The Clearing House obviated this. Its
settlements are made so rapidly that the transactions adjusted
through it have amounted in a single day to $206,034,920.51
— all settled within an hour.

The establishment of the Clearing House system closed
2,500 bank ledger accounts, with numerous daily entries in
each, and enabled the banks to settle with each other every
day without loss or delay, and with comparatively little
trouble. It also brought the bank officers into intimate and
friendly relations, and enabled them by united action to aid
and strengthen one another in times of excitement and finan-
cial danger. Upon the breaking out of the civil war in 1861,
the banks of New York, through the Clearing House, effected
loans to the Government to carry on the war. These loans
amounted to over $200,000,000.

The panic of 1873 was checked by a similar action, the ex-
perience of the war enabling the banks to act with such
promptness in combining their entire resources by the use of
loan certificates — amounting to over $25,000,000 — as to sus-
tain themselves against a panic, the serious results of which
were greatly modified by their action.

The New York Clearing House is opened promptly at 10
A.M. The banks are each represented by two clerks, one a
messenger who brings with him the checks, drafts and other
evidences of indebtedness that his bank has received upon
other banks during the previous day. These are called the
" exchanges," and are assorfed for each bank and are placed
in envelopes. On the outside of each envelope is a slip on
which are the amounts of the various items which it contains.
These are arranged on the desks where they belong. The
messengers take their places in a line outside the row of desks,
each opposite the desk assigned to his bank, which is occupied
by the bank's clerk, who has a printed list of all the banks in
the Clearing House, and the amounts his messenger has
against every other bank. At a signal from a large gong over
the manager's platform, each messenger moves forward to the
desks of the other banks, beginning with the one next in line,
and delivers the envelopes containing checks and drafts for
the bank represented by that desk. The clerk receives the
list, returns it checked and signed, and the messenger follows
out the same course until every bank clerk has been visited
and the messenger has returned to his original position in the
line. This system of "exchanges" is accomplished in ten
minutes. Under the old order of exchanges it would have re-
quired seven or eight hours.

In addition to the great saving of time by the present
•method, it is claimed that every bank knows at once the exact
balance for or against it, slips being furnished to the clerks
showing the difference between the total amounts received and
brought by the banks, and the balance either due to or from
the Clearing House to each bank. As these accounts are made
up, the clerks report them to the Assistant Manager in sepa-
rate columns on what is termed a "proof-sheet." If no errors
are found the clerks are permitted to return to their banks ;
but if errors are discovered the clerks must examine and revise
their work, and not until every error has been corrected can
the clerks be relieved from duty. The rules of the association
require that all the work of reporting, entering, and proving
daily accounts, must be done in thirty-five minutes, under pen-
alty of a fine to be collected from the offending bank.

The debit banks are required to pay to the Manager of the
Clearing House in legal-tender notes or coin the balances due
before 1:30 p.m., and the credit banks receive the money im-
mediately thereafter, so that, by one process, the transactions
of the previous day are completed. A record is kept of the
daily transactions of each bank in the Clearing House, and a
week's statement of its loans, specie, legal-tenders, deposits and
circulation must be made to the Manager, so that the condition
and business of every bank may be estimated. Banks are com-
pelled to keep up their balances, a rule of the Clearing House
forbidding one bank to loan its credit balance in the Clear-
ing House to another bank in the settlement of daily
accounts.

In a single year the transactions in the New York Clearing
House have reached a total of $23,816,282,298, or a daily aver-
age of $77,830,987. In November, 1878, the Government,
by its Sub-Treasurer at New York, entered the Clearing
House Association, and the new order for paying drafts of the
banks on the New York banks was carried into effect.

692

GEOLOGY.

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ORDER OF ROCKS.

EOLOGY (from the Greek, ge, the earth, and
logoSf discourse) may be defined as the science
which describes the solid materials of the earth,
the order in which they are arranged, the causes
which have effected that arrangement, and the
organic remains which are found in them.

The solid parts of the external crust consist of a
variety of substances, to which, whether they be
hard or soft, the term rock is applied. Rocks are distinguished
both by peculiarities in their constitution, and peculiarities
in their form and arrangement.

At some places the surface of the earth is found to consist
of a hard rock of crystalline or glassy texture, generally called
granite, though subject to a considerable number of varieties.
Granite is never, except in peculiar circumstances, found in
the form of a layer, whether thick or thin, but generally in
large, irregular-shaped masses ; and no other kind of rock,
except in equally rare and peculiar circumstances, is ever
found beneath it.

At other places the earth's immediate surface is found com-
posed of some one of certain kinds of rock not less hard in
texture than granite, and also of a crystalline consistence,
but always found in layers or beds, generally of great thickness.
At other places we find, near the surface of the earth, rocks
of a comparatively soft, and not of a crystalline consistence,
forming also layers or beds, of greater or less thickness.

In some places, rock of a very hard kind is found, not ex-
actly like any of the above, deposited in irregular forms, and
often with the appearance of having penetrated through gaps
forcibly made in other rocks.

Finally, throughout the first three classes of rocks, but par-
ticularly the first two, there are thin veins of diverse substances,
including minerals.

Rocks of the first class are denominated Plutonic (from
Pluto, the god of the infernal regions amongst the ancients),
as supposed to have been formed at great depths in the earth,
the matter having been originally in a hot and soft state, and
afterwards cooled and crystallised slowly, under such enor-
mous pressure as prevented the contained gases from expanding.
The term unstratified is also applied to this class of rocks.
Rocks of the second and third classes are called Aqueous,

as composed of matter deposited by water. Those of the
second class are more specially named Metamorphoric (from
the Greek, metamorphosis, a transformation), as supposed to
have undergone a remarkable change in the course of their
formation. It is supposed that the matter of these rocks,
derived from rocks of the granitic kind, and suspended in vast
oceans, was, when deposited, subjected to a great heat from
below, which gave it, in its reconsolidation much of that
crystalline texture which it had in its plutonic form.

Rocks of the fourth class are denominated Volcanic, as
being evidently composed of lavas, or masses of fire-melted
rocky matter, which have been sent upwards by volcanoes.

Rocks of the second and third classes are likewise called
Stratified Rocks, as being invariably found in strata or layers.
Rocks of the first and fourth classes, as wanting this peculiar-
ity, are distinguished as Unstratified Rocks.

The plutonic, and some of the lower metamorphoric rocks,
have been also called Piimary, or Primitive Rocks, as either
the first formed of all, or formed very early. The upper meta-
morphoric rocks have in like manner been called the Transi-
tion Seiies, as forming a kind of link between the primary and
those which follow, and partaking the characters of both. Of
the remainder of the aqueous rocks, a considerable number,
being the lower portion, are sometimes called the Secondary
Rocks, while the upper are named Tertiary. Igneous Rock is
also a various name for the volcanic kind.

When rocks of various classes are seen at or near the same
place, it is found that those of the second (except in the extra-
ordinary circumstances alluded to), lie above those of the first ;
and those of the third above those of the second and first
classes. Special kinds of aqueous rock are also found in a
certain order above one another — much in the same way as if
we were to place a book of many volumes on its side, having
previously arranged the volumes according to their numbers,
in which case the second would be above the first, the third
above the second, and so on. Rocks are thus said to observe
an order of supraposition — the volcanic kind alone observing
no order.

In some of the upper metamorphoric rocks, and in all those
of the secondary and tertiary series, remains of plants and
animals are found, showing that when these rocks were formed,
the earth had become a scene of vegetable and animal life.
The rocks containing these organic remains or fossils.

GEOLOGY.

693

are called Fossiliferous ; and the remaining rocks, from
their containing no such relics, are called Non-fossiliferous.

The changes produced by the united operations of aqueous
and igneous agency are in part represented in the subjoined
engraving of a supposed section of part of the earth's crust.

Now to begin our lesson !

Here are three pieces of stone : —

1. A piece of Sandstone.

2. A piece of Granite.

3. A piece of Chalk.

You are quite familiar with each of these kinds of stone.
Sandstone is a common material for walls, lintels, hearths,
and flagstones. Granite may now be frequently seen in pol-
ished columns and slabs in public buildings, shops, and in
tombstones ; and the streets in many of our large cities and
towns are now paved with it. Common white chalk is well
known to everybody.

grains tend to lie in lines, and that these lines run in a general
way parallel with each other.

5. The grains differ from each other in size and in the
material of which they are made. Most of them consist of a
very hard white or colorless substance like glass, some are per-
haps small spangles of a material which glistens like silver,
others are softer and of various colors. They lie touching
each other in some sandstones ; in others they are separated
by a hard kind of cement which binds them all into a solid
stone. It is this cement which usually colors the sandstone,
since it is often red or yellow, and sometimes green, brown,
purple, and even black.

Summing up these characters in a short definition, you
might describe your sandstone as a stone composed of worn,
rounded grains of various other stones arranged in
layers.

Proceed now in the same way with the piece of granite.

a Primary Rock, which has been thrown up, so as to disturb and mix itself with the Secondary Rocks.
6 Secondary Rock, thrown into inclinations and curves by the rising of the Primary Rock.
c Tertiary Formation, deposited in a hollow formed by the disturbance of the Secondary Rocks.
d Basaltic Columns, e A fault or hitch in the strata.

The Circles are boulders or detached stones rounded by traveling in water, and deposited in hollows formed by
water.

The dots indicate beds of gravel, immediately beneath the soil.

Take the piece of sandstone in your hands and examine it
carefully, using even a magnifying glass if the grains are
minute. Then write down each of the characters you observe
one after another. You will of course pay little heed to the
color, for sandstones, like books, may be red or white, green or
yellow, or indeed of almost any color. Nor will you give much
weight to the hardness or softness as an essential character, for
you may find even in a small piece of the stone that one part
is quite hard while a neighboring place is soft and crumbling.

If your piece of sandstone has been well chosen for you, you
will be able to write down the following characters : —

1. The stone is made up of small grains.

2. The grains are all more or less rounded or worn.

3. By scraping the surface of the stone these rounded grains
can be separated from the stone, and when they lie in this
loose state they are seen to be mere grains of sand.

4. More careful examination of the stone shows that the

You find at once a very different set of appearances, but after
a little time you will be able to make out and to write down
the following : —

The stone contains no rounded grains.

It is composed of three different substances, each of which
has a peculiar crystalline form. Thus, one of these, called
feldspar, lies in long smooth-faced, sharply defined crystals of
a pale flesh color, or dull white, which you can with some
difficulty scratch with the point of a knife. Another, termed
mica, lies in bright glistening plates, which you can easily
scratch and split up into thin transparent leaves. If you com-
pare these shining plates with the little silvery spangles in the
sandstone, you will see that they are the same material. The
third, named quartz, is a very hard, clear, glassy substance
on which your knife makes no impression, but which you may
recognize as the same material out of which most of the grains
of the sandstone are made.

694

GEOLOGY.

-y

The crystals in granite do not occur in any definite order,
but are scattered at random through the whole of the stone.

Here are characters strikingly different from those of the
sandstone. You might make out of them such a short defini-
tion as this— Granite is a stone composed of distinct crys-
tals, not laid down in layers, but irregularly interlaced
with each other.

Lastly go through the same process of examination with
your piece of chalk. At first sight this stone seems to have
no distinct characters at all. It is a soft, white, crumbling
substance, soils your fingers when you touch it, and seems
neither to have grains like the sandstone nor crystals like the
granite. You will need to use a magnifying glass, or even
perhaps a microscope, to see what the real nature of chalk is.
Take a fine brush and rub off a little chalk into a glass of
clear water ; then shake the water gently and let it stand for a
while until you see a layer of sediment on the bottom. Pour
off the water and place a little of this sediment upon a piece
of glass, and look at it under the microscope or magnifying-
glass. You will find it to have strongly tnarked characters,
which might be set down thus : —

The stone, though it seems to the eye much more uniform
in its texture than either sandstone or granite, is made up of
particles resembling each other in color and composition,
but presenting a variety of forms.

It consists of minute shells, pieces of coral, fragments of
sponges, and white particles, which are evidently the broken-
down remains of shells.

As a brief description of chalk you might say that it is a
stone formed out of the remains of once living animals.
You should repeat this kind of examination again and again
until you get quite familiar with the characters which have
been written down here. And you will see why it is im-
portant for you to do so when you come afterwards to find
out that these three stones are examples of three great groups
into which most of the rocks of the world may be arranged.
So that when you master the composition of a piece of sand-
stone, or chalk, or granite, and learn how each stone was
formed, you not only do that, but lay a foundation of knowl-
edge which will enable you to understand how by far the
greater part of the stones of our mountains, valleys, and sea-
shores came into existence.

In spite then of the apparently infinite diversity of the
stones of which the globe is built up, you see that by a little
study they may be grouped into very few classes. You have
to follow a simple principle of classification, and each stone
you may meet with falls naturally into its own proper group.
You do not concern yourselves much with mere outer shape and
hue, but try to find out what the stone is made of, and ask
whether it should be placed in the Sandstone group, or in the
Granite group, or in the Chalk group.

WHAT STONES HAVE TO TELL US.

We take again our three pieces of stone— sandstone, chalk,
and granite — and compare other stones with them. "We get
out of town to the nearest pit or quarry or ravine, to any
opening in fact, either natural or artificial, which will enable
us to see down beneath the grass and the soil of the surface.

In one place we may find a clay-pit, in another a sandstone
quarry, in another a railway cutting through chalk or lime-
stone, in another a deep ravine in hard rocks with a stream
flowing at its bottom. It does not matter for our present
purpose what the nature of the opening be, provided it shows
us what lies beneath the soil. In all such places we meet
with stone of some kind, or of many different kinds. By a
little practice we learn that these various sorts of stones may
be usually arranged under one or other of the three divisions.
For example, a large number of stones will be found answer-
ing to the general description which you found to be true of
sandstone. These will of course be placed together with our
piece of sandstone. Another considerable quantity of stones
will be met with made up wholly or almost wholly of the re-
mains of plants or of animals. These we arrange in the same
division with our piece of chalk. Lastly, a good many stones
may be met with built up of crystals of different kinds, and
these, for the present, we class together with our piece of
granite.

In this way you would advance from the mere pieces of
stone which you can hold in your hand, up to the masses of
stone lying under a whole parish or a county or even the en-
tire kingdom.

You would begin to perceive that the different kinds of
stone are not scattered at random over the country, but have
each their own places, with their ovjn kinds of hills or val-
leys.

The solid earth under your feet has a history as well as the
people who have lived on its surface. Take Great Britain for
example. You will learn that once agreat part of this country as
well as of Europe and North America was buried under ice like
Greenland. Earlier still it had jungles of palms and other
tropical plants ; yet further back it lay beneath a wide deep
ocean ; and beyond that time can be traced many still more
remote periods, when it was forest-covered land or wide
marshy plains, or again buried under the great sea. Step by
step you may follow this strange history backwards, and with
as much certainty as you trace the doings of Julius Caesar, or
William the Conqueror.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.
I. What Sediment Is.

To each of these groups names must be given. We might
call them the Sandstone group, the Chalk group, and the
Granite group. But it happens that other names have been
already in use, which will be more convenient. Accordingly
we shall refer all stones having characters like those of sand-
stone to the Sedimentary Rocks ; those formed of the re-
mains of plants or animals, as chalk is, to the Organic
Rocks ; and those having a crystalline character, like our
granite group, to the Igneous Rocks. The meaning of these
names will be seen as we proceed.

The word "rock " is applied to any kind of natural stone,
whatever may be its hardness or softness. In this sense,
sand, mud, clay, peat, and coal are rocks, as much as sand-
stone, limestone, or granite.

Sediment is something which, after having been suspended

GEOLOGY.

695

in or moved along by water, has settled down upon the bot-
tom.

The term Sedimentary Rocks is a very expressive one, for
it includes stones formed of all kinds of sediment, whether
coarse or fine.

II. How Gravel, Sand, and Mud are Made.

You have taken the first step in the study of the Sediment-
ary Rocks — you now know that they are made of sediment,
such as gravel, sand, and mud. How then are gravel, sand,
and mud made at the present day ?

If you were to search on the shore of the sea, or on the
banks of a river, you could, without much difficulty, prove in
another way that sand and gravel only differ from each other
in the size of their grains.

Let us get away up among the hills, and watch what goes
on where the brooks first begin to flow. "Where the rocks are
hard and tough, they rise out of the hill-sides, at prominent
crags and cliffs, down which the little streamlets dance from
ledge to ledge before they unite into larger streams in the bot-
tom of the valleys. Now let us descend the brook and look
at its channel carefully as we go. The red fragments
from that crag will be easily distinguishable from the other
dull gray stones, which have been detached from the rest
of the crags on either side- If you look narrowly at the bits
of stone which are strewed about upon the slope you will
notice that they are all more or less angular in shape, that
is to say, they have sharp edges. But those in the brook are
not quite so rough nor so sharp-edged as those on the bare
hill-side above. Follow the brook down the valley for some
way and then take another look at the stones in the bed of
the stream. You do not now find so many big blocks of the
red stone, and those you do meet with are more rounded and
worn than they were near the crag. They have grown smooth
and polished, their edges have been worn off, and many of
them are well rounded. Once more you make a further ex-
amination still lower down the valley, and here and there
where the stream has thrown up a bank of gravel, you find
that the pieces of our red crag have been so well ground away
that they now form part of an ordinary water-worn gravel.

Ill, — How Gravel, Sand, and Mud Become Sedimentary
Rocks.

So long as a current of water is moving swiftly it keeps the
gravel, sand, and mud from settling down on the bottom. A
rapid current will hurry along, not only mud and sand, but
even gravel. As its rapidity flags, first the gravel will sink to
the bottom as a sediment, the sand will sink more slowly and
be carried farther, while the mud will hang in the water for a
long time, travel a much greater distance, and only fall with
extreme slowness to the bottom.

You can examine the bottom of a dried up pool and see exactly
what took place when the muddy water filled it. Here at the
upper end is the tongue of sand pushed out from the shore by
the streamlet. You recognize it as a true delta. The bottom

of the rest of the pool is covered with fine muddy silt or sand
spread out over all the space on which the water lay.

With a knife we carefully cut a hole or trench through these
deposits on the floor so as to learn what they consist of from
top to bottom. A cutting of this kind is called a Section, and
may be of any size. The steep side of a brook, the wall of a
ravine, the side of a quarry or railway-cutting, a line of cliff,
are all sections of the rocks. Let us see what our section has
to tell.

In the center of the little basin the sediment brought in by
the rain has accumulated to a depth, let us say, of an inch,
below which lies the ordinary surface of the roadway. Now
what feature strikes you first about this deposit of sediment
when you come to look at the section which we have cut
through it ? Are the materials arranged without any order ?
By no means. The materials have been deposited in layers
which have been laid down flat one above another. Some of
these layers are finer, others coarser than the rest. But
whether coarse or fine they all show the same general arrange-
ment in level lines.

In this way you gradually would come to be convinced that
one grand leading feature of the sedimentary deposits laid
down under water is that they are not mere random heaps of
rubbish, but that they are assorted and spread over each other
in regular layers. This kind of arrangement is called Strati-
fication, and the sediments so arranged are said to be strati-
fied. So characteristic is this mode of arrangement among the
sedimentary rocks that they are often called also the Stratified
Rocks.

The sheets of sand, gravel, or mud which can be seen on
the sea-shore, or at any lake or pool on land, are soft or loose
materials. Sandstone, conglomerate, shale, or any other
sedimentary rock, is usually more or less hard or com-
pact.

A sedimentary rock then is one formed from sediment
which was derived from the waste of older rocks, and de-
posited in water. It usually shows the stratified arrangement
characteristic of water-formed deposits. Since its original
formation it has usually been hardened into stone by pressure
or infiltration.

IV. How the Remains of Plants and Animals come to
be Found in Sedimentary Rocks.

"What is this black object lying on the upper surface of that
stone ? You see at once that it has the form of a plant and
resembles some of the fern tribe. Examine it more closely,
and tracing the delicate veining of the fronds, you cannot
doubt that, although no longer soft and green, it was once a
living fern. It has been changed into a black substance
which, when you look carefully at it, proves to be a kind of
coal. Little fragments and layers of the same black coaly
substance may occur throughout the piece of shale. If you
scrape a little off and put it upon the point of a knife, you
find that you can bum away the black material while the
grains of sand or clay remain behind. These fragments and
layers are evidently only leaves and bits of different plants
imbedded at the same time as the larger and better preserved

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696

GEOLOGY.

fem. Now how did plants find their way into the heart of a
piece of stone ?

Rain can wash away leaves and other pieces of plants, and
allow them to drop in a pool, where they become interstrati-
fied with the silt, that is, are deposited between its layers and
covered over by it.

You can now see therefore how it is that pieces of ferns or
any other kind of land plants should be found in the heart of
such a solid stone as our bit of shale. The stone was once
merely so much sediment laid down below water, and the
fragmentary plants were drifted away from the place where
they grew until at last they were buried among that sediment.

It is not only plants, however, which occur imbedded in
sedimentary rocks. You will notice a number of shells and
other animal remains, chiefly irilobites, that is, little sea-
creatures belonging to the same great tribe with our common
crab and lobster. You do not need now to be told how they
came there. You have learnt that anything lying at the bot-
tom of the sea or of a lake will be buried in sediment.

Any relic of a plant or animal imbedded in rock is called a
Fossil

V. A Quarry and its Lessons.

Let us suppose ourselves to be in a quarry.

In the first place what feature about the quarry strikes you
most forcibly when you enter? You answer readily, the
Stratification of the rocks. They are arranged in layers or
beds, one above another, in that stratified arrangement which
you have found to be so characteristic of rocks laid down as
sediment under water.

In the second place, you observe that they do not all consist
of the same materials. Some are of fine conglomerate, others
of various kinds of sandstone, and some of different sorts of
shales or clays. These beds or strata as they are called,
alternate irregularly with each other, just as gravel, sand,
and mud might be found alternating in the delta of a river
or under the sea.

In the third place, let us ask you to point out which are the
oldest of the beds. You answer without hesitation that those
at the bottom of the quarry must be the oldest, because they
certainly were deposited before those lying above them. In
all such cases the beds at the bottom are the oldest, and those
at the top the newest. This arrangement of one bed or
stratum above another is called the Order of Superposition.

We split open some of the lower beds of sandstone and find
their surfaces often covered with markings. If you have ever
walked along a flat sandy beach you must have noticed the
ripple-marks which the shallow rippling water leaves on the
soft sand. They are precisely like those on the sandstone.
You may see them too along the shelving margin of a lake,
indeed whatevet water has been thrown by the wind into little
wavelets over a sandy bottom. They betoken shallow water.
Hence we have learnt one important fact from our quarry, as
to the origin of these rocks : viz., that they were not deposited
in a deep sea, but in shallow water.

We look still further among these strata, and notice at last
that some- of them are curiously covered with little round pits,
about the size of peas or less. How did these markings come

there? You know that when drops of rain fall upon a smooth
surface of moist sand, such as that of the beach, they each
make a little dent on it.

Here then is another fact which throws still more light on
the history of these rocks. The ripple-marks show that the
water must have been shallow ; the rain prints prove that it
must have risen along a beach liable, now and then, to be laid
dry to the air and rain. Now can we tell whether the water
was salt or fresh ? in other words, was this beach the shore of a
lake, or of the sea ?

Again we turn to the rocks themselves, and from some of
the layers of shale we pick out a number of fossils, which
enable us to answer the question.

ORGANIC ROCKS, OR ROCKS FORMED OF
THE REMAINS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

I. Rocks Formed of the Remains of Plants.

Since the leaves, branches, and stems of plants, and the
shells or other remains of animals, are sometimes scattered so
abundantly through ordinary sedimentary rocks, it is easy to
see that sometimes they may occur in such quantity as to form
great deposits of themselves. You could hardly call such
deposits sedimentary, in the same sense in •which common
shale and sandstone are so named. We may term them Or-
ganic Rocks, or, Organically derived Rocks, because
they owe their origin to the accumulation of what are called
organic remains, or fossils, that is, the remains of plants or
animals. A plant or animal lives, moves, and grows by means
of what are called organs. For instance, we walk by using
our legs, which are our organs of locomotion ; we speak with
our mouth, which contains our organs of speech; we see by
means of eyes, which are our organs of sight ; and so on.
Every object, therefore, which possesses organs is said to be
organized or to be an organism. So that when you see this
word organism you will remember that it means either a plant
or an animal, for it is only plants and animals which are really
organized.

We begin with those rocks which have been formed out of
the remains of plants. As an illustration let us ask you to
examine carefully a piece of coal. If you master all that it
has to tell you, you will not have much difficulty in tracing
out the history of other rocks belonging to this series.

Now look at one end of a lump of coal, where the edges of
the layers are exposed. You cannot follow them with the
same ease as in the case of a piece of shale, for they seem to
blend into one another. But you may notice that among the
layei-s of hard, bright, glossy substance, there occur others of a
soft material like charcoal. A mere general look at such a
piece of coal would show you that it is stratified.

You know that coal can be burnt away so as to leave only
•ishes behind, and that in this respect it resembles wood and
peat. Chemists have analyzed coal and found that it consists
of the same materials as wood or peat, and that in reality it is
only so much vegetation which has been pressed together, and
gradually changed into the black substance now used as fuel.

Let us suppose ourselves at a coal mine. Now, first of all,
you see that the coal occurs as a bed, having a thickness of a

GEOLOGY.

697 y

4r-

few feet. This bedded character agrees with what you have
Already noticed as to the internal layers in the stone, and con-
firms you in believing that coal is a stratified rock. Next ob-
serve that the pavement on which the coal rests, and thereof
which covers it, are both made of very different materials from
the coal itself. Were you to cut a trench or section through
pavement, coal, and roof, you would prove beyond any doubt
that the bed of coal lies among beds of common sedimentary
rocks.

You are driven to conclude that in truth the under-clay is
an old soil, and the bed of coal represents the vegeta-
tion which grew upon it.

II. Rocks Formed out of the Remains of Animals.

It is on the floor of the great sea that the most wonderful
examples occur of the way in which rocks are gradually built
up from the remains of animals to a depth of many hundreds
or thousands of feet, and over distances of many hundreds of
miles.

To the west of Britain the Atlantic soon and suddenly
deepens. Its floor then stretches away to Newfoundland as a
vast plain, the lowest part of which is about 14,000 feet below
the waves. It was over this wide submarine plain that the
telegraph cables had to be laid, and hence numerous sound-
ings were made all the way across from Ireland to the Anfieri-
can coast. While in the shallower parts of the sea the bottom
was found to be covered with sand, gravel, or mud, from the
deeper parts there came up with the sounding-lead a peculiar
gray sticky substance known as ooze, which must stretch over
that wide deep-sea basin for many thousands of square miles.
This oeze when dried looks like a dirty kind of chalk. After
the lapse of centuries, if the deposit were to remain undis-
turbed, and if we could set a watch to measure its growth, we
should find it to have risen upward and to have inclosed the
remains of any star-fishes or other sea-creatures which chanced
to die and leave their remains upon the bottom. Hundreds
effect of such slow-formed deposit have no doubt already been
laid down over the bottom of the ocean between Ireland and
Newfoundland. Here then is a second and notable example
of how a deep and far-spread mass of rock may be formed out
of the remains of animals.

IGNEOUS ROCKS.
I. What Igneous Rocks Are.

This word igneous means literally fiery. It does not very
accurately describe the rocks to which it is applied, but it has
long been in use to include all rocks which have been actually
melted within the earth, or which have been ihupwn out at the
surface by the action of volcanoes. So that the Igneous Rocks
owe their origin to some of the effects of the internal heat of
the earth.

You will find that the solid materials cast up by volcanoes
are of two kinds — ist, streams of molten rock called Lava,
poured down the sides of a volcanic mountain during an erap-
tion : and 2d, immense quantities of dust, sand, and stones,
cast up into the air from the mouth of the volcano,and falling
down upon the mountain, sometimes even all over the sur-
rounding country for a distance of many miles.

Here then are two very dissimilar kinds of rock-material
discharged from the interior of the globe. The lava cools and
hardens into a solid rock. The loose ashes and stones, like-
wise, are in time pressed and hardened into more or less firm
beds of stone. So that two totally distinct kinds of rock are
laid down upon the surface of the earth by the volcano. In the
case of the lava, the rock, if you look at it with a magnifying
glass, is seen to be made up of distinct crystals all matted
together. The beds of ashes, on the other hand, no matter
how compact they may have become, are found to be made
up of irregular fragments of various kinds of stone, and of
all sizes, from the finest dust up to big blocks. By attending
to this very simple and intelligible difference you could
arrange igneous rocks into two great groups — ist, the Crys-
talline, that is, those which are made up of crystals, and
which have once been in a melted state ; and 2d, the Frag-
mental, that is, those which consist of the loose materials
thrown out during volcanic explosions.

Crystalline Igneous Rocks. — When the rock was still
melted it was full of imprisoned steam and gas which were con-
stantly striving to escape to the surface. It was this steam
which collected into little bubbles and formed the curious set
of holes in the mass of the still molten rock. In the same
way the holes which you often see in the heart of a loaf of
bread were formed by the struggles of the steam to escape from
the dough as it was heated in the oven.

There are Fragmental Igneous Rocks. — Now this is
the kind of material under which the old Roman city of Pom-
peii was buried. It fell upon the streets and houses and grad-
ually covered them up as the eruption of the neighboring vol-
cano continued. And at this day the workmen find the streets
and chambers all choked up with layers of coan-er and finer
volcanic ash and dust.

These masses of consolidated volcanic dust and stones are
known by the name of Tuff.

II. Where Igneous Rocks Come From.

If we ask you from what source the Igneous Rocks have
been derived, you will reply that they have come up from
the intensely hot regions within the earth.

Deep Borings and Mines. — If you were taken down to
the bottom of a deep mine in the United States, you would
find the temperature much warmer there than near the sur-
face, and a similar increase of heat would meet you in the
deep mines of every country in the world. You would soon
discover, too, that on the whole the deeper the mine the
greater the warmth would be. In the same way were you to
bore a deep narrow hole into the earth for several hundreds
of feet and let a thermometer down to the bottom, you would
find that the mercury would rise in the tube.

Experiments of this kind have been made all over the globe,
with the result of showing that after we get down for a short
and variable distance below the surface, we reach a temperature
which remains the same all the year, and that underneath that
limit the temperature rises about 1° Fahrenheit for every fifty
or sixty feet of descent. If this rate of increase continues, we
should get uncomfortably hot before having descended very
far. For instance, at a depth of about two miles water would

698

GEOLOGY.

be at its boiling-point, and at depths of twenty-five or thirty
miles, the metals would have the same temperatures as those
at which they respectively melt on the surface of the earth. It
is clear from this kind of evidence that the inside of our
planet must be in an intensely heated condition.

In many parts of the world Hot Springs occur. To keep
up such hot springs in every quarter of the globe there must
assuredly be great stores of heat within the earth.

Neither the heat of deep mines nor of hot springs affords
such an impressive lesson as to the earth's internal high tem-
perature as is furnished by Volcanoes. The hot vapors and
steam which rise from the craters of volcanoes, the torrents
of hot water which sometimes issue from their sides, the
streams of molten lava which break out and roll far down the
slopes of a volcanic mountain, burning up and burying trees,
fields, gardens, and villages — are all tokens of the intense
heat of the inside of the earth from which they come.

At the present time there are, it is said, about 270 volcanoes
either constantly or at intervals throwing out steam, hot ashes,
and lava, in different parts of the globe. Even among the
perpetual snows of the South Polar regions they have been
met with, and also far within the Arctic Circle at the Island
of Jan Mayen.

But besides these volcanoes which are still active, many others
occur from which no eruptions have ever been seen to take
take place, and which are therefore called dormant or extinct.

But in igneous rocks you do not see the only evidence of
how the internal heat affects the surface of the earth. There
can be little doubt that Earthquakes must be mainly due to
commotions which take their origin from the effects of this
heat.

Perhaps you will ask, why, since the inside of the planet is
so hot, does it not melt the outside, or at least why is the out-
side not warmer ? There can be no doubt that at one time,
many millions of years ago, the globe was immensely hotter
than it is now. In fact it then resembled our burning sun, of
which it once probably formed a part, and from which it and
the other planets were one by one detached. During the vast
interval which has passed away since then it has been gradu-
ally cooling, and thus the heat in the inside is only the re-
mains of that fierce heat which once marked the whole planet.
The outer parts have cooled and become solid, but they are
bad conductors of heat, and allow the heat from the inside to
pass away into space only with extreme slowness. Hence, in
spite of the high temperature of the interior, we are not sensi-
ble that it warms the outer surface of the earth.

You are already familiar with the fact that bodies expand
when they are heated, and contract as they cool. When the
earth was vastly hotter than now it must also have filled more
space. While cooling it has been contracting. As it is still
cooling it must be still contracting, but so slowly that on the
whole we are not sensible of the process. But some of the
effects are visible enough among the rocks.

THE CRUST OF THE EARTH.
I. Proofs that Parts of the Crust have been Pushed Up.

This solid rocky outer part of the earth on which we live.

into which men sink mines and out of which springs arise, is
called the Earth's Crust.

The rocks of which this crust consists belong mostly to the
Sedimentary series, a large number to the Organic series, and
a smaller, but still considerable proportion, to the Igneous
series.

II. Proofs that Parts of the Crust have Sunk Down.

Submerged Forests, are to be regarded as evidence of
subsidence of the earth's surface, just as the raised beaches are
taken as proofs of npheaval.

The beds of coal, for example, which once flourished as
green forests at the surface, are now found buried deep within
the earth.

Two facts are now very clear to you about the crust of the
earth — ist, it has often been pushed outward, so as to rise
above the level of the sea ; and 2d, it has also often sunk in-
ward so as to carry parts of the land deep beneath the sea-level.
But it could, not undergo these movements without suffering
other changes.

III. Proofs that the Rocks of the Earth's Crust have
been Tilted, Crumpled, and Broken.

The crust of the earth, instead of being made of regular lay-
ers one above another, like the coats of an onion, has been so
squeezed and fractured, that in many cases the bottom or old-
est rocks have been pushed up far above the newest.

Wherever, therefore, strata arc pushed up or let down more
at one place than at another, without being actually broken
across, they must be thrown into an inclined position. Now
this unequal and irregular kind of movement has taken place
many times in every quarter of the globe. If you look at the
stratified rocks, in most parts of this and other countries, you
will seldom find them quite flat — usually they are inclined,
sometimes gently, sometimes steeply, so that they have not
only been upheaved out of the sea, but have been moved ir-
regularly and unequally.

IV. The Origin of Mountains.

First of all, then, when any chain of mountains is examined
it is found to be made of rocks belonging to one or more of
the three great classes with which you are already acquainted.
In particular, the great mass of most mountain chains consists
of various kinds of stratified rocks — such as sandstones, con-
glomerates, limestones, and others. Now you have found that
these rocks have been laid down under water, most of them
under the sea. They often contain the remains of shells,
corals, sea-urcjjins, or other marine creatures, and these re-
mains may be taken out of the rocks even at the summits of
the mountains. No clearer proof than this could be required
to show that mountains are not so old as "the beginning of
things," for these fossils prove that where the mountains now
stand wide seas once rolled.

Again, mountains which consist of rocks formed originally
under the sea roust owe their existence to some force which
couid raise up the bed of the sea into high land. As a con-
sequence of the slow cooling of our planet, its outer crust, un-
der the enormous strain of contraction, has been forced up into

%r-

GEOLOGY.

— ^
699 f

ridges in different places, with wide sunken spaces between.
The ridges form mountain chains, while the sunken spaces are
filled with the waters of the ocean. If you look at a map of
the world you may trace out the principal lines of elevation,
as they are called, over the globe.

The same forces which have carved out valleys and left
mountain ridges standing out between them are still busy at
theirwork. Every year adds to the waste. And thus, although
when we gaze at a mountain-chain we know that first of all
it was heaved up by movements from below, we nevertheless
learn to recognize that all the familiar forms which it now
assumes have since that early time of upheaval been carved
upon it by the very same forces — rains, frosts, springs,
glaciers, and the rest — which are busy sculpturing its surface
still.

V. How the Rocks of the Crust Tell the History of
the Earth.

What papers and inscriptions, coins and books are
to the historian, the rocks of the earth's crust are to the
geologist. They contain all the real evidence at his disposal.
What he can gather from them at one place must be com-
pared with what he collects from them at another. He must
journey far and wide in search of facts which are not to be
found at his own door. Gaps will certainly occur, which even
the skill and industry of many yegrs may never completely
bridge over ; for the rocks, as we have already seen, are sub-
ject to revolutions quite as destructive in their way as those

which have swept away the archives of cities and nations.^
The geologist, therefore, can only at the best produce an im
perfect chronicle. But it is one which has a profound interes*
for all of us, for it is the story of our own globe — of its co
tinents and oceans, its mountains and valleys, its rivers ar.
lakes, of the tribes of plants and animals which people its su
face, and of the advent and progress of man himself.

Geological history brings before us, in this way, many fact
well calculated to impress our minds with the great antiquit
of our planet, and with the marvelous chain of changes b
which the present order of things has been brought about
We learn from it that mountains and valleys have not comt
suddenly into existence, such as we now see them, but have
been formed gradually, by a long series of processes similar to
those which are even now slowly doing the same work. We
discover that every part of the land under our feet can yield
us up its story, if we only know how to question it. And,
strangest of all, we find that the races of plants and animals
which now tenant land and sea, are not the first or original races,
but that they were preceded by others, these again by others
still more remote. We see that there has been upon the earth
a history of living things, as well as of dead matter. At the
beginning of that wonderful history we detect traces merely of
lowly forms, like the foraminifera of the Atlantic ooze. At the
end we are brought face to face with man — thinking, working,
restless man, battling steadily with the powers of nature, and
overcoming them one by one, by learning how to obey the
laws which direct them.

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OUR NEXT DOOR NEIGHBORS, CANADA AND MEXICO.

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OUR NEXT DOOR NEIGHBORS^ '"'

CANADA.

(Dominion of Canada.)

Sd^i^ONSTITUTION and Government.— The
Dominion of Canada consists of the provinces
of Ontario. Quebec— formerly Upper and Lower
Canada— Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Mani-
toba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Is-
land. They were united under the provisions
of an Act of the Imperial Parliament passed in
March, 1867, known as "The British North Amer-
ica Act, 1867," which came into operation on the
1st July, 1867, by royal proclamation. The Act orders that
the constitution of the Dominion shall be " similar in princi-
ple to that of the United Kingdom ; " that the executive au-
thority shall be vested in the Sovereign of Great Britain and
Ireland, and carried on in her name by a Governor-General
and Privy Council ; and that the legislative power shall be
exercised by a Parliament of two Houses, called the " Senate,"
and the " House of Commons. " Provision is made in the
Act for the admission of Newfoundland, still independent
province of British North America, into the Dominion of
Canada.

The members of the Senate of the Parliament of the Do-
minion are nominated for life, by summons of the Governor-
General under the Great Seal of Canada. By the terms of
the constitution, there are 77 senators, namely, 24 from the
Province of Ontario, 24 from Quebec, 10 from Nova Scotia,
10 from New Brunswick, 2 from Manitoba, 3 from British
Columbia, and 4 from Prince Edward Island. Each senator
must be 30 years of age, a bom or naturalized subject, and
possessed of property, real or personal, of the value of 4,000
dollars in the province for which he is appointed. The House
' ' Commons of the Dominion is elected by the people^ for
■ years, at the rate of one representative for every 17,000
^.,^U. At present, on theijasis of the census returns of 1871,
the Houte of Commons consists of 206 members, namely, 88
for Ontario, 65 for Quebec, 21 for Nova Scotia, 16 for New
Brunswick, 4 for Manitoba, 6 for British Columbia, and 6 for
Prince Edward Island.

The members of the House of Commons are elected by
constituencies, varying in the different provinces. In Ontario

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and Quebec a vote is given to every male subject being the
owner or occupier or tenant of real property of the assessed
value of 300 dollars, or of the yearly value of 30 dollars, if
within cities or towns, or of the assessed value of 200 dollars,
or the yearly value of 20 dollars, if not so situate. In New
Brunswick a vote is given to every male subject of the age of
21 years, assessed in respect of real estate to the amount of
100 dollars, or of personal property, or personal and real,
amounting together to 400 dollars, or 400 dollars annual in-
come. In Nova Scotia the franchise is with all subjects of
the age of 21 years, assessed in respect of real estate to the
value of 150 dollars, or in respect of personal estate, or of
real and personal together, to the value of 400 dollars. Voting
in Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, Manitoba, British Colum-
bia, and Prince Edward Island is open ; but in New Bruns-
wick votes are taken by ballot.

The Speaker of the House of Commons has a salary of
4,000 dollars per annum, and each member an allowance of
10 dollars per diem, up to the end of 30 days, and for a ses-
sion lasting longer than this period, the sum of 1,000 dollars,
with, in every case, 10 cents per mile for traveling expenses.
The sum of 8 dollars per diem is deducted for every day's ab-
sence of a member, unless the same is caused by illness.
There is the same allowance for the members of the Senate
of the Dominion.

The seven provinces forming the Dominion have each a
separate parliament and administration, with a Lieutenant-
Governor at the head of the executive. They have full pow-
ers to regulate their own local affairs, dispose of their revenues,
and enact such laws as they may deem best for their own
internal welfare, provided only they do not interfere with, or
are adverse to, the action and policy of the central adminis-
tration under the Governor-General,

Governor- General. — Rt. Hon. Sir John Douglas Sutherland
Campbell, Marquis of Lome, K.T., G.C.M.G., bom August
6, 1845, eldest son of the eighth duke of Argyle ; educated at
Eton, and Trinity College, Cambridge ; retumed to Pariia-
ment for Argyllshire, February, 1868 ; married March 21,
1871, to Princess Louise, daughter of Queen Victoria of Great
Britain and Ireland. Appointed Governor-General of the
Dominion of Canada and of British North America, October
14, 1878 ; assumed the Government, December 7, 1878.

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OUR NEXT DOOR NEIGHBORS, CANADA AND MEXICO.

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The Governor-General has a salary of 10,000/. per annum.
He is assisted in his functions, under the provisions of the
Act of 1867, by a Council, composed of thirteen heads of de-
partments.

The present Council was formed October 17, 1878.

Each of the ministers has a salary, fixed by statute, of
7,000 dollars, or 1,400/. a year, with the exception of the rec-
ognized Prime Minister, who has 8,000, or 1,600/. per an-
num. The body of ministers is officially known as the
"Queen's Privy Council for the Dominion of Canada."

Church and Education. — There is no State Church in
the Dominion, nor in the whole of British North America.
The Church of England is governed by nine bishops ; the
Roman Catholic Church by four archbishops and fourteen
bishops ; and the Presbyterian Church in Canada — formed in
1875 by the union of two formerly distinct bodies — by pres-
byteries, synods, and an annual assembly presided over by
moderators. The number of members of each religious creed
in the Dominion was as follows at the census of April 3,
1871 :

Roman Catholics 1,492,029

Presbyterians 544,998

Anglicans 494,049

Wesleyans and Methodists 567,091
Baptists 239i343

Lutherans. 37>935

Congregationalists. 21,829

Miscellaneous creeds 65.857

Of "no religion " 5,573

No creed stated 17,055

Total 3,485,761

The census returns, besides the broad religious divisions
here given, signalize a multitude of sectarian creeds, includ-
ing " Second Adventists," " Disciples," " Bible Christians,"
" Tunkers," " Mennonists, " "Universalists,"and "Mormons."
Roman Catholicism prevails most extensively in the province
of Quebec, formerly Lower Canada, the number of its ad-
herents there, 1B71, amounting to 1,019,850, or nearly 85 per
cent, of the total of the Dominion. In the province of On-
tario, formerly Upper Canada, the number of Roman Catholics
in 1871 was 274,162 ; while the Church of England numbered
330,965, and the Presbyterians 356,442 adherents.

The provinces of Quebec and Ontario have separate school
laws, adapted to the religious elements prevailing in either.
Each township in Ontario is divided into several school sec-
tions, according to the requirements of its inhabitants. The
common schools are supported partly by government, and
partly by local self-imposed taxation, and occasionally by the
payment of a small fee for each scholar. All teachers must
pass an examination before a county board of education, or
receive a license from the provincial Normal School, em-
powering them to teach, before they can claim the government
allowance. — (Official Communication.)

Revenue and Expenditure. — The financial accounts of
the Dominion of Canada are made up under three different
headings, namely, first "Consolidated Fund," comprising the
general sources of revenue, and branches of expenditure ;
secondly, "Loans" in revenue, and "Redemption" with
"Premiums and Discounts," in expenditure; and, thirdly,
"Open Accounts." The total actual revenue, under these
three divisions, was as follows in the financial year ending
Jime 30, 1879 :

Consolidated Fund $22,517,382 14

Loans 23,189,908 33

Open Accounts 6,771,874 6a

Total $52,479ii6s 09

;£io,495,833

The actual sources of revenue, comprised under the division
called Consolidated Fund, embracing all the ordinary receipts,
were as follows in the financial year ending June 30, 1879 :

Sources of Revenue, Consolidated Fund.

Customs $12,900,659 29

Excise 51390.763 '7

Bill Stamps 185,190 89

Post office, including Ocean Postage 1,172,418 14

Public Works, including Railways 1,863,149 07

Interest on Investments (Permanent) 52 1 ,494 63

" " (Temporary) 7',oo5 4>

Northern Railway Interest Account 40,849 56

Ordnance Lands 47,62123

Casual Premium and Discount 460 82

Bank Imposts 2.853 03

Fines, Forfeitures, and Seizures 32, 148 81

Tonnage Dues (River Police) 21,361 65

" (Mariners' Fimd) 37i757 39

Steamboat Inspection '203^ ^^

Fisheries 17.73^ 34

Cullers' Fees 24i7iS 45

Militia 16,031 14

Penitentiaries '. 53,11510

Miscellaneous Receipts 15.325 77

Superannuation 41.959 30

Dominion Lands, Manitoba 23,828 09

Dominion Steamers 1,612 09

Gas Inspection and Law Stamps 3. '72 36

Insurance Inspection 6.134 38

Weights and Measures 13,685 97

Total Revenue, Consolidated Fund $22,5 1 7,382 14

;C4.503,476

The total actual expenditure, under the three divisions
before named, with the addition of " Premiums and Dis-
counts," was as follows in the financial year ending June
30, 1879 :

Consolidated Fimd $24,455,381 56

Redemption 14,032,240 69

Premiums and Discounts 676,225 30

Open Accounts 8,292,574 37

Total $47,456,421 92

;C9,49i,284

The actual branches of expenditure comprised under the
division called Consolidated Fund, embracing all the ordinary
disbursements, were as follows in the financial year ending
June 30, 1879:

Branches of Expenditure.

Interest on Public Debt $7,'94.734 '4

Chargesof Management 275,559 37

Sinking Fund 1,037,219 76

Premium, Discount and Exchange 2,364 06

Subsidies to Provinces 3,442,764 34

Civil Government 861,17085

Administration of Justice 577,89658

Police 11,12208

Penitentiaries 308,482 61

Legislation 748,007 58

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702

OUR NEXT DOOR NEIGHBORS, CANADA AND MEXICO.

Geological Survey $i 10,785 92

Arts, Agriculture and Statistics 63,068 23

Immigration and Quarantine 312,224 05

Marine Hospitals 58,237 34

Pensions »o7,79S °4

Superannuation i'3i53' 63

Militia and Defense 777,69890

Public Works iiOi3,593 'o

Ocean and River Steam Service 398,876 76

Light-houses and Coast Services 447,566 92

Fisheries 82,319 07

Steamboat Inspection i3,>S7 38

Insurance Inspection 8,537 ^6

Miscellaneous 101,602 15

Indian Grants 498,327 29

Dominion Lands 9^,773 29

Mounted Police, N. W. T 344,823 77

Customs 7'9,7ii 29

Excise 211,06471

Weights and Measures 84,004 97

Inspection of Staples 622 94

Adulteration of Food 7,797 02

Culling Timber 44,670 02

Post Office 1,784,423 88

Public Works 2,680,979 10

Minor. Revenues 27,888 26

Total Expenditure Consolidated Fund $24,464,401 56

;^4,892,88o

The estimates of expenditure under the Consolidated Fund
for the financial year ending June 30, 1881, amounted to
25,517,000 dollars, or 5,103,400/., and of total expenditure to
25,207,203 dollars, or 5,041,440/. On the total receipts and
expenditure for the year there was a saving of i, 000,000/.
For the financial year ending June 30, 1880, the estimates of
expenditure on the Consolidated Fund were 23,427,882 dol-
lars, or 4,685,576/, and the total expenditure, 39,616,140 dol-
lars, or 7,923,228/ The revenue for 1882-3 is estimated at
30,600,000 dollars, and expenditure at 27,600,000.

The public debt of the Dominion, incurred chiefly on ac-
count of public works, and the interest of which forms the
largest branch of the expenditure, was as follows on July i,
1879:

Funded and Unfunded Debt.

Payable in London.

Imperial Guarantee, 4 per cent $30,660,000 00

Intercolonial Loan, 5 per cent 2,433,333 34

Consolidated Canadian Loan Bonds, 5 per cent. 21,768,802 99

" " " Stock, 5 per cent, 9,605,799 51

Canadian Bonds (old) 5 per cent 20,440 06

" " 6 per cent 12,428,980 06

Nova Scotia Bonds, 6 per cent 1,082,833 35

New Brunswick Bonds, 6 per cent 4,491,446 67

British Columbia Bonds, 6 per cent 924,666 67

Prince Edward Island Bonds, 6 per cent 1,091,106 54

Dominion Loan of 1874, 4 per cent 19,466,666 67

" 1875, 4 per cent 4,866,66666

" 1876, 4 per cent 12,166,66666

" 1878, 4 per cent 7,300,00000

Payable in Canada.

Canada Bonds (old) 5 per cent 113,650 00

Canadian Bonds (old) 6 per cent 1 200 00

Nova Scotia, 6 per cent 951,920 01

New Brunswick, 6 per cent 123,700 00

Prince Edward Island, 6 per cent 203,371 31

Bonds convertible into Stock, 6 per cent $538,000 00

Dominion Stock, 6 per cent 4,121,197 25

" 5 per cent 3,945,739 82

Savings Banks, Post Office, 4 per cent 2,925,290 80

" " 5 per cent 179,90000

" Toronto, 4 per cent 222,467 24

*' Winnipeg, 4 per cent 75 ,264 75

*' Nova Scotia, 4 per cent 2,495,201 32

" New Brunswick, 4 per cent 1,704,738 54

" British Columbia, 5 per cent ... 1,179,40286
" Nova Scotia Suspense Account. 2,639 85
" ■' Interest Account.. . 1,565 39
" New Brunswick Suspense Ac-
count .^ 639 69

" New Brunswick Interest Ac-
count 403 57

" Prince Edward Island, 4 per

cent... 420,169 19

Indemnity to Seigneurs and Townships, 6 per

cent 391,330 96

Notes, Canada 10,789,710 04

" Nova Scotia 41,197 04

Unpaid Warrants, Prince Edward Island 630 70

Overdue Debentures, Province of Canada 8,641 06

Total Funded and Unfunded Debt $158,745,580 57

;^3i, 749,116

To the existing debt was added, in 1879, a four per cent,
loan of 3,000,000/., one-half of which bears the guarantee of
the British government. Out of this loan 1,547,000/. is to be
employed in redeeming the six per cent, bonds.

According to the Public Accounts for the year ending June
30, 1880, the Public Debt of Canada stood as follows :

Without Interest $30,446,137 22

At 4 per cent. " 98,729,249 29

"5 " " 52,110,026 68

"6 " " 17,839,91013

Total $i99,'25,323 32

;£39,825,o64

In the financial estimates for the year 1878-79, the total
expenditure on account of the debt was set down at 15,501,674
dollars, or 3,100,335/., and in the provisional estimates for
1879-80 the same was calculated at 14,282,413 dollars, or
2,856,483/.

Army. — In addition to the troops maintained by the Impe-
rial Government — the strength of which was reduced, in 1871,
to 2,000 men, forming the garrison of the fortress of Halifax,
considered an " Imperial station " — Canada has a large volun-
teer force, and a newly organized militia, brought into exist-
ence by a statute of the first Federal Parliament, passed in
March, 1868, "to provide for the defense of the Dominion."
By the terms of the Act, the militia consists of all male British
subjects between 18 and 60, who are called out to serve in
four classes, namely : ist class, 18 to 30, unmarried ; 2d,
from 30 to 45, unmarried ; 3d, 18 to 45, married ; 4th, 45
to 60. Widowers without children rank as unmarried,
but with them, as married. The militia is divided into an
active and a reserve force. The active includes the volunteer,
the regular, and the marine militia. The regular militia are
those who voluntarily enlist to serve in the same, or men bal-

OUR NEXT DOOR NEIGHBORS, CANADA AND MEXICO.

703 ^

loted, or in part of both. The marine militia is made up of
persons whose usual occupation is on sailing or steam craft
navigating the waters of the Dominion. Volunteers have to
serve for three years ; and the regular and marine militia for
two years. On the 1st of January 1879, ^^^ active militia
comprised a force of 45,152 officers and men, organized as
follows : cavalry, 2,637 '> field artillery, 1,438 ; garrison
artillery, 3,470 ; engineers, 282 ; infantry and rifles, 37,316,
The reserve militia comprised 655,000 rank and file at the
same date.

Under the Act of 1868, amended in 1871, Canada is divided
into twelve military districts, four of which are formed by
Ontario, three by Quebec, one by Nova Scotia, one by New
Brunswick, one by Manitoba, one by Prince Edward Island,
and one by British Columbia. Two schools of military in-
struction for artillery are established in each of the provinces
of Ontario and Quebec, and one in each of the provinces of
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. There is, besides, a royal
military college at Kingston, Ontario.

Area and Population. — The population of Canada in the
year 1800 was estimated at 240,000 ; in 1825 it amounted to
581,920; in 1851 to 1,842,265; and in 1861 to 3,090,561.
The census of April 3, 1871, stated the area and population
of the Dominion as follows ; with which are given the pre-
liminary results of the census of April 3, 1881 :

Provinces.

Area:
English
square
miles.

Population, 1871.

1881.

Males.

Femal's

Total.

Ontario

107,780
193,355
27,322
21,731

13,969
356,000

2,133
2,650,000

828,590
596,041
145,888
193,792

6,277

792,261

595,475
139,706
194,008

5,868

1,620,851
1,191,516

285,594
387,800

12,145
33,586

94,021
60,500

1,913^460

1,358,469

321,129

440,585

49,509
60,000

108,928
100,000

Quebec

New Brunswick. . . .

Nova Scotia

Manitoba (former

British Columbia. . .
Prince Edward
Island

47,"i

46,900

Northwest Territory
(including Manito-
ba extension)

Total

3,372,290

3,686,013

352,080

The average increase in ten years has been at the rate of
1805 per cent., varying from I3"6i per cent, in Nova Scotia
to 289 per cent, in Manitoba,

By an Order in Council issued in August, 1880, all British
possessions in North America not already included in the
Dominion, comprising all islands with the exception of New-
foundland and its dependencies, are to be considered as form-
ing part of the Dominion of Canada from September i, 1880.

The census of Newfoundland, taken at the end of 1869,
stated the total population at 146,536 — comprising 75,547
males, and 70,989 females — living on an area of 40,200 Eng-
lish square miles. In 1874 the population was 161,389. In
t88i it was 181,753.

The population of the Dominion consisted at the census of
1871 to the extent of more than four-fifths of natives of
British North America. These numbered 2,900,531, of whom
1,138,794 were natives of Ontario; 1,147,664, of Quebec;

360,832 of Nova Scotia ) 245,068 of New Brunswick ; 405
of Manitoba and British Columbia ; and 7,768 natives of
Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland. Of alien-bom
inhabitants of the Dominion the most numerous at the census
of 1871 were 485,526 natives of the United Kingdom.

The population of the principal cities of the Dominion and
of British North America was as follows at the census of
1881 :

Dominion of Canada.

Ontario...

Toronto 86,455

Hamilton 35,065

Ottawa 27,417

London 19,763 j

Ch^ehpr J Montreal 140,863

^J^^^^ 1 Quebec 62,446

Nova Scotia.. Halifax 34,102

New Brunswick ('71) St. John 28,988

British North America.
Newfoiudland St. John's (1871).

22,583

The increase of population in recent years has been chiefly
through immigration from the United Kingdom. The follow-
ing table shows the total number of immigrants, and the num-
ber who actually settled in the Dominion of Canada, in each
of the ten years from 1870 to 1879 '

Years

Total number
of Immi-
grants.

Number of
Settlers.

Years

Total number
of Immi-
grants.

Number of
Settlers.

1870
1871
1872
X873
1874

44,313

99,059
80,023

24,706
27,773
36,578
50,050
39,373

1879

43,458
31,650
35,285
41,033
61,051

37^83

25,633
37,083
39,807
40,492

The number of immigrants as well as of settlers, is inclusive
of those arrived from the United States.

Trade and Industry. — The trade of the Dominion of
Cariada is chiefly with the United States and Great Britain,
the greater part of the imports being derived from the United
States, and the greater part of the exports going to Great
Britain. The following statement gives the total value of ex-
ports and of imports, and the total value of imports entered
for home consumption in the Dominion, in each of the ten
fiscal years ending June 30, from 1872 to 1881 :

Years ended
June 30.

ToUl Exports.

Total Imports.

Imports for Home
Consumption.

Dollars.

1872

82,639,663

111,430,527

107,709,116

1873

89,789,922

128,011,282

127,514,594

1874

89.351,928

128,213,583

127,404,169

'!'!

77,886,979

123,070,283

119,618,657

1876

80,966,43s

93,210,346

194,733,218

^In

75,875,393

99,327,962

96,300,483

1878

79,323,667

93,081,787

9', 199,577

1879

71,503,535

81,961,251

80,338,432

1880

87,911,458

86,489,747

71,782,349

188 1

98,290,823

105,330,840

The following tabular statement exhibits the commercial in-
tercourse of the Dominion of Canada with the United King-
dom, giving the total value of the exports to Great Britain and
Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish produce and
manufactures into the Dominion, in each of the ten years
ending Dec. 31, 1871 to 1880 :

704

OUR NEXT DOOR NEIGHBORS, CANADA AND MEXICO.

Years.

1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880

Exports from the Domir

ion of Canada to

Great Britain.

£,

8,623,115
8,652,2^8
11,117,122
11,336,8.2
9,615,927
iOi324>70S
11,186,195

8,874,257
9.834.236
12,93 -".571

Imports of British Home
Produce into the Do-
minion of Canada.

7,766,559

9,637. '33
8,112,751

8,849,747
8,414,099
6,902,723
7,000,419
5,926,908

5,o4°,S24
6,816,123

The two staple articles of export from the Dominion of Can-
ada to the United Kingdom are breadstuffs and wood. In the
year 1880, the total exports of corn and flour amounted to
4,555,101/., of which 2,066,426/. was for wheat ; 267,375/.
for oats ; 970,307/. for maize, or Indian com ; and 405,841/.
for wheat-meal and flour ; the remainder comprising peas,
oatmeal, and other kinds of breadstuff^s. The value of the
exports of wood and timber to Great Britain in 1880 were
4,694.924/., made up chiefly of hewn timber, of the value of
1,539,245/., and of sawn wood, of the value of 3,079,693/.
The principal articles of British produce imported into the
Dominion in the year 1880 were iron, wrought and unwrought,
of the value of 1,691,649/.; woolen manufactures, of the
value of 1,124,115/.; and cotton goods, of the value of 877,-
988/.

Not included in the above returns is the trade with the
province of Newfoundland and the coast of Labrador, as yet
not included within the Dominion. The exports from New-
foundland and Labrador to Great Britain, chiefly fish and
train oil, amounted to 458,417/., and the imports of British
produce to 892,747/., in the year 1880. The principal articles
of British imports into Newfoundland and Labrador in 1 880
were apparel and haberdashery, of the value of 106,296/. ; and
cotton manufactures, of the value of 40,036/. For the year
ending July 31, 1881, the total exports were 1,912,143/.

The tonnage of shipping registered in each of the Provinces
of the Dominion on December 31, 1878, was as follows :

Vessels.

Nova Scotia 3.003

New Brunswick i ,142

Quel>ec ^.976

Ontario 958

Prince Edward Island 322

British Columbia and Manitoba. 68

Tons.

553,368
335,965
248,349
135,440
54.250
6.643

i,333.°i5

Total 7,469

The total enumerated in the preceding table comprised 834
steamers, measuring 116,620 tons. During the year 1878,
there were 340 new vessels, of 101,506 tons, built in the Do-
minion.

The Dominion of Canada had a network of railways of a
total length of 5.574 miles at the end of June, 1878. There
were at the same period lines of a total length of 1,996 miles
in course of construction, and 3,000 miles more had been sur-
veyed, and concessions granted by the G®remment. Partly
included in the latter class is a railway crossing the whole of
the Dominion, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, to the con-
struction of which the British Government contributes a grant,

in the form of a guaranteed loan of 2,500,000/. In June, 1879,
there were 6,256 miles open.

On January i, 1879, there were in the Dominion 5,378
post-ofiices. The number of letters and post-cards sent
through the post-ofiice during the year ended June 30, 1878,
was 53,685,000 ; and of newspapers, posted from offices of
publication, 3,720,480 lbs. in weight, and of others 6,252,740
in number. A uniform rate of postage of three cents has
been established over the whole Dominion.

Resident Minister of the Dominion of Canada in Great
Britain.— Hon. Sir A. T. Gait, K.C.M.G.; appointed May i,
1880.

Money, Weights, and Measures. — The money, weights,
and measures of Canada are :

Money. — The Dollar of 100 cents. Average rate of ex-
change = 4r.

The decimal system of currency was introduced into the
Dominion of Canada and British North America by Act 34
Vict. cap. 5. It is ordered by the Act that the unit of
account shall be the dollar of loo cents, the value of which
dollar shall be on the basis of 486 cents and two-thirds of a
cent to the pound of British sterling money. The value of
the money of the United Kingdom is fixed by law as follows :
The sovereign of the weight and fineness now established,
four dollars and eighty-six and two-third cents ; the crown
piece, one dollar and twenty cents ; the half-crown piece,
sixty cents ; the florin, forty-eight cents ; the shilling, twenty-
four cents ; the sixpence, twelve cents.

Weights and Measures. — A new and uniform system of
weights and measures was introduced into the Dominion of
Canada by Act 36 Vict. cap. 48, assented to May 23, 1873,
entitled " An Act respecting Weights and Measures." The
Act orders that " the Imperial yard shall be the standard
measure of length ; " "that the Imperial pound Avoirdupois
shall be the standard measure of weight ; " that " the gallon
known as the ' Imperial gallon ' shall be the standard measure
of capacity for liquids ; " that " the standard or unit of measure
for the sale of gas by meter, the cubic foot containing 6i-|^(roV
lbs. avoirdupois weight of distilled water weighed in the air
at the temperature of 62 deg. Fah. ; the barometer being at 30
inches ; " and that " the bushel measure known as the ' Im-
perial bushel ' shall be the standard measure of capacity for
commodities sold by dry measure." Of old weights and
measures usually employed, the chief are :

Wine gallon = o'83333 gallon.

A le gallon — i '01695 "

Bushel = 0*9692 imperial bushel.

By Act of 42 Vict. cap. 26, it was further provided : That
in contracts for sale and delivery of any of the undermen-
tioned articles the bushel shall be determined by weighing,
unless a bushel by measure be specially agreed upon, the
weight equivalent to a bushel being as follows :

Castor beans .40 lbs.

Potatoes

Turnips

Carrots

Parsnips

Beets

Onions .

Clover seed 60

Wheat 60 lbs.

Indian com 56 "

Rye 56 "

Peas 60 "

Malt ....36 "

Oats 34 "

Beans 60 "

Flaxseed 50 "

Hemp 44 "

Blue grass seed 14 "

Timothy 48

Buckwheat 48

»r-

OUR NEXT DOOR NEIGHBORS, CANADA AND MEXICO.

705

By the same Act the British hundredweight of 112 pounds,
and the ton of 2,240 pounds, were abolished, and the hundred-
weight was declared to be loo pounds and the ton 2.000
pounds avoirdupois, thus assimilating the weights of Canada
and the United States.

MEXICO.

(RepCbi.ica Mexicana.)

Constitution and Government. — The present constitu-
tion of Mexico bears date February 5, 1857. By the terms of
it Mexico is declared a federative republic, divided into States
— 19 at the outset, but at present 27 in number, with 2 terri-
tories — each of which is permitted to manage its own local
affairs, while the whole are bound together in one body politic
by fundamental and constitutional laws. The powers of the
supreme government are divided into three branches, the
legislative, executive, and judiciary. The legislative power
is vested in a Congress consisting of a House of Represent-
atives and a Senate, and the executive in a President. Rep-
resentatives, elected by each State, at the rate of one mem-
ber for 80,000 inhabitants — 331 in 1879 — hold their places
for two years. The qualifications requisite are, . twenty-five
years' age, and eight years' residence in the State. The
Senate consists of two members for each State, of at least
thirty years of age, who are elected by a plurality of votes in
the State Congress. The members of botlv Houses receive
salaries of 2,000 dollars a year. The President and Vice-
President are elected by the Congress of the States, and hold
office for four years. Congress has to meet annually from
January i to April 15, and a Council of Government, consist-
ing of the Vice-President and half the Senate, sits during the
recesses.

President of the Republic. — General Gonzales : installed
President of the Republic, as successor of General Porfirio
Diaz, December i, 1880.

The President was installed in power in consequence of a
revolution which overthrew his predecessor, elected 1872, and
re-elected 1876.

The administration is carried on, under the direction of the
President, by a council of six ministers, heads of the depart-
ments of Justice, Finance, the Interior, Army and Navy,
Foreign Affairs, and Public Works.

Revenue and Expenditure. — The public revenue is de-
rived to the extent of more than two-thirds from customs du-
ties, laid both on exports and imports, while nearly one-half
of the total expenditure is for the maintenance of the army.
The finances of the State have been for many years in great
disorder, the expenditure exceeding constantly the revenue.
The following statement gives the budget for 1881-82 :

Sources of Revenue.

Customs and harbor duties. $15,000,000

Taxes , 4,000,000

Stamps 3,500,000

Sale of national lands 35iOoo

Post offices and Mint 950,000

Miscellaneous receipts 2,240,000

Total revenue $25,725,000

;{J5,I45,OCO

Branches of Expenditure.

Congress and Executive power .$1 ,038,734

Supreme Court of Justice 366,576

Ministry of the Interior 3,i49i757

Ministry of Finance 4,173,585

Ministry of War 8,659,927

Ministry of Foreign Affairs 317,660

Justice and Education 1,352,820

Public Worlcs 6,162,637

In the budget estimates for the financial year ending June
30, 1879, the total revenue was calculated at 16,128,807 dol-
lars, or 3,225,761/., and the total expenditure at 22,108,046
dollars, or 4,421,609/., leaving a deficit of 5,979,239 dollars,
or 1,195,848/. There were deficits for the previous twenty
years.

The public debt of Mexico, both internal and external, was
estimated, in 1879, at 425,500,000 dollars, or 85,100,000/
But no official returns regarding it have been published since
the reign of the Emperor Maximilian I., in 1865, when the
total debt was stated to be 63,471,450/., bearing an annual
interest of 3,945,094/. In the subjoined statement an abstract
is given of these returns bearing date August i, 1865 :

Old English Three per Cent. Loan, as per settle-
ment of 1851

Three per Cent. Steele created 1864, for settle
ment of overdue coupons of old loan

Six per Cent. Anglo-French Loan of 1864

Six per Cent. Lottery Loan of 1865

Interest ;£6oo,ooo. Lottery Prizes ;Ci2o,oco, Sink-
ing Fund ;£25o,ooo

Six per Cent. Internal Mexican Debt, circa

Admitted Claims of Foreigners bearing interest
at 6 per cent

Amount due to French Government for War ex-
penses at 3TSt March, 1865

Annual payment to France on account of War
expenses, as per Paris Convention of 1864.

Total 63,471,450 3,945,049

Capital.

10,241,650

4,864,800
12,365.000
10,000,000

7,000,000
6,coo,ooo
13,000,000

Annual
Interest-

£
307,205

145,944
741,900

970,000
420,000

360,000

1,000,000

The actual Government of the Republic does not recognize
any portion of the above liabilities, except the six per cent,
internal Mexican debt, the interest of which has not been
paid for a great number of years.

Area and Population. — The area of Mexico and number
of inhabitants are chiefly known through estimates. The
most reliable of these, based on partial enumerations made by
the Government of the Republic in 1874, state the area of
Mexico to embrace a territory of 743,948 English square
miles, with a total population of 9,343,470. The following
table, drawn up after a report published in the " Diario Ofi-
cial" of Mexico, June 7, 1875, gives the area and population
of each of the 27 States composing the Republic, with addition
of the territory of Lower California, and the Federal district of
Mexico, seat of the central Government.

It should be stated the Mexican Government is at present
engaged (1883) in having the most complete set of tables pre-
pared ; no expense has been spared to make them as complete
as possible, President Gonzales and his Cabinet being deeply
interested. When these tables are prepared they will be scat-
tered broadcast so as to show the world what Mexico is doing.

•jo6

OUR NEXT DOOR NEIGHBORS, CANADA AND MEXICO.

State.

States .— Aguascalientes

Campeche

Chiapas

Chihuahua

Coahuila

Colima

Durango

Guanajuato

Guerrero

Hidalgo

Jalisco

Mexico

Michoacan >.

Morelos

Nuevo-Leon

" Oaxaca

Puebla

Quer^taro

San Louis Potosl

Sinaloa

Sonora

Tabasco

Tamaulipas

TIaxcala

Vera Cruz

Yucatdn

Zacatecas

Territories .— Lower California. .

Federal District of Mexico

Total

Area: English
Square Miles

2,89s
25,832
16,048

83,7.6
50,890

3,741
43,510
11,411
24,550

8,163
39,168

7,838
25,689

1,776
23,635
33,591
12,021

3,207
27,500
36,198
79021
11,851
30,225

1,620
26,232
29,567
22,998
61,562
461

743,948

Population,

1873-

89,715
80,366

193,987
180,668

98,397
65,827
185,077
900,00 >
320,069
404,207
966,689

663,557
618,240

150,384
178,872

648,779
697,788
153,286
460,322
168,031
109,388
83,707
140,000
121,663

504,950
422,365

397,945
23,195
315,996

9,343,47°

It is calculated that five millions, or rather more than one-
half, of the population of the Republic of Mexico, are pure
'' Indians," the rest comprising a mixture of various races ;
the white, or European-descended inhabitants, numbering from
about 500,000 souls. Formerly existing distinctions of color
and race were abolished by the constitution of 1824, which
admits persons of all colors to the equal enjoyment of civil
and political rights.

Trade and Industry. — The total imports of Mexico in the
year 1876 were of the estimated value of 28,485,000 dollars,
or 5,697,000/., and the value of the exports 25,435,000 dol-
lars, or 5,087,000/. The chief article of export was silver, of
the estimated value of 15,000,000 dollars, or 3,000,000/., the
remainder comprising copper ores, cochineal, indigo, hides,
and mahogany and other woods. The staple imports are cot-
ton and linen manufactures, wrought iron, and machinery.
More than two-thirds of the total trade of Mexico is carried
on with the United States, and the remainder with France,
Germany, and Great Britain.

The principal articles of export from Mexico to Great Bri-
tain in the year 1880 were mahogany, of the value of 218,604/.,
and unrefined sugar, of the value of 98,113/. Cotton manu-
factures, of the value of 572,692/.; linens, of the value of
68,864/,, and iron, wrought and unwrought, of the value of
261,253/., formed the chief imports of the United Kingdom
into Mexico in 1880.

The subjoined tabular statement shows the total value of

hr~

the exports from Mexico to Great Britain and Ireland, and of
the imports of British and Irish produce into Mexico, in each
of the ten years from 1871 to 1880 :

Exports from Mexico

Imports of
British Home Produce

Years.

Great Britain.

into Mexico.

1871

397,334

1,049, on

1872

443,524

843,186

1873

499,532

1,194,124

1874

546,651

1,124,613

1875

721,907

884,901

1876

662,132

502,224

1877

798,857

995,510

1878

507,082

773,331

1879

582,759

693,123

1880

628,071

1,225,567

The formerly valuable silver mines of Mexico, neglected
for a long time, were partly reopened in 1864. The richest
of all the mines now worked are those of Real del Monte and
Pachuca, situated about sixty miles from the City of Mexico,
and belonging to an Anglo-Mexican company. The total
exports of silver ore from Mexico to the United Kingdom
amounted in value to 80/. in 1869, to 3,340/. in 1870, to 29,-
774/. in 1871, to 25,643/. in 1872, to li,oig/ in 1873, to
2,254/ in 1874, to 7.919^. 1875, to 14,572/- in 1876, to 14,538/.
in 1877, to 5,066/. in 1878, to 38,261/. in 1879, and to 22,395/
in 1880.

, Mexico had t,070 miles of railway open for traffic in 1881.
The principal line, called the " National Mexican," 300 miles
long, from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico, with branch to
Pueblo, was commenced, under State aid, in 1864, and com-
pleted in 1869. The lines under construction include an Inter-
Oceanic railway across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, between
the mouth of the Coazacoalco and the Upper Lagoon on the
Pacific side. This line will be 60 miles long, and was to be
opened at the end of 1882.

The total length of telegraph lines, at the end of June,
1881, was 10,580 English miles. There were, at the same date,
363 telegraph offices.

The post-office carried 4,406,410 letters in the year 1879-80,
At the end of June, 1881 there were 873 post-offices in the re-
public.

Money, Weights and Measures. — The money, weights
and measures of Mexico and the British equivalents, are as fol-
lows :

Money.

The Dollar^ of 100 cents.- approximate value, 4^.

Weights and Measures.

Tt, A I fforwine = sf imperial gallons.

1ViiArroba\ .. ^ji ^ ^f "

" Square Vara = 109 vara = i yard.

" Fanega = 1 J imperial bushels.

POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1790-1880.

707

POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES AT EACH CENSUS, 1790-1880.

States and
Territories.

1790.

1800.

181O.

1820.

1830.

1840.

1850.

i860. 1870.

1880.

Percent,
increase,
1870-1880.

The United 1
States... )

3,929,214

5,308,483

7,239,881

9,633,833

13,866,030

17,069,453

23,191,876

1
31,443,321, 38,558,371

50,155,783

30.08

The States...

3,929,214

5,294,390

7,215.858

9,600,783

12,820,868

17,019,641

23,067,362

3i,»83,744J 38,115,641

49,371,340

29-53

'9
»5

127,901
14,255

'5
27

309,527
30,388

12I 590,756

25 97,574

13
36
29

771,623)13 964,201 16

209,897125 44^UW 26

996,992

484v47i

560,247

39,864

537,454

125,015

187,748

1,184,109

2,539,891

1,680,637

1,194,020

364,399

1,331,011

726,915

626,915

780,894

',457,35'

1,184,055

439,706

837,922

1,721,295

122,993

42,49'

318,300

906,096

4,382,759

1,071,361

2,665,260

90,923

3,:2i,95'

217,353

705,606

1,258,520

818,579

330,551

1,225,163

442,014

17 1,262,505
25 802. C2i;

26.63

65 -es
54-34
387.47
15.86
17.27
43.53
30.23

■

379,99424

.34,277138

460,14725

112,216134

32
38

'5
3
36

3
33

30
12
II
32
14
29
16

864,694
194,327
633,700
146,608

269,493
1,542,180
3,077,871
1,978,301
1,634,615

996,096
1,648,69a

939,946

648,936

934,943
1,783,085
1 ,636,037

780,773
','3',597
3,168,380

452^402
63,366

346,991
1,131,116
5,083,871
',399,750
3,198,062

174,768
4,282,891

276,531

995,577
',542,359
',591,749

332,286

1,512,565

618,457

',315,497

35
24
32

5
6

Connecticut
Delaware . .

237,946
59,096

351,002
64,273

9
'9

a6i,942
72,674

375,148
72,749

16
24
25
10
20
13

297,675
76,748
34,730
516,823
157,445
343,031

20 309,978

26 78,085

27 54,477
9 691,392

14 476,183
10, 685,866
281 43,113

21
30

3'
9
11

7
27

370,792
91,532
87,445

Geor|fia. . . .

82,548

162,686

11
23

252,433
12,282
24,520

340,985
55,162
147,178

906,185
851,470
988,416
192,314

4
6

1,057,286
',7",95i

I,150U28

4
6
11
29

23
20

7
13
2S
18

5
35
37
31
'7

9
'9
30
10
27

5,641

17.7'
36.06

'73-35
22.98
29.30

3.5'
19.73
22.3s
38.24
77.56
36.67
25.97
267.82
46.53

9.01
24.83
15.97
30.6s
19.99
92.21
21.60
27.22
41.09
22.5s
94-45
• 52
23.45
39.9'
24.73

30 67A.Q1-J

33
1?

107,206
1,155,684
708,002
628,379
687,049
1,231,066

749,113
172,023

791,305

1,182,012

28,841

6,857

326,073

672,035

3,880,735
992,622

2,339,511
52,465

2,906,215
174,620
703,708

1,109,801
604,215
315,098

1,596,318

'3
'4

Kentucky . .

73,677

220,955

5
24

406,511
76,556
228,705
380,546
472,040
4,762

'7
12
10

7
26

564,13s
152,923
398,269
407,350
523,159
8,765

6
'9

13
11

8
36

687,917
215,739
399,455
447,040
610,408
31,639

6: 779,828
19; 352,411

13 501,793
15 1 470,019

8! 737,699

23' 313,267

8
18
16

'I
20
33
15
13

982,405
517,762

'5
i6

'7
18

Maine . ...
Maryland . .
Mass.

11
6

96,540
319,728
378,787

'4
7
5

i5',7'9
341,548
422,845

583,16922
583,034 19
994,514 7
397,654! 16

Mississippi .

8,850

30
33

40,352
20,845

21
23

75,448
66,557

136,621
140,455

17 375,651
'6 383,702

606,526
682,044

't
36
37
27
21

'
12

3
34

22
23

Nebraska. . .

•

25
26

27
28
20

N. H'shire .
New Jersey.
New York .
N. Carolina.

Ohio

Oregon . . .

10
9
5
3

141,885

i84,'39
340,120

393-75'

11
10
3

4
18

3
16

6
'5

183,858
211,149
589,051
478,103
45,365

602,365
69,122

345,59'
105,602

154,465
880,200

4
'3

3
17

6
10

214,460
245,563
959,049
555,500
230,760

810,091

76,93'

4'5,"5

261,727

217,895
974,600

15
13

I
4
5

244,022
277,426
1,372." 1
638,829
58',295

1,047,507

83,015

502,741

433,771

335,966
1,065,116

I
5
4

'7
3

269,328
320,823
1,918,608
737,987
937,903

1,348,233
97,>99
581,185
681,904

280,652
1,211,405

22 284,574

'8 373,306

I 3,428,921

7 753,419

3 ',519,467

• 1

3 1,724,033
24' 108,830
11 594-398

5 829,210

21 291,948

4 ',239,797

1
10

3
32

2
28
14

5
25
23

317,976
489,555

3,097,394
869,039

1,980,329
13,294

2,311,786
147,545
668,507

1,002,717
212,592
314,120

1,421,661

31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38

Penn

R. Island. . .
S. Carolina.
Tenn...;...
Texas .. ..
Vermont . . .
Virginia. . . .
W. Virginia

3
'5

7
'7

249,073
35,691

"85,425
747,610

29 30.945

773,881

The States.
Arizona ....

4| .-..,

'5, ,

3,929,214

5,924,390

7,2^5,858

9,600,783

12,820,868

17,019,641

23,067,262

31,183,744

38,115,641

49,371,340

29.53

I
6
S

4
9

9,658
14,181
131,700
'4,999
2o,S95
9', 874
86,786
23,955

9,118

I
8
7
4
2

5
9

ll8 T-J

Dakota

4.837
75,080

Dist. Col'b.
Idaho

'4,093

24,023

33,039

39,834

43,7'2

51,687

»77,624
32,610
39,159
"9,565
'43,963
75,1 '6
20,789

34.87
117.41
90.13
30.14
65.88
213.57
'27.99

5
6

Montana . . .
N. Mexico..

••

I
3

61,547
11,380

I
3
4

93,5'6
40,273
",594

I
9

Utah

Washingrt'n
Wyoming..

•■

•••••"

:^.

The Territor's

'4,093

24,023

33,039

39,834

43,7'2

124,614

259,577

442,730

784^443

77.18

Total pop'n,..

3,929,214

5,308,483

7,239.88.

9,633,822

12,866,030

17,069,453

33,191,876

3',443,32i

38,558,37'

50,155,783

30.08

Increase Increase

per cent, percent.

1790-1800, 1801-1810,

35.10. 36 38.

Increase
percent.

1 8 10- 1 820,
33.06.

Increase

per cent.

1820-1830,

32.5'-

Increase
per cent.

1830-1840,
33.52.

Increase

per cent .

I 840- I 850,

35.83-

Increase
per cent.

I 850- I 860,
35-'i.

Increase

percent.

1860-1870,

22.65.

Increase
percent.

1870-1880,
30.08.

Note.— The narrow column under each census year shows the order of the States and Territories when arranged according to magnitude of
population. The figures of population for 1880 are in some cases subject to final correction at the Census Office.

4r-

708

RAINFALL IN THE UNITED STATES, ETC.

RAINFALL IN THE UNITED STATES.

Inches.

Baltimore 41 . 10

Baton Rouge, La 60. 16

Boston 44-99

Buffalo, N.Y 33-84

Burlington, Vt 34-15

Brunswick, Me 44 68

Charleston, S. C 43-63

Cleveland, Ohio 37- 61

Cincinnati 44-87

Dalles, Oregon 21 . 74

Detroit, Michigan 30-05

Fort Bliss, Texas , 9. 56

Fort Bridger, Utah 6. 12

Fort Brown, Texas 33 44

Fort Colville, Wash. Ten 983

Fort Craig, New Mexico 11.67

Fort Defiance, Arizona 14. 21

F"ort Garland, Colorado 6. 11

Fort Gibson, Indian Territory.. . . 36.37

Fort Hoskins, Oregon 66. 71

Fort Kearney, Nebraska 25.25

Fort Laramie, Wyoming 15 • 16

Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 31-74

Inches.

Fort Marcy, New Mexico 16.65

Fort Massachusetts, Colorado 17.06

Fort Myers, Florida 56.55

Fort Randall, Dakota 16.51

Fort Smith, Arkansas 40.36

Fort Snelling, Minnesota 25 . 11

Fort Towson, Indian Territory. . . 57.08

Fort Vancouver, Wash. Ten 38 . 84

Fortress Monroe 47 • 04

Gaston, N. C 43 - 40

Hanover, N. H 40.32

Huntsville, Alabama 54-88

Key West, Florida 36.23

Macinac, Michigan 23 . 96

Marietta, Ohio 42 . 70

Meadow Valley, California 57 -03

Memphis, Tennessee 45-46

Milwaukee, Wisconsin 30.40

Muscatine, Iowa 42 . 88

Mount Vernon Arsenal, Ala 66. 14

Natchez, Miss 53-55

Neah Bay, Wash. Ter 123 . 35

Newark, N. J 44-85

Inches.

New Bedford, Mass 41 .42

New Haven, Conn 44 • 43

New Orleans, La 51 05

New York 43-24

Penn Van, N. Y 28.42

Peoria. Ill 35 83

Philadelphia 44-05

Pittsburgh, Pa 37 -09

Providence, R. I 41-54

Richmond, Ind 43-32

Sacramento, Cal 19.56

,?alt Lake, Utah 23.85

San Francisco, Cal 21 . 69

San Diego, Cal 9.16

Savannah, Ga 48 . 32

Sitka, Alaska, 83 . 39

Springdale, Ky 48.58

St. Louis, Mo 42 . 18

Washington, Ark 54 - 50

Washington. D. C 37-52

White Sulphur Spring, Va 37-54

Average Annual Rainfall in Some Other Parts of America.

Inches.

Bermuda 55-34

Cayenne 116.00

Cordova, Mex 112.08

Havana 91.02

Inches.

Aberdeen, Scotland 28 . 87

Armagh, Ireland 36. 12

Bath, England 30.00

Bergen, Norway 88.61

Berlin, Prussia 23 . 56

Bordeaux, France 34 - 00

Borrowdale, England 141 . 54

Brussels, Belgium 28 06

Cambridge, England 24 . 09

Cracow, Austria 13-03

Coimbra, Portugal 118.08

Inches.

Maranham 277.00

Rio Janeiro 59 . 02

San Domingo 107 . 06

St. John's, New Brunswick 51.12

Average Annual Rainfall in Europe.

Inches.

Cork, Ireland 40.02

Copenhagen, Denmark 18 . 35

Dublin, Ireland 21.01

Geneva, Switzerland 31-07

Glasgow, Scotland 21 . 33

Limerick, Ireland 35 - 00

Lisbon, Portugal 27. 01

Liverpool 34-05

London 24 . 04

Manchester, England 36.02

Mannheim, Germany 22.47

Inches .

St. John's, Newfoundland 58 . 30

Toronto, Canada 35-17

Vera Cruz, Mexico 183 . 20

Inches .

Marseilles, France 23 . 04

Milan, Italy • 38 01

Naples 29 . 64

Paris 22 . 64

Prague, Austria 14.01

Rome.... 30.86

Stockholm, Sweden 20.04

St. Petersburg 17 • 03

Truro, England 44.00

York, England 23.00

RATE OF MORTALITY IN AMERICAN CITIES.— NUMBER OF DEATHS PER ANNUM OUT

OF 1,000 INHABITANTS.

POPULATION.

1880. 187

Atlanta, Ga
Baltimore .

Boston

Brooklyn '$66

Charleston, S. C 1 49.

Chicago 503.

Cincinnati 255,

Cleveland, Ohio 1 160,

Dayton, Ohio. .

Erie, Pa

Jacksonville, Fla . .

Louisville, Ky

Lowell, Mass

Memphis, Tenn

Mobile, Ala

Milwaukee, Wis . . .
Nashville, Tenn . . .

Newark, N.J

New Haven, Conn.

Deaths in every i ,000 of Pop'n ,

1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. t88o

21,789

267054
250,526

: 396 ,099
48,956

,298,977;
216,239
92,829

30,473
19,646
6,912

'00,753
40,928
40,226

32,"34
71,440
25,865
105,059
50,840

21.23 21.26
25.00 23.58

25-91
34.60

20. 2Q

24.92
30.72
20.42

20.39 23.1c

14.22 14.04
18.74 13-40

29-79 2478
22.00 24.34

I4.64J 18.78
43.17 31.82
20.29 27.15

20. 79J 17.89

21.25 17.26
27.43 21.66
21.61 19 72
24.3427.18
18.2415.70
17.81 18.33

12.29
13-71

26.06
24.14
16.84

29-57
23.17
19.66

15.00
13-88

15-93
13-37
20.00

.85

193
24.7

23-5
24.0

31-9
20.8
20. 9
20.4

iS-3
17.1
28.4

21.->!
22.4
31.0
24.4
21.5

23- 3

4021.4
40 18.5

New Orleans

New York

Paterson, N. J

Philadelphia „

Pittsburgh, Pa . . .

Providence, R. I

Reading, Pa

Richmond, Va

Rochester, N. Y

Salt Lake City, Utah

San Francisco

Savannah, Ga

Selma, Ala

St. Louis ...

Syracuse, N. Y

Toledo, Ohio

Washington, D. C. . .
Yonkers, N. Y

POPULATION.

1880. 1870,

216,090

,206,299

51,031

847,170

156,389

104,857

43,280

64,670

89,366

20,768

233,959

30,709

7,529

350,518

51,792

50,137

147,293

18,892

191,418
942,292

33,579
674,022
86,076
68,904
33,930
61,038
62,386
12,854

149,473

28,235

6,484

310,864
43,051
31,584

109,199
12,733

Deaths in every 1,000 of Pop'n .

1875. 1876. 1877. 1878.11879. 1880,

27.80 26.89 34-
29.79 27.23 24.
30.94 26.72 24.

24-35j24.5i:i9'
2T.69 2i.go 23.
18.94 18.30 18.
19-55 27-95;22.

24.97 22.l8|2I.
24.39 21.27118.

19.28

22 53
23.88

24.90
29.03
19.29

18.89 19.86

16.87 19.62
19.89 17:24
10.26 13.20
I4.80tl3.54
25.81 24.39
23.37 17.81

30.10 21.60
25.24I25.82
19.29 24.85
18.03 1/ 20
19.49 19.40
19-75, 19-60

17.37120.10
15.65,16.1)0

... I24.60
15.861 14.40

.... I29.80
30.81 28.99
21.6618.19

'3-79; 13-09

12.32

24.20 25.20
12.60

24.2

26.7

20.9
22.1
20.0
18.8
27.6

20.4

19-3
32.6
26.8
19.2

22.9
143

INDEX.

709

-•^^►^^

Absence 52, 69

Accent. 31

Accomplishments 69

Accusation 69

Action, Limitation of 295

Actions 52, 69

Activity 69

Addition 222

Adieu , 70

Adjectives 2

Game of 390

Administration of Estates 288

Admiration 52

Adverbs 19

Adversity 52, 69

Advice 70

to Newly Married Couple. . 625

Affection 52, 70

Age 52, 70

Agency 289

Agreement, Various forms of,

304-5, 10-11

Agricultural Crops in Europe 349

Agriculture 525

Air 645

Expansion of 445

Alabama 359

Alaska 362

Algebra 242

Addition in 243

Division in 244

Fractions in 244

Involution and Evolution in 245

Multiplication in 244

Subtraction in 243

Alliteration 31

Ambition 52, 70

America 70

Discovery of 351

Americus Vespucius 351

Amusements 634

An Aviary in a Hat 441

PAGE

Ancestors 52, 71

Andre, Major 356

Anger 52, 71

Antietam, Battle of 361

Anti-rent rebellion 360

Anxiety. 52

Apparel 71

Appeals 302

Applause 71

Applicants 299

Amendments and actions

by 301

Application for letters patent 300

Appomatox 362

Arbitration 289

Archery 386

Architecture 488

Various styles of. . . 489-494

Styles of English 334

Argument 71

Arguments 52

Arithmetic 221

Arithmetical Amusements, Various

specimens of 228

Progression 233

Arkansas 359

Army of United States 340

Arnold, Benedict 356

Arrest 290

Arrow, The 386

Art 71

Assignments 302

Various forms of. .311-13
Associations, How Organized 456

Duties of Officers of . .458

Astronomy 449

Atheist 52

Atmosphere, The 495

Properties and uses of 495

Attachment 291

Property exempt from . . 297
Attention 52

PACK

Attorneys 299

Attributives .♦ 2

Authority 52, 71

Autumn 71

Avarice 53, 71

Bacon, Essay of i

Bag, Game of 230

Balboa 351

Ball... 631

Ball-room toilette 605

etiquette 605

Baltimore, Lord 353

Banks and Banking 688

Baptism 633

Bar, the Horizontal 251

the Hanging 255

Barometers 349

Barytone 159

Baseball 375

Basket and Stones, Game of 232

Bass 159

Bathing 653

Battle 72

Bazaar, Articles for a 501

Novelties for a 501

Beauty 53. 72

Beggar 72

Benevolence 53

Bicycle Riding 272

Bigotry 53

Bills of Exchange 295

Birds 72

Birthday 72

Black-Hawk War. 359

Blessings 53

Bluntness 73

Blush 73

Board, Rate of 241

Boat and Rail 634

Bonds 314-16

Book-keeping 207

hr^

7IO

INDEX.

FACE

Book-keeping, by Double Entry. . . 217

Books 53» 73

Boston 353-363

Bow, The 386

Bowstring, The 387

Bracer, The 3^7

Bran-Tubs 507

Breathing, To Restore 281-282

Brevity 73

Bridegroom-elect, Duty of 623

Bridegroomsmen 624

Bridesmaids 624

British Empire 334

Buck Jumping. 265

Buena Vista, Battle of 360

Business, Letters on 187

Bull Run,.Battle of 361

Bunker Hill, Battle of 355

Cabot 35i

Calamities 53

Calamity 73

Calendar for the Week 33°

A Perpetual 346

California 360

Calling 53

Calls 632

Calm 73

Calumniator 53

Calvert 353

Camden, Battle of 356

Canada 353

Invasion of 355*358

Statistics of 700

Candor 53

Cards, Games of 396

Tricks with 431

Carolina 354

Cartier 352

Carving 585

Cattle 541

Caveats 302

Caution 73

Celebrations, Public 456

Centennial Exhibition 363

Champlain 353

Battle of 358

Chance 53

Chancellorsville, Battle of 361

Change 73

Character 53

Charity 53

Chastity 73

Chess 414

Chicago Burned 363

Chickens 569

Childhood 73

PACE

Children 53

Christianity 53

Church 53

Churchman 74

Citizenship, Certificate of 309

City 74

Cleanliness 649

Clergymen 53

Climbing Ladders, Ropes, Poles, etc. 259

Clouds 74

Cobs : 555

Coin, Experiment with 448

Coins, Values of Foreign 346

Cold Harbor, Battle of 362

Coligni 353

Colorado 363

Columbus 351

Comedy 53

Comets 453

Commerce 675

Common Sense 53

Company 53

Composition 53

Composts 529

Confederacy inaugurated 361

Confederate Congress assembled. . . 361

Confidence 53

Connecticut 353

Conscience 53, 74

Consequences, Game of 390

Constancy 53, 74

Constitution of the United States. . 368

Adoption of the 357

Constitutions, Forms of 457

Construction, Grammatical 29

Contempt 53

Content 74

Contentment 53

Continental Congress 355

Contracts 291

Conventions 457

Conversation 53, 54

for Ladies 591

for Gentlemen 598

Conveyancing 305

Copartnership 305

Coquette 74

Corporation, Bond to a 313

Corporations 292

Country Life 75

Courage 54, 75

Courtship 54, 75

Etiquette of 617-626

Covetous 54

Coward 75

Cowpens 356

Crambo 378

Cricket 380

Croquet 391

Cunning 54

Curiosity 54, 75

Curious Calculation. . , 233

Custom 54, 75

Dancing 75

Parties 604

Death 54, 75

Debate, Rules of 455-470

Debt, when Outlawed 295

Debts, Revenues, Commerce, etc. of

Nations 335

Decatur 359

Deceit 76

Deception 54

Declaration of Rights 363

of Independence 366

Defiance 76

Definitions, Game of 391

Delaware 353

Delay 76

Descent and Distribution of Estates 292

De Soto 352

Despair 54, 76

Despotism 54

Devise of Estate 308

Dictionary of Law Terms 317

Dinner 633

Party 593

Table 601

Discontent 54» 76

Discretion 54

Division 224

Divorce 295

Article of 307

Dominoes 426

Doubt 76

Draining 53°

Drake, Sir Francis 352

Draughts, Game of 422

Draw-poker 409

Dreams 76

Dress for Gentlemen 599

for Ladies 593

Drivers, Difficult Situation for ... . 269

Driving 268

a single horse ,..."........ 268

two horses 270

Drowning 281

Treatment for the 281

Dutch Settlement in America 353

Duty 54. 76

Economy 54

/*^^

--^

INDEX.

7ir f

PAGE

Education 54

Ellipsis 30

Eloquence 54, 76

Emancipation Proclamation, by

Lincoln 361

Emigration 76

Emphasis 29

Employment 54

Energy 54

England, Kings and Queens of. . . . 331
English Mile compared with other

measures 336

Enthusiasm 77

Envy 54, 77

Equality 77

Equations 246

Quadratic 248

Error 54

Estates, Administration of 288

Descent and Distribution of 292

Etiquette for Ladies 589

for Gentlemen 597

for Party and Ball-room. 604
of Courtship and Matri-
mony 617

of Wedding 624

of Mourning 627

Golden Rules of 631

Et3anology 7

Euchre 406

Evaporation 495-496

Evening 77

Evil 54

Example 54, 77

Exchange, Notes and Bills of 295

Exercise 649

Exile 77

.Expansion of Air 445

Expectation 77

Experience 54, 77

Extravagant 54-5

Eyes 77

Faculties of the Mind 471-476

Fair, How to get up a 497

How to Prepare Articles for a 499

How to Dress for 507

Faith 55

Falsehood. 55, 78

Fame 55, 78

Fancy 55, 78

Farewell 78

Farm Crops 535

Implements 532

Management 533

Fate 55, 78

Fear 55, 78

PAGE

Fences 532

Fidelity 78

Fifteenth Amendment announced , 363

First Day of the Year 334

Flattery 55, 79

Florida, Discovery of 351

Boundary Fixed. 357

Ceded to the United States 359

War 359

Admitted to the Union. . . . 360

Flowers 79

Language of 636

Royal road to Language of 641

Folly 55

Food 646-648

Choice of Articles of 662-674

Foot-ball 385

Foppery 55

Forfeits, Game of 394

Forgetfulness 79

Forgiveness 55, 79

Forms of Legal Documents 304

Fort Mimms, Massacre of 358

Moultrie, Attack on 355

Fortitude 79

Fortune 55, 79

Fourteenth Amendment Adopted . . 362

Fractions 225

Fredericksburg, Battle of 361

Freedom 79

French Self taught 96

Vocabulary 97

Declensions 102

Easy Expressions in 109

Sovereigns 332

Weights and Measures. . . . 337

War 354

Friendship 55, 79

Frolic captured by Wasp 358

Fruit, The cultivation of 577

Fulton's First Trip 357

Funerals 634

Futurity 80

Game of the Bag 230

Dominoes 426

Draughts 422

Ring 229

Games, Outdoor 375

Parlor 390

of Cards 396

skill 414

Gar*ield assassinated 363

Geese 575

Generosity 80

Genius 55

Gentleman 80

Gentleman, Etiquette foi 597

Geology 692

Georgia founded 354

German self-taught 113

Vocabulary 113

Necessary words differing

from English in 116

Necessary phrases in 122

Early expressions in 123

Gettysburg, Battle of 362

Gifts 80

Glory 55, 80

Gold 80

Good 55

Breeding 55

Humor 55

Nature 55

Goodness 55

Government •. 55

Bonds 314

Grace 55, 80

Grammar I

Divisions of 7

Gratitude 55. 80

Grave 80

Greatness 56

Greek, Specimen in 181

Grief 56, 80

Groom 555

Guilt 81

Gymnastics 249

without special appa-
ratus 260

Habit 56

Hack 553

Hand 81

Hanging bar 255

Happiness 56, 81

Hate 81

Health 56, 81

How to preserve your 645

Heart 81

Heaven 56

Historian 56

History of United States. 351

Holiness 56

Home. 81

studies for Young Ladies. . . . 483

Honesty 57

Honor 57. 82

Hope 57. 82

Horizontal bar. 251

Horse 545

History and habits of 545

Varieties of 548

How to purchase a 553

712

INDEX.

Horse for light harness 555

Horses, Diseases and faults of. . — 555

Stable, management of... . 555

Harness for 557

Drugs used for 559

Record of trotting 271

Hospitality ; 57

Hotels 634

House of Commons 332

Housekeepers, Hints to 662

How do you like it, Game of 392

Hudson 353

Humility 57, 82

Humor 57

Hunter 554

Husbands 82

Hypocrisy 82

Idleness 57, 82

Idolatry 57

Ignorance 83

Illinois 359

Ill-nature 57

Imagination 58, 83

Immortal 83

Inconstancy 83

Indiana , 359

Indolence 58

Industry 58, 83

Infidelity 58

Ingratitude 58, 83

Injustice 58

Innocence 58, 83

Instinct 58, 83

Insurance, Assignment of policy of. 313

Intellect 58

Intemperance 59

Interest 227

and usury 293

of bonds 316

Interjections 9

Internal Revenue Taxes of U. S.. . 333

Introduction, Letters of 186

Introductions 589, 597

in general 631

Invention

Invitation to a wedding 623

Invitations, Various forms of 195

Iowa 360

Irreverence en

Irrigation ggg

Italian, Specimen of 182

Jealousy gg, 33

Jesting 5g

Jesuits 354

J°y 59,84

kr-

PAGE

Judgment 59

Justice 59, 84

Kansas 361

Kindness 84

King 84

of the Castle 377

Kiss 84

Knots and Splices 477

Knowledge 59, 84

Labor 60, 84

Ladies, Etiquette for 589

Home studies for 483

Lafayette 359

Landlord and tenant 294

Notice to quit

by 311

Language 60

of Flowers 636

Royal road to 641

Languages 181

Specimens of 181

Formation of 182

Latin 182

Latitude and longitude 336

Laughter 60

Law 60, 85

Mercantile 288

terms 317

Lawn tennis 377

Leap years 330

Learning 85, 60

Lease, Forms of 310

Assignment of i . . 313

Legal documents. Forms of 304

Letter writer 183

Letters, Capital 184

European, Etiquette in ad-
dressing 193

Various specimens of 187

of introduction 597

Lexington, Battle of 355

Liberty 60, 85

Lien laws 294

Life 61, 85

Duration of 350

Lightning calculator. 234

Limitation of action 295

Literature 61

Long Island, Battle of 355

Louisiana 357-8

Love 61, 85

Lovers 85

Luxury 51

Lyceums 457

Lying 61

PACK

Madness 86

Man '. 61, 86

Manners 62

Manures 527

Marriage, Certificate of 306

Marriages 62, 86, 295

Married women, Rights of 297

Massachusetts 353

Matrimony, Etiquette of 617

Maximilian, Death of 362

Meeting 86

Melancholy 62, 87

Memory 62, 87

Mercantile law 288

Mercy 87

Merit 87

Merrimac and Monitor 361

Mesmerism, Game of 394

Meter 31

Mexico 705

Michigan 359

Mind 62, 87

Faculties of 471-476

Minnesota 360

Mirth 87

Misery 62

Misfortune 87

Mississippi 359

Missouri 359

Modesty 62, 87

Mohammedan calendar 330

Money 62, 680

Morality 62

Morning 87

Mortgage, Forms of 308

Common chattel 313

Mortgages , 2gi

Mother 88

Mountains and Rivers 348

Mourning 63

Etiquette of 627

Multiplication 223

Music 88

Definitions of 132

Name 88

Naturalization 309

Nature 63, 88

Navies of the World 335

Navy Yards of the United States.. 335

Nebraska 362

Necessity 88

Nevada 362

New Mexico 352

New Orleans, Battle of 358

Night 88

Nobility 88

Notes and bills of exchange 295

INDEX.

713

PAGE

Notes and bills, Forms of 312

Novelty 63, 88

Numeration 221

Nursery, The 653

Diseases of the 654-661

Oaths 89

Obstinacy 63

Ocean 89

Opinion 89, 63

Opportunity 63, 89

Oratory 63

Orchard, The 540

Order. . 63

Oregon 360

Originality 63

Pacific Ocean discovered 351

Pain 63, 89

Parents 63

Parlor Magic 431

Parting 89

Partnership 296

Agreement to continue . 313

Articles of 305

Party 63

Passion 63

Passions 89

Patent, Assignment of 302

Office, Rules of 299

Patents, Applicants for 299

Date, duration and form of 302

Patriotism 63, 89

Peace 90

Pen 90

Penmanship, History of 167

How to learn 169

Position, rests, and

movements in 170

Elements and princi-
ples of 1 73

Pennsylvania settled 354

Perception 63

Perfection 90

Perseverance 64, 90

Peter Stuyvesant.' 354

Philadelphia founded 354

Philosophy 64, 90

Phonography, Easy lesson in 176

Phrenology 471

Physic 90

Physics without appliances 444

Pianoforte Player, Guide for 127

Point of touch for 127

Exercises 130

Fingering 140

Phrasing 143

The trill 150

PAGE

Piety 64

Pilgrim Fathers 353

Pity 90

Pleasure 64, 90

Poetry 64

Poets 90

Politics. 64

Population of European Capitals . . 344
of the United States at
each Census, 1790-1880. 707

Poultry 563

Fancy varieties of 571

Diseases of 576

Poverty 64, 90

Power 64

Praise 64

Prayer • 64, 91

Preaching 64

Presidents of United States 332

Pride 64, 91

Princeton, Battle of 355

Procrastination 64

Promises 91

Property 65

Properties of certain numbers 230

exempt from attachment. 297

Prosody 31

Prosperity 65, 91

Proverbs, Game of 393

Scriptural 509

English 510

Scotch 517

Latin 523

Providence 65, gi

Prudence 65, 91

Pruning fruit-trees 583

Purity 91

Quotations, Prose 53

Poetical 69

(bonds) 316

Rail and Boat 634

Rain 495, 496

Rainfall in the United States 708

Raleigh 352

Rate of Mortality in AmericanCities
— Number of deaths per annum

out of 1,000 inhabitants 708

Reading 65

Real Estate, Agreement for sale

of 305

Reason 65, 91

Rebellion 91

Receipts, Forms of 312

Receptions 631

Recreation 65

PAGE

Reflection 65

Religion 65, 91

Remembrance 91

Remorse 65

Repentance 65, 92

Reputation 66, 92

Resignation 66

Resolution 92

Revenge 92, 66

Rhetoric 30

Rhode Island settled 353

Ribault 352

Riches 66

Richmond captured 362

Ridicule 66

Riding 262

Rocks 692-699

Roman Catholic Church, General

Councils of 334

Rowing 283

Rule of Three 226

Rules of Debate 455-470

of Practice in U. S. Patent
Office 299

Salutations 632

Satire 66, 92

Science 66

Scorn 92

Scotland, Sovereigns of 332

Secession of the South 360

Secrecy 92

Self-denial 66

Selfishness 92

Shame 66

Ship 92

A full-rigged 482

Sickness 66

Silence 92

Simplicity 66

Sin 92

Sincerity 66, 92

Singers, Practical Guide for. 154

Habits and diet for 154

Study of pronunciation and

words by 155

Singing 160

Skating and sliding 388

Slander 66, 92

Slavery introduced into U. S 353

Sleep .^ 67, 92, 654

Soils 534

Analysis of 526

Solar System 449-454

Soldier 93

Solitude 93

Sorrow 67, 93

714

INDEX.

PACK

Soul 93

Sound 348

Transmission of 446

Specific Gravities, Table of 340

Speeches 200

Splices and Knots 477

Spring 93

Stalls for a Fair 498

Stammerers, Hints to 165

Stamp Act 354

Stars, The 454

Statesmen 93

Stony Point surrendered 356

Street, On the 634

Studies I

Subtraction 223

Success 67

Suicide 67, 93

Summer 93

Sunshine 93

Superstition 67

Surds 246

Surrender of Lee 362

Suspiciousness 67

Swimming 277

Sympathy 67, 93

Synonyms 33

Syntax 20

Tables, Miscellaneous 330

Tears 93

Temperance 67

Temperature 651

Temptation 67, 94

Tenant 294

Tennessee 357

Texas 360

Thermometers, Comparison of ... . 346
Ticonderoga captured 355

PAGE

Time 67, 94

Variations in 336

Toasts and Sentiments 203

Trenton, Battle of 355

Tricks 431-443

Truth 67, 94

Understanding 67

United States, Army of 340

Cereal productions of 345

Constitution of 368

Cotton production of 340

Executive officers of 343

Gold and silver production in 342
Historical and statistical

tables of 341

History of .♦. 351

Lakes of 348

Money of 34^

Postal table of 347

Table of time and distance

in 342

Usury 293

Vanity 67, 94

Vice 67

Vicksburg surrendered 362

Vine, Treatment of the 581

Virtue 67, 94

Visiting Cards *. 590

Visits 598, 635

Voices and their qualities 157

Male and female 157

Wages, Rate of 239

Wales, Sovereigns of 332

War 68, 94

King George's 354

King William's 354

FAGS

War, Queen Anne's 354

with Great Britain 358

Mexico 360

Seminoles 359

Sioux 361-363

Tripoli 357

Wealth 68, 94

Wedding, Etiquette of a 622-624

Invitation to 623

Weights and Measures 336

Table for converting into

English 338

Foreign 338

West Virginia 361

What is my Thought like ? 392

Whist 396

Wickedness 68

Wife 95

Wilderness, Battle of 362

Wills 298

of real estate 307

Codicil to 307

Wine 95

Wisdom 68, 95

Wit 68, 95

Woman 95

Women 68

Rights of Married 297

Words, Derivation and formation

of 8

Classes of 9

Synonyms of 33

World 95

Wyoming Massacre 356

YoRKTOWN Surrendered 356

Youth 68, 95

Zeal 68, 95

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