masm 
 
ENC 
 
 A S the PUBI 
 that the; 
 
 REVISED AND 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 GIFT OF 
 
 ARS 
 
 n announcing 
 
 fHOROUGHLY 
 NDS. 
 
 Mrs. Henry J. Miller 
 Practica 
 
 Clearnes 
 
 Fullness 
 
 Complete Elaboration in all the Several Parts. 
 
 A Logical Accuracy and Perfectness of Definition. 
 
 Forms and Formulas of Analysis, Syntactical Reso- 
 lution and Correction, as Exact and Exhaustive 
 as the Demonstrations of Geometry. 
 
 Definite Presentation of the Subject- Matter. 
 
 CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. 
 
 WILLIAM WOOD & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS, 
 
 43, 45 and 47 East Tenth Street, New York. 
 
ROW2TS SERIES OF GRAMMARS. 
 THE 
 
 INSTITUTES 
 
 ; - 
 
 i 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 \ 
 
 BY 
 
 GOOLD BROWN, 
 
 AUTHOR OF THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 
 WITH EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 BY HENKY KIDDLE, A.M., 
 
 LATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, NEW YORK CITY. 
 
 NEWLY REVISED AND ENLARGED. 
 
 WILLIAM WOOD & COMPANY, 
 NEW YORK. 
 
OOPYRIOHT, 1856, 1882, 1893. 
 
 WILT JAM WOOD & COMPANY, 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 BROWN'S GRAMMAR SERIES. 
 
 BROWN'S LANGUAGE LESSONS. 
 THE FIRST LINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 THE INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 
 
 EPOC.* 
 
 PSYCH, 
 ARY 
 
 GIFT 
 
8V77 
 
 EDUC.- 
 
 AUTHOE'S PEEFAOE. [J S B Y R %Y 
 
 THE school-book now pretty well-known as " Brown's Institutes 
 of English Grammar, " was my first attempt at authorship in the 
 character of a grammarian ; and, satisfactory as it has been to the 
 many thousands who have used it, it has, nevertheless, like all 
 other not incorrigible attempts in this line, been found susceptible 
 of sundry important emendations. So that I must believe with 
 Murray, that, ^ Works of this nature admit of repeated improve- 
 ments ; and are, perhaps, never complete." It cannot, however, 
 be said in my favor, as it has been in commendation of this author, 
 that, " He went on examining and correcting his grammar through 
 all its forty editions^ till he brought it to the utmost degree of per- 
 fection ; " but something has been done in this way, three or 
 four of the early editions of the Institutes having been severally 
 retouched and improved by the author's hand ; and now, an un- 
 diminished demand for the work having continued to spread its 
 reputation, I have at length the satisfaction to have endeavored 
 yet once again to render it still more worthy of the public favor. 
 
 The time which has elapsed since the author first published this 
 work, has been mainly spent in labors and studies tending very 
 directly to enlarge and mature his knowledge of English Gram- 
 mar ; and, especially, to better his acquaintance with the great 
 variety of books and essays which have been written upon it. The 
 principal result of these labors and studies has been given to the 
 world in his large work entitled " The Grammar of English Gram- 
 mars." To conform the future editions of these Institutes more 
 nearly to the text of this large Grammar, to supply some deficien- 
 cies which have been thought to lessen the comparative value of 
 the former work, to divide the book more systematically into 
 chapters and subdivisions, and to correct a few typographical er- 
 rors which had crept in, were the objects contemplated in the re- 
 vision which has now been effected. 
 
 In making these improvements, I have not forgotten that alter- 
 
 161 
 
iv AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 ations in a popular class-book are, on some accounts, exceedingly 
 undesirable. The writer who ventures at all upon them, is ever 
 liable to subject his patrons and best friends to more or less in- 
 convenience ; and for this he should be very sure of having pre- 
 sented, in every instance, an ample compensation. It is believed 
 that the changes which the present revision exhibits, though they 
 are neither few nor unimportant, need not prevent, in schools, a 
 concurrent use of old editions with the new, till the former may 
 be sufficiently worn out. What has been a'dded or changed, will 
 therefore lack no justification ; and the author will rest, with suf- 
 ficient assurance, in the hope that the intelligent patronage which 
 has hitherto been giving more and more publicity to his earliest 
 teachings, will find decidedly, and without mistake, in this im- 
 proved form of the work, the best common school Grammar now 
 extant. 
 
 GOOLD BROWN. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PREFACE, iii-iv 
 
 History of Language, 9 
 
 Use of Language, . 21 
 
 ^ PART I.-ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 I. Letters, 23 
 
 Names of the Letters, 24 ; Classes of the Letters, 25 ; Classes 
 of the Consonants, 25 ; Powers of the Letters, 26 ; Forms 
 of the Letters, 28 ; Rules for thft Use of Capitals, 28. 
 
 II. Syllables, - 29 
 
 Diphthongs and Triphthongs, 30 ; Syllabication, 30. 
 
 III. Words, 31 
 
 Species and Figure of Words, 31 ; Rules for the Figure of 
 Words, 31. 
 
 IV. Spelling, . 32 
 
 Rules for Spelling, 32. 
 
 Questions for Review, 34 
 
 Exercises for Writing, 36 
 
 PART II.-ETYMOLOCY. 
 
 I. The Sentence, - . . . ' . . . .43 
 
 Exercises, 44. 
 
 II. The Parts of Speech, 45 
 
 Definitions of Terms, 46 ; Exercises in Parsing (Praxis I.), 47. 
 
 III. Articles, 48 
 
 Classes, 48; Exercises for Writing, 49. 
 
 IV. Nouns, 49 
 
 Classes, 50 ; Modifications Persons, 51 ; Numbers, 52 ; Gen- 
 ders, 55 ; Cases, 56 ; Declension of Nouns, 57. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 V. Analysis, Parsing, and Construction, . 58 
 
 Exercises in Analysis and Parsing (Praxis IL), 60 ; Construc- 
 tion and Composition, 61. 
 
 VI, Adjectives, 63 
 
 Classes, 63 ; Modifications Comparison, 65. 
 
 VII. Pronouns 68 
 
 Classes, 68 ; Modifications, 69 ; Declension of Pronouns, 70 ; 
 Compound Personals, 71 ; Relatives and Interrogates, 71 ; 
 Compound Relatives, 72. 
 
 VIII. Analysis, Parsing, and Construction, 
 
 Exercises in Analysis and Parsing (Praxis III.), 74; Exer- 
 cises in Construction, 75 ; Composition, 76. 
 
 IX, Verbs, 77 
 
 Classes, 77; Modifications Moods, 79; Tenses, 80; Inflec- 
 tions Persons and Numbers, 82; Conjugation of Verbs, 
 84 ; Irregular Verbs, 101 ; Defective Verbs, 107. 
 
 X. Participles, ......... 109 
 
 Classes, 109. 
 
 XI. Adverbs, U2 
 
 Classes, 112 ; Conjunctive Adverbs, 114 ; Modifications, 115. 
 
 XII. Conjunctions 116 
 
 Classes, 116. 
 
 XIII. Prepositions 116 
 
 XIV. Interjections, .118 
 
 XV. Analysis, Parsing, and Construction, 
 
 Phrases, 119 ; Exercises in Analysis and Parsing (Praxis IV. ), 
 122; Exercises in Construction, 123. 
 
 Questions for Review, 
 
 PART III. SYNTAX. 
 
 Introductory Definitions, 130 
 
 Rules of Syntax, 131 
 
 I. Relation, . 1U 
 
 Rule I., Articles, 134; Rule II, Adjectives, 140; Rule III., 
 Adverbs, 148 ; Rule IV., Participles, 152 ; Rule V., Prepo- 
 sitions, 157. 
 
CONTENTS. vii 
 
 II. Agreement, 161 
 
 Rule VI., Nominatives, 161; Rule VII., Apposition, 162; 
 Rule VIII., Verb and Subject, 165; Rule IX., Collective 
 Nominative, 170 ; Rule X., Two or more Nominatives, 171 ; 
 Rule XL, Singular Nominatives, 174; Rule XII., Verbs 
 Connected, 177; Rule XIII., Subject and Attribute, 179; 
 Rule XIV., Pronoun and Antecedent, 18:3 ; Rule XV., Col- 
 lective Antecedent, 192 ; Rule XVI., Connected Antece- 
 dents, 193; Rule XVIL, Connected Antecedents, 195. 
 
 III. Government, : 196 
 
 Rule XVIIL, Possessives, 196; Rule XIX., Object of the 
 Verb, 200 ; Rule XX., Object of the Preposition, 202 ; Rule 
 XXI., Infinitives, 204. 
 
 IV. Miscellaneous Rules, 207 
 
 Rule XXII., Infinitives, 207; Rule XXIII., Subjunctive 
 Mood, 208; Rule XXIV, Independent Case, 210; Rule 
 XXV., Conjunctions, 212 ; Rule XXVI., Interjections, 215. 
 
 Promiscuous Examples of False Syntax, 216. 
 
 V. Arrangement, .... 
 
 Rules and Illustrations, 220 ; General Rule, 221. 
 
 220 
 
 VL Exercises in Analysis, Parsing, and Construc- 
 tion (Praxis V), . 223 
 
 Phrases, 224 ; Clauses, 229 ; Compound Sentences, 236 ; Mis- 
 cellaneous Sentences, 239 ; Sentences of Peculiar or Irregu- 
 lar Construction, 247. 
 
 Questions for Review, 252 
 
 PART IV.-PROSODY. 
 
 I. Punctuation, .255 
 
 L The Comma, 256 ; II. The Semicolon, 261 ; III. The Colon, 
 262; IV. The Period, 262-, V. The Dash, 263; VI. The 
 Eroteme, 264; VII. The Ecphoneme, 265; VIII. The 
 Curves, 265 ; IX. Other Marks, 266. 
 
 Exercises in Punctuation, 268 
 
 II. Utterance, 278 
 
 Pronunciation, 278; Elocution, 279. 
 
 III. Figures, 280 
 
 Figures of Orthography, 280 ; Figures of Etymology, 281 ; 
 Figures of Syntax, 282 ; Figures of Rhetoric, 284. 
 
 Exercises in Figures (Praxis VI. ), . . .287 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 *AGt 
 
 IV. Versification, 294 
 
 Quantity, 294; Rhyme, 295; Poetic Feet, 295; Scanning, 
 
 HPuL 
 
 Exercises in Scanning, 301 
 
 Questions for Review 305 
 
 COMPOSITION. 
 
 Preliminary Exercises, 308 
 
 Original Composition, ......... 309 
 
 Letter-Writing, 310 
 
 Heading, 310 ; Address, 311 ; Body, 313 ; Closing, 314 ; Superscrip- 
 tion, 314. 
 
 QUALITIES OF STYLE. 
 
 I. Purity, . 317 
 
 IL Propriety 318 
 
 III. Precision, 318 
 
 IV. Perspicuity, 319 
 
 V. Unity, 319 
 
 VL Strength, .320 
 
 POETIC DICTION. 
 
 Poetical Peculiarities, 321 
 
 Formation of Derivative Words, 325 
 
HISTOET OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 WE are told by those who have made the subject their study, 
 that there are now more than a thousand languages spoken in 
 the world. Some of these, such as the English, French, and 
 German, are Highly developed tongues, capable of expressing, 
 fully and clearly, the most complex and refined ideas which 
 cultivated minds can entertain ; while others are the simple 
 and meagre tongues which suffice for the few and simple 
 thoughts of rude and ignorant Savages. 
 
 Every one of these languages, from the highest to the low- 
 est, has its grammar. Not, of course, necessarily a grammar 
 that is written in books and taught in schools, but some rules 
 for forming and arranging its words so that the thoughts of 
 the speaker, and the relations between the things spoken of, 
 may be accurately conveyed to the hearer. Without such 
 rules no intelligible speech would be possible ; and the sys- 
 tem of rules observed in every language by careful speakers 
 or writers is the grammar of that language. A book which 
 teaches the rules for the correct use of English, teaches Eng- 
 lish grammar, and such a book is usually called an English 
 Grammar. 
 
 All languages are, of course, originally contrivances for 
 conveying thoughts from one person to another by means of 
 sounds. But at an early stage in the history of civilization it 
 was found desirable to express thoughts to the eye, by visible 
 symbols, and so written language arose. Of this there are 
 three stages. The first and most natural method was to draw 
 of the object or objects, or some easily understood 
 
10 HISTORY OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 symbol This mode of writing is practised now by some 
 tribes of American Indians, and in the developed form that 
 we call hieroglyphics, was used by the ancient Egyptians. 
 The second mode was by the use of conventional figures which 
 are no representation of the thing, but are understood to stand 
 for it. A system of this kind in ordinary use is our Arabic 
 notation of numerals. The figure 4, for instance, is equally 
 intelligible to an Englishman, a Frenchman, and a German, 
 though the first calls it "four," the second "quatre," and the 
 third "vier." These two modes, then, represent things and 
 conceptions, and not names and sounds. 
 
 Most nations, however, have adopted a phonetic system of 
 writing ; that is, a system of indicating, by means of arbitrary 
 characters, the sounds of speech ; in other words, the names 
 of things instead of the things themselves. This has the dis- 
 advantage that it can be read only by one who understands 
 the language ; but this is far more than counterbalanced by 
 its simplicity. For as the simple sounds of speech are few, a 
 very small set of symbols will be sufficient to represent them, 
 and these can be combined as the sounds are combined. 
 Such a set of symbols for simple sounds is called an alphabet 
 Twenty-six characters are all that the beginner in English has 
 to learn ; while the Chinese (who do not use a phonetic system) 
 have to learn some thousands of characters before they can 
 read a simple book. 
 
 It is exceedingly probable, though it cannot be positively 
 asserted, that alphabetic writing descended from the hiero- 
 glyphic, by making the symbols, for convenience, more con- 
 ventional and less like pictures. An instance of this occurs 
 in our own language. In early times there was a special char- 
 acter, (?, representing the English th. This character was 
 called " thorn ; " and it can be seen to be a rude representation 
 of a thorn on its stem. In the course of time this character 
 came to be written ]>, in which the likeness to a thorn can 
 hardly be traced. 
 
 In certain way we still use the older modes of repreeen- 
 
HISTORY OF LANGUAGE. 11 
 
 tation ; for instance, such a statement in an almanac as " ( seti 
 at 9h. 34m.," illustrates the hieroglyphic, the conventional, 
 and the phonetic systems. 
 
 The four divisions of grammar Orthography, Etymology, 
 Syntax, and Prosody will be explained further on. In addi- 
 tion to these there is a study which deals with the sounds of 
 speech and the laws that govern them, which is called Phonet- 
 ics, and one which deals with the resemblances and differences 
 of various languages, which is called Comparative Grammar. 
 These all are parts of one comprehensive science of language, 
 called Philology, which deals with all languages, ancient and 
 modern. 
 
 If a persoa- who could speak and read the principal Euro- 
 pean languages, but knew nothing of the researches of philol- 
 ogists, were to endeavor from the languages themselves to 
 find out something about their origin and history, he would 
 probably proceed somewhat in this way : 
 
 He would notice, first, that the languages spoken in the 
 South of Europe, for instance, French, Italian, Spanish, and 
 Portuguese, have a great similarity to each other. Taking 
 the word " good," he would find it in those languages, re- 
 spectively, bon, buono, bueno, and bom. Now, remembering 
 that many centuries ago the Latin language was universally 
 spoken in those countries, he would naturally fix upon the 
 Latin bonus as the origin of all these forms ; and when, upon 
 further examination, he found that the same resemblance held 
 good for by far the greater part of the words in these languages, 
 his conclusion would be that these languages are derived from 
 the Latin ; that is, that they are forms of Latin speech which 
 have undergone changes in the course of time. 
 
 Now when he came to the languages of Northern Europe, 
 and taking English, German, and Dutch as examples, found 
 that the words corresponding to the Latin bonus were, re- 
 spectively, good, gut, and goed, which are not the least like the 
 Latin, though they are like each other, he would probably 
 form two conclusions: first, that these languages are not 
 
12 mSTOBY OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 derived from the Latin, and, second, that they are derived 
 from some entirely different common source. 
 
 But if he carried his investigations further in English, he 
 would meet with facts that seem to make these last conclu- 
 sions doubtful. He would meet with many thousands of 
 words, such as exclude, admirable (Latin excludere, admira- 
 bilis), which come quite as near to the Latin as do the words 
 of the Southern languages. But on comparison he would 
 note an important difference. He would observe that while 
 in the Southern .languages the simplest and most familiar 
 words, such as those which stand for "good," "bad," "man," 
 "woman," are plainly of Latin origin, in the Northern lan- 
 guages this is not the case. And if he brought together the 
 English words which are so like the Latin, he would observe 
 that not only are they not the simple homely speech of daily 
 life, but they are, for the most part, the words of books or of 
 educated people. He would then probably modify his former 
 conclusions in this way, that there are in English two great 
 classes of words, one used by educated and uneducated alike, 
 and therefore probably the original tongue of the people, and 
 one class introduced from the Latin at a time when there 
 were enough scholars and learned writers of books to make a 
 permanent impression on the language. 
 
 Further investigation would lead to the discovery that there 
 is another and considerable class of words in familiar use, 
 such as flower, beauty, loyal, which are not so obviously Latin 
 as exclude, admirable, and yet seem to be of Latin derivation. 
 This would point to a threefold division : First, the primitive 
 words, not of Latin origin, which seem (roughly speaking) all 
 alike, and one as old as the other ; second, a class of words 
 which differ from the Latin only in the termination ; third, 
 words apparently of Latin origin, like flower (Lat. florem), 
 beauty (Lat. bellitatem), loyal (Lat. legalis), which have under- 
 gone change in the body of the word. This fact would point 
 to one of two conclusions, viz. : that this last group of words 
 had either been introduced at an earlier period, so that they 
 
HISTORY OF LANGUAGE. 13 
 
 had had more time in which to undergo change ; or else that 
 they had not been taken directly from the Latin, but from 
 some other language of Latin origin. 
 
 We will suppose that our investigator now, having seen 
 from flower and beauty how much words may change, deter- 
 mines to compare a large number of the non-Latin, primitive 
 English words with their equivalents in other languages, in- 
 cluding the Latin and Greek, to see if there is not a resem- 
 blance, less obvious, but sufficient to indicate some ancient 
 kinship. He will then find a large number of words like 
 "father," "mother," "wine," which in German are Vater, 
 Mutter, Wein; in French pere, mere, vin ; in Latin, pater, 
 mater, vinum*r in Greek pater, meter, vinos; resemblances 
 which are far too numerous to be the result of accident. If 
 now he broadened his investigations so as to include the 
 Sanskrit (or ancient language of India), the Persian, and the 
 Keltic (or ancient languages of Ireland, Wales, and Britanny), 
 and still found these resemblances among them all ; and fur- 
 ther observed that the differences seemed not to be capricious, 
 but in accordance with certain laws, his conclusion would 
 probably be that all these languages were related, and pos- 
 sibly all sprang, at some extremely ancient time, or times, 
 from some primitive mother- speech. 
 
 The conclusions which we have supposed our investigator 
 to have arrived at by comparison of words and by ordinary 
 processes of induction, have been reached by philologists after 
 extensive and laborious study, and confirmed and amplified by 
 researches and reasoning which cannot be explained here. 
 
 Suffice it here to say that nearly all the languages of 
 Europe (and English, as coming from Europe, is a European 
 language), as well as the Persian and Sanskrit, languages of 
 Asia, and the ancient Greek and Latin, have been shown to 
 belong to one great family, to which has been given the name 
 Indo-European, or Aryan. That they are all descended from 
 one primitive mother-speech seems probable, though we do 
 not know what that speech was. 
 
14 HISTORY OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 Of this great family there are a number of groups : the 
 ROMANCE, a term denoting the languages derived originally 
 from the Latin, such as French and Italian ; the KELTIC, 
 or ancient languages of Wales and Britanny ; the SCLAVONIC, 
 or languages of Eussia and Poland ; and the TEUTONIC, or 
 languages of Germany, Holland, and England. 
 
 The Teutonic, or group to which English belongs, is again 
 subdivided into the Eastern and Western sub-groups, as 
 shown by the diagram 
 
 TEUTONIC 
 LANGUAGES. 
 
 ' Eastern 
 Group. 
 
 Western 
 Group. 
 
 ( Gothic, 
 ( Scandinavian. 
 
 C English, 
 j Frisian, 
 1 Dutch, 
 (^ German. 
 
 f Swedish, 
 J Danish, 
 j Norwegian, 
 [ Icelandic. 
 
 We say, then, that the English is a branch of the Teutonic 
 group of the Indo-European, or Aryan, family of languages. 
 
 The English, however, is not the language that has been 
 spoken in England from the earliest times. Before the island 
 was called England, it was inhabited by a people, or peoples, 
 whose descendants subsist in the Highlands of Scotland, and 
 the Welsh, who spoke a Keltic tongue, and were akin to the 
 ancient inhabitants of Gaul. We know what their language 
 was, because dialects of it are still spoken (though they are 
 apparently dying out), and many books, dictionaries, and 
 grammars still preserve the later forms of these dialects. 
 
 In the fifth century of the Christian era a series of inva- 
 sions of Britain were made by Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and 
 Frisians, peoples living on the northwestern coasts of Ger- 
 many, who in many battles conquered the Keltic inhabitants, 
 slaying many, and driving the remnant to the extreme west 
 coast, or to the mountainous country of Scotland, where, as 
 was said, in the Highlands, Wales, and Cornwall, their de- 
 scendants survive to this day. Thus the ancient Keltic 
 tongue was displaced by that of the invaders, which was one 
 speech, although the speech of the Saxons, who settled more 
 
HISTOKY OP LANGUAGE. 15 
 
 to the south, differed somewhat from that of the Angles, who 
 settled in the middle and north of the island. The Angles 
 were the most numerous and most powerful of the invading 
 peoples, and occupied the most extensive territory ; and so 
 the island came to be called England, or land of the Angles^ 
 and the speech English, or speech of the Angles. 
 
 This most ancient form of the language is now often called 
 Anglo-Saxon, from the - two chief peoples who introduced it 
 into Britain. The name is perhaps unfortunate, as the peo- 
 ple who used it never called it Anglo-Saxon, but always Eng- 
 lish ; and perhaps the term Old-English, or First English, is 
 better. However, Anglo-Saxon is a convenient term to denote 
 the earliest forjn of the language ; but the student should al- 
 ways remember that it is not a foreign language from which 
 ours is derived, but simply English in its earliest form. 
 
 This Old-English, or First English, however, has so very 
 different a look from the English of the present day, that one 
 who saw it for the first time might easily suppose it alto- 
 gether foreign. For this there are three reasons. First, a 
 great many old words have been lost in the course of time 
 and replaced by others ; for instance, uriga, a warrior ; leoth, a 
 song. Secondly, a great many words that have remained were 
 then spelled differently; thus, "father," "mother," "child," 
 were feeder, modor, did. Thirdly, it was an inflected lan- 
 guage ; that is, the cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, 
 and the persons, moods, tenses, and participles of verbs were 
 uniformly distinguished by changes of form. Thus " the 
 good man " was se goda mann; but "to the good man," was 
 tham gddan menu. 
 
 This earliest form of English, though it adopted a few Kel- 
 tic words from the conquered peoples, and a few Latin words 
 left behind by the Komans, or brought in by the Church 
 after the Angles and Saxons became Christians, was really a 
 pure language ; that is, it contained practically no words but 
 those of its own branch, and so continued until the Norman 
 Conquest, in the year 1066. 
 
16 HISTOEY OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 In this earliest English many books were written, some of 
 which are still preserved. The earliest poetry seems to have 
 been written in the north ; but the invasions of the Danes in 
 the ninth century, that laid all that country waste, nearly 
 destroyed this northern literature. Afterwards, in the reign 
 of King Alfred, when England was for a while at peace, that 
 great king endeavored to revive literature, encouraging 
 schools and learned men, and translating several important 
 Latin books himself. Under the encouragement thus given 
 to literature other books were written, and a considerable 
 part of the old Anglian poetry was rewritten in the Southern 
 or Saxon dialect, in which form we now have it. The impulse 
 thus given did not die out, and books continued to be written 
 in this First English for two hundred years or more. 
 
 The Norman conquerors brought over their own Norman 
 language, which, however, was not their original tongue of 
 Norway, but a Romance speech which they had adopted after 
 their settlement in Normandy. This Norman French was, of 
 course, the speech of the court of William and his early suc- 
 cessors. Moreover, he gave the best lands to his Norman 
 followers, and put Norman ecclesiastics into nearly all the 
 churches, so that the tongue of the Normans was planted 
 everywhere throughout England. Thus for a while there 
 was a division of tongues, " the high men," as an old chron- 
 icler tells us, speaking French, and " the low men holding to 
 their native English.'* And these low men held so tenaciously 
 to their native speech that they did not lose it as the Nor- 
 mans had lost theirs ; but as there was constant intercourse 
 and frequent intermarriage between the two races, each 
 learned something of the speech of the other. England thus 
 became for a while a two-languaged land, in which all but the 
 very rudest people had some knowledge of both French and 
 English. So we find in the thirteenth century popular songs 
 and other poems written in alternate lines of French and Eng- 
 lish, or with half of each line French and half English, show- 
 ing that the people they were written for could speak both 
 
HISTORY OF LANGUAGE. 17 
 
 languages ; and a poet in the next century describes " ditchers 
 and diggers " as amusing themselves by singing French songs. 
 
 There being no standard for English speech after it ceased 
 to be the language of the court and of scholars, and very 
 little writing of books in that tongue in the twelfth century, 
 the English literature of the thirteenth century (of which a 
 good deal has come down to us) was a literature of dialects, 
 each author writing in the speech of his own part of the 
 country. Of these dialects the principal were the Northern, 
 or, more distinctly, Anglian speech (from which the Lowland 
 Scotch, such as that of Burns, is descended) ; the Southern, 
 or more distinctly Saxon, and the Midland, which later be- 
 came the classic English. 
 
 Notwithstanding the fact that both French and English 
 were spoken all over the island for about a hundred years 
 after the Conquest very few Norman words came into the 
 English language. But in other ways the language was 
 powerfully affected. 
 
 It began to drop the inflections, and level down the declen- 
 sions of nouns and conjugations of verbs to a few simple forms. 
 
 It began to discard grammatical gender. In French, as in 
 all the Latin tongues, the word for the sun is masculine, those 
 for the moon and for a woman are both feminine. In Old 
 English, as in all the Teutonic tongues, the word for the sun is 
 feminine, that for the moon masculine, and that for a woman 
 neuter. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the process of 
 discarding this grammatical gender went on, until in the four- 
 teenth the language had very nearly reached the condition of 
 modern English, in which grammatical gender does not exist. 
 
 There was also a change in syntax. The French indicates 
 the cases of nouns by the use of prepositions ; the Old Eng- 
 lish indicated them chiefly by inflections. In this transition 
 period the use of prepositions to indicate case was largely in- 
 creased, and the use of inflections greatly diminished, though 
 not entirely abandoned. To some extent these twofold forms 
 we still used in English : thus we can say " the king's crown," 
 
18 HISTORY OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 or "the crown of the king;" "give the book to him," or 
 " give him the book ; " the " him " of the last example being 
 the regular Old-English dative. 
 
 In an entry in the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle," under the 
 date of 1154, we have the words, " in mani of the castles." 
 Had this been written in King Alfred's time, it would have 
 run, "in manegum burgum," or, "in fela thara burga." 
 Here, beside the new Norman word. " castles," we note that 
 the adjective " mani " and article " the " are no longer de- 
 clined, the same form standing for all cases, singular or 
 plural ; but instead of the inflected genitive, " thara burga," 
 we have the prepositional genitive "of the castles." Beside 
 these changes in form, great numbers of French worcls began 
 to come into the language late in the thirteenth and in the 
 fourteenth centuries, so that the language assumes a distinctly 
 modern appearance. 
 
 Any one who has never read any English older than Shake- 
 speare, who should attempt to read a book by King Alfred, 
 would have, like a beginner in Greek or Latin, to keep a dic- 
 tionary at his elbow ; while if he takes up Chaucer (A.D. 
 1340-1400) he will require only a word to be explained here 
 and there, and will feel all the time that he is reading English. 
 This signifies that from Chaucer's time to ours, or for five 
 hundred years, there has been no sudden or violent change 
 in the language ; but it has gone on by regular process of 
 development, dropping words from time to time, taking up 
 new ones, modifying gradually some of its phrases, etc., just 
 as it is doing at the present day. 
 
 Now we can explain historically the phenomena from which 
 our supposed investigator drew his conclusions. The familiar 
 words of daily use, such as mother, father, man, woman, ride, 
 fall, etc., are chiefly from the primitive Teutonic stock ; the 
 words much changed from the Latin, like flower and beauty, 
 are from the early French introduced by the conquerors, or 
 read in French books when few English books were written ; 
 and the evidently Latin words, such as exclude, admirable. 
 
HISTORY OF LANGUAGE. 19 
 
 were taken directly from the Latin by scholars and writers of 
 books. Words of this class have been coming in, sometimes 
 in greater numbers, and sometimes in less, from the four- 
 teenth century to our own day. 
 
 In the sixteenth century there was a great awakening of 
 interest in the study of the Greek and Latin ; and writers, 
 partly because they needed them, and partly to show their 
 scholarship, introduced multitudes of Latin words into Eng- 
 lish, of which many, though not all, were permanently 
 adopted into the language. Another source of new words 
 has been the coinage of terms (usually from the Latin or 
 Greek) to represent the new discoveries and inventions of 
 science and art, such as carbon, electricity, telephone. When 
 these words belong to things that enter into our daily life 
 they become part of our ordinary and familiar speech. The 
 words derived from the Greek and Latin, taken all together, 
 are more than twice as many as the pure English words, and 
 in the present rapid development of science and art, they are 
 multiplying with extraordinary rapidity. Fortunately but a 
 small part of them enter into our ordinary speech. Another 
 source of additions to our speech is found in the changing 
 conditions of individual and social life, which demand new 
 words, or new significations given to old words, such as a 
 strike of workmen, a lock-out, to lynch, etc. We have also 
 the power, though we use it sparingly, of coining new words 
 of pure Teutonic elements, such as gripsack. 
 
 Other languages have contributed, though in a far less de- 
 gree, to our general stock of words, or vocabulary. Thus (to 
 name a few only), the Hebrew has given us cherub, cinnamon ; 
 the Arabic, alkali, sofa ; the Persian, awning, shawl ; the Chi- 
 nese, tea; the Mexican, chocolate ; some West Indian tongue, 
 hammock, tobacco ; the Keltic, basket, brag ; the German, 
 plunder, swindle ; the Dutch, boom, yacht, and many other 
 .sea-terms. 
 
 Thus the language is in perpetual, but gradual, process of 
 change, while still remaining the same language. The 
 
20 HISTOKY OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 sion of education and general reading of books help greatly 
 to fix the language, both by keeping words and phrases be- 
 fore men's eyes and in their memories, and by preserving 
 models of good writing and a general standard to which all 
 confoijji. Shakespeare wrote three hundred years ago, and 
 we read his works with ease ; but he often says things in a 
 way in which we should not say them, and uses some words 
 which we do not use ; while we have at command HO any thou- 
 sands of words which Shakespeare never heard. Dryden, 
 writing two hundred years ago, has hardly any words or 
 phrases which we do not use ; and Burke, writing a hundred 
 years ago, none at all. 
 
 The English language, then, is a composite language of 
 two principal elements, the Teutonic and the Latin-Romance. 
 And, very fortunately, while admitting so many words from 
 the latter source, it has still preserved a large vocabulary of 
 the ancient Teutonic words of the same meaning, so that we 
 have a choice, as between jloiver and blossom, beautiful and 
 fair, comprehend and understand, integrity and uprightness. 
 Much of the effectiveness of good writing lies in the happy 
 selection between these two families of words, according to the 
 nature of the subject treated, and the effect the writer wishes 
 to produce : so that the double vocabulary is an advantage 
 which English possesses over most, if not all, other languages. 
 
 Another great advantage lies in the fact that English, with 
 its double vocabulary, may claim kin to both the Teutonic 
 and Romance groups of the Indo-European family, and occu- 
 pies, as it were, a middle position between them. This fact, 
 combined with the other facts that the English -speaking peo- 
 ple are the great colonizers, and that English is now spoken 
 over a greater part of the earth's surface, and by a greater 
 number of persons than any other of the Aryan tongues, and 
 that it is spreading with remarkable rapidity, make not alto- 
 gether extravagant the prediction of an eminent German- 
 scholar, that English would in course of time become the 
 great international language of the world. 
 
USE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 We can think of any object which we have seen a tree, for example 
 so as to see it in the mind, like an image or picture. This mental 
 image or picture is called an idea of the tree. The word tree enables 
 us to express the idea, either in speaking or writing. Words serve to 
 bring to the mind the ideas of things previously observed. Thus we 
 may think of various things, and recall to our minds the ideas of them 
 by such words as the following : 
 
 A horse. 
 A white horse. 
 A soldier on horseback. 
 A lady riding a black horse. 
 A horse running away with a carriage. 
 
 In a similar manner may be brought to the mind the ideas of things 
 heard, smelt, tasted, or felt. Thus : 
 
 Thunder. The thunder peals. 
 
 A rose. The rose has a sweet smell. 
 
 An orange. The orange has a sweet and acid taste. 
 
 Velvet. Velvet is soft and smooth to the touch. 
 
 When we try to think of these things, we find that, although we can 
 seem to hear, smell, fkste, or feel them, we cannot do this so clearly as 
 we can see in the mind a tree, a horse, or other object of sight. Hence 
 we say, the ideas of things seen are clearer than those obtained through 
 any of the other senses. 
 
 In thinking we combine ideas in various ways. Thus : 
 
 The bird builds its nest in the tree. 
 
 Here we have several ideas combined in a single thought : of the 
 bird, of building, of a nest, of a tree ; and these are related to each other 
 in various ways: the bird builds ; the nSt is built; the nest is in the 
 tree. There are, thus, four ideas of things, and several ideas of their 
 relations one to another. 
 
22 USE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 We cannot think without constantly using many ideas ; and we cannot 
 think clearly or communicate our thoughts to other persons without 
 using words to represent those ideas. These words joined together in 
 the right way make language. 
 
 Language is the expression of our thoughts in speak- 
 ing or in writing. 
 
 There are two kinds of language : spoken language and 
 written language. 
 
 OBS. 1. LANGUAGE, in the primitive sense of the term, embraced only 
 vocal expression, or human speech uttered by the mouth ; but, after let- 
 ters were invented to represent articulate sounds, language became two- 
 fold, spoken and written; so that the term lunguage now signifies any 
 series of sounds or letters formed into words and employed for the expres- 
 sion of tlwught, 
 
 OBS. 2. Letters claim to be a part of language, not merely because 
 they represent articulate sounds, or spoken words, but because they form 
 words of themselves, and have the power to become intelligible signs of 
 ehought, even independently of sound. Literature being the counter- 
 part of speech, and more plenteous in words, the person who cannot 
 read and write is about as deficient in language as the well-instructed 
 deaf mute : perhaps, more so ; for copiousness, even of speech, results 
 from letters. 
 
 By grammar we learn how to use language correctly 
 both in speaking and in writing. 
 
 English grammar is the art of speaking and writ- 
 ing the English language, correctly. 
 
 It is divided into four parts, namely, Orthography, 
 Etymology, Syntax, and Prosod^. 
 
 Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate 
 words, and spelling. 
 
 Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, 
 with their classes and modifications. 
 
 Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, 
 and arrangement, of words in sentences. 
 
 Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and 
 versification. 
 
PART I. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate 
 words, and spelling. 
 
 i. LETTERS. 
 
 
 
 A letter is an alphabetic mark, or character, commonly 
 representing some elementary sound of a word. 
 
 An elementary sound of a word, is a simple or pri- 
 mary sound of the human voice, used in speaking. 
 
 The sound of a letter is commonly called its power : 
 when any letter of a word is not sounded, it is said to be 
 silent or mute. 
 
 The letters in the English alphabet are twenty-six ; the ele- 
 mentary sounds in the language are about thirty-six. 
 
 A knowledge of the letters consists in an acquaintance with 
 their names, their classes, their powers, and their forms. 
 
 The letters are printed, written, or otherwise represented 
 in a variety of forms. The following are the four chief modes 
 of representation : 
 
 1. Roman : A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, 
 I i, J j, K k, L 1, M m, N n, O o, P p, Q q, K r, S s, T t, 
 U u, Y v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z. 
 
 2. Italic : A a, E ~b, C c, D d, E e, Ff, G g, Hli, li, 
 J j, JT&, L I, Mm, Nn, O o, *P p, Q q, E r, S s, Tt, 
 Uu, Vv, 
 
<8 e. 
 
 4. Old English : Ql a, 13 b, (SI c, ED b, e, iF f, (^ g f 
 ^ l) t I i, S j t H k, 1, ill tn, N n, 0, f) p, <& q, E r, 
 Q s, Q: t t H n, t) t), tD ro, X ? 
 
 Names of the Lette 
 
 The names of the letters, as now commonly spoken and 
 written in English, are A, Bee, Gee, Dee, E, Eff, Gee, Aitch, 
 I, Jay, Kay, Ell, Em, En, 0, Pee, Kue, Ar, Ess, Tee, U, Vee, 
 Double -u, Ex, Wy, Zee. 
 
 OBS. 1. The names of the letters, as expressed in the modern lan- 
 guages, are mostly framed with reference to their powers, or sounds. Yet 
 is there in English no letter of which the name is always identical with 
 its power; for A, E, /, 0, and U, are the only letters which can name 
 themselves, and all these have other sounds than those which their 
 names express. 
 
 OBS. 2. Those letters which name themselves, take for their names 
 those sounds which they usually represent at the end of an accented 
 syllable ; thus the names, A, E, /, 0, U, are uttered with the sounds 
 given to the same letters in the first syllables of the other names, Abel, 
 Enoch, ISMIC, Obed, Urim ; or in the first syllables of the common words, 
 paper, penal, pilot, potent, pupil. The other letters, most of which can 
 never be perfectly sounded alone, have names in which their powers 
 are combined with other sounds more vocal ; as, Bee, Gee, Dee, Ett, 
 Ein, En, Jay, Kay, Kue. But, in this respect, the terms Aitch and 
 Double-u are irregular ; because they have no obvious reference to the 
 powers of the letters thus named. 
 
 OBS. 3 Letters, like all other things, must be learned and spoken of by 
 their names ; yet, as the simple characters are better known and more 
 easily exhibited than their written names, the former are often substi- 
 tuted for the latter, and are read as the words for which they are assumed. 
 
 OBS. 4. The letters, once learned, may. be used unnamed; and so are 
 they always used, except in oral spelling, or when some of their own 
 number are to be particularized. 
 
LETTERS. 25 
 
 Classes of the Letters. 
 
 The letters are divided into two general classes, vowels 
 and consonants. 
 
 A vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when 
 uttered alone ; as, a, e, o. 
 
 A consonant is a letter which cannot be perfectly 
 uttered till joined to a vowel ; as, b, c, d. 
 
 The vowels are a, e, i, o, w, and sometimes w and y. 
 All the other letters are consonants. 
 
 W or y is called a consonant when it precedes a vowel 
 heard in the same syllable ; as in wine, twine, whine ye, 
 yet, youth : in all other cases, these letters are vowels ; as 
 in newly, dewy, eye-brow Yssel, Ystadt, yttria. 
 
 Classes of Consonants. 
 
 The consonants are divided into semivowels and 
 mutes. 
 
 A semivowel is a consonant which can be imperfectly 
 sounded without a vowel, so that at the end of a syllable 
 its sound may be protracted ; as, I, n, z, in al, an, az. 
 
 A mute is a consonant which cannot be sounded at all 
 without a vowel, and which at the end of a syllable sud- 
 denly stops the breath ; as, k, p, t, in ak, op, at. 
 
 The semivowels are f, h, j, Z, m, n, r, s, v, w, x, y, z, and c 
 and g soft : but w or y at the end of a syllable, is a vowel ; 
 and the sound of c, f, g, h, j, s, or x, can be protracted only as 
 an aspirate, or strong breath. 
 
 Four of the semivowels, I, m, n, and r, are termed liquids, 
 on account of the fluency of their sounds ; and four others, 
 v, w, y, and z, are likewise more vocal than the aspirates. 
 
 The mutes are eight ; b, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard : 
 three of these, k, q, and c hard sound exactly alike : 6, d, 
 and g hard, stop the voice less suddenly than the rest. 
 
26 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 OBS. 1. The foregoing division of the letters is of very great antiquity, 
 and, in respect to its principal features, sanctioned by almost universal 
 authority. Aristotle, three hundred and thirty years before Christ, di- 
 vided the Greek letters into vowels, semivowels, and mutes, and declared 
 that no syllable could be formed without a vowel. Some modern 
 writers, however, not well satisfied with this ancient distribution of the 
 elements of learning, have contradicted the Stagirite, and divided both 
 sounds and letters into new classes, with various new names. Dr. Rush, 
 author of "the Philosophy of the Human Voice," resolves the letters 
 into "tonics, subtonics, and atonies;" and avers that "consonants alone 
 may form syllables." Other authors have used the terms vocals, sub- 
 vocals, and aspirates in classifying the elementary sounds. 
 
 OBS. 2. Certain consonants or consonantal sounds are often dis- 
 tinguished in pairs, by way of contrast with each other, the one being 
 called fiat and the other sliarp : as, b and p ; d and t ; g hard and k ; 
 j and cJi ; v and // tli flat and th sharp ; z and sharp s ; zli and sh. 
 These, with reference to each other, are sometimes termed correlatives 
 or cognates. 
 
 Powers of the Letters. 
 
 The powers of the letters are properly those elementary 
 sounds which their figures are used to represent ; but letters 
 formed into words are capable of communicating thought 
 independently of sound. 
 
 The vowel sounds which form the basis of the Eng- 
 lish language, and which ought therefore to be perfectly 
 familiar to every one who speaks it, are those which are heard 
 at the beginning of the words, ate, at, ah, all, eel, ell, isle, ill, 
 old, on, ooze, use, us, and that of u in butt. 
 
 In the formation of words or syllables, some of these four- 
 teen primary sounds may be joined together, as in ay, oil, out, 
 owl ; and all of them may be preceded or followed by certain 
 motions and positions of the lips and tongue, which will 
 severally convert them into other terms in speech. Thus the 
 same essential sounds may be changed into a new series of 
 words by an/; as, fate, fat, far, fall, feel, fell, file, fill, fold, 
 fond, fool, fuse, fuss, full. Again, into as many more with a 
 p ; as, pate, pat, par, pall, peel, pell, pile, pill, pole, pond, pool } 
 pule, pu 
 
LETTERS. 27 
 
 The simple consonant sounds in English are 
 twenty-two : they are marked by b, d, f, g hard, h, k, I, m, n, 
 ng, p, r, s, sh, t, th sharp, th flat, v, w, y } z, and zh. But zh is 
 written only to show the sound of other letters ; as of s in 
 pleasure, or z in azure. 
 
 All these sounds are heard distinctly in the following words: 
 buy, die, fie, guy, high, kie, lie, my, nigh, eying, pie, rye, sigh, 
 shy, tie, thigh, thy, vie, we, ye, zebra, seizure. Again : most of 
 them may be repeated in the same word if not in the same 
 syllable ; as in bibber, diddle, fifty, giggle, high-hung, cackle, 
 lily, mimic, ninny, singing, pippin, mirror, hissest, flesh-brush, 
 tittle, thinketh, thither, vivid, witwal, union, vision. 
 
 OBS. 1. Thje possible combinations and mutations of the twenty-six 
 letters of our alphabet are many millions of millions. But those clusters 
 which are unpronounceable, are useless. Of such as may be easily 
 uttered, there are more than enough for all the purposes of useful writ- 
 ing, or the recording of speech. 
 
 Thus it is, that from principles so few and simple as about six or seven 
 and thirty plain elementary sounds, represented by characters still fewer, 
 we derive such a variety of oral and written signs, as may suffice to ex- 
 plain or record all the sentiments and transactions of all men in all ages. 
 
 OBS. 2. Different vowel sounds are produced by opening the mouth 
 differently, and placing the tongue in a peculiar manner for each ; but 
 the voice may vary in loudness, pitch, or time, and still utter the same 
 vowel power. 
 
 OBS. 3. Each of the vowel sounds may be variously expressed by 
 letters. About half of them are sometimes words : the rest are seldom, 
 if ever, used alone even to form syllables. But the reader may easily 
 learn to utter them all, separately, according to the foregoing series. Let 
 us note them as plainly as possible : eigh, &, ah, awe, eh, e", eye, 1, oh, 
 o, oo, yew, ti, u. Thus the eight long sounds, eigh, ah, awe, eh, eye, <>' , 
 ooh, yew, are, or may be words ; but the six less vocal, called the short 
 vowel sounds, as in at, et, it, ot, ut, put, are commonly heard only in 
 connection with consonants ; except the first, which is perhaps the most 
 frequent sound of the vowel A or a a sound sometimes given to the 
 word a, perhaps most generally ; as in the phrase, "twice a day." 
 
 OBS. 4. With us, the consonants J and X represent, not simple, but 
 complex sounds : hence they are never doubled. J is equivalent to 
 dzh ; and X, either to ks or to gz. The former ends no English word, 
 and the latter begins none. To the initial X of foreign words, we 
 always give the simple sound of Z ; as in Xerxes, xebec, 
 
28 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 OBS. 5. The consonants C and Q have no sounds peculiar to them- 
 selves. Q has always the power of k, and is constantly followed by u 
 and some vowel or two more in the same syllable ; as in quake, quest, 
 quit, quoit. C is hard, like k, before a, o, and u ; and soft, like *, before 
 e, i, and y : thus the syllables ca, ce t ci, co, cu, cy, are pronounced ka, se t 
 si, ko, ku, #y. 8 before c preserves the former sound, but coalesces 
 with the latter ; hence the syllables, sea, see, sci, sco, scu, scy, are sounded 
 *'>!, se, si, sko, sku, sy. Ce and ci have sometimes the sound of sh ; as 
 in ocean, social. Ch commonly represents the sound of tsh; as in church. 
 
 OBS. 6. G, as well as C, has different sounds before different vowels. 
 G is always hard, or guttural, before a, o, and u ; and generally soft, 
 like j, before e, i, or y : thus the syllables, ga, ge, gi, go, gu, gy, are pro- 
 nounced ga, je, ji, go, gu, jy. 
 
 Forms of the Letters. 
 
 In the English language, the Roman characters are gener- 
 ally employed ; sometimes, the Italic ; and occasionally, thp. 
 
 15 (Emjlisl). In writing, -we use the 
 
 The letters have severally two forms, by which they are 
 distinguished as capitals and small letters. 
 
 Small letters constitute the body of every work, and capi 
 tals are used for the sake of eminence and distinction. 
 
 Hulesfor the use of Capitals. 
 
 RULE I. TITLES OP BOOKS. 
 
 The titles of books, and the heads of their principal divisions, should 
 be printed in capitals. When books are merely mentioned, the chief' 
 words in their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters are small : 
 as, " Pope's Essay on Man." 
 
 RULE n. FIRST WORDS. 
 
 The first word of every distinct sentence, or of any clause separately 
 numbered or paragraphed, should begin with a capital. 
 
 RULE ILT. NAMES OF DEITY. 
 
 All names of the Deity should begin with capitals ; as, God, Jehovah, 
 the Almighty, the Supreme Being. 
 
 RULE IV. PROPER NAMES. 
 
 Titles of office or honor, and proper names of every description, should 
 begin with capitals; as, Chief Justice Hale, William, London, the Park, 
 the Albion , the Spectator, the Thames. 
 
SYLLABLES. 29 
 
 RULE V. OBJECT PERSONIFIED. 
 
 The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly 
 individual, should begin with a capital ; as, 
 
 " Come, gentle 8pring, ethereal mildness, come." 
 
 RULE VI. WORDS DERIVED. 
 
 Words derived from proper names of persons or places should begir. 
 with capitals ; as, Newtonian, Grecian, Eoman. 
 
 RULE VII. I AND O. 
 
 The words /and should always be capitals ; as, " Out of the depths 
 have /cried unto thee, Lord." 
 
 RULE VIII. IN POETRY. 
 
 Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making but one 
 verse with the line preceding, should begin with a capital ; as, 
 " Our sons their fathers' failing language see, 
 And such as Chaucer is, shall Dryden be." Pope. 
 
 RULE IX. EXAMPLES, ETC. 
 
 A full example, a distinct speech, or a direct quotation, should begin 
 with a capital ; as, " Remember this maxim : ' Know thyself.' " " Vir- 
 gil says, ' Labor conquers all things. ' " 
 
 RULE X. CHIEF WORDS. 
 
 Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the princi- 
 pal subjects of discourse, may be distinguished by capitals. Proper 
 names freouently have capitals throughout. 
 
 II.-SYLLABLES. 
 
 A syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one 
 sound, and is either a word or a part of a word ; as, a, an, 
 ant. 
 
 In every word there are as many syllables as there are 
 distinct sounds ; as, gram-ma-ri-an. 
 
 A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; a 
 word of two syllables, a dissyllable ; a word of three 
 syllables, a trisyllable ; and a word of four or more 
 tables, a polysyllable. 
 
30 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 ' Diphthongs and Triphthongs. 
 
 A diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable; 
 as, ea in beat, ou in sound. 
 
 A proper diphthong is a diphthong in which both 
 the vowels are sounded ; as, oi in voice. 
 
 An improper diphthong is a diphthong in which 
 only one of the vowels is sounded ; as, oa in loaf. 
 
 A triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable; 
 as, eau in beau, iew in view. 
 
 A proper triphthong is a triphthong in which all 
 the vowels are sounded ; as, uoy in ~buoy. 
 
 An improper triphthong is a triphthong in which 
 only one or two of the vowels are sounded ; as, eau in 
 beauty, iou in anxious. 
 
 Syllabication. 
 
 In dividing words into syllables, we are to be directed 
 chiefly by the ear ; it may however be proper to observe, 
 as far as practicable, the following rules : 
 
 RULE I. CONSONANTS. 
 
 Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs 
 which they modify in utterance ; as, ap-os-tol-i-cal. 
 
 RULE II. VOWELS. 
 
 Two vowels, coming together, if they make not a diphthong, must be 
 parted in dividing the syllables; as, a-e-ri-al. 
 
 RULE III. TERMINATIONS. 
 
 Derivative and grammatical terminations should generally be sepa- 
 rated from the radical words to which they have been added ; as, 
 Tiarm-less, great-ly, con-nect-ed. 
 
 RULE IV. PREFIXES. 
 
 Prefixes in general form separate syllables ; as, mis-place, out-ride, up- 
 lift : but if their own primitive meaning be disregarded, the case may 
 be otherwise ; thus re-create and rec-reate are words of different import, 
 
WORDS. 31 
 
 RULE V. COMPOUNDS. 
 
 Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple words 
 which compose them ; as, no-wfiere. 
 
 RULE VI. FULL LINES. 
 
 At the end of a line, a word may be divided, if necessary ; but a sjl 
 lable must never be broken. 
 
 III. WORDS. 
 
 A word is one or more syllables spoken or written as 
 the sign of some idea, or of some manner of thought. 
 
 Species and Figure of Words. 
 
 Words are distinguished as primitive or derivative, 
 and as simple or compound. The former division is 
 called their species ; the latter, their figure. 
 
 A primitive word is one that is not formed from any 
 simpler word in the language ; as, harm, great, connect. 
 
 A derivative word is one that is formed from some 
 simpler word in the language ; as, harmless, greatly, con- 
 nected, disconnect, unconnected. 
 
 A simple word is one that is not compounded, not 
 composed of other words ; as, watch, man, never, the, less. 
 
 A compound word is one that is composed of two 
 or more simple words ; as, watchman, nevertheless. 
 
 Permanent compounds are consolidated ; as, 'bookstore,, 
 housekeeper: others, which may be called temporary com 
 pounds, are formed by the hyphen ; as, glass-house, school 
 master. 
 
 Rules for the Figure of Words. 
 
 I. Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known as 
 forming a compound, should never be needlessly broken apart 
 
 IT. When the simple words would only form a regular phrase, of the 
 same meaning, the compounding of any of them ojight to be avoided, 
 
32 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 HI. Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined to- 
 gether or written separately, as the sense and construction may happen 
 to require. 
 
 IV. When two or more compounds are connected in one sentence, 
 none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word. 
 
 V. When the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce ; as, to-day, to- 
 night, to-morrow ; or when each retains its original accent, so that the 
 compound has more than one, or one that is movable; as, first-born, 
 hanger-on, laughter-lomng, the hyphen should be inserted between them. 
 
 VI. When a compound has but one accented syllable in pronuncia- 
 tion, as watchword, statesman, gentleman, and the parts are such as admit 
 of a complete coalescence, no hyphen should be inserted between them. 
 
 IV. SPELLING. 
 
 Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper 
 letters. 
 
 OBS. This important art is to be acquired rather by means of the 
 spelling-book or dictionary, and by observation in reading, than by the 
 study of written rules. The orthography of our language is attended 
 with much uncertainty and perplexity : many words are variously 
 spelled by the best scholars, and many others are not usually written ac- 
 cording to the analogy of similar words. But to be ignorant of the 
 orthography of such words as are uniformly spelled and frequently used, 
 is justly considered disgraceful. The following rules may prevent 
 some embarrassment, and thus be of service to those who wish to b 
 accurate. 
 
 Rules for Spelling. 
 
 RULE I. FINAL F, L, OR S. 
 
 Monosyllables ending in /, I, or s, preceded by a single vowel, doubl* 
 the final consonant; as, staff, mill, pass: except three \nf-def, if, of; 
 three in ibul, sal, sol; and eleven in s as, gas, has, was, yes, is, his, 
 this, us, thus, pus. 
 
 RULE n. OTHER FINALS. 
 
 Words ending in any other consonant than f, I, or s, do not double 
 the final letter : except abb. ebb, add. odd. egg, inn, en', burr, purr, 
 butt, buzz, fuzz, and some proper names. 
 
SPELLING. 
 
 RULE III. DOUBLING. 
 Monosyllables, and words accented on the last sellable, when they 
 end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, or by a vowel 
 after qu, double their final consonant before an additional syllable that 
 begins with a vowel : as, rob, robber ; permit, permitting ; acquit, ac- 
 yiittal, acquitting. 
 
 Exc. X final, being equivalent to ks, is nearer doubled. 
 
 RULE IV. No DOUBLING. 
 
 A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when 
 the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an 
 additional syllable: as, toil, toiling ; visit, visited; general, generalize. 
 
 Exc. But I and s final are sometimes doubled (though according to 
 Webster, improperly), when the last syllable is not accented ; as, travel, 
 traveller; bias, biassed. 
 
 RULE V. RETAINING. 
 
 Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double before any 
 additional termination, not beginning with the same letter ; as in the 
 following derivatives : seeing, blissful, oddly, hilly, stiffness, illness, small- 
 ness, carelessness, agreement, agreeable. 
 
 Exc. The irregular words, fled, sold, told, dwelt, spelt, spilt, shalt, 
 wilt, blest, past, and the derivatives from the word pontiff, are excep- 
 tions to this rule. 
 
 is 
 RULE VI. FINAL E. 
 
 The final e mute of a primitive word, is generally omitted before an 
 additional termination beginning with a vowel : as, rate, ratable ; force, 
 forcible ; rave, raving ; eye, eying. 
 
 Exc. Words ending in ce or ge, retain the e before able or ous, to pre- 
 serve the soft sounds of c and g ; as, peace, peaceable ; changt, chanyt- 
 able; outrage, outrageous. 
 
 RULE VII. FINAL E. 
 
 The final e of a primitive word, is generally retained before an addi- 
 tional termination beginning with a consonant ; as, pale, paleness ; lodge^ 
 lodgement. 
 
 Exc. When the e is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes omitted: 
 as, true, truly ; awe, awful ; and sometimes retained ; as, rue, rueful 
 *hoe y sJioeless. 
 
 3 
 
34 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 RULE VIII. FINAL Y. 
 
 The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is 
 changed into i before an additional termination : as, merry, merrier, 
 merriest, merrily, merriment ; pity, pitied, pities, pitiest, pitiless, pitiful, 
 pitiable. 
 
 Exc. Before ing, y is retained to prevent the doubling of i ; as, 
 pity, pitying. Words ending in ie, dropping the e by Rule 6th, change 
 i into y, for the same reason ; as, die, dying. 
 
 OBS. When a vowel precedes, y should not be changed; as, day, days; 
 valley, valleys ; money, moneys ; monkey, monkeys. 
 
 RULE IX. COMPOUNDS. 
 
 Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple words 
 which compose them ; as, hereof, wherein, horseman, recall, uphitt, 
 shellfish. 
 
 Exc. In permanent compounds, the words full and all drop one I; 
 as, handful, careful, always, withal : in others, they retain both ; as, 
 full-eyed, aU-wise, save-all. 
 
 Questions for Review. 
 
 L INTRODUCTORY. 
 What is an Idea ? 
 What is a Thought ? 
 What is Language ? 
 What is the use of Grammar ? 
 What is English Grammar ? 
 How is it divided ? 
 Of what does Orthography treat ? 
 Of what does Etymology treat ? 
 Of what does Syntax treat ? 
 Of what does Prosody treat ? 
 
 II. LETTERS. 
 
 Of what does Orthography treat ? 
 
 What is a .Letter.* 
 
 What is an elementary sound of a word ? 
 
 What name is given to the sound of a letter ? What epithet, to a letter not 
 sounded ? 
 
 How many letters are there in English ? How many sounds do they rep- 
 resent ? 
 
 In what does a knowledge of the letters consist ? 
 
 What variety is noticed iu letters that are always the same ? 
 
 Whrit different sorts of types, or letters, axe used in English ? 
 
QUESTIONS FOB REVIEW. 35 
 
 What are the names of the letters in English ? 
 
 Which of the letters name themselves, and which do not ? 
 
 What are the names of all in both numbers, singular and plural ? 
 
 III. CLASSES OF LETTERS. 
 Into what general classes are the letters divided ? 
 What is a vowel ? 
 What is a consonant ? 
 
 What letters are vowels ? What, consonants ? 
 When are w and y consonants, and when vowels ? 
 How are the consonants divided ? 
 What is a semivowel ? 
 What is a mute ? 
 
 What letters are semivowels, and which of these are aspirates ? 
 What letters are called liquids, and why ? 
 How many and which are the letters reckoned mutes ? 
 " ** 
 
 IV. POWERS, OR SOUNDS. 
 
 What is meant, when we speak of " the powers of the letters? " 
 In what series of short words are heard our chief vowel sounds ? 
 How may these sounds be modified to form words or syllables ? 
 Can you form a word from each by means of a,nf? 
 Will you form another such series with a p ? 
 How many and what are the consonant sounds in English ? 
 In what series of words may all these sounds be heard ? 
 In what series of words is each of them heard more than once ? 
 Do our letters admit of combinations enough ? 
 What do we derive from these elements of language? 
 
 V. FORMS OP THE LETTERS. 
 
 What is said of the employment of the several styles of letters in English ? 
 
 What distinction of form do we make in each of the letters ? 
 
 What is said of small letters, and why are capitals used ? 
 
 How many rules for capitals are given, and what are their heads ? 
 
 What says Rule 1st of titles of books ? Rule 2d, of first words ? Rule 3d, of 
 names of Deity ? Rule 4th, of proper names ? Rule 5th, of objects per- 
 sonified? -Rule 6th, of words der ived ? Rule 7th, of I and O'4 Rule 
 8th, of poetry ?-Rule 9th, of examples, etc.? Rule 10th, of chief words? 
 
 VI. SYLLABLES. 
 What is a syllable ? 
 
 Can the syllables of a word be perceived by the ear ? 
 What is a word of one syllable called ? a word of two syllables ? of three ? 
 
 of four or more ? 
 What is a diphthong ? 
 
 What is a proper diphthong ? an improper diphthong ? 
 What is a triphthong ? 
 
36 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 What is a proper triphthong ? An improper triphthong ? 
 
 What chiefly directs us in dividing words into syllables ? 
 
 How many rules of syllabication are given, and what are their heads ? 
 
 What says Rule 1st, of consonants ? Rule 2d. of vowels ? Rule 3d, of ter- 
 minations ? Rule 4th, of prefixes ? Rule 5th, of compounds ? Rule 6th, 
 of lines full? 
 
 VII. WORDS. 
 What is a word ? 
 
 How are words distinguished in regard to species and figure. 
 What is a primitive word ? 
 What is a derivative word ? 
 What is a simple word ? 
 What is a compound word ? 
 
 How do permanent compounds differ from others ? 
 
 How many are the rules for the figure of words, and what are their heads ? 
 What says rule 1st, of compounds? Rule 3d, of simples? Rule 3d, of the 
 
 sense? Rule 4th, of ellipses ? Rule 5th, of the hyphen ? Rule 6th, of 
 
 using no hyphen ? 
 
 VIII. SPELLING. 
 
 What is spelling ? 
 
 How is this art to be acquired ? 
 
 How many rules for spelling are there, and what are their heads ? 
 
 What says Rule 1st of final /, I, or s /Rule 2d, of other finals /Rule 3d, of 
 the doubling of consonants ? Rule 4th, against the doubling of conso- 
 nants ? Rule 5th, of retaining /Rule 6th, of final e /Rule 7th, of 
 final e /Rule 8th, of final y /Rule 9th, of compounds / 
 
 Exercises for Writing. 
 
 I. CAPITALS. 
 
 These exercises are classified according to rules on pages 24, 25. 
 
 1 . The pedant quoted Johnson's dictionary of the english language, 
 Gregory's dictionary of arts and sciences, Crabb's english synonymes, 
 V/ulker's key to the pronunciation of proper names, Sheridan's rhetori- 
 cal grammar, and the diversions of purley. 
 
 2. gratitude is a delightful emotion, the grateful heart at once per- 
 forms its duty and" endears itself to others. 
 
 3. What madness and folly, to deny the great first cause ! Shall 
 mortal man presume against his maker ? shall he not fear the omnipo- 
 tent ? shall he not reverence the everlasting one ? ' The fear of the lord 
 is the beginning of wisdom. ' 
 
 4. xerxes the great, emperor of persia, united the medes, persians, 
 bactrians, lydians, assyrians, hyrcanians, and many other nations, in an 
 expedition against greeoe. 
 
EXERCISES FOR WRITING. 37 
 
 5. I observed that, when the votaries of religion were led aside, she 
 commonly recalled them by her emissary conscience, before habit had 
 time to enchain them. 
 
 6. Hercules is said to have killed the nemean lion, the erymanthian 
 boar, the lernean serpent, and the stymphalian birds. The Christian 
 religion has brought all mythologic stories and milesian fables into di^> 
 repute. 
 
 7. i live as i did, i think as i did, i love you as i did ; but all these 
 are to no purpose ; the world will not live, think, or love as i do. o 
 wretched prince ! o cruel reverse of fortune ! o father Micipsa 1 
 
 8. are these thy views ? proceed, illustrious youth, 
 and virtue guard thee to the throne of truth ! 
 
 9. Those who pretend to love peace, should remember this maxim : 
 " it is the second^blow that makes the battle." 
 
 n. CAPITALS. MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 ' time and i will challenge any other two,' said philip. ' thus,' said 
 diogenes, 'do I trample on the pride of plato.' 'true,' replied plato ; 
 ' but is it not with the greater pride of diogenes ? ' 
 
 the father in a transport of joy, burst into the following words : ' o 
 excellent scipio ! heaven has given thee more than human virtue ! o 
 glorious leader ! o wondrous youth ! ' 
 
 epaminondas, the theban general, was remarkable for his love of 
 truth, he never told a lie, even in jest. 
 
 and pharaoh said to Joseph, ' ' say to thy brethren, ' do this lade your 
 beasts, and go to the land of canaan. ' " 
 
 who is she that, with graceful steps and a lively air, trips over yonder 
 plain ? her name is health : she is the daughter of exercise and temper- 
 ance. 
 
 to the penitent sinner, a mediator and intercessor with the sovereign 
 of the universe, appear comfortable names. 
 
 the murder of abel, the curse and rejection of cain, and the birth 
 and adoption of seth, are almost the only events related of the immedi- 
 ate family of adam, after his fall. 
 
 on what foundation stands the warrior's pride, 
 how just his hopes, let Swedish charles decide. 
 
 in every leaf that trembles to the breeze, 
 i hear the voice of god among the trees. 
 
38 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 III. SYLLABLES. 
 Divide the following words into their proper syllables : 
 
 Ado, adorn, adown, adrift, anoint, athwart, awry, bespeak, bestow, 
 between, encroach, incrust, foreknow, forestall, forswear, underanged, 
 preterit, retrace, unoiled, unrepaid, unresting, underbid, upholder, 
 withal. 
 
 Civil, color, copy, damask, dozen, ever, feather, gather, heaven, 
 lemon, meadow, never, orange, punish, robin, shovel, timid, whither, 
 benefit, canister, generous, academical, several, miserable, tolerable, 
 epidemic, paralytic, liberal, characteristic, experimental. 
 
 Folio, genial, genius, glossy, junior, mover, satiate, seizure, vitiate, 
 ambrosia, convenient, ingenious, omniscience, peculiar, substantiate, 
 sociable, partiality, pecuniary, annunciate, enunciate, appreciate, 
 associate, expatiate, negotiate. 
 
 Eastern, pallet, stormy, England, anthill, cowslip, farewell, foretop, 
 hogshead, homeward, sandstone, forever, husbandman, painstaker, 
 bookseller, acquittal, requisition, architecture, machinery, aqueduct, 
 arable, horrible, inflammation, impossible, preferable, perilous, business, 
 preferred. 
 
 IV. FIGURE OF WORDS. 
 Correct the errors in the following, according to the rules on pages 27, 2& 
 
 1. The shine of the plough share is the farmer's wealth. 
 
 The cross row has ever had some thing of a magic spell in it. 
 The old fashioned are apt to think the world grows worse. 
 The stealing of water melons may lead to house breaking. 
 A good clothes brush helps greatly to make a gentle man. 
 
 2. An ill-tongue is a fearful corrupter of good-manners. 
 Envy not the good-luck of prosperous transgressors. 
 
 St. Paul admonishes Timothy to refuse old-wives'-fables. 
 
 Lawmakers have often been partial to male-descendants. 
 
 New-year's-gifts brighten many a face on new-year's day. 
 \. They that live in glass-houses should not throw stones. 
 
 A glass house is a house in which glass is manufactured. 
 
 A spirit stirring discourse is seldom a long winded one. 
 
 Knowledge and virtue are the stepping stones to honor. 
 
 The American whip poor Will is a night warbling bird. 
 4. Let school and meeting-houses be pleasantly located. 
 
 The teapot and kettle are now deemed indispensable. 
 
 Both the ten and the eight syllable verses are iambics. 
 
 Most, at six or seventeen years of age, are men and women. 
 
 A ketch is a vessel with two masts, a main and muzen-mast 
 
EXERCISES FOB WRITING. 39 
 
 5. The bloodyminded man seldom dwells long in safety. 
 
 A tiresmith puts on wheelbands redhot, then cools them. 
 Plato was so called because he was broadshouldered. 
 Timehonored custom may be souldestroying folly. 
 Is erenhanded honesty expected in slavemerchants ? 
 
 6. A good pay-master is always a man of some fore-thought. 
 The glory of the common-wealth is the states-man's boast. 
 Bain-bows are made of sun-shine dissolved in sky water. 
 
 V. SPELLING. 
 
 In the following exercises the pupil is required to correct the errors in 
 spelling according to the rules on pages, 28, 29, 30. 
 
 I. 
 
 1. Few knowthe value of a friend, til they lose him. 
 Good men pas by offences, and take no revenge. 
 Hear patiently, iff thou wouldst speak wel. 
 
 2. The business of warr is devastation and destruction. 
 To er is human ; to forgive, divine. 
 
 A bad speller should not pretend to scholarshipp. 
 
 3. It often requires deep diging, to obtain pure water. 
 Praise is most shuned by the praiseworthy. 
 
 He that hoists too much sail, runs a risk of overseting. 
 
 4. Quarrels are more easily begun than endded. 
 Contempt leaves a deepper scar than anger. 
 
 Of all tame animals the flatterrer is the most mischievous. 
 
 5. Smalness with talness makes the figure too slender. 
 Heedlesness is always in danger of embarrasment. 
 The recklesness of license is no attribute of fredom. 
 
 6. Good examples are very convinceing teachers. 
 Doubts should not excite contention, but inquirey. 
 Obligeing conduct procures deserved esteem. 
 
 7. Wise men measure time by their improvment of it. 
 Learn to estimate all things by their real usfulness. 
 Encouragment increases with success. 
 
 8. Nothing essential to happyness is unattainable. 
 Vices, though near relations, are all at varyance. 
 Before thou denyest a favor, consider the request 
 
 9. Good-wil is a more powerful motive than constraint. 
 A wel-spent day prepares us for sweet repose. 
 
 The path of fame is altogether an uphil road. 
 
40 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 II. 
 
 1. He is tal enough who walks uprightly. 
 Repetition makes smal transgressions great. 
 Religion regulates the wil and affections. 
 
 2. To carry a ful cupp even, requires a steady hand. 
 Idleness is the nest in which mischief lays its egs. 
 The whole journey of life is besett with foes. 
 
 3. Peace of mind should be prefered to bodily safety. 
 A bad begining is unfavorable to success. 
 
 Very fruitful trees often need to be proped. 
 
 4. None ever gained esteem by tattling and gossipping. 
 Religion purifies, fortifies, and tranquillizes the mind. 
 They had all been closetted together a long time. 
 
 5. Blesed is he whose transgresion is forgiven. 
 Indolence and listlesness are foes to happiness. 
 Carelesness has occasioned many a wearisome step. 
 
 6. In all thy undertakeings, ponder the motive and the end. 
 We cannot wrong others without injureing ourselves. 
 
 A dureable good cannot spring from an external cause. 
 
 7. Duely appreciate and improve your privileges. 
 
 To borrow of future time, is thriftless managment. 
 He who is truely a freman is above mean compliances. 
 
 8. Pitiing friends cannot save us in a diing hour. 
 Wisdom rescues the decaies of age from aversion. 
 Vallies are generally more fertile than hills. 
 
 9. Cold numness had quite bereft her of sense. 
 
 A cascade, or waterfal, is a charming object in scenery. 
 Nettles grow in the vinyard of the slothfull. 
 Tuition is lost on idlers and numbsculs. 
 
 HI. 
 
 1. He that scofs at the crooked, should beware of stooping. 
 Pictures that resemble flowers, smel only of paint. 
 Misdemeanors are the pioneers of gros vices. 
 
 2. To remitt a wrong, leaves the offender in debt. 
 Superlative commendation is near akinn to detraction. 
 Piety admitts not of excessive sorrow. 
 
 3. You are safe in forgeting benefits you have confered. 
 He has run well who has outstriped his own errors. 
 See that you have ballast proportionate to your riging. 
 
 4. The biasses of prejudice often preclude convincement. 
 Bather follow the wise than lead the foollish. 
 
EXERCISES FOE W&tTItf&. 41 
 
 To reason with the angry, is like whisperring to the deaf 
 A bigotted judge needs no time for deliberation. 
 The gods of this world have many worshippers. 
 
 5. Crosness has more subjects than admirers. 
 Fearlesness conquers where blamelesness is armor-bearer. 
 
 6. Many things are chiefly valued for their rareity. 
 Vicious old age is hopeless and deploreable. 
 Irreconcileable animosity is always blameable. 
 
 7. Treachery lurks beneath a guilful tongue. 
 Disobedience and mischief deserve chastisment. 
 
 By self-examination, we discover the lodgements of sin. 
 The passions often mislead the judgement. 
 
 8. To be happy without holyness is impossible. 
 And, all within, were walks and allies wide. 
 Call impesiection what thou f ancy'st such. 
 Without fire, chimnies are useless. 
 
 9. The true philanthropist deserves a universal pasport. 
 Ridicule is generally but the froth of il-nature. 
 
 All mispent time will one day be regretted. 
 
 IV. MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 Fiction may soften, without improveing the heart. 
 Affectation is a sprout that should be niped in the bud. 
 A covettous person is always in want. 
 Fashion is compareable to an ignis-fatuus. 
 Fair appearances somtimes cover foul purposes. 
 Garnish not your commendations with flatterry. 
 Never utter a falshood even for truth's sake. 
 Medicines should be administerred with caution. 
 We have here no continueing city, no abideing rest. 
 Many a trapp is laid to ensnare the feet of youth. 
 We are caught as sillyly as the bird in the net. 
 By defering repentance, we accumulate sorrows. 
 To preach to the droneish, is to waste your words. 
 We are often benefitted by what we have dreaded. 
 We may be succesful, and yet disappointed. 
 In rebusses, pictures are used to represent words. 
 He is in great danger who parlies with conscience. 
 Your men of f orhead .are magnificent in promises. 
 A true friend is a most valueable acquisition. 
 It is not a bad memory that forgets injuryes. 
 Weigh your subject wel, before you speak positivly. 
 Difficulties are often increased by mismanagment 
 
OKTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Diseases are more easyly prevented than cured. 
 Contrivers of mischief often entrapp themselves. 
 Corrupt speech indicates a distemperred mind. 
 Asseveration does not allways remove doubt. 
 Hypocrites are like wolves in sheeps' clotheing. 
 Ostentatious liberallity is its own paymaster. 
 
 V. MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 A downhil road may be travelled with ease. 
 
 Distempered fancy can swel a molehil to a mountain. 
 
 Let your own unbiassed judgment determine. 
 
 A knave can often undersel his honest neighbors. 
 
 Xenophanes prefered reputation to wealth. 
 
 True politeness is the ofspring of benevolence. 
 
 Levellers are generally the dupes of designning men. 
 
 Rewards are for those who have fullfiled their duty. 
 
 Who trusts a hungry boy in a cubburd of dainties ? 
 
 Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellers. 
 
 The liberal man ties his purse with a beau-not. 
 
 Double-deelers are seldom long in favor. 
 
 The characters of the crosrow have wrought wonders. 
 
 The plagiary is a jacdaw decked with stolen plumes. 
 
 All virtues are in agrement ; all vices, at varyance. 
 
 Personnal liberty is every man's natural birthrite. 
 
 There, wrapt in clouds, the blueish hills ascend. 
 
 The birds frame to thy song their chearfull cherupping. 
 
 There figgs, skydyed, a purple hue disclose. 
 
 Lysander goes twice a day to the choccolat-house. 
 
 Years following years steal sumthing every day. 
 
 The soul of the slothfull does but drowse in his body. 
 
 What think you of a clergiman in a soldier's dres ? 
 
 Justice is here holding the stilliards for a balance. 
 
 The huming-bird is somtimes no biger than a bumble-be. 
 
 The muskittoes will make you as spoted as a samon-trout 
 
 Cruelty to animals is a malicious and lo-lived vice. 
 
 Absolute Necessity must sign their deth-warrant. 
 
 He who catches flies, emulates the nat-snaper. 
 
 The froggs had long lived unmolested in a horspond. 
 
 "These are villanous creatures," says a blokheded boy. 
 The robbin-read-breast til of late had rest, 
 And children sacred held a martin's nest 
 
PART II. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, with 
 their classes and modifications. 
 
 
 I. THE SENTENCE. 
 
 In the utterance of any definite thought, such as, Birds fly TJie ftun 
 shines Fishes swim, there is obviously some person or thing spoken of, 
 and something said of that person or thing. The former is called the 
 subject, and the latter the predicate. When united so as to make 
 complete sense, these form what is called a proposition ; and a 
 proposition, or a combination of two or more propositions, forms a sen- 
 tence. 
 
 Thus Man is mortal is a sentence containing one proposition ; and Art 
 is long, and time is fleeting is a sentence containing two propositions. 
 
 The distinction between the subject and the predicate of a sentence 
 should be clearly understood. This distinction is marked in the follow- 
 ing sentences: 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 Birds 
 
 The flowers 
 Perseverance 
 The love of truth 
 An honest man 
 
 Predicates. 
 
 sing. 
 
 are fading. 
 
 overcomes all obstacles. 
 
 will prevail over error. 
 
 is the noblest work of God. 
 
 The following definitions will now be understood. 
 
 A sentence is an assemblage of words, making complete 
 sense ; as, "Reward sweetens labor." " The fear of the Lord 
 is the beginning of wisdom." 
 
44 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Every sentence must contain two principal parts ; namely, 
 the subject and the predicate. 
 
 Whatever is directly spoken of in the sentence is the sub- 
 ject ; as, "The sun has set." "Can you write?" 
 
 That which is said of the subject is the predicate ; as, 
 "Beauty fa des." 
 
 Any combination of the subject and predicate is called a 
 proposition. 
 
 Words added to other words in a sentence to modify or limit 
 their meaning are called adjuncts ; as, "A good scholai 
 rapidly improves." 
 
 Sentences are divided, with respect to the nature of tht 
 propositions which they contain, into four classes ; dedara* 
 tive, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. 
 
 A sentence is declarative, when it expresses an affirmation 
 or negation ; interrogative, when it expresses a question ; i??i- 
 perative, when it expresses a command ; and exclamatory, 
 when it expresses an exclamation. 
 
 ^Exercises. 
 
 1. Point out the subject and the predicate in the following sentences, 
 and state to which of the four classes each sentence belongs. 
 
 OBS. In interrogative and exclamatory sentences, the words are usu- 
 ally transposed ; in imperative sentences, the subject is often under- 
 stood ; as, " Bring me a slate ; " in which the subject is thou or you, 
 understood. 
 
 The tree bears fruit. The ox bears a yoke. The carpenter uses >? 
 saw. Avarice causes crime. The miser loves gold. The boy has told 
 an untruth. The merchant has made a fortune. The river overflowed 
 its banks. Lend Charles a book. Has Mary received the letter ? Will 
 Richard return soon ? How hard a task he has ! The scholar's diligence 
 deserves a reward. Do not injure your neighbor. How kindly he 
 treated his schoolmate ! Has Robert found his pencil ? 
 
 2. Write predicates for the following subjects. 
 
 Flowers. Oranges. Industry. Honesty. An industrious boy. A dis- 
 honest clerk. An amiable disposition. A good character. George 
 Washington. Napoleon Bonaparte. Queen Victoria. 
 
THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 45 
 
 8. Write subjects for the following predicates. 
 
 is writing. was too late. did not improve. 
 
 w ill be rewarded. should be treated with kindness. 
 
 brings misery. is a source of happiness. 
 
 4. Insert as many adjuncts as possible to the subject and predicate of 
 each of the following sentences. 
 
 Example. 
 
 The horses ran. 
 
 The wUd horses ran away very swiftly. 
 
 The ship sailed. Flowers bloom. Flowers fade. Birds fly. The 
 sun shines. The scholar improves. The oxen are grazing. The man 
 is ploughing. The dog is barking. The woman is washing. The storm 
 rages. The wind blows. The lightning flashes. The thunder peals. 
 
 II.-THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 The words that compose a sentence are used for various purposes in 
 connection with the subject or predicate. Some are names of persons 
 or things ; some express action ; some, quality; others, relation; and 
 some are used to connect words or propositions. 
 
 For this reason the words or parts of a sentence have been arranged in 
 classes, called the Parts Of Speech. 
 
 The Parts of Speech, or sorts of words, in English, are 
 ten; namely, the article, the noun, the adjective, 
 the pronoun, the verb, the participle, the adverb, 
 the conjunction, the preposition, and the inter- 
 jection. 
 
 An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put be- 
 fore nouns to limit their signification ; as, The air, the 
 stars ; an island, a ship. 
 
 A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, 
 that can be known or mentioned ; as, George, York, man, 
 apple, truth. 
 
 An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, 
 and generally expresses quality ; as, A wise man ; a new 
 book. You two are diligent. 
 
46 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Apronounisa word used instead of a nonn : as, " The 
 boy loves his book ; he has long lessons, and he learns them 
 well." 
 
 A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted 
 icpon : as, I am, I rule, I am ruled ; I love, thou lovest, he 
 loves. 
 
 A participle is a word derived from a verb, participat- 
 ing the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun. 
 
 It is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the 
 verb : thus, from the verb rule, are formed three parti- 
 ciples : two simple and one compound ; as, 1, ruling 2, 
 ruled 3, having ruled. 
 
 An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an 
 adjective, or another adverb ; and generally expresses time, 
 place, degree, or manner ; as, " They are now here, study- 
 ing very diligently" 
 
 A conjunction is a word used to connect words or 
 sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of 
 the terms so connected; as, "Thou and he are happy, 
 because you are good." 
 
 A preposition is a word used to express some rela- 
 tion of different things or thoughts to each other, and is 
 generally placed before a noun or a pronoun ; as, " The 
 paper lies before me on the desk." 
 
 An interjection is a word that is uttered merely to 
 indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind ; as, 
 Uh ! alas ! ah ! poh ! pshaw ! avaunt ! 
 
 Definitions of Terms. 
 
 A definition of anything or class of things is such a de- 
 scription of it, as distinguishes that entire thing or class from 
 every thing else, by briefly telling what it is. 
 
 A rule Of grammar is some law, more or less general, 
 by which custom regulates and prescribes the right use of 
 language. 
 
EXERCISES IN PARSING. 47 
 
 A praxis is a method of exercise, showing the learner how 
 
 to proceed. (The word literally signifies action, doing, prac- 
 tice, or formal use.) 
 
 An example is a particular instance or model, serving to 
 prove or illustrate some given proposition or truth. 
 
 An exercise is some technical performance required of 
 the learner, in order to test his knowledge or skill by use. 
 
 Parsing is the resolving or explaining of a sentence, or 
 of some related word or words, according to the definitions 
 and rules of grammar. 
 
 JZxercises in Parsing. 
 *" Praxis I. Etymological. 
 
 In the First Praxis, it is required of the pupil, after analyzing the sen- 
 tence, by pointing out the subject and predicate, with the adjuncts in each, 
 to distinguish the different parts of speech, and to assign a reason for 
 such distinction, by citing the proper definition, and adapting it to each 
 particular case. Thus : 
 
 EXAMPLE PARSED. 
 
 " The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs the labor 
 required of him." 
 
 1. Submits is a verb, because it signifies action ; 
 Performs is also a verb, for the same reason. 
 
 2. Ox is a noun, because it is the name of n thing ; 
 Yoke and labor are nouns, for the same reason. 
 
 3. The is an article, because it limits the signification of ox, yoke, or labor th 
 
 noun before which it is placed. 
 
 4. Patient is an adjective, because it expresses the quality of the ox. 
 
 5. Him is a pronoun, because it is used instead of the noun ox. 
 
 6. fiequired is a participle, because it expresses action like a verb, and qualifies 
 
 the noun labor like an adjective. 
 
 7. Meekly is an adverb, because it is added to the verb performs, and express^ 
 
 manner. 
 
 8. And is a conjunction, because it connects the predicates containing the verbs 
 
 submits and performs. 
 
 9. To is a preposition, because it expresses the relation of the verb submits to th 
 
 noun yoke. 
 
 Note. The numbers are here used to indicate the order in which the pupil should, at 
 first, be required to distinguish the parts of speech in the sentences given in this exer- 
 cise. The verb is made the first in this series because it is the word to which all others 
 have an immediate or remote relation, and because it is easily recognized, and, when 
 discovered, leads the mind necessarily to a knowledge of the other parts of speech com- 
 
48 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Tirehended in the sentence, by showing the particular office of every word. This cannot 
 be done, at this stage of the pupil's progress, with a proper degree of intelligence and 
 precision, by mechanically examining each word in succession ; for the reason that to do 
 PO requires him to compare the distinctive office of each part of speech, with the word ex- 
 amined ; while in these preliminary exercises, he is only required to keep in mind the 
 character of a single part of speech, and compare it with each word of the sentence Ln 
 *;K -cession. Besides, an eclectic process like that indicated, is better calculated to keep 
 rie interest and attention of the pupil awake, the constant desire of discovery continu- 
 ..ily stimulating mental activity. 
 
 Evil communications corrupt good manners. 
 
 Good books always deserve a careful perusal. 
 
 Passionate men are very easily irritated. 
 
 Perseverance finally overcomes all obstacles. 
 
 Human happiness is exceedingly transient. 
 
 The industrious boys have recited their lessons well. 
 
 A landscape presents a pleasing variety of objects. 
 
 The eagle has a strong and piercing eye. 
 
 The rose, the lily, and the pink are fragrant flowers. 
 
 Sloth enfeebles equally the bodily and the mental powers. 
 
 Virtuous youth gradually brings forward accomplished and flourishing- 
 manhood. 
 
 In the spring the trees resume their verdure. 
 
 Industry is needful in every condition of life ; the price of all im- 
 provement is labor. 
 
 III. -ARTICLES. 
 
 An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put be- 
 fore nouns to limit their signification. 
 
 An and a are one and the same article. An is used whenever the 
 following word begins with a vowd sound ; as, An art, an end, an heir, 
 fin inch, an ounce, an hour, an urn. A is used whenever the follow- 
 ing word begins with a consonant sound; as, A man, a house, a won- 
 der, a one, a yew, a use, a ewer. Thus the consonant sounds of w and 
 ?/, even when expressed by other letters, require a and not an before 
 them. 
 
 Classes. 
 
 The articles are distinguished as the definite and the 
 indefinite. 
 
 The definite article is the, which denotes some par- 
 ticular thing or things ; as, The boy, the oranges. 
 
NOUNS. 49 
 
 The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes one 
 thing of a kind, but not any particular one ; as, A boy, cm 
 orange. 
 
 Exercises for Writing. 
 
 1. Prefix the definite article to the following nouns : 
 
 Path, paths ; loss, losses ; name, names ; page, pages ; want, wants ; 
 doubt, doubts ; votary, votaries. 
 
 2. Prefix the indefinite article to the following nouns : 
 
 Age, error, idea, omen, urn, arch, bird, cage, dream, empire, farm, 
 grain, horse, idol, jay, king, lady, man, novice, opinion, pony, quail, 
 raven, sample, trade, uncle, vessel, window, youth, zone, whirlwind, 
 union, onion, unitfeagle, house, honor, hour, herald, habitation, hos- 
 pital, harper, harpoon, ewer, eye, humor. 
 
 3. Insert the definite article rightly in the following phrases : 
 
 George second part first reasons most obvious good man wide 
 circle man of honor man of world old books common people 
 same person, smaller piece rich and poor first and last all time 
 great excess nine muses how rich reward all ancient writers in 
 nature of things much better course. 
 
 4. Insert the indefinite article rightly in each of the following phrases ." 
 new name very quick motion other sheep such power what in- 
 stance great weight such worthy cause too great difference high 
 honor humble station universal law what strange event so deep 
 interest as firm hope so great wit humorous story such person few 
 dollars little reflection. 
 
 IV. NOUNS. 
 
 A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, 
 that can be known or mentioned. 
 
 OBS. 1. All words and signs taken technically (that is, independently 
 of their meaning, and merely as things spoken of), are nouns ; or, rather, 
 are things read and construed as nouns : as, " Us is a personal pronoun." 
 ^-Murray. ' Th has two sounds, "j. ,v. 
 4 
 
50 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 OBS. 2. The learner must observe the sense and use of each word, 
 and class it accordingly: many words commonly belonging to other 
 parts of speech, are occasionally used as nouns ; as, 1. "The Ancient of 
 days." Bible. " Of the ancients." Swift. " For such impertinents." 
 Steele. "He is an ignorant in it." Id. " To the nw. " Burns. 
 2. "Or any he, the proudest of thy sort." Shak. " I am the happiest 
 the in Kent." Steele. "The shes of Italy. "Shak. "The hes in 
 birds." Bacon. 3. "Avaunt all attitude, and stare, and start, the- 
 atric ! "Cowper. "A may -be of mercy is insufficient." Bridge. 4. "For 
 the producing of real happiness. " Crabb. "Reading, writing, and 
 ciphering, are indispensable to civilized man." 5. "A hereafter." 
 Addison. "The dread of a hereafter.'" Putter. "The deep amen." 
 Scott. " The while." Milton. 6. " With Aarfc, and whoop, and wild 
 haUoo." Scott. ' ' Will cuts him short with a * TFAaJ ^n f ' ' ' Addison. 
 
 Classes. 
 
 Nouns are divided into two general classes: proper 
 and common. 
 
 A proper noun is the name of some particular in- 
 dividual, or people, or group ; as, Adam, Boston, the 
 Hudson, the Romans, the Azores, the Alps. 
 
 A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or 
 class, of beings or things ; as, Beast, bird, fish, insect, 
 creatures, persons, children. 
 
 The particular classes, collective, abstract, and verbal or 
 participial, are usually included among common nouns. 
 The name of a thing sui generis is also called common. 
 
 A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is 
 the name of many individuals together ; as. Council, 
 meeting, committee, flock, v 
 
 An abstract noun is the name of some particular 
 quality considered apart from its substance ; as, Goodness, 
 hardness, pride, frailty . 
 
 A verbal or participial noun is the name of some 
 action or state of being, and is formed from a verb, like a 
 participle, but employed as a noun ; as, " The triumphing 
 of the wicked is short." Job xx., 5. 
 
NOUNS. 51 
 
 A thing sui generis (i.e., of its own peculiar kind), is 
 something which is distinguished, not as an individual of 
 a species, but as a sort by itself, without plurality in either 
 the noun or the sort of thing ; as, Galvanism, music, 
 geometry. 
 
 OBS. 1. The proper name of a person or place with an article pro- 
 fixed, is generally used as a common noun ; as, "He is the Cicero of his 
 age," that is, the orator. "Many a fiery Alp," that is, mountain: 
 except when a common noun is understood; as, The [river] Hudson, 
 The [ship] Amity, The treacherous [man] Judas. 
 
 OBS. 2. A common noun with the definite article prefixed to it, 
 sometimes becomes proper ; as, The Park, The Strand. 
 
 OBS. 3. The coffimon name of a thing or quality personified often 
 becomes proper; as, " 'My power,' said Reason, 'is to advise, not to 
 compel. '"Johnson. 
 
 Modifications. 
 
 Nouns have modifications of four kinds; namely. 
 persons, numbers, genders, and cases. 
 
 y- 
 
 Persons. 
 
 Persons, in grammar, are modifications that distin- 
 guish the speaker, the hearer, and the person or thing 
 merely spoken of. 
 
 There are three persons : the first, the second, and 
 the third. 
 
 The first person is that which denotes the speaker 
 or writer ; as, " I Paul have written it." 
 
 The second person is that which denotes the hearer 
 or the person addressed ; as, " Robert, who did this ? " 
 
 The third person is that which denotes the person 
 or thing merely spoken of ; as, " James loves his book" 
 
 OBS. 1. In written language, the first person denotes the writer or 
 author ; and the second, the reader or person addressed : except when 
 the writer describes not himself, but some one else, as uttering to a- 
 ther the words which he records, 
 
62 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 OBS. 2. The speaker seldom refers to himself by name as the speaker . 
 consequently, nmins are rarely used in the first person . and when they 
 are, a pronoun is usually prefixed to them. Hence some grammarians 
 deny the first person to nouns altogether. 
 
 3. When a speaker or writer does not choose to declare himselt 
 in the first person, or to address his hearer or reader in the second ', he 
 speaks of both or either in the third. Thus Moses relates what Moses 
 did, and Caesar records the achievements of C&sar. So Judah humbly 
 beseeches Joseph : " Let thy seroant abide in stead of the lad a bond- 
 man to my lord. " Gen. xliv. , 33. And Abraham reverently intercedes 
 with God : " Oh ! let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak." Gen. 
 xviii., 30 
 
 OB& 4. When inanimate things are spoken to, they are personified ; 
 and their names are put in the second person, because by the figure the 
 objects are supposed to be capable of hearing. 
 
 Numbers. 
 
 Numbers, in grammar, are modifications that dis- 
 tinguish unity and plurality. 
 
 ThertTare two numbers ; the singular and the plural. 
 
 The singular number is that which denotes but 
 one; as, "The boy learns." 
 
 The plural number is that which denotes more than 
 one ; as, " The boys learn." 
 
 The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by add- 
 ing s or es to the singular : as, book, books y box, boxes. 
 
 Rules for forming the Ylural. 
 
 GENERAL. 
 
 I. When the singular ends in a sound which will unite with that of 
 * the plural is generally formed by adding s only, and the number of 
 syllables is not increased : as, pen, pens ; grape^ grapes. ' 
 
 13. But when the sound of s cannot be united with that of the primi- 
 tive word, the plural adds * to final e, and es to other terminations, and. 
 form^a separate sellable -. as, page y pages ; 
 
\ 
 
 NOUNS. 63 
 
 SPECIAL. 
 
 I. Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add (&, but do not 
 increase the number of syllables : as, hero, heroes ; potato, potatoes ; 
 mosquito, mosquitoes. The exceptions to this rule appear to be in such 
 nouns as are not fully Anglicised ; as, cantos, juntos, solos, etc. Othef 
 nouns in o add s only : as, folio, folios ; bamboo, bamboos. 
 
 II. Common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change | 
 into i, and add es, without increase of syllables : as, fly, flies ; duty, duties 
 Other nchins in y add s only : as, day, days ; valley, valleys. So like- 
 wise proper names in y are sometimes varied ; as, Henry, the Henrys. 
 
 III. The following nouns in /, change / into v, and add es, for the 
 plural: sheaf, leaf, loaf, beef, thief, calf, half, elf, slielf, self, wolf, 
 wharf; as, sheaves, leaves, etc. Life, lives ; knife, knives ; wife, wives ; 
 are similar. Staff makes staves, though the compounds of staff are 
 regular ; as, flctgstqfl, flagstaffs. The greater number of nouns in / and 
 /?, are regular ; as, fifes, strifes, chiefs, griefs, gulfs, etc. 
 
 IV. The following are still more irregular : man, men; woman, women; 
 child, children ; brother, brethren [or brothers] ; foot, feet ; ox, oxen ; 
 tooth, teeth ; goose, geese ; louse, lice ; mouse, mice ; die, dice ; penny, 
 pence. Dies- stamps, and pennies- coins, are regular. 
 
 V. Many foreign nouns retain their original plural: as, arcanum, 
 arcana ; datum, data ; erratum, errata ; effluvium, effluvia ; medium, 
 media [or mediums'] ; minutia, minutim ; stratum, strata ; stamen, 
 st'tmina ; genus, genera; genius, genii [geniuses, for men of wit]/ 
 magus, magi ; radius, radii ; appendix, appendices [or appendixes] ; 
 calx, calces ; index, indices [or indexes] ; vortex, vortices ; axis, axes ; 
 basis, bases; crisis, crises; thesis, theses; antithesis, antitheses; diure- 
 sis, dicereses ; ellipsis, ellipses; emphasis, emphases; hypothesis, hypoth- 
 eses; metamorphosis, metamorpJioses ; automaton, automata; criterion, 
 cnteria [or criterion*} ; phenomenon, phenomena ; cherub, cherubim ; 
 seraph, seraphim ; beau, beaux [or beans'], 
 
 VI. When a title is prefixed to a proper name so as to form a sort of 
 compound, the name, and not the title, is varied to form the plural ; 
 as, The Miss Howards, The two Mr. Clarks. But a title not regarded 
 as a part of one compound name, must be made plural, if it refer to 
 more than one ; as, Messrs. Lambert and Son, The Lords Calthorpe 
 and Erskine, The Lords Bishops of Durham and St. David's, The 
 Lords Commissioners of Justiciary. 
 
 VII. Compounds in which the principal word is put first, vary the 
 principal word to form the plural, and the adjunct to form the posses- 
 sive case: as, Sing, father-in-law, Flur. fathers-in-law, Poss. faiher-in- 
 laitfs; Sing, court-martial, Plur. courts-martial, Poss. c&urt~martia?8. 
 The possessive plural of such nouns is never used. 
 
54 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 VIII. Compounds ending \nful, and all those in which the principal 
 word is put last, form the plural in the same manner as other nouns ; 
 as, Jiandfuls, spoonfuls, mouthful*, feUow-servants, man-servants, out- 
 pourings, ingatherings, downsitUngs. 
 
 IX. Proper names of individuals, strictly used as such, have no plural ; 
 but when several persons of the same name are spoken of, the noun 
 becomes in some degree common, and admits the plural form and an 
 article ; as, The Stuarts, The Caesars. So likewise when such nouns 
 are used to denote character ; as, " The Aristotles, the TuUys, and the 
 Livys." 
 
 OBS. 1. Some nouns (from the nature of the things meant) have no 
 plural ; as, gold, pride, meekness. 
 
 OBS. 2. Some nouns have no singular ; as, ides, measles, tidings, 
 victuals, scissors, tongs, vesper*, literati. 
 
 OBS. 3. The proper names of nations and societies are generally 
 plural ; and, except in a direct address, they are usually construed with 
 the definite article ; as, The Greeks, T7ie Jesuits. 
 
 OBS. 4. Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, deer, 
 vermin, swine, hose, means, odds, news, species, series, apparatus. The 
 following are sometimes construed as singular, but more frequently and 
 more properly, as plural : alms, amends, pains, riches, ethics, mathe- 
 matics, metaphysics, optics, politics, pneumatics, and other similar names 
 of sciences. Bettmos and gattows are properly alike in both numbers 
 (as, "Let a gattows be made." Esther v., 14. "The bettows are 
 burned." Jer. vi., 29); but they have a regular plural in vulgar use. 
 Bolus, fungus, isthmus, prospectus, and rebus, admit the regular plural. 
 
 OBS. 5. Nouns of multitude, when taken collectively, generally ad- 
 mit the plural form ; as, meeting, meetings : but when taken distribu- 
 tively, they may have a plural signification without the form ; as, " The 
 jury were convinced." 
 
 OES. 6. When other parts of speech become nouns, they either want 
 the plural, or form it regularly, like common nouns of the same end- 
 ings ; as, "His affairs went on at sixes and sevens." Arbuthnot. "Some 
 mathematicians have proposed to compute by twos ; others, by fairs ; 
 others, by twelves." ChurchiU. "Three fourths, nine tenths." Id. 
 4 ' Time's takings and leavings. "Barton . ' ' The yeas and nays. " News- 
 paper. "The ays and noes." Ibid. "The ins and the outs." Ibid. 
 "His ands and his ors."Mott. "One of the buts."~Pov>le. "In 
 raising the mirth of &tupid*."Stede+ 
 
NOUNS. 55 
 
 Genders. 
 
 Genders, in grammar, are modifications that distin- 
 guish objects in regard to sex. 
 
 There are three genders: the masculine, the femi- 
 nine, and the neuter. 
 
 The masculine gender is that which denotes 
 persons or animals of the male kind ; as, man, father^ 
 king. 
 
 The feminine gender is that which denotes per- 
 sons or animals of the female kind ; as, woman, mother, 
 queen. 
 
 The neuter gender is that which denotes things 
 that are neither male nor female ; as, pen, ink, paper. 
 
 Some nouns may be applied to either sex ; as, cousin, friend, 
 neighbor, parent, person, servant. Such nouns are usually said 
 to be of the common gender. Sometimes the sex can be de- 
 termined by the context. 
 
 OBS. Gender is to be distinguished from sex, the latter being a dis- 
 tinction of animals ; the former of words, in regard to the sex which 
 they denote. There are obviously four classes of nouns in this regard : 
 1. The names of males ; 2. The names of females ; 3. Names common to 
 both ; and 4. Names of things without sex. EDITOR. 
 
 The sexes are distinguished in three ways : 
 
 I. By the use of different names : as, bachelor, maid ; boy, girl ; 
 brother, sister ; buck, doe ; buU, cow ; cock, hen; drake, duck; ecrl, 
 countess; fattier, mother; friar, nun; gander, goose; hart, roe; horxe, 
 mare; husband, wife; king, queen; lad, lass; lord, lady; man, 
 woman; master, mistress ; milter, spawner ; nephew, niece; ram, ewe ; 
 sloven, slut; son, daughter; stag, hind; steer, heifer; unc.le, aunt , 
 wizard, witch. 
 
 II. By the use of different terminations : as, abbot, abbess ; adminis- 
 trator, administratrix; adulterer, adulteress; bridegroom, bride; 
 caterer, cateress ; duke, duchess ; emperor, emperess or empress ; execu- 
 tor, executrix; governor, governess ; hero, heroine; landgrave, landgra- 
 vine; margrave, margravine; marquis, marchioness; sorcerer, sorcer- 
 ess; sultan, sultaness or sultana ; testator, testatrix; tutor, tutor en or 
 tutress; widower \ widow. 
 
*56 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 The following noung become feminine by merely adding ess : baron, 
 deacon, heir, host, jew, lion, mayor, patron, peer, poet, priest, prior, 
 prophet, shepherd, viscount. 
 
 The following nouns become feminine by rejecting the last vowel and 
 adding ess : actor, ambassador, arbiter, benefactor, chanter, conductor, 
 doctor, elector, enchanter, founder, hunter, iddator, inventor^ prmoe, 
 protector, songster, spectator, suitor, tiger, traitor, votary. &/-)(/ 
 
 HE. By prefixing an attribute of distinction : as, cock-sparrow, hen- 
 tparrow; man-servant, maid-servant; he- goat, she-goat ; male relations, 
 female relations. 
 
 OBS. 1. The names of things without life, used literally, are always 
 of the neuter gender. But inanimate objects are often represented 
 figuratively as having sex. Things remarkable for power, greatness, 
 or sublimity, are spoken of as masculine ; as, the sun, time, death, sleep, 
 fear, anger, winter, war. Things beautiful, amiable, or prolific, are 
 spoken of as feminine ; as, the moon, earth, nature, fortune, knowledge, 
 hope, spring, peace. 
 
 OBS. 2. Nouns of multitude, when they convey the idea of unity, 
 or take the plural form, are of the neuter gender ; but when they con- 
 vey the idea of plurality without the form, they follow the gender of 
 the individuals that compose the assemblage. 
 
 OBS. 3. Creatures whose sex is unknown, or unnecessary to be re- 
 garded, are generally spoken of as neuter; as, "He fired at the deer, 
 and wounded it." " If a man shall steal an ox or a sheep, and kill it or 
 sell it," etc. Exodus xxii., 1. 
 
 Cases. 
 
 Cases , in grammar, are modifications that distinguish 
 the relations of nouns and pronouns to other words. 
 
 There are three cases: the nominative, the pos- 
 sessive, and the objective. 
 
 The nominative case is that form or state of a 
 noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a 
 finite verb : as, " The loy runs ; /run." 
 
 OBS. A. finite verb is a verb that may be used as the predicate verb 
 in any simple proposition : as, " Fire burns ; " " Water flows." In the 
 sentence, u He seemed to listeii," there are two verbs : seemed, a finite 
 verb, and to listen, which is not a finite verb, because it could not form 
 the predicate of any proposition. 
 
The possessive case is that form or state of a noun 
 or pronoun, which usually denotes the relation of property : 
 as, " The boy's hat ; my hat." 
 
 OBS. 1.- The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singular num- 
 ber, by adding to the nominative s preceded by an apostrophe ; and, i:i 
 the plural, when the nominative ends in s, by adding an apostrophe 
 only : as, singular, boy's ; plural, boys' ; sounded alike, but written 
 differently. 
 
 OBS. 2. Plural nouns that do not end in 8, usually form the posses- 
 sive case in the same manner as the singular ; as, man's, men's. 
 
 OBS. 3. The apostrophe and s are sometimes added to mere charac- 
 ters, to denote plurality, and not the possessive case ; as, Two a'* three 
 b's four 9's. Inline following example, they are used to give the sound 
 of a verbal termination to words that are not properly verbs : "When a 
 man in a soliloquy reasons with himself, and pro's and con's, and weighs 
 all his designs," etc. Congreve. 
 
 The objective case is that form or state of a noun 
 or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, 
 participle, or preposition : as, " I know the ~boy he knows 
 
 OBS. There are sometimes used in connection with a sentence, words 
 that form no part of its structure. Such words are said to be indepen- 
 dent. A noun or a pronoun may be independent in various ways : 
 
 1. The name of a person or thing addressed ; as " John, when will 
 you go ? " " O ye of little faith ! " 
 
 2. The name of a person or thing which is the subject of an exclama- 
 tion ; as, "Alas, poor Yorick ! '" 
 
 3. An expletive word, used merely to make the subject or object 
 emphatic ; as, " The Spring she is a blessed thing ! " " Gad, a troop 
 shall overcome him." 
 
 Such nouns and pronouns, although independent in state, require the 
 form of the nominative case, and therefore, in parsing, should be said 
 to be in that case. Interjections are always independent. 
 
 The Declension of Nouns. 
 
 The declension of a noun is a regular arrangement 
 of its numbers and cases. Thus : 
 
58 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 Poss. 
 Ob}. 
 
 Sing 
 
 Poss. 
 Obj. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 Poss. 
 Obj. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 Poss. 
 Obj. 
 
 ETYMOiOGYo 
 
 EXAMPLE I. FRIEND. 
 
 friend, Plur. Nom. friends, 
 
 friend's, Poss. friends', 
 
 friend ; Obj. friends. 
 
 EXAMPLE IL MAN. 
 
 man, Plur. Nom. men, 
 
 man's, Poss. men's, 
 
 man ; Obj. men. 
 
 EXAMPLE HL Fox. 
 
 fox, Plur. Nom. foxes, 
 
 fox's, . Poss. foxes', 
 
 fox ; Obj. foxes. 
 
 EXAMPLE IV. FLY. 
 
 fly, Plur. Nom. flies, 
 
 fly's, Po.ss. flies', 
 
 fly ; Obj. flies. 
 
 V. ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Analysis is the separation of a sentence into the parts 
 which compose it. 
 
 OBS. The difference between analysis and parsing is this : in the 
 former, only those distinctions are considered which are common to all 
 languages, since every sentence must consist of a subject and a predi- 
 cate and the vords subordinate to these ; but in parsing those distinc- 
 tions and peculiarities are noted which characterize different languages, 
 and give rise to particular rules. 
 
 A simple sentence is one that contains only one 
 proposition ; as, " Fire burns." " The truth will prevail." 
 
 A phrase is a combination of two or more words express- 
 ing some relation of ideas, but no entire proposition ; as, "Of 
 A good disposition." " By the means appointed." 
 
PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 59 
 
 The subject of a sentence generally consists of a noun or a 
 pronoun, with or without adjuncts ; the predicate of a sen- 
 tence consists of a verb, with or without adjuncts. 
 
 Words added directly to either of the principal parts are sometimes 
 called primary adjuncts ; as, " Good books always deserve a careful 
 perusal." Words added to other adjuncts are called secondary 
 adjuncts; as, "Suddenly acquired wealth very rarely brings happi- 
 
 Adjuncts are divided, with respect to their office, into 
 three classes; namely, adjective, adverbial, and ex- 
 planatory. 
 
 An adjective adjunct is one used to modify or limit a 
 noun or a pfbnoun ; as, "Both those bad boys deserve severe 
 punishment." 
 
 An adverbial adjunct is one used like an adverb ; as, 
 " Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth" 
 
 An explanatory adjunct is one used to explain a pre- 
 ceding noun or pronoun ; as, " The emperor Napoleon was 
 banished." "We, the people, ordain this constitution." 
 
 Nouns may be modified by adjuncts of various forms : 
 
 1. An article or an adjective ; as, " The diligent scholar improves." 
 
 2. A noun or & pronoun in the possessive case; as, " William's sister 
 has lost her book." 
 
 3. A verb used as an adjective ; as, " The desire to excel is laudable." 
 
 4. A preposition and its object, used together as an adjective; as, "A 
 man of integrity obeys the dictates of conscience." 
 
 5. A noun or pronoun used as an explanatory adjunct; as, "His 
 brother Charles is idle." 
 
 Verbs may be modified by adverbial adjuncts of various forms : 
 
 1. An adverb ; as, " The sun shines brightly.' 1 '' 
 
 2. A preposition and its object, used together as an adverb; as, "He 
 c&mefrom Boston." 
 
 An adjective, participle, noun, or pronoun, used in the 
 predicate of a sentence, but relating to the subject, is called 
 an attribute ; as, "Gold is yellow."" The sun is shining" 
 " Honesty is the best policy." 
 
66 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 OBS. The attribute, when it is a noun or a pronoun, is in the same 
 case as the subject to which it refers; as, "It is/, be not afraid." 
 " Who is she ? " " They believed it to be me." 
 
 In analyzing a simple sentence, point out : 
 
 1. The subject. 
 
 2. The predicate. 
 
 3. The subject noun and its adjuncts. 
 
 4. The predicate verb and its adverbial adjuncts. 
 g ( The object and its adjuncts, or 
 
 1 The attribute and its adjuncts. 
 
 Exercises in Analysis and Parsing. 
 
 Praxis II. Etymological. 
 
 In tJie Second Praxis, it i-s required of the pupil : to classify and ana- 
 lyze the sentence as in the preceding praxis ; to point out, in addition, 
 the adjuncts in each of the principal parts, and distinguish their classes / 
 and to parse the sentence by distinguishing the different parts of speech, 
 and the classes and modifications of the nouns, distinguishing also the 
 article as definite or indefinite. Thus : 
 
 1. ANALYZED AND PARSED. 
 "The Athenians carefully observed Solon's wise laws." 
 
 ANALYSIS. This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is the Athenians ; the 
 predicate is carefully observed Solon's wise laws. The subject noun is Athenians, 
 limited by the adjunct the ; the predicate verb is observed, and its adjuncts are the ad- 
 verb carefully and the object laws ; the adjuncts of the object are Solon's and wite. 
 
 PARSING. The is the definite article, because it limits the noun Athenians. 
 
 Athenians is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular people ; of the third 
 person, because they are spoken of ; of the plural number, because the noun denotee 
 more than one ; of the common gender, because it includes both sexes ; and in the nomi- 
 native case, because it is the subject of the verb observed. 
 
 Carefully is an adverb, because it is added to the verb observed, and expresses 
 
 Observed is a verb, because it expresses action. 
 
 Solon's is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular individual ; it is of the 
 third person, singular number, masculine gender, and in the possessive case, because it 
 indicates the possession of Imc*. 
 
 Wie is an adjective, because it is added to the noun laws. 
 
 Laws is a common noun, because it is the name of a class of things ; of the third per- 
 Ron, plural number, neuter gender, and in the objective case, because it fc the object of 
 tiu terb 0H*rwd. 
 
ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 61 
 
 Integrity inspires confidence. Perseverance overcomes all obstacles. 
 Generosity always makes friends. Pleasure's call always wins an eager 
 attention. Avarice rapidly extinguishes every generous sentiment. 
 The study of astronomy greatly elevates the mind. The enterprising 
 merchant has just returned from Europe. Every person highly praised 
 William's noble conduct. Riotous indulgence very soon destroys the 
 bodily vigor. Where did your kind father purchase that interesting 
 book ? Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. In- 
 dulgence in sloth can never lead to prosperity. The beautiful scenes 
 of nature ever excite the admiration of mankind. 
 
 EXAMPLE 2. ANALYZED. 
 Filial ingratitude is a shameful crime. 
 
 A simple declarative sentence. 
 
 Subject, filial ingratitude ; predicate, is a shameful crime. 
 Subject noun, ingratitude ; adjunct, filial. 
 
 Predicate verb, is ; adjunct, the attribute crime ; adjuncts of the attribute, a and 
 shameful. 
 
 Honesty is the best policy. Liberty is a great blessing. Rose leaves 
 are very fragrant. William soon became a very good scholar. The 
 contract was pronounced fraudulent. Cool blows the summer breeze. 
 The sky suddenly grew black. The soul of the diligent shall be made 
 fat. The memory of mischief is no desirable fame. He was born a 
 lord. Washington was twice elected President. Hovr wonderful is 
 sleep ! When was Victoria crowned queen of England ? Columbus 
 was undoubtedly an extraordinary man. The distant hills look blue. 
 The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. 
 
 Construction and Composition. 
 
 Construction is the combination of words into sen- 
 tences. 
 
 Composition is the combination of sentences to ex- 
 press connected thought. 
 
 OBS. In a composition the sentences are related to each other by the 
 thoughts which they express. Without this connection, or logical rela- 
 tion, sentences do not form a composition. Thus the sentences in the 
 preceding exercise for analysis do not form a composition, because the 
 thoughts which they express are not logically related to one another, 
 
62 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Exercises. 
 Construct the following: 
 
 A sentence with a noun, a verb, and adjuncts of each. 
 
 A sentence with a subject noun, a predicate verb, and an object with its 
 adjuncts. 
 
 A sentence with a subject pronoun, a predicate verb, and an attribute 
 noun, with or without adjuncts. 
 
 A sentence with an adjective attribute, with or without adjuncts. 
 
 Write three sentences of any of these kinds describing a tree. 
 
 Write four sentence* describing a fish. 
 
 Write five sentences about a clock. 
 
 Write several sentences forming a short composition upon a horse. 
 
 Cautions. 
 
 1. Do not use the same word too often, nor express the 
 same thought more than once. 
 
 2. Avoid all slang expressions. 
 
 3. Do not use too many short sentences in succession. Join 
 some of them together so as to make the style more pleasing. 
 
 4. Be careful to spell all the words correctly, to use capitals 
 according to the rules, and to place a period at the end of 
 each sentence. When sentences are united, they should be 
 separated by a comma (,). Phrases should also, usually, be 
 set off by a comma. 
 
 Criticise the following : 
 
 The Owl. / 
 
 The owl is a curious kind of bird. It has curious large 
 eyes.'i It cannot see in the Light, it hides away in the day- 
 time in dark places, the sun dazzles his eyes. He comes out 
 at night and goes flying around looking after his prey. It 
 catches birds and moles and mice and other animals it also 
 catches insects. There are a good many kinds of owls, such 
 as the Eagle owl, the Cat owl the Screech owl and others. 
 Did you ever hear an Owl hoot in the night ? It makes a Kind 
 of mournful sound, i was awfully scared one night hearing a 
 screech owl in the woods. I couldn't think what it was, Owlg 
 are very funny creatures, 
 
r ES. 
 
 ADJECTIVES: / 63 
 
 Faults. The ideas are not well arranged. Certain words, curious, 
 it, etc. , are repeated in close succession. There are too many short sen- 
 tences coming together, making the style unpleasant. There are repeti- 
 tions of the same thought, in the first and last sentences ; and there are 
 mistakes in capitals and punctuation. Some of the words are ill-chosen, 
 and there are slang expressions. 
 
 In the following these faults are corrected. 
 
 The Owl. 
 
 The owl is a curious bird. It has large eyes like those of a 
 cat ; and during the day, it hides away in dark places, be- 
 cause it is not able to bear the dazzling light of the sun. At 
 night it flies about, seeking its prey, which consists of birds, 
 mice, moles, insects, etc. There are several kinds of owls, as 
 the eagle owl, the screech owl, and the cat owl. Some of 
 these birds are quite large. The hooting of an owl at night 
 is a very dismal sound ; and once, when I heard a screech owl 
 in the woods, I was really frightened, for I did not know what 
 it was. Did you ever hear an owl hoot ? - - 
 
 Write a similar composition on each of the following subject*. 
 
 The Horse) The Cow) The Eagle. The Camel. The Elephant. 
 The Lion. The Ostrich. Ths Canary Bird. The Mocking Bird. The 
 Crow. 
 
 VI.-ADJECTIVES. 
 
 An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, 
 and generally expresses quality. 
 
 Classes. 
 
 Adjectives may be divided into six classes; namely, 
 common, proper, numeral, pronominal, pan 
 tfcipial, and compound. 
 
 A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or 
 adjective denoting quality or situation; as, Good, bad, 
 peaceful, warlike eastern, western, outer, inner. 
 
64 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 A proper adjective is one that is formed from a 
 proper name ; as, American, English, Platonic. 
 
 A numeral adjective is one that expresses a defi- 
 nite number ; as, One, two, three, four, Jive, six, etc. 
 
 OBS. Numeral adjectives are of three kinds: 
 
 1. Cardinal; as, One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, 
 ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, etc. 
 
 2. Ordinal; as, First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, 
 eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, etc. 
 
 3. Multiplicative; as, Single or alone, double or twofold, triple of 
 threefold, quadruple or fourfold, quintuple or fivefold, sextuple or six- 
 fold, septuple or sevenfold, octuple or eightfold, etc. 
 
 A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which 
 may either accompany its noun, or represent it understood ; 
 as, "All [men] join to guard what each [man] desires to 
 gain." 
 
 OBS. 1. The following are the principal pronominal adjectives: AU, 
 any, both, certain, divers, each, either, else, enough, every, few, former, 
 first, latter, last, little, less, least, much, many, more, mo*t^ neither, no 
 or none, one, only, other, own, same, several, some, such, this, that, these, 
 those, which, what. 
 
 OBS. 2. A pronominal adjective, as the name implies, partakes of 
 the nature of a pronoun, and may be considered as representing the 
 noun, when not expressed, and therefore as having the modifications of 
 a noun. Sometimes, however, the noun may be supplied. 
 
 A participial adjective is one that has the form 
 of a participle, but differs from it by rejecting the idea of 
 time ; as, An amusimg story. 
 
 OBS. A participial adjective is a participle used as an adjective. As 
 a participle it conveys the idea of time ; as, "The sun rising, darkness 
 is dispelled." That is, When the sun rises. But as an adjective it ex- 
 presses quality or condition ; as, "The rising sun dispels the darkness." 
 
 A compound adjective is one that consists of two 
 or more words joined together 5 as, Hut-brown, laughter^ 
 loving, four-footed. 
 
ADJECTIVES. 65 
 
 Exercise. 
 
 Classify the adjectives in the following, and state to what sub-dass each 
 of the numeral adjectives belongs : 
 
 Brave soldiers. Innocent children. Beautiful pictures. The French 
 army. The Copernican system. A charming prospect. A loving son. 
 A detested crime. The lowing herd. The triple alliance. Fifty^cents. 
 Wholesome food. Luscious fruit. An inner apartment. Outer 1 dark- 
 ness. A coal-black horse. The sixteenth century. An old-fashioned 
 clock. Many persons. Much difficulty. A Grecian fable. The Pla- 
 tonic system. A fresh-looking maid. Double length. A beloved 
 child. Torturing anxiety. A sharp-witted boy. 
 
 ^ Modifications. 
 
 Adjectives have, commonly, no modifications but the 
 forms of comparison. 
 
 OBS. This and that are modified so as to agree with their nouns in 
 number, thus: this, these; that, those. 
 
 Comparison is a variation of the adjective, to express 
 quality in different degrees ; as, hardy harder, hardest. 
 
 There are three degrees of comparison : the positive, 
 the comparative, and the superlative. 
 
 The positive degree is that which is expressed by 
 
 the adjective in its simple form ; as, hard, soft, good. 
 
 The comparative degree is that which exceeds the 
 positive ; as, harder, softer, better. 
 
 The superlative degree is that which is not ex- 
 ceeded ; as, hardest, softest, best. 
 
 Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of 
 different degrees, cannot be compared ; as, two, second, all, 
 total, immortal, infinite. 
 
 Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not 
 in form, are compared by means of adverbs ; as, skillful, 
 more skillful, most skillful skillful, less skillful, least 
 
 skillful 
 
 5 
 
66 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 OBB. Adjectives of more than one syllable, except dissyllables ending 
 in y or mute e, rarely admit a change of termination, but are rather 
 compared by means of the adverbs. Thus we say, virtuous, more virtu* 
 ous, most virtuous ; but not virtuous, virtuouser, virtuousest. 
 
 Regular Comparison, 
 
 Adjectives are regularly compared, when the comparative 
 degree is expressed by adding er, and the superlative, by add- 
 ing est to them ; as, 
 
 Positive. 
 
 Comparative. 
 
 Superlative. 
 
 great, 
 
 greater, 
 
 greatest. 
 
 wide, 
 
 wider, 
 
 widest. 
 
 hot, 
 
 hotter, 
 
 hottest. 
 
 The regular method of comparison is chiefly applicable to 
 monosyllables, and to dissyllables ending in y or mute e. 
 
 Comparison by Adverbs. 
 
 The different degrees of a quality may also be expressed, 
 with precisely the same import, by prefixing to the adjective 
 the adverbs more and most : as, wise, more wise, most wise ; 
 famous, more famous, most famous ; amiable, more amiable, 
 most amiable. 
 
 The degrees of diminution are expressed, in like manner, 
 by the adverbs less and least : as, wise, less wise, least wise ; 
 famous, less famous, least famous ; amiable, less amiable, least 
 amiable. 
 
 OBS. The prefixing of an adverb can hardly be called a variation ol 
 the adjective : the words may with more propriety be taken separately, 
 the degree being ascribed to the adverb, or to both words ; for both are 
 varied in sense by the inflection of the former. 
 
 Irregular Comparison. 
 
 The following adjectives are compared irregularly: good, 
 better, best; bad or ill, worse, worst; little t less, least; much, 
 more, most; many, more, most. 
 
ADJECTIVES. 67 
 
 Most adjectives that denote place or situation, not only form the super- 
 lative irregularly, but are also either redundant or defective in compari- 
 son. Thus: 
 
 I. The following nine have more than one superlative : far, farther, 
 farthest, farmost or farthermost ; near, nearer, nearest or next ; fore, 
 former, foremost or first; hind, Jiinder, hindmost or hinder most ; in, 
 inner, inmost or innermost ; out, outer or utter, outmost or utmost, out- 
 ermost or uttermost ; up, upper, upmost or uppermost ; low, lower, low- 
 est or lowermost ; late, later or latter, latest or last. 
 
 II. The following five want the positive : [aft, adv.] after, aftmost or 
 aftermost; [forth, adv.] further, furthest or furthermost;. Jiither, 
 hithermost; nether, nethermost; under, undermost. 
 
 III. The following want the comparative: front, frontmost ; rear, 
 rearmost ; head, headmost ; end, endnwst ; top, topmost ; bottom, bottom- 
 most ; mid or middle, midst, midmost or middlemost ; north, northmost ; 
 south, southmost; northern, northernmost; southern, southernmost; 
 eastern, easternmost ; western, westernmost. 
 
 OBS. 1. It may be remarked of the comparatives, former and latter 
 or hinder, upper and under or nether, inner and outer or utter, after and 
 hither ; as well as of the Latin superior and infenor, anterior and pos- 
 terior, interior and exterior, prior and ulterior, senior and junior, major 
 and minor ; that they cannot, like other comparatives, be construed 
 with the conjunction than, introducing the latter term of comparison ; 
 for we never say, one thing is former, superior, etc., than another. 
 
 OBS. 2. Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are expressed, 
 simply relate to them, and have no modifications : except this and that, 
 which form the plural these and those ; much, many ; and a few others, 
 which are compared. 
 
 Exercise. 
 
 Compare such of the following adjectives as can be compared, regularly, 
 irregularly, or by means of adverbs, as each may require : 
 
 Clear, obscure, certain, full, probable, possible, clever, sagacious, 
 weary, hard, awkward, amiable, new, old, general, perfect, able, grace- 
 ful, little, much, many, virtuous, bad, rear, middle, low, late, after, 
 universal, distinct, thoughtless, willful, cautious, negligent, discreet, 
 inconsiderate, unquestionable, vague, correct, immortal 
 
68 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 VII. PRONOUNS. 
 A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 
 
 Classes. 
 
 Pronouns are divided into three classes ; personal, 
 relative, and interrogative. 
 
 A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows by its 
 form, of what person it is. 
 
 OBS. That is, the word itself shows whether it is of the first, second, 
 or third person. 
 
 The simple personal pronouns are five : namely, /, of 
 the first person ; tJwu, of the second person ; he, she, and 
 it, of the third person. 
 
 The compound personal pronouns are also five : namely, 
 myself, of the first person ; thyself, of the second person ; 
 himself, herself, and itself, of the third person. 
 
 OBS. The compound personal pronouns are used when an action 
 reverts upon the agent, or for special emphasis; as, "He has injured 
 himself."" She herself was to blame." 
 
 A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an 
 antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses 
 of a sentence. 
 
 The relative pronouns are ivho, which, what, and that ; 
 and the compounds, ivhoever or whosoever, whichever or 
 whichsoever, whatever or whatsoever. 
 
 What is a kind of double relative, equivalent to that 
 which or those which and is therefore to be considered as 
 including both the antecedent and the relative. 
 
 An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun with which 
 a question is asked. 
 
 The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what; 
 being the same in form as relatives. 
 
PRONOUNS. 69 
 
 OBS. 1. Who is usually applied to persons only ; which, though for- 
 merly applied to persons, is now confined to animals and inanimate 
 things; what (as a mere pronoun) is applied to things only; that is 
 applied indifferently to persons, animals, or things. 
 
 OBS. 2. The pronoun what, having a twofold relation, represents 
 two cases at the same time ; as, "He is ashamed of what he has done ; " 
 that is, of that [thing] which he has done. It is usually of the singular 
 number, though sometimes plural; as, "I must turn to the faults, or 
 what appear such to me." Byron. 
 
 OBS. 3. What is sometimes used both as an adjective and a relative 
 at the same time, and is placed before the noun which it represents ; 
 as, " What money we had was taken away ; " that is, All the money Unit 
 we had, etc. " What man but enters, dies;" that is, Any man who, 
 etc. The compound whatever or whatsoever has the same peculiarities 
 of construction ; a% "We will certainly do whatsoever thing goeth forth 
 out of our own mouth." Jer. xliv. , 17. 
 
 OBS. 4. Who, which, and what, when the affix ever or soever is added, 
 have an unlimited signification ; and, as some general term, such as any 
 person, or any thing, is usually employed as the antecedent, they are all 
 commonly followed by two verbs ; as, " Whoever attends, will improve ; " 
 that is, Any person who attends, will improve. In analysis and parsing, 
 supply the antecedent. 
 
 OBS. 5. The word as, though usually a conjunction or an adverb, 
 has sometimes the construction of a relative pronoun; as, "The Lord 
 added to the church daily such [persons] as should be saved." Acts 
 ii., 47. 
 
 OBS. 6. Whether was formerly used as an interrogative pronoun, 
 referring to one of two things ; as, " Whether is greater, the gold or the 
 temple ? "Matt, xxiii., 17. 
 
 OBS. 7. Interrogative pronouns represent their nouns understood, 
 like pronominal adjectives; as, "What [deed] hast thou done V" 
 " Which of these books will you have ? " That is, Which book, etc. 
 
 Modifications. 
 
 Pronouns have the same modifications as nouns; 
 namely, Persons, Numbers, Genders, and Cases. 
 
 OBS. 1. In the personal pronouns, most of these properties are indi- 
 cated by the words themselves ; in the relative pronoun, it is necessary 
 to refer to the antecedent which it represents ; and in the interrogative, 
 
70 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 to the word, usually in the answer, which it represents; as, "Who 
 comes here ? A friend. " 
 
 OBS. 2. The gend- f r of the personal pronouns of the first and second 
 person is to be determined by referring to the words for which they 
 are used, or to be considered as of the common gender. 
 
 Declension of Pronouns. 
 
 The declension of a pronoun is a regular arrangement of 
 its numbers and cases. 
 
 The simple personal pronouns are thus declined : 
 
 I, of the^rs^ person. 
 
 Sing. Norn. I, Plur. Norn, we, 
 
 Poss. my, or mine, Poss. our, or ours, 
 
 Obj. me ; Obj. us. 
 
 Thou, of the second person. 
 
 Sing. Norn, thou, Plur. Norn, ye, or you, 
 
 Poss. thy, or thine, Poss. your, or yours, 
 
 Obj. thee; Obj. you. 
 
 He, of the third person. 
 
 Sing. Nom. he, Plur. Nom. they, 
 
 Poss. his, Poss. their, or theirs, 
 
 Obj. him; Obj. them. 
 
 She, of the third person. 
 
 Sing. Nom. she, Plur. Nom. they, 
 
 Poss. her, or hers, Poss. their, or theirs, 
 
 Obj. her ; Obj. them. 
 
 It, of the third person. 
 
 Sing. Nom. it, Plur. Nom. they, 
 
 Poss. its, Poss. their, or their^ 
 
 Obj. it; Obj. them. 
 
PRONOUNS. 71 
 
 
 
 OBS. 1. Most of the personal pronouns have two forms of the pos- 
 sessive case, in each number : as, my or mine, our or ours ; thy or 
 thine, your or yours ; her or hers, their or theirs. The former is used 
 before a noun expressed ; the latter, when the governing noun is under- 
 stood, or when the possessive pronoun is used as an attribute ; as, "My 
 powers are thine." 
 
 OBS. 2. Mine and thine were formerly used before all words begin- 
 ning with a vowel sound ; my and thy, before others ; as, " It was thou, 
 a man, mine equal, my guide, and mine acquaintance." Psalm. But 
 this usage is now obsolete, or peculiar to the poets ; as, 
 
 "Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow." Byron. 
 
 OBS. 3. In ancient times, he, his, and him, were applied to things 
 neuter. In our translation of the Bible, the pronoun it is employed in 
 the nominative and the objective, but his is retained in the possessive, 
 neuter; as, "Look not thou upon the wine, when it is red, when it 
 giveth his color in the cup, when it moveth itself aright." Prov. xxiii., 
 31. Its is not found in the Bible, except by misprint. 
 
 Compound Personals. 
 
 The word self, added to the simple personal pronouns, 
 forms the class of compound personal pronouns ; which are 
 used when an action reverts upon the agent, and also when 
 some persons are to be distinguished from others : as, sing. 
 myself, plur. ourselves; sing, thyself, plur. yourselves ; sing. 
 himself, plur. themselves ; sing, herself, plur. themselves ; sing. 
 itself, plur. themselves. They all want the possessive case, and 
 are alike in the nominative and objective. 
 
 Relatives and Interrogatives. 
 
 The relative and the interrogative pronouns are thus 
 declined : 
 
 Who, applied only to persons. 
 
 Sing. Norn, who, Plur. Norn, who, 
 
 Poss. whose, Poss. whose, 
 
 Obj. whom ; Obj. whom. 
 
72 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 
 Which, applied to animals and things. 
 
 Sing. Norn, which, Plur. Norn, which, 
 
 Poss. * Pass. 
 
 Obj. which ; Obj. which. 
 
 What, generally applied to things. 
 Sing. Norn, what, Plur. Nom. what, 
 
 Poss. Poss. 
 
 Obj. what; Obj. what 
 
 That, applied to persons, animals, and things. 
 
 Sing. Nom. that, Plur. Nom. that, 
 
 Poss. Poss. . 
 
 Obj. that; Obj. that 
 
 Compound Relatives. 
 
 The compound relative pronouns, whoever or whosoever, 
 whichever or whichsoever, and whatever or whatsoever, are de- 
 clined in the same manner as the simples, who, which, what. 
 
 Exercises. 
 
 I. Write the nominative plural of the following pronouns : 
 
 1. them, he, she, it, who, which, that, what. 
 
 2. Write the objective singular and plural of aU the simple pronouns. 
 
 3. Write the declension of the following : 
 
 Myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself, whoever, whosoever. 
 
 4. Correct the form of each of thefoUowing : 
 
 Her's, it's, our's, your's, their's, who's, hisself, theirselves. 
 
 5. Write sentences, each containing one of the following pronouns : 
 Me, them, thou, your, their, me, ye, himself, myself, themselves, 
 
 who, which, whom, what, that, whoever, whichever, whomsoever. 
 
 * Whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which; aa, "A religion whose 
 origin is divine." Blair. 
 
ANALYSIS, PAUSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 73 
 
 VIII. ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 When simple sentences are connected, they form CO ITT 
 pound or complex sentences, and are then called 
 
 clauses. 
 
 A clause, therefore, is a division of a compound or Q 
 complex sentence. 
 
 Compound or complex clauses are sometimes called mem- 
 bers. 
 
 A clause used as one of the principal parts of a sentence, 
 or as an adjunct to any word in it, is called a dependent 
 clause. 
 
 The clause off which it depends, or of which it forms a part, 
 is called the principal clause. 
 
 A complex sentence is one composed of a principal 
 clause and one or more dependent clauses. 
 
 A compound sentence is one composed of two or 
 more independent clauses. 
 
 Clauses may be connected by conjunctions, relative pro- 
 nouns, or adverbs (then called conjunctive adverbs). 
 
 A clause introduced by a relative pronoun, is often called a 
 relative clause. 
 
 When two or more subjects, connected by a conjunction, 
 belong to the same predicate, or two or more connected predi- 
 cates have the same subject, the sentence should be considered 
 simple with a compound subject or a compound 
 predicate. 
 
 OBS. The relative clause is a dependent clause, and the sentence in 
 which it occurs is therefore complex. It is not, however, always a 
 modifying clause, being sometimes used to express an additional fact. 
 Thus, in the sentence, "This is the man that committed the deed," the 
 relative clause modifies the noun man; but in the sentence, "I gave 
 the book to John, who has lost it," it is equivalent to "and he has lost 
 it." In each case it is used like an adjective ; since the same distinction 
 applies to adjectives as to relative clauses, some being used to modify, 
 others to describe ; as, A wild beast (modifying) ; The huge elephant 
 (descriptive). 
 
74 ETYMOLOGY, 
 
 Exercises in Analysis and Parsing. 
 
 Praxis III. Etymological. 
 
 In the Third Praxis, it is required of the pupil to classify the sert* 
 fences ; to point out the component clauses ; to analyze and parse each as 
 in the preceding praxis ; and to state the classes and modifications of the 
 pronouns. Thus : 
 
 FIRST EXAMPLE, ANALYZED AND PARSED. 
 "Children who disobey their parents, deserve punishment." 
 
 ANALYEIS. This is a complex declarative sentence ; the principal clause is, Children 
 deserve punishment, and the dependent clause is, Who disobey their parents, an adjec- 
 tive adjunct of children ; the connective word is who. 
 
 The subject noun of the principal clause is children ; the predicate verb is deserve ; 
 and the object IB punishment. The adjunct of the subject noun is the dependent clause; 
 the other parts have no adjuncts. The subject of the dependent clause is who ; the 
 predicate verb is disobey ; the object is parents ; the adjunct of parents is their. 
 
 PASSING. Who is a relative pronoun, because it represents the antecedent word 
 children, and connects the two clauses of the sentence ; it is of the third person, because 
 it represents the persons spoken of ; of the plural number, because it denotes more than 
 one ; of the common gender, because it is a term equally applicable to both sexes ; and 
 im the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb disobey; its declension 
 in both numbers is, Nom. who ; Poss. whose ; Obj. whom. 
 
 Their is a personal pronoun, because it shows by its form that it is of the third person ; 
 It is of the plural number, common gender, and in the possessive case, because it 
 denotes the possession of parents. Its declension is, Nom. they ; Poss, their, or theirs ; 
 Obj. them. 
 
 Parse the other words as in the preceding praxes. 
 
 SECOND EXAMPLE, ANALYZED. 
 " Can we see God, or must we believe in him ?" 
 
 A compound interrogative sentence, consisting of two independent clauses connected 
 by or. The subject of the first clause is we ; the predicate verb, can see ; and the object^ 
 God. The subject of the second clause is we ; the predicate verb, must believe, modified 
 by the adverbial phrase adjunct in him. 
 
 Prosperity gains many friends, but adversity tries them. 
 
 A wise son heareth his father's instruction, but a scorner heareth not 
 rebuke. 
 
 He who conquers his passions, overcomes his greatest enemies. 
 
 You should listen patiently if you would speak effectively. 
 
 Virtue refines the affections, but vice debases them. 
 
 The poems of Homer celebrate the exploits of Achilles, who killed 
 the Trojan prince Hector. 
 
ANALYSIS, PARSING, AttD COKSTfctJCTlOff. 75 
 
 He who runs may read so plain a truth. 
 
 Who that has common sense can entertain so absurd a action ? 
 When will you complete the task which you have undertaken ? 
 The eye, that sees all things, cannot see itself. 
 They who would govern others must first govern themselves. 
 Flattery often succeeds, when reason entirely fails. 
 We are often benefited by what we have dreaded. 
 Frankness, suavity, and benevolence were prominent traits in the 
 character of Dr. Franklin. 
 
 The study of natural history expands and elevates the mind. 
 
 Get justly, use soberly, distribute cheerfully, and live contentedly. 
 
 Industry, good sense, and virtue are essential to happiness. 
 
 Exercises in Construction. 
 
 1. Write jive compound sentences, eacfi consisting of two simple clauses 
 connected by and or but. 
 
 2. Write five complex sentences, each containing a simple relative clause. 
 
 Punctuation. The simple clauses composing a compound sentence 
 should be separated by a comma ; but when a comma is used to separate 
 the parts of either, a semicolon should be employed. 
 
 A relative clause should be separated by a comma, unless it is used as 
 a modifying adjunct. 
 
 When a relative clause is a modifying adjunct, it can often 
 be changed to an adjective or participle ; and the sentence 
 will then become simple. Thus, The pupil who is diligent will 
 excel, can be changed to The diligent pupil will excel. 
 
 Sometimes a phrase consisting of a noun and an adjective 
 can be substituted for the relative clause and the antecedent. 
 Thus, He who labors faithfully will succeed, is equivalent to A 
 faithful laborer will succeed. 
 
 Change the following complex into simple sentences by either of the two 
 methods above indicated. 
 
 A man who is honest will be trusted. 
 
 Lines that are parallel never meet. 
 
 A king that oppresses his people is hated. 
 
 The key that is used is always bright. 
 
 They pitied and relieved the man who was blind. 
 
 They who slander others break the divine commandment. 
 
76 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 He who studies diligently will improve. 
 He that tilleth his land shall be satisfied with bread. 
 The spoils belong to him who gains the victory. 
 Persons who are irritable are unpleasant associates. 
 
 When the relative clause is not a modifying adjunct, the 
 sentence can be made compound, by substituting for the rela- 
 tive pronoun a conjunction and a personal pronoun. Thus, 
 John, who committed the fault, has been forgiven, may be 
 changed to, John committed the fault, but he has been forgiven. 
 
 Change in this manner the following complex to compound sentences. 
 
 Use snch conjunctions as and, /", but, because, 9ince. 
 
 My friend, who went to Europe, has returned. 
 
 The eye, that sees all things, cannot see itself. 
 
 Captain John Smith, who was taken by the Indians, was saved by 
 Pocahontas. 
 
 Mr. Williams, who failed in business last year, has commenced again. 
 
 He gave the book to his brother, who has lost it. 
 
 The letter was sent by a messenger, who failed to deliver it. 
 
 The traveler narrated a very curious incident, which was not believed. 
 
 Socrates, who was pronounced by the oracle the wisest of men, was 
 put to death by the Athenians. 
 
 Leonidas, who defended the pass of Thermopylae against the Persian 
 army, was a great patriot and hero. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Write a composition consisting of simple, compound, and complex sen- 
 tences, describing each of the following objects stating its use, the parts 
 of which it is composed, the material of which each of these parts is made, 
 and what different trades or occupations are concerned in its manufac- 
 ture. 
 
 A book. A pen. A slate. A stove. A map. A globe. A bell. A clock. 
 A carriage. A shoe. A knife. A skate. A carpet. A plough. A silver 
 dollar. A bank bill. An umbrella. A house. An earthen jug. A bottle. 
 A piano. A ship. A chair. A bureau. A broom. 
 
 [The teacher should supply all information that may be needed by the pupils, in order 
 to make the description sufficiently full and accurate, but should be careful that the pupils 
 use their own language, and apply the rules and principles already learned. When others 
 are violated, the corrections may be made arbitrarily. In this way the huvbit of correctly 
 using language will be cultivated.] 
 
VERBS. 77 
 
 IX. VERBS. 
 
 A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be 
 acted upon. 
 
 Classes. 
 
 Verbs are divided, with respect to their form, into four 
 classes: regular, irregular, redundant, and de- 
 fective. 
 
 A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and 
 the perfect participle by assuming d or ed; as, love, loved, 
 loving, loved . 
 
 OBS. 1. Whether a verb is regular or irregular depends upon the 
 changes which it undergoes in order to express differences in the mode, 
 time, or other circumstances of the action or being indicated by the 
 verb. Thus, the verb walk becomes walked in order to express a past 
 action ; while the participle is derived by adding ing or ed; as, walking, 
 icalked. These additional syllables, which change the primitive form 
 of the verb, are called inflections. In some languages they are very 
 numerous ; but in English they are quite few, the language in this re- 
 spect being very simple. 
 
 OBS. 2. The preterit is the form for the past. There are four parts 
 in every verb from which all others are derived : the present, the past 
 or preterit, the imperfect participle (always ending in ing], and the per- 
 fect participle. When these are given all the other parts of the verb 
 become known. Hence, they are called the principal parts. 
 
 An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the 
 preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed , 
 as, see, saw, seeing, seen. 
 
 A redundant verb is a verb that forms the preterit 
 or the perfect participle in two or more ways, and so as 
 to be both regular and irregular; as, thrive, thrived or 
 throve, thriving, thrived or thriven. 
 
 A defective verb is a verb that forms no participles, 
 and is used in but few of the moods and tenses ; as, beware, 
 ought, quoth. 
 
78 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 OBS. Regular verbs form their preterit and perfect participle, by 
 adding d to final e, and ed to all other terminations. The verb hear, 
 heard, hearing, heard, adds d to r, and is therefore irregular. 
 
 Verbs are divided again, with respect to their signifi- 
 cation, into four classes : active-transitive, active- 
 intransitive, passive, and neuter. 
 
 An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses 
 an action which has some person or thing for its object ; 
 as, " Cain slew Abel" 
 
 An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses 
 an action which has no person or thing for its object ; as, 
 " John walks" 
 
 A passive verb is a verb that represents its subject, 
 or nominative, as being acted upon ; as, " I am com- 
 pelled." 
 
 OBS. 1. It must be understood that a passive verb expresses action, 
 but action received not performed by the subject. Thus the object of 
 the action becomes the subject of the verb. Hence, every transitive verb 
 may be changed into a passive verb, by making the object of the former 
 the subject of the latter. 
 
 OBS. 2. Active-transitive verbs generally take the agent before them 
 and the object after them; as, "Caesar conquered Pompey." Passive 
 verbs (which are derived from active-transitive verbs) reverse this order, 
 and denote that the subject, or nominative, is affected by the action ; 
 and the agent follows, being introduced by the preposition by; as, 
 " Porapey was conquered by Caesar." 
 
 OBS. 3. An active-intransitive verb, followed by a preposition and 
 its object, will sometimes admit of being put into the passive form, the 
 object of the preposition being assumed for the nominative, and the 
 preposition being retained with the verb, as an adverb : as, (Active,) 
 "They laughed at him." (Passive,) "He was laughed at." 
 
 A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action 
 nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being ; as, 
 "Thou art." " He sleeps." 
 
VEEBS. 79 
 
 Exercises. 
 
 1. Classify aK the verbs in the following sentences, both as to form and 
 tignification. 
 
 [See list of Irregular Verbs, page 98.] 
 
 I mailed the letter. The letter was mailed by me. The horse was 
 shod. The pitcher was broken. He has failed in business. The boy 
 told an untruth. The ship has sailed. He was chosen president. I 
 have written a letter. The boiler burst. The man is honest. He 
 walks rapidly. The plant grows. ' .The boy is swimming. The child is 
 sleeping. They sat still. Give me a book. Beware of slanderers. 
 A child ought to obey his parents. 
 
 2. Construct another sentence from each of the verbs in the above exer- 
 cise, using a different form. 
 
 3. Write three sentences, each containing a regular verb ; also three, 
 each containing an irregular verb ; three, each containing a redundant 
 verb ; and one containing a defective verb. 
 
 Modifications. 
 
 The modifications or inflections of verbs are for two pur- 
 poses : 1. To express some particular manner or time of the 
 being, action, or passion. 2. To indicate the person and 
 number of the subject or nominative. Hence it is said : 
 
 Yerbs have modifications of four kinds; namely, 
 moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. 
 
 Moods. 
 
 Moods are different forms of the verb, each of which 
 expresses the being, action, or passion, in some particular 
 manner. 
 
 There are five moods: the infinitive, the indica- 
 tive, the potential, the subjunctive, and the 
 Imperative. 
 
 The infinitive mood is that form of the verb which 
 expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited 
 manner, and without person or number ; as, To read, to 
 speak. 
 
80 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 OBB. 1. Tk infinitive mood has no person or number, that is, no 
 inflections to indicate person or number, because it has no subject nomi- 
 native. It may have a subject, that is a word indicating the person or 
 thing of whom the being or action is indirectly asserted ; but this word 
 must be in the objective case, depending upon some other verb. Thus, 
 in the sentence, 1 tohl John to (rrite, John is the subject of the infini- 
 tive write, and the object of the verb told; hence, it is in the objective 
 case. 
 
 OBS. 2. A verb in any other mood than the infinitive, is called, by 
 way of distinction, a finite vej'b. 
 
 The indicative mood is that form of the verb which 
 simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question : 
 as, I write / you know Do you know ? 
 
 The potential mood is that form of the verb which 
 expresses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of the 
 being, action, or passion : as, I can read ; we must go. 
 
 The subjunctive mood is that form of the verb 
 which represents the being, action, or passion, as con- 
 ditional, doubtful, and contingent; as, "If thou go, see 
 that thou offend not." 
 
 OBS. The subjunctive mood is always connected with another verb. 
 Its dependence is usually denoted by a conjunction ; as, if, that, though, 
 
 le-st, unless. 
 
 The imperative mood is that form of the verb 
 which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or 
 permitting ; as, " Depart thou." " Be comforted" 
 
 Tenses. 
 
 Tenses are those modifications of the verb which dis- 
 tinguish time. 
 
 There are six tenses: the present, the imperfect, 
 the perfect, the pluperfect, the first-future, and 
 the second-future. 
 
 The present tense is that which expresses what 
 now exists, or is taking place: as, U I hear a noise; some- 
 body is coining" 
 
VERBS. . 81 
 
 The Imperfect tense is that which expresses what 
 took place, or was occurring, in time fully-past : as, " I saw 
 him yesterday ; he was walking out." 
 
 The perfect tense is that which expresses what has 
 taken place, within some period of time not yet fully past ; 
 as, " I have seen him to-day." 
 
 The pluperfect tense is that which expresses what 
 had taken place, at some past time mentioned ; as, " I had 
 seen him, when I met you." 
 
 The first-future tense is that which expresses what 
 will take place hereafter ; as, "I shall see him again." 
 
 The second -future tense is that which expresses 
 what will have taken place, at some future time mentioned ; 
 as, " I shall have seen him by to-morrow noon." 
 
 OBS. 1. There are two circumstances on which the distinction of tense 
 is based : 
 
 1. Whether the time is present, past, or future. 
 
 2. Whether the action is perfect or imperfect complete or incom- 
 plete in regard to each distinction of time. Hence, there must be six 
 tenses to express this twofold distinction : 
 
 1. Present ) ( Present tense. 
 
 2. Past Imperfect tense. 
 
 3. Future ) ( First-future tense 
 
 4. Present ] ( Perfect tense. 
 
 5. Past Perfect < Pluperfect tense. 
 
 6. Future ) ' Second-future tense. 
 
 OBS. 2. The tenses do not all express time with equal precision. 
 Those of the indicative mood, are the most definite. The time expressed 
 by the same tenses (or what are called by the same names) in the other 
 moods, is frequently relative, and sometimes indefinite. 
 
 OBS. 3. The present tense, in the indicative mood, expresses general 
 truths, and customary actions; as, "Vice produces misery." "She 
 often visits us." We also use it in speaking of persons who are dead, 
 but whose works remain ; as, " Seneca reasons well." 
 
 OBS. 4. The present tense in the subjunctive mood, and in the other 
 moods, when preceded by as soon as^ after ', before, till, or when, is gen* 
 6 
 
82 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 erallj used with reference to future time ; as, " If he ask a fish, will he 
 give him a serpent ?" Matt, vi., 10. "When he arrives, I will send 
 for you." 
 
 OBS. 5. In animated narrative, the present tense is sometimes sub- 
 stituted (by the figure enaUage) for the imperfect; as, "Ulysses wakes, 
 not knowing where he was." Pope. 
 
 OBS. 6. The present infinitive can scarcely be said to express any 
 particular time. It is usually dependent on another verb, and, there- 
 fore, relative in time. It may be connected with any tense of any 
 mood ; as, "I intend to do it, I intended to do it, I have intended to do 
 it," etc. It is often used to express futurity ; as, "The time to come." 
 " The world to come." " Rapture yet to be." 
 
 Inflections. Persons and Numbers. 
 
 As there are tivo numbers and three persons, there must be 
 six distinctions, to express which a verb may be inflected, or 
 changed, to agree with its subject ; but, as already stated, the 
 inflections used in English are very few. Thus, the verb love, 
 in the indicative mood, present tense, has only the following 
 forms: 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1st per. love, love, 
 
 2d per. loves, love, 
 
 3d per. loves / love. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1st per. go, go, 
 
 2d per. goest, go, 
 
 3d per. goes; go. 
 
 It will be seen that there are only two inflections, both 
 being in the singular : the addition of st (or est) for the second 
 person, and s (or es) for the third ; the first person, singular, 
 and all the persons in the plural being alike. 
 
 OBS. 1. The third person singular was anciently formed in th or eth, 
 but this inflection is now'only used in the formal or solemn style. Doth, 
 hath, and saith are contractions of verbs thus formed. 
 
 OBS. 2. The customary mode of familiar as well as complimentary 
 address is altogether plural, both the verb and the pronoun being used 
 in that form. The singular is, however, invariably employed in refer- 
 ence to the Supreme Being, in poetry, and in the solemn style, generally. 
 Although the pronoun you is used with a singular meaning, the 
 must be plural, because the forms must agree. 
 
VERBS. 83 
 
 OBS. 3. In the solemn style (except in poetry, which usually con- 
 tracts these forms), the second person singular of the present indicative, 
 and that of the irregular preterits, commonly end in est, pronounced as 
 a separate syllable. But as the termination ed, in solemn discourse, 
 constitutes a syllable, the regular preterits form the second person sin- 
 gular, by adding st, without further increase of syllables; as, loved, 
 lovedstnot lovedest. Dost and hast, and the irregular preterits wast, 
 didst, and hadst, are permanently contracted. The auxiliaries shall and 
 witt, change the final I to t. To the auxiliaries may, can, might, could, 
 would, and should, the termination est was formerly added ; but they 
 are now generally written with st only, and pronounced as monosyllables, 
 even in solemn discourse. 
 
 OBS. 4. When the second person singular is employed in familiar 
 discourse, it is usually formed in a manner strictly analogous to that 
 which is now adopted in the third person singular. When the verb 
 ends in a sound which will unite with that of st or s, the second person 
 singular is formed by adding st only, and the third by adding s only ; 
 and the number of syllables is not increased : as, I read, thou readst, he 
 reads ; I know, thou knowst, he knows ; I take, thou takest, he takes. 
 For when the verb ends in mute e, no termination renders this e vocal 
 in the familiar style, if a synseresis can take place. 
 
 OBS. 5. But when the verb ends in a sound which will not unite 
 with that of st or s, st and s are added to final e, and est and es to other 
 terminations ; and the verb acquires an additional syllable : as, I trace, 
 thou tracest, he traces ; I pass, thou passest, he passes ; I fix, thou 
 fixest, he fixes. But verbs ending in o or y preceded by a consonant, do 
 not exactly follow this rule: .in these, y is changed into i; and to both 
 o and i, est and es are added without increase of syllables : as, I go, thou 
 goest, he goes; I undo, thou undoest, he wndoes; I fly, thou fliest, he 
 flies; I pity, ihou pitiest, he pities. 
 
 OBS. 6. The auxiliaries do, dost, does [pronounced doo, dust, duz] 
 am, art, is liave, hast, has, being also in frequent use as principal 
 verbs of the present tense, retain their peculiar form when joined to other 
 verbs. The other auxiliaries are not varied, except in the solemn style. 
 
 OBS. 7. The only regular terminations that are added to verbs, are 
 ing, d or ed, st or est , s or es, th or eth. Ing, and th or eth, always add a 
 syllable to the verb ; except in doth, hath, saith. The rest, whenever 
 their sound will unite with that of the final syllable of the verb, are 
 added without increasing the number of syllables ; otherwise, they are 
 separately pronounced. In solemn discourse, however, ed and est are, 
 by most speakers, uttered distinctly in all cases, except sometimes, 
 when a vowel precedes, 
 
84 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Conjugation of Verbs. 
 
 The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement 
 of its moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles. 
 
 OBS. The moods and tenses are formed partly by inflections, or 
 changes made in the verb itself, and partly by the combination of the 
 verb or its participle, with a few short verbs called auxiliaries, or help- 
 ing verbs. 
 
 There are four principal parts in the conjugation of 
 every simple and complete verb ; namely, the present, 
 the preterit, the imperfect participle, and the 
 perfect participle. A verb which wants any of 
 these parts is called defective : such are most of the 
 auxiliaries. 
 
 OBS. The present is radically the same in all the moods, and is the 
 part from which all the rest are formed. The present infinitive is the 
 root, or simplest form, of the verb. The preterit and the perfect parti- 
 ciple are regularly formed by adding d or eel, and the imperfect parti- 
 ciple by adding ing, to the present. 
 
 An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the 
 principal parts of another verb, to express some particular 
 mode and time of the being, action, or passion. The aux- 
 iliaries are do, ~be, have, shaft, wiU, may, can, and must, 
 with their variations. 
 
 OBS. 1. Do, be, and have, being also principal verbs, are complete: 
 but the pa ticiples of do and have are not used as auxiliaries ; unless 
 having, which forms the compound participle, may be considered as 
 such. The other auxiliaries have no participles. 
 
 OBS. 2. English verbs are principally conjugated by means of 
 auxiliaries, the only tenses which can be formed by the simple verb, 
 being the present and the imperfect ; as, I lore, I loved. And even here 
 an auxiliary is usually preferred in questions and negations ; as, Do you 
 love ? You do not love. All the other tenses, even in their simplest 
 form, are compounds. 
 
 OBS. 3. The form of conjugating the active verb is often called the 
 Active Voice ; and that of the passive verb, the Passive Voice. These 
 terms are borrowed from the Latin and Greek grammars, and are of 
 Uttle or no use 
 
, 
 
 YERBS. 85 
 
 OBS. 4. English verbs having few inflections, it is convenient to insert 
 in the conjugations the preposition to, to mark the infinitive ; pronouns, 
 to distinguish the persons and numbers ; the conjunction if, to demote 
 the subjunctive ; and the adverb not, to show the form of negation. 
 With these additions, a verb may be conjugated in four ways : 
 
 1. Affirmatively ; as, I write, I do write, or I am writing. 
 
 2. Negatively ; as, I write not, I do not write, or, I am not writing. 
 
 3. Interrogatively ; as, Write I ? Do I write ? or, Am I writing ? 
 
 4. Interrogatively and negatively; as, Write I not ? Do I not write? 
 or, 4m I not writing? 
 
 Simple Form, Active or Neuter. 
 
 The simplest form of an English conjugation, is that which 
 makes the present and imperfect tenses without auxiliaries ; 
 but, even in these, auxiliaries are required for the potential 
 mood, and are often preferred for the indicative. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE VEEB LOVE. 
 Principal Parts. 
 
 Present. Preterit. Imper. Participle. Perfect Participle. 
 
 Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. To love. 
 
 Perfect Tense. To have loved. . . 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 1st per. I love, 1st per. We love, 
 
 %d per. Thou lovest, 2d per. You love, 
 
 3d per. He loves ; 3d per. They love. 
 
 This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary do to the 
 rerb : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I do love, 1. We do love, 
 
 2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 
 
 3. He does love ; 3. They do love. 
 
86 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I loved, 1. We loved, 
 
 2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 
 
 3. He loved ; 3. They loved. 
 
 This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary did to th 
 present : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I . did love, 1. We did love, 
 
 2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love, 
 
 3. He did love ; 3. They did love. 
 
 OBS. In a familiar question or negation, the auxiliary form is prefer- 
 able to the simple. But in the solemn or the poetic style, the simple 
 form is more dignified and graceful; as, " Understandest thou what thou 
 readest ?" "Of whom speaketh the prophet this ? "Acts." Say, 
 heard ye naught of lowland war ? " Scott. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the perfect participle : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 
 
 2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 
 
 3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved*. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 This tense prefixes the auxiliary had to the perfect participle : 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 
 
 2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 
 
 3. He had loved ; 3. They had loved. 
 
 First-future Tense. 
 
 This tense prefixes the auxiliary shatt or witt to the present : 
 
 1. Simply to express a future action or event : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 
 
 2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 
 
 3. He will love ; 3. They will love. 
 
VERBS. 87 
 
 2. To express a promise, volition, command, or threat : 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I will love, 1. We will love, 
 
 2. Thou shalt love, 2. You shall love, 
 
 3. He shall love ; 3. They shall love. 
 
 OBS. In interrogative sentences, the meaning of these auxiliaries is 
 reversed. When preceded by a conjunction implying condition or un- 
 certainty, their import is somewhat varied. 
 
 Second -future Tense. 
 
 This tense prefixes the auxiliaries shall have or wiU have to the perfect 
 participle : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 
 
 2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 
 
 3. He will have loved ; 3. They will have loved. 
 
 OBS. The auxiliary shall may also be used in the second and third 
 persons of this tense, when preceded by a conjunction expressing con- 
 dition or contingency ; as, "If he shall have finished his work when I 
 return." And perhaps witt may here be used in the first person to ex- 
 press a promise or a determination, though such usage, I think, very 
 seldom occurs. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 This tense prefixes the auxiliary may, can, or must, to the radical 
 verb : 
 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 1. I may love, 1. We may love, 
 
 2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 
 
 3. He may love ; 3. They may love. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 This tense prefixes the auxiliary might, could, would, or should, to the 
 radical verb: 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might love, L We might love, 
 
 2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 
 
 3. He might love ; 3. They might love. 
 
88 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, may have, can have, or must have t 
 to the perfect participle : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 
 
 2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 
 
 3. He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, might have, could have, would have, 
 or should Jiave, to the perfect participle : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 
 
 2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 
 
 3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 This tense is generally used to express some condition on which a 
 future action or event is affirmed. It is therefore considered by some 
 grammarians, as an elliptical form of the future. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I love, 1. If we love, 
 
 2. If thou love, 2. If you love, 
 
 3. If he love; 3. If they love. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 OBS. This tense is indefinite, as it may refer to time past, present, 
 or future. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 
 
 2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 
 
 3. If he loved; 3. If they loved. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. 2. Love [thou,] or Do thou love. 
 Plural. 2. Love [ye or you,] or Do you love. 
 
VERBS. 89 
 
 OBS. This tense is commonly used only in t-he second person, but 
 there seem to be occasional exceptions to this ; as, ' ' Blessed be he that 
 blesseth thee." " Thy kingdom come."" My soul, turn from them 
 turn we to survey." Goldsmith. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. 
 
 Loving. Loved. Having loved. 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF THE FIRST EXAMPLE. 
 First Person Singular. 
 
 INDICATIVE. I love, I loved, I have loved, I had loved, I shall love, 
 I shall have loved. POTENTIAL. I may love, I might love, I may have 
 
 loved, I might have loved. SUBJUNCTIVE. If I love, If I loved. 
 f 
 Second Person Singular. 
 
 INDICATIVE. Thou lovest, Thou lovedst, Thou hast loved, Thou 
 hadst loved, Thou wilt love, Thou wilt have loved. POTENTIAL. Thou 
 mayst love, Thou mightst love, Thou mayst have loved. Thou mights* 
 have loved. SUBJUNCTIVE. If thou love, If thou loved. IMPERATIVE. 
 Love [thou,] or Do thou love. 
 
 Third Person Singular. 
 
 INDICATIVE. He loves, He loved, He has loved, He had loved, He 
 will love, He will have loved. POTENTIAL. He may love, He might 
 love, He may have loved, He might have loved. SUBJUNCTIVE. If he 
 love, If he loved. 
 
 First Person Plural. 
 
 INDICATIVE. We love, We loved, We have loved, We had loved, 
 We shall love, We shall have loved. POTENTIAL. We may love, We 
 might love, We may have loved, We might have loved. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 If we love, If we loved. 
 
 Second Person Plural. 
 
 INDICATIVE. You love, You loved, You have loved, You had loved, 
 You will love, You will have loved. POTENTIAL. You may love, You 
 might love, You may have loved, You might have loved. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 If you love, If you loved. IMPERATIVE. Love [ye or you,] or Do you love, 
 
 Third Person Plural. 
 
 INDICATIVE. They love, They loved, They have loved, They had 
 loved, Tfhey will love, They will have loved. POTENTIAL. They may 
 love, They might love, They may have loved, They might have loved. 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. If they love, If they loved. 
 
90 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB SEE. 
 Principal Parts. 
 
 Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perfect Participle. 
 
 See. Saw. Seeing. Seen. 
 
 IKETNTTTVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. To see. 
 Perfect Tense. To have seen. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I see, 1. We see, 
 
 2. Thou seest, 2. You see, 
 
 3. He sees ; 3. They sea 
 
 M>^v 
 imperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I saw, 1. We saw, 
 
 2. Thou sawest, 2. You saw, 
 
 3. He saw; 3. They saw. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have seen, 1. We have seen, 
 
 2. Thou hast seen, 2. You have seen, 
 
 3. He has seen ; 3. They have seen. 
 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I had seen, 1. We had seen, 
 
 2. Thou hadst seen, 2. You had seen, 
 
 3. He had seen ; 3. They had seen, 
 
VERBS. 91 
 
 r 
 
 First-future Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall see, 1. We shall see, 
 
 2. Thou wilt see, 2. You will see, 
 
 3. He will see ; 3. They will see. 
 
 ~i( UAAAA,fr^4t/( 
 Second-future Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen, 
 
 2. Thou wilt have seen, 2. You will have seen, 
 
 3. He will have seen ; 3. They will have seen. 
 
 ^ POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may see, 1. We may see, 
 
 2. Thou mayst see, 2. You may see, 
 
 3. He may see ; , 3. They may see. 
 
 ; 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might see, 1. We might see> 
 
 2. Thou mightst see, 2. You might see, 
 
 3. He might see ; 3. They might see. 
 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may have seen, 1. We may have seen, 
 
 2. Thou mayst have seen, 2. You may have seen, 
 
 3. He may have seen ; 3. They may have seen. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might have seen, 1. We might have seen, 
 
 2. Thou mightst have seen, 2. You might have seen, 
 
 3. He might have seen ; 3. They might have seen. 
 
92 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I see, 1. If we 
 
 2. If thou see, 2. If you see, 
 
 3. If he see ; 3. If they see. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I saw, 1. If we saw, 
 
 2. If thou saw, 2. If you saw, 
 
 3. If he saw ; 3. If they saw. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. 2. See [thou,] or Do thou see. 
 Plural. 2. See [ye or you,] or Do you see. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. 
 
 Seeing. Seen. Having seen. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE. 
 Principal Parts. 
 
 Present. Preterit. Imperfect Participle. Perfect Participle. 
 Be. Was. Being. Been. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. To be. 
 Perfect Tense. To have been. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I am, 1. We are, 
 
 2. Thou art, 2. You are, 
 
 3. He is ; 3. They are. 
 
VEBB8. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I was, 1. .We were, 
 
 2. Thou wast,* 2. You were, 
 
 3. He was ; 3. They were. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have been, 1. We have been, 
 
 2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 
 
 3. He has been ; 3. They have been. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I had been, 1. We had been, 
 
 2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 
 
 3. He had been ; 3. They had been. 
 
 First-future Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 
 
 %. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 
 
 3. He will be; 3. They will be. 
 
 Second -future Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 
 
 2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 
 
 3. He will have been ; 3. They will have been. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 1. I may be, 1. We may be, 
 
 2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 
 
 3. He may be ; 3. They may be. 
 
 * OBS. In poetry, wert is sometimes used indicatively for wast ; as, 
 
 " Yainly wert thou wed." Byron. 
 ** WUftte'er tbou art or wert, n /<J. 
 
94 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might be, 1. We might be, 
 
 2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 
 
 3. He might be ; 3. They might be. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may have been, 1. We may have been> 
 
 2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 
 
 3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 
 
 2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 
 
 3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been- 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I be, 1. If we be, 
 
 2. Ifthoube, 2. If you be, 
 
 3. If he be ; 3. If they be. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I were, 1. If we were, 
 
 2. If thou wert, or were, 2. If you were, 
 
 3. If he were ; 3. If they were. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. 2. Be [thou,] or Do thou be. 
 Plural. 2. Be [ye or you,] or Do you be. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. 
 
 Being. Been, Having been. 
 
VEEBS. 95 
 
 Compound Form, Active or Neuter. 
 
 Active and neuter verbs may also be conjugated, by adding 
 the Imperfect Participle to the auxiliary verb BE, through all 
 its changes ; as, I am writing He is sitting. This form of 
 the verb is used to denote a continuance of the action or the 
 state of being. 
 
 OBS. In this form of the verb, the active participle is sometimes 
 used with a passive meaning: as, "The books are now selling ;" instead 
 of being sold. "The designs of Providence are carrying on." Bp. 
 Butler. This idiom is approved bj good critics and writers. 
 
 COMPOUND FORM OF THE VEEB READ. 
 Principal Parts of the Simple Verb. 
 
 Present. Preterit. Imperf. Participle. Perf. Participle. 
 
 Bead. Bead. Reading. Read. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. To be reading. 
 Perfect Tense. To have been reading. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I am reading, 1. We are reading, 
 
 2. Thou art reading, 2. You are reading, 
 
 3. He is reading ; 3. They are reading. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 1. I was reading, 1. We were reading, 
 
 2. Thou wast reading, 2. You were reading, 
 
 3. He was reading; 3. They were reading. 
 
96 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have been reading, 1. We have been reading, 
 
 2. Thou hast been reading, 2. You have been reading, 
 
 3. He has been reading ; 3. They have been reading. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 1. I had been reading, 1. We had been reading. 
 
 2. Thou hadst been reading, 2. You had been reading, 
 
 3. He had been reading ; 3. They had been reading. 
 
 First-future Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall be reading, 1. We shall be reading, 
 
 2. Thou wilt be reading, 2. You will be reading, 
 
 3. "He will be reading ; 3. They will be reading. 
 
 Second-future Tense. 
 
 Singular. 1. I shall have been reading, 
 
 2. Thou wilt have been reading, 
 
 3. He will have been reading ; 
 
 Plural. 1. We shall have been reading, 
 
 2. You will have been reading, 
 
 3. They will have been reading. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may be reading, 1. We may be reading, 
 
 2. Thou mayst be reading, 2. You may be reading, 
 
 3. He may be reading ; 3. They may be reading. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might be reading, 1. We might be reading, 
 
 2. Thou mightst be reading, 2. You might be reading, 
 
 3. He might be reading ; 3. They might be reading. 
 
VERBS. 
 
 97 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. 1. I may have been reading, 
 
 2. Thou mayst have been reading, 
 
 3. He may have been reading ; 
 
 Plural. 1. We may have been reading, 
 
 2. You may have been reading, 
 
 3. They may have been reading. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. 1. I might have been reading, 
 
 2. Thou mightst have been reading, 
 
 3. He might have been reading ; 
 
 Plural. 1. *We might have been reading, 
 
 2. You might have been reading, 
 
 3. They might have been reading. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I be reading, 1. If we be reading, 
 
 2. If thou be reading, 2. If you be reading, 
 
 3. If he be reading ; 3. If they be reading. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I were reading, 1. If we were reading, 
 
 2. If thou wert reading, 2. If you were reading, 
 
 3. If he were reading ; 3. If they were reading. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. 2. Be [thou] reading, or Do thou be reading. 
 Plural. 2. Be [ye or you] reading, or Do you be reading. 
 
 1. The Imperfect. 
 Being reading. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 2. The Perfect. 
 
 3. The Preperfect. 
 Having been reading. 
 
98 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Form of Passive Verbs. 
 
 Passive verbs, in English, are always of a compound form, 
 being made from active-transitive verbs, by adding the per- 
 fect participle to the auxiliary verb BE through all its changes : 
 thus from the active-transitive verb love is formed the pas- 
 sive verb be loved. 
 
 OBS. The passive form seems to be assumed by some intransitive 
 verbs : as, I am come ; He is risen ; They are fallen. In this case the 
 participle relates to the subject, and does not form a part of the predi- 
 cate verb. The usual active form is preferable : as, / have come ; He 
 has risen; They have arrived. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB 
 
 BE LOVED. 
 Principal Parts of the Active Verb. 
 
 Present. Preterit. Imperf. Participle. Perfect Participle. 
 
 Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. To be loved. 
 Perfect Tense. To have been loved. 
 
 v 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 
 
 2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 
 
 3. He is loved ; 3. They are loved. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1 I was loved, 1. We were loved, 
 
 2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 
 
 3. He was loved ; 3. They were loved 
 
VERBS. 99 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 
 
 2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 
 
 3. He has been loved ; 3. They have been loved. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 
 
 2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 
 
 3. He had been loved ; 3. They had been loved. 
 
 First-future Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 
 
 2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved, 
 
 3. He will be loved ; 3. They will be loved. 
 
 Second-future Tense. 
 
 Singular. 1. I shall have been loved^ 
 
 2. Thou wilt have been loved, 
 
 3. He will have been loved ; 
 
 Plural. 1. We shall have been loved, 
 
 2. You will have been loved, 
 
 3. They will have been loved. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 
 
 2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 
 
 3. He may be. loved; 3 X They may be loved. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 
 
 2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 
 
 3. He might be loved ; 3. They might be loved. 
 
100 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. 1. I may have been loved, 
 
 2. Thou mayst have been loved, 
 
 3. He may have been loved ; 
 
 Plural. 1. We may have been loved, 
 
 2. You may have been loved, 
 
 3. They may have been loved. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. 1. I might have been loved, 
 
 2. Thou mightst have been loved, 
 
 3. He might have been loved ; 
 
 Plural. 1. We might have been loved, 
 
 2. You might have been loved, 
 
 3. They might have been loved. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 1. If I be loved, 1. If we be loved, 
 
 2. If thou be loved, 2. If you be loved, 
 
 3. If he be loved ; 3. If they be loved. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I were loved, 1. If we were loved, 
 
 2. If thou wert loved, 2. If you were loved, 
 
 3. If he were loved ; 3. If they were loved. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. 2. Be [thou] loved, or Do thou be loved. 
 
 Plural. 2. Be [ye or you] loved, or Do you be loved. 
 
 I. The Imperfect. 
 Being loved. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 2. The Perfect. 
 Loved. 
 
 3. The Preperfect 
 Having been loved. 
 
VERBS. 101 
 
 Form of Negation. 
 
 A verb is conjugated negatively by placing the adverb not 
 after it, or after the first auxiliary ; but the infinitive and par- 
 ticiples take the negative first : 
 
 INFINITIVE. Not to love, Not to have loved. INDICATIVE. I love not, 
 or I do not love, I loved not, or I did not love, I have not loved, I had 
 not loved, I shall not love, I shall not have loved. POTENTIAL. I may, 
 can, or must not love ; I might, could, would, or should not love. I 
 may, can, or must not have loved ; I might, could, would, or should not 
 have loved. SUBJUNCTIVE. If I love not, If I loved not. PARTICIPLES. 
 Not loving, Not loved, Not having loved. 
 
 Form of Question. 
 
 A verb is conjugated interrogatively, in the indicative and 
 potential moods, by placing the nominative after it, or after 
 the first auxiliary ; as, 
 
 INDICATIVE. Do I love ? Did I love ? Have I loved ? Had I loved ? 
 Shall I love ? Shall I have loved ? POTENTIAL. May, can, or must I 
 love ? Might, could, would, or should I love ? May, can, or must I have 
 loved ? Might, could, would, or should I have loved ? 
 
 Form of Question with Negation. 
 
 A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively, in the 
 indicative and potential moods, by placing the nominative and 
 the adverb not after the verb, or after the first auxiliary ; as, 
 
 INDICATIVE. Do I not love ? Did I not love ? Have I not loved ? Had 
 I not loved ? Shall I not love ? Shall I not have loved ? POTENTIAL. 
 May, can, or must I not love ? Might, could, would, or should I not 
 love ? May, can, or must I not have loved ? Might, could, would, or 
 should I not have loved ? 
 
 Irregular Verbs. 
 
 An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit 
 and perfect participle by assuming d or ed ; as, see, saw, seeing, 
 seen. 
 
 OBS. 1. When the verb ends in a sharp consonant, t is sometimes im- 
 properly substituted for ed, making the preterit and the perfect parti- 
 ciple irregular in spelling, when they are not so in sound ; as, distrest 
 for distressed, tost for tossed, mixt for mixed, crackt for cracked. 
 
102 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 OBS. 2. When the rerb ends with a smooth consonant, the substitu- 
 tion of t for ed produces an irregularity in sound, as well as in writing. 
 In some such irregularities, the poets are indulged for the sake of rhyme ; 
 but the best speakers and writers of prose prefer the regular form wher- 
 ever good use has sanctioned it : thus, learned is better than learnt ; 
 burned, than burnt; penned, than pent; absorbed, than abwrpt; speUed, 
 than spelt; smelted, than snult. 
 
 OBS. 3. The following alphabetical list exhibits the simple irregular 
 verbs, as they are now generally used. In this list, and also in that of the 
 redundant verbs, those preterits and participles which are supposed to 
 be preferable, and best supported by authorities, are placed first 
 
 List of the Irregular Verbs. 
 
 AVM* 
 
 Preterit. 
 
 Imp. Participle. 
 
 Perfect Participle. 
 
 Attda, 
 
 abode, 
 
 abiding, 
 
 abode. 
 
 ArisB, 
 
 MB, 
 
 arising, 
 
 arisen. 
 
 Be, 
 
 was, 
 
 being, 
 
 been. 
 
 Bear. 
 
 bore or bare, 
 
 bearing, 
 
 borne or born.* 
 
 Brut. 
 
 be* 
 
 beating, 
 
 beat or beaten. 
 
 Bajfe, 
 
 began, 
 
 beginning, 
 
 begun. 
 
 Behold, 
 
 beheld, 
 
 beholding, 
 
 beheld. 
 
 Beseech, 
 
 besought, 
 
 beseeching, 
 
 besought 
 
 Beset, 
 
 beset, 
 
 besetting, 
 
 beset 
 
 Bid, 
 
 bid or bade, 
 
 bidding, 
 
 bid or bidden. 
 
 Bide, 
 
 bode, 
 
 biding, 
 
 bode. 
 
 Bind, 
 
 bound, 
 
 binding, 
 
 bound. 
 
 Bite, 
 
 bit, 
 
 biting, 
 
 bitten or bit. 
 
 Bted, 
 
 bM, 
 
 bleeding, 
 
 bled. 
 
 Blow. 
 
 Mew. 
 
 blowing, 
 
 blown. 
 
 Break. 
 
 broke, 
 
 breaking, 
 
 broken. 
 
 feted, 
 
 bred, 
 
 breeding, 
 
 bred. 
 
 Bring, 
 
 brought, 
 
 bringing, 
 
 brought. 
 
 Burst, 
 
 burst, 
 
 bursting, 
 
 burst. 
 
 Buy. 
 
 bought, 
 
 buying, 
 
 bought 
 
 Cast, 
 
 cast, 
 
 easting, 
 
 cast 
 
 Chide, 
 
 chid, 
 
 chiding, 
 
 chidden or chid 
 
 Ckooae, 
 
 chose, 
 
 choosing, 
 
 chosen. 
 
 Oe*ve,t 
 
 cleft or clove, 
 
 cleaving, 
 
 cleft or cloven. 
 
 Cling, 
 
 clung, 
 
 clinging, 
 
 clung. 
 
 * Ttr.f^t c^rm{AC- ffim'ft^it >^.*-,i cIcmi-Rac! hfva/nht fnrljl 
 
TERBS. 
 
 103 
 
 
 Irregular 
 
 Verbs Continued. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Preterit. 
 
 Imp. Participle. 
 
 Perfect Participle. 
 
 Come, 
 
 came, 
 
 coming, 
 
 come. 
 
 Cost, 
 
 cost, 
 
 costing, 
 
 cost. 
 
 Creep, 
 
 crept, 
 
 creeping, 
 
 crept 
 
 Cut, 
 
 cut, 
 
 cutting, 
 
 cut. 
 
 Deal, 
 
 dealt, 
 
 dealing, 
 
 dealt. 
 
 Do, 
 
 did, 
 
 doing, 
 
 done. 
 
 Draw, 
 
 drew, 
 
 drawing, 
 
 drawn. 
 
 Drink, 
 
 drank, 
 
 drinking, 
 
 drunk or drank. 
 
 Drive, 
 
 drove, 
 
 driving, 
 
 driven. 
 
 Eat, 
 
 6at or ate, 
 
 eating, 
 
 eaten. 
 
 Fall, 
 
 fell, 
 
 falling, 
 
 fallen. 
 
 Feed, 
 
 fed, 
 
 feeding, 
 
 fed. 
 
 Feel, 
 
 felt, 
 
 feeling, 
 
 felt 
 
 Fight, 
 
 fought, 
 
 fighting, 
 
 fought 
 
 Find, 
 
 found, 
 
 finding, 
 
 found. 
 
 Flee, 
 
 fled, 
 
 fleeing, 
 
 fled. 
 
 Fling, 
 
 flung, 
 
 flinging, 
 
 flung. 
 
 Fly, 
 
 flew, 
 
 flying, 
 
 flown. 
 
 Forbear, 
 
 forbore, 
 
 forbearing, 
 
 forborne. 
 
 Forsake, 
 
 forsook, 
 
 forsaking, 
 
 forsaken. 
 
 Freeze, 
 
 froze, 
 
 freezing, 
 
 frozen. 
 
 Get, 
 
 got, 
 
 getting, 
 
 got or gotten. 
 
 Give, 
 
 gave, 
 
 giving, 
 
 given. 
 
 Go, 
 
 went, 
 
 going, 
 
 gone. 
 
 Grind, 
 
 ground, 
 
 grinding, 
 
 ground. 
 
 Grow, 
 
 grew, 
 
 growing, 
 
 grown. 
 
 Have, 
 
 had, 
 
 having, 
 
 had. 
 
 Hear, 
 
 heard, 
 
 hearing, 
 
 heard. 
 
 Hide, 
 
 hid, 
 
 hiding, 
 
 hidden or hid. 
 
 Hit, 
 
 hit, 
 
 hitting, 
 
 hit. 
 
 Hold, 
 
 held, 
 
 holding, 
 
 held or holden. 
 
 Hurt, 
 
 hurt, 
 
 hurting, 
 
 hurt 
 
 Keep, 
 
 kept, 
 
 keeping, 
 
 kept 
 
 Know, 
 
 knew, 
 
 knowing, 
 
 known. 
 
 Lay, 
 
 laid, 
 
 laying, 
 
 laid. 
 
 Lead, 
 
 led, 
 
 leading, 
 
 led. 
 
 Leave, 
 
 left, 
 
 leaving, 
 
 left 
 
 Lend, 
 
 lent, 
 
 lending, 
 
 lent 
 
 Let, 
 
 let, 
 
 letting, 
 
 let. 
 
 Lie (to rest), 
 
 lay, 
 
 lying, 
 
 lain. 
 
 Lose, 
 
 lost, 
 
 losing, 
 
 lost 
 
104 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Irregular Verbs. Continued 
 
 Present. 
 
 Preterit. Imp. Participle. 
 
 Perfect Participle. 
 
 Make, 
 
 made, 
 
 making, 
 
 made. 
 
 Mean, 
 
 meant, 
 
 meaning, 
 
 meant. 
 
 Meet, 
 
 met, 
 
 meeting, 
 
 met. 
 
 Outdo, 
 
 outdid, 
 
 outdoing, 
 
 outdone. 
 
 Fay, 
 
 paid, 
 
 paying, 
 
 paid. 
 
 Put, 
 
 put, 
 
 putting, 
 
 put. 
 
 Read, 
 
 read, 
 
 reading, 
 
 r6ad. 
 
 Rend, 
 
 rent, 
 
 rending, 
 
 rent. 
 
 Rid, 
 
 rid, 
 
 ridding, 
 
 rid. 
 
 Ride, 
 
 rode, 
 
 riding, 
 
 ridden. 
 
 Ring, 
 
 rang or rung, 
 
 ringing, 
 
 rung. 
 
 Rise, 
 
 rose, 
 
 rising, 
 
 risen. 
 
 Run, 
 
 ran or run, 
 
 running, 
 
 run. 
 
 Say, 
 
 said, 
 
 saying, 
 
 said. 
 
 See, 
 
 saw, 
 
 seeing, 
 
 seen. 
 
 Seek, 
 
 sought, 
 
 seeking, 
 
 sought 
 
 Sell, 
 
 sold, 
 
 selling, 
 
 sold. 
 
 Send, 
 
 sent, 
 
 sending, 
 
 sent. 
 
 Set, 
 
 set, 
 
 setting, 
 
 set. 
 
 Shake, 
 
 shook, 
 
 shaking, 
 
 shaken. 
 
 Shed, 
 
 shed, 
 
 shedding, 
 
 shed. 
 
 Shoe, 
 
 shod, 
 
 shoeing, 
 
 shod. 
 
 Shoot, 
 
 shot, 
 
 shooting, 
 
 shot 
 
 Shut, 
 
 shut, 
 
 shutting, 
 
 shut 
 
 Shred, 
 
 shred, 
 
 shredding, 
 
 shred. 
 
 Shrink, 
 
 shrunk or shrank, 
 
 shrinking, 
 
 shrunk or shrun) t?n. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 sung or sang, 
 
 singing, 
 
 sung. 
 
 Sink, 
 
 sunk or sank, 
 
 sinkiner, 
 
 sunk. 
 
 Sit, 
 
 sat, 
 
 sitting, 
 
 sat. 
 
 Slay, 
 
 slew, 
 
 slaying, 
 
 slain. 
 
 Sleep, 
 
 slept, 
 
 sleeping, 
 
 slept. 
 
 Slide, 
 
 slid, 
 
 sliding, 
 
 slid or slidden. 
 
 Sling, 
 
 slung, 
 
 slinging, 
 
 slung. 
 
 Slink, 
 
 slunk, 
 
 slinking, 
 
 slunk. 
 
 Smite, 
 
 smote, 
 
 smiting, 
 
 smitten or smh 
 
 Speak, 
 
 spoke, 
 
 speaking, 
 
 spoken. 
 
 Spend, 
 
 spent, 
 
 spending, 
 
 spent 
 
 Spin, 
 
 spun, 
 
 spinning, 
 
 spun. 
 
 Spit, 
 
 spit, 
 
 spitting, 
 
 spit or spitten 
 
 Spread, 
 
 spread, 
 
 spreading, 
 
 spread. 
 
 Spring, 
 
 sprung or sprang, 
 
 springing, 
 
 sprung. 
 
VEEBS. 
 
 105 
 
 
 Irregular 
 
 Verbs. Continued. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Preterit. 
 
 Imp. Participle. 
 
 Perfect Participle. 
 
 Stand, 
 
 stood, 
 
 standing, 
 
 stood. 
 
 Steal, 
 
 stole, 
 
 stealing, 
 
 stolen. 
 
 Stick, 
 
 stuck, 
 
 sticking, 
 
 stuck. 
 
 Sting, 
 
 stung, 
 
 stinging, 
 
 stung. 
 
 Stride, 
 
 strode, 
 
 striding, 
 
 stridden or strid. 
 
 Strike, 
 
 struck, 
 
 striking, 
 
 struck or stricken. 
 
 Strive, 
 
 strove, 
 
 striving, 
 
 striven. 
 
 Sweep, 
 
 swept, 
 
 sweeping, 
 
 swept. 
 
 Swear, 
 
 swore, 
 
 swearing, 
 
 sworn. 
 
 Swim, 
 
 swam, 
 
 swimming, 
 
 swum. 
 
 Swing, 
 
 swung, 
 
 swinging, 
 
 swung. 
 
 Take, 
 
 took, 
 
 taking, 
 
 taken. 
 
 Teach, 
 
 tttaght, 
 
 teaching, 
 
 taught. 
 
 Tear, 
 
 tore, 
 
 tearing, 
 
 torn. 
 
 Tell, 
 
 told, 
 
 telling, 
 
 told. 
 
 Think, 
 
 thought, 
 
 thinking, 
 
 thought. 
 
 Throw, 
 
 threw, 
 
 throwing, 
 
 thrown. 
 
 Thrust, 
 
 thrust, 
 
 thrusting, 
 
 thrust. 
 
 Tread, 
 
 trod, 
 
 treading, 
 
 trodden or trod. 
 
 Wear, 
 
 wore, 
 
 wearing, 
 
 worn. 
 
 Weave, 
 
 wove, 
 
 weaving, 
 
 woven. 
 
 Weep, 
 
 wept, 
 
 weeping, 
 
 wept. 
 
 Win, 
 
 won, 
 
 winning, 
 
 won. 
 
 Wind, 
 
 wound, 
 
 winding, 
 
 wound. 
 
 Wring, 
 
 irrung, 
 
 wringing, 
 
 wrung. 
 
 Write, 
 
 wrote, 
 
 writing, 
 
 written. 
 
 
 List of the 
 
 Redundant Verbs. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Preterit. 
 
 Imperf. Participle. 
 
 Perfect Participle. 
 
 Awake, 
 
 awoke or awaked, 
 
 awaking, 
 
 awoke or awaked." 
 
 Belay, 
 
 belaid or belayed, 
 
 belaying, 
 
 belaid or belayed. 
 
 Bend, 
 
 bent or bended, 
 
 bending, 
 
 bent or bended. 
 
 Bereave, 
 
 bereft or bereaved, bereaving, 
 
 bereft or bereaved. 
 
 Bet, 
 
 betted or bet, 
 
 betting, 
 
 betted or bet 
 
 Blend, 
 
 blended or blent, 
 
 blending, 
 
 blended or blent. 
 
 Bless, 
 
 blessed or blest, 
 
 blessing, 
 
 blessed or blest. 
 
 Build, 
 
 built or builded, 
 
 building, 
 
 built or builded. 
 
 Burn, 
 
 burned or burnt, 
 
 burning, 
 
 burned or burnt. 
 
 Catch,, 
 
 caught or catched 
 
 catching, 
 
 caught or catched. 
 
106 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Redundant Verbs. Continued. 
 
 Present. Preterit. Imperf. Participle. 
 
 Clothe, clothed or clad, clothing, 
 
 Crow, crew or crowed, crowing, 
 
 Curse, cursed or curst, cursing, 
 
 Dare, dared or durst, daring, 
 
 Dig, dug or digged, digging, 
 
 Dream, dreamed or dreamt, dreamjng, 
 
 Dress, dressed or drest, dressing, 
 
 Dwell, dwelt or dwelled, dwelling, 
 
 Geld, gelded or gelt, gelding, 
 
 Gild, gilded or gilt, gilding, 
 
 Gird, girded or girt, girding, 
 
 Grave, graved, graving, 
 
 Hang, - hanged or hung, hanging, 
 
 Heave, heaved or hove, heaving, 
 
 Hew, hewed, hewing, 
 
 Kneel, knelt or kneeled, kneeling, 
 
 Knit, knit or knitted, knitting, 
 
 Lade, laded, lading, 
 
 Lean, leaned or leant, leaning, 
 
 Leap, leaped or leapt, leaping, 
 
 Learn, learned or learnt, learning, 
 
 Light, lighted or lit, lighting, 
 
 Mow, mowed, mowing, 
 
 Pen (to coop), penned or pent, penning, 
 
 Quit, quitted or quit, quitting, 
 
 Rap, rapped, rapping, 
 
 Reave, reft or reaved, reaving, 
 
 Rive, rived, riving, 
 
 Saw, sawed, sawing, 
 
 Seethe, seethed or sod, seething, 
 
 Shape, shaped, shaping, 
 
 Snave, shaved, shaving, 
 
 Shear, sheared or shore, shearing, 
 
 Shine, shone or shined, shining, 
 
 Show, showed, showing, 
 
 Slit, slit or slitted, slitting, 
 
 Smell, smelled or smelt, smelling, 
 
 Sow, sowed, sowing, 
 
 Speed, sped or speeded, speeding, 
 
 Spell, spelled or spelt, spelling, 
 
 Spill, spilled or spilt, spilling, 
 
 Perfect Participle. 
 clothed or clad, 
 crowed. 
 
 cursed or curst, 
 dared. 
 
 dug or digged, 
 dreamed or dreamt 
 dressed or drest. 
 dwelt or dwelled, 
 gelded or gelt, 
 gilded or gilt, 
 girded or girt, 
 graven or graved, 
 hanged or hung, 
 heaved or hoven. 
 hewed or hewn, 
 knelt or kneeled, 
 knit or knitted, 
 laded or laden, 
 leaned or leant, 
 leaped or leapt, 
 learned or learnt, 
 lighted or lit. 
 mowed or mown, 
 penned or pent, 
 quitted or quit, 
 rapped or rapt, 
 reft or reaved. 
 riven or rived, 
 sawed or sawn, 
 seethed or sodden, 
 shaped or shapen. 
 shaved or shaven, 
 sheared or shorn, 
 shone or shined. 
 shown or showed, 
 slit or slitted. 
 smelled or smelt, 
 sown or sowed, 
 sped or speeded, 
 spelled or spelt, 
 spilled or spilt. 
 
VERBS. 
 
 107 
 
 Redundant Verbs. Continued. 
 
 Preterit. Imperf. Participle. Perfect Participle. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Split, split or splitted, splitting, 
 
 Spoil, spoiled or spoilt, spoiling, 
 
 Stave, staved or stove, staving, 
 
 Stay, staid or stayed, staying, 
 
 String, strung, stringing, 
 
 Strow, strowed, strewing, 
 
 Sweat, sweat or sweated, sweating, 
 
 Swell, swelled, swelling, 
 
 Thrive, throve or thrived, thriving, 
 
 Wax, waxed, waxing, 
 
 Wet, wet or wetted, wetting, 
 
 Wont, wont, wonting, 
 
 Work, wdrked or wrought, working, 
 
 split or splitted. 
 spoiled or spoilt, 
 staved or stove, 
 staid or stayed, 
 strung or stringed, 
 strowed or strown. 
 sweat or sweated, 
 swelled or swollen, 
 thriven or thrived, 
 waxed o?' waxen, 
 wet or wetted, 
 wont or wonted, 
 worked or wrought. 
 
 Defective Verbs. 
 
 When any of the principal parts of a verb are wanting, the 
 tenses usually derived from those parts are, of course, also 
 wanting. All the auxiliaries, except do, be, and have, are 
 defective ; but, as auxiliaries, they become parts of other 
 verbs, and do not need the parts which are technically said to 
 be "wanting." 
 
 OBS. 1. The following list contains all our defective verbs, except 
 methinks, with its preterit methought, which is not only defective, but 
 impersonal and irregular. It is equivalent to it thinks me. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Beware, 
 
 Can, 
 
 May, 
 
 Must, 
 
 Ought, 
 
 List of the D 
 
 Preterit. 
 
 ifective Verbs 
 
 Present. 
 Shall, 
 Will, 
 Quoth, 
 Wis, 
 Wit, 
 
 could, 
 might, 
 must, 
 ought. 
 
 Preterit. 
 should, 
 would, 
 quoth. 
 
 wot. 
 
 OBS. 2. Beware is not used in the indicative present. Must is never 
 varied in termination. Ought is invariable, except in the solemn style, 
 where we find o tightest. Wfll is sometimes used as a principal verb, and 
 
108 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 as such is regular and complete. Quoth is used only in ludicrous Ian, 
 guage, and is not varied. It seems to be properly the third person sin^ 
 gular of the present, for it ends in th ; and quod was formerly used aa 
 the preterit. 
 
 OBS. 3. WiSj preterit wist, to know, to think, to suppose, to imagine, 
 appears to be now nearly or quite obsolete ; but it seems proper to ex- 
 plain it, because it is found in the Bible ; as, "I wist not, brethren, 
 that he was the high priest." Acts. Wit, to know, and.' wot, knew, are 
 also obsolete except in the phrase to wit ; which, being taken abstractly, 
 is equivalent to the adverb namely, or to the phrase, that is to say. 
 
 OBS. 4. Some verbs, from the nature of the subject to which they 
 refer, can be used only in the third person singular : as, It rains ; it 
 snows ; it freezes ; it hails ; it lightens ; it thunders. These have been 
 called impersonal verbs. The neuter pronoun it, which is always used 
 before them, does not seem to represent any noun, but, in connection 
 with the verb, merely to express a state of things, 
 
 Exercises. 
 
 1. State the dosses and modifications of the verbs in the following sen- 
 tences : 
 
 The house might have been built in time. The ship was wrecked. 
 He should have finished his task. The young lady has been well edu* 
 cated. What has been done cannot be repaired. I will go out this 
 afternoon, unless it rain. The horse must be shod, or he will become 
 lame. They could not have known what they were doing. The mer- 
 chant is said to have failed. The boy fell into the water, and he would 
 have been drowned, if he had been unable to swim. He must have 
 been mad to have committed the rash act. O, how happy we might 
 have been. I will call upon him, if he desire it. I will go, and 
 you shall not prevent me. I shall fail, for no one will aid me. I 
 should like to accept the invitation. He would be willing to pay for 
 the privilege. I would not do it, if I could. You shall do it, for I will 
 compel you. You will not commit so base an act ! If it snow to-mor^ 
 row, I cannot go. You ought to have tried to oblige your friend. Be- 
 ware, lest your anger overcome you. 
 
 2. Write sentences, each containing an active verb, transitive or intran* 
 Mtive, as directed in thefoUowing : 
 
 In the indicative mood, perfect tense ; indicative pluperfect ; sub- 
 junctive present ; subjunctive imperfect ; potential present ; potential 
 
VERBS. 109 
 
 perfect ; infinitive present ; infinitive perfect ; indicative first future ; 
 potential pluperfect ; imperative ; indicative second future ; potential 
 imperfect ; indicative imperfect. 
 
 3. Write sentences, each containing a passive verb with the same modifi- 
 cations as in the above. 
 
 X. PARTICIPLES. 
 
 A participle is a word derived from a verb, partici- 
 pating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a 
 noun ; and is generally formed by adding wg, d, or ed to 
 the verb. ^ 
 
 OBS. Participles retain tlie essential meaning of their verbs ; and, 
 like verbs, are either active-transitive, active-intransitive, passive, or 
 neuter, in their signification. For this reason many have classed them 
 with the verbs ; but their formal meaning is obviously different. They 
 convey no affirmation, but usually relate to nouns or pronouns, like ad- 
 jectives, except when they are joined with auxiliaries to form the com- 
 pound tenses ; or when they have in. part the nature of substantives, 
 like the Latin gerunds. 
 
 Classes. 
 
 English verbs have severally three participles : the im- 
 perfect, the perfect, and the preperfect. 
 
 OBS. Various names have been given to the participles ; as their 
 order is undisputed, they may be conveniently called the First, the 
 Second, and the Third. 
 
 The imperfect participle is that which ends com 
 inonly in ing, and implies a continuance of the being, 
 action, or passion ; as, loving (active), being loved (passive). 
 
 The perfect participle is that which ends com- 
 monly in ed or en, and implies a completion of the being, 
 action, or passion ; as, loved (passive). 
 
 OBS. The participle in ing represents the action or state as continuing 
 and ever incomplete ; it is therefore rightly termed the imperfect par- 
 
110 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 ticiple : whereas the participle in ed always has reference to the action 
 as done and complete; and is by proper contradistinction called the 
 perfect participle. 
 
 OBS. The perfect participle is essentially passive. Hence, in the case 
 of intransitive and neuter verbs, this part of the verb cannot be used by 
 itself. 
 
 The preperfect participle is that which takes the 
 sign having ) and implies a previous completion of the being, 
 action, or passion ; as, having loved (active), having been 
 loved (passive). 
 
 OBS. If this participle is to be named with reference to its meaning, 
 there is perhaps no better term for it than the epithet preperfect, 
 a word which explains itself, like prepaid or prerequisite. Of the many 
 other names, the most correct one is pluperfect, which is a term of 
 very nearly the same meaning. Xot because this compound is really of 
 the pluperfect tense, but because it always denotes being, action, or pas- 
 sion, that is, or was, or will be, completed before the doing or being of 
 something else ; and, of course, when the latter thing is represented as 
 past, the participle must correspond to the pluperfect tense of its verb ; 
 as, " Having explained her views, it was necessary she should expatiate 
 on the vanity and futility of the enjoyments promised by Pleasure. " 
 Here having explained is equivalent to when she had explained. 
 
 The imperfect participle of an active verb is always formed 
 by adding ing to the radical verb ; as, look, looking. 
 
 The imperfect participle of a passive verb is formed by pre- 
 fixing being to the perfect participle ; as, being loved. 
 
 The perfect participle is regularly formed by adding d or 
 ed to the radical verb. 
 
 A r ot4^FoT the perfect participles of irregular verbs, see lists, pp. 98-101. 
 
 The preperfect participle of an active verb is formed by 
 prefixing having to the perfect participle ; that of a passive 
 verb, by prefixing having been ; as, having written, having been 
 written. 
 
 Thus, the English verb, in the active form, has, in fact, only 
 two participles the imperfect and the preperfect ; and in the 
 passive, three the imperfect, the perfect, and the preperfect 
 
PABTICIPLES. Ill 
 
 Participles may be separated into two other classes : those 
 which participate the properties of a verb and an adjective, 
 and those which participate the properties of a verb and a 
 noun. The latter are sometimes called gerundives. 
 
 The following are examples of each : 
 
 First Class Verb and Adjective. 
 
 He came running very swiftly. 
 She, dying, gave it me. 
 The enemy having been defeated fled. 
 She stood wringing her hands. 
 Error wounded writhes in pain. 
 The Justice read amused, amazed. 
 
 Second Class. Verb and Noun. (GERUNDIVES.) 
 
 She is fond of reading history. 
 
 After having paid the money he retired. 
 
 He was released on giving bail. 
 
 In keeping His commandments there is great reward. 
 
 Before leaving the city he paid his debts. 
 
 OBS. 1 Participles often become adjectives, and are construed before 
 nouns to denote quality. The terms so converted form the class of par- 
 ticipial adjectives. Words of a participial form may be regarded as adjec- 
 tives : 1. When they reject the idea of time, and denote something 
 customary or habitual, rather than a transient act or state ; as, A lying 
 rogue, i. e. , one addicted to lying. 2. When they admit adverbs of com- 
 parison ; as, A more learned man. 3. When they are compounded with 
 something that does not belong to the verb ; as, unfeeling, nnfelt. Thery 
 is no verb to unfeel ; therefore, no participle unfeeling or unfelL Ad- 
 jectives are generally placed before their nouns ; participles, after them. 
 
 OBS. 2. To distinguish the participle from the participial noun, the 
 learner should observe the following four things: 1. Nouns take articles 
 and adjectives before them ; participles, as such, do not. 2. Nouns may 
 govern the possessive case, but not the objective ; participles may govern 
 the objective case, but not the possessive. 3. Nouns may be the subjects 
 or objects of verbs ; participles cannot. 4. Participial nouns express 
 actions as things ; participles refer actions to their agents or recipients. 
 
112 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Exercises. 
 
 1. Write the participles of the verbs given below in the following form : 
 Write 
 
 Active. 
 Imperfect. Writing. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Preperfect. Having written. 
 
 Passive. 
 Being written. 
 Written. 
 Having been written- 
 
 Make, give, seek, speak, hurt, feed, wear, smite, swim, know, think, 
 tell, work, clothe, catch, teach, tread, dream, kneel, shoe, ride, put, lie, 
 lay, say, sit, set, spend, steal. 
 
 2. Write sentences eacJi containing a participle derived from one or 
 more of these verbs. 
 
 3. Write five sentences each containing a participle of the second class. 
 
 XI. ADVERBS. 
 
 An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an 
 adjective, or another adverb ; and generally expresses 
 time, place, degree, or manner. 
 
 OBS. 1. Adverbs briefly express what would otherwise require seV 
 eral words ; as, Now, for at this time Here, for in this place Very, 
 for in a high degree Diligently, for in an industrious manner. 
 
 OBS. 2. There are several combinations of short words which are 
 used adverbially, and which, as idiomatic phrases, it is scarcely neces- 
 sary or possible to separate in analysis or parsing ; as, Not at aU, at 
 length, in vain. 
 
 Classes. 
 
 Adverbs may be reduced to four general classes ; 
 namely, adverbs of time, of place, of degree, and of 
 manner. 
 
 Adverbs of time are those which answer to the 
 question, When ? How long ? How soon ? or How often f 
 including these which ask. 
 
ADVERBS. 113 
 
 OBS. Adverbs of time may be subdivided as follows: 
 
 1. Of time present ; as, Now, yet, to-day, presently, instantly, imme* 
 diately. 
 
 2. Of time past; as, Already, yesterday, lately, recently, anciently, 
 heretofore, hitherto, since, ago, erewhile. 
 
 3. Of time to come ; as, To-morrow, hereafter, henceforth, by-and-by, 
 soon, erelong. 
 
 4. Of time relative; as, When, then, before, after, while or whilst, 
 till, until, seasonably, betimes, early, late. 
 
 5. Of time absolute ; as, Always, ever, never, aye, eternally, per- 
 petually, continually. 
 
 6. Of time repeated ; as, Often, oft, again, occasionally, frequently, 
 sometimes, seldom, rarely, now-and-then, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, 
 once, twice, thrice, or three times, etc. 
 
 7. Of the ordeirof time ; as, First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, etc. 
 
 Adverbs of place are those which answer to the 
 question, Where? Whither ? Whence? or Whereabout? 
 including these which ask. 
 
 OBS. Adverbs of place may be subdivided as follows: 
 
 1. Of place in which ; as, "Where, here, there, yonder, above, below, 
 about, around, somewhere, anywhere, elsewhere, everywhere, nowhere, 
 wherever, within, without, whereabout, hereabout, thereabout. 
 
 2. Of place to which ; as, Whither, hither, thither, in, up, down, back, 
 forth, inwards, upwards, downwards, backwards, forwards. 
 
 3. Of place from which ; as, Whence, hence, thence, away, out. 
 
 4. Of the order of place ; as, First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, etc. 
 
 Adverbs of degree are those which answer to the 
 question, How much ? How little ? or, to the idea of more 
 or less. 
 
 OBS. Adverbs of degree may be subdivided as follows : 
 
 1. Of excess in abundance : as, Much, too, very, greatly, far, besides ; 
 chiefly, principally, mainly, generally ; entirely, full, fully, completely, 
 perfectly, wholly, totally, altogether, all, quite, clear, stark; exceedingly, 
 excessively, extravagantly, intolerably ; immeasurably, inconceivably, in- 
 finitely. 
 
 2. Of equality or sufficiency ; as, Enough, sufficiently, equally, so, at t 
 wen. 
 
 8 
 
114 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 3. Of deficiency or abatement ; as, Little, scarcely, hardly, merely, 
 barely, only, but, partly, partiaUy, nearly, almost. 
 
 4. Of quantity in the abstract ; as, How, (meaning, in what degree, } 
 however, howsoever, everso, something, nothing, anything, and other 
 nouns of quantity used adverbially. 
 
 Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the 
 question, How f or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, 
 show how a subject is regarded. 
 
 OBS. Adverbs of manner may be subdivided as follows : 
 
 1. Of manner from quality; as, Well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, 
 quickly, and many others formed by adding ly to adjectives of quality. 
 
 2. Of affirmation or assent ; as, Verily, truly, indeed, surely, certainly, 
 doubtless, undoubtedly, certes, forsooth. 
 
 3. Of negation ; as, No, nay, not, nowise. 
 
 4. Of doubt ; as, Perhaps, haply, possibly, perchance, peradventure, 
 may-be. 
 
 5. Of mode or way ; as, Thus, so, how, somehow, however, howsoever, 
 like, eUe, otherwise, across, together, apart, asunder, namely, particularly, 
 necessarily. 
 
 6. Of cause ; as, Why, wherefore, therefore. 
 
 Conjunctive Adverbs. 
 
 Adverbs sometimes perform the office of conjunctions, 
 and serve to connect the clauses of a sentence, as well as 
 to express some circumstance of time, place, degree, or man- 
 ner : adverbs that are so used, are called conjunctive 
 adverbs. 
 
 OBS. 1. A conjunctive adverb introducing a dependent clause re- 
 lates to the predicate verb in that clause, while the clause itself relates 
 to the predicate verb of the principal clause. The words most frequently 
 used in this way are the following : after, as, before, since, till, until, 
 when, where, while or whilst. Because, answering to the question why, 
 wherefore, for what reason (each of which is adverbial), may be also re- 
 garded as a conjunctive adverb. There are other words, as also, besides, 
 hence, however, therefore, etc. , that imply a logical connection of sentences 
 or propositions j but they are not, grammatically, connective words. 
 
ADVERBS. 115 
 
 OBS. 2. The word even, generally considered an adverb, as very fre- 
 quently used, seems to perform the office of no part of speech, but to be 
 employed merely to give emphasis to the particular word or phrase which 
 it precedes ; as, " Even the great are not free from vice." " I, even I 
 only, am left." 
 
 OBS. 3. The words yes and yea, expressing a single affirmation, and 
 no and nay, expressing a simple negation, are always independent. 
 They generally answer a question, and are equivalent to a whole sen- 
 tence. They cannot, therefore, be properly considered as adverbs, but 
 rather as affirmative or negative particles. The word amen, meaning 
 so let it be, is of a similar character and usage. 
 
 Modifications. 
 
 Adverbs have no modifications, except that a few are 
 compared after the manner of adjectives : as, Soon, sooner, 
 soonest ; often, oftener, oftenest long, longer, longest. 
 
 The following are irregularly compared : well, better, best ; 
 badly or ill, worse, worst ; little, less, least ; much, more, most ; 
 far, farther, farthest ; forth, further, furthest. 
 
 OBS. Most adverbs of quality will admit the comparative adverbs 
 more and most, less and least, before them : as, wisely, more wisely, most 
 wisely ; culpably, less culpably, least culpably. 
 
 Exercises in Construction. 
 
 1. Write five sentences, each containing an adverb of manner. 
 
 2. Write five sentences, each containing an adverb of place. 
 
 3. Write Jive sentences, each containing an adverb of time. 
 
 4. Write five sentences, each containing an adverb of degree. 
 
 o. Write sentences each containing one of the following adverbs : 
 
 Always, whether, seldom, often, truly, chiefly, seldom, patiently, 
 earnestly, very, move, how, indeed, first, secondly, perhaps, doubtless, 
 however, whence, hither, yesterday, by-and-by, hitherto, heretofore, 
 somewhere, anywhere. 
 
 6. Write complex sentences, each consisting of a principal and depend- 
 ent clause connected by one of the following conjunctive adverbs : 
 When, while, where, till, since, before, after, as, 
 
116 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 XII.-CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 A conjunction is a word used to connect words or 
 sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of 
 the terms so connected. 
 
 Classes. 
 
 Conjunctions are divided into two general classes, 
 copulative and disjunctive; and some of each of 
 these sorts are corresponsive. 
 
 A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that 
 denotes an addition, a cause, or a supposition : as, " He a/ad 
 I shall not dispute; for, if he has any choice, 1 shall 
 readily grant it." 
 
 A disjunctive conjunction is a conjunction that 
 denotes opposition of meaning ; as, " Be not overcome 
 [by] evil, but overcome evil with good." Rom. xii., 21. 
 
 The corresponsive conjunctions are those which 
 are used in pairs, so that one refers or answers to another ; 
 as, "John came neither eating nor drinking." Matthew 
 xi., 18. 
 
 The following are the principal conjunctions : 
 
 Copulative ; And, as, both, because, for, if, that, then, 
 since, seeing, so. 
 
 Disjunctive ; Or, nor, either, neither, than, though, al- 
 though, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, notwithstanding. 
 
 Corresponsive; Both and ; asas; as so; if 
 then ; either or ; neither nor ; whether or ; though, or 
 although yet. 
 
 XML-PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 A preposition is a word used to express some rela- 
 tion of different things or thoughts to each other, and is 
 generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. 
 
DEPOSITIONS. 117 
 
 OBS. 1. Prepositions are neither principal parts of a sentence, nor 
 are they adjuncts. They are simply words used to express relation. 
 
 OBS. 2. Prepositions introduce phrases that are generally used as 
 adjuncts; as, "A man of reputation j " equivalent to, A reputable man. 
 " In this place they settled ; " equivalent to, Here they settled. " F't 
 for use," in which the phrase for use limits the adjective jit. Suci 
 phrases are usually called prepositional phrases. 
 
 OBS. 3. The noun or pronoun before which a preposition is placed 
 is called its object, and the preposition always expresses the relation 
 between its object and the word to which the prepositional phrase is an 
 adjunct. Thus in the examples given above, of expresses the relation 
 between man and reputation ; in, between settled and place; and/0r, 
 
 between fit and use. 
 
 <f 
 
 List of the Prepositions. 
 
 The following are the principal prepositions, arranged al- 
 phabetically : Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, 
 amid or amidst, among or amongst, around, at, athwart ; Bat- 
 ing, before, behind, below, beneath, beside or besides, between or 
 betwixt, beyond, by ; Concerning; Down, during; Ere, ex- 
 cept, excepting ; For, from ; In, into ; Mid or midst ; 
 Notwithstanding ; Of, off, on, over, over thwart ; Past, pend- 
 ing ; Regarding, respecting, round ; Since ; Through, 
 throughout, till, to, touching, toward or towards ; Under t un- 
 derneath, until, unto, up, upon ; With, within, without. 
 
 OBS. 1. The words in the preceding list are generally prepositions. 
 But when any of them are employed without a subsequent term of rela- 
 tion, they are either adjectives or adverbs. For, when it signifies be- 
 cause, is a conjunction ; without, when used for unless, and notwith- 
 standing, when placed before a nominative, are usually referred to the 
 class of conjunctions also. 
 
 OBS. 2. Several words besides those contained in the foregoing list 
 are (or have been) occasionally employed in English as prepositions ; as, 
 A (chiefly used before participles), abaft, adown, afore, aloft, aloof, 
 alongside, anear, anent, aslant, aslope, astride, atween, atwfat, by-west, 
 cross, dehors, despite, inside, left-hand, mauger, minus, onto, opposite, 
 outside, per, plus, sans, spite, thorough, traverse, versus, via, withal, 
 withinsifa 
 
118 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 OBS. 3. Two or more words are sometimes used as a ompound prep- 
 osition, being combined so as to express a single relation. The follow- 
 ing are examples : as to, as for, according to, because of, out of, from 
 out, from among, from between, over against. 
 
 Exercise. 
 
 Insert prepositions in place of the dashes in the following sentences : 
 
 Plead the dumb. Qualify thyself action study. 
 
 Think often the value time. Be not dismayed 
 
 difficulties. Live peace all men. Keep the 
 
 bounds moderation. Jest not serious subjects. Take no 
 
 part slander. Guilt starts its own shadow. Grudge not 
 
 giving. Go not sleep malice. Depend not 
 
 the assistance others, but rely yourself. Many fail 
 
 grasping at things their reach. Go the world 
 
 your eyes open. 
 
 XIV. INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 An interjection is a word that is uttered merely to 
 indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind. 
 
 OBS. 1. Interjections have no relation to any other words in a sen- 
 tence. They are neither adjuncts nor principal parts, being entirely 
 independent. Properly considered, therefore, the interjection is not a 
 part of speech, or part of a sentence. 
 
 OBS. 2. Of pure interjections but few are ordinarily admitted into 
 books. As words or sounds of this kind serve rather to indicate feeling 
 than to express thought, they seldom have any truly definable significa- 
 tion. Their use also is so variable, that there can be no very accurate 
 classification of them. Some significant words properly belonging to 
 other classes, are ranked with interjections, when uttered with emotion 
 and in an unconnected manner. 
 
 List of the Interjections. 
 
 The following are the principal interjections, arranged accor- 
 ding to the emotions which they are generally intended to in- 
 dicate : 1. Of joy; eigh ! hey ! io I 2. Of sorrow ; oh f ah ! hoo ! 
 alas I alack I lackaday ! welladay ! or welaivay ! 3. Of won- 
 
ANALYSIS, PAKSITTG, AKD CONSTRUCTION. 119 
 
 der ; heigh ! ha / strange f indeed ! 4. Of wishing, earnestness, 
 or vocative address ; (often with a noun or pronoun in the 
 nominative absolute ;) 0! 5. Of praise ; well-done! good! 
 bravo! 6. Of surprise with disapproval; whew! hoity-toity! 
 hoida ! zounds ! what ! 7. Of pain or fear ; oh ! ooh ! ah ! eh ! 
 dear ! 8. Of contempt ; fudge ! pugh ! poh ! pshaw ! pish ! 
 tush ! tut I humph ! 9. Of aversion ; foh ! faugh ! fie ! fy I 
 foy! 10. Of expulsion; out! off! shoo! whew! begone! 
 avaunt ! aroynt ! 11. Of calling aloud ; ho ! soho ! what-ho ! 
 hollo ! holla ! hallo ! halloo ! hoy ! ahoy ! 12. Of exultation ; 
 ah ! aha I huzza ! hey ! heyday ! hurrah ! 13. Of laughter ; ha, 
 ha } ha ; he, he,<>he ; te-hee, te-hee. 14. Of salutation ; welcome! 
 hail ! all hail ! 15. Of calling to attention ; ho ! lo ! la ! law ! 
 look ! see ! behold ! hark ! 16. Of calling to silence ; hush ! 
 hist ! ivhist ! } st ! aw! mum ! 17. Of dread or horror ; oh ! 
 ha ! hah ! what ! 18. Of languor or weariness ; heigh-ho ! 
 heigh-ho-hum ! 19. Of stopping ; hold ! soft ! avast ! whoa ! 
 20. Of parting ; farewell ! adieu ! good-by ! good-day! 21. Of 
 knowing or detecting ; oho ! aha ! ay-ay ! 22. Of interro- 
 gating ; ehf ha? hey? 
 
 OBS. Besides these, there are several others, too often heard, which 
 are unworthy to be considered as parts of a cultivated language. The 
 frequent use of interjections savors more of thoughtlessness than Of sen- 
 sibility. 
 
 XV.-ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Phrases. 
 
 A phrase is a combination of two or more word* 
 expressing some relation of ideas, but no entire prop- 
 osition ; as, " Of a good disposition." " To be plain with 
 you." " Having loved his own." 
 
 A phrase may be used in three ways : 1, as one of the 
 principal parts of a sentence ; 2, as an adjunct ; 3, it may 
 be independent. 
 
120 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 An adjunct phrase is adjective, adverbial, or ex- 
 planatory. 
 
 A substantive phrase is one used in the place 
 of a noun ; as, " To do good is the duty of all." 
 
 An independent phrase is one that is not related 
 to, or connected with, any word in the rest of the sentence; 
 as, " He failing, who shall meet success ? " " To be 
 plain with you, I think you in fault." 
 
 The principal part of a phrase is that upon which 
 all the other parts depend ; as, " Under every misfortune" 
 " Having exhausted every expedient." 
 
 Phrases are either simple, complex, or com- 
 pound. 
 
 A simple phrase is one unconnected with any other ; 
 as, " Of an obliging disposition." 
 
 A complex phrase is one that contains a phrase or 
 a clause, as an adjunct of its principal part ; as, " By the 
 bounty of heaven." " To be plain with you." 
 
 A compound phrase is one composed of two or 
 more co-ordinate phrases ; as, " Stooping down and looking 
 in." 
 
 Phrases are also classified as to their form, depending 
 upon the introducing word, or the principal part ; thus, 
 
 1. A phrase, introduced by a preposition, is called a 
 prepositional phrase / as, " By doing good." " Of an en- 
 gaging disposition." 
 
 2. A phrase the principal part of which is a verb in the 
 infinitive mood, is called an infinitive phrase ; as, " To be 
 good is to be happy" 
 
 3. A phrase the principal word of which is a participle, 
 is called a participial phrase ; as, " A measure founded 
 on justice" 
 
 OBS. 1. A preposition that introduces a phrase, serves only to express 
 the relation between the principal part, and the word of the sentence 
 on which the phrase depends. 
 
ANALYSIS, PAUSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 121 
 
 A phrase, used as the subject or the object of a verb, must 
 be substantive in office, and, with a strict adherence to gram- 
 matical rules, can only be infinitive in form ; as, " To disobey 
 parents is sinful." " William loves to study grammar." Par- 
 ticipial phrases are, however, sometimes used by good, writers 
 in this way ; as, " Hunting the buffalo, is one of the sports of 
 the West." "John's father opposed his going to sea." 
 
 A phrase, used as an attribute, may be substantive or adjec- 
 tive in office, and may have the following forms : 
 
 1. Infinitive; as, "The object of punishment is to reform 
 the guilty." "His conduct is greatly to be admired." [In the 
 latter example,*the phrase is adjective, to be admired being 
 equivalent to admirable.'] 
 
 2. Prepositional / as, " He is in good health." " The train 
 was behind time." [In each of these examples, the phrase is 
 adjective. ~\ 
 
 An adjective phrase may have the following forms : 
 
 1. Prepositional ; as, " Carelessness in the use of money is a 
 vice." 
 
 2. Infinitive ; as, " The desire to do good is praiseworthy." 
 
 3. Participial ; as, " Seeing the danger, he avoided it. " 
 An adverbial phrase may have the following forms : 
 
 1. Prepositional ; as, "He was attentive to his business." 
 
 2. Infinitive ; as, "They were anxious to ascertain the truth." 
 
 3. Idiomatic; as, "In vain." "Day by day." "By and 
 by." "As a general thing." 
 
 An explanatory phrase is always substantive in office, and 
 infinitive in form ; as, " It is pleasant to see the sun" 
 
 The independent phrase is various in form and character. 
 It may be distinguished as 
 
 1. Infinitive ; as, " To be candid, I was in fault." 
 
 2. Participial ; as, " Considering the circumstances, much 
 credit is due." 
 
 3. Vocative ; as, "Boast not, my dear friend, of to-morrow." 
 
 4. Pleonastic; as, " The blessing of the Lord, it maketh 
 rich/' 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 5. Absolute ; as, " The sun having risen, the mists were dift 
 persed." 
 
 OBS. 1. The last form of this phrase is often adverbial in signifies 
 tion ; as in the example given, in which it is equivalent to the clause, 
 v-hen tu" sun had risen. It is, therefore, independent only in construe 
 
 OBS. 2. An adverbial phrase may be modified by an adverb ; as, 
 "It lasts but for a moment ;" i.e., bat equivalent to only, and modify- 
 ing the adverbial phrase, for a moment. 
 
 OBS. 3. A phrase or a clause is sometimes used as the object of * 
 preposition, and thus forms a prepositional phrase of a complex 01 
 anomalous character; as, "Blows mildew from between-fiis-shriveled 
 tips." "That depends on who-can-run-tfie fastest." 
 
 Exercises in Analysis and Parsing. 
 
 Praxis IV. Etymological. 
 
 In the Fourth Praxis, it is required of the pupil : to classify and ana* 
 tyze the sentence as in the preceding praxis ; to classify and analyze 
 each phrase ; and to parse the sentence, distinguishing the parts oj 
 speech, and ail tteir classes and modifications. Thus : 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED AXD PAUSED. 
 
 " Ah ! who can tell the triumphs of the mind, 
 By truth illumined, and by taste refined ? " 
 
 ANALYSIS. A simple interrogative sentence. 
 
 The subject is who ; the predicate verb, can tell ; the object of which is triumph*, 
 modified by the complex adjective phrase, of the mind illumined by truth, and refined 
 by taste. 
 
 The principal part of the phrase is mind ; its adjuncts are the and the compound 
 adjective phrase, illumined by truth, and refined by taste, which consists of the two co- 
 ordinate participial phrases connected by and 
 
 The principal part of the former is illumined, and its adjunct, the simple adverbial 
 phrase, by truth ; the principal part of the latter is refined, and its adjunct, the simple 
 adverbial phrase by taste. 
 
 Ah is an independent word. 
 
 . Ah 1 is an interjection^ because it is a simple exclamation of wonder or 
 admiration. 
 
 Who is an interrogative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, common in 
 gender; and in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb can tett. 
 
 By is a preposition, because it shows the relation between truth and illumined, the 
 pbnue ty truth being an adjunct of Mummed. 
 
ANA1YSIS, PARSING, ATTD CONSTRTTCtlGtf. 123 
 
 Truth is a common noun, and abstract, because it is the name of a quality. It is oi 
 the third person, singular number, neuter gender ; and in the objective case, because it 
 is the object of the preposition by. 
 
 Illumined is a perfect participle from the regular passive verb be illumined. It per- 
 forms the office of a verb, by expressing passion ; and of an adjective, by modifying the 
 noun mind. 
 
 And is a conjunction, because it connects the two phrases, by truth illumined, by taste 
 refined ; it is copulative, because it expresses an addition. 
 
 [Parse the other words as in the preceding praxes.] 
 
 Having sold his patrimony he engaged in merchandise. 
 
 The bounty displayed on the earth equals the grandeur manifested in 
 the heavens. 
 
 In the varieties of life, we are inured to habits both of the active and 
 the suffering virtues. 
 
 By disappointments and trials, the violence of our passions is tamed. 
 
 He, stooping down and looking in, saw the linen clothes lying ; yet 
 went he not in. 
 
 (Cheerfulness keeps up a kind of day-light in the mind, and fills it 
 with a steady and perpetual serenity. 
 
 Sitting is the best posture for deliberation ; standing for persuasion ; 
 a judge, therefore, should speak sitting ; a pleader, standing. 
 
 The pleasures of sense resemble a foaming torrent ; which, after a 
 disorderly course, speedily runs out, and leaves an empty and offensive 
 channel. 
 
 Most of the troubles which we meet with in the world, arise from an 
 irritable temper, or from improper conduct. 
 
 The meeting was so respectable, that the propriety of its decision can 
 hardly be questioned. 
 
 They who are moderate in their expectations, meet with few disap- 
 pointments. 
 
 The soul becomes great by the habitual contemplation of great 
 objects. 
 
 Exercises in Construction. 
 
 1. Write sentences, each containing a phrase of one of the fottmoing 
 forms. 
 
 A simple adjective phrase. A simple adverbial phrase. A complex 
 adjective phrase. A complex adverbial phrase. A compound phrase. 
 An explanatory phrase. A participial phrase. A complex prepositional 
 phrase. An infinitive phrase. A vocative phrase. An absolute phrase. 
 An idiomatic phrase. A phrase used as the subject. A phrase used as 
 an object. A phrase used as an adjective attribute. A phrase used as 
 a substantive attribute. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 2. In the following sentences, substitute a phrase for one of the dames. 
 Examples. 
 
 1. When the ship arrives, I shall 
 see my friend. 
 
 2. After the pupils had recited 
 their lessons, the teacher dismissed 
 them: 
 
 3. They erected a crucifix, and 
 prostrated themselves before it. 
 
 4. A quadruped is an animal that 
 has four legs. 
 
 1. On the arrival of the ship, I 
 shall see my friend. 
 
 2. The pupils having recited 
 their lessons, the teacher dismissed 
 them. 
 
 3. Having erected a crucifix, they 
 prostrated themselves before it. 
 
 4. A quadruped is an animal hav- 
 ing four legs. 
 
 "When spring comes, the fields resume their verdure. 
 
 After the enemy had been defeated, they fled. 
 
 I will meet you, when the train arrives. 
 
 As he was stooping down, he saw the man's hiding-place. 
 
 Because he was inexperienced, they deceived him. 
 
 I fixed my eyes on the object, and soon perceived that it was a bird. 
 
 The farm was carefully cultivated, and it yielded abundant crops. 
 
 The rain fell in torrents, and we took refuge in an inn. 
 
 As I did not receive your letter, I did not know of your misfortune. 
 
 He who had been so idle and dissolute came to beggary. 
 
 He sacrificed his health and happiness that he might indulge in sen- 
 sual pleasure. [Use the infinitive phrase.] 
 
 She neglected the improvement of her mind, that she might study her 
 appearance in the glass. 
 
 3. Construct a sentence from each of the following phrases. 
 
 At all times. In the hour of temptation. In the morning of life. To 
 be useful to others. To be diligent in study. The moon having risen. 
 The battle having been lost. By doing good. Preserving a good repu- 
 tation. Trembling with excitement. Discouraged by misfortune. From 
 day to day. By and by. As a general thing. He being young and 
 without experience. Overcome with emotion. Suppressing her tears. 
 
 Questions for Review. 
 
 I. THE SENTENCE. 
 
 What is the subject of a sentence ? The predicate ? 
 
 What is a proposition ? What do propositions form ? 
 
 What is a sentence ? 
 
 What must every sentence contain ? 
 
 What are adjuncts ? What is a simple sentence ? 
 
ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 125 
 
 How are sentences divided ? 
 
 What is a declarative sentence ? An interrogative sentence ? An impera- 
 tive sentence ? An exclamatory sentence ? 
 
 II. PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 Of what does Etymology treat ? 
 How many and what are the parts of speech ? 
 What is an article ? What are the examples ? 
 What is a noun ? What examples are given ? 
 What is an adjective ? How is this exemplified ? 
 What is a pronoun ? How is this exemplified ? 
 What is a verb ? How is this exemplified ? 
 What is a participle ? How is this exemplified ? 
 What is an adverb ? How is this exemplified ? 
 What is a conjunction ? How is this exemplified ? 
 What is a preposition ? How is this exemplified ? 
 What is an interjection ? What examples are given ? 
 
 What is a definition ? A rule of grammar ? A praxis ? An example ? 
 An exercise ? 
 What is parsing ? 
 
 III. ARTICLES. 
 What is an ARTICLE ? 
 
 Are an and a different articles, or the same ? 
 When is an used, and what are the examples ? 
 When is a used, and what are the examples ? 
 What form of the article do the sounds of w and y require ? 
 Repeat the alphabet, with an or a before the name of each letter. 
 Name the parts of speech, with an or a before each name. 
 How are the two articles distinguished in grammar ? 
 Which is the definite article, and what does it denote ? 
 Which is the indefinite article, and what does it denote ? 
 What modifications have the articles ? 
 
 IV. NOUNS. 
 
 What is a NOUN ? Can you give some examples ? 
 Into what general classes are nouns divided ? 
 What is a, proper noun ? a common noun ? 
 What particular classes are included among common nouns ? 
 What is a collective noun ? an abstract noun ? a verbal or participial 
 noun? 
 
 What is a thing sui generis ? 
 
 What modifications have nouns ? 
 
 What are Persons in grammar ? 
 
 How many persons are there, and what are they called ? 
 
 What is the first person ? the second person ? the third person ? 
 
 What are Numbers in grammar ? 
 
126 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 How many numbers are there, and what are they called ? 
 What is the singular number ? the plural number ? 
 How is the plural number of nouns regularly formed ? 
 What are the rules for adding s and es to form the plural ? 
 
 V. NOUNS. 
 
 What are Genders in grammar ? 
 
 How many genders are there, and what are they called ? 
 What is the masculine gender ? the feminine gender ? the neuter 
 gender ? What nouns may be said to be in the common gender ? 
 What are Cases in grammar ? 
 
 How many cases are there, and what are they called ? 
 What is the nominative case ? 
 What is the subject of a verb ? 
 What is the possessive case ? 
 How is the possessive case of nouns formed ? 
 What is the objective case ? 
 
 What is the object of a verb, participle, or preposition ? 
 What is the declension of a noun ? 
 How do you decline the nouns friend, man, fox, &ndjty? 
 
 VL ANALYSIS, CONSTRUCTION, AND COMPOSITION. 
 What is ANALYSIS ? 
 What is a simple sentence ? a phrase ? 
 Of what does the subject of a sentence consist ? 
 How are adjuncts divided ? 
 
 What is an adjective adjunct ? an adverbial adjunct ? an explanatory 
 adjunct ? 
 
 By what adjuncts may nouns be modified ? Verbs ? 
 What is an attribute ? 
 
 In analyzing a sentence, what should be pointed out ? 
 What is construction ? Composition ? 
 When do sentences form a composition ? 
 
 VIL ADJECTIVES. 
 
 What is an ADJECTIVE ? How is this exemplified ? 
 
 Into what classes may adjectives be divided ? 
 
 What is a common adjective ? a proper adjective ? a numeral adjective ? 
 a. pronominal adjective ? a. participial adjective ? a compound adjective ? 
 
 What modifications have adjectives ? 
 
 What is Comparison in grammar ? 
 
 How many, and what are the degrees of comparison ? 
 
 What is the positive degree ? the comparative degree ? the superlative 
 degree ? 
 
 What adjectives cannot be compared ? 
 
 What adjectives are compared by means of adverbs ? 
 
 How are adjectives regularly compared ? Compare great, wide^ ajad /K>k 
 
ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 127 
 
 To what adjectives are er and est applicable ? 
 
 Is there any other mode of expressing the degrees ? 
 
 How are the degrees of diminution expressed ? 
 
 How do you compare good, bad or ill, little, much, and many ? 
 
 How do you compare far, near, fore, hind, in, out, up, low, and late? 
 
 VIII. PRONOUNS. 
 
 What is a PRONOUN ? Give the example. 
 How are pronouns divided ? 
 
 What is a personal pronoun ? Tell the personal pronouns. 
 What is a relative pronoun ? Tell the relative pronouns. 
 What peculiarity has the relative what ? 
 What is an interrogative pronoun ? Tell the interrogativea. 
 What modifications have pronouns ? 
 What is the declension of a pronoun ? 
 How do you decline the pronouns I, thou, he, she, and it f 
 What is said of the compound personal pronouns ? 
 How do you decline who, which, what, and that ? 
 How do you decline the compound relative pronouns ? 
 
 IX. ANALYSIS. 
 
 What ia a clause ? What are members ? 
 
 What is a dependent clause ? a principal clause ? 
 
 What is a complex sentence ? a compound sentence ? 
 
 How may clauses be connected ? 
 
 What is a relative clause ? 
 
 Is the relative clause dependent or independent ? 
 
 Is it always a modifying clause ? Illustrate. 
 
 What is a compound subject or predicate ? 
 
 X. VERBS. 
 
 What is a VERB ? What are the examples ? 
 
 How are verbs divided with respect to their form ? 
 
 What is a regular verb ? an irregular verb ? a redundant verb ? a 
 defective verb ? 
 
 How are verbs divided with respect to their signification ? 
 
 What is an active-transitive verb ? an active-intransitive verb ? a passive 
 verb ? a neuter verb ? 
 
 What modifications have verbs ? 
 
 What are Moods in grammar ? 
 
 How many moods are there, and what are they called ? 
 
 What is the infinitive mood ? the indicative mood ? the potential mood ? 
 the subjunctive mood ? the imperative mood ? 
 
 XI. VERBS. 
 
 What are Tenses in grammar ? 
 How many tenses are there, and what are they called ? 
 
128 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 What is the present tense ? the imperfect tense ? the perfect tense ? *he 
 pluperfect tense ? the first-future tense ? the second-future tense ? 
 What are the Person and Number of a verb ? 
 How many persons and numbers belong to verbs ? 
 How are the second and third persons singular formed ? 
 What is the conjugation of a verb ? 
 
 What are the principal parts in the conjugation of a verb ? 
 What is a verb called which wants some of these parts ? 
 What is an auxiliary verb '? 
 What verbs are used as auxiliaries ? 
 
 XII. CONJUGATION. 
 
 What is the simplest form of an English conjugation ? 
 What is the first example of conjugation ? 
 What are the principal parts of the verb LOVE ? 
 
 How many and what tenses has the infinitive mood ? the indicative /'the 
 potential? the subjunctive/ the imperative? 
 What is the compound form of active and neuter verbs ? 
 What peculiar meaning does this form convey ? 
 How are passive verbs formed ? 
 How is a verb conjugated negatively ? 
 How is the form of negation exemplified ? 
 How is a verb conjugated interrogatively ? 
 How is the form of question exemplified ? 
 How is a verb conjugated interrogatively and negatively ? 
 What verbs in English are defective ? 
 What tenses are wanting in these verbs ? 
 What verbs are called impersonal ? 
 
 XTTT. PARTICIPLES. 
 
 What is a PARTICIPLE ? and how is it generally formed ? 
 
 How many participles are there, and what are they called ? 
 
 How is the imperfect participle defined, and what are* the examples ? 
 
 How is the perfect participle defined, and what are the examples ? 
 
 How is the prep erf ect participle defined, and what a** the examples ? 
 
 How is the imperfect participle formed ? 
 
 How is the perfect participle formed ? 
 
 How is the preperfect participle formed ? 
 
 How many participles has the active verb ? the p**sive verb ? 
 
 Into what other classes may participles be separated 1 
 
 Which class are called gerundives ? 
 
 XIV. ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTOKS. 
 
 What is an ADVERB ? What is the example ? 
 
 To what classes may adverbs be reduced ? 
 
 Which are adverbs of time ? of place ? of degree?^ >f manner? 
 
 What are conjunctive adverbs ? 
 
ANALYSIS, PAUSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 129 
 
 Have adverbs any modifications ? 
 
 Compare well, badly or ill, little, much, far and forth. 
 
 What is a CONJUNCTION ? How are conjunctions divided ? 
 
 What is a copulative conjunction? a disjunctive conjunction? a corre- 
 sponsive conjunction ? 
 
 What are the copulative conjunctions ? the disjunctive ? the correspon- 
 sive? 
 
 XV. PREPOSITIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 What is a PREPOSITION ? How are the prepositions arranged ? 
 
 What are the prepositions beginning with a? with b ? with c? with d? 
 with e? with //with i / with m ? with n ? with o ? with p ? with 
 r ? with s ? with t /with u /with w ? 
 
 What is an INTERJECTION ? How are interjections arranged ? 
 
 What are the interjections of joy ? of sorrow ? of wonder ? of wishing 
 or earnestness ? of^praise ? of surprise ? of pain or fear ? of contempt ? 
 of aversion ? of expulsion ? of calling aloud ? of exultation ? of laughter ? 
 of salutation ? of calling to attention ? of calling to silence ? of surprise ? 
 of languor? of stopping? of parting? of knowing or detecting ? of 
 interrogating? 
 
 XVI. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 
 What is a phrase ? 
 
 How may a phrase be used ? What is a substantive phrase ? 
 What is an independent phrase ? the principal part of a phrase? 
 What is a simple phrase ? What is a complex phrase ? 
 What is a compound phrase ? 
 How are phrases classified as to their form ? 
 Of what form are attribute phrases ? Explanatory phrases ? 
 9 
 
PART III. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, 
 and arrangement of words in sentences. 
 
 OBS. 1. The word syntax is derived from two Greek words syn, 
 meaning together, and taxis, arrangement. It is equivalent, in mean- 
 ing, to synthesis or construction, which is the reverse of analysis. Syn- 
 tax has reference only to those principles and rules which serve to guide 
 us in the construction of sentences. The principles of ajialysis lie much 
 deeper in the subject of grammar are much more fundamental, than 
 the technical considerations which form the groundwork of syntactical 
 rules. 
 
 Sentential analysis is founded upon the general laws of language ; and, 
 therefore, its principles are as applicable to one language as another ; 
 syntactical rules, on the other hand, can, as a general thing, have refer- 
 ence only to the particular language, the use of which they are designed 
 to direct. 
 
 In order to be skilled in syntax, or the construction of sentences, we 
 must know how the words are related to each other in the expression of 
 thought. For example, if the words John and book are to be joined, 
 and we know that they are to denote that the book belongs to John, we 
 say JoJirfs book, expressing in this way the relation of property. 
 
 Again, if we are to join the words the teacher, he, and love together, 
 to form a sentence, we must know the relations. Thus suppose the 
 ttachfj" is the subject of the action expressed by the verb love, and he is 
 the object of the action ; then the sentence must be, The teacher loves 
 him, giving to the verb and pronoun their proper forms according to the 
 relations. But suppose he is to be the subject, and the teacher the 
 object ; then the sentence would be, He loves the teacher. This, as will 
 be seen, requires a different arrangement of the words, as well as a dif- 
 ferent inflection of the pronoun. Usually the subject is placed before 
 the verb, and the object after it 
 
RULES OF SYNTAX. 131 
 
 When a word standing in a certain relation to another word is required, 
 on that account, to undergo some inflection or modification, it is said to 
 be governed by the other word. Thus, in the above, John, standing as 
 the possessor of book, was changed to John's ; and he, when used as the 
 object of the verb, was required to assume the objective form, him. In 
 the former case, John's is said to be governed by book, and him by love*. 
 
 Again, it would not do to say Birds flies, because the form of the verb 
 is singular, while the subject is plural ; and the two must agree. Hence, 
 the expression should be Birds fly. This will illustrate what is meant 
 by agreement. Hence the following definitions. 
 
 The relation of words, is tlieii dependence, or con- 
 nection, according to the sense. 
 
 The agreement of words, is their similarity in per- 
 son, number, gender, case, mood, tense, or form. 
 
 The government of words, is that power which one 
 word has over another, to cause it to assume some particu- 
 lar modification. 
 
 The arrangement of words, is their collocation, or 
 relative position, in a sentence. 
 
 Rules of Syntax. 
 
 The Rules Of Syntax are designed to guide in the ap- 
 plication of the principles of grammar to the construction of 
 sentences. 
 
 As given below these rules are classified and arranged ac- 
 cording to the syntactical topics to which they respectively 
 relate. 
 
 Rules of Relation. 
 
 -Articles relate to the nouns which they limit, 
 n. Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns. 
 
 HI. Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or 
 other adverbs. 
 
 IV. Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are 
 governed by prepositions. 
 
 V. Prepositions show the relation of things. 
 
132 SYNTAX, 
 
 Rules of Agreement. 
 
 VL A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite 
 verb, must be in the nominative case. 
 
 VTL A noun or a personal pronoun used to explain a pre- 
 ceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same 
 case. 
 
 "VIM. A finite verb must agree with its subject, or norni~ 
 native, in person and number. 
 
 IX. When the nominative is a collective noun conveying 
 the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural 
 number ; but when it conveys the idea of unity, the verb must 
 be singular. 
 
 X. When a verb has two or more nominatives connected 
 by and, it must agree with them in the plural number. 
 
 "XT When a verb has two or more singular nominatives 
 connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the singu- 
 lar number. 
 
 XII, When verbs are connected by a conjunction, they 
 must either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have separate 
 nominatives expressed. 
 
 Xm. Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and 
 their participles, take the same case after as before them, 
 when both words refer to the same thing. 
 
 XIV. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the 
 noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and 
 gender. 
 
 XV. When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying 
 the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the 
 plural number ; but when it conveys the idea of unity, the 
 pronoun must be singular. 
 
 XVI. When a pronoun has two or more antecedents con- 
 nected by and, it must agree with them in the plural number. 
 
 XVH. When a pronoun has two or more singular antece- 
 dents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the 
 singular number. 
 
KULES OF SYNTAX. 133 
 
 Rules of Government. 
 
 TTV ii i. A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is 
 governed by the name of the thing possessed. 
 
 XIX. Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and pre- 
 perfect participles, govern the objective case. 
 
 XX. Prepositions govern the objective case. 
 
 XXI. The preposition TO commonly governs the infinitive 
 mood, and connects it to a finite verb, or some other part of 
 speech. 
 
 Miscellaneous Rules. 
 
 if* 
 XXH. The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, 
 
 needy see, and their participles, usually take the infinitive after 
 them, without the preposition TO. 
 
 XXTTT. A future contingency is best expressed by a verb 
 in the subjunctive, present ; and a mere supposition, with in- 
 definite time, by a verb in the subjunctive, imperfect ; but a 
 conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires the in- 
 dicative mood. 
 
 XXIV. A noun or a pronoun is put in the nominative, 
 when its case depends on no other word. 
 
 XXV. Conjunctions connect either words or sentences. 
 
 XXVI. Interjections have no dependent construction. 
 
 OBS. 1. Syntactical rules are limited to the construction of sentences, 
 as separate portions of discourse ; the consideration of those principles 
 and rules which regulate the combination of sentences into paragraphs, 
 and these again into particular kinds of composition, is not comprised 
 in the subject of grammar, but falls within the province of its kindred 
 arte, rhetoric and logic. 
 
 OBS. 2. Some of the rules here given embody the principles already 
 presented in the definitions of etymology, and, owing to the paucity of 
 inflections in English, are of little practical use in the construction of 
 sentences. 
 
 OBS. 3. Analysis and synthesis, or construction, should go together, 
 the former illustrating and facilitating the latter, and giving accuracy in 
 composition ; since it will be found that the pupils who have been 
 
134 SYNTAX. 
 
 trained to analyze sentences, becoming in this way familiar with their 
 structure, and the relation of their parts, will have a clearer and fuller 
 comprehension of language, as well as a more correct style of writing. 
 
 As the rules afford practical directions, a new class of exer- 
 cises is here introduced, the correction of improper expres- 
 sions, or false Syntax, as usually called. 
 
 Under the twenty-six principal rules and their notes (sub- 
 ordinate rules) and observations (showing various usages) are 
 included the directions requisite to guide the pupil in the 
 analysis, parsing, construction, and correction of sentences. 
 These are classified according to the syntactical topics to 
 which they respectively relate. 
 
 I. RELATION. 
 
 Rule I. Articles. 
 
 Articles relate to the nouns which they limit ; as, " At 
 a little distance from the ruins of the abbey, stands an 
 aged elm." 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1. The definite article, used intensively, may relate to an adjective or 
 adverb of the comparative or the superlative degree; as, " A land which 
 was the mightiest.'" Byron. " The farther they proceeded, the greater 
 appeared their alacrity." Dr. Johnson. 
 
 "2. The indefinite article is sometimes used to give a collective meaning 
 to an adjective of number ; as, " Thou hast a few names, even in Sar- 
 dis." Revelation. " There are a thousand things which crowd into my 
 memory. " Addison. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Articles often relate to nouns understood; as, "The [river] 
 Thames." " Pliny the younger" [man]. " The honorable [body], the 
 Legislature." "The animal [world] and the vegetable world." " Neither 
 to the right [hand] nor to the left " [hand]. Bible. "He was a good 
 man and a just " [man]. Ib. 
 
 2. When an adjective precedes the noun, the article is placed before 
 the adjective, that its power may extend over that also ; except the ad- 
 jectives ail, sucft, many, what, both, and those which are preceded by 
 
RELATION. 135 
 
 the adverbs too, so, as, or Tww ; as, " AU the materials were bought at 
 too dear a rate." " Like many an othej poor wretch, I now suffer all the 
 ill consequences of so foolish an indulgence." 
 
 3. Articles, according to their own definition, belong before their 
 nouns ; but the definite article and an adjective seem sometimes to be 
 placed after the noun to which they both relate ; as, " Section the 
 Fourth." "Henry the Eighth." 
 
 4. When the definite article is prefixed to comparatives and super- 
 latives (exception first), the article has the force of an adverb. 
 
 5. The article the is sometimes elegantly used instead of a possessive 
 pronoun ; as, " Men who have not bowed the knee to the image of Baal." 
 
 6. When an or a is put before an adjective of number (exception 
 second), the adjective and the plural noun following it are taken together 
 as a unit. ^ 
 
 7. An or a has sometimes the import of each or every; as, "He 
 came twice a year." The article in this sense with a preposition under- 
 stood, is preferable to the mercantile per, so frequently used ; as, "Fifty 
 cents [for] a bushel," rather than, "per bushel." 
 
 8. A, as prefixed to participles in ing, or used in composition, is a 
 preposition ; being, probably, the French a, signifying to, at, on, in, or 
 of; as, " They burst out a laughing." M. Edgeworth. " He is gone a 
 hunting." "She lies -bed all day." "He stays out a-nights." 
 "They ride out a-Sundays." Shakspeare often uses the prefix a, and 
 sometimes in a manner peculiar to himself; as, "Tom's a cold." " 
 weary." 
 
 9. An is sometimes used as a conjunction, signifying if; as, 
 
 " Nay, an thou'lt mouthe, I'll rant as well as thou. " Shak. 
 
 Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 
 
 I. When the indefinite article is required, a should always 
 be used before the sound of a consonant, and an, before that 
 of a vowel ; as, " With the talents of an angel, a man mar 
 be a fool." Young. 
 
 Exception. Words commencing with h, and accented on the second 
 syllable, require an instead of a; as, An historical essay. An hexago- 
 nal figure. 
 
 n. When nouns are joined in construction, without a close 
 connection and common dependence, the article must be re- 
 peated ; as, "She never considered the quality, but the merit 
 of her visitors." 
 
136 SYNTAX. 
 
 HI. When adjectives are connected, and the qualities be- 
 long to things individually different, though of the same 
 name, the article should be repeated ; as, A black and a white 
 horse ;" i.e., two horses, one black and the other white. 
 ( TV. When adjectives are connected, and the qualities all 
 belong to the same thing or things, the article should not be 
 repeated ; as, "A black and white horse ; " ie., one horse, 
 piebald. 
 
 OBS. 1. The reason of the two preceding notes is this ; by a repeti- 
 tion of the article before several adjectives in the same construction, a 
 repetition of the noun is implied ; but without a repetition of the article, 
 the adjectives are confined to one and the same noun. 
 
 OBS. 2. To avoid a repetition, we sometimes, with one article, join 
 inconsistent qualities to a plural noun; as, "The Old and New Testa- 
 ments," for, "The Old and tfte New Testament." But the phrases, 
 "The Old and New Testament," and, "The Old and the New Testa- 
 ments," are both obviously incorrect. 
 
 V. The article should not be used before the names of 
 virtues, vices, passions, arts or sciences ; before simple proper 
 names ; or before any noun whose signification is sufficiently 
 definite without it ; as, " Falsehood is odious:" " Iron is use- 
 ful" "Beauty is vain." 
 
 VL When titles are mentioned merely as titles, or names 
 of things merely as names or words, the article should not be 
 used ; as, "He is styled Marquis." "Ought a teacher to call 
 his pupil Master ? " 
 
 "VTL In expressing a comparison, if both nouns refer to 
 the same subject, the article should not be inserted ; if to 
 different subjects, it should not be omitted ; thus, if we say, 
 "He is a better teacher than poet," we compare different 
 qualifications of the same man ; but if we say, " He is a bet- 
 ter teacher than a poet," we refer to different men. 
 
 VHL The definite article, or some other definitive word, is 
 generally required before the antecedent to the pronoun who 
 or which in a restrictive clause ; as, " The men who were pres- 
 ent, consented." 
 
&ELATTON. 137 
 
 IX. The article is generally required in that construction 
 which converts a participle into a verbal noun ; as, " The tri- 
 umphing of the wicked is short." "They shall be an abhor- 
 ring unto all flesh." Isaiah. 
 
 X. The article should not be prefixed to a participle that 
 is not taken in all respects as a noun ; as, " He made a mis- 
 take in giving out the text." Not the giving out. 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 Correct the following sentences, and show in what way the rule is 
 violated in each. 
 
 When the corrections are made orally, the formules given may be used, in the judg- 
 ment of the teacher, tte chief object being kept in view, which is not to check the exer- 
 cise of intelligence by mechanical repetition, but to exercise the critical faculty of the 
 learner, and teach him to make a practical application of his knowledge of principles 
 and rules. 
 
 EXAMPLE. He went into an house. 
 
 . Not proper, because the article an is used before house, which begins 
 with the sound of the consonant h. But, according to Note I., under Rule I., " When 
 the indefinite article is required, a should always be used before the sound of a conso- 
 nant, and an before that of a vowel." Therefore, an should be a ; thus, He went into a 
 house. 
 
 I. 
 
 This is an hard saying. 
 
 Passing from an earthly to an heavenly diadem. 
 
 Few have the happiness of living with such an one. 
 
 She evinced an uniform adherence to the truth. 
 
 This is truly an wonderful invention. 
 
 He is an younger man than we supposed. 
 
 An humorsome child is never long pleased. 
 
 Your friend is a honorable man. 
 
 The elephant is a herbivorous animal. 
 
 She was taken with a hysterical fit. 
 
 n. 
 
 Avoid rude sports : an eye is soon lost, or bone broken. 
 As the drop of the bucket and dust of the balance. 
 Not a word was uttered, nor sign given. 
 I despise not the doer, but deed. 
 Crime consists not in the act but motive. 
 
3a SYNTAX. 
 
 m. 
 
 What is the difference between the old and new method? 
 
 The sixth and tenth have a close resemblance. 
 
 Is Paris on the right hand or left ? 
 
 Does Peru join the Atlantic or Pacific ocean ? 
 
 He was influenced both by a just and generous principle. 
 
 The book was read by the old and young. 
 
 I have both the large and small grammar. 
 
 Are both the north and south line measured ? 
 
 Are the north line and south line measured ? 
 
 Are both the north and south measured ? 
 
 Are both the north lines and south measured ? 
 
 IV. 
 
 Is the north and the south line measured ? 
 
 Are the two north and the south lines both measured ? 
 
 A great and a good man looks beyond time. 
 
 They made but a weak and an ineffectual resistance. 
 
 The Alleghany and the Monongahela rivers form the Ohio, 
 
 I rejoice that there is another and a better world. 
 
 Were God to raise up another such a man as Moses. 
 
 The light and the worthless kernels will float. 
 
 V. 
 
 Cleon was another sort of a man. 
 
 There is a species of an animal called a seal 
 
 Let us wait in the patience and the quietness. 
 
 The contemplative mind delights in the silence. 
 
 Arithmetic is a branch of the mathematics. 
 
 You will never have another such a chance. 
 
 I expected some such an answer. 
 
 And I persecuted this way unto the death. 
 
 VI 
 
 He is entitled to the appellation of a gentleman. 
 Cromwell assumed the title of a Protector. 
 Her father is honored with the title of an EarL 
 The chief magistrate is styled a President 
 
RELATION. 139 
 
 The highest title in the State is that of the Governor. 
 The oak, the pine, and the ash are names of whole classes 
 of objects. 
 
 m 
 
 He is a better writer than a reader. 
 
 He was an abler mathematician than a linguist. 
 
 I should rather have an orange than apple. 
 
 vni. 
 
 Words which are signs of complex ideas, are liable to be 
 misunderstood. 
 
 Carriages which were formerly in use were very clumsy. 
 
 The place is not mentioned by geographers who wrote at 
 that time. 
 
 IX. 
 
 Means are always necessary to accomplishing of ends. 
 By seeing of the eye, and hearing of the ear, learn wisdom. 
 In keeping of His commandments, there is great reward. 
 For revealing of a secret, there is no remedy. 
 Have you no repugnance to torturing of animals ? 
 
 X. 
 
 By the breaking the law, you dishonor the lawgiver. 
 An argument so weak is not worth the mentioning. 
 In the letting go our hope, we let all go. 
 Avoid the talking too much of your ancestors. 
 The cuckoo keeps the repeating her unvaried notes. 
 Forbear the boasting of what you can do. 
 
 Promiscuous. 
 
 The path of truth is a plain and a safe one. 
 This statement is merely a hypothesis. 
 There was an harshness in his words. 
 Neither the rules nor examples are correct. 
 He fully deserved the name of a traitor. 
 He is a more effective writer than a speaker. 
 What sort of an animal is an oyster ? 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 She was carrying an ewer of water. 
 
 He was busy in the translating a French work. 
 
 This passage has another and a different meaning. 
 
 It showed what kind of a man he was. 
 
 What is the cost of a hour-glass ? 
 
 Is there any difference between the upper and lower side ? 
 
 Travelers who visited the country were put to death. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 In the parsing exercise under each rule, the pupil is required to apply the information 
 given in the observations. Hence they should be read or studied very carefully. 
 
 Parse the articles in the following sentences as in the example. 
 EXAMPLE. "He was a friend to the unfortunate." 
 
 A is the indefinite article, and relates to the noun friend, according to the rule, 
 Articles relate to the nouns which they limit. 
 
 The is the definite article, and relates to persons, understood (unfortunate persons), 
 according to the rule, etc. 
 
 Charles the Fifth abdicated the throne of Germany. The longer he 
 lived the more he feared to die. He was the victor in a hundred con- 
 flicts. The farmer sold his wheat at one dollar a bushel. Many an 
 innocent man has been wrongfully condemned. The oracle pronounced 
 Socrates the wisest of men. He tried to set the clock a going. 
 
 Rule II. Adjectives. 
 
 Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns ; as, " He is a 
 wise man, though he is young" 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1. An adjective sometimes relates to a phrase or sentence, which is 
 made the subject of an intervening verb ; as, " To insult the afflicted, is 
 impious.' 11 " That he should refuse, is not strange.' 11 
 
 2. With an infinitive or a participle denoting being or action in the 
 abstract, an adjective is sometimes also taken abstractly ; that is, with- 
 out reference to any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject ; as, 
 "To be sincere, is to be wise, innocent, and safe." Hawkesworth. 
 " Capacity marks the abstract quality of being able to receive or hold." 
 These adjectives may be considered indefinite attributes. 
 
RELATION. 141 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Adjectives often relate to nouns understood; as, "The nine" 
 [muses]. " Philip was one of the seven " [deacons]. Acts xxi. ,8. " He 
 came unto his own [possessions], and his own [men] received him not." 
 John i., 11. " The Lord your God is God of gods, and Lord of lords, 
 a great God, a mighty [God], and a terrible" [God]. Deut. x., 17. 
 
 2. In the construction of sentences, adjectives often relate immediately 
 to pronouns; as, " All ye are his brethren." Matt. "Whether of 
 them twain did the will of his father ? "Ib. 
 
 3. When an adjective follows a finite verb, and is not followed by a 
 noun, it generally relates to the subject of the verb ; as, " /am glad that 
 the door is made wide." Thus the adjective when an attribute generally 
 follows the predicate verb. 
 
 4. When an adjective follows an infinitive or a participle, the noun 
 or pronoun to which it relates, is sometimes before it, and sometimes 
 after it, and often considerably remote ; as, "A real gentleman cannot 
 but practice those virtues which, by an intimate knowledge of mankind, 
 he has found to be useful to them." 
 
 5. Adjectives preceded by the definite article, are often used, by 
 ellipsis, as having the force of nouns. They designate those classes of 
 objects which are characterized by the qualities they express ; and, in 
 parsing, the noun may be supplied. They are most commonly of the 
 plural number, and refer to persons, places, or tilings, understood ; as, 
 " The careless [persons] and the imprudent, the giddy and ikvjickle, the 
 ungrateful and the interested everywhere meet us." 
 
 6. The Adjective is generally placed immediately before its noun, 
 but in the following instances it is placed after the noun to which it 
 relates : 
 
 1. When other words depend on the adjective ; as, "A mind con- 
 scious of right." " A wall three feet thick." 
 
 2. When the quality results from the action of a verb ; as, " Virtue 
 renders life happy." (Indirect attribute.) 
 
 3. When the adjective would thus be more clearly distinctive ; as, 
 " Goodness injinite." " Wisdom unsearchable." 
 
 4. When a verb comes between the adjective and the noun ; as, 
 " Truth stands independent of all external things." (Direct attri- 
 bute.) 
 
 7. In some cases, the adjective may either precede or foUow the noun : 
 1. In poetry; as, 
 
 " Wilt thou to the isles 
 Atlantic, to the rich Hesperian clime, 
 Fly in the train of Autumn ? " Akenside. 
 
142 SYNTAX. 
 
 2. In some technical expressions; as, "A notary public," or, "A 
 
 public notary." 
 
 3. When an adverb precedes the adjective ; as, "A Being infinitely 
 wise," or, "An infinitely wise Being." 
 
 4. When several adjectives belong to the same noun ; as, " A woman, 
 modest, sensible, and virtuous," or, "A modest, sensible, and 
 virtuous woman. 
 
 8. An emphatic adjective may be placed first in the sentence, though 
 it belong after the verb ; as, " Weighty is the anger of the righteous." 
 Bible. 
 
 9. By an ellipsis of the noun, an adjective with a preposition before 
 it, is sometimes equivalent to an adverb ; as, "In particular ; " that is, 
 in a particular manner ; equivalent to "particularly." In parsing, 
 supply the ellipsis. [See Obs. 1, under Rule XX.~\ 
 
 Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 
 
 I. Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree 
 with their nouns in number ; as, That sort, those sorts. 
 
 IE. When the adjective is necessarily plural, or necessarily 
 singular, the noun should be made so too ; as, " Twenty 
 pounds," not, "Twenty pound." "One session/' not, 
 " One sessions." 
 
 OBS. 1. In some peculiar phrases, this rule appears to be disregarded; 
 as, " Two hundred pennyworth of bread is not sufficient." John vi., 7. 
 " Twenty sail of vessels."" A hundred head of cattle." 
 
 OBS. 2. To denote a collective number, a singular adjective may pre- 
 cede a plural one; as, " One hundred men." "Every six weeks." 
 " One seven times.'" Dan. iii., 19. 
 
 OBS. 3. To denote plurality, the adjective many may, in like man- 
 ner, precede an or a with a singular noun ; as, 
 
 " Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
 And waste its sweetness on the desert air." I 
 
 III. The reciprocal expression, one an other, should not be 
 applied to two objects, nor each other, or one the other, to more 
 than two. 
 
 OBS. Reciprocity between two is some act or relation of each or one 
 to the other, an object definite, and not of one to an other, which is in- 
 definite ; but reciprocity among three or more is of one, each, or every 
 one, not to one other solely, or the other definitely, but to others, a ph> 
 rality, or to an other, taken indefinitely and implying this plurality. 
 
KELATION. 143 
 
 TV. The comparative degree can only be used in reference 
 to two objects, or classes of objects ; the superlative compares 
 one or more things with all others of the same class, whether 
 few or many : as, " Edward is taller than James ; he is the 
 largest of my scholars." 
 
 V. When the comparative degree is employed, the latter 
 term of comparison should never include the former ; as, 
 "Iron is more useful than all the metals.'" It should be, " than 
 all the other metals" 
 
 VI When the superlative degree is employed, the latter 
 term of comparison should never exclude the former ; as, "A 
 fondness for show is, of all other follies, the most vain." The 
 word other should be expunged. 
 
 VTL Comparative terminations, and adverbs of degree, 
 should not be applied to adjectives that are not susceptible of 
 comparison ; and all double comparatives and double superla- 
 tives should be avoided ; as, " So universal a complaint : " say 
 " So general." " Some less nobler plunder : " say, " less noble.' 
 " The most straitest sect : " expunge most. 
 
 VIII. When adjectives are connected by and, or, -or nor, 
 the shortest and simplest should in general be placed first ; 
 as, "He is older and more respectable than his brother." 
 
 IX. An adjective and its noun may be taken as a com- 
 pound term, to which other adjectives may be prefixed. The 
 most distinguishing quality should be expressed next to the 
 noun ; as, " A fine young man," not, " A young fine man." 
 
 X. In prose, the use of adjectives for adverbs is improper ; 
 as, " He writes elegant ; " say, " elegantly." 
 
 OBS. 1. In poetry, an adjective relating to the noun or pronoun, is 
 sometimes elegantly used instead of an adverb qualifying the verb or 
 participle ; as, 
 
 " To thee I bend the knee ; to thee my thoughts 
 Continual climb." Thomson. 
 
 OBS. 2. In order to determine, in difficult cases, whether an adjec- 
 tive or an adverb is required, the learner should carefully attend to the 
 definitions of these parts of speech, and consider whether, in the case 
 in question, quality or manner is to be expressed : if the former, an 
 
144 SYNTAX. 
 
 adjective is proper : if the latter, an adverb. The following examples 
 will illustrate this point: "She looks cold; she looks coldly on him." 
 " I sat silent ; I sat silently musing." "Stand firm ; maintain your 
 cause firmly." 
 
 XI. The pronoun them should never be used as an adjec- 
 tive in lieu of those : say, "I bought those books," not, " them 
 books." This is a vulgar error. 
 
 XII. When the pronominal adjectives, this and that, or 
 these and those, are contrasted ; this or these should represent 
 the latter of the antecedent terms, and that or those 3 the 
 former ; as, 
 
 "And, reason raise o'er instinct as you can, 
 
 In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man." Pope. 
 " Farewell my friends ! farewell my foes ! 
 My peace with tJiese, my love with those ! " Burns. 
 
 Xm. The pronominal adjectives each, one, either, and 
 neither, are always in the third person singular ; and, when 
 they are the leading words in their clauses, they require 
 verbs and pronouns, to agree with them accordingly ; as, 
 "Each of you is entitled to his share." "Let no one deceive 
 himself" 
 
 XTV. The pronominal adjectives either and neither relate 
 to two things only ; when more are referred to, any and none 
 should be used in stead of them : as, " Any of the three ;" 
 not, " Either of the three." " None of the four ; " not, 
 " Neither of the four." 
 
 XY. Participial adjectives retain the termination, but not 
 the government, of participles ; when, therefore, they are fol- 
 lowed by the objective case, a preposition must be inserted 
 to govern it ; as, " The man who is most sparing of his words, 
 is generally most deserving of attention." 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Those sort of people you will find to be trouble- 
 some. 
 
 FORMULK. Not proper, because the adjective those is in the plural number, and does 
 not agree with its noun sort, which is singular. But, according to Note I. under Eule 
 II., "Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree with their nouns in number." 
 Therefore, those should be that ; thus, TJMt sort of people you wilLfind to be troublesome. 
 
RELATION. 145 
 
 Things of these sort are easily understood. 
 Who broke that tongs ? 
 Where did I drop this scissors ? 
 Bring out that oats. 
 Extinguish that embers. 
 I disregard this minutiae. 
 Those kind of injuries we need not fear. 
 What was the height of those gallows which Haman 
 erected ? 
 
 n. 
 
 We rode abojat ten mile an hour. 
 
 Tis for a thousand pound. Cowper. 
 
 How deep is the water ? About six fathom. 
 
 The lot is twenty-five foot wide. 
 
 I have bought eight load of wood. 
 
 m.-iv. 
 
 Two negatives in English destroy one another. 
 That the heathens tolerated each other, is allowed. 
 David and Jonathan loved one an other tenderly. 
 Words are derived from each other in various ways. 
 Teachers like to see their pupils polite to each other. 
 The Graces always hold the one the other by the hand. 
 He chose the latter of these three. 
 Trisyllables are often accented on the former syllable. 
 Which are the two more remarkable isthmuses in the world ? 
 
 V.-VL - 
 
 The Scriptures are more valuable than any writings. 
 
 The Russian empire is more extensive than any government 
 in the world. 
 
 Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, because he 
 was the son of his old age. Gen. xxxvii., 3. 
 
 Of all other ill habits idleness is the most incorrigible. 
 
 Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. 
 
 Hope is the most constant of all the other passions, 
 
 w 
 
146 SYNTAX. 
 
 That opinion is too universal to be easily corrected. 
 Virtue confers the supremest dignity upon man. 
 How much more are ye better than the fowls ! Luke xii. 
 Do not thou hasten above the Most Highest, 
 This was the most unkindest cut of all. Shakspeare. 
 The waters are more sooner and harder frozen. 
 A more healthier place cannot be found. 
 The best and the most wisest men often meet with dis- 
 couragements. 
 
 vm. 
 
 He showed us a more agreeable and easier way. 
 This was the most convincing and plainest argument. 
 Some of the most moderate and wisest of the senators. 
 This is an honorable and ancient fraternity. 
 There vice shall meet an irrevocable and fatal doom. 
 
 IX. 
 
 He is a young industrious man. 
 She has a new elegant house. 
 The two first classes have read. 
 The oldest two. sons have removed to the westward. 
 England had not seen such an other king. Goldsmith. 
 
 X. 
 
 She reads well and writes neat. 
 
 He was extreme prodigal 
 
 They went, conformable to their engagement. 
 
 He speaks very fluent, and reasons justly. 
 
 The deepest streams run the most silent. 
 
 These appear to be finished the neatest. 
 
 He was scarce gone when you arrived. 
 
 I am exceeding sorry to hear of your misfortunes. 
 
 The work was uncommon well executed. 
 
 This is not such a large cargo as the last. 
 
 Thou knowst what a good horse mine is. 
 
 I cannot think so mean of him. 
 
 Be acted much wiser than the others, 
 
RELATION. 147 
 
 XI. 
 
 I bought them books at a very low price. 
 
 Go and tell them boys to be still. 
 
 I have several copies : you are welcome to them two. 
 
 Which of them three men is the most useful ? 
 
 xn. 
 
 Hope is as strong an incentive to action, as fear : this is 
 the anticipation of good, that of evil. 
 
 The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy ; but 
 we should not therefore account those happy, and these 
 
 miserable. 
 
 if" 
 
 Memory and forecast just returns engage, 
 This pointing back to youth, that on to age. 
 
 YTTT 
 
 Let each of them be heard in their turn. 
 On the Lord's day every one of us Christians keep the 
 Sabbath. 
 
 Are either of these men known ? 
 
 No : neither of them have any connections here. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 Did either of the company stop to assist you ? 
 Here are six ; but neither of them will answer. 
 
 XV. 
 
 Some crimes are thought deserving death. 
 
 Rudeness of speech is very unbecoming a gentleman. 
 
 To eat with unwashen hands, was disgusting a Jew. 
 Leave then thy joys, unsuiting such an age, 
 To a fresh comer, and resign the stage. Dryden. 
 
 Promiscuous. 
 
 William is brighter than any of the pupils. 
 Either of those four boys is trustworthy. 
 These kind of bears are hard to tame. 
 The house is about twenty foot wide. 
 
148 SYNTAX. 
 
 These two sisters are very fond of one another. 
 The latter of those three pictures is the prettier, but neither 
 of them pleases me. 
 
 Of all other ill habits that is the worst. 
 Let the three first pupils in* the class rise. 
 Will you have a ripe luscious peach ? 
 I cannot carry them books now. 
 What a terrible bad cold you have ! 
 Try to get well as quick as you can. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Parse aU the adjectives in the following sentences. 
 EXAMPLE. "This boy seems very diligent." 
 
 This is a pronominal adjective, and relates to the noun boy, according to the role Ad- 
 jectives relate to nouns or pronouns. 
 Diligent is a common adjective, and relates to the noun 6oy, according to the rule, etc. 
 
 I am glad you have become skillful. Strive to be honest and true. 
 The door is made wide. To be goodJs better than to be learned. To 
 wrong the poor is very wicked. A word to the wise is sufficient. This 
 is true, but that is false. The careless are rarely successful. The house 
 was a hundred feet high. Virtue alone will render you happy. A Being 
 infinitely good cannot be the author of evil. In general, the rule is 
 applicable. Noble was the act, and great was the reward. 
 
 Rule III. Adverbs. 
 
 Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other 
 adverbs ; as, " Conscience, very often disregarded, finally 
 becomes wholly inert." 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1. The words yes and yea, and no and nay, usually called adverbs, 
 are always independent, being the answers to questions, and equivalent 
 to entire propositions. 
 
 2. The word amen, which is commonly called an adverb, is often used 
 independently at the beginning or end of a declaration or prayer ; and 
 is itself a prayer, meaning, so let it be. 
 
KELATION. 149 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. "Many words usually employed as adverbs are often used as nouns; 
 as, " The Son of God was not yea and nay, but in him was yea." Bible. 
 " For a great while to come." Id. " On this perhaps, this peradventure 
 infamous for lies." Young. "From the extremest upward of thine 
 head." Shak. "Prate of my whereabout." Id. "An eternal now 
 does always last." Cowley. "Discourse requires an animated no." 
 Cowper. 
 
 2. Adverbs sometimes relate to verbs understood; "The former has 
 written correctly; but the latter, elegantly." "And, [/ say'] truly, if 
 they had been mindful of that country from whence they came out, they 
 might have had opportunity to have returned. " Heb. xi. , 15. 
 
 3. To abbreviate expressions, and give them vivacity, verbs of self- 
 motion (as go, comprise, get, etc.) are sometimes suppressed, being sug- 
 gested to the mind by an emphatic adverb ; 
 
 * ' I'll hence to London on a serious matter. " Shakspeare. 
 
 " I'll in. I'll in. Follow your friend's counsel. I'll in. Id. 
 
 " Away old man ; give me thy hand ; away." Id. 
 
 4. An adverb is often used to modify a phrase used as an adjective or 
 adverb; as, "He is greatly in fault." "He swam nearly across the 
 stream." 
 
 5. The word even is sometimes an adverb ; but it may be placed before 
 any word to give it emphasis ; as, " Even I was condemned." 
 
 6. Conjunctive adverbs seem to relate to two verbs at the same time, 
 and thus connect the two clauses ; as, " And the rest will I set in order 
 when I come." 1 Cor. xi. In this case the adverbial clause relates to set 
 and the adverb when, to the verb come, in its own clause. 
 
 7. No is sometimes an adverb of degree ; and as such it has this pecu- 
 liarity, that it can relate only to comparatives; as, "^V9more." " No 
 better." " No greater." " No sooner." When this word is prefixed to 
 a noun, it is clearly an adjective, corresponding to the Latin nullus ; as, 
 " No clouds, no vapors intervene." Dyer. 
 
 8. By the customary (but faulty) omission of the negative before but, 
 that conjunction has acquired the adverbial sense of only; and it may, 
 when used with that signification, be called an adverb. Thus, the text, 
 "He hath not grieved me but in part," [2 Cor. ii., 5,] might drop the 
 negative, and still convey the same meaning ; " He hath grieved me but 
 in part." 
 
 Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 
 
 I. Adverbs must be placed in that position which will ren- 
 der the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable. 
 
150 SYNTAX. 
 
 OBS. For the placing of adverbs, no definite general rule can "be 
 given. Those which relate to adjectives, immediately precede them ; and 
 those which belong to compound verbs, are commonly placed after the 
 first auxiliary. 
 
 II. Adverbs should not be used as adjectives ; nor should 
 they be employed, when quality is to be expressed, and not 
 manner; as, "The soonest time." "Thine often infirmities.'* 
 "It seems strangely." In the last case, the adverb strangely 
 is used for the adjective attribute strange. 
 
 HI. With a verb of motion, the adverbs hither, thither, and 
 whither, are more proper than here, there, where ; but usage 
 sometimes sanctions the latter. To the adverbs hence, thence, 
 and whence the preposition from should not be prefixed. 
 
 IY. The adverb no should not be used with reference to a 
 verb or a participle ; as, " Will you do it, or no ? " No should 
 be not. 
 
 V. A negation, in English, admits but one negative word ; 
 as, I could not wait any longer," not, " no longer." Double 
 negatives are vulgar. 
 
 OBS. 1. The repetition of a negative word or clause, strengthens the 
 negation ; as, " No, no, no." But two negatives in the same clause, de- 
 stroy the negation, and render the meaning afiirmative ; as, " Nor did 
 they not perceive their evil plight. "Milton. That is, they did per- 
 ceive it. 
 
 OBS. 2. Ever and never are directly opposite in sense, and yet they are 
 frequently confounded and misapplied even by respectable writers ; as, 
 " Seldom, or never, can we expect," etc. -Blairs Lectures, p. 305. " Sel- 
 dom, or ever, did any one rise," etc. Ibid., p. 272. Here never is right, 
 and ever is wrong. But as the negative adverb applies only to time, 
 ever is preferable to never, in sentences like the following: "Now let 
 man reflect but never so little on himself. " Burlamaqui. ' ' Which will 
 not hearken to the voice of charmers, charming never so wisely." 
 Ps. Iviii., 5. For the phrase ever so (which ought perhaps to be written 
 as one word) is a very common expression, denoting degree, however 
 great or small ; as, " ecerso little " " everso wisely." And it seems to 
 be this, and not time, that is intended in the last two examples. 
 
RELATION. 151 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. My cousin is soon expected to arrive. 
 
 FORMULE. Not proper because the adverb soon is not in the proper place to express 
 the meaning clearly. 
 
 But, according to Note I. tinder RulellL, " Adverbs must be placed in that position 
 which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable." The sentence will 
 be improved by placing soon after arrive ; thus, My cousin is expected to arrive soon. 
 
 I. 
 
 The work will be never completed. 
 
 We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. 
 
 It is impossible continually to be at work. 
 
 He impertinently behaved to his master. 
 
 The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 
 
 Not only he found her busy, but pleased and happy even. 
 
 The man only discharged his duty. 
 
 n. 
 
 Give him a soon and decisive answer. 
 When a substantive is put absolutely. 
 Such expressions sound harshly. 
 Such events are of seldom occurrence. 
 Velvet feels very smoothly. 
 The wind blew keenly and coldly. 
 
 m. 
 
 From hence it appears that the statement is incorrect 
 From thence arose the misunderstanding. 
 Do you know from whence it proceeds ? 
 
 IV. 
 
 Know now, whether this be thy son's coat or no. 
 Whether he is in fault or no, I cannot tell. 
 I will ascertain whether it is so or no. 
 
 V. 
 
 I will not by no means entertain a spy. 
 
 Nobody never invented nor discovered nothing, in no way to 
 
 be compared with this. 
 I did all I could ; I cannot do no more. 
 Neither he nor no one else can do that. 
 
152 SYNTAX. 
 
 Promiscuous. 
 
 Tell me whether this is true or no. 
 
 Why do you not say nothing ? 
 
 He only came here to make trouble. 
 
 Nothing can justify ever an untruth. 
 
 He was not able to pay the debt but in part. 
 
 The messenger went direct to the place. 
 
 From whence did he set out ? 
 
 The two ladies were nearly dressed alike. 
 
 He only read the book, not the notice of it. 
 
 He read only the book ; he did not tear it. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Parse aU the adverbs in the following sentences. 
 EXAMPLE. " The work was done very skillfully." 
 
 Very is an adverb of degree, and relates to the adverb skillfully, according to the rule 
 Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, etc. 
 
 Skillfully is an adverb of manner, and relates to the verb was done, according to the 
 rule, etc. 
 
 Are you feeling well to-day ? Yes. Whither are you running so 
 fast ? Truly, if they had reflected long enough, they would not have 
 acted so rashly. Down with the law that binds him thus. Never 
 decide rashly. Obviously, he is greatly in fault. They started yester- 
 day very early in the morning. I can go no farther. When I saw him, 
 I went directly up to him. He has suffered only in a slight degree. 
 John has read nearly through his book. Can you go no higher ? No. 
 
 Rule IV. Participles. 
 
 Participles relate to norms or pronouns, or else are 
 governed by prepositions ; as, " Elizabeth's tutor, at one 
 time paying her a visit, found her employed in reading 
 Plato." Hume. 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1. A participle sometimes relates to a preceding phrase or sentence, of 
 which it forms no part ; as, 
 
 " But ever to do ill our sole delight, 
 As being the contrary to his high will." Milton. 
 
RELATION. 153 
 
 2. With an infinitive denoting being or action in the abstract, a par- 
 ticiple is sometimes also taken abstractly (that is, without reference to 
 any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject); as, "To seem com- 
 pelled is disagreeable." "To keep always praying aloud is plainly 
 impossible." 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. The use of the participle in ing as the subject or object of a verb, 
 though sanctioned to some extent by writers of reputation, seems to be 
 an anomaly which should be avoided when possible. Thus, instead of, 
 " He abhorred being in debt," say, " He abhorred to be in debt." 
 
 2. The word to which the participle relates is sometimes understood; 
 as, " Granting this to be true, what is to be inferred from it." That 
 is, " /, grantrngtlliis to be true, ask what is to be inferred from it ? " 
 "The very chin was, [7 say,] modestly speaking, as long as my whole 
 face. " Addison. 
 
 3. An imperfect or preperfect participle, preceded by an article, an 
 adjective, or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case, becomes a verbal 
 noun ; and, as such, it cannot govern an object after it. A word which 
 may be the object of the participle in its proper construction, requires 
 the preposition of, to connect it with the verbal noun ; as, " The wor- 
 shiping of idols, Such worshiping of idols or, Their worshiping of. 
 idols, was sinful." A participial phrase is, however, sometimes used, 
 by good writers, to govern a noun or pronoun in the possessive case. 
 
 4. We sometimes find a participle and its adjuncts, forming a parti- 
 cipial phrase, used as the subject or the object of a verb ; as, " Exciting 
 Buch disturbances is unlawful." Usually, the infinitive is to be pre- 
 ferred ; as, "I intend to do it ; " which is better than " I intend doing it. " 
 
 5. When the use of the preposition produces ambiguity or harshness, 
 the expression may be varied. Thus, the sentence, "He mentions 
 Newton's writing of a commentary," is both ambiguous and awkward. 
 If the preposition be omitted, the word writing will have a double con- 
 struction, which is inadmissible. Some would say, " He mentions New- 
 ton writing a commentary. " This is still worse ; because it makes the 
 leading word in sense the adjunct in construction. The meaning may 
 be correctly expressed thus : "He mentions that Newton wrote a com- 
 mentary." " By his studying the Scriptures, he became wise." Here 
 his s-erves only to render the sentence incorrect. 
 
 6. We sometimes find a participle that takes the same case after as 
 before it, converted into a verbal noun, and the latter word retained 
 unchanged in connection with it; as, "I have some recollection of his 
 father's being a judge." "To prevent its being a dry detail of terms." 
 In this case, the attribute is indefinite. 
 
154 SYNTAX. 
 
 7. When the verbal noun is accompanied by adjuncts of the verb or 
 participle, it makes an awkward construction, which it would be better 
 to avoid ; as, " The hypocrite's hope is like the giring up of the ghost." 
 "For the more easily reading large numbers." Say, "For reading 
 large numbers the more easily." 
 
 8. After verbs signifying to pe?'severe or to desist, the participle in ing, 
 relating to the nominative, may be used in stead of the infiaitive con- 
 nected to the verb ; as, "So when they continued asking him. " John viii. 
 
 Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 
 
 L Active participles have the same government as the 
 /erbs from which they are derived ; the preposition of, there- 
 lore, should never be used after the participle, when the verb 
 does not require it. Thus, in phrases like the following, of 
 is improper: "Keeping of one day in seven," "By preach- 
 ing (/repentance," "They left beating o/"Paul." 
 
 IL When a transitive participle is converted into a noun, 
 of must be inserted to govern the object following. 
 
 in. A participle should not be used where the infinitive 
 mood, a verbal noun, a common substantive, or a phrase 
 equivalent, will better express the meaning. 
 
 IV. In the use of participles and of verbal nouns, the 
 leading word in sense, should always be made the leading or 
 governing word in the construction. 
 
 V. Participles, in general, however construed, should have 
 a clear reference to the proper subject of the being, action, or 
 passion. The following sentence is therefore faulty: "By 
 giving way to sin, trouble is encountered." This suggests 
 that trouble gives ivay to sin. It should be, "By giving way to 
 '-e encounter trouble. 
 
 VI. The preterit of irregular verbs should not be used for 
 the perfect participle ; as, " A certificate wrote on parchment" 
 for, "A certificate written on parchment." 
 
 VIL Perfect participles being variously formed, care 
 should be taken to express them agreeably to the best usage : 
 thus, earnt, snatcht, checkt, snapt, mixt, tost, are erroneously 
 written for earned, snatched, checked, snapped, mixed, tossed ; 
 and such forms as holden, proven, etc., are now superseded by 
 held, proved, etc. 
 
RELATION. 155 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. In forming of his sentences he was very exact. 
 
 FORMULE. Not proper, because the preposition of is used after the participle forming, 
 whose verb does not require it. But, according to Note L, under Rule IV., "Participles 
 have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived ; the preposition of, 
 therefore, should not be used after the participle, when the verb does not require it." 
 therefore, of should be omitted ; thus, In forming his sentences, he was very exact. 
 
 I. 
 
 fey observing of truth, you will command respect. 
 
 I could not, for my heart, forbear pitying of him. 
 
 I heard them Discussing of this subject. 
 
 fry consulting of the best authors, he became learned. 
 
 Here are rules, by observing of which, you may avoid error. 
 
 n. 
 
 Their consent was necessary for the raising any supplies. 
 Thus the saving a great nation devolved on a husbandman. 
 It is an overvaluing ourselves, to decide upon everything. 
 The teacher does not allow any calling ill names. 
 That burning the capitol was a wanton outrage. 
 May nothing hinder our receiving so great a good. 
 My admitting the fact will not affect the argument. 
 Cain's killing his brother originated in envy. 
 
 m. 
 
 Caesar carried off the treasures which his opponent had neg- 
 lected taking with him. Goldsmith. 
 
 It is dangerous playing with edge tools. 
 
 I intend returning in a few days. 
 
 Suffering needlessly is never a duty. 
 
 Nor is it wise complaining. Cowper. 
 
 I well remember telling you so. 
 
 Doing good is a Christian's vocation. H. More. 
 
 Piety is constantly endeavoring to live to God. It is earnestly 
 desiring to do his will, and not our own. Id. 
 
156 SYNTAX. 
 
 IV. 
 
 There is no harm in women knowing about these things. 
 They did not give notice of the pupil leaving. 
 The sun's darting his beams through my window awoke me. 
 The maturity of the sago tree is known by the leaves being 
 covered with a delicate white powder. 
 
 V. 
 
 Sailing up the river, the whole town may be seen. 
 Being conscious of guilt, death becomes terrible. 
 By yielding to temptation, our peace is sacrificed. 
 In loving our enemies, no man's blood is shed. 
 By teaching the young, they are prepared for usefulness. 
 
 VI 
 
 A nail well drove will support a great weight. 
 See here a hundred sentences stole from my work. 
 I found the water entirely froze, and the pitcher broke. 
 Being forsook by my friends, I had no other resource. 
 
 VK 
 
 Till by barbarian deluges o'erflown. 
 
 Like the luster of diamonds sat in gold. 
 
 A beam ethereal, sallied and absorpt. 
 
 With powerless wings around them wrapt. 
 
 Error learnt from preaching, is held as sacred truth. 
 
 Promiscuous. 
 
 He could not have wrote such a letter. 
 
 By studying faithfully, knowledge is acquired. 
 
 We saw the lady while crossing the street. 
 
 The learning anything requires application. 
 
 I do not remember speaking of the affair. 
 
 By the exercising our faculties they are improved. 
 
 The garment was without seam, being wove in one piece. 
 
 What is the cause of that pupil being so deficient ? 
 
 Striving to excel is always commendable. 
 
 Breaking windows is the sport of mischievous boys. 
 
 He disliked being under an obligation. 
 
 His being considered a scholar did not make him one, 
 
RELATION. 157 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Parse aU the participles in Hie following sentences. 
 
 EXAMPLE. " Thus repulsed, he lost all hope of attaining his object." 
 
 Eepulsed is a perfect passive participle, and relates to Ae, according to the rule, Par- 
 ticiples relate to nouns or pronouns, etc. 
 
 Attaining is an imperfect active participle, and is governed by the preposition 0/, ac- 
 cording to the rule, etc. 
 
 Knowledge, combined with true culture, makes a person esteemed 
 and admired. Admitting the truth of this, what does it prove ? The 
 pupils continued whispering, after being reproved. Walking rapidly is 
 good exercise. To keep on arguing against prejudice is a loss of time. 
 Washington, having been appointed commander-in-chief, proceeded to 
 Cambridge. Sb^ame being lost, all virtue is lost. The ship having been 
 wrecked, the letter did not reach him. He was too fond of being flat- 
 tered. Despised and shunned by all, he went sorrowing to his grave. 
 
 Rule V. Prepositions. 
 
 Prepositions show the relation of things ; as, " He came 
 from Rome to Paris." 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1. The preposition to, before an abstract infinitive, and at the head of 
 a phrase which is made the subject of a verb, has no proper antecedent 
 term of relation ; as, " To learn to die is the great business of life. " 
 
 2. The preposition for, when it introduces its object before an infini- 
 tive, and the whole phrase is made the subject of a verb, has properly no 
 antecedent term of relation; as, " For us to learn to die is the great 
 business of life." 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. The preposition always introduces a phrase ; and the relation which 
 it expresses is that existing between the object of the preposition and 
 the word to which the phrase relates. The latter is the antecedent term; 
 and the former, the subsequent term of relation. When the phrase is 
 independent, there is no antecedent term, unless one be understood ; as, 
 "To confess the truth, I was to blame." 
 
 2. When a preposition begins or ends a sentence or clause, the terms 
 of relation are transposed ; as, " To a studious man, action is a relief." 
 " Science they do not pretend to." 
 
 3. Both the terms of relation are usually expressed, though either of 
 them may be understood; as, 1. Theform&r" All shall know me {reck- 
 
158 SYNTAX. 
 
 oning] FROM the least to the greatest. "Heb. viii. [I say] " IN a word, 
 it would entirely defeat the purpose." Blair. 2. The latter "Opin- 
 ions and ceremonies [which} they would die FOR." Locke. " IN [those] 
 who obtain defence, or who defend. " Pope. 
 
 4. Prepositions are not to be supposed to have no antecedent term, 
 merely because they stand at the head of a sentence which is made the 
 eubject of a verb ; for the sentence itself often contains that term, as in 
 the following example: " In what way mind acts upon matter, is un- 
 known." Here in shows the relation between acts and way ; the sen- 
 tence being equivalent to, " The way in which mind acts upon matter is 
 unknown. " 
 
 5. In the familiar style, a preposition governing a relative or an inter- 
 rogative pronoun, is often separated from its object, and connected with 
 the other term of relation ; as, "Whom did he speak to?" But it is 
 more dignified, and in general more graceful, to place the preposition 
 before the pronoun ; as, "To whom did he speak ? " 
 
 6. Two prepositions sometimes come together ; as, " Lambeth is over 
 against Westminster Abbey." 
 
 " And. from before the lustre of her face." Thomson. 
 "Blows mildew from between his shrivel'd lips." Oowper. 
 
 7. Two separate prepositions have sometimes a joint reference to th 
 same noun; as, "He boasted of, and contended for, the privilege." 
 This construction is formal, and scarcely allowable, except in the law 
 style. It is better to say, " He boasted of the privilege, and contended 
 for it." 
 
 8. The preposition into expresses a relation produced by motion or 
 change ; and in, the same relation, without reference to motion : hence 
 "to walk into the garden," and, "to walk in the garden," are very 
 different. 
 
 J). Between or betwixt is used in reference to two things or parties ; 
 among or amidst, in reference to a greater number, or to something by 
 which another may be surrounded ; as, 
 
 "Thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear. " Byron. 
 "The host between the mountain and the shore." Id. 
 " To meditate amongst decay, and stand 
 A ruin amidst ruins. " Id. 
 
 Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 
 
 I. Prepositions must be chosen and employed agreeably 
 to the usage and idiom of the language, so as rightly to ex- 
 press the relations intended, 
 
RELATION. 159 
 
 n. An ellipsis or omission of prepositions is inelegant, ex- 
 cept in those phrases in which long and general use has sanc- 
 tioned it. In the following sentence, of is needed. 
 
 " -- I will not flatter you, 
 That all I see in you is worthy love." Shak. 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Her sobriety is no derogation to her under- 
 standing. 
 
 . Not proper, because the relation between derogation and understanding 
 is not correctly expressed by the preposition to. But, according to Note I. under Rule V., 
 "Prepositions must be chosen and employed agreeably to the usage and idiom of the 
 language, so as righ^y to express the relations intended." This relation would be better 
 expressed by from ; thus, Her sobriety is no derogation from her understanding. 
 
 She finds a difficulty of fixing her mind. 
 
 This affair did not fall into his cognizance. 
 
 He was accused for betraying his trust. 
 
 There was no water, and he died for thirst 
 
 I have no occasion of his services. 
 
 You may safely confide on him. 
 
 I entertain no prejudice to him. 
 
 You may rely in what I tell you. 
 
 Virtue and vice differ widely with each other. 
 
 This remark is founded in truth. 
 
 After many toils, we arrived to our journey's end. 
 
 I will tell you a story very different to that. 
 
 Their conduct is agreeable with their profession. 
 
 Excessive pleasures pass from satiety in disgust. 
 
 I turned into disgust from the spectacle. 
 
 They are gone in the meadow. 
 
 Let this be divided between the three. (Obs. 9.) 
 
 The shells were broken in pieces. 
 
 The deception has passed among every one. 
 
 They never quarrel among each other. 
 
 Amidst every difficulty, he persevered 
 
 Let us go above stairs, 
 
160 SYNTAX. 
 
 I was at London when this happened. 
 We were detained to home, and disappointed in our walk. 
 This originated from mistake. 
 
 I am disappointed of the work ; it is very inferior from what I 
 expected. 
 
 n. 
 
 Be worthy me, as I am worthy you. Dry den. 
 They cannot but be unworthy the care of others. 
 Thou shalt have no portion on this side the river. 
 Sestos and Abydos were exactly opposite each other. 
 Ovid was banished Home by his patron Augustus. 
 
 Promiscuous. 
 
 He divided his property between his four sons. (Obs. 9.) 
 Whom was this message meant for? (Obs. 5.) 
 He plunged into, and swam across, the river. (06s. 7.) 
 That remark is not worthy your notice. 
 He put a basket of apples in his wagon. (Obs. 8.) 
 The pupil was admonished for his many faults. 
 The Indian differs with the Caucasian in color. 
 He is unacquainted with, and hence cannot speak upon, the 
 subject. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Parse aU the prepositions in the following sentences. 
 EXAMPLE. "Be on thy guard against flattery." 
 
 On is a preposition, and shows the relation between be and guard, according to the 
 rule, Prepositions show the relations of things. 
 
 Against is a preposition, and shows the relation between guard &u&Jlattery, according 
 to the rule, etc. 
 
 War is the law of violence ; peace, the law of love. At the bottom of 
 the garden, ran a little rivulet. Overwhelmed with anguish, he hast- 
 ened to the palace of his sovereign. For an old man to be reduced to 
 poverty, is a great affliction. My friend was absent a whole year. Come 
 out from among those impious men. They could not give him any con- 
 solation in his distress. It was, in truth, a dreadful calamity. How 
 like a fawning hypocrite he looks I 
 
AGREEMENT. 161 
 
 II. AGREEMENT. 
 
 Rule VI. Nominatives. 
 
 A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite 
 verb, must be in the nominative case ; as, 
 "I know thou sayst it : says thy life the same ? " Young. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. The subject, or nominative, is generally placed before the verb ; as, 
 u Peace dawned upon his mind." " What is written in the law ? " But 
 in the following nine cases, the subject is usually placed after the verb, 
 or after the first auxiliary : 
 
 1. When a question is asked without an interrogative pronoun in 
 the nominative case ; as, " Shall mortals be implacable ? " " What 
 art thou doing ? " 
 
 2. When the verb is in the imperative mood ; as, "Go thou." 
 
 3. When an earnest wish or other strong feeling is expressed ; as, 
 *' May she be happy ! " " How were we struck ! " Young. 
 
 4. When a supposition is made without a conjunction ; as, " Were 
 it true, it would not injure us." 
 
 5. When neither or nor, signifying and not, precedes the verb ; 
 as, ' ' This was his fear ; nor was his apprehension groundless. " 
 
 6. When, for the sake of emphasis, some word or words are 
 placed before the verb, which more naturally come after it ; as, 
 "Here am I." "Narrow is the way." "Silver and gold Jiave 1 
 none, but such as I have, give /thee." 
 
 7. When the verb has no regimen, and is itself emphatic; as, 
 "Echo the mountains round." Thomson. 
 
 8. When the verbs say, think, reply, and the like, introduce the 
 parts of a dialogue ; as, " 'Son of affliction,' said Omar, 'who art 
 thou ? ' ' My name,' replied the stranger, * is Hassan. ' "Johnson. 
 
 9. When the adverb there precedes the verb ; as, "There lived a 
 man." "In all worldly joys, there is a secret wound." 
 
 2. A noun or pronoun used, in a dependent clause, as the subjectfof 
 a verb in the infinitive mood, must be in the objective case; as, "She 
 desired him to leave the room. " Here, him to leave the room is equiva- 
 lent to, that he would leave the room ; an object clause connected to 
 the principal clause by the conjunction that. 
 
 3. The subject of the infinitive is sometimes governed by a preposi- 
 tion ; as, " For & prince to be reduced by villainy to my distressful cir- 
 cumstances is calamity enough." 
 
 11 
 
162 SYNTAX. 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Him that is studious will improve. 
 
 FOBMTTLE. Not proper, because the objective pronoun him is made the subject of the 
 verb will improve. But, according to Rule VI., "A noun or a pronoun which is the 
 subject of a finite verb, mutt be in the nominative case." Therefore, him should be he; 
 thus, He that is studious will improve. 
 
 Them that seek wisdom, will be wise. 
 
 She and me are of the same age. 
 
 You are two or three years older than us. 
 
 Are not John and thee cousins? 
 
 Thee must have been idle. 
 
 I can write as handsomely as thee. 
 
 There are but few better pupils than him. 
 
 Whom do you think was there ? 
 
 Who broke this slate ? Me. 
 
 Them that honor me, I will honor; and them that despise 
 
 me, shall be lightly esteemed. 
 He whom in that instance was deceived, is a man of sound 
 
 judgment 
 You know as well as me what was done. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 After correcting the above, parse every noun and pronoun in each of 
 the sentences, in the manner indicated in previous examples. 
 
 Rule VII. Apposition. 
 
 A noun or a personal pronoun used to explain a preced- 
 ing noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same 
 case; as, 
 
 " But he, our gracious Master, kind as just, 
 Knowing our frame, remembers we are dust." Barbauld. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Apposition is the use of additional words or appellations to explain 
 a preceding noun or pronoun. The explanatory term, or expression, 
 must have the same relation to the other words of the sentence as thu 
 
AGREEMENT. 163 
 
 term explained. Thus, in the sentence, " It is good for us to be here," 
 the phrase to be here is in apposition with the suhject it ; the meaning 
 being, "It, to be here, is good for us." Hence, the phrase is, like it, 
 the subject of the verb is. 
 
 2. The explanatory word is sometimes placed first, especially among 
 the poets ; as, 
 
 " From bright'ning fields of ether fair disci os'd 
 
 Child of the sun, refulgent Summer comes." Thomson. 
 
 3. The pronouns of the first and second persons are often prefixed to 
 nouns, merely to distinguish their person ; as, " / John saw these 
 things." " This is the stone which was set at nought of you builders." 
 Bible. " His praise, ye brooks, attune." Thomson. 
 
 4. When two or more nouns of the possessive case are put in apposi- 
 tion, the possessive termination added to one denotes the case of both 
 or all; as, " His brother Philip's wife." "John the Baptist's head." 
 "At my friend Johnson's, the bookseller." By a repetition of the pos- 
 sessive sign, a distinct governing noun is implied, and the apposition is 
 destroyed. 
 
 5. In like manner, a noun without the possessive sign is sometimes 
 put in apposition with a pronoun of the possessive case; as, "As an 
 author, his ' Adventurer ' is his capital work. " Murray. 
 
 " Thus shall mankind his guardian care engage, 
 The promised father of the future age." Pope. 
 
 6. When a noun or a pronoun is repeated for the sake of emphasis, the 
 word which is repeated may properly be said to be in apposition with 
 that which is first introduced ; as, " They have forsaken me, the Foun- 
 tain of living waters, and hewed them out cisterns, broken cisterns, that 
 can hold no water." Jer. ii., 13. 
 
 7. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence ; as, "He 
 permitted me to consult his library a kindness which I shall not forget." 
 W. AUen. 
 
 8. A distributive term in the singular number, is frequently construed 
 in apposition with a comprehensive plural ; as, " They reap vanity, 
 every one with his neighbor." Bible. " Go ye every man unto his city." 
 Ibid. And sometimes a plural word is emphatically put after a series 
 of particulars comprehended under it ; as, " Ambition, interest, honor, 
 all concurred." Murray. "Royalists, republicans, churchmen, sec- 
 taries, courtiers, patriots, att parties, concurred in the illusion. " Hume 
 
 9. To express a reciprocal action or relation, the pronominal adjectives 
 each other and one an other are employed ; as, " They love each other." 
 "They love one an. other." The words, separately considered, are 
 
164 SYNTAX. 
 
 singular ; but, taken together, they imply plurality ; and *hey can be 
 properly construed only after plurals, or singulars taken conjointly. 
 Each other is usually applied to two objects ; and one an other, to more 
 than two. The terms, though reciprocal, and closely united, are never 
 in the same construction. If such expressions be analyzed, each and one 
 will generally appear to be in the nominative case, and other in the ob- 
 jective ; as, "They love each other ; i.e., each loves the other. Each is 
 property in apposition with they, and other is governed by the verb. 
 The terms, however, admit of other constructions ; as, "Be ye helpers 
 one of an other." Bible. Here one is in apposition with ye, and other 
 is governed by of. "Ye are one an other's joy." Ib. Here one is in 
 apposition with ye, and other's is in the possessive case, being governed 
 tyjoy- " Love will make you one an otlier's joy." Here one is in the 
 objective case, being in apposition with you, and other's is governed as 
 before. The Latin terms atius alium, alii olios, etc. , sufficiently confirm 
 this doctrine. 
 
 10. The common and the proper name of an object are often associated, 
 and put in apposition ; as, The river Thames, The ship Albion, The 
 poet Cowper, Lake Erie, Cape May, Mount Atlas. But the proper 
 name of a place, when accompanied by the common name, is generally 
 put in the objective case, and preceded by of; as, The city of New York, 
 The land of Canaan. 
 
 11. The several proper names which distinguish an individual, are 
 always in apposition, and should be taken together in parsing ; as, Wil- 
 liam Pitt. Marcus TuUiits Cicero. 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. I have received a letter from my cousin, she 
 that was here last week. 
 
 FORMULE. Not proper, because the nominative pronoun she is used to explain the 
 objective noun cousin. But, according to Rule VII., " A noun or a personal pronoun used 
 to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case." There- 
 fore, she should be her ; thus, I have received a letter from my cousin, her that was here 
 last week. 
 
 The book is a present from my brother Richard, he that keeps 
 
 the bookstore. 
 I am going to see my friends in the country, they that we met 
 
 at the ferry. 
 This dress was made by Catharine, the milliner, she that we 
 
 saw at work. 
 
AGREEMENT. 165 
 
 Dennis, the gardener, him that gave me the tulips, has prom- 
 ised me a peony. 
 
 Resolve me, why the cottager and king, 
 Him whom sea-sever'd realms obey, and him 
 Who steals his whole dominion from the waste, 
 Repelling winter blasts with mud and straw, 
 Disquieted alike, draw sigh for sigh. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Parse att the nouns and pronouns in apposition in the above sentences. 
 
 Rule VIII. Verb and Subject. 
 
 A finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, 
 in person and number: as, "The bird jfey "The birds 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Verbs in the imperative mood commonly agree with the pronoun 
 thou, ye, or you, understood; as, "Do [thou] as thou list." Shak. 
 " Trust God and be doing, and leave the rest with him." 
 
 2. When a verb not finite, that is, in the infinitive mood, has a sub- 
 ject, the latter must be in the objective case ; but the infinitive having 
 no inflections, there is no agreement. (See Obs. 2, under Rule VI.) 
 
 Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 
 
 I. The adjuncts of the nominative do not control its agree- 
 ment with the verb ; as, " Six months' interest was due." 
 "The propriety of these rules is evident." 
 
 IE. The infinitive mood, a phrase, or a sentence, is some- 
 times the subject to a verb : a subject of this kind, however 
 composed, if it is taken as one whole, requires a verb in the 
 third person singular ; as, "To lie is base." " To see the sun 
 is pleasant." "That you have violated the law, is evident." 
 
 HI. When, by transposition, the subject is placed after a 
 neuter or a passive verb, care should be taken to make the 
 verb agree with the subject, and not with the attribute ; "His 
 pavilion were dark waters and thick clouds." " The wages of 
 sin is death."" Who art thou ? " 
 
166 SYNTAX. 
 
 IV. That form of the verb should be used which is best 
 suited to the style employed; as, "The clock has stricken/' 
 Not hath stricken, except in the poetical or solemn style. 
 
 V. In selecting the proper tense, the order and fitness of 
 time should be carefully observed. Thus: instead of, "I 
 have seen him last week," say, "I saw him last week ;" instead 
 of, "I saw him this week," say, " I have seen him this week ; " 
 and instead of, "I hoped you would have come" say, "I hoped 
 you would come" 
 
 "VL Propositions that are at all times equally true or false, 
 should be expressed in the present tense; as, "He seemed 
 hardly to know that two and two make four," not made. 
 
 VH Every finite verb not in the imperative mood, should 
 have a separate nominative expressed; as, "I came, I saw, I 
 conquered ; " except when the verb is repeated for the sake of 
 emphasis, or connected to another in the same construction ; 
 as, "They bud, blow, wither, fall, and die." Watts. 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. You was kindly received. 
 
 FOBMTTLE. Not proper, because the passive verb was received ia of the singular num- 
 ber, and does not agree with its nominative you, which is of the second person, plural. 
 But, according to Rule VIII., " A finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, 
 in person and number." Therefore, was received should be were received ; thus, You 
 were kindly received. 
 
 We was disappointed. 
 She dare not oppose it. 
 His pulse are too quick. 
 Circumstances alters cases. 
 He need not trouble himself. 
 Twenty-four pence is two shillings. 
 On one side was beautiful meadows. 
 He may pursue what studies he please. 
 "What have become of our cousins ? 
 There was more impostors than one. 
 What says his friends on this subject ? 
 Thou knows the urgency of the case. 
 
AGREEMENT. 
 
 What avails good sentiments with a bad life ? 
 
 Has those books been sent to the school ? 
 
 There is many occasions for the exercise of patience. 
 
 What sounds have each of the vowels ? 
 
 There were a great number of spectators. 
 
 There are an abundance of treatises on this easy science. 
 
 In this affair perseverance with dexterity were requisite. 
 
 I. 
 
 The derivation of these words are uncertain. 
 
 Four years' interest were demanded. 
 
 One added to nineteen make twenty. 
 
 The increase <5J orphans render the addition necessary. 
 
 The road to virtue and happiness, are open to all. 
 
 The ship, with all her crew, were lost. 
 
 A round of vain and foolish pursuits, delight some folks. 
 
 n. 
 
 To obtain the praise of men were their only object. 
 
 To steal and then deny it are a double sin. 
 
 To copy and claim the writings of others, are plagiarism. 
 
 To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of all 
 
 men. 
 That it is our duty to promote peace and harmony among 
 
 men, admit of no dispute. 
 
 m. 
 
 The reproofs of instruction is the way of life. 
 A diphthong are two vowels joined in one syllable. 
 So great an affliction to him was his wicked sons. 
 What is the latitude and longitude of that island ? 
 He churlishly said to me, " Who is you ? " 
 
 IV. 
 
 That boy writeth very elegantly. 
 
 Doth not your cousin intend to visit you ? 
 
 The Lord has prepared his throne in the heavens. 
 
 Dost thou think it will rain to-day ? 
 
168 SYNTAX. 
 
 Praise waits for thee, O God, in Sion. 
 
 My brother hath torn my book. 
 
 Thou stoodest in my way, and hinderedst me. 
 
 So then it is not of him that wills, nor of him that runs, but 
 
 of God that shows mercy. 
 
 V. 
 
 The work has been finished last week. 
 He was out of employment this fortnight 
 This mode of expression has been formerly in use. 
 I should be much obliged to him if he will attend to it, 
 I will pay the vows which my lips have uttered when I was in 
 
 trouble. 
 I thought, by the accent, that he had been speaking to his 
 
 child. 
 
 And he that was dead sat up and began to speak. 
 Thou hast borne, and hast patience, and for my name's sake 
 
 hast labored, and hast not fainted. Rev. ii., 3. 
 Ye will not come unto me that ye might have life. 
 At the end of this quarter, I shall be at school two years. 
 We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 
 We expected that he would have arrived last night. 
 Our friends intended to have met us. 
 We hoped to have seen you. 
 He would not have been allowed to have entered. 
 
 YL 
 
 The doctor affirmed that fever always produced thirst 
 The ancients asserted that virtue was its own reward. 
 Columbus knew that the earth was round. 
 
 VH 
 
 Am sorry to hear of thy loss, but hope it may be retrieved. 
 The physician speaks favorably of the case ; is inclined to 
 
 think the patient will get well. 
 Should be happy to see you soon. 
 
 On further information, find my loss to be inconsiderable. 
 " Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, 
 And never, never be to Heaven resigned ? " Pope. 
 
AGREEMENT. 
 
 Promiscuous. 
 
 "~z Some people is always busy and yet does very little. 
 7 Sufficient data was not given to solve the problem. 
 ^ A judicious selection of studies afford much aid. 
 
 Then thou spoke in vision to thy Holy One. 
 
 He dare not do as he threatens. 
 
 The man don't know what he wants. 
 
 Sobriety with humility lead to honor. 
 
 New York, May 3d, 1882. 
 
 Dear Sir, Have just received your kind favor of this morning, and can- 
 not forbear to express my gratitude to you. On further informa- 
 tion, find I have not lost so much as at first supposed ; and believe 
 I shall still b" able to meet all my engagements. Should, however, 
 be happy to see you. Accept, dear sir, my most cordial thanks. 
 
 C C. D. 
 
 'Parsing. 
 
 Parse the subjects and each of the predicate verbs in the following 
 sentences. 
 
 EXAMPLE. "I have said to corruption, Thou art my father." 
 
 Jin a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, common in gender, and 
 in the nominative case, being the subject of the verb have said, according to the rule, 
 A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative 
 case. 
 
 Have said is a verb, irregular in form, the principal parts being, say, said, saying, 
 said ; it is active transitive in signification, its object being the clause, Thou art my 
 father. It is found in the indicative mood and perfect tense, and agrees with its subject 
 I in the first person, singular number ; according to the rule, A finite verb must agree 
 With its subject or nominative, in person and number. 
 
 Thou is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular number, and neuter gender 
 (referring to corruption), and in the nominative case, being the subject of the verb art ; 
 according to the rule, etc. 
 
 Art is an irregular neuter verb, the principal parts being be, was, being, been ; it is 
 found in the indicative mood and present tense, and agrees with its subject thou in the 
 second person, singular number ; according to the rule, etc. 
 
 Did he say I could go ? I wish that I were sure of his sincerity. Tell 
 me how long you have been there. What hast thou done ? To speak 
 well is a valuable accomplishment. That you have spoken truly is not 
 doubted. Canst thou minister to a mind diseased ? Unseen behind 
 them sank the sun. Never decide rashly, or you may repent bitterly. 
 Pluck one thread, and the web ye mar. I shall have departed, ere you 
 return. 
 
 s- 
 
1?0 SYNTAX. 
 
 Rule IX. Collective Nominative. 
 
 "When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the 
 idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural 
 number ; but when it conveys the idea of unity, the verb 
 must be singular; as, "My people do not consider" "His 
 army was defeated" " His armies were defeated" 
 
 OBS. Whether the idea conveyed is that of plurality or unity, de- 
 pends upon the meaning of the verb, that is, the nature of the assertion. 
 If it refers to the individuals separately, plurality is conveyed, because 
 there are more than one ; if to the whole collectively, unity is expressed, 
 because there is but one body referred to. Thus, in the above examples, 
 the people consider as individuals, not as a whole, to consider being an 
 individual or personal act ; but, in the second example, the army as a 
 whole was defeated, not the individuals composing it. 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 "RYAMPT/R. The people rejoices in that which should cause 
 sorrow. 
 
 FOBMULB. Not proper, because the verb rejoices is of the singular number, and does 
 not correctly agree with its nominative people, which is a collective noun, conveying the 
 idea of plurality. But, according to Rule IX., "When the nominative is a collective 
 noun conveying the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural number." 
 Therefore, rejoices should be rejoice ; thus, The people rejoice in that which should 
 cause sorrow. 
 
 The nobility was assured that he would not interpose. 
 
 Blessed is the people that know the joyful sound. 
 
 The majority was disposed to adopt the measure. 
 
 The committee has voted upon the report. 
 
 The peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle class wears 
 
 wooden shoes. 
 
 The church have no power to inflict such punishments. 
 The fleet were almost destroyed in the action. 
 The regiment consist of a thousand men. 
 The council have established several salutary regulations. 
 No society are responsible for the conduct of its members. 
 A large flock of birds were in sight. 
 The public is informed that a meeting will be held. 
 A group of children was growing up about him. 
 
AGREEMENT. 171 
 
 The jury have been formed, but has not agreed. 
 The happy pair has received the congratulations of their 
 friends. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Parse each collective noun and each verb in the preceding exercise. 
 
 Rule X. Two or More Nominatives. 
 
 When a verb has two or more nominatives connected 
 by and, it must agree with them in the plural number 
 
 as, " Judges and senates have been bought for gold." 
 
 ir 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1. When two or more nominatives connected by and, serve merely to 
 describe one person or thing, or when they are taken collectively, they 
 do not require a plural verb; as, "This philosopher and poet was ban' 
 ished from his country." " Toll, tribute, and custom, was paid unto 
 them." Ezra iv., 20. 
 
 "Whose icy current and compulsive course 
 Ne'er feels retiring ebb, but keeps due on." Shakspeare. 
 
 2. When two nominatives connected by and are emphatically distin- 
 guished, they belong to different propositions, and (if singular) do not 
 require a plural verb; as, "Ambition, and not the safety of the state, 
 was concerned." Goldsmith. 
 
 "Ay, and no too, was no good divinity." Shakspeare. 
 " Love, and love only, is the loan for love." Young. 
 
 3. When two or more nominatives connected by and are precede \ by 
 the adjective eacfi, every, or no ; they are taken separately, and do not 
 require a plural verb ; as, " When no part of their substance, and no 
 one of their properties, is the same." Sutler. "Every limb and fea 
 ture appears with its respective grace." Steele. 
 
 4. When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with that which 
 precedes it, and is understood to the rest ; as, 
 
 '' Forth in the pleasing spring, 
 
 Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness, and love." Thomson. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. The conjunction is sometimes understood ; as, 
 
 "Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doomed. " 
 
SYNTAX 
 
 2. When the nominatives are of different persons, the verb agrees 
 with the first person in preference to the second, and with the second 
 in preference to the third ; for thou and I (or Tie, ihou, and 7) are equiv- 
 alent to we ; and than and he are equivalent to you ; as, " Why speakest 
 thou any more of thy matters ? I have said, ihou and Ziba divide the 
 land." 2 Sam. xix. i. e., "divide ye the land." 
 
 Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 
 
 L When two subjects or antecedents are connected, one 
 of which is taken affirmatively, and the other negatively, they 
 belong to different propositions ; and the verb or pronoun 
 must agree with the affirmative subject, and be understood to 
 the other ; as, " Diligent industry, and not mean savings, pro- 
 duces honorable competence." 
 
 IL When two subjects or antecedents are connected by 
 as well as, but, or save, they belong to different propositions ; 
 and, (unless one of them is preceded by the adverb not,) the 
 verb and pronoun must agree with the former and be under- 
 stood to the latter ; as, " Veracity, as well as justice, is to be 
 our rule of life." Butler. " Nothing but wailings was heard. 
 
 m. When two or more subjects or antecedents are pre- 
 ceded by the adjective each, every, or no, they are taken sepa- 
 rately, and require a verb and pronoun in the singular 
 number ; as, 
 
 " And every sense, and every heart is joy." Thomson. 
 " Each beast, each insect, happy in its own." Pope. 
 
 IV. Two or more distinct subject phrases connected by 
 and, require a plural verb ; as, To be wise in our own eyes, to 
 be wise in the opinion of the world, and to be wise in the sight 
 of our Creator, are three things so very different, as rarely to 
 coincide." Blair. 
 
 False Syntax, 
 
 Industry and frugality leads to wealth. 
 
 . Not proper, because the verb leads is in the singular number, and does 
 not correctly agree with its two nominatives, industry and frugality, which are connected 
 by and. and taken conjoint!}'. But, according to Rule X., "When a verb has two or 
 more nominatives connected by and, it must agree with them in the plural number." 
 Therefore leadt should be lead ; thus, Industry and frugality lead to wealth. 
 
AGREEMENT. 173 
 
 Temperance and exercise preserves health. 
 
 Time and tide waits for no man. 
 
 My love and affection toward thee remains unaltered. 
 
 Wealth, honor, and happiness, forsakes the indolent. 
 
 My flesh and my heart faileth. 
 
 In all his works, there is sprightliness and vigor. 
 
 Elizabeth's meekness and humility was extraordinary. 
 
 In unity consists the security and welfare of every society. 
 
 High pleasures and luxurious living begets satiety. 
 
 Much does human pride and folly require correction. 
 
 Our conversation and intercourse with the world is, in several 
 
 respects, an education for vice. 
 Occasional release from toil, and indulgence of ease, is what 
 
 nature demands, and virtue allows. 
 
 I. 
 
 Wisdom, and not wealth, procure esteem. 
 
 Prudence, and not pomp, are the basis of his fame. 
 
 Not fear but labor have overcome him. 
 
 The decency, and not the abstinence, make the difference. 
 
 Not her beauty but her talents attracts attention. 
 
 Her talents, not her beauty, attracts attention. 
 
 Study, not vain pleasures, engage his mind. 
 
 n. 
 
 His constitution, as well as his fortune, require care. 
 Their religion, as well as their manners, were ridiculed. 
 Every one, but thou, hadst been legally discharged. 
 The buyer, as well as the seller, are held liable. 
 All songsters, save the hooting owl, was mute. 
 None, but thou, O mighty prince ! canst avert the blow. 
 Nothing, but frivolous amusements, please the indolent. 
 Caesar, as well as Cicero, were admired for their eloquence. 
 
 m. 
 
 Each day, and each hour, bring its portion of duty. 
 Every house, and even every cottage, were plundered. 
 Every thought, every word, and every action, are brought into 
 judgment. 
 
174 SYNTAX. 
 
 The time has come, when no oppressor, and no unjust man, 
 are able to be screened from punishment. 
 
 No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride, 
 No cavern'd hermit, rest self-satisfied. 
 
 IV. 
 
 To profess and to possess is very different. 
 
 To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly has been en- 
 joined upon all mankind. 
 
 To cultivate the mind and to purify the heart was the object 
 of her endeavors. 
 
 Promiscuous. 
 
 No wife, no mother, no child were there to soothe his dying 
 hours. 
 
 Virtue, and virtue alone, are able to satisfy the heart. (Excep- 
 tion 2.) 
 
 There are beauty of thought and elegance of expression in all 
 his poems. (Exception 1.) 
 
 The long and short of the matter are simply this. 
 
 James, and also his brother, have left school. 
 
 Eveiy herb, every shrub, and every tree are beginning to bud. 
 
 That noted poet and scholar have passed from earth. (Ex- 
 ception I.) 
 
 Not a loud voice, but strong proofs, brings conviction. 
 
 The saint, the father, and the husband pray. (Exception 1.) 
 
 The ebb and flow of the tides are now understood. 
 
 Parsing* 
 
 Parse each verb in the preceding exercise. 
 
 Rule XI. Singular Nominatives. 
 
 When a verb has two or more singular nominatives 
 connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the 
 singular number ; as, " Fear or jealousy affects him." 
 
AGREEMENT. 175 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. When the latter nominative is parenthetical, the verb agrees with 
 the former only; as, "One example, or ten, says nothing against the 
 universal opinion." Leigh Hunt. 
 
 2. When the latter of the two nouns connected is used to explain the 
 former, the principal subject alone controls the verb; as, "The Mexi- 
 can figures, or picture-writing, represent things, not words." 
 
 Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 
 
 I. When a verb has nominatives of different persons or 
 numbers, connected by or or nor, it must ' agree with that 
 which is placed next to it, and be understood to the rest, in 
 the person and number required ; as, " Neither he nor his 
 brothers were Ihere." " Neither you nor I am concerned." 
 
 II. But when the nominatives require different forms of 
 the verb, it is in general more elegant to express the verb, or 
 its auxiliary, in connection with each of them ; as, " Either 
 thou art to blame, or I am." "Neither were their numbers, 
 nor was their destination known." 
 
 HE. The speaker should generally mention himself last; 
 as, "Thou or /must go." "He then addressed his discourse 
 to my father and me." But in confessing a fault he may as- 
 sume the first place ; as, " /and Kobert did it." 
 
 IV. Two or more distinct subject phrases connected by or 
 or nor, require a singular verb ; as, "That a drunkard should 
 be poor, or that a fop should be ignorant, is not strange." 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Ignorance or negligence have caused this mis- 
 take. 
 
 FOBMULE. Not proper, because the verb have caused is of the plural number, and 
 does not correctly agree with its two nominatives, ignorance and negligence, which are 
 connected by or. But, according to Rule XI., " When a verb has two or more singular 
 nominatives, connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the singular number." 
 Therefore, have caused should be has caused ; thus, Ignorance or negligence has caused 
 this mistake. 
 
 Neither imprudence, credulity, nor vanity, have ever been im- 
 puted to him. 
 What the heart or the imagination dictate flows readily. 
 
176 STKTAX. 
 
 Neither authority nor analogy support such an opinion. 
 
 Either ability or inclination were wanting. 
 
 Redundant grass or heath afford abundance to their cattle. 
 
 The returns of kindness are sweet ; and there are neither 
 honor, nor virtue, nor utility in repelling them. 
 
 The sense or drift of a proposition, often depend upon a sin- 
 gle letter. 
 
 L 
 
 Neither he nor you was there. 
 
 Either the boys or I were in fault. 
 
 Neither he nor I intends to be present. 
 
 Neither the captain nor the sailors was saved. 
 
 Whether one person or more was concerned in the business 
 does not yet appear. 
 
 n. 
 
 Are they expected or I to be there ? 
 
 Neither he, nor am I, capable of it. 
 
 Either he has been imprudent, or his associates vindictive. 
 
 Neither were their riches, nor their influence great. 
 
 m. 
 
 I and my father were riding out. 
 
 The premiums were given to me and George. 
 
 I and Jane are invited. 
 
 They ought to invite me and my sister. 
 
 We dreamed a dream in one night, I and he. 
 
 IV. 
 
 To practice tale-bearing, or even to countenance it, are great 
 
 injustice. 
 To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, are contemptible 
 
 perfidy. 
 
 Promiscuous. 
 
 Ignorance or negligence have caused the mistake. 
 Neither the man nor his sons has been here. 
 Either he or I are mistaken. 
 Neither thou nor I art to blame. 
 
AGREEMENT. 177 
 
 To have brilliant talents, or to amass great riches, render most 
 
 persons very proud. 
 
 Neither I nor my father are able to be present. 
 Vanity, ambition, or sensuality lead many to ruin. 
 To read or to write were equally difficult to her. 
 Neither the captain nor the passengers was saved. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Parse each of the verbs in the preceding exercise. 
 
 Rule XII. Verbs Connected. 
 
 When verbs are connected by a conjunction, they must 
 either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have separate 
 nominatives expressed ; as, " He himself held the plough, 
 sowed the grain, and attended the reapers." " She was 
 proud, but she is now humble." 
 
 Exception. 
 
 Verbs differing in mood, tense, or form, may sometimes agree with 
 the same nominative, especially if the simplest verbs be placed first ; as, 
 "What nothing earthly gives or can destroy." Pope. 
 "Some are, and must be, greater than the rest." Id. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 Those parts which are common to several verbs, are generally ex* 
 pressed to the first, and understood to the rest; as, "Every sincere en- 
 deavor to amend shall be assisted, [shall be] accepted, and [shall be] 
 rewarded." "Honorably do the best you can" [do]. "He thought as 
 I did" [think]. "You have seen it, but I have not" [seen it]. "If 
 you go, I will " [go]. 
 
 Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 
 
 I. The preterit should not be employed to form the com- 
 pound tenses, nor should the perfect participle be used for 
 the preterit. Thus say, "To have gone," not, "To havq 
 went ; " and, " I did it," not, " I done it." 
 1* 
 
178 SYNTAX. 
 
 IL Care should be taken to give every verb its appropriate 
 form and signification. Thus say, "He lay by the fire,"- 
 not, "He laid by the fire;" "He had entered into the con- 
 nection," not, "He was entered into the connection;" "I 
 would rather stay" not, " I had rather stay" 
 
 OBS. Several verbs which resemble each other in form, are fre- 
 quently confounded: as, to flee, to fly ; to lay, to lie; to sit, to set; to 
 fall, to fell; to rend, to rent; to ride, to rid, etc. Some others are 
 often misapplied ; as, learn for teach. There are also erroneous forms 
 of some of the compound tenses; as, "We will be convinced," for, "We 
 shall be convinced." "If I had have seen him," for, "If I had seen 
 him." All such errors are to be corrected by the foregoing note. 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 OBS. Errors under this rule may generally be corrected in three 
 ways : 1. By changing the first verb, to agree with the second ; 2. By 
 changing the second verb, to agree with the first ; 3. By inserting the 
 nominative. 
 
 EXAMPLE. They would neither go in themselves, nor suf- 
 fered others to enter. 
 
 FOBMOTJE. Xot proper, because the two verbs would go and suffered, which are con- 
 nected by separate nominatives, do not agree in mood. But, according to Kule XII., 
 ~~" When verbs are connected by a conjunction, they must either agree in mood, tense, 
 and form, or have separate nominatives expressed." The sentence is best corrected by 
 changing suffered to would suffer (would understood) ; thus, They would neither go in 
 themselves, nor suffer others to enter. 
 
 He will fail, and therefore should not undertake it. 
 
 "Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth into the 
 mountains, and seeketh that which is gone astray ? 
 
 Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreated thee to forgive 
 "him? 
 
 If he understands the business, and attend to it, wherein is he 
 deficient ? 
 
 The day is approaching, and hastens upon us, in which we 
 must give an account of our stewardship. 
 
 If thou dost not turn unto the Lord, but forget him who re- 
 membered thee in thy distress, great will be thy con- 
 demnation. 
 
AGREEMENT. 179 
 
 There are a few who have kept their integrity to the Lord, 
 and prefer his truth to all other enjoyments. 
 
 This report was current yesterday, and agrees with what we 
 heard before. 
 
 Virtue is generally praised, and would be generally practiced 
 also, if men were wise. 
 
 I. 
 
 He would have went with us, if we had invited him. 
 They have chose the part of honor and virtue. 
 He soon begun to be weary of having nothing to do. 
 Somebody has broke my slate. 
 I seen him when he done it. 
 
 n. 
 
 He was entered into the conspiracy. 
 The Southern planters grow cotton and rice. 
 The report is predicated on truth. 
 I entered the room and set down. 
 Go and lay down, my son. 
 
 With such books, it will always be difficult to kara children 
 to read. 
 
 Rule XIII Subject and Attribute. 
 
 Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and their 
 participles, take the same case after as 'before them, when 
 both words refer to the same thing ; as, " He returned a 
 friend^ who came a/00." Pope. " The child was named 
 John,? "It could not be he? 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. This rule, as one of agreement, may be more simply stated : The 
 attribute agrees in case with the subject. 
 
 2. The neuter verb be, that connects the subject and the attribute, is 
 called the copida, because it couples, or joins together, these two parts 
 of the sentence. In the case of other verbs, the copula may be supplied 
 by changing the form: as, "The child sleeps;" equivalent to, "The 
 child is sleeping." 
 
180 SYNTAX. 
 
 3. The verb to be, in most cases, only affirms, Or indicates Otherwise, 
 the connection existing between the subject and the attribute. When 
 the latter is a noun, it may express 1. Class ; as, "Cain was a mur- 
 derer." 2. Identity; as, "Cain was the murderer of Abel." 3. Name; 
 as, "The child was called John." When mere existence is predicated, 
 the verb be comprehends both the predicate and the attribute. 
 
 4. Class, identity, name, or quality may be attributed to the subject in 
 various ways : 
 
 1. By affirming directly a connection between it and the subject, as 
 
 in the preceding examples. 
 
 2. By affirming it to belong to the subject, in connection with a 
 
 particular act or state of being ; as, " She looked a goddess, and 
 she walked a queen."" The sun stood still." 
 
 3. By affirming a connection, as the result of a change ; as, " He 
 
 has become a scholar." 
 
 4. By affirming a connection, as the result of a process; as, "He 
 
 loos elected President." " The twig Jias grown a tree." 
 
 5. The attribute is often used indefinitely, that is, without reference 
 to any particular subject; as, "To be good is to be happy." "To be a 
 poet requires genius." In analyzing, this may be called the indefinite 
 attribute. 
 
 6. An attribute is sometimes indirectly affirmed of, or otherwise con- 
 nected with, the object of a verb ; as, " They elected him president." 
 "Vice has left him without friends" (i. e. , friendless}. This is to be 
 considered as a modification of the predicate, and may be properly 
 called the indirect attribute. 
 
 7. The conjunction as is often employed to express the connection be- 
 tween the attribute and the subject or object to which it refers ; as, 
 " She was known as Curiosity." " They engaged her as a governess." 
 
 8. In interrogative sentences, the terms are usually transposed, or 
 ]x>th are placed after the verb ; as, 
 
 " Whence, and what art thoit, execrable shape ? " MUton. 
 
 " Art thou that traitor angel ? Art thou lid ? "Idem. 
 And in a declarative sentence, there may be a rhetorical or poetical 
 transposition of the terms ; as, "I was eyes to the blind, and. feet was / 
 to the lame." Job, xxix. 
 
 " Far other scene is TJirasymene now." Byron. 
 
 9. In some peculiar constructions, both words naturally come before 
 the verb ; as, "I know not who she is." " Inquire thou whose son the 
 ^tripling is." 1 Sam., xvii. " Man would not be the creature which 
 fa now is." Blair. " I could not guess who it should be." 
 
AGREEMENT. 181 
 
 And they are sometimes placed in this manner by hyperbaton, or trans- 
 position ; as, "Yet He it is." Young. "No contemptible orator he 
 was." Blair. 
 
 10. When the attribute is used with infinitives or participles, care 
 must be taken to refer it to its proper subject, so as to determine its 
 case by agreement. Sometimes the attribute, in such constructions, is 
 indirect or indefinite, and sometimes it agrees with a preceding objec- 
 tive, which is the subject of the infinitive. Examples: " Who then 
 can bear the thought of being an outcast from his presence ? " Addison. 
 " /cannot help being so passionate an admirer as I am." Steele. " To 
 affect to be a lord in one's closet, would be a romantic madness." Here 
 lord is indefinite. 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. We did not know that it was him. 
 
 FOBMITLE. Not proper, because the pronoun him, which belongs after the neuter verb 
 was, is in the objective case, and does not agree with the pronoun it, which belongs be- 
 fore it as the nominative ; both words referring to the same thing. But, according to 
 Rule XIII., "Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and their participles, take 
 the same case after as before them, when both words refer to the same thing." There- 
 fore, him should be he ; thus, We did not know that it was he. 
 
 We thought it was thee. 
 I would act the same part, if I were him. 
 It could not have been her. 
 It is not me, that he is angry with. 
 They believed it to be I. 
 It was thought to be him. 
 If it had been her, she would have told us. 
 We know it to be they. 
 Whom do you think it is ? . 
 Who do you suppose it to be ? 
 We did not know whom they were. 
 Thou art him whom they described. 
 Impossible ! it can't be me. 
 Whom did he think you were ? 
 Whom say ye that I am ? 
 Art thou him whom they say thou art ? 
 
 If I had known it to be she, I should have spoken to her in a 
 very different manner. 
 
182 SYNTAX. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Parse each of the attributes in the above sentences, and in the following. 
 EXAMPLE 1." They said it was he." 
 
 He is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and 
 in the nominative case, agreeing with the subject it ; according to the rule, Active-in- 
 transitive, passive, and neuter verbs, etc. 
 
 EXAMPLE 2." Whom do they think him to be ? " 
 
 Whom is an interrogative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine 
 gender, and in the objective case, agreeing with him; according to the rule, etc.; the 
 grammatical order, when transposed, being, They think him to be whom, equivalent to, 
 They think that he is who ; or, in the proper order, Who do they think that he is ? 
 
 A region of repose it seems. The southwest wind blew fresh and fair. 
 Make not thyself the judge of any man. He prized what others looked 
 upon as trifles. He was fond of being the champion of innocence. To 
 be an upright man is better than to be a millionaire. To affect to be 
 a scholar is to prove yourself a pedant. For a man to be a true 
 patriot, he must be willing to die for his country. It is not I that he ia 
 provoked at. 
 
 Rule XIV. Pronoun and Antecedent. 
 
 A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun 
 or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and 
 gender ; as, " 7, who am your friend, will aid you." 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1. When a pronoun stands for some person or thing indefinite or un- 
 known to the speaker, this rule is not strictly applicable ; because the 
 person, number, and gender, are rather assumed than regulated by an 
 antecedent ; as, " I do not care who knows it." Steele. " Who touched 
 me ? Tell me who it was." 
 
 2. The neuter pronoun it may be applied to a young child, or to other 
 creatures masculine or feminine by nature, when they are not obviously 
 distinguishable with regard to sex ; as, " Which is the real friend to the 
 child, the person who gives it the sweetmeats, or the person who, con- 
 sidering only its health, resists its importunities ? " Opie. " He loads 
 the animal, he is showing me, with so many trappings and collars, that 
 I cannot distinctly view it." Murray. "The nightingale sings most 
 sweetly when it sings in the night." Burke. 
 
AGfcEEMEHT. 183 
 
 8. The pronoun it is often used without a definite reference to any 
 particular person or thing ; as, " Whether she grapple it with the pride of 
 philosophy." Chalmers. " Come, and trip it as you go." Milton. 
 
 4. A singular antecedent with the adjective many, sometimes admits 
 a plural pronoun, but never in the same clause ; as, 
 
 " In Hawick twinkled many a light, 
 Behind him soon they set in night." Scott. 
 
 5. When a plural pronoun is put by enallage for the singular, it does 
 not agree with its noun in number, because it still requires a plural 
 verb; as, " We [Lindley Murray] have followed those authors." Mur- 
 ray. "We shall close our remarks on this subject." Ib. "My lord, 
 you know I love you.' 1 ' 1 Shakspeare. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. While every pronoun must represent some noun or pronoun, ex- 
 pressed or understood, it is only the relative pronoun that necessarily 
 has an antecedent (word going before). The pronoun must always agree 
 with the noun or pronoun which it represents, whether it be an anteced- 
 ent or not. The antecedent of a relative pronoun is always in the same 
 sentence ; but it is in the principal clause, while the relative is in the 
 dependent clause. 
 
 2. The pronoun we is used by the speaker to represent himself and 
 others, and is therefore plural. But it is sometimes used, by a sort of 
 fiction, instead of the singular, to intimate that the speaker is not alone in 
 his opinions. Monarchs sometimes join it to a singular noun; as, " We 
 Alexander, Autocrat of all the Russias." They also employ the com- 
 pound ourself, which is not used by other people. 
 
 3. When a pronoun represents the name of an inanimate object per- 
 sonified, it agrees with its antecedent in the figurative, and not in the 
 literal sense ; [See the figure Syllepsis, in PART IV.] as, 
 
 *' Penance dreams Jier life away." Rogers. 
 
 " Grim Darkness furls his leaden shroud." Id. 
 
 4. When the antecedent is applied metaphorically, the pronoun agrees 
 with it in its literal, and not in its figurative sense ; as, "Pitt was the 
 pillar which upheld the state." "The monarch of mountains rears his 
 snowy head." [See Figures, in PART IV.] 
 
 5. When the antecedent is put by metonymy for a noun of different 
 properties, the pronoun sometimes agrees with it in the figurative, and 
 sometimes in the literal sense; as, "And heaven beholds its image 
 in his breast." Pope. 
 
 " The wolf, who [that] from the nightly fold, 
 Fierce drags the bleating prey, ne'er drunk her milk, 
 Nor wore her warming fleece." Thomson. 
 
184 SYNTAX 
 
 6. When the antecedent is put "by synecdoche for more or less than it 
 literally signifies, the pronoun agrees with it in the figurative, and not 
 in the literal sense ; as, 
 
 " A dauntless soul erect, who smiled on death." Thomson. 
 
 7. Pronouns usually follow the words which they represent ; but this 
 order is sometimes reversed ; as, " Whom the cap fits, let him put it on." 
 " Hark ! they whisper ; angels say," etc. 
 
 8. A pronoun sometimes represents a phrase or sentence ; and in this 
 case, the pronoun is always in the third person singular neuter ; as, 
 " She is very handsome ; and she has the misfortune to know it." " Yet 
 men can go on to vilify or disregard Christianity ; which is to talk and 
 act as if they had a demonstration of its falsehood. " Bp. Butler. 
 
 9. After the pronoun it, used indefinitely, and followed by a pronoun 
 of any person, number, or gender, as the attribute, the relative usually 
 is made to agree with the latter instead of .the former ; as, " It is not I 
 that have done it." This construction is anomalous. 
 
 10. The pronoun it is often used to represent an explanatory phrase 
 or clause coming after the verb ; as, " It is impossible to please every 
 one." " It was requisite iliat the papers should be sent." 
 
 11. In familiar language, the relative in the objective case is fre- 
 quently understood; as, " Here is the letter [which] I received." The 
 omission of the relative in the nominative case, is inelegant ; as, "This 
 is the worst thing [/&] could happen." The latter ellipsis sometimes 
 occurs in poetry ; as, " In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man." Pope. 
 
 12. The antecedent is sometimes suppressed, especially in poetry ; as, 
 " How shall I curse [him or them] whom God hath not cursed ? " 
 Numb., xxiii. 
 
 [Se] : ' Who lives to nature, rarely can be poor ; 
 
 [He] Who lives to fancy, never can be rich." Young. 
 
 13. What is sometimes used adverbially ; as, "Though I forbear, 
 irJiat am I eased?" Job. That is, how much? or wherein? "The 
 enemy having his country wasted, what by himself and what by the 
 soldiers, findeth succor in no place." Spenser. Here what means 
 partly " wasted partly by himself and. partly by the soldiers." 
 
 14. What is sometimes used as a mere interjection ; as, 
 "Wtiatf this a sleeve ? 'Tis like a demi-canon." Shakspeare. 
 " What! can you lull the winged winds asleep ? "Campbell. 
 
 15. As frequently has the force of a relative pronoun; as, "Avoid 
 such aw are vicious." "But to as many as received him," etc. "He 
 then read the conditions as follow." But when a clause or a sentence is 
 
AGREEMENT. 185 
 
 the antecedent, it is better to consider as a conjunction, and to supply 
 the pronoun it; as, "He is angry, as [it] appears by this letter." 
 
 16. But sometimes seems to have the force of a relative and a nega- 
 tive ; as, " Who is there but would pity them ? " Here but is equivalent 
 to that not. 
 
 Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 
 
 I. A pronoun should not be introduced in connection with 
 words that belong more properly to the antecedent, or to an 
 other pronoun ; as, 
 
 "My banks they are furnished with bees." Shenstone. 
 
 tf 
 
 OBS. This is only an example of pleonasm, which is allowable and 
 frequent in animated discourse, but inelegant in any other. [See Pleo- 
 nasm, in PART IV.] 
 
 IE. A change of number in the second person is inelegant 
 and improper ; as, "You wept, and I for thee" 
 
 OBS. Poets have sometimes adopted this solecism, to avoid the harsh- 
 ness of the verb in the second person singular ; as, 
 "As, in that loved Athenian bower, 
 Tou learn' d an all commanding power, 
 Thy mimic soul, O nymph endear'd I 
 Can well recall what then it heard." CoUins. 
 
 HE. The relative who is applied only to persons, and to 
 animals personified ; and which, to brute animals and inani- 
 mate things: as, "The judge who presided;" "The old 
 crab who advised the young one ; " " The horse which ran ; " 
 " The book which was given me." 
 
 OBS. Which, as well as who, was formerly applied to persons; as, 
 "Our Father which art in heaven." Bible. It may still he applied to 
 a young child ; as, ' ' The child which died. " Or even to adults, when 
 they are spoken of without regard to a distinct personality or identity ; 
 as, "Which of you will go?" "Crabb knoweth not which is which, 
 himself or his parodist." Leigh Hunt. 
 
186 SYNTAX 
 
 IV. Nouns of multitude, unless they express persons di- 
 rectly as such, should not be represented by the relative who : 
 to say, " The family whom I visited," would hardly be proper ; 
 that would here be better. When such nouns are strictly of 
 the neuter gender, which may represent them ; as, " The 
 committees which were appointed." 
 
 V. A proper name taken merely as a name, or an appella- 
 tive taken in any sense not strictly personal, must be repre- 
 sented by which, and not by who ; as, "Herod which is but 
 another name for cruelty." 
 
 VL The relative that may be applied either to persons or 
 to things. In the following cases it is generally preferable to 
 who or which, unless it be necessary to use a preposition be- 
 fore the relative : 
 
 1. After an adjective of the superlative degree, when the relative 
 introduces a modifying clause ; as, " He was the first tJiat came." 
 
 2. After the adjective same, to explain its import ; as, " This is the 
 same person that I met before." 
 
 3. After the antecedent who; as, " Who that has common sense, can 
 think so ? " 
 
 4. After a joint reference to persons and things; as, "He spoke of 
 e mm and things that he had seen." 
 
 5. After an unlimited antecedent, which the relative and its verb 
 are to restrict ; as, " Thoughts that breathe, and words that burn." 
 
 6. After an antecedent introduced by the expletive it; as, " It is you 
 that command." "It was I that did it." 
 
 7. And, in general, where the propriety of who or which is doubtful ; 
 as, " The little child that was placed in the midst." 
 
 VIE. When several relative clauses come in succession, and 
 have a similar dependence in respect to the antecedent, the 
 same pronoun must be employed in each ; as, " O thou who 
 art, and who wast, and who art to come ! " 
 
 VJJLL The relative, and the preposition governing it, should 
 not be omitted when they are necessary to give connection to 
 the sentence ; as, " He is still in the situation [in which] you 
 saw him." 
 
 IX. An adverb should not be used where a preposition and 
 
AGREEMENT. 187 
 
 a relative pronoun would better express the relation of the 
 terms; as, " A cause where [for in which] justice is so much 
 concerned." 
 
 X. Where a pronoun or a pronominal adjective will not 
 express the meaning clearly, the noun must be repeated, or 
 inserted instead of it. Example : " We see the beautiful 
 variety of color in the rainbow, and are led to consider the 
 cause of it " [that variety]. 
 
 XL To prevent ambiguity or obscurity, the relative should 
 be placed as near as possible to the antecedent. The follow- 
 ing sentence is therefore faulty : " He is like a beast of prey, 
 that is void of compassion." Better : " He that is void of 
 compassion, is like a beast of prey." 
 
 XII. The pronoun what should never be used instead of 
 the conjunction that ; as, "He will not believe but what I am 
 to blame." What should be that. 
 
 Xm. A pronoun should not be used to represent an 
 adjective; because it can neither express a concrete quality 
 as such, nor convert it properly into an abstract. Exam- 
 ple : " Be attentive ; without which you will learn nothing." 
 Better : " Be attentive ; for without attention you will learn 
 nothing." 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. No person should be censured for being care- 
 ful of their reputation. 
 
 FORMULE. Not proper, because the pronoun their is of the plural number, and does 
 not correctly represent its antecedent noun person, which is of the third person, singular, 
 masculine. But, according to Rule XIV., " A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, 
 01- the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender/' There- 
 fore, their should be Ms ; thus, No person should be censured for being careful of his 
 reputation. [See Obs. 2, under Rule XVI.] 
 
 Every one must judge of their own feelings. 
 
 C.Ji any person, on their entrance into the world, be fully 
 
 secure that they shall not be deceived ? 
 He cannot see one in prosperity without envying them. 
 I gave him oats, but he would not eat it. 
 
188 SYNTAX. 
 
 Kebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob. 
 Take up the tongs, and put it in its place. 
 Let each esteem others better than themselves. 
 A person may make themselves happy without riches. 
 Every man should try to provide for themselves. 
 The mind of man should not be left without something on 
 which to employ his energies. 
 
 Many words they darken speech. 
 
 These praises he then seemed inclined to retract them. 
 
 These people they are all very ignorant. 
 
 Asa his heart was perfect with the Lord. 
 
 Who instead of going about doing good, they are perpetually 
 
 intent upon doiDg mischief. 
 Whom ye delivered up, and denied him in the presence of 
 
 Pontius Pilate. Acts. 
 Whom, when they had washed, they laid her in an upper 
 
 chamber. Acts. 
 
 What I have mentioned there are witnesses of the fact. 
 What he said he is now sorry for it 
 The empress, approving these conditions, she immediately 
 
 ratified them. 
 This incident, though it appears improbable, yet I cannot 
 
 doubt the author's veracity. 
 
 IL 
 
 Thou art my father's brother, else would I reprove you. 
 
 Your weakness is excusable, but thy wickedness is not. 
 
 Now, my son, I forgive thee, and freely pardon your fault. 
 You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song, 
 Till nobly rises emulous thy own. Thomson. 
 
 m. 
 
 This is the horse whom my father imported. 
 
 Those are the birds whom we call gregarious. 
 
 He has two brothers, one of which I am acquainted with. 
 
 What was that creature whom Job called leviathan? 
 
AGREEMENT. 189 
 
 Those which desire to be safe, should be careful to do that 
 
 which is right. 
 A butterfly which thought himself an accomplished traveler, 
 
 happened to light upon a bee-hive. 
 There was a, certain householder which planted a vineyard. 
 
 IV. 
 
 The races who anciently invaded Europe were Aryans. 
 
 The court, who has great influence upon the public manners, 
 ought to be very exemplary. 
 
 The Persian armies whom the Greeks defeated had been con- 
 sidered invincible. 
 
 *- V. 
 
 Judas (who is now another name for treachery) betrayed his 
 master with a kiss. 
 
 He alluded to Phalaris who is a name for all that is cruel 
 
 YL 
 
 He was the first who entered. 
 
 He was the drollest fellow whom I ever saw. 
 
 This is the same man whom we saw before. 
 
 Who is she who comes clothed in a robe of green ? 
 
 The wife and fortune whom he gained, did not aid him. 
 
 Men who are avaricious never have enough. 
 
 All which I have is thine. 
 
 Was it thou or the wind who shut the door ? 
 
 It was not I who shut it. 
 
 The babe who was in the cradle appeared to be healthy. 
 
 vn. 
 
 He is a man that knows what belongs to good manners, and 
 
 who will not do a dishonorable act. 
 The friend who was here, and that entertained us so much, 
 
 will never be able to visit us again. 
 The curiosities which he has brought home, and that we shall 
 
 have the pleasure of seeing, are said to be very rare. 
 
 VOL 
 
 Observe them in the order they stand. 
 
 We proceeded immediately to the place we were directed. 
 
190 SYNTAX. 
 
 My companion remained a week in the state I left 
 The way I do it, is this. 
 
 IX. 
 
 Remember the condition whence thou art rescued. 
 
 I know of no rule how it may be done. 
 
 He drew up a petition, where he too freely represented his 
 
 own merits. 
 The hour is hastening, when whatever praise or censure I have 
 
 acquired, will be remembered with equal indifference. 
 
 X. 
 
 Many will acknowledge the excellence of religion, who cannot 
 
 tell wherein it consists. 
 
 Every difference of opinion is not that of principle. 
 Next to the knowledge of God, this of ourselves seems most 
 
 worthy of our endeavor. 
 
 XL 
 
 Thou art thyself the man that committed the act, who hast 
 
 thus condemned it. 
 There is a certain majesty in simplicity, which is far above 
 
 the quaintness of wit. 
 
 Thou hast no right to judge who art a party concerned. 
 It is impossible for such men as those, ever to determine this 
 
 question, who are likely to get the appointment. 
 There are millions of people in the empire of China, whose 
 
 support is derived almost entirely from rice. 
 
 xn. 
 
 I had no idea but what the story was true. 
 
 The post-boy is not so weary but what he can whistle. 
 
 He had no intimation but what the men were honest. 
 
 YTTT 
 
 Some men are too ignorant to be humble ; without which, 
 
 there can be no docility. 
 Judas declared him innocent, which he could not be, had he 
 
 in any respect deceived the disciples. 
 
AGREEMENT. 191 
 
 Be accurate in all you say or do, for it is important in all the 
 concerns of life. 
 
 Every law supposes the transgressor to be wicked, which in- 
 deed he is, if the law is just. 
 
 Promiscuous. 
 
 Did you commit the same mistake which I corrected you for? 
 Let every one of them attend to their own affairs. 
 The elephant whom they have tamed was brought from Africa. 
 That is the worst crime which could have been perpetrated. 
 They should have no aid from others who are negligent and 
 
 slothful. f . 
 
 Solomon was the wisest man whom the world ever saw. 
 All which beauty, all which wealth ever bestowed must finally 
 
 pass away. 
 
 Do unto others as thou wouldst have others do unto you. 
 Thou art the man who hast committed the crime, but it is I 
 
 who has suffered. 
 The man was arrested by the officers who committed that 
 
 dreadful deed. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Parse all the pronouns in the sentences of the preceding exercise, and in 
 the following. 
 
 EXAMPLE. " I that speak unto tliee am he." 
 
 I is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, masculine gender (from 
 the context), and the nominative case, being the subject of the verb am, according to the 
 rule, A noun or pronoun, etc. 
 
 That is a relative pronoun, and agrees with its antecedent / in the first person, singu- 
 lar number, and masculine gender, according to the rule, A pronoun must agree with its 
 antecedent, etc. ; it is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb speak ; 
 according to the rule, etc. 
 
 Thee is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular number, common in gender, 
 and in the objective case, being the object of the preposition unto. 
 
 He is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and 
 the nominative case, being the attribute after am, and agreeing with the subject I; ac- 
 cording to the rule, Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, etc. 
 
 All that live must die. Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just. 
 There is no law but can be evaded. Who reasons wisely is not always wise. 
 Let such, teach others who themselves excel. What will become pf ug 
 
192 SYNTAX. 
 
 without religion ? He who does what he knows to be wrong is a sinner. 
 Let him be who he may, he is not the person that he seemed. What 
 are we to do ? Whom did you suppose me to be ? Call imperfections 
 what thou fanciest such. He gave freedom to such as desired it. 
 Thou who speakest to me art she. Whatsoever he doeth shall prosper 
 
 Rule XV. Collective Antecedent. 
 
 When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the 
 idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the 
 plural number ; but when it conveys the idea of unity, 
 the pronoun must be singular ; as, " The council disagreed 
 in their sentiments." " The nation will enforce its laws." 
 
 [See Observation under Rule IX.] 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. The jury will be confined till it agrees on a 
 verdict. 
 
 FOEMTTLE. Not proper, because the pronoun it is of the singular number, and does 
 not correctly represent its antecedent jury, which is a collective noun conveying the 
 idea of plurality. But, according to Rule XV., "When the antecedent is a collective 
 noun, conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the plural 
 number." Therefore, it should be they ; thus, The jury will be confined till tltey agree 
 on a verdict. 
 
 In youth, the multitude eagerly pursue pleasure, as if it were 
 
 its chief good. 
 The council was not unanimous, and it separated without any 
 
 decision. 
 
 This court is famous for the justice of their decisions. 
 I saw all the species thus delivered from its sorrows. 
 A strange incident happened to the army, and put it in great 
 
 consternation. 
 
 The company have lost several of their members. 
 A nation seldom duly reward their noblest benefactors. 
 The new board of directors have elected their officers. 
 The parliament will consider the matter at their next session. 
 The army was eating its dinner, when they were attacked by 
 
 the enemy, and having been defeated, a large part of it 
 
 was slain. 
 
AGREEMENT. 193 
 
 The convention then resolved themselves into a committee of 
 
 the whole. 
 The crowd was so great that the judges with difficulty made 
 
 their way through them. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Parse each pronoun and each collective noun in the above sentences. 
 
 Rule XVI. Connected Antecedents. 
 
 When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected 
 by and, it must agree with them in the plural number ; 
 as, " James and John will favor us with their company." 
 
 Exceptions, 
 
 1. When two or more antecedents connected by and, serve merely to 
 describe one person or thing ; they are in apposition, and do not require 
 a plural pronoun ; as, ' ' This great philosopher and statesman continued 
 in public life till his eighty-second year." 
 
 2. When two antecedents connected by and are emphatically distin- 
 guished, they belong to different propositions, and (if singular) do not 
 require a plural pronoun ; as, " Thebutler, and not the baker, was restored 
 to his office." "The good man, and the sinner too, shall have his re- 
 ward." 
 
 3. When two or more antecedents connected by and are preceded by 
 the adjective eacli, every, or no, they are taken separately, and do not 
 require a plural pronoun; as, "Every plant and every tree produces 
 others after its kind." 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. When the antecedents are of different persons, the first person is 
 preferred to the second, and the second to the third ; as, " John, and 
 thou, and I, are attached to our country." "John and thou are 
 attached to your country. " 
 
 2. The gender of pronouns, except in the third person singular, is 
 distinguished only by their antecedents. In expressing that of a pro- 
 noun which has antecedents of different genders, the masculine should 
 be preferred to the feminine, and the feminine to the neuter. 
 
 [See the Notes under Rule X., most of which are applicable to the pronoun as well ag 
 to the verb,] 
 
 18 
 
194 SYNTAX. 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his 
 countenance. 
 
 FORMTTLE. Not proper, because the pronoun itself is of the singular number, and 
 does not correctly represent its two antecedents discontent and sorrow, which are con- 
 nected by find, and taken conjointly. But, according to Rule XVI., "When a pronoun 
 has two or more antecedents connected by and, it must agree with them in the plural 
 number." Therefore, itself nhould be themselves; thus, Discontent and sorrow mani- 
 fested themselves in his countenance. 
 
 Your levity and heedlessness, if it continue, will prevent all 
 
 substantial improvement. 
 Poverty and obscurity will oppress him only who esteems it 
 
 oppressive. 
 Good sense and refined policy are obvious to few, because 
 
 it cannot be discovered but by a train of reflection. 
 Avoid haughtiness of behavior, and affectation of manners : it 
 
 implies a want of solid merit. 
 If love and unity continue, it will make you partakers of one 
 
 another's joy. 
 Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter : it will destroy, like 
 
 a canker, every germ of friendship. 
 Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christian charity ; 
 
 guard, therefore, against the slightest indulgence of it. 
 Every man is entitled to liberty of conscience, and freedom of 
 
 opinion, if he does not pervert it to the injury of others. 
 Every plant, every flower, and every insect, show the wisdom 
 
 of their Creator. (Exception 3. ) 
 Truth, and truth only, are worth seeking for their own sake. 
 
 (Exception 2.) 
 
 He and I love and obey their parents. (Obs. 1.) 
 You, your brother, and I must attend to their work. 
 The same spirit, light, and life which enlighten also sanctify. 
 
 (Exception 1.) 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Parse each of the pronouns in the above sentences^ when corrected. 
 
AGREEMENT. 195 
 
 Rule XVII. Connected Antecedents. 
 
 When a pronoun has two or more singular antecedents 
 connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the 
 singular number ; as, " James or John will favor us with 
 his company." 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. When a pronoun has two or more plural antecedents connected by 
 or or nor, it is of course plural, and agrees with them severally. To 
 the foregoing rule, there are properly no exceptions. 
 
 2. When antecedents of different persons, numbers, or genders, are 
 connected by or or nor, they cannot, with strict propriety, be repre- 
 sented by a pronoun that is not applicable to each of them. The fol- 
 lowing sentence is therefore inaccurate : "Either thou 01* I am greatly 
 mistaken in our judgment on this subject." Murray's Key. But dif- 
 ferent pronouns may be so connected as to refer to such antecedents 
 taken separately ; as, " By requiring greater labor from such slave or 
 slaves, than he or she or they are able to perform." Prince's Digest. 
 Or, if the gender only be different, the masculine may involve the 
 feminine by implication ; as, " If a man smite the eye of his servant or 
 the eye of his maid that it perish, he shall let him go free for his eye's 
 sake." Exodus, xxi., 26. 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Neither wealth nor honor can secure the happi- 
 ness of their votaries. 
 
 FOBMULE. Not proper, because the pronoun their is of the plural number, and does 
 not correctly represent its two antecedents wealth and honor, which are connected by 
 nor, and taken disjunctively. But, according to Rule XVII., "When a pronoun has t\v> 
 or more singular antecedents connected by or or nor, it mupt agree with them in the sin- 
 gular number." Therefore, their should be its; thus, Neither wealth nor honor can 
 secure the happiness of its votaries. 
 
 Neither Sarah, Ann, nor Jane, has performed their task. 
 
 One or the other must relinquish their claim. 
 
 A man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which 
 
 will move only as they are moved. 
 Rye or barley, when they are scorched, may supply the place 
 
 of coffee. 
 
196 SYNTAX. 
 
 A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture as well 
 
 as read them in a description. 
 Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of 
 
 life, for they may be thy own lot. 
 * Have you seen my ox or my cow, which have strayed from 
 
 the pasture ? 
 Neither Sarah nor her brother Charles seemed to know their 
 
 lessons. 
 Either you or I must be mistaken in our opinion. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Parse att the pronouns in the above sentences, when corrected. 
 
 III. GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Government has respect only to nouns, pronouns, 
 verbs, participles, and prepositions ; the other five parts of 
 speech neither govern nor are governed. The governing 
 words may be either nouns, pronouns, verbs, participles, or 
 prepositions ; the words governed are either nouns, pronouns, 
 verbs, or participles. 
 
 Rule XVI11. Possessives. 
 
 A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed 
 by the name of the thing possessed ; as, 
 
 " Theirs is the vanity, the learning tliine ; 
 Touch'd by tiiy hand, again Rome's glories shine." 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. When a noun or a pronoun in the possessive case is used as an 
 attribute, it is governed by the subject to which it relates; as, "The 
 book is mine, and not John's." 
 
 2. The sign of the possessive is omitted in some appositive or connected 
 terms; as, "In her brother Absalom's house." "David and Jona- 
 than's friendship." "Adam and Eve's morning hymn." "Behold, 
 the heaven, and the heaven of heavens, is the Lord's thy 
 
GOVERNMENT. 197 
 
 3. Where the governing noun cannot be easily mistaken, it is often 
 omitted by ellipsis ; as, " At the aldermen's " [house]. " A book of my 
 brother's " [books]. " A subject of the emperor's " [subjects']. 
 
 4. The possessive sign is sometimes annexed to that part of a com- 
 pound name, which is, of itself, in the objective case ; as, "The cap- 
 tain-of-the-guard j s house." Bible. "The Bar d-of- Lomond's lay is 
 done." Hogg. "Of the Children-of-IsraeVs half thou shalt take one 
 portion." Num., xxxi. The hyphens, inserted here for illustration, 
 are not usually employed. In the following phrase, the possessive sign 
 is awkwarly added to an adjective: "In Henry the Eighth's time." 
 Better : "In the time of Henry the Eighth." In the following line, the 
 adjective elegantly takes the sign, there being an ellipsis of both nouns : 
 
 " The rich man's joys increase, the poor's decay." Goldsmith. 
 
 5. To avoid ar concurrence of hissing sounds, the s is sometimes 
 omitted, and the apostrophe alone retained to mark the possessive singu- 
 lar; as, "For conscience 1 sake." Bible. "Moses' minister." Ibid. 
 "Felti? room." Ibid. "Achilles 1 wra,ih."Pope. But in prose the 
 full form should be used. 
 
 6. A participle is sometimes used to govern the possessive case, while 
 retaining the government and adjuncts of a participle ; as, " This will 
 be the effect of the pupil's composing frequently." Murray. "What 
 can be the reason of the committee's having delayed this business ? " Id. 
 Sometimes this construction is awkward, and should be avoided. Thus, 
 it would be better to say, " Why have the committee delayed this busi- 
 
 Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 
 
 I. In the use of the possessive case, its appropriate form 
 should be observed ; thus, write men's, hers, its, ours, yours, 
 theirs ; and not mens', her's, it's, our's, your's their' s. 
 
 n. When nouns of the possessive case are connected by 
 conjunctions, or put in apposition, the sign of possession must 
 always be annexed to such, and such only, as immediately 
 precede the governing noun, expressed or understood ; as, 
 "John and Eliza's teacher is a man of more learning than 
 James's or Andrew's." " For David my servant's sake." Bible. 
 "Lost in love's and friendship's smile." Scott. 
 
 IH. The relation of property may also be expressed by 
 the preposition of and the objective : as, "The will of man; " 
 for, " man's will." Of these forms, we should adopt that which 
 
198 SYNTAX. 
 
 will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable, 
 and, by the use of both, avoid an unpleasant repetition of 
 either. 
 
 IV. A noun governing the possessive plural, should not be 
 made plural, unless the sense requires it Thus say, "We 
 have changed our mi?id," if only one purpose or opinion is 
 meant. 
 
 OBS. A noun taken figuratively may be singular, when the literal 
 meaning would require the plural: such expressions as, " their face," 
 " their neck," " their hand," " their liead," " their heart," " our 
 mouth," " our life," are frequent in the Scriptures, and are not im- 
 proper 
 
 V. The possessive case should not be prefixed to a parti- 
 ciple, or to a participial phrase, where unnecessary, or when 
 the construction thus formed would be awkward or inelegant. 
 The following phrase is therefore faulty: "Adopted by the 
 Goths in their pronouncing the Greek." Omit their. 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Thy ancestors virtue is not thine. 
 
 FORMOTJS. Not proper, because the noun ancestors, which is intended for the pos- 
 sessive plural, has not the appropriate form of that case. But, according to Note I., under 
 Rule XVIII., " In the use of the possessive case, its appropriate form should be observed." 
 An apostrophe is required after ancestors ; thus, Thy ancestors' virtue is not thine. 
 
 L 
 
 Mans chief good is an upright mind. 
 
 I will not destroy the city for ten sake. 
 
 Moses rod was turned into a serpent. 
 
 They are wolves in sheeps clothing. 
 
 The tree is known by it's fruit. 
 
 The privilege is not their's, any more than it is your's. 
 Yet he was gentle as soft summer airs, 
 Had grace for others sins, but none for theirs'. 
 
 n. 
 
 There is but little difference between the Earth and Venus's 
 diameter. 
 
GOYERKMENT. 190 
 
 This hat is John or James's. 
 
 The store is opposite to Morris's and Company's. 
 
 This palace had been the grand Sultan's Mahomet's. 
 
 This was the Apostle's Paul's advice. 
 
 Were Cain's occupation and Abel the same ? 
 
 Were Cain and Abel's occupation the same ? 
 
 Were Cain's and Abel's occupations the same ? 
 
 Were Cain and Abel's parents the same? 
 
 Were Cain's parents and Abel the same ? 
 
 Was Cain's and Abel's father there ? 
 
 Were Cain's and Abel's parents there ? 
 
 Thy. Maker's will has placed thee here, 
 
 A Maker's wise and good. 
 
 m. 
 
 The world's government is not left to chance. 
 He was Louis the Sixteenth's son's heir. 
 The throne we honor is the choice of the people. 
 We met at my brother's partner's house. 
 An account of the proceedings of the court of Alexander. 
 Here is a copy of the Constitution of the Society of Teachers 
 of the City of New York. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Their healths perhaps may be pretty well secured. 
 We have all the talents committed to our charges. 
 For your sakes forgave I it, in the sight of Christ. 
 We are, for our parts, well satisfied. 
 The pious cheerfully submit to their lots. 
 Fools think it not worth their whiles to be wise. 
 
 V. 
 
 I rewarded the boy for his studying so diligently. 
 Have you a rule for your thus parsing the participle ? 
 He errs in his giving the word a double construction. 
 By our offending others, we expose ourselves. 
 They deserve our thanks for their quickly relieving us. 
 
200 SYNTAX. 
 
 Promiscuous. 
 
 Brown and Jones's house will be occupied by the respective 
 
 owners. 
 
 Edward the Second's death was a shocking one. 
 I ha^e seen neither William nor Charles's book. 
 Socrates' sayings are recorded in Plato and Xenophon's 
 
 works. 
 
 Horace' poems show great genius. 
 Adam was Cain's and Abel's father. 
 Men and women's shoes are made differently. 
 Jones's and Taylor's store was destroyed by fire. 
 All good people must take this lesson to their hearts. 
 Queen Elizabeth mourned on account of Essex' sad fate. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Parse all the possessive* in the above sentences w?ten corrected. 
 
 Rule XIX Object of the Verb. 
 
 Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and preper- 
 fect participles, govern the objective case ; as, " I found 
 fter assisting him" " Having finished the work, I submit 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. The objective case generally follows the governing word: but 
 when it is emphatic, it often precedes the nominative ; as, " Me he re- 
 stored to mine office, and him he hanged." Gen. xli., 13. " Home he 
 had not." Thomson. " This poin t they have gained." In poetry it is 
 -metimes placed between the nominative and the verb ; as, " His dar- 
 ing foe securely him defied." Milton. "The broom its yellow leaf 
 hath shed." 
 
 2. An active-transitive verb is often followed by the direct object of 
 the action, and the indirect object, or that in respect to which the action 
 is performed. The latter is usually preceded by a preposition, which is 
 sometimes understood; as, "I paid [to] him the money." "They 
 offered [to] me a seat." " He asked [of] them the question." 
 
 3. In expressing such sentences passively, the object of the preposi- 
 tion is sometimes assumed for the nominative ; as, " lie was paid the 
 
money," instead of, " T7i6 money was paid [to] him." The direct object 
 should, however, generally be made the subject of the passive verb ; 
 but in some cases, usage seems to sanction the reverse ; as, " The boy 
 was taught grammar"; instead of, "Grammar was taught [to] the 
 toy." "He was denied the privilege." In this construction, the noun 
 following the passive still continues to be an object of the action ex- 
 pressed by the verb, and is, accordingly, in the objective case. 
 
 4. An active-transitive verb is sometimes followed by an object and 
 an attribute agreeing with it ; as, " Thy saints proclaim thee king," i.e., 
 that thou art king. "The Author of my being formed me man." 
 Murray. "And God called the firmament Heaven. " Bible. And, in 
 such a construction, the direct object is sometimes placed before the 
 verb ; as, " And Simon he surnamed Peter." Mark Hi. 
 
 5. Some verbs, usually intransitive, govern only a noun of kin- 
 dred meaning ; as, "He lived a virtuous life." "Joseph dreamed a 
 dream." 
 
 Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 
 
 I. Those verbs and participles which require an object, 
 should not be used intransitively ; as, " She affects [kindness] 
 in order to ingratiate [herself] with you." "I will not allow 
 of it." Omit of. 
 
 n. Those verbs and participles which do not admit an 
 object, should not be used transitively ; as, " The planter* 
 grow cotton." Say raise, or cultivate. 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. She I shall more readily forgive. 
 
 FoRMtrLE. Not proper, because the pronoun she is in the nominative case, and is used 
 as the object of the active-transitive verb shall forgive. But according to Rule XIX. V 
 "Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and preperfect participles, govern the ob- 
 jective case." Therefore, she should be her ; thus, Her I shall more readily forgive. 
 
 Thou only have I chosen. 
 
 Who shall we send on this errand ? 
 
 My father allowed my brother and I to accompany him. 
 
 He that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 
 
 Who should I meet but my old friend ! 
 
 He accosts whoever he meets. 
 
 Whosoever the court favors is safe. 
 
 They that honor me I will honor. 
 
202 SYNTAX. 
 
 Who do you think I saw the other day ? 
 Let you and I avoid such company. 
 
 L 
 
 The ambitious are always seeking to aggrandize. 
 I mast premise with three circumstances. 
 This society does not allow of personal reflections. 
 False accusation cannot diminish from real merit. 
 His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 
 
 n. 
 
 Good keeping thrives the herd. 
 We endeavored to agree the parties. 
 Being weary, he sat him down. 
 Go, flee thee away into the land of Judah. 
 The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the 
 subject. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Parse all the nouns and pronouns in the following sentences. 
 
 His father presented him a gold watch. The teacher refused him 
 permission. The savages at last gave them their liberty. They asked 
 him a curious question. The governor offered him a large reward. 
 They paid him the money. His father denied him the privilege. They 
 showed him some beautiful pictures. 
 
 Change the active-transitive verb in each of these sentences to a passive 
 verb, using the direct or indirect object for the nominative, as may be 
 preferable. 
 
 Rule XX. Object of the Preposition. 
 
 Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, " Beauty 
 dwells in them, and they in her" 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Prepositions are sometimes dliptically construed with adjectives; 
 as, in vain, in secret, at first, on high ; i.e. , in a vain manner, in secret 
 places, at the first time, on high places. Such phrases imply time, place, 
 degree, or manner, and are equivalent to adverbs. In parsing, the 
 learner may supply the ellipsis. 
 
 2. In a few instances prepositions precede adverbs ; as, at once, from 
 above, for ever. These should be united, and parsed as adverbs, or else 
 the adverb must be parsed as a noun. 
 
GOVERNMENT. 
 
 5 When nouns of time or measure are connected with verbs or adjec- 
 tives, the prepositions which govern them, are generally suppressed ; as, 
 " We rode sixty miles that day ; " that is, " through sixty miles on that 
 day." " The wall is ten feet high ; " that is, " high to ten feet." The 
 ellipsis must be supplied, or the expression considered as adverbial. 
 
 4. After the adjectives like, near, and nigh, the preposition to or unto 
 is often understood ; as, " It is Like [to or unto'} silver." Atten. " How 
 like the former!" Dry den. "Near yonder copse." Goldsmith. 
 " Nigh this recess." Garth. As similarity and proximity are relations, 
 and not qualities, it might, seem proper to call like, near, and nigh, 
 prepositions ; and some grammarians have so classed the last two. We 
 have not placed them with the prepositions for four reasons: (1.) Be- 
 cause they are sometimes compared; (2.) Because they sometimes have 
 adverbs evidently relating to them ; (3.) Because the preposition to or unto 
 is sometimes expressed after them ; and, (4. ) Because the words which 
 usually stand for them in the learned languages, are clearly adjectives. 
 Like, when it expresses similarity of manner, and near and nigh, when 
 they express proximity of degree, are adverbs. 
 
 5. The adjective worth, like the words near, nigh, etc., is followed by 
 a noun or a participle expressing limitation, without a governing prepo- 
 sition ; as, "To reign is worth ambition." Milton. "This is life in- 
 deed, life worth preserving." Addison. The relation in this case, 
 according to idiom, never being indicated by a preposition, cannot be 
 expressed except by a periphrase ; but, it must be borne in mind, that it 
 is the relation that governs, whether expressed or not. 
 
 6. In the phrases, "woe worth the day," " woe worth the man," and 
 the like, the word worth is the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb 
 weordhan, to be, to become, to being understood ; hence the meaning 
 is, Woe be to the day, etc. 
 
 7. After verbs of giving, procuring, and some others, there is usually 
 an ellipsis of to or for before the objective of the person; as, "Give 
 [to\ him water to drink." "Buy [for] me a knife." So also in the 
 exclamation, " Woe ismef " meaning, " Woe is to me ! " 
 
 8. After the verb cost, there is also an ellipsis of the preposition ; as, 
 " A diamond gone, cost me two thousand ducajts." -Shakspeare. 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. It rests with thou and me to decide- 
 
 FORMXJLE. Not proper, because the pronoun thou is in tlw nominative ca*e, and is 
 governed by the preposition with. But, according to B.*>J XX. , " Prepositions govern 
 the objective case." Therefore, thou should be the* ' ^lus, It rests with thee and me to 
 decide. 
 
204 SYNTAX. 
 
 Let that remain a secret between yon and I. 
 I lent the book to some one, I know not who. 
 Who did he inquire for? Thou. 
 From he that is needy, turn not away. 
 We are all accountable, each for his own act's. 
 Does that boy know who he is speaking to ? 
 I bestow my favors on whosoever I will. 
 Except him and I, no one saw it. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Parse the 'prepositions and att words printed in Italics in the following 
 sentences. 
 
 My sister is five years of age. The house is twenty feet high. Envy 
 is like the scorpion that stings itself to death. I gave my brother a bag 
 of marbles. The house is worth ten thousand dollars. What he offered 
 me was not worth having. In vain did they beseech him for mercy. 
 The book cost me five dollars. Will you buy me a knife at the store ? 
 In words, like weeds, I'll wrap me o'er. Be near me when I fade away. 
 
 Rule XXI. Infinitives. 
 
 The preposition TO commonly governs the infinitive 
 mood, and connects it to a finite verb, or some other part of 
 speech ; as, " I desire to learn" " I went to see my 
 friend." " He is anxious to succeed" 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. The word to, generally used with the infinitive mood, serves to in- 
 dicate the mood (in the absence of a special inflection), and, usually, to 
 express the relation between the verb and the word which it limits or 
 modifies. In such cases, the infinitive mood with to is equivalent to a 
 prepositional phrase. In other constructions, however, the word to 
 loses its prepositional office ; as when the infinitive is used as the subject 
 or the object of a verb. In the latter case, being the object of the verb, 
 it cannot be the object of the preposition. 
 
 2. When the infinitive is the object of the preposition, it may be 
 joined to various parts of speech : 
 
 1. To a noun ; as, " He had leave to go." 
 
 2. To an adjective ; as, "We were anxious to see you.'* 
 
GOVERNMENT. 205 
 
 8. To an intransitive verb ; as, " He's gone to do it." " I rejoice to 
 hear it." 
 
 4. To an adverb ; as, " She is old enough to go to school." 
 
 5. To a pronoun ; as, " It is ours to transmit." 
 
 8. The other usages of the infinitive mood are the following : 
 
 1. As the subject of a verb ; as, " To steal is sinful." 
 
 2. As the object of a verb ; as, " He loves to ride." 
 
 3. As the attribute ; as, " To enjoy is to obey" " He seemed to b 
 
 guilty." "His conduct is to be admired." "They were to 
 blame." 
 
 4. As a mere term of comparison ; as, " He was so much affected 
 
 as to weep." " He knows better than to trust you." 
 
 5. As the object of another preposition; as, "I was about to 
 
 write. "-r" He did nothing but [to] idle away his time." 
 
 6. As independent; as, "O to forget her ! " " To confess the 
 
 truth, I was to blame." " To be or not to be ; that is the 
 question." 
 
 7. As the predicate in a dependent clause ; as, "I suppose it to be 
 
 necessary." 
 
 In this last case, the word to has, of course, no prepositional force, 
 becoming merely the sign of the infinitive. 
 
 4. An adverb, or other modifying expression, should not be inserted 
 between the verb and the word to which belongs to it ; as, "It is wrong 
 to stubbornly oppose the truth " ; say, " stubbornly to oppose," etc. 
 
 5. The infinitive is often used in the perfect tense for the present ; 
 as, " He intended to have done it," instead of, "to do it." 
 
 6. The use of and for to, though very common, is improper and in- 
 elegant ; as, " Will you try and do it for me ? " It should be, " to do 
 it." 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Ought these things be tolerated ? 
 
 FORMULE. Not proper, because the infinitive be tolerated, is not preceded by the 
 preposition to. But, according to Rule XXI., " The preposition to commonly governs 
 the infinitive mood, and connects it to a finite verb or some other part of speech." There- 
 fore, to should be inserted ; thus, Ought these things to be tolerated? 
 
 Please excuse my son's absence. 
 
 Cause every man go out from me. 
 
 I would not have let him gone. (Obs. 5.) 
 
 Try a4 let me have the money, if you can. (06s. 6.) 
 
 To foolishly squander one's time is a sin. (Obs, 4.) 
 
M 
 
 l 
 
 -- r h us 
 
 7. H tr ^ 
 
 i: w $- 
 
MISCELLANEOUS RULES. 207 
 
 IV. -MISCELLANEOUS RULES. 
 
 Rule XXII Infinitives. 
 
 The active verbs, bid, dare, fed, hear, let, make, need, 
 
 gee, and their participles, usually take the infinitive after 
 them, without the preposition TO ; as, " If he bade tbee 
 depart, how darest thou &ay f " 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. The preposition is almost always employed after the passive farm. 
 of these verbs, and in some instances after the active ; as, " He was 
 heard to say." " I cannot see to do it" " What would dare to molest 
 him who might call, on every side, to thousands enriched bj his 
 bounty * "Dr. Johnxm. 
 
 2. The auxiliary be of the passive infinitive is also suppressed, after 
 fed, hear, make, and **/ as, "I heard the letter mid," not, "* 
 
 3. A few other verbs, besides the eight which are mentioned in the 
 foregoing rule, tomatimet have the infinitive after then without to; 
 suchas, WbM,J&id, Am, A<%>, MT*, riwras, and other equivalents of 
 tee. Example: " Certain'y it is heaven upon earth, to Am a man^ 
 mind more in charity, r ft in Providence, and turn upon the poles of 
 truth."- 
 
 Faise Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. They need not to call upon her. 
 
 the prepaanon ft* 
 
 Bfc can upon her. 
 
 I felt a chilling sensation to creep over me. 
 
 I have heard him to mention the subject. 
 
 Bid the boys to come in immediately. 
 
 I dare to say he has not got home yet 
 
 Let no rash promise to be made. 
 
 We sometimes see bad men to be honored. 
 
 A good reader win make himself to be distinctly 
 
 Do you not observe it to move ? 
 
208 SYNTAX. 
 
 Can I not make this matter be understood? 
 Bid the officers to do their duty. 
 They have been bidden do it already. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Parse aU the infinitives in the above sentences when corrected. 
 
 EXAMPLE. "Let love be without dissimulation." 
 
 Be is an irregular, neuter verb, from be, was, being, been. It is in 
 the infinitive mood and present tense, being the predicate of the clause 
 dependent on let, according to Obs. 3, under Rule XXI. The word to is 
 omitted after let, according to the rule, The active verbs bid, dare, etc. 
 
 Rule XXIII Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in 
 the subjunctive present; and a mere supposition with 
 indefinite time, by a verb in the subjunctive imperfect : 
 but a conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires 
 the indicative mood ; as, " If thou forsake him, he will 
 cast thee off forever." " If it were not so, I would have 
 told you." " If thou went 7 nothing would be gained." 
 " Though he is poor, he is contented." 
 
 OBS. The pupil must carefully study the three points involved in 
 this rule, and the cases to which they apply. The subjunctive mood is 
 required only when the event or fact is both future and contingent, that 
 is, dependent upon the occurrence of some other future event. The 
 time is indefinite, being, only relatively, present or past. The difference 
 between the conditional statement of a fact and a future contingency 
 will be obvious from these two sentences : 
 
 1. If he be sick, I will visit him. (Subjunctive.') 
 
 2. Though he is sick, he does not repine. (Indicative.) 
 
 In (1) the act of visiting is future and contingent upon his sickness ; 
 in (2) the sickness is a fact (he is sick), and he does not repine. The 
 (sentence, If he were sick, I would visit him, contains a supposition with 
 indefinite time (if he were sick at any time). It is relatively past, as 
 these sentences will show : 
 
 1. If he be sick (and lie may be), I will visit him. 
 
 2. If he were sick (but he is not), I would visit him. 
 
 3. If he had been sick (but he was not), I would have visited him. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS RULES. 209 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 First Clause of the Rule. 
 
 EXAMPLE. He will not be pardoned, unless he repents. 
 
 FORMTJLE. Not proper, because the verb repents, which is used to express a future 
 contingency, is in the indicative mood. But, according to the first clause of Rule XXIII., 
 " A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in the subjunctive present. There- 
 fore, repents should be repent ; thus, He will not be pardone^Xunless he repent. 
 
 He will maintain his cause, though he loses his estate. 
 
 They will fine thee, unless thou offerest an excuse. 
 
 I shall walk out in the afternoon, unless it rains. 
 
 Let him take heed lest he falls. 
 
 On condition that he comes, I consent to stay. 
 
 If he is but discreet, he will succeed. 
 
 Take heed that thou speakest not to Jacob. 
 
 If thou castest me off, I shall be miserable. 
 
 Send them to me, if thou pleasest. 
 
 Watch the door of thy lips, lest thou utterest folly. 
 
 Second Clause. 
 
 EXAMPLE. And so would I, if I was he. 
 
 FOBMULE. Not proper, because the verb was, which is used to express a mere sup- 
 position, with indefinite time, is in the indicative mood. But, according to the second 
 clause of Rule XXIII., " A mere supposition, with indefinite time, is best expressed by a 
 verb in the subjunctive imperfect." Therefore was should be were ; thus, And so would 
 I, if I were he. 
 
 If I was to write, he would not regard it. 
 
 If thou feltest as I do, we should soon decide. 
 
 Though thou sheddest thy blood in the cause, it would but 
 
 prove thee sincerely a fool. 
 
 If thou lovedst him, there would be more evidence of it. 
 I believed, whatever was the issue, all would be well. 
 If love was never feigned, it would appear to be scarce. 
 There fell from his eyes as it had been scales. 
 If he was an imposter, he must have been detected. 
 Was death denied, all men would wish to die. 
 O that there was yet a day to redress thy wrongs ! 
 Though thou was huge as Atlas, thv efforts would be vain, 
 
210 SYNTAX. 
 
 Last Clause. 
 
 EXAMPLE. If he know the way, he does not need a guide. 
 
 FORMULE. Not proper, because the verb know, which is used to express a conditional 
 circumstance assumed as a fact, is in the subjunctive mood. But, according to the last 
 clause of Rule XXIII., "A conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires the in- 
 dicative mood." Therefore, know should be knows ; thus, If he knows the way, he does 
 not need a guide. 
 
 Though he seem to be artless, he has deceived us. 
 If he be defeated, he has not given up all hope. 
 Though this event be strange, it certainly did happen. 
 If thou love tranquillity of mind, why engage in disputes ? 
 If seasons of idleness be dangerous, what must a continued 
 
 habit of it prove. 
 Though he were a son, yet learned he obedience by the things 
 
 which he suffered. 
 I knew thou wert not slow to hear. 
 
 Analysis and Parsing. 
 
 Analyze and parse each of the foregoing sentences, after correction, 
 according to preceding examples, and apply Rule XXIII. 
 
 Rule XXIV Independent Case. 
 
 A noun or a pronoun is put in the nominative, when its 
 case depends on no other word ; as, " He failing, who 
 shall meet success ? "- " Your fathers, where are they ? " 
 
 Exception. 
 
 An independent pronoun is sometimes used in the objective case ; as, 
 " Me miserable ! which way shall I fly ? "Milton. " Ah me ! " [See 
 Obs. 2, Rule XXVI.] 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. A noun or a pronoun is independent under the following four 
 circumstances : 
 
 1. When, with a participle, it is used to express a cause or some 
 other related event; as, " Thou looking on, I shall not fail," 
 This is usually called the case absolute. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS RULES. 211 
 
 2. When it is vised to indicate simply the person addressed ; as, "O 
 
 thou that dwellest in the heavens. " 
 
 3. When, hy pleonasm, it is introduced abruptly for the sake of 
 
 emphasis; as, "He that is in the city, famine and pestilence 
 shall devour him." 
 
 4. When, by mere exclamation, it is used without address, and 
 
 without other words expressed or implied to give it construc- 
 tion; as, "O, what /<%/" 
 
 2. The nominative put absolute with a participle, is equivalent to a 
 dependent clause commencing with when, while, if, since, or because ; 
 as, " I being a child," equal to, " When [since or because'] I was a child. " 
 
 3. The participle being is often understood after nouns or pronouns 
 put absolute ; as, 
 
 " Alike in ignorance, his reason [ ] such, 
 
 Whether he thinks too little or too much." Pope. 
 
 4. The case of nouns used in exclamations, or in mottoes and abbre- 
 viated sayings, often depends, or may be conceived to depend, on 
 something understood ; and, when their construction can be satisfac- 
 torily explained on the principle of ellipsis, they are not 'put absolute. 
 The following examples may perhaps be resolved in this manner, 
 though the expressions will lose much of their vivacity: " h. horse! 
 a liorse ! my kingdom for a horse ! " 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Him having ended his discourse, the assembly 
 dispersed. 
 
 FORMITLE. Not proper, because the pronoun him, whose case depends on no other 
 word, is in the objective case. But, according to Rule XXIV., " A noun or a pronoun is 
 put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word." Therefore, 
 him should be he ; thus, He having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed. 
 
 Me being young, they deceived me. 
 
 Them refusing to comply, I withdrew. 
 
 Thee being present, he would not tell what he knew. 
 
 The child is lost ; and me, whither shall I go ! 
 
 Oh happy us ! surrounded thus with blessings ! 
 
 :'Thee too! Brutus, my son ! " cried Csesar, overcome. 
 
 But him, the chieftain of them all, 
 
 His sword hangs rusting on the wall. 
 
 Her quick relapsing to her former state, 
 
 With boding fears approach the serving train. 
 
212 SYNTAX. 
 
 There all thy gifts and graces we display, 
 Thee, only thee, directing all our way. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Parse the independent nouns and pronouns in the foregoing sentences, 
 when corrected. ---^ 
 
 Rule XXV. Conjunctions. 
 
 Conjunctions connect either words or sentences ; as, 
 " John and James are studious, but William is idle." 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1. The conjunction that sometimes serves merely to introduce a sen- 
 tence which is made the subject of a verb ; as, " That mind is not 
 matter, is certain." Its connective force consists in showing that the 
 clause is dependent. 
 
 2. When two corresponding conjunctions occur in their usual order, 
 the former should be considered as referring to the latter, which is more 
 properly the connecting word ; as, " Neither sun nor stars in many days 
 appeared. " 
 
 3. Either, corresponding to or, and neither, corresponding to nor or 
 not, are sometimes transposed, so as to repeat the disjunction or nega- 
 tion at the end of the sentence ; as, " Where then was their capacity of 
 standing, or his either?" Barclay. "It is not dangerous neither." 
 BoUngbroke. " He is very tall, but not too tall neither." Spectator. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Conjunctions are sometimes unnecessarily accumulated ; as, " But 
 and if that evil servant say in his heart." Matthew xxiv. Omit and. 
 
 2. In the combination but that, the former seems to have the force of 
 a preposition, being equivalent to except; as, "What rests, but that 
 the mortal sentence pass ? " Milton. In this sentence, but seems to be 
 a preposition, having the following clause for its object, the prepositional 
 structure thus formed limiting what. 
 
 3. The conjunction as is sometimes used to connect the attribute and 
 the subject ; as, " He was employed as an usher. " It may also connect the 
 indirect attribute with an object to which it refers ; as, "He offered him- 
 self as a journeyman." [In some cases of this kind, perhaps in the 
 above sentences, as seems to have the force of a preposition, as it de- 
 potes a relation which may usually be expressed by in the capacity c$ 9 
 
f ) 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS RULES. 213 
 
 or the like; as, "His judgment as a critic was very reliable." Here 
 critic appears to be the object of the relation expressed by as, which 
 must, therefore, be a preposition. There, certainly, is no connection of 
 appositional terms, nor of any subject and attribute. EDITOR.] 
 
 4. After than or as expressing a comparison, there is usually an 
 ellipsis of some word or words. The construction of the words employed 
 may be known by supplying the ellipsis ; as, " She is younger than I " 
 [am]. "He does nothing who endeavors to do more than [what] is al- 
 lowed to humanity. " Johnson. ' ' My punishment is greater than [what] 
 I can bear." Bible. 
 
 Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 
 
 I. When two terms connected refer jointly to a third, they 
 must be adapted to it and to each other, both in sense and 
 in form. Thus, instead of, "It always has, and always will 
 be laudable," say, " It always has been, and it always will be 
 laudable." 
 
 n. The disjunctive conjunction lest or but, should not be 
 employed where the copulative that would be more proper : 
 as, "I feared that I should be deserted ; " not, " lest I should 
 be deserted." 
 
 HI. After else, other, rather, and all comparatives, the latter 
 term of comparison should be introduced by the conjunction 
 than ; as, " Can there be any other than this ? " " Is not the 
 life more than meat ? " 
 
 IV. The words in each of the following pairs, are the 
 proper correspondents to each other ; and care should be taken 
 to give them their right place in the sentence. 
 
 1. Though yet; as, "Though he were dead, yet shall he live."- 
 John xi. 
 
 2. Whetheror ; as, " Whether there be few or many." 
 
 3. Either or; as, "He was either ashamed or afraid." 
 
 4. Neither nor ; as, "John the Baptist came neither eating bread 
 nor drinking wine." Luke vii. 
 
 5. Both and; as, " I am debtor both to the Greeks and to the Bar- 
 barians." Rom. i. 
 
 6. Such as ; as, " An assembly such as earth saw never." 
 
 7. Such that ; with a finite verb following, to express a consequence ; 
 as, "My health is such that I cannot go." 
 
214 SYNTAX. 
 
 8. As as ; with an adjective or an adverb, to express equality ; as, 
 " The peasant is as gay a* he." 
 
 9. As so ; with two verbs, to express equality or proportion ; as, 
 " As two are to four, so are six to twelve." 
 
 10. So as ; with an adjective or an adverb, to limit the degree by 
 comparison ; as, " How can you descend to a thing so base as falsehood ? " 
 
 11. Soas; with a negative preceding, to deny equality ; as, "No 
 lamb was e'er so mild as he. " 
 
 12. So as ; with an infinitive following, to express a consequence ; 
 as, " These difficulties were so great as to discourage him." 
 
 13. So that ; with a finite verb following, to express a consequence ; 
 as, "He was so much injured, that he could not walk." 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. The first proposal was essentially different and 
 inferior to the second. 
 
 FOBMTJLE. Not proper, because the preposition to, is used with joint reference to the 
 two adjectives different and inferior, which require different prepositions. But, accor- 
 ding to Note I. under Rule XXV., '*When two terms connected refer jointly to a third, 
 they must be adapted to it and to each other, both in sense and in form." The sentence 
 may be corrected thus : The first proposal was essentially different from the second, and 
 inferior to it. 
 
 I. 
 
 He has made alterations and additions to the work. 
 He is more bold, but not so wise, as his companion. 
 Sincerity is as valuable, and even more so, than knowledge. 
 t always have, and I always shall be, of this opinion. 
 What is now kept secret, shall be hereafter displayed and 
 
 heard in the clearest light,. ' ; - 
 We pervert the noble faculty of speech, when we use it to the 
 
 defamisg or to disquiet our neighbors. 
 Be more anxious to acquire knowledge than of showing it. 
 The court of chancery frequently mitigates and breaks the 
 
 teeth of the common law. 
 
 n 
 
 We were apprehensive lest some accident had happened. 
 
 I do not deny but he has merit. 
 
 Are you afraid lest he will forget you? 
 
 These paths and bow'rs, doubt not but our joint hands 
 
 Will keep from wilderness. Miltm. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS RULES. 
 
 HI. 
 
 It was no other but his own father. 
 
 Have you no other proof except this ? 
 
 I expected something more besides this. 
 
 He no sooner retires but his heart burns with devotion. 
 
 Such literary niching is nothing else but robbery. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Neither despise or oppose what you do not understand. 
 
 He would not either do it himself nor let me do it. 
 
 The majesty of good things is such, as the confines of them 
 are reverend. 
 
 Whether he intends to do so I cannot tell. 
 
 Send me sucK articles only that are adapted to this market. 
 
 As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. 
 
 No errors are so trivial but they deserve correction. 
 
 It will improve neither the mind nor delight the fancy. 
 
 The one is equally deserving as the other. 
 
 There is no condition so secure as cannot admit of change. 
 
 Do you think this is so good as that ? 
 
 The relations are so obscure as they require much thought. 
 
 None is so fierce that dare stir him up. 
 
 There was no man so sanguine who did not apprehend some 
 ill consequence. 
 
 I must be so candid to own that I do not understand it 
 
 The book is not as well printed as it ought to be. 
 So still he sat as those who wait 
 Till judgment speak the doom of fate. Scott. 
 
 Rule XXVI. Interjections. 
 
 Interjections have no dependent construction ; as, " Of 
 let not thy heart despite me." Johnson. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. The interjection is common to many languages, and is fre- 
 quently prefixed to nouns or pronouns that are independent by direct 
 address ; as, " Arise, Lord; God, lift up thine hand." Psalms x. 
 " ye of little faith ! "Matt. vi. 
 
216 SYNTAX. 
 
 2. Interjections in English have no government. When a word not 
 in the nominative absolute, follows an interjection, as part of an imper- 
 fect exclamation, its construction depends on something understood,' 
 as, "Ah me ! "that is, " Ah ! pity me."" Alas for them ! "that is, 
 " Alas ! I sigh for them."" O for that warning voice ! "that is, " O ! 
 how I long for that warning voice ! " " O! that they were wise ! " 
 that is, "O! how I wish that they were wise!" Such expressions, 
 however, lose much of their vivacity, when the ellipsis is supplied. 
 
 3. Interjections may be placed before or after a simple sentence, and 
 sometimes between its parts ; but they are seldom allowed to interrupt 
 the connection of words closely united in sense. 
 
 Promiscuous Examples of False Syntax. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 It is here expected that the learner will ascertain for himself the proper form of cor- 
 recting each example, according to the particular Rule or Note under which it belongs. 
 
 There is a spirit in man, and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth 
 them understanding. 
 
 My people doth not consider. 
 
 I have never heard who they invited. 
 
 Then hasten thy return ; for, thee away, 
 No lustre has the sun, nor joy the day. 
 
 I am as well as when you was here. 
 
 That elderly man, he that came in late, I supposed to be the superin- 
 tendent. 
 
 All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but 
 his follies and vices are innumerable. 
 
 It must indeed be confessed that a lampoon or a satire do not carry in 
 them robbery or murder. 
 
 There was more persons than one engaged in this affair. 
 
 A man who lacks ceremony has need for great merit. 
 
 A wise man avoids the showing any excellence in trifles. 
 
 The most important and first female quality is sweetness of temper. 
 
 We choose rather lead than follow. 
 
 Ignorance is the mother of fear, as well as admiration. 
 
 He must fear many, who many fear. 
 
 Every one partake of honor bestowed on the worthy. 
 
 The king nor the queen were not at all deceived. 
 
 Was there no difference, there would be no choice. 
 0*1 had rather have been informed. 
 
 Must thee return this evening ? 
 
 Life and death is in the power of the tongue. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS EULES. 217 
 
 I saw a person that I took to be she. 
 
 Let him be whom he 'may, I shall not stop. 
 
 This is certainly an useful invention. 
 
 That such a spirit as, thou dost not understand me. 
 
 " It is.no more but justice," quoth the farmer. 
 
 LESSON IL 
 
 Great improvements has been made. 
 *It is undoubtedly true what I have heard. 
 The nation is torn by feuds which threaten their ruin. 
 The account of these transactions were incorrect. 
 Godliness with contentment are great gain. 
 The number of sufferers have not been ascertained. 
 There are one or more of them yet in confinement. 
 They have chose the wisest part. 
 He spent his whole life in doing of good. 
 They know scarcely that temperance is a virtue. 
 I am afraid lest I have labored in vain. 
 Mischief to itself doth back recoil. 
 This construction sounds rather harshly. 
 What is the cause of the leaves curling ? 
 Was it thee that made the noise ? 
 Let thy flock clothe upon the naked. 
 Wisdom and knowledge is granted unto thee. 
 His conduct was surprising strange. 
 This woman taught my brother and I to read. 
 Let your promises be such that you can perform. 
 'We shall sell them in the state they now are. 
 We may add this observation, however. 
 This came in fashion when I was young. 
 I did not use the leaves, but root of the plant. 
 We have used every mean in our power continually. 
 Pass ye away, thou inhabitant of Saphir. Mica.h. 
 Give every syllable and every letter their proper sound. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 To know exactly how much mischief may be ventured upon with im- 
 punity, are knowledge enough for some folks. 
 Every leaf and every twig teem with life. 
 I was rejoiced at this intelligence. 
 I was afraid that I should have lost the parcel. 
 Which of all these patterns is the prettier ? 
 They which despise instruction shall not be wise. 
 Both thou and thy advisers have mistaken their interest. 
 
218 SYNTAX. 
 
 A idle soul shall suffer hunger. 
 
 The lips of knowledge is a precious jewel. 
 
 I and my cousin are requested to attend. 
 
 Can only say that such is my belief. 
 
 This is different from the conscience being made to feel 
 
 Here is ground for their leaving the world with peace. 
 
 A man is the noblest work of creation. 
 
 Of all other crimes willful murder is the most atrocious 
 
 The tribes whom I visited, are partially civilized. 
 
 From hence I conclude they are in error. 
 
 The girls' books are neater than the boys. 
 
 I intended to have transcribed it. 
 
 Shall a character made up of the very worst passions, pass under the 
 name of a gentleman ? 
 
 Rhoda ran in, and told how Peter stood before the gate. 
 
 What is latitude and longitude ? 
 
 Cicero was more eloquent than any Roman. 
 
 Who dares apologize for Pizarro, who is but another name for ra- 
 pacity ? 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 Tell me whether you will do it or no. . 
 
 After the most straitest sect, I lived a Pharisee. 
 
 We have no more but five loaves and two fishes. 
 
 I know not who it was who did it. 
 
 Doubt not, little though there be, 
 But I'll cast a crumb to thee. 
 
 This rule is the best which can be given. 
 
 I have never seen no other way. 
 
 These are poor amends for the men and treasures which we have lost. 
 
 Dost thou know them boys ? 
 
 This is a part of my uncle's father's estate. 
 
 Many people never learn to speak correct. 
 
 Some people are rash, and others timid ; those apprehend too much, 
 these too little. 
 
 Is it lawful for us to give tribute to Caesar or no ? 
 
 It was not worth while preserving any permanent enmity. 
 
 I no sooner saw my face in it, but I was startled at the shortness of it. 
 
 Every person is answerable for their own conduct. 
 
 They are men that scorn a mean action, and who will exert themselves 
 to serve you. 
 
 I do not recollect ever having paid it. 
 
 The stoics taught that all crimes were equal. 
 
 Every one of these theories are now exploded. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS BtJLES. 219 
 
 Either of these four will answer. 
 
 There is no situation where he would he happy. 
 
 The hoy has heen detected in stealing, that you thought so clever. 
 
 I will meet thee there if thee please. 
 
 He is not so sick but what he can laugh. 
 
 These clothes does not fit me. 
 
 The audience was all very attentive. 
 
 Wert thou some star, which from the ruin'd roof 
 
 Of shak'd Olympus by mischance didst fall ! Milton. 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 Was the master, or many of the scholars, in the room ? 
 His father's and mother's consent was asked. 
 Whom is he supposed to be ? 
 He is an old venerable man. 
 It was then my purpose to have visited Sicily. 
 It is to the learner only, and he that is in doubt, that this assistance is 
 
 recommended. 
 
 There are not the least hope of his recovery. 
 Anger and impatience is always unreasonable. 
 In his letters, there are not only correctness but elegance. 
 Opportunity to do good is the highest preferment which a noble mind 
 
 desires. 
 
 The year when he died is not mentioned. 
 Had I knew it, I should not have went. 
 Was it thee that spoke to me ? 
 The house is situated pleasantly. 
 He did it as private as he possibly could. 
 Subduing our passions is the noblest of conquests. 
 James is more diligent than thee. 
 Words interwove with sighs found out their way. 
 He appears to be diffident excessively. 
 The number of our days are with thee. 
 Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth them that fear 
 
 him. Psalms ciii. 
 
 The circumstances of this case is different. 
 Well for us, if some such other men should rise ! 
 
 A man that is young in years may be old in hours, if he have lost no time. 
 The chief captain, fearing lest Paul should have been pulled in pieces 
 
 of them, commanded the soldiers to go down, and to take them by 
 
 force from among them. Acts xxiii. 
 
 Nay, weep not, gentle Eros ; there is left us 
 Ourselves to end ourselves. Shakspeare. 
 
220 SYNTAX. 
 
 V.-ARRANCEMENT. 
 
 The arrangement of words is an important part of 
 Syntax, especially in the English language, in which, in con- 
 sequence of the paucity of its inflections, the sense is made to 
 depend to a very great extent upon the order of the terms. 
 
 This has been, in great part, already considered in the preceding rules 
 and observations, but a few additional hints and illustrations are here 
 inserted. 
 
 1. The subject noun or pronoun naturally comes before the 
 verb ; and the object or attribute, after it. 
 
 For cases of inversion of the subject and verb, see Observation 1, 
 Rule VI. 
 
 Inversions of any of these are generally controlled by the 
 law of emphasis, which requires an unusual position in the 
 sentence for a word, phrase, or clause, which is to be made 
 prominent. 
 
 The following sentences will serve for illustration : 
 
 " Into ifie valley of death rode the six hundred." 
 
 " All bloodless lay the untrodden snow." 
 
 " Victoj'ies indeed they were." 
 
 " Silver and gold have I none." 
 
 " When Thebes Epaminondas rears again." 
 
 2. On the same principle, the adjective which, in the natural 
 order, precedes the noun, may be made to follow it, thus : 
 
 " Across the meadows, fresh and green." 
 
 Also when the adjective is encumbered with one or more 
 adjuncts, thus: 
 
 " To whom the goblin fuU of wrath replied." 
 
 " A man wise in his own conceit can learn but littte." 
 
 3. The relative should be as close as possible to its ante- 
 cedent, and no other word should intervene that might be 
 mistaken for the antecedent 
 
 The following are examples of such an ambiguity : 
 
 " It was David, the father of Solomon, who slew Goliath." 
 " Why should he keep a horse that cannot ride ? 
 " All evils here contaminate the mind, 
 That opulence departed leaves behind*" 
 
ARRANGEMENT, 221 
 
 4. Adverbs, and all adverbial expressions, should be placed 
 as near as possible to the words which they affect. 
 
 This is illustrated under the rule for adverbs. The principle is of 
 general application to all classes of adjuncts, the position of which should 
 be such as to show, with the greatest possible clearness, to what words 
 they belong. The following sentence illustrates this principle, in the 
 correct position of every adjunct : " But now ye seek to kill me, a man 
 that hath told you the truth which I have heard of God: this did 
 not Abraham. " John viii. 
 
 The following is a comprehensive canon for the correction of miscel- 
 laneous errors in construction not specifically referred to in the foregoing 
 rules and observations. 
 
 General Rule. 
 
 In the formation of sentences, the consistency and adap- 
 tation of all the words should be carefully observed ; and 
 a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be 
 preserved throughout. 
 
 OBS. In the foregoing pages, the principles of syntax or construction, 
 are supposed to be pretty fully developed ; but there may be in compo- 
 sition many errors of such a nature that no rule of grammar can show 
 what should be substituted. The greater the inaccuracy, the more diffi- 
 cult the correction ; because the sentence may require a change through- 
 out. Sometimes the faults may be rhetorical rather than grammatical ; 
 that is, they may have no reference to relation, agreement, government, 
 or arrangement, but may be due to an improper selection of words or 
 phrases. In that case, the application of other principles than those 
 previously explained in syntax may be required. 
 
 False Syntax. 
 
 EXAMPLE. If I can contribute to your and my country's 
 glory. 
 
 FORMTTLE. Not proper, because the pronoun your has not a clear and regular construe 
 tion. But, according to the General Rule, " In the formation of sentences, the consist- 
 ency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed ; and a regular, clear, 
 and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout." The sentence having 
 a double meaning, may be corrected in two ways : thus, If I can contribute to our coun- 
 try's glory or, If I can contribute to your glory and that of my country. 
 
 ts there, then, more than one true religion ? 
 The laws of Lycurgus but substituted insensibility to enjoy* 
 ment, Goldsmith. 
 
222 SYNTAX. 
 
 Rain is seldom or ever seen at Lima. 
 
 The young bird raising its open mouth for food, is a natural 
 indication of corporeal want. 
 
 There is much of truth in the observation of Ascham. 
 
 Vlopting the doctrine which he had been taught. 
 
 Tnis library exceeded half a million volumes. 
 
 The Coptic alphabet was one of the latest formed of any. 
 
 Many evidences exist of the proneness of men to vice. 
 
 To perceive nothing, or not to perceive, is the same. 
 
 The king of France or England was to be the umpire. 
 
 He may be said to have saved the life of a citizen > and, con- 
 sequently, entitled to the reward. 
 
 The men had made inquiry for Simon's house, and stood be- 
 fore the gate. Acts x. 
 
 Give no more trouble than you can possibly help. 
 
 The art of printing being then unknown, was a circumstance 
 in some respects favorable to freedom of the pen. 
 
 Another passion which the present age is apt to run into, is 
 to make children learn all things. Goldsmith. 
 
 He is always the severest censor on the merits of another, who 
 has the least worth of his own. 
 
 Nor was Philip wanting in his endeavors to corrupt Demos- 
 thenes, as he had most of the leading men in Greece. 
 Goldsmith. 
 
 The Greeks, fearing to be surrounded on all sides, wheeled 
 about and halted, with the river on their backs. Id. 
 
 Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying of 
 our wants ; and riches, upon enjoying our superfluities. 
 
 To obtain a correct style requires few talents to which most 
 men are not born, or at least may not acquire. 
 
 That brother should not war with brother, 
 And worry and devour each other. Cowper. 
 
 Such is the refuge of our youth and age ; 
 
 The first from hope, the last from vacancy. Byron. 
 
 Triumphant Sylla ! couldst thou then divine, 
 
 By aught than Bomans Rome should thus be laid ? Id, 
 
ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION 223 
 
 VI EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CON- 
 STRUCTION. 
 
 Praxis V. Syntactical. 
 
 In the Fifth Praxis, it is required of the pupil to analyze the sentence 
 according to the method indicated under each example ; to distinguish 
 the parts of speech and their classes ; t^ mention their modifications 
 in order ; to point out their relation, agreement, or government ; 
 and to apply the rule of Syntax. He should then be required to con- 
 struct five additional sentences of tlie same character. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED. 
 
 " To be continually subject to the breath of slander will tarnish the 
 purest reputation." 
 ANALYSIS. This istf simple declarative sentence. 
 
 The subject is the complex infinitive phrase, to be continually subject to the breath of 
 slander ; the predicate verb is will tarnish ; the object is reputation. 
 
 Tho principal part of the phrase is to be, and its adjuncts are continually, and the in- 
 definite attribute, subject, which is modified by the complex adverbial phrase, to 
 the breath of slander ; the principal part of this phrase is breath, which is modified 
 by the, and the simple adjective phrase, of slander. 
 
 The verb has no adjuncts ; the adjuncts of the object are the and purest. 
 PARSING. To be is an irregular neuter verb, from be, was, being, been ; found in the 
 infinitive mood and present tense, and is, with the phrase of which it is the princi- 
 pal part, the subject of the verb will tarnish ; according to Note II., under Rule 
 VIII., which says, " The infinitive mood, a phrase, or a sentence, is sometimes the 
 subject to a verb." 
 
 Continually is an adverb of time, and relates to the verb to be ; according to the rule 
 which says, Adverbs relate, etc. 
 
 Subject is a common adjective, of the positive degree, compared only by means of the 
 adverbs, more and most, less and least ; it is taken abstractly with the infinitive 
 to be ; according to Exception 2d, under Rule II., which says, " With the infinitive 
 or a participle denoting being or action in the abstract, an adjective is sometimes 
 also taken abstractly." 
 
 To is a preposition, and shows the relation between subject and breath ; according to 
 the rule, which says. Prepositions show the relation of things, 
 
 The is the definite article, and relates to breath ; according to the rule, which says, etc.. 
 
 Breath is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and 
 objective case, and is governed by to ; according to the rule, which says, etc. 
 
 Will tarnish is a regular active-transitive verb, from tarnish, tarnished, tarnishing, 
 tarnished ; found in the indicative mood, first-future tense, third person, and singu- 
 lar number ; and agrees with its subject, the infinitive phrase, to be, etc.; accord- 
 ing to Note II., under Rule VIII., which says, " The infinitive mood, a phrase, or 
 a sentence, is sometimes the subject of a verb ; a subject of this kind, however 
 composed, if it is taken as one whole, requires a verb in the third person singular." 
 
 Purest is a common adjective of the superlative degree, compared, pure, purer, purest ; 
 it relates to reputation ; according to the rule, which says, etc. 
 
 Reputation is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, 
 and objective case ; and is governed by will tarnish ; according to the rule, which, 
 
224 SYNTAX. 
 
 Phrases. 
 
 I. Subject Phrases. 
 
 To train citizens is not the work of a day. 
 
 To be happy without the approval of conscience is impossible. 
 
 To have remained calm under such provocation, was a proof of remark- 
 able self-control. 
 
 To be at once a rake and glory in the character, discovers a bad disposi- 
 tion and a bad heart. 
 
 To meet danger boldly is better than to wait for it. 
 
 To be satisfied with the acquittal of one's own conscience, is the mark of 
 a great mind. 
 
 To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect of character. 
 
 To spring up from bed at the first moment of waking, is easy enough 
 for people habituated to it. 
 
 To laugh were want of goodness and of grace, 
 And to be grave exceeds all power of face. 
 
 II. Object Phrases. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 " Can a youth who refuses to yield obedience to his parents, expect 
 to become a good or a wise man ? " 
 
 ANALYSIS. This is a complex interrogative sentence. 
 
 The principal clause is, Can a youth expect to become a good or wise man f The de- 
 pendent clause is, who refuses to yield obedience to his parents. The connective is 
 who. 
 
 The subject noun of the principal clause is youth ; the predicate verb is expect ; the 
 object is the infinitive phrase, to become a good or a wise man. 
 
 The adjuncts of the subject noun are a and the dependent clause ; the verb has no ad- 
 juncts ; the principal part of the phrase is to become ; and its adjunct is the attri- 
 bute man, which refers to the subject youth, and is modified by the adjuncts a 
 good, and a wise, connected by or. 
 
 The subject of the dependent clause is who ; the predicate verb is refuses ; the object 
 is the complex infinitive phrase, to yield obedience to his parents. The principal 
 part of the phrase is to yield, its adjuncts are the object, obedience, and the simple 
 adverbial phrase, to his parents ; the principal part of this phrase is parents, and 
 its adjunct is his. 
 
 If you desire to be free from sin, avoid temptation. 
 
 By the faults of others, wise men learn how to correct their own. 
 
 In reasoning, avoid blending arguments confusedly together that are of 
 
 a separate nature. 
 
 He who refuses to learn how to avoid evil, may properly be deemed, 
 guilty of it. 
 
 
ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 225 
 
 He did not oppose his son's going to sea, because he desired to remove 
 
 him from the evil influence of bad company, 
 'ever expect to be able to govern others, unless j r ou have learned how to 
 
 govern yourself. 
 He who loves to survey the works of nature, can anticipate, wherever he 
 
 may be, finding sources of the purest enjoyment. 
 He who attempts to please every body, will soon become an object o ' 
 
 general indifference or contempt. 
 
 None but the virtuous dare hope in bad circumstances. 
 If ever any author deserved to be called an original, it was Shaks- 
 
 peare. 
 
 Ill Attribute Phrases. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 " The predominant passion of Franklin seems to have been the love 
 of the useful." 
 
 ANALYSIS. This is a simple declarative sentence. 
 
 The subject is passion ; the predicate verb is seems ; the attribute is the infinitive 
 phrase, to have been the love of the useful. 
 
 The adjuncts of the subject are the, predominant, and the simple adjective phrase of 
 Franklin ; the predicate has no adjuncts ; the principal part of the attribute 
 phrase is to have been, and its adjunct is the attribute love, which refers to the 
 subject passion, and is modified by the, and the simple adjective phrase, of the 
 useful: 
 
 [To have been is used as an adjective, and relates to passion.] 
 
 ^ The fire of our minds is immortal, and not to be quenched. 
 
 Universal benevolence and patriotic zeal appear to have been the 
 motives of all his actions. 
 
 Children should be permitted to be children, and not deprived of 
 amusements proper for their age. 
 
 Was he not to live the best part of his life over again, and once more 
 be all that he ever had been ? 
 
 Criminals are observed to grow more anxious as their trial approaches. 
 
 Knowledge is not to be received inertly like the influences of the at- 
 mosphere, by a mere residence at the place of instruction. 
 ; The great purpose of poetry is to carry the mind above and beyond the 
 beaten, dusty, weary walks of ordinary life ; to lift it into a purer 
 element ; and to breathe into it more profound and generous emo- 
 tions. 
 
 He seems to have made an injudicious choice, though he is esteemed a 
 sensible man. 
 
 Integrity is of the greatest importance in every situation of life. 
 15 
 
226 - PYXTAX. 
 
 v V&TI. 
 
 To be useful in some degree is Within the means of every one. 
 
 To discover the true nature of comets, has hitherto proved beyond the 
 
 power of science. 
 
 His conduct was, under the circumstances, in very bad taste. 
 The merchant was to have sailed for Europe last week. 
 
 IV Adjective Phrases. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 '* Leaning my head upon my hand, I began to figure to myself the 
 miseries of confinement." 
 
 ANALYSIS. This is a simple declarative sentence. 
 
 The subject is /, the predicate verb is began ; the object is the complex infinitive 
 phrase, to figure to myself the miseries of confinement. The principal part of the 
 phrase is to figure, the adjuncts of which are the simple adverbial phrase, to my- 
 self, and the object miseries, which is modified by the and the simple adjective 
 phrase, of confinement. 
 
 The adjunct of the subject is the complex adjective phrase leaning my head upon my 
 hand, the principal part of which is leaning, and its adjuncts, the object head, 
 modified by my, and the simple adverbial phrase, upon my hand, the principal 
 part of which is hand, and its adjunct, my. 
 
 j Life bears us on like the stream of a mighty river. 
 
 Augustus had no lawful authority to make a change in the Roman con- 
 stitution. 
 
 *L A habit of sincerity in acknowledging faults, is a guard against commit- 
 ting them. 
 
 rThe atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall attempt neither to 
 palliate nor deny. 
 
 Envy, surrounded on all sides by the brightness of another's prosperity, 
 like the scorpion, confined within the circle of fire, stings itself to 
 
 . death. 
 
 Y The requisites for a first-rate actor demand a combination of talents and 
 
 accomplishments not easily to be found. 
 
 *1 The conflicts of the world were not to take place altogether * on the 
 tented field ; but ideas, leaping from the world's awakened intellect, 
 and burning all over with indestructible life, were to be marshaled 
 against principalities and powers. 
 
 ^f The ship, unable to pursue her way, 
 Tossing about, at her own guidance lay. 
 
 * Altogether is here an adverb relating to the adverbial phrase, on tht tented field. 
 (Se Obs. 4, under Rule III.) 
 
ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 227 
 
 V. Adverbial Phrases. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 " We live in the past by a knowledge of its history, and in the future 
 by hope and anticipation." 
 
 ANALYSIS. This is a compound declarative sentence, abbreviated in form, and consist- 
 ing of the two coordinate clauses, We live in the past by a knowledge of its history, 
 and (we live) in the future by hope and anticipation, connected by and-. 
 The subject of each clause is we, and the predicate verb is live. The adjuncts of the 
 verb in the first clause are the simple adverbial phrase, in the past, and the com- 
 plex adverbial phrase, by a knowledge of its history ; the principal part is knowl- 
 edge, and its adjuncts are a and the simple adjective phrase, of its history. [The 
 adjuncts of the verb in the second clause are of the same character, and may be 
 analyzed in a similar manner.] 
 
 ' At that hour, 6 how vain was all sublunary happiness ! 
 *L Abstain from injuring others, if you wish to be in safety. 
 3 The public are often deceived by false appearances and extravagant 
 
 pretensions. 
 l_/_ Day and night yield us contrary blessings ; and, at the same time, assist 
 
 each other, by giving fresh lustre to the delights of both. 
 A^Man's happiness or misery is, in a great measure, put into his own 
 , hands. 
 
 '<* {Has not sloth, or pride, or ill temper, or sinful passion, misled you 
 
 from the path of sound and wise conduct"?! 
 *) Man was created to search for truth, to love fne beautiful, to desire the 
 
 good, and to do the best. 
 
 ^Representation and taxation should always go hand in hand. 
 o The statement which he made at first, he reiterated, again and again, 
 
 without the least variation. 
 
 , OJacob loved all his sons, but he loved Joseph the best. 
 jf There is very often more happiness in the cottage of the peasant than in 
 
 the palace of the king. 
 
 VI. Explanatory Phrases. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 "It is useless to expatiate upon the beauties of nature to one who is 
 blind." 
 
 ANALYSIS. This is a complex declarative sentence. 
 The principal clause is, It is useless to expatiate upon the beauties of nature to on, 
 
 and the dependent clause is, who is blind. The connective is who. 
 The subject of the principal clause is it ; the predicate verb is <* ; and the attribute is 
 
228 SYNTAX. 
 
 The adjunct of the subject is the complex explanatory phrase, to expatiate upon th& 
 beauties of nature to one. The principal part of the phrase is to expatiate, tho 
 adjuncts of which are the complex adverbial phrase, upon the beauties of nature, 
 and the simple adverbial phrase to one. The principal part of the former is 
 beauties, and its adjuncts are the and the simple adjective phrase of nature ; the 
 principal part of the latter is one, and its adjunct is the dependent adjective clause 
 who is blind. 
 
 The subject of the deiendent clause is who ; the predicate verb, is ; and the attributa, 
 blind ; each without adjuncts. 
 
 It is always profitable to know our own faults and infirmities. 
 
 It is the characteristic of a pedant to make an idle display of his 
 
 learning. 
 
 If what I say be not true, it is easy to convict me of falsehood. 
 It is very often impossible to estimate the extent of injury which a 
 
 careless word will produce. 
 How happy had it been for him to have died in that sickness, when all 
 
 Italy was putting up vows and prayers for his safety ! 
 it is certainly in the power of a sensible and well-educated mother to 
 
 inspire such tastes and propensities in her son as shall nearly decide 
 
 the destiny of the future man. 
 
 It is impossible to read a page in Plato, Tully, or any of the other emi- 
 nent moralists of antiquity, without being a greater and better man 
 
 for it. 
 If we would improve our minds by conversation, it is a great happiness 
 
 to be acquainted wjth persons wiser than ourselves. 
 If we were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the 
 
 contest. 
 It is a miserable state of mind to have few things to desire, and many 
 
 things to fear. 
 
 VII. Independent Phrases. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 " This proposition being admitted, I now state my argument. " 
 
 ANALYSIS. This is a simple declarative sentence. 
 
 The subject is /; the predicate verb is state ; the object is argument. 
 
 The subject has no adjuncts ; the adjunct of the verb is now ; the adjunct of the ob- 
 ject is my. 
 
 This proposition being admitted is an independent phrase ; the principal part ispropo- 
 sition, and its adjuncts are this and being admitted. 
 
 EXAMPLE H. 
 
 "One day, I was guilty of an action, which, to say the least, was in 
 very bad taste. 
 
 ANALYSIS. This is a complex declarative sentence. 
 
 The principal clause is, One day I was guilty of an action ; and the dependent clause 
 is, which, to say the least, was in very bad taste. The connective is which. 
 
ANALYSIS, PAUSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 229 
 
 The subject of the principal clause is /; the predicate verb is was ; and the attribute 
 
 is guilty. 
 The adjunct of the verb is the adverbial phrase (prepositional in form), (on) one day ; 
 
 the adjunct of the attribute is the adverbial phrase of an action. Of the latter 
 
 phrase, action is the principal part, and its adjuncts are an and the dependent 
 
 clause. 
 The subject of the dependent clause is which; the predicate verb is was; and the 
 
 attribute, the adjective phrase in very bad taste. 
 Neither has any adjuncts ; the principal part of the attribute phrase is taste ; bad 
 
 being its primary, and very its secondary adjunct. 
 To say the leant, is an independent phrase of the infinitive form. The principal part ii 
 
 to say, and its adjunct, the object least, modified by the. 
 
 They being absent, we cannot come to a determination. 
 There being much obscurity in the case, he refuses to decide upon it. 
 To be plain with you, your conduct is very much to be censured. 
 Fathers ! Senators of Rome ! the arbiters of nations I to you I fly for 
 
 refuge. 
 
 The baptism of John ; was it from heaven, or of men ? 
 Generally speaking, the life of all truly great men has been a life oi 
 
 intense and incessant labor. 
 To give one instance more, and then I will have done with this ranv 
 
 bling discourse. Hazlitt. 
 
 The great utility of knowledge and religion being thus apparent, it is 
 highly incumbent upon us to pay a studious attention to them in 
 our youth. 
 
 A shoe coming loose from the fore-foot of the thill-horse, at the begin- 
 ning of the ascent of Mount Taurina, the postilion dismounted, 
 twisted the shoe off, and put it in his pocket. Sterne. 
 Want, and incurable disease, (fell pair !) 
 On hopeless multitudes remorseless seize 
 At once ; and make a refuge of the grave. 
 \/Soldier, rest ! thy warfare o'er, 
 
 Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking : 
 Dream of battle-fields no more, 
 Days of danger, nights of waking. 
 
 Clauses* 
 VIII. Subject Clauses. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 "That it is our duty to obey the laws of the country in wnlch we 
 Jve, does not admit of question." 
 
230 SYNTAX. 
 
 ANALYSIS. -This is a complex declarative sentence. 
 
 The subject is the dependent clause, That it is our duty to obey tht laws of the country 
 in which we live ; the predicate verb is does admit. 
 
 The adjuncts of the verb are not and the phrase of question. 
 
 The subject of the dependent clause is it ; the predicate verb is is ; and the attribute 
 is duty. 
 
 The adjunct of the subject is the complex explanatory phrase, to obey the laws of the 
 country in which ice live ; the adjunct of the attribute is our. 
 
 The principal part of the explanatory phrase is to obey, which is modified by the object 
 laws, the adjuncts of which are the and the complex phrase, of the country in 
 which we live. The principal part of this phrase is country, and its adjuncts are 
 the and the simple adjective clause, in which we live. The subject of the clause is 
 we ; the predicate verb is live, which is modified by the simple adverbial phrase 
 in which. 
 
 OBS. It will be perceived from the example given in this exercise, 
 that a complex sentence may be analyzed by treating it as a whole, 
 pointing out the subject, predicate, etc., and analyzing the dependent 
 clause in its proper place, as one of the principal parts, or an adjunct to 
 either ; instead of dividing the sentence immediately into the principal 
 and dependent clauses, explaining their connection, and then analyzing 
 them separately, as in the previous exercises. The latter method is 
 preferable for beginners, but for advanced scholars should give place to 
 the other, which is more logical, and easier for intricate sentences. 
 
 I That the government of our desires is essential to the enjoyment of 
 
 true liberty, is a truth never to be forgotten. 
 L-That it is glorious to die for one's country, is a sentiment uniformly 
 
 cherished by all good men. 
 
 - At what period the poems of Homer were composed, has not been posi- 
 tively ascertained. 
 
 Who was the author of the Letters of Phalaris, has been the subject of 
 very ingenious and learned discussion. 
 
 That an author's work is the mirror of his mind, is a position that has 
 
 led to very false conclusions. 
 
 ^ Why a man with so excellent an education, and surrounded with so 
 many inducements to a virtuous life, should have fallen into habits 
 of vice and dissipation, is inexplicable. 
 
 That truth finally must prevail over error, and virtue be triumphant in 
 a struggle with vice, are highly cherished sentiments among man- 
 kind. 
 
 How he was to extricate his army from so dangerous a position, baffled 
 all conjecture. 
 
 Whether Columbus was the first discoverer of America or not, is a ques- 
 tion among historians. 
 
 "What can be more strange than that an ounce weight should balance 
 hundreds of pounds by the intervention of a few bars of thin iron t 
 
ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 231 
 
 IX. Object Clauses. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 " Children should know that it is their duty to honor their parents, t 
 ask advice of them, and to observe their wishes." 
 
 ANALYSIS. This is a complex declarative sentence. 
 The subject is children ; the predicate verb is should know ; the object is the depen 1- 
 
 ent clause, That it is their duty, etc. That is the connective. 
 The subject of the dependent clause is U ; the predicate verb is is ; the attribute is 
 
 ditty. 
 The adjuncts of the subject are the explanatory phrases, to honor their parents, to ask 
 
 advice of them, and to observe their wishes. 
 
 He knew that solicitations or remonstrances would avail little with the 
 companions of his enterprise. 
 
 Those who are skilled in the extraction and preparation of metals, de- 
 clare that*iron is everywhere to be found. 
 
 Columbus felt that there was a continent to*be discovered, and he dis- 
 covered it. 
 
 The authors of the American Revolution believed that they were in the 
 service of their own, and of all future generations. 
 
 It is interesting to notice how some minds seem almost to create them- 
 selves, springing up under every disadvantage, and working their 
 solitary but irresistible way through a thousand obstacles. 
 
 Any man who attends to what passes within himself, may easily discern 
 that the human character is a very complicated system. 
 
 How can he exalt his thoughts to anything great or noble, who only 
 believes that, after a short term on this stage of existence, he is to 
 sink into oblivion, and to lose his consciousness forever ? 
 
 See, Aspasio, how all is calculated to administer the highest delight to 
 mankind. 
 
 The majority of the assembly wisely considered that to decline a cessa- 
 tion, would be to refute all their professions of loyalty. 
 Haply some hoar y -headed swain may say, 
 
 " Oft have we seen him at the peep of dawn, 
 Brushing, with hasty steps, the dews away, 
 To meet the sun upon the upland lawn." 
 
 X Object Clauses. (INFINITIVE.) 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 " Let the child learn what is appropriate for his years." 
 
 ANALYSIS. This is a complex imperative sentence. The subject is thou (understood) ; 
 
 the predicate verb is let ; the object is the infinitive clause, the child learn, etc. 
 The subject noun of the dependent clause is child ; the predicate verb is (to) learn; 
 
232 SYNTAX. 
 
 the object is that (comprehended in the double relative what, equivalent to thai 
 
 which). 
 The adjunct of the object is the simple adjective clause, which is appropriate for hit 
 
 years. 
 The subject of this clause is which ; the predicate verb, is ; the attribute, appropriate, 
 
 modified by the simple adverbial phrase, for his years. 
 
 Thou think'st it folly to be wise too soon. 
 
 In this melancholy state he commanded messengers to recall his eldest 
 
 son, Abouzaid, from the army. 
 
 Graves describes the steps by which Shenstone made the Leasowes be- 
 come what it at last was. 
 Let us all, in our mourning attire, and accompanied by our children, go 
 
 and entreat Veturia, the mother of Coriolanus, to intercede with 
 
 her son for our common country. 
 Madame Roland heard herself sentenced to death with the air of one 
 
 who saw in her condemnation merely her title to immortality. 
 Goldsmith said to Johnson very wittily and very justly, "If you were 
 
 to write a fable about little fishes, doctor, you would make the little 
 
 fishes talk like whales. " 
 The curiosity of the Caliph being awakened to know the cause of his 
 
 despair, he ordered Mezrour to knock at the door, which being 
 
 opened, they pleaded the privilege of strangers to enter for rest and 
 
 refreshment. 
 
 See some strange comfort every state attend, 
 And pride bestow'd on all, a common friend : 
 See some fit passion every age supply ; 
 Hope travels through, nor quits us when we die. 
 On what foundation stands the warrior's pride, 
 How just his. hopes, let Swedish Charles decide. 
 
 XI Attribute Clauses. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 " The truth is, that the most elaborate and manifold apparatus of in- 
 struction can impart nothing of importance to the passive and inert 
 mind." 
 
 ANALYSIS. This is a complex declarative sentence. The subject is the truth ; the predi- 
 cate verb is is ; the attribute is the dependent clause, The most elaborate and 
 manifold apparatus, etc. The connective is that. 
 
 The subject noun of the dependent clause is apparatus ; the predicate verb is can im- 
 part ; the object is nothing. The adjuncts of the subject noun are the, elaborate^ 
 manifold, and of instruction ; most is an adjunct of elaborate and manifold ; the 
 adjunct of the verb fS the adverbial phrase to the passive and inert mind ; the prin- 
 cipal part of which is mind, and its adjuncts the, and passive and inert; the ad 
 junct of the object is the simple adjective phrase, of importance. 
 
FAfeSttfG, ASTD CONSTRUCTION. %<& 
 
 The crying sin of all governments is, that they meddle injuriously with 
 human affairs, and obstruct the processes of nature by excessive 
 legislation. 
 
 One of the most useful effects of action is, that it renders repose agree- 
 able. 
 
 The only advantage which, in the voyage of life, the cautious had 
 above the negligent, was, that -they sunk later, and more suddenly. 
 
 The characteristic peculiarity of the "Pilgrim's Progress" is, that it is 
 the only work of its kind which possesses a strong human interest. 
 
 The proper end of instruction is, not that the scholar should be able to 
 repeat the thoughts of others, but that he should have the power to 
 think correctly for himself. 
 
 The physician's directions were, that the patient should travel to the 
 South, that he should avoid excitement, and that he should be 
 careful in jiiet. 
 
 XII. Adjective Clauses. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 " Whoever yields to temptation, debases himself with a debasement 
 from which he can never arise." 
 ANALYSIS. This is a complex declarative sentence. 
 The subject nominative is he (comprehended in the double relative whoever)', the 
 
 predicate verb is debases ; the object is himself. 
 
 The adjunct of the subject nominative is the simple adjective clause, who yields to 
 temptation ; the adjunct of the predicate is the complex phrase, with a debase- 
 ment from which he can never arise. The principal part of the phrase is debase- 
 ment, and its adjuncts are a and the simple adjective clause, from which he can 
 never arise. 
 The chief misfortunes that befall us in life, can be traced to some vices 
 
 and follies which we have committed. 
 Every society has a right to prescribe for itself the terms on which its 
 
 members shall be admitted. 
 There is no foundation for the popular doctrine, that a state may nourish 
 
 by arts and crimes. 
 It is necessary to combat vigilantly that favorite idea of lively ignorance. 
 
 that study is an enemy to originality. 
 Most of the troubles which we meet with in the world, arise from an 
 
 irritable temper, or from improper conduct. 
 
 Neither his vote, his influence, nor his purse, was ever withheld from 
 the cause in which he had engaged. 
 
 He that has light within his own clear breast, 
 May sit in the center, and enjoy bright day ; 
 But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts, 
 Benighted walks under the mid-day sun. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 No flocks that range the valley, free, 
 
 To slaughter I condemn ; 
 Taught by that power that pities me, 
 
 I learn to pity them, 
 
 XIII. Adverbial Clauses. 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 " Education, when it works upon a noble mind, draws out to view 
 many latent virtues and perfections, which, without its aid, would 
 never be able to make their appearance." 
 
 ANALYSIS. This is a complex declarative sentence. 
 The principal dame is, Education, when. U wort* upon a noVe mind, draws out to 
 
 view meaty latent virtue* and perfection*; and the dependent is, Which, without 
 
 it* ate uvuld nerer be able to mate their mppearmtice. The connective IB wMc*. 
 TheftrstismcompteLimmber; therabjectisttrtfcafum, the predicate TO* is draw* ; 
 
 the objects are virtue* and perfection*. 
 The adjuncts of the verb are the adverbial danse, token U work* upon a noble mind, 
 
 out, and the simple adverbial phrase to view ; the adjuncts of the objects an 
 
 many nnd latent. 
 The abject of the adverbial clause is tt, the predicate verb is wort*. The adjuncts 
 
 of the verb are when, and the adverbial phrase, upon a noble mind. The con- 
 
 istoJWc*,- the predicate verb is would be; the at- 
 
 The adjuncts of the predicate are the phrase, without it* aid, and 
 
 to mate is the principal part, and its adjunct the object 
 
 When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affects us, the sincerity 
 
 of friendship is proved. 
 When the Creator had finished his labor on our planet, his last and 
 
 noblest work being man, he conferred on him a partnership in his 
 
 labors. 
 
 Loose conversation operates on the soul, as poison does on the body. 
 When Education had proceeded, in this manner, to the part of the 
 
 mountain where the declivity began to grow craggy, she resigned 
 
 her charge to two powers of superior aspect. 
 While I was musing on this miserable scene, my protector called out to 
 
 me, " Remember, Theodore, and be wise, and let not Habit prevail 
 
 against thee. n 
 While this thought passed over my mind, I lost sight of the remotest star, 
 
 and the last glimmering of light was quenched in utter darkness. 
 
 The agonies of despair every moment increased, as every moment 
 
 augmented my distance from the last habitable world. I reflected 
 
 with intolerable anguish, that, when ten thousand thousand years 
 
AtfAl/TSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 had carried me beyond the reach of all but that Power who fills in- 
 finitude, I should still look forward into an immense abyss of dark- 
 ness, through which I should still drive without succor and without 
 society, farther and farther still, forever and forever. 
 
 XIV. Explanatory Clauses 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 "Why is it that to man have been given passions which he cannot 
 tame, and which sink him below the brute ? " 
 
 ANALYSIS. This is a complex interrogative sentence. 
 
 The subject is it ; the predicate verb is is ; the adjunct of the subject is the complex 
 explanatory clause, to man have been given passions which he cannot tame, and 
 which sink him below the brute ; the connective is that : the adjunct of the predi- 
 cate is why. ^ 
 
 The subject noun of the explanatory clause is passiont ; the predicate is have been 
 given. The adjuncts of the subject are the simple adjective clauses, which he can- 
 not tame, and which sink him below the brute. [Each to be analyzed as in previous 
 exercises.] 
 
 It was the fate of Dr. Bentley, that every work, executed or projected 
 
 by him, should be assailed. 
 It is surprising in what countless swarms the bees have overspread the 
 
 far West, within but a moderate number of years. 
 To tell you the why and the wJierefore would take too long ; suffice it to 
 
 say, that they hate us with a deadly hatred. 
 Seeing these, I at length comprehended the meaning of those terrible 
 
 words, " Must we kill them both ? " 
 It might be expected, that humanity itself would prevent them from 
 
 breaking into the last retreat of the unfortunate. 
 
 It is an exquisite and beautiful thing in our nature, that when the heart 
 
 is touched and softened by some tranquil happiness or affectionate 
 
 feeling, the memory of the dead comes over it most powerfully and 
 
 irresistibly. 
 
 Interesting it is to observe how certainly all deep feelings agree in this, 
 
 that they seek for solitude, and are nursed by solitude. 
 Is it because foreigners are in a condition to set our malice at defiance, 
 that we are willing to contract engagements of friendship ? 
 See ! and confess, one comfort still must rise ; 
 'Tis this, though man's a fool, yet God is wise. 
 Better for us, perhaps, it might appear, 
 Were there all harmony, all virtue here ; 
 That never air nor ocean felt the wind, 
 That never passion discomposed the mind. 
 
236 
 
 XV. Parenthetical Clauses. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 "The virtuous man, it has been beautifully said, proceeds without 
 constraint in the path of his duty." 
 
 ANALYSIS. This is a compound declarative sentence ; composed of the simple clause, 
 The virtuous man proceeds without constraint in the, path of his duty, and the 
 parenthetical clause, It hat been beautifully said. [Let the pupil analyze each 
 clause as in the preceding exercises.] 
 
 OBS. Sentences of this form may often be analyzed by considering 
 the parenthetical clause, the principal one, and the rest of the sentence 
 dependent upon it. The mode of analysis, indicated in the example, 
 is, however, preferable ; as, although the parenthetical clause is united 
 in construction with the other part of the sentence, it is not necessary 
 to complete the sense. 
 
 How dangerous soever idleness may be, are there not pleasures, it may 
 
 be said, which attend it ? 
 " I leave my second son, Andrew," said the expiring miser, "my whole 
 
 estate ; and desire him to be frugal." 
 "Go forth," it had been said to Elijah, "and stand upon the mount 
 
 before the Lord." 
 " I think, boys," said the schoolmaster, when the clock struck twelve, 
 
 " that I shall give you an extra half -holiday this afternoon." 
 " You remember my garden, Henry," whispered the old man, anxious 
 to rouse him, for a dullness seemed gathering upon the child, "and 
 how pleasant it used to be in the evening-time ? " 
 
 "Therefore," said he, "hath it in all confidence been ordered by the 
 Commons of Great Britain, that I impeach Warren Hastings of high 
 crimes and misdemeanors." 
 
 " Oh, no," said the Earth, " thou shalt not lie, 
 Neglected and lone, on my lap to die, 
 Thou fine and delicate child of the sky." 
 No further seek his merits to disclose, 
 
 Or draw his frailties from their dread abode, 
 (There they alike in trembling hope repose,) 
 The bosom of his Father, and his God. 
 
 Compound Sentences. 
 XVI. Independent Clauses. 
 
 DBS. 1. In analyzing compound sentences, at this stage of the pupil's 
 progress, the leading dause should be distinguished from the subordinate 
 
ANALYSIS, PAUSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 237 
 
 clause. It must, however, be understood, that the dependence of the 
 latter upon the former, is logical, not grammatical, differing in this 
 respect altogether from the relation of the principal and the dependent 
 clause of a complex sentence, which is purely grammatical, since the 
 latter is an adjunct, or used as one of the principal parts, in the princi- 
 pal clause. 
 
 OBS. 2. Some clauses are simply connected without logical or gram- 
 matical dependence. These may be called co-ordinate clauses. 
 
 In the following examples of analysis, for the purpose of abbreviation, and in order to 
 furnish the pupil with a ready method of clearly representing, in written exercises, the 
 parts of a sentence and their relations, the compound clauses or members are marked 
 by capitals ; the simple clauses, by numerals ; and the phrases, by small letters. When 
 these are all written out in the order in which they occur, care being takem to unite in 
 brackets dependent clauses contained in the same sentence or member, the character and 
 composition of the sentence analyzed will be exhibited. 
 
 According to this mode of representation, a simple sentence would, of course, have no 
 numerical or litej^l designation ; 1 would indicate a complex sentence with a simple 
 dependent clause ; 1, 2, a compound sentence, consisting of two simple clauses, but if 
 enclosed in brackets thus [1, 2], a complex sentence containing two dependent clauses; 
 A, 1, 2, B, 3, 4, a compound sentence composed of two compound members ; but A, [1, 
 2], B, [3, 4], a compound sentence composed of two complex members, each containing 
 two dependent clauses; A, 1, B, 2, a compound sentence composed of two complex 
 members, each containing one dependent clause ; A, 1, 2, B, 8, a compound sentence 
 composed of a compound and a complex member; A, 1, B, 2, 3, a compound sentence 
 containing a complex and a compound member ; A, B, 1, a complex sentence containing 
 a complex dependent member, which itself contains a complex dependent member ; and 
 soon. 
 
 This mode of presenting to the eye the general conformation of a sentence, its mem- 
 bers, clauses, etc., in their order and, partially, their dependence, will be found easy 
 after the previous practice, and cannot fail to be useful. In the forms of analysis given, 
 S. stands for the subject noun or pronoun without its adjuncts ; P., for the predicate 
 verb ; O., for the object ; Att., for the attribute ; Ad., for adjuncts. 
 
 It must be borne in mind by the pupil that the complete subject consists of the subject 
 noun or pronoun and all its adjuncts ; and the complete predicate, of the predicate verb 
 and all its adjuncts, including the object and attribute ; that, in fact, there are but two 
 parts in every sentence, each of which is separable into one primary part and adjuncts. 
 
 EXAMPLES ANALYZED. 
 
 1. " Let him that hastens to he rich, take heed lest he suddenly 
 become poor." 
 
 ANALYSIS. Compound imperative sentence, consisting of 
 
 A. (Leading) Let him that hastens to be rich, take heed ; 
 
 1. (Subordinate) He suddenly become poor. Connective, lest. 
 
 A. Complex imperative member. 
 
 S. Thou (understood) ; P. let ; O. him that hastens to be rich, take he*. (B.) 
 
 B. Complex infinitive member. 
 
 S. him ; P. take ; O. heed. 
 Ad. S. that hastens to be rich. (2.) 
 2. Simple adjective clause. 
 
 S. that ; P. hastens ; Ad. P. to be rich, (a,) 
 
238 SYOTAX 
 
 a. Simple adverbial phrase. 
 
 Prin. part, to be ; Ad. rich (indirect attribute). 
 1. Simple clause. 
 
 S. fie ; P. become ; Att. poor ; Ad. P. suddenly. 
 
 2. "Say not thou, 'I will recompense evil;' but wait on the Lord, 
 and he shall save thee." 
 
 ANALYSIS. Compound imperative sentence, consisting of two co-ordinate members : 
 
 A. Say not thou, " / wUl recompense evil." 1 
 
 B. Wait on the Lord, and fie shall save thee. Con. but. 
 
 A. Complex imperative member. 
 
 S. thou; P. say ; O. ItoiU recompense evil (1) ; Ad. P. not. 
 
 1. Simple declarative clause. 
 
 S. /; P. will recompense ; O. evil. 
 
 B. Compound imperative member. 
 
 2. Wait on the Lord. 
 
 3. He shall save thee ; connective, and. 
 
 2. Simple imperative clause. 
 
 S. Thou (understood) ; P. watt ; Ad. P. on the Lord, (a.) 
 a. Simple adverbial phrase. 
 
 Prin. part, Lord ; Ad. the. 
 e. Simple declarative clause. 
 
 S. He ; P. shall save ; O. thee. 
 
 If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat ; if he be thirsty, give 
 him water to drink. 
 
 If the mind were left uncultivated, though nothing else should find en- 
 trance, vice certainly would. 
 
 While riotous indulgence enervates both the body and the mind, purity 
 and virtue heighten all the powers of human fruition. 
 
 If the King were present, Cleon, there would be no need of my answer- 
 ing to what thou hast just proposed. 
 
 He seems to have made an injudicious choice, though he is esteemed a 
 sensible man. 
 
 The person he chanced to see, was, to appearance, an old, sordid, blind 
 man ; but, upon his following him from place to place, he at last 
 found, by his own confession, that he was Plutus, the god of riches. 
 
 I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty, 
 or give me death. 
 
 Let any one resolve always to do right now, leaving then to do as it can, 
 and if he were to live to the age of Methuselah, he would never do 
 wrong ; but the common error is to resolve to act right after break- 
 fast, or after dinner, or to-morrow morning, or next time ; but now, 
 just now, this once, we must go on the same as ever. 
 
 It seems easier to do right to-morrow than to-day, merely because we 
 forget, that when to-morrow comes, then will be now. 
 The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 
 Had he thy reason, would he skip and play ? 
 
ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTEUOTION. 239 
 
 Inspiring thought of rapture yet to be ! 
 The tears of love were hopeless but for thee ! 
 If in that frame no deathless spirit dwell, 
 If that faint murmur be the last farewell, 
 If fate unite the faithful but to part, 
 Why is their memory sacred to the heart ? 
 
 XVII. Miscellaneous Sentences. 
 
 EXAMPLES ANALYZED. 
 
 1. "Rasselas could not catch the fugitives, with his utmost efforts ; 
 but, resolving to weary by perseverance him whom he could not sur- 
 pass in speed, he pressed on till the foot of the mountain stopped his 
 course. " Johnson. 
 
 ANALYSIS. Compound declarative sentence : 
 
 1. Rasselas could not catch the fugitive with his utmost efforts ; 
 A. Resolving to weary course. Connective, but. 
 
 1. Simple declarative clause. 
 
 S. Rasselas; P. could catch; O. fugitive. 
 
 Ad. P. not, with his utmost efforts (a) ; Ad. O. tfi*. 
 
 a. Simple adverbial phrase. 
 
 Prin. part, efforts ; Ad. his and utmost. 
 A. Compound declarative member. 
 S. He; P. pressed. 
 
 Ad. S. resolving to weary by perseverance him speed (b) ; 
 
 Ad. P. on, and till the foot of the mountain stopped his course (2). 
 
 b. Complex adjective phrase. 
 
 Prin. part, resolving ; Ad. to weary speed (c). 
 
 c. Complex objective phrase. 
 
 Prin. parf, to weary ; Ad. him (obj.) and by perseverance ; Ad. of him, whom 
 
 speed (3). 
 
 8. Simple adjective clause. 
 
 S. He ; P. could surpass ; O. whom ; Ad. P. not and in speed. 
 
 2. Simple adverbial clause. 
 
 S. foot ; P. stopped ; O. course. 
 
 Ad. S. the, of the mountain ; Ad. P. till; Ad. O. his; Connective, tilt. 
 
 2. " There is strong reason to suspect that some able Whig politi- 
 cians, who thought it dangerous to relax, at that moment, the laws against 
 political offenses, but who could not, without incurring the charge of 
 inconsistency, declare themselves adverse to relaxation, had conceived a 
 hope that they might, by fomenting the dispute about the court of the 
 lord high steward, defer for at least a year the passing of a bill which 
 they disliked, and yet could not decently oppose." Macaulay. 
 
 ANALYSIS. Complex declarative sentence. 
 S. Reason ; P. is. 
 
 Ad. S. strong, to suspect oppose ; (a) Ad. P. there. 
 
 a. Complex adjective phrase. 
 
 rtin. part, to suspect , Ad. (object), Some able oppose ; (A) Con. ifcft 
 
240 SYNTAX. 
 
 A. Complex, object clause. 
 
 S. Politicians ; P. had conceived ; 0. hope. 
 
 Ad. S. Some, able WTiig, and the two co-ordinate clauses, connected by but, 
 
 Who thought offenses (B), Who could relaxation (C) ; Ad. O. 
 
 They might oppose (D). Con. that. 
 
 B. Complex adjective clause. 
 
 S. who ; P. thought ; O. It (to be) dangerous offenses (1). 
 
 1. Simple object clause, of the infinitive form. 
 
 S. It ; P. to be (understood) ; Att. dangerous. 
 Ad. S. to relax offenses (b). 
 
 b. Complex explanatory phrase. 
 
 Prin. part, to relax ; Ad. (primary), at that moment, (c) and laws ; (Second- 
 ary), the, and againtt political offenses (d). 
 
 c. Simple adverbial phrase. 
 
 d. Simple adjective phrase, modifying laws. 
 
 C. Complex adjective clause. 
 
 S. who ; P. could declare ; O. themselves (to be) adverse to relaxation (2). 
 Ad. P. not, without incurring the charge of inconsistency (e). 
 . Complex adverbial phrase. 
 
 Prin. part, incurring ; Ad. (primary), charge; (secondary), the, and of incon- 
 sistency. 
 
 2. Simple object clause, infinitive form, 
 
 S. themselves ; P. to be (und).; Att. adverse ; Ad. Att. to relaxation. 
 
 D. Complex adjective clause. 
 
 S. they ; P. might defer ; 0. passing. 
 
 Ad. P. by fomenting steward (t),for at least a year (g) ; 
 
 Ad. O. the, and of a bill which oppose (h). 
 
 f. Complex adverbial phrase. 
 
 Prin. part, fomenting ; Ad. (primary), dispute, (secondary), the, and about 
 
 steioard (\). 
 
 i. Complex adjective phrase. 
 
 Prin. part, court ; Ad. the, and of the lord high steward (k). 
 k. Simple adjective phrase. 
 
 g. Simple adverbial phrase. 
 
 Prin. part, year ; Ad. o. At least, independent phrase. 
 h. Complex adjective phrase. 
 
 Prin. part, bill; Ad. a, and which oppose (3). 
 
 8. Simple adjective clause, with a compound predicate. 
 
 S. they ; P. (compound), disliked, and could oppose ; Con. and ; O. which. 
 
 Ad. P. (second), not and decently. 
 
 3. What wonder, when 
 
 Millions of fierce encountering Angels fought 
 On either side, the least of whom could wield 
 These elements, and arm him with the force 
 Of all their regions ? How much more of pow'r 
 Army 'gainst army numberless, to raise 
 Dreadful combustion warring, and disturb, 
 Though not destroy, their happy native seat ; 
 Had not th' Eternal King omnipotent 
 From his strong hold of Heav'n high over-ruled 
 
ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 241 
 
 And limited their might ; though number'd such 
 As each divided legion might have seem'd 
 A num'rous lost, in strength each armed band 
 A legion, led in fight, yet leader seem'd 
 Each warrior single as in chief, expert 
 When to advance, or stand, or turn the sway 
 Of battle, open when, and when to close 
 The ridges of grim war. Paradise Lost, VI., 219. 
 
 ANALYSIS. The first period which terminates at regions, is a compound interrogative 
 sentence. 
 
 1. What wonder (should there be) ? A. When regions ; Con. when (used 
 
 as a conjunction). 
 1. Simple interrogative clause. 
 
 A. Compound declarative member. 
 
 2. When millions side ; 3. The least regions ; Con. whom. 
 
 The second period, comprising the remainder of the passage, is a compound exclama- 
 tory sentence. #' 
 
 1. How seat ; A. Had grim war ; Con. i<f (understood). 
 
 1. Simple exclamatory clause. 
 
 5. army ; P. would have wielded (understood) ; O. power. 
 
 Ad. S. numberless, and warring against (numberless) army ; Ad. 0. to raise 
 dreadful combustion, and disturb, though not destroy their happy native 
 seat. 
 JL. Compound member. 
 
 2. Had might ; B. Though war ; Con. though. 
 
 2. Simple clause, with a compound predicate. 
 
 B. Compound declarative member. 
 
 3. (They were) number'd such; 
 
 C. Each divided legion war ; Con. as (for that). 
 
 3. Simple declarative clause. 
 
 C. Compound declarative member. 
 
 4. Each divided legion host ; 
 
 6. In strength legion ; 
 
 D. Led in fight war. No connective. 
 
 4. 5. Simple declarative clauses. 
 
 D. Compound declarative member. 
 
 6. Each single warrior seemed as a leader in chief, expert war ; 
 
 7. (He was) led in fight. Connectives (corresponsive), though and yet. 
 6. Simple declarative member. 
 
 5. Warrior ; P. seemed ; Att leader (connected to the subject by as). 
 
 Ad. S. each, single ; Ad. Att. a, in chief, and expert ; Ad. of expert, When to 
 
 advance war (a) 
 
 a. Compound adverbial phrase. 
 
 b. When to advance ; c. when to stand ; d. when to turn the sway of battle ; 
 
 e. when to open and when to close the ridges of grim war. 
 
 Let the pupil be required to analyze and parse oraUy, according to the 
 
 Praxis, the sentences in the following paragraphs, or to prepare a 
 
 written analysis of each, according to the method, indicated in the 
 
 above examples. 
 
 1. Let the ambitious, whether soldiers, tribunes, or kings, reflect, 
 
 that, if there are mercenary soldiers to serve them, and flatterers to 
 
242 SYNTAX. 
 
 excuse them while they reign, there is the conscience of humanity 
 afterward to judge them, and pity to detest them. Lamartine. 
 
 2. Some, in their discourse, desire rather commendation of wit, in 
 being able to hold all arguments, than of judgment in discerning what 
 is true ; as if it were a praise to know what might be said, and not what 
 should be thought. Bacon. 
 
 3. If all the means of education which are scattered over the world, 
 and if all the philosophers and teachers of ancient and modern times, 
 were to be collected together, and made to bring their combined efforts 
 to bear upon an individual, all they could do would be to afford the 
 opportunity of improvement. Degerando. 
 
 4. Dreams are the bright creatures of poem and legend, who sport on 
 earth in the night-season, and melt away in the first beams of the sun, 
 which lights grim Care and stern Reality in their daily pilgrimage 
 through the world. Dickens. 
 
 5. Montaigne saith prettily, when he inquired the reason why the 
 word of the lie should be such a disgrace and such an odious charge. 
 Saith he, "If it be well weighed, to say that a man lieth, is as much 
 to say, as that he is brave toward God, and a coward toward men." 
 Bacon. 
 
 6. Dear sensibility ! source inexhausted of all that is precious in our 
 joys, or costly in our sorrows, thou chainest thy martyr down upon his 
 bed of straw, and 'tis thou who lift'st him up to heaven ! Eternal 
 fountain of our feeling ! 'tis here I trace thee, and this is thy ' ' divinity 
 which stirs within me ; " not that, in some sad and sickening moments, 
 <( my soul shrinks back upon herself, and startles at destruction ! " (mere 
 pomp of words !) but that I feel some generous cares beyond myself. All 
 comes from thee, great great Sensorium of the world ! which vibrates, 
 if a hair of our heads but falls to the ground, in the remotest desert of 
 thy creation. Sterne. 
 
 7. On the fourth day of creation, when the sun, after a glorious bnt 
 solitary course, went down in the evening, and darkness began to gather 
 over the face of the uninhabited globe, already arrayed in the exuber- 
 ance of vegetation, and prepared by the diversity of land and water, for 
 the abode of uncreated animals and man, a star, single and beautiful, 
 stepped forth into the firmament. Trembling with wonder and delight 
 in new-found existence, she looked abroad, and beheld nothing, in 
 heaven or on earth, resembling herself. But she was not long alone ; 
 now one, then another, here a third, there a fourth resplendent com- 
 panion had joined her, till, light after light stealing though the gloom, 
 in the lapse of an hour, the whole hemisphere WHS brilliantly bespangled 
 
ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 243 
 
 8. To learn A, B, C, is felt to be extremely irksome by the infant, 
 who cannot comprehend what it is for. The boy, forced to school, cons 
 over his dull lesson because he must, but feels no amusement or satis- 
 faction in it. The labor he is obliged to undergo is not small ; the pri- 
 vations of pleasure and activity, he regrets still more ; and all for what ? 
 To learn what he does not like ; to force into his mind words to which 
 he attaches no ideas, or ideas which appear to him to be of no value ; 
 [because] he cannot put them to any proper use. Youth is not aware, 
 that not for present use is all this designed. The dull, laborious, but 
 necessary routine, like plowing and sowing the land, is in hopes of reap- 
 ing abundance, at some not very distant season. Education is not the 
 end, but only the means. Taylor. 
 
 9. The voice of the world had whispered to Columbus that the world 
 is one ; and as he went forth toward the west, ploughing a wave which 
 no European keej. had entered, it was his high purpose not merely to 
 open new paths to islands or to continents, but to bring together the 
 ends of the earth, and join all nations in commerce and spiritual life. 
 Bancroft. 
 
 10. To a limited apprehension, it would seem as if the greater part of 
 the existence here allotted us, were little more than an apprenticeship 
 to the business of living ; and that, if ever we come to understand our 
 authentic position and relations in the world, and how our time and 
 talents might have been wisely and most effectually employed, it is at a 
 stage of life, when the journey is drawing to a close, and hardly an op- 
 portunity is left us to turn what we have been learning to account. 
 R. Chambers. 
 
 11. We never, in a moral way, applaud or blame either ourselves or 
 others for what we enjoy or what we suffer ; or for having impressions 
 made upon us which we consider as being altogether out of our power : 
 but only for what we do, or would have done had it been in our power ; 
 or for what we leave undone which we might have done, or would have 
 left undone though we could have done it. Bp. Butler. 
 
 12. Resisting or not, however, we are doomed to suffer a bitter pang 
 as often as the irrecoverable flight of our time is brought home with 
 keenness to our hearts. The spectacle of a lady floating over the sea in 
 a boat, and waking suddenly from sleep to find her magnificent ropes of 
 pearl necklace, by some accident detached at one end from its fasten- 
 ings, the loose string hanging down into the water, and pearl after pearl 
 slipping off forever into the abyss, brings before us the sadness of the 
 case. De Quincey. 
 
 13. Glowing with a vivid conception of these truths, so wonderful and 
 so indisputable, let me ask, whether, among all the spectacles which 
 earth presents, and which angels might look down, upon with an ecstasy 
 
244 SYNTAX. 
 
 too deep for utterance, is there one fairer and more enrapturing to the 
 sight than that of a young man, just fresh from the Creator's hands, and 
 with the unspent energies of the coming eternity wrapped up in his 
 oosom, surveying and recounting, in the solitude of his closet, or in the 
 darkness of midnight, the mighty gifts with which he has been endowed, 
 and the magnificent career of usefulness and of blessedness, which has 
 been opened before him ; and resolving, with one all-concentrating and 
 all-hallowing vow, that he will live, true to the noblest capacities of his 
 being, and in obedience to the highest law of his nature ! Horace Mann. 
 
 14. Could every man apply himself to [the] employments which are 
 most suited to his capabilities, and, in his appointed calling, work only 
 with a view to serviceable, sincere, and ennobling results, the measure 
 of his achievements might still, perchance, fall short of his original 
 aspirations ; but, being commensurate with his powers, and conformable 
 to the eternal laws, it could not fail to yield him that assurance of 
 security and contentment which, by necessity, proceeds from all faith- 
 fulness of action. Chambers. 
 
 15. Where American liberty raised its first voice, and where its youth 
 was nurtured and sustained, there it still lives, in the strength of its 
 manhood, and full of its original spirit. If discord and disunion shall 
 wound it ; if party strife and blind ambition shall hawk at and tear it ; 
 if folly and madness, if uneasiness under salutary restraint, shall suc- 
 ceed to separate it from that Union, by which alone its existence is made 
 sure, it will stand, in the end, by the side of that cradle in which its 
 infancy was rocked ; it will stretch forth its arm with whatever of 
 vigor it may still retain, over the friends who gathered around it ; and 
 it will fall at last, if fall it must, amid the proudest monuments of its 
 glory, and on the very spot of its origin. Webster. 
 
 16. So live, that when thy summons comes to join 
 The innumerable caravan, that moves 
 
 To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take 
 
 His chamber in the silent halls of death, 
 
 Thou go not like the quarry-slave at night, 
 
 Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed 
 
 By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave, 
 
 Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 
 
 About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. Bryant. 
 
 17. Of chance or change, O let not man complain, 
 Else shall he never, never cease to wail ; 
 
 For, from the imperial dome, to where the swain 
 Rears the lone cottage in the silent dale, 
 All ieel th' assaults of Fortune's fickle gale i 
 
I 
 
 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 245 
 
 Art, empire, Earth itself, to change are doom'd ; 
 Earthquakes have raised to heaven the humble vale. 
 And gulfs the mountain's mighty mass entomb'd ; 
 And where th' Atlantic rolls, wide continents have bloom'd. 
 
 Beattie. 
 
 18. The One remains, the many change and pass ; 
 Heaven's light forever shines, Earth's shadows fly ; 
 Life, like a dome of many-colored glass, 
 
 Stains the white radiance of eternity, 
 
 Until Death tramples it to fragments. Die, 
 
 If thou wouldst be with that which thou dost seek ! 
 
 Follow where all is fled ! Rome's azure sky, 
 
 Flowers, ruins, statues, music, words are weak 
 
 The glory they transfuse, with fitting truth to speak. Shdky. 
 
 19. The honey-be, that wanders all day long 
 
 The field, the woodland, and the garden o'er, 
 
 To gather in his fragrant winter store, 
 Humming in calm content his quiet song, 
 Seeks not alone the rose's glowing breast, 
 
 The lily's dainty cup, the violet's lips ; 
 
 But from all rank and noisome weeds he sips 
 The single drop of sweetness ever pressed 
 Within the poisoned chalice. Thus, if we 
 
 Seek only to draw forth the hidden sweet 
 
 In all the varied human flowers we meet 
 In the wide garden of humanity, 
 And, like the bee, if home the spoil we bear, 
 Hived in our hearts, it turns to nectar there. A. G. Isynch. 
 
 20. And Ardennes waves above them her green leaves, 
 Dewy with Nature's tear-drops, as they pass, 
 Grieving, if aught inanimate ere grieves, 
 
 Over the unreturning brave, alas ! 
 
 Ere evening to be trodden like the grass, 
 
 Which now beneath them, but above shall grow 
 
 In its next verdure, when the fiery mass 
 
 Of living valor, rolling on the foe, 
 
 And burning with high hope, shall molder cold and low. Byron, 
 
 21. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate, 
 All but the page prescribed, their present state ; 
 From brutes what men, from men what spirits know ; 
 6r who could suffer being here below ? 
 
 The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 
 
246 SYNTAX. 
 
 Had he thy reason, would he skip and play ? 
 Pleas'd to the last, he crops the flowery food, 
 And licks the hand just rais'd to shed his blood. 
 Oh blindness to the future ! kindly given 
 That each may fill the circle mark'd by Heaven, 
 Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, 
 A hero perish, or a sparrow fall, 
 Atoms or systems into ruin hurled, 
 And now a bubble burst, and now a world. Pope. 
 
 22. As thus the snows arise ; and, foul and fierce, 
 All Winter drives along the darkened air ; 
 
 In his own loose-revolving fields, the swain 
 
 Disaster'd stands ; sees other hills ascend, 
 
 Of unknown joyless brow ; and other scenes, 
 
 Of horrid prospect, shag the trackless plain ; 
 
 Nor finds the river, nor the forest, hid 
 
 Beneath the formless wild ; but wanders on 
 
 From hill to dale, still more and more astray ; 
 
 Impatient flouncing through the drifted heaps, 
 
 Stung with the thoughts of home ; the thoughts of home 
 
 Rush on his nerves, and call their vigor forth 
 
 In many a vain attempt. Thomson. 
 
 23. O treacherous conscience ! while she seems to sleep 
 On rose and myrtle, lull'd with syren song ; 
 While she seems, nodding o'er her charge, to drop 
 On headlong appetite the slacken'd rein, 
 
 And give us up to license, unrecall'd, 
 Unmark'd ; see, from behind her secret stand, 
 The sly informer minutes every fault, 
 And her dread diary with horror fills. 
 Not the gross act alone employs her pen : 
 She reconnoiters fancy's airy band, 
 A watchful foe ! the formidable spy, 
 Listening, o'erhears the whispers of our camp ; 
 Our dawning purposes of heart explores, 
 And steals our embryos of iniquity. Young. 
 
 24. Look, as I blow this feather from my face, 
 And as the air blows it to me again, 
 Obeying with my wind when I do blow, 
 And yielding to another when it blows, 
 Commanded always by the greater gust ; 
 Such is the lightness of you common men, 
 
ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 247 
 
 25. Nature never did betray 
 
 The heart that loved her ; 'tis her privilege 
 Through all the years of this our life, to lead. 
 From joy to joy ; for she can so inform 
 The mind that is within us, so impress 
 With quietness and beauty, and so feed 
 With lofty thoughts, that neither evil tongues, 
 Rash judgments, nor the sneers of selfish men 
 Shall e'er prevail against us, or distrust 
 Our cheerful faith that all which we behold 
 Is full of blessings. Wordsworth. 
 
 26. O, Adam, one Almighty is, from whom 
 All things proceed, and up to him return, 
 If not depraved from good, created all 
 Such to perfection, one first matter all, 
 Endued with various forms, various degrees 
 Of substance, and in things that live, of life ; 
 But more refined, more spirituous, and pure, 
 As nearer to him placed, or nearer tending, 
 Each in their sev'ral active spheres assign'd, 
 Till body up to spirit work, in bounds 
 Proportioned to each kind. Milton. 
 
 Exercise XVIII. 
 
 SENTENCES OP PECULIAR OK IRREGULAR CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 The examples here given, with the subjoined references and annotations, 
 are designed to illustrate, and exercise the pupil in, the various 
 Observations, Exceptions, and Notes under the Sections upon Analy- 
 sis, and the Rules of Syntax. The Praxis is the same as in the 
 preceding Syntactical Exercises. 
 
 I. PROSE. 
 
 The philosopher, the saint, or the hero the wise, the good, or the 
 great man very often lies hid and concealed in a plebeian, which a a 
 proper education might have disinterred and brought to light. Addison. 
 
 Knowest thou not this of old, since man was placed upon the earth, 
 that the triumphing of the wicked is short, and the joy of the hypocrite 
 but* for a moment. Job xx., 4, 5. 
 
 Note V., Rule XIV. 
 *0bs. 4, Rule III. 
 
248 SYNTAX. 
 
 Wherefore ye needs c must be subject, not only for wrath, but also for 
 conscience* d sake. Roin. xiii., 5. 
 
 For now I see through a glass darkly ; but then, face to face* : now 
 I know in part; but then shall I know even as also I am known. 1 
 Cor. xiii., 12. 
 
 Ye have heard that it hath been said, " An eye for an eye, and a tooth 
 for a tooth."* Matt, v., 37. 
 
 Every man should let his man-servant, and every man his maid- 
 servant, being a Hebrew or an Hebrewess, go free ; that none should 
 serve himself of them, to wit, % of a Jew his brother. Jer. xxxiv. , 9. 
 
 The beautiful forest in which we were encamped, abounded in bee- 
 trees; that is to say^ 1 trees in the decayed trunks of which, wild bees 
 had established their hives. Irving. 
 
 And this is the record of John, when the Jews sent priests and Levitea 
 from Jerusalem to ask him, 1 " Who art thou ? " And he confessed, and 
 denied not, but confessed, "I am not the Christ." And they asked 
 him, "What then? Art thou Elias?" and he saith, "I am not.'* 
 " Art thou that prophet ? " and he answered, " No."* John i., 19. 
 
 The rudiments of every language, therefore, must be given as 1 a 
 task, not as an amusement. Goldsmith. 
 
 Time we ought to consider as l a sacred trust committed to us by God, 
 of which we are now the depositories, and [of which] we are to render 
 an account at the last. Blair. 
 
 True generosity is a duty as indispensably necessary as those n imposed 
 upon us by law. Goldsmith. 
 
 To teach men to be orators, is little less than to teach them to be 
 poets." Id. 
 
 Lysippus is told that his banker asks a debt of forty pounds , and that 
 a distressed acquaintance petitions for the same sum. He gives it, 
 without hesitating, to the latter ; for he demands as a favor what the 
 former requires as a debt. Id. 
 
 The laws of Eastern hospitality allowed them to enter, and the master 
 
 Impersonal verb, used here as an adverb, equivalent to necessarily. 
 
 a Obs. 5, Rule XVIII. 
 
 Adverbial phrase, idiomatic ; or independent phrase, absolute. See page 117. 
 
 f Explanatory clause, predicate being understood. Obs. 4, Rule XXTV*. 
 
 I An infinitive, equivalent to namely. Obs. 3, Defective Verbs, page 104. 
 
 *A clause used as a conjunction, connecting appoeitioflal terms. 
 
 Obe. 3, Rule XIX. 
 
 Exception 1, Rule III. 
 I Obe. 3, Rule XXV. 
 
 Infinitive phrase, used as an adjective attribute. 
 Subject of are understood. Ob3. 4, Rule XXV. 
 
 Clause adjunct of the predicate verb is told. Obs. 8, Rule XIX, 
 
ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 249 
 
 welcomed them, like? a man liberal and wealthy. He was skillful 
 enough in appearances soon to discern^ that they were no common 
 guests, and spread his table with magnificence. Dr. Johnson. 
 
 The year before, he had so used the matter, that, what* by iorce, 
 what by policy, he had taken from the Christians above thirty small 
 castles. KnoUes. 
 
 We exhorted them to trust in God,* and to love one an other. 1 
 J. Campbell. 
 
 With all due respect for the calculations of men of science, / cannot 
 but remember u that when most confident, they have sometimes erred. 
 
 I could not do a better thing than to commend v this habit to my 
 brethren as one closely connected with their own personal piety, and 
 their usefulness in the world. A. Barnes. 
 
 It is a good practical rule to keep one's reading well proportioned" 7 in 
 the two great divisions, prose and poetry. H. Reid. 
 
 For a prince to be reduced by villainy to my distressful circumstances^ 
 is calamity enough. Sallust. 
 
 Who knows but y that God, who made the world, may cause that giant 
 Despair may die ? Bunyan. 
 
 What can be more strange than, that an ounce weight should balance 
 hundreds of pounds, by the intervention of a few bars of thin iron ? z 
 
 Thid lovely land, this glorious liberty, these benign institutions, the 
 dear purchase of our fathers, are ours ; ours to enjoy, ours to preserve, 
 ours to transmit. a Webster. 
 
 The knowledge of why they so exist ^ must be the last act of favor 
 which time and toil will bestow. Rush. 
 
 To do what is right, with unperverted faculties, is ten times c easier 
 than to undo what is wrong. Porter. 
 
 P An adjective followed by to understood. Obs. 4, Rule XX. 
 
 <iThe infinitive with its object clause modifies enough. Obs. 2, Rule XXI. Subdivi- 
 sion, 4. 
 
 * Obs. 13, Rule XIV. 
 
 * Obs. 2, Rule XIX. 
 
 * Obs. 9, Rule VII. 
 
 Remember, an infinitive used as the object of the preposition but. Obs. 3, Rule XXI. 
 Can is auxiliary to do, understood. 
 
 * To commend, with its adjuncts is subject to a verb understood. Obs. 4, Rule XXV. 
 Indirect attribute. Obs. 6, Rule XIII. 
 
 'Subject phrase, containing an infinitive object clause, used as the object of for 
 (Exc. 2, Rule V.). The structure is anomalous, equivalent to, That a prince should be 
 reduced, etc. 
 
 r But is here a preposition, governing the following substantive clause. 
 
 * The clause introduced by that is the subject of is, understood. Obs. 4, Rule "ETTT, 
 Obs. 2, Rule XXI. 
 
 * Clause used as the object of the preposition of. 
 A prepositional phrase, by being understood. 
 
250 SYNTAX. 
 
 And he charged them that they should teU no man ; A but the * more he> 
 charged them, so much the e more a great deal f they published it. 
 Mark vii., 36. 
 
 For in that he himself hath stiff ered being tempted^ he is able to suc- 
 cor them that are tempted. Hebrews xi., 18. 
 
 It is not to inflate national vanity, nor to swell a light and empty 
 feeling of self-importance ; but it is, that we may judge justly of our 
 situation and of our duties^ that I earnestly urge this consideration of 
 our position and our character among the nations of the earth. 1 Webster. 
 
 I had rather believe all the fables in the Legend, and the Talmud, 
 and the Alcoran, than that this universal frame is without a mind.* 
 Bacon. 
 
 II. POETRY. 
 
 See the sole bliss Heaven could on all bestow, 
 
 Which who but feels,* can taste, but thinks, can know; 
 
 Yet, poor with fortune, and with learning blind, 
 
 The bad must miss, the good, untaught will find. Pops. 
 
 Shame to mankind ! Philander had his foes ; 
 
 He felt the truths I sing, and I, in him ; 
 
 But he, nor Ifeei b more. Young. 
 
 So reads he nature, whom the lamp of truth 
 
 Illuminates : thy lamp, mysterious Word I 
 
 Which whoso sees, no longer wanders lost, 
 
 With intellect bemaz'd in endless doubt, 
 
 But runs the road c of wisdom. Cowper. 
 
 Yet O the thought, that thou art safe,* and he ! 
 
 That thought is joy, arrive what may to me. Id. 
 
 The blessed to-day e is as completely so, 
 
 As who began a f thousand years ago. % Pope. 
 
 d Double object, man and the following clause. Obs. 2, Rule XIX. 
 ' Exc. 1, Rule I. 
 
 Deal governed by by, understood. 
 
 Being tempted may relate to he or be governed by in, understood, 
 
 i> Attribute clause, commencing with that. 
 
 1 Explanatory clause, adjunct of it. 
 
 k Object clause, believe being understood. 
 
 Equivalent to he who only feels. 
 
 k Obs. 2, Rule XVIL 
 
 Obs. 5, Rule XIX. 
 
 a Clause used as an adjunct of thought. 
 
 Blessed to-day is used as a noun, equivalent to The man who is blessed to-day. 
 t Obs. 8, Rule I. 
 
 e Independent phrase, ago being used for agone, gone, or pawed. 
 
ANALYSIS, PARSING , AND CONSTRUCTION. 251 
 
 Full many a gem h of purest ray serene 
 
 The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear ; 
 Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
 
 And waste its sweetness on the desert air. Gray. 
 Then kneeling down to heaven's eternal King, 
 
 The saint, the father, and the husband prays ; ! 
 Hope " springs exulting on triumphant wing," 
 
 That thus they all shall meet in future days. Burns. 
 
 He can't flatter, he ! 
 
 An honest mind and plain ; he must speak truth ; 
 An k they will hear it, so ; if not, he's plain. Shakspeare. 
 What ! } canst thou not forbear me half an hour? m 
 Then get thee gone," and dig my grave thyself. Id. 
 If still she loves thee, hoard that gem ; 
 Tis worth thy vanish'd diadem. Byron. 
 He calls for Famine, and the meager fiend 
 Blows mildew from between his shrivel' d lips,? 
 And taints the golden ear. Cowper. 
 
 Here he had need 
 
 All circumspection ; and we now, no less, 
 Choice in our suffrage ; for on whom ^ we send, 
 The weight of all, and our last hope relies. Milton. 
 Who wickedly is wise, or madly brave, 
 Is but the r more a fool, the more a knave. Pope. 
 O God ! methinks s it were a happy life 
 To be no better than a homely swain I 
 To sit upon a hill, as I do now, 
 To carve out dials quaintly, point by point, 
 Thereby to see the minutes how they run. Shakspeare. 
 Poor guiltless I ! and can I choose but smile,* 
 When every coxcomb knows me by my style. Pope. 
 
 * Obs. 3, Note II., Rule II. 
 i Exc. 1, Rule X. 
 
 kObs. 9, Rule I. 
 
 1 Obs. 14, Rule XIV. 
 
 a Obs. 3, Rule XX. 
 
 Indirect attribute. Obs. 6, Rule XIII. 
 
 Obs. 5, Rule XX. 
 
 P Obs. 6, Rule V. 
 
 9 Whom equivalent to him whom. 
 
 * Exc. 1, Rule I. 
 
 * Defective Verbs, Obs. 1, page 103. 
 
 t Infinitive, object to preposition but. Obs. S, Rule XXL 
 
252 SYNTAX. 
 
 Me n miserable ! which way shall I fly 
 
 Infinite wrath, and infinite despair ? Milton. 
 
 Ay, but to die, v and go we know not where ; 
 
 To lie in cold obstruction and to rot ; 
 
 This sensible warm motion to become 
 
 A kneaded clod ; 'tis too horrible. Shakspeare. 
 
 My soul, turn from them turn we w to survey 
 
 Where roughest climes a nobler race display. Goldsmith. 
 
 Cursed be I w that did so ! All the charms 
 
 Of Sycorax, toads, beetles, bats, tight* on you ! Shakspeare. 
 
 Then thus my guide, in accent higher raised 
 
 Than I before had heard him : " Capaneus ! 
 
 Thou art more punish'd, in that this thy pride 
 
 Lives yet unquencJi'd y / no torment, save thy rage, 
 
 Were * to thy fury pain proportion'd full." Gary's Dante. 
 
 Yet a few days,* and thee, 
 The all-beholding sun shall see no more 
 In all his course ; nor yet, in the cold grourfd, 
 Where thy pale form was laid with many tears, 
 Nor in the embrace of ocean, shall exist 
 Thy image. Bryant. 
 
 Questions for Review. 
 
 I. DEFINITIONS. 
 
 Of what does Syntax treat ? derivation of the word ? 
 
 What is the relation of words ? -the agreement of words ? the government 
 of words ? the arrangement of words ? 
 
 EC. RULES. 
 
 What is the design of the rules of syntax ? 
 How are they classified ? 
 
 What are the rules of Relation ? of Agreement ? of Government ? 
 What rule relates to the form of the Infinitive Mood ? to the use of the Sub- 
 junctive Mood ? the Independent Case ? Conjunctions ? Interjections ? 
 What is the object of Analysis and Synthesis ? 
 
 Exc., Bule XXIV., and Obs. 2, Rule XXVI. 
 Infinitive independent. Obs. 3, Rule XXI. 
 
 * Imperative mood used in the first person. Obs., page 85. 
 
 * Imperative, third person, plural. 
 
 7 Clause used as the object of a preposition. Obs., page 118. 
 
 * Subjunctive mood used for the potential. 
 
 Independent phrase, days being absolute with being or pausing. 
 
QUESTIONS FOR KEVIEW. 253 
 
 HI. RELATION. 
 
 What is the rule in regard to the relation of Articles ? 
 
 What are the exceptions ? the observations ? the subordinate rules ? 
 
 What is the rule in regard to the relation of Adjectives ? 
 
 What are the exceptions ? the observations ? the subordinate rules ? 
 
 What is the rule in regard to the relation of Adverbs ? 
 
 What are the exceptions ? the observations ? the subordinate rules ? 
 
 What is the rule in regard to the relation of Participles ? 
 
 What are the exceptions ? the observations ? the subordinate rules ? 
 
 What is the rule in regard to the relation of Prepositions ? 
 
 What are the exceptions ? the observations ? the subordinate rules ? 
 
 IV. AGREEMENT. 
 
 What is the rule for the Nominative Case ? 
 
 What are the observations ? the subordinate rules ? 
 
 What is the rul"for Apposition ? 
 
 What are the observations ? 
 
 What is the rule in regard to the agreement of a verb and subject ? 
 
 What are the observations ? subordinate rules ? 
 
 What is the rule for the verb, when the nominative is a collective noun ? 
 
 What is the observation on this rule ? 
 
 What is the rule for the verb when it has two or more nominatives connected 
 
 by and ? 
 
 What are the exceptions ? the observations ? the subordinate rules ? 
 What is the rule for the verb, when it has two or more singular nominatives 
 
 connected by or or nor ? 
 
 What are the observations ? the subordinate rules ? 
 What is the rule for the agreement of verbs, when they are connected by a 
 
 conjunction ? 
 
 What exception is there ? observation ? what are the subordinate rules ? 
 What is the rule for the agreement of subject and attribute ? 
 What are the observations ? the subordinate rules ? 
 
 What is the rule in regard to the agreement of a pronoun and its antecedent ? 
 What are the exceptions ? the observations ? the subordinate rules ? 
 What is the rule for the collective antecedent ? 
 What is the rule for antecedents connected by and ? 
 What are the observations ? 
 
 V. GOVERNMENT. 
 To what has Government respect ? 
 
 What parts of speech may be governing words ? 
 
 What is the rule for the government of the possessive case ? 
 
 What are the observations ? the subordinate rules ? 
 
 What is the rule for the object of a verb ? 
 
 What are the observations ? the subordinate rules ? 
 
 What is the rule for the object of a preposition ? 
 
 What are the observations ? 
 
254 SYNTAX. 
 
 What is the rale for the government of the infinitive ? 
 What are the observations ? 
 
 VL MISCELLANEOUS RULES. 
 
 What K the rule for the omission of to before the infinitive ? 
 What are the observations? 
 
 What is the rule for the use of the Subjunctive Mood ? 
 What three points are involved in this rule ? 
 When only is the subjunctive mood required ? 
 How is this illustrated ? 
 What is the rule for the Independent Case ? 
 
 Under what four circumstances is a noun or a pronoun independent ? Illus- 
 trate each. 
 
 What other observations on this rule ? 
 What is the rule for Conjunctions ? 
 
 What exceptions are there ? what observations ? subordinate rules ? 
 What is the rule for Interjections ? what observations ? 
 
 VLL ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 Why is Arrangement particularly important in English ? 
 
 What is the place of the subject noun or pronoun V the object or attribute ? 
 
 What principle or law controls the inversion of this order ? 
 
 What illustrations are given ? 
 
 What are the applications of this law to the adjective ? 
 
 What rule is given in regard to the relative ? 
 
 What is the rule for adverbs and adverbial expressions ? 
 
 How does it apply to other adjuncts V 
 
 What General Rule is given for construction ? 
 
PART IV. 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and 
 versification. 
 
 I. PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Punctuation is the art of dividing composition, by 
 points, or stops, for the purpose of showing more clearly 
 the sense and relation of the words, and of noting the 
 different pauses and inflections required in reading. 
 
 The following are the principal points, or marks : the 
 Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], the 
 Period [.], the Dash [ ], the Eroteme, or Note of In- 
 terrogation [?], the Ecphoneme, or Note of Exclama- 
 tion [!]. the Brackets [ ], and Curves, or Marks of Par- 
 enthesis ( ). 
 
 OBS. The pauses that are made in the natural flow of speech, have, 
 in reality, no definite and invariable proportions. Children are often 
 told to pause at a comma while they might count one ; at a semicolon, 
 one, two ; at a colon, one, two, three ; at a period, one, two, three, four. 
 This may be of some use, as teaching them to observe their stops that 
 they may catch the sense ; but the standard itself is variable, and so are 
 the times which good sense gives to the points. As a final stop, the 
 period is immeasurable. The following general direction is as good as 
 any that can be given : 
 
 The comma denotes the shortest pause; the semi- 
 colon, a pause double that of the comma ; the colon, 
 a pause double that of the semicolon ; and the period 9 
 
256 PROSODY. 
 
 or full stop, a pause double that of the colon. The 
 pauses required by the other marks vary according to the 
 structure of the sentence, and their place in it. They may 
 be equal to any of the foregoing. 
 
 The Comma. 
 
 The comma is used to separate those parts of a sen- 
 tence, which are so nearly connected in sense, as to be 
 only one degree removed from that close connection which 
 admits no point. 
 
 RULE L SIMPLE SENTENCES. 
 
 A simple sentence does not, in general, admit the comma ; 
 as, "The weakest reasoners are the most positive." 
 
 Exception. When the nominative in a long simple sentence is ac- 
 companied by inseparable adjuncts, a comma should be placed before 
 the verb ; as, " The assemblage of these vast bodies, is divided into 
 different systems." 
 
 RULE IL SIMPLE MEMBERS. 
 
 The simple members of a compound sentence, whether suc- 
 cessive or involved, elliptical or complete, are generally 
 divided by the comma ; as, 
 
 1. "He speaks eloquently, and he acts wisely." 
 
 2. " The man, when he saw this, departed." 
 
 3. "It may, and it often does happen." 
 
 4 "That life is long, which answers life's great end." 
 5. " As thy days, so shall thy strength be. " 
 
 Exception 1. When a relative immediately follows its antecedent, 
 and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be introduced 
 before it ; as, " The things which are seen, are temporal ; but the things 
 which are not seen, are eternal." 2 Cor. iv., 18. 
 
 Exception 2. When the simple members are short, and closely con- 
 nected by a conjunction or a conjunctive adverb, the comma is 
 generally omitted; as, " Infamy is worse tftan death." "Let him tell 
 me totetter the number <?f the stars be even or odd." 
 
PUNCTUATION. 257 
 
 RULE TTT. MORE THAN Two WORDS. 
 
 When more than two words or terms are connected in the 
 same construction, by conjunctions expressed or understood, 
 the comma should be inserted after every one of them but 
 the last ; and if they are nominatives before a verb, the 
 comma should follow the last also ; as, 
 
 1. " Who, to the enraptur'd heart, and ear, and eye, 
 
 Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody." 
 
 2. " Ah I what avails ****** 
 
 All that art, fortune, enterprise, can bring, 
 
 If envy, scorn, remorse, or pride, the bosom wring?" 
 
 3. " Womeif are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible ; 
 
 Thou, stern, obdurate, flinty, rough, remorseless." 
 
 4. " She plans, provides, expatiates, triumphs there." 
 
 OBS. Two or more words are in the same construction, when they 
 have a common dependence on some other term. 
 
 RULE IV. ONLY Two WORDS. 
 
 When only two words or terms are connected by a conjunc- 
 tion, they should not be separated by the comma ; as, "De- 
 spair and anguish fled the struggling soul." Goldsmith. 
 
 Exception 1. When the two words connected have several adjuncts, or 
 when one of them has an adjunct that relates not to both, the comma is 
 inserted ; as, " Honesty in his dealings, and attention to his business, 
 procured him both esteem and wealth." " Who is applied to persons, 
 or things personified." 
 
 Exception 2. When the two words connected are emphatically dis- 
 tinguished, the comma is inserted ; as, 
 
 " Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand." Seattle. 
 u 'Tis certain he could write, and cipher too." Goldsmith. 
 Exception 3. When there is merely an alternative of words, the 
 comma is inserted ; as, ** We saw a large opening, or inlet." 
 
 Exception 4. When the conjunction is understood, the comma is in- 
 serted ; as, 
 
 " She thought the isle that gave her birth, 
 
 The sweetest, wildest laud on earth.." Hogg. 
 17 
 
258 PROSODY. 
 
 RULE V. WORDS IN PAIRS. 
 
 When successive words are joined in pairs by conjunctions, 
 they should be separated in pairs by the comma ; as, " Interest 
 and ambition, honor and shame, friendship and enmity, 
 gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers in public trans- 
 actions." 
 
 RULE VI. WORDS PUT ABSOLUTE. 
 
 Nouns or pronouns put absolute, should, with their ad- 
 juncts, be set off by the comma ; as, "The prince, his father 
 being dead, succeeded. " " This done, we parted." " Zaccheus, 
 make haste and come down." (( His praetor ship in Sicily, what 
 did it produce ? " Cicero. 
 
 RULE VH. WORDS IN APPOSITION. 
 
 Words put in apposition (especially if they have adjuncts), 
 are generally set off by the comma ; as, " He that now calls 
 upon thee, is Theodore, the hermit of Teneriffe"- t -Johnson. 
 
 Exception 1. When several words, in their common order, are used 
 as one compound name, the comma is not inserted ; as, " Samuel John- 
 son." " Publius Gavius Cosanus." 
 
 Exception 2. When a common and a proper name are closely united, 
 the comma is not inserted; as, "The brook Kidron." "The river 
 Bon." "The empress Catharine."--" Paul the apostle." 
 
 Exception 3. When a pronoun is added to another word merely for 
 emphasis and distinction, the comma is not inserted ; as, " Ye men of 
 Athens." "I myself." " Thou flaming minister."" You princes." 
 Exception 4. When a name acquired by some action or relation, is 
 put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun, the comma is not 
 inserted ; as, "I made the ground my bed." "To make him king." 
 " Whom they revered as God." 11 With modesty thy guide." Pope. 
 
 RULE Vm. ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when 
 they have the import of a dependent clause, should, with 
 their adjuncts, be set off by the comma ; as, 
 1. -- _ Among the roots 
 Of hazel, pendent o'er tfie plaintive stream, 
 They frame the first foundation of their domes." Thorn. 
 
PUNCTUATION. 259 
 
 2. " Up springs the lark, 
 
 Shrill-voic'd and loud, the messenger of morn." Id. 
 
 Exception. When an adjective immediately follows its noun, and 
 is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before 
 it; as, 
 
 " On the coast averse from entrance." Milton. 
 
 RULE IX. FINITE VERBS. 
 
 Where a finite verb is understood, a comma is generally 
 required ; as, " From law arises security ; from security, 
 curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge." Murray. 
 
 < RULE X. INFINITIVES. 
 
 The infinitive mood, when it follows a verb from which it 
 must be separated, or when it depends on something remote 
 or understood, is generally, with its adjuncts, set off by the 
 comma ; as, "His delight was, to assist the distressed." " To 
 conclude, I was reduced to beggary." 
 
 " The Governor of all has interposed, 
 Not seldom, his avenging arm, to smite 
 The injurious trampler upon nature's law." Cowper. 
 
 RULE XI. PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Participles, when something depends on them, when they 
 have the import of a dependent clause, or when they relate 
 to something understood, should, with their adjuncts, be set 
 off by the comma ; as, 
 
 1. " Young Edwin, lighted by the evening star. 
 
 Lingering and listening, wander'd down the vale." Beattie. 
 
 2. " United, we stand ; divided, we fall." 
 
 3. " Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance." 
 
 Exception. When a participle immediately follows its noun, and is 
 taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before it : 
 as, 
 
 "A man renown'd for repartee 
 Will seldom scruple to make free 
 With friendship's finest feeling. " Gowper. 
 
260 PROSODT. 
 
 RULE XII. ADVERBS. 
 
 Adverbs, when they break the connection of a simple sen- 
 tence, or when they have not a close dependence on some 
 particular word in the context, should be set off by the 
 comma ; as, " We must not, however, confound this gentleness 
 with the artificial courtesy of the world." "Besides, the mind 
 must be employed." "Most unquestionably, no fraud was 
 equal to all this." Lyttelton. 
 
 RULE Xm. CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Conjunctions, when they are separated from the principal 
 clause that depends on them, or when they introduce an 
 example, are generally set off by the comma ; as, " But, by a 
 timely call upon Religion, the force of Habit was eluded." 
 Johnson. 
 
 RULE XTV. PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Prepositions and their objects, when they break the con- 
 nection of a simple sentence, or when they do not closely fol- 
 low the words on which they depend, are generally set off by 
 the comma; as, "Fashion is, for the most part, nothing but 
 the ostentation of riches." " By reading, we add the expe- 
 rience of others to our own." 
 
 RULE XV. INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 Interjections are sometimes set off by the comma ; as, 
 " For, to, I will call all the families of the kingdoms of the 
 north." Jeremiah i., 15. 
 
 . RULE XVI. WORDS REPEATED. 
 
 A word emphatically repeated, is generally set off by the 
 comma ; as, " Happy, happy, happy pair ! " Dryden. " Ah ! 
 no, no, no." Id. 
 
 RULE XVQ. DEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. 
 
 A quotation or observation, when it is introduced by a 
 verb (as, say, reply, and the like), is generally separated 
 
PUNCTUATION. 261 
 
 from the rest of the sentence by the comma ; as, " 'The book 
 of nature/ said he, 'is open before thee.'" "I say unto all, 
 Watch." 
 
 The Semicolon. 
 
 The semicolon is used to separate those parts of a 
 compound sentence, which are neither so closely connected 
 as those which are distinguished by the comma, nor so 
 little dependent as those which require the colon. 
 
 RULE I. COMPOUND MEMBEBS. 
 
 When several compound members, some or all of which 
 require the comma, are constructed into a period, they are 
 generally separated by the semicolon : as, " In the regions in- 
 habited by angelic natures, unmingled felicity forever blooms ; 
 joy flows there with a perpetual and abundant stream, nor 
 needs any mound to check its course." Carter. 
 
 RULE n. SIMPLE MEMBEBS. 
 
 When several simple members, each of which is complete 
 in sense, are constructed into a period ; if they require a pause 
 greater than that of the comma, they are usually separated by 
 the semicolon : as, " Straws swim upon the surface ; but 
 pearls he at the bottom." Murray. 
 
 " A longer care man's helpless kind demands ; 
 That longer care contracts more lasting bands." Pope. 
 
 RULE HL APPOSITION, ETC. 
 
 Words in apposition, in disjunct pairs, or in any other con- 
 struction, if they require a pause greater than that of the 
 comma, and less than that of the colon, may be separated by 
 the semicolon : as, "There are five moods ; the infinitive, the 
 indicative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the impera- 
 tive." 
 
262 PROSODY. 
 
 The Colon. 
 
 The colon is used to separate those parts of a com- 
 pound sentence, which are neither so closely connected as 
 those which are distinguished by the semicolon, nor so 
 little dependent as those which require the period. 
 
 RULE I. ADDITIONAL REMARKS. 
 
 When the preceding clause is complete in itself, but is fol- 
 lowed by some additional remark or illustration, especially if 
 no conjunction is used, the colon is generally and properly in- 
 serted ; as, " Avoid evil doers : in such society an honest man 
 may become ashamed of himself." " See that moth fluttering 
 incessantly around the candle : man of pleasure, behold thy 
 image. " Kames. 
 
 RULE IE. GREATER PAUSES. 
 
 When the semicolon has been introduced, and a still greater 
 pause is required within the period, the colon should be em- 
 ployed : as, "Princes have courtiers, and merchants have 
 partners ; the voluptuous have companions, and the wicked 
 have accomplices : none but the virtuous can have friends." 
 
 RULE HI. INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. 
 
 A quotation introduced without dependence on a verb or a 
 conjunction, is generally preceded by the colon ; as, " In his 
 last moments he uttered these words : * I fall a sacrifice to sloth 
 and luxury.*" 
 
 The Period. 
 
 The period, or full stop, is used to mark an entire 
 and independent sentence, whether simple or compound. 
 
 RULE I. DISTINCT SENTENCES. 
 
 When a sentence is complete in respect to sense, and inde- 
 pendent in respect to construction, it should be marked with 
 
the period ; as, " Every deviation from truth is criminal. Ab- 
 hor a falsehood. Let your words be ingenuous. Sincerity 
 possesses the most powerful charm." 
 
 EULE II. ALLIED SENTENCES. 
 
 The period is often employed between two sentences which 
 have a general connection, expressed by a personal pronoun, n 
 conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb ; as, " The selfish man 
 languishes in his narrow circle of pleasures. They are con- 
 fined to what affects his own interests. He is obliged to 
 repeat the same gratifications, till they become insipid. But 
 the man of virtuous sensibility moves in a wider sphere of 
 felicity." jgfair. 
 
 RULE ILL ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 The period is generally used after abbreviations, and very 
 often to the exclusion of other points ; but, as in this case it 
 is not a constant sign of pause, other points may properly 
 follow it, if the words written in full would demand them ; as, 
 A.D. for Anno Domini. Pro tern, for pro tempore. Ult. for 
 ultimo. i. e. for id est. 
 
 " Consult the statute ; ' quart.' I think, it is, 
 
 'Edwardi sext.,' or 'prim, et quint. Eliz.'" Pope. 
 
 The Dash. 
 
 The dash is mostly used to denote an unexpected or 
 emphatic pause of variable length ; but sometimes it is a 
 sign of faltering ; sometimes, of omission : if set after an 
 other sign or pause, it usually lengthens the interval. 
 
 RULE I. ABRUPT PAUSES. 
 
 A sudden interruption or transition should be marked with 
 the dash ; as, " ' I must inquire into the affair, and if ' ' And 
 if!' interrupted the farmer." 
 
 " Here lies the great false marble, where ? 
 Nothing but sordid dust lies here." Young. 
 
264 PROSODY. 
 
 RULE II. EMPHATIC PAUSES* 
 
 To mark a considerable pause, greater than the structure 
 of the sentence or the points inserted would seem to require, 
 the dash may be employed ; as, 
 
 1. "And now they part to meet no more." 
 
 2. "Revere thyself ; and yet thyself despise." 
 
 1 3. " Behold the picture ! Is it like ? Like whom ? " 
 
 RULE ILL FAULTY DASHES. 
 
 Dashes needlessly inserted, or substitued for other stops 
 more definite, are in general to be treated as errors in punc- 
 tuation. 
 
 EXAMPLE : " You shall go home directly, Le Fevre, said my uncle 
 Toby, to my house, and we '11 send for a doctor to see what's the mat- 
 ter, and we '11 have an apothecary, and the corporal shall be your 
 nurse ; and I '11 be your servant, Le Fevre." Sterne. 
 
 Better thus: "'You shall go home directly, Le Fevre,' said, my 
 uncle Toby, ' to my house ; and we'll send for a doctor to see what's the 
 matter ; and we'll have an apothecary ; and the corporal shall be your 
 nurse: and I'll be your servant, Le Fevre.'" 
 
 The Eroteme. 
 
 The eroteme, or note of interrogation, is used 
 to designate a question. 
 
 RULE I. QUESTIONS DIRECT. 
 
 Questions expressed directly as such, if finished, should 
 always be followed by the note of interrogation ; as, 
 " In life, can love be bought with gold ? 
 Are friendship's pleasures to be sold ? " Johnson. 
 
 RULE IE. QUESTIONS UNITED. 
 
 When two or more questions are united in one compound 
 sentence, the comma or semicolon is sometimes placed be- 
 tween them, and the note of interrogation, after the last only ; 
 as, 
 
 " Truths would you teach, or save a sinking land ? 
 All fear, none aid you, and few understand." Pope. 
 
EULE IEL QUESTIONS INDIRECT. 
 
 When a question is mentioned, but not put directly as a 
 question, it loses both the quality and the sign of interroga- 
 tion ; as, "The Cyprians asked me why I wept" Murray. 
 
 The Ecphoneme. 
 
 The ecphoneme, or note of exclamation, is 
 
 used to denote a pause with some strong or sudden emo- 
 tion of the mind ; and, as a sign of great wonder, it may 
 be repeated. [ ! ! ! ] 
 
 ^ RULE I. INTERJECTIONS, ETC. 
 
 Interjections, and other expressions of great emotion, are 
 generally followed by the note of exclamation ; as, 
 
 " O ! let me listen to the words of life ! " Thomson. 
 
 EULE IE. INVOCATIONS. 
 
 After an earnest address or solemn invocation, the note of 
 exclamation is usually preferred to any other point; as, 
 " Whereupon, O king Agrippa ! I was not disobedient unto 
 the heavenly vision." Acts xxvi., 19. 
 
 EULE HE. EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS. 
 
 Words uttered with vehemence in the form of a question, 
 but without reference to an answer, should be followed by 
 the note of exclamation ; as, " How madly have I talked ! " 
 Young. 
 
 The Curves. 
 
 The curves, or marks of parenthesis, are used 
 to distinguish a clause or hint that is hastily thrown in 
 between the parts of a sentence to which it does not 
 properly belong ; as, 
 
 " To others do (the law is not severe, 
 What to thyself thou wishest to be done." Beattie. 
 
PROSODY. 
 
 OBS. The Incidental clause should be uttered in a lower tone, and 
 faster than the principal sentence. It always requires a pause as great 
 as that of a comm * or greater. 
 
 RULE I. THE PAKENTHESIS. 
 
 A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence too much to be 
 incorporated with it, and only such, should be enclosed as a 
 parenthesis ; as, 
 
 " Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
 Virtue alone is happiness below." Pope. 
 
 RULE II. INCLUDED POINTS. 
 
 The curves do not supersede other stops ; and, as the paren- 
 thesis terminates with a pause equal to that which precedes it, 
 the same point should be included, except when the sentences 
 differ in form ; as, 
 
 1. "Man's thirst of happiness declares it is : 
 
 (For nature never gravitates to nought :) 
 
 That thirst unquench'd, declares it is not here." Young. 
 
 2. " Night visions may befriend : (as sung above :) 
 
 Our waking dreams are fatal. How I dreamt 
 Of things impossible ! (could sleep do more ?) 
 Of joys perpetual in perpetual change." Young. 
 
 Other Marks. 
 
 There are also several other marks, which are occasion- 
 ally used for various purposes, as follow : 
 
 1. [ ' ] The Apostrophe usually denotes either the possessive case 
 of a noun, or the elision of one or more letters of a word; as, "The 
 girl's regard to her parents' advice." 'gan, lotfd, e'en, thro' ; for began, 
 loved, even, through. 
 
 2. [ - ] The Hyphen connects the parts of many compound words, 
 especially such as have two accents ; as, ever-living. It is also frequently 
 inserted where a word is divided into syllables ; as, con-tem-plate. 
 Placed at the end of a line, it shows that one or more syllables of a word 
 are carried forward to the next line. 
 
PUKCTtTATICXN'. 267 
 
 8. ["] The Diaeresis, or Dialysis, placed over either of two 
 contiguous vowels, shows that they are not a diphthong ; as, Dande, 
 aerial. 
 
 4. [/ ] The Acute Accent marks the syllable which requires the 
 principal stress in pronunciation ; as, equal, (quality. It is sometimes 
 used in opposition to the grave accent, to distinguish a close or short 
 vowel; as, " Fancy : " or to denote the rising inflection of the voice ; 
 as, "la it he?" 
 
 5. [ V ] The Crave Accent is used in opposition to the acute, to 
 distinguish an open or long vowel ; as, " Fdvor " (Murray :) or to de- 
 note the falling inflection of the voice ; as, " Yes it is he." 
 
 6. [* ] The Circumflex generally denotes either the .broad sound 
 of a, or an unusual and long sound given to some other vowel ; as in 
 air, care, ere, there, Mir, urn, burn. 
 
 7. [~] The Breve, or Stenotone, is used to denote either a close 
 vowel or a syllable of short quantity ; as, raven, to devour. 
 
 8. ["] The Macron, or Macrotone, is used to denote either an 
 open vowel or a syllable of long quantity ; as, raven, a bird. 
 
 9. [ ] or [****] The Ellipsis, denotes the omissior of some 
 
 letters or words ; as, Kg, for king. 
 
 10. [ A J The Caret, used only in writing, shows where to insert 
 words or letters that have been accidentally omitted. 
 
 11. [-^ .] The Brace serves to unite a triplet, or to connect several 
 terms with something to which they are all related. 
 
 12. [] The Section marks the smaller divisions of a book or 
 chapter ; and, with the help of numbers, serves to abridge references. 
 
 13. [t] The Paragraph (chiefly used in the Bible) denotes the 
 commencement of a new subject. The parts of discourse which are 
 called paragraphs are, in general, sufficiently distinguished by begin- 
 ning a new line, and carrying the first word a little forward or backward. 
 
 14. [""] The Guillemots, or Quotation Points, distinguish 
 words that are taken from another author or speaker. A .quotation 
 within a quotation is marked with single points, which, when both are 
 employed, are placed within the others. 
 
 15. [[]] The Crotchets, or Brackets, generally enclose some cor- 
 rection or explanation, or the subject to be explained; as, "He [the 
 speaker] was of a different opinion." 
 
 16. [lCif] The Index, or Hand, points out something remarkable, 
 or what the reader should particularly observe. 
 
 17. [*] The asterisk, or star, [f] the obelisk, or dagger, 
 [J] the diesis, or double dagger, and [1] the parallels, refer 
 
PKOSODY. 
 
 to marginal notes. The section [] and the paragraph ft], 
 are also often used for marks of reference, the former being usually 
 applied to the fourth, and the latter to the sixth, note on a page ; for, 
 by the usage of printers, these signs are now commonly introduced in 
 the following order : 1 *, 2f, 3J, 4, 5 |, 61, 7**, 8ft, etc. When 
 many references are to be made, the smatt Utters of the alphabet, or the 
 numerical figures, in their order, may be conveniently used for the 
 same purpose. 
 
 18. [%*] The asterism, or three stars, a sign not very often 
 used, is placed before a long or general note, to mark it as a note, with- 
 out giving it a particular reference. 
 
 19. [9] The cedilla is a mark borrowed from the French, by 
 whom it is placed under the letter c, to give it the sound of s before a 
 or o; as, in the words, "facade," li Alen$on." It is also attached to 
 other letters, to denote their soft sounds : as, ph as & ; s as z ; x as gz. 
 
 For oral exercises in punctuation, the teacher may select any well-pointed book, to 
 which the foregoing rales and explanations may be applied by the pupil. An application 
 of the principles of punctuation, either to points rightly inserted, or in the correction of 
 errors, is as easy a process as ordinary syntactical parsing or correcting : and, in propor- 
 tion to the utility of these principles, as useful. The exercise, in relation to correct 
 pointing, consists in reading some passage, in successive parts, according to its points ; 
 naming the latter as they occur ; and repeating the rules or doctrines of punctuation, as 
 the reasons for the marks employed. Written exercises are given below. 
 
 Exercises in Punctuation* 
 
 I The Comma. 
 
 Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma where it is 
 
 EULE I. 
 
 The dogmatist's assurance is paramount to argument. 
 The whole course of his argumentation comes to nothing. 
 The fieldmouse builds her garner under ground. 
 
 Exceptions. 
 One of the arts that contribute most to the cultivation of the human 
 
 mind is the art of language. 
 
 To remain insensible to such provocation is apathy. 
 He who strives to injure others cannot be happy. 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 I was eyes to the blind and feet was I to the lame. 
 They are gone but the remembrance of them is sweet. 
 
PUNCTUATION. 
 
 He has passed it is likely through varieties of fortune. 
 The mind though free has a governor within itself. 
 They I doubt not oppose the bill on public principles. 
 Be silent be grateful and adore. 
 
 He is an adept in language who always speaks the truth. 
 The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong. 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1. He that has far to go should not hurry. 
 
 Hobbes believed the eternal truths which he opposed. 
 Feeble are all pleasures in which the heart has no share. 
 
 2. A good name is better than precious ointment. 
 Thinkst thou that duty shall have dread to speak ? 
 The spleen is seldom felt where Flora reigns. 
 
 RULE m. 
 
 The city army court espouse my cause. 
 
 Wars pestilences and diseases are terrible instructors. 
 
 Walk daily in a pleasant airy and umbrageous garden. 
 
 Wit spirits faculties but make it worse. 
 
 Men wives and children stare cry out and run. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 Hope and fear are essentials in religion. 
 Praise and adoration are perfective of our souls. 
 We know bodies and their properties most perfectly. 
 Satisfy yourselves with what is rational and attainable. 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1. God will rather look to the inward motions of the mind than to the 
 
 outward form of the body. 
 Gentleness is unassuming in opinion and temperate in zeal. 
 
 2. He has experienced prosperity and also adversity. 
 All sin essentially is and must be mortal. 
 
 3. One person is chosen chairman or moderator. 
 Duration or time is measured by motion. 
 The governor or viceroy is chosen annually. 
 
 4. Reflection reason still the ties improve. 
 
 His neat plain parlor wants our modern style. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 I inquired and rejected consulted and deliberated. 
 
 Seed-time and harvest cold and heat summer and winter day and night 
 shall not cease. 
 
270 PROSODY. 
 
 RULE VL 
 
 The night being dark they did not proceed. 
 There being no other coach we had no alternative. 
 Remember my son that human life is the journey of a day. 
 All circumstances considered it seems right. 
 He that overcometh to him will I give power. 
 Your land strangers devour it in your presence. 
 Ah sinful nation a people laden with iniquity ! 
 
 With heads declin'd ye cedars homage pay ; 
 
 Be smooth ye rocks ye rapid floods give way t 
 
 RULE VII. 
 
 Now Philomel sweet songstress charms the night. 
 
 Tis chanticleer the shepherd's clock announcing day. 
 
 The evening star love's harbinger appears. 
 
 The queen of night fair Dian smiles serene. 
 
 There is yet one man Micaiah the son of Imlah. 
 
 Our whole company man by man ventured down. 
 
 As a work of wit the Dunciad has few equals. 
 
 In the same temple the resounding wood 
 All vocal beings hymned their equal God. 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1. The last^king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus. 
 Bossuet highly eulogizes Maria Theresa of Austria. 
 
 2. For he went and dwelt by the brook Cherith. 
 Remember the example of the patriarch Joseph. 
 
 3. I wisdom dwell with prudence. 
 
 Ye fools be ye of an understanding heart. 
 
 I tell you that which you yourselves do know. 
 
 4. I crown thee king of intimate delights. 
 
 I count the world a stranger for thy sake. 
 And this makes friends such miracles below. 
 God has pronounced it death to taste that tree. 
 Grace makes the slave a freeman. 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 Deaf with the noise I took my hasty flight. 
 
 Him piteous of his youth soft disengage. 
 
 I played a while obedient to the fair. 
 
 Love free as air spreads his light wings and flies. 
 Then active still and unconfmed his mind 
 Explores the vast extent of ages past. 
 
PUNCTUATION. 271 
 
 But there is yet a liberty unsung 
 By poets and by senators unpraised. 
 
 Exceptions, 
 
 I will marry a wife beautiful as the Houries. 
 
 He was a man able to speak upon doubtful questions. 
 
 These are the persons anxious for the change. 
 
 Are they men worthy of confidence and support ? 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 Poverty wants some things ; avarice all things. 
 
 Honesty has one face ; flattery two. 
 
 One king is too soft and easy ; an other too fiery. 
 
 Mankind's esteem they court ; and he his own : 
 
 Theirs the wiM chase of false felicities ; 
 
 His the compos'd possession of the true. 
 
 RULE X. 
 
 My desire is to live in peace. 
 
 The great difficulty was to compel them to pay their debts. 
 
 To strengthen our virtue God bids us trust in him. 
 
 I made no bargain with you to live always drudging. 
 
 To sum up all her tongue confessed the shrew. 
 
 To proceed my own adventure was still more laughable. 
 We come not with design of wasteful prey 
 To drive the country force the swains away. 
 
 RULE XI. 
 
 Having given this answer he departed. 
 Some sunk to beasts find pleasure end in pain. 
 Eased of her load subjection grows more light.- 
 Death still draws nearer never seeming near. 
 He lies full low gored with wounds and weltering in his blood. 
 Kind is fell Lucifer compared to thee. 
 Man considered in himself is helpless and wretched. 
 Like scattered down by howling Eurus blown. 
 He with wide nostrils snorting skims the wave. 
 Youth is properly speaking introductory to manhood. 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 He kept his eye fixed on the country before him. 
 They have their part assigned them to act. 
 Years will repair not the injuries done by 
 
272 PROSODY. 
 
 RULE XII. 
 
 Yes -we both were philosophers. 
 
 However providence saw fit to cross our design. 
 
 Besides I know that the eye of the public is upon me. 
 
 The fact is certainly much otherwise. 
 
 For nothing surely can be more inconsistent. 
 
 RULE "XTTT. 
 
 For in such retirement the soul is strengthend. 
 It engages'our desires ; and in some degree satisfies them. 
 But of every Christian virtue piety is an essential part. 
 The English verb is variable ; as looe lovest loves. 
 
 RULE XIV. 
 
 In a word charity is the soul of social life. 
 By the bowstring I can repress violence and fraud. 
 Some by being too artful forfeit the reputation of probity. 
 With regard to morality I was not indifferent. 
 
 RULE XV. 
 
 
 
 Lo earth receives him from the bending skies ! 
 Behold I am against thee O inhabitant of the valley I 
 
 RULE XVI. 
 
 I would never consent never never never. 
 His teeth did chatter chatter chatter still. 
 Come come come come to bed to bed to bed. 
 
 RULE XVEI. 
 
 He cried " Cause every man to go out from me." 
 
 " Almet " said he " remember what thou hast seen." 
 
 I answered " Mock not thy servant who is but a worm before thee." 
 
 II. The Semicolon. 
 
 Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma and the semi c 
 colon where they are required. 
 
 RULE L 
 
 "Man is weak" answered his companion "knowledge is more than 
 
 equivalent to force." 
 To judge rightly of the present we must oppose it to the past for all 
 
 judgment is comparative and of the future nothing can be known. 
 "Content is natural wealth " says Socrates to which I shall add " luxury 
 
 is artificial poverty." 
 
PUNCTUATION. 273 
 
 Converse and love mankind might strongly draw 
 When love was liberty and nature law. 
 
 EULE H. 
 
 Be wise to-day 'tis madness to defer. 
 The present all their care the future his. 
 Wit makes an enterpriser sense a man. 
 Ask thought for joy grow rich and hoard within. 
 Song soothes our pains and age has pains to soothe. 
 Here an enemy encounters there a rival supplants him. 
 Our answer to their reasons is No to their scoffs nothing. 
 
 RULE III. 
 In Latin there are six cases namely the nominative the genitive the 
 
 dative the accusative the vocative and the ablative. 
 Most English notfns form the plural by adding s as boy boys nation 
 
 nations king kings bay bays. 
 Bodies are such as are endued with a vegetable soul as plants a sensitive 
 
 soul as animals or a rational soul as the body of man. 
 
 III. The Colon. 
 
 .Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma, the semi- 
 colon, and the colon where they are required. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 Death wounds to cure we fall we rise we reign. 
 Bliss ! there is none but unprecarious bliss. 
 That is the gem sell all and purchase that. 
 Beware of usurpation God is the judge of all. 
 
 RULE H. 
 
 I have the world here before me I will review it at leisure surely hap- 
 piness is somewhere to be found. 
 
 A melancholy enthusiast courts persecution and when he cannot obtain 
 it afflicts himself with absurd penances but the holiness of St. Paul 
 consisted in the simplicity of a pious life. 
 
 Observe his awful portrait and admire 
 Nor stop at wonder imitate and live. 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 Such is our Lord's injunction "Watch and pray." 
 
 He died praying for his persecutors " Father forgive them they know 
 
 not what they do." 
 
 On his cane was inscribed this motto " Festina lenfo" 
 18 
 
274 PROSODY. 
 
 IV. The Period. 
 
 Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma, the semi- 
 colon, the colon, and the period, where they are required. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 Then appeared the sea and the dry land the mountains rose and the 
 rivers flowed the sun and moon began their course in the skies 
 herbs and plants clothed the ground the air the earth and the 
 waters were stored with their respective inhabitants at last man was 
 made in the image of God 
 
 In general those parents have most reverence who most deserve it for 
 he that lives well cannot be despised 
 
 RULE H. 
 
 Civil accomplishments frequently give rise to fame but a distinction is 
 to be made between fame and true honor the statesman the orator 
 or the poet may be famous while yet the man himself is far from 
 being honored 
 
 RULE in. 
 
 Glass was invented in Eng by Benalt a monk A D 664 
 The Roman Era U C commenced B C 753 
 Here is the Literary Life of S T Coleridge Esq 
 
 V. The Dash. 
 
 Copy the following sentences, and insert the dash, and such other 
 points as are required. 
 
 RULE I. 
 You say famous very often and I don't know exactly what it means a 
 
 famous uniform famous doings What does famous mean 
 O why famous means Now don't you know what famous means It means 
 It is a word that people say It is the fashion to say it It means it 
 means famous 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 But this life is not all there is there is full surely another state abiding 
 us And if there is what is thy prospect O remorseless obdurate 
 Thou shalt hear it would be thy wisdom to think thon now nearest 
 the sound of that trumpet which shall awake the dead Return O 
 yet return to the Father of mercies and live 
 
 The future pleases Why The present pains 
 But that's a secret yes which all men kno^y 
 
PUNCTUATION. 275 
 
 VI. Note of Interrogation. 
 
 Copy the following sentences, and insert the note of interrogation, 
 
 and such other points as are required. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 Does nature bear a tyrant's breast 
 
 Is she the friend of stern control 
 Wears she the despot's purple vest 
 Or fetters she the free-born soul 
 Why should a man whose blood is warm within 
 Sit like his grandsire cut in alabaster 
 Who art thou courteous stranger and from whence 
 Why roam thy steps to this abandon'd dale 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 Who bid the stork Columbus-like explore 
 Heavens not his own and worlds unknown before 
 Who calls the council states the certain day 
 Who forms the phalanx and who points the way 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 Ask of thy mother Earth why oaks are made 
 Taller and stronger than the weeds they shade 
 They asked me who I was and whither I was going 
 
 VII Note of Exclamation. 
 
 Copy the following sentences, and insert the note of exclamation, 
 and such other points as are necessary. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 Alas how is that rugged heart forlorn 
 Behold the victor vanquish'd by the worm 
 Bliss sublunary bliss proud words and vain 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 O Popular Applause what heart of man 
 Is proof against thy sweet seducing charms 
 More than thy balm O Gilead heals the wound 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 How often have I loitered o'er thy green 
 Where humble happiness endear'd each scent 
 What bla.ck despair what horror fills his heart 
 
276 PROSODY. 
 
 VIII. Marks of Parenthesis. 
 
 Copy the following sentences, and insert the marks of parenthe- 
 sis, and such other points as are necessary. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 And all the question wrangle e'er so long 
 
 Is only this If God has placed him wrong 
 
 And who what God foretells who speaks in things 
 
 Still louder than in words shall dare deny 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 Say was it virtue more though Heav'n ne'er gave 
 Lamented Digby sunk thee to the grave 
 Where is that thrift that avarice of time 
 O glorious avarice thought of death inspires 
 And oh the last last what can words express 
 Thought reach the last last silence of a friend 
 
 IX. Promiscuous. 
 
 Copy the foUowing sentences, and insert the points which they require, 
 
 As one of them opened his sack he espied his money 
 
 They cried out the more exceedingly Crucify him 
 
 The soldiers counsel was to kill the prisoners 
 
 It is my son's coat an evil beast hath devoured him 
 
 Peace of all worldly blessings is the most valuable 
 
 By this time the very foundation was removed 
 
 The only words he uttered were I am a Roman citizen 
 
 Some distress either felt or feared gnaws like a worm 
 
 How then must I determine Have I no interest If I have not I am sta- 
 tioned here to no purpose Harris 
 
 In the fire the destruction was so swift sudden vast and miserable as to 
 have no parallel in story 
 
 Dionysius the tyrant of Sicily was far from being happy 
 
 I ask now Verres what thou hast to advance 
 
 Excess began and sloth sustains the trade 
 
 Fame can never reconcile a man to a death bed 
 
 They that sail on the sea tell of the danger 
 
 Be doers of the word and not hearers only 
 
 The storms of wint'ry time will quickly pass 
 
 Here hope that smiling angel stands 
 
 Disguise I see thou art a wickedness 
 
CTSTCTUATION; 277 
 
 There are no tricks in plain and simple faith 
 
 True love strikes root in reason passion's foe 
 
 Two gods divide them all Pleasure aiid Gain 
 
 I am satisfied My son has done his duty 
 
 Rememher Almet the vision which thou hast seen 
 
 I beheld an enclosure beautiful as the gardens of paradise 
 
 The knowledge which I have received I will communicate 
 
 But I am not yet happy and therefore I despair 
 
 Wretched mortals said I to what purpose are you busy 
 
 Bad as the world is respect is always paid to virtue 
 
 In a word he views men in the clear sunshine of charity 
 
 This being the case I am astonished and amazed 
 
 Yet at the same time the man himself undergoes a change 
 
 You heroes regard nothing but glory 
 
 Take care lest whiljj you strive to reach the top you fall 
 
 Proud and presumptuous they can brook no opposition 
 
 Nay some awe of religion may still subsist 
 
 Then said he Lo I come to do thy will O God 
 
 As for me behold I am in your hand 
 
 Now I Paul myself beseech you 
 
 He who lives always in public cannot live to his own soul whereas he 
 
 who retires remains calm 
 
 Therefore behold I even I will utterly forget you 
 This text speaks only of those to whom it speaks 
 Yea he warmeth himself and saith Aha I am warm 
 King Agrippa believest thou the prophets 
 
 To whom can riches give repute or trust 
 Content or pleasure but the good and just Pope 
 
 To him no high no low no great no small 
 He fills he bounds connects and equals all Id 
 
 Reason's whole pleasure all the joys of sense 
 
 Lie in three words health peace and competence Id 
 
 Not so for once indulg'd they sweep the main 
 Deaf to the call or hearing hear in vain Anon 
 
 Say will the falcon stooping from above 
 
 Smit with her varying plumage spare the dove Pope 
 
 Throw Egypt's by and offer in its stead 
 Offer the crown on Berenice's head Id 
 
 Falsely luxurious will not man awake 
 
 And springing from the bed of sloth enjoy 
 
 The cool the fragrant and the silent hour Tlwmm, 
 
278 PROSODY. 
 
 Yet thus it is nor otherwise can be 
 
 So far from aught romantic what I sing Young 
 
 Thyself first know then love a self there is 
 
 Of virtue fond that kindles at her charms Id 
 
 How far that little candle throws his beams 
 
 So shines a good deed in a naughty world STiakspearc 
 
 You have too much respect upon the world 
 
 They lose it that do buy it with much care Id 
 
 How many things by season season'd are 
 
 To their right praise and true perfection Id 
 
 Canst thou descend from converse with the skies 
 
 And seize thy brother's throat for what a clod Young 
 
 II. UTTERANCE. 
 
 Utterance is the art of vocal expression. It includes 
 the principles of pronunciation and elocution. 
 
 Pronunciation. 
 
 Pronunciation, as distinguished from elocution, is 
 the utterance of words taken separately. 
 
 Pronunciation requires a knowledge of the just powers 
 of the letters in all their combinations, and of the force 
 and seat of the accent. 
 
 The just powers of the letters are those sounds which 
 are given to them by the best readers. 
 
 Accent is the peculiar stress which we lay upon some 
 particular syllable of a word, whereby that syllable is distin- 
 guished from the rest ; as, gram-mar, gram-md-ri-an. 
 
 Every word of more than one syllable, has one of its syllables ac- 
 cented. 
 
 When the word is long, for the sake of harmony or distinctness, we 
 often give a secondary or less forcible accent to another syllable ; as, to 
 the last of tem-per-a-ture, and to the second of in-dem-ni-fi-cd-tion. 
 
 A full and open pronunciation of the long vowel sounds, a clear articu- 
 lation of the consonants, a forcible and well-placed accent, and a distinct 
 Utterance of the unaccented syllables, distinguish the elegant speaker. 
 
UTTERANCE. 279 
 
 Elocution. 
 
 Elocution is the utterance of words that-are arranged 
 into sentences, and form discourse. 
 
 Elocution requires a knowledge, and right application, 
 of emphasis, pauses, inflections, and tones. 
 
 I. Emphasis is the peculiar stress of voice which we lay 
 upon some particular word or words in a sentence, which are 
 thereby distinguished from the rest, as being more especially 
 significant. 
 
 n. Pauses are cessations in utterance, which serve 
 equally to relieve the speaker, and to render language intelligi- 
 ble and pleasing. The duration of the pauses should be propor- 
 tionate to the degree of connection between the parts of the 
 discourse. 
 
 IH. Inflections are those peculiar variations of the hu- 
 man voice, by which a continuous sound is made -to pass from 
 one note, key, or pitch, into another. The passage of the voice 
 from a lower to a higher or shriller note, is called the rising 
 or upward inflection. The passage of the voice from a higher 
 to a lower or graver note, is called the falling or downward 
 inflection. These two opposite inflections may be heard in 
 the following examples : 1. The rising, " Do you mean to go ? " 
 2. The falling, " When will you go ? " 
 
 OBS. Questions that maybe answered by yes or no, require the 
 rising inflection ; those that demand any other answer, must be uttere.l 
 with the falling inflection. 
 
 IV. Tones are those modulations of the voice, which de- 
 pend upon the feelings of the speaker. They are what Sheridan 
 denominates " the language of emotions." And it is of the 
 utmost importance that they be natural, unaffected, and 
 rightly adapted to the subject and to the occasion ; for upon 
 them, in a great measure, depends all that is pleasing or in- 
 teresting in elocution. 
 
280 PROSODY. 
 
 III. -FIGURES. 
 
 A figure, in grammar, is an intentional deviation from 
 the ordinary spelling, formation, construction, or applica- 
 tion, of words. There are, accordingly, figures of Orthog- 
 raphy, figures of Etymology, figures of Syntax, and figures 
 of Ehetoric. When figures are judiciously employed, they 
 both strengthen and adorn expression. They occur more 
 frequently in poetry than in prose, and several of them are 
 merely poetic licenses. 
 
 Figures of Orthography. 
 
 A figure of orthography is an intentional devia- 
 tion from the ordinary or true spelling of a word. 
 
 The principal figures of orthography are two; namely, 
 Mi-me'-sis and Ar'-cha-ism. 
 
 I. Mimesis is a ludicrous imitation of some mistake or 
 mispronunciation of a word, in which the error is mimicked 
 by a false spelling, or the taking of one word for another ; 
 as, " Maister, says he, have you any wery good weal in your 
 vdllet ? " " Ay, he was porn at Monmouth, captain Gower." 
 Shak. "I will description the matter to you, if you be 
 capacity of it." Id. 
 
 "Perdigious! I can hardly stand." Lloyd. 
 
 n. An archaism is a word or phrase expressed accord- 
 ing to ancient usage, and not according to our modern or- 
 thography ; as, "Newe grene chese of smalle clammynes com- 
 fortethe a hotte stomake." T. PAYNEL : Tooke's Diversions, ii, 
 132. 
 
 " With him was rev'rend Contemplation pight, 
 Bow-bent with eld, his beard of snowy hue." Beatti& 
 
FIGURES. 
 
 Figures of Etymology. 
 
 A figure of etymology is an intentional deviation 
 from the ordinary formation of a word. 
 
 The principal figures of etymology are eight ; namely, 
 a-phaer'-e-sis, pros'-the-sis, syn'-co-pe, a- 
 poc'-o-pe, Par-a-go'-ge, di-aer -e-sis, sy ri- 
 
 ser -e-sis, and tme'-sis. 
 
 I. Aphseresis is the elision of some of the initial let- 
 ters of a word ; as, 'gainst, 'gan, 'neath, for against, began, 
 beneath. 
 
 II. Prosthesis is the prefixing of an expletive syllable 
 to a word ; as, adown, oppaid, frestrown, evanished, ^/clad, 
 for down, paid, strown, vanished, clad. 
 
 HI. Syncope is the elision of some of the middle letters 
 of a word : as, med'cine, for medicine ; e'en, for even ; o'er, 
 for over ; conq'ring, for conquering ; se'nnight, for sevennight. 
 
 IV. Apocope is the elision of some of the final letters of 
 a word : as, tho', for though ; th', for the ; t'other, for the other. 
 
 V. ParagOge is the annexing of an expletive syllable 
 to a word : as, withouten, for without ; deary, for dear ; Johnny, 
 for John. 
 
 VI. Diaeresis is the separating of two vowels that might 
 form a diphthong : as, cooperate, not cooperate ; aeronaut, not 
 aeronaut ; orthoepy, not orthoepy. 
 
 VIL SynaereSIS is the sinking of two syllables into 
 one : as, seest, for seest ; tacked, for tack-ed ; drowned, for 
 drown-ed. 
 
 OBS. When a vowel is entirely suppressed in pronunciation (whether 
 retained in writing or not), the consonants connected with it fall into 
 another syllable ; thus, tried, triest, loved or lotfd, lowest or lov'st, are 
 monosyllables ; except in solemn discourse, in which the e is generally 
 retained and made vocal. 
 
 Vlil. Tmesis is the inserting of a word between the 
 parts of a compound ; as, " On which side soever." " To us 
 ward." " To God ward," 
 
282 PROSODY. 
 
 Figures of Syntax. 
 
 A figure of syntax is an intentional deviation from 
 the ordinary construction of words. 
 
 The principal figures of syntax are five ; namely, el-lip'" 
 sis, pie -o-nasm, syl-lep -sis, en-al -la-ge, and 
 hyper -ba-ton. 
 
 Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words which 
 are necessary to complete the construction, but not necessary 
 to convey the meaning. Such words are said to be under- 
 stood ; because they are received as belonging to the sentence, 
 though they are not uttered.* 
 
 Almost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical. There 
 may be an omission of any of the parts of speech, or even of a whole 
 clause ; but the omission of articles or interjections can scarcely consti- 
 tute a proper ellipsis. Examples : 
 
 Of the Article; as, "A man and [a] wom0,n." "The day, [the] 
 month, and [the] year." 
 
 Of the Noun ; as, " The common [law] and the statute law."" The 
 twelve [apostles]. 1 " "One [book] of my books." "A dozen [bottles] of 
 wine." 
 
 Of the Adjective; as, "There are subjects proper for the one, and 
 not [proper] for the other." Kames. 
 
 Of the Pronoun; as, "I love [him] and [/] fear him." "The 
 estates [which] we own." 
 
 Of the Verb ; as, " Who did this ? I " [did it]. 11 To whom thus Eve, 
 yet sinless " [spoke]. 
 
 Of the Participle; as, "That [being] o'er, they part." 
 
 * There can never be an ellipsis of any thing which is either unnecessary to the con- 
 struction or necessary to the sense, for to say what we mean and nothing more never 
 can constitute a deviation from the ordinary grammatical construction of words. As a 
 figure of Syntax, therefore, the ellipsis can be only of such words as are so evidently sug- 
 gested to the reader, that the writer is as fully answerable for them as if he had written 
 them. To suppose an ellipsis where there is none, or to overlook one where it really 
 occurs, is to pervert or mutilate the text, in order to accommodate it to the parser's 
 ignorance of the principles of syntax. There never can be either a general uniformity 
 or a self-consistency in our methods of parsing, or in our notions of grammar, till the 
 true nature of an ellipsis is clearly ascertained ; so that the writer may distinguish it 
 from a blundering omission that impairs the sense, and the reader be debarred from an 
 arbitrary insertion of \vha; would be cumbrous and useless. 
 
FIGURES. 283 
 
 Of the Adverb ; as, "He spoke [wisely] and acted wisely." "Ex- 
 ceedingly great and [exceedingly} powerful." 
 
 Of the Conjunction ; as, "The fruit of the Spirit is love, [and] joy, 
 [and] peace, [and] long-suffering, [and] gentleness, [and] goodness, 
 [and] faith, [and] meekness, [arid] temperance." Gal. v., 22. The 
 repetition of the conjunction is called Polysyndeton ; and the omission 
 of it, Asyndeton. 
 
 Of the Preposition; as, "[On] this day." "[In] next month." 
 "He departed [from] this life." "He gave [to] me a book." "To 
 walk [through] a mile." 
 
 Of the Interjection ; as, "Oh! the frailty, [Oh/] the wickedness of 
 men." 
 
 Of a Phrase or a Clause ; as, " The active commonly do more than they 
 are bound to do ; the indolent, [commonly do] less " [than they are bound 
 to do]. 
 
 Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous words. 
 This figure is allowable only, when, in animated discourse, it 
 abruptly introduces an emphatic word, or repeats an idea to 
 impress it more strongly : 
 
 " He that hath ears to hear, let him hear ! " " All ye inhabitants of 
 the world, and dwellers on the earth/ " " There shall not be left one 
 stone upon another, that shall not be thrown down." " I know thee who 
 thou art." Bible. 
 
 A pleonasm is sometimes impressive and elegant, but an 
 unemphatic repetition of the same idea is one of the worst 
 faults of bad writing. 
 
 Syllepsis is agreement formed according to the figura- 
 tive sense of a word, or the mental conception of the thing 
 spoken of, and not according to the literal or common use of 
 the term; it is therefore, in general, connected with soni3 
 figure of rhetoric : 
 
 "The Word was made flesh and dwelt among us, and we beheld his 
 glory." John i., 14. "Then Philip went down to the city of Samaria, 
 and preached Christ unto them." Acts viii., 5. "While Evening 
 draws her crimson curtains round." Thomson. 
 
 En all age is the use of one part of speech, or of ono 
 modification for another. This figure borders closely upon 
 
284 PROSODY. 
 
 solecism ; * and, for the stability of the language, it should be 
 sparingly indulged. There are, however, several forms of it 
 which can appeal to good authority ; as, 
 
 " You know that you are Brutus that speak this." Shak. 
 11 They fall successive [ly], and successive [Ij] rise." Pope. 
 11 Than whom [who] none higher sat." Milton. 
 "Sure some disaster has befell" [befallen]. Gay. 
 "So furious was that onset's shock, 
 Destruction's gates at once unlock." Hogg. 
 
 Hyperbaton is the transposition of words: 
 
 "He wanders earth around." Cowper. " Rings the world with the 
 vain stir." Id. " Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship, him declare 1 
 unto you." Acts. 
 
 This figure is much employed in poetry. A judicious use 
 of it confers harmony, variety, strength, and vivacity upon 
 composition. But care should be taken lest it produce am- 
 biguity or obscurity. 
 
 Figures of Rhetoric. 
 
 A figure of rhetoric is an intentional deviation from 
 the ordinary application of words. Some figures of this 
 kind are commonly called Tropes, i. e., turns. 
 
 Numerous departures from perfect simplicity of diction occur in al- 
 most every kind of composition. They are mostly founded on some 
 similitude or relation of things, which, by the power of imagination, is 
 rendered conducive to ornament or illustration. 
 
 The principal figures of rhetoric are fourteen ; namely, 
 Sim'-i-le, Met'-a-phor, Al'-le-gor-y, Me-torT- 
 y-my, Syn-ec'-do-che, Hy-per'-bo-le, Vis'-ion, 
 A-pos'-tro-phe, Per-son'-i-fi-ca'-tion, Er-o- 
 te'-sis, Ec-pho-ne'-sis, An-tith'-e-sis, Cli- 
 max, and I'-ro-ny. 
 
 * Deviations of this kind are, in general, to be considered solecisms ; otherwise the 
 rules of grammar would be of no use or authority. There are, however, some changes of 
 this kind, which the grammarian is not competent to condemn, though they do not 
 accord with the ordinary principles of construction. 
 
FIGURES. 285 
 
 A Simile is a simple and express comparison, and is gen- 
 erally introduced by like, as, or so : 
 
 " At first, like thunder's distant tone, 
 
 The rattling din came rolling on." Hogg. 
 " Man, like the generous vine, supported lives ; 
 The strength he gains, is from th' embrace he gives." Pope. 
 
 A metaphor is a figure that expresses the resemblance 
 of two objects by applying either the name, or some attribute 
 adjunct, or action of the one, directly to the other : 
 
 " His eye was morning's brightest ray." Hogg. 
 
 " Angler in the tides of fame." Id. 
 
 "Beside him sleeps the warrior's bow." Langhome. 
 
 " Wild*fancies in his moody brain, 
 Gambol 'd unbridled and unbound." 3ogg. 
 
 "Speechless, and fix'd in all the death of wo." Thorn. 
 
 An allegory is a continued narration of fictitious events, 
 designed to represent and illustrate important realities. Thus 
 the Psalmist represents the Jewish nation under the symbol 
 of a vine : 
 
 "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the 
 heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst 
 cause it to take deep root ; and it filled the land. The hills were 
 covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the 
 goodly cedars." Ps. Ixxx., 8. 
 
 OBS. The allegory, agreeably to the foregoing definition of it, includes 
 most of those similitudes which in the Scriptures are called parables ; 
 it includes also the better sort of fables. The term allegory is sometimes 
 applied to a true history in which something else is intended than is 
 contained in the words literally taken. [See Gal. iv., 24.] In the 
 Scriptures the term fable denotes an idle and groundless story. [See 
 1 Tim. iv., 1 ; and 2 Pet. i., 16.] 
 
 A metonymy is a change of names. It is founded on 
 some such relation as that of cause and effect, of subject and 
 adjunct, of place and inhabitant, of container and thing contained, 
 or of sign and thing signified : 
 
 "God is our salvation;" i.e., Saviour. " He was the sigh of her 
 secret soul ; " i.e., the youth she loved. " They smote the city ; " i.e., 
 citizens. " My son, give me thy heart ; " i.e., affection. " The 
 not depart from Judah ; " i.e., kingly power, 
 
286 PROSODY. 
 
 Synecdoche is the naming of the whole for a part, or 
 of a part for the whole ; as, "This roof [i.e., house] protects 
 you." "Now the year [i.e., summer] is beautiful." 
 
 Hyperbole is an extravagant exaggeration, in which the 
 imagination is indulged beyond the sobriety of truth : 
 "The sky shrunk upward with unusual dread, 
 And trembling Tiber eKtfd beneath his bed." Dryden. 
 
 Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the speaker 
 represents the objects of his imagination as actually before 
 his eyes, and present to his senses : 
 
 " I see the dagger-crest of Mar ! 
 I see the Moray's silver star 
 Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon war, 
 That up the lake comes winding far ! " Scott. 
 
 Apostrophe is a turning from the regular course of the 
 subject, into an animated address ; as, " Death is swallowed 
 up in victory. O Death ! where is thy sting ? O Grave ! 
 where is thy victory ? " 1 Cor. xv. 
 
 Personification is a figure by which, in imagination, 
 Tre ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings 
 or abstract qualities : 
 
 " The Worm, aware of his intent, 
 
 Harangued him thus, right eloquent." Cowper. 
 " Lo, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears ! " Rogers. 
 11 Hark ! Truth proclaims, thy triumphs cease." Id. 
 ErotesiS is a figure in which the speaker adopts the form 
 of interrogation, not to express a doubt, but, in general, con- 
 fidently to assert the reverse of what is asked : 
 
 " Hast thou an arm like God ? or canst thou thunder with a voice like 
 him ? " Job xl. " He that planted the ear, shall he not hear ? he that 
 formed the eye, shall he not see ? " Ps. xciv. 
 
 Ecphonesis ie a pathetic exclamation, denoting some 
 violent emotion of the mind : 
 
 "0 liberty ! O sound once delightful to every Roman ear I O sacred 
 privilege of Roman citizenship ! once sacred now trampled upon ! " 
 Cicero. " O that I had wings like a dove ! for then would I fly away 
 and be at rest ! " Ps. lv., 6. 
 
FIGURES. 287 
 
 Antithesis is a placing of things in opposition to heighten 
 their effect by contrast : 
 
 " Contrasted faults through all his manners reign ; 
 Though poor, luxurious ; though submissive, vain ; 
 Though grave, yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrue ; 
 And e'en in penance, planning sins anew." Goldsmith. 
 
 Climax is a figure in which the sense is made to advance 
 by successive steps, to rise gradually to what is more and more 
 important and interesting, or to descend to what is more and 
 more minute and particular : 
 
 " And beside this, giving all diligence, add to your faith, virtue ; and 
 to virtue, knowledge ; and to knowledge, temperance ; and to temper- 
 ance, patience ; antl to patience, godliness ; and to godliness, brotherly 
 kindness ; and to brotherly kindness, charity." 2 Peter 1. 
 
 Irony is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly utters 
 the direct reverse of what he intends shall be understood : 
 
 " We have, to be sure, great reason to believe the modest man would 
 not ask him for a debt, when he pursues his life." Cicero. 
 
 Exercises Figures. 
 Praxis Vl.-Prosodical. 
 
 In the Sixth Praxis, it is required of the pupil to point out and explain 
 the several Figures of Orthography, of Etymology, of Syntax, and 
 of Rhetoric; to define each ; and to change the passage into the ordi- 
 nary style or expression. The pupil may also be exercised on these 
 selections, in the rules of Punctuation, and in the principles of Utter- 
 ance and Versification. 
 
 I. Figures of Orthography. 
 
 * ' Fery goot : I will make a prief of it in my note-book ; and we will 
 afterwards 'ork upon the cause with as great discreetly as we can. " SJiak. 
 
 " Vat is you sing ? I do not like dese toys. Pray you, go and vetcfi me 
 in my closet un boitier verd ; a box, a green-a box. Do intend vat I 
 speak ? a green-a box. " Id. 
 
 11 1 ax'd you what you had to sell. I am fitting out a wessd for Wenice, 
 loading her with warivus keinds of prowisions, and wittualling her for 
 a long woyage ; and I want several undred weight of weal, wenison, etc., 
 frith plenty of inyons an4 vinegar^ for the preserwatwn of eaJljh," 
 
288 PROSODY. 
 
 " None [else are] so desperately mZ?, as they that may bee good and 
 will not : or have beene good and are not. " Rev. John Rogers, 1620. " A 
 Carpenter finds his work as hee left it, but a Minister shall find his sett 
 hack. You need preach continually. " 
 
 *' Here whilom ligg'd th' Esopus of his age, 
 i But call'd by Fame, in soul ypricked deep." Thomson. 
 
 " It was a fountain of Nepenthe rare, 
 ^Yhence, as Dan Homer sings, huge pleasaunce grew." Id. 
 
 II. Figures of Etymology. 
 
 Bend 'gainst the steepy hill thy breast, 
 Burst down like torrent from its crest. Scott. 
 'Tis mine to teach th' inactive hand to reap 
 Kind nature's bounties, o'er the globe diffused. Dyer 
 Alas ! alas ! how impotently true 
 TK aerial pencil forms the scene anew. 
 Here a deformed monster joy'd to won, 
 Which on fell rancour ever was ybent. Lloyd. 
 Withouten trump was proclamation made. Thomson. 
 The gentle knight, who saw their rueful case, 
 Let fall adown his silver beard some tears. 
 " Certes," quoth he, " it is not e'en in grace. 
 T' undo the past and eke your broken years." Id. 
 Vain tampering has but foster'd his disease ; 
 'Tis desp'rate, and he sleeps the sleep of death. Cowper. 
 I have a pain upon my forehead here 
 Why that's with watching ; 'twill away again. Shakspeare. 
 I'tt to the woods, among the happier brutes ; 
 Come, let's away ; hark ! the shrill horn resounds. Smith. 
 What prayer and supplication soever be made. Bible. 
 By the grace of God we have had our conversation in the world, and 
 more abundantly to you ward. Id. 
 
 III. Figures of Syntax. 
 
 ELLIPSIS. 
 
 And now he faintly kens the bounding fawn, 
 
 A [ ] villager [ ] abroad at early toil. Seattle. 
 
 The cottage curs at [ ] early pilgrim bark. Id. 
 
 'Tis granted, and no plainer truth appears, 
 
 Our most important [ ] are our earliest years, Cowper. 
 
FIGURES. 289 
 
 To earn her aid, with fix'd and anxious eye, 
 
 He looks on nature's [ ] and on fortune's course ; 
 
 Too much in vain. Akenside. 
 
 True dignity is his, whose tranquil mind 
 
 Virtue has rais'd above the things [ ] below ; 
 
 Who, ev'ry hope and [ ] fear to Heav'n resign'd, 
 
 Shrinks not, though Fortune aim her deadliest blow. Beattie. 
 
 For longer in that paradise to dwell, 
 
 The law [ ] I gave to nature, him forbids. Milton. 
 
 So little mercy shows [ ] who needs so much. Cowper. 
 
 Bliss is the same [ ] in subject, as [ ] in king ; 
 
 In [ ] who obtain defence, and [ ] who defend. Pope. 
 
 Man made for kings ! those optics are but dim 
 
 That tell yon so say rather, they [ ] for him. Cowper. 
 
 Man may dismiss compassion from his heart, 
 
 But God will never [ ]./< 
 
 Mortals whose pleasures are their only care, 
 
 First wish to be impos'd on, and then are [ ]. Id. 
 
 Vigor [ ] from toil, from trouble patience grows. Beattie. 
 
 Where now the rill melodious, [ ] pure, and cool, 
 
 And meads, with life, and mirth, and beauty crown'd ? Id. 
 
 How dead the vegetable kingdom lies ! 
 
 How dumb the tuneful [ ] ! Thomson. 
 
 Self-love and Reason to one end aspire, 
 
 Pain [ ] their aversion, pleasure [ ] their desire ; 
 
 But greedy that its object would devour, 
 
 This [ ] taste the honey, and not wound the flower. Pope. 
 
 PLEONASM. 
 
 According to their deeds, accordingly he will repay ; fury to his adver- 
 saries, recompense to his enemies. Bible. 
 My head is filled with dew, and my locks with the drops of the night. 
 
 Solomon's Song v. , 2. 
 
 Thou hast chastised me, and I was chastised, as a bullock unaccustomed 
 to the yoke : turn thou me, and I shall be turned ; for thou art the 
 Lord my God. Jer. xxxi., 18. 
 
 Consider the lilies of the field how they grow. Matt, vi., 28. 
 He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord. 2 Cor. x., 17. 
 He too is witness, noblest of the train 
 That waits on man, the flight-performing Jwrse. Cowper. 
 19 
 
290 PROSODY. 
 
 SYLLEPSIS. 
 
 Thou art Simon the son of Jona : thou shalt be called Cephas ; which 
 
 is, by interpretation, a stone. John i., 42. 
 Thus saith the Lord of hosts: " Behold I will break the bow of Elam, 
 
 the chief of their might." Jer. xlix., 35. 
 
 Behold I lay in Zion a stumbling-stone and rock of offense ; and whoso- 
 ever belie veth on him shall not be ashamed. Rom. ix., 33. 
 Thus Conscience pleads her cause within the breast, 
 Though long-rebell'd against, not yet suppress'd. Cowper. 
 Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much ; 
 Wisdom is humble that he knows no more. Id. 
 
 For those the race of Israel oft forsook 
 Their living strength, and unfrequented left 
 His righteous altar, bowing lowly down 
 To bestial gods. Milton. 
 
 ENALLAGE. 
 
 Let me tell you, Cassius, you yourself 
 
 Are much condemned to have an itching palm, 
 
 To sell and mart your offices for gold. Shakspeare. 
 
 Come, Philomelus ; let us instant go, 
 
 O'erturn his bow'rs, and lay his castle low. Thomson,. 
 
 Then palaces shall rise ; the joyful son 
 
 Shall finish what the short-lived sire begun. Pope. 
 
 Such was that temple built by Solomon, 
 
 Than whom none richer reign'd o'er Israel. G. Brown, 
 
 He spoke : with fatal eagerness we burn, 
 
 And quit the shores, undestin'd to return. Day. 
 
 Still as he pass'd, the nations he sublimes. Thomson. 
 
 Sometimes, with early morn, he mounted gay. Id, 
 
 HYPERBATON. 
 
 Such resting found the sole of unblest feet. Milton. 
 Yet, though successless, will the toil delight. Thomson. 
 Where, 'midst the changeful scen'ry ever new, 
 Fancy a thousand wondrous forms descries. Seattle. 
 Yet so much bounty is in God, such grace, 
 That who advance his glory, not their own, 
 Them he himself to glory will advance. Milton. 
 
FIGUKES. 291 
 
 But apt the mind or fancy is to rove 
 
 Uncheck'd, and of her roving is no end. Id. 
 
 No quick reply to dubious questions make ; 
 
 Suspense and caution still prevent mistake. Denham. 
 
 IV. Figures of Rhetoric. 
 
 SIMILE. 
 Human greatness is short and transitory, as the odor of incense in the 
 
 fire. Dr. Johnson. 
 
 Terrestial happiness is of short continuance : tlie brightness of the flame 
 is wasting its fuel, the fragrant flower is passing away in its own 
 odors. Id. 
 
 Thy nod is as the earthquake that sJiakes the mountains ; and thy smile, 
 as the dawn of the vernal day. Id. 
 
 Plants raised with tenderness are seldom strong ; 
 Man's coltish disposition asks the thong ; 
 And without discipline, the fav'rite child, 
 Like a neglected forester, runs wild. Gowper. 
 
 METAPHOR. 
 
 Cathmon, thy name is a pleasant gale. Ossian. 
 Rolled into himself he flew, wide on the bosom of winds. The old oak 
 
 felt his departure, and shook its whistling head. Id. 
 Carazan gradually lost the inclination to do good, as he acquired the 
 power ; and as the hand of time scattered snow upon his head, the 
 freezing influence extended to his bosom. Hawkesworth. 
 The sun grew weary of gilding the palaces of Morad ; the clouds of sor- 
 row gathered round his head ; and the tempest of Jiatred roared 
 about his dwelling. Dr. Johnson. 
 
 The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes, 
 Produces sapless leaves instead of fruits. Denham. 
 
 ALLEGORY. 
 
 "But what think ye ? A certain man had two sons ; and he came to 
 the first, and said, ' Son, go work to-day in my vineyard. ' He answered 
 and said, ' I will not ' ; but afterward he repented, and went. And he 
 came to the second, and said likewise. And he answered and said, 
 * I go, sir : ' and went not. Whether of them twain did the will of his 
 father ? " They say unto him, " The first." Matt, xxi., 28. 
 
 METONYMY. 
 
 Swifter than a whirlwind, flies the leaden death. Hervey. 
 " Be all the dead forgot," said Foldath's bursting wrath. " Did not I 
 fail in the field ? "Ossian. 
 
292 PROSODT. 
 
 Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke. Gray. 
 
 Firm in his love, resistless in his hate, 
 
 His arm is conquest, and his frown is fate. Day. 
 
 At length the world, renew'd by calm repose, 
 
 Was strong for toil; the dappled morn arose. ParnefL 
 
 What modes of sight betwixt each wide extreme, 
 
 The mole's dim curtain and the lynx's beam ! 
 
 Of hearing, from the life that fills the flood, 
 
 To that which warbles through the vernal wood ! Pope. \ 
 
 SYNECDOCHE. 
 
 Twas then his threshold first receiv'd a guest. Parnett. 
 For yet by swains alone the world he knew, 
 Whose feet came wand'ring o'er the nightly dew. Id. 
 Flush'd by the spirit of the genial year, 
 Now from the virgin's cheek a fresher bloom 
 Shoots, less and less, the live carnation round. Thomson. 
 
 HYPERBOLE. 
 
 I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice ; his spear, the blasted fir ; his 
 shield, the rising moon ; he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist 
 on the hill. Oman. 
 
 At which the universal host up sent 
 
 A shout that tore Hell's concave, and beyond 
 
 Frighted the reign of Chaos and old Night. Milton. 
 
 Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood 
 
 Clean from my hand ? No ; this my hand will rather 
 
 The multitudinous seas incarnadine, 
 
 Making the green one red. Shakspeare. 
 
 Endless tears flow down in streams. /! 
 
 VISION. 
 
 How mighty is their defense who reverently trust in the arm of God ! 
 How powerfully do they contend who fight with lawful weapons ! 
 Hark ! 'tis the voice of eloquence, pouring forth the living energies of 
 the soul ; pleading, with generous indignation, the cause of injured 
 humanity against lawless might, and reading the awful destiny that 
 awaits the oppressor! I see the stern countenance of despotism over- 
 awed ! I see the eye fallen that kindled the elements of war I I see 
 the brow relaxed that scowled defiance at hostile thousands ! I see the 
 knees tremble that trod with firmness the embattled field ! Fear has 
 entered that heart which ambition had betrayed into violence I The 
 
FIGURES. 293 
 
 tyrant feels himself a man, and subject to the weakness of humanity ! 
 Behold ! and tell me, is that power contemptible which can thus find 
 access to the sternest hearts ? G. Brown. 
 
 APOSTROPHE. 
 
 Yet still they breathe destruction, still go on 
 Inhumanly ingenious to find out 
 New pains for life, new terrors for the grave ; 
 Artificers of death ! Still monarchs dream 
 Of universal empire growing up 
 From universal ruin. Blast the design, 
 Great God of Hosts! nor let thy creatures fall 
 Unpitied victims at Ambition's shrine. Porteus. 
 
 PERSONIFICATION. 
 Hail, sacred Polity, by Freedom rear'd ! 
 
 Hail, sacred Freedom, when by Law restrain'd I 
 Without you, what were man ? A grov'ling herd, 
 
 In darkness, wretchedness, and want enchain'd. Seattle. 
 Let cheerful Memory, from her purest cells, 
 
 Lead forth a goodly train of Virtues fair, 
 Cherish'd in early youth, now paying back 
 
 With tenfold usury the pious care. Porteus. 
 
 EROTESIS. 
 
 He that chastiseth the heathen, shall not he correct ? he that teacheth 
 man knowledge, shall not he know ? Psalms xciv. , 10. 
 
 Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots ? then 
 may ye also do good, that are accustomed to do evil. Jer. xiii., 33. 
 
 ECPHONESIS. 
 
 O that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I 
 might weep day and night for the slain of the daughter of my people ! 
 O that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men, that I 
 might leave my people, and go from them ! Jeremiah ix., 1. 
 
 ANTITHESIS. 
 
 On this side modesty is engaged ; on that, impudence : on this, chas- 
 tity ; on that, lewdness : on this, integrity ; on that, fraud : on this, 
 piety ; on that, prof aneness : on this, constancy ; on that, fickleness ; 
 on this, honor ; on that, baseness : on this, moderation ; on that, un- 
 bridled passion. Cicero. 
 
 She, from the rending earth, and bursting skies, 
 
 Saw gods descend, and fiends infernal rise ; 
 
 Here fix'd the dreadful, there the blest abodes ; 
 
 Fear made her devils, and weak hope her gods. Pop*. 
 
294 PROSODY. 
 
 CLIMAX. 
 
 Virtuous actions are necessarily approved by the awakened conscience ; 
 and when they are approved, they are commended to practice ; and 
 when they are practiced, they become easy ; and when they become 
 easy, they afford pleasure ; and when they afford pleasure, they are 
 done frequently ; and when they are done frequently, they are con- 
 firmed by habit ; and confirmed habit is a kind of second nature. 
 
 IRONY. 
 
 And it came to pass at noon, that Elijah mocked them, and said, "Cry 
 aloud ; for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is 
 in [on] a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked I " 
 1 Kings xviii. , 27. 
 
 Some lead a life unblamable and just, 
 Their own dear virtue their unshaken trust ; 
 They never sin or if (as all offend) 
 Some trivial slips their daily walk attend, 
 The poor are near at hand, the charge is small, 
 A slight gratuity atones for all. Cowper. 
 
 IV. VERSIFICATION. 
 Versification is the art of arranging words into lines 
 of correspondent length, so as to produce harmony by the 
 regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 The quantity of a syllable is the relative portion of 
 time occupied in uttering it. In poetry, every syllable is con- 
 sidered to be either long or short. A long syllable is reckoned 
 to be equal to two short ones. 
 
 OBS. 1. The quantity of a syllable does not depend on the sound of 
 the vowel or diphthong, but principally on the degree of accentual force 
 with which the syllable is uttered, whereby a greater or less portion of 
 time is employed. The open vowel sounds are those which are the most 
 easily protracted, yet they often occur in the shortest and feeblest 
 syllables. 
 
 OBS. 2. Most monosyllables are variable, and maybe made either 
 long or short, as suits the meter, or rhythm. In words of greater length, 
 the accented syllable is always long ; and a syllable immediately before 
 or after that which is accented, is always short. 
 
VERSIFICATION. 
 
 Rhyme. 
 
 Rhyme is the similarity of sound between the last syl- 
 lables of different lines or half lines. Blank verse is verse 
 without rhyme. 
 
 OBS. The principal rhyming syllables are almost always long. Double 
 rhyme adds one short syllable ; triple rhyme, two. Such syllables are 
 redundant in iambic and anapestic verses. 
 
 Poetic Feet. 
 
 A line Of poetry consists of successive combinations of 
 syllables, called feet. A poetic foot, in English, consists 
 either of two os-of three syllables. 
 
 The principal English feet are the Iambus, the Tro- 
 chee, the Anapest, and the Dactyl. 
 
 The Iambus | or lamb, is a poetic foot consisting of 
 a short syllable and a long one ; as, betray, confess. 
 
 The Trochee, or Choree, is a poetic foot consisting of 
 a long syllable and a short one ; as, hateful, pettish. 
 
 The Anapest is a poetic foot consisting of two short 
 syllables and one long one ; as, contravene, acquiesce. 
 
 The Dactyl is a poetic foot consisting of one long sylla- 
 ble and two short ones ; as, laborer, possible. 
 
 We have, accordingly, four principal kinds of verse, or 
 
 poetic measure; Iambic, Trochaic, Anapestic, and 
 Dactylic. 
 
 OBS. 1. The more pure these several kinds are preserved, the more 
 exact and complete is the chime of the verse. But poets generally in- 
 dulge some variety ; not so much, however, as to confound the drLt ol 
 the rythmical pulsations. 
 
 OBS. 2. Among the occasional diversifications of meter, are sometimes 
 found, or supposed, sundry other feet, which are called secondary : as, 
 the Spondee, a foot of two long syllables ; the Pyrrhic, of two short ; the 
 Moloss, of three long syllables ; the Tribrach, of three short ; the Am- 
 phibrach, a long syllable with a short one on each side ; the Amphimac, 
 Amphimacer, or Cretic, a short syllable with a long one on each side ; 
 the Bacchy, a short syllable and two long ones ; the Antibacchy, or Hy- 
 pobacchy, two long syllables and a short one. Yet few, if any, of these 
 
296 PKOSODY. 
 
 feet, are really necessary to a sufficient explanation of English verse ; and 
 the adopting of so many is liable to the great objection, that we thereby 
 produce different modes of measuring the same lines. 
 
 OBS. 3. Sometimes, also, verses are variegated by what is called the 
 pedal casura, or cesure (i. e. , cutting), which is a single long syllable 
 counted by itself as a foot. For, despite the absurd suggestions of many 
 grammarians and prosodists to the contrary, all metrical deficiencies and 
 redundancies embrace nothing but short syllables, and the number of 
 long ones in a line is almost always the number of feet which compose 
 it; as, 
 
 " Keeping | time, \ time, \ time, 
 In a | sort of | Runic rhyme." E. A. Poe. 
 
 Scanning. 
 
 Scanning, or Scansion, is the dividing of verses 
 into the feet which compose them, according to the several 
 orders of poetic numbers, or the different kinds of meter. 
 
 OBS. When a syllable is wanting, the verse is said to be catalectic ; 
 when the measure is exact, the line is acatalectic ; when there is a re- 
 dundant syllable, it forms hypermeter, or a line hypercatalectic. 
 
 Order I. Iambic Verse. 
 
 In iambic verse, the stress is laid on the even syllables, 
 and the odd ones are short. It consists of the following 
 measures : 
 
 Measure 1st. Iambic of Eight Feet, or Octometer : 
 
 "O all | ye" peo|-ple", clap | your hands, | and with | triumphant voic|- 
 
 6s Sing ; 
 
 No force | the might ]-y pow'r | withstands | of God | the uj-niversj-al 
 King." 
 
 OBS. Each couplet of this verse is now commonly reduced to, or ex- 
 changed for, a simple stanza of four tetrameter lines ; thus, 
 "The hour | is come | the cherl-ish'd hour, 
 
 When from | the busj-y world | set free, 
 I seek j at length | my lone|-ly bower, 
 
 And muse | in si;-lent thought \ on thee." Hook. 
 
 Measure 2d. Iambic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter : 
 "The* Lord | descend |-e"d from | ftbove, | and bow'd | the heav|-6na 
 high." 
 
VERSIFICATION. 297 
 
 OBS. Modern poets have divided this kind of verse, into alternate 
 lines of four and of three feet ; thus, 
 
 "O blind | to each | Indul |-gent aim 
 
 Of pow'r | supreme |-ly wise, 
 Who fan|-cy hap|-piness | in aught 
 The hand | of heav'n | denies ! " 
 
 Measure 3d. Iambic of Six Feet, or Hexameter : 
 "Thy realm | forev|-er lasts, | thy 5wn | M6ssi|-ah reigns." 
 
 OBS. This is the Alexandrine ; it is seldom used except to complete 
 a stanza in an ode, or occasionally to close a period in heroic rhyme. 
 French heroics are similar to this. 
 
 Measure th. Iambic of Five Feet, or Pentameter : 
 " For praise | t5o dearj-l^ I5v'd | or warm|-ly sought, 
 
 Enfee|-bles all | inter |-nal strength | of thought." 
 " With solemn ad|-ora|-tion down | they cast 
 
 Their crowns, | inwove | with amj-arant | and gold." 
 
 OBS. 1. This is the regular English heroic. It is, perhaps, the 
 only measure suitable for blank verse. 
 
 OBS. 2. The elegiac stanza consists of four heroics rhyming al- 
 ternately; as, 
 
 "Enough | has Heav'n | indulg'd | of joy | below, 
 
 To tempt | our tarj-riance in | this lov'd | retreat; 
 Enough | has Heav'n | ordain'd | of use|-ful wo, 
 To make | us lang|-uish for | a hap | -pier seat." 
 
 Measure 5th. Iambic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter : 
 "The joys | above | are un | -derstood 
 And rel|-ish'd on|-ly by | the good." 
 
 Measure 6th. Iambic of Three Feet, or Trimeter : 
 " Blue lightl-nlngs singe | the waves, 
 And thun|-der rends | the rock." 
 
 Measure 7th. Iambic of Two Feet, or Dimeter : 
 
 "Their love | and awe 
 
 Supply | the law." 
 
 Measure Sth. Iambic of One Foot, or Monometer : 
 " How bright, 
 The light ! " 
 
 OBS. 1. Lines of fewer than seven syllables are seldom found, ex- 
 cept in connection with longer verses. 
 
 OBS. 2. In iambic verse, the first foot is often varied, by introducing 
 a trochee ; as, 
 
 "Pfanete | and suns 1 rim law] -less through | thS skj." 
 
298 PROSODY. 
 
 OBS. 3. By a synaeresis of the two short syllables, or perhaps by mere 
 substitution, an anapest may sometimes be employed for an iambus ; or 
 a dactyl, for a trochee ; as, 
 
 " O'er man\-y a/r0|-zen, man|-# afi\-er-y Alp." 
 
 Order II. Trochaic Verse. 
 
 In trochaic verse, the stress is laid on the odd sylla- 
 bles, and the even ones are short. Single-rhymed trochaic 
 omits the final short syllable, that it may end with a long one. 
 This kind of verse is the same as iambic would be without 
 the initial short syllable. Iambics and trochaics often occur 
 in the same poem. 
 
 Measure 1st. Trochaic of Eight Feet, or Octometer : 
 "Once up | -on a | midnight | dreary, | while I | pondered, ' freak and 
 
 weary, 
 
 Over | many a \ quaint and | curious \ volume | of for] -gotten | lore, 
 While I | nodded, | nearly | napping, j sudden |-ly there | came a | 
 
 tapping, 
 
 As of | some one | gently | rapping, | rapping | at my | chamber 
 | door." 
 
 Measure 2cf. Trochaic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter : 
 " Hasten, | Lord, to | rescue | me, and | set me | safe from | trouble ; 
 Shame thou | those who | seek my | soul, re 1 -ward their | mischief J 
 double." 
 
 Single Khyme : 
 
 "Night and j morning | were at | meeting | over | Water) -loo; 
 Cocks had j sung their | earliest \ greeting ; j faint and | low they | 
 crew." 
 
 Measure 3d. Trochaic of Six Feet, or Hexameter: 
 "On a | mountain | stretch'd be|-neath a j hoary | willow, 
 Lay a j shepherd | swain, and | view'd the | rolling | billow." 
 
 Single Rhyme : 
 
 " Lonely | in the | forest, | subtle | from his ] birth, 
 Lived | a necro|-mancer, | wondrous | son of | earth." 
 
 Measure th. Trochaic of Five Feet, or Pentameter: 
 "Virtue's | bright'ning | ray shall | beam for | ever." 
 
 Single Rhyme : 
 
 "IdlS | aft6r | dinner, | in his | chair, 
 Sat a | farmer, | ruddy, | fat, and 1 fair." 
 
VERSIFICATION. 299 
 
 Measure 5th. Trochaic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter : 
 
 "Round a | holy | calm dif) -fusing, 
 Love of | peace and j lonely | musing." 
 
 Single Bhyme : 
 
 "Restless | mortals | toil for | naught, 
 Bliss in J vain from | earth is | sought." 
 
 Measure 6th. Trochaic of Three Feet, or Trimeter : 
 "When our | hearts are | mourning." 
 
 Single Bhyme : 
 " In th6 | days of | old, 
 Stories | plainly | told." 
 
 Measure 1th. Trochaic of Two Feet, or Dimeter : 
 
 " Fancy | viewing, 
 Joys en | -suing." 
 
 Single Khyme : 
 "Tumult | cease, 
 Sink to | peace." 
 
 Measure 8th. Trochaic of One Foot, or Monometer : 
 " Changing, 
 Ranging." 
 
 Order III. Anapestic Verse. 
 
 In anapestic verse the stress is laid on every third 
 syllable. The first foot of an anapestic line may be an iambus. 
 
 Measure ~Lst. Anapestic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter : 
 
 " At th6 close | of th6 day, | when the ham | let Is still, 
 
 And mor |-tals the sweets | of forget [-fulness prove." 
 
 Hypermeter with Double Bhyme : 
 
 " In a word, | so complete |-ly forestall'd | were the wish|-es, 
 
 Even har j-mony struck | from the noise | of the dish|-es." 
 
 Hypermeter with Triple Bhyme : 
 
 " Lean Tom, | when I saw | him, last week, | on his horse \ awry, 
 Threaten'd loud|-ly to turn | me to stone | with his sor\-cery." 
 
 Measure 2d. Anapestic of Three Feet, or Trimeter : 
 
 " I am mon j-arch of all | I survey ; 
 My right | there is none I to dispute." 
 
300 PROSODY. 
 
 Measure 3c?. Anapestic of Two Feet, or Dimeter j 
 
 " Wh6n I look | on my boys, 
 They renew | all my joys." 
 
 Measure Uh. Anapestic of One Foot, or Monometer: 
 
 " On the land 
 Let me stand." 
 
 Order IV. Dactylic Verse. 
 
 In pure dactylic verse the stress is laid on the first syl- 
 lable of each successive three ; that is, on the first, the fourth, 
 the seventh, the tenth syllable, etc. Full dactylic generally 
 forms triple rhyme. When one of the final short syllables is 
 omitted, the rhyme is double ; when both are omitted, single. 
 Dactylic with single rhyme is the same as .anapestic would be 
 without its initial short syllables. Dactylic measure is rather 
 uncommon, and is seldom perfectly regular. 
 
 Measure 1st. Dactylic of Eight Feet, or Octometer : 
 " Nimrod the | hunter was | mighty In | hunting, and | famed as the j 
 
 ruler Sf | cities of | yore ; 
 
 Babel, and [ Erech, and | Accad, and | Calneh, from | Shinar's fair j 
 region his | name afar | bore." 
 
 Measure 2d. Dactylic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter : 
 "Out of the | kingdom of | Christ shall be | gathered, by | angels o'er[ 
 
 Satan vie |-torious, % 
 
 All that of |-fendeth, that { lieth, that | faileth to | honor his j name 
 ever | glorious." 
 
 Measure 3d. Dactylic of Six Feet, or Hexameter : 
 " Time, thou art | ever in | motion, on | wheels of the | days, years, and 
 
 Restless as | waves of the I ocean, when | Eurus or | Boreas | rages." 
 
 Example without Rhyme : 
 *' This is the | forest prij-meval ; but | where are the | hearts that bej- 
 
 neath it 
 
 Leap'd like the | roe, when he | hears in the \ woodland the | voice of 
 the | huntsman ? " 
 
 Measure th. Dactylic of Five Feet, or Pentameter : 
 "Now thou dost | welcome me, | welcome me, | from the dark | sea, 
 Land of the | beautiful, | beautiful | land of the | free." 
 
VERSIFICATION. 301 
 
 Measure 5th. Dactylic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter : 
 
 " Boys will Sn j-tlclpate, | lavish, and | dissipate 
 
 All that your | Msy 1 pate | hoarded with | care ; 
 And, in their | foolishness, | passion, and | mulishness, 
 Charge you with | churlishness, | spurning your | pray'r." 
 
 Measure Qlh. Dactylic of Three Feet, or Trimeter : 
 "Ever sing | merrily, | merrily." 
 
 Measure 7th. Dactylic of Two Feet, or Dimeter : 
 
 "Freefr6msa|tie-t?, 
 
 Care, and anx | iety, 
 
 Charms in va | riety, 
 
 Fall to his | share." 
 
 Measure Sth. Dactylic of One Foot, or Monometer : 
 
 " Fearfull?, 
 Tearfully." ' 
 
 Exercises in Scanning. 
 
 Divide the following verses into the feet which compose them, and dfo 
 tinguish by marks the long and the short syllables. 
 
 DEITY. 
 
 Alone thou sitst above the everlasting hills, 
 
 And all immensity of space thy presence fills : 
 For thou alone art God ; as God thy saints adore thee ; 
 Jehovah is thy name ; they have no gods before thee. G. B. 
 
 HEALTH. 
 Up the dewy mountain, Health is bounding lightly ; 
 
 On her brows a garland, twin'd with richest posies : 
 Gay is she, elate with hope, and smiling sprightly ; 
 
 Kedder is her cheek, and sweeter, than the rose is. G. B. 
 
 IMPENITENCE. 
 The impenitent sinner whom mercy empowers, 
 
 Dishonors that goodness which seeks to restore ; 
 As the sands of the desert are water'd by showers, 
 
 Yet barren and fruitless remain as before. G. Brown. 
 
 PIETY. 
 Holy and pure are the pleasures of piety, 
 
 Drawn from the fountain of mercy and love ; 
 Endless, exhaustless, exempt from satiety, 
 
 Eising unearthly, and soaring above. G. Brown. 
 
302 PROSODY. 
 
 A SIMILE. 
 
 The bolt that strikes the tow'ring cedar dead, 
 Oft passes harmless o'er the hazel's head. G. Brown. 
 
 ANOTHER SIMILE. 
 
 " Yet to the general's voice they soon obey'd 
 Innumerable. As when the potent rod 
 Of Amram's son, in Egypt's evil day, 
 Wav'd round the coast, up call'd a pitchy cloud 
 Of locusts, warping on the eastern wind, 
 That o'er the realm of impious Pharaoh hung 
 Like night, and darken'd all the land of Nile." Milton. 
 
 ELEGIAC STANZA. 
 
 Thy name is dear 'tis virtue balm'd in love ; 
 Yet e'en thy name a pensive sadness brings. 
 Ah ! wo the day, our hearts were doom'd to prove, 
 That fondest love but points affliction's stings ! G. Brown. 
 
 CUPID. 
 Zephyrs, moving bland, and breathing fragrant 
 
 With the sweetest odors of the spring, 
 O'er the winged boy, a thoughtless vagrant, 
 
 Slumb'ring in the grove, their perfumes fling. G. Brown. 
 
 DIVINE POWEK. 
 When the winds o'er Gennesaret roar'd, 
 
 And the billows tremendously rose, 
 The Saviour but utter'd the word ; 
 They were hush'd to the calmest repose. G 1 . Brown. 
 
 INVITATION. 
 Come from the mount of the leopard, spouse, 
 
 Come from the den of the lion ; 
 Come to the tent of thy shepherd, spouse, 
 Come to the mountain of Zion. G. Brown. 
 
 ADMONITION. 
 In the days of thy youth, 
 
 Remember thy God : 
 O ! forsake not his truth, 
 Incur not his rod. G. Brown. 
 
 COMMENDATION. 
 Constant and duteous, 
 
 Meek as the dove, 
 How art thou beauteous, 
 
 Daughter of love ! G. Brown. 
 
VERSIFICATION. 303 
 
 EDWIN, AN ODE. 
 
 I. STKOPHE. 
 
 Led by the power of song, and nature's love, 
 Which raise the soul all vulgar themes above, 
 The mountain grove 
 Would Edwin rove, 
 In pensive mood, alone ; 
 And seek the woody dell, 
 Where noontide shadows fell, 
 Cheering, 
 Veering, 
 
 Moved by the zephyr's swell. 
 Here nursed he thoughts to genius only known, 
 *" When naught was heard around 
 
 But soothed the rest profound 
 Of rural beauty on her mountain throne. 
 
 Nor less he loved (rude nature's child) 
 The elemental conflict wild ; 
 When, fold on fold, above was piled 
 The watery swathe, careering on the wind. 
 Such scenes he saw 
 With solemn awe, 
 
 As in the presence of th' Eternal Mind. 
 Fixed he gazed, 
 Tranced and raised, 
 Sublimely rapt in awful pleasure undefined. 
 
 II. ANTISTROPHE. 
 
 Eeckless of dainty joys, he finds delight 
 Where feebler souls but tremble with affright, 
 Lo ! now, within the deep ravine, 
 A black impending cloud 
 Infolds him in its shroud, 
 And dark and darker glooms the scene, 
 Through the thicket streaming, 
 Lightnings now are gleaming ; 
 Thunders rolling dread, 
 Shake the mountain's head ; 
 Nature's war 
 Echoes far 
 O'er ether borne. 
 
304 PROSODY. 
 
 That flash 
 The ash 
 
 Has scathed and torn! 
 Now it rages ; 
 Oaks of ages, 
 
 Writhing in the furious blast, 
 Wide their leafy honors cast ; 
 Their gnarled arms do force to force oppose : 
 Deep rooted in the creviced rock, 
 The sturdy trunk sustains the shock, 
 Like dauntless hero firm against assailing foes. 
 
 m. EPODE. 
 
 O Thou who sits ahove these vapors dense, 
 And rul'st the storm by thine omnipotence 
 Making the collied cloud thy car, 
 Coursing the winds, thou rid'st afar, 
 
 Thy blessings to dispense. 
 The early and the latter rain, 
 Which fertilize the dusty plain, 
 
 Thy bounteous goodness pours. 
 Dumb be the atheist tongue abhorred I 
 All nature owns thee, sovereign Lord I 
 
 And works thy gracious will ; 
 At thy command the tempest roars, 
 At thy command is still. 
 Thy mercy o'er this scene sublime presides ; 
 'Tis mercy forms the veil that hides 
 
 The ardent solar beam ; 
 While from the volleyed breast of heaven, 
 Transient gleams of dazzling light, 
 Flashing on the balls of sight, 
 
 Make darkness darker seem. 
 Thou mov'st the quick and sulph'rous leven 
 The tempest-driven 
 
 Cloud is riven ; 
 
 And the thirsty mountain-side 
 Drinks gladly of the gushing tide.' 
 
 Bo breathed young Edwin, when the summer shower 
 From out that dark o'erchamb'ring cloud, 
 With lightning flash and thunder loud, 
 
 Burst in wild grandeur o'er his solitary bower. G. Brown* 
 
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 305 
 
 Questions for Heview. 
 
 I. PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Of what does Prosody treat ? 
 
 What is Punctuation ? 
 
 What are the principal points, or marks ? 
 
 What pauses are denoted by the first four points ? 
 
 What pauses are required by the other four ? 
 
 What is the general use of the comma ? 
 
 How many rules for the comma are there ? what are their heads ? 
 
 What says Rule 1st of simple sentences ? Rule 2d, of simple members ? Rule 
 3d, of more than two words ? Rule 4th, of only two words ? Rule 5th, of 
 words in pairs ? Rule 6th, of words put absolute ? Rule 7th, of words in 
 apposition ? Rule 8th, of adjectives ? Rule 9th, of finite verbs /Rule 
 10th, of infinitives? Rule llth, of participles? Rule 12th, of adverbs? 
 Rule 13th, of conjunctions? Rule 14th, of prepositions ? Rule 15th, of 
 interjections /Rule 16th, of words repeated /Rule 17th, of dependent 
 quotations ? 
 
 II. PUNCTUATION. 
 
 How many and what exceptions are there to Rule 1st for the comma? to 
 Rule 3d ? to Rule 3d ? to Rule 4th 1 to Rule 5th ? to Rule 6th ? to 
 Rule 7th ? to Rule 8th ? to Rule 9th ? to Rule 10th ? to Rule llth ? 
 to Rule 12th? to Rule 13th? to Rule Hth ?-to Rule 15th? to Rule 
 16th ? to Rule 17th ? 
 
 When are different words said to be in the same construction ? 
 
 III. PUNCTUATION. 
 
 What is the general use of the semicolon ? 
 
 How many rules are there for the semicolon ? what are their heads ? 
 What says Rule 1st of compound members? Rule 3d, of simple members? 
 
 Rule 3d, of words in apposition ? 
 What is the general use of the colon ? 
 
 How many rules are there for the colon ? what are their heads ? 
 What says Rule 1st of additional remarks /Rule 2d, of greater pauses? 
 
 Rule 3d, of independent quotations ? 
 What is the general use of the period ? 
 
 How many rules are there for the period ? what are their heads ? 
 What says Rule 1st of distinct sentences /Rule 2d, of allied sentences /Rule 
 
 3d, of abbreviations ? 
 
 IV. PUNCTUATION. 
 
 What is the use of the dash ? 
 
 How many rules are there for the dash ? what are their heads ? 
 
 What says Rule 1st of abrupt pauses / Rule 2d, of emphatic pauses? Rule 
 
 3d, of faulty dashes? 
 
 What is the use of the eroteme, or note of interrogation ? 
 How many rules are there for it ? what are their heads ? 
 30 
 
306 PROSODY. 
 
 What says Rule 1st of questions direct ? Rule 3d, of questions united ? Rule 
 
 3d, of questions indirect ? 
 
 What is the use of the ecphoneme, or note of exclamation ? 
 How many rules are there for it ? What are their heads ? 
 What says Rule 1st of interjections /Rule 3d, of invocations ? Rule 3d, of 
 
 exclamatory questions ? 
 
 V. PUNCTUATION. 
 
 What is the use of the curves, or marks of parenthesis ? 
 
 How many rules are there for them ? What are their heads ? 
 
 What says Rule 1st of the parenthesis /Rule 3d, of included points ? 
 
 What is said about other marks ? 
 
 What is the use of the apostrophe? of the hyphen ? of the diaeresis ? of 
 the acute accent? of the grave accent? of the circumflex? of the 
 breve ? of the macron ? of the ellipsis ? of the caret ? of the brace ? 
 of the section ? of the paragraph ? of the quotation points ? of the 
 crotchets ? of the index ? of the asterisk, the obelisk, the double dag- 
 ger, and the parallels ? of the asterism ? of the cedilla ? 
 
 [Having correctly answered the foregoing questions, the pupil should be taught to 
 apply what he has learned ; and, for this purpose, he may be required to read the preface 
 to this volume, or a portion of any other accurately pointed book, and to assign a reason 
 for every mark he finds.] 
 
 VI. UTTERANCE. 
 
 What is Utterance ? What does it include ? 
 
 What is pronunciation ? What does pronunciation require ? 
 
 What are the just powers of the letters ? 
 
 What is accent ? Is every word accented ? 
 
 Can a word have more than one accent ? 
 
 What four things distinguish the elegant speaker ? 
 
 What is elocution ? What does elocution require ? What is emphasis ? 
 
 What are pauses ? What is said of their duration ? 
 
 What are inflections ? What is called the rising inflection ? What is called 
 
 the falling inflection ? How are these inflections exemplified ? How are 
 
 they used in asking questions ? 
 What are tones ? Why do they deserve particular attention ? 
 
 VII. FIGURES. 
 
 What is a Figure in grammar ? How many kinds of figures are there ? 
 What is a figure of orthography ? Name the figures of this kind. 
 What is mimesis ? What is an archaism ? 
 What is a figure of etymology ? 
 How many and what are the figures of etymology ? 
 
 What is aphseresis ? prosthesis ? syncope ? apocope ? paragoge ? diaere- 
 sis ? synaeresis ? tmesis ? 
 
 What is a figure of syntax ? How many and what are the figures of syntax V 
 What is ellipsis in grammar ? Are sentences often elliptical? 
 
QUESTIONS FOR EEVIEW. 307 
 
 How can there be an ellipsis of the article ? the noun ? the adjective ? the 
 pronoun ? the verb ? the participle ? the adverb ? the conjunction ? 
 the preposition ? the interjection ? a phrase or a clause ? 
 
 What is pleonasm ? When is this figure allowable ? 
 
 What is syllepsis ? enallage ? hyperbaton ? What is said of hyperbaton ? 
 
 VIII. FIGURES. 
 
 What is a figure of rhetoric ? What name have some such figures ? 
 
 Do figures of rhetoric often occur ? On what are they founded ? 
 
 How many and what are the principal figures of rhetoric ? 
 
 What is a simile ? a metaphor ? an allegory ? a metonymy ? synecdoche ? 
 
 hyperbole ? vision ? apostrophe ? personification ? erotesis ? ec- 
 
 phonesis ? antithesis ? climax ? irony ? 
 
 IX. VERSIFICATION. 
 
 What is Versification ? What is the quantity of a syllable ? 
 How is quantity denominated ? How is it said to be proportioned ? 
 On what does quantity depend ? What sounds are the most easily length- 
 ened? 
 
 What words are variable in quantity ? What syllables are fixed? 
 What is rhyme ? What is blank verse ? 
 
 Of what does a line of poetry consist ? Of what does a. foot consist ? 
 What are the principal English feet ? 
 What is an iambus ? a trochee ? an anapest ? a dactyl ? 
 How many kinds of verse are there ? 
 What is scanning, or scansion ? 
 
 X. VERSIFICATION. 
 
 ..What syllables are accented in an iambic line ? 
 What are the several measures of iambic verse ? 
 What syllables are accented in a trochaic line ? 
 What are the several measures of trochaic verse ? 
 What syllables are accented in an anapestic line ? 
 What are the several measures of anapestic verse ? 
 What syllables are accented in a dactylic line ? 
 What are the several measures of dactylic verse? 
 
COMPOSITION. 
 
 AFTER studying carefully the Rules for Punctuation (page 
 252), the pupil will be sufficiently advanced to apply to his own 
 compositions the various principles and rules requisite for 
 their full correction. The following suggestions are designed 
 to afford a guide to the teacher and pupils for a series of 
 graded exercises in composition, in continuation of the practi- 
 cal language lessons already interspersed through this 
 work. 
 
 In connection with these exercises, the pupils should be required to study carefully tha 
 principles and rules contained in Appendix II. 
 
 Preliminary Exercises. 
 
 1. Eead a story, biographical sketch, or incident in history-; 
 and require the pupils to reproduce it in their own language, as 
 far as possible. 
 
 This exercise should be continued sufficiently long to familiarize the 
 pupils with the narrative style of composition, and to teach them to 
 avoid the awkward expressions and repetitions customary with those 
 untrained in this branch of composition. The simplest and easiest 
 narratives should at first be selected. 
 
 2. Write out, or otherwise give to the pupils, a full account of 
 my particular incident or event, and require them to abridge or 
 condense it, omitting all but the most important circumstances. 
 
 3. Write a brief account of any incident or event, and require 
 the pupils to expand it, adding any circumstances which they 
 may conceive could have existed or occurred in connection with 
 the facts stated, 
 
COMPOSITION. 309 
 
 Both of these exercises of condensation and expansion should be con- 
 tinued for some time, as they cultivate special faculties of the mind, 
 most important to be addressed in training the pupil in the production 
 and expression of thought. 
 
 4. Select apiece of poetry, and require the pupils to express 
 the same thoughts in prose, using a plainer and less figurative 
 style. 
 
 Be careful to select only such pieces as are fully adapted to th pupils' 
 comprehension. 
 
 5. Require the pupils to write an analysis of any piece of 
 prose or poetry, giving the topics treated, with the arguments and 
 illustrations employed, etc. 
 
 Begin with easy pieces, and advance gradually to more difficult ones. 
 Do not give argumentative pieces at first. This exercise, when skillfully 
 employed, is a most excellent one, as it will go far to impart to the 
 mind habits of regular, logical thought. 
 
 6. Require the pupils to write out criticisms of selected pieces, 
 making observations on the thoughts, their arrangement and re- 
 lation to the subject, as well as the modes of expression employed. 
 
 These exercises will prepare the mind for writing compositions on 
 miscellaneous subjects. This is a task which should never be im- 
 posed without the preliminary exercises. Many pupils are permanently 
 disgusted with composition by being required to perform this impossi- 
 ble task. 
 
 Original Composition. 
 
 7. Assign a subject, or theme, and suggest the mode of treat- 
 ment, writing down for the pupils the topics which should be con- 
 sidered and discussed, with the arrangement to be employed. 
 
 This exercise should be pursued until the pupils' minds have become 
 accustomed to the discovery of topics. It is designed to afford training 
 in what is called, in rhetoric, Invention. 
 
 During the exercise, the teachers should require the pupils to suggest 
 the topics, before deciding himself what is proper. 
 
 8. Reverse the above exercise ; that is, select an appropriate 
 subject, and require the pupils to discover the topics which should 
 
310 APPENDIX. 
 
 be treated under it, and to write, by properly arranging them, an 
 analysis of the mode of treatment. 
 
 This should be done at first so as to afford a brief sketch or outline, 
 which afterward may be expanded or filled in, by suggesting illustra- 
 tions, arguments, etc., under each topic. As considerable exercise of 
 this kind will be needed, the pupils should be required to write out in 
 full only an occasional composition ; but the analysis should be copied in 
 a book, and preserved by the pupil, for the next exercise, which is the 
 writing of compositions on selected themes. 
 
 9. Require the pupils to write compositions on subjects either 
 selected for them or suggested by their own minds. 
 
 It is preferable, at this stage, that the pupils should select their own 
 subjects, as a general thing, in order to give full scope to the original 
 suggestions of the mind, and to the unfolding of any special talent or 
 genius for composition, which will often be found to show itself under 
 the training here outlined, if it be faithfully persevered in. 
 
 LETTER- WRITING. 
 
 In connection with the above exercises, the pupils should 
 be instructed in letter-writing. This will include the 
 proper forms as shown below. 
 
 Heading. 
 
 The heading consists of the name of the place (sometimes 
 the street and number) from which the letter is sent, and the 
 date, including month, day, and year. This should be writ- 
 ten a line or two from the top of the page, and should be 
 commenced so that it may end near the margin of the sheet 
 at the right. Thus : 
 
 Q/r ew Ol@aven_, 
 
LETTER-WRITING. 311 
 
 Or, when the street is mentioned : 
 
 (Sort 
 
 SO, 
 
 Observe the order HOUSE, STREET, CITY, STATE, DATE and 
 the capitals and pauses. 
 
 If you live in the country, the order should be TOWN 
 (COUNTY), STATE, DATE. If the town is large the County may 
 be omitted, unless there are other towns in the State having 
 the same name. 
 
 Put the following headings into correct form : 
 
 1. 317 Pennsylvania ave Washington dc June 9 1872 
 
 2. manchester vt bennington co dec 18 1891 
 
 3. indianapolis p o box 215 Ind. 30 sept 1885 
 
 4. kenmore house march 24 new york albany 1892 
 
 Address. 
 
 The address should follow on the next line, near the left 
 side of the page, usually a little to the right of the body of 
 the letter. The address consists of the name, with some 
 title of respect or professional title, and residence. The resi- 
 dence is generally omitted except in formal letters and those 
 in which the name is written at the close of the letter. 
 Thus : 
 
 For very formal letters : 
 To a gentleman. 
 
 own, 
 
312 LETTER-WRITING. 
 
 To a lady. 
 
 (Use Mrs. for a married lady.) 
 
 Sft^ate <? (ffie/dd, 
 QMaaam, 
 
 In ordinary use : 
 
 am & 
 
 66- 
 
 To a company : 
 
 o tne ISSoata cff 
 
 implying greater intimacy 
 c&al 
 
LETTER-WRITING. 313 
 
 Close the letter by writing the full name, title, and resi- 
 dence at the lower left-hand corner on the line below your 
 own signature, as follows : 
 
 % Ja 
 
 i&veiana, & 
 
 In less formal letters, the name, title, and residence may 
 be written below and at the left of the signature, at the end 
 of the letter. ^ 
 
 Other forms will be required according to circumstances, 
 varying with the persons addressed and the terms of intimacy 
 that exist. Thus : 
 
 A. B. Palmer, l&g. ; John Porter, M.D. ; Dr. John Porter; 
 B. C. Baldwin, LL.D. ; Rev. H. J. Davis, or Rev. Mr. Davis; 
 Noah Porter, D.D., LL.D. ; etc. 
 
 When ladies are addressed, the following are customary : 
 
 Miss Brown ; Miss Kate Field; Mrs. George Burns; Mrs. 
 General Grant ; etc. 
 
 These may be followed by : 
 
 Sir, Dear Sir, My dear Sir, Sirs, Gentlemen ; Madam, Dear 
 Madam, My dear Madam, Ladies ; Dear Mr. Hart, My dear 
 Mr. Smith ; Dear Friend, My dear Friend ; etc. 
 
 The title Hon. is applied to persons holding high govern- 
 mental positions ; His Excellency is sometimes applied to the 
 President of the United States and to State Governors. 
 
 Put the following addresses into correct form : 
 
 1. mr george n smith pittsburgh pa 
 
 2. rev p w stowell salem. mass 
 
 3. d n kinsman md long st columbus ohio 
 
 4. prof alfred jones Johns hopkins university baltimore md 
 
 5. mrs samuel goodale waterbury conn. 
 
 Body. 
 
 The body of the letter should be commenced on the line 
 next below the address, and a little to the right of it. The 
 
314 
 
 style will vary with the character of the letter. Business let- 
 ters should be formal, brief, and to the point. Friendly cor- 
 respondence requires an easy, familiar style, for the acquisi- 
 tion of which the study of good models will be very usefuL 
 A few specimens for the opening are here given : 
 
 Yours of the 5th inst. is just received, etc. 
 
 Your favor of the 3d inst. is received, etc. 
 
 Your esteemed favor of the Wth inst. is at hand, etc. 
 
 / am in receipt of yours, etc. 
 
 Yours of the 20/i ult. has remained unanswered until now, etc. 
 
 Closing. 
 
 The forms of closing, followed by the signature, are various. 
 A few are here given : 
 
 Respectfully yours ; Very respectfully yours / Truly yours ; 
 Yours truly ; Very truly yours ; Your obedient servant ; Your 
 obedient, humble servant ; Yours cordially ; Faithfully yours ; 
 Yours affectionately ; Ever affectionately yours ; As ever, your 
 friend; etc. 
 
 Write a letter of 100 words to a school friend. Write one 
 to your teacher thanking her for her kindness in assisting 
 you in your lessons after school. 
 
 Write a letter home, supposing yourself away at boarding- 
 school. 
 
 Write a letter in reply to an advertisement for a boy in a 
 publisher's office. State your qualifications. 
 
 In all you write REMEMBER to be neat ; courteous ; care- 
 ful in spelling, punctuation, and capitals; and, in business 
 letters especially, brief and definite. 
 
 Superscription. 
 
 Write the name about midway between the top and bot- 
 tom of the envelope ; under this write the address, commenc- 
 ing each line a little farther to the right than that above it. 
 Great care should be taken to make the address as legible as 
 possible. 
 
 Affix the postage stamp to the right-hand corner at the top 
 of the envelope. 
 
The following are examples : 
 
 I Stamp. 
 
 
 
316 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 o/i ^ 
 
 s 
 
 m 
 
QUALITIES OF STYLE. 
 
 STYLE is the particular manner in which a person expresses his con- 
 ceptions by means of language. It is different from mere words, and is 
 not to be regulated altogether by rules of construction. It always has 
 some relation to the author's peculiar manner of thinking ; and, being 
 that sort of expression which his thoughts most readily assume, some- 
 times partakes, not only of what is characteristic of the man, but even 
 of national peculiarity. The words which an author employs, may be 
 proper, and so constructed as to violate no rule of syntax ; and yet his 
 style may have great faults. 
 
 To designate the general characters of style, such epithets as concise, 
 diffuse, neat, negligent, nervous, feeble, simple, affected, easy, 
 stiff, perspicuous, obscure, elegant, florid, are employed. A con- 
 siderable diversity of style, may be found in compositions all equally 
 excellent in their kind. And, indeed, different subjects, as well as the 
 different endowments by which genius is distinguished, require this 
 diversity. But in forming his style, the learner should remember, that 
 a negligent, feeble, affected, stiff, or obscure style, is always faulty ; 
 and that perspicuity, ease, simplicity, strength, and neatness, are quali- 
 ties always to be aimed at. 
 
 In order to acquire a good style, the frequent practice of composing 
 and writing something, is indispensably necessary. Without exercise 
 and diligent attention, rules or precepts for the attainment of this object 
 will be of no avail. When the learner has acquired such a knowledge 
 of grammar, as to be in some degree qualified for the undertaking, he 
 should devote a stated portion of his time to composition. This exer- 
 cise will bring the powers of his mind into requisition, in a way that is 
 well calculated to strengthen them. And if he has opportunity for 
 reading, he may, by a diligent perusal of the best authors, acquire both 
 language and taste, as well as sentiment ; and these three are the essen- 
 tial qualifications of a good writer. 
 
 In regard to the qualities which constitute a good style, we can here 
 offer no more than a few brief hints. W T ith respect to words and 
 phrases, particular attention should be paid to purity, propriety, and pre- 
 cision ; and, with respect to sentences, to perspicuity, unity, and strength. 
 Under each of these heads, we shall arrange, in the form of short pre- 
 cepts, a few of the most important directions for the forming of a good 
 style. 
 
 I. Purity. 
 
 Purity of style consists in the use of such words and phrases only, ag 
 belong to the language which we write or speak, 
 
318 APPENDIX. 
 
 PRECEPT 1. Avoid the unnecessary use of foreign words or idioms: 
 as fraicheur, hauteur, delicatesse, politesse t noblesse ; he repented him- 
 self; it serves to an excellent purpose. 
 
 PRECEPT 2. Avoid, on ordinary occasions, obsolete or antiquated 
 words ; as, whilom, erewhile, whoso, albeit, moreover, aforetime, me- 
 thinks. 
 
 PRECEPT 3. Avoid strange or unauthorized words ; as, flutteration, 
 inspectator, judgematical, incumberment, connexity, decterized, martyr- 
 ized. 
 
 PRECEPT 4. Avoid bombast, or affectation of fine writing. It is 
 ridiculous, however serious the subject : as, " Personifications, however 
 rich the depictions, and unconstrained their latitude ; analogies, how- 
 ever imposing the objects of parallel, and the media of comparison ; can 
 never expose the consequences of sin to the extent of fact, or the range 
 of demonstration." Anonymous. 
 
 II. Propriety. 
 
 Propriety of language consists in the selection and right construction, 
 of such words as the best usage has appropriated to those ideas which 
 we intend to express by them. 
 
 PRECEPT 1. Avoid* low and provincial expressions : such as, " Say* 
 I ; " " Thinks 1 to myself ;" " To get into a scrape ; " " Stay here 
 while I return." 
 
 PRECEPT 2. In writing prose, avoid words and phrases that are 
 merely poetical: such as, morn, eve, plaint, lone, amid, oft, steepy ; 
 " what time the winds arise." 
 
 PRECEPT 3. Avoid technical terms ; except where they are neces- 
 sary, in treating of a particular art or science. In technology, they are 
 pro'per. 
 
 PRECEPT 4. Avoid the recurrence of words in different senses, or 
 such a repetition of words as denotes paucity of language; as, "His 
 own reason might have suggested better reasons." " Gregory favored 
 the undertaking, for no other reason than this, that the manager, in 
 countenance, favored his friend." "I want to go and see what he 
 wants." 
 
 PRECEPT 5. Supply words that are wanting: thus, instead of say- 
 ing, "This action increased his former services," say, "This action in- 
 creased the merit of his former services. " 
 
 PRECEPT 6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions; as, "His 
 memory shall be lost on the earth." "I long since learned to like 
 nothing but what you do. " 
 
 PRECEPT 7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions; as, 
 " I have observed that the superiority among these coffee-house politi- 
 cians, proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fashion." "These 
 words do not convey even an opaque idea of the author's meaning. " 
 
 PRECEPT 8. Observe the natural order of things or events, and do 
 not put the cart before the horse; as, "The scribes taught and studied 
 the law of Moses."" They can neither return to nor leave their houses." 
 " He tumbled, head over heels, into the water." 
 
 III. Precision. 
 
 Precision consists in avoiding all superfluous words, and adapting the 
 expression exactly to the thought, so as to exhibit neither more nor less 
 than is intended by the author. 
 
QUALITIES OF STYLE. 319 
 
 PRECEPT 1. Avoid a useless tautology, either of expression or senti- 
 ment: as in, "Return again ; return back again ; converse together; 
 rise up; fall down ; enter in; a. mutual likeness to each other; 
 the latter end; liquid streams; grateful thanks; the last of all; 
 throughout the whole book. " ' ' Whenever I go, he always meets me 
 there." "Where is he atf In there." " Nothing else but that." 
 "It is odious and hateful." "His faithfulness and fidelity should be 
 rewarded." 
 
 PRECEPT 2. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synony- 
 mous, and employ those words which are the most suitable ; as, "A 
 diligent scholar may acquire knowledge, gain celebrity, obtain rewards, 
 win prizes, and get high honor, though he earn no money." These 
 six verbs have nearly the same meaning, and yet they cannot well be 
 changed. 
 
 IV. Perspicuity. 
 
 Perspicuity consists in freedom from obscurity or ambiguity. It is a 
 quality so essential, in every kind of writing, that for the want of it, no 
 merit can atonar "Without this, the richest ornaments of style, only 
 glimmer through the dark, and puzzle instead of pleasing the reader. "- 
 Blair. Perspicuity, being the most important property of language, and 
 an exemption from the most embarrassing defects, seems even to rise to 
 a degree of positive beauty. We are naturally pleased with a style that 
 frees us from all suspense in regard to the meaning ; that " carries us 
 through the subject without embarrassment or confusion ; and that always 
 flows like a limpid stream, through which we can see to the very bottom. " 
 
 PRECEPT 1. Place adjectives, relative pronouns, participles, adverbs, 
 and explanatory phrases, as near as possible to the words to which they 
 relate, and in such a situation as the sense requires. The following sen- 
 tences are deficient in perspicuity : " Reverence is the veneration paid 
 to superior sanctity, intermixed with a certain degree of awe." "The 
 Romans understood liberty, at least, as well as we." " Taste was never 
 made to cater for vanity." 
 
 PRECEPT 2. In prose, avoid a poetic collocation of words. 
 
 PRECEPT 3. Avoid faulty ellipses, and repeat all words necessary to 
 preserve the sense. The following sentences require the words inserted 
 in crotchets: " Restlessness of mind disqualifies us, both for the enjoy- 
 ment of peace, and [for] the performance of our duty." Murray 1 s Key. 
 " The Christian religion gives a more lovely character of God, than any 
 [other] religion ever did." Ibid. 
 
 V. Unity. 
 
 Unity consists in avoiding useless breaks or pauses, and keeping one 
 object predominant throughout a sentence or paragraph. Every sen- 
 tence, whether its parts be few or many, requires strict unity. 
 
 PRECEPT 1. Avoid brokenness and hitching. The following example 
 lacks the very quality of which it speaks : " But most of all, in a single 
 sentence, is required the strictest unity. It may consist of parts, indeed, 
 but these parts must be so closely bound together, as to make the impres- 
 sion upon the mind, 0/one object, not tffmany." Murray 1 s Grammar. 
 
 PRECEPT 2. Treat different topics in separate paragraphs, and dis- 
 tinct sentiments in separate sentences. Error : " The two volumes are, 
 indeed, intimately connected, and constitute one uniform system of Eng- 
 lish grammar." Murray's Preface. 
 
320 APPENDIX. 
 
 PRECEPT 3. In the progress of a sentence, do not desert the princi- 
 pal subject in favor of adjuncts. Error: "To substantives belong gen- 
 der, number, and case ; and they are all of the third person when spoken 
 of, and of the second when spoken to." Murray's Grammar. 
 
 PRECEPT 4. Do not introduce parentheses, except when a lively re- 
 mark may be thrown in without diverting the mind too long from the 
 principal subject. 
 
 VI. Strength. 
 
 Strength consists in giving to the several words and members of a 
 sentence, such an arrangement as shall bring out the sense to the best 
 advantage, and present every idea in its due importance. A concise 
 style is the most favorable to strength. 
 
 PRECEPT 1. Place the most important words in the situation in which 
 they will make the strongest impression. 
 
 PRECEPT 2. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger ; and 
 when the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the 
 concluding one. 
 
 PRECEPT 3. When things are to be compared or contrasted, their re- 
 semblance or opposition will be rendered more striking, if some resem- 
 blance in the language and construction be preserved. 
 
 PRECEPT 4. It is, in general, ungraceful to end a sentence with an 
 adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase, which may 
 either be omitted or be introduced earlier- 
 
POETIC DICTION. 
 
 POETRY, as defined by Dr. Blair, "is the language of passion, or of 
 enlivened imagination, formed, most commonly, into regular numbers. " 
 The style of poetry differs, in many respects, from that which is com- 
 monly adopted in prose. Poetic diction abounds in bold figures of 
 speech, and unusual collocations of words. A great part of the figures 
 which have been treated of under the head of prosody, are purely poeti- 
 cal. The primary aim of a poet is to please and to move ; and, there- 
 fore, it is to the imagination, and the passions, that he speaks. He may, 
 and he ought to, ilave it in his view to instruct aud reform ; but it is in- 
 directly, and by pleasing and moving, that he accomplishes this end. 
 The exterior and most obvious distinction of poetry is versification ; yet 
 there are some forms of verse so loose and familiar as to be hardly dis- 
 tinguishable from prose ; and there is also a species of prose so meas- 
 ured in its cadences, and so much raised in its tone, as to approach 
 very nearly to poetical numbers. 
 
 Poetical Peculiarities. 
 
 The following are some of the most striking peculiarities in which the 
 poets indulge, and are indulged : 
 I. They very often omit the articles ; as, 
 
 " What dreadful pleasure ! there to stand sublime, 
 Like shipwrecked mariner on desert coast ! " Beattie. 
 
 II. They abbreviate many nouns; as, amaze, for amazement; ac- 
 claim, for acclamation ; consult, for consultation ; corse, for corpse ; eve, 
 or even, for evening ; fount, for fountain ; helm, for helmet ; lament, for 
 lamentation; morn, for morning ; plaint, for complaint; targe, for 
 target ; weal, for wealth. 
 
 III. They employ several nouns that are not used in prose, or are 
 used but rarely ; as, beuison, boon, emprise, fane, guerdon, guise, ire, 
 ken, lore, meed, sire, steed, stithy, welkin, yore. 
 
 IV. They introduce the noun self after another noun of the possessive 
 case ; as, 
 
 1. "Affliction's semblance bends not o'er thy tomb, 
 
 Affliction's self deplores thy youthful doom." Byron. 
 
 2. " Thoughtless of beauty, she was beauty's self ." Thomson. 
 
 V. They place before the verb nouns, or other words, that usually 
 come after it ; and, after it, those that usually come before it ; as, 
 
 1. " No jealousy their dawn of love overcast. 
 
 Nor blasted were their wedded days with strife." Beattie. 
 
 2. "No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets." 
 
 3. " Thy chain a wretclied weight shall prove." iMnghorne. 
 
 4. "Follows the loosen'd aggravated roar.' 1 '' Thomson. 
 6. "That purple grows the primrose pale." Langhorne. 
 
322 APPENDIX. 
 
 VI. They often place adjectives after their nouns ; as, 
 
 1. " Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand, 
 
 Showers on her kings barbaric, pearl and gold." Milton. 
 
 2. " Come, nymph demure, with mantle blue."' 
 
 VTI. They ascribe qualities to things to which they do not literally 
 belong ; as, 
 
 1. " Or drowsy tinkling* lull the distant folds." Gray. 
 
 2. " Imbitter'd more and more from peevish day to da}-." Thomson. 
 
 3. "All thin and naked, to the numb cold night" tihakspeare. 
 
 VIII. They use concrete terms to express abstract qualities (i.e., ad- 
 jectives for nouns) ; as, 
 
 1. " Earth's meanest son, all trembling, prostrate falls, 
 
 And on the boundless of thy goodness calls." Young. 
 
 2. "Meanwhile, whate'er of beautiful or new, 
 
 Sublime or dreadful, in earth, sea, or sky, 
 By chance or search was offered to his view, 
 
 He ?cann'd with curious and romantic eye." Seattle. 
 
 3. " Won from the void and formless infinite." 1 Milton. 
 
 IX. They substitute quality for manner (i.e., adjectives for adverbs) ; 
 as, 
 
 1. " The stately- sailing swan, 
 
 Gives out his snowy plumage to the gale ; 
 
 And, arching proud his neck, with oary feet 
 
 Bears f orward .fierce, and guards his osier isle." Thomson. 
 
 2. " Thither continual pilgrims crowded still.'" Id. 
 
 X. They form new compound epithets ; as, 
 
 1. "In world-rejoicing state, it moves sublime." Thomson. 
 
 2. " The dewy-skirted clouds imbibe the sun.'' Id. 
 
 3. "By brooks and groves in hollow-whispering gales." Id. 
 
 4. " The violet of sky-woven vest." Langhorne. 
 
 5. " A league from Epidamnum had we sailed, 
 
 Before the always-wind-obeying deep 
 
 Gave any tragic instance of our harm." Shakspeare. 
 
 XX They connect the comparative degree to the positive ; as, 
 1. " Near and more near the billows rise." Merrick. 
 3. " Wide and wider spreads the vale." Dyer. 
 3. " Wide and more wide, the o'erflowings of the mind 
 Take every creature in, of every kind." Pope. 
 
 XTL They form many adjectives in y, which are not common in 
 prose ; as, A gleamy ray, towery height, sleepy hill, steely casque, 
 heapy harvests, moony shield, writhy snake, stilly lake, vasty deep, 
 paly circlet. 
 
 XHI. They employ adjectives of an abbreviated form ; as, dread, for 
 dreadful ; drear, for dreary ; ebon, for ebony ; hoar, for hoary ; lone, 
 for lonely ; scant, for scanty; slope, for sloping ; submiss, for submis- 
 sive ; vermil, for vermittion ; yon, for yonder. 
 
 XIV. They employ several adjectives that are not used in prose, or 
 are used but seldom ; as, azure, blithe, boon, dank, darklijiff, darktomc, 
 doughty, dun, fett, rife, rapt, rueful, sear, sylvan, twain, wun. 
 
 XV. They employ personal pronouns, and introduce their nouns 
 
 afterwards ; 'as, 
 
 1. " It curl'd not Tweed alone, that breeze." TF. Scott. 
 
 2. " Is it the lightning's quivering glance, 
 
 That on the thicket streams ; 
 Or do they flash on spear and lance, 
 Tfce sun^s retiring beams f " Id. 
 
PCETIC DICTION". 323 
 
 XVI. They sometimes omi the relative, of the nominative case ; as, 
 
 " For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise ? " Thomson. 
 XVII. They omit the antecedent, or introduce it after the relative ; as, 
 
 1. ''''Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys, 
 
 Who never toils or watches, never sleeps." Armstrong. 
 
 2. "Who dares think.one thing and another tell, 
 
 My soul detests him as the gates of hell." Pope's Homer. 
 
 XVIII. They remove relative pronouns and other connectives, i: 
 the body of their clauses ; as, 
 
 1. " Parts the fine locks, her graceful head that deck." Darwin. 
 
 2. " Not half so dreadful rises to the sight 
 
 Orion's dog, the year when autumn weighs." Pope's Homer. 
 
 XIX. They make intransitive verbs transitive ; as, 
 
 1. " A while he stands. 
 
 Gazing the inverted landscape, half afraid 
 
 To meditate the blue profound below." Thomson. 
 
 2. " Still in harmonious intercourse, they liv'd 
 
 The rur^al day, and talked the flowing heart." Id. 
 
 XX. They give to the imperative mood the first and the third person ; 
 as, 
 
 1. " Turn we a moment fancy's rapid flight." TJiomson. 
 
 2. " Be man's peculiar icork his sole delight." Beattie. 
 
 3. " And what is reason ? Be she thus defined : 
 
 Reason is upright stature in the soul ! " Young. 
 
 XXI. They employ can, could, and would as principal verbs transi- 
 tive ; as, 
 
 1. " What for ourselves we can, is always ours." 
 
 2. " Who does the best his circumstance allows. 
 
 Does well, acts nobly : angels could no more." Young. 
 
 3. " What would this man ? Now upward will he soar, 
 
 And, little less than angel, would be more." Pope. 
 
 XXII. They place the infinitive before the Word on which it de- 
 pends ; as, 
 
 ' When first thy sire to send on earth 
 Virtue, his darling child, designed." Gray. 
 
 XXIII. They place the auxiliary after its principal ; as, 
 
 " No longer heed the sunbeam bright 
 That plays on Carron's breast he can." Langhorne. 
 
 XXIV. Before verbs they sometimes arbitrarily employ or omit prc 
 fixes ; as, begird, bedim, evanish, emove ; for gird, dim, vanish, move : - 
 lure, wail, icilder, reave ; for allure, bewail, bewilder, bereave. 
 
 XXV. They abbreviate verbs; as, list, for listen ; ope, for open. 
 
 XXVI. They employ several verbs that are not used in prose, or are 
 used but rarely ; as, appal^. astound, brook, cower, doff, ken, wend, ween, 
 trow. 
 
 XXVII. They sometimes imitate a Greek construction of the infini- 
 tive ; as, 
 
 1. " Who would not sing for Lycidas ? he knew 
 
 Himself to sing, and build the lofty rhyme." Milton. 
 
 2. " For not, to have been, flipped in Loihe lako, 
 
 Could save th6 son of Thetis from to die:" Spenser, 
 
324 APPENDIX. 
 
 XXVUL They employ the participles more frequently than prose 
 writers, and in a construction somewhat peculiar ; as, 
 
 1. " He came, and, standing in the midst, explained 
 
 The peace rejected, but the truce obtain' d."" Pope. 
 
 2. " As a poor miserable captive thrall 
 
 Comes to the place where he before had sat 
 Among the prime in splendor, now deposed, 
 Ejected, emptied, gaz'd, unpitied, ghunrid, 
 A spectacle of ruin or of scorn." Jfiiton. 
 
 XXIX. They employ several adverbs that are not used in prose, 
 or are used but seldom ; as, oft, haply, inly, blithely, cheerily, defUy, 
 felly, rifely, ruefully, starkly, yarely. 
 
 XXX. They give to adverbs a peculiar location ; as, 
 
 ' Peeping from forth their alleys green.' 1 Collins. 
 ' Erect the standard there of ancient night." Milton. 
 The silence often of pure innocence 
 
 Persuades, when speaking fails.'' ShakKpeare. 
 ' Where universal love not smiles around." Thomson. 
 ' Robs me of that which not enriches him." Shakspeare. 
 
 XXXI. They omit the introductory adverb there ; as, 
 " Was nought around but images of rest." Thomson. 
 
 XXXII. They employ the conjunctions, or or, and nor nor, 
 as correspondents ; as, 
 
 1. " Or by the lazy Scheldt or wandering Po." Goldsmith. 
 
 2. ' Wealth heap'd on wealth, nor truth nor safety buys." Johnson. 
 
 3. " Who by repentance is not satisfied, 
 
 Is nor of heaven, nor earth.'' Shakspeare. 
 
 XXXIII. They often place prepositions and their adjuncts, be- 
 fore the words on which they depend ; as, 
 
 " Against your fame with fondness hate combines; 
 The rival batters, and the lover mines." Johnson. 
 
 XXXIY. They sometimes place the preposition after its object ; as, 
 
 1. " When beauty, Eden's bowers within, 
 
 First stretch'd the arm to deeds of sin, 
 When passion burn'd, and prudence slept, 
 The pitying angels bent and wept." Hogg. 
 
 2. " The Muses fair, these peaceful shades among, 
 
 With skillful fingers sweep the trembJing strings." Lloyd. 
 
 XXXV. They employ interjections more frequently than prose 
 writers ; as, 
 
 " O let me gaze ! Of gazing there's no end. 
 O let me think ! Thought too is wilder'd here." Young. 
 
 XXXVI. They employ antiquated words and modes of expres- 
 sion ; as, 
 
 1. " Withouten that would come an heavier bale." Thomson. 
 
 2. "He was to wect, a little roguish page, 
 
 Save sleep and play, who minded nought at all." Id. 
 
 3. " Not one eftfioons in view was to be found." Id. 
 
 4. "To number up the thousands dwelling here, 
 
 An useless were, and eke an endless task." Id. 
 
 5. "Of clerks good plenty here you mote espy." Id. 
 
 6. " But these I passen by, with nameless numbers moe."Id. 
 
FORMATION OF DERIVATIVE WORDS. 
 
 DERIVATIVE words are formed by means of prefixes and 
 suffixes, which, in the languages from which they came, 
 were words or parts of words, and hence they express mean- 
 ing. In general, prefixes and suffixes add their own meanings 
 to those of the stems to which they are attached. Very many 
 derivatives have in the course of time assumed figurative, in 
 addition to their literal, meanings ; many have exchanged a 
 literal for a figurative meaning ; others have enlarged their 
 literal signification, while still others have become restricted 
 to narrower fields. 
 
 To form a clear idea of the present meaning of a word, it 
 is necessary in some cases to trace its history to find the 
 connection between the current and the etymological mean- 
 ing. This is very useful and pleasurable work. 
 
 [To THE TEACHER.] 
 
 In the following lists of prefixes and suffixes let the pupils 
 give the definitions of the words used as examples, taking 
 care that they clearly grasp the meanings both of prefix and 
 suffix. 
 
 Other words should be brought in for analysis. Encour- 
 age pupils to find as many words as possible having the 
 same prefix ; also, as many as possible having the same 
 suffix. In this way the habit of observing words will be 
 formed. Besides giving the definition, the words should 
 be put into sentences. The full force of words cannot be 
 acquired by definition alone. 
 
LATIN PKEFIXES. 
 
 A PREFIX is one or more letters or syllables at the beginning of a 
 word to modify the meaning. 
 
 AB [a, abs] separation : from, 
 aicdy ; abstain, aMuct, abate. 
 
 AD [a, ac, af, ag, al, am, an, ap, ar, 
 as, at] = nearness: to, towards; 
 adjacent, attract. 
 
 AMB [am] motion round (on all 
 sides) : around ; awMtion, am- 
 putate. 
 
 ANTE [anti] =in front : before ; ante- 
 penult, anticipate. 
 
 BBNR=:eB/ benevolent. 
 
 Bi [bis] =. double, twice ; bicycle. 
 
 CIRCUM [circii]=around ; circum- 
 uavigate, circumstance. 
 
 CON [co, col, com, cor] = union, in- 
 tensity : with, together ; confront, 
 complete. 
 
 CONTRO [contra, counter] = opposi- 
 tion : against ; controvert, contra- 
 band, counterfeit. 
 
 DE= separation : down, from, off, or 
 is intensive ; decline, deflect, of- 
 fend, declaim. 
 
 Dis [de, di, dif] ^separation : apart, 
 opposite of, away; dismiss, de- 
 mise, divert, differ. 
 
 Du [duo]=two: duet, ow^decimal. 
 
 Ex [e, ef] = separation : out, out of, 
 from; e.rhaust, ezhume, elude, 
 efface. 
 
 EXTRACT outside of: beyond; extra- 
 ordinary. 
 
 IN (in verbs) [il, im, ir] = generally 
 the opposite of ex : in, into, upon, 
 against; induce, impose, irrigate, 
 mpugn. 
 
 IN (in adjectives and nouns) nega- 
 tion : not ; zrreligious, w-religion. 
 
 I>;TER [intel]=between ; interfere, 
 intellect. 
 
 MALE=5a(f, evil; malediction. 
 
 NoTS=not; non-comraitt&l, nonde- 
 script, nonsense. 
 
 OB [o, oc, of, op, os]= opposition: 
 against, near; obstacle, observe, 
 omit, occur, offer, oppress, osten- 
 sible. 
 
 PEN =r almost ; pen insula. 
 
 PER [pel]=through (of time or 
 space), or is intensive : pervade, 
 pe?-manent, ^eZlucid. 
 
 PosT=after (in time) ; postprandial. 
 
 Pn~E,=before (in time or place) ; pre- 
 cedent, preside. 
 
 What is the difference in mean- 
 ing between precedent and an- 
 tecedent ? 
 
 PREiE,n=beyond ; preternatural. 
 
 PRO [por, pur] =foi'th, forward, for; 
 produce, propel, pronoun. 
 
 RE [red]=:&ac&, again; reduce, re- 
 impose, redeem. 
 
GREEK AND ANGLO-SAXON PREFIXES. 
 
 327 
 
 SUB [sue, suf , sug, sum, sup, sus] = 
 under, and in direct relation with 
 what is above it ; often implies 
 inferiority: under, below, after, 
 again ; subdue, succeed, suffer, 
 suggest, summon, support, sus- 
 pend, subaltern, sw&divide. 
 
 SUPER [sur] = excess, superiority: 
 
 superfluous, superfine, surfeit, 
 
 supernatural. 
 TRANS [tra, tran~]=beyond, across; 
 
 transpire, tradition, transgress. 
 ULTRA beyond, or extreme: ultra- 
 
 montane. 
 
 GREEK PREFIXES. 
 
 AMPHI = around, about, on bot7i 
 sides ; amphitheatre, amphibious. 
 
 A [an]=not, Without; abyss, anar- 
 chy. 
 
 ANA = of ten denotes opposition to 
 what is natural : back, again, up ; 
 analysis, anachronism, anatomy. 
 
 ANTI [ ant ]= opposition : against ; 
 anto'thesis, a?iarctic. 
 
 APO [ap] ^separation : in many 
 words it corresponds to the Latin 
 ab : from, away ; apostrophe, ap- 
 helion. 
 
 CATA = down; catarrh, cataract, 
 catapult. 
 
 DIA= separation : through, apart, 
 across, between ; diameter, diaer- 
 esis, diagram, diacritical. 
 
 EPI [ep]=.upon, for ; epigram, eph- 
 
 emeral. 
 Eu [ev]=wett, good; eulogy, evange- 
 
 list. 
 
 TLEM.i=half ; hemisphere. 
 H YPER=: excess : above, over, be- 
 
 yond; hypertrophy, hyperbole. 
 META [met]=over, beyond; meta- 
 
 physics, metamorphose. 
 MONO = alone : monogram, 
 
 = beside, parasite, paraphrase. 
 PEHi=around, near; periphery, 
 
 period., ^mhelion. 
 Poij?=many, polygon, polyglot. 
 SYN [syl, sym, sys]=with, together; 
 
 syncope, s^logism, sympathy, 
 
 system. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON PREFIXES. 
 
 A=at, in, on : ahead, abed, aboard. , FonTS,=before ; forearm. 
 
 ALL [al] denotes completeness: G AIN= against : gainsay. 
 
 wholly ; aZZwise, almighty. Mis^denotes error; wrong, wrong- 
 ~Rft=by, over, upon, for, or is in- ly : misrepresent, misrule. 
 
 tensive : Reside, ft^stride, belie. OFF=from : ojfshoot. 
 
 FOR [forej=awa^ from : forhid, OuT=beyond : outrun. 
 
 forego. OVER= denotes superiority or ex- 
 
328 
 
 SUFFIXES. 
 
 cess: above, beyond; oversight, 
 
 oversleep. 
 To occurs in to-day, to-night, 
 
 where it means this, and in to- 
 
 morrow, where it means on. 
 UN in nouns, adjectives, adverbs, 
 
 and participles denotes negation = 
 
 not; unaided, untruth: in verbs 
 it signifies to free from; unchain. 
 UNDER denotes inferiority : un- 
 der, below; undergrowth, under- 
 wear. 
 
 a#ams, back : wra'^stand, 
 uphold. 
 
 SUFFIXES. 
 
 A SUFFIX is one or more letters or syllables at the end of a word to 
 modify the meaning. 
 
 Suffixes of Latin origin are marked (L.) ; those of Greek origin (Gr.) ; 
 those of French (F.) ; and those of Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.) ; n. rrnoun; a.= 
 adjective; ad. = ad verb ; v. =verb. 
 
 ABLE [ible, ble] (L.) a. able. Port- ANCE [ancy] (L.)n. state. Elegance 
 
 able=&ble to be carried. Profit- 
 able=s,\)le to produce profit. 
 Ac (G-.) a. relating to. Demoni#c= 
 
 relating to demons. 
 ACT (L.) n. state. Celibacy = state 
 of being single. 
 
 n. quality. Accuracy = quality 
 of being accurate. 
 
 AGE (F.) n. state. Bon &age= state 
 of being in bonds. 
 
 n. act of, or pay for. Storage= 
 act of, or pay for, storing. 
 
 n. collection of. Foliage = 
 leaves of trees collectively. 
 AL (L.) n. act of. Removal act of 
 removing. 
 
 a. relating to. "Regal = relat- 
 ing to the king. 
 
 AN (L.) n. one who. Artisan = one 
 who works at an art. 
 
 a. belonging to. American = 
 relating to America. 
 
 = state of being elegant. 
 
 n. Constancy state of being 
 constant. 
 ANE (L.) a. relating to. Mundane 
 
 = relating to this world. 
 ANT (L. ) n. one who. Attendant 
 one who attends. 
 
 a. being. Vigilant = being 
 watchful. 
 
 a. ing. Observant observz;/^. 
 AR (L.) a. relating to. Sola7*=re- 
 lating to the sun. 
 
 n. one who. Scholar = one 
 who belongs to a school. 
 ARD (A.-S.) n. one who is. 
 Dullaro" = one who is dull, 
 stupid. 
 
 ARY (L.) n. one who. Secretary = 
 one who manages the business of 
 a society. 
 
 a. relating to. Prima?-y=re- 
 lating to the first. 
 
StTFFIXES. 
 
 n. place where. Library 
 place where books are kept. 
 ATE (L.) a. having the quality of. 
 Roseate = having the quality of 
 the rose. 
 
 n. one who is. Primate = one 
 who is first. 
 
 v. perform the act of. Termi- 
 nate=to perform the act of end- 
 ing. 
 
 CULE [cle] (L.) a. little, small (di- 
 minutive ending). 'Reticule = a 
 small bag. Vesicle = a small 
 blister. 
 DOM (A.-S.) rfT state. Wi$dom= 
 
 state of being wise. 
 ED (A.-S.) a. like. Bigoteo*=like 
 
 a bigot. 
 
 EE (F. ) n. one to whom. Referee = 
 one to whom a matter is re- 
 ferred. 
 
 n. one who is. Absentee = one 
 who is absent. 
 
 n. one who. Refuge = one 
 who flies for refuge. 
 EER (F.) n. one who. Volunteer^ 
 one who offers his services volun- 
 tarily. 
 
 EN (A.-S.) v. to make. Wi&en=to 
 make wide. 
 
 a. made of. Wooden = made 
 of wood. 
 
 n. little, small (dim. ending). 
 Kitten=a, small cat. 
 ENCE [ency] (L.) n. state. De- 
 spondency state of being de- 
 spondent. 
 
 n. quality. Patience = quality 
 of being patient. 
 
 ENT (L.) n. one who. Stud<?= 
 one who studies. 
 
 a. being. Equivalewtf = being 
 equal. 
 
 EB (A.-S.) n. one who. Teacher = 
 one who teaches. 
 a. more. Faster=more fast. 
 
 ERLY [ern] (A.-S.) a. towards. 
 Southern or southerly = to wards 
 the South. 
 
 a. relating to. Souther/i or 
 souther^ = relating to the South. 
 
 ERY (A.-S.) n. place where. Brew- 
 ery = a place for brewing. 
 
 ESCENCE (L.) n. state of becoming. 
 Putresce?ice = state of becoming 
 putrid. 
 
 ESCENT (L.) a. becoming. Putres- 
 cent becoming putrid. 
 
 EST (A.-S.) a. most. Handsomest 
 most handsome. 
 
 ET (A.-S.) n. little, small. Eaglet 
 a small eagle. 
 
 ETTE (F.) n. little, small. Statu- 
 ette=a, small statue. 
 
 FUL (A.-S.) a. full. Fear/M=full 
 of fear. 
 
 FY (L.) v. to make. Grati/y = to 
 make grateful. 
 
 HEAD : Same as Hood. 
 
 HOOD (A.-S.) n. state. Ttoyhood= 
 state of a boy. 
 
 n. quality. Hardi^ooo^ quality 
 of being hardy. 
 
 IAN (G. and L.) n. one who is 
 skilled in. Musioa?i=one skilled 
 in music. 
 
 n. member of. Patricilrm= 
 member of the nobility in an- 
 cient Rome. 
 
 Ic or ICAL (G. and L.) a. relating 
 to. Aristocratic = relating to aris- 
 tocracy. Civic= relating to civil 
 affairs. 
 
 ICE (L.) n. Nouns derived from 
 adjectives express the names 
 of the quality denoted by the 
 
SffFFttES. 
 
 adjectives ; as, malice, justice ; 
 those from verbs denote that 
 which is caused or produced by 
 the action of the verb ; as, no- 
 tice. 
 
 Ics (G.) n. names of sciences. Har- 
 monies = the science of musical 
 sounds. 
 
 ID (L. ) a. having the quality of. Arid 
 ^having the quality of dry ness. 
 
 IER (F.) n. one who. Brigad&r= 
 one who commands a brigade. 
 
 ILE (L.) a. able to be. Ductile= 
 able to be drawn out. 
 
 a. relating to. Juven&s= re- 
 lating to youth. 
 
 INK (L.) a. relating to. Feline=ie- 
 lating to a cat. 
 
 ION (L.) n. state of. Mtention= 
 state of being attentive. 
 
 n. act of. Compuls*'0/i:=act of 
 compelling. 
 
 ISE [ize] (G.) v. to make or do. 
 = to make magnetic. 
 = to do the work of a 
 critic. 
 
 ISH (A.-S. and F.) a. likeness in a 
 small degree. Yellowish = some- 
 what yellow. Hoggish = more or 
 less like a hog. 
 
 v. to make. AccomplM=to 
 make complete. 
 
 ISM (G. and L.) n. state of. Fa- 
 naticzlm ^state of a fanatic. 
 
 n. doctrine. Panthem=the 
 doctrine that nature is God. 
 
 n. idiom. Galliczm=a French 
 idiom. 
 
 IST [st] (G.) n. one who. Antago- 
 ns=one who opposes. 
 
 ITE (L.) a. being. Infimte=be.ing 
 without limit. 
 
 ITY (L.) n. state of. Secur%= 
 
 state of being secure. 
 state of being free. 
 IVE (L.) a. able to do. Correctiw= 
 able to correct. 
 
 a. inclined to. Submiss^= 
 inclined to yield submission. 
 
 n. one who is. 
 who is taken. 
 
 n. that which is. 
 that which is sent. 
 I KIN (A.-S.) n. little, small. Lamb- 
 Am = a little lamb. 
 LESS (A.-S.) a. without. Toothtess 
 
 = without a tooth. 
 LET (A.-S.) n. small. Bingfe<=..a 
 
 small ring. 
 LIKE (A.-S.) a. resembling. Life- 
 
 like= resembling life. 
 LING (A.-S.) a. small. Gosling =& 
 
 small goose. 
 
 LY (A.-S.) ad. manner. Candid^ 
 =in a candid manner. 
 
 a. having the quality of. Come- 
 Zy=having the quality of comeli- 
 ness. 
 
 MENT (L.) n. that which does. 
 Com plement= that which com- 
 pletes. 
 
 n. that which is. Command- 
 ment=:iha,t which is command- 
 ed. 
 
 n. act. Present?ft?iZ=act of 
 presenting. 
 
 n. state. Exciteme7i= state of 
 being excited. 
 
 MONY (L.) n. state. Matrimony = 
 state of those in wedlock. 
 
 n. that which. Alimony =th&t 
 which nourishes, an allowance. 
 NESS (A.-S.) n. state. Fearful/im 
 
 estate of being fearful. 
 OCK (A.-S.) n. smallness. Hillocfc 
 =a small bill. 
 
StfttttXfcS. 
 
 (Only a very few nouns with 
 this ending). 
 OR (L.) n. one who. Instructor = 
 
 one who instructs, 
 n. that which. Mot0r=that 
 
 which produces motion. 
 ORY (L.) n. place where. Conser- 
 vatory = a place for preserving 
 
 plants. 
 
 a. relating to. Explanatory = 
 
 relating to an explanation. 
 OSE (L. ) a. full, fond of. Comatose 
 
 =fall of coma, or sleep. Jocose 
 
 =fond of jokes. 
 Ous (L.) a. foUd of. Facetiows= 
 
 fond of facetiae. 
 Ry (F.) n. ^ 
 
 act of. ( = act of ' or 
 
 > Entry 4 place for, 
 
 n ' P lace I I entering, 
 
 where. J 
 
 SHIP (A.-S.) n. state. Ha.rdLship= 
 state of being in trying circum- 
 stances. 
 
 SOME (A.-S.) a. causing. Tiresome 
 causing tiresomeness. 
 
 a. being. "Lonesome being 
 lonely. 
 
 STER (A.-S.) n. one who. Team- 
 ster = one who drives a team. 
 
 TH (A.-S. ) n. that which. Truth= 
 that which is true. 
 
 a. part of a unit. A fifth (part) 
 one of five equal parts of a 
 unit. 
 
 n. quality. Wid^=quality of 
 being wide. 
 
 TUDE (L.) n. quality. Fortitude= 
 the quality of courage. 
 
 n. state. Plenitude= state of 
 being full. 
 ULE (L.) n. smallness. SchedwZe 
 
 a small leaf of paper. 
 URE (F. and L.) n. state. Tem- 
 perature = state of the air as to 
 heat or cold. 
 
 n. act. Departure =.- act of 
 going away. 
 
 n. that which is. Creature = 
 that which is created. 
 WARD (A.-S.) ad. towards. Home- 
 
 ward= to wards home. 
 Y (G.) n. kind of government. 
 Oligarchy = a government by a 
 few. 
 
 n. science. Chronology=the 
 science of computing dates. 
 
 n. art. Pyrotechny=:the art of 
 making fire works. 
 
 n. history. Biography = a his- 
 tory of one's life. Treatise or 
 description. Geography = a trea- 
 tise about the earth. 
 Y (F., L., and A.-S.) a. having. 
 Faulty= having faults. Gloomy 
 having gloom. 
 
 n. place where, or wares. 
 Grocery place where the wares 
 of a grocer are kept, also the 
 wares themselves. 
 
 n. state. Misery = state of a 
 miser. 
 
 Y [ie] n. smallness (dim.). Johnny 
 
 =little John. Bird& = littJe bird. 
 
 (The use of such diminutives, 
 
 especially of proper names, is silly 
 
 j and otherwise objection able.) 
 
 With the following stems and the prefixes [in brackets] and suffixes 
 on pp. 325-330 form as many words as you can ; define each, telling 
 the significance of prefix, stem, and suffix ; also inquire whether the 
 common meaning differs from the etymological one. 
 
332 
 
 STEMS. 
 
 STEMS. 
 
 The following list comprises the stems required by the Regents of 
 the University of the State of New York in Elementary English. The 
 work of the pupils should be (1) to learn the various meanings of the 
 stem, and (2) to give definitions of the words below which contain the 
 stem. In giving definitions care should be taken that the primary 
 meaning of the stem is seen clearly. Observe the models. 
 
 AG (ig) act, urge, force, drive 
 [ambi, con, counter, ex, in, trans, 
 re]. 
 
 Model : Agile = able to act ; 
 hence active. 
 
 Model: ~Etxigent=forcing out; 
 Jience urgent. 
 
 Model: Ambiguous = driving 
 around; Tience equivocal, doubt- 
 ful. Agent, agitate, active, exact, 
 actor, counteract, coagulate, prod- 
 igal, trans'ocZ(ion), enact, actuate, 
 action, cogent, actress, actuary, 
 actual, actuality, reaction), re- 
 enact, reagent. 
 
 What is the difference in mean- 
 ing between agile and active ? 
 ALT = high [ex]. 
 
 Model : Altar, a high table for 
 sacrifice. Altitude, exaltation). 
 AxiM=mind, spirit, passion [in, 
 magn, equ, re, un for unus]. 
 
 Model : Animosity = quality of\ 
 being full of passion. Animate, | 
 rearawzate, unanimity, unani- 
 mous, magnanimous, equanim- 
 ity, pusillam'w?ous, animation. 
 ANN (enn)=year [bi, centum, mille, 
 per, super]. 
 
 Model: Annu&l=relating to a 
 
 year, yearly. Annals, annuity, 
 biennial, centennial, perennial, 
 superannuated, millennium, an- 
 niversary, quadrennial. 
 
 APT (aptat, ept) = fit, make suita- 
 ble [ad, in]. 
 
 Model: Adapt = to ft to. Adap- 
 tation, adept, inop[(i)tude], apt- 
 itude, adaptability. 
 
 BAS (bass) = low [a, de]. 
 
 Model: Abasement .= state of 'be- 
 ing brought low. (De) base(ment), 
 bass, basso, bassoon, bass-relief. 
 
 BREV (brevi, brief) = short [ab]. 
 Model : AWreviate=to shorten. 
 Ab&rmation, brerity, breviary, 
 brecet. 
 
 CAD (cas, cid) = fall [ad, de, ob]. 
 
 Model : Accident = that which 
 
 falls to one, as by chance. (De) 
 
 cadence, case, dea'rfuous, casual, 
 
 decay, occasion, Occident, cascade. 
 
 CAP (capt, ceipt, ceit, ceive, cept, 
 cip) take, seize, hold [ad, ante, 
 con, de, ex, in, per, re, sub]. 
 
 Model: dative one who is 
 taken. (In) capable, capacious, 
 (in) capacity, reape, antkzpate, 
 receipt, accept (able) (ation); (con) 
 (de) (ex) (in) (per) (re) caption; 
 
STEMS. 
 
 333 
 
 (in) (re) client; (con) (de) ceit, 
 deceitful ; (con) (re) enable ; 
 (de) (re) ceixer ; susc^ible ; (con) 
 (de) (re) ceive ; captor, capture. 
 
 CARN (charn)=:flesh [in]. 
 
 Model : Carnal pertaining to 
 the flesh. Carnival, carnage, 
 (in) carnation, incarnate, carnel- 
 ian, cannvorous, charnel, car- 
 rion. 
 
 CED (ceed, cess)=go, yield [ab, ad, 
 ante, con, ex, inter, pro, retro, 
 se, super]. 
 
 Model: Intercede = to go between. 
 (se) (pre) (ac) (on) (retro) (super) 
 cede; (se) (ac) (pro) (retro) (sue) 
 cm(ion) ; (abs) (ex) cess ; (ante) 
 (pre) cedent ; (ex) (pro) ceed. 
 
 CENT = hundred. 
 
 Model : Centenary relating to 
 one hundred. 
 
 CENT = percent (age), century, cen- 
 tennial, centurion, centi (pede) 
 (grade). 
 
 CING (cinct)r= enclose [sub, super]. 
 Model ; Ci?icture=that which 
 encloses. 
 
 Model : Precinct a district en- 
 closed in front, that is on the bor- 
 der, as by a fence. Succinct, sur- 
 cingle, succinct (ly) (ness). 
 
 CLIN (clen, clinat, cliv) = lean, 
 bend, slope [ad, de, in, pro, re]. 
 Model : Proclivity ^quality of 
 leaning forward. (De) (in) (re) I 
 dine ; (ac) (de) (pro) clivity ; (de) 
 (in) (re) clination ; decision. 
 
 COR (cord, cour)=heart [ad, con, 
 dis, en, re]. 
 
 Model : Cordial=relating to the 
 heart. 
 
 Model: A cordial= a stimulant 
 for the heart. 
 
 Model : A cordial greeting = a 
 hearty greeting. (Ac) (con) (dis) 
 (re) cord ; (dis) (en) cour&ge 
 (ment) ; core, cordiality. 
 
 CUB (curat)= care [ad, pro, se, sine]. 
 Model : Security = state of being 
 without care. (Pro) (se) (sine) cure ; 
 security, (ac) curate, accuracy, 
 procurement, cwrious(ly), cwios- 
 ity ; (as) (in) swre ; (as) (in) sur- 
 ance. % 
 
 CUKK (cour(s), curs) = run [dis, ex, 
 in, inter, ob, pre, re, sub]. 
 
 Model : Precursor =that which 
 runs ahead. (In) (oc) (re) cur ; 
 (dis) (re) (inter) course ; (in) (ex) 
 cursion ; succor, discwraive, cwr- 
 sory, (con) current ; courier, 
 course, currency. 
 
 DiCT speak [bene, contra, e, inter, 
 male, pre, vale]. 
 
 Model: Predict=to speak be- 
 forehand. (Contra) (inter) (pre) 
 dict(ion) ; (bene) (male) diction ; 
 edict, v&ledictory, dictionary, dic- 
 tate, verdict, addicted, diction, 
 dictator. 
 
 DIGN= worthy [con, dis, in]. 
 
 Model : Dignify=to make wor- 
 thy. Deign, indignant, condign, 
 disdain, (in) dignity, dignitary. 
 
 Due (duct) = lead, bring [ab, ad, 
 con, de, in, intro, pro, re, se, 
 trans]. 
 
 Model : Product=t7iat which is 
 brought forth. (Tra) (se) (e) (ad) 
 (con) (de) (in) (pro) (re) duce ; 
 (se) (intro) (ab) (ad) (con) (de) (in) 
 (pro) (re) $wcion ; duke, duct, 
 conduit ; (ab) (ad) (con) (in) (de) 
 (pro) duct ; ductile, <?icftlity ; (de) 
 (re) dfwcible ; (se) (intro) (ad) (con) 
 (de) (in) (pro) ductiv* ; introduce, 
 
334 
 
 STEMS. 
 
 introductory, introducer, ducal, 
 ducat, duchy, duchess, educate. 
 
 EQU= equal [ad, un]. 
 
 Model : Adequate =haring the 
 quality of being equal ; hence, 
 sufficient. Equal, equivalent, , 
 equanimity, f^wivocal, equinox, 
 equality, equation, equilibrium, 
 equivocate. 
 
 FA (f, fant, fat) = speak [ad, in, 
 multi, ne, prej. 
 
 Model: Ineffable = not able to 
 be spoken out. .Fable, /abulous, 
 /ate(ful), affable, infant, infancy, 
 infantile, in/<mine ; (multi) (ne) 
 farious ;/atal (ism) (1st), preface, 
 prefatory, infantry. 
 
 FAC (fact, feet, fic)=make, do [ad, I 
 con, counter, de, dis. ex, in, per, 
 pro, re, super]. 
 
 Model : factory = a place uhere 
 things are made. Fact, faction, 
 facile ; (af) (in) (de) (ef) (per)/* ; 
 (af) (in) (con) (de) (per) (re)/<?con; 
 effectual, arti/u-e, artificial, facto- 
 tum; (ef) (pro) (de)ficient ; dif- 
 jfcult(y), ef/fcacious, suffice, fash- 
 ion, feasible, counterfeit, profit, 
 feature, surfeit. 
 
 FER (lat)=bear, carry [circum, con, 
 de, dis, ex, in, ob, pre, pro, re, 
 sub, trans]. 
 
 Model : Fertile = able to bear. \ 
 (Snf ) (de) (in) (con) (of) (dif) (pre) ! 
 (prof) (re) (trans) fer ; (suf) (cir- ' 
 cum) (de) (in) (con) (pre) (re) (dif) 
 (trans) /<rrence; (di) (col) (pro) (ob) 
 (re) (trans) (e) late. 
 
 FID (fi, fy)=faith, trust [ad, con, 
 de, dis, in, per]. 
 
 Model : Infidel=one who does 
 not believe. Confide ; (in) fidelity, 
 diffident, defj/, de/tant, de/wrace, 
 
 diffidence, confidence, perfidious, 
 af/iance. 
 
 FIN (finit)=end, limit [ad, con, de, 
 in, re, un]. 
 
 Model : Final=pertaining to 
 the end. Finish, fine, finance, fin- 
 ancial ; (con) (de) (re) fine ; (de) 
 (in)^;ritive, de^/<ition, definable. 
 
 FRANG (fract, frag)=break [in re]. 
 
 Model : Fraction that which 
 
 is broken off. Fragile, fragment, 
 
 fracture, infraction, refractory), 
 
 refrangible. 
 
 FUND (fus, fut)=melt, pour [ad, 
 con, dis, ex, in, pro, re, sub, 
 trans] . 
 
 Model : Fusible = able to be 
 melted. (Af) (con) (dif) (in) (pro) 
 (trans) (ef) (re) (suf) fuse ; (af) 
 (con) (dif) (in) (pro) (trans) (ef) 
 (suf) fusion ; confound, refund, 
 refute, futile. 
 
 GEN (gend, gener)=kind, race, 
 class [de, in, pro, re]. 
 
 Model : Degenerate =to let the 
 race down. Genuine, generous, 
 ge?iial, engender, regenerate, pro- 
 geny, gender. 
 
 GRAD (gress)=step, walk, go [ad, 
 con, de, dis, ex, in, pro, retro, 
 trans]. 
 
 Model : Retrograde =to go back- 
 ward. Grade, gradual, grad- 
 uate ; (de) (retro) grade ; (ag) 
 (con) (di) (e) (in) (pro) (trans) 
 gre**; (ag) (di) (e) (in) (pro) 
 (trans) (retro) gression ; ingredi- 
 ent, aggress (or) (ive). 
 
 GRAPH (gram) = write [ana, dia, 
 epi]. 
 
 Model : 1Zpigraph=a writing 
 upon a building denoting it* in<f. 
 Graft, graphite, graphically) ; 
 
STEMS. 
 
 335 
 
 (epi) (ana) (dia) (pro) (dia) (tele) 
 gram, grammar. 
 GRAT (grati, gre)= pleasure, favor. 
 
 Model : Gratify = to cause pleas- 
 ure. Gratuitous, gratis, grace, 
 congratulate, ingratiate ; (un) 
 grateful, gracious, gratitude, 
 gratification, (d i s) a^r^eable) 
 (ment). 
 HOSPIT (host) = guest, host [in]. 
 
 Model : Hospitality = quality of 
 being kind to guests [strangers]. 
 JTost(ess), hospital, (in)hospitable, 
 7wtel, hostler. 
 
 JAC (ject) lie, throw, hurl [ab, ad, 
 con, de, ex, in, inter, ob, pro, re, 
 sub]. 
 
 Model : Adjective = a word 
 thrown with another to modify it. 
 (Ab) (de) (e) (in) (inter) (ob) (pro) 
 (re) (sub) ject(ion) ; adjacent, 
 jetsam, jut, conjecture. 
 JUNCT (jug)=join [ad, con, dis, in, 
 sub]. 
 
 Model : Subjug&te to join by 
 bringing under. To subjw^ate a 
 people is to unite with them in 
 such a way that they are under ; 
 conjugal, conjugate, conjugation', 
 (con) (in) junction, subjunct- 
 ive. 
 
 JuR=law, right, swear [ab, ad, con, 
 in, per]. 
 
 Model : Jurist = one who is 
 versed in law. 
 
 Model: Abjure=to swear away 
 from; to renounce upon oath. 
 (Ad) (con) (in) (per) jure ; jury ; 
 (in) (per) jury ; jurisdiction. 
 LEG = send [ad, con, de, re]. 
 
 Model : Legate=one who is sent. 
 Legacy, allege ; (de) (re) legate 
 (ion)) 
 
 LEG (lect)== gather, choose [con, dis, 
 ex, pre, se]. 
 
 Model : Prediction = pre + di 
 Election a choosing apart before- 
 hand, Jience a previous liking. 
 "Eclectic, legion t di%ent, elig- 
 ible, elegant ; (col) (se) lect(ion). 
 
 LIBER free [de, in]. 
 
 Model : Liber ate = to make free. 
 Liber(al)(ity, il&forality, liber- 
 ally, deliver, livery. 
 
 LIN = flax, line [de]. 
 
 Model: Linen =mode of flax, 
 lining, line, linseed, delineate, 
 lineage, lineal, linear, linea- 
 ment, crinofeVie. 
 
 LITER = letter [ad, in, ob]. 
 
 Model : Illiterate =not skilled in 
 letters, Jience unlearned. Liter- 
 ate, literature, lite?'al(ly), liter- 
 ary, alfo'feration, obliterate. 
 
 Loc= place [col, dis]. 
 
 Model ; dislocate=to put out of 
 place. Locate, locality) (ize), 
 locomotion ; (col) (lis) location ; 
 focomotive. 
 
 LOG speech, word, science, de- 
 scription [ana, apo, cata, deca, 
 ec, epi, eu]. 
 
 Model : ~Eulogy=a speech or 
 writing in commendation of a 
 person. (Ana) (apo) (cata) (pro) 
 logue ; (il) logic(al), syllogism. 
 
 LOQU (locut)=r speak, talk [ad, con, 
 ex, circnm. ob]. 
 
 Model : Loquacious = inclined 
 to talk. (Al) (circum) (e) locution, 
 eloquent ; (col) (ob) (soli) loquy ; 
 ventrifo^wist, colloquial. 
 
 LUD (lus)=:play, laugh at [ad, col, 
 de, e, in, inter, pre]. 
 
 Model : Ludicrous = producing 
 laugtiter. (H) (W) (al) (Wl) (4) 
 
336 
 
 STEMS. 
 
 (pre) (inter) lude-, (al) (col) (de) 
 (e) (il) lution ; (al) (de) (e) (il) lus- 
 ive. 
 
 MAGN (maj, maxim) =great. 
 
 Model : Magnitude = state of \ 
 being great. Magnate, magnify, 
 major, mayor, magnanimous, 
 magnificent, maxim, maximum. \ 
 
 MAN = hand [a, ex]. 
 
 Model : Ma?iage = to take in 
 hand. .Mmual, man&cle, msmu- \ 
 script, wnanuensis, manifest, ; 
 wet/mfacture, maintain, emanci- \ 
 pate, maneuver, manner, manu- 
 mit, maniple, ?/i/dpulate. 
 
 MAR = the sea [sub, trans, ultra]. 
 Model: Mariner = one w?u> 
 gains his living by the sea. Mar- 
 ine, maritime; (sub) (trans) (ultra) 
 marine. 
 
 MATER (matr)= mother. 
 
 Model: Matricide=the murder 
 of a mother or the murderer of a 
 mother. Maternal, matrimony, 
 mtfron(al) (ly). 
 
 MEDI middle [in, inter]. 
 
 Model : Mediation=act of me- 
 diating. Median, medium (im)- 
 mediate, mediation, mediatorial, 
 medieval, mediocre, mediocrity, 
 meridian, mean. 
 
 MENT = mind [de]. 
 
 Model : Mental=pertaining to 
 tlie mind. Mentality, mentally, 
 mention, demented.. 
 
 MERC^trade, reward [com]. 
 
 Model : Mercenary = serving for 
 a reward. Commerce, commer- 
 cial, m^-cantile, mercy, merchant, 
 merchandise. 
 
 From this point the pupil should continue the work with- 
 out the model. 
 
 MERG (mers) = dip, plunge, sink, 
 
 mingle [e. in, sub], (e final, ence, 
 
 ion). 
 METER (metr) = measure [dia, 
 
 peri (y), syn]. 
 MIGR = wander [e, in, trans.], 
 
 ant, ate, ion (e final, ency, 
 
 ory). 
 
 What are moratory birds ? 
 Can a person be both an emi- 
 grant and an imra^rant at the 
 
 same time ? 
 MIR (mar, mira, mirat) = wonder 
 
 [ad], (age, bility, ble, cle, ion, ly, 
 
 ons, (r)or, vel). 
 MITT (miss, mit) send [ad, con, 
 
 dis, e, inter, ob, per, pro, re, 
 
 trans], (age, ance, ary, ee, ent, 
 
 ible, ile, ion, ive). 
 
 Difference between admittance 
 
 and adwmion ? 
 MON (monit, monu) = advise [ad, 
 
 pre, sub], (al, ary, ion, ish, ive, 
 
 ment, or, ster). 
 MORT = death [in], (al, (at)ion, 
 
 gage, ify, ity, ize, ly, (u^ary). 
 MOR (mot, mo) move [con, e, in, 
 
 pro, re], (able, ably, e final, er, 
 
 ion, ive, ment, or). 
 
 What does -promoted mean to 
 
 you V 
 j MuLTi=many (er. form, ply, tude, 
 
 plic + at(e)+ion, pli+er). 
 MUN (munit)=: fortify (ion, ment). 
 
STEMS. 
 
 337 
 
 KAT=born [in], (al, e, ive, ure). 
 'Of what city and town are you 
 
 a native ? 
 -'NAV (nau, naus, navig)=ship [cir- 
 
 cum], (able, al, ate, ic, ion, or, 
 
 ous). 
 Why does the nation of a 
 
 ship produce nausea, ? 
 NOT (gnis, gnit, gno, gnomin, gnor, 
 
 no, nomin, noun), [con, de, in, 
 
 re)=known, name (able, ance, 
 
 ant, ary, ate, ble, bility, bly, e 
 
 final, ice, ion, ize, ous). 
 NUMER (numerat, num)= number 
 
 [e, in, super J, (able, al, ary, ate, 
 
 er, ic, ion, less, ous). 
 NUNCI (nunciat, nounce), [ad, de, 
 
 e, pro, re] = tell (e final, ion, 
 
 ment). 
 OcuL=eye [bin, in], (ar, ate, ion, 
 
 1st, ly). 
 PAR (pair, parat)=get ready [com, 
 
 in, pre, re, se], (able, ade, ate, e 
 
 'final, ion, ity, ly). 
 
 Has your school the apparatus 
 
 needed for teaching physics, 
 
 chemistry, geography ? 
 PARL=speak (ance, ey, [iajment, 
 
 or, ary). 
 PART (partit) divide, share [ad, 
 
 con, de, in, re], (ee, ion, 
 
 (n)er, y). 
 PAST=feed [re], (al, or, ure). 
 
 What is a pastel ? 
 PAT (pass) suffer [con, in], (ate, 
 
 ible, (i)ent, (i)ence, ive, ion, ly). 
 Does a passionate person suf- 
 fer? 
 
 When is a person compassion- 
 ate ? 
 PATER (patr, patri)=: father [con, 
 
 ex], age, arch, ate, ion, ism, (i)st, 
 
 ly, mony, (n)al, (n)ity, on. 
 
 PED=foot [ex, 1m], (al, bi, (dl)er, 
 (e)stal, (i)cle, ion, (i)ment), ite. 
 
 What has an im^doYment of 
 speech to do with the foot ? Has 
 the word required a broader or a 
 narrower meaning ? 
 
 PELL (pel, puls) = drive, urge [con, 
 dis, ex, im, pro, re] (ate, e, ion, 
 ive, ory). 
 
 How many times a minute does 
 your pulse beat ? What is an im- 
 pulsive person ? A repulsive one? 
 
 PEND (pens) = hang, weigh, pay 
 [ad, con, de, dis, ex, in] (able, 
 ant, ary, ate, ence, ent, er, ile, 
 ion, (i)ous, ity, ium, ive, ly, 
 ness). 
 
 To ascertain the value of a 
 large pile of silver coins, would 
 our Government count or weigh 
 them ? Why does our Govern- 
 ment pay pensions ? What Is a 
 perpendicular ? How does it af- 
 fect the running time of a clock 
 to raise the ^no'ulum ? 
 
 PET (petit, peat)=ask [ad, com, in, 
 re], (e final, ed, ence, ency, ent, 
 ion, ity, ive, ly, or, (u)ous, us). 
 
 PHIL (philo)=fond, loving. 
 
 PLE (plet, plen, plent, ply)=full 
 [con, de, re, sub], (ance, ant, 
 ary, e, ful, ion, ish, (i)tude, ly, 
 ment). 
 What is a ^fenipotentiary ? 
 
 PLIC (plicat, plicit, pli, ply, plex, 
 pie, play, ploy)=fold [ad, con, 
 du, ex, in], (able, ant, ate, e, fy, 
 ion, ity, ly, ment, mis, multi, 
 sub). 
 
 What is it to replevy goods ? 
 Do you see the idea of folding in 
 the words suppfo'cate and suppl- 
 ant ? 
 
338 
 
 STEMS. 
 
 PON (pos, po*it) =place [con, de, 
 dis, ex, in, juxta, ob, post, pro, 
 Hub, trans], (ary, e, ent, er, ion, 
 ite, ire, ory). 
 
 Do you like to write cornyxy*/- 
 ions V He made an apyx/#ite re- 
 ply. Wljat does tkat mean ? 
 
 fportatj- carry (pur), [con, de, 
 dig, ex, in, pro, re, sub, trans], 
 (able, age, ance, ant, er, folio, 
 ion, ]y, manteau, ment, ness). 
 
 Distinguish between tra- 
 transfer, and translate; all Lav- 
 ing the idea of currying. 
 
 r gate [in, ob], (al, er, ico, 
 nn0)< 
 
 The op/x/r?une moment is when 
 
 ance, ant, e, el, ence, ent, leg, 
 ion, ive, or, ous). 
 
 SoL=alone [de], (e, o, (i)tude, ate, 
 ion. ary, ly, ion, (i loqui/e, (i lo- 
 quy). 
 
 . Epic, spectat) = look 
 [ad, circum, de, per, pro, re, re- 
 tro, Bub], ((i)rnen, (i)oas, (ujous, 
 able, acity, (a)cles, ive, or, (r)um, 
 er). 
 
 (spirit) = breathe [ad, con, 
 ex, in, per, sub, trans], (acy, ant, 
 ate, e, ion, it, ity, or, ory, (u)al, 
 
 (UJOUS). 
 
 What common idea is there 
 between tpirilu&l and 
 ous ? 
 
 tJje fjate ig open and the thing to STJU; (hlruct, stray) = build [con, 
 
 be done lies near (obj ; h< 
 easy access, convenient. 
 PuiM (prin, pri)= first (e, er, acy, 
 /, ate, cip(al) (le), (it)ive, ity, 
 
 iy. 
 
 Difference between principal 
 and 7/rmcipIe. 
 
 SACB (tecr) = holy [con, de, ex], 
 (able, (a;ment, ate, (il;ege, (i;fice, 
 dotal). 
 Sci-know [con, omni, pri], (e, 
 
 ence, ent, entific, ly, ness, ons). 
 ScuiJi (script) write [ad, circum, 
 con, de, in, pre, pro, re, trans], 
 (e, ble, ion, urej. 
 
 .- one good reason why a 
 pupil should not #m/>ble. 
 
 r (Bens)=feel, perceive, think 
 
 [ad, con, dig, in, non, re], (al, ate, 
 
 ,-jt, ibility, ion, ment, 
 
 less, ible, ibly, ness, ical, ion, 
 
 f ; (secut. guit) = follow [con, 
 *, ob, per, pro, sub], (able, 
 
 de, in, mis, ob, super], (al, er, 
 
 ion, ity, ive, ment, ure). 
 SUM (sumpt) = take [ad, con, in, 
 
 pre, re], (able, e, er, ion, ive, 
 
 (u)ary, (u)ous). 
 TANG (ting, tact, tag, tig, tegr, tain) 
 
 =touch [ab(s), ad, con. de. in, 
 .";, sub], (able, al, ent, ion, 
 
 ment, (u)ous, (ujity, ile). 
 
 one [tri], (ariim(ous)(ity), 
 
 (i)form, ion, ique, it, ite, (i)vere- 
 
 (al) (ity). 
 UT (us, ntil)=uBe [in], (ensil, ilize, 
 
 ful, ility, ness). 
 Voc (vocat) call [ad, con, ex, in, 
 
 pro, equi, re], (able, acy, al, e, 
 
 ion, iBt, ive, ize). 
 VJD (vis)=see [ad, ex, in, pro, re, 
 
 super], (able, age, ary, e, ence, 
 
 ent, ible, ion, (i)ous, it, ness, or, 
 
 (ujal). 
 YJ(VJ (vit, victu) live [re, super, 
 
 (sur)], (acity, id, (ijsection, aL 
 
 ity, or, and, (i)al). 
 
STEMS IN ADVANCED ENGLISH. 
 
 339 
 
 STEMS REQUIRED BY THE REGENTS IN 
 THEIR COURSE OF ADVANCED ENG- 
 LISH. 
 
 APER (apert)=open [L. aperire]. 
 
 ARCH=beginning, chief, rule, gov- 
 ernment [G. arche]. 
 
 ART (ert) skill, method [L. ars]. 
 
 AUD (audit, ed, ey)=hear [L. au- 
 dire]. 
 
 AuR=gold [L. aurum]. 
 
 B AT = beat [L. batere]. 
 
 Brr=bite [A.-S. bitan]. 
 
 CANT (cent, chant) = sing much or 
 often [L. cantare]. 
 
 CAPITA head [L. caput], 
 
 CELER=hasten [L. celerare]. 
 
 CoMMOD=:fit, suitable [L. corn- 
 modus ; con + modus, measure]. 
 
 COMMUN= common [L. comniunis ; 
 con + munus, duty]. 
 
 CORON= crown [L. corona]. 
 
 CORPUS (corpor, corpu, cors, corps) 
 =body [L. corpus]. 
 
 CRED (credit) =believe [L. cre- 
 dere]. 
 
 CYCL (cyclo)= circle [G. cuclos]. 
 
 DAT (dit, don, donat)=give [L. 
 dare ; donare]. 
 
 DENT=tooth [L. dens]. 
 
 Dl=day [L. dies]. 
 
 DOMIN (dominat)=rule [L. domi- 
 nare]. 
 
 DORM [dormit) Asleep [L. dor- 
 mire]. 
 
 PAC (fie) = face [L. facies]. 
 
 FELic=happy [L. felix]. 
 
 FESS=acknowledge [L. fateri]. 
 
 FORM =shape [L. forma]. 
 =: strong [L. fortis]. 
 
 GER (gerat, gest, gestat, gesticulat, 
 
 gist) = carry on, bear [L. gerere ; 
 
 gestare, gesticulari]. 
 GRAN gran [L. granum]. 
 GROSS (gro, gros)=fat, large [L. 
 
 grossus] . 
 
 HoR=rhour [L. hora]. 
 INTEG=: whole, entire [L. integer ; 
 
 in = not, and tangere, touch]. 
 JUDIC=: judge [judicari]. 
 LINGU (langu)= tongue [L. lingua]. 
 MAJOR (may or) = greater [L. major]. 
 MAN (mans, main, inn) stay [L. 
 
 manere]. 
 
 MEDIC (medicat) =heal [L. medi- 
 care]. 
 
 MENS= measure [L. mensus]. 
 PAN (pant) = all, whole [G. pas]. 
 PAN- bread [L. panis]. 
 PAR (pair, peer) = equal [L. par]. 
 PASS = step [L. passus]. 
 PEN (pun)=punishment, pain [L. 
 
 poena]. 
 
 PETR=rock [G. petra]. 
 PHON=sound [G. phonos]. 
 PHYS (physi)= nature [G.phusis]. 
 PICT (paint, pig)=paint [L. pin 
 
 gere]. 
 PLAC (plais, pleas) = please [L. 
 
 placere], 
 PLE (plen, plet, plent, pli, ply)= 
 
 full [L. plere ; plenus]. 
 PLUM=:feather [L. pluma]. 
 PLUMB (plum)=lead [L. plumbum]. 
 POT (potat)= drink [L. potare]. 
 PoTENT=powerful [L. potens]. 
 
340 
 
 STEMS IN ADVANCED ENGLISH. 
 
 PBEHEND (prehens, pris)= seize, 
 
 grasp [L. prehendere]. 
 PUNG (punct) prick [L. pungere.] 
 QUADRA square [L. quadra]. 
 QUANT = how much [L. quantus]. 
 QUER (quest, quis, quisit)=seek, 
 
 ask [L. quaerere]. __ j> 
 
 QUIET (qui, quit) = quiet [L. quiet- SUAD (suas)= advise, entreat 
 
 US J- suaderej. 
 
 SON (sono)=sound [L. sonarc]. 
 SoRT=lot [L. sors]. 
 SpECi=kind [L. species]. 
 STELL=star [L. stella]. 
 STRING (strain, strait, strict)=bind, 
 
 draw tight [L. stringere], 
 Su=self [L. sui]. 
 
 RADI (radiat, 
 radiare]. 
 
 r ay) = emit rays [L. 
 
 SURG (surrect)=rise [L. surgere= 
 
 sub + regere] . 
 TAIL (toll) -cut [F. tailler]. 
 
 TANG (tact, tag, tig, ting)=touch 
 [L. tangere]. 
 
 RAP (rapt, rav)=seize [L. raperej. 
 
 RAT = think, determine [L. ratio]. 
 
 REG (rect, regul, regulat, rig)= t _ ^^^. 
 
 rule, govern ; straight [L. regere ; I TEG (tect) cover [L. tegere]. 
 
 regulare; rectus, straight]. TEMPOR=time [L. tempus]. 
 
 Rn> (ris)=; laugh [L. ridere]. 
 Rrv (ri vat) = stream, flow [L. ri 
 
 vus] 
 
 ROG (rogat)=ask, demand, ques- 
 tion [L. rogarej. 
 RUPT= break [L. rumpere]. 
 SAL=salt [L. sal]. 
 
 TEND=(tens, tent) stretch [L. ten- 
 
 dere]. 
 TEST (testat)= witness [L. testari]. 
 
 TORT (tor, tors)=twist [L. tor- 
 
 guere] . 
 
 TRACT = draw [L. trahere]. 
 TRIT (tri)=rub [L. terere]. 
 
 [L. 
 
 SAL (sail, saltat, sault, sil)=leap ; TRUD (trus)=thrust [L. trudere]. 
 
 UND (undat, undulat)=flow, swell 
 
 as a wave [L. undare, undatus]. 
 VAD (vas):=go [L. vadere]. 
 VAL=be strong, be of use [L. 
 
 valere]. 
 
 VEN ( vent) = come [L. venire]. 
 VERT (vers)=turn [L. vertere]. 
 Vi (vey, viat, vog)=way, road [L. 
 
 viare] . 
 
 [L. salire ; saltare]. 
 SANCT (saint) = made sacred 
 
 sancire] . 
 
 SAT=enough, sufficient [L. satis]. 
 SCOP (scept)= watch, look [G. 
 
 scopos] . 
 
 SEC (sect)^cut [L. secarej. 
 SEN=old [L. senex]. 
 
 serve [L. servare ; 
 
 servirej. Vic (vice)= change [L. vicis]. 
 
 SIST (st, sta, stam, stant, stat, stit, j VOLV (volu, volut)=roll [L. vol- 
 stitit)= place [L. sistere ; stare ; j vere]. 
 statuere]. I VOT=VW [L, vovere]. 
 
UNION OF AFFIX TO STEM. 341 
 
 UNION OF AFFIX TO STEM, 
 
 When a prefix is joined to a stem no change of letters 
 occurs if an easy pronunciation results. Sometimes, how- 
 ever, letters are brought together which cannot be pro- 
 nounced easily in close connection. This often happens when 
 the final consonant of a prefix and the initial consonant of the 
 stem are made with different vocal organs ; as d before c and 
 g, in accede and aggravate ; and also, less often, when they 
 are made with^the same organs ; as d before t in attract, or b 
 before p in oppress. An easy utterance is secured in many 
 words by changing the final consonant of the prefix to the 
 initial consonant of the stem. This change is called assimi- 
 lation. The changes affecting the final consonants of prefixes 
 are as follows : 
 
 AB, in some words, drops b before 
 b, and adds s before c and t. 
 
 AD assimilates d before c, f, g, 1, 
 m, n, p, r, s, t ; in some words 
 d is dropped before s, and in 
 others it is changed to s be- 
 fore p. 
 
 CON assimilates n before 1 and r ; is 
 changed to m before b, m, p ; and 
 is dropped before a, e, i, g, h. 
 
 IN assimilates n before 1 and r ; 
 
 drops n before g ; and changes n 
 
 to m before b, m, p. 
 INTER assimilates r before 1. 
 SUB assimilates b before c, f, g, 
 
 m, p ; changes b to s before p, t, 
 
 and drops b before s. 
 TRANS becomes tra before d, and 
 
 tran before s. 
 SYN assimilates n before 1, m | 
 
 changes n to m before p, and to f 
 
 before t. 
 
 Suffixes are joined to stems without change, excepting such 
 as are explained by the Rules on pages 29 and 30, and some 
 stems ending in a vowel when a suffix beginning with the 
 same vowel is added, in which case one vowel is dropped ; 
 as, America + an = American. 
 
342 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 A.B., or B. A. = Bachelor of Arts. 
 Acct., or acct., or ^c= Account. 
 A.D.=In the year of our Lord. 
 Adj., or adj. = Adjective. 
 Adv., adv., Ad., or ad. = Advent. 
 Adv., or adv. = Advertisement. 
 Ala. = Alabama. 
 
 A.M., or M.A.=Master of Arts. 
 A.M. = Before noon. 
 Anon. = Anonymous . 
 Apr. = April. 
 Ark. = Arkansas . 
 Ar. Ter.= Arizona Territory. 
 A.-S. = Anglo-Saxon. 
 Aug. = August. 
 Ave.= Avenue. 
 BaL= Balance. 
 Bbl., or bbl.= Barrel. 
 Bro.= Brother. 
 
 Bu., bu,, Bush., or bush. = Bushel. 
 B.C. = Before Christ. 
 B.S.= Bachelor of Science. 
 C.=Hundred. 
 Can.=Canada. 
 CaL=California. 
 Capt.= Captain. 
 C. E.=Civil engineer. 
 O. H.= Court House. 
 Chap. = Chapter. 
 Ohas.= Charles. 
 Co. = Company, county. 
 C. O. D.=Collect on delivery. 
 Ool.=Colonel, Colorado. 
 Coll.=College. 
 Conn., or Ct.= Connecticut 
 Oor. See, = Corresponding Secre- 
 tary. 
 
 Or. = Credit, creditor. 
 
 Ct., or ct.=Cent(s). 
 
 Cwt., or cwt.=Hundred-weight. 
 
 d.= penny, pence. 
 
 D. C.= District of Columbia. 
 D.D.= Doctor of Divinity. 
 Dec. = Dec ember. 
 
 Del. = Delaware. 
 
 Diet. = Diction ary . 
 
 Do., or do.r= Ditto (the same). 
 
 Dr.=Doctor, debtor. 
 
 Doz., or doz.=: Dozen, dozens. 
 
 D.V.=God willing. 
 
 E.=East. 
 
 Ed. = Editor, edition. 
 
 E. E.= Errors excepted. 
 e. g.=:For example. 
 Eng.= England. 
 
 Esq. = Esquire. 
 
 et aL=And others. 
 
 Etc. = And so forth, and others. 
 
 Ex. = Exercise, example, Ex- 
 odus. 
 
 P., or Fahr. Fahrenheit. 
 
 Feb. = February. 
 
 Fla.= Florida. 
 
 Fr.=r French. 
 
 Fri.= Friday. 
 
 Ft., or ft. = Foot, feet. 
 
 F.R.S.= Fellow of the Royal So- 
 ciety. 
 
 Fur., or fur. = Furlong (s). 
 
 Ga.=Georgia. 
 
 Gal., or gal. = Gallon. 
 
 Gen. = General. 
 
 Geo.= George. 
 
 Ger.= German. 
 
 Gov.=Gk>yernor. 
 
ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 343 
 
 Gr.=: Greek. 
 
 H.B.M. = His or Her Britannic 
 
 Majesty. 
 
 Hdkf., or hdkf.= Handkerchief. 
 Hhd., or hhd.=Hogshead(s). 
 Hon. = Honorable. 
 Id., or id.^The same (idem). 
 Id.=Idaho. 
 i.e. = That is (id est). 
 HI. Illinois. 
 in.r=Inch(es). 
 incog. = Unknown. 
 Ind.= Indiana. 
 Ind. Ter.= Indian Territory. 
 la., or Io.=Io\va. 
 Inf., or inf. = Infinitive. 
 Imp., or imp. = Imperfect. 
 Inst.= Instant. 
 Int., or int. = Interest. 
 It.=Italian. 
 Jan. = January. 
 Jr., or Jun. Junior. 
 Kan. = Kansas. 
 Ky.=: Kentucky. 
 L.=Latin. 
 1.; 11.= Line ; lines. 
 La. =. Louisiana. 
 Lat., or lat.=Latitude. 
 lb.=Pound(s). 
 It. I. = Long Island. 
 Lieut. = Lieutenant. 
 LIi.B.=Bachelor of Laws. 
 IiL.D.= Doctor of Laws. 
 Lon., or Ion. = Longitude. 
 M.=Noon ; thousand. 
 M., or Mons.=Sir (Monsieur). 
 Maj. Major. 
 Mar. = March. 
 Mass . Massachusetts. 
 M. C.= Member of Congress. 
 M.D.=r Doctor of Medicine. 
 Md.= Mary land. 
 Mdse.=Merchandise. 
 
 Me.^Maine. 
 
 Messrs. = Sirs ; gentlemen (M- 
 sieurs). 
 
 Mich. = Michigan. 
 
 Minn. = Minnesota. 
 
 Miss . = Mississippi . 
 
 Mile. = Mademoiselle. 
 
 Mme . = Madame . 
 
 Mo.=Missouri ; month. 
 
 Mon.= Montana. 
 
 mos.= Months. 
 
 M.P. Member of Parliament. 
 
 Mr. = Master ; Mister. 
 
 Mrs. = Mistress. 
 
 MS. 5 MSS.=rManuscript ; manu- 
 scripts. 
 
 Mt. j mts. = Mountain ; mountains. 
 
 N.=North. 
 
 N. A. = North America. 
 
 N.B.=Take notice. 
 
 N. C.= North Carolina. 
 
 N. Dak. = North Dakota. 
 
 N. E.=New England. 
 
 Neb.=Nebraska. 
 
 Nev.= Nevada. 
 
 N. H.=New Hampshire. 
 
 N. J.^New Jersey. 
 
 N. M.= New Mexico. 
 
 No. = Number. 
 
 Nov. November. 
 
 N. Y.^New York. 
 
 O.=Ohio. 
 
 Oct. = October. 
 
 Or. = Oregon. 
 
 oz.:=0unce(s). 
 
 p.; pp. = Page ; pages. 
 
 Pa., or Penn.= Pennsylvania. 
 
 Per cent. = By the hundred. 
 
 Ph.D.= Doctor of Philosophy. 
 
 Ph.B.= Bachelor of Philosophy. 
 
 Phil. = Philadelphia. 
 
 Pk., or pk.=Peck(s). 
 
 Pl.=Plural. 
 
344 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 F.M.= Postmaster ; afternoon. 
 
 P. O.^Post Office. 
 
 Fres.= Present ; President. 
 
 Prof. = Professor. 
 
 Pro tern. = For the time. 
 
 Prox., or prox.=Next month. 
 
 P. 8.= Postscript. 
 
 pt.=Pint(s). 
 
 pwt. = Penny weight (s) . 
 
 Q. E. D., or q. e. d. = Which < 
 
 to be proved. 
 Qt.=Quart(s). 
 q. v. Which see. 
 Reed. = Received. 
 Rev. = Reverend ; Revelations. 
 R. I. = Rhode Island. 
 R. R.=Railroad. 
 Robt.= Robert. 
 Rt. Rev.=Right Reverend. 
 S.; s.=South ; shillings). 
 S. A. = South America. 
 Sat.=Saturday. 
 S. C.= South Carolina. 
 S. Dak. = South Dakota. 
 Sec.=: Secretary. 
 Sept. = September. 
 Sing. Singular. 
 Sq.= Square. 
 Sr., or Sen. = Senior. 
 
 St. = Street, saint. 
 
 Sun. = Sunday. 
 
 Supt. = Superintendent 
 
 T.=Ton, tons. 
 
 Tenn.= Tennessee. 
 
 Tex. = Texas. 
 
 Thos.= Thomas. 
 
 Thurs. = Thursday. 
 
 Tues.= Tuesday. 
 
 Ult.=Last month. 
 
 U. S.= United States. 
 
 U. S. A. = United States Army; 
 
 United States of America. 
 U. S. N.= United States Navy. 
 U. Ter.=Utah Territory. 
 VSL.= Virginia, 
 viz. Namely. 
 Vol. = Volume, 
 vs. = Against. 
 Vt.=: Vermont. 
 W.=West 
 
 Wash. = Washington . 
 Wed. = Wednesday. 
 W. I. = West Indies. 
 Wis.= Wisconsin. 
 Wy. Ter.= Wyoming Territory. 
 W. Va.=West Virginia. 
 wt.= Weight. 
 yd.=Yard, yards. 
 

 
 
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