LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, 
 . ' Deceived MAY 3 1893 ; ,ty 
 O. . Class No. . 
 
IV it I i the Trustees Compliments. 
 
REPORT ON EDUCATION 
 
 ADDRESSED TO THE 
 
 TRUSTEES OF THE DICK BEQUEST 
 
REPORT ON EDUCATION 
 
 IN THE 
 
 PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS OF THE COUNTIES OF ABERDEEN, 
 BANFF AND MORAY 
 
 ADDRESSED TO THE 
 
 TRUSTEES OF THE DICK BEQUEST 
 
 BY 
 
 SIMON S. LAUKLE, A.M. 
 
 VISITOR FOR THE DICK BEQUEST TRUSTEES ; MILNE BEQUEST INSPECTOR ; SECRETARY 
 TO THE EDUCATION COMMITTEE OF THE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. 
 
 EDINBURGH : PRINTED BY THOMAS CONSTABLE, 
 
 PRINTER TO THE QUEEN, AND TO THE UNIVERSITY. 
 MDCCCLXV. 
 
NOTE BY THE TRUSTEES. 
 
 IN giving forth the usual decennial Eeport of the 
 administration of Mr. Dick's Bequest, for the informa- 
 tion of the clergy and schoolmasters of the counties 
 which benefit from its funds, the Trustees are pain- 
 fully reminded of the loss which has been sustained 
 since the period when the last Eeport was published. 
 They allude to the death of Professor Menzies, who, 
 from the commencement of the operations of the 
 Bequest in 1832 to the year 1856, when he died, held 
 the combined offices of Clerk to the Trust and Visitor 
 of the Schools. 
 
 The very important part taken by Mr. Menzies in 
 fixing the principles and maturing the plans for the 
 distribution of the Bequest, is well known to those 
 acquainted with its early history. Those especially 
 can, perhaps, best appreciate his value, who witnessed 
 the deep and never-failing interest which their late 
 Clerk took in all that tended to the elevation of the 
 literary and religious standard of education in the 
 three counties, proving thus, by his zeal and untiring 
 energy, the conscientious feeling he ever had of the 
 
vi NOTE BY THE TRUSTEES. 
 
 onerous and important duties of his office. As it 
 must then be felt, by all connected with the Bequest, 
 that to Mr. Menzies's exertions much of the success 
 which has attended its administration is attributable, 
 the Trustees feel that they cannot allow this oppor- 
 tunity to pass without thus publicly recording their 
 sense of the great value of his services, and the deep 
 and lasting regret with which they must ever look 
 back on the loss of one so esteemed and respected. 
 
 At the close of other ten years in the history of the 
 Bequest, it affords satisfaction to the Trustees to be- 
 lieve that the influence it has exerted on education 
 within the favoured district, during the period from 
 1854 to 1864, has proved in all respects as beneficial 
 as in former years. The original intention of the 
 Trustees, when arranging for the preparation of their 
 usual Eeport on the present occasion, was to limit it 
 as far as possible to a narrative of the facts of their 
 administration during the decennial period, with a 
 statement of its results, as shown by the present con- 
 dition of the schools, and a brief notice of the changes 
 which have taken place since the date of the last 
 Eeport on the regulations affecting the distribution of 
 the Fund. Their views in this respect, however, were 
 afterwards altered in consequence of a strongly ex- 
 pressed wish on the part of Mr. Laurie, the Visitor 
 of Schools, that either the " Principles and Theory 
 
NOTE BY THE TRUSTEES. vii 
 
 of Teaching" should be introduced as an additional 
 subject in the examination of new teachers, or that a 
 statement, directing attention to their importance as a 
 subject of careful study, should be prepared and cir- 
 culated among the schoolmasters generally. The first 
 of these alternatives the Trustees were unwilling to 
 adopt, seeing that the two days set apart for the 
 annual examination are already fully occupied, and 
 that, as the time could not be extended without seri- 
 ous inconvenience, it would be difficult to arrange for 
 the introduction of any additional subject, unless at 
 the cost of partially neglecting or wholly setting aside 
 some other of the prescribed branches of study. They 
 felt themselves constrained, however, so far to give 
 effect to the recommendations of the Visitor, as to in- 
 vite him to prepare, for circulation among the school- 
 masters, such a treatise or other paper on the " Theory 
 of Teaching," as his large experience and thoughtful 
 consideration of this important subject might lead him 
 to deem calculated to accomplish the object in view. 
 It was therefore arranged that Mr. Laurie should 
 embody his views and suggestions in a Special Keport, 
 to be printed along with the Eeport of 1864 ; and it 
 will accordingly be found that these form the First 
 Part of the Eeport, while the Second Part brings 
 down the history of the Bequest and its administra- 
 tion for the decennial period, and it is for this 
 
vm NOTE BY THE TRUSTEES. 
 
 Second Part alone that the Trustees hold themselves 
 responsible. 
 
 In Part First the schoolmasters have the benefit of 
 Mr. Laurie's extensive knowledge and experience on 
 all matters connected with the teaching art ; and the 
 Trustees feel assured that the great talent displayed 
 in its preparation cannot fail to recommend it to their 
 most anxious study, and that its fruits will ere long 
 be exhibited in a more widely diffused knowledge of 
 the principles of the art of teaching and of school 
 management, and a still further improvement in the 
 condition of the schools connected with the Bequest, 
 
 JAMES HOPE, D.K.S., 
 
 Chairman of the Trusittx. 
 
; r 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 PREFATORY NOTE, ...... 1 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 THE FUNCTION OF THE PAROCHIAL SCHOOLMASTER, AND 
 THE SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF HIS TEACHING. 
 
 The Purpose of the School, ..... 5 
 
 The ultimate purpose of the parochial school The import- 
 ance of keeping this purpose in mind The consequences 
 of keeping this purpose or practical ideal in view : Moral ; 
 Intellectual ; Personal to the teacher. 
 
 The First Qualification of the Parochial Teacher, . 14 
 
 The knowledge necessary to enable the teacher to conceive 
 the practical ideal Protest against the opinion that there 
 are no principles in education. 
 
 The General Method of Education, . . . . 17 
 
 To attain the ideal we must have method Nature of mind 
 and its growth in relation to methods of instruction and 
 training Philosophic aptitude rather than philosophic 
 knowledge necessary in the teacher Auxiliaries of the 
 teacher, viz. : Natural operation of mind ; Moral accesses to 
 the intellect ; Class- sympathy. The sympathetic teacher 
 may dispense with philosophy Character in the teacher 
 himself. 
 
x CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Restrictions of the Parochial Teacher, . . . 27 
 Shortness of attendance Irregularity of attendance Num- 
 ber of classes Character of pupils' homes Utilities of 
 pupil's future life. 
 
 The Lessons to be drawn from the Restrictions of the 
 
 Parochial Teacher, 37 
 
 Contraction of teacher's work Principles of selection 
 Subjects in order of importance, primary and secondary. 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 THE CONCURRENCE OF GENERAL METHOD AND PAR- 
 TICULAR METHODS, 51 
 
 OBJECTS AND METHOD OF TEACHING BEADING, . . 53 
 Initiation in the Art of Reading, . . . .53 
 
 The Phonic, the " Look and Say," and the Alphabetic 
 methods Spelling. 
 
 The Juvenile Stage in Teaching Reading, . . 65 
 
 Mental progress and Progress in Reading should be concur- 
 rent Intelligent reading To teach to read properly is 
 to educate The imagination and the moral and religious 
 sensibilities of children Intelligible reading. 
 
 OBJECTS AND METHOD OF TEACHING WRITING, . . 77 
 
 The practical purpose, namely, facility and distinctness, to 
 be kept constantly in view Letters to be turned to use 
 as they are learned The power to be applied to copying 
 on slates Writing from dictation. 
 
 OBJECTS AND METHOD OF TEACHING ARITHMETIC, . 83 
 
 Intellectual discipline of Arithmetic School Arithmetic 
 should be practical and economic Method of teaching : 
 the concrete method Moral uses of School Arithmetic. 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 PAUK 
 
 The Secondary Subjects of the Parochial School, . 93 
 
 Education an extensive as well as an intensive process 
 Order of importance of secondary subjects. 
 
 Mr sic IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL, . . . .97 
 
 General effect of Music on the school Sympathy as an 
 educative agent Sympathy and simultaneity contrasted. 
 (The simultaneous system.) Singing a moral and religi- 
 ous agency Effect on the children Method of teaching 
 singing. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, AND THE METHOD OF TEACHING IT, . 103 
 
 Chief error in teaching Geography Practical purpose 
 of teaching Geography Theoretical purpose The two 
 harmonize Indirect uses of Geography Method of 
 teaching Geography. 
 
 ON DRAWING, . . . . . . .111 
 
 THE HIGHER INTELLECTUAL INSTRUCTION OF THE 
 
 PAROCHIAL SCHOOL, . . . . .113 
 
 Advanced Reading Analysis of Sentences Ad- 
 vanced Writing or Composition Method of teach- 
 ing Grammar and Composition, . . . 113 
 
 History, ....... 123 
 
 Latin and Greek. (Middle Schools.) Language versus 
 Science, ...... 124 
 
 On the Method of teaching Latin and Greek, . 140 
 Mathematics, . . . . .145 
 
 ORGANIZATION, . . . . . . .146 
 
 Classification Time-Tables. 
 
 SCHOOL DISCIPLINE, . . . . .151 
 
 Indirect Moral Teaching Rewards and Punishments. 
 
Xli CONTENTS. 
 
 MORAL INSTRUCTION, . . . . .174 
 
 Initiatory stage Direct Moral and Suggestive Moral Teach- 
 ing Juvenile stage (Laws of Health, etc.) 
 
 MINOR MORALS OF THE SCHOOL, . . .186 
 
 Courtesy between Boys and Girls Influence of Female 
 Schools Politeness Order Cleanliness, etc. Personal 
 habits of teacher. 
 
 THE TEACHING OF RELIGION, . 195 
 
 PART SECOND. 
 HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ORIGIN AND AMOUNT OF THE BEQUEST, . . .207 
 
 Mr. James Dick Professor Allan Menzies Trustees and 
 Office-Bearers Terms of Bequest from Mr. Dick's 
 Will. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 CHARACTER OF THE BEQUEST AND OF ITS ADMINISTRATION, 215 
 
 The Bequest not a Charity Historical sketch of Paro- 
 chial School system Outline of the principles of 
 administration. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF DICK BEQUEST ADMINISTRATION, . . 224 
 
 1. The Teacher, . . 224 
 
 2. The Heritors and Minister, and Presbyterial Superin- 
 
 tendence, ..... 
 
 3. Plan of Distributing the Fund, 
 
 4. Assistant- Substitutes, 
 
CONTENTS. xili 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 [ACT 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE AND OTHER CHANGES SINCE 1854, 237 
 
 A Distant- Substitutes Temporary Substitutes Music 
 Side-Parochial Schools. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE RELATION OF THE BEQUEST TO THE PRIVY COUNCIL, 241 
 
 CHAPTER VT. 
 
 VISITATION OF THE SCHOOLS, . . . .245 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 NOTES OF VISITATION, . . . . . .251 
 
 1. Reading. Examination on the Reading Lessons. 
 
 Course of Lessons, ..... 251 
 
 2. Writing (Dictation Exercises), . 268 
 
 3. Arithmetic, 273 
 
 4. Music, . ... 276 
 
 5. Geography, . .... 277 
 
 6. History, ... .280 
 
 7. Grammar and Composition, .... 281 
 
 8. Organization. Specimen Time-Table, . . 287 
 
 9. Discipline and Minor Morals, .... 292 
 
 10. Direct Moral Instruction, 296 
 
 11. Direct Religious Instruction, .... 298 
 
 12. The Higher Instruction of the Parochial Schools : 
 
 English Composition Latin Greek Mathematics, 304 
 
 CHAPTER VIIT. 
 
 THE CLASS OF PAROCHIAL TEACHERS IN ABERDEEN, BANFF, 
 
 AND MORAY, . 310 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PRESENT STATE OF THE SCHOOLS SPECIMENS AND 
 CLASSIFICATION CHIEF DEFECTS IN RESPECT OF 
 RESULTS PROGRESS MADE DURING THE LAST TEN 
 YEARS, . .316 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE BEARING OF FEES AND DATE OF ENTRY ON ATTEND- 
 ANCE AND ORGANIZATION GRATIS SCHOLARS, 330 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 SCHOOL ACCOMMODATION FURNITURE APPARATUS- 
 SCHOOL LIBRARIES TEXT-BOOKS USED, 335 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 GENERAL STATISTICS OF EDUCATION IN THE COUNTIES OF 
 
 ABERDEEN, BANFF, AND MORAY, . . . .339 
 
 Parochial Schools, 330 
 
 Non-Parochial Schools, . . . . .342 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS IN CONNEXION WITH THE BEQUEST, 344 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 COMPARATIVE STATEMENT, HAVING REFERENCE TO PRE- 
 VIOUS REPORTS STATISTICAL TABLE, . . .347 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. RULES OF EXAMINATION AND SPECIMEN OF EXAMINA- 
 TION PAPERS, . . . . .353 
 
 II. RESULTS OF EXAMINATION OF SCHOOLMASTERS AND 
 
 SUBSTITUTES, . . . . . .371 
 
 III. SPECIMEN OF PRESBYTERIAL REPORT TO TRUSTEES, . 377 
 
 IV. ABSTRACT OF REGULATIONS OF THE DICK BEQUEST 
 
 TRUSTEES, ....... 380 
 
 V. STATEMENT TO PRIVY COUNCIL REGARDING THE EN- 
 DOWMENT CLAUSE OF THE REVISED CODE, . .385 
 
 VI. LIST OF PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS, AND OF THE SCHOOL- 
 MASTERS AND ASSISTANT -SUBSTITUTES IN THE 
 COUNTIES OF ABERDEEN, BANFF, AND MORAY, FROM 
 1854 TO 1864, 391 
 
UFI7 &SIT7 
 
 PREFATORY NOTE. 
 
 ABOUT two years ago I was asked by the Trustees 
 of the Dick Bequest to put in writing such a statement 
 of the methods of school-work as might be of service 
 to teachers admitted to participation in the Bequest. 
 Anticipating the instructions which I afterwards re- 
 ceived, to lay before the Trustees the usual decennial 
 Eeport on the working of the Trust, and the sta-te of 
 the schools inspected by me, I proposed to embody in 
 that Eeport all that it was necessary to say on the art 
 of teaching. 
 
 When, however, I began to write the Report, I found 
 that scraps of method and disjointed suggestions, 
 occurring in the midst of details of school work, would 
 not secure the object I had in view. Methods and ex- 
 pedients, I felt, were of no real and permanent value, 
 except in so far as they were referred back to principles. 
 Moreover, every successive year's experience had more 
 deeply impressed me with the belief, that the object 
 of any writing addressed to teachers ought to be, not 
 so much to provide them with weapons which they 
 could turn to immediate use, as to inspire them with 
 a large conception of their task ; to convince them that 
 their business is to educate their pupils while instruct- 
 
 A 
 
PREFATORY NOTE. 
 
 ing them in a few technical arts ; to show them that 
 every part of their work is instinct with a moral pur- 
 pose ; and, with a view to these ends, to bring into 
 prominence the harmony that subsists between the 
 special methods of teaching and the general method 
 of education. In addition to this, it seemed not out 
 of place to take the opportunity which this my first 
 public Keport afforded me, of stating explicitly the 
 grounds of my annual Keports on individual schools, 
 and the point of view from which I criticise them. 
 Accordingly, I have separated all that has general 
 reference to the function of the teacher from the sur- 
 vey of the operation of the Trust, and of my experi- 
 ence of the schools in the three north-eastern counties. 
 The actual working condition of the schools in these 
 counties is recorded in the second part of the Report. 
 I need scarcely say that the general question of 
 Education is not the subject of the following pages : 
 my business is with education as it ought to be 
 conducted within the walls of a Parochial School. 
 Should my remarks sometimes appear to teachers to 
 be simple and obvious, and indeed anticipated in the 
 practice of a large body of the teachers of the three 
 north-eastern counties, my apology is that I am con- 
 fident that, by young teachers at least, they will be 
 found not superfluous. 
 
REPORT TO THE TRUSTEES OP THE 
 DICK BEQUEST. 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 THE FUNCTION OF THE PAROCHIAL 
 SCHOOLMASTER 
 
uim SITT 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 THE FUNCTION OF THE PAROCHIAL SCHOOLMASTER, AND THE 
 SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF HIS TEACHING. 
 
 The Purpose of the School. 
 
 The ultimate purpose of the parochial school The importance of keeping this 
 purpose in mind The consequences of keeping this purpose or practical 
 ideal in view : Moral ; Intellectual ; Personal to the teacher. 
 
 I FIND that the defects of conscientious teachers are 
 for the most part to be traced to the want of a pur- 
 pose, both as regards the general object of the school 
 and the particular result of special studies. 
 
 "What is it that I propose to myself in School- 
 keeping?" is the first question which a young teacher 
 should put to himself. His first duty is to form a 
 purpose or practical ideal. A clearly defined purpose 
 is not only the indispensable condition, but it is also 
 the measure, of progress. The question is, as it seems 
 to me, best answered thus : The object which the 
 schoolmaster ought to propose to himself is the For- 
 mation of Character. This is the ultimate purpose of 
 the Parochial School, as it is of all education. 
 
 It is true that the objects of education, and even of 
 such education as the parochial school affects to give, 
 
6 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 are, in their details, various, and seem at first sight 
 to be inadequately summed up by the words " For- 
 mation of Character." The child, for example, has to 
 be taught how best to preserve through life a sound 
 mind in a sound body. In teaching him this, we must 
 furnish him with the knowledge necessary for earn- 
 ing a livelihood ; we must provide him with a cer- 
 tain amount of intellectual food ; and, above all, 
 we must instruct him in those moral duties, which 
 it behoves him to know and practise. The moral 
 teaching, again, can have due efficacy and adequate 
 sanction only if we connect it with the will of the 
 Unseen Power which sustains and administers the 
 Universe : it thus becomes religious teaching, and 
 this long before it assumes that more definite form 
 of Christian faith which the school also inculcates. 
 The necessities of the case thus demand that the 
 pupil's mind shall be informed as well as formed. 
 
 But what is the purpose of all this instruction ? It 
 is to make men lead better lives ; better, intellectu- 
 ally, by giving greater activity, vigour, and precision 
 to the powers by which they know and do ; better, 
 morally and religiously, by causing them to live in 
 obedience to the laws of God as revealed in the nature 
 of man and the visible order around him, and in har- 
 mony with the will of God as communicated in his 
 Word. The bettering of men's wills, and the better- 
 ing of men's intellects, these are the great objects 
 which we have in view. 
 
 Accordingly, if asked to sum up in a few words 
 
THE ITKl'OSE OF THE SCHOOL. V 
 
 the end of Education, and to do so in words which 
 will indicate its ultimate aim at the same time that 
 they furnish the practical teacher with a criterion 
 by which to measure every detail of his work, I 
 can find no better or more exhaustive answer than 
 that which has been given : " The Formation of 
 Character." 
 
 But since the invigorating of the understanding, and 
 the training of the will, are operations which can- 
 not be conducted without materials, we are bound, 
 in determining the nature of these materials, to allow 
 ourselves to be controlled by the needs and facts of 
 man's daily life. 
 
 The materials of parochial school education thus 
 forced on us are at first sight so humble that it may 
 with some show of truth be contended that they do 
 not admit of a treatment in relation to a larger pur- 
 pose outside themselves. If this be so, they arc 
 unsuited for the work they have to do, and the school- 
 master, since no other material is available, inevit- 
 ably sinks into a mere mechanic. This antagonism 
 happily does not exist. The necessities of the 
 pupil's future life and the necessities of sound train- 
 ing can easily be shown to harmonize. For, al- 
 though in such formal matters as arithmetic and 
 grammar the ideal may mean only a certain perfection 
 of acquired knowledge in the pupil, accompanied by 
 a certain amount of mental power developed in the 
 process of acquisition; yet, when even these subjects 
 are ethically taught, that is to say, so handled as to be 
 
8 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 brought into close concrete connexion with their ulti 
 mate uses in common life, they pass into a higher 
 category, and contribute their full share to the attain- 
 ment of the ultimate purpose of the school. In the 
 elementary school, if nowhere else, purely formal 
 studies have, when rightly understood, a moral signi- 
 ficance. 
 
 If the purpose of the parochial school has been cor- 
 rectly stated, something has already been done to 
 wards defining the position and work of the school- 
 master. If it be true that he is set apart by society, 
 in order that he may direct his daily energies to- 
 wards the formation of character in the children 
 of the people, he cannot fail to feel that he is 
 engaged in an elevating, an inspiring, nay, more, a 
 creative task. He is in truth, if he will but be- 
 lieve it, a kind of moral artist. He has a plastic 
 work to do, the work of moulding the rude un- 
 tutored nature of peasant and city boyhood into a 
 shapely form. Nor will any one regard this as an 
 exaggeration of the teacher's office, who has had op- 
 portunities of contrasting the uncombed, untamed 
 young barbarian of civilisation, distinguished for his 
 loose and insolent carriage, his lawless manner, licentious 
 speech, and vagrant eye, with the same child, sitting 
 on the school-bench, well-habited and clean, his man- 
 ner subdued into fitness with the moral order around 
 him, his tongue under a sense of law, his countenance 
 suffused with awakening thought, his very body 
 
THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL. 
 
 seeming to be invested with reason. That such trans- 
 formations are effected by the best schoolmasters, all 
 know who have come into direct personal contact 
 with educational agencies. 1 And surely the man who 
 can point to such results as the product of his labour, 
 rightly claims to have in some sense a creative func- 
 tion. Is not his work, in point of fact, creative in a 
 high and peculiar sense ? This at least is certain, 
 that, except in so far as it is felt by him, consciously 
 or unconsciously, to have this character, it may be 
 safely said to be a drudgery the most dreary and 
 soul-tiring in the whole round of human labour an 
 occupation for slaves. 
 
 I speak exclusively of the elementary teacher ; for 
 the departmental instructor in this or that science or 
 language stands on a lower moral eminence than that 
 which is occupied by the parochial schoolmaster. The 
 former makes only a partial contribution to the final 
 result of character, and he does so at an age when 
 the pupil's unconscious moral tendencies are already 
 declared, and the bent of his intelligence is already 
 given. The latter, on the other hand, has to rear suc- 
 cessive generations of children, during the years in 
 which they are most open to impressions. These chil- 
 dren he has, in the widest sense, to train as well as 
 
 1 "From culture tmexclusively bestowed, 
 
 Expect these mighty issues ; from the pains 
 And faithful care of unambitious schools, 
 Instructing simple childhood's ready ear 
 Thence look for these magnificent results.'' 
 
 \Vords worth's E.'ciu---><>,i. B. i\. 
 
10 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 to instruct. His duty is to operate on their faculties 
 and capacities, to stimulate these into life, and to 
 give them their first direction. The intellect of the 
 child is thus dependent on its earliest instructor more 
 than on any other, on his wise understanding of the 
 manner of its natural operations, the limits of its 
 legitimate exercise, and the objects most readily 
 seized and assimilated at the different stages of its 
 growth. Still more is the moral destiny of the child 
 in his hands ; for the extent to which the sentiments 
 and imagination are to enter into the future char- 
 acter, and give it balance arid harmony, depends 
 more on the way in which they are respected and 
 judiciously fostered in the child's earliest years, than 
 on any future influences whatsoever. 
 
 If this be the work of the national schoolmaster if 
 his function be to elaborate out of rude, but not un- 
 pliable material, some approximation to a good intel- 
 lectual and moral habit, how indispensable is it that 
 he should be guided as well as sustained by the con- 
 scious possession of this the ideal aim of his profession ! 
 It is only when he has a clear comprehension of the real 
 nature and the large bearings of his work, that the little 
 things of the schoolroom and it is precisely these that 
 require his attention assume their rightful importance. 
 All the details of his arrangements are then felt to 
 promote or retard the realization of the educative 
 purpose of the school, and, in so far as they contribute 
 to the final result, to have a moral value. Small 
 
TICK. PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL. 1 J. 
 
 things are no longer petty. Things which would 
 otherwise be considered trivial such as cleanliness, 
 order, light, ventilation acquire a new significance. 
 Those daily incidents, so apt to be regarded as merely 
 harassing and vexatious, and as traversing the steady 
 on ward progress of his work, are now beheld by him 
 in a new light, and what were formerly only obstruc- 
 tions, become transmuted into auxiliaries of his gene- 
 ral method or into felicitous opportunities for applying 
 it. The teacher, on the other hand, who is ignorant 
 of the true nature of his function, and is unfurnished 
 with a practical ideal, can at best take only a partial 
 and technical view of his duties. His various classes 
 and subjects of instruction do not present themselves 
 to his mind as parts of one whole. The organization 
 is probably loose and disjointed, the subjects taught 
 and the classes operated on seeming to have no in- 
 timate connexion with each other ; for where no ulti- 
 mate unity of general result is conceived, none can 
 exist in the particular details. The multifarious opera- 
 tions of the schoolroom hang in clumsy juxtaposition, 
 instead of being woven together by the power of a 
 common purpose. Such a teacher looks at his work 
 piecemeal, and does it in fragments. A portion of 
 this, that, or the other subject, has to be taught 
 to a certain number of pupils, and the day's work 
 is over. Each lesson seems to terminate in itself, 
 without reference either to the past or the future ; 
 to-day seems to have no necessary issue in to-morrow. 
 K\<Ty passing '-vent, every collateral circumstance 
 
12 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 attending his intercourse with his pupils, is to such 
 a man obstructive and irrelevant, if it do not for- 
 ward the sole object of the day " getting through 
 the lessons." That done, the day's duty is also done : 
 and we may be sure that where the teaching is 
 not animated and controlled by any higher purpose 
 than this, by something which can neither be ques- 
 tioned out of the pupils nor communicated to them 
 in didactic shape, even the mere lesson-saying will be 
 perfunctory and barren. 
 
 But not only are the possession of an ideal, and of 
 the desire to attain it, indispensable qualifications 
 of a primary teacher ; they also point out the easiest 
 and shortest road to his end. They may almost be 
 said to supersede every other qualification ; for where 
 there exist the imagination and the precision of appre- 
 hension necessary to give definite shape to the final 
 aim of his work, and along with these the will to 
 realize in his school what he entertains in his 
 thought, the teacher may almost be said to be fully 
 equipped for his task. So equipped, he cannot wander 
 very far from the right track ; and, should he deviate, 
 his errors will quickly turn to use. Even the principles 
 of organization and of discipline, and all scholastic 
 methods, are of little value compared with a distinct 
 conception of the ultimate aim of the school, sustained 
 by an earnest purpose. These things, if they are not 
 quickened by the independent thought of the teacher, 
 deal with the scholastic art from the outside; while 
 the teacher we have in view has already a firm grasp 
 
THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL. 13 
 
 of a central idea, which not only gives validity and 
 force to the methods which he may adopt, but is 
 itself the fertile source of new expedients. 
 
 Again, the possession of a practical ideal enables 
 the teacher to give fair proportions to the various 
 parts of his work. The subjects to be taught, their 
 relative importance, the limits within which they are 
 to be kept, and the direction which is to be given 
 to them, can be determined only by the help of the 
 foregone purpose. Even good teachers frequently 
 exhibit a certain helplessness in giving to each sub- 
 ject of instruction its due prominence or subordina- 
 tion. They are too often the slaves of traditions ; 
 and when new subjects are admitted into the school- 
 room, they seem to be allowed to elbow their own 
 way, jostling out of their fair share of attention, by 
 no means the least important studies, but probably 
 only the least clamant. 
 
 Further, the possession of the school-ideal sustains 
 and animates the teacher. Without unduly magnify- 
 ing his office, he feels a just pride in the reflection 
 that he is one of the moral agencies of society. The 
 knowledge that it is his special duty to aid in form- 
 ing the character of others, is a never-failing source 
 of strength. It is well that it should be so ; for 
 in no profession or occupation is there more need 
 of the consolation which a high purpose gives. The 
 teacher is denied the fresh source of courage and 
 hope which a completed work so often yields to 
 other labourers. He is constantly toiling towards 
 
14 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 an intellectual and moral unity of result which he 
 never reaches. He is always producing, but there 
 is never a completed product. His fondest hopes 
 are being constantly frustrated ; weakness, folly, 
 wickedness cropping out where and when least ex- 
 pected, breaking down his most cherished beliefs in 
 his success, and undermining his best-laid schemes. 
 Even his successes it is seldom given him to know, 
 because the pupils pass out of his hands before the 
 fruit of his training is visible. Harassed by petty 
 exactions and unrefreshed by the reward of generous 
 recognition, he is often depressed, if not despairing. 
 In such circumstances it is manifest that he can find 
 renovation of zeal in the magnitude and moral aim 
 of his professional task, and in the trust that he is 
 humbly co-operating with a higher Power in whose 
 hands are the issues. 
 
 The First Qualification of the Parochial Teacher. 
 
 The knowledge necessary to enable the teacher to conceive the practical ideal 
 Protest against the opinion that there are no principles in education. 
 
 The Formation of Character, which is the great 
 end and aim of the parochial school, presents itself to 
 the schoolmaster in two aspects : the formation of 
 a good habit of the intelligence, and of a good 
 habit of the will. All the materials of instruction 
 which he uses, he must regard as nothing more than 
 the implements with which he works towards these 
 ends. It is fortunate that, however mechanically he 
 
CHIEF QUALIFICATION OF THE TEACHER. 15 
 
 may use his tools, they possess, even in the hands of 
 the incompetent, an inherent power of producing some 
 appreciable disciplinary result in the minds of learners. 
 But they can have their full and proper effect only 
 in the hands of one who has a clear conception of 
 their precise relation to the results at which he aims, 
 and of the peculiar kind of handling necessary for 
 each different instrument. 
 
 Now it is evident that the schoolmaster cannot in any 
 adequate sense conceive either the habit of intelligence 
 or of will which is the end of his teaching, or the rela- 
 tion of his instruments to the production of these 
 habits, unless he himself has some knowledge of the 
 nature of the intelligence and the will. Indeed, only 
 to the extent that he has that knowledge, can he 
 form any rational conception of his vocation at all. 
 In other words, it is only through a knowledge of 
 psychology and ethics that he can render to himself 
 an account of what he is doing, and can see to what 
 point his labours are tending. These are the two 
 pillars on which the whole fabric of education rests. 
 I do not mean to say that it is necessary that the 
 teacher should be a philosopher, but it is quite in- 
 dispensable that he should philosophize. All good 
 teachers do this, whether they are aware of it or not. 
 They propose to themselves certain specific intellec- 
 tual and moral ends in teaching each subject of their 
 somewhat extensive curriculum, and to this extent 
 they necessarily construct for themselves a kind of 
 crude and undeveloped doctrine of mind. They can- 
 
16 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 not move a single step without doing so, although 
 the reasons which determine their objects, and guide 
 them in attaining them, may assume to their own 
 minds no formal or scientific shape. 
 
 If this be so, and it seems almost superfluous to en- 
 deavour to establish its truth by argument, it is surely 
 of some importance, that that knowledge which under- 
 lies the work of every schoolmaster should be included 
 in his self-preparation for it. It is manifestly better 
 for his school and for himself that he should know, 
 with some approach to accuracy, that which he must 
 apply, whether he will or not. Doubtless, some are 
 still to be found, among those who vaunt their purely 
 "practical" views on education, who are of opinion that 
 the primary teacher's work has no intimate connexion 
 with the philosophy of the human mind, and that 
 consequently it has no principles and deductive 
 methods worthy of the name. It is not my busi- 
 ness here to combat this opinion. It is enough for me 
 if I gain the thoughtful teacher's assent to the propo- 
 sition, that the extent to which he can realize in his 
 own thought those formed habits of the intelligence 
 and the will which constitute the objects of his pro- 
 fessional existence, depends on his knowledge of 
 human nature. If he does not admit this, he de- 
 grades himself from the position of an educated 
 worker striving by means of intellectual processes 
 to reach certain well-defined moral and intellectual 
 results, to that of a mere retailer of the alphabet, and 
 of an inferior (because male) nurse, and converts what 
 
TIIK (JKNKJJAL MKTFLOD OF KDl ( 'ATION. 17 
 
 is a profession, in every sense in which that distinctive 
 term is applicable, into a trade so unutterably petty 
 and vexatious, that only men of mean natures would 
 willingly adopt it. 
 
 The- General Method of Education. 
 
 To attain the ideal we must have method Nature of mind and its growth in 
 relation to methods of instruction and training Philosophic aptitude rather 
 than philosophic knowledge necessary in the teacher Auxiliaries of the 
 teacher, viz. : Natural operation of mind ; Moral accesses to the intellect ; 
 Class-sympathy. The sympathetic teacher may dispense with philosophy- 
 Character in the teacher himself. 
 
 The teacher may have a knowledge of the nature 
 of human intelligence and will, sufficiently clear and 
 precise to yield to him a distinct conception of that 
 good habit of both, which constitutes the purpose 
 of education, but may be so ignorant of the manner, 
 the conditions, and the periods of mental growth, as 
 to be unable to construct for himself a road to the 
 goal which he desires to reach. It is true that if the clear 
 perception of the goal be united with an earnest endea- 
 vour to reach it, a man whose character is itself formed, 
 or, which is better, consciously forming itself, in accord- 
 ance with the highest standards of life, will not deviate 
 very far from the right track. A steady eye, already 
 to some extent practised in the field of moral and intel- 
 lectual exploration, requires little more than the visible 
 prominence of a goal, to enable it to map out a chart 
 of the country which has to be travel-sec] before that goal 
 be reached. But the devising of some practicable path 
 
18 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 through the intricacies of the yet untra versed ground, 
 is the first demand on the powers of the teacher, and 
 one involving too many delicate and important ques- 
 tions to be left to the improvised and haphazard solu- 
 tions which the pressure of necessity may from time 
 to time force from him as he proceeds. It is therefore 
 incumbent on him to consider the principles which 
 must determine the path to be chosen, and which 
 lie at the foundation of Method ; in other words, the 
 principles which point out the way by which he may 
 reach his end. 
 
 The mind exhibits its life in various forms forms 
 easily distinguished from each other in the rough, 
 and seeming frequently to have nothing in common, 
 save that they are the manifestations of the same in- 
 divisible conscious power. These forms of sensibility 
 or activity emerge into life at different periods of the 
 child's growth, and claim, therefore, from the educator 
 at those different periods the right of exclusive atten- 
 tion or careful neglect. Practically speaking, these 
 sensibilities and activities of the child have no exist- 
 ence except in so far as they have objects ; and 
 accordingly, the materials of instruction which the 
 teacher employs are, in the first instance at least, to 
 be contemplated solely as the aliment necessary for 
 the due sustenance and growth of these powers. The 
 development of them tends to produce that mental 
 character which it is his business to form. But the 
 wise development of them, such a development as will 
 cause them to consolidate into a healthy and harmo- 
 
THE GENERAL METHOD OF EDUCATION. 1 9 
 
 nious whole, can be promoted only by presenting the 
 materials of aliment at the right time and in the right 
 way. The chronological appearance of the phenomena 
 of mind must not be anticipated, and their modus 
 operandi must not be misunderstood. That food alone 
 must be presented which the mind has acquired sufficient 
 vigour to assimilate, and it must be presented in such 
 a shape, and according to such processes, as harmo- 
 nize with the manner in which the mind itself works. 
 Such a presentation is a presentation according to 
 method. Methods of teaching, therefore, are, if rightly 
 understood, the times and ways of using the materials of 
 instruction and discipline, and of presenting them to 
 the mind of the learner ; and right methods are such 
 times and ways of using and presenting our materials 
 as accord with the times and ways of mental growth. 
 Methods of teaching, on the one hand, are those 
 processes by which we convey instruction and dis- 
 cipline, with a view to the formation of a right habit 
 of the intelligence and the will ; mental growth, on 
 the other hand, is that series of processes by which the 
 mind attains to its maturity, and to that tendency to 
 repeat itself which we call habit. Now, these two 
 processes must run parallel : there must be a mutual 
 understanding and consentaneity between them if the 
 work of education is to be rightly done. 
 
 It is true that a teacher, himself possessed of a dis- 
 ciplined intelligence and of a will fortified by religion, 
 reason, and experience, may be working wisely towards 
 the production in others of that which is in himself, 
 
20 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 and be unconsciously adapting liis processes to a sound 
 method ; but even one so rarely endowed as to be 
 able to dispense with a knowledge of mind, loses the 
 consolation and invigoration which a man draws from 
 the knowledge that he is working in conformity with 
 certain mental laws of growth, towards an end which 
 lie can distinctly conceive and enunciate. 
 
 It may be urged, that to make such high demands 
 on the parochial teacher, is to imagine him in posses- 
 sion of a psychology, completed in the large sense of fur- 
 nishing him not only with an analysis of our emotional 
 and intellectual nature, but also of its mode of growth, 
 and that, inasmuch as no such recognised philosophic 
 scheme exists, we require impossibilities. The reply 
 to this may be found in what has been already said : 
 it is not necessary that the schoolmaster be a philo- 
 sopher, either in the sense of elaborating a scheme 
 of psychology for himself, or fully comprehending 
 those which others offer for his acceptance. But 
 if he is to be a good and a living teacher, it is 
 indispensable that he should philosophize, and that 
 he should do so in the direction above indicated. 
 A constant spirit of inquiry, with a view to under- 
 stand the objects of his care, and to adapt fresh 
 means to those ends which experience and reflection 
 enable him from day to day more distinctly to perceive 
 and more largely to comprehend, is essential to the right 
 conception of his duty and to. his own sense of manli- 
 ness and dignity in the discharge of it. Given this, 
 and we have all that it is essential for him to have ; 
 
TIIK <;KNKI;AL MF/PHOD OP EDUCATION. 21 
 
 for where the master-mind of the school is itself thus 
 open, living, and progressive, an intellectual and moral 
 movement is communicated to the pupils, which could 
 never flow from a man whose pretensions to theoretic 
 knowledge were greater, and who laboured on in con- 
 scientious but dull obedience to a stereotyped system 
 of mind, and to rules of conduct deduced from it. 
 The habitual study of the capacities and growth of 
 mind is necessary to the teacher, not the mere pos- 
 session of a series of dead classifications, which he 
 vainly imagines to be knowledge. Accordingly the 
 mental requirement, seemingly so high, is not really 
 greater than we are entitled to expect ; for it does not 
 involve profound knowledge or various attainment, but 
 only an average amount of intellectual capacity, to 
 which, under a sense of duty, a certain direction has 
 been given. A certain amount of knowledge, but 
 that easy of attainment, is indispensable, but it is 
 the habit of mind, and the attitude which it takes 
 up with respect to its work, which are the chief 
 requisites. Of this the schoolmaster may be as- 
 sured, that unless he take the " philosophic'' view 
 of his profession and its duties, he will never fully 
 understand the significance of his daily task, or raise 
 himself, either in his own eyes or in those of others, 
 above the position of a soul- vexed mechanic, whose 
 occupation the world will persist in regarding as petty, 
 because the objects of it are small. 
 
 In the natural instinct of acquisition, so conspicuous 
 
22 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 in children, and in the irrepressible love of activity, the 
 teacher will find co-operating agencies ready to aid him 
 in his labours, and to supply his own shortcomings in 
 a knowledge of the processes and growth of mind. In 
 truth, nature is hourly striving to do the work which 
 he, in his impatient ignorance, is too often thwarting. 
 For it is a fact in the operation of mind, that however 
 awkward, inverted, or confused may be the way in 
 which an object whether it be grammar, geography, 
 or the alphabet is presented to the mind of child or 
 adult, there is a strong and almost irresistible, though 
 not always successful, analytic effort on the part of 
 the intellect to fall into the proper acquiring attitude 
 towards it, to grope its way through the confusion, 
 setting aside the irrelevant, until it seizes firm hold of 
 the right end of the thread by following which it may 
 find its way to knowledge. In this fact, the teacher 
 may find much encouragement, the best teacher as 
 well as the indifferent, for none are independent of its 
 aid. It is this self-curative energy of mind which 
 makes ultimately educative in their effect, facts 
 and reasonings which, at the time of presentation, 
 fail to touch either the understanding or the feelings 
 of the pupil, and are utterly barren of any immediate 
 result whatsoever, except the exercise of the memory. 
 Nor is the spontaneous energy of the mind the only 
 auxiliary which the teacher finds ready to supply his 
 defects and correct his errors. He has command over 
 the moral avenues to the understanding. It is this fact 
 which explains the success of those teachers who seem to 
 
NATURAL AUXILIARIES OF THE SCHOOLMASTER. 2?> 
 
 begin everything at the wrong place, and prosecute it 
 in the wrong way. They happen to possess a strong 
 will and an earnest desire to instruct and discipline 
 the minds of their pupils. The constant manifestation 
 of their intellectual and moral energy is contagious : 
 it communicates a wholesome shock to the pupil, and 
 his powers are stretched to the utmost, in order to keep 
 pace with a master whose earnestness and strength so 
 conspicuously call forth respect and confidence. 
 
 Further, the schoolmaster has the potent ally, sym- 
 pathy of numbers, on his side. All help each in the 
 intellectual effort or moral discipline which occupies 
 the passing moment. The perplexity or the kindling 
 of the eye, as the mind of each member of the 
 class works its way to apprehension and utterance, 
 has a subtle power of co-operating with the master. 
 Class-sympathy furnishes that mental stimulus which 
 a common pursuit, supported by generous emulation, 
 always communicates to those who are engaged in it. 
 
 Such, in outline, ought to be the schoolmaster's 
 mode of operation, and such are some of the natural 
 auxiliaries which never fail the conscientious teacher, 
 aiding his efforts, repairing his blunders, and supply- 
 ing his deficiencies. 
 
 I can imagine only one case in which some know- 
 ledge of mental processes and a philosophic attitude of 
 mind can be safely dispensed with, the case of the mas- 
 ter who is endowed with sympathetic sensibility. Where 
 this is strong, formal philosophic methods are at once 
 
24 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 superseded, and the qualifications for understanding 
 their organic connexion with mind are, if not superflu- 
 ous, at least unnecessary. The sympathetic adaptation 
 of means to ends is the most subtle and successful 
 of all school-methods. There are some teachers to 
 whom the impressions made on the minds of their 
 pupils, or the intellectual efforts they may be mak- 
 ing, communicate themselves instantaneously. The 
 mental processes of others are realized by them, appa- 
 rently without the intervention of any rational pro- 
 cess. They seem to possess an intuitive power of 
 forgetting their own individuality, in order to be- 
 come sharers in that of their pupils. Such men are, 
 even out of school, free from obtrusive self-asser- 
 tion, and from dogmatism and arrogance of character : 
 their simplicity and geniality of disposition are the 
 genuine expression of a soul which has no ulterior 
 "interest" to serve, and which is therefore free to 
 enter, with single-heartedness and with wholeness of 
 mind, into the sentiment or duty which may at 
 the moment be exacting their service. Such a man 
 was Pestalozzi, and such are many men silently emi- 
 nent in school-life at this day, whose powerful instincts 
 justly discard, without contemning, formal methods, 
 because of the secret of success with which a happy 
 mental constitution has already endowed them. That 
 lively sympathy which leads them to live less in them- 
 selves than in the lives of others, furnishes them with a 
 private key with which to unlock the intellects and 
 hearts of their pupils. 
 
' TKACHLNTJ. 2f 
 
 There is something feminine in the character of 
 mind which I have been describing, and it is in women 
 that we find it most commonly. The sympathetic 
 self-abnegation of the woman, consequently, makes 
 her the best teacher of the young up to a certain age. 
 She has unconsciously what a man for the most part 
 acquires consciously, and what he must therefore, even 
 when he has the best intentions, give out consciously. 
 This implies an effort on his part which the subtle 
 senses of children are so quick to detect, that he 
 cannot, if he would, establish a perfectly harmonious 
 relationship with them. 
 
 To teachers who apprehend the high purpose of the 
 school, and strive to understand their own operations 
 and to bring their teaching more and more into 
 accordance with philosophic methods, school-keeping 
 may be a labour, but it is not a toil ; while to the 
 teacher of genial and sympathetic power, whose pro- 
 cesses are a continual and unconscious inspiration, it 
 arcely even a labour, but rather the continuing, 
 under special conditions, of his usual habit of life. 
 
 .But neither philosophic methods nor sympathetic 
 intuition can contravene or supersede the influence 
 of the teacher's own character. The power which a 
 vigorous character has of producing its likeness in 
 another is a fact which requires only to be adverted to. 
 In this, doubtless, lay the secret of the moral and in- 
 tellectual successes of distinguished schoolmasters, who, 
 with clear conceptions of their final aim, went straight at 
 
26 REPORT OX EDUCATION. 
 
 it without recognising, or perhaps caring to recognise, 
 the fact, that the minds which they were educating 
 lived and grew as independent organisms and accord- 
 ing to certain laws. Such men, it is true, fail to suc- 
 ceed with the mass of their pupils, for they throw on 
 their unripe minds, the burden not merely of learn- 
 ing, but also of analysing and reducing into method, 
 what is taught. The strong intellects of the school 
 come out perhaps the stronger for the difficulties over- 
 come ; but the ordinary intellect is perhaps never 
 fairly reached by discipline to any appreciable extent, 
 though doubtless morally benefited by the dominant 
 will of the master and his irresistible exactions. 
 
 Character without methods never fails of at least par- 
 tial success ; but the most clearly conceived ideal and 
 the most skilful methods, without the element of per- 
 sonal character, will, however successful in particular 
 directions, invariably fail to attain the great object of 
 the school. An uncontrolled will and an inaccurate 
 and undisciplined intellect can . never contribute a 
 stone to the edifice of intellectual and moral charac- 
 ter in others. An honest understanding, on the other 
 hand, even though limited in capacity and attain- 
 ment, if combined with a habit of will in accordance 
 with the highest sentiments, unwittingly exhibits a 
 reality and earnestness which do not fail to repeat 
 themselves in the pupils. Nay, even where sound 
 methods are in operation, it is character which does 
 more than half of the work, or insidiously undoes it 
 all, producing effects precisely in proportion to the un- 
 
RESTRICTIONS OF THE PAROCHIAL TEACHER. 27 
 
 consciousness of its operation, and affording a visible 
 exemplar up to which, or down to which, the pupils 
 grow. Limited powers and half-knowledge may, under 
 a love of praise, or some other not unworthy but un- 
 stable motive, strive with a certain measure of success 
 to convey instruction, and through it discipline ; but 
 the lesson which character teaches is apart from all 
 intention, and above the will. What he morally is, 
 that the schoolmaster morally does. Nor will any 
 mere desire should such occasionally visit him to 
 convey a higher moral influence than himself, give 
 him the power to convey it. 
 
 Restrictions of the Parochial Teacher. 
 
 Shortness of attendance Irregularity of attendance Number of classes 
 Character of pupils' homes Utilities of pupil's future life. 
 
 A schoolmaster may have a definite purpose, he 
 may perceive the relation of all the various parts of 
 the work to this purpose, he may grasp method in 
 its fullest sense, or possess that sympathetic power 
 which supersedes method ; yet with all these qualifi- 
 cations he as yet stands only on theoretic ground, 
 fiis most sanguine professional anticipations will be 
 unfulfilled, and he will find that each successive year 
 brings him only blighted hopes and fresh chagrin, 
 if he do not from the first fairly face and measure 
 the inevitable obstructions that strew his path, ren- 
 dering necessary a modification of his route, his 
 school appliances, and his expectations. While main- 
 
REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 taining his ideal, it is his fate to work towards it under 
 the severest limitations, and in the face of constant 
 discomfitures. There is, in truth, no profession or 
 occupation surrounded by so many discouraging and 
 harassing difficulties as that of the primary teacher 
 difficulties, moreover, which have to be daily en- 
 countered, but which, by their very nature, can 
 never be overcome. 
 
 (l.) The greatest of these is the short period of 
 attendance at school. The average age at which 
 children leave school is about ten years in England, 
 and in Scotland about twelve. Short as this term of 
 attendance is, if we take in view the work to be 
 done, the primary teacher might bravely and hopefully 
 undertake the task imposed on him if the attendance 
 were continuous. So far is this from being the case, 
 that days, weeks, months, and even years of absence 
 intervene, breaking up the school so completely as 
 practically to renew its constituent parts every two or 
 three years. This is an evil for which no efficacious 
 remedy has yet been proposed, except a compulsory 
 law. Until we have some such law a law, that is 
 to say, which makes it penal for any capitalist to 
 employ the labour of children under a certain age 
 who cannot produce a certificate of a certain term of 
 attendance at an elementary school the evil can only 
 be palliated. 
 
 I am not aware that any very serious efforts have 
 been made in Scotland to remedy the evil as far as it 
 admits of being remedied. With a few exceptions, 
 
RESTRICTIONS OF THE PAROCHIAL TEACHER. 1^ ( . 
 
 neither the teachers nor the school-managers exert 
 their full influence to induce the parents to abstain 
 from withdrawing pupils. It is certainly impossible 
 to imagine a more legitimate domestic subject for the 
 exercise of a little local despotism. The teacher, being 
 pecuniarily interested in steady attendance, may feel 
 some delicacy in openly endeavouring to coerce the 
 children of the parish into the schoolhouse ; but the 
 motives of the school-managers cannot be misin- 
 terpreted. In aid of the exhortations and pressure 
 of the managers, various devices may be resorted 
 to in different parts of the country for reducing the 
 amount of absenteeism. In some districts, for ex- 
 ample, the absentees are kept at home for two or three 
 months in the year, not because the children are 
 hired by large farmers for field-labour, but merely 
 because their parents require a few hours' assistance 
 on their crofts or in herding. It would surely be 
 possible to come to an understanding in such cases 
 with the parents, and by closing the school for the 
 younger and unemployed children at noon, after two 
 or three hours' instruction, and re-opening it towards 
 evening for those who have been occupied in the fields 
 during the day, if only for one hour, to combine atten- 
 tion to the material necessities of the parents with 
 consideration for the mental needs of the children. 1 
 
 1 Elementary country schools in Scotland generally open about ten and 
 close about half-past three or four, with an interval varying from half an 
 hour to an hour, usually the latter. It is, of course, presumed that the 
 hour's evening tuition is obtained by diorlening the field-labour to that 
 e&ent. 
 
30 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 A daily attendance so short could, it is true, effect 
 nothing more than the maintenance of the know- 
 ledge previously acquired, but every earnest teacher 
 would hail even this small instalment of a full attend- 
 ance as a satisfactory solution of his chief difficulty. 
 For, it is riot the mere fact that the pupils have 
 made no progress during a three or six months' 
 absence that afflicts the master, but that they have 
 visibly retrograded, not only in actual knowledge, 
 but in intellectual facility. They have barely suc- 
 ceeded during the winter months in re-acquiring the 
 latter, with a view to the recovery of the former, 
 when their time of withdrawal for field-labour again 
 approaches. So universal is this custom, that the 
 children, after they have attained a certain age, pro- 
 fessedly come to school only for what is locally called 
 the winter " spate" which means an attendance of 
 from ten to fifteen weeks. It is therefore worth 
 considering whether evening schools for lads above 
 thirteen could not to be held in summer., the teacher 
 being set free from his other duties at an early period 
 of the day, in order to carry forward at a later hour 
 the training of his elder pupils, who are hopelessly 
 lost to him without this supplementary instruction. 
 If the parish will not adapt itself to the school, the 
 school must adapt itself to the parish. 1 
 
 1 The above suggestion for mitigating the evil of irregularity, has 
 reference solely to those children who are above a certain age, and are 
 withdrawn for purposes of remunerative labour, in the service either of 
 their parents or of large farmers and other employers of child-labour. 
 To give effect to it requires the co-operation of the leading inhabitants of 
 
RESTRICTIONS OF THE PAROCHIAL TEACHER. 3 1 
 
 The teacher has also to deal with an evil even more 
 vexatious and more destructive of discipline than 
 labour-caused absenteeism, if not so difficult of cure. 1 
 mean the habit of irregularity of attendance for trivial 
 reasons, or for no reason at all. The teacher who cnn 
 rely on the attendance of those of his pupils who are 
 under ten years of age for 150 days of the school year, 
 has reason to congratulate himself. I doubt if this 
 amount of attendance is given by one-third of the 
 children on the school register, taking Scotland as a 
 whole, though in the three counties which benefit by 
 the Dick Bequest the irregularity is by no means so 
 great. A little thought might suggest expedients for 
 correcting this evil ; these necessarily varying with 
 the circumstances, social or industrial, of each parish. 
 
 (2.) The number of classes which a primary school- 
 master has to superintend, and even personally to in- 
 struct, is seldom sufficiently considered by those who 
 criticise his results, and seems frequently to be lost sight 
 of even by himself. If we bear in mind that the average 
 number of classes in an elementary school is six ; that 
 every one of these, if properly taught, is obtaining 
 instruction in three subjects, and two, if not three of 
 them, in six or seven subjects, during a school-day 
 not exceeding five hours ; in other words, that five-and- 
 twenty distinct lessons have to be given daily, and 
 time allowed for assembling, dismissing, and for the 
 
 the parish with the teacher ; but inasmuch as it fairly admits an existing 
 difficulty, and endeavours to make the best of it, an attempt to give effect 
 to the proposal, would, I think, be met by fewer obstructions than en- 
 compass almost all other expedients for obviating a great evil. 
 
32 KEPOKT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 formation of classes, the necessity of limiting the range 
 of work, if work is to be effectually done, is suffi- 
 ciently manifest to allow of my passing at once to the 
 next obstruction besetting the teacher's path. 
 
 (3.) This obstruction is the character of the homes of 
 the mass of his pupils. The uncontrolled will, the 
 coarse language, the want of kindliness and of gentle- 
 ness of demeanour, the dirty, wasteful and therefore 
 demoralizing habits, the almost total disregard of in- 
 tellectual family life, which may be seen in too many 
 of these, counteract the teacher's labours, and seem more 
 than any other difficulty to justify his despair. But 
 it is needless to dwell on a moral obstacle which the 
 teacher must be contented to endure, working in the 
 face of it as hopefully as he can. It is pointed out 
 chiefly because it has afterwards to be used for the 
 enforcement of some of his duties. 
 
 (4.) The next limitation under which the elemen- 
 tary teacher works requires to be stated, not because 
 of its presenting insuperable difficulties, but rather 
 because he is himself very apt to omit it altogether 
 from his calculations, setting it aside, not deliberately 
 with a view to the better attainment of his own ideal,, 
 but in unthinking slavery to tradition and routine. 
 This limitation is the necessity of selecting the materials 
 of education which is imposed by the requirements 
 of the pupil's future life. Outside the two prime 
 subjects of moral and religious instruction, we are not 
 left free in the elementary school to choose the mate- 
 rials best fitted to promote the formation of a good 
 
RESTRICTIONS OF THE PAROCHIAL TEACHER. 33 
 
 habit of the intelligence and the will : and for this 
 reason, that Loth the moral and intellectual nature 
 require to be informed, with a view to the actual 
 needs of life. Nor is this to be regretted by the 
 theorist intent on character only, for through informa- 
 tion rightly given the mind gains much of its best dis- 
 cipline. The instruction which is too often omitted is 
 needed for the support and direction of the conscience. 
 We may perchance find among those who have left 
 school a trained habit of the intelligence enabling 
 them to perceive, distinguish, and reason with accu- 
 racy (or rather I should say with a conscious effort 
 after accuracy) ; but if the materials on which the 
 intelligence has been trained have no connexion with 
 the demands of daily duty, the work it has to do 
 will be done painfully and with very doubtful 
 results. We may perchance find a trained habit of 
 the will enabling the pupil to assert himself and 
 his own resolution against and above the tempta- 
 tions which hourly beset him from within and 
 from without ; but if the materials with which the 
 will has been informed have no direct bearing on the 
 questions which have to be daily answered for others 
 as well as for himself, the pupil will be quite abroad 
 in his conclusions if a new thing has to be done ; 
 or, which is more probable, he will at once succumb 
 without resistance to the bad habits which he may 
 have inherited, and which belong to his class. 
 
 The above remarks have reference specially to the 
 pupils of our Parochial Schools. The traditionary 
 
 c 
 
34 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 motives and inherited customs of the families of 
 those boys who belong to the middle and upper 
 classes of society, modify, if they do not indeed 
 quite alter, the bearing of the whole education 
 question on their training. This distinction is, per- 
 haps, too much lost sight of in discussing questions 
 affecting middle and public schools. Elaborately to 
 impress on boys who come from homes in which 
 baths, daily used, may be found in every bedroom, 
 the physiological necessity of cleanliness, is to carry 
 billets to the wood. Again, with boys from eleven 
 to seventeen, whose characters are determined, by 
 their homes and the class to which they belong, into 
 the groove of honour, moral principle, and respect 
 for religion, the idea of &free discipline ought mani- 
 festly to dominate over all others. Unrestricted mu- 
 tual education in the open air under certain general 
 rules and supervision, but without any vigilance that 
 savours of espionage, the repression of luxurious habits, 
 submission to law, and the development of a vigorous 
 morality, probably do more to give wholesome exer- 
 cise to the intellect as well as the will than any pos- 
 sible combination of literary or scientific pursuits. 
 These must continue to be the main characteristics of 
 the public school for the wealthier classes, in the case 
 of all boys above twelve years of age. The chief 
 blunder committed in the education of children of 
 this class is to be found in their training during their 
 earliest years. At the age of twelve, a . boy of the 
 wealthier classes must be either unusually dull, or have 
 
RESTRICTIONS OF THE PAROCHIAL TEACHER. 35 
 
 been much neglected, who, with uninterrupted opportu- 
 nities of learning, cannot read well, write a well-spelled 
 and grammatical letter, travel accurately in imagi- 
 nation and without the help of the map, over every 
 part of the world, work any reasonable sum in Simple 
 Proportion, give an intelligible, though perhaps rough 
 account, of the more common natural phenomena, and 
 have his memory stored with some of the finest 
 characters in history and some of the best narrative 
 poems in the language. All this, except the geography 
 and arithmetic, can be easily acquired in the course 
 of rightly learning the art of reading, if the reading- 
 books be well selected. And if the practice of Eng- 
 lish reading be continued in the classical school for 
 an hour or two weekly, this rough elementary know- 
 ledge of nature and its laws will gradually become 
 more accurate and precise, and as much science will 
 be conveyed as a boy can really absorb. After the age 
 of twelve, and when a boy has fairly embarked on the 
 current of a public school, the great object of the 
 school-room should be to counteract the disadvantages 
 and temptations incident to his social position by 
 giving him hard intellectual work something which 
 will cost him a good deal of labour, however carefully 
 it may be taught, and, along with the labour, confer 
 the blessing of intellectual discipline. What will best 
 accomplish these two objects is the main question, if 
 not the only one, to be answered. 
 
 But if we turn to the Parochial School, we find our- 
 selves on very different ground. The objects of the 
 
36 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 teacher's care are dispersed at the age of ten or 
 twelve years, not drawn into an upper school which 
 will carry onward the instruction and training of 
 childhood, but driven into the labour of life. They 
 are already little men and women, alive to the material 
 responsibilities of existence, and called upon at once 
 to exhibit a certain practical capacity and a certain 
 quantity of usable knowledge. Before many years 
 more have passed, they are compelled to take sole 
 direction of their own conduct, unrestrained and 
 unsupported, as the middle and upper classes are, by 
 strong family ties and hereditary obligations. 
 
 We have already dwelt on the abrupt conclusion to 
 the teacher's labours caused by the early removal of 
 children from school, an evil which he must face by at 
 once contemplating and arranging for the premature 
 termination of his course of instruction and discipline. 
 The limitation last adverted to imposes on him the 
 further obligation of endeavouring to satisfy the ideal 
 purpose of the school by means of such a course of 
 instruction as will fairly meet the inevitable circum- 
 stances and requirements of the future life of his pupil. 
 This naturally leads us to consider next 
 
 The Lessons to be drawn from the Restrictions of the 
 Parochial Teacher. 
 
 Contraction of teacher's work Principles of selection Subjects in order of 
 importance, primary and secondary. 
 
 It was impossible to point out the limitations 
 under which the primary teacher has to do his 
 
LESM >NS TO HE DRAWN FROM TEACHER'S RESTRICTIONS. ."> 7 
 
 work, without, by implication at least, suggesting 
 the obligations which these limitations impose on 
 him ; and not on him alone, but on all w r ho have 
 to do with the management of elementary schools. 
 In looking more closely at this subject, we shall find 
 that the limitations imposed by the brief period of 
 school life, the irregularity of attendance during that 
 period, the numerous classes demanding the master's 
 constant attention, and the requirements of after 
 life, all combine to teach the same lesson the con- 
 traction of the teachers aim. To maintain this, even 
 in the face of the clamant demand for the admission 
 into the school curriculum of all sorts of sciences and 
 arts which has distinguished the last thirty years, would 
 be more unpopular than difficult. Drawing, Music, 
 the Physiology of Man, Physiology of Plants, Political 
 Economy, Astronomy ; every department of Natural 
 Philosophy, Geology, and Mineralogy ; Military Drill, 
 Agricultural Chemistry, Natural History, Constitu- 
 tional Law, Technology, Phrenology, have been all, or 
 each in its turn, strenuously advocated in addition to 
 the current and almost universal subjects of Eeading, 
 Writing, Arithmetic, Geography Political and Physi- 
 cal, History, Grammar, Writing from Dictation, and 
 Religious Knowledge. The most conclusive answer 
 to such theoretical projectors would be to assemble 
 them in the same committee-room, and allow them to 
 extinguish each other. Any thinking man is com- 
 petent to suggest the subjects to be taught in our 
 primary schools; but there is only one point of 
 
38 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 from which all these subjects must be estimated, and 
 that is the school-floor itself. And from this point of 
 view a fair consideration of the limitations to which we 
 have adverted, will force on every one the conviction 
 that the education of the primary school cannot be 
 general education at all, in the large and theoretic 
 sense, but must be rather special and technical education. 
 Given the facts of age, of irregularity of attendance, 
 and of numerous classes, there is no alternative open, 
 save to select, for the purposes of training and discip- 
 line, those subjects a knowledge of which is most 
 essential to the practical and immediate needs of the 
 child's future life. 
 
 The teacher is not, on this account, for one moment 
 to lose sight of the great aim of his work, the For- 
 mation of Character ; nor does he require to curtail 
 those direct religious and moral instructions which 
 bear immediately on this his final aim. These in- 
 structions must be held sacred. Happily, they are 
 as indispensable to the child here as to his prepara- 
 tion for a hereafter. They are the direct efforts 
 made to form and inform the will of the child, to- 
 wards which all other school-teachings contribute 
 only indirectly. The limitations under which the 
 schoolmaster works, accordingly, do not necessarily 
 affect either his scholastic ideal or his moral teach- 
 ing; they touch only the intellectual materials or 
 implements with which he works. He is not per- 
 mitted to be either discursive, encyclopaedic, or from 
 the theoretic point of view, eclectic ; he is under 
 
UOSSONSTO 15K I>KA\VN Fi;<>M TEACHER'S RESTRICTIONS. 39 
 
 the stem Jaw of necessity, which points out, with 
 unwavering finger, the path in which he is to walk. 
 I do not mean to say that the idiosyncrasy of a 
 teacher's intellect may not justify occasional devia- 
 tion from the course pointed out to him. A special 
 love and knowledge of botany or of natural history, 
 or of any department of physics, or of poetry or 
 music or drawing, ought to be allowed free play in 
 the work of the school. In such exceptional circum- 
 stances, the subject which the teacher peculiarly affects 
 will be so well taught as to do more to give a health- 
 ful stimulus to the intellects of the children, and a 
 real and lasting interest in objects outside themselves 
 and their daily wants, than any other. Such a result 
 will fully compensate for the loss of what would pro- 
 bably be merely routine instruction in some other 
 department of study. But allowing for an occasional 
 divergence of this kind, the circumstances of which 
 furnish its own best justification, it is from the limited 
 and irregular attendance and future needs of the pupil 
 alone that we must learn the leading subjects of pri- 
 mary-school instruction. And these subjects are the 
 time-honoured branches Reading, Writing, and Arith- 
 metic. 
 
 But let it not be supposed that in confining intel- 
 lectual school- work, in the first instance, to purely 
 technical instruction in these, the three instruments 
 whereby knowledge may be afterwards attained by 
 the pupil himself, we omit from our consideration two 
 things : 
 
40 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 First, the universally admitted fact that, unless the 
 mind of the pupil be interested in attainment for 
 its own sake, as well as qualified to acquire it, the 
 work of the teacher will find its termination on the 
 day on which the pupil leaves the school, and on 
 that day a fatally retrograde process will begin. So 
 far are we from forgetting this, that we shall show 
 that the schoolmaster's craft consists in so teaching 
 the technical subjects as to avoid this too common 
 result, and also to attain certain higher ends. Read- 
 ing, writing, and arithmetic, it is true, must form the 
 groundwork of all purely intellectual primary instruc- 
 tion ; nay, more, every other subject must be sub- 
 ordinated to the paramount claims of these. But 
 precisely at this point education as such insists on 
 being heard in relation to these subjects, and the art 
 of teaching steps in with its suggestions, its aids, and 
 its methods. At first sight, necessity seems to sub- 
 vert the very idea of education in any large sense 
 by compelling almost exclusive attention to certain 
 technical acquirements ; but the art of teaching in- 
 tervening, demonstrates that even these technicalities 
 will fail to be taught with practical effect unless they 
 be taught in such a way, and in so large and compre- 
 hensive a spirit, as will virtually subordinate them 
 in their turn to the idea of education. Thus theory 
 and practice are reconciled. The way and the sense 
 in which these formal subjects are to be taught with 
 a view to the educative result, falls properly to be 
 considered under the head of " Methods." 
 
LKSSONS TO BE DRAWN FROM TKA( (HERS RESTRICTIONS. 41 
 
 Secondly, we do not omit from our consideration 
 the necessities of the future life of the children of 
 the labouring population, already adverted to, and 
 the nature of their home- training, both of which point 
 to instruction in the duty and the means of preserving 
 the bodily health of themselves and those dependent 
 on them, and in the principles of conduct which 
 should actuate them as members of a complicated 
 social organization. These things fall properly under 
 the moral instruction, which we presume to be sacred 
 from interference. My experience, such as it is, has 
 given me very strong convictions as to the vital neces- 
 sity of insisting on this side of primary-school w r ork. 
 To train a child under a constant admonition to obey 
 the laws of God and man, and to act as a Christian 
 ought to act, and then to leave him to grope his 
 own way to the fulfilment of his duty, is a mockery. 
 A command is a merely formal utterance, and con- 
 tains nothing. It is an outline to be filled up with 
 the details of reasons, motives, and purposes. 
 
 The inherited habits of the middle and upper 
 classes, and their superior education and intelligence, 
 may possibly enable them to dispense with the details 
 of a manual of morality : they certainly have a ten- 
 dency to blind them as to the need of specific and 
 detailed instruction on these subjects to the less- 
 favoured members of society. The how and the why 
 of moral laws, in their relation to the practical routine 
 of daily life, require to be explicitly enunciated 
 and deliberately and emphatically enforced in the 
 
42 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 school. To teach physiology and political economy 
 would be absurd, simply because there is no time 
 for them, and because the teacher, if he abstracted 
 the time from other subjects, would waste himself in 
 the futile effort to build up in an unripe mind a 
 pseudo-scientific knowledge, and in laying founda- 
 tions which the conditions of time, age, and circum- 
 stances under which he worked would prevent ever 
 rising above the level of the ground. But to take up 
 gravely and seriously the three great questions of air, 
 food, and cleanliness, in relation to the three organs, 
 the lungs, the stomach, and the skin ; to show what 
 these organs are, and why they exist, and how they 
 work ; to show that, so far as this natural fabric of 
 ours is concerned, we are these organs, and that to 
 disobey the divine laws under which alone they can 
 healthily operate, is, in the gravity of its conse- 
 quences, a moral offence to do all this is to enter 
 on a kind of instruction which those familiar with 
 the domestic life of the mass of the people of 
 this country know to have a more important bear- 
 ing on every higher question of man's life, as a 
 spiritual and immortal being, than any other, save 
 the direct inculcation of spiritual truths themselves. 
 The laws of health, then, which simply mean the rules 
 of health taught with reference to the principles on 
 which they repose, ought never to be absent from the 
 primary school, and ought to be handled by the teacher 
 with all the earnestness and solemnity of moral teach- 
 ing. Again, although the duties which a man owes 
 
LKSSONSTo UK PKAWN FROM TEACH Kll S RESTRICTIONS. 43 
 
 to his family, and to the society of which he is a 
 member, defy all attempt at explicit teaching, unless 
 \vr enter on the ground of elementary political eco- 
 nomy, it is not necessary to go beyond truths obvious 
 and trite. The moralities of getting and spending 
 and selling involve a whole series of questions de- 
 manding detailed and impressive treatment and reiter- 
 ation. Frugality, economy, saving, life insurance, the 
 duty of educating children if only from purely pru- 
 dential motives, the social and economic effects of 
 lying and unfair dealing, all fall into the moral cur- 
 riculum of the elementary school as leading sub- 
 jects. The relation of employer and labourer, a 
 clear understanding of what capital is, and of the 
 fact that wages are paid out of capital (and the con- 
 sequent importance of holding sacred the rights of 
 property, of rejoicing in the accumulations of others, 
 and of avoiding strikes), the causes of the rise and fall 
 of wages, the effects of machinery, and the advan- 
 tages, in some cases the duty, of emigration, are all 
 momentous questions for the future operative, and 
 attractive to him, if properly handled by the school- 
 master. 1 The present practice is to inculcate the doing 
 of the right; the kind of instruction which I (following 
 others who have given their thoughts to the objects 
 and working of primary schools) consider to be indis- 
 pensable, will show what the " right" is and how it 
 can be done. Such instruction covers almost the 
 
 1 Children leave school so young that the last-named subjects must 
 generally be left to the teachers of the Evening or Continuation schools. 
 now happily increasing in number. 
 
44 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 whole field of practical morality. Its relation to 
 religion, and the further and supreme task which 
 special religious instruction has to accomplish, will 
 be considered in its proper place. We are not 
 called upon to introduce the above practical morali- 
 ties pompously, as separate sciences or studies. In 
 acquiring the technical arts of Heading, Writing, and 
 Arithmetic, sufficient opportunities are afforded of 
 instilling all the truths necessary to the future well- 
 being of the pupil. If the reading-books are well 
 constructed, they will suggest at least the text, if 
 they do not supply the detailed evolution, of the 
 moralities of our physical constitution and of our 
 social relations. 
 
 As soon as the teacher has given such prominence 
 in his school work to Keligious Instruction, to the three 
 technical subjects of Eeading (in its larger sense), 
 Writing, and Arithmetic, and to such teaching as can 
 be % given through these in practical morality in its 
 detailed application to the duties which physiological 
 laws and social life impose, he is then, but only then, 
 at liberty to turn his attention to other subjects. The 
 subjects here specified are indispensable and pri- 
 mary, and if others be introduced, they must be kept 
 in strict subordination to the magistral studies. And 
 here one word may be said on the vexed question of 
 Grammar. 
 
 To teach English Grammar systematically before 
 the child has reached the age of eleven is, it seems 
 to me, a waste of time. I do not mean to say that 
 
LKSSONS TO BK DRAWN FROM TKA< 'HKIl's RESTRICTIONS. 45 
 
 it cannot be done, but that the pressure of other sub- 
 jects makes it a waste of time to do it. Nor, perhaps, 
 at any age is the teaching of English grammar in the 
 primary school worth the time expended on it, ex- 
 cept where it is made distinctly, and at every stage of 
 the pupil's progress, to subserve two purposes, namely, 
 first, facilitating the understanding of complex proposi- 
 tions, especially the language of poetry, by bringing into 
 view and enabling the child to bring into view, the rela- 
 tion of the several parts of sentences ; and, secondly, 
 enabling the child to write sentences of his own compo- 
 sition accurately. Thus practically viewed in close rela- 
 tion to its real purpose, Grammar becomes a part of the 
 reacling-lessori, and by far the most useful intellectual 
 discipline, ivlien taught with knowledge, and precision, 
 to which a child can be subjected. Whatever may be 
 said of boys above eleven years of age, it is certain 
 that before they reach this age, they should know 
 nothing of grammar save in the above purely prac- 
 tical sense. So limited, it is properly a part of the 
 instruction in Reading and Writing, and essential to 
 a thorough teaching of these arts, presuming that 
 thorough teaching invariably aims at reaching and 
 cultivating the understanding of the pupil. 
 
 The secondary subjects that can put forward the 
 best claim for adoption into the school curriculum are 
 Music and Geography. The moral and disciplinary 
 effects of Music are so remarkable, that its judicious 
 introduction is in reality a means of saving time ; 
 
46 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 and it is this fact which completes the numerous 
 arguments which rnay be urged in its favour. Geo- 
 graphy, again, occupies time ; but as it is a subject 
 acquired chiefly through the eye, and therefore both 
 attractive and easy, two or three lessons a week draw 
 little on the time or disposable working power of the 
 pupils. Its more solid claims for admission into the 
 school are that, when taught with distinct and constant 
 reference to climate, peoples, and industries, it is the 
 least artificial of all the exercises of mind that can 
 be presented to the young. For not only is it im- 
 portant as a discipline, it is the most fruitful of all 
 possible subjects in facts ; and although an education 
 which turns on absorption of facts is misnamed edu- 
 cation is not even instruction yet the facts involved 
 in a straightforward description of the earth we live on, 
 its climates, peoples, and productions, are so natural an 
 extension of the child's existing stock of knowledge, 
 that they enter into his intellect as if part of his personal 
 experience, insensibly broaden his understanding, and 
 give greater depth and solidity to his future judgments. 
 Moreover, the important relations of geography, when 
 well taught, to the economic lessons already spoken 
 of, by enabling the pupil to realize the nature and 
 extent of industries and the mutual dependence of 
 all mankind, strengthen the argument in favour of 
 putting this subject next to music among the secondary 
 subjects of the elementary school. 
 
 Here it is necessary to stop ; for beyond these 
 subjects the primary school cannot go during the 
 
MASONS TO BE DRAWN FROM TEACHER'S RESTRICTIONS. 47 
 
 ordinary school hours, save in a few exceptional cases. 
 It is true that a clever teacher may also give 
 some instruction in the objects of nature by which 
 his pupils are surrounded, and explain the more 
 ordinary machines and physical phenomena which 
 daily come across the pupil's path ; but these he 
 will find treated of in the school reading -books 
 with sufficient fulness, and he cannot thoroughly teach 
 the lessons there given, even as mere reading exercises, 
 without eliciting their full meaning, and working them 
 into the pupil's understanding in such a way as to im- 
 print them firmly on his memory. The same remark 
 applies to the elements of natural history, to geology, 
 and accounts of industrial processes : they are to be 
 treated as entirely subordinate to the technical sub- 
 jects ; that is to say, not treated at all, unless they 
 enter into the reading-books by means of which the 
 art of reading is taught. 
 
 
 
 The elements of Drawing one would fain see enter 
 into the time-table of every primary school where the 
 master is possessed of that organizing skill which con- 
 verts subjects of this kind into time- savers rather than 
 time-occupiers. But on no other condition can it find 
 a place, for the simple reason, that if other more im- 
 portant subjects have their due, there is no place for 
 it. It is necessary, however, to except those initiatory 
 attempts at copying outlines of common objects on 
 slates from the black-board, which are wisely inter- 
 posed in the midst of other work in the case of very 
 
48 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 young children. These exercises properly belong to 
 the infant school. They occupy and refresh the jaded 
 mind, while giving facility to the unpractised fingers, 
 and accuracy to the vague and undisciplined infant 
 eye. To this extent Drawing is in reality a time- 
 saver, and therefore constitutes no exception to the 
 general condition of its introduction already specified. 
 
 History last and least claims attention in the ele- 
 mentary school. 
 
 So much for the lessons to be drawn by the school- 
 master from the chief of the inevitable limitations under 
 which he works. But I cannot leave the subject with- 
 out again adverting to the most serious limitation of 
 all the habits of life in the homes from which the 
 children daily come, and the lesson which the teacher 
 should draw from them. It will be observed that, 
 next, to religious instruction and the acquisition of 
 a certain facility in the three main technical sub- 
 jects of the school, I have been guided in giving 
 precedence to other topics by their moral relations, 
 because the moral purpose in forming character must 
 always maintain a strict ascendency over the in- 
 tellectual The latter serves man in this life, and 
 can be at best only the basis on which his intellec- 
 tual progress elsewhere can rest ; the former is the 
 man himself, his personality and will, without which 
 he is nothing in this world, and apart from which he 
 can be nothing hereafter. Nor does the will ever fail 
 
LESSONS TO UK DKANVN Kltn.M TKA< TIKK's RESTRICTIONS. 10 
 
 to justify its claim to supreme attention in the work 
 of education, even in its relation to the understanding. 
 For the most superficial observer must have noticed 
 that a vigorous will sends a stream of clearness, per- 
 spicacity, and force into the operations of even an 
 ordinary intellect, and is thus a constant source 
 of real discipline. The necessity of this supreme 
 regard to the moral aims of the school is, however, 
 mainly forced upon us by the consideration of the 
 domestic influences under which so large a propor- 
 tion of the children live. The frequent wrangling, 
 the ungracious demeanour towards each other, the 
 careless ignoring, or what is even more common, the 
 rude repression, of the gentler sensibilities of the 
 young, are sufficient in themselves to divert the 
 genial current of a young child's life into a hard 
 and stony channel. To these demoralizing influences 
 we have to add the too common disregard of cleanli- 
 ness, decency, and order, the perpetual domestic 
 struggle for mastery, determined ultimately by brute 
 force alone, instead of the considerate command and 
 eager submission which are the fruit of a paternal 
 authority resting on moral superiority, and of a filial 
 obedience prompted by respect and sustained by 
 affection. If this be a fair summary of the coun- 
 teracting agencies limiting, if not overturning, the 
 teacher's work in the mass of the pupils' homes, the 
 lesson which it enforces is the necessity of giving even 
 exaggerated importance in the school to the cultivation 
 of the feelings and imagination of the young, and of 
 
 D 
 
50 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 those ready civilities and mutual courtesies which do 
 so much to confer happiness and dignity on the life 
 of man. Here, again, the reading-books of the school 
 will be found a useful auxiliary to the teacher, if, 
 while furnishing the means of necessary discipline and 
 instruction, they make provision for the starved im- 
 agination and repressed sensibilities of the children 
 of the poorer classes. 
 
 Enough has been now said, by way of suggestion 
 at least, on the lessons to be drawn from the limita- 
 tions under which the primary teacher does his daily 
 task ; the result of all which is that he must confine 
 his work within very narrow limits, and at the same 
 time overrule it to certain moral and intellectual 
 educative ends. 
 
 Nor is the result to which we have been led such as 
 to discourage the ardent schoolmaster ; for although he 
 is excluded from such a choice of educational imple- 
 ments as might most efficiently promote the theoretic 
 idea of the school the Formation of Character he is 
 yet supplied with instruments good enough for the 
 attainment of his purpose, if they be rightly used. 
 The right use of these is such a use as will coerce them 
 into submission to the ultimate educative purpose of his 
 work. The consideration of this brings us to Methods 
 of Teaching. For, having pointed out the subjects into 
 which it is imperative that the teacher should throw 
 his main strength, it becomes necessary to show in 
 what way he is to regulate and apply that strength in 
 
METHODS OF TKAC.HINC. "' 1 
 
 tin- narrow field open to him, with a view to train his 
 pupils to those good habits of the intelligence and 
 tin- will which constitute the sum of his professional 
 
 ta.sk. 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 THE CONCURRENCE OF GENERAL METHOD AND PAR- 
 TICULAR METHODS. 
 
 A method is a way towards the attainment of an 
 end. The general method on which all education pro- 
 ceeds we have already spoken of. Our duty now is 
 with the particular methods whereby certain special 
 ends may be best attained. For the schoolmaster, 
 inasmuch as he is precluded, by the circumstances 
 under which he works, from selecting the materials 
 of his craft with sole reference either to the ultimate 
 educative end which he has in view, or to the best 
 conception of general method, is driven to consider 
 the question, whether it be possible to teach the sub- 
 jects to which he is limited in such a way as to 
 make them contribute directly to his ultimate pur- 
 pose, the formation of a good intellectual and moral 
 habit, and to bring the expedients he adopts within 
 the range of philosophic method ; and all this without 
 sacrificing the technical acquirement which it is his 
 .immediate business to communicate. 
 
 In other words, the schoolmaster is forced to consider 
 the particular method belonging to each particular 
 
52 REPOKT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 subject of instruction in its relation to general method ; 
 the particular end being the communication to the 
 pupil of a certain power over a specified subject 
 (whether it be reading, writing, or arithmetic) as 
 opposed to the general and ultimate end of education. 
 The particular method which the teacher is in search 
 of is the most sure, sound, effectual, and therefore the 
 most easy and rapid way of communicating the re- 
 quired power. Manifestly, the particular method 
 which has reference to a specific subject, and the 
 general method which has reference to education in 
 the general sense, are not of equal authority in the 
 eyes of the enlightened schoolmaster. Where they 
 conflict, or, I should rather say, seem to conflict, the 
 latter is paramount. But as the general purpose of 
 education can be attained only by the active exercise 
 of the intellectual and moral powers of the pupil in 
 accordance with their natural laws of operation, so 
 it will be found that the particular purpose of in- 
 structing him in some specific subject cannot possibly 
 be attained in any way so sure, sound, easy, and rapid, 
 as by that which is in accordance with the same 
 laws. Thus, happily, the particular method which has 
 reference to each separate subject of instruction, and 
 the general method of education, which, contemplates 
 solely the development and discipline of the mind, 
 will be found to be fundamentally one and the same. 
 The truth of this will appear in the course of ascer- 
 taining and stating the best methods to be employed 
 in teaching the various special technicalities of the 
 primary-school curriculum. 
 
INITIATION IN THE ART OF READING. 53 
 
 OBJECTS AND METHOD OF TEACHING READING. 
 
 The particular end proposed in teaching Eeading is, 
 if rightly understood, an end much more comprehen- 
 sive and involving much more than is generally 
 supposed. I have already incidentally adverted to 
 the large view which the schoolmaster ought to take 
 of the three time-honoured foundations of primary- 
 school work, Heading, Writing, and Arithmetic. 
 Reading especially admits of and demands a wide 
 and liberal interpretation. To put it concisely and 
 practically, the teaching of this art is the communi- 
 cating of a power to read works which constitute 
 ordinary literature, easily, intelligently, and intelligibly. 
 To accomplish this object thoroughly is, as we shall 
 find, to give, explicitly or implicitly, so large an amount 
 of instruction and discipline as almost to effect the 
 whole higher purpose of elementary education. 
 
 We have now to see .how this special end Eeading 
 
 may be most surely and soundly reached, and to 
 
 elicit the harmony that subsists between the particular 
 
 technical end of instruction and the general purpose 
 
 of education. 
 
 Initiation in the Art of Reading. 
 
 The Phonic, the " Look and Say," and the Alphabetic methods Spelling. 
 
 To initiate a child into the art of Eeading, is to give 
 him the power of recognising the conventional symbols 
 of words, and of uttering them accurately. 
 
o4 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 All words whatsoever are merely different groupings 
 of a limited number of conventional signs, and the 
 labour of learning to read is thus infinitely less than if 
 every word had a distinct symbol written or drawn. 
 Were we in the latter unhappy predicament, the pri- 
 mary teacher would be almost wholly occupied in 
 teaching the ten or fifteen thousand different symbols 
 necessary for the instruction of a child in the art of 
 reading his Bible or the daily paper, and even after this 
 was accomplished, the pupil would find that an immense 
 number of word-signs were still to him a sealed book. 
 By arresting words in the act of enunciation, and 
 analysing their sounds into their individual parts, we 
 find that the same sounds are continually recurring in 
 different combinations, and that, while words seem 
 infinite in number, the sounds which enter into them 
 are few. In the English language, even including bi- 
 literal sounds, the total number probably does not 
 exceed thirty. To these elementary simple sounds, 
 we have only to attach written symbols, and the art 
 of reading becomes simply the act of recognising these 
 sound-symbols and re-combining them into words. 
 
 The first step in teaching to read, therefore, mani- 
 festly ought to be to give the child a knowledge of the 
 elementary sounds and their corresponding symbols, 
 I say sounds, not the accidental names of the sounds; 
 the second, to guide him in the attempt to group them 
 into words of the most simple kind, but gradually in- 
 creasing in difficulty. The first step is only a lesson 
 in form, to be taught as lessons in form ought to be 
 
INTIMATION IX T1IK ART OF READING. 55 
 
 taught, and is purely an act of memory ; the second 
 step is a lesson in the building up of parts into a whole, 
 
 bringing into play, in an arbitrary way certainly, 
 those powers whereby the child has been acquiring all 
 his knowledge up to the date of his entering school, 
 namely, the powers of attention, comparison, analysis, 
 ami synthesis. 
 
 This, shortly summarized, is the method which is 
 best adapted for giving a sound and rapid knowledge 
 of reading and spelling ; for, while calling for con- 
 tinual acts of observation and memory, it also sub- 
 serves the intellectual purpose of an easy, because 
 unforced and natural, discipline. I forbear adverting 
 here to the defects which are inseparable from this 
 phonic method, till I have adverted to the two other 
 modes adopted or advocated. 
 
 And, first, we have the "word and name," or " look 
 and say" system, which teaches that complete words, 
 such as ' I see a goat,' ' The maid milks a cow/ ' Tom 
 is a boy/ are to be taught to the child in the first 
 instance, just as they stand, and until he has acquired 
 a certain facility in reading. This system is advocated 
 on the ground of its affording more interest to the pupil, 
 and so exciting his powers to more rapid acquisition. 
 But the fact that the analysis into their simple elemen- 
 tary parts, of the sounds which enter into each word, is 
 only postponed, and must be achieved sooner or later, 
 is frequently lost sight of by the teacher, in the satis- 
 i'a< -tion which the manifest progress of the child in the 
 knowledge of words yields. 
 
5fi REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 This system is to be objected to because it reduces 
 written language to a system of pictorial representations 
 of words as wholes, and so compels the child to learn 
 some three or four hundred different pictorial symbols 
 before he begins to suspect that there is a shorter way 
 of getting at the symbols of spoken language a key 
 for each and every word alike. What is the process 
 which, under this system, goes on in the learner's 
 mind ? It is this : after a few months' instruction, in 
 which the memory alone is exercised, he begins to 
 discover that the same simple forms or letters are con- 
 stantly recurring in all words, and unconsciously to 
 attach to each separate form its own specific phonic 
 power. The teacher takes advantage of this dawning 
 analysis, and improves it into a knowledge of all the 
 elementary signs, with their corresponding names or 
 sounds, or both. The teacher and pupil, in point of 
 fact, retrace their steps in order to find the key which 
 lay conspicuously enough at their feet when they 
 started on their journey, in order that, having armed 
 themselves with it, they may push on with fresh vigour 
 to the easier conquest of all future verbal difficulties. 
 The process of analysis and synthesis thus certainly 
 comes at last, bearing with it its intellectual advan- 
 tages, but it comes later than need be, and only after the 
 superfluous difficulty of learning hundreds of different 
 pictorial forms for complete words, has been thrown 
 in the way of the child's early progress. The process of 
 learning must, it seems to me, from the very nature of 
 the case, be ultimately slower according to this method 
 
INFTIATION IN THE ART OF READING. 
 
 than according to those more generally practised, while 
 the disciplinary benefits of learning to read are un- 
 necessarily postponed. That the process of learning- 
 twenty or thirty words is both a pleasanter and more 
 rapid one than that of learning twenty or thirty forms, 
 with their corresponding names or sounds, must be at 
 once admitted, for the simple reason, that symbols 
 which have a meaning must be more cheerfully ac- 
 quired and more easily remembered than symbols that 
 have no meaning. But it is surely absurd to suppose 
 that the learning of two or three hundred symbols 
 for words, even with the suggestive aid of the mean- 
 ings attached to them, is easier than the acquisition 
 of the twenty or thirty elementary symbols which 
 enter into all words. Moreover, it is a mistake to 
 suppose that the learning of the elementary shapes in 
 their unmeaning nakedness is a process insufferably 
 tedious to the pupil. We must not judge children 
 by ourselves. The symbolic forms are novelties to 
 them, and interest them, deeply interest them, as 
 form-lessons, and as such they present no peculiar 
 difficulty. 
 
 The second method of teaching to read is that 
 almost universally practised, and consists of giving the 
 child a knowledge of the elementary forms (teaching 
 him the alphabet, as it is called), attaching to these 
 forms certain arbitrary names, and then proceeding 
 to combine these forms and names into wholes (that 
 is, into words) having no resemblance in sound, or 
 
58 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 a very remote resemblance to the names by which the 
 individual forms making up the word have been 
 designated. For example, the child is taught to say 
 em wi is my ; aitch o yew ess-ee is house; see a tee 
 is cat. But inasmuch as see a tee cannot sound the 
 word cat, but only stand for it, the process of ac- 
 quiring the word is manifestly a pure act of memory. 
 Now this, the " alphabetic" system (though bad), has 
 several distinct advantages over the " look and say " 
 system. It gives the child a quicker knowledge of 
 words (after the alphabet has been learned), because, 
 by directing his attention to the individual parts 
 which make up the wholes, it facilitates his percep- 
 tion and remembrance of the grouping of the forms 
 which make up the complete word. A child who 
 sees a cart for the first time, and has his attention 
 directed first to the wheels and axle, and then to 
 the body and the shafts, and finally to the object as 
 a whole, will afterwards more quickly distinguish a 
 cart from every other sort of vehicle, than if he had 
 looked at the object, first and last, only in its general 
 outline as a unity. So with the written symbol for 
 cart : the naming of see a ar tee, cannot by any possi- 
 bility suggest the sound cart, but it individualizes 
 the pupil's attention on the various constituent ele- 
 ments of the general pictorial outline of the whole 
 word, which consequently is more clearly and vividly 
 depicted on his eye and in his memory. Again, in the 
 act of enunciating the names of the different elements 
 of the symbol, he spells it, and thus acquires a know 
 
INITIATION IN THE ART OF READING. 59 
 
 ledge of spelling simultaneously with that of reading. 
 Further, this breaking up of the word more quickly 
 suggests to him the conclusion which every mode 
 of teaching elementary reading has ultimately in 
 view, namely, that each separate sign plays a peculiar 
 part in making up the sound of the whole, and has a 
 certain and specific phonic value. Having acquired an 
 unconscious power of attaching to the various signs 
 and sign-names their peculiar phonic values, his enun- 
 ciation of the names of the signs, when he comes to 
 a new word ("spelling it over," as it is called), be- 
 fore he pronounces it, is a real help to him ; and why ? 
 because it suggests the sound of the whole word. Let 
 not the teacher, however, imagine that a child so 
 taught receives any assistance from the naming of 
 the separate signs in making out the word, until he 
 has unconsciously and gradually worked out for him- 
 self a complete phonic system. This he must do. 
 There is thus thrown on the child the labour of find- 
 ing out for himself the sounds or powers of each 
 separate sign which he is daily in the habit of naming, 
 and for a considerable period the facility which this 
 phonic knowledge gives in making out words, has 
 accordingly been wilfully sacrificed ; and, along with 
 this facility, the intellectual exercise which the inde- 
 pendent elaboration of fresh words out of given 
 materials would have yielded to him. 
 
 We are thus brought back to the method which was 
 introduced at the beginning of this chapter, as the 
 
tiO REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 natural consequence of an analytic system of written 
 language that, namely, which takes the individual 
 parts of the words, and gives them, from the first, 
 the sounds which they actually have when grouped 
 to form words ; shortly, the Phonic Method. Given 
 the power of recognising these sign-elements, and 
 a knowledge of their force in combination (in other 
 words, given a knowledge of the sounds of the 
 letters of the alphabet), it is manifest that the pupil 
 is provided with the means of constructing words 
 for himself. His teaching and learning have thus, 
 from the very first, a significance which they derive 
 from their direct and palpable bearing on the prac- 
 tical application of his knowledge of sounds to the 
 making out of words and sentences. 
 
 It is a trivial objection to the phonic method that 
 the sounds of the letters when they stand by them- 
 selves are not precisely the same as they are when 
 in combination ; for example, be d te does not, when 
 rapidly pronounced, yield precisely bat, nor does 
 d'e-o-ge quite yield dog, when allowed to flow into 
 a unity of pronunciation. But the answer to this 
 simply is, that it very nearly yields it (especially if 
 an effort is made to sink the vowel element in the 
 sound), and that in a great number of words it quite 
 yields it ; for example, s-u-n yields sun, and so forth. 
 Failing the possibility of getting the precise sound 
 of the constituent elements of words, it is surely the 
 next best thing to get something which approximates 
 to this, instead of at once throwing up the task of 
 
INITIATION IN THE ART OF READING. (> 1 
 
 sounding in despair, and plunging into an arbitrary 
 naming of the elements, a device which only remotely 
 and indirectly contributes to facilitate the acquisition 
 of the art of reading. According to the phonic system, 
 the diphthongs oi, ou, aw, ai, ae, etc., are of course 
 learned as distinct sounds along with the other letters 
 of the alphabet. 
 
 The most serious objection to the system is the 
 obstacle which the numerous irregularities of the Eng- 
 lish language oppose, causing words to assume sounds 
 as a whole which cannot by any amount of contortion 
 be shown to be derivable from the sounds of their 
 individual parts. For example, the words are and have 
 the child would naturally expect to find sounded with 
 the a long, while one, two, were, said, and numerous 
 others, present, almost at the outset of the child's career, 
 seeming contradictions to the phonic lessons he is being- 
 taught. In reply, I have to point out the fact that 
 the principle on which the method proceeds affords a 
 key to nineteen-twentieths of the words in the lan- 
 guage, and that the outstanding irregularities can be 
 taught as such, on the " look and say" system, without 
 any attempt to show that they are capable of phonic 
 analysis. According to the present almost universal 
 "alphabetic" system, every vocable is an irregularity, 
 and has to be learnt as if no other words had been 
 learnt before it, for the names of the letters can afford 
 no direct help in finding out the sound of the word 
 which they represent. It is surely a manifest gain to 
 be able to furnish the child with a key to the great 
 
02 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 majority of words, and thereby to reduce stumbling- 
 blocks to a minimum ! 
 
 Moreover, in learning to read according to the phonic 
 method, the child, in addition to possessing all the 
 advantages of the method ordinarily adopted at pre- 
 sent, is furnished with an instrument, namely, the 
 sounds of the letters, which he can himself apply with 
 a view to fresh acquisitions. He thereby has his love 
 of power and discovery gratified, and in the pleasing 
 act of word-elaboration, he finds an exercise of under- 
 standing, humble indeed in its object, but beneficial in 
 its disciplinary effects. The mental act is in truth 
 worthy of all respect and encouragement, as it in no 
 essential respect differs from those higher but similar 
 operations which we admire in the cultivated intellect 
 of the scholar or the man of science. 
 
 Thus it is that the soundest and easiest way of 
 teaching the technical art of reading, indirectly con- 
 tributes, even in its initiatory stage, to that intel- 
 lectual discipline which is one side of the great object 
 of the primary school (formation of character) ; and 
 further, that it tends to interest the child in his work 
 while facilitating his progress. A question seemingly 
 unimportant thus assumes proportions which make it 
 worthy of the attention of all concerned in education, 
 if it be once admitted that education has any prin- 
 ciples at all. 
 
 In SPELLING we find further confirmation of the 
 
INITIATION IN THE ART OF READlNd. ('*'>> 
 
 practical superiority as well as the philosophic charac- 
 ter of the phonic method of teaching to read. Ac- 
 cording to the ordinary method, spelling is an act 
 of memory performed by the eye, which carries away 
 an impression, more or less accurate, of the elemen- 
 tary forms entering into a word, and by the ear, 
 which aids the eye by recalling the order in which the 
 <es of the letters were uttered, when spelling out 
 the word with a view to the reading of it. According 
 to the phonic method, spelling is all this and some- 
 thing more ; for it is an effort to disentangle into its 
 separate parts a complex sound, resulting from the 
 fusion of several elements into one whole ; and there- 
 fore it is an intellectual act. Bi-literal sounds are, of 
 course, treated in the same way when spelling as when 
 reading ; and when the child comes to name the letters 
 he will do so in such a way as to show that these 
 sounds are simple, though denoted by two letters. 
 " Seek" will be spelled s double e, Jc, and "full,"/, u, 
 double I, not /, I, as is the too common practice. But 
 it must be admitted that the mind of the child, as 
 well as of the adult, has a tendency to run instinc- 
 tively to the easiest way of overcoming a difficulty, 
 and that spelling, consequently, becomes practically 
 an act of eye-memory more than of intelligence. 
 This being the case, it is remarkable that the habit 
 of exercising infant classes in printing words on 
 slates should have been of so recent introduction. 
 If the eye is to remember, it can only do so by 
 looking steadily and looking long ; and it is mate- 
 
64 HEPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 rially aided by accustoming the child to trace over on 
 the black-board, and then to form on his own slate, 
 the word a picture of which he is to keep in his mind 
 for purposes of spelling. This exercise is equally help- 
 ful in teaching reading, nor is it a matter of great 
 importance whether the child succeeds or not in de- 
 lineating the forms before him. The benefit arises out 
 of the attempt. 
 
 Notwithstanding the importance of a right method, 
 even in the initiatory months of a child's education, 
 it is to be admitted that the best results are, after 
 all, invariably attained by moral means, even though 
 these be brought into operation by a teacher regard- 
 less and unconscious of principle or plan. No one 
 can have watched the vivacity, the playfulness, and 
 the mental activity which some teachers can educe 
 from their pupils, even in the apparently unsuggestive 
 labour of alphabetic and monosyllabic instruction, 
 without being convinced that where such qualifications 
 can be found, all others may be dispensed with. Just 
 as the moral purpose of the school takes precedence 
 of every other, so does the moral vitality of the teacher 
 supersede every other qualification, by enabling him to 
 transfuse into the minds of his pupils a force similar 
 to that which he himself exhibits, and which stirs and 
 elevates the action of their understandings. Nor is this 
 true only of the teaching of words and other initiatory 
 knowledge ; it belongs to every subject and every 
 stage of school life. The earnest, living interest of the 
 
.UVKMl.i: STACJE IN THK ART OF READING. 65 
 
 master in the subjects and the objects of his work will 
 not fail to be reflected in the minds of his pupils, and 
 to be more fruitful in results than the most philosophi- 
 cal methods in the hands of the formal and half-hearted 
 precisian. 
 
 The Juvenile Stage in teaching Reading. 
 
 Mental progress and Progress in Reading should be concurrent Intelligent 
 reading To teach to read properly is to educate The imagination and the 
 moral and religious sensibilities of children Intelligible reading. 
 
 The initiatory process, lasting for a year, or a 
 year and a half, as the case may be, ends in giving 
 the child a knowledge of reading, in the lowest tech- 
 nical sense. He can name, and, it may be hoped, 
 sound the letters, and combine them into monosyl- 
 lables, and into the simpler kind of dissyllables. He 
 now knows that the groupings of forms which lie before 
 him on a printed page are words and sentences ; he 
 knows also, in general, though within certain very 
 narrow limits, what these words and sentences are. 
 I have assumed that it is quite superfluous in these 
 days to point out the necessity for a carefully graduated 
 and well considered selection of reading-lessons, of 
 the importance of giving the child words conveying 
 a meaning, and only such sentences as faithfully 
 represent, in a somewhat improved form, his own 
 little thoughts and modes of speech. To dwell on 
 such established points would be to waste time. 
 
 The stage of the child's progress in the art of 
 reading, on which we next enter, is one which we 
 
 E 
 
66 KEPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 cannot approach with too much consideration, both of 
 our specific aims and of our means of applying them. 
 For what does progress here mean ? It means giving 
 to the child more difficult and more numerous words 
 to decipher, longer and more complex sentences to 
 grasp, consecutive narrative to follow and understand. 
 To do this would be unmeaning and futile, did we 
 not presume a mental growth in the child correspond- 
 ing to the growth of his command over written words 
 and sentences. We presume that his daily experi- 
 ence, stimulated and intensified by school discipline, 
 prompts to the acquisition of new words suited to 
 express in oral intercourse the constant accession 
 of new facts and fresh generalizations which obser- 
 vation has been from day to day forcing upon him, 
 and which have added to the material, and through 
 this to the capacity and power, of his understand- 
 ing. If such a progress has not been going on, the 
 pages of his book will be to the child a series of 
 hieroglyphics, which he may be laboriously taught to 
 pronounce, but which he not only cannot interpret, 
 but cannot be taught to interpret. The initiatory 
 discipline involved in acquiring the rudiments of the 
 art of reading has, it is presumed, consolidated and 
 methodized both the words and the thought of the 
 opening mind, and laid a firm basis for the future struc- 
 ture of knowledge. If the reading-lessons of the second 
 stage anticipate, instead of simply meeting, or, at most, 
 slightly preceding the growth of the child, the bond 
 up to that moment subsisting between the lesson to be 
 
JUVENILE STAGE IN THE ART OF READING. 67 
 
 arc |irired and the mind acquiring is broken ; the con- 
 sentaneous and parallel movement of intellectual de- 
 velopment and of progress in the technical art of 
 reading gives place to a discord which is irreparable. 
 The significance and interest which ought to accom- 
 pany every act of knowledge disappear, and the child 
 is doomed to a future school career essentially dreary 
 and unprofitable. That which ought to have been 
 at worst a labour becomes a toil. I do not say that 
 the pupil will stop short permanently at the point at 
 which he has been abruptly shunted off the intel- 
 ligible into the unintelligible, and that all acquisi- 
 tion is thenceforth rendered impossible ; but what he 
 acquires will be an ineffectual knowledge of words 
 and sentences uninspired by any meaning. One con- 
 sequence of this will be that such discipline as he may 
 receive will be so much at discord with the natural 
 development of the mind, and made up so much of 
 shreds and patches, that the trifling benefit which it 
 does confer will not compensate for the aversion to all 
 intellectual exercise which it is sure to engender. 1 
 By inverting the intellectual order, the teacher sub- 
 verts the natural love of intellectual activity. This 
 is the result of overleaping a stage in the pupil's life, 
 and presenting him with reading-lessons which do not 
 truly reflect his mental growing and growth. 
 
 But this, it may be said, is a purely intellectual 
 
 1 Teachers should not ignore the fact that the proportion of the 
 poorer classes who ever read, for the purpose of extending their informa- 
 tion, anything save the weekly paper, is by no means large, and very far 
 below the reasonable expectation of those who establish schools. 
 
68 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 shortcoming ; it may be admitted that it bears directly 
 on one of the presumed aims of the school the for- 
 mation of a good habit of the intelligence ; but this 
 is of little consequence, inasmuch as we have already 
 abjured such general theoretic aims, under the irresistible 
 pressure of the immediate and practical requirements of 
 the children of the poorer classes : our business is to 
 teach them, as expeditiously as possible, to read. If 
 by this be meant that the work in hand is to teach the 
 child to utter, with accurate pronunciation and with fair 
 attention to " stops," the sounds of the human voice 
 represented by certain typographical drawings upon 
 paper, the expensive machinery of popular education 
 should be broken up at once, and we should leave to 
 the old dame-schoolmistress the work which a few tech- 
 nical rules will enable her to do sufficiently well. It is 
 not such service that the State or the Church requires 
 of the schoolmaster, nor is it such service as this that 
 the schoolmaster whom I contemplate would deign to 
 render. He may aim at a merely technical end, but the 
 end in his view is to teach to read easily, intelligently, 
 and intelligibly, the more common current literature. 
 And how shall a child learn to read easily if the acquired 
 word is to him a dead thing ; if the sound of it recalls 
 to his mind no living reality of his experience, and 
 remains unsupported by any suggestive association ? 
 How can he read intelligently, if he does not under- 
 stand ? How can he read intelligibly, that is, in such 
 a way as to be understood, if the sentences which 
 he mechanically enunciates transcend his comprehen- 
 
.11 YKNIU-: STAtiE IN THE ART OF KEADI.NC. 69 
 
 sion ? Accordingly, the competent teacher finds that 
 the process or method by which the technical end in 
 its highest and only rational sense can be attained, 
 must be determined by the intellectual growth and 
 deeds of the pupil. Thus the general theoretic end 
 and the special technical end of the schoolroom again 
 in this, the second or juvenile stage of the child's pro- 
 gress, support and justify each other. 
 
 And to what practical conclusions does this fact 
 compel the thoughtful schoolmaster ? To these : Jirst, 
 that the reading-lessons of the child must, if the art 
 of reading is to be properly acquired, be graduated in 
 difficulty, considered as mere reading-lessons ; secondly, 
 that they must be as various in their language and 
 subjects as the pupil's own experience ; thirdly, that 
 they must be abundant in respect of quantity, if the 
 reading is afterwards to be easy; and, fourthly, that 
 the subjects treated, and the style of treating them, 
 must be graduated in accordance with the growth of 
 mind, if the reading is to be intelligent and intelli- 
 gible. Graduation in words and sentences, graduation 
 in the thoughts and subjects of which these treat, 
 variety, and quantity, such, succinctly stated, must 
 be the qualities of the reading-lessons to which the 
 teacher should, in the juvenile stage, introduce his 
 pupils. In other and more general words, the reading- 
 lessons, if they are thoroughly to attain their merely 
 technical end, are, in respect of quantity and variety, 
 to reflect faithfully, but in a more perfect form, the 
 full range of the child's intellectual experience, and 
 
70 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 in their graduation the order of growth of his under- 
 standing, 
 
 It would seem, then, that to teach a child reading 
 effectually, it is necessary to adapt ourselves to the 
 child's intellectual speed and capabilities. The ques- 
 tion of the method of teaching reading, accordingly, 
 passes into another and a higher and larger question, 
 the method of training, informing, and disciplining 
 the young intelligence itself, The kind of reading 
 which accomplishes this, will most effectually secure 
 the technical end ; while the possession of the tech- 
 nical power no acquired will be a guarantee that the 
 child has been thus far educated, so far as the intel- 
 lect is concerned, 
 
 Were the objects of our care possessed of phy- 
 sical desires and intellectual capacities only, the work 
 of the teacher would be comparatively easy. Les- 
 sons, oral and read, on the visible things of his ex- 
 perience, on the forms, properties, and relations of 
 these, and on bodily acts, would constitute the whole 
 work of the school work hard and dry, but in the 
 hands of one who understood his craft not therefore 
 uninteresting, toilsome, or unattractive But this 
 direct discipline of the powers of observation, compari- 
 son, and inference, though essential to good reading, 
 as well as to sound intellectual training, is only part 
 of the work, and that the least difficult part. To teach 
 reading effectually, and to educate in any sense worthy 
 of the name, it is necessary to cover, with our lessons 
 
JUVENILE STAGE IN THE ART OF READING. 71 
 
 and instructions, the whole field of the child's experi- 
 ence, and to meet all his mental wants. We have 
 accordingly to recognise, interpret, assist, explain, 
 and extend the experience of the child, as a being of 
 Imagination and of moral and religious sensibilities, 
 as well as of intellectual faculties. This is the most 
 delicate part of our task, and requires delicate hand- 
 ling. Yet how constantly do we find the wondering 
 germs of sentiment which arise in the young mind 
 treated with a rough and masterful hand. The teacher 
 seems to forget that, in such matters, he passes out of 
 the region of mere knowledge and intellect into that 
 of feeling and emotion ; that he enters into the 
 realm of the impalpable and invisible, and must not 
 attempt to touch too rudely or see too clearly. To 
 handle things which are in their essence mysterious 
 and infinite, as if they were the parts of a house or a 
 tree ; to drag forth into the hard light of a school- 
 room the silent emotions that attend the birth of 
 imagination and piety, is to desecrate holy ground. 
 A child must always be treated with respect ; there 
 are occasions when he should be treated with reverence. 
 There are sacred precincts in the school which must be 
 approached with preparation, or not approached at all. 
 The precise nature and function of the Imagination in 
 children, as in men, it is neither my business nor my 
 intention here to attempt to explain. In the child, 
 speakingly roughly, I understand it to be that repro- 
 ductive power which leads, or rather compels, him to 
 build up fresh wholes out of the broken and scattered 
 
7 '2 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 fragments of his experience, in complex combination 
 with the dim instinctive suggestions of love, fear, hope, 
 and wonder. Under this natural impulse the manifold 
 and disconnected elements of his external observation, 
 and the hidden workings of his sensibilities, are dwelt 
 upon, compared, combined, connected as cause and 
 effect, and woven into a kind of crude unity. This vital 
 process, accordingly, is educative in the highest sense, 
 because it is a self-education, and because it embraces 
 within its sphere the whole of the conscious life of the 
 child, and brings into easy and healthful play all his 
 capacities. The result is an unreality ; but to the child 
 it is quite as real as external nature, simply because it 
 is the product of his own spontaneous activity, and 
 spun out of materials of his own. This instinct of the 
 child is to be respected by the teacher, were it only 
 because it is doing more for his pupil than the master 
 can do. And it is to be respected, chiefly by being 
 exempted from all didactic talk. The art of teaching 
 in this matter is to dispense with the art altogether 
 in its usual sense. Sympathy takes the place of art. 
 The teacher will,- therefore, read the imaginative les- 
 sons, whether in prose or verse, to the child, and with 
 him, sharing his interest, evolving the stories, explain- 
 ing away difficult words, and then passing on. He 
 may ask for the repetition of the story in the words 
 of the class; he may help the children in their 
 efforts to reconstruct it, as a mother might, but he 
 must not mar its simple unity by putting questions 
 or suggesting explanations, nor defeat, by personal 
 
i: STAGE IN THE ART OF KKADiNC. 73 
 
 applications or dull discourse, the simple lesson which 
 the tale or fable or poem teaches. All these precautions 
 it is necessary to take if the nascent imagination is not 
 to be repressed or misdirected, and if the reading- 
 lessons which appeal to this faculty are not to be robbed 
 of that charm which makes them attractive, and which 
 stimulates the pupils to extend a technical power which 
 has many such pleasing stores in reserve. 
 
 If this careful regard to the imagination of the 
 young be obligatory on the instructors of children 
 of all classes, how much more is it incumbent on 
 the teacher of the children of the poor ? Divorced 
 as they are by poverty, and the want of sympa- 
 thetic response in their elders, from the pictures, 
 fables, poems, and narratives which surround, in 
 lavish profusion, the children of the middle and 
 upper classes, they have but the one chance which 
 the day-school affords of obtaining food for their 
 starved imaginations. Nor will the teacher err, if, 
 departing from his book, which, if justice be done 
 to other subjects, can yield but a limited supply 
 of such material, he introduce tales, into the school- 
 room, to be read as rewards of good conduct. The 
 time so occupied will assuredly not be wasted ; for, 
 apart from the indirect moral instruction which he 
 will thus convey through the imagination, he will 
 shed sunlight and warmth on the tender mind, with- 
 out which a genial and healthy growth is impossible. 
 
 But if the dreams and wonderings of the young ima- 
 gination demand such cautious and sympathetic treat- 
 
74 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 ment, with how gentle and tender a hand must we 
 approach the vague and timid aspirings of the Eeligious 
 instinct, and the small perplexities and keen sensibili 
 ties which belong to the infancy and childhood of the 
 moral sentiments. Here too, unhappily, the school has 
 to supplement, nay, too often to be a substitute for the 
 moral and religious training which ought to be the 
 work of the home. The influences of combined love 
 and awe which accompany spiritual teaching in 
 families more favourably situated, the careful consi- 
 deration or the wise negligence, are denied to the great 
 majority of primary-school children. It becomes, 
 therefore, the special duty and privilege of the school- 
 master to supply this want : with paternal affection 
 to dissociate morality and religion from harshness of 
 manner and tyranny of will, to cast the light of divine 
 love over the invisible, and to introduce the young 
 early to the Gospel story, and its personal relation to 
 them. This subject will be handled more fully here- 
 after. It is touched on here in order to give it its 
 due place in the education of the growing child, and 
 therefore in his Beading-lessons, which we presume to 
 be co-extensive with his moral as well as his intel- 
 lectual experience, to reproduce that experience in 
 a more perfect form, and to satisfy in some degree 
 the vague desires, and to complete the imperfect 
 conceptions which it rouses into activity. In this 
 way the child early, but insensibly, becomes alive to 
 the fact that books contain a true reflection of him- 
 self, that they answer his questions and please his 
 
JUVENILE STAGE IN THE ART OF READING. 75 
 
 imagination, and are consequently among the best 
 companions and friends of his life. 
 
 Thus we find that by liberally interpreting the 
 Reading-instruction of the school we educate not only 
 the understanding but the whole nature of the pupil. 
 That is to say, we take up the raw material of the child's 
 experience, giving it that shape and definiteness, de- 
 velopment, and completion, which, unaided, it would 
 never attain, save in the vigorous and powerful brain 
 of the few. The result of this treatment is, that the 
 young groping mind begins, under the wise guidance 
 of its instructor, to feel its path less devious and per- 
 plexing : observation, the beginnings of knowledge, 
 and the words which denote these, gradually take the 
 orderly arrangement and solidity which afford a sub- 
 structure for the future growth; hesitating question- 
 ings about the nature and causes of things receive the 
 satisfaction befitting the pupil's age ; the half -hidden, 
 half-revealed dreams of the imagination receive a 
 legitimate and healthful encouragement ; the uncer- 
 tain dawnings of the moral and religious sentiments 
 emerge into a clearer light, though still clothed with 
 mystery, as they must ever be. This is the process of 
 elementary education, and this the work of the ele- 
 mentary teacher. In such an education he finds his 
 best auxiliary in teaching to read, and by rightly 
 teaching to read he implicitly educates. 
 
 The work of teaching to read is thus to be identified 
 with that of training the young to a good habit of 
 the moral nature (in the largest sense), as well as of 
 
76 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 the intellect. The materials of both the teaching 
 and the training, and the methods of both, are the 
 same. From first to last the seemingly mechanical 
 process of instruction in a technical art is in truth 
 a living and life-inspiring method, resting on a 
 sound, and to that extent a scientific knowledge 
 of the human mind. The reading-book is no longer 
 the exclusive object of master and pupil, but merely 
 the text-book of a higher aim education. As such, 
 it is not only the auxiliary of his method, but 
 a kind of fixed typographical embodiment of that 
 method. It represents in visible form that intercourse 
 between the mature and immature mind, which is 
 the educative process. This method of teaching Bead- 
 ing accordingly may be fitly distinguished from others 
 as the Educative Method. 
 
 To conclude : the intelligent reading must also 
 fulfil our requirement of being intelligible. To aim at 
 aesthetic reading, except in those few fortunate primary 
 schools which retain their pupils to the age of thirteen 
 or fourteen, is futile ; but such reading as will convey 
 to an auditor, with accuracy, distinct enunciation, and 
 emphasis, the thoughts of the prose or poetical lesson 
 of the day, is not only possible, but easy of attainment. 
 The pupil who does this, does more than simply absorb 
 the mental product of others. The spirit and colour, 
 as well as the thought, of the lesson enter into him ; 
 and in the act of reproducing these for the benefit of 
 his audience, with suitable emphasis and intelligence, 
 
OBJECTS AND METHOD OF TEACHING WRITING. 77 
 
 they in a special sense become his own. Not only 
 are the sentences themselves a second time appro- 
 priated by the art of elocution, but the style and 
 character of the piece, whether didactic, imaginative, 
 humorous, or pathetic, are brought into relief, and exercise 
 their peculiar power as fosterers of the germs of taste. 
 
 If intelligible reading of this kind is to be attained 
 easily or at all, the teacher must give the key-note of 
 the reading when the child is in the initiatory stage. 
 The foundation must be laid at the base, not in the 
 middle, of the building, and laid by the teacher him- 
 self. Good reading is the successful imitation of a 
 good model, and it is a work of time. No one can 
 leap into the art, or read well to order. 
 
 Subsidiary questions as to the means, the manner, and 
 the expedients whereby the method of teaching reading 
 is more or less successfully applied, fall to be consi- 
 dered in another portion of this Eeport, where I com- 
 ment on the means most generally adopted in the 
 schools visited. 
 
 OBJECTS AND METHOD OF TEACHING WRITING. 
 
 The practical purpose, namely, facility and distinctness, to be kept constantly 
 in view Letters to be turned to use as they are learned The power to be 
 applied to copying on slates Writing from dictation. 
 
 The particular purpose at which the teacher ought 
 to aim in teaching Writing is the power of writing 
 from dictation the sentences of the reading- lesson, 
 
78 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 in script characters, with facility and distinctness. 
 That this is the end will scarcely in these days be 
 impugned, though few teachers have yet fully real- 
 ized the fact. Caligraphy may be said still to 
 hold a kind of traditionary possession of the school- 
 master's mind. The sooner this delusion is expelled 
 the better for the pupil, if not for the aesthetics of 
 penmanship. Caligraphy is to be spoken of with the 
 respect which is its due, when we find it in its proper 
 place ; but I cannot think that place to be the primary 
 school, when I reflect on the hurtful effects which its 
 intrusion there has produced. Page after page, book 
 after book, of letters and words and preposterous 
 sentences, are copied by the pupil, with a view to the 
 formation of " a hand," and the sum-total of result at 
 the age of ten or eleven is, except in the case of a few, 
 a power of imitating, in somewhat crabbed style, a 
 model set before them a model which is to them 
 merely a series of forms, which they are unable to 
 interpret without assistance. Substitute for this the 
 distinct and accurate writing of the sentences of the 
 reading-lesson as the practical aim to be constantly 
 striven for, and a new significance and increased 
 importance at once attach themselves to the art, while 
 at the same time an intelligent process supplants a 
 merely imitative exercise in Form. 
 
 The ultimate purpose of teaching Writing is deter- 
 mined by no abstract consideration, but solely by the 
 limitations under which the teacher works the gene- 
 ral bearing of which on the materials and methods 
 
OBJECTS AND METHOD OF TEACHING WRITING. 79 
 
 of elementary education has been already discussed. 
 These limitations demand that the pupil, at the age 
 of ten or eleven, shall be able to accomplish some- 
 thing more available in practical life, and in his own 
 future education, than the imitative reproduction of 
 certain script characters. 
 
 Given the purpose, the method or path whereby it 
 is to be reached will not be difficult to find. The 
 final purpose is the schoolmaster's beacon, which not 
 only marks the goal towards which he is moving, but 
 throws a light on every step of the way. 
 
 As a preliminary of all writing method, we have to 
 bear in mind two things (1.) That the time is short 
 and the art is long, and therefore we must begin be- 
 times. A slate should be put into every infant's hands 
 on the same day on which he receives his Primer, and 
 the foundation of the art of writing laid by causing 
 him to imitate the printed letters and words of his 
 lessons. As soon as sufficient familiarity has been 
 gained with the elements of Beading about the end 
 of the initiatory stage he should begin to copy on 
 his slate script letters written by the master on the 
 black-board ; (2.) That the letters which he forms 
 should not be too large for the tensive power of the 
 muscles of the little hand. With these preliminary 
 remarks, we come to the question of method proper. 
 
 The method to be pursued is to introduce the 
 pupil almost at once to letters, and to print along- 
 side each letter its typographical equivalent. The 
 
80 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 letters should be given in the order of simplicity of 
 formation, and combined into words as soon as the 
 letters given admit of it, without waiting till the 
 whole alphabet has been acquired. In this way, the 
 letters acquired are revised at the same time that they 
 are at once turned to their practical use. The per- 
 ception of a result so early attained in a new art is 
 pleasing to the pupil, because it is novel, while it in- 
 vests with an unmistakable meaning what is usually 
 a stupid and stupefying exercise. It does more, for it 
 supplies a motive ; and a child is quite as open to the 
 influence of a motive, or a reason which appeals to his 
 intelligence, as an adult. Children compare and reason, 
 it is true, with a smaller stock of materials than men, 
 with a misapprehension of the true proportions of 
 things and with less mental vigour, but it is a great 
 blunder to treat them as if they did not reason at all, 
 and were inaccessible to rational motives of action. 
 The power of immediately putting to use a new 
 acquisition supplies a motive for progress. It also 
 furnishes an incentive. No one can have given the 
 most superficial attention to children, without having 
 learnt that their most intense delight is to be found in 
 construction. To make some fresh thing out of such 
 materials as they may have is their highest ambition. 
 The practical and philosophic method of teaching the 
 first elements of Eeading takes advantage of this, as 
 has been shown, and through it gives unconscious 
 discipline ; the practical method of teaching Writing 
 appeals to the same mental characteristic. 
 
OBJECTS AND METHOD OF TEACHING WRITING. 81 
 
 If the child be so taught as to be able to connect 
 every fresh script-form with something already known 
 in print, and to be able to construct words for himself 
 by help of these forms, a lesson, which must always 
 be essentially one of imitation, becomes also an exercise 
 of intelligence. The writing out of printed letters and 
 words, and of sentences from the reading-lesson, on a 
 slate, sustains throughout the whole course of instruc- 
 tion in Writing the intellectual character of the art, and 
 makes it something more than a mere manual trick. 
 
 The higher stage and final purpose of the art Writ- 
 ing from Dictation will be introduced early, and 
 give a new interest to the lessons, by giving a new 
 power and revealing a new utility. By calling on the 
 power of attention to what the master dictates, as well 
 as on the power of applying what has been learned, a 
 certain amount of intellectual discipline is given- 
 limited, it is true, but by no means despicable. The 
 teaching of writing thus comprehends spelling, though 
 it by no means supersedes oral practice in that ex- 
 ercise. It is scarcely necessary to point out, that 
 according to this practical method the pupil acquires 
 the power of reading script while learning to write it, 
 and thus a fresh, though incidental, interest is given 
 to his task. 
 
 Of course the pupil will be taught to make great 
 exertions to reproduce the shapely forms of his 
 models ; he will know that there is good writing and 
 bad writing as well as good reading and bad reading. 
 But the main purpose will be steadily held before him, 
 
 F 
 
82 . REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 and determine every step in his progress, namely, the 
 power of writing from dictation a clean, accurate, and 
 distinct copy of his reading-lesson. 1 I shall be much sur- 
 prised if the practical expedients adopted for securing 
 this result do not also produce better writers, in respect 
 of mere caligraphy, than we now have. Whether they 
 do so or not, fine penmanship must be rigidly subordi- 
 nated to facility and distinctness of writing, in order 
 that, at an early period of his career, a child may 
 find himself possessed of a substantial power, which he 
 delights to use, and which will stand him in good stead 
 in his after life, saving him from that sense of in- 
 feriority which the want of an indispensable art is 
 always found to excite, and giving him a sound and 
 firm basis for further progress. 
 
 It is very far from my intention to discourage 
 beautiful writing and feats of penmanship. But such 
 accomplishments have their fit place in the school 
 curriculum only after the essential and necessary work 
 is done, and ought to be postponed as a distinct 
 aim till the age of eleven. They are to be gladly 
 welcomed and applauded if they are attained by the 
 pupil without his having been required to deviate from 
 the direct path which leads towards a more solid and 
 fruitful acquisition. 
 
 Thus the practical end has suggested a practical as 
 well as practicable path, and the result is that, in the 
 art of writing, as in that of reading, particular method 
 
 1 Elementary composition belongs to a more advanced stage of writing, 
 and involves grammar. 
 
OBJ K<TS AM) METHOD OF TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 83 
 
 subserves the general method of education ; for the 
 formation of a good mental habit is manifestly pro- 
 niotrd by substituting for a method and aim purely 
 mechanical a method characterized by intelligence, pro- 
 motive of discipline, and instinct with a solid purpose. 
 
 OBJECTS AND METHOD OF TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Intellectual discipline of Arithmetic School Arithmetic should be practical and 
 economic Method of teaching : the concrete method Moral uses of School 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Were the teacher free from all limitations in the 
 formation of his plans for attaining the ultimate 
 end of primary education, he might possibly choose 
 to eject reading and writing from the schoolroom, 
 in so far as these arts are merely technical, and to 
 substitute the intellectual and moral discipline which 
 can be best effected through conversation and per- 
 sonal influence, assisted by the objects of external 
 nature, and the lessons that might be drawn from 
 the hourly occurrences of life. It is true that, in 
 the initiatory stages of reading and writing, there is 
 a right and a wrong method, contributing more or 
 less to the discipline of the pupil, as well as to 
 his facility and certainty of acquisition ; but beyond 
 those stages the educative purpose is really attained, 
 we have seen, through the identification, as much as 
 possible, of the arts taught with the objects for which 
 they are taught, viz., instruction, discipline, and moral 
 
84 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 and aesthetic cultivation. It is otherwise with Arith- 
 metic. The art of manipulating numbers with dex- 
 terity, and the rationale of the expedients whereby 
 the processes are abbreviated and guaranteed, are 
 merely the evolving and strengthening, in the most 
 direct way, of a special intellectual power which 
 exerts itself spontaneously in all men. Irrespectively, 
 therefore, of the future necessities of the child, this 
 power would, in its relation to the general and theoretic 
 object of education alone, demand and amply reward 
 cultivation. The combination of parts into wholes, 
 the dissolution of wholes into parts, and of these parts 
 themselves into lower unities, are exercises in the rela- 
 tion of particulars to generals, and of generals to parti- 
 culars, of great value to the intellect in other applica- 
 tions of its powers. The visible, we may even say the 
 palpable, effects of error, which renders nugatory the 
 most strenuous efforts, if vitiated by the most trifling 
 flaw, must exercise a wonderful influence in giving the 
 habit of accuracy and caution in all exercises of com- 
 parison and inference. Indeed, so universally diffused 
 is the discipline given by means of the science and art 
 of numbers, that we are perhaps scarcely able to esti- 
 mate fully the extent to which it contributes to the 
 intelligence of the people, and above all, to a rapid 
 and easy movement of the human understanding in 
 the conduct of ordinary affairs. 
 
 Nor are the above the most important of the disci- 
 plinary effects of adding, multiplying, and dividing 
 wholes and parts ; for it is impossible, notwithstanding 
 
OBJECTS AND METHOD OF TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 85 
 
 the numerous contrivances for saving excessive tension 
 of mind which enter into the rules in obedience to which 
 the pupils work, to elaborate a correct answer to the 
 questions which a good arithmetical manual supplies, 
 without a certain amount of conscious intellectual con- 
 centration. A habit of mind is thereby strengthened 
 which more than any other constitutes the intellectual 
 superiority of one man over another, and of man him- 
 self over the lower animals. In acquiring other sub- 
 jects, the pupil may give or withdraw his attention 
 almost at his will, and yet make sensible progress in 
 the acquisition of knowledge. In arithmetic there is 
 a certain amount of deliberate and sustained attention 
 essential to even the most elementary processes. This 
 discipline cannot be evaded without leaving the work 
 undone. The conscious exertion of the will to keep 
 certain powers of the understanding in operation on a 
 special question until a certain result be reached, is not 
 only valuable in relation to the acquisition of the sub- 
 ject which for the moment may engage the mind ; 
 but, in addition to this, it increases the force available 
 for the study of every other subject. This Jcind of 
 discipline belongs peculiarly to arithmetic, even when 
 taught merely as an exercise in abstract figures. 
 
 All this is true of arithmetic, apart from its practical 
 relations to life, on which alone ultimately rest its 
 claims to enter into the curriculum of the primary 
 school. A consideration of these practical relations 
 yields us at once the final purpose towards the realiza- 
 
86 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 tion of which the teacher must direct all his efforts, 
 the methods which he ought to follow, and a further 
 insight into the educative natur-e of the art. 
 
 Arithmetic is the science and art of numbers : 
 school-arithmetic must always be, more or less, .the 
 adaptation of the art to the future uses of the pupil. 
 Those uses tell us that the purpose of teaching arith- 
 metic in elementary schools, apart from its influence 
 as a discipline, is attained when such a command has 
 been given over numbers as enables a young man or 
 woman to calculate with facility all those questions 
 which arise in the ordinary course of life. This may 
 be called Economic Arithmetic. It embraces the addi- 
 tion, subtraction, and division of money, proportion, 
 and vulgar fractions. Beyond these subjects no ele- 
 mentary teacher ought to attempt to go if he desires 
 to be impartial in his instructions and do justice to 
 other subjects much more important than advance in 
 arithmetic. 1 His aim should be thoroughness rather 
 than extent of acquirement. 
 
 Economic or school arithmetic embraces the domestic, 
 but also extends to the general out-of-door, relations 
 of the head of the family. The relation of his wages 
 to the size of his family, to the several heads of 
 legitimate expenditure, such as food, clothing, insur- 
 ance, sick-clubs, saving, gives full occupation for the 
 application of his knowledge, and ought to be con- 
 stantly present to his thoughts. " Tell me how a man 
 
 1 Except iu those schools in which pupils stay beyond the age of 
 eleven or twelve. 
 
OBJECTS AND METHOD OF TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 87 
 
 spends his money, and I will tell you the character 
 of the man/' was a remark in a special sense true of 
 tli< i labouring man. Almost the whole range of the 
 duties of benevolence and justice fall under the head 
 of income and expenditure, and resolve themselves 
 into questions of arithmetic, which cannot be encoun- 
 tered, much less solved, by a man unfamiliar with 
 figures. People of the middle class are themselves so 
 much accustomed to economic calculation that it does 
 not occur to them how serious an obstacle a deficiency 
 of arithmetical training is to a labouring man, still 
 more to a labouring man's wife. 
 
 Schoolmasters are frequently to blame for the 
 meagre practical issue of their arithmetical teaching 
 in the operative class ; and the cause of their failure 
 is to be found in this, that having omitted to define 
 to themselves clearly the ultimate object of their 
 labours, they necessarily fail to find a true method, 
 and thus expend much well-meant labour in vain. 
 The quantity of instruction given is generally ample, 
 but much of it is irrelevant, 
 
 By the word Economic, the purpose of arithmetical 
 teaching in schools has been defined : the method 
 follows from the purpose, and is called the Concrete 
 Method. And here I come on ground so much beaten 
 by theoretical educationists that though it is yet 
 untrodden by the great majority of practical teachers, 
 1 shall omit those details of ways and means, which 
 have been so frequently reiterated. It will be suffi 
 
88 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 cient to summarize the method in the following prac- 
 tical rules: 
 
 (1.) To initiate children in arithmetic by means 
 of the ball-frame alone, thereby making their elemen- 
 tary instruction a simple extension of their own daily 
 observation. (2.) Simultaneously with this, and after 
 it, to exercise the pupils in mental arithmetic ; and 
 (3.) To carry forward the instruction on the basis of 
 concrete questions arising out of the necessities or 
 experiences of common life, domestic and general, and 
 to give prominence, at every step of the progress, to 
 mental arithmetic. 
 
 As matters stand, the exercises worked by the pupils 
 have, for the most part, immediate or sole reference to 
 the attainment of a certain familiarity with the rela 
 tions of number in themselves, and with the rules 
 under which the exercises happen to be ranged ; they 
 ought, on the contrary, to bear with the greatest 
 stress on the relations of number to every-day affairs. 
 School-arithmetic is not a playing with numbers, but 
 a dealing with the things to which number is attached. 
 If it be not a playing with numbers, much less is it 
 an intricate game with figures. Two lessons the pri- 
 mary teacher will at once draw from these considera- 
 tions he will avoid slate-work in its initiatory stages, 
 relying on the presentation of objects to be numbered. 
 He will see that through 'mental arithmetic alone he 
 can approach the child naturally, and without a sudden 
 dislocation of the infant numerical habit of mind. 
 To begin with pebbles or balls, and exercise the 
 
OBJECTS AND METHOD OF TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 89 
 
 mind apart from the manual exercise of the slate, is to 
 accept the foundation which nature has herself laid. 
 For the teacher to despise this, and to endeavour to 
 rear the edifice of knowledge "in a way of his own," 
 is to display ignorant pedantry where he ought to 
 exhibit a wise faith, and to throw mystery and com- 
 plexity into mental operations which to the child may 
 be easily made clear and simple. In this, as in other 
 subjects, the true method is to be found by considering 
 the ways of nature, and following and fostering her 
 spontaneous efforts. Having familiarized the child 
 with the adding, subtracting, and multiplying of num- 
 bers which can be taken in by the eye, and in this way 
 comprehended by the understanding, he will only then 
 proceed to show the child the use of the slate in aiding 
 the intellect, and facilitating processes which, in num- 
 bers above a certain amount, would to the child or 
 even to the boy be a painful if not an impossible effort. 
 He will not have failed in the initiatory stage to mass 
 his balls in tens, and so to accustom the child to regard 
 the highest figures as groups of tens of lower and higher 
 multiples, without of course having prematurely sug- 
 gested to the young mind the future applications of 
 this expedient. The gradual introduction of difficult 
 questions, which cannot be solved mentally, will first 
 cull for the help of the slate ; and the immense facility 
 in solving these questions which slate-work, under cer- 
 tain rules of procedure, gives, will not be lost on a 
 child taught according to the method of nature. It 
 will ])e a relief, a surprise, and an encouragement. Fur- 
 
90 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 ther progress will continue to be made with constant 
 recurrence to the concrete and reference to the eco- 
 nomic, and thus figures and processes will be brought 
 down from their abstract relations to the humble 
 and practical needs of the day or the hour. 
 
 In urging on the schoolmaster's attention the de- 
 finite and " economic" purpose of school-arithmetic, 
 and the concrete method of jattaining that purpose, 
 I have been guided to the opinions advocated solely 
 by the consideration of the limitations as to time and 
 "utility" under which the primary teacher must con- 
 sent to do all his work. But so harmonious are the 
 operations of nature, that we find (as we also found 
 in the subjects of reading and writing) that in obey- 
 ing the restrictions as to the end and means of in- 
 struction imposed by the necessities of life, the teacher 
 not only secures for his pupils thorough possession of 
 the art of arithmetic in its purely technical aspect, 
 but also best promotes the disciplinary purpose of 
 all elementary education. For even the pure arith- 
 metician, setting aside the practical requirements of 
 the schoolroom or of life, will concur in maintaining 
 that the art of arithmetic is only then thoroughly and 
 scientifically acquired in its elements when it is acquired 
 in those concrete relations out of which it arose. He 
 will assure us that, except in those rare cases of peculiar 
 native aptitude for numbers, which overleap the ordi- 
 nary processes of education, solidity of foundation and 
 stability of structure can be secured in no way so well 
 
ECONOMIC ARITHMETIC. 91 
 
 as by the faithful pursuit of the method of nature. 
 With whatever sleight-of-intellect numbers and their 
 relations may be handled by professional arithme- 
 ticians, the only sound basis for the ordinary arith- 
 metic of practical life, even when viewed in its merely 
 technical aspect, is a concrete basis. It is not too 
 much to say that in the initiatory classes of an 
 elementary school the realities to which numbers refer 
 should even take precedence in the order of thought of 
 the numbers themselves ; the actual things numbered, 
 rather than numerical quantities, should be constantly 
 present to the pupil's mind. This is essential to the 
 vitality and solidity of the substructure of arithmetical 
 knowledge, however abstract may be the future super- 
 structure. 
 
 But we have to point out a still more important 
 purpose which the teaching of the relations of num- 
 ber as Economic Arithmetic subserves. Economic 
 Arithmetic, properly taught, must rest mainly on that 
 class of questions which concerns clothes, feeding, 
 housing, and foresight. The constant reference of 
 figures to the acts, facts, and dealings of every- 
 day life, thus brings Number to bear on subjects 
 which are, in truth, moral, inasmuch as they have to 
 do with a man's relations to his household and his 
 occupation. It is evident that the familiarizing of 
 the mind with the important part which number plays 
 in ordinary affairs will promote what may be called 
 arithmetical prudence in the management of the p<-r- 
 
92 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 sonal and family getting and spending. The expendi- 
 ture of the operative classes has, in the vast majority 
 of cases, not the slightest regard to present or future 
 responsibilities. If we can get a man to consider 
 seriously how he can best extend the benefits of his 
 earnings to those of his own household, the economic 
 object of education is in him fully attained. But 
 this deliberation is the one thing desidera.ted. If 
 this be secured, he will quickly see that although 
 saving is a duty, it does not mean hoarding, and that 
 economy does not mean niggardliness. He will per- 
 ceive that a regulation of expenditure with due 
 regard to the income, and to the various present 
 claims which a man has on himself or which others 
 have on him, is economy, and it is more ; it is 
 also benevolence, honesty, justice, and sense : a regu- 
 lation of expenditure with due regard to the certain 
 or probable claims of the future is prospective benevo- 
 lence, honesty, justice, and sense. Now, these things 
 ought to be taught to the people, and they are scarcely 
 ever taught. This subject has been already adverted 
 to in general terms, and it will be spoken of again 
 under the head of Direct Moral Instruction ; but I 
 wish specially to show in this place, that even a 
 study apparently so abstract as arithmetic can be 
 so taught as to reveal an intimate connexion with 
 the conduct of life, and that it is best so taught. 
 And further, that arithmetic ethically taught in this 
 its economic sense, is moral teaching, and that, while 
 it confessedly contributes very largely to the dis- 
 
 
SECONDARY SUBJECTS OF THE SCHOOL. 93 
 
 cipline of the intellect, it also to some extent aids 
 in the formation of a moral habit of mind. It thus 
 promotes the ultimate object of the primary school in 
 both its aspects. 
 
 The Secondary Subjects of the Parochial School. 
 
 Education an extensive as well as an intensive process Order of importance of 
 secondary subjects. 
 
 We pass now from the three main subjects of the 
 primary school to the consideration of those parts of 
 the curriculum which merit a place in the teacher's 
 time-table and in this survey of school-work, only if 
 kept strictly subsidiary to those studies which are de- 
 termined beyond question by the future necessities of 
 the pupil. It is quite common to find in a school two 
 daily lessons of fifteen minutes each in Eeading (fre- 
 quently only one), with Writing from Dictation assert- 
 ing its existence only once or twice a week, while Geo- 
 graphy, Grammar, History, Music, Drawing, and even 
 something called Science, receive each a certain share of 
 daily attention. This is a well-meant misuse of time. 
 I do not underrate the educational value of these 
 subjects. By means of them alone it is easy to see 
 that the ultimate purpose of all primary education 
 might be attained. But it is of prime moment to 
 secure for those subjects which are indispensable 
 to the future life and self-education of the pupil that 
 priority and pre-eminence in school- work which is their 
 due. It is true that the cultivation of the subsidiary 
 
94 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 branches of instruction, in proper subordination to 
 the more essential, has a tendency, by giving variety, 
 to communicate greater vivacity and intelligence to 
 the whole of the school-work, and thereby materially to 
 further the acquisition of the magistral subjects them- 
 selves. But the ground of complaint is, that these 
 subsidiary subjects receive in Scotland more atten- 
 tion than they can fairly claim, and that they in- 
 troduce into the elementary school that greatest of 
 all modern educational heresies, the teaching and 
 learning of a little of many things, rather than much 
 of a few things. This is to eject thoroughness and 
 real proficiency from the school, and with these, as a 
 matter of course, all discipline worthy of the name. 
 
 It is, at the same time, a narrow theory of educa- 
 tion which teaches that mental discipline is possible 
 only when we rigidly confine the intellect within a 
 narrow groove of study. Education is an extensive 
 as well as an intensive process. There is a mental 
 cultivation as real in the broadening of the field 
 of observation, in the mere incorporation, if assimi- 
 lation be impossible, of different classes of names and 
 things, in other words, of different departments of 
 knowledge, as in the severest application of the mind 
 to one or two intellectual objects. Where quantity 
 in education is ignored, you will certainly, in the 
 general case, have a narrow man, though the intense 
 application of his mind within a circumscribed course 
 may have given him clearness, precision, and vigour : 
 a man of power without ideas. Where, again, there 
 
SKCON'DAIIY SUBJECTS OF THE SCHOOL. !>.") 
 
 is quantity without great intensity, you will gene- 
 rally have breadth, openness, fairness, adaptability of 
 intellect ; but the intellect will be of inferior edge and 
 of less decision, unless the wide and comprehensive 
 education be accompanied by considerable native 
 energy of character. Where this native energy is 
 ready-made to our hands, 1 a wide comprehensiveness 
 is probably preferable to a close intensiveness of disci- 
 pline. It lays a broader foundation, it puts a youth 
 in possession of the elements of a more various culti- 
 vation, it brings more facts within his intellectual 
 vision as he passes through the education of business 
 and life, and supplies him with larger elements of 
 judgment. An impartial and judicious breadth which 
 lives in the constant anticipation of clearer light, or of 
 new objects coming within the range of apprehension 
 and suggesting new truths, is a better thing (if there 
 be any higher purpose or meaning in education at all) 
 than that incisive keenness of vision which is gene- 
 rally the characteristic of a mind which builds up 
 judgments by the help of foregone conclusions, limits 
 possibilities by experience of the past, and casts all 
 the fresh lessons of life in a prematurely formed' or 
 traditionary mould. 
 
 These remarks are made lest it should be supposed 
 that I in any way slight the extension of the paro- 
 chial schoolmaster's conception of his work. So far 
 is this from being the case, that I have provided, 
 in the method of teaching reading, for the cultiva- 
 tion of every side of the juvenile mind, for the 
 
 1 As it is in Scotland. 
 
96 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 satisfaction in legitimate forms of the inquiring in- 
 tellect, as well as of the moral and imaginative 
 instincts. It has been shown how, in the act of 
 teaching reading, the teacher may and must take a 
 large view of his processes, if he hopes to be carried 
 to a successful result : and if he takes such a view, he 
 will assuredly give a range and comprehensiveness to 
 the subject-matter of the primary-school curriculum 
 which, to say the truth, I have rarely been privileged 
 to meet with even in schools which affect to be too 
 much engrossed with the higher subjects to pay 
 sufficient attention to homely requirements ; and he 
 will do so without sacrificing other subjects. It is 
 precisely because the three indispensable subjects of 
 elementary study require to be handled with a larger 
 and more liberal grasp, and in conformity with a 
 broader method and a more practical purpose, that 
 I have dwelt with so much emphasis on their special 
 educational functions. And further, it is with a view 
 to admit of the more comprehensive method and the 
 higher and more strictly defined aim that so large a 
 space is claimed for them in the school work, and 
 that all other subjects save direct moral and religious 
 instruction are relegated to a very subordinate place. 
 
 The subordinate subjects will be taken up in the 
 order of importance assigned to them in the chapter 
 on the teacher's limitations, namely, Music, Geography, 
 Grammar with Composition, Drawing, History, pre- 
 suming that, in the case of girls, needlework and cutting- 
 out take precedence of al] other subsidiary subjects. 1 
 
 1 Vidt Second Part of this Report. 
 
MUSK'. 97 
 
 MUSIC IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. 
 
 <;<-iicr:vl HTt'i-t of Music on the school Sympathy as an educative .agent Sym- 
 pathy and simultaneity contrasted (The simultaneous system). Singing, 
 a moral and religious agency Effect on the children Method of teaching 
 singing. 
 
 Music is much more to the elementary school than 
 the ornament is to the capital of a shaft. It has itself 
 a substantial duty to perform in the structure of 
 the edifice. Under its influence the disjointed frag- 
 ments of education take compact and harmonious 
 shape in the growing minds of the pupils. 
 
 Sympathy is far too important an agent in the ele- 
 mentary school to be omitted from the calculations of 
 the teacher, when estimating the forces which he can 
 bring into operation for the attainment of his ends. 
 The multitude of his pupils, which at first is a source 
 of so much perplexity and difficulty, itself gives birth to 
 a remedy for the evil it causes ; for, the perplexity and 
 difficulty to which numbers give rise are more than 
 counterbalanced by the compensation which sympathy 
 yields, a compensation sufficient, when turned to full 
 account, to transform an apparent disadvantage into 
 an auxiliary. The force with which a sentiment is 
 felt increases by the help of numbers beyond our 
 power to calculate : it seems to return to each in- 
 dividual justified by being shared, and intensified by 
 being expressed. Hence both men and children readily 
 respond either for good or evil to mass-management. 
 The teacher, accordingly, cannot afford to ignore so 
 potent an instrument of power. Even in purely intel- 
 
 G 
 
98 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 lectual matters, sympathy is a great auxiliary ; but 
 in all that concerns sentiment and emotion it is all- 
 powerful. And precisely in the degree - to which a 
 teacher can import moral and emotional elements into 
 his manner of giving intellectual lessons, will he be 
 able in this department of his work to calculate on 
 the co-operation of sympathy, his best ally. 
 
 The sympathetic teaching of intellectual subjects, 
 such as reading, writing, geography, and arithmetic, 
 runs to seed in what is called the "simultaneous 
 method," which is no method at all, but merely a device 
 or expedient facilitating the application of a method. 
 This expedient is still popular in many districts of 
 England, in the French army, and in America, but there 
 is in Scotland too deep an understanding of the real 
 purpose of education to admit of its ever obtaining a 
 strong hold. It puts forward two pleas for adoption, 
 and both plausible. It claims to excite the attention of 
 all as one, and thus give every child in a class of twenty 
 the benefit of twenty questionings, which, on any other 
 plan, would reach him only once ; and, secondly, it 
 claims to diffuse the knowledge conveyed, by making 
 all the pupils think and utter the same thing at the 
 same time. Even if the first claim were well founded, 
 it would be a confession of weakness on the part of the 
 teacher. A good teacher has no difficulty in sustain- 
 ing the attention of all the pupils of a, class, without 
 swamping the individuals that compose it. Should he 
 occasionally, from temporary or accidental causes, fail 
 in his efforts to command attention, he has at least the 
 satisfaction of knowing that the expedients he employs 
 

 MUSIC IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. 99 
 
 do not hold out a continual inducement to his pupils to 
 resign their intellectual independence, and to seem to 
 know what they do not. To conduct a class in such a 
 way that all shall benefit by what each says or does, is, 
 certainly, the first essential of class-teaching ; to evade 
 the difficulty by the use of an expedient which does not 
 guarantee the end sought, is to admit incapacity and 
 to indulge indolence. The greater exertion required 
 from the teacher who encounters and overcomes the 
 difficulty of fixing the minds of his class on a common 
 object, is well rewarded by the results visible in his 
 pupils, and above all by the knowledge that he is not 
 sacrificing their mental discipline to his own ease, or 
 to a fallacious semblance of efficiency. A good teacher 
 knows that no discipline can be real which is not 
 individual, and he declines to adopt expedients which 
 throw a false glare of success over school-work, while 
 defeating the true ends of education. The second 
 claim made by the simultaneous device is based on a 
 misunderstanding of the nature and operation of sym- 
 pathy. Sympathy is really efficacious in the acquisi- 
 tion of intellectual subjects only in so far as it is a 
 moral agency. The excitement and vivacity which a 
 teacher can produce by conducting his class in a vivid 
 and interesting manner, the desire to respond with 
 intelligence, if not with knowledge, which he is able to 
 awaken, are intensified by being shared, and unques- 
 tionably tend in a remarkable degree to quicken and 
 invigorate the understandings of the pupils. In this 
 direction the teacher calls for and expects the co- 
 operation of sympathy in his earnest efforts to exer- 
 
100 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 else the individual intellects before him. But the 
 simultaneous utterance of a reply to a question is 
 the very reverse of this sympathetic process. Sym- 
 pathy, in fact, is an organic, simultaneity a mecha- 
 nical act ; and to the extent to which the latter is 
 mechanical, does it tend to establish routine, and to 
 degrade the whole work of the school, converting 
 both pupils and master into machines. 
 
 Leaving this device, which perhaps scarcely merits 
 serious consideration, we have only to pass from the in- 
 tellectual in education to the moral to find simultaneity 
 and sympathy almost convertible terms. The affections, 
 the sentiments, and the emotions of children are most 
 powerfully influenced when the teaching, addressed 
 to all, receives a common and united response. The 
 more skilfully the appeals made to the consciences 
 and feelings of the young, call to their help the 
 common conscience and the common feeling of all, 
 the more deep and lasting will they be in their effect. 
 Hence the moral and religious value of Music in 
 the primary school. 
 
 It is on the fact that it is a direct moral and 
 religious agency that Music (by which is meant mass 
 and part-singing from notation), rests its claim to rank 
 first among the subsidiary subjects of instruction. 
 The united utterance of a common resolution of per- 
 severance, heroism, love of truth and honesty, or of 
 a common sentiment of worship, gratitude, or purity, 
 in song suited to the capacities of children's minds 
 and to the powers of children's voices, devotes the 
 
MUSIC IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. 101 
 
 ymmg hearts which pour forth the melody to the 
 cause of morality and religion. The utterance of the 
 song is, in some sense, a public vow of self-devotion 
 to the idea which it expresses. The harmony of the 
 singers falls back on the ear and seems to reiterate 
 the sentiment with which the music has been asso- 
 ciated, in accents pleasing and insinuating, not harsh 
 and preceptive. The morality and religion of song 
 thus drop gently, and without the parade of formal 
 teaching into the heart of the child, and in this form 
 
 O' ' 
 
 they are welcome. 
 
 But Music is not only in itself a direct moral 
 agency, and a medium for direct moral teaching, it 
 is also the best auxiliary to the other moral and reli- 
 gious instruction of the school, because it repeats 
 what has been already conveyed in a dogmatic or 
 illustrative form, and it does so with melodious and 
 grateful associations, which suggest, if they do not 
 reveal, the inner harmony of the spiritual life. Nay, 
 more, does not the musical utterance of a sentiment 
 suggest to the young mind the fundamental union of 
 goodness, truth, and beauty, a union dimly appre- 
 hended, it may be, but perhaps none the less deeply 
 felt ? If this be so, there are the beginnings of a 
 true culture in school-music. 
 
 Nor are these the only claims of Music on the 
 primary teacher : singing is natural to man, and while 
 affording a healthy outlet to the emotions of child- 
 hood, it refreshes and invigorates the physical frame. 
 In this way it becomes in the schoolroom an econo- 
 mizer of time and a supporter of discipline. It may 
 
102 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 be compared to an engine constructed with a view 
 to charge the general body with fresh vitality and 
 continually to restore the sympathetic bond, which 
 has a constant tendency to dissolution. 
 
 We must not suppose that either the moral or the 
 physical influence of Music on children is different 
 in kind, though it may be less in degree, than its 
 influence on the adult. That influence has been so 
 aptly described by Bishop Beveridge, that I may not 
 unfitly quote the words here : 
 
 " That which I have found," he says, " the best recreation both to 
 my mind and body, whensoever either of them stands in need 
 of it, is music, which exercises at once both my body and soul, 
 especially when I play myself ; for then, methinks, the same motion 
 that my hand makes upon the instrument, the instrument makes 
 upon my heart. It calls in my spirits, composes my thoughts, 
 delights my ear, recreates my mind, and so not only fits me for 
 after business, but fills my. heart at the present with pure and use- 
 ful thoughts ; so that, when the music sounds the sweetliest in my 
 ears, truth commonly Hows the clearest in my mind. And hence 
 it is that I find my soul is become more harmonious by being ac- 
 customed so much to harmony, and adverse to all manners of dis- 
 cord, so that the least jarring sounds, either in notes or words, seem 
 very harsh and unpleasant to me." 
 
 On the method of teaching singing from notation, 
 it is not necessary to say much, because success in 
 this subject depends entirely on the spirit in which 
 it is taught. In the earlier stages the child will, of 
 course, be taught by imitation and without notes ; 
 in the more advanced, notation will be introduced, 
 ard ultimately part-singing. I think, however, every 
 teacher should seriously ask himself this question with 
 respect to method : Is not instruction based on the 
 
MUSIC GEOGRAPHY. 103 
 
 ordinary notation more likely than any other to give 
 the pupil that kind of musical knowledge and capa- 
 city which will enable and induce him to carry the 
 power, which he may acquire, out of the schoolroom 
 into the family and the church, and thus lead him 
 to continue and propagate the elevating influence 
 under which he himself has been happily brought ? 
 If so, the ordinary notation seems to me to be 
 preferable to the tonic sol-fa, and men of experience 
 say that it is not much more difficult of acquisition. 
 However this may be, it is certain that the teacher 
 who takes up this important instrument of discipline 
 and instruction with intelligence and cordiality, will 
 not go far astray, if he steadily subordinate his method 
 and his purpose to the moral and aesthetic ends which 
 the subject is intended to subserve. 1 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, AND THE METHOD OF TEACHING IT. 
 
 Chief error in teaching Geography Practical purpose of teaching Geography 
 Theoretical purpose The two harmonize Indirect uses of Geography 
 Method of teaching Geography. 
 
 When Geography is taught in an elementary school, 
 the most common error is attempting too much. Every 
 inspector of schools must have endured, with such 
 patience as he was endowed with, the exhibition of a 
 detailed knowledge of Russia, Germany, and Thibet, 
 side by side with utter ignorance of the course which 
 
 1 On this subject, and indeed on every other connected with school? 
 keeping, I would refer the teacher to Currie's Common School Education^ 
 a work wliicli every teacher ought to have in his library. 
 
104 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 a vessel would take on its way from London to Sydney, 
 or of the character and products of our native country. 
 This arises from no want of energy and assiduity in 
 teacher and pupil, for it is often the superabundant 
 supply of these qualities which runs into such gro- 
 tesque forms. The reply to a mild suggestion that 
 the children might be more profitably employed, gene- 
 rally is, that they have already " gone over" Great 
 Britain and Europe, to which the rejoinder that they 
 require to retrace the ground from which their foot- 
 steps have been so quickly obliterated, remains un- 
 answered. 
 
 In this, as in other subjects, the error arises from 
 the neglect to define the purpose, the limits, and the 
 method of the subject to be taught. 
 
 The purpose of teaching Geography in the primary 
 school is to give the pupil a general knowledge of the 
 configuration of the earth, the leading nations which 
 occupy it, their chief industrial products as these 
 are determined by climate and physical conformation, 
 and the relation in which Britain stands to the rest of 
 the world in the matter of exports and imports. Our 
 own country should be at once the starting-point and 
 terminus of the whole geographical journey. A much 
 fuller knowledge of Great Britain and her Colonies 
 should consequently be given than of other regions ; 
 but to build on this special knowledge, and with- 
 out the broad basis furnished by general geography, 
 would be to exclude the pupil from the elements of 
 comparison, to confirm him in his national prejudice, 
 
f;K< )(.jRAlliy, AND THE METHOD OF TEACHING IT. 105 
 
 isolation, and stolidity, and to deprive geography of 
 its peculiar educative power. 
 
 Theoretically viewed, the educative function of geo- 
 graphy is the antithesis of arithmetic and grammar- 
 being extensive, while the functions of the latter are in- 
 tensive. It gives intellectual breadth, adds to the stock 
 of facts in their relation to causes, expands the moral 
 sympathies, and tends to moderate rash judgments. 
 Accordingly, the effect of Geography, thus theoretically 
 estimated, is both moral and intellectual, and contri- 
 butes as directly, as mere information can, to the 
 ultimate end of the schoolmaster's labours the for- 
 mation of character. It has also this peculiarity : 
 it is the easiest of all exercises in the perception of 
 the connexion of cause and effect ; for both causes 
 and effects are, in the region of geography, visible 
 and palpable. Its lessons, moreover, are capable of 
 daily application by the child to the phenomena by 
 which he is surrounded, and are in tins way fruitful of 
 discipline outside the school. To substitute for this 
 admirable exercise the names of the places in each 
 country where men most congregate, and of the large 
 mountains and streams, is to convert a subject of in- 
 struction which is a living organism into an exani- 
 mate corpse. No process could be more ingeniously 
 devised for eliminating the rubbish from an important 
 study, and presenting that rubbish to the pupil in the 
 abused name of the subject of which it is the mere 
 accident. This is not " practical " teaching as opposed 
 to " theoretical ;" for by no method of teaching the 
 science could it be more effectively exhausted of all 
 
106 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 practical elements. The real significance of geographi- 
 cal knowledge, in the case of the peasant and the oper- 
 ative, is its tendency to give breadth, to store the 
 mind with those larger facts regarding the earth and 
 man which, when learned, lie quietly in the mind, 
 germinate there, and contribute to that unconscious 
 growth to which every man owes more than to the 
 conscious steps of his onward progress. 
 
 To attain the "practical" purpose of school geo- 
 graphy, as I understand it, is to attain these very 
 high results ; and thus it is that in this as in other 
 subjects of elementary instruction, the theoretic and 
 practical purposes of education become identical. 
 
 In elementary education the sphere of the intellec- 
 tual and moral vision is so crowded with objects, and 
 every separate subject is so overcharged with meaning 
 and variety to the opening mind, and the temptation to 
 dissipate the attention and thereby to subvert sound 
 intellectual discipline, is so strong as to require that 
 the teacher exercise constant vigilance. An infinite 
 multiplicity of forms and facts besets the fresh young 
 brain from morning till night, and makes its natural 
 life fragmentary and ineffective. To correct this is 
 a portion of the teacher's task. The work of the 
 school, accordingly (and this applies to every stage 
 of education), is an artificial work. It rests on 
 the method of Nature and obeys it ; but it is the 
 intrusion of the hand of man for the purpose of 
 making a wiser and a better and a more efficient man 
 than would otherwise grow. Till the power of a 
 sustained act of will directed towards some definite 
 
GEOGRAPHY, AND THE METHOD OF TEACHING IT. 107 
 
 object is supposed to be developed, we rightly leave 
 the child almost wholly to Nature, our training being 
 negative rather than positive ; but when the time 
 conies for education proper (which is Discipline) to 
 begin, our business is to direct his powers into fixed 
 channels, with a view to fixed ends. Hence the great 
 importance in education of narrowing the attention of 
 pupils to the subject immediately and directly in hand, 
 and of checking all discursive talk, under whatever- 
 specious guise it may be introduced. In teaching 
 Geography, however, the teacher may find an outlet 
 for the discursive tendency which also has an impor- 
 tant part to play in education, and a legitimate 
 occasion for giving " general information," and for 
 exercising the general intelligence by being deliber- 
 ately discursive and conversational. 
 
 Nor are the uses of Industrial Geography ex- 
 hausted by the wide range which we have already 
 given to the educative functions of this branch. 
 For, this is the true characteristic of a right purpose 
 pursued by a right method, that it is fruitful in its 
 disciplinary effects beyond our immediate capacity to 
 perceive. And we have but to advert to the mani- 
 fest support which Geography rightly taught gives to 
 Economic Arithmetic, to an intelligent apprehension 
 of the Beading-lessons, and to the economic moral 
 teaching which falls to be considered in the sequel, 
 to appreciate its educational value in the elementary 
 school, and in promoting the intelligence of the 
 pupil. 
 
108 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 Method. There is no school subject in which the 
 end so clearly points out the way and means as it does 
 in the case of Geography. The knowledge to be 
 acquired is real as opposed to formal, and from the 
 first step to the last of the process of acquisition, 
 reality is the principal consideration. The first notions 
 of Geography must not be given from a map, which 
 is only the representation of a reality, and, from the 
 necessity of the case, a singularly bad one, but from 
 the solid earth itself. The schoolroom and the parish 
 constitute the microcosm in which all geography is 
 visible, and are for the child the measure of the world. 
 In this, above all subjects, the teacher ought to start 
 conversationally from the point which the child has 
 himself unconsciously attained and from his circum- 
 scribed point of view. Indeed, this is one essential fact 
 in the art of educating, that a child or man can 
 know a thing only in so far as the knowledge is a liv- 
 ing growth out of what is already known. A learner 
 may stock his memory to any extent with propo- 
 sitions disjointed, or even logically connected, but 
 they can be to him nothing save a memory exercise, 
 unless they have been successfully grafted into the 
 main stock ; for education is an organic, not a 
 mechanical process. The first lesson in Geography 
 accordingly ought to be an analysis of the general and 
 vague notion which the child has of his own parish. 
 Its plains, hills, streams, its arable and pastoral soil, its 
 mines, quarries, manufactures, if it have them, furnish 
 an epitome of the whole round of industrial geography. 
 
GEOGRAPHY, AND THE METHOD OF TEACHING IT. 109 
 
 It would be melancholy, were it not amusing, to see a 
 teacher labouring, with the help of a text- book and 
 a map, to convey to the child the notion of a lake, a 
 river, a gulf, and an island, when these are all to be 
 seen outside the school-door, if not in good weather, at 
 least in bad : just as I have seen a teacher striving 
 drowsily to make a class of fifteen understand the mor- 
 phology of a plant as explained by some unskilful hand 
 in the reading-lesson, careless and unconscious of the 
 convolvulus and fuchsia bending through the open 
 window into the room. 
 
 An analysis of the parish and instruction in the 
 cardinal points, the children making their own obser- 
 vations at noon, leads to the drawing of a rude map 
 of the parish on the black-board, to be afterwards 
 delightedly copied on the slates. 
 
 This done, the neighbouring parishes and the county 
 lead by easy steps to the general (quite general) in- 
 dustrial geography of Britain. 
 
 The pupil is now to be told that big as Britain is 
 to him, it is a mere corner of the earth. His imagi- 
 nation will expand until he begins to have some 
 notion of the magnitude of the earth in which he 
 lives, and of the multitude of its people. 
 
 A globe should then be set before him, the round- 
 ness of the planet taught, if not explained, and the 
 ten great divisions of land and water, and their re- 
 lative positions thoroughly acquired. 
 
 A wall-map of the world may then for the first time 
 be unfolded, and the leading countries in the different 
 quarters of the globe, a few of the principal mountain 
 
110 REPORT ON EDUCATION." 
 
 ranges and towns, and the staple industry of each 
 country, with the name of the inhabitants, taught. 
 
 Then should follow an inquiry into the causes 
 which determine the localization of the different in- 
 dustries, an exposition of the interdependence of 
 nations, and much time should be spent over imagi- 
 nary travelling with merchant-ships from one port to 
 another. If Geography be not pushed into undue 
 prominence in the school-work, I see in what I 
 have sketched at least two and a half years' work. 
 
 Lastly should follow a more minute account of 
 Britain and its industrial relation to other nations, 
 especially to its own Colonies. 1 The practice of occa- 
 sional map-drawing on the slate, however rude (for it 
 is the attempt not the success that teaches), should 
 accompany these instructions as an auxiliary to the 
 general method. Thus every step of the process to- 
 wards the limited and practical end of geographical 
 teaching is itself thoroughly practical, and the map 
 does not divert too much the attention of the pupil 
 from that which it badly represents, or subvert the 
 sense of the reality and substance of the things and 
 places about which he learns. 2 
 
 To sum up, with reference to much of the ground 
 traversed in this Keport, I would succinctly say, The 
 
 1 The particular geography of Palestine should be taught in connexion 
 with Bible reading. 
 
 2 The best way of testing the practical, and therefore the educative 
 character of geographical teaching, is to take the Times' advertisements of 
 sailings, and make the pupils follow the vessels to their destination, and 
 explain why it is that they go to these places. 
 
ON DRAWING. Ill 
 
 pin-pose of teaching Keading is to give the pupil the 
 power of reading intelligently and intelligibly, and 
 the right method may be signalized as the Educative 
 method : the purpose of school Arithmetic is Economic, 
 and the method the Natural or Concrete method : 
 the purpose of Geographical teaching is Industrial 
 Geography, and the method is the Real method. 
 
 ON DRAWING. 
 
 Drawing, in the elementary school, means, or ought 
 to mean, the art of representing, from the round, 
 common objects in outline. If the subject be kept in 
 proper subordination, more than this is unattainable, 
 save by the few pupils who, having a natural talent 
 for form, prosecute the art for their own pleasure as 
 well as possible profit. All such exhibitions of special 
 inborn talent it is the teacher's duty to encourage, 
 taking care, however, that he does not allow his satis- 
 faction in the few to moderate his anxiety for the 
 many. There is no artistic training in school-drawing, 
 as above defined. That is possible only through the 
 imitation of beautiful forms, which, moreover, are imi- 
 tated because they are beautiful. To this a few may, 
 in peculiarly favourable circumstances, almost reach ; 
 but all attempts to introduce drawing into elementary 
 schools, on the aesthetic footing, have been and will 
 be futile, except under peculiarly favourable circum- 
 stances. The limitations under which the teacher 
 
112 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 works, and the exigencies of the time-table, settle this 
 point beyond all question. Art, as such, can find 
 a place only by superseding some more important 
 subject ; and even then, it will generally cease to be 
 art-training before it finds its way out of the fingers of 
 the pupils. To draw on the slate mathematical figures, 
 cups and saucers, then maps, and chairs and tables, 
 and finally, and above all, leaves and flowers, this 
 sums up all that can be accomplished in the elemen- 
 tary school. This amount of instruction in drawing 
 may always be attempted by a teacher possessing 
 such rare powers of organization as to extract out 
 of the lighter subjects of instruction relaxation for 
 the pupil, thereby ultimately saving time, while bring- 
 ing into play a new disciplinary agent. And a discip- 
 linary agent of no mean significance Drawing is. For 
 all our observation from infancy upwards is a continual 
 process of outlining an object or part of an object from 
 other objects or parts. The greater or less success 
 with which this is done, indicates the greater or less 
 accuracy of the observing powers, though not neces- 
 sarily their activity. To bring these powers out into 
 a more conscious exercise by encouraging attempts to 
 reproduce external forms as outlined by the eye, is 
 manifestly an exercise tending powerfully to cultivate 
 clearness, precision, and truth of intellect. 
 
 The nature of the discipline which drawing affords 
 fixes the time of its introduction into the school-work. 
 It belongs to the infant and initiatory classes mainly, 
 and only partially to the more advanced classes. 
 Self-evident as this is, masters continually invert 
 
(>N THE HIGHER INTELLECTUAL INSTRUCTION. 113 
 
 the order of its appearance on the school stage, ami 
 tiv;it it as an "accomplishment," 
 
 Whether the teacher be able to introduce this im- 
 portant discipline into his school or not, he himself is 
 eeituinly only half equipped for his task as an examiner 
 and illustrator of lessons, if he has not the power of 
 appealing to the understanding through the eye when- 
 ever the nature of the lesson makes this desirable. 
 
 THE HIGHER INTELLECTUAL INSTRUCTION OF THE 
 PAROCHIAL SCHOOL. 
 
 Advanced Reading Analysis of Sentences Advanced Writing or Conipositioii 
 Method of teaching Grammar and Composition. 
 
 The course of instruction and discipline sketched 
 in the preceding chapters, affords full occupation for 
 five or six years of school life, when we take into 
 consideration the irregularity of attendance which is 
 COD, stan tly interfering with the teacher's plans, and 
 making the application of methods occasional and dis- 
 jointed instead of continuous and consecutive. Where 
 pupils remain to eleven years of age and upwards, the 
 teacher may fairly extend the means of education, and 
 bring fresh materials to his aid in giving effect to the 
 ideal purpose of the school. The schools among which 
 the Bequest of Mr. Dick is distributed belong to 
 this higher class, and it is, moreover, part of the legal 
 duty of the Trustees to apply that Bequest towards 
 the special encouragement of the higher branches of 
 
 H 
 
114 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 instruction in the school, as well as of superior liter- 
 ary and scientific acquirement in the teachers. The 
 means adopted for securing the latter object, and the 
 extent to which the former is actually attained, will 
 appear in the second part of this Eeport. My busi- 
 ness now is to bring within the range of the general 
 school-method those subjects which I consider to be 
 properly "advanced." 
 
 It scarcely requires to be premised that a longer 
 than the average attendance at school will first of 
 all be taken advantage of by the schoolmaster for 
 the confirming and further extending of the ele- 
 mentary subjects, and more especially of Beading, 
 Writing, and Arithmetic in their larger sense. It 
 is not necessary to insist with equal emphasis on 
 the extension of subsidiary subjects, because at this 
 particular stage their relative importance to the ma- 
 gistral subjects seems to lessen rather than to in- 
 crease. If the teacher, in hastening to make the 
 best use of the additional time allowed to him, fol- 
 low the principles which have guided him in the 
 earlier years of the pupil's education, he will throw 
 his weight mainly on the legitimate and natural ex- 
 tension of the three essential subjects of the paro- 
 chial school, not forgetting, of course, the always 
 pre-eminent claims of direct moral and religious 
 
 training. 
 
 The extension of the Beading means the perusal of 
 more difficult lessons than any yet attempted, varied 
 
HIGHER INSTRUCTION : ADVANCED READING. 115 
 
 in the subjects of which they treat, and giving stronger 
 food both to the intellect and the imagination of the 
 pupil. Through these advanced lessons the boy will 
 begin to make acquaintance with the untechnical, but 
 scientific, treatment of the objects by which he is sur- 
 rounded, and which hitherto have been handled in his 
 reading- books more from the point of view of obser- 
 vation and experience than of law, cause, and effect. 
 Extracts from prose and poetical literature will, even 
 when only partially understood, call on his under- 
 standing and imagination to make a wholesome effort 
 to master them, while they furnish him insensibly with 
 a standard of thought and of the life of the mind 
 which will never be quite effaced. As the language 
 of a man is generally a fair measure of his intellectual 
 cultivation, so the power fully to comprehend what 
 he says or writes is a test of the recipient capacity 
 of the person whom he addresses. The effort to un- 
 derstand a difficult lesson accordingly is an effort to 
 take a step forward in intellectual life. 
 
 In every stage of his reading, the pupil has of 
 course been taught to understand the words and 
 thoughts presented to him. This is essential to the 
 intelligence of the reading, as well as to its intelligi- 
 bility. The same process is continued in the more 
 difficult reading which he now encounters ; but it 
 will be desirable, if not necessary, in order fully to 
 evolve the meaning of complex sentences, especially 
 in poetry, to study them in detail, and separate them 
 into their various limbs. Thus to show the mutual 
 
116 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 bearing of the clauses on each other, and on the 
 principal clause, is to analyse in the grammatical 
 sense. Heading in this, its advanced stage, is edu- 
 cative no longer solely through the contents of the 
 lessons which are read, but also as being a formal 
 discipline in the organism of language. It is true that 
 the mere perusal, if intelligent, of any composition in 
 prose or poetry brings with it, even in the most initia- 
 tory stages, a formal discipline of intellect, apart from 
 the real discipline given by the subject-matter. The 
 intellectual process by which a thought is elaborated 
 into its linguistic form is revealed in the utter- 
 ance of it, and it is therefore impossible for a child 
 or man to understand the latter without an uncon- 
 scious participation in the conceptions and reason- 
 ings of the mind which gave the thought expression. 1 
 Intelligent reading is thus itself a formal discipline 
 of intellect. But in an advanced class this uncon- 
 scious discipline becomes supplemented by the con- 
 scious evolution of the organic structure of language. 
 This process, which is called Sentence-Analysis, or 
 advanced Grammar, is a kind of applied logic, and 
 as an intellectual discipline takes that precedence 
 over every other which language takes over science. 
 
 Thus we find that advanced Reading seems natu- 
 rally to call to its aid the study of Grammar and 
 
 1 This fact shows the importance of putting before the child pure 
 and well-constructed sentences. The lessons in many of the most popular 
 reading-books are not even grammatically written. The standard of 
 English in school-books, above all other publications, should be high. 
 
HIGHER INSTRUCTION : ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 117 
 
 Analysis. Unfortunately, this discipline in the analysis 
 of language is very apt to degenerate into a hunting 
 after shadowy distinctions, and into a fanciful appli- 
 cation of abstract technicalities. Every subject of 
 the school curriculum, however, is equally liable 
 to abuse, and the remedy is to be found only in 
 the steady contemplation of the special purpose of 
 each study. The discipline which grammatical ana- 
 lysis is intended to give, accordingly, will be de- 
 feated, and the whole subject will run to waste if the 
 teacher lose sight of its object, which is twofold 
 (1.) The facilitating of the understanding of complex 
 language, with a view to secure to the higher read- 
 ing its full disciplinary effect. (2.) The giving of 
 greater precision and accuracy to the thought and 
 expression of the pupil himself in composition exer- 
 cises, oral and written. If these two eminently prac- 
 tical objects be kept constantly in view, the teacher 
 will not deviate far from the right track. In giving 
 effect to the former purpose, he will certainly find 
 his progress hampered and complicated if he mul- 
 tiplies terms, and if, by insisting too much on tech- 
 nicalities, he disturbs the usual vocabulary -of gram- 
 mar. Analysis is to be admitted into the school 
 only on the plea that it is grammar. Should the 
 teacher find that it fails to deepen and extend sound 
 grammatical knowledge in the pupil, he may be 
 assured that he is pursuing a false method, and 
 giving undue prominence to trivial subdivisions and a 
 technical terminology. In giving effect to the latter 
 
118 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 purpose, he will not deviate far from the right path 
 if he decline to follow analysis into distinctions which 
 cannot be readily applied in the synthesis of com- 
 position. 
 
 In teaching Analysis, a master is apt to be be- 
 trayed by the charm of pseudo-science, with which 
 technicalities invest a subject, into inverting the 
 proper order of things. He forgets that the boy 
 can analyse only in so far as he distinguishes the 
 main proposition of the sentence, and apprehends the 
 meaning of the various limbs in relation to it and to 
 each other. The understanding of a sentence is a 
 necessary and first condition of its analysis, and the 
 analysis of it again gives greater completeness to the 
 understanding. To comprehend a sentence is in fact 
 to comprehend the living connexion of all its parts, 
 and is itself an act of unconscious analysis. The 
 object of conscious analysis is to bring out more dis- 
 tinctly the parts of the organism, to name them, and 
 thereby to give the mind greater acuteness and ca- 
 pacity for the comprehension of difficult language 
 generally. To comprehend and to analyse are essen- 
 tially only two different sides of the same grammatical 
 effort. They act and react on each other. So oblivious 
 are teachers apt to become of the real practical sig- 
 nificance and purpose of the subjects which they 
 teach, that it is necessary thus to impress on them 
 that it is only on the full comprehension of the 
 sentence that sound grammatical teaching or know- 
 ledge can possibly rest. 
 
HIGHER INSTRUCTION : ADVANCED WRITING. 119 
 
 So much for the intimate connexion of advanced 
 reading with grammatical analysis, and the extent 
 to which the latter can find a place in the parochial 
 school. 
 
 It is true that it is quite possible, with the help 
 of Logic and Latin, to give a minute grammatical 
 account of every separate word and element of the 
 longest sentence, in its relation to the organic whole 
 of which it forma a part ; but this is an exercise 
 to be attempted only by boys of fourteen or fifteen 
 years of age, after the practical purposes of the 
 study have been substantially attained, and when 
 they begin to follow out the subject as a pure exer- 
 cise of grammatical and logical ingenuity. In this 
 sense, therefore, analysis of sentences belongs to a 
 stage of education with which I have, in this Eeport, 
 nothing to do, and enters into competition with 
 studies, instructive and disciplinary, among which 
 it will, no doubt, soon find its proper level. 
 
 By advanced Writing, to which the teacher will at 
 the same time direct his efforts, is to be understood 
 the power of writing, in accurate English, letters and 
 narratives ; in other words, Elementary Composition. 
 By Composition is meant the reproduction, in the 
 pupil's own words, of the lessons which he reads, and 
 also precis- writing. It is at once manifest that only 
 by the help of grammatical analysis can this subject 
 be efficiently taught. Analysis enables the learner to 
 recognise the elements of a sentence, and to detect his 
 
120 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 errors of construction.- It is fortunate that the spe- 
 cialties of advanced study in the primary school- 
 Grammatical Analysis, and the opposite process, Com- 
 position contribute directly to the completion of 
 the two most important of the magistral subjects, 
 and that their mutual helpfulness renders it possible 
 to prosecute both concurrently. 
 
 Method. The nature and aim of Grammar, as a 
 discipline and an acquirement, contain implicitly 
 the method of teaching it. A few explicit words 
 on the steps of the process, however, will not be 
 superfluous. 
 
 Grammar is of little utility in the school, I have 
 said, except in so far as it is approached from the syn- 
 tactical point of view, with distinct reference to the 
 ultimate objects, sentence-analysis and sentence-con 
 struction. The whole of grammar, accordingly, starts 
 from the idea of the simple sentence subject and 
 predicate. Until the child is able to comprehend 
 this, he can make little real progress in grammar. 
 Copying from his lesson-book, reading, the habit of 
 accurate speaking when answering questions, and 
 dictation exercises, will meanwhile accustom his eye 
 and ear and tongue to the difference between gram- 
 matical and ungrammatical expression. He will not 
 be allowed to trespass beyond the limits of this 
 imitative grammar into the field of analysis, until 
 he is able to understand and apply the fundamental 
 proposition of the whole science (if so it may be 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. 121 
 
 called), namely, " a simple thought as well as its cor- 
 responding proposition consists of a subject and a 
 predicate." The predicates, which require an object 
 for their completion, will be easily learned, and, with 
 this, the opposition of subject and object, the fact of 
 the subjective or nominative case, the agreement of 
 the nominative and verb, and the government of the 
 objective case by transitive predicates. This method 
 is further justified by the fact that the analysis of 
 the simple proposition lays the basis of Composition 
 as well as of Grammar, and that it involves an 
 amount of grammatical knowledge far exceeding 
 what is usually attained in the whole present course 
 of grammatical instruction in primary schools. 
 
 In taking this first and all-important step, the 
 knowledge of the noun and verb, and of number, is 
 inevitably acquired. A slight extension of the ele- 
 ments of the sentence, for example, the extension of 
 " The dog eats his dinner" into "The black dog greedily 
 eats his cold dinner," and so forth, introduces the 
 various parts of speech and the three persons, and 
 thus gives the pupil a knowledge of the classifica- 
 tion of individual words from the point of view of 
 syntax, and of their organic connexion with other 
 words. He sees that it is this or game connexion 
 which determines their names and characters, and 
 begins to comprehend grammar as the formal expo 
 sition of a sentence, and as furnishing the rules of 
 sentence-making. 
 
 Sentence-making, or Composition, will then be begun 
 
122 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 by the exercise of constructing simple sentences out 
 of words supplied to the pupil ; an exercise very 
 valuable in its relations to grammar, because it fur- 
 nishes constantly recurring examples of the right and 
 wrong in speech and writing. This initiatory exer- 
 cise having been sufficiently practised, the pupil can- 
 not afford to ring many changes on the technicalities 
 and ingenuities of sentence-building, but must plunge 
 at once into the writing of short accounts of what he 
 has seen or read or heard. The teacher will read to 
 his pupils an anecdote or biography, or it may be 
 the description of a country, an animal, or a mechani- 
 cal process, and call on them to reproduce it gram- 
 matically on their slates in their own words. This 
 exercise in precis- writing having been corrected, will 
 be produced again on paper as a home exercise. 
 Steady practice of the kind thus briefly indicated 
 will, in a wonderfully short space of time, secure 
 (as they have secured in a large number of the 
 schools in the north) results which will astonish 
 those who have never had experience of the capa- 
 city of boys in this direction when their intelligence 
 has been already cultivated by means of sufficiently 
 various, instructive, and disciplinary matter in the 
 course of their reading-lessons, and when they have 
 overcome those obstacles of writing and spelling which 
 properly belong to an earlier period of school work. 
 
IIKJHER INSTRUCTION HISTORY. 123 
 
 History. 
 
 To the young man whose mind is already discip- 
 lined by severe scholastic pursuits, no subject will 
 so readily yield all the elements of moral culture 
 as History. To the schoolboy, on the other hand, it 
 is of value only in so far as it brings to his knowledge 
 wonderful deeds done in the discharge of patriotism 
 and duty. In all other respects it is utterly barren 
 of good results, and involves a futile expenditure of 
 valuable school time. A dim outline of royal genea- 
 logies, of dates, the intervals of which are full of 
 plottings and counterplottings, and of facts which 
 however capable of interpretation by the matured 
 capacity, are, to the raw experience of the child or the 
 boy, little more than an exhibition of the worst 
 passions that afflict humanity, and all these epito- 
 mized into small compass, and only partially and 
 fragmentarily acquired such is school history. It 
 seems to me, therefore, that the reading of History in 
 the parochial school is little better than an abuse of 
 time. And when we further consider that this sub- 
 ject, so fruitless of good results, obtrudes itself into a 
 region which ought to be sacred to the varied culture, 
 literary and scientific, to which exercise in advanced 
 reading and writing ought to be made subservient, 
 it cannot be too much discouraged. The thing 
 chiefly to be regretted is that teachers, otherwise 
 
124 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 intelligent and earnest in the discharge of their duty, 
 should be led astray by the mere semblance of 
 solid instruction which is yielded by bald historical 
 records. 
 
 The proper place of History in the parochial school 
 is in the school library. The children will require 
 little encouragement to read it if it be written in a 
 style to suit their age, and they will always welcome 
 gladly a public reading of the narrative of some great 
 event by the master himself, as an occasional reward 
 of good conduct, or as a relief from the tedium of 
 the day's routine. 
 
 Latin and Greek. (Middle Schools.) Language 
 versus Science. 
 
 There is always a certain proportion of the boys in 
 attendance at the parochial schools in the three north- 
 eastern counties, who, being the sons of small farmers, 
 tradesmen, or ministers, may be expected to remain at 
 school to the ages of fourteen, fifteen, or even sixteen 
 years. 1 The proportion, about seven per cent, on the 
 average, is sufficiently large to make it incumbent 
 on the teacher to provide a training which does not 
 fall within the proper range of advanced primary 
 instruction, but rather of Middle-school work. The 
 
 1 In some cases boys of seventeen, eighteen, and nineteen years of age 
 are met with. 
 
LATIN AND GREEK. 125 
 
 Scotch parochial school being thus called upon to dis- 
 d large the function of a Middle or Grammar school, 
 the teacher and managers have to determine what 
 direction they shall give to the higher instruction. 
 They have, in fact, the same question to solve, the 
 solution of which in favour of the ancient classics in 
 the middle and public schools of England has now 
 been for forty years made matter of question, and at 
 this moment may be even said to be under recon- 
 sideration by the supreme civil authority. 
 
 In discussing this subject the disputants on both 
 sides have regarded it too much as a school ques- 
 tion. It is essentially an University question ; and 
 no district of Great Britain so forcibly illustrates 
 this as the counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray. 
 That kind of discipline which we conclude to be the 
 best for the undergraduate and for the future work 
 of law-making, law-administration, the church, philo- 
 sophy, and the higher walks of the medical profession, 
 must, of course, find full recognition in the middle 
 school, whose chief business it is to prepare boys for 
 the university. By thus transferring the question from 
 the middle to the higher education, we narrow and 
 simplify the issue, and reduce it ultimately to a 
 question of the intellectual benefits derivable from a 
 knowledge of man as compared with those to be 
 derived from a knowledge of external nature. To 
 state the question as a training in the knowledge 
 of the lifeless signs of speech and their relations, 
 versus a, training in a knowledge of living Nature 
 
126 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 and its manifold operations, is to misunderstand the 
 real point at issue. In the university, and in the 
 upper classes of the middle school, the dispute is not 
 between the claims of Formal and of Keal studies. 
 Both studies present the realities of knowledge to the 
 mind of the student the one the realities of Man's 
 nature, the other the realities of external Nature. 
 Again, both Greek and physics exercise and dis- 
 cipline the formal powers of intellect, and both admit 
 the student to an unconscious knowledge of the 
 operation and the laws of intelligence. But that the 
 purely Formal discipline of language (where we happen 
 to have a highly developed language to work with), 
 is more delicate and subtle, more deep and thorough, 
 than that of physics, I shall endeavour to show when 
 I speak of the claims of linguistic studies with ex- 
 clusive reference to the middle school, presuming the 
 education of the boy to end there. The further superi- 
 ority of linguistic training over scientific consists in 
 this, that in the former we have the generalizations of 
 the wisest men on human life and human duty ex- 
 pressed in the most artistic forms ; in the latter we 
 have only generalizations on the facts and sequences 
 of the visible world. The realities of moral experi- 
 ence, embodied in forms historical and dramatic, as 
 these are impressed on the acquiring mind by the 
 very effort implied in deciphering a difficult language, 
 are of more value, both in themselves, and as giving 
 solidity and power to the mental fabric, than a know- 
 ledge of the phenomena of heat and electricity. These 
 
LATIN AND GREEK. 127 
 
 moral generalizations of the wise are, in truth, an un- 
 systematic philosophy of human nature, furnishing the 
 learner not only with the experience of the past, but 
 with instruction in the motives and purposes of life. 
 
 To become acquainted with the thoughts and ima- 
 ginations of the past, through the medium of trans- 
 lation or when transfused through modern literatures, 
 is to sacrifice the benefits which we derive from the 
 study of a thought produced in circumstances not 
 only different from, but even in some respects anta- 
 gonistic to our own. It is to sacrifice also the artistic 
 forms in which the thoughts are clothed forms which 
 are the most perfect in literature, and which the struc- 
 ture of the ancient languages forces even upon the 
 negligent student. The peculiar value of the aesthe- 
 tics of the intellect and of morality, as distinguished 
 from the aesthetics of feeling and emotion, in promot- 
 ing the discipline and cultivation of mind, and above 
 all the opening mind of youth, has not, so far as I 
 know, been adverted to by writers on Education, 
 though it must have been experienced by all who 
 have had the benefits of a classical training. It is not 
 simply an aesthetic, but also an intellectual and moral 
 cultivation, which flows from close contact with ideal 
 and artistic forms of expression. 
 
 Such results in the growth of mind are, it is true, 
 neither ponderable nor commensurable quantities, but 
 they assuredly tend to produce a quality of mind 
 rarely to be attained in any -other way, save by men 
 of native genius. Bichter has well said, and probably 
 
128 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 without much exaggeration : " The present ranks of 
 humanity would sink irrecoverably if youth did not 
 take its way through the silent temple of the mighty 
 past into the busy market-place of after life." 
 
 To return, however, to what more immediately con- 
 cerns Middle Education : it is necessary to clear away 
 from the field of discussion all illusory imaginations 
 as to the larger proportion of boys who would benefit 
 by a middle -school system, based on real and scien- 
 tific training, as compared with the number which 
 now benefit by the discipline of the classical tongues. 
 Severe mental work, having knowledge or other men 
 tal purposes exclusively in view, is naturally distaste- 
 ful to the great majority of boys. We must not draw 
 too large an inference from the inquisitiveness and 
 love of knowledge which characterize childhood. 
 The recipient stage of the child's life should be gently 
 and wisely dealt with, and this it is the function of 
 the primary school to do. But in the middle school, 
 receptivity has given place in the boy to force, which 
 seeks not to accept impressions but rather to make them. 
 To break in upon the spontaneous and healthy career 
 of this fresh boyish energy with Latin verses or classi- 
 fications of birds and beasts, is, even in the most favour 
 able circumstances, to traverse the natural and genial 
 current of life, and to call for a painful and self- 
 sacrificing exertion of will. Most boys will be found 
 to make this exertion, when they do make it, not from 
 love of the work itself, but from the moral considera- 
 tions of respect for authority, of personal attachment, 
 
LATIN AND GREEK. 129 
 
 or a sense of duty. And of this we may be sure, that 
 when inborn stupidity and rampant boyism have 
 claimed their own, the residue of real intellectual 
 workers, where there is no external motive to intel- 
 lectual exertion, will always be found numerically 
 disappointing. Nor will the substitution of Pneu- 
 matics, Physiology, or Chemistry, for Latin and 
 Greek, draw out a larger amount of talent, or show 
 better on the reckoning-day, when stock is taken 
 of the quantity and quality of available knowledge 
 and discipline really acquired. That by means of 
 better books, and of methods based on a knowiedge 
 of human nature, a larger proportion of boys might 
 be drawn within the circle of school-work is unde- 
 niable ; but this points to the improvement of exist- 
 ing practice, not to the subversion of the existing 
 system. 
 
 There are only two valid objections to the pre- 
 valent practice : (1.) The almost entire exclusion 
 from middle schools of elementary physics, which, 
 if properly taught, can be made attractive as well 
 as instructive, promoting rather than retarding the 
 magistral classical studies. (2.) The non-provision 
 of a course of study for those pupils who do not 
 contemplate a university career, and who, though 
 repelled by linguistic studies, might possibly be 
 reached by those consecutive and methodical accounts 
 of the external world which we call Science. If the 
 study of Latin and Greek, as the leading subjects of 
 middle school work, renders once for all inevitable the 
 
 I 
 
130 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 total exclusion of all instruction regarding external 
 nature and economic science, the cause of the classi- 
 cists is, by the admission of this necessity, irretrievably 
 weakened. As a matter of fact, however, there is 
 no difficulty in prosecuting the study of the ancient 
 languages concurrently with those subjects which 
 every educated man may be reasonably expected to 
 know in their general principles and purport. This 
 amount of (so-called) realistic scientific knowledge 
 is easy of attainment in middle schools, and as im- 
 perative as it is easy. Nor would any northern 
 schoolmaster have a moment's hesitation on the sub- 
 ject. Such subjects as Natural History can be suc- 
 cessfully treated only as diversions or recreations. 
 
 It is only after we have assumed a certain amount 
 of realistic and scientific instruction to be given in 
 grammar and public schools that we properly approach 
 the question of Language versus Science as an educa- 
 tive instrument ; and the question then becomes 
 this : Is formal science, as such, or the classical 
 tongues, when taught with average ability (for it is 
 only on a mediocre teaching capacity that we ever 
 can safely rely in estimating the value of subjects 
 of instruction), more prqmotive of the ultimate end 
 of the secondary school the formation of those good 
 intellectual and moral habits which we call, in the 
 larger sense of the words, good Character ? As the 
 way in which this question is viewed has a powerful 
 retrospective effect on the whole significance, method, 
 and tendency of primary education, and as, more- 
 
LANGUAGE versus SCIENCE. 131 
 
 over, the parochial schools of the north discharge the 
 function of "grammar schools," it may not be irre- 
 levant to the purpose of this Report to try to state, 
 in as few words as possible, the special and indepen- 
 dent claims of Language to the prominent position 
 which it has so long held. 
 
 As an intellectual discipline Language makes good 
 its claim to preference on the following among other 
 grounds : 
 
 (l.) Words stand for things real or notional. Now 
 it is only in so far as words denote the objects of 
 external perception, that a training based on science 
 can be said to have the advantage over linguistic. Ever* 
 in this case, however, language is defined for the pupil 
 only within the narrow limits of the department, oj 
 fragment of departments, which it is possible within &. 
 given time to teach, whereas linguistic training, by 
 teaching the value of words, as such, to whatever de- 
 partment of human knowledge they may belong, 
 educates the intellect to precision in the use of them 
 generally. So true is this, that men trained only to 
 a special department of science, but whose education 
 is limited by it, fail to use the language even of their 
 own department with that accuracy and consistency 
 of signification, which would alone satisfy a mind 
 trained on language or philosophy. In the only 
 sense, then, in which physical science, to the extent 
 to which it can be taught to boys, can affect _to do 
 the work of linguistic training, it does not succeed. 
 
132 KEPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 Even if it succeeded, how small the ground it would 
 cover ! The language of a single department of 
 science or fragments of a few sciences, which, because 
 of their fragmentary nature, fail to yield discipline, 
 would represent the whole range of the vocabulary 
 taught. All those words which are daily in our 
 mouths, as denoting the realities which are constantly 
 influencing our lives in our social and moral relations, 
 would be left outside the range of the scientific teach- 
 ing. It would be superfluous here to dwell either on 
 the pre-eminent importance of this aspect of man's daily 
 existence, or on the immense value of a right under- 
 standing of words, and a wise use of them. Every 
 successive inquirer into human nature has descanted 
 on the error, misunderstanding, and consequent misery, 
 into which an abuse of words is constantly betraying 
 mankind. It seems to me that if a linguistic training 
 had no other result than to teach us that words were 
 our servants and not our masters, and that we must 
 question, define, weigh, and estimate them, it would 
 require little other defence of its claim to the tradi- 
 tionary prominence in the middle school which it 
 inherits. 
 
 (2.) When we pass from the consideration of the 
 discipline of language in teaching us the exact use of 
 single terms, to the employment of these in the expres- 
 sion of our thoughts under the necessary operation of 
 mental laws, we find in language a just, though imper- 
 fect, reflection of intellectual processes. In this view 
 the study of language is the informal study of the 
 
LANGUAGE VerSUS SCIENCE. 133 
 
 laws of thought. We may assume that few will be 
 prepared to require from boys that reflective grasp of 
 intellectual laws, that effort after a conscious realiza- 
 tion of abstract processes which is implied in any study 
 of logic or psychology worthy of the name. At the 
 same time, all will recognise the paramount import- 
 ance of exercising the formal powers of mind, and by 
 a careful method giving practice in the art, while 
 avoiding the scientific terminology and formulae, of 
 logic. Now, it is precisely in this relation that the 
 distinctive characteristic of language-training reveals 
 itself. For language being the body of thought, the 
 student of it is studying concrete mind. While deal- 
 ing with objective things with vocables, which are 
 audible and visible, and which, therefore, do not 
 evade his grasp, he is at the same time unconsciously 
 tracing the operations of intellect in others, and learn- 
 ing the right use of his own faculties ; in other 
 words, he is a student of logic, in the widest sense 
 of that term, without being aware of it. 
 
 Nor is this position a vague affirmation ; it is cap 
 able of illustration in detail. 
 
 In the first place, the similarity of inflection in the 
 simple sentence leads the pupil to the clear perception 
 of the concord and partial identity in thought of sub- 
 ject and attribute, whether the attributive appears as 
 an adjective or as a predicative verb. The distinct 
 forms by which inflected languages indicate this men- 
 tal concord, must necessarily give the pupil a clearer 
 notion of what a judgment and an affirmation really 
 
134 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 are. I do not here speak of the use which might be 
 made of this part of linguistic discipline by a teacher 
 who was himself conscious of the course of logic which 
 his instructions in language were scarcely veiling, but 
 of the inevitable discipline which the average boy 
 receives from the average teacher. And it is not only 
 in simple sentences that the pupil is thus exercised in 
 the concord of thought as expressed in attribution, 
 but he is also led by the help of the same mutual good 
 understanding among the inflections to trace a con- 
 nexion between clauses, and to detect the fact that 
 complete assertions, no less than individual words, 
 may be attributive of each other. The tracing out 
 and perception of this unity of thought between 
 affirmations is a valuable intellectual exercise. 
 
 I pass over the clearness which must be given to 
 the pupil's perception of time and of government by 
 the resembling, yet differing, terminations of verbs 
 and nouns, to point out the training in syllogistic 
 logic which he necessarily receives when he enters on 
 the analysis of an involved complex sentence. The 
 varying inflections of the words before him neces- 
 sarily lead him to the discrimination of an assertion 
 from its grounds, and an act from its causes, motives, 
 or purposes. The forms set apart to denote these 
 qualities of propositions compel his attention, detain 
 it, and thus fix the distinctions in his mind. Again, 
 those qualities of propositions which we express 
 by the words hypothesis and probability, and even 
 so flue a distinction as that between probability and 
 
LANGUAGE VCTSUS SCIENCE. 135 
 
 possibility, are forced upon the understanding of the 
 learner, however unconscious the teacher may be of 
 the full meaning and value of the instrument he is 
 using, and however ignorant the pupil of the generali- 
 zations of propositions and the names by which these 
 generalizations are known. What higher discipline of 
 intellect can be proposed for a boy whom we desire 
 to discipline severely, but whose self-consciousness we 
 do not yet wish to draw, or to force, into activity, 
 than to lay before him a mass of words, apparently 
 dead and disjointed signs, and to require that, from 
 a steady consideration of these, the living organism of 
 speech shall be built up an organism into which all 
 the formal elements of intellect run, and which calls 
 for the discrimination, not only of the various rela- 
 tions in thought of the propositions before him, but 
 of the precise force of many and various vocables, 
 possessing it may be a wide and various connota- 
 tion ? 
 
 (3.) To the reply that the intellectual discipline 
 of which we speak can be equally well obtained from 
 subjects more immediately useful than Latin or Greek, 
 such as Natural History or Physics, two objections 
 present themselves : 
 
 The instruction of boys, in all subjects in which the 
 material (as opposed to the formal) is, from the 
 nature of the case, of primary importance, is neces- 
 sarily dogmatic. Even the statement of principles 
 is received by the pupils as dogma : to suppose any 
 thing else is to deceive ourselves. Though they may 
 
136 KKPOKT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 be occasionally startled into the conscious perception 
 of rational relations under the influence of a teacher 
 of original mind, they do not and can not in any 
 adequate or appreciable sense realize the reasoning- 
 process by which scientific conclusions are reached. 
 Hence, while in the study of Natural Philosophy, or 
 any branch of it, they are taught not only facts, but 
 classifications, laws, and causes in relation to their 
 effects, these are not, and in almost all cases can 
 not be, elaborated by the pupil himself. The teach- 
 ing of them, accordingly, degenerates into a state- 
 ment of fact, and the learning of them into an act 
 of memory. It is to be at once conceded, that were 
 pupils led by an intelligent and rarely endowed 
 master in an inquiry into nature, with a view to 
 re establish, for himself, results already known, a 
 training would be given by this means unequalled 
 as a discipline; but such a method of instruction is 
 on a large scale quite impracticable, and, even if 
 practicable, it would be premature in its demands on 
 the pupil's powers. Those educationists who are not 
 mere theorists feel the necessity of finding instru- 
 ments which do not make mannikins of boys, and 
 which can work fairly in the hands of no very 
 cunning workmen. Where Natural Philosophy is that 
 instrument, the method which looks so well in theory 
 must degenerate in actual practice into the most ordi- 
 nary and vulgar cram. Differences, generalizations, 
 laws and causes will not be truly apprehended as 
 such, but will he arranged in the pupil's mind by 
 
LANGUAGE Vei'SUS SCIENCE. 137 
 
 virtue of association alone, however glibly they may 
 be enunciated at call in their proper places and 
 sequences. It is only the select few, even of those 
 who fairly master the subject taught, that are fully 
 conscious of the reasoning process involved, and do 
 not simply trust to faithful memory and association. 
 
 It is no doubt true that, a few years later, the boy 
 who has been well taught may reflect on the results 
 of that teaching, and in this way these results may 
 fructify into a kind of retrospective discipline ; the 
 relation of cause and effect, differences, likenesses, and 
 the grounds of generalization, may be seen, and the 
 intellectual ends of education be thereby attained. 
 But even the production of this winter fruit assumes 
 particularly good teaching, a good memory, and habits 
 of mind which are naturally more than usually reflec- 
 tive. In Language, on the contrary, the intellectual 
 processes of differentiation, generalization, and reason- 
 ing are not only much more fully, delicately, and 
 variously represented than in Physics, but they have 
 the signal advantage of not being offered to the 
 learner as scientific results which are capable of being 
 tabulated and acquired by the memory as so many 
 co-ordinated facts. On the contrary, they have in 
 every successive sentence to be sought out and 
 brought to light anew, and this as the very condi- 
 tion of making a single progressive step. In every 
 successive sentence the boy has to construct a liv- 
 ing organism out of a seemingly chaotic aggregation 
 of dead symbols, and in the construction of this 
 
138 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 he brings into play all his intellectual faculties 
 whether he will or not. The discipline is thus 
 obtained independently of the teacher, and we might 
 almost say independently of the will of the pupil 
 also. Of no other subject can this be said. The 
 boy either does the work before him or he does not : 
 if he does it, he cannot, if he would, avoid obtaining 
 the discipline which the work affords, whereas in 
 elementary Science, the power of memory facilitates 
 the acquisition of a semblance of knowledge which 
 may pass muster, but which is comparatively use- 
 less as a discipline of any faculties save those of 
 memory and association. 
 
 Accordingly, as in the training to a perception of 
 the force of vocables, so also in the disciplining of 
 the formal and intellectual powers, there seem to be 
 sufficient grounds for maintaining that Science, as 
 it can be alone taught to boys between twelve and 
 sixteen years of age, is a feeble instrument as com- 
 pared with Language. 
 
 The kind of discipline above claimed as the almost 
 exclusive property of Language in the field of second- 
 ary instruction, cannot be obtained through the 
 modern tongues, except in those cases (on which 
 it would be vain to calculate), in which the rare 
 excellence and general philological cultivation of the 
 master supplement the inherent defects of his instru- 
 ments. It is the contrast of the Latin and Greek 
 tongues to our native mode of casting thought, no 
 
LATIN OR GREEK. 139 
 
 less than theft* own perfection of structure, that makes 
 them so valuable as a discipline. The conspicuous 
 device, moreover, whereby, in these tongues, gram- 
 matical, and therefore thought-relations are indicated, 
 reveal even to the careless pupil of the most ordinary 
 teacher the logical structure of Language. The or- 
 ganic character of Thought is thereby more com- 
 pletely exhibited, the relations of its elements more 
 delicately indicated, and the whole riveted more firmly 
 into a compact living body in the classical tongues 
 than in any other. 1 
 
 If limitation of time makes it necessary to choose 
 between Latin and Greek, the former presents para- 
 mount claims to preference. Being the storehouse 
 of a large portion of our own tongue, it yields in 
 quite a peculiar degree an exercise in the history 
 and force of words. And when we add to this 
 the fact that it is the basis of the Komance lan- 
 guages, and smoothes the way to an acquaintance 
 with these, we add the weight of utility to an already 
 adequate ground of preference. Hence, perhaps, the 
 prominence given to Latin over Greek in Scotch 
 education, and its almost universal adoption in the 
 parochial schools of the North, when pupils are likely 
 to remain beyond their twelfth year. 
 
 1 The literary and aesthetic arguments in favour of basing education 
 on the classical tongues do not fall properly within our range here : they 
 exercise their peculiar influence only after the boy has left the middle 
 school (at least in Scotland). 
 
140 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 On the Method of Teaching Latin and Greek. 
 
 It is not necessary to enter into any detailed state- 
 ment of the method of teaching Latin and Greek 
 in schools, because the method employed is gene- 
 rally unobjectionable. The errors made in teaching 
 the ancient languages have been in the past caused by 
 the defects of the school-books used rather than by 
 the deficiencies of the masters. Except in a few 
 schools where the inveteracy of habit and tradition 
 obscures the common sense of the masters, we do not 
 find boys of eight or nine required to learn rules before 
 they have an opportunity of applying them, or initiated 
 in translation by means of sentences the moral pur- 
 port of which even the experience of the teachers can 
 barely interpret. It is admitted on every side that 
 the learning of rules and the practice of them should 
 begin concurrently ; in other words, that the boy 
 should see in a concrete form what he is expected 
 to remember as an abstract and generalized statement. 
 It is also admitted that the subject-matter of the 
 earlier years of classical instruction should be adapted 
 as much as possible to the capacity of the learner. To 
 attain these two objects, good school-books are mani- 
 festly indispensable, and they are now, thanks in 
 the first instance to German scholars, amply pro- 
 vided. The facts of inflection and of syntax are 
 worked into the boy gradually by means of easy 
 sentences, sentences easy not only in- their structure 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING LATIN AND GREEK. 141 
 
 but also in their signification. Familiar Latin nar- 
 rative leads up to Caesar, Livy, and Virgil, and the 
 path of the boy is as much smoothed as it admits 
 of being, or as it is desirable that it should be. 
 Exercises in Latin and Greek composition, graduated 
 on a similar principle, lead to a, much more general 
 practice of this exercise than used to be found any- 
 where in Scotland, save in the schools of the district 
 which benefit by the Dick Bequest, where the pro- 
 minence it receives perhaps diverts the attention 
 too much from the more important exercise of trans- 
 lation into English. 
 
 The methods which ought to be employed in teach- 
 ing the higher classics do not concern us here. But 
 it is not travelling beyond the proper limits of this 
 Eeport to advert to that mode of teaching the elements 
 of Latin and Greek which carries the rational method 
 to excess. Memory and rules must, it seems to 
 me, in the initiatory and juvenile stages of ac- 
 quiring a foreign tongue, take precedence of reason 
 and reasoning. It does not follow that rules are to 
 supersede intelligence, or that intelligence should ever 
 be absent from any part of the process of learning 
 Latin or any other subject. But the substitution of 
 Comparative Philology for the simple statement and 
 thorough committing to memory of the facts of inflec- 
 tion and the rules of syntax as they stand, is less wise 
 than philosophic. This method rests on a confound- 
 ing of the philosophy of the subject taught with the 
 philosophy of teaching. It involves the immature 
 
142 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 mind in reasoning for dogmatic rules, and of the 
 surprises of the discursive entanglements of the his- 
 tory of words and forms, and, which is worse, in the 
 rational grounds which lie at the basis of syntacti- 
 cal rules. It is, of course, discreditable to the intel- 
 ligent teacher to ignore the advances of Comparative 
 Grammar and to hesitate to re-classify word-inflec- 
 tions on the basis of philological science, or to 
 modify the rules of construction so as to bring them 
 into closer accordance with the laws of General 
 Syntax and of Psychology. This is due to the 
 learner, in order that artificial difficulties may be 
 removed from his path, and that he may at a future 
 period enter on the study of Comparative Philology 
 without having to unlearn much that he has painfully 
 acquired, and being compelled almost to reconstruct 
 his conceptions of Grammar. But to do more than 
 this is an educational blunder. It tends to produce 
 what Goethe speaks of as "a mature judgment in 
 an immature mind." As in general education, so in 
 teaching the special department of Language, our first 
 care should be to avoid over-estimating the intellec- 
 tual capacity of boys and anticipating their growth. 
 An enfeebled brain, with its accompanying poverty 
 of physique, and a pedantic intellect, are not im- 
 probable fruits of mistimed demands on reflective 
 power. 
 
 Nor is it necessary to introduce prematurely into 
 the classical school the " reasons of things." For, as 
 has been already pointed out, one of the great claims, 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING LATIN AND GREEK. 143 
 
 if not the greatest, which Latin and Greek can put 
 forward to be the magistral subjects of secondary 
 education, is this, that they are a means of giving 
 an unconscious discipline to the reasoning powers. 
 But if we substitute the vagueness of analysis for 
 the precision of isolated facts, or linguistic reason- 
 ings for syntactical dogmas, we can do so effec- 
 tually only by causing the boy to contemplate 
 Language as the articulate expression of mind and 
 its processes. Now, to call on a boy to make any 
 such self-analytic effort, whether the subject-matter be 
 Language, Science, Morals, Esthetics, or Keligion, is 
 quite to misunderstand the theory of secondary educa- 
 tion, and to forestall the university. The governing 
 principle of the middle-school, both in the intellectual 
 and moral sphere, is law, as that of the primary school 
 is sympathy, and that of the university is freedom. 
 Kules and the accurate application of rules, laws and 
 the willing obedience to laws, these must dominate 
 in the management of boys. That rules shall be 
 intelligent and capable of intelligent application, that 
 laws shall be wholesome and promotive of moral 
 discipline, sound method demands. That such ob- 
 structions shall be removed as convert labour into 
 a toil for the intelligent, and quite stop the way for 
 the average boy ; and further, that work should be 
 made as attractive as possible, either in itself or by 
 connecting it with pleasing associations, is also de- 
 manded. But if we do more than this, and allow our 
 fervour rather than our judgment to guide us, hasten- 
 
144 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 ing to make the pupil see through the master's eyes, 
 and with the master's grasp of principles, we do him 
 a permanent injury. Minds of finer quality respond 
 freely, but only by bringing into premature activity 
 those powers of reflection on mental operations, and 
 of wide generalization, which it is the exclusive busi- 
 ness of the university to exercise. Minds, again, of 
 ordinary capacity do not admit the poison into their 
 intellects at all, but learn to repeat and produce on 
 demand reasonings just as they do rules, and with the 
 same amount of benefit. There may be exceptional 
 cases among pupils, just as there are among masters 
 men of original powers and rare sympathetic endow- 
 ment ; but, speaking on a priori grounds as well as 
 from the results of experience, we may, as a general 
 rule, depend on this, that teaching which has constant 
 reference to the ultimate reasons of things, and neces- 
 sitates self-analysis in the boy-learner, fosters a crude 
 and premature development, which may have the 
 glitter but which has not the substance of gold. In 
 matters that concern the Intellect, such teaching adds 
 to the bulk at the expense of the organic growth ; 
 in matters that concern Morals, it manufactures either 
 a morbid sentimentalist or an insufferable prig. 
 
 Mathematics. 
 
 In the upper department of the parochial schools of 
 Scotland, Mathematics means Mensuration, Algebra 
 
1 1 1 ( ; 1 1 K U I XSTRUCTION MATHEMATICS. 145 
 
 as far as quadratic equations (this only in the most 
 advanced parochial schools), and a few books of Euclid. 
 The discipline in school-mathematics comes from Geo- 
 metry. The precision of the definitions, the necessity 
 of constantly referring to them, and the purity of the 
 exercise in syllogistic reasoning, are of great benefit 
 to the intellect. But alone, and unsupported by the 
 higher linguistic training, it would be an unsatisfac- 
 tory discipline in even mere syllogistic logic. The 
 subject-matter of the reasoning is confined within 
 too narrow limits, and the landmarks of the ratio- 
 cinative process are too clearly defined to admit of 
 geometry ever affording by itself a liberal culture. 
 Both the subject and the discipline which it gives 
 are alike too monotonous and inflexible. 
 
 The method of initiating boys in geometry has 
 engaged the attention of writers on Education ; but I 
 think they have frequently lost sight of the fact that 
 although in geometry, as in other subjects, there is a 
 light method and a wrong, the age at which boys begin 
 the study makes them less dependent on the method 
 pursued by their teacher. They have already acquired 
 the power of forming and understanding abstract 
 notions. More thoroughness in the teaching of the 
 elements is required rather than new methods. 
 
146 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 We return now to the Parochial School in its gene- 
 ral aspects : 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 Classification Time-Tubles. 
 
 To teach, on the average, four subjects to each of 
 sixty or eighty children, of different ages and of 
 different stages of progress, within five hours, is a 
 task which, at the first glance, seems to be almost 
 impracticable and is always difficult. It is neces- 
 sary to devise expedients for overcoming the diffi- 
 culty. To apply these expedients is to organize. 
 It is as a means of getting through his own share 
 of daily school-work that the teacher first finds 
 himself compelled to betake himself to organization ; 
 and all the most serious errors still prevalent in 
 the organizing of schools flow from the pertinacity 
 with which the teacher persists in looking at organi- 
 zation from this his first point of view. The true 
 object of organization is to secure that the pupils 
 get through their work, not that the teacher gets 
 through his. The subject in its details must be looked 
 at from first to last in its relation to the pupil's neces- 
 sity, not the master's. 1 Each child of the sixty has a 
 certain amount of reading, writing, arithmetic, etc., to 
 acquire before the hour of dismissal. In acquiring it 
 he will of course receive the help of the master, who has 
 already determined the nature and extent of the work 
 
 1 See Historical and Statistical portion of this Report under Organiza- 
 tion, p. 287. 
 
OK<J ANIMATION. 147 
 
 to be done ; but it is the pupil who has to acquire it, 
 not the master who has to instil it. The teacher 
 must, it is true, during the day come into direct per- 
 sonal contact with every pupil on each subject of 
 study, test his work, clear up his difficulties, confirm 
 his knowledge, and, above all, open up the way to 
 the next step of his progress. This it is his duty 
 to do : it constitutes his direct teaching. But direct 
 teaching is a small part of his work in respect of 
 quantity, though it is presumed to be the highest in 
 respect of quality. The indirect personal teaching 
 which is effected through organization, by means of 
 which he arranges and directs the independent activity 
 of the children in the attainment of the day's task, 
 is a matter of perhaps more importance than the 
 quality of the direct teaching, to the success of the 
 school. 
 
 Questions of organization constantly tend to be- 
 come questions of Discipline, which, however, is a 
 distinct and higher agency. The objects of organi- 
 zation are attained when the arrangements for the 
 working of the whole school as one class or one pupil 
 are completed. The machine being thus finished in 
 all its parts, the discovery and application of the 
 motive power has next to be considered. 
 
 The first step in organization is to reduce the 
 number of the individuals to be operated upon, by 
 grouping them into homogeneous masses,- in other 
 \vnnls. to classify. The theoretical perfection of clas- 
 
148 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 sification is the arrangement of the pupils into groups, 
 each individual of which is precisely at the same stage 
 of mental development and acquired knowledge. As 
 this, however, is impracticable, and as an equal amount 
 of acquisition in respect of certain technical accomplish 
 ments, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic, is 
 indispensable and this irrespectively of the general 
 capacity of the pupil, acquired knowledge necessarily 
 becomes the sole basis of classification. Nor is acquired 
 knowledge altogether an inadequate test of the deve- 
 lopment of the pupil's mental power. In the rough, 
 it may be said that boys having a similar knowledge 
 of reading are at a similar stage of development. 
 Beading, accordingly, affords on the whole the best 
 basis of classification. 
 
 A master will generally find that where the chil- 
 dren do not exceed eleven years of age, five groups, 
 the lowest being subdivided, will suffice. Each of 
 these five classes has to learn and to be taught 
 a portion of four subjects, on the average, within 
 five hours. Now, what the master has in the first 
 place to arrange is the order and times of learning. 
 Having divided the time of the whole school into 
 sections of fifteen minutes each, his next duty is 
 to provide for the occupation of each group dur- 
 ing every successive section of the time with such 
 a succession of work as shall, by its variety, prevent 
 too continuous a strain on the pupil's mind. To do 
 this is to construct a Time- table. This must be con- 
 structed by the master from the point of view that 
 
ORGANIZATION. 149 
 
 lie is the director of a machine rather than a teacher. 
 He must know what each portion of his machine is 
 capable of doing, what it ought to do, and he must 
 arrange for its doing it. If a teacher cannot tell what 
 radi group, and each pupil in the group, ought to be 
 doing at any one point of time in the course of the 
 school-day, and if he cannot tell at the end of the 
 day how much or how little has been done, his school 
 is not thoroughly taught. Let him keep in mind 
 that it is the arranging of the work and the directing 
 of the powers of his pupils which is his first and 
 main duty. Effective instruction and discipline are 
 possible only when the pupil does by far the larger 
 share of the work. 
 
 The machine being thus constructed and set in 
 motion, the school is organized. The chaotic materials 
 which lay to the teacher's hand are built up into a har- 
 monious whole, having a meaning and a purpose. 
 I have called the organized school a machine : it 
 ought rather to be called a living body, the various 
 limbs of which are inspired by one central purpose, 
 and dependent on one regulating head. 
 
 The words " Classification" and " Time-table" sum 
 up the whole of organization. The extent to which 
 each group is brought into immediate personal con- 
 tact with the teacher depends on the relation which 
 the numbers taught bear to the teaching power, and 
 on the master's skill in multiplying his presence. 
 An average attendance of seventy gives quite as 
 
150 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 large a school as ought to be attempted single handed. 
 The further duty of the teacher, as distinct from an 
 organizer and the originator of an organization, falls 
 to be considered under the head of School Discipline. 
 
 SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 
 
 Indirect Moral Teaching Rewards and Punishments. 
 
 The living machine being constructed and set in 
 motion, its just and true action will depend on two 
 things : the method according to which each limb 
 is made to work, and the means taken for securing 
 that the work is really done. The former subject 
 has been already sufficiently considered under the 
 general head of Methods : the consideration of the 
 latter embraces what is somewhat vaguely called 
 School Discipline. 
 
 School-discipline is, in the first instance, instituted 
 for the purpose of insuring the attainment of the 
 ends of organization, viz., a certain quantity of appre- 
 ciable work. After it has been instituted, however, it 
 becomes at once and directly subservient to a higher 
 end, the ultimate end of the school itself, the forma- 
 tion of good habits. Not efficient work, but efficient 
 working, is the immediate, as well as the final pur- 
 pose of discipline as such. In other words, discipline, 
 quickly losing sight of its original object, contem- 
 plates chiefly the manner of working, and is so intent 
 
SC' FIOOL DISCIPLINE. 151 
 
 on this that it can afford almost to disregard the 
 results of teaching in respect of quantity of work 
 accomplished. The manner of working is a wide and 
 important question. It embraces obedience to school 
 rules as to time, place, circumstance, and style : it 
 implies, moreover, the exercise of diligence, and the 
 practice of accuracy and honesty. Discipline is there- 
 fore pre-eminently a moral question, and may be said 
 to be the moral teaching of the school, as it is em 
 bodied in the hourly practice of each member of it. 
 
 The mere obedience to school-rules however trivial, 
 simply because they are rules and proceed from a 
 recognised authority, is in itself a moral act ; while 
 the practice of diligence, accuracy, and honesty con- 
 tributes directly to the formation of the habit of per- 
 severance in duty, and of that intellectual conscien- 
 tiousness which contributes so largely to general 
 integrity of mind. The formation of habit is the 
 chief moral purpose of education ; the instilling of 
 sound opinions, the clearing away of error, and the 
 correcting of occasional perversity of judgment or 
 of will, being all merely subsidiary to the constant 
 insistence on the doing of certain duties in a certain 
 way, with a view to the formation of a good mental 
 habit. When those individual acts, which were 
 originally conscious efforts of will, have been so 
 frequently repeated that they are the result of un- 
 conscious tendency, habit is formed. And, as dis- 
 cipline has for its direct object the individual acts of 
 every boy composing the school, it may be regarded 
 
152 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 as covering the whole field of moral training, as dis 
 languished from moral teaching. 
 
 Not only so : without the practice of obedience and 
 the other duties above enumerated, the subordinate 
 result of a certain quantity of knowledge attained 
 in the various school studies is manifestly beyond the 
 reach of teacher or pupil. It would seem, therefore, 
 that the whole of the work of the organized school 
 starts from discipline as its first condition, proceeds 
 according to discipline, and finds its proper con- 
 summation in the mental effects of discipline. The 
 technical results, that is to say, the acquisition of a 
 certain quantity of knowledge, are not overlooked ; 
 nay, they are reached only in so far as discipline is 
 effective. 
 
 I have endeavoured in previous chapters to show 
 that procedure according to a right method of teach- 
 ing and learning each subject, while it contributes 
 to the training of the intellectual powers, is, at the 
 same time, the most effective way of securing the 
 largest result in respect of positive knowledge. It 
 now appears that even sound methods will fail, if 
 unsupported by effective discipline, and that, there- 
 fore, the cultivation of the practical morality of the 
 school is not merely the indispensable handmaid of 
 method, but the surest path even to technical results, 
 Avhile it directly promotes the ultimate aim of the 
 school. 
 
 To treat of school rules for the conduct of study, 
 
SCHOOL DISCIPLINE, 153 
 
 and of tlu- Lest means of making the pupil diligent, 
 accurate, and honest in his work, would be foreign to 
 the purpose of this Eeport, the object of which is to 
 define the legitimate aims of the parochial school, and 
 to indicate methods and aims in principle rather than 
 in detail. 
 
 Moreover, to do so would be superfluous. The 
 teacher who understands the nature and purpose of 
 discipline is never at a loss for ways and means. 
 These are indeed numberless. To the teacher, on 
 the other hand, who cannot see wherein discipline 
 really consists, and what it aims at, ways and means, 
 expedients and devices, become mere tricks, destitute 
 of all moral significance and purpose. Two points of 
 of detail, however, preliminaries rather than elements 
 of discipline, even the wisest disciplinarian requires 
 to be reminded of : First, The limitation of each 
 successive subject of study within narrow limits as 
 to quantity and duration. If sustained attention is 
 to be expected from children, the continuous strain 
 of the same subject ought to be limited to fifteen 
 minutes, except in circumstances of peculiar interest. 
 The intervals of entire relaxation, again, ought to 
 be frequent however short. Secondly, In matters of 
 morality he must avoid making demands on the 
 powers and obedience of the young greater than 
 they can easily respond to. 
 
 But the clearest comprehension by the teacher of 
 the nature and purposes of discipline, the wisest ela 
 
I. r i4 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 boration of the subordinate ways and means whereby 
 the pupils' efforts after obedience, diligence, accu- 
 racy, and honesty are to be guided and supported, 
 may break down. Anarchy of the will and dis- 
 sipation of the intellectual powers may be the sole 
 fruits visible in the schoolroom, even where there are 
 the best intentions and the most assiduous labour. 
 The teacher, in other words, may fail as a discip- 
 linarian. How is this failure to be avoided and 
 the reign of discipline established ? By supplying 
 motives to the pupil. Even the rare boy who likes 
 study for its own sake is not always disposed to study. 
 His powers are not under such perfect control as 
 always to submit cheerfully to the rules of time and 
 place. Fitful exertion is the habit of the yet un- 
 disciplined mind, however well disposed for know- 
 ledge. The majority of the minds in a school have, 
 not even this disposition : at best, they study with 
 a view to the conquest of a difficulty or the 
 performance of a duty, both motives being gene- 
 rally associated. On such motives a teacher must 
 rely, and his first duty is to facilitate the operation 
 of them. The path must be so smoothed that the 
 difficulty to be overcome may not be insuperable to 
 the intellect, and the duty required may not be too 
 great a strain on the moral power of the pupil. J>ut 
 the most potent of all motives, and one essential to 
 the sustained and regular working of all others, is 
 the love of the master's approbation. To facilitate 
 the operation of this motive in a consistent way, and 
 
SCHOOL DLSCTPL1XK. 155 
 
 irrespectively of the master's changing moods, certain 
 fixed and public means (such as marks, which result 
 ultimately in slight privileges or rewards) must be 
 taken for testing and noting the successes of the 
 pupils. The schoolmaster, however, must beware of 
 committing the vulgar error of using the word suc- 
 cesses to indicate that difficulties have been overcome. 
 He has to do with discipline, and this has to do 
 both primarily and ultimately with moral training, 
 not intellectual attainment. The consciences of chil 
 dreii are much injured, and their desire to labour in 
 the discharge of their school duty weakened, if not 
 utterly extinguished, by the rough and ready style 
 of estimating moral qualities according to their mea- 
 surable results in intellectual acquisition. That 
 man is a clumsy manipulator of the tender mind 
 who does not scrupulously and anxiously distin- 
 guish between the gain in intellectual and moral 
 habit and the coarse and more palpable profit in 
 respect of mere knowledge. The whole purpose of this 
 Report is to insist on the former as the ultimate aim 
 of the parochial school, and to illustrate its favour- 
 able influence on merely technical acquirement, with 
 a view to vindicate its claim to constant, if not ex- 
 clusive consideration. To test the moral qualities by 
 the amount of intellectual ground traversed, is as un- 
 just as it is beside the whole higher object of educa- 
 tion. The master, then, in distributing the great 
 motive influence of the school, his approbation for 
 rules obeyed, diligence exercised, accuracy and honesty 
 
15G REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 attained, must have regard to the working, not the 
 work. Each child whom he can ascertain to have 
 laudably striven, must receive the meed of approba- 
 tion which is his due. If a doubt exist as to there 
 having been a bond fide effort, it is safer to give the 
 pupil the benefit of it. Justice must lean to mercy's 
 side. The master must not cover his want of time 
 or ability to sift the moral elements of a question by 
 assuming the aspect and manner of supernatural pene- 
 tration and sternness. Under mercy there lies a kind 
 of large justice which, in the schoolroom, is rich in 
 moral return. The school conscience will more easily 
 recover from undue leniency than forget groundless 
 severity. 
 
 Many teachers seem, even in these days, to imagine 
 that good discipline and severity of manner and 
 language are inseparable, whereas, on the contrary, 
 severity defeats every object of discipline. Where 
 the painful silence of awe pervades a school, all the 
 technical results, however high, ought, in my opinion, 
 to be rigidly discounted by the inspector. What 
 amount of acquaintance with words and things can 
 compensate for the loss of a freely-working conscience ? 
 Silence and slavish obedience do not constitute moral 
 order. Teachers sometimes require to be reminded 
 that there is such a thing as anarchical order. 
 
 But what if a teacher finds that the motives usually 
 successful in schools fail in his particular case to move 
 the wills by which he is surrounded, even when 
 
SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 157 
 
 aided by an organization which makes duty plain 
 and easy, and by methods of instruction which 
 harmonize with the natural operations of the pupils' 
 intellects ? His rules are fair, but the pupils will 
 not obey them ; his demands on their intellects and 
 wills are reasonable, but they decline to respond to 
 the demand ; he is ready to distribute approval and 
 disapproval justly, but they do not care for his 
 approbation. The answer is easy : the master is de- 
 ficient in moral power, and must at once take 
 himself out of the school into some other more con- 
 genial sphere of work. For, the praise and censure 
 of the teacher constitute the keystone of the whole 
 edifice of the school ; and if we withdraw from these 
 their legitimate power, discipline dissolves and organi- 
 zation crumbles to pieces. The adult yields, whether 
 he will or not, to the dispensing authority with which 
 the visible pre-eminence of goodness or of strength 
 invests a man : the child is a still more willing 
 slave. For his subjection the mere semblance of 
 moral superiority is enough. But it must be the 
 moral superiority of real or apparent strength. To 
 goodness and love the child responds with affection ; 
 but affection does not always prompt obedience in the 
 undisciplined mind : on the contrary, we find affection 
 and systematic disobedience to be not uncommonly 
 conjoined, where no other influence supervenes. The 
 young are not yet a law to themselves; and, so 
 constituted is the moral nature of man that children 
 are happier when an extraneous law supplies the 
 
158 UEPOKT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 defect inherent in their tender age. They instinc- 
 tively welcome the strength which claims their alle 
 glance. That teacher consequently must be a very 
 weak (though he may be a very good) man who 
 cannot, even with the help thus amply given by the 
 children themselves, become the source of right and 
 wrong to his pupils, the external and visible exponent 
 of duty. He must be destitute of the first requisites 
 in a teacher, namely, a sense of law dominating his 
 own life, and an impulse, conscious or unconscious, 
 to communicate this sense of law to others. Law 
 must be conspicuous in his words and acts, manifest- 
 ing itself in self-control and anxious subjection to the 
 spirit of the rules which lie imposes on others ; and 
 this is the same thing as saying that he must himself 
 have, and visibly have, a good habit of will. How 
 can we expect that a man destitute of force of 
 character should be capable of forming the character 
 of others ? Character is, in truth, as we have before 
 said, the first necessity in the teacher ; the second is, 
 that in his efforts to bring others under the influence 
 of law, he shall exhibit in his dealings the charac- 
 teristics of law, namely, clearness, vigour, dogmatism, 
 imperativeness, and consistency. Given a teacher so 
 endowed, or striving, nay, only seeming to strive, 
 after such endowment, and the difficulties of dis 
 cipline vanish, except in so far as they are the ad- 
 ventitious results of faulty organization or blunder- 
 ing methods. 
 
 It has been said, some pages back, that the 
 
SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 159 
 
 intellectual and moral strength which each child 
 draws from his neighbour, in other words, co-opera- 
 tion and sympathy, far more than counterbalance 
 the apparently insuperable difficulties which num. 
 hers present to the teacher, when he, for the first 
 time, enters his school : organization turns the scale 
 in his favour as against the tutor of one or few. 
 Still more efficacious are numbers in the mainte- 
 nance of discipline, and this because of its moral 
 and therefore emotional character. The complicated 
 machinery of the school is so interlaced and inter- 
 -dependent, that the moral movement of any one 
 part tends to move the rest ; and where the majority 
 of hearts move, the minority almost involuntarily fall 
 in with the movement, which thus becomes general. 
 
 The primary object of discipline, we have seen, is to 
 guarantee the objects of organization, but as this has 
 to do with the manner of working, discipline becomes 
 a moral question. It involves, in fact, the whole sub- 
 ject of moral training, in so far as it relates to the 
 intellectual work of the school. Further considera- 
 tion of the subject shows that discipline has even 
 a wider sweep, and that it may be defined as the 
 means resorted to for giving practical effect to the 
 whole of the moral as well as the intellectual in- 
 struction contemplated by the master. It thus opens 
 up questions the most various and delicate, and is 
 co-extensive with the subject of Education itself in 
 its higher sense. The conduct of the pupils toward.- 
 
160 TCEPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 each other, and towards their teacher personally, falls 
 within its range, and this is a department of discipline 
 which perhaps tells more largely on the formation 
 of a good moral habit of mind than even the thorough 
 and conscientious discharge of the day's work. The 
 regulation of mutual intercourse, moreover, affords 
 the only means available for correcting the evils 
 which prevail in the homes of children, for cultivating 
 truthfulness, and for subjecting unregulated wills to 
 the operation of humane and Christian feeling. These 
 and other aims of direct moral teaching I shall speak 
 of in the sequel. The best way of enforcing moral 
 instruction, so as to convert precept into habit, is 
 what we have specially to consider under the head 
 of Discipline. This has been already partially indi- 
 cated, and it is further illustrated in what follows. 
 
 Reivards and Punishments. 
 
 Even the schoolmaster who is powerful enough to 
 centre the discipline of the school in his approving or 
 disapproving word, can ill afford to dispense with the 
 assistance which a system of rewards and punishments 
 gives. There are some men who, having stopped 
 short at the first step of moral analysis, set up, both 
 in the family and the school, the calm ungenial ap- 
 proval, or stern disapproval, of conscience or authority 
 as exhaustive of all legitimate motives of conduct. 
 It is unnecessary to combat this theory in so far as it 
 has reference to the matured mind, because our business 
 
KKWAKDS AND PrXIsmiENTS. 161. 
 
 here is only with the young. In their case assuredly, 
 the natural tendency which all men feel to follow up 
 their approval ]>y communicating to the person ap- 
 proved some pleasure over and above the moral satis 
 faction which is the inner reward of having deserved 
 well, should be generously yielded to. Liberality in 
 approval venerates liberality in the service of obedience. 
 By carrying out the approval of the right act into 
 <-<>nse<juenees which are in themselves pleasing, the 
 rightness of the act is established in the mind of 
 the young in association with the agreeable. An ad- 
 ventitious but perfectly legitimate support is thereby 
 provided for the yet unfashioned will. 
 
 If approval may be so signalized, it follows that 
 disapproval also fairly claims to be supported and 
 enforced by adventitious associations of pain. In 
 itself disapproval is punishment, if there exist in 
 the mind of the child regard or respect for the 
 authority which disapproves. In such a case the 
 sense of a link of attachment or reverence rudely 
 snapped is often painful in the extreme more painful 
 than any kind of adventitious punishment. Nay, 
 physical chastisement sometimes lessens the moral 
 suffering in such cases, and is hailed by the culprit 
 as a relief. Adventitious punishments consist in the 
 further association of pain to body or mind over arid 
 above that which the act of disapprobation causes ; 
 but, like rewards, they are to be regarded simply as 
 accessaries in the maintenance of discipline. They 
 deepen the impression which disapproval makes on 
 
 L 
 
162 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 a hard or low type of mind, and thereby aid in the 
 development of conscience : they give unmistakable 
 and vivid expression to the authoritative moral dis- 
 pensations of the master, and are valuable, if not 
 indispensable, even to the morally strong. 
 
 But let it be observed that adventitious punish- 
 ments are only auxiliaries. If they are allowed to 
 become the principals instead of the subordinates in 
 moral discipline, and to supplant the expression of 
 disapproval, of which they are only the accidental con- 
 sequences, they usurp a sovereignty which does not 
 belong to them. As the moral power of the teacher 
 or parent decreases, adventitious punishments always 
 increase, and vice versa. Of this fact there can be no 
 doubt, and the teacher may safely and profitably mea- 
 sure himself by it. A reliance on adventitious punish- 
 ment invariably reveals the inherent weakness of the 
 teacher. This reliance is avenged ; for it is only by a 
 cumulative intensity of punishments that the teacher 
 can in such circumstances continue to maintain his 
 supremacy, and effect even the technical objects of 
 school-keeping. Ere long a school so governed be- 
 comes a spectacle of one rude material force, predo- 
 minating, or striving to predominate, over other and 
 lesser forces, amid the silence of rebellious fear or the 
 confused murmurs of just resistance. A melancholy 
 contrast this to the school governed by the scarcely 
 conscious power of a lofty purpose and a disciplined 
 and earnest will ! 
 
KKWAUDS AND IT NJS1LM 1-LNTS. 163 
 
 A collection of all possible punishments which 
 at tain eel the ends of discipline, without bearing too 
 hard on the mind or body of the child, would be a 
 valuable guide to the teacher and the parent. Such 
 a collection would help to check the sin of over- 
 severity, which will be found only as the offspring of 
 passion, a state of mind forbidden to the teacher by 
 every moral consideration. That a teacher or parent 
 should constantly exhibit judicial calmness in the 
 presence of the wrongdoing of children is neither 
 desirable nor necessary. Such affected superiority to 
 natural and legitimate emotions is artificial, and, while 
 failing of its aim in respect of the pupils, it exhausts 
 the teacher. So long as anger is under the control of 
 the will, it is as effective in the discipline of the school 
 as it is natural in the ordinary relations of life. Its 
 effectiveness, however, is in proportion to the rareness 
 of its manifestation. It must not be expended on 
 peccadilloes or errors, but reserved for serious and 
 deliberate faults. 
 
 Worse than occasional passion is chronic crossness 
 or peevishness, the most unhappy mental state of all. 
 Peevishness is, in fact, the continuous passion of petty 
 souls, and much more detrimental to the moral life of 
 the school than occasional outbursts of violent wrath. 
 It exhibits itself in a continued series of small acts 
 of injustice. It is itself a continual act of injustice 
 towards all within its range. Where it exists then- 
 can, of course, be no such thing as discipline, 
 the sole object of the pupils being to avoid the 
 
164 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 fractious word, and evade the task for which there 
 is no reward. 
 
 As over-severity is much more frequently the result 
 of passion than of errors of judgment, the teacher has 
 only to control his temper in order to be just in his 
 punishments. This precaution having been taken, 
 there is a wide field of petty inflictions open to the 
 observant and ingenious mind. The general rule 
 which ought to regulate punishments is that they 
 shall be as nearly as possible the natural consequences 
 of the transgression. A boy who comes late is fitly 
 punished by reproval, and being left in the school 
 room while the other boys are at play. A boy who 
 forgets to bring his reading-book to school is justly 
 punished by being excluded from the lesson, receiv- 
 ing bad marks as if for non-preparation, and being 
 required to prosecute some isolated and disagreeable 
 task as a substitute for the reading : a boy who tells 
 a lie is rightly punished by being forbidden to speak ; 
 and so on. 
 
 But as many cases arise both in the family and in 
 the school which are transgressions not in themselves, 
 but only because they are disobediences, and which 
 have therefore no natural consequences except the 
 disapproval of the parent or teacher, and for which 
 this disapproval is not a sufficient punishment, it 
 becomes necessary to attach certain artificial pen- 
 alties to such wrongdoings. And here the just and 
 judicious teacher is often the victim of much con- 
 scientious perplexity. It is very difficult to write 
 
REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS. 165 
 
 u catalogue of punishments suited for various cases, 
 hut some assistance may be given if we point out 
 the general heads under which penalties may be 
 classified. It will be found that they all fall under 
 the two heads of Deprivation and Infliction. Pun- 
 ishments of deprivation have two advantages over 
 punishments of infliction. They do not afford so easy 
 a channel for the passion of the teacher ; and they are 
 constantly fresh. Boys grow callous to frequent in- 
 flictions, whether of poenas or the rod, but there is a 
 perennial and ever fresh aggravation connected with 
 deprivation of time, or pleasures, or privileges. Pun- 
 ishments of infliction are either mental or corporal, 
 according as they touch the mind or body first : but 
 fundamentally there is no broad distinction ; for the 
 affections of the body pain the mind, because of their 
 association with censure, while the toil and harassment 
 of the mind are often more painful to the body than 
 corporal chastisement. Bad marks, ending in public 
 disgraces, poenas, exclusion from the current routine 
 of the school, especially when supplemented by pun 
 ishments of deprivation, ought, if the teacher be 
 competent for his task, to be sufficient for all pur 
 poses of discipline without having recourse to flagel 
 lation. Poenas, however, or additional work, should 
 not consist of the repetition or extension of the usual 
 lessons, because this associates legitimate work with 
 tlir hatefulness of a penalty. 
 
 There are occasions, however, on which the cane 
 must be resorted to. I have no sympathy with objec- 
 
166 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 tions to flogging (if done in cold blood) on the score 
 of cruelty or indignity. It is much more merciful to 
 castigate a boy than to wear his nerves to exhaustion 
 by appeals to sentiment, affection, or duty, which 
 minister to the vanity of the hard, and the morbidness 
 of the gentle and sensitive. Nor is poena-giving less 
 severe in the physical pain it often causes than the 
 application of the taws or rod, while, when carried to 
 extremities, as is common among masters of inex- 
 perience or of shallow moral endowment, it has the 
 further vice of making both pupil and teacher dwell 
 too long on an offence. Punishments should be prompt, 
 sharp, decisive, and there end ; the object being not 
 to inflict pain but to deter from future offences, and 
 to. restore the moral equilibrium of the offender and 
 of the offended school-conscience. This object once 
 attained the more expeditiously it is attained the 
 better- no more should be heard of either offence 
 or punishment. A teacher or parent should never 
 bear grudges. The young interpret such exhibitions 
 as sulkiness and injustice, and do not fail to learn 
 the lesson for themselves. A boy should be allowed 
 to start afresh after punishment, and without stain. 
 There should be no dregs for a culprit to drain. For 
 these reasons, corporal chastisement has a distinct 
 advantage over many others which seem more merciful. 
 The objection that a flogging hurts a boy's self- 
 respect is true only in this sense, that lie feels that he 
 is being treated as a person on whom physical coer- 
 cion only can have any influence. The fact that it 
 
HKWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS. 167 
 
 is always associated with this indignity furnishes the 
 only sound reason for the total expulsion of the prac- 
 tice from the school and the family. The substitution 
 of physical compulsion for moral authority, tends to 
 lower all boys of good dispositions, and weakens the 
 sense of free responsibility. And, inasmuch as the 
 object of moral discipline is to develop the conscience 
 of a freeman, not of a slave, it is primd facie degrad- 
 ing to both the punished and the punisher to treat 
 a child or a man as if he had forfeited his humanity, 
 and could be brought to see and do the right only 
 by having bodily pain presented as the alternative. 
 As a system of discipline it will be found to rest 
 on an ultra-materialistic theory of Ethics. If, there- 
 fore, the master find it necessary to call to his aid 
 corporal penalties, he has good reason to pause and 
 to question himself. If his self-examination leaves 
 the blame of resorting to the last extremity on the 
 head of the offender, he has no alternative but to 
 make the solemn example of a rational being driven 
 like a brute, because he is accessible only to brutal 
 motives. Only the parlour educationist will deny 
 that boys (and men) exist, possessed of moral hides 
 too indurated to be sensitive to purely moral appeals. 
 As corporal chastisement, however, is to be re- 
 garded as an extreme measure, and as standing apart 
 from all other adventitious aids to discipline, this 
 peculiarity should be conspicuously brought out by 
 the teacher, and in every school, accordingly, there 
 should be a chastisable and unchastisable class. A 
 
108 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 certain number of wilful offences, revealing a con- 
 science too callous to be influenced by ordinary 
 motives, should bring with it the disgrace of being- 
 reduced to the class of boys punishable with the rod. 
 The descent to this school purgatory, however, should 
 be difficult and slow ; the ascent and return to 
 the light of responsibility and moral freedom plain 
 and easy. 
 
 There is a flagellation of the mind worse than any 
 castigation of the body. The masters who resort to 
 it call it satire ; but the impartial spectator detects 
 that it is simply uncontrolled passion finding an out- 
 let under the thin delusive veil of irony. Sarcasm 
 and ridicule make the courageous "feel callous and 
 revengeful, and the sensitive oppressed and abused. 
 It is an unmanly use of superior strength so to lacerate 
 the feelings of the defenceless. It is also dishonest 
 and disloyal ; for this engine of punishment finds 
 no recognised place in the school code. It is there- 
 fore unconstitutional, and justifies rebellion. Inflic- 
 tion, not affliction, marks the limit of legitimate pun- 
 ishment. 
 
 It would seem that we are as yet only on the thres- 
 hold of the large subject of Discipline. Rules, obedi- 
 ence, diligence, accuracy, and honesty, have necessarily 
 led me to speak of the moral training of the school 
 in general, as well as in its special relation to the 
 merely intellectual daily work which each member of 
 it has to do, and of the natural and artificial supports 
 
REWARDS AND ITNlsHMEXTS. 169 
 
 of discipline. But 1 have adverted only to principles 
 of action : the whole field of detail is still untrodden. 
 To enter upon it would be to write a school manual, 
 for which there is neither space nor need. The 
 master who brings to his work a habit of will which 
 is itself an example to others and a guide to him 
 self will fill up the details of a general outline with 
 ease. Even the average teacher, if in earnest, will 
 evolve from general principles his own details, which 
 will have the additional advantage of being his own, 
 and therefore vital and efficacious. 
 
 A few additional words, however, for the help of 
 beginners who feel they need it, may be serviceable, 
 even though put in a curt form, and disjoined from 
 their connexion with the educative aims and principles 
 of the subject as a whole. And first of all, let the 
 young teacher give heed to the admonition and the 
 example which come down to him through nearly two 
 thousand years, from the Pagan philosopher and the 
 Saviour of the world Reverence childhood. The task- 
 he has to do requires a delicate and respectful as well 
 as a strong hand. Secondly, Let his rules be just, and 
 easily obeyed. Thirdly, Let him not expect the will of 
 a man where there is the heart of the child or the boy. 
 Fourthly, Let him not strain too far the power of 
 application. Fifthly, Where there has been assiduity, 
 let him accept a little well done, and discountenance 
 quantity and display. Sixthly, Let him trust the 
 honesty of his pupils, but remove all occasions of 
 stumbling. Seventhly, Let him be vigilant, but let 
 
170 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 him disdain inquisitorial prying or deputed espionage. 
 Eighthly, When he doubts in the matter of truth- 
 telling, the fulfilment of obedience, or the propriety 
 of punishing, let him always give the pupil the benefit 
 of the doubt. Ninthly, Let him so act that the 
 school will feel that it is regard for the moral law 
 rather than for his personal authority that regulates 
 his praise and blame, his rewards and punishments. 
 And, finally, and above all, let him do unto others, 
 even to children, as he would that others should do 
 unto him. 1 
 
 The difficulties which both parents arid school- 
 masters experience in the regulation of punishment, 
 leads me to add to my own remarks on the subject 
 certain extracts from the writings of one of the most 
 eminent educationists of this century : 
 
 " If the word be always suited to the action, and every grada- 
 tion on the side of merit and demerit be candidly and distinctly 
 characterized by the terms employed, and by the tone and look 
 with which they are delivered, such an ascendency may be gained 
 over the minds of youth, that a word or significant gesture 
 will have more weight, and make a deeper impression, than an 
 angry expostulation or heavy blows. Praise and blame, when 
 sparingly and judiciously dealt out, are engines of incalculable 
 power. But, on the other hand, if a master, for some trifling 
 misdemeanour, pour forth a volley of abusive epithets, he has 
 
 1 The subject of Drill, as an aid to moral discipline, as well as to the 
 development of a healthy physique, belongs perhaps more to the detail of 
 a school manual than to a general statement of principles and methods. 
 
REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS. 171 
 
 nothing, of course, in reserve for heinous offences but flagellation ; 
 and if, on the other hand, he be either extravagant or partial in 
 his commendation, it will have little or no value. 
 
 " I would push the economy of praise and reproof so far as to 
 pitch the tone of both a note or two below the natural scale. 
 This is a useful rule in commending, because it enhances the 
 value of a strong expression. But it is in reprimand and pun- 
 ishment that its importance is best seen ; though, I fear I must 
 add, in practice least understood. There prevails among school- 
 masters such a dread of relaxing wholesome discipline, that, when 
 a public example is to be made, even the most temperate and 
 conscientious think themselves called upon to colour the offence 
 a little highly, and to express even more indignation against the 
 culprit than they actually feel. This I conceive to be a capital 
 blunder. The very reverse of it is a great secret in the man- 
 agement of youth. No infliction can benefit the sufferer, or serve 
 as a warning to others, which is not felt and acknowledged to be 
 just by the great body of his school-fellows. The moment it 
 exceeds the measure which the impartial spectator can sympathize 
 with, it generates compassion for the offender, and dislike of the 
 punisher. . . . 
 
 " On the other hand, there is nothing that so completely 
 disarms the bad and unsocial passions of a boy as kindliness ; 
 nothing so popular as stopping short of the severity which strict 
 justice might award. Nor will such forbearance, if it appear to 
 flow from enlightened principle and affection, ever tempt to a repe- 
 tition of the offence. . . . 
 
 " . . . To dispense with corporal punishment in all minor 
 school-offences, and to reserve it for cases of moral delinquency 
 or turpitude. ... Of the latter kind were deliberate lying, 
 dishonesty, wanton cruelty, indecency in word or deed ; of the 
 former, neglect of preparation, failing to answer questions, or to 
 say by heart, coming late, being inattentive, or talking in school 
 time, teasing a school-fellow, etc. 
 
 " . . . If a boy was reported by the monitor to be unpre- 
 pared on the lesson, the gentlest interference on my part was to 
 call him out of the division and admonish him privately. If he 
 could assign no reason for his failure, he was dismissed with a 
 
172 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 word of advice, and a hope that this negligence would not occur 
 again ; but at the same time, with an assurance that if it did, 1 
 should feel it incumbent on me to reprove him in presence of his 
 division. This had never, probably, occurred to him as an aggra- 
 vation of his disgrace, but the very mention of it was sufficient 
 to make him think so, and he returned to his place resolved to 
 avoid it, and not perhaps without a sentiment of thankfulness 
 for the attention to his feelings implied by this preliminary warn- 
 ing. . . . 
 
 "The next step in increase of severity was to reprimand be- 
 fore the whole division, care being taken, in this as in all other 
 cases, that reproof should be administered more in sorrow than 
 in anger. This mode of reprehending was that most frequently 
 practised, because it gave an opportunity of instructing and warn- 
 ing others, though it was often exchanged for the gentler mode 
 of giving the boy an audience apart, when I read in his eye that 
 he had a private reason to assign, which he was unwilling to im- 
 part to any ear but mine. 
 
 " For minds of less sensibility, or greater tendency to go wrong, 
 there remained a reproof before the assembled class, mild or sharp, 
 as suited the character addressed. Occasion for this reproof was 
 taken by calling such boys to say in the class, as soon as the divi- 
 sions broke up. . . . 
 
 " But as there must, of course, be many in a numerous class 
 either too sluggish or too thoughtless and playful to be perma- 
 nently or uniformly affected by any of these motives, the last 
 resort was to what was technically called a pcena, or written 
 imposition. . . . Nothing can be more equitable, than that 
 a boy who fails to prepare a lesson at home, or give attention to 
 the construing in the class-room, should be obliged to write it 
 out, and be curtailed of his play. It was an improving exercise, 
 too, and thus accomplished the most desirable ends of punishment, 
 correction and warning. . . . 
 
 "... For a considerable time after these methods had 
 completely superseded corporal punishment in all that regarded 
 the lessons, it was still had recourse to now and then, as the 
 appropriate means of deterring from grave acts of immorality. . . . 
 
 " . . The great secret in this, as in the instance of minor 
 
liKWAIIDS AND PUNISHMENTS. 17:> 
 
 misdemeanours, is to estimate fairly the gravity of the oftence, 
 so long as it is spoken of in the abstract, and to fix its place 
 correctly in the scale of demerit ; while, at the same time, the 
 individual culprit is allowed the benefit of all the circumstances 
 which can be honestly urged in extenuation. When the master 
 seems to take pleasure in dwelling on these, the punishment 
 he does inflict will appear to be extorted from him, as it really 
 is, by the demands of justice, and will create no feeling in the 
 breast either of the sufferer or the spectator which is not friendly 
 to virtue. Precept thus enforced by example is the most impres- 
 sive of all moral lessons. 
 
 " But so regularly did the dread of corporal chastisement in- 
 crease in proportion to its mildness and rarity, that, during the 
 latter half of my rectorship, it was entirely discontinued ; partly, 
 and chiefly, in consequence of the manifest improvement in the 
 morality of the boys ; partly, because the feeling of honour had 
 become so nice as to make it too severe an infliction for any 
 school offence that could be committed. The solemnity and the 
 lecture were still continued when occasion offered. . . . 
 
 " Among the various substitutes for corporal punishment, I 
 have made no mention of one which was and is in very common 
 use : that of turning a boy down in his class, often by ten or 
 twenty places at a time, in consequence, not of the better saying 
 of those below him, but by the fat of the master. To him this 
 mode of deterring and punishing recommends itself by the tempt- 
 ing facility of applying it. It is generally used in cases of talking 
 or trifling in the class-room, or being late. For the former it is 
 admissible, if preceded by a demand for the next word, or an order 
 to repeat the clause last construed. As to being late, a fault to 
 which boys are so liable, that it must be sharply dealt with, it was 
 checked not by loss of place, but more effectually by stationing the 
 the general censor outside the door, to collect the names of the 
 late as they arrived, and note them for a poena, to be delivered 
 next morning. Forfeiture of place, for such offences, is both unjust 
 and inexpedient." From Professor rill<tnx Contributions to f/' 
 Caute of Education, p. 340. 
 
1*74 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 MORAL INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Initiatory stage Direct moral teaching and suggestive moral teaching 
 Juvenile stage (Laws of Health, etc.) 
 
 Moral instruction, as distinguished from the moral 
 training which Discipline affords, means the incul- 
 cation of moral duties in a preceptive form. It is a 
 kind of colloquial preaching on the part of the 
 teacher, the more colloquial the better. 
 
 Initiatory Stage. When the mind is sufficiently 
 matured to apprehend a principle of conduct, to adopt 
 it, and to give it effect by the power of a sustained 
 purpose, preceptive teaching is of unquestionable 
 value. In proportion, however, to the weakness of 
 the power of exerting a continuous and conscious 
 effort of will, in other words, in proportion to the 
 youth of the pupil, precept is, at the time of its 
 inculcation, inefficacious. The moral principle if not 
 the moral sentiment of the very young is most 
 effectually reached through the moral habit, and the 
 moral habit can be formed only by ordering the 
 child to do certain things in a certain way, giving 
 him the help of the example of his teacher and 
 fellows while doing them, and taking means to make 
 sure that they are done. But this, as we have seen, 
 is to discipline. Discipline signifies the enforcing of 
 the doing of the moral law by means of motives, 
 which motives are supported by rewards and punish- 
 ments. 
 
SUGGESTIVE MORAL TEACHING INITIATORY. 175 
 
 I have said that by the doing of moral acts alone, 
 in other words, by means of discipline, moral sentiments 
 and principles thoroughly enter into the mind of a child 
 as intelligible and living guides of conduct. The form 
 of words is, however, by no means altogether useless. 
 To throw into a preceptive form the moral acts which 
 the teacher is continually insisting on is of value, as 
 subsidiary to the practice of them. Precept serves 
 as a guide and a standard of measure to the child, 
 the significance of which gradually dawns on him. 
 Especially after reward for right-doing, or punish- 
 ment for wrong-doing, a gently-urged precept will 
 be dropt into a prepared soil and will take root. 
 
 There are two kinds of preceptive teaching the 
 Suggestive and the Direct. The suggestive is the 
 more efficacious, because it is associated with a con- 
 crete example. In the doing of right acts, the child 
 is presumed to be supported by the example of his 
 teacher and fellows. By sharing the moral life ex- 
 hibited daily in the school he gradually becomes a 
 constituent part of it : it is the example of those 
 around him that points both the moral and the way. 
 This is true of the indirect moral instruction of disci- 
 pline : it is equally necessary that the direct moral 
 instruction of the school, in so far as it is conveyed by 
 books or conversation, should be in the earlier years as 
 much as possible the instruction which the example of 
 others gives, that is to say, the instruction of biography, 
 fable, and anecdote. The lessons of fair play and 
 , for example, almost defy abstract pre- 
 
1 76 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 ceptive teaching in the case of the very young, but 
 enter vividly and graphically into the mind through 
 the story of the two boys and the nut, which ends 
 in the arbiter eating the kernel and liberally dis- 
 pensing half a shell to each of the little disputants. 
 Next to seeing a good example before us is imagin- 
 ing that we see it, and this we do when we read or 
 hear of it. 
 
 Direct Precept, if less important than the Suggestive, 
 has yet a useful part to play. It is true that all 
 moral precepts are laws of conduct generalized from 
 particular acts and their consequences, and therefore 
 that to demand of a child that he shall strain his 
 intellect to grasp fully a moral generalization is 
 to demand an impossibility. Even such seemingly 
 simple generalizations, as " To steal is wrong," " All 
 must be just in their dealings;" " Generosity is a duty," 
 " Truthfulness must be observed," and so forth, although 
 committed to memory and produced when required, 
 are understood by the child only in so far as they 
 are illustrated by particular acts coming within his 
 personal cognisance. If the teacher says, "Do not 
 take your neighbour's pencil as I saw you do this 
 morning, for that is to steal, and to steal is wrong," 
 he is intelligible. A certain number of acts thus 
 from time to time become known to the child as 
 stealing, from which he infers the wickedness of 
 other acts which have a common characteristic with 
 them, and in this way he extends his moral know- 
 ledge with his moral experience, until at last there 
 
DIRECT MORAL TEACHING- -INITIATORY. 177 
 
 flashes upon him in its full force and meaning the 
 generalized precept,- " Thou shalt not steal." This 
 is the process by which the understanding of moral 
 principles is reached by the growing mind. But, true 
 as this is, the moral generalization is not wholly 
 valueless to the child, although not fully intelligible, at 
 the time of its being imparted. He himself is, by the 
 very instincts of his nature and the necessities of his 
 external condition, groping his way to some such gene- 
 ra 1 statement of duty which will bring harmony into 
 the chaos of his moral life by bringing law. To fur- 
 nish him at the outset of his journey in search of duty 
 with the conclusion to which the wisdom of the past 
 has come, is like giving the young builder a plan of 
 the house we require him to build. It is only a 
 semblance, but it facilitates and expedites the attain- 
 ment of the reality. 
 
 The theory of education, which, so far from regarding 
 direct preceptive teaching as a help, considers it to be 
 an overlaying and overburdening of the child's mind, 
 and which would lead him on in his moral perceptions 
 step by step, and, at a certain moment of his develop- 
 ment, and not till then, give the generalized truth 
 which, if earlier given, would be in its full scope 
 unintelligible, is, I suspect, shallow, sentimental, and 
 impracticable. Even if a teacher had full control 
 over the first sixteen years of his pupil's life, and 
 were carefully to macadamize and bridge his path 
 in accordance with this theory, he might, perhaps, 
 reach the end which he proposed to himself, but 
 
1*78 REPORT ON EDUCATION! 
 
 only to find that it had changed its character. He 
 would be vanquished in the moment of victory. The 
 pupil would probably reach the goal of a clear com- 
 prehension of principle in its practical significance, 
 exhausted by the facilities and monotony of his too 
 easy route, while his comrade who had reached the 
 same point across country, unaided, and after many 
 difficulties, obstructions, and stumblings, would come 
 in later it might be, but exhilarated by difficulty 
 and braced for fresh exertion. The teacher must bear 
 in mind that life from first to last is a progress and a 
 struggle, and that the purpose of education is not to 
 give possession of a certain quantity of facts of the 
 understanding, or even of principles of morality, but 
 of powers ; not the conferring of attainment, but the 
 qualifying for pursuit. The only essential equipment 
 for every man is the weapons of the chase, an object 
 to pursue, and vigour of faculty. The School does 
 its work best when it makes the mode of acquiring 
 the weapons, whether they be moral or intellectual, 
 itself the means of training the faculties of pursuit. 
 
 Although, therefore, the early storing of the memory 
 with generalized moralities serves an important pur- 
 pose, and this, by suggesting difficulty, compelling 
 intellectual effort, and giving the consciousness of self- 
 effected progress when light at last is seen, such direct 
 preceptive teaching is to be admitted into the initia- 
 tory classes of a school only as distinctly subsidiary 
 to particular instruction as to the qualities of indivi- 
 dual acts by means of reading, conversation, and above 
 
DIRECT MORAL TEACHING INITIATORY. 179 
 
 all, discipline. The particular instruction and the dis 
 oiplinary training constitute substantially the whole 
 moral education during the initiatory stage, to which 
 all else is only an accessary. It is necessary to insist 
 on this, lest teachers should imagine that they have 
 acquitted themselves of their duty when they have 
 inculcated fine sentiments and right principles. This 
 is not teaching, but preaching. It is through the 
 doing of a thing only, as has been already said, 
 that principles of conduct can take living root in a 
 child's mind. A schoolmaster discharges his duty, 
 not by enunciating or inculcating the right, though 
 this is both necessary and desirable, but by watch- 
 ful noting of the acts of his pupils towards each 
 other, as well as towards himself, by explaining the 
 nature of wrong acts individually, and by causing 
 the right act to be done instead of the wrong. The 
 forms which stealing, lying, injustice, cruelty, malice, 
 and envy take are difficult to number, even among 
 adults, but among children they are infinite in their 
 petty variety. In the reading-lessons, in the inci- 
 dents of the school, and in the events of the parish, 
 will be found further material for the exemplifica- 
 tion, illustration, and personal application of the vari- 
 ous virtues and vices, both in their patent and their 
 insidious forms. Individual acts will be on these 
 occasions referred to their proper preceptive head, and 
 the command, whether it be prohibitive, " Do not bear 
 false witness," or hortatory, "Love thy father and 
 thy mother," will be thus apprehended as a vital fact, 
 
180 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 not as a dead phrase. Through all the teacher must 
 constantly bear in mind that it is only in their petty 
 exhibitions that the child can know even the greatest 
 vices or virtues, and it is with these petty things 
 consequently, and the precepts which they suggest, 
 not with abstract and large utterances, that the teacher 
 has mainly to do. The thousand trivialities of daily 
 life constitute the moralities of children. They are 
 so numerous, it is true, and so ever-changing, as 
 to baffle the teacher's attempt to know them, much 
 more to anticipate them. But, fortunately for him, 
 as well as for his pupil, the rule of conduct which 
 covers all other minor precepts, and suits all possible 
 cases, is given to us in a form at once the most widely 
 general, the most closely individual, and the most easy 
 of application. " Do unto others as you would that 
 others should do unto you/' is a command which 
 should be kept constantly before the children, and 
 persistently introduced as the measure of all their 
 little acts. It will help the teacher as well as the 
 child. 
 
 Where the tone and system of the school are good, 
 the correction of petty immoralities is quick and easy. 
 A glance, an upraised finger, or a single word, is gene- 
 rally sufficient. But even if it should cost time to 
 correct them, the time must be given. The very 
 purpose of the teacher's professional existence is the 
 formation of character ; and of the two elements of 
 character, a good habit of the will claims his supreme 
 attention. Nor, indeed, is any time wasted even for 
 
MORAL TEACHING JUVENILE STAGE. 181 
 
 intellectual purposes which is devoted to the forma- 
 tion of a habit of will in harmony with the sentiments 
 and imperative laws of right conduct. 
 
 I have dwelt on the seeming trivialities of moral 
 instruction, because I have a strong conviction, that it 
 can be effectual in the primary school, especially in 
 the initiatory classes, only when conveyed in a par- 
 ticular and disciplinary, rather than in a general and 
 preceptive, form, and because it is beyond doubt that 
 moral training, in all its comprehensiveness and im- 
 portance, has not so prominent a place in the minds 
 of parochial schoolmasters arid in the scheme of school 
 duty, as it unquestionably ought to have. The master 
 has a tendency to think chiefly of certain intellectual 
 results, and in matters of morality to consider himself 
 absolved from all other and loftier aims if he merely 
 enjoins a certain number of imperative moral laws, 
 inflicts occasional punishment, and keeps outward 
 order. 
 
 Juvenile stage. When the pupil passes out of the 
 Initiatory into the Juvenile stage, that is to say, when 
 he reaches his tenth year, his power of realizing the 
 practical detail which precepts indicate and sum up 
 increases : he begins consciously to adopt them, and 
 when he errs, to err less through ignorance or weak- 
 ness than through wilfulness. Even at this stage, 
 however, and long after it has begun, the short bio- 
 graphy, the fable, and the parable are still the best in- 
 
182 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 structors in moral duties. Nevertheless, as precept 
 in its abstract form becomes intelligible and capable 
 of easy explanation and illustration, it may now 
 enter formally and with more effect into the daily 
 work. The principles which are to regulate his 
 conduct towards his fellows and his master are 
 already pretty well known to the boy in their par- 
 ticular forms, and are consequently now easily made 
 intelligible in their general and summarized expres- 
 sion. 
 
 Accordingly, as precepts and the grounds of them 
 are now comprehensible to the pupil, and there 
 fore really operative in the formation of good habits, 
 it is the duty of the teacher, while confirming the 
 moral lessons and practices of the initiatory stage, 
 to prepare for himself a scheme of preceptive teach- 
 ing, to some extent adapted to the circumstances 
 of his pupils. As, in regulating, refining, and ele- 
 vating the character of the petty acts of the school, 
 the master is presumed to have had in view the 
 counteraction of the too prevalent evils of home 
 influence, so now, in inculcating the precepts which 
 are to guide the boy's future, he must have regard 
 to those errors to which the class to which he be- 
 longs is most prone. I have, in a previous part of 
 this Eeport, when speaking of the limitations and 
 conditions under which the primary teacher works, 
 adverted to the kind of preceptive teaching most 
 imperatively demanded at this stage. It is easy to 
 imagine a lad to have learned the general duties of 
 
MORAL TEACHING .JUVENILE STAGE. 183 
 
 ju>tirr, honesty, truthfulness, generosity, and even to 
 1 e honestly striving after the practical realization of the 
 Golden Rule of conduct, and yet utterly to fail in doing 
 the just and right act. And why is this ? His intellect 
 has not been instructed on the final issue of many of 
 the acts which he considers to be harmless, or, if wrong, 
 venial ; especially those numerous acts which he ima- 
 gines to terminate in himself alone. In the regu- 
 lating of his body, for example, he has not been 
 taught that he owes a duty to himself as an in- 
 tellectual and moral being, and to the Creator who 
 endowed him with his physical frame. Least of all 
 has he learned to follow out into their evil effects on 
 others, the consequences of his own infringement of 
 the physiological laws under which he lives, and to 
 find in wilful self-neglect, or self-injury, the causes of 
 pain and injustice to his fellow-men. In all these 
 respects there is the inner habit of conscience, which 
 suggests that there is a right, but it is an unin- 
 structed conscience which cannot see wherein the 
 right consists. The intimate connexion of mental 
 and bodily health, and the moral obligation of 
 maintaining the latter, requires, it seems to me, 
 to be directly and carefully taught. Above all, 
 the illusion under which young men live, that their 
 body is their own, with which they may do as they 
 please, and that men of irregular habits are, as 
 the saying is, only " their own worst enemies," has to 
 be anxiously dispelled. That every man owes his 
 body to his family, to the State, and to the God who 
 
184 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 made it and placed it here, is a part of the moral 
 law. It is a part, however, the abstract statement of 
 which is utterly useless. It requires to be evolved 
 in connexion with a knowledge of the special laws 
 under which we breathe, eat, digest, and labour, if it 
 is to enter into the reason and not merely into the 
 memory of the pupil. Our purpose in the school 
 should be to make such things as familiar as the know- 
 ledge that to take another's property is theft, and 
 punishable by law. The necessity and the duty of 
 ventilation for himself and others, of regard to the 
 preparation of food, of attention to cleanliness and 
 exercise and of temperance, are all easy of explana- 
 tion in connexion with the grounds on which they 
 rest. They must be worked into the mind as part 
 of its ordinary moral stock. Without the principles 
 on which they rest, such teaching would be mani- 
 festly useless. Be just to your body that you may 
 discharge your other duties efficiently, and that you 
 may be just to others dependent on you and derived 
 from you, is an abstract generalizing of the duty, 
 which is as useless as other abstractions which cannot 
 be readily translated into the numberless particular 
 acts to which they refer. The very object of school 
 teaching of morality is to give, not only the what 
 but the how and the why of duty to guide, not to 
 make, the conscientious mind. 
 
 The next most important translation of the rule of 
 justice into the duties of common life, is the inculca- 
 tion of frugality and providence. The relation of 
 
MORAL TEACHING JUVENILE STAGE. 185 
 
 sick societies, annuities, and life-insurance, to the self- 
 respect and independence of a man, and to the proper 
 discharge of the barest duties which he owes to his 
 family, should be slowly, carefully, and frequently 
 explained and illustrated. In the course of doing so, 
 the connexion of providence with the other virtues, 
 the motive which it gives to the control of the lower 
 appetites and passions, the sense of moral freedom and 
 self-respect which it engenders, forces itself into view, 
 and furnishes the means of re-impressing the great 
 moral laws under a fresh aspect and in new relations. 
 
 Such rational preceptive teachings as these, adapted 
 of course to the age of the pupils who receive them, 
 are not only an important, but an essential part, of 
 any parochial-school moral education worthy of the 
 name. The thing to be regretted is, not that there 
 is any serious obstacle in the way of finding a place 
 for them in the school-scheme of a thoughtful teacher, 
 but that even thoughtful teachers seldom deliberately 
 set before themselves the direct systematic teaching 
 of practical morality. 
 
 The buying and selling of labour, and the many 
 moral and social questions which depend on the right 
 understanding of this, belong rather to the Evening 
 or Continuation- School, where boys of from thirteen 
 to seventeen years of age assemble to resume and 
 carry forward the instruction of their boyhood. 
 
 The moral relations of the sexes also belong to the 
 Evening school, and ought to be handled with the 
 
186 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 delicacy of perfect openness. It is a subject in con- 
 nexion with which arguments and facts superabound ; 
 arguments based on the sacredness of the family, and 
 on considerations of self-respect, morality, courage, 
 generosity, justice, chivalry, and religion. No moral 
 subject admits so readily of being invested with purity 
 and dignity of treatment. In Scotland, at least, it 
 is surely worth while to make the attempt. It is 
 probable that the hope of the country in this respect 
 lies in the improvement of the manners, the refine- 
 ment of the habits, and an increase in the modesty 
 of the young women, rather than in the better edu- 
 cation of the men. However this may be, it is a 
 matter for the grave consideration of school-managers, 
 that the counties which boast, and truly boast, the 
 highest parochial education in the world, are also 
 distinguished (if we may believe statistics) by emi- 
 nence in a vice which is not only bad in itself, but 
 indicates the existence of much irregularity of con- 
 duct, prevalent disregard of the weak, and a degraded 
 view of social relations. 
 
 MINOR MORALS OF THE SCHOOL. 
 
 Courtesy between boys and girls Influence of female schools Politeness- 
 Order Cleanliness, etc. Personal habits of teacher. 
 
 The subject to which the consideration of moral 
 teaching led me in concluding the last chapter, leads 
 
MIN01J MOKALS OF THE SCHOOL. 187 
 
 not unnaturally to the subject of the present. There 
 is a close connexion in mixed schools, as (practically) 
 all Scotch parochial schools are, between the petty 
 moralities of daily life, and the growth of proper 
 mutual relations between the male and female pupils. 
 It is in these petty moralities indeed that, as regards 
 the special vice already adverted to, the teacher's chief 
 power and chief duty lie. It belongs to a higher in- 
 structor, at a later stage, to elaborate principle out of 
 the groundwork of propriety of sentiment and decency 
 of external deportment. There is no reason to believe 
 that the mixing of boys and girls together, under 
 proper supervision, tends to lessen the respect of the 
 one and the modesty of the other. Shyness in mutual 
 intercourse is certainly quite eradicated by this means ; 
 but in the rooting up of this species of tare, the wheat 
 of real modesty is not necessarily pulled up with it. 
 I guard myself, however, by presuming proper super- 
 vision and good school discipline. Where these are 
 absent the consequences are lamentable. Respect is 
 broken down entirely, and the feebler sex is regarded 
 by the stronger as merely fair game for what is in 
 truth insult. And a worse result than this follows : 
 the feebler sex itself half accepts as legitimate fun 
 what it ought to resent as rudeness and insolence, and 
 the sense of shame and vexation too soon gives place to 
 the mock modesty of the averted giggle. That teacher 
 or inspector must be blind indeed (probably with the 
 blindness which familiarity causes) who, even without 
 wishing to see, has not had such results of lax discip- 
 
188 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 line in mixed schools forced upon his notice. On the 
 other hand, the well-disciplined mixed school affords 
 opportunities of regulating the conduct of boys and 
 girls towards each other, and so giving a natural and 
 healthy direction to sentiments which must in any case 
 spring up. The morbid and wondering suspicion of 
 each other, which is apt to be the result of entire sepa- 
 ration or jealous vigilance, is in itself a vice or the 
 anticipation of a vice, the immediate forerunner of 
 the very evils which it is our object to prevent. 
 Such feelings cannot exist where boys and girls are 
 allowed to consort together, and to look each other 
 frankly in the face as friends. There ought to be 
 no difficulty, where this custom is once established, 
 in insisting on courtesy and propriety from the one 
 sex, and gentleness and decency on the other, thereby 
 accustoming both to the recognition of a difference 
 which is not intended by nature to be an antagonism. 
 At the same time, while the actual facts of the case, 
 so far as I have observed them, acquit the mixed- 
 school system of being the positive cause of one of 
 the prevalent vices of Scotland, it is, if it may be so 
 put, a negative cause. To the improved demeanour, 
 and to the elevation of the more purely womanly 
 characteristics of the girls, we must look for the 
 amelioration of the relations between the rustic youth 
 of both sexes in Scotland ; and this cannot be 
 thoroughly attained without surrounding the girl 
 with gentler and softer influences than those to 
 which she is subject when sharing with boys an educa- 
 
MINOR MORALS OF THE SCHOOL. 189 
 
 tion expressly arranged with a view to the special 
 need of the latter. It is necessary that girls should 
 breathe the purer and gentler atmosphere of the female 
 school, if the more womanly virtues are to live and 
 grow. It is gratifying arid encouraging to see the 
 readiness with which the tender sensibilities of girls, 
 who at first sight are very unpromising, respond to the 
 gentle influence of the female school, where one has 
 been instituted. It is impossible to shut our eyes to the 
 unexpected moral results of exclusively female train- 
 ing, or refuse the conviction which such facts force 
 on us, namely, that the extension of girls' schools, 
 under properly- trained mistresses, is one of the most 
 powerful moral agencies at present within our reach. 
 The deficiencies of " mistress's grammar" are far more 
 than counterbalanced by the prominence given to 
 industrial skill, itself both a womanly accomplish- 
 ment, and exercising a feminine influence on the 
 learners. 1 
 
 This subject is a large and important one, worthy 
 of much fuller treatment than can be given to it 
 here ; but before leaving it, I shall quote from Mr. 
 Brookfield's Eeport for 1860 a few concise and feli- 
 citous words, which sum up the argument. After 
 admitting the intellectual inferiority of schools in 
 England taught by mistresses, he says : 
 
 1 The specially feminine portions of instruction stand very much in 
 need of organization in Scotland. Mr. Birley, on p. 30 of the Privy 
 Council Blae-Book for 1865,. sketches a very good course of industrial 
 instruction. On the Influence of Female Schools, see Report by Rev. 
 J. P. Norris (Privy Council Blue-Book for 1861-2, pp. 85-9). 
 
190 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 " But though figures are inflexible, and a remorseless average 
 discards the modifying influence of chivalry, it must be remembered 
 that, after all, this average itself confesses that in every hundred girls' 
 schools there are fifteen which indicate the ablest, the most suitable, 
 and the most judicious management, and forty which are by no 
 means to be complained of, and which, according to the prevailing 
 standard, must be considered no less than fairly satisfactory ; while 
 of all the hundred (with very rare, surprisingly rare, exceptions) the 
 cleanly appearance, the quiet propriety of demeanour, the modesty 
 of speech and manner, and, so far as I can learn, the moral rectitude 
 by which they are characterized, give evidence of their being placed 
 under an habitual influence, incalculably more important than any 
 intellectual qualifications, and entitle our schoolmistresses to be 
 pronounced one of the most praiseworthy and valuable classes of the 
 community." 
 
 A consideration of the feelings and the outward 
 behaviour which should regulate the intercourse of 
 boys and girls in a mixed school, will reveal the de- 
 fects of the present system of training, or rather of 
 disregard of training, in little things, where boys 
 only are concerned. The teacher's business is, while 
 avoiding everything that is inquisitorial, and dis- 
 couraging reports brought by others, to exercise such 
 a general supervision as will enable him to know the 
 spirit which pervades the school, and to guide and 
 correct its exhibitions when necessary. He must make 
 the school feel unmistakably that his weight is thrown 
 on the side of weakness and gentleness, and against 
 the rude assumptions of physical strength. It is not 
 enough that he take the opportunities which will be 
 abundantly afforded him of reproving deceit and false- 
 hood, of correcting injustice, and of contemning mean- 
 
MINOR MORALS OF THE SCHOOL. 191 
 
 ness ; he must convince the rough boys under his 
 charge that the younger and less able of their fel- 
 lows demand more than ordinary consideration from 
 them. The strong man owes more, as a mere act of 
 equity, to the weak than he owes to his equal in 
 strength. Mutual consideration among schoolboys 
 becomes the more important the lower the stratum of 
 the population from which the children are drawn. 
 
 Mutual consideration involves much ; not merely 
 substantial justice and truthfulness, but kindliness, 
 pity, helpfulness, gentleness, and also civility and 
 politeness. By politeness is meant the forms of 
 civility, civility again meaning that feeling of re- 
 spect for others, and of what is due to them, which 
 exists more or less in every mind which has emerged 
 from the unadulterated self-assertion of barbarism. 
 To insist upon the forms of this feeling even where 
 the reality does not exist, is not to be condemned 
 as we condemn the requiring of the outward show 
 of love when it has no root in the heart. To require 
 a child to love is to lay the foundation of a false nature. 
 But, while we admit the radical error of exacting 
 love, we must not carry too far the principle which 
 leads us to condemn all forms of feeling. The atti 
 tude and the words of prayer, for example, should 
 l)e always demanded whether the pious emotion be 
 active or dormant, because, in requiring these, we 
 only insist on what it is possible to give at will, 
 namely, submission and reverence to our Creator and 
 Pivsorver. As it is perfectly legitimate in the region 
 
192 BEPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 of religious sentiment to order what can be responded 
 to by an effort of will, so also in matters of mutual 
 courtesy of deeds and words. Further, where by 
 skilful treatment the finer sentiments can actually be 
 stirred into activity in the young heart, to insist on 
 their natural expression is so far from encouraging 
 hypocrisy, that it is welcome to the child. 
 
 Teachers should also bear in mind that all formal 
 expression of sentiment, is like the expression of 
 struggling thought in words. It gives it clearness, 
 definiteness, and substance. It reacts on the mental 
 state, and confirms it. Hence the utility of mere forms 
 of civility. In requiring the form, the teacher either 
 helps the pupil over the awkwardness of showing 
 what he feels, or he reminds him that the feeling 
 is wanting and ought to be supplied. In either 
 case he has conferred a moral benefit on the pupil. 
 The repetition of those formal acts of politeness for 
 which the school affords scope, tends, by constantly 
 suggesting the corresponding sentiments, to estab- 
 lish civility (which is only a kind of refinement of 
 justice) as a habit of will. So great is the effect of 
 due attention to the petty moralities of the school- 
 room. It is scarcely necessary to add, that apart from 
 direct instruction and his own example, the only 
 way in which the teacher can attain the results 
 at which I point in matters of propriety and cour- 
 tesy is by detecting the wrong-doer, and causing him 
 to do over again and rightly, the act which in his 
 haste or his selfishness he has done wrong. 
 
MINOR MOKALS OF THE SCHOOL. 193 
 
 Passing from those minor morals of the school- 
 room which concern the conduct of the pupils towards 
 radi other or their master, we come to those which 
 immediately concern the pupil himself. Lounging 
 in class with hands in pockets should be interpreted 
 by the master as a mark of disrespect to himself 
 as well as of inattention to the lessons. Personal 
 cleanliness, entering and leaving the schoolroom as 
 a boy of decent manners is expected to enter and 
 to leave a private house, quiet formation of classes 
 without jostling, are all of importance in creating 
 that habit of mind of which good manners is the 
 fruit. It is in Scotch schools especially that all these 
 little-great things are neglected. Very many of our 
 teachers seem to have quite lost all delicacy of per- 
 ception on such matters, and they consequently sub 
 mit to practices which, to the unaccustomed visitor, 
 are intolerable. It is by no means so uncommon 
 as it ought to be to find boys standing in class 
 order, or rather disorder, at irregular intervals, with 
 hands in pockets, and from time to time spitting on 
 the floor. It is always best to find some one notion, 
 the possession of which removes from the mind all 
 difficulties in the way of applying principles. The 
 notion which facilitates the solution of all difficulties 
 in the matters of which I am now speaking, is this, 
 that the schoolroom is the master's house, and that 
 no manners or practices can be suffered in the one 
 which would be discountenanced in the other. 
 
 N 
 
194 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 The general rule given above has the further ad- 
 vantage of throwing light on those minor moralities 
 of the school, which depend on the example of the 
 teacher himself. The courtesies and the personal 
 habits which he inculcates he must practise ; and 
 he will find no safer guide whereby to regulate his 
 personal demeanour towards all around him than 
 the reflection that he is in the position of the mas- 
 ter of a house receiving guests guests under some- 
 what special conditions certainly, but still, in all 
 essential respects, guests. He will scarcely venture 
 to discharge the duty of host dirty, unshaven and 
 in slippers ; nor will he dare to take unfair advan- 
 tage of the fact that his pupils are compulsory guests, 
 to speak to them in a style which would empty the 
 room were they free to leave. He cannot in any 
 case expect his pupils to behave better than himself. 
 
 The last department of petty morals concerns the 
 arrangements of the schoolroom itself. These all fall 
 under the heads of cleanliness, order, light, and ven- 
 tilation. A dirty floor, and dirtier walls and win- 
 dows, untidy arrangement of little things, such as 
 ink-wells, copybooks, pens, the accumulations on the 
 master's desk, the uncleaned black-board, the absent 
 chalk and towel, the dusty maps and globes, the 
 slovenly hearth and absent fender what must be 
 the moral effect of such wilful renunciation of every- 
 thing in the furnishing of daily life that makes civili- 
 sation better than barbarism ? With such surround 
 
.THE TEACHING OF RELIGION. 195 
 
 MILTS as these it is absurd for the teacher to talk of 
 school ideals, or indeed of education in any lofty or 
 iv lined sense. To teach attention to the laws of 
 health in the midst of dirt and in an unventilated 
 room, and to require activity of brain in the midst 
 of a tainted atmosphere, are mockeries. The exist- 
 ence of such contravention of the very first conditions 
 of education seems in these days almost incredible, 
 and yet are there twenty 'per cent, of Scotch schools 
 in which cleanliness and ventilation are systemati- 
 cally and properly attended to ? I should say not. 
 
 But to enumerate all the petty moralities of the 
 schoolroom would be to depart from the general 
 objects of this Keport and to write a school-manual 
 a useless labour, even if it were practicable, here. 
 Let a man cultivate the personal habits and cheap 
 necessities of a gentleman, and carry these into the 
 schoolroom with him, and, in the matter of the minor 
 moralities, nothing more will remain to be done. 1 
 
 THE TEACHING OF RELIGION. 
 
 In the inculcation of moral duties, whether this be 
 done by the direct instruction of precept and example, 
 or by the indirect and more efficacious instruction of 
 discipline, the teacher must employ the sanctions of 
 Religion. He must early associate the authority of God 
 
 1 The bearing of school-gardens on the minor morals of a school would 
 merit consideration here did spa.ce permit. 
 
196 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 with the imperativeness of the Moral Law. Divine 
 revelation is not necessary to the discovery, nor 
 the Divine sanction to the obligations of morality, 
 but both are means of re-establishing and sanctify- 
 ing what nature and reason teach. Nay, more, such 
 is the frailty of man, and such the inherent ten- 
 dency to wrong, that morality requires all the support 
 which it can draw from the constant impression on 
 the growing mind that it has its first source and ulti 
 mate sanction in the Divine reason. To teach morality 
 in its infinite ramifications, with all the aids which the 
 arguments of personal wellbeing and social utility 
 yield, with constant reference to the God who created 
 us and in whose hands our destinies are, and to the 
 revelations which He has made of Himself and His 
 purposes, is the highest duty of the schoolmaster, 
 and is that part of his national function which gives 
 it dignity, and secures for it the respect of the 
 thoughtful. 
 
 But this kind of teaching presupposes that the 
 child has first been taught that there is a God, and 
 that He is " a Spirit, eternal and unchangeable in his 
 being, wisdom, power, holiness, justice, goodness, and 
 truth/' And it is precisely in this, the first and great- 
 est lesson which the child can learn, that scholastic 
 methods intervene and insist on being obeyed. The 
 subject is too momentous to be left to the rude 
 handling of those who seem to think that the fact 
 itself is all in all, and the mode of presenting it 
 nothing. The earliest impressions are the strongest, and 
 
THE TEACHING OF RELIGION. 197 
 
 in matters connected with our emotional nature this 
 is in a special sense true. The teacher must pause, 
 thm'foiv, and consider as he approaches the deepest 
 recesses of the young mind. , He goes there to give 
 right shape to the confused sense of an all-pervading, 
 unknown power, on which foundation must rest the 
 idea of God. This idea, let us remember, formed 
 under the influence of Christian doctrine, is to be to 
 the child the basis of his future religious life. 
 
 How, then, shall we introduce the child to that which 
 must, whether he will or not, be at once the ground- 
 plan and the foundation of any religious edifice which 
 may be afterwards reared in his mind ? This assur- 
 edly is a solemn question, and to the teacher full of 
 great responsibilities. The parent and not the school- 
 master, it is true, should lay this foundation ; but 
 even where the latter finds it laid, his religious teach- 
 ing must have constant reference to the idea which 
 has been sown, and must tend to foster, retard, or 
 modify its growth. 1 
 
 In Religion, as in everything else, a child can 
 know a new thing only as it stands related to things 
 already known. It has also to be remembered that 
 
 1 It is scarcely necessary to point out that neither here nor in the cor- 
 responding chapter in the second part of this Report, have I to do with 
 the subject-matter of the religious instruction in the schools. I shall be 
 understood to have reference to the order of the instruction given, and to 
 the method pursued by the master. If I seem to dwell longer on the 
 mere initiation into religion, than on the more advanced doctrinal instruc- 
 tion, I do so because it is in the initiatory stages of teaching all subjects 
 that method is of greatest importance, and also because systematized 
 initiatory religious instruction does not receive sufficient attention in the 
 majority of parochial schools. 
 
193 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 tilings abstract have to the child or the boy no sig- 
 nificance whatsoever : it is only in a concrete form 
 that anything can enter into his intelligence. Even 
 in very palpable moral duties, to speak to a child 
 or a very young boy about being just, true, merciful, 
 and honest, is, we have found, to speak to the winds : 
 it is a comparatively useless process, so far as the 
 pupil is concerned, and at the same time it interposes 
 between him and his natural guide and instructor a 
 multitude of unmeaning words, thus cutting him off, 
 by the intervention of the barrier of the unintelligible, 
 from that candid and confiding moral relationship which 
 is his greatest (though unconscious) happiness, and the 
 essential condition of moral influence in the teacher or 
 parent. That he is not to do this or that particular 
 act because the person he loves or respects disapproves 
 of it and because it is unkind and wrong, he can 
 understand ; but it is long before he can generalize 
 these various individual acts under their proper terms, 
 arid guide his conduct by the generalization. If this 
 be true in morals, how much more necessary in a 
 matter so delicate and difficult as early religious teach - 
 ing, to connect the truth we give with concrete forms, 
 and with other things already known, by which its 
 meaning may be interpreted. 
 
 Happily, the Faith which has to be taught in our 
 schools furnishes us with the great fundamental truth 
 of the religious life in a form which fulfils all the 
 requirements of the most exacting method. That 
 the great unseen Power, of which the vague surmis- 
 
THE TEACHING OF KEL1G10N. 199 
 
 ID n-s fitfully pass through the hearts of children, is a 
 Father loving them and wishing to do them good 
 
 this first truth, if. faithfully taught, explains the 
 Unknown in the spirit of love, and gives from the 
 first a Christian direction to the feelings and thoughts 
 regarding the Unseen, those premonitions of know- 
 ledge and faith, which observation and reading from 
 time to time inevitably stir up in the minds of the 
 young. If this simple and gentle thought of God- 
 the thought which the Saviour of mankind revealed 
 to us be honestly and fully impressed on. the ten 
 der mind, I think we can almost afford, so far as 
 method is concerned, to let all future religious teach- 
 ing take the direction which the teacher's idiosyn- 
 crasies may give it ; insisting only on one condition, 
 that the abstract statement of systematic truth be 
 postponed to the biographical and concrete forms in 
 which Divine wisdom has seen fit to embody that 
 truth. 
 
 The teacher must be careful in his teaching. He 
 must not first instil into the unfolding mind the God 
 of law and judgment, rectifying and exalting that 
 idea afterwards by the true doctrine of Christ. This is 
 to assume that the revelation of Christ regarding God, 
 and man's relation to Him, is merely a supplement 
 to the notion of a God of law and judgment, whereas 
 it is a superseding of that imperfect notion by means 
 of a higher the notion of Fatherhood and love. 
 This new idea must be made to lie at the root of the 
 idea of God in the minds of the young, His character 
 
200 KEPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 of Lawgiver and Judge being shown to arise out of 
 and to harmonize with the higher conception. When 
 afterwards enforcing religious doctrines and duties, 
 the teacher must anxiously keep in view this the 
 Fatherly character of God. For a child may obey 
 what he believes to be" the commands of God ; he 
 may fear God and have Him often in his thoughts ; 
 but to love God is in the very nature of things an 
 impossibility, except in so far as he apprehends clearly 
 that God first loved him, and that the chief and 
 ruling attribute of the Divine Being is love. 
 
 The teacher's next duty is to present Christian doc- 
 trine in the richly coloured but simple language of 
 the New Testament, interesting the child personally in 
 the story of love which is the foundation of the Chris- 
 tian faith, causing him to feel that it is to him 
 personally and truly a message of good-will. 
 
 It is evident, however, that a method, however 
 admirable, may be nullified by the mode of apply- 
 ing it. If we convert the life of Christ into a series 
 of school lessons, failing to make any pause when we 
 approach holy ground, whereby to distinguish the 
 Religious lesson from others, we shall certainly do 
 our best to weaken the effect of the Gospel teach- 
 ing. The ancient custom of using the Bible as a 
 reading lesson-book originated at a time when no 
 other manual was to be had, and is now con- 
 tinued merely through the force of habit. I can. 
 
THE TEACHING OF RELIGION. 201 
 
 imagine nothing which could bring more genuine 
 satisfaction to a teacher in earnest about laying sure 
 and strong foundations of the spiritual life in his 
 pupils, tlian the discovery that he might dispense with 
 the Bible as a task-book, and give it a distinct place of 
 its own in the schoolroom. Some progress has already 
 Uvii made in this withdrawal of the Bible from the 
 category of lesson-books. It is no longer employed for 
 purposes of grammar and spelling. It is to be hoped 
 that the use of it as a reading lesson-book will also 
 gradually give way before a clearer apprehension of the 
 objects and methods of religious teaching. The Bible 
 should be approached with solemnity, handled with 
 reverence, and daily read by master and pupils to- 
 gether rather as a relaxation from ordinary tasks than 
 as itself a task. In the one subject of Religion, if in 
 no other, it seems to me that the teacher might advan- 
 tageously assume the attitude of a fellow-learner with 
 his pupils, and lay aside the magisterial airs of assumed 
 infallibility and hard superiority, which too often ac 
 company the Bible lesson. How else can Christianity 
 preserve in the school its distinguishing characteristic 
 as an exhibition of Divine good-will stirring the heart 
 to love, or retain those elements of mystery, infinitude, 
 and awe, which feed reverence and call forth worship ? 
 
 The third stage of religious teaching is the cateche- 
 tical or dogmatic. This kind of teaching is frequently 
 introduced at a wrong time. It is not a matter o 
 indifference that the Gospel story be first received into 
 
202 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 the mind of the child in all the native purity, power, 
 and charm of the form in which it has been given. 
 Even St. Paul gives the difficult food of generalized 
 and theoretic doctrine only to those who had already 
 heard him deliver, in language suited to their previous 
 habits of thought, the glad tidings of great joy, peace 
 on earth, good- will towards men. Let us follow 
 this example, and as far as possible postpone abs- 
 tract dogmatic teaching until the concrete dogmatic 
 teaching of the Gospels has become a possession. The 
 age at which abstract catechetical instruction should 
 be begun, however, is a question that cannot unfor- 
 tunately be solely determined by the previous training 
 and preparation of the pupil. The early removal of 
 children from school imposes on the teacher the ob- 
 ligation of giving them premature mastery over the 
 form of words which embodies their faith. We have 
 at least the consolation of thinking that this practice 
 is not so irrational and indefensible as some education- 
 ists assume. The teacher, in the primary, secondary, 
 and university schools alike, is constantly outrunning 
 his pupils. The conscious or unconscious exertion of 
 mind to grasp something beyond its present powers 
 is itself a discipline. Not only so, the form of sound 
 words, whether they summarize intellectual, moral, 
 or religious truths, is itself a valuable acquisition. It 
 provides a kind of mould into which the growing ex- 
 perience shapes itself, until at last the form is vitally 
 Apprehended by the mind as the true and fit expres 
 sion of the inner fact. It does not retard, though it 
 
THE TEACHING OF KKLICION. 203 
 
 may not hasten, growth and maturity. Thus far the 
 unfortunate necessity of premature instruction may 
 be fairly defended on rational grounds. 
 
 No less important than the substance and order of 
 religious teaching is fitness of manner in the teacher 
 when conducting the instruction of a class. What 
 is desiderated in every subject is truth of manner, 
 but this, above all, in handling religious topics. That 
 is to say, the teacher must be seen himself to believe 
 in the value of the lesson he gives. If there be 
 this belief, the outward expression of it in the eye 
 and the unconscious gestures will be true to the 
 character of the subject which is before the class. 
 The hard, dictatorial, and undevotional style in 
 which masters are too often wont to give religi- 
 ous instruction, and their awkward, unjoyous mode 
 of conducting songs and hymns, have led me gra- 
 dually to the conviction that the education of very 
 youny children should be confided solely to mistresses. 
 The man, when entering on the religious lesson (if 
 lesson it ought to be called), seems to be less capable 
 than the woman of feeling the delicacy as well as the 
 greatness of the subject, and of adapting his mind to 
 these conceptions. He more readily forgets that he 
 is dealing with the emotions of his pupils and these 
 the deepest and purest emotions of which human 
 nature is susceptible and that his own mental atti- 
 tude should be that of calm, solemnity, and reverence. 
 It is the manifestation by the teacher himself of these 
 
204 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 appropriate feelings which can alone excite in the 
 pupils a sympathetic response, and secure a ready ear 
 and heart for the truths which they herald. This 
 emotional response secured, the work of the teacher 
 is more than half done : until it be secured, his work 
 is not even begun, however frequent and elaborate his 
 didactic utterances, or however exacting his demands. 
 It is grievous to think how seldom it is secured, when 
 we reflect on the readiness with which the infant 
 mind responds to everything which touches the ima- 
 gination or the emotions. The golden opportunities of 
 childhood are wasted, and as years advance the heart 
 becomes less accessible. 
 
 END OF FART FIRST. 
 
REPORT TO THE TRUSTEES OF THE 
 DICK BEQUEST. 
 
 PART SECOND. 
 
 HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL. 
 
PAET SECOND. 
 
 HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ORIGIN AND AMOUNT OF THE BEQUEST. 
 
 Mr. James Dick Professor Allan Menzies Trustees and Office-BearersTerms 
 of Bequest from Mr. Dick's Will. 
 
 THE founder of the Dick Bequest was JAMES 
 DICK, Esq., of Finsbury Square, London. He was 
 born of respectable parents, in the burgh of Forres, 
 Morayshire, upon 14th November 1743. No authen- 
 tic particulars of his early years have been obtained ; 
 but he is said to have received an excellent education. 
 At the age of nineteen he went to the West Indies, 
 and entered a mercantile house at Kingston, Jamaica, 
 where his talents and industry soon gained for him a 
 share in his employer's business. After twenty years 
 he returned to England with a considerable fortune, 
 to which, by judicious speculation, he made large 
 additions. 
 
 Mr. Dick died on 24th May 1828, bequeathing 
 nearly his whole fortune to the maintenance and as- 
 sistance of " the Country Parochial Schoolmasters" 
 
208 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 in his native county of Elgin or Moray, and in the 
 neighbouring counties of Banff and Aberdeen. 
 
 The Bequest amounted, in 1833, to a capital sum 
 of 113,147, 4s. 7d., which was afterwards increased 
 to 118,787, 11s. The annual income fluctuates with 
 the rise and fall of the rate of interest upon Land Secu- 
 rities in Scotland, and the free annual revenue, after 
 deducting all expenses of management, has varied 
 since 1835 from 5489, 6s. lOd., to 3326, 17s. 3d. 
 The amount divided among the schoolmasters in 1864 
 was 4344, 13s. 9d. 
 
 The passage of Mr. Dick's will containing the Be- 
 quest, with the conditions attached to it, is appended 
 to this chapter. He revoked the nomination of per- 
 sons through whom it was his original purpose to 
 administer the Trust ; but in all other respects the 
 settlement remained entire, and was carried into 
 effect. The proceedings in Chancery, by which the 
 selection of Trustees was regulated, were explained in 
 the first Report, published in 1835. The result was 
 to vest the administration of the Bequest in the 
 Keeper and Deputy-Keeper of the Signet, the Trea- 
 surer of the Society of Writers to the Signet, Edin- 
 burgh, and eight Commissioners chosen by and from 
 among the Commissioners of the Signet, in terms of 
 a Deed of Declaration of Trust, containing various 
 provisions regarding the management of the Fund, 
 which was executed by the Trustees in 1832. 
 
 The original office-bearers of the Trust consisted of 
 a Treasurer and a Clerk, the duty of the latter being 
 
TRUSTEES AND OFFICE-BEARERS. 209 
 
 not only to administer the Bequest but to inspect the 
 schools and to report on them to the Trustees. The 
 Clerk was understood to complete a tour of inspection 
 within three years. After the Treasurer's death in 
 1853, the experience which the Trustees had acquired 
 led them to unite the duties of Treasurer with those 
 of Clerk, and to resolve to appoint a gentleman to the 
 office of Visitor, requiring him to visit the schools and 
 report on them once in two years. The Clerk, Pro- 
 fessor Allan Menzies, by whom the details of the 
 administration of the Trust were to a great extent 
 originated, and to whose firmness, sagacity, and eleva 
 tion of character it owed the high estimation in which 
 it was held, not only in the north of Scotland but 
 through the whole country, continued to act as 
 Visitor (being generally accompanied by Professor 
 Kelland of Edinburgh University) until his death, in 
 February 1856. 
 
 The death of Professor Menzies, who had acted as 
 Clerk and Visitor to the Trustees from the commence- 
 ment of their operations, was severely felt by all 
 interested in the education of the three counties. To 
 him more than to any other was due the initiation 
 of the administrative rules under which the Trustees 
 have so successfully applied the Bequest ; and the more 
 the elaborate machinery which he was the chief agent 
 in constructing is examined, the stronger will be the 
 disposition to admire its adaptation to effect, in the 
 largest sense, the real objects of the testator. Professor 
 Menzies's sincere and profound interest in the cause 
 
210 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 of popular education stimulated his naturally robust 
 intellect to devise the best measures for promoting it, 
 and sustained him in applying them, in the face of con- 
 siderable opposition and frequent misconception. An 
 educational bequest so peculiar in its provisions as 
 that of Mr. Dick, manifestly required for its suc- 
 cessful administration a mind capable of grasping 
 general principles, and, at the same time, of compre- 
 hending and appreciating the minutest details. In 
 Professor Menzies the Trustees happily found the 
 requisite combination. The characteristics which have 
 made the Dick Bequest stand alone in the history of 
 popular education are, in truth, a reflection of the 
 mind of the first administrator. But educational 
 zeal sustaining a naturally vigorous intellect would 
 not have sufficed for carrying out into practice mea- 
 sures in themselves novel, and unavoidably exposed 
 to much suspicious criticism. It was the firmness 
 of purpose, the sound judgment, the strong sense of 
 equity, the unswerving integrity, so conspicuous in 
 Professor Menzies, which made it possible to work out 
 these measures successfully. To those who marked 
 the progress of the Bequest from the outside these 
 were the qualities in the administrator which secured 
 for the Trustees respect and confidence. But to those 
 who have perused Professor Menzies's Eeports, and 
 who had opportunities of conversing with him on 
 the work which lay so near to his heart, it is well 
 known that the source of all his strength and hope- 
 fulness, and persistence in the discharge of duty, was 
 
PROFESSOR ALLAN MENZIES. 211 
 
 his ardent desire to promote the religious teaching of 
 the schools, and, while training the intelligence of the 
 young, above all to establish them firmly in Christian 
 principles. To communicate to others his own strong 
 faith and high convictions was the great object of 
 that portion of his life which was devoted to the 
 cause of education, with results so signally beneficial. 
 The following is the Minute in which the Trustees 
 expressed the sense of their loss : 
 
 " The Deputy-Keeper said he felt it to be his duty, on this their 
 first meeting since the death of their late Clerk, to bring before the 
 Trustees that fact officially. The meeting would, he knew, think it 
 right, before proceeding with the regular business, to express in their 
 Minutes the sense of the deep feeling which the Trustees entertained 
 of the severe loss which they had sustained. 
 
 " The meeting wish, then, to express that feeling. Their ex- 
 pressions are not merely commonplace or conventional expressions, 
 but those of sincere and heartfelt grief for the loss which has fallen 
 on them personally by the death of Mr. Menzies, and on the trust 
 which is committed to their charge. The loss may almost, and for 
 no short time indeed literally, be said to be irreparable. 
 
 " Mr. Menzies had been Clerk to the Trust since its commence- 
 ment, and had, to the ordinary duties of Clerk, added those of 
 Visitor and Inspector. He was enabled to perform these varied 
 duties by such a union of rare talents and acquirements as the 
 Trustees cannot again hope to find in one individual. In Mr. 
 Menzies they were directed also and guided by an untiring and 
 conscientious energy, ever aiming at the good of the very important 
 Trust committed to those under and with whom he acted. His 
 views and suggestions were thus ever found by the Trustees to be 
 worthy of that entire confidence with which they were ever re- 
 ceived and acted on ; and for the results, the Trustees feel that 
 they may fearlessly appeal to the good which they have been enabled 
 to do to the cause of education in the schools under their charge. 
 That good is certainly mainly to be attributed to the exertions of 
 
212 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 Mr. Menzies, and the Trustees desired to record their sense of the 
 value of those exertions, and of the loss which the Trust has sus- 
 tained by being thus suddenly deprived of them." . . . 
 
 The Clerkship and Treasurership were then con 
 ferred on Kobert Blair Maconochie, Esq., W.S., while 
 the office of Visitor was conferred on your reporter. 
 I mention these facts in order that the history of the 
 Bequest may not be lost sight of by those who may 
 be in future called on to act as its administrators, 
 either in the capacity of trustees or of salaried officials. 
 For the same reason I record here the names of the 
 Commissioners of Signet who at present act as Trus- 
 tees of the Bequest, and of others connected with the 
 
 administration : 
 
 Trustees. 
 
 RIGHT HON. SIR WILLIAM GIBSON-CRAIG, BART., KEEPER OF HER 
 
 MAJESTY'S SIGNET. 
 JAS. HOPE, DEPUTY-KEEPER. 
 J. GIBSON, JTJN., TREASURER. 
 
 Commissioners. 
 JAMES MACKENZIE. A. CAMPBELL. 
 
 JOHN ELDER. 
 JAS. M. MELVILLE. 
 HENRY CHEYNE. 
 
 GEO. T. STODART. 
 JOHN ORD MACKENZIE. 
 JOHN WRIGHT. 
 
 Clerk and Treasurer. 
 ROBERT BLAIR MACONOCHIE, W.S. 
 
 Visitor of Schools. 
 SIMON S. LAURIE, A.M. 
 
 Examiners of Candidates for Participation in the Bequest. 
 THE REV. PHILIP KELLAND, F.R.S., PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. 
 THE VERY REV. JOHN TULLOCH, D.D., PRINCIPAL AND PRIMARIUS 
 
 PROFESSOR or DIVINITY, ST. MARY'S COLLEGE, ST. ANDREWS. 
 THE REV. WILLIAM P. DICKSON, D.D., PROFESSOR OF DIVINITY AND 
 
 BIBLICAL CRITICISM IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW. 
 
TERMS OF BEQUEST. 213 
 
 Tci"nis of the Bequest, from Mr. Dick's last Will and 
 Testament, dated 18th May 1827. 
 
 " And it is my will, that the said Principals and Professors a shall 
 pay the interest, dividends, and annual produce of such securities, 
 from time to time, as the same shall become due, to the Professors 
 of the Faculties of Arts and Divinity in the said Colleges for the 
 time being, to be by them applied in manner, and subject to the 
 regulations hereinafter mentioned, to the maintenance and assist- 
 ance of the Country Parochial Schoolmasters, as by law established, 
 in the three counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray, excluding the 
 royal burghs ; it being my wish to form a fund for the benefit of 
 that neglected, though useful class of men, and to add to their 
 present very trifling salaries : And with regard to the distribution 
 of the income arising from the said fund, and to the selection of 
 the objects to be benefited thereby, I wish the following rules to 
 be observed : First, That the Country Parochial Schoolmasters, by 
 law established, in the three counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray, 
 exclusive of the royal burghs, shall alone be entitled to the benefit 
 of the said fund ; Secondly, That the income thereof be applied in 
 such manner, as not in any manner to relieve the Heritors, or other 
 persons, from their legal obligations to support Parochial School- 
 masters, or to diminish the extent of such support, and so as not 
 to interfere with the rights or power of Heritors and Presbyteries 
 over Schoolmasters, or the schools intrusted to their care, as the 
 same rights or powers are by law insured to them ; Thirdly, That 
 the said Professors for the time being shall have full power to pay 
 and distribute the income of the said fund, from time to time, to or 
 among all or such one or more of the Parochial Schoolmasters 
 aforesaid, in such proportions, and, generally, to dispose of the said 
 income among them, in such manner as to such Professors shall 
 seem most likely to encourage active Schoolmasters, and gradually 
 to elevate the literary character of the Parochial Schoolmasters and 
 Schools aforesaid ; and, for these purposes, to increase, diminish, or 
 
 1 This nomination having been revoked by Mr. Dick, the selection of 
 Trustees was settled by proceedings in Chancery after his death. 
 
214 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 altogether to discontinue, the salary or allowance to be from time 
 to time made to all or any of such Schoolmasters, without being 
 accountable for so doing : And I particularly recommend the said 
 Professors to pay great attention to the qualifications and diligence 
 of the several Parochial Schoolmasters, for and in superintending 
 the education of Students in the said Colleges, during the intervals 
 between the sessions thereof, and for and in preparing youths for 
 the said Colleges, taking care, at the same time, that the common 
 branches of education are properly attended to at the said Parochial 
 Schools ; and in order to enable the said Professors to perform the 
 several trusts aforesaid more easily, I authorize them to appoint a 
 proper person, from time to time, as they shall see fit, to act as 
 their Clerk, who shall be properly qualified, and fully competent to 
 such office, and to allow such Clerk such a salary as the said Pro- 
 fessors shall think fit, and with power to them to remove any such 
 Clerk, whenever they think proper : And I empower the said Pro- 
 fessors for the time bein^ to manage and dispose of the funds to be 
 paid to them generally, in such way as shall seem to them best 
 calculated to effect the purposes aforesaid." 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 CHARACTER OF THE BEQUEST, AND OF ITS ADMINIS- 
 TRATION. 
 
 The Bequest not a Charity Historical sketch of Parochial School system 
 Outline of the principles of administration. 
 
 IT was contended by many in the North that the 
 Trustees ought to make an equal division of the 
 annual free proceeds of Mr. Dick's endowment, with 
 holding the benefit of it only from such teachers 
 as notoriously failed to discharge their duty. This 
 would have been to convert the Bequest into a 
 charity. The Trustees have always maintained that 
 the money which they distribute annually is not 
 a charitable or eleemosynary endowment, but a re- 
 ward for good scholarship and efficient teaching. 
 That they are right in taking this view of the Bequest 
 is clearly shown by the terms of Mr. Dick's testa 
 ment, in which the Trustees are empowered to pay 
 the income to " such one or more [of the school- 
 masters] in such proportions, and generally to dis- 
 pose of the said income among them in such 
 manner as to the Trustees shall seem most likely to 
 encourage active schoolmasters, and gradually to 
 elevate the literary character of the parochial school- 
 
216 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 masters and schools ; " and further " to increase, 
 diminish, or altogether to discontinue the salary 
 or allowance to be from time to time made to all 
 or any." The Trustees accordingly were not only 
 authorized, but required to apply the Bequest to the 
 encouragement of literary attainment in the teachers 
 of the three counties, to the promotion of efficiency in 
 teaching, and to the literary advancement of the 
 schools. These three objects the Trustees have kept 
 steadily in view throughout. The details of admin- 
 istration, whereby they have given effect to this in- 
 terpretation of their Trust, I will shortly explain, for 
 the information of those who may be curious regard 
 ing this portion of the history of Scotch education, 
 and for the instruction of those who may in future 
 be personally connected with the Bequest as bene- 
 ficiaries. 
 
 But before doing so it is necessary to state shortly 
 the nature of the Scotch school organization to which 
 the Trustees had to adapt their rules. Without some 
 such statement the rules of the Trustees would be 
 unintelligible. 
 
 The Act of Parliament of 1696 definitely consti- 
 tuted the Parochial School system of Scotland. 
 
 Prior to 1696 we find an enactment of the Scotch 
 Government, as early as 1494, enacting that all barons 
 and freeholders of substance " should put their eldest 
 sons and heirs to the schools from the age of eight or 
 
SKETCH OF PAROCHIAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. 217 
 
 nine years; to remain at the grammar-school till 
 they bo competently founded, and have perfect Latin ; 
 -ni(l thereafter that they remain three years at the 
 Schools of Art (Arts) and Jurisprudence, so that they 
 may have knowledge and understanding of the laws ; 
 through the which justice may reign universally 
 through all the realm, so that they that are sheriffs 
 or judges ordinary under the King's highness may 
 have knowledge to do justice, that the poor people 
 may have no need to seek an audience of the sove 
 reign lords for every small injury." There was a com- 
 pulsory clause in this enactment, inflicting a pecuniary 
 penalty of 20 on those who should neglect its in 
 junctions. The very existence of such a law, with its 
 compulsory clause, presupposes a large number of 
 schools so situated as to be generally accessible. 
 
 At the time of the Keformation, the " Book of 
 Discipline" contemplated, and indeed enjoined, the 
 attaching of schools to the churches throughout the 
 land. This book, however, was solely of ecclesiastical 
 origin and validity, and though signed by the Church 
 and the leading men in the country it did not become 
 law. It, notwithstanding, laid the foundation of a 
 national system of education. At this time, and up 
 to 1616, there was great activity in the cause of popu- 
 lar education. The powers which the Church had 
 happily assumed in the work of instituting and super- 
 intending schools, and even of compelling parents to 
 send their children for instruction, " dryving them 
 to seik after vertue," had been fully recognised by 
 
218 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 the State in Acts passed in 1567, 1581, and 1592. 
 They were further extended and consolidated by a 
 Privy Council order of 10th December 1616, ordain- 
 ing " that a school be established in every parish," 
 and empowering the " bishops, with a majority of 
 the parishioners, to assess the lands for their estab- 
 lishment and maintenance." An Act of Parliament 
 was passed in 1633 ratifying and confirming the 
 Privy Council order. The Church continued to exert 
 itself to give effect to this Act, and to the various 
 resolutions and injunctions which had proceeded from 
 itself. A few years after the passing of the Act of 
 1633, we find the General Assembly instructing Pres- 
 byteries to take heed that its provisions were complied 
 with, and at the same time indicating the course of 
 elementary school instruction to be " reading, writing, 
 and the grounds of religion." In 1642 this injunction 
 was more explicitly renewed, and the visitation of 
 schools and reporting on them was pressed on the atten- 
 tion of ministers. To the Church, indeed, the popular 
 education of the country owed not only its origin, 
 but supervision and protection. 
 
 Schools continued to multiply, although under great 
 local difficulties, till the passing of the Act of 1696, 
 which has been already referred to. This Act pro- 
 vided that a school should be settled in every parish 
 by the heritors (proprietors of land) and minister ; 
 that the heritors should build a commodious school- 
 house, and provide a salary, not above 200 nor under 
 100 merks (5, 11s. lid.); and that if the heritors 
 
SKETCH OF PAROCHIAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. 219 
 
 when assembled could not agree, the Presbytery should 
 apply to the Commissioners of Supply for the county, 
 who, or any five of them, should have power to 
 establish a school, assessing the heritors in proportion 
 to their valued rent. 
 
 The next Parliamentary Act was passed in 1803. 
 It entered much more minutely into the subject, 
 and while increasing the schoolmasters' stipends, and 
 making them payable by the heritors l as heretofore, 
 it provided for the revision of the money payment 
 once in twenty-five years. The average price of 
 the chalder of oatmeal for the twenty-five preced- 
 ing years was to be struck by the Sheriff of the 
 county, and the salary of the schoolmasters fixed 
 according to this average by the heritors and minister. 
 The money- value of a chalder of oatmeal in 1803 was 
 200 merks, or 11, 2s. 2d. The Act ordered that 
 the minimum payment to the schoolmaster should 
 thenceforth be the value of a chalder and a half, or 
 16, 13s. 5d., and the maximum the value of two 
 chalders, or 22, 4s. 5d. The parish minister of the 
 Established Church was appointed superintendent of 
 the parochial school, 2 but the real power was vested 
 in the Presbytery within whose bounds the school was 
 situated. Not only had the teacher elected by the 
 heritors and minister to compear before the Presby- 
 
 1 Both the Act of 1696 and that of 1803 gave the heritors relief 
 from their tenants to the amount of one-half their proportion of the 
 school- tax, but, as a matter of fact, it is belie ved that the majority 
 of heritors have not taken advantage of this source of relief. 
 
 2 Clause XTX. 
 
220 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 tery (after having taken the oath to the Sovereign 
 before a Justice of Peace), and be examined by the 
 members of it as to the " sufficiency for his office, in 
 respect of morality and religion, and of such branches 
 of literature as by the majority of heritors and minis- 
 ter [were] deemed most necessary and important for 
 the parish ;" but on a complaint being made to them 
 against the teacher by the heritors, the minister, and 
 the elder, of immoral conduct, neglect of duty, or 
 cruelty, they could, after satisfactory proof, censure, 
 suspend, or dismiss the schoolmaster. The Presbytery 
 had also the power of fixing the hours of teaching 
 and the length of the annual vacation, it being left to 
 the minister and heritors to determine the rate of fee 
 to be charged. Keligion was one of the subjects re- 
 quired by the heritors and minister to be taught, and 
 the orthodoxy of the teacher was secured by his being 
 required to sign the Confession of Faith and Formula 
 of the Church of Scotland. The Presby teiy had, of 
 course, a right of visitation. 
 
 The next Act of Parliament of any importance is 
 dated 1861. It increased the salaries of the school- 
 masters to a minimum of 35 and a maximum of 70, 
 and substituted for the religious and ecclesiastical test 
 a general declaration by the teacher-elect that he would 
 never endeavour, directly or indirectly, to teach or in- 
 culcate any opinions opposed to the Divine authority of 
 the Holy Scriptures, or to the doctrines contained in 
 the Shorter Catechism, and that he would faithfully con- 
 form thereto in his teaching. Further, that he would 
 
SKETCH OF PAROCHIAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. 221 
 
 not exercise the functions of his office to the prejudice 
 or subversion of the Church of Scotland as by law 
 established, or the doctrines and privileges thereof. 
 
 The examination of schoolmasters-elect was by the 
 same Act transferred from Presbyteries to Boards of 
 Examiners appointed by the Court of each of the four 
 Universities. 
 
 The censure, suspension, or dismissal of a school- 
 master for neglect of duty was transferred to the 
 heritors and minister of each parish, on the report of 
 one of Her Majesty's Inspectors of Schools, if con- 
 curred in by the Presbytery of the bounds. 
 
 The power of censure, suspension, or dismissal for 
 immoral conduct or cruelty was transferred to the 
 Sheriff of the county. 
 
 The power of censure, suspension, or dismissal of 
 the master for religious teaching in contravention of 
 his declaration, was transferred from the Presbytery to 
 a Commission to be appointed in each case of com- 
 plaint by a Secretary of State, their judgment taking 
 effect only after receiving the Secretary's approval. 
 
 The heritors have always been empowered to assess 
 themselves for more than one school. By the Act of 
 1861 they may also assess for a female school, but in 
 no case can the parochial assessment exceed 110 in 
 all for educational purposes. 
 
 The remaining alterations and amendments of pre- 
 vious legislation it is not necessary to detail in this 
 place. It is only necessary further to add that the 
 powers of visitation by the Presbytery were not re- 
 
222 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 pealed, and that Clauses xni. and xix. of the Act 
 would manifestly remain permanently inoperative if 
 the right of Presbyterial visitation were not presumed 
 by Parliament to exist and to be exercised by the 
 Presbyteries. 
 
 The above is a short outline of the history of the 
 Scotch Parochial School system, to which the Dick 
 Bequest Trustees had to adapt themselves, without, 
 on the one hand, rousing the jealousy of the various 
 parties interested in the management of the schools 
 (the teacher, the heritors and minister, and the 
 Presbytery) ; or, on the other hand, failing to give 
 effect to the testator's wishes and to secure the 
 co-operation of all connected with the parochial 
 schools in promoting their advancement and eleva- 
 tion. The manner in which they adapted their ad- 
 ministration to the attainment of these ends, forms 
 the subject of the next chapter. It will, however, 
 contribute to the comprehension of what follows, as 
 well as suffice for the purposes of those not profes- 
 sionally concerned with the subject, if the general 
 course followed be here succinctly summarized : 
 
 To insure the literary elevation of the schoolmaster, 
 the Trustees instituted an examination in Literature 
 and Science, and they exclude all teachers entering 
 on the charge of schools from participation in the 
 Bequest until they have passed this examination. 
 
 To insure the confidence of the minister of each 
 parish, it has been the practice of the Trustees to 
 
SKETCH OF PAROCHIAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. 223 
 
 communicate to him a copy of all correspondence 
 with the teacher, which is of any importance. 
 
 To insure the co-operation of Presbyteries and re- 
 move their objections to the intrusion of an alien 
 authority between them and the schools of which 
 they had legal superintendence, they were asked to 
 report annually on each school in detail ; this Keport 
 being accepted by the Trustees as an element in form 
 ing their judgment. 
 
 To insure the literary elevation and the " activity" 
 or efficiency of the schoolmaster and the school, the 
 Trustees attached a certain money value to instruc- 
 tion in the higher branches (by which were meant 
 Geography, English Grammar, Latin, Greek, French, 
 and Mathematics), and they further directed their 
 Visitor to report on the manner in which these and 
 all other subjects were taught, assigning to each 
 teacher such a number (bearing a pecuniary value) 
 under the head of " Merit in Teaching" as he seemed 
 to the Visitor to deserve, under certain restrictions 
 (see p. 231). 
 
 These various principles of administration I shall 
 now speak of in greater detail. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF DICK BEQUEST ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 The Teacher The Heritors and Minister and Presbytery Plan of distributing 
 the Fund Assistant-Substitutes. 
 
 (1.) The Teacher. 
 
 To state historically the growth of the various 
 requirements and regulations of the Trust, and to 
 vindicate the justice and expediency of them, would 
 be to go over ground already thoroughly traversed by 
 Professor Menzies in the Reports of 1844 and 1854. 
 I shall confine myself to a succinct statement of things 
 as they stand, specially alluding only to such changes 
 as have been introduced since the last general Report 
 was issued eleven years ago. 
 
 The subjects in which the teachers, who desire to 
 be admitted to participation, are required to pass, 
 are Latin, Greek, English Grammar and Literature, 
 History (including the outlines of Ancient and Modern 
 History and Bible History), Geography Mathematical 
 and Physical, Elements of Physics, Arithmetic, Geo- 
 metry, Algebra, and Trigonometry. The rules of the 
 examination, and a specimen of the examination papers, 
 with accompanying circular letter of instructions, will 
 be found in Appendix i. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION. 225 
 
 To those unacquainted with Scoteh education it may 
 seem that this is too high a demand to make on 
 teachers of parochial schools. But if we bear in mind 
 Hint, in consequence of the inadequate development of 
 the Middle School system in Scotland, the parochial 
 schools have from their first institution been required 
 to prepare pupils for the Universities, and that an uni- 
 versity education is accessible on easy terms to almost 
 all the northern youth of Scotland who give signs of 
 promise, the Trustees will not be considered to have 
 interpreted in too elevated a sense Mr. Dick's desire 
 to raise the literary character of the parochial school- 
 masters. The enumeration of subjects in an exami- 
 nation programme is, I am aware, no indication of the 
 qualifications of those who pass the examination. 
 The quality of the answers, not the pitch or quantity 
 of the questions, can alone indicate this. That the 
 standard of " pass " in the Dick Bequest examination 
 is sufficiently high, is testified by the facts that 
 graduates of Aberdeen are frequently cast in their 
 first attempts, and that marks of distinction have 
 scarcely ever been obtained by any save those who 
 had been already favourably known at their Univer- 
 sity for eminence in more than one department 
 of study. Another means of measuring the quality 
 of work required by the Trustees will be found in 
 the Appendix to the Keport of 1854, where may 
 be found the answers of a candidate who earned the 
 mark of distinction. This mark is given only to 
 those candidates who pass the whole examination at 
 
 p 
 
226 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 one sitting, and whose papers as a whole are above 
 average. The term FAIR is used by the Examiners to 
 denote that amount of attainment which, while it is 
 considered sufficient, is not deserving of special com- 
 mendation. From this central point proceed in either 
 direction two steps, those of the ascending scale being 
 Good and Very Good, those of the descending, Defi- 
 cient and Very Deficient. 
 
 The examination is held annually in September ; 
 and candidates are required to complete the examina- 
 tion not later than the third opportunity after the 
 date of their appointment. Should they fail to do 
 so, their whole papers, with the exception of those 
 which have been characterized as Good or Very 
 Good, are cancelled, and they must begin de novo. 
 
 When the whole examination has been satisfac- 
 torily completed, the teacher is paid such a propor- 
 tion of the annual allowances reserved for him from 
 the date of his entry on his duties as the statistics of 
 his school, the report of the Visitor, and the character 
 of his examination seem to entitle him to. Those who 
 pass with distinction are further credited with a certain 
 number of marks for scholarship, which tell favour- 
 ably on the amount payable to them during their 
 whole future tenure of office ; and, in addition to 
 this, unusually high proficiency obtains an immediate 
 pecuniary reward. 
 
 The effect of scholarship on all future annual pay- 
 ments to the teacher brings me naturally to explain 
 next the rules of allocation ; but before doing so I 
 
S OF ADMINISTRATION. 227 
 
 would refer the iv;id<T to the examination statistics of 
 i ho ton years ending Martinmas 1862, and which will 
 be found in the Appendix (n.) 
 
 From this table it appears that, during these 
 ten years, 8 have received pecuniary rewards for 
 unusually high proficiency ; that, in addition to these, 
 8 have received the mark of distinction which adds 
 permanently to all future allowances ; and that 1 2 
 teachers and 7 substitutes failed from various causes 
 to complete their examination. 1 
 
 As it is interesting to note to what extent scholar- 
 ship and efficient school-keeping are found in conjunc- 
 tion, I have examined the " Scheme of Division " as it 
 stands at this date, and find that of those who have 
 marks assigned to them for distinction in scholarship, 
 11 stand in the first class as practical teachers, 3 
 in the second class, and 5 are average, while only 
 '2 are decidedly inferior. This result, I think, sub- 
 stantiates what my observation of schools has long led 
 me to conclude, that superior scholarship is only an 
 exhibition, in a specific direction, of superior qualities 
 of the intellectual and moral nature as a whole, and 
 that the powers and conscientiousness exhibited in 
 the attainment of knowledge will, as a general rule, be 
 found available in the practical work of life, what- 
 ever that may be. 
 
 1 On the arithmetical knowledge of the teachers, see Professor Kel- 
 land's k-tter in the chapter on the arithmetic as found in the schools, 
 p. 274. 
 
228 REPORT ON EDUCATION, 
 
 (2.) The Heritors and Minister, and Presbyterial 
 Superin tendence. 
 
 The Trustees have two distinct duties to discharge 
 with reference to the Local Committee, in whose 
 hands rests the appointment of parochial teachers, 
 namely, to avoid all interference with the superin- 
 tending power of the Minister and Presbyteries, and, 
 in terms of Mr. Dick's testament, to check any dis- 
 position that may be shown by heritors to take 
 advantage of the Bequest in order to relieve them- 
 selves of a portion of what would otherwise have been 
 a just assessment. 
 
 They have been successful in securing the confi- 
 dence of the Minister and Presbyteries, by making 
 the former cognisant of all important correspondence 
 between themselves and the teacher, and by taking 
 the annual report of the Presbytery into considera- 
 tion when allocating the proportion of the Bequest 
 to be paid to each teacher. A copy of the schedule 
 (with a specimen of the answers) which they receive 
 from the Presbyteries will be found in Appendix m. 
 While leaving their own judgment perfectly free, and 
 taking measures, by means of their Visitor, to become 
 personally acquainted with even^ school eligible to the 
 benefits of the Bequest, the Trustees have earnestly 
 endeavoured to give their apparent intrusion the 
 character of candid but independent co-operation. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION. 229 
 
 Nor will it be said that they have anywhere failed 
 in their efforts. 
 
 By their resolution to allow the amount of statu- 
 tory assessment for education in each parish to deter- 
 mine to some extent their own distribution their 
 grant being reduced where the heritors fix a small 
 permanent salary, and growing with their liberality 
 they withdrew the temptation to convert the Bequest 
 into a fund for relieving proprietors of statutory obli- 
 gations. It cannot be said, however, that the liberal 
 salaries paid under the Act of 1861 to the parochial 
 teachers of the three beneficiary counties, have been 
 to any appreciable extent determined by the influence 
 of this principle of distribution. In so far as the 
 liberal arrangements then made are due to the Bequest, 
 they are not to be ascribed to any direct influence, 
 but to its general operation as an elevating educational 
 agency throughout the districts to which it is applic- 
 able, elevating not only in respect of the character 
 and qualifications, but also in respect of the status, of 
 parochial teachers. To such men as the Bequest has 
 been one of the chief means of securing for the ser- 
 vice of the parochial schools, heritors could not hesitate 
 (and to their honour be it said, have not hesitated) to 
 give liberally, and without any grudging calculations 
 as to other sources of school emolument. 
 
230 .REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 (3.) Plan of Distributing the Fund. 
 
 The preceding remarks on the general nature of the 
 Bequest and the general principles of administration, 
 will make intelligible the following statement of the 
 mode of allocating the annual free revenue. 1 
 
 A certain number of marks is credited to each 
 teacher after his appointment, under the various heads 
 of Attendance throughout the year, Number in at- 
 tendance for six months, Number learning the higher 
 branches (i.e., Grammar, Geography, Mathematics, 
 Latin, Greek, and French), Salary paid by Heritors, 
 Amount of fees, Number of scholars taught gratuit- 
 ously, and Scholarship as determined by the exa- 
 mination of the teacher. These elements of computa- 
 tion, as ascertained from returns obtained from the 
 schoolmasters themselves, are called the statistical 
 elements. The numerical sum-total represents the 
 proportion of the teacher's claim on the fund. The 
 amount of that claim is reserved for the teachers 
 from the date of their appointment to that of their 
 passing their examination. The proportion, however, 
 of the sum so reserved, which is actually paid on 
 their passing, is fixed by the Trustees after a due 
 consideration of their literary qualifications and of the 
 report of the Visitor on their schools (Vide p. 226). 
 
 As soon as a teacher has passed, he is admitted 
 thenceforward to full participation, that is to say, he 
 
 1 The total amount distributed last year (1864) was 4344, 13s. 9d. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION. 231 
 
 is allowed the entire amount indicated by the sum of 
 tin 1 statistical elements, if the Trustees, on considering 
 the report of the Visitor, are of opinion that he is dis- 
 charging his duty satisfactorily. Should the teacher 
 1)0 reported by him as surpassing the average of effi- 
 ciency, he is allowed by the Trustees an additional 
 sum under the head of Merit in Teaching. The pre- 
 cise amount of this addition is practically left to the 
 discretion of the Visitor, and may increase the sum 
 allocated on statistical grounds by 10, 20, 50, or 
 even 60 per cent, according to the grade of merit to 
 which the teacher may be assigned. 1 On the other 
 hand, should the Visitor's Keport indicate deficiencies 
 in the practical work of teaching, arising either from 
 incapacity or negligence, the Trustees, on considering 
 the case, are in use to mark their disapproval, either, 
 in the first instance, by censure, or, where deemed 
 necessary, by restricting the teacher's allowance to the 
 extent of one-fourth, one-third, or a half. In aggra- 
 vated cases they wholly cancel it. In the case of 
 young and inexperienced teachers, whose deficiencies 
 seem to the Trustees to arise from want of skill rather 
 than from carelessness, it is the practice, when first 
 admitting them to participation, to reduce the statis- 
 tical claim of the teacher by a fourth, a third, a half, 
 thus putting them on what is called " The Prepa- 
 ratory Scale." 
 
 The amount allocated to each teacher is thus made 
 
 1 The a'jyrcyale number of marks allowable for Merit in Teaching is 
 restricted to one-sixth part of the whole divisible fund. 
 
REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 ultimately dependent on his efficiency in the discharge 
 of his daily duty as a schoolmaster. The mode of 
 visitation, and the grounds on which the Visitor forms 
 his judgment, will be stated in the sequel. 
 
 It may be confidently affirmed now, as in 1854, and 
 after an added experience of eleven years, that upon a 
 careful retrospect " there appears to be every reason to 
 believe that the above mode of distribution continues 
 to exercise a salutary influence, by making the teacher's 
 allowance depend upon the advancement of his school 
 in everything which contributes to its prosperity, and 
 upon his own proficiency in literature, and in pro- 
 fessional skill. 
 
 " The distinguishing characteristic of the manage- 
 ment, it will be observed, is the unequal distribution ; 
 and looking at the effects, there is no cause to regret 
 the adoption of that principle, but rather increasing 
 occasion to value and adhere to it. This is what gives 
 life to the operation of the Bequest, and prevents Mr. 
 Dick's bounty from descending upon its objects with 
 an influence which, under an equal distribution, would 
 enervate while it enriched. The principle adopted 
 supplies a motive to exertion, by securing to faithful 
 labour and skill the grateful acknowledgment of a 
 reward, which proves that they have been recognised 
 and appreciated. Nor is the effect confined to the 
 schoolmaster. The schools, and through them the 
 whole body of the people in the three counties, parti - 
 cipate in the results of Mr. Dick's benevolence, for the 
 exertion which it promotes is bestowed upon them, 
 
PlllNCIPLKS OF ADMINISTRATION. 233 
 
 whereas, if t lie hooii were given unconditionally, the 
 same motive to exertion would not be felt, and the 
 bounty in many cases would prove to be an evil instead 
 of a blessing." 1 
 
 ( 4 .) A ssistant-Substitutes, 
 
 The Trustees, as has been fully explained in 
 previous Keports, encourage the retirement from active 
 duty of aged schoolmasters in connexion with the 
 IU -quest, without requiring them to resign their official 
 position as parochial schoolmaster, and they admit to 
 the benefit of the Bequest Assistants appointed to 
 act for the principal teacher, on the understanding 
 that they shall be, in the fullest sense of the word, 
 Substitutes. The importance of this provision is 
 manifest. 
 
 If the acquirements and qualifications of the assis- 
 tant-substitute are satisfactory, it is considered un- 
 necessary to inquire how he is appointed ; but in 
 every case in which it has fallen to the Trustees to 
 suggest the mode of appointment, they have recom- 
 mended that the selection should be made by the 
 minister and heritors, who are the legal electors of the 
 principal schoolmaster. 
 
 The pecuniary arrangement is that the substitute- 
 teacher receives the school-fees and the ordinary 
 allowance from the Bequest, together with a minimum 
 
 1 Professor Menzies' Report of 1854, p. 3'J. 
 
234 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 salary from the heritors of 35, in parishes where there 
 is only one parochial school, and of 25 in parishes 
 where there are two or more schools, the incumbent 
 retaining the former salary paid by the heritors, and 
 receiving also an extra allowance, at the rate of 12 
 a year, from the Bequest. The average amount of the 
 provision for the substitute, from the sources specified, 
 is 91, 14s. 3d. per annum, in parishes where there is 
 only one school, and 81, 14s. 3d. in parishes where 
 there are two. In addition to this the Trustees 
 now require that the substitute shall have the exclu- 
 sive occupation of the house and garden. The retired 
 incumbent's income is in money about 41, exclusive 
 of emoluments from other sources, of which the aver- 
 age is 5, 3s. 2d. per annum. 
 
 It is contrary to the implied understanding between 
 the Trustees and the principal teacher that there should 
 be any agreement between the incumbent and his 
 substitute, imposing upon the latter, as regards his 
 position and remuneration, any other conditions than 
 are distinctly expressed in the arrangement as con- 
 tracted with the Trustees. When it has turned out, 
 therefore, that by private compact different terms have 
 been settled, the allowance has been retained until the 
 latent agreement was cancelled. 
 
 Except in the qualification of age, and the non- 
 reservation of their allowances prior to their pass- 
 ing the examination, assistant-substitutes are subject 
 generally to the same regulations as schoolmasters in 
 
s OF ADMINISTRATION. 235 
 
 full possession of the office of parochial teacher, with 
 this exception, that, if incompetent as teachers they 
 are not put on restricted allowance, but at once re 
 quired to resign. 
 
 When the state of the schoolmaster's health prevents 
 him from personally making an arrangement, the Trus- 
 tees are enabled to obtain an effectual contract for the 
 employment of a substitute, by the judicial appoint- 
 ment of a guardian, empowered to act on behalf of 
 the incumbent. 1 
 
 An abstract of the regulations applicable to prin- 
 cipal masters, to assistant-substitutes, as well as to 
 temporary substitutes (acting for teachers during tem- 
 porary absence at College), will be found in Appendix 
 TV. To enter more minutely into these points of 
 detail in the body of this Report would be wholly 
 superfluous, after the exhaustive treatment of them in 
 the Report of 1854. 
 
 For a similar reason I avoid enumerating and vin- 
 dicating the regulations regarding the occupation of 
 teachers with duties outside their proper school work ; 
 merely mentioning, that while the Trustees offer no 
 objection to the occasional discharge of pulpit duties 
 by those teachers who are licentiates of the Church 
 (as the great majority are), they stringently enforce 
 their rule against all ' stated ' clerical engagements. 
 They have offered no objection to the union of the 
 offices of Session-Clerk, Registrar, or Inspector of the 
 
 1 See lleport of 1854. 
 
236 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 Poor with that of Schoolmaster. The office most in- 
 compatible with the proper discharge of school duties is 
 that last mentioned ; and it is not improbable, that 
 were it usual for teachers in the three counties to hold 
 it, its claims would be found to conflict so seriously 
 with the work of the school as to call for special con 
 sideration. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE AND OTHER CHANGES SINCE 1854. 
 
 A ssisl.aiit-Substitutes Temporary Substitutes Music Side-Parochial Schools. 
 
 Assistant- Substitutes. The principal changes in- 
 troduced since the date of the last Report (1854) 
 were rendered necessary by the Parochial and Burgh 
 Schoolmasters Act of 1861. The extent to which 
 this Act modified the parochial system, as settled in 
 1696, and reformed in 1803, has been already ex- 
 plained (p. 220). One of the most important of 
 its provisions, however, both in itself and in its re- 
 lation to the Bequest, was that contained in the 19th 
 clause, which enacts that the heritors may super- 
 annuate teachers, granting them " a retiring allow- 
 ance, the amount whereof shall not be less than 
 two-third parts of the amount of the salary pertaining 
 to the office at the date of such resignation thereof, 
 and shall not exceed the gross amount of such salary." 
 The defects of former Acts in respect of superannua- 
 tion, had been to a great extent supplied by the 
 judicious arrangements of the Bequest Trustees, who 
 liad used their powers to facilitate the transfer- 
 ence of schools into the hands of assistant- substitutes, 
 on terms which have been already explained. 
 
REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 The Trustees did not cancel their subsisting rules 
 in consequence of the clause above quoted ; but where, 
 teachers resign office under it, they of course ipso 
 facto cease to have any interest in Mr. Dick's settle- 
 ment ; the Trustees being precluded from recognising, 
 directly or indirectly, those who, by demitting the 
 office of " parochial schoolmaster," have removed them- 
 selves beyond the reach of the Bequest. As, however, 
 they were of opinion that the new Act did not call for 
 the discontinuance of their previous practice with re 
 ference to Substitutes, they requested Presbyteries to 
 continue to examine them as to their qualifications, 
 and resolved to hold a Presbyterial certificate of 
 competency to be an essential condition of participa- 
 tion in the fund. 
 
 Again, in order to prevent the continuance of 
 their arrangement for securing retirement from active 
 duty operating so as to relieve heritors of the addi- 
 tional burdens imposed on them by the Statute, the 
 Trustees resolved that in all future cases of retirement 
 to which they should become parties, the heritors 
 should be required, in addition to the salary paid to 
 the retiring teacher, to appropriate to the substitute 
 a salary of not less than 35 where there was one 
 parochial school in the parish, or 25 where there 
 were two or more. 
 
 Further, the Parochial Schools Act having raised 
 the minimum assessment for salary to 3 5 where there 
 was one school, and to 50 where there were two, the 
 Trustees, carrying out the principles already in opera- 
 
ADMINISTRATIVE AND OTIIKI! ( '1! AN<; MS. 239 
 
 tion, thereupon resolved that no schools should be 
 in future admitted to participation, as second or side- 
 pnrochial schools, where the emoluments provided by 
 the heritors for the teacher amounted to less than 
 35 per annum, including the value of the house and 
 garden. 
 
 Temporary Substitutes. Teachers acting tempo- 
 rarily for a master during the absence of the latter at 
 College are recognised by the Trustees only if they 
 have had a university education, or hold a Govern- 
 ment certificate of merit of the first dmsion, second 
 year. 
 
 Music. The only remaining change in the ad- 
 ministration of sufficient importance to merit special 
 consideration, is the resolution to give a certain value 
 to the successful teaching of Music in the annual 
 allocation. The nature and grounds of the change 
 will be best learned from the Minute of the Trus- 
 tees on the subject : 
 
 MINUTE OF DICK BEQUEST TRUSTEES OF 17TH JANUARY I860. 
 
 " Singing from Notation. 
 
 " The Trustees having received communications from some of the 
 clergy in the three counties, stating their anxiety that encourage- 
 ment should be given to the teaching of Music in the parish schools, 
 and being themselves impressed with the desirableness of promoting 
 the improvement of psalmody in our parish churches, by the regular 
 teaching of Singing from Notation to the children attending the 
 schools, resolved to require their Visitor, in all his future Reports 
 (Hi the condition of the schools inspected by him, to report specially 
 in each case whether Music is embraced in the school curriculum, 
 as well as what measure of success has attended the teaching in 
 
240 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 this branch of education. It was further resolved, that in future, 
 in the ascertainment and allocation of the yearly allowances, the 
 teaching of Music shall be taken as an element in fixing in each 
 case the amount to be given in respect of ' Merit in Teaching.' 
 The Clerk was instructed to send an Extract from this Minute to 
 the ministers of the three counties, and to all teachers connected 
 with the Bequest, in order that they may be aware of the regula- 
 tion now introduced." 
 
 Side-Parochial Schools. One of the benefits which 
 the Bequest has conferred on the three counties hns 
 been the encouragement which it has given to the 
 institution of side-parochial schools. In other parts of 
 Scotland the compulsory requirements of the Par 
 liamentary Acts are complied with in respect of the 
 institution of one parochial school, but there are com- 
 paratively few districts in which the power residing 
 in the heritors to increase the number of parochial 
 schools has been so liberally interpreted as in the coun- 
 ties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray. The number of 
 parishes embraced by the Bequest is 124, the number 
 of parochial schools in these is 154, showing 30 side- 
 parochial schools. The schools added since 1854, and 
 recognised by the Trustees as parochial schools under 
 the Act, are TARVES Barthol Chapel ; HUNTLY 
 Kinnoir ; BOHARM Maggyknockater ; CROMDALE 
 Dulnan Bridge; AUCHINDOIR Lumsden; A.BER- 
 DOUR Auchmedden ; CABRACH Invercharrach ; 
 AUCHTERLESS Badenscoth. 
 
CHAPTEE V. 
 
 THE RELATION OF THE BEQUEST TO THE PRIVY COUNCIL. 
 
 SINCE the date of last Keport to the Trustees, a 
 considerable number of the parochial schools in the 
 three counties have taken the benefit of Privy Council 
 grants. These grants are claimable by school mana- 
 gers on behalf of teachers, who, having passed the 
 Government examination for a certificate of merit, 
 receive from the heritors a salary of at least 15 
 in excess of the statutory minimum. In addition 
 to the increase of salary which teachers can in this 
 way obtain, they have the further privilege of being 
 allowed to employ apprentice-monitors (called pupil- 
 teachers) at the expense of the Privy Council. 
 
 A certain proportion of the parochial school- 
 masters (at present two-fifths 1 ) have qualified for 
 these privileges. The Trustees did not feel it in- 
 cumbent on them to advert to this new source of 
 emolument and supervision, so long as the Minutes 
 
 1 Tn 1855 one-sixteenth of the schools were in connexion with the 
 1'rivy Council; in 1860 rather more than one-fifth. The amount at pre- 
 sent expended on them must be about 1600 per annum. 
 
 Q 
 
242 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 under which the Privy Council administered the Par- 
 liamentary grant did not tend in any way to contra- 
 vene or defeat the purposes of the Bequest. 
 
 In the Eevised Code of 1864, however, it was pro- 
 posed to reduce all Government grants to schools 
 by the amount of any endowment enjoyed by them. 
 The Trustees, after deliberating on the probable effect 
 of this clause, resolved to oppose its application to 
 the Dick Bequest, on the grounds that the Bequest was 
 not in the proper sense of the words a charitable en- 
 dowment, and that the application of the new Minute 
 to the parochial schools in the three counties would 
 tend to weaken the peculiar influence of the Bequest 
 in raising the standard of acquirement in teachers and 
 of literary attainment in schools. The clause would 
 have had the effect feared, for this reason, that the 
 teachers, being compelled to forego the one or the 
 other source of income, would naturally prefer the 
 Privy Council augmentation, as being, if not larger 
 in amount, yet obtainable on easier terms than the 
 Dick Bequest, both as regarded personal scholarship 
 and the character of the school work. In this way it 
 was obvious that the Bequest would gradually be- 
 come practically inoperative as a means of " encour- 
 aging active schoolmasters," and of "elevating the 
 literary character of the parochial schoolmasters and 
 schools." The statement drawn up by the Trustees 
 and supported by them in person before the Lord 
 President, is printed as Appendix v. of this Report. 
 
RELATION OF BEQUEST TO PRIVY COUNCIL. 243 
 
 Tlu- suspension of the application of the Kevised 
 Code to Scotland, in consequence of the appointment 
 of a. Eoyal Commission for the purpose of inquiring 
 into the state of education, allayed the apprehensions 
 of the Trustees. 1 
 
 So much has been said of late years as to the ten- 
 dency of the Privy Council grants, whether under the 
 Original or the Eevised Code, to lower the quality of the 
 education given in the Scotch parochial schools, that 
 it might not be out of place to consider here whether 
 there are real grounds for such apprehensions. But 
 to do so would be superfluous, as the whole subject of 
 the relation of the Privy Council to Scotch schools is 
 at present under consideration by the Commission 
 above referred to. Of two things there can be no 
 doubt, First, that no parochial teacher is entitled 
 to devote his attention to the instruction of his senior 
 pupils in Latin and Mathematics whose, junior pupils 
 are unable to pass the examination in reading, writ- 
 ing, and arithmetic prescribed by the Revised Code : 
 and, secondly, that whatever system of grants may 
 be devised for the future, the conditions on which 
 they will be obtainable will not counteract the higher 
 parochial education of the three counties with which 
 
 1 In the Code of 1865, the clause complained of is made inapplicable to 
 those rural schools in which the Government grant and the endowment 
 do not make a total sum exceeding the rate of 15s. per scholar, according 
 to the annual average of attendance. That Code, however, has been sus- 
 pended in Scotland till June 1867. 
 
244 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 the Trustees are concerned, so long as the principles 
 on which they administer the Bequest are not ren- 
 dered nugatory by some such provision as that which 
 they gave their influence, not without effect, to 
 resist. 1 
 
 1 The influence of the Privy Council on the higher parochial school 
 education, is again adverted to in the chapter on the Higher Instruction 
 of the Parochial Schools. 
 
CHAPTEE VI. 
 
 VISITATION OF THE SCHOOLS. 
 
 OF the 154 parochial schools in the three counties 
 of Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray, 20 are excluded from 
 participation on account of non-compliance with the 
 regulations of the Trustees. The remainder are 
 visited once in two years. Unless special circum- 
 stances arise, the report of the Presbytery during the 
 year of non- visitation is accepted as sufficient. 
 
 It used to be a frequent subject of complaint that 
 the schools were visited in the summer season, and 
 urgent requests were made that the visitation should 
 be made in early spring, before the beginning of field 
 labour dispersed the highest class. During the last 
 nine years the desires of the teachers have in this 
 particular been generally complied with, because it 
 has happened to be as convenient for the Visitor to 
 inspect the schools in March and April as at any 
 other season. The Trustees, however, have never re- 
 siled from their original position that a well-conducted 
 school will show its true quality at whatever period 
 of the year it may be inspected. Even the entire 
 absence of the senior class will not necessarily affect 
 the opinion of an inspector respecting the efficiency 
 
246 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 of a school if he be competent for his work. The 
 results produced in the highest class are by no means, 
 taken by themselves, a sound measure of the qua- 
 lity of the work of a school. Indeed the temptation 
 which the teacher feels to devote an undue share of 
 his time to his oldest pupils causes him to rely so 
 much on the excellence of a highest class, that he 
 is scarcely aware of the defects of all the others. 
 This is to misapprehend the main object of the 
 parochial school, as of all education, and at the same 
 time to exhibit an entire misunderstanding of method. 
 The perusal of the first portion of this Keport will 
 show with sufficient clearness what is meant. It 
 has been written to little purpose if it does not 
 show that the importance of the classes is in pro- 
 portion to the youth of the pupils, and this in all 
 essential subjects of instruction as well as in the prose- 
 cution of the great purpose of education. A sound 
 organization embraces every part of the school equally, 
 and reveals itself even in a mere fragment of the 
 whole. A wise discipline is of more moment, as well 
 as of more efficacy, in the junior classes than in the 
 senior. It is in the opening years of the young- 
 child's mind that religious instruction requires the 
 most skilful handling, makes the most lasting im- 
 pression, and yields the richest reward. It is at 
 the same period that moral acts assume in the 
 mind of the child the character of right or wrong, 
 and the great gulf is fixed between bad and good. 
 It is at the same period that the gentler sentiments 
 
VISITATION OF THE SCHOOLS. 24*7 
 
 respond to careful direction, and that mutual 
 consideration can be most easily made to take the 
 place of natural selfishness. It is at the same period, 
 that the habit of intelligent apprehension of any 
 subject to which the mind may apply itself is best 
 formed. And finally, it is at the same period that the 
 character and style of every mental acquirement, 
 whether it be reading, writing, or any other, is per- 
 manently given. " Let the teacher take care of his 
 junior classes, and the senior classes will take care of 
 themselves," is probably not an extreme statement. 
 It constantly happens, when discussing with a teacher 
 some great defect in a senior class, that the inspector 
 has to point to the six or seven-year old pupils as 
 the portion of the school to which the remedy must 
 be applied. 
 
 Holding the above views as to the periods, nature, 
 and methods of school- work, consistency requires 
 that I should maintain that a competent inspector 
 can judge a school as fairly during the thinned at- 
 tendance of summer as during the full attendance of 
 winter. Given the same agricultural conditions, it 
 is certainly possible to fix the relative capacity of 
 farmers by the harvest which they lead home ; but 
 that man would be an indifferent judge who could 
 not find materials for as sound a judgment in the 
 seed-time. 
 
 Further, believing, as I do, that the chief faults of 
 Scotch parochial schools have been, and still are, de- 
 fective organization, haphazard discipline, comparative 
 
248 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 neglect of the junior classes, undue postponement of 
 the essential studies, writing and arithmetic, and 
 a tendency to relaxation of effort at the season at 
 which agricultural operations begin, I am not certain 
 that summer visitation does not, on the whole, best 
 fulfil the purposes of the Dick Bequest. 
 
 What has been said on the period of visitation, 
 when taken in connexion with the first part of this 
 Eeport, sufficiently indicates the objects which I keep 
 in view when visiting. It is sometimes necessary to 
 guard against the attempts of some teachers to mis- 
 lead the judgment of a Visitor, by giving prominence 
 to one or two strong points, and by using all sorts 
 of devices, including prompting and leading ques- 
 tions, to throw an illusory glare of efficiency over 
 a badly taught class. 
 
 The excuses with which some teachers overload 
 every subject as the inspector approaches it in turn, 
 are of course received only as an indirect confession 
 of defects felt to be censurable and known to be in- 
 excusable. 
 
 It is highly creditable to the character of the 
 masters of the three counties that the cases are 
 rare in which either of the above faults is met with. 
 And it has also to be recorded, to their honour, that, 
 although my visits are unannounced, I have never, 
 to the best of my recollection, found a master absent 
 from his post, except for sufficient reasons. 
 
 At the same time, it is to be confessed, that having 
 
VISITATION OF THE SCHOOLS. 249 
 
 found, in the first years of inspection, that counsel 
 regarding improved methods had little effect on minds 
 unprepared by special training to take an ideal and 
 artistic, which is at the same time a professional, 
 view of their task, it became necessary to demand 
 certain specific results in respect of quality and quan- 
 tity of acquirement. The practical direction which 
 my demands took will appear in the chapter on the 
 "Progress of the Schools/' My reason for adopting 
 this course simply was that it was one which was intel- 
 ligible to all, and that by insuring results of a certain 
 kind in the highest classes the teacher was neces- 
 sarily forced to the prior and early practice in the 
 initiatory classes of certain sound methods and apt 
 expedients. But, while taking my first rough mea- 
 surement of a school by the broad results in respect 
 of acquisition and intellectual capacity, I give weight 
 to these, only to the extent to which they are seen to 
 be the bond fide fruit of careful organization, of 
 rational and graduated methods, and of good dis- 
 cipline. 
 
 It has always been the practice for the Dick Bequest 
 Visitor to enter the schools unannounced, and to pro- 
 ceed at once with the examination, beginning generally 
 with the class which happens to be on the floor when 
 he enters. The Report made to the Trustees is, ac- 
 cordingly, simply a historical record, more or less 
 detailed, of all that takes place in the school while 
 the Visitor is there, and of his judgment oil every 
 - which passes under examination. 
 
250 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 Having now spoken of the visitation in general, I 
 proceed to record, for the benefit of future, if not of 
 present participants in the Bequest, the actual state 
 of knowledge and the habits of teaching which are 
 generally met with in the schools, pointing out, where 
 necessary, the defects prevalent and the remedies 
 required. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 NOTES OF VISITATION. 
 
 (1.) Reading. Examination on the Reading -Lessons. Course of Lessons. 
 
 THE average annual enrolment in each of the 
 parochial schools is 113. All learn to read, with 
 the exception of a few big lads who attend only 
 during the winter season for lessons in arithmetic. 
 The lesson of the day, presumed to have been pre- 
 pared over-night, is read once or twice down the 
 class. The master then usually asks the pupils to 
 spell and define the more difficult words, and pro- 
 ceeds to examine on the substance of the lesson. His 
 examination for the most part simply consists in 
 throwing the categorical propositions of the lesson, 
 which has been read, into an interrogative form. He 
 puts the questions to the pupils in succession, begin- 
 ning at the top. This interrogatory exercise, of course, 
 varies in its efficiency in proportion to the intellectual 
 power and earnestness of the master. It assuredly 
 adds little to the child's knowledge of the lesson. Its 
 value consists in its power of rousing in the pupil 
 an effort of intellect to follow the master, and of 
 memory to recall the words which have been read. 
 
252 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 The benefit to be derived from this kind of examina- 
 tion manifestly depends solely on the amount of in- 
 tellect exhibited by the teacher, and reproduced in 
 the pupils through sympathy with him, and on the 
 earnestness with which he takes up the lesson as 
 something really worthy of being retained in the mind. 
 
 Now it is always desirable, in determining the 
 procedure to be followed with a view to give effect 
 to the right method of teaching any subject, to 
 devise expedients which leave as little as possible to 
 hang by the capacity of the master. In schools, as 
 elsewhere, we can only reckon on an average amount 
 of ability, and a moderate share of earnestness ; and 
 while we may freely exempt the thoughtful and ardent 
 schoolmaster from all directions imposed ab extra, 
 we must discover rules of working which will give 
 the fullest practical effect to average qualities. In 
 every profession the mass of men are imitative, not 
 originative, and unfortunately this disposition is 
 strongest in the direction of imitating themselves. 
 Our duty, accordingly, is to give teachers a good start 
 in professional life, so that a good habit may be early 
 formed. By this means we may possibly lend to the 
 ordinary mind some of the power of the higher. 1 
 
 Keeping in view these considerations, and the pur- 
 pose and method of teaching Beading, as these have 
 been explained in the first part of the Report, I would 
 suggest the following course of procedure : 
 
 1 Hence the great utility of Normal Schools, and the necessity there is 
 for the professional training of teachers. 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION READING. 253 
 
 1. Let the teacher, when he gives out the lesson 
 for the following day, either read it to the pupils, or, 
 where time fails for this, shortly sketch its purport, 
 pointing out the more difficult words. 
 
 2. When the lesson is read, let him not go slavishly 
 down the class from top to bottom, but, letting the 
 children clearly understand that they are presumed to 
 know both the language and the subject-matter, select 
 those who are to read. The reading should be in- 
 dividual, but if the style be bad, the master should 
 require the pupils to enunciate in concert with him, 
 so that they may gradually acquire his style. To tell 
 a child to " speak out," or to " mind the stops/' is an 
 utterly useless expenditure of words. The temptation 
 to adopt the simultaneous method of reading should 
 be avoided, but three at a time may be occasionally 
 required to read, observing together the same pauses 
 and emphasis. This will not only save time, but be 
 of great virtue as a corrective of slovenly reading. 
 
 3. There are five qualities in Beading, each of which 
 should be made the subject of separate and successive 
 study and training : (l.) Correct pronunciation of 
 the words. (2.) Firmness, articulateness, and dis- 
 tinctness in the enunciation of words. Teachers do 
 not seem to be aware to how great an extent pro- 
 gress in reading depends on a habit of firm articula- 
 tion. (3.) Deliberateness in the enunciation of the 
 several clauses making up each sentence : these three 
 qualities secure intelligibility. (4.) Emphasis. (5.) Ex- 
 pression. The first three qualities form the principal 
 
254 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 aim of the elementary teacher. Emphasis can come 
 within the sphere of his work only when correct- 
 ness, distinctness, and deliberateness have been at- 
 tained. But inasmuch as it is the fruit of an intel 
 lectual perception of the interdependence of clauses, it 
 should be, as soon as practicable, required of every 
 pupil. Its existence is the best possible indication, test, 
 and measure of the intelligence which the child has 
 been taught to bring to bear on his reading, and of 
 the suitableness of the books which are put into his 
 hands. Expression, again, belongs to the aesthetics 
 of Eeading, and has reference to the moral and senti- 
 mental appreciation of what is read, and should not 
 be attempted until the emotional nature is old enough, 
 not merely to feel, but consciously to reproduce what 
 another person feels. Fine, or rather superfine, read- 
 ing or recitation by children is, in itself, essentially 
 a delusion and a snare, though it may have its uses 
 by holding up, purely imitative though the whole 
 intonation and exhibition be, a standard of style, 
 and thereby elevating the art of reading as an art in 
 the eyes of the school. 
 
 4. While the pupil is reading let no corrections be 
 made. When he has ceased, those who have detected 
 errors may hold out their hands. This compels the 
 attention of the whole class to every sentence. Usually 
 each boy attends only to his own. 
 
 5. If the boy who reads gives evidence of want of 
 preparation, enter in a book a bad mark against him, 
 taking care that it is want of preparation and not 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION 1 {HADING. 255 
 
 inaccuracy which is so punished. The more or less of 
 accuracy will be rewarded or punished by the boy's 
 place in the class. To regulate a boy's position on 
 the school scale merely by the number of his mistakes, 
 is to confound the intellectual with the moral. 
 
 6. If a schoolmaster wishes to teach his pupils to 
 iv ad well, let him first learn to read himself. 
 
 The teacher will find the formal setting apart of 
 certain occasional afternoons for the special exhibition 
 of Beading-style by himself and his pupils, a means 
 of impressing the school with the importance of the 
 subject. The same device may be successfully re- 
 sorted to in every branch of study. 
 
 Examination on the Lesson. The reading of the 
 lesson being finished, the next object is to extract 
 from it as much discipline as possible. This will de- 
 pend on the variety and solidity of the reading-book, 
 and the character of the lesson of the day will of 
 course determine the extent to which the class is to 
 be examined. I have already dwelt, in the first 
 part of this Report, on the peculiarly educative power 
 of the reading-lessons in forming as well as inform- 
 ing the mind, when the school uses and purposes of 
 teaching the art of Reading are rightly and largely 
 understood. And I would fain iterate and reiterate the 
 grounds of the opinions already expressed there, that 
 the education of the school means, and must mean, 
 the Reading of the school, more than all other subjects 
 united. But to do so would be to add nothing 
 
256 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 to the comprehension either of the teacher who 
 has fully grasped what has been already said' or 
 of him who is unable or unwilling to understand 
 it. The extraction of the educative uses of Read- 
 ing from the lesson of the day is a work so much 
 more dependent than the mere art of Reading in its 
 narrower sense on the character of the teacher, that 
 technical rules are almost useless. One man will 
 reach the best results in one w r ay, another in another. 
 It is a matter of idiosyncrasy. One tendency, how- 
 ever, every young teacher requires to be guarded 
 against, the tendency to expound and preach rather 
 than to teach. Even to explain is not to teach. 
 To explain is to unfold a subject as a subject ; to 
 teach or instruct is to explain the subject in rela- 
 tion to the mental capacity and already existing 
 knowledge of the pupils, at the same time setting 
 in motion and guiding their intellectual activity, 
 so that they may meet the explanation half-way. 
 The good teacher is, in matters intellectual, the mov- 
 ing, guiding, and correcting power, but little more. 
 An exaggerated instance of the tendency to do for 
 the pupils what they ought to do for themselves, I 
 find in my reports for 1856, and as it puts in a 
 strong light a not uncommon misconception of the 
 art of teaching, I quote it : 
 
 . . . " The master then proceeded to examine on the subject- 
 matter of the lesson. Beginning calmly, and with considerable 
 gravity, he gradually waxed warm, until he lost himself entirely in 
 his subject, utterly forgetting the existence of his pupils. It was, 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION EXAMINATION. 257 
 
 in fact, a dramatic exhibition of the lesson thrown into an inter- 
 rogative form, the short and scattered replies of the members of the 
 class only serving to sustain the excitement of the ' examiner.' 
 Spite of the energy and superfluous gesticulation which was exhibited, 
 it was quite evident that the teacher was beating the air, and that 
 it never for a moment occurred to him to think of the actual mental 
 condition of his pupils. The consequence was, that when the exa- 
 mination was taken out of his hands, utter barrenness was found. 
 The master, in fact, monopolized all the energy, and laboured 
 under the not uncommon illusion that his own activity and in- 
 terest were shared by his pupils." . . . 
 
 It will save space and time if I state the mode of 
 procedure which I have recommended, when it was 
 certain that the recommendation would not fall upon 
 an outer crust of indurated habit. 
 
 1. The habit of converting categorical into inter- 
 rogative clauses is not an examination of any efficacy. 
 The lesson should be viewed as a whole, having a 
 beginning and middle and end, and the children 
 should be asked to give an account of it in their own 
 words. One or two of the more fluent attempting 
 this, the rest will be too happy to lie in wait for 
 omissions and errors, with a view to supply and cor- 
 rect them. In this way the lesson, whether it be a 
 narrative, a preceptive extract, or an information 
 lesson, will be reproduced by the combined efforts of 
 the class. The cultivating nature of this exercise, 
 apart from its effect in securing the preparation of 
 the lesson, is at once manifest. Such exercises in 
 oral composition should be found at every stage of 
 progress, and are as much in their place in the 
 infant and initiatory as in the juvenile and advanced 
 
 R 
 
258 EEPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 classes. This being done, with the help of the master 
 where a point is missed or a difficulty not overcome, 
 the first step in the examination is taken. 
 
 2. The second stage is the familiar and col- 
 loquial illustration and extension of the subject of the 
 lesson by the master, in more or less detail, according 
 to the time at his disposal. He will now call on the 
 pupils for voluntary contributions to the subject in 
 the form of facts or thoughtful suggestions. It is at 
 this stage that the practical application of the lesson 
 will be most suitably made, and the whole brought 
 into connexion with the daily life and out-door ex- 
 perience of the pupils. 
 
 3. The third stage there can seldom be time to com- 
 plete, but it ought always to be partially accomplished. 
 It has to do mainly with the language of the lesson. 
 The amount of language which a man understands is, 
 roughly speaking, the measure of his intellectual capa- 
 city. In extending the boy's knowledge of language, 
 therefore, we increase his intellectual grasp, and, in a 
 sense, his knowledge of things ; things of intellectual 
 and moral, as well as of external and visible reality. 
 The linguistic discipline, therefore, which reading- 
 lessons give is of the utmost consequence. Idiomatic 
 correctness, grammatical accuracy, and great variety 
 in structure and style are of great value, if not indis- 
 pensable. 
 
 The most common mode of examining on the lesson 
 read by the pupils is referred to in the following ex- 
 tract from my annual Report : 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION EXAMINATION. 259 
 
 . . . " The fault I had to find with Mr. - 's otherwise 
 thorough mode of examining was that he expected too much from 
 the class. He went to the details of a difficult lesson at once, 
 without first making sure that each individual sentence was under- 
 stood. This is a common blunder. After the general substance of 
 the lesson has been reproduced and illustrated as a whole, the next 
 step ought to be the going over the lesson with the book open, and 
 filling in simple, and if possible, Saxon, expressions, for the more 
 difficult words and phrases. The sentences once thoroughly under- 
 stood, the connexion of these, constituting the detailed argument 
 of the lesson, should only then be taken up by the master." 
 
 Another style of procedure is reported on in the 
 following terms : 
 
 ..." The above report gives only due credit to Mr. 's 
 
 great and self-sacrificing labours, and may possibly leave an impres- 
 sion on the mind of the reader that this school is almost too good to 
 live ; but a closer inspection reveals a weakness which insures its 
 vitality if not longevity. This is, in truth, a school of memory and 
 facts. The children are instructed with a painful expenditure of 
 labour in facts, Biblical, historical, geographical, grammatical, and 
 arithmetical, but their intelligence is feeble. When examined from 
 sentence to sentence on the meaning of the words read and the 
 purport of each clause, they displayed an ignorance and a want of 
 capacity to comprehend what had been said to them, which one 
 could scarcely believe to be compatible with such unusual excellence 
 in other respects. After a display of seeming knowledge, which 
 astonishes the listener, a clause of the lesson is taken up, e.g., ' The 
 white ant is an extraordinary species of insect,' and the children 
 are asked the meaning of ' extraordinary.' After every facility 
 and encouragement has been given, the smartest boy ventures on the 
 definition ' insect.' In the same way * species' is defined to mean 
 * extraordinary,' and so forth ; nor was it possible to establish any 
 intelligent colloquial relations between them and myself. Further 
 examination on the same principle in other things broke the back 
 of the school." 
 
 The linguistic treatment of each sentence of the 
 
260 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 lesson by the master, which constitutes the third stage 
 of examination, when time permits, may be illustrated 
 thus, the pupils being understood to have their books 
 open, otherwise the exercise degenerates into one of 
 memory. 
 
 [I presume that the class under examination is the 
 highest class of a good parochial school in one of the 
 three counties.] 
 
 The pupil reads : 
 
 " Every student who enters on a scientific pursuit, especially if 
 at a somewhat advanced period of life, will find not only that he 
 has much to learn, but much also to unlearn. Familiar objects and 
 events are far from presenting themselves to our senses in that aspect, 
 and with those connexions, under which science requires them to le 
 viewed, and which constitute their rational explanation" 
 
 Q. What kind of student is referred to here ? 
 
 A. The student who enters on a scientific pursuit. 
 
 Q. What is said of such a student ? 
 
 A. That he has much to learn. 
 
 Q. Is anything else said of him 1 
 
 A. That he has much to unlearn. 
 
 Q. The author says that every student of a science has much to 
 learn and unlearn ; but he says that this is more particularly true 
 of a certain class of students : what class ? 
 
 A. Those who begin at an advanced period of life. 
 
 Q. What is meant by the word " student ?" 
 
 A. One who studies. 
 
 Q. And what do you mean by studying any subject ] 
 
 A. Reading about it, and thinking about it. 
 
 Q. The student referred to is, you have told me, the student 
 " who enters on a scientific pursuit" pursuit here means subject : 
 what is meant by a " scientific pursuit or subject ? " 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION EXAMINATION. 261 
 
 A. A subject carefully arranged, so as to show its facts, causes, 
 and reasons. 1 
 
 Q. This explanation is difficult for you to understand ; you will 
 best explain it by an example. 
 
 A. Astronomy, Geology, etc., are " scientific subjects" or sciences : 
 that is to say, the real facts about the stars, not merely what 
 seem to be the facts at first sight, arranged so as to show their 
 connexion and causes, is the science of the stars, or Astronomy (and 
 so of Geology). l 
 
 Q. Can any of you now, looking carefully at the sentence, shut 
 the book, and give me the substance of it in your own words ? 
 
 A. A person beginning to study a science will find that he has 
 much to learn as well as to unlearn, and this all the more if he is 
 grown up before he begins. 
 
 Q. Very good. Now I shall read the sentence as it stands once 
 more over. You can now easily tell me, in the words of the 
 grammar-book, What is the subject of this sentence 1 
 
 A. " Every student" down to "life." 
 
 Q. Yes, that is the thing spoken about. Now what is said 
 about it ; in the words of the grammar, what is the predicate ? 
 
 A. "Will find" to the end. 
 
 Q. What is the principal word or verb of this predicate ? 
 
 A. "Will find." 
 
 Q. But find is a transitive verb, and therefore part of what fol- 
 lows must be its object : what part ? 
 
 A. The whole of what follows ; there are two objects, learning 
 and unlearning, and they are connected by the conjoining or con- 
 junctive word but. 
 
 Teacher. We shall now take the second sentence. 
 (The teacher here reads it slowly while the pupils follow with 
 the eye.} 
 
 Q. What is said here about "familiar objects and events." 
 A. That they are far from presenting themselves, etc. 
 Q. What things are "far from presenting themselves?" etc. 
 A . " Familiar objects and events." 
 
 1 Of course an answer of this sort is worked out by the help of the 
 master, and must be the result of many leading questions. 
 
REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 Q. In the science of Astronomy, for example, what would the 
 " familiar objects and events " be 1 
 
 A. The heavenly bodies and their motions. 
 
 Q. Which are the objects, and which the events ? 
 
 A. The bodies are the objects, and their motions are the events. 
 
 Q. Now the author says that these objects and events are " far 
 from presenting themselves in a certain aspect and connexion :" 
 what do you mean by " aspect 1 " 
 
 A. Appearance. 
 
 Q. What by " connexion ?" 
 
 A. Their union with each other, or other things, or their rela- 
 tion to these things. 1 
 
 Q. What kind of appearance and connexions do they fail to pre- 
 sent themselves to our senses in 1 
 
 A. The appearance and connexions under which science requires 
 them to be viewed. 
 
 Q. Does the author say anything else about that " appearance" 
 and " connexion?" 
 
 A. Yes. He says that they " constitute their rational explana- 
 tion." 
 
 Q. What " constitute the rational explanation" of what ? 
 
 A. A certain aspect and certain connexions of objects and events 
 constitute the rational explanation of these objects and events. 1 
 
 Q. Can we accurately say that an aspect or appearance and cer- 
 tain connexions constitute an explanation of anything ? 
 
 A. No. What is meant is that the presentation of them to the 
 mind in a certain light, and with certain connexions, " constitutes 
 their rational explanation." 
 
 Q. What is meant by " constitute their rational explanation 1 " 
 
 A. That the kind of presentation referred to is such an explana- 
 tion as satisfies the reason of a man. 
 
 Q. Now, can any of you, looking carefully at this sentence, 
 shut your book and give me the substance of it in your own words 1 
 
 A. The author says, that " Things to which we are accustomed, 
 are not always seen in such a way as science requires them to be 
 looked at, and that the way of looking which science requires, 
 gives us an explanation of these things which satisfies our minds." 
 
 1 See foot-note on previous page. 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION EXAMINATION. 263 
 
 Teacher. Now, take your slates and go to your seats. Your 
 composition lesson to-day will be putting these two sentences in 
 your own words. In doing this you may make as many sentences 
 of them as you please. 
 
 The above is analysis of sentences in relation to 
 thought, and requires no special instruction in diffi- 
 cult terminology. It is, in truth, merely the explicit 
 evolution of a process which must go on in the mind 
 of every person who reads the sentences with under- 
 standing. Need I point to the great value of such an 
 evolution as a discipline of intellect and an exercise 
 of concentration of the will on an object outside itself. 
 It is an exercise which disciplines every faculty of the 
 understanding. This is the kind of analysis which 
 has been spoken of in the First Part of this Keport, 
 as alone properly entering into the work of the paro- 
 chial school, until the boy has reached the age of twelve. 
 Thereafter formal or technical analysis may be intro- 
 duced as a logical exercise of a still more minute kind, 
 if time permit. Ordinary parsing even, in any sys- 
 tematic form, will be best omitted till the boy has 
 reached eleven or twelve years of age, if only the 
 parts of speech be gradually extracted from his 
 Reading-lessons, with a view to the further elucida- 
 tion of the meaning of sentences, and to enabling 
 teacher and pupil to make verbal references without 
 circumlocution. 
 
 Whatever course be taken in examining on a lesson, 
 this at least may be fairly insisted on in every case, 
 
264 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 viz., that the teacher shall himself know what he is 
 aiming at in his examination. The eye hastily cast 
 over the open page, rather than the thought of the 
 master, almost universally seems to determine what is 
 to come next. Such cases as the following are not 
 uncommon : 
 
 Extract from Report on School. 
 
 " The teacher of this school is a good scholar, and, so far as I 
 can see, conscientious in the discharge of duty ; but he does not 
 seem to realize in his own mind the purpose or plan of the lessons 
 which he gives, or to think that this is necessary. Nor has he any 
 mental standard by which to judge the progress which each class 
 may make." 
 
 Occasionally the teacher will find himself compelled 
 to be satisfied with an examination on the general 
 scope of a lesson in the form of oral composition, or 
 with a written reproduction of its general purport 
 (step 1, p. 257). The time at his disposal must de- 
 termine such things. It will frequently happen, too, 
 that he will depart from the analysis of sentences in 
 relation to thought, and substitute for it the analysis 
 of words, and the fruitful exercise of word-building, 
 with the help of prefixes and affixes. 1 
 
 If there be one habit of teachers more absurd 
 than another, it is the asking for definitions of the 
 words of a lesson with the book shut. The words 
 
 1 " Roots," in the form of Latin and Greek, are a waste of time. But 
 a knowledge of the most common prefixes, and exercises in constructing 
 words with the help of them, and on the basis of the root in its English 
 form, are of great utility as a discipline. 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION EXAMINATION. 265 
 
 arc thus treated as isolated vocables, and a significa- 
 tion given by the pupil or suggested by the master, 
 perhaps quite away from the sense in which the word 
 is employed in the lesson. No definition of a word is 
 a definition at all unless it can be put in the place 
 of the word defined and leave the meaning of the pro- 
 position unaltered, at the same time that it is simplified. 
 From this it manifestly follows that significations 
 should be asked with the book open and as clause 
 by clause is read. When all the more difficult words 
 are in this way explained, the pupils should be 
 required to re-read the sentence, putting the simpler 
 definitions in place of the difficult words. This is 
 not paraphrasing (an art much liable to abuse) but 
 substituting: it might, indeed, be called translating. 
 One sentence so reconstructed is of more value as a 
 discipline of the intelligence than the recitation of 
 a whole page of isolated terms, with their lexicon defi- 
 nitions. To the exercise of substitution or translation 
 I attach very great importance. 
 
 Valuable as the skilful examination on a reading- 
 lesson may be, the teacher must beware of tarnishing 
 the beauty of a lesson which is addressed to the ima 
 gination or feelings of the pupil by following the same 
 course with it as with the other pieces in the reading- 
 book. Not every lesson affords fit material for stam- 
 mering reproduction, much less for the vulgarizing 
 process of sentence-analysis. Lessons which appeal to 
 the affections, the sentiments of devotion, or the 
 beautiful, should, after they have been read as 
 
266 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 usual by the class, have their purport simply and 
 unaffectedly sketched by the master, and be then 
 appropriately and expressively read by him to his 
 listening pupils. In this way only can the lesson 
 they are meant to teach be really taught. 
 
 Course of Lessons. In selecting the course of 
 lessons through which he is to carry his pupils, the 
 teacher should have constant regard to the fact that 
 the pupils of parochial schools receive all their culti- 
 vation within the walls of the schoolroom, and are 
 excluded by their circumstances from those numerous 
 influences of an intellectual, moral, and aesthetic kind 
 which belong to the classes above them in the social 
 scale. His objects in teaching reading are instruction of 
 the mind, discipline of the intellectual powers, cultiva- 
 tion of the imagination, and moral and religious train- 
 ing. In carrying his pupils through a course thus largely 
 conceived, he should not be discouraged by observing 
 that the subject-matter of the more difficult lessons, 
 whether semi-scientific or moral, seems to be quickly 
 forgotten by the pupils. In truth, what is forgotten 
 in the process of learning is often as efficacious an 
 educative agent as what is remembered. A perception 
 of this fact must have prompted Bishop Berkeley's 
 pertinent query, " Whether those parts of learning 
 which are forgotten may not have improved and en- 
 riched the soil, like those vegetables which are raised 
 not for themselves, but are ploughed in for a dressing 
 of the land V 9 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION READING COURSE. 267 
 
 Nor is the teacher to be discouraged by occasion- 
 ally finding it difficult to make his pupils fully com- 
 prehend the lesson read. Habitually to require pupils 
 to work at the unintelligible is permanently to stunt 
 the mind by obstructing the free action of intelligence. 
 But never to demand of them a conscious effort to 
 master difficulties of thought and language is to 
 weaken the intellectual energy. The power of grasp- 
 ing any sequence of thought that has been the subject 
 of a reading-lesson depends of course on the maturity 
 of the learner and his perception of the general rela- 
 tions of the subject to things already thoroughly 
 known by him, and which form the natural props of 
 new knowledge. But we are not to suppose that 
 knowledge which may occasionally transcend the stage 
 of mental development which the pupil has reached, 
 is therefore useless in respect of the mental cultivation 
 which the fresh thoughts give. These thoughts, while 
 adding little to the bulk, may contribute largely to 
 the organic growth of mind. Still more true is this 
 when we have regard to the discipline derivable from 
 the analysis of the language in which the fresh know- 
 ledge is conveyed. 
 
 A word or two of personal reference to the teacher, 
 bearing on all the work of the school as well as on 
 instruction in reading : (l.) Let him take up such 
 a position on the school floor with respect to his 
 class as shall insure that each pupil will feel himself 
 addressed by every question and explanation, and 
 
268 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 that every boy in the class will hear every answer 
 given and every sentence read as distinctly as the 
 teacher himself. This position should not be changed 
 during a lesson. For the concentration of the eyes of 
 the class on the master's face aids the concentration 
 of mind on the subject in hand. (2.) Let him dis- 
 card the book, both when listening to the reading 
 of the class and when reproducing the general pur- 
 port of the lesson. (3.) Let him, in all he says, be 
 deliberate, precise, curt, avoiding all talk, and re- 
 membering that he is merely the guide and example 
 of others who are working. (4.) Let him keep in 
 mind that the more conversational is his tone the 
 more surely does it reach the minds with which he 
 is conversing, and that all loudness is inconsistent 
 with the quiet and calm process of thinking. (5.) 
 Let him attempt little at a time, and do that little 
 thoroughly, and this on moral as well as intellectual 
 grounds. 1 
 
 (2.) Writing (Dictation Exercises). 
 
 Of the 113 annually enrolled (on the average) 
 in each of the parochial schools of the three counties, 
 91 are engaged in learning to write. Writing on 
 paper with pen and ink is usually begun when 
 
 1 I would here guard against its being supposed that by dwelling as 1 
 do on common defects, I mean to convey the impression that the schools 
 participating in the Dick Bequest are to any very large extent character- 
 ized by these defects. The condition of the schools as to efficiency will 
 be recorded in its proper place. 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION WRITING. 269 
 
 the pupil is about the age of eight. Copy-books 
 with head-lines are used. As soon as the child is 
 able to form the letters, however, he has been of late 
 years usually exercised in transcribing on his slate, 
 words, lines, and sentences from his reading-lesson, 
 and this exercise is continued throughout the whole 
 school course, in addition to the daily exercise in the 
 copy-book. This slate-writing becomes, in the second 
 highest class, writing from dictation ; and in the highest 
 class, the latter exercise is combined with composi- 
 tion exercises. The copy-books used are much more 
 unobjectionable than they used to be in respect of the 
 quality of the paper, while the cheapness of steel pens 
 has put a good instrument within the reach of the 
 poorest. More attention than used to be common is 
 now paid to keeping the pupils to a uniform series 
 of copy-books, thereby securing a certain amount of 
 system and graduation in the successive exercises. 
 Where the teacher is without assistance, the whole 
 school capable of using the pen generally writes at 
 the same hour daily. 
 
 On the whole, the Writing of the three counties 
 is very satisfactory in the senior classes. The thing 
 to be regretted with reference to the state of this 
 branch of instruction, is the late age at which chil- 
 dren exhibit any proficiency in it. This, however, 
 is not the fault of the teachers so much as of the 
 parents, and of the bad system of charging fees ac 
 cording to the number of subjects taught, a custom 
 
270 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 which retards the instruction of the junior classes 
 both in this subject and in arithmetic. The parents 
 seem to imagine that by requiring that only reading 
 and spelling shall be taught to their children for the 
 first two years of their school life, they secure a 
 greater amount of attention to these subjects, both 
 on the part of pupils and teacher, than would be 
 given were writing and arithmetic added ; while the 
 separation of the fee for writing from that for read- 
 ing gives an apparent justification to this delusion, 
 and brings into play the additional argument of 
 economy. The rectification of this is easy, and is 
 gradually being forced on the country by the opera- 
 tion of the Eevised Code, which, in this respect, if in 
 no other, will be universally admitted to be correcting 
 a great educational mistake. 
 
 That the whole school should be engaged in the 
 writing lesson at one and the same time seems to in- 
 dicate defective organization, and a badly constructed 
 time-table. But if we bear in mind that the writing 
 lesson is one requiring, quite as much as any other, 
 effective supervision and direction, it will be admitted 
 that, where there are no assistants, this can be secured 
 only by setting the master free for the purpose. 
 Some masters seem to imagine, that with a head-line 
 and pen and ink, instruction in writing will take 
 care of itself, and hence the lessons are frequently 
 almost totally valueless. The slovenly pages, the mis- 
 spellings, repeated in every successive line, the omis- 
 sion on the part of the pupil to refer his eye back 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION WRITING. 271 
 
 to his model, all reveal to the visitor the view which 
 the teacher takes of this part of his duties. Writing 
 requires to be actively taught by the master, especially 
 in the earlier stages and till a good habit is formed, 
 quite as much as any other subject. He should not 
 only vigilantly superintend the writing lesson, but 
 affix a mark to every copy written by the child, and 
 allow places to be taken for this as for other lessons. 
 
 These remarks apply to the present method of 
 teaching writing. The more practical method, re- 
 commended in the first part of this Report, and to 
 which I would here refer the teacher, requires copy- 
 books specially constructed with a view to its appli- 
 cation. The substance of the remarks there made, 
 however, applies to any system, and it is this : Begin 
 children with slate and pencil from the very first day 
 of their entering the school, teaching them to copy 
 printed letters from a wall-sheet or the black-board, 
 until they can read the Primer, and then introduce 
 them to script letters. In this way much time at 
 present utterly wasted in idleness, or in acquiring a 
 distaste for the confinement of school, will be pro- 
 fitably employed ; and when the child, at the age of 
 eight, has pen, ink, and paper given to him, he will 
 be found to be already competent to transcribe the 
 sentences of his lesson-book. 
 
 In the chapter on Method I have summed up the 
 object of teaching Writing. If that object be kept in 
 view, dictation exercises will follow transcription and 
 
272 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 enter very early into the daily round of school work. 
 In connexion with this, let me beg teachers to husband 
 their own strength, and read the words they dictate 
 only once to the pupils. Teachers are apt to forget 
 that every lesson, however humble, has a higher than 
 its apparent purpose to serve, if rightly taught. If 
 the words are read out only once, the pupils not only 
 get a lesson in writing from dictation, but also in 
 attention and in concentration of mind. If any boy 
 fails to follow, he must leave a blank on his slate at 
 the forgotten word, which blank will of course count 
 an error. 
 
 It would be to carry out this Report into super- 
 fluous detail to enter upon the many little devices 
 (little, but not petty or unimportant) which suggest 
 themselves to various minds for expeditiously correct 
 ing the mistakes of the dictation exercise, and other- 
 wise giving full effect to it. One thing, however, 
 must be specially urged on teachers, and that is, the 
 importance of requiring the pupils, after the mistakes 
 have been pointed out, to go to their seats and write 
 out several times correctly the words which they have 
 misspelled, afterwards showing the corrections to the 
 boy or boys who have done the exercise without errors, 
 should the master be too much occupied for the work 
 of revision. 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION ARITHMETIC. 273 
 
 (3.) Arithmetic. 
 
 Of the 113 annually enrolled (on the average), in 
 each of the parochial schools of the three counties, 71 
 learn Arithmetic. 
 
 Mental calculation generally accompanies the first 
 stage of arithmetical teaching in the three counties. 
 This stage is learning to write the figures from dicta- 
 tion ; it is followed by lessons in addition, worked 
 out on the black-board by the master, and afterwards 
 imitated by the pupils on their slates. The pupils, 
 however, begin this branch late, partly for the reasons 
 given in the last chapter ; but the result generally is, 
 that, when I visit a school, I find about 13 per cent, 
 of those present ready to work questions in Vulgar 
 Fractions, and in Simple and Double Proportion. Such 
 a result would be quite satisfactory, where the average 
 age is twelve, were the working of questions involving 
 some thought readily done. This, I regret to say, is 
 not the case. In accordance with my conviction that 
 the arithmetic of the people, and of the future student 
 too, should be economic, I consider the power of mani- 
 pulating questions, which are numerically stated, to 
 be a very poor accomplishment, whether viewed 
 arithmetically, or in its relation to intellectual discip- 
 line. So taught, Arithmetic is a very inferior edu- 
 cative agent ; taught in a more practical sense, it is 
 one of the most potent. 
 
 On this subject I might quote many illustrative pas- 
 sages, from my annual Reports, but it will be more to 
 
 s 
 
274 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 the purpose to give the opinion of Professor Kelland, 
 who accompanied me during a portion of the tour of 
 1865, and whose experience of the Dick Bequest 
 schools is now very considerable : 
 
 " EDINBURGH, 20 CLARENDON CRESCENT, 
 July 10, 1865. 
 
 " MY DEAR LAURIE, In the decennial Keport to 
 the Trustees of the Dick Bequest, on which you are 
 now engaged, I think it would be well, as was done in 
 the previous Eeport, to direct attention to the com 
 parative neglect of Arithmetic as a branch of educa- 
 tion proper. Arithmetic, as a mere technical art, is 
 indeed more or less imperfectly taught in the schools 
 which have come under my notice, but I have very 
 rarely seen it used as a discipline. In truth, the mas- 
 ters themselves are for the most part unable rapidly 
 and with certainty to think out a process of arith- 
 metic which is not purely mechanical. The tendency 
 of modern education is to sacrifice depth to breadth, 
 and thus the humbler science of arithmetic suffers. 
 In my examinations I have proposed, with little suc- 
 cess, both to masters and to scholars, such questions 
 as the following : 
 
 " If by selling at 16s. 6d. a yard you lose 10 per 
 cent, on the outlay, what do you gain or lose per cent, 
 when you sell at 20s. a yard? 
 
 " In 1000 ozs. troy how many ozs. avoirdupois ? 
 
 " Two equal wine-glasses are both filled with wine 
 and water : in the one the proportion of wine to 
 water is 1 to 4 ; in the other 1 to 5. When both are 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION ARITHMETIC. 275 
 
 poured together into a tumbler what is the proportion 
 of wine to water in the mixture ? 
 
 " Surely to think out such problems is more con- 
 ducive to education than to blunder over the elemen- 
 tary rules of Algebra or the Greek alphabet. Believe 
 me, yours very truly, PHILIP KELLAND." 
 
 All that it is necessary to say on the questions of 
 the purpose and method of this branch of study has 
 been already said in the first part of this Report ; and 
 I shall only further advert to one or two prevailing 
 defects easy of cure. 
 
 (1.) The teaching of Arithmetic should begin earlier 
 than it does, and begin with the ball-frame. In its 
 initiatory still more than its highest form, school 
 arithmetic should be concrete. 
 
 (2.) Much greater prominence should be given at 
 every stage to mental arithmetic. 
 
 (3.) To teach the simple rules without a previous 
 training in the principles of Notation, and concurrent 
 instruction in the principles of the rules which the 
 pupils are taught to apply, is to make uninteresting, 
 if not stupefying, an exercise which ought to be pre- 
 eminently attractive and invigorating. It is, moreover, 
 wilfully to forego a large portion of the discipline of 
 the reasoning powers which Arithmetic is supposed to 
 give. A boy, it is true, must work by rules, but he 
 can be safely exercised in and enlightened by prin- 
 ciples where these have to do with subjects quite out- 
 side himself. 
 
276 REPORT OX EDUCATION. 
 
 (4.) It follows from the preceding paragraphs that 
 the master should never yield to the temptation of 
 indulging the indolence of his pupils by reading to 
 them, or allowing them to read, figures instead of the 
 numbers which they denote. 
 
 (5.) In Arithmetic, accuracy is in a special sense 
 imperative. The pupil must be taught to see, as 
 indeed he cannot help seeing, that the whole process 
 is utterly futile, except in so far as it is accurate, 
 A function of Arithmetic in the school is to teach 
 accuracy, as a function of Language is to teach pre 
 cision. 
 
 (4.) Music. 
 
 Singing lessons are of comparatively recent intro- 
 duction into the schools of the three counties. The 
 sol-fa system, affording, as it does, facilities for pro- 
 ducing rapid and showy results, is chiefly in favour ; 
 but the best singing and the most thorough training 
 are found in those schools which prefer the ordinary 
 notation. 
 
 This important and cultivating art is not yet so 
 general in the schools as the Trustees desire that it 
 should be. It is found in only about 2 per cent, of 
 the schools. But I think it may be safely said that it 
 almost always forms a part of the school curriculum, 
 when the master himself is able to sing. 
 
 Of one school I report as follows : 
 
 ..." Music from notation exceedingly well taught. Six boys, 
 whose age averaged eleven and a half, were prepared to write down 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION GEOGRAPHY. 277 
 
 the notes of a time, entirely new to them, when sung once over by 
 the master. I selected a tune, and the result was quite up to the 
 profession. Sacred and secular pieces were very well sung, the chil- 
 dren taking parts." 
 
 Of another school it is reported : 
 
 u Music from notation carefully and very successfully taught. The 
 children sang at sight a tune (quite new to them) written on the 
 board in the ordinary notation." 
 
 Even, however, where Music is pretty successfully 
 taught, its relation to the general routine of the school, 
 and its powerful moral and religious influence in the 
 formation of character, are not yet properly under- 
 stood. If the pupils can exhibit a song or two, the 
 master too often thinks his work in this department is 
 done. This is a great error. The function of Music 
 is to lighten the labour, cheer the spirits, intensify 
 the sympathy, and instruct the hearts of the children, 
 and, more than this, to harmonize the whole work 
 of the school. Music ought, therefore, like the spirit 
 of religion itself, to permeate the labour of the day. 
 If it did so, it would not fail to sweeten the temper 
 and promote the vivacity of both teacher and taught. 
 
 (5.) Geography. 
 
 Of the 113 scholars annually enrolled (on the 
 average) in each of the parochial schools of the three 
 counties, 52 are returned as receiving instruction in 
 Geography. This is too small a proportion. It is 
 an error to suppose that Geography is a "higher 
 subject. " It is, when properly understood, the most 
 
278 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 " elementary" of all subjects, though not ranking 
 among the indispensable studies. 
 
 The general outlines of the Map of the World, and 
 the special topography of the British Isles, and of 
 Palestine, are, for the most part, carefully taught in 
 the schools benefiting by the Bequest. There are 
 usually two geography classes, and these receive 
 lessons three times a week. The manufacture, the 
 commercial characteristic, or the historical incidents 
 for which towns are noted, are generally given. 
 
 The defects in the teaching are (1.) The manner 
 in which the children are introduced to the subject. 
 (2.) The presentation of a chart of the world, before 
 the eyes and minds of the children have been familiar- 
 ized with a sphere. (3.) The almost total omission 
 of physico-industrial geography. (4.) The limited 
 amount of attention given to map-drawing. 
 
 To dwell on these points in such a way as to 
 develop fully their importance, would be to repeat 
 what has been already said in another part of this 
 Report in its proper connexion. But the last two 
 defects suggest the further remark, that when Phy- 
 sical Geography is taught, it is almost always taught 
 as a special and advanced department of study. 
 Now, this is entirely to mistake its proper uses in 
 the elementary school. The Physical Geography of 
 the school, as distinct from the science of Physical 
 Geography, is such an account of a country, its posi- 
 tion, configuration, soil, and climate, as explains its 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION MAP-DKAWING. 279 
 
 industries and its people. The very first steps in 
 geographical instruction, therefore, should associate 
 the county or country which is the subject of the lesson 
 with these facts, as being the things mainly worth 
 knowing. Around geographical teaching, so conceived, 
 will naturally gather all that "general information" 
 which the school ought to give, but which might be irre- 
 Irvant in connexion with any other lesson, and might 
 tend to encourage too discursive a style of teaching. 
 
 Of one school the report is to this effect : 
 
 . . . " Iii geography the highest class made an excellent appear- 
 ance on Scotland. The way in which physical and industrial and 
 political geography are woven into each other by Mr. is credit- 
 able both to his intelligence and to his sense of duty in the teaching 
 of this subject." 
 
 Of only a few others could so favourable a report 
 be given. 
 
 To the apology so frequently made that there is 
 no time for map-drawing, the reply is sufficient that 
 the best schools find time. But if it be desired to 
 avoid the unfavourable criticism on the school organi- 
 zation which is implied in such a reply, the teacher 
 may safely be told to substitute slate map-drawing 
 for one of his oral lessons. The slightest reflection 
 will convince any man that a single attempt (suc- 
 ceeding in the attempt is a matter of secondary 
 moment) to outline a wall-map of Scotland on the 
 slate will do more to fix in the pupil's mind the shape 
 of the country and the relative localities of the prin 
 ripal rivers and towns than four or five oral lessons. 
 
280 REPOKT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 Map-drawing furnishes a fresh illustration of the 
 truth more than once adverted to in the course of 
 this Keport, namely, that the best method of teaching 
 any subject is not only the most philosophic, but 
 also the most practical ; not only the most sound, 
 but also the most sure and rapid ; not only extracting 
 out of the subject to which it is applied the highest 
 discipline which it affords, but contributing, over and 
 above this, to the general discipline of the mind in 
 a manner not always at first view obvious. For 
 in this humble exercise we have all the character- 
 istics which I have enumerated, and the further 
 benefit of a discipline of the eye in accuracy of 
 perception, of the hand in neatness and cleanness 
 of execution, and also, to some extent, a training of 
 the sense of the fit, the harmonious, and the lower 
 forms of the beautiful. Teaching the right subject 
 in a right manner, according to right methods, and 
 with right aims, is in truth a great art, fruitful in 
 more important results than even those men, whose 
 life-craft it is, imagine. 
 
 (6.) History. 
 
 A succession of names, confused genealogies, dates, 
 causeless and eventless battles, 1 with here and there 
 a dozen lines about a heroic man or deed such is 
 school History. And even this is given only in a 
 fragmentary form ; for the continuous record of even 
 
 1 To the child "causeless and eventless." 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION GRAMMAR. 281 
 
 such things is, owing to the shortness of attendance, 
 perused by not more than 20 per cent, of those who 
 rend the school manual. It is with the deepest 
 regret that I have to record that the occupation 
 of the senior pupils with this comparatively barren 
 subject has very largely increased in the North within 
 the last four or five years. 
 
 To find reading of the scope and character of a 
 school history given to the highest class in a parochial 
 school is to me a great vexation. All the progress 
 made during the past ten years (for there has been 
 visible progress in many things) is more than coun- 
 terbalanced by the abandonment of the more dif- 
 ficult and thoughtful extracts of an advanced col- 
 lection for such miserable food ; miserable whether 
 we regard its substance, or the language in which 
 it is generally conveyed. A Visitor may, in such cir- 
 cumstances, find much to applaud in the discipline, 
 the religious knowledge, and the whole junior work 
 of the school, but he feels that he has not even the 
 materials afforded him of testing either the knowledge 
 or the intellectual capacity of the senior classes. 
 
 (7.) Grammar and Composition. 
 
 About one half of the pupils attending the parochial 
 schools in the three counties are returned as receiving 
 instruction in English Grammar. There are no special 
 returns under the head of English Composition, but 
 the proportion regularly instructed in this branch 
 
REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 cannot fall short of 23 per cent. The grammatical 
 instruction does not really reach, in an adequate 
 sense, a larger proportion of the pupils than this. 
 
 The pupils learn to distinguish the parts of speech, 
 with the number and gender of nouns, in the second 
 highest class, except in those schools in which pupils 
 remain beyond the age of eleven ; in such cases the 
 children of the third highest class are initiated in these 
 elements. In the highest class the declensions of nouns, 
 pronouns, and verbs are learned, and parsing acquired. 
 Parsing means the discrimination and naming of the 
 concords and governments that subsist between the 
 different words of a sentence. The results are, con- 
 sidering the nature of the subject, very fair in the 
 average school. In a large number of the schools the 
 highest class show a most thorough acquaintance 
 with the syntax of even involved sentences, such as 
 those of Milton's Paradise Lost. 
 
 The principal defect found in the teaching of Gram- 
 mar, according to the above system, is want of accur- 
 acy and precision. This defect manifestly vitiates 
 the whole teaching, and renders the subject worse 
 than useless. 
 
 In one of niy annual reports I find the following 
 remark, which illustrates the all-importance of pre- 
 cision : 
 
 . . . " The importance of grammar for boys and girls lies in this, 
 that it is a valuable exercise of mind in the making of verbal dis- 
 tinctions, and, therefore, cultivates the power of distinguishing in 
 general ; and above all, of distinguishing between things which are 
 objects of reflection (notional) and not merely of external observation." 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION GRAMMAR. 283 
 
 If the distinctions made cross each other, or are 
 vague and indefinite, parsing is an illusion. Gram 
 matical teaching can have only two possible objects 
 in a parochial school the discipline of the intel- 
 lect, the more thorough understanding of reading 
 lessons, or the art of composition. The first is not 
 only not promoted, it is unquestionably retarded, by 
 looseness of definition or the slurring over of diffi- 
 culties ; the second and third are not to be attained 
 by mere parsing, unless it take the form of analysis, 
 and be supported by actual practice in the art of 
 constructing sentences and paragraphs. 
 
 It has been said above that the results of grammar 
 teaching are very fair even in the average school. But 
 I would qualify this observation by saying that merely 
 "very fair" results in a subject of this kind are of little 
 practical value, disciplinary or other. Hence the opi- 
 nion stated in a former part of this Report, that sys- 
 tematic grammatical teaching should be postponed 
 till after the pupil has attained the age of eleven, 
 except so much of it as is necessary to throw light 
 on the speaking and writing of sentences. For 
 this purpose syntactical rules, declensions, etc., are 
 quite unnecessary. The parts of speech are perhaps 
 required, in order to abbreviate explanations and 
 references, but beyond these, the essential knowledge 
 is a knowledge of the elements of a sentence, and 
 of the relationship of principal and subordinate clauses. 
 All of analysis that it is necessary to teach at this 
 stage may be composed in four or five propositions. 
 
284 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 The chief requirement is constant practice in oral and 
 written sentence-making. 
 
 When pupils remain at school beyond the age of 
 eleven, a portion of the time cannot be better spent 
 than in parsing, based on sentence-analysis. But in 
 connexion with this, and as a further indication of 
 the prior claims of Elementary Composition (or Prac- 
 tical Grammar), I can confidently assert that I never 
 yet found thorough and thoughtful parsing which was 
 not based either on some knowledge of Latin, or on a 
 training in the analysis of sentences. 
 
 In teaching sentence-analysis, masters are apt to 
 make the great error (the error which pervades almost 
 every department of instruction) of attempting too 
 much, and thereby securing showy quantity instead 
 of thoroughly good quality. The point to keep in 
 view is this, that the sole object of all grammatical 
 analysis as such, and apart from its practical object- 
 composition, is to enable the pupil to perceive the 
 connexion and interdependence of the words and 
 clauses of a sentence, and through this (but uncon- 
 sciously), of thought. The importance of grammar 
 in this respect, when it is properly taught, is pointed 
 out in the following extract from the annual Ke- 
 ports : 
 
 From Report on School. 
 
 ..." An examination on the syntax of a piece of poetry which 
 the Visitor selected revealed the intimate connexion which subsists 
 between grammatical teaching (in the sense of elementary analysis) 
 and the comprehension of everything said or written which goes 
 beyond a mere repetition of ordinary peasant talk. If boys have 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION COMPOSITION. 285 
 
 not been trained to the detection of the syntactical relation of the 
 words and clauses of sentences, it is evident that except where 
 then 1 is a naturally strong intellect, or that cultivation in language 
 and thought which the children of the educated classes uncon- 
 sciously absorb from day to day they will utterly fail to find their 
 way through either prose or poetry of which the construction is in 
 the least degree involved. This is nearly equivalent to saying that 
 they will fail to understand the works of our best authors." 
 
 To avoid the facile descent to rote-work, which 
 belongs to the subject of grammar as much as to any, 
 although the very conditions of its existence would 
 seem to render rote impossible, pupils should always 
 be required, when parsing, to give in full the defini 
 tions and rules which they are presumed to be ap- 
 plying. The master should never assume that they 
 know the " why " of the statements which they so 
 glibly utter. English sentences should be parsed 
 and construed precisely like Latin, in so far as prac- 
 ticable. 
 
 Composition. The schoolmasters, in the very great 
 majority of cases, have of late years acquired the 
 habit of training their highest classes to a kind of 
 prec is- writing on the slate. This exercise has been 
 much encouraged by me, because it is of great dis- 
 ciplinary and practical value in itself, and at the 
 same time furnishes a standard by which the master 
 may safely measure many of the results of his labours. 
 Grammar, spelling, writing, and general intelligence, 
 are all tested by the power of composing an inde- 
 pendent account of the lesson of the day, or of a 
 story read aloud by the master. Moreover, by keep- 
 ing steadily in view the practical result Composi- 
 
286 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 tion, the teacher will be guided as to what he should 
 or should not do in the years of teaching which 
 must precede the attainment of it. 
 
 Although the subject of Composition now receives a 
 great deal of attention, some teachers curiously, I had 
 almost said ingeniously, fail, even with the best inten- 
 tions, to produce any facility in the art worthy of 
 the labour they bestow on it. This comes of the 
 omission to organize the course of instruction. As 
 soon as the pupils can write fairly from dictation 
 the teacher at once plunges into narrative composi- 
 tion. He will find the progress made by his pupils 
 much more intelligent, as well as more rapid and 
 assured, if he spend two preliminary months in exer- 
 cising them in the construction of single sentences, 
 writing on the black-board the words which are to 
 enter into these sentences. By this kind of exercise 
 alone can the boy learn to know what is and what is 
 not a sentence. When he knows this and can apply 
 his knowledge, but not till then, he may be required 
 to write an account of his lesson or of some tale read 
 to him. Meanwhile the habit of oral composition, 
 already spoken of in connexion with examination on 
 the lesson of the day, may be formed. 
 
 What remains to be said on Grammar and Com- 
 position concerns the general object and method of 
 these subjects in their relation to the supreme purpose 
 of the school rather than to the expedients and rules 
 for teaching, and these are treated of in the first 
 part of this Report. 
 
NOTES ON VISITATION ORGANIZATION. 287 
 
 (8.) Organization. 
 
 The high education of the Northern schoolmasters 
 stands them in good stead in all that concerns the 
 actual work of instruction and of influence on the 
 character of those committed to their charge. This 
 higher education, it is true, cannot supersede the study 
 of Method (except when it is found conjoined with an 
 elevated conception of the purpose of school work and 
 an instinctive sympathetic appreciation of teaching pro- 
 cesses), but it is certainly a better qualification for the 
 efficient discharge of even the humblest duties in a pa- 
 rochial school than an empirical knowledge of methods 
 obtained at a Normal College. But when we come to 
 questions affecting school organization, many portions 
 of discipline, and the important small matters of the 
 schoolroom, the advantages of professional training are 
 at once visible. Of Organization especially is this true. 
 
 When I first began my visitation, very few teachers 
 in the North had given any thought to this subject. 
 Even classification seemed to be roughly arranged, 
 and the masters did not appear to be sensible of 
 the extent to which grouping and graduation tend 
 to retard or expedite the progress of a school. Still 
 less was all that department of organization, which is 
 represented by the word " time-table," understood. 
 So conspicuous were the shortcomings of the schools 
 in these matters, that many years ago the Trustees 
 issued a circular letter directing attention to them, 
 and enclosing the blank form of a time-table, a copy 
 of which they now require to be sent up along with 
 
REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 the annual statistical return. The following is a copy 
 of the letter then issued : 
 
 " EDINBURGH, 18th May 1857. 
 
 " DEAR SIB, In the Reports which from time to time have 
 been laid before the Trustees of the Dick Bequest, attention has 
 been directed to the want of adequate organization in many of the 
 schools. There are several teachers, it is true, who display con- 
 siderable skill in this important department of school-management ; 
 but it may be safely said that the majority do not give that promi- 
 nence to the subject which it certainly merits, when its bearing on 
 the whole work of the schoolroom is well considered. 
 
 " The Trustees have, consequently, instructed me to communicate 
 with you on this subject, and to enclose for your adoption, the 
 skeleton form of a Time-Table, in the belief that the careful filling 
 up of such a Table at the commencement of the summer and winter 
 seasons, and the regulation of your daily work by it, will do much to 
 remove the defect adverted to above, by promoting a more skilful 
 arrangement of classes, and a more methodical distribution of school 
 time than is at present general. 
 
 " The Trustees will henceforth require that copies of these Time- 
 Tables be transmitted to them along with the Annual Schedule. 
 They would also recommend that they be suspended in a conspicuous 
 part of the schoolroom. 
 
 " By the means which the Trustees now take of drawing your 
 attention to the subject, you will perceive that they understand by 
 organization such a classification of the pupils, according to the 
 development of intelligence, or extent of acquirement, as will confine 
 each to that stage of study, and secure for him that kind of teaching, 
 for which he is best fitted, and from which, consequently, he will 
 derive most benefit. You will perceive also, that a well-organized 
 school provides for the occupation of every class, and at all times 
 during the school-hours. In the words of an eminent educationist, 
 Every child should always have something to do, and a motive for 
 doing it.' But while each class pursues, as far as may be practicable, 
 an independent course throughout the day, it should be apparent that 
 it forms part of a whole in which unity of purpose and spirit is con- 
 spicuous. A too great tension of the pupil's faculties is, no doubt, to 
 be most carefully avoided ; but this can always be done by providing 
 intervals of idleness (which in the case of junior classes should be 
 
NOTKS OF VISITATION ORGANIZATION. 289 
 
 frequent), whether these arc to be spent in the open air, or in the 
 schoolroom with such amusement as pencil and slate can afford." . . . 
 
 A large proportion of the teachers did not know 
 how to use the table sent down to them ; but being 
 desirous to comply with any request made by the 
 Trustees, they filled it up with an account of the 
 way in which they themselves spent the school hours. 
 Some of those who so misunderstood the object of the 
 Trustees complained, I believe (and from their point 
 of view perhaps justly complained), that the new 
 form was inquisitorial ! 
 
 The uses of a time-table have been already explained 
 in the first part of this Report, and also the bearing of 
 organization on the attainment of all the objects of the 
 school. - The most practical supplement to what has 
 been there said will be a specimen of a time-table for 
 a school of sixty pupils. The insertion of such a model 
 is by no means superfluous, for, notwithstanding the 
 progress which has been made in many directions, the 
 parochial schools of the North (and the remark is true 
 of all Scotch elementary schools known to me which 
 are not taught by trained teachers) are, so far as I 
 have seen or can learn, very far behind the majority of 
 schools south of the Tweed in respect of organization. 
 I would again urge on masters the importance of 
 this subject. Those who deliberately contemn the 
 machinery of their work exhibit by so doing their 
 'ii tire misconception of the means which are avail- 
 able for the attainment of school ends, and it is even 
 doubtful if they understand what those ends are. 
 
 T 
 
290 
 
 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 Daily Time- Table for a School 
 
 FORENOON. 
 
 HOURS. 
 
 CLASS I. 
 
 CLASS II. 
 
 CLASS III. 
 
 Class IV. 
 
 CLASS V. 
 
 CLASS VI. 
 
 10 to 10. 25 
 
 Not 
 
 Not 
 
 Preparing. 
 
 Preparing. 
 
 - -~ s 
 Religious 
 
 Religious 
 
 
 assembled. 
 
 assembled. 
 
 
 
 lesson. 
 
 lesson. 
 
 10. 25 to 10. 40 
 
 s 1 ~^^ 
 
 Oral 
 religious 
 lesson. 
 
 ~ i~"* -s. 
 Oral 
 religious 
 lesson. 
 
 Writingfrom 
 dictation 
 under a 
 
 Writingfrom 
 dictation 
 under a 
 
 Preparing 
 
 reading 
 lesson. 
 
 Preparing 
 reading 
 lesson. 
 
 
 
 
 monitor a 
 
 monitor a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 verse of the 
 
 verse of the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 New 
 
 New 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Testament. 
 
 Testament. 
 
 
 
 10.40 to 11 
 
 Preparing. 
 
 Preparing. 
 
 Religious 
 lesson. 
 
 Religious 
 lesson. 
 
 Preparing 
 reading 
 
 Preparing 
 reading 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lesson. 
 
 lesson. 
 
 11 to 11. 20 
 
 Copying 
 letters and 
 
 Copying 
 letters and 
 
 Reading 
 lesson Under 
 
 Copying out 
 on slate the 
 
 Writing. 
 
 Writing. 
 
 
 words on 
 
 words on 
 
 the master. 
 
 difficult 
 
 
 
 
 slate. 
 
 slate. 
 
 
 words of the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 day's lesson. 
 
 
 
 11. 20 to 11.40 
 
 Reading 
 esson under 
 
 Reading 
 lesson under 
 
 Slate 
 exercise on 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 
 master. 
 
 monitor. 
 
 the lesson. 
 
 
 
 
 11.40 to 12 
 
 Making 
 
 Making 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Reading 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 
 figures on 
 
 figures on 
 
 
 Wesson under 
 
 
 
 
 slate from 
 
 slate from 
 
 
 master. 
 
 
 
 
 black board 
 
 black board. 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 to 12. 15 
 
 Reading 
 
 Reading 
 
 Dismiss. 
 
 Dismiss. 
 
 Dismiss. 
 
 Dismiss. 
 
 
 lesson under 
 
 lesson under 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 monitor. 
 
 master. 
 
 
 
 
 
 12.15 to 12.40 
 
 Dismiss till 
 2 p.m. 
 
 Dismiss till 
 2 p.m. 
 
 Writing, 
 a monitor 
 
 Writing, 
 a monitor 
 
 Writing, 
 a monitor 
 
 Reading 
 lesson under 
 
 
 
 
 overlooking. 
 
 overlooking. 
 
 overlooking. 
 
 master. 
 
 12.45 to 1 
 
 
 
 Dictation 
 
 Dictation 
 
 Reading 
 
 Slate 
 
 
 
 
 under a 
 
 under a 
 
 lesson under 
 
 exercise on 
 
 
 
 
 monitor. 
 
 monitor. 
 
 master. 
 
 reading 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lesson. 
 
 N. B. The above Table is so constructed as to call for the assistance of a monitor for 
 little more than two hours daily, though, in addition to this, he will be required to see 
 that the transcribing on the slates is carefully and accurately done, and that the errors in 
 the dictation exercises are properly corrected. This amount of aid one of the senior 
 boys will always be ready to give in return for a free education. The work of arranging 
 far each lesson should always be thrown on one of the boys of the class. This saves 
 the master much trouble, and helps to train the boys to independent order. One of the 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION TIME-TABLES. 
 
 291 
 
 with an average attendance of 60. 
 
 AFTERNOON. 
 
 HOIKS. 
 
 CLASS I. 
 
 CLASS II. 
 
 CLASS III. 
 
 CLASS IV. 
 
 CLASS V. 
 
 CLASS VI. 
 
 J to -2.20 
 
 Preparing. 
 
 Preparing. 
 
 Losson in 
 arithmetic 
 
 Reading 
 lesson under 
 
 Preparing 
 reading 
 
 Preparing 
 reading 
 
 
 
 
 by master. 
 
 monitor. 
 
 lesson. 
 
 lesson. 
 
 -.'.'JO to 2.40 
 
 Lesson from 
 master, i 
 
 Copying on 
 slate from 
 
 Preparing 
 reading 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Dictation 
 under 
 
 Composition 
 or slate exer- 
 
 
 
 black board. 
 
 lesson. 
 
 
 monitor, 
 
 cise on les- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 alternated 
 
 son. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 with geo- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 graphy. 
 
 
 2.40 to 3 
 
 Copying on 
 slate from 
 
 Reading 
 lesson under 
 
 Copying a 
 few lines 
 
 Copying a 
 few lines 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 
 black board. 
 
 master. 
 
 from reading 
 
 from reading 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lesson on 
 
 lesson on 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the slate. 
 
 the slate. 
 
 
 
 3 to 3.15 MUSIC. 
 
 Then dismiss Classes I. and II. 
 
 3.15 to 3.40 
 
 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Lesson in 
 
 Slate exer- 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 
 
 
 
 arithmetic 
 
 cise on read- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 under 
 
 ing lesson. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 master. 
 
 
 
 3.40 to 4 
 
 
 
 Reading 
 
 Copying 
 
 Reading 
 
 Map- 
 
 
 
 
 lesson under 
 
 on slate. 
 
 lesson under 
 
 drawing on 
 
 
 
 
 monitor. 
 
 
 master. 
 
 slate. 
 
 Dismiss Classes III., IV., V. 
 
 4 to 4.20 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Special exer- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cise on the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 grammar anc 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 language of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the reading 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lesson, alter- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nated with a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 special les- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 son in the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 principles of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 arithmetic or 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 geography. 
 
 1 Ten minutes being given twice a week to object-lessons- 
 
 advantages of a table constructed on the above principle is, that it can be worked only 
 wlici i' there is great order, quietness, and precision in movement. There are other ways 
 of arranging the work of the school-day, but none, so far as I can see, which secures three 
 n-ading lessons daily to Classes I. and II., and two reading lessons to Classes III., IV., 
 and V., the Fifth Class being twice under the master's direct tuition. Latin and Mathe- 
 matics should be taught from 9 A.M. till 10. 
 
 
292 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 The teacher will of course occasionally depart from 
 the strict order of the time-table, for the purpose of 
 giving prominence to some special department of 
 instruction. The direct moral instruction, for example, 
 is presumed to be given in connexion with the read- 
 ing and the religious lessons, but the occasional sus- 
 pension of the work that may be due at a particular 
 hour, for the purpose of explaining some moral duty, 
 of enforcing some point of discipline, or exhibiting 
 some religious truth in its practical bearing, will be 
 frequently found necessary or desirable. Again, a 
 whole afternoon may be devoted occasionally to sing- 
 ing, or to specimens of good reading given by the 
 master himself and his best pupils. 
 
 (9.) Discipline and Minor Morals. 
 
 Discipline, in so far as it means the enforcement 
 of order and of obedience to passing commands, is 
 sufficiently well attained in the schools of the North, 
 and that without the exercise of severity either in 
 language or punishment, save in a few cases. The 
 superiority and dignity of character which belong to 
 men of considerable cultivation suffice to enable the 
 northern masters to obtain unconsciously as much 
 respect for their authority as secures the order and 
 quiet which are essential to the conducting of the 
 school. It is very doubtful, however, whether the 
 masters ever deliberately contemplate discipline and 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION DISCIPLINE. 293 
 
 its objects in their relation to the leading purpose of 
 education. 
 
 I do not know that there is any school from which 
 corporal chastisement is theoretically excluded ; but 
 in the very great majority of schools it is regarded 
 as a last resort. The infliction of bodily pain as a 
 corrective of every petty misdemeanour is to be found 
 only in a few schools. 
 
 Of one large school, in which I found very good 
 teaching, I report : 
 
 " Mr. stands, with one or two others, at the head of the 
 
 Bequest, and it is much to his credit to be able to say that the 
 very high results visible in every department are attained without 
 any seeming pressure on the children." 
 
 Again, of another school I report : 
 
 " Spite of the very limited accommodation this is a pleasing, 
 busy, and orderly school. The master is kindly towards his pupils, 
 and there is a freedom and a naturalness about the children which 
 it is always gratifying to see when the master can prevent these 
 characteristics degenerating into license." 
 
 Similar testimony might be borne to effective dis- 
 cipline, accompanied with gentleness, in very many 
 cases. Of one successful teacher, on the contrary, I 
 report : 
 
 " He owes everything to energy, and is destitute of that gentleness 
 and sympathy which, when combined with firmness, tell more power- 
 fully on a school than intellect, energy, and methods combined." 1 
 
 1 The two kinds of school discipline are well illustrated by Dr. Morell 
 
 in his Report for 1857 : " In the Stockport and Draylesrlen schools 
 
 '// the order is rigid; the discipline maintained with the utmost 
 
294 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 Whero a teacher, without exercising severity, has 
 educated his pupils to general obedience and to honest 
 and independent work, he has done much. 1 
 
 There are, however, objects of discipline higher 
 than these, which can be attained only where there 
 is a deliberate purpose to attain them, and a well- 
 considered method of working out that purpose. 
 These objects are the cultivation of moral habits, 
 by means of the lessons of the day, and the vigilant 
 regulation (without espionage) of the mutual inter- 
 course of the pupils. Nor will apt opportunities 
 be wanting of informing the mind with Religious 
 principles, and subjecting the will to motives which 
 transcend mere justice, honesty, and courtesy. The 
 purposes of discipline and the indirect moral teaching 
 which it gives have been dwelt upon elsewhere : my 
 
 exactitude ; the spirit pervading the whole of the classes, one in which 
 subordination, carefulness, and systematic instruction are steadily tit- 
 forced, not harshly indeed, but with stringent regularity : and the result 
 of all this is seen in the uniform progress of the children through all the 
 classes, and in the mechanical perfection of the details. In the school 1 
 arn now referring to a different system is pursued ; the order, at least in 
 appearance, is not so strict ; the mechanical details are not so perfect ; 
 the gradations from class to class not so uniform. But in place of this 
 there is a peculiarly friendly relation established between the teacher and 
 the children, which, while it does not interfere with the necessity of his 
 ivill being the law of the school, puts less restraint on the pupils, and 
 renders their mental development more free and natural. Hence, while 
 on the one hand you have perhaps less measurable progress, you secure 
 more personal influence, more action on the feelings and dispositions of 
 the mass of the scholars, and probably more direct moral effect." 
 
 1 Mr. Middleton, in his Report for 1865, says with truth : " The morale 
 of a school is very high indeed when the children are quiet, and do their 
 written work honestly, and their oral work without prompting, and 
 where the teacher can be safely trusted to read the set dictation to one 
 class while the inspector is dictating arithmetic to another." 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION MINOR MORALS. 295 
 
 wish here is to point out the fact that in its higher 
 meaning, Discipline does not seem to be a distinct 
 and specific object of thought or method to the great 
 majority of parochial teachers. 
 
 The defective view generally taken of the larger 
 objects of discipline shows itself in all that has to do 
 with the petty moralities of the school. Politeness 
 and cleanliness are not insisted on, and the moral 
 influence of such arrangements in the school as please 
 the eye is generally ignored by the master. The sense 
 of the beautiful, even in those lower manifestations 
 which we call order, propriety, fitness, and decency, 
 is closely allied with moral perceptions. Hence the 
 moral suggestiveness of good external arrangements, 
 and their influence in promoting the higher objects 
 of the school : they extend to the poorer classes the 
 refinements of civilisation, and make them sharers to 
 some small extent in the higher quality of mind from 
 which those refinements spring. Well-lighted, well- 
 ventilated, well-cleaned, well-arranged schoolrooms, 
 are not only the best external aids to the mere doing 
 of the day's work : they are also moral agencies. 
 
 Nor is it beneath the dignity of the subject to 
 class among these agencies the teacher's own clothing, 
 and personal habits. These tell on the minor moral- 
 ities of the school quite as powerfully as the habits of 
 will and the manners which he is hourly exhibiting 
 tell on the growth of character in his pupils. 
 
 It is not necessary again to refer to the relations 
 
296 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 of courtesy between the sexes, as these have been 
 spoken of at sufficient length in the first part 
 of this Eeport. 1 
 
 (10.) Direct Moral Instruction. 
 
 Direct moral instruction is conveyed in the schools 
 of the North by the censure of faults and offences as 
 they arise, and by the enforcement of the moraJ 
 lessons which occur in the reading-books and in the 
 Bible. 
 
 This is not enough : it seems to me that a master 
 should draw out for himself a scheme of school-mora- 
 lities, to be taught in their proper order and com- 
 pleteness. The inculcation of truthfulness, honesty, in- 
 tegrity, justice, love, in the ever-varying forms which 
 they assume, should be deliberately set down by every 
 teacher as part of his round of work,, and should be- 
 designedly presented again and again to the pupils in 
 the various forms of parable, biography, and precept. 
 It is probable that boys who go through a full parochial 
 school curriculum obtain from their Catechism, Bible, 
 and reading-books, in an irregular and haphazard way, 
 such a course of instruction in morality as I have indi- 
 cated. But this would certainly be more effectively 
 given if, when any moral question incidentally arose in 
 the course of other work, it was recognised by the 
 
 1 See Mr. Matthew Arnold's Reports to the Privy Council for 1800 
 and 1861. 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION MORAL TEACHING. 29 7 
 
 master, and felt by the pupil to stand out from the 
 other topics preceding and following it, as a matter 
 of super-eminent importance. This can happen only 
 where all such incidental teachings form part of a 
 I uv arranged scheme of moral instruction. The pupil 
 should, of course, be kept in ignorance of any such 
 formal scheme ; but the master, by working in accord- 
 ance with a pre-conceived purpose, would be led to give 
 more weight and prominence to casual lessons, and 
 thereby to lay on the minds of his pupils a deeper im- 
 pression of the vital importance of the truths he might 
 from time to time expound or enforce. Such care- 
 fully devised and elaborated plans of moral teaching 
 are perhaps less necessary among the teachers of the 
 three north-eastern counties than elsewhere, because 
 they are all men of superior education ; men, more- 
 over, who, in the majority of cases, have added a theo- 
 logical to an Arts university curriculum. Accordingly, 
 the matured and grave character of the master, his 
 settled conclusions, and consequently his high and 
 decided (though possibly curt) manner of handling 
 all moral questions, to a large extent attain the ends 
 of teaching quite as surely as these could be attained 
 through the methodical and deliberate inculcation of 
 a complete circle of moral duties by a man less highly 
 qualified. This fact, however, does not weaken my 
 position with regard to the importance of organ- 
 izing and methodizing moral instruction in parochial 
 schools. 
 
 Further, it is the teacher's business, as has been 
 
298 REPOBT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 shown in the first part of this Keport, to give those 
 pupils who stay sufficiently long with him, detailed 
 instruction in the bearing of the moral law on 
 those habits of daily life which are in constant vari- 
 ance with it. I refer to the bearing of morality on 
 health and the means of preserving it, on economy, 
 foresight, manly independence, filial as well as paternal 
 responsibilities, and so forth. These things are not 
 attended to in our schools, and consequently are not 
 understood by the lower strata of the population 
 outside the school. 
 
 (11.) Direct Religious Instruction. 
 
 Direct Eeligious teaching is given on the basis of 
 the earlier books of the Old Testament, the New 
 Testament, and the Shorter Catechism, in all the 
 schools visited. It is, however, a mistake to sup- 
 pose, as some seem to do, that in the introduction of 
 certain portions of religious teaching, no regard is had 
 in Scotland to the age and advancement of the pupils. 
 Children under eight years of age receive only occa- 
 sional oral religious instruction originated by the 
 master, or suggested by the reading-books 1 used in 
 the elementary classes. About the age of eight or 
 nine years they begin to read the New Testament, 
 and to be examined on the chapter of the day. 
 
 1 This practice shows the importance of giving religions lessons in the 
 earlier books of a reading series. 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION -RELIGION. 299 
 
 About the same age, speaking generally, they begin 
 to learn by heart the Shorter Catechism, continuing 
 to repeat and revise it during their whole future 
 attendance at school, sometimes adding the Scripture 
 " proofs" of the answers. In some cases the " Mother's 
 Catechism" precedes the Shorter. After the child has 
 spent about a year, or it may be more, in reading the 
 New Testament, he is introduced to the Old Testa 
 ment, and the rest of his school time is spent in 
 perusing and reperusing the earlier books. The two 
 highest English classes are generally united in the 
 reading of the Old Testament, and receive instruction 
 together. This united class is called the "Bible" 
 class, for by "the Bible" both schoolmasters and 
 pupils colloquially mean the Old Testament only. 
 The principal religious lesson of the day is given 
 immediately after the opening of morning school, 
 the day's work being begun with prayer, and some- 
 times also with praise. These exercises and the reli- 
 gious lesson together occupy from thirty to forty-five 
 minutes. 
 
 The result of all this is that the upper classes are 
 well informed in the earlier half of the Old Testa- 
 ment history, and are familiar with the Shorter Cate- 
 chism. So far as Old Testament historical and also 
 general dogmatic religious knowledge are concerned, 
 the state of the northern schools is quite satisfactory. 
 
 But while saying thus much in the way of well- 
 mmted laudation, I must add some words of censure. 
 And first, with respect to the historical knowledge :- 
 
. 
 300 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 I found when I first undertook the work of Visitor, 
 that, in very many of the schools, the highest classes, 
 while armed at all points with early Old Testament 
 history, were ignorant of the more important facts and 
 truths of the Gospels. Accordingly, for a time, I 
 assiduously set myself to assume that the Old Testa- 
 ment narrative was familiar, and to examine exclu^ 
 sively in the life, parables, and acts of our Saviour. 
 It might be supposed that, as the reading of the New 
 Testament had preceded that of the Old, the pupils 
 would be sufficiently familiar with the story of the 
 Gospels. This, however, was not the case. On the 
 contrary, the ignorance found in very many schools 
 was inexcusable. It was grievous to think that 
 the boys and girls before me were passing out of 
 the school into the world with only a dim and 
 fragmentary knowledge of the life and teaching of 
 the Saviour, and even that knowledge, such as it 
 was, intimately associated with the laborious spelling- 
 out of lessons some two years before the termina- 
 tion of their school course : nor was it any consolation 
 to find that the same children were impregnable 
 in an examination on the Creation, the Fall, and 
 the Exodus. This defect is to a large extent re- 
 moved ; but it is still necessary to urge on many 
 of the masters attention to the fact that the period 
 of school attendance is limited, and that, conse- 
 quently, in the inculcation of Bible facts and truths 
 they are bound in duty to make a selection. Their 
 power in this matter of religious teaching is very 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION RELIGION. 301 
 
 great, and lays on them the most solemn respon- 
 sibility. No man indeed, fired with the zeal of a 
 true teacher, can think, without a certain awe, of his 
 opportunities of giving a permanent direction to the 
 religious current of the minds under his charge. But if 
 the master do not familiarize the child's mind with the 
 solemn narrative of the life of Christ from birth to 
 death, if he do not store his memory with those 
 divine sayings which will be his best guide and con- 
 solation through life, and with the devotional utter- 
 ances of such of the psalms as are best adapted to 
 youthful comprehension ; and further, if he do not 
 make all this the basis of the Christian teaching, he 
 foregoes his opportunities and misdirects his influence. 
 Again, exception has to be taken to the lateness 
 of the age at which it is usual to begin religious 
 teaching. The oral instruction which precedes the 
 reading of the New Testament is, in the majority of 
 schools, so far as I can discover, of the most desultory 
 and capricious kind. Now it is the teacher's duty to 
 organize and methodize his instructions in religion, 
 and to provide milk for the babes as well as stronger 
 meat for the maturer minds of the school. So far 
 from dealing perfunctorily with the religious in- 
 struction of the infant classes, the master should 
 direct his chief efforts towards them, labouring to 
 simplify truths and to adapt them to their childlike 
 conceptions. The elevating, purifying, and harmoniz- 
 ing ideas of Christian truth, should be early infused 
 into a child's mind, that they may grow there with 
 
302 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 his growth and strengthen with his strength, and 
 thereby become, unawares, a constituent part of himself. 
 They should possess him, not he them. It is only by 
 thus pre-occupying the infant mind at the most im- 
 pressible period of its life, that religion can be woven 
 into the character, and that a religious people can be 
 reared. Hence the infinite importance of a more 
 thorough religious training of the infant classes a 
 training so thorough as perhaps to be possible only 
 through the agency of separate infant and initiatory 
 departments, under the management of qualified 
 Female teachers. 
 
 What has been now said, if read in conjunction 
 with what has been written in the first part of this 
 Report on the subject of Methods, makes it unnecessary 
 to refer at greater length to the religious teaching of 
 the schools. 
 
 The substance and method of the religious teaching 
 are open to the objections which have been stated. 
 But these objections I should almost have been dis 
 posed to refrain from stating, had I been able to report 
 favourably on the manner of the religious teaching. 
 The younger the pupil the greater is the influence of the 
 manner (as opposed to the matter) of instruction. Pre- 
 eminently is this true in the department of religion. 
 A manner in discord with the gentleness, the love, the 
 holiness, the purity, and the loftiness of the sacred 
 theme, degrades and perverts the teaching. The senti- 
 ments of love, awe, devotion, purity, are the bases on 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION RELIGION. 303 
 
 which must repose the superstructure of divine truth, 
 .UK! these will hardly manifest their life, except as a 
 reflection of what is seen by the child in another. It 
 is therefore of the greatest moment that every word 
 and act bearing directly or indirectly on religious 
 topics should be uttered and done with an appro- 
 priate outward manner, if the religious instruction 
 is to be enforced and supported, instead of being de- 
 based and subverted, by the associations along with 
 which it is first presented to the mind of the young. 
 
 What is true of the manner of the master is equally 
 applicable to the external circumstances in which reli- 
 gious teaching is given. The subject should be sur- 
 rounded with an atmosphere of calmness, coolness, 
 and order. In the words of my predecessor in office, 
 " the sacredness of the [religious] lesson requires every 
 attainable protection/' 
 
 Finally, I have already, in the chapter on Method, 
 stated the use which should be made of the Bible in 
 religious instruction. It is happily no longer used 
 for purposes of spelling and grammar. But until it 
 shall have ceased to receive prominence as a reading- 
 lesson book, Scripture instruction will never be placed 
 on a perfectly satisfactory footing. 
 
304 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 (12.) The Higher Instruction of the Parochial Schools. 
 
 English Composition Latin- Greek Mathematics. 
 
 English Composition is now introduced into all the 
 schools of the three counties, and taught with consider- 
 able success. In many cases the results are admirable. 
 It would be superfluous to add to the observations 
 already made on this subject under the head of Gram- 
 mar (p. 281) and in the first part of this Report. Up 
 to a certain point it is an elementary subject ; beyond 
 this it belongs to the higher inteUectual instruction. 
 
 The centesimal proportion of pupils learning Latin 
 in the northern counties is 67; Greek, 1'5. The 
 results in these departments are, on the whole, good. 
 Greater attention to thoroughness and precision in 
 translating from Latin and Greek into English, and 
 the introduction of verse-making, would, it seems to 
 me, be an improvement, whether we look to the at- 
 tainment of sound scholarship or the mental discip- 
 line afforded by the classical languages. The ren- 
 dering of English into Latin, in the sense in which 
 schoolboys perform this exercise, demands certainly 
 discrimination in applying the rules of syntax, and 
 is a valuable training in exactness of habit, but, be- 
 yond this, it is an exercise of memory more than of 
 intellect. The converse process, on the other hand, is 
 an exercise almost solely of intellect. Latin verse- 
 writing has special claims of its own to cultivation, 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION MATHEMATICS. 3 Of. 
 
 ;ind might be safely permitted to share the ground 
 at present occupied by Latin prose. 
 
 The number of Greek pupils has not largely in 
 creased during the past ten years, but the extent to 
 which the language is studied is considerably greater. 
 The boys of the senior Greek classes exhibit, for the 
 most part, considerable familiarity with the language 
 of the Anabasis and with Arnold's First Greek Prose 
 Composition : they frequently also profess portions of 
 the Iliad and the New Testament. 
 
 By Mathematics is understood Mensuration which 
 is taught during the winter months to farm lads, who 
 generally may be found clustered in a remote corner 
 of the schoolroom the first three Books of Euclid, 
 and Algebra to Quadratic Equations inclusive. The 
 latter branches are seldom attempted except by those 
 boys who are destined for the University. 
 
 Lest, however, any general reader should imagine 
 that this somewhat high-sounding phrase, " destined 
 for the University," implies the possession by those 
 so destined of shoes and stockings, it may be as well 
 to say at once that it does not do so. To be on 
 the parish poor-roll and in Virgil are not always 
 incompatible. The parish schools afford a sound ele- 
 mentary classical education to all without distinc- 
 tion, who give any indication of superior talent. In 
 the north-east of Scotland, if nowhere else, the path- 
 way to learning and eminence is not only theo- 
 
 u 
 
306 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 retically, but practically, open to the poorest. A 
 free education (for the parochial schoolmasters of 
 Scotland never boggle about fees in the case either 
 of the clever or the poor), embracing Latin, Greek, 
 and Mathematics, is at the door of every boy endowed 
 by nature with a capacity for a higher sphere of 
 activity than that in which he has had the accident 
 of being born. This peculiarity of the Scotch system 
 is one to be jealously guarded. 
 
 Many specimens might be quoted of schools in which 
 the higher branches are well taught and which are at 
 once elementary and middle schools of the old Scotch 
 parochial type. In one of many similar reports I 
 find the following remarks on one of these schools, 
 which may be fairly accepted as representing many 
 others : 
 
 ..." One-fourth of the pupils present worked questions in simple 
 proportion, double proportion, and fractions, readily and accurately. 
 
 " Two boys were engaged with algebra, and showed a very fail- 
 knowledge of equations. 
 
 " Six boys in Caesar made an excellent appearance throughout. 
 
 " One boy in Livy and the Anabasis of Xeuophon was very 
 promising. 
 
 " Two girls in French translated well." 
 
 It is commonly averred that the proportion of Latin 
 pupils in the parish schools of Scotland generally is 
 smaller than it used to be, and that this is attributable 
 to the inability of the new race of schoolmasters to 
 give the required instruction. I have taken some 
 
NOTES OF VISITATIONLATIN. 307 
 
 trouble to inquire into the accuracy of these state- 
 ments, and on comparing the Return which I take up 
 annually for the Education Committee of the Church 
 of Scotland, with older documents, I find that in the 
 three north-eastern counties Latin is much more ex- 
 tensively taught than it was thirty-five years ago, and 
 Greek more extensively. 
 
 The centesimal proportion of pupils learning Latin 
 in the three north-eastern counties is, as before stated, 
 6 - 7, and learning Greek 1/5 ; l in the rest of Soot- 
 land the proportion is, learning Latin about 4, and 
 learning Greek, about one-half per cent. It does not 
 appear that the number learning Greek in the parish 
 schools was at any time greater throughout Scot- 
 land than it is now, but those learning Latin seem 
 to have numbered about 6 per cent, of all the scholars. 
 There is here therefore a falling off, as regards the 
 country at large ; but great as is the falling off in 
 respect of quantity, the deterioration of the quality of 
 the Latin professed in landward parishes (the north- 
 eastern counties excepted) is doubtless much greater. 
 The falling off in respect of scholars is quite adequately 
 accounted for by the facilities which railways afford 
 (l.) For obtaining for the clever sons of peasants, 
 small farmers, and petty tradesmen, remunerative oc- 
 cupation as attractive to the common mind as the 
 Ministry ; (2.) For obtaining a higher education in 
 
 1 On page 348 the table shows an increase of classical scholars in the 
 north. 
 
308 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 some of the great centres of population than the 
 parochial school ever at any time provided for boys 
 of the middle and upper classes. It seems to me that 
 higher qualifications in the teachers would not have 
 materially arrested the operation of these two causes, 
 and that in the course of another decade, a consider- 
 able reduction in the numbers learning Latin will have 
 to be reported, even in the districts for which the 
 Dick Bequest is intended, where the masters are un- 
 questionably more highly qualified for teaching the 
 higher branches than any other class of Scotch school- 
 masters, past or present. 
 
 With regard to the qualification of the new race 
 of schoolmasters for giving the higher instruction, 
 and the influence of the Privy Council on it, it will 
 be universally admitted, that while the general quali- 
 fications of the teacher, whether we regard the know- 
 ledge he professes or the training he receives, have 
 been very much raised under the influence of the 
 Government Minutes, his special qualification as a 
 teacher of Latin and Greek has been lowered. This 
 result is the necessary consequence of the Nornic'il 
 School programme of study, which is arranged by 
 Government with a view to the educational wants of 
 England, and then, without inquiry, applied to Scot- 
 land. Nor is it probable that any plan of training 
 teachers can ever be devised, even under more favour- 
 able circumstances as regards the central administra- 
 tion, which will be suited in all respects to the 
 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION LATIN. 309 
 
 requirements of Scotch parishes, so long as our Uni- 
 versities are ignored as schools for teachers, and left 
 outside the machinery employed for producing them. 
 
 This brings me naturally to speak more explicitly 
 than I have yet done of the class of teachers who 
 occupy the parochial schools in the north-eastern 
 counties which benefit by the Bequest. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE CLASS OF PAROCHIAL TEACHERS IN ABERDEEN, 
 BANFF, AND MORAY. 
 
 THE teachers of the north-eastern counties are 
 almost without exception graduates of the University 
 of Aberdeen, and four -fifths of them are licentiates 
 in theology. Only a very small proportion are ex- 
 cluded from participation in the Dick Bequest in 
 consequence of failure to pass the examination of 
 the Trustees. These facts guarantee not only the 
 solid acquirements of the teachers, but, which is of 
 more importance, an elevation and solidity of moral 
 and intellectual character, which are of inestimable 
 value in attaining the true ends of the school. Those 
 schoolmasters who have received their preparation 
 for their work in our Normal Colleges certainly 
 exhibit, in the very first year of their professional 
 life, a capacity for organization, a knowledge of 
 good methods, and a skill in teaching, which Univer- 
 sity men attain only after many years of conscientious 
 labour. Nor, indeed, save in a few exceptional cases, 
 do the latter ever come to a full appreciation of the 
 ways and means and the important little things of 
 the schoolroom. This is a defect which can be cured 
 
CLASS OF PAROCHIAL TEACHERS. 311 
 
 only by the careful study of teaching as an art 
 resting on philosophic principles, and upon the critical 
 observation of the organization and methods of model 
 schools. But, on the other hand, the University men 
 not only bring higher accomplishments and more dis- 
 ciplined powers to the work of the school ; they also 
 bring that force of character which tends to repro- 
 duce itself in those committed to their care. Ac- 
 cordingly, although in certain respects the Normal 
 teacher cannot fail to excel his less skilful competitor 
 from the University, he falls very far short of him 
 in training the young to thoughtfulness and inten- 
 sity of character. Now it is precisely this rmult 
 which has in the past been, and still is, the peculiar 
 and distinguishing feature of the Scotch parochial 
 school, and this frequently to the detriment of tech- 
 nical facility in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and 
 almost always to the comparative neglect of the junior 
 classes. These technical accomplishments it is the 
 teacher's duty to give, nor can any pretext of cultivat- 
 ing the intellect exempt him from the thorough dis- 
 charge of that duty, and from laying strong and broad 
 in the junior classes the substructure on which higher 
 profession must rest, if it be sound. But while it is com- 
 paratively an easy matter for the University-trained 
 teacher to adapt his powers to the discharge of this 
 duty, or to the attainment of any desired result in the 
 school, whether of method or acquirement, the higher 
 discipline which almost unconsciously flows from him 
 is quito beyond the reach of the more shallow product 
 
312 REPOllT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 of the Government Training College. The curriculum 
 laid down for our Normal Schools embraces subjects so 
 multifarious, and calling so largely on the mere cram- 
 ming power of the student, that they divert him from 
 the close pursuit of any one subject involving a tho- 
 rough intellectual discipline. The consequence is that 
 the students leave the Colleges with minds very in- 
 adequately trained, in the larger sense of the word, 
 full of facts and figures, but wanting that firm hold 
 of either language or mathematics which will insure 
 the further prosecution of these subjects, and which 
 tends to give the student that solidity of intellect which 
 thorough acquirement in any one direction scarcely 
 ever fails to confer. Coming to the Training College 
 after having exercised premature authority as pupil - 
 teachers, and already by anticipation revealing some 
 of the less attractive features of their profession, the 
 Normal students too often leave it, we fear, confirmed 
 in their self-esteem ; and this, partly because their 
 intellectual horizon is diligently confined by a Govern- 
 ment programme which does not admit of a liberal 
 discipline. Now, it stands to reason that a lad who 
 has to fight his way to the University gives a guarantee 
 in that very fact that he possesses moral qualifications 
 for the work of a teacher, which must be altogether 
 wanting in the young man w r ho, from the age of 
 thirteen, has been the protege of the Government, 
 whose every step has been made easy, and for whom 
 perfect security has at every stage been carefully in- 
 sured, as if by a paternal hand. The atmosphere, 
 
CLASS UK PAROCHIAL TEACHERS. 313 
 
 moreover, into which the former has successfully 
 fought his way is much healthier than that which 
 can be breathed in a Seminary purely professional in 
 its aims. In a University, the whole circle of know- 
 ledge is being continually suggested to the most 
 obtuse ; a consciousness of ignorance and of partial 
 views is in this way pressed on the student ; and 
 the training thus unconsciously given, even when 
 little visible work is done, is of a higher kind than 
 can l>e gained from the most faithful acquisition of 
 facts in a regulation college. Again, the influence of 
 great names in the several departments of thought, 
 and friendly intercourse with young men of different 
 classes in society and having diverse predilections 
 and pursuits, have, in a University, free room to act 
 in the formation of character. There are, besides, the 
 purely intellectual advantages which flow from the 
 deeper study of one or two important subjects, and 
 from the higher University ideal continually held 
 before the student. These various influences cannot 
 fail to result in a more liberal cultivation, and in that 
 deeper reverence and finer morale which (except in 
 singularly coarse natures) accompany cultivation, and 
 which are notoriously wanting in the mass of stu- 
 dents who leave our Normal Colleges qualities not 
 to be lightly esteemed in those who are to leave their 
 mark on the youth of the country. 
 
 That high intellectual qualifications unfit men for 
 the humblest elementary work of the school is con- 
 trary to fact. The neglect of junior classes by 
 
:> 1 4 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 schoolmasters is to be ascribed to an unsympathetic 
 nature, mistaken methods, or a lax conscience, not 
 to excess of intellectual endowment. Of twenty-one 
 teachers who at present hold marks for special dis- 
 tinction in scholarship, only two have failed in the 
 north-eastern counties to attain average efficiency as 
 schoolmasters, while fourteen outstrip the mass of 
 their fellow-teachers. Indeed, it may be safely pre- 
 dicted that the highest scholarship and the most 
 effective school-keeping will be found to go together. 
 
 It is commonly urged as an objection inherent in 
 the arrangements which secure for the North such 
 high-class schoolmasters, that a very small proportion 
 regard the school in any other light than as a step- 
 ping-stone to the pulpit. That nine-tenths of the gra- 
 duates appointed to parochial schools regard the work of 
 teaching as a merely temporary avocation, and certain 
 to lead to preferment in the Church, is true, and has 
 been so far recognised by the Dick Trustees that they 
 have modified their regulations so as to admit of the 
 winter absence of teachers at the Theological Hall 
 where they go in order to complete their studies 
 for the ministry. After some fluctuation of opinion, 
 my conviction is that the system is, in the present 
 and past circumstances of parochial education, a good 
 one ; and for this reason, that even the high emolu- 
 ments attached to the schools in the three counties 
 would not, but for the collateral advantage of a 
 prospect of Church preferment, secure teachers so well 
 
CLASS OF PAROrHIAL TEACHERS. 315 
 
 educated as those who now offer themselves for every 
 vacancy. Doubtless, were there an organized system 
 of schools of different grades throughout Scotland, 
 which might furnish a career of progress to elemen- 
 tary schoolmasters (and without this career the occu- 
 pation will never probably take rank in the eye of the 
 vulgar as a profession), 1 the inducement to become 
 parochial schoolmasters would be provided in a more 
 legitimate way than at present : but until such in- 
 ducement is provided, those interested in education 
 must gladly accept the aid which the Church in- 
 directly lends to the school. It is to be feared, how- 
 ever, that the practice of using the school as an avenue 
 to the pulpit would end in gross abuses were there 
 no inspection of the parochial schools, outside, and 
 apart from, the various interests involved. 2 
 
 1 A properly organized system of middle or grammar schools in Scot- 
 land would directly elevate the parochial schools by holding out induce- 
 ments to enter the teaching profession. 
 
 2 In Appendix V. will be found a list of the teachers of the three 
 counties, extending over the last ten years, which contains the names of 
 those who have died during that period, and shows the occupations to 
 which those betook themselves who demitted office, in so far as these can 
 be ascertained. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PRESENT STATE OF THE SCHOOLS CLASSIFICATION- 
 CHIEF DEFECTS IN RESPECT OF RESULTS- PROGRESS 
 MADE DURING THE LAST TEN YEARS. 
 
 UNDER the various heads of school- work I have 
 animadverted on defects in method still prevalent in 
 the North (and probably to a greater extent else- 
 where). These defects are not to be regarded by the 
 Trustees as universal. With the best schools no 
 fault can be found, and of the great majority I can 
 report in favourable terms. It is true that the 
 methods of teaching followed are not always, nor 
 perhaps generally, such as contribute most to the 
 development of the intelligence, nor the discipline 
 always such as promotes most surely the formation 
 of good moral habits : but, in the majority of cases, 
 the results, both technical, intellectual, and moral, 
 are such as to merit commendation. This cannot, how- 
 ever, be said of the Religious instruction. Inadequate 
 methods, where there is industry and resolution, may 
 produce satisfactory results in all matters that have 
 to do with the imparting of a certain amount of 
 knowledge, or the producing of a certain quantity 
 of intellectual power ; but when our object is to pro- 
 duce a certain state of mind, method is in the school all 
 
PRESENT STATE OF THE SCHOOLS. 31 7 
 
 in all. Looking merely to the amount and accururv 
 of the scriptural and catechetical knowledge of the 
 hiyhest classes in the schools, I should say that no 
 subject was better taught than religion. But while 
 in previous parts of this Report full value has been 
 assigned to this the historical portion of the reli- 
 gious work of the school, and a solid argument has 
 been furnished in favour of the somewhat premature 
 acquisition of abstract dogmatic religious proposi- 
 tions, the infinite importance of method and manner 
 in religious training has been dwelt upon with more 
 than usual emphasis. 
 
 When, to the defective method of religious instruc- 
 tion are added the want of method in teaching geo 
 graphy, inattention to the arithmetic (especially the 
 mental arithmetic) of junior classes, and the neglect of 
 deliberateness, emphasis, and expression in reading 
 (which in other respects is good), the principal de- 
 fects at present to be found in the parochial schools 
 of the three counties have been exhausted. 
 
 Terms of praise or blame are, however, so vague, 
 and have such varying values attached to them, that 
 general commendation or general censure conveys 
 little information ; and I shall therefore classify the 
 schools of the Bequest under the heads of Inferior, 
 Fair, Good, Very Good, and Excellent, first quoting 
 from the annual Reports to the Trustees examples of 
 schools belonging to each of these classes. I take 
 almost the first which come under my eye in opening 
 a. volume of the manuscript Reports. 
 
318 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 I. Extracts from Reports on "Inferior" Schools. 
 
 (1.) " The decline of numbers here is not satisfactorily explained 
 by the number of other schools in the parish. The master is a man 
 of narrow, shallow nature, without breadth or depth, or imagina- 
 tion or sympathy j cutting, keen, quick, and hard ; short-tempered, 
 and more likely to confirm than to remove stupidity in his pupils. 
 On the occasion of my first visit, I remarked these defects of 
 character, but recommended admission to participation, although 
 the results were precisely similar to those ascertained to-day, be- 
 cause I saw that the teacher was (as he is) really working, and I 
 hoped that he would soon succeed in securing better results, botli 
 moral and intellectual. I have been disappointed. The school is 
 stereotyped, and I doubt its ever being much better than it is while 
 in Mr. - 's hands. 
 
 " The highest class (8) read from a History of England very fairly 
 but with exceeding monotony. No grammar or composition pro- 
 fessed. 
 
 " Writing from dictation professed only to the extent of mono- 
 syllables. 
 
 " Knowledge of words very fair." 
 
 (2.) " The third class (8) was on the floor when I entered, and 
 read, with the exception of three, fairly from the third of the Irish 
 Series. When examined they made little or no response. I doubt 
 their being regularly examined, although the master assured me 
 they were. 
 
 " Two, composing the second class, read badly, but they had 
 newly come. 
 
 " The highest class (5) read very monotonously, but with suffi- 
 cient fluency, from a History of England. They exhibited, when 
 examined by me, great ignorance of the signification of words. 
 Parsing very bad. Composition not practised, and writing from 
 dictation poor. 
 
 " The reading of the fourth class from Constable's second book 
 was fair. Spelling scarcely fair ; the class is not thoroughly taught 
 one lesson before proceeding to the next. 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION CLASSIFICATION. 319 
 
 " In arithmetic five professed proportion, and worked inaccu- 
 rately and stupidly. 
 
 "The Bible class (19) were examined in the master's singularly 
 sleepy way, on the first five chapters of St. Luke, but only a few 
 followed him. 
 
 " Writing fair. 
 
 " I have been very patient with Mr. - , encouraging him from 
 year to year, and taking the most lenient view of his school-work, 
 but it is impossible, in justice to the other teachers of the counties, 
 
 and to the children of , to connive longer at the continuance of 
 
 such an incubus on the parish as Mr. . He is young, but life- 
 less ; destitute of the will to do. I consider his to be a quite hope- 
 less case. Had not great pains been taken with him, and every 
 chance given him in vain, it might seem harsh to recommend, as I 
 now do, that he be cut off from the Bequest altogether, until a 
 future visit shall reveal progress. [He is an assistant-substitute.] 
 
 II. Extracts from Reports on "Fair" Schools. 
 
 (1.) " This school is taught by a man of very humble acquire- 
 ments and capacity, but distinguished by a strong sense of duty, 
 and a power of applying himself assiduously to his work. 
 
 " The highest class (4) read from Robinson Crusoe fluently. 
 Knowledge of words moderate. Parsing not worth mentioning ; 
 but in winter this subject is carried much further. Writing from 
 dictation very fair. 
 
 " The second class (5) read from the fifth Progressive Reader 
 fluently, but monotonously. 
 
 " The master examines with care. The pupils have the expres- 
 sion of children honestly taught. Though slow, they are fairly 
 intelligent and perfectly well disposed towards their work. Writing 
 from dictation very fair. 
 
 " The Bible class made a good appearance on the first seven 
 chapters of Judges. 
 
 " Writing fair. 
 
 " In arithmetic two in proportion worked well. 
 
 " I directed Mr. 's attention to more distinct enunciation 
 
 in reading, and to the earlier introduction of slates and writing." 
 
320 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 The following is a Report on a School which was found to have 
 declined from "Good" to "Fair" if not to " Inferior." 
 
 (2.) " My last two visits to this school made me doubt Mr. 
 's claims to a continuance on the merit scale ; but the ex- 
 cuse in 186- was so good . . . that I reported the circumstance, 
 and recommended only a slight reduction of Mr. 's merit marks. 
 As there was no excuse offered to-day it seemed desirable to sift 
 the school thoroughly, and every class was accordingly minutely 
 examined. I kept the master by me, and brought out the results 
 through himself. The process only very slightly annoyed his 
 great good-nature. 
 
 " The highest class (7) read a piece of poetry (Macaulay's Ar- 
 mada) very well. Intelligence good. The master examined in 
 parsing very skilfully, by bringing out answers suggested by himself 
 apparently responded to by the whole class, but in reality only 
 by one boy and partially by a second. I stopped this, and made 
 him examine each boy individually, that he himself might distinctly 
 see that only one boy knew anything about grammar. He examines 
 so well, and becomes so interested in his subject and unconscious of 
 his audience, that probably he is not aware that he puts answers 
 into the mouths of his pupils. 
 
 " Composition scarcely fair. 
 
 " The second class (7) read monotonously, but very fairly, con- 
 sidering the difficulty of the book. I pointed out to the teacher 
 that the pupils of this class were not at all fitted for the book which 
 they were reading the fourth of the Irish Series. The master exa- 
 mined, as usual, extremely well (apparently) on the meaning of the 
 words and sentences, sustaining the attention of the children and 
 moving on in a smooth flow of well-connected questions and clear 
 explanations, but wilfully or unconsciously blind to the fact that 
 not a single child could answer a question. He willingly accepted 
 such answers as he himself suggested from the class as a whole, an 
 old vice of his, to which his attention has several times been called. 
 
 " Writing from dictation professed by only two of this class, and 
 badly done. 
 
 " The same process was gone through with the third class (16), 
 
NOTKS OF VISITATION CLASSIFICATION. 321 
 
 attended ly the same results with this difference, that the reading 
 \\,is l>ad, the book being very much too difficult, the fifth of the 
 [rish Series. This class did not practise copying on their slates 
 from their books. 
 
 " In geography an elaborate examination on the world was gone 
 through, but only three really answered the questions, the rest of 
 the class ignorantly chiming in. 
 
 " Ten professed proportion, but only four were correct, and all 
 were slow. 
 
 " The religious knowledge of the school is very good, and the 
 writing very good. 
 
 " These two last points, and the good moral tone of the school 
 and excellent character of the master, relieve somewhat the gloomy 
 picture drawn above. 
 
 " I spoke at length to the master on the defects of his school, 
 and I fear (though my remarks were well received) that it will be 
 necessary, while striking off his merit marks, at the same time to 
 inform him that still further reductions await him if grammar, com- 
 position, writing from dictation, and arithmetic, are not more fully 
 taught, and if greater care is not exercised in putting books into the 
 children's hands for which they are really fitted." 
 
 III. Extract from a Report on a " Good " School. 
 
 " I found here three Latin classes and one Greek class. I ex- 
 amined the Greek and the second highest Latin class, and found 
 both subjects well taught. The teacher has an unclean and rough 
 aspect, and on first entering, an unfavourable impression is conse- 
 quently made on the Visitor, but a careful examination reveals very 
 satisfactory results. 
 
 " The highest class (10) read, from the fifth of the Scottish Series, 
 fluently and accurately. They gave evidence that they read with 
 understanding, and displayed great attention under examination. 
 Six members of this class could parse well, and had begun analysis. 
 The same wrote well from dictation. Etymology is taught. 
 
 " I was glad to find that slate-writing was begun*at a very early 
 stage, and I had specimens shown me of the morning's work. Next 
 visit I expect to see the good effects of this, and to find composition 
 
 X 
 
REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 as well done by the highest class as dictation now is, and more 
 advanced dictation in the second class. 
 
 " The writing of the whole school is clean and pretty good. 
 
 " In arithmetic five professed proportion, but though they worked 
 readily and with accuracy, as regards processes, they did not exercise 
 that thoughtfulness necessary to secure an accurate answer. 
 
 " The second geography class had a very satisfactory knowledge 
 of general geography. 
 
 " The first and second classes united made a good appearance 
 when examined on the Gospel of St. Luke. 
 
 " The reading of the second class was, like the first, fluent and 
 accurate, and characterized by considerable intelligence. 
 
 " On the whole, this school is a very satisfactory one, though not 
 brilliant in its results, or effective to the eye in its organization, 
 discipline, and general arrangements. I think the teacher deserves 
 100 for merit." 
 
 IV. Extracts from Reports on " Very Good" Schools. 
 
 (1.) " Mr. has always been distinguished for the simplicity 
 
 and good-humour, combined with intelligence and thoughtfulness, 
 which pervade his school. 
 
 " The highest class (8) read from the first Book of Milton ex- 
 ceedingly well, not only with accuracy but with as much expression 
 and seeming perception of the meaning, as if they had been grown 
 men. Knowledge of grammar most thorough. Composition very 
 good. 
 
 " The second class (19) read from the fourth of the Irish Series 
 very distinctly. Intelligence carefully developed in connexion with 
 the subject-matter of the lesson and signification of words brought 
 out in a common-sense way. Parsing intelligent as far as it went. 
 
 " The same remarks apply to the third class. 
 
 " Writing from dictation good. 
 
 " Writing very good. 
 
 " In arithmetic twenty professed proportion and worked very well. 
 
 " In Latin two boys translated and parsed well from Virgil. The 
 same boys were reading Xenophon's Anabasis. 
 
NOTES OF VISITATION CLASSIFICATION. 323 
 
 " The organization and discipline are very good. The spirit of 
 willing work pervades the whole school, and every child gives and 
 nvrives attention. 
 
 " Mr. continues fully to deserve his high position on the 
 
 merit scale, and even a further increase of marks." 
 
 ('2.) " The highest class (8) read distinctly and fluently from a 
 history of England. Grammar exceedingly good. Knowledge of 
 words excellent. Composition good. 
 
 " The second class (12) read from the fourth of the Irish Series 
 very fairly. Copying from the book on the slate practised by this 
 Has-. The master is a careful, and with the junior classes, a kindly 
 and not unsuccessful examiner. There can be no doubt that no labour 
 is so gratefully responded to, and none so fruitful in its results, as 
 that expended in conversationally exercising the intelligence of young 
 children. 
 
 " The third and fourth classes made a better appearance than the 
 second, reading well from the third of the Irish Series, and having 
 a good knowledge of words and of the lesson read. 
 
 " In arithmetic sev^en worked proportion thoughtfully, and in the 
 the main, accurately. 
 
 " The Bible-class answered well when examined on the leading 
 points of the Jewish history. 
 
 " Writing exceedingly good. 
 
 " One boy was examined by me in Livy, and was thoroughly 
 grounded. 
 
 " The same boy translated a few sentences of the Anabasis with 
 facility, and made an excellent appearance in turning a piece of 
 simple English into Greek.'* 
 
 V. Extracts from Reports on " Excellent" Schools. 
 
 (1.) "A visit to this school was not properly due, nor do I pretend 
 on this occasion to have inspected it, but as I had to pass the door, 
 and understood that Latin and mathematics were now introduced, 
 I called for the purpose of learning the state of these branches. 
 
324 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 " Nothing could be more satisfactory. Of eight boys .reading 
 Csesar (six of them peasants' sons, and under twelve years of age), 
 it would be impossible to say which displayed most intelligence, zeal, 
 and thoroughness of knowledge. I could not imagine a better class. 
 The mathematics was quite elementary. 
 
 " The writing is, as formerly reported, excellent. 
 
 " On previous occasions I have had the pleasure of recording the 
 
 great success which attends Mr. 's efforts to teach English 
 
 reading, grammar, and geography, and Bible history. The Presby- 
 tery continues to speak, in terms almost extravagant, of the high 
 state of these branches, and the terms which they employ are con- 
 sistent with facts. A better Scotch parochial school, if we look at 
 the state of every branch of instruction, and at the moral influence 
 
 of the master, I could not wish to see. Mr. certainly takes 
 
 a place next to his neighbour of , and second highest on the 
 
 Bequest. I think Mr. merits a letter of congratulation on 
 
 the results which he has achieved." 
 
 (2.) " This excellent school continues, under the quiet and thought- 
 ful management of Mr. , not only to maintain its character 
 
 but even to make progress. 
 
 " The highest class (3) read from Milton' a Paradise Lost rather 
 rapidly, but with manifest understanding. Knowledge of grammar, 
 of words, and of analysis, excellent. 
 
 " Composition exceedingly good. 
 
 " The second class (18) read extremely well from the fourth of 
 Constable's Series. An attentive, well-ordered class, exhibiting 
 
 strongly the peculiar feature of Mr. 's school, namely, the 
 
 equality of the top and bottom of the class. The attention and 
 order pervading the whole school, as well as this class, were admirable. 
 
 " The writing from dictation of the second class was excellent. 
 
 " The arithmetic was very good. Three boys worked equations 
 accurately. 
 
 " Writing exceedingly good. 
 
 " The third class (20) were examined on a portion of Bible 
 history, and displayed great familiarity with it. The third class 
 (18) read extremely well from the third of Constable's Series. 
 
NOT US OF VISITATION- CLASSIFICATION. 325 
 
 " All the junior classes copy on their slates from their books. 
 
 " There are several Latin classes. The highest boy read a por- 
 tion of an Ode of Horace admirably, and was very thoroughly 
 grounded." 
 
 (:>.) " When I entered I found the fifth highest class had just 
 finished writing a long passage on their slates, and working sums in 
 addition and subtraction. Both exercises were remarkably well 
 done for so young a class. 
 
 " The third and fourth classes wrote admirably from dictation. 
 
 " The highest class (17) read a difficult lesson from the Advanced 
 Header of the Scottish Series exceedingly well. I asked very many 
 questions on words, roots, and the allusions of the lesson, also on 
 analysis and parsing, and in not one case did the class fail to give 
 an accurate answer. All too were eager, attentive, and desirous 
 to excel. 
 
 " The composition of the highest class was excellent. Some 
 members of the second and third classes having listened to the pas- 
 sage I read as a composition exercise for the highest class volun- 
 tarily attempted it, and with success. 
 
 " In the department of geography, map-drawing- receives great 
 attention, and some good specimens were shown. 
 
 " The third class read extremely well from the fifth of the Scottish 
 Series. They were skilfully and most thoroughly examined by the 
 teacher, and displayed great intelligence and interest in their work. 
 
 " In arithmetic fourteen worked simple and compound proportion 
 quickly and accurately. 
 
 " The highest Latin class read from Livy well. I do not think 
 the Latin, however, the strong point of the school. 
 
 " Mr. deserves a higher place on the scale of merit and 
 
 a letter of very cordial commendation. His school has always been 
 good, but never has reached so high a pitch of excellence as now." 
 
 (4.) " The order, not oppressive in its character, which per- 
 vades this school, the affectionate terms on which teacher and pupils 
 live, and the excellence of the teacher's character, impress me more 
 strongly in this school than in almost any other. 
 
326 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 " The Bible class (40) was examined on the 1st Book of Samuel, 
 and made an excellent appearance, following the story with interest, 
 the master requiring to make no effort to secure the respectful and 
 serious attention of every boy in the class. 
 
 " The highest class (5) read from the Advanced Reading Book of 
 Constable's Series as well as any Visitor could wish, whether we 
 regard the intelligence and distinctness or the emphasis and expres- 
 sion. Analysis of sentences and knowledge of words very good. 
 Parsing excellent ; composition excellent. And this remark applies 
 also to the composition of the second class (17), which wrote admir- 
 ably the same exercise as that prescribed by me for the first. 
 
 " The second class read on barter and money, from the sixth of 
 Constable's Series, very intelligently. Analysis very fair. Parsing 
 exceedingly good. 
 
 " Some forty or fifty worked proportion and fractions exceedingly 
 well. 
 
 " The fourth class made an excellent appearance. 
 
 " Music good. 
 
 " There are four Latin classes. I heard the highest, which 
 acquitted itself very well. 
 
 "It is now eight or nine years since I first inspected Mr. - 
 here, and every successive visit has revealed fresh excellences in his 
 character and his school. On the whole, I am disposed, taking 
 moral as well as intellectual merits into consideration, to regard 
 
 school as almost at the head of all the schools in the three 
 
 counties." 
 
 It is not necessary to apologize for quoting from the 
 special annual reports on each school at such length, 
 because without a sufficient variety of specimens of 
 the internal working of the schools, the following 
 classification would be valueless : 
 
 Classijicatiwi of Schools accord iiuj to Merit. 
 
 Interior. Fair. Gooil. Very Good. Excellent. TOTAL. 
 8 33 34 40 15 130 
 
NOTIvS OK VISITATION -('LASSlFK'ATroN. 327 
 
 Progress of a marked kind has been made during 
 the last ten years in those departments of school-work 
 to which I have chiefly devoted my attention when 
 inspecting, viz. : Reading (which, however, is still 
 very defective in respect of style), Writing from 
 Dictation, English Composition, Mode of Examining 
 on Lessons, Map-drawing, Organization, and Greek. 
 In the last named branch, however, the progress 
 has been due to the higher requirements of the 
 Universities. In a small proportion of the schools, 
 the Government inspectors have been advising and 
 stimulating very much in the same direction as my- 
 self; but in the great majority the improvement, 
 in so far as it is due to external agency, is due to the 
 operation of the Dick Bequest. 1 When I began the 
 work of visitation nine years ago, not five per cent, of 
 the schools systematically taught Writing from Dic- 
 tation, not two per cent, attempted Composition as 
 a separate subject of study ; Map-drawing was very 
 rare, and Reading was not regarded as an art. 
 
 I have already adverted to the work which still 
 remains to be done (p. 317). 
 
 The direct effect of the Bequest in improving 
 schools which have fallen into the hands of teachers 
 who are inefficient in consequence of negligence or 
 of ignorance of their profession, has been dwelt upon 
 in previous Eeports. It is unnecessary, therefore, to 
 
 1 Tin- pivscnt results were already attained four years ago, when fewer 
 than one-fourth of the sehools had formed a Government connexion. 
 
328 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 do more here than quote, by way of illustration, the 
 last case of the kind which came officially under my 
 notice : 
 
 Extract from Report of a Visit in 1863 to School. 
 
 " The small attendance was caused by the prevalence of an epi- 
 demic. 
 
 Mr. s- is visited for the first time. 
 
 " The highest class, which had dwindled to two in consequence of 
 the prevailing epidemic, read distinctly and intelligently from the 
 History of England, and had a fair knowledge of words. Parsed 
 and composed pretty well. 
 
 The second class (6) read from the fifth of Constable's Series, on 
 the whole, well. Knowledge of words poor. The teacher thinks 
 that the parents object to their children being asked the meaning 
 of words ! Intelligence of this and the other classes quite unde- 
 veloped. Writing from dictation fair. 
 
 " The third class read from Wilson's Elementary Reader fairly. 
 
 " The Bible class was examined on the Exodus, and exhibited n 
 satisfactory acquaintance with the facts. 
 
 " Writing pretty good. 
 
 u Arithmetic, except in the case of one boy who worked well, 
 backward. 
 
 " Latin a farce. 
 
 " Organization and discipline bad. 
 
 " No music. 
 
 Mr. is an intelligent, amiable, good-looking youth, disposed 
 
 to consider himself ill-used, and to become depressed and hopeless. 
 His manner in the school is listless, and he seems resigned to 
 failure. I had much talk with him in the hope of rousing him to 
 greater mental and bodily activity. In his listlessness and want of 
 resolution and hopefulness lies the source of the school's feebleness. 
 He is quite well disposed, however, and if the Trustees will admit 
 him on a preparatory scale of three-fourths at present, I am con- 
 fident that I shall be able to report in much more favourable terms 
 when I next visit him." 
 
NoTKS OK VISITATION-- -CLASSIFICATION. ;',_.) 
 
 K.rtrni'1 /mm It( j>ort of Visit to same School in 18(5-"). 
 
 " The highest class (7) read prose and poetry fluently, intelligibly, 
 and distinctly. 
 
 " Grammar thoughtful, and in its results very satisfactory. 
 
 " Composition very good. 
 
 " The second class (7) read from the fifth of Constable's Series 
 with fluency, and with distinctness of enunciation. 
 
 " Writing from dictation good. 
 
 " The geography is well and practically taught. Every boy in the 
 highest class exhibited a very creditable specimen of map-d rawing. 
 
 " In arithmetic eight worked proportion steadily, and five with 
 accuracy. 
 
 " Writing good. 
 
 " Fourteen, composing the New Testament class, made a very 
 pleasing appearance when examined. 
 
 " In Latin three boys made a very fair appearance in Jacob's 
 Latin Lessons. 
 
 " Music very fair. 
 
 " When I visited Mr. - for the first time two years ago, I 
 found things in so deplorable a state, in many essential respects, 
 that I had little hope of his ever becoming a good teacher. I am 
 happy to say that he has profited by the advice then given him, 
 and, as the above report testifies, now presents a school largely 
 increased in numbers, and quite above the average in respect of 
 efficiency. 
 
 " I think Mr. - - should be complimented on the improved 
 condition of his school, and allowed for merit in teaching." 
 
 Many similar cases might be cited. Twenty had 
 been marked for quotation, but no purpose could be 
 served by multiplying such extracts. 
 

 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE BEARING OF FEES AND DATE OF ENTRY ON ATTEND- 
 ANCE AND ORGANIZATION GRATIS SCHOLARS. 
 
 IN Scotland the importance of insisting on a fee 
 for schooling, where it is at air possible to obtain 
 one, is almost universally recognised. It has been 
 felt that fee-paying, like mercy (to use an illus- 
 tration of my predecessor's), is twice blessed, blessing- 
 bo tb him that gives and him that takes. It is a mis 
 take to suppose, however, that all the scholars attend 
 ing the parochial schools pay fees. Although use and 
 wont might entitle masters to disregard the words of 
 the Act of 1803, which requires them to give a certain 
 amount of gratuitous instruction when the heritors 
 and minister think it necessary, yet they exercise the 
 greatest possible leniency in the exaction of fees when 
 the circumstances of the parents make payment a 
 heavy burden. Returns from 124 of the schools 
 show upwards of 750 gratis scholars on the school 
 books, exclusive of those paid for by the Milne 
 Bequest, who number upwards of two thousand. 
 The above 750 are confined to sixty-nine schools not 
 admitted to the benefit of the Milne Fund, giving an 
 average of more than ten per cent, for each school. 
 The returns from the schools on the Milne Bequest 
 
FKKS AND ATTENDANCE. 331 
 
 show thirty live per cent, of gratis scholars, although 
 the grant of the Trustees (20 per annum) is intended 
 to rover the fees of only twenty-five scholars, or about 
 twenty-four per cent, of the total number enrolled. 1 
 
 In a considerable number of parishes in Scotland 
 an attempt is being made to introduce monthly or 
 quarterly instead of weekly payments. Weekly pay 
 ineiits notoriously facilitate irregularity of attendance. 
 If a child is unable to go to school on a Monday, he 
 is kept at home for the rest of the week, because the 
 parents think that they will not get full measure for 
 their twopence or threepence, as the case may be. 
 Payments taken up in advance, and for a longer 
 term, help to cure this evil. Quarterly payments, 
 though almost universal in the north-east, 2 may be 
 rrgarded as imposing too great a burden on the re- 
 sources of the parents, as well as on their foresight. 
 Monthly payments seem better suited to the circum- 
 stances of most districts of the country. 
 
 An objection to the practice of weekly payments, 
 of equal importance with that just adverted to, is its 
 interference with the organization of a school. This 
 objection is of equal force where quarterly pay- 
 ments prevail, because the length of the term compels 
 teachers to admit pupils whenever they please to 
 l>n -sent themselves for enrolment. Pupils dropping 
 in at pleasure, and taking their places in classes whose 
 
 1 The above numbers <lo not include those scholars wlio.M- t'ec.s arc in 
 arrear. - \"i /c p. 342, foot-note. 
 
REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 progress they must retard, are a great obstruction to 
 the work of a teacher, and discourage his efforts to 
 secure efficient organization, Monthly payments will, 
 however, not provide a remedy for this evil unless the 
 teacher fixes a monthly date on which day alone new 
 pupils can be enrolled. 
 
 Fees and attendance are here associated in the 
 same chapter, because the mode of exacting school 
 pence tells powerfully on the regularity of the pupils, 
 and because, in the absence of direct or indirect com- 
 pulsory education laws, it is a duty to make use of 
 every available device for palliating the chief obstacle 
 in the way of the education of the poorer classes. 
 Even in the favoured counties to which this Eeport 
 refers, upwards of fifty per cent, of the pupils are 
 returned as not attending 140 days annually. If, 
 however, we are to avoid the error common to almost 
 all educational statistics, we must deduct at least ten 
 per cent, from the above number on account of those 
 children who, having entered during the currency 
 of a session, have not had time to complete 140 days 
 before the expiry of the year to which the return 
 applies. This leaves upwards of forty per cent, who 
 attend for fewer than 140 days. Although various 
 devices might be resorted to whereby shortness and 
 irregularity of attendance would be considerably re- 
 duced, and their evil consequences to some extent 
 obviated, there can be little doubt that it is only 
 by the extension of the compulsory laws, now in 
 partial operation, that the evil can be effectually 
 
Fi;i;s AND ATTENDANCE. 333 
 
 remedied. There would In* less opposition to such 
 ;m extension were it more distinctly dissociated in 
 the minds of the public from the idea of State 
 restriction of the liberty of the subject. We are 
 too apt to forget that the only restriction pro- 
 posed is a restriction on vicious parents, and that, 
 by the enforcement of such a restriction, we protect 
 the rights of children. In the words of M. Jules 
 Simon, " Recevoir 1'instruction elementaire est le droit 
 de chacun, et tous ont interet a ce que chacun la 
 re^oive." This short sentence, and the following quota- 
 tion, sum up the whole moral side of the argument : 
 
 " This sacred right the lisping babe proclaims 
 To be inherent in him, by Heaven's will, 
 For the protection of his innocence ; 
 And the rude boy who, having overpast 
 The sinless age, by conscience is enrolled, 
 Yet mutinously knits his angry brow, 
 And lifts his wilful hand, on mischief bent, 
 Or turns the godlike faculty of speech 
 To impious use by process indirect 
 Declares his due, while he makes known his need. 
 This sacred right is fruitlessly announced, 
 This universal plea in vain addressed 
 To eyes and ears of parents, who themselves 
 Did, in the time of their necessity, 
 Urge it in vain ; and, therefore, like a prayer, 
 That from the humblest floor .ascends to Heaven, 
 It mounts to reach the State's parental ear." l 
 
 When however, we pass from the moral to the 
 social and political difficulties which beset the ques- 
 tion of obligatory instruction as a national measure, 
 we encounter many important questions not easy of 
 
 1 Wordsworth's K.i-<-nr*i<i, book l\. 
 
334 KEPOirr ON EDUCATION. 
 
 .solution. The extension, however, of the existing 
 Factory laws to other industries than those to which 
 they are at present applicable, can present no insuper- 
 able difficulty. 
 
 The average fee for children learning Reading only, 
 is twopence a week in the three north-eastern counties. 
 Those children who are considered to be sufficiently 
 advanced to learn Writing, Arithmetic, Grammar, 
 and Geography, pay 4d. or od. a week. Latin, 
 Greek, Mathematics, and French are also paid for 
 separately. 1 I have already, in another place, adverted 
 to the fact that Scotch parochial schoolmasters have 
 been in the habit of devoting themselves chiefly 
 to the higher classes to the neglect of the lower. 
 They are now disposed to correct this great error ; 
 but they can never effectually do so until the present 
 mode of regulating the fees by the subjects taught 
 is discarded. A smaller charge should, of course, be 
 made for children under eight years of age than 
 for those above that age ; but the charge, what- 
 ever it may be. should be understood to pay for the 
 whole school curriculum. The teaching of Reading, 
 Writing, and Arithmetic should begin on the same 
 day ; and a small slate should be put into every child's 
 hand, along with his Primer, on the day on which 
 he enters school. By such an arrangement, too, the 
 power of objecting to this or that particular subject 
 being taught to their children would be taken out of 
 the hands of ignorant parents. 
 
 1 Vide. p. 342. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 SCHOOL ACCOMMODATION FURNtTUKE APPARATUS- 
 SCHOOL LIBRARIES TEXT-BOOKS USED. 
 
 THE schoolrooms are well built, and in most respects 
 adequate, with the exception of six, four of which are 
 sicfe-parochial schools. 
 
 There is no^ in Scotland such careful attention to 
 offices for the pupils, and such a strict regard to 
 cleanliness, decency, and propriety as may be found 
 south of the Tweed. 
 
 The School Furniture is sufficient, but in the ma 
 jority of cases awkwardly and unskilfully made. The 
 subject of school furniture has not yet been so much 
 studied in Scotland as it ought to be, and we have 
 a great deal to learn on this subject from the United 
 States. 
 
 The apparatus consists in all cases of ma,ps and a 
 black-board, and occasionally globes are also to be 
 found. No parochial school, in my opinion, is ade- 
 quately supplied with apparatus which has not 
 (l.) A large black-board affixed to the wall. (2.) A 
 smaller movable black board specially intended for the 
 
336 REPORT ON EDUCATTON. 
 
 junior classes. (3.) A black-board ruled for music. 
 (4.) A. pair of globes. (5.) A set of maps, including 
 a large physical map of the world. (6.) A numerical 
 ball-frame. (7.) A supply of objects for object-lessons, 
 etc. (8.) Coloured pictures illustrative of Scripture 
 narratives. (9.) Simple materials for exercises in 
 Colour and Form. 
 
 School-libraries are, when they are met with, and 
 this is much too seldom, composed of works which the 
 children do not care to read. It is obvious that as 
 reading from the library is supposed to be a voluntary 
 act, the books in it must be attractive if the library 
 is to be of any use. A liberal supply of fairy 
 tales, fables, ballads, voyages imaginative and real, 
 illustrated books of natural history, and such reli- 
 gious books as contain in themselves an interest apart 
 from the fact that they treat of religion, ought to 
 form the staple of the library. Moreover, sets of 
 books suited to the different stages of progress in 
 the school should be provided. I was grieved, but not 
 much surprised, to be guided one day by a Banffshire 
 boy of twelve years of age, son of a small farmer, 
 who had never heard of Jack the Giant Killer, the 
 Babes in the Wood, or Eobinson Crusoe ! A mind 
 growing up with imagination so starved must con- 
 solidate into something strangely different from the 
 richly fed minds of the children of the middle and upper 
 classes. When there exists a school-library really 
 suited to the needs and desires of the young, permis- 
 
TEXT-BOOKS USED. 337 
 
 siou to take the books may be used as a reward for 
 lessons thoroughly acquired. The school will be a 
 brighter place for little children when, the lesson 
 once thoroughly acquired, a story-book or picture-book 
 will be put into their hands to amuse, and, through 
 amusement, to instruct. Why should not the teacher 
 himself occasionally take a book from the library-shelf 
 and read a story to his school ? It would relieve the 
 monotony of his work, and help to maintain friendly 
 and pleasant relations between himself and his pupils. 
 
 The School-books used by the masters vary to a con- 
 siderable extent. Those issued by the Association 
 of Scottish Schoolmasters, parochial teachers have a 
 personal interest, I believe, in using ; if not a per- 
 sonal, at least a corporate interest. It is contrary to 
 my practice to interfere with the books used, except 
 when I find that inferior results can be distinctly trace- 
 able to badly graduated lesson-books. From a return 
 recently taken up, I am able to record here (and it 
 is a subject of some historical value) the books at pre- 
 sent used in the parochial schools of Aberdeen, Banff, 
 and Moray : 
 
 Reading-Books. Scottish School-Book Association Series, Con- 
 stable's Series, M'Culloch's Series, Nelson's Series, and in a very 
 few schools, the Irish Series, and Chambers's Narrative Series. 
 
 Arithmetic. The treatises of Gray, Melrose, Scottish School- 
 Book Association, Ingram, Thomson, Colenso, Barnard Smith. 
 H. Smith, and Currie. 
 
 Geography. The treatises of the Scottish School-Book Associa- 
 tion, Reid, Anderson, and Clyde. 
 
 Y 
 
338 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 English Grammar. The text-books of Morell, Leimie, and Scot- 
 tish School-Book Association. 
 
 Algebra. The text-books of Colenso, Chambers, and Cassell ; 
 Wood and Todhunter where there are advanced classes. 
 
 Euclid. The editions issued by Chambers and Cassell. 
 
 Latin. Edinburgh Academy Rudiments, Melvin's Grammar, 
 Ferguson's Grammatical Exercises, Arnold's Prose Composition, 
 Melvin's Versions, and the usual Classics. 
 
 Greek. Geddes's Grammar, Xenophon, Homer, and the New 
 Testament. 
 
 In the studies usually comprehended under the 
 expression " English branches," the manuals that may 
 be used are probably of comparatively little conse- 
 quence, with the exception of the Heading-books and 
 the text-book of Arithmetic. To state here all that 
 might be said on this most important subject, how- 
 ever, would be to recur to the questions of Method 
 already handled in previous chapters, and substan- 
 tially to repeat in a different form what has been 
 there said. One thing only I would here urge on the 
 attention of schoolmasters that the reading-books 
 of parochial schools constitute substantially the whole 
 literature of their pupils. Let them, therefore, esti- 
 mate books from this point of view. Both grammar 
 and geography will probably be best taught when 
 the principal portion of the teaching is oral, and 
 the text-book the black-board. The same is true 
 of arithmetic in the initiatory stages. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 GENERAL STATISTICS OF EDUCATION IN THE COUNTIES 
 
 
 
 OF ABERDEEN, BANFF, AND MORAY. 
 
 THE population of those portions of the three coun- 
 ties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray, embraced by the 
 Bequest (see p. 344), is, by the census of 1861, 
 272,361. 
 
 The number of parishes in the three counties is 
 124, and in these there are 154 statutory parochial 
 schools and 554 non-parochial schools, besides 12 
 parochial female schools. 
 
 Parochial schools taught by masters, . 154 
 
 Parochial do. by mistresses, . 12 
 
 Non-parochial do. by masters, . 215 
 
 Xon-parochial do. by mistresses, 1 . 339 
 
 Total, 720 schools. 
 
 There is consequently a school for every 3 78 '2 7 of 
 the population in the three north-eastern counties of 
 Scotland. A novel feature in the above figures is the 
 number of Female parochial schools established under 
 the 5th clause of the Act of 1861. 
 
 Parochial Schools. 
 
 Emoluments of Schoolmasters. - - The parochial 
 schools are supported by statutory assessment, which 
 
 1 The proportion of Female schools which are merely sewing-schools is 
 not ascertained. 
 
340 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 yields an average of 43, 4s. lid. of fixed salary 
 to each teacher. In addition to this the teachers 
 are provided with dwelling-houses and gardens (or 
 compensation in lieu of them), the annual value of 
 which may be very moderately stated as 10. The 
 average number of rooms in the dwelling-houses is 
 very nearly six, and they are for the most part sub- 
 stantial and comfortable edifices. The average amount 
 of school-fees actually received is 28, 9s. 8d. In addi- 
 tion to these emoluments the majority of the school- 
 masters enjoy small salaries as session-clerk and regis- 
 trar of the parish, which may average for both offices 
 about 9. In Aberdeenshire 70 parochial schools 
 receive 20 per annum from the Milne Bequest, for 
 which they have to teach 25 children gratuitously. 
 The amount paid under the Dick Bequest for year 
 to Whitsunday 1863 averaged 31, 11s. 8d. to each 
 teacher. 
 
 The average emoluments of parochial schoolmasters 
 accordingly may be thus summed up : 
 
 Statutory salary, . . . 43 4 11 
 
 Value of house and garden, . . 1000 
 
 Fees actuaUy received, . . . 28 9 8 
 
 Session-clerk, Registrar, etc., . . 900 
 
 Dick Bequest, 31 11 8 
 
 Average income, 1 122 6 3 
 
 Attendance. The average daily attendance at each 
 
 1 To which has to be added 20 of Milne Bequest to 70 of the Aber- 
 deenshire schools, and Government grants where the schools happen to 
 be in connexion with the Privy Council. 
 
STATISTICS. 341 
 
 of the parochial schools during the year 1864 (riot the 
 average enrolment, which was 118*9*) was 71'4; of 
 these, 52'1 were boys, and 19'3 were girls. Of the 
 above 71 '4, 44'9 attended 150 days and upwards. 
 The number actually present on the day on which 
 the return was taken up a very stormy day in 
 January averaged for each school 68*4. 
 
 Age of Pupils, etc. etc. The average age at which 
 children enter the parochial schools of the three 
 counties is 6*3 ; the average age at which they 
 leave is 13. 
 
 Accessibility of Schools.- The greatest distance 
 which pupils travel to the parochial schools averages 
 3*1 miles. The average distance of the pupils from 
 school is about 1J miles. The greatest distance 
 from which any boy comes to school is five and a 
 half miles ; but there are only 5 schools which are 
 attended by boys who come more than four miles. 
 In 60 schools are to be found a few children who 
 come more than three miles. 
 
 Hours of Meeting. In summer the schools gene- 
 rally meet at half-past nine and dismiss at four 
 o'clock, there being from half an hour to an hour 
 of interval ; in winter they meet about ten and 
 dismiss about a quarter-past three, the period of 
 interval allowed being, during that season, only about 
 twenty or thirty minutes. 
 
 Vacations. The vacations are determined by the 
 
 * 131 schools return this. 
 
342 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 grain harvest. In the great majority of cases they 
 last six weeks, beginning in the third or fourth week 
 of August. 
 
 Fees. The school-fees run from 2s. a quarter (in 
 a few cases Is. 6d.) for the youngest children, who 
 are supposed to learn only reading and spelling, to 5s. 
 a quarter for those above eight who are learning arith- 
 metic, geography, writing, and grammar. Where 
 Latin, Greek, and mathematics are taught the fee 
 is frequently 7s. 6d., and in a few cases 10s. They 
 are for the most part paid quarterly, but only in 
 about 16 per cent, of .the schools are they paid in 
 advance? 
 
 Non-Parochial Schools. 
 
 I have little to add on the subject of non-parochial 
 schools to the figures already given on p. 339, because 
 the returns are imperfect. Of the 554 non-parochial 
 schools, I find that 531 return their daily attendance 
 as averaging 42*3 ; and 393 return their fees as aver- 
 aging 15, 17s. 9d. 
 
 In 26 of the 124 civil parishes, the only non-paro- 
 chial schools existing are taught by mistresses. Ten 
 parishes have no schools save the parochial. 
 
 1 Fees are paid as follows in 123 parochial schools making returns under 
 this head: 103 quarterly; 2 half -yearly ; 6 yearly; 1 weekly and 
 quarterly ; 3 quarterly and half-yearly ; 3 at Whitsuntide and autumn 
 vacation ; 1 three times a year ; 1 quarterly, half-yearly, and yearly ; 
 1 at end of herring fishing ; 1 no rule. 
 
 N.B. Of these 98 are not paid in advance. 
 
STATISTICS. 343 
 
 Notwithstanding the ample means of education pro- 
 vided for the population of the three north-eastern 
 counties, 681 persons above ten years of age are 
 returned as unable to read, and 3922 as unable to 
 write. From these figures, however, have to be de- 
 ducted immigrants from the Highlands, and children 
 of ten or eleven years of age, who are at present 
 at school, and will learn to write before leaving it. 
 Had the query been limited to persons above twelve 
 years of age the number returned as unable to write 
 would certainly not have exceeded 1000. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS IN CONNEXION WITH 
 THE BEQUEST. 
 
 OF the 154 parochial schools admissible in the 124 
 civil parishes, 134 only are connected with the Dick 
 Bequest. The reason of the non-participation o 
 these 20 schools is, that they have not complied with 
 the conditions of the Trustees, as these have been 
 explained in the chapter on the Administration of 
 the Trust. 
 
 The population of the three counties, and of those 
 portions to which Mr. Dick's Bequest is applicable, is 
 shown in the following statement : 
 
 Population by census of 1861 of the counties of 
 
 Aberdeen, 221,569 
 
 Banff, 59,215 
 
 Moray, 42,695 
 
 323,479 
 
 Deduct districts not within the range of the Dick 
 Bequest : 
 
 ROYAL BURGHS, viz. 
 1. Aberdeen, the six town parishes 
 
 East, 5,182 
 
 West, .... 11,450 
 
 North, .... 6,273 
 South, .... 4,291 
 Greyfriars', . . . 7.143 
 
 St. Clement's, . . . 7,623 
 
 41,962 
 
COMPARATIVE STATEMENT. 345 
 
 Brought forward, . . 41,962 323,479 
 
 2. Banff (not landward), . . 3,557 
 
 3. Elgin, 7,543 
 
 4. Torres, . 4,112 
 
 Add portions of parishes in other counties, viz., 
 
 Abernethy, .... 788 
 
 Banchory-Devenick, . . . 2,303 
 Drurnoak, . . . . 235 
 
 Duthil, ..... 325 
 
 Cromdale, 1 . 1,405 
 
 The following figures show the statistical state of 
 the parochial schools benefiting by the Bequest : 
 
 A ttendance. The average number enrolled at each 
 of the parochial schools, taking the average of the last 
 ten years, is 112' 1 ? (the average for 1862, was 113'1). 
 Of this number 49*8 are returned as having attended 
 140 days or upwards. The number of school-days 
 averaged 246 annually, taking the average of the 
 ten years. In consequence of the recent but already 
 nearly universal custom of closing schools on Satur- 
 day, the number of school-days is now reduced 
 to 235. 
 
 i The parish of Cromdale contains a population of 566 in Moray and 
 3376 in Inverness, together 3942. There are two schools in the parish 
 now admissible to the Bequest, which would embrace say one-half the 
 population, or 1971, whereof 1405 in Inverness-shire might with pro- 
 priety be added to the above. 
 
346 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 Subjects taught. Of the average number enrolled 
 (11 2 '7) there are returned as learning- 
 English Reading, . . . . 111-2 
 
 Writing, 88-2 
 
 Arithmetic, . . . . . 65 
 
 English Grammar, . . . . 48-7 
 
 Geography, 52-9 
 
 Mathematics, . . . . . 4-8 
 
 Latin, 6-7 
 
 Greek, 1-5 
 
 French, .5 
 
 In some sea-coast schools Navigation is taught. 
 Singing from notation is now introduced into about 
 20 per cent, of the schools. Drawing is only occa- 
 sionally met with. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 COMPARATIVE STATEMENT, HAVING REFERENCE TO 
 PREVIOUS REPORTS. 
 
 Fees. THE fees have not materially altered since 
 the date of the last Report, 1854. But whereas 
 only 24 schools received their fees quarterly at that 
 date the great majority now do so. 
 
 A ttendance. The regularity of attendance has im- 
 proved very considerably. The proportion attending 
 for 140 days and upwards was in 
 
 1837. 1852. 1862. 
 
 32-6 42-2 57-1 
 
 This is a very gratifying feature of the most recent 
 returns. 
 
 Subjects taught. For 123 schools, the number 
 studying Mathematics is 603, as against 700 in 
 1852. The number learning Latin is at present 
 860 ; the number learning Latin in 1852 was 803. 
 The number learning Greek is 196, as against 186 
 in 1852. The number learning French is 88, as 
 against 48 in 1852. 
 
 The following Table exhibits the numbers learning 
 
348 
 
 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 the various branches at different decennial periods 
 since the Bequest came into operation, the calculation 
 being made for 123 schools : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Increase 
 
 Increase 
 
 Increase 
 
 Total 
 
 
 1833. 
 
 1842. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1862. 
 
 from 
 1833 to 
 
 from 
 1842 to 
 
 from 
 1852 to 
 
 Increase 
 from 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1842. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1862. 
 
 1833. 
 
 English Reading, 
 Writing, . . 
 
 10,108 
 6288 
 
 12,842 
 10,094 
 
 13,937 
 11,082 
 
 13,815 
 11,221 
 
 2-734 
 
 3'806 
 
 1-095 
 
 988 
 
 b 
 139 
 
 3-707 
 4-933 
 
 Arithmetic, . . 
 
 3022 
 
 5542 
 
 7583 
 
 8,746 
 
 2-520 
 
 2-041 
 
 1-163 
 
 |5724 
 
 Grammar, . . 
 
 1060 
 
 3712 
 
 5947 
 
 5,992 
 
 2-652 
 
 2-235 
 
 45 
 
 4-932 
 
 Geography, . . 
 Mathematics, . 
 
 582 
 279 
 
 4032 
 531 
 
 6555 
 700 
 
 6,373 
 603 
 
 3-450 
 252 
 
 2-523 
 169 
 
 c 
 d 
 
 5-791 
 324 
 
 Latin, . . . 
 
 488 
 
 560 
 
 803 
 
 860 
 
 72 
 
 243 
 
 57 
 
 372 
 
 Greek, . . . 
 
 81 
 
 61 
 
 186 
 
 196 
 
 a 
 
 125 
 
 10 
 
 115 
 
 French, . . , 
 
 9 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 88 
 
 35 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 79 
 
 a. Decrease, 20. 
 
 b. Decrease, 122. 
 
 c. Decrease, 182. 
 
 d. Decrease, 97. 
 
 The much larger proportion of the pupils enrolled 
 for English who also learn writing and arithmetic is 
 even more satisfactory than the increase in the num- 
 bers studying Latin, Greek, and French. 
 
 School Accommodations. The dwelling-houses (the 
 average number of rooms being now nearly six, 
 whereas it was reported as being nearly five in 
 1854), school-houses, school-furniture, and apparatus, 
 have much improved during the last decade (p. 335). 
 
 Emoluments. The incomes of the teachers from all 
 sources 1 have risen from an average of 101, Is. 7d. 
 to 122, 6s. 3d. The following Table exhibits the 
 increase in the emoluments of the parochial teachers 
 since 1833 : 
 
 AVERAGE. 
 
 1853. 
 101 1 7 
 
 1833. 
 55 12 
 
 1843. 
 97 16 6 
 
 1863. 
 122 6 
 
 1 Exclusive of Government grants. 
 
COMPARATIVE STATEMENT. 349 
 
 Cost of Schooling. The education of each child 
 enrolled on the parochial school-books of the three 
 counties costs about 21s. per annum, including fees 
 (but excluding from the calculation the value of 
 schoolroom, Privy Council grants, and the Milne 
 Bequest, which would raise it to about 25s. per 
 scholar in Aberdeenshire). 1 
 
 It would be ungracious as well as unjust to con- 
 clude this Keport without recording the satisfaction 
 which I have had in my official intercourse with the 
 masters connected with the Bequest. Conscientious- 
 ness, thoughtfulness, courtesy, and openness and fair- 
 ness of mind, I have found to be characteristics of 
 the great majority of the teachers. The work of 
 visitation, accordingly, has been to me a pleasant 
 labour of co-operation rather than a disagreeable 
 critical task. 
 
 1 The Milne Bequest does not extend its benefits beyond the county 
 of Aberdeen. 
 
CO 
 
 s -3 
 
 s a 
 
 
 (A . 
 
 1! 
 
 g 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 SN rH Oi 
 
 O rH ,-. 
 
 O O> 00 
 
 uo B-TBioipg jo jaqumfj 
 
 ^i *O O O O O 
 
 o co <o * e o -* 
 
 O Oi O 5M N <C <M 
 
 rH 00 rH 
 ^ 
 
 S S 
 
 s s 
 
 rH <^ 
 
 S S 
 
 s * s 
 
 ~to s ~ 
 
 o J5 co 
 
 * O 00 
 
 l 
 
 2umip ^qgivej, jooqog 
 SjJ^Q jo jaqmnj 
 
 00 <O 
 
 s 3 
 
 s s> 
 
 a a ^ 
 
 (M irt 
 lO O 
 
 g. a 
 
 a s a 
 
 5< 5- 
 
 ajont jo sAvQ 
 Ml papuairV 
 
 aA. Sui.mp 
 
 s^ & a ^ 
 
 ^ s 
 
 <O >0 00 C3S 
 
 OV O rH (M 
 
 co << m 
 
 I rH rH rH <M I 
 
 H 
 
 i.^^ i 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 I. 
 
 RULES OF EXAMINATION, ADOPTED 6ra FEBRUARY, 
 AND REVISED 21sT DECEMBER 1849. 
 
 1. Every Schoolmaster, claiming the benefit of the Bequest, 
 must be examined by the Trustees' Examiners at either the first or 
 the second Examination immediately following his election. 
 
 NOTE. 1. Every Claimant may thus employ at least twelve months after his 
 election in preparation, without forfeiting the Bequest for any 
 period. 
 
 2. A Schoolmaster failing to undergo examination within the time 
 required, forfeits all claim for the period prior to the time at 
 which he shall actually be examined. 
 
 2. No extraordinary distinction shall be bestowed, however emi- 
 nent may be a Candidate's merits in particular branches, unless he 
 profess the whole subjects of Examination at his first appearance. 
 
 It is desired that every Candidate should undertake the whole branches at his 
 first appearance. From feelings of indulgence, considerable latitude has 
 for some time past been allowed in making only a partial profession. No 
 benefit, however, has been experienced from this course. On the con- 
 trary, it has tended to an indefinite protraction of the examination of 
 Candidates through successive years, which is not only inconvenient, but 
 shown by experience to confer no advantage upon Candidates themselves. 
 These considerations have led to the adoption of the following 
 
 Regulations for Examinations extending beyond one year. 
 
 3. All the branches must be professed by each Candidate within 
 two successive years. If at the Annual Examination in those years 
 he be pronounced fair in all the branches, his Examination shall be 
 
 Z 
 
354 REPORT ON EDUCATION. [API'. L 
 
 held to be completed ; but if otherwise, his Examination must be 
 resumed under the conditions mentioned in Rule 6. 
 
 4. Every Candidate must, at his first attendance for Examina- 
 tion, profess and be examined upon not less than Jive of the ten 
 subjects of written trial, including English, Arithmetic, and Latin, 
 the profession of these three in the first year being indispensable. 
 
 5. Whatever modified allowance the Trustees may in their dis- 
 cretion allocate in respect of partial profession and success in the 
 first of these two years, the amount shall be reserved, and no pay- 
 ment be made until the entire Examination is completed in terms 
 of Rule 3. 
 
 6. In the event of a Candidate being found deficient in any one 
 of the ten branches at the end of the second Examination, then all 
 his past appearances, with the exception of those marked good, shall 
 be held null for every purpose ; it being open to him again to com- 
 pete for admission by passing through the Examination anew, but 
 always in the same way, and under the same conditions, in con- 
 formity with these Rules, as if he had made no previous appear- 
 ance in any branch not marked good. 
 
 In transmitting the foregoing Rules to newly elected Parochial 
 Schoolmasters in the Counties of Aberdeen, Banif, and Moray, the 
 Trustees of Mr. Dick's Bequest beg to invite their serious attention 
 to the objects of the Bequest, the Testator's express direction being 
 that the Fund shall be distributed in such manner as " shall seem 
 most likely to encourage active Schoolmasters, and gradually to 
 elevate the literary character of the Parochial Schoolmasters and 
 Schools" in these Counties. In order to accomplish these important 
 objects, the Trustees have adopted such Regulations as appeared 
 best calculated to attain them : and with a view in particular to 
 the elevation of the literary character of the Schoolmasters, they 
 instituted an Examination of newly elected Teachers, upon such 
 branches of literature and science as it is reasonable and proper to 
 expect should be known by Schoolmasters claiming the advantage 
 of this Bequest, in addition to their ordinary emoluments. 
 
 But it is manifest, that whatever rules the Trustees may prescribe, 
 the success of these must mainly depend upon the Schoolmasters 
 themselves, upon their earnest and faithful exertions to attain the 
 
AIM'. I.] I JULES OF EXAMINATION. 355 
 
 literary elevation desired by the Testator, without the possession of 
 which every conscientious Teacher must feel that no portion of the 
 Fund can properly belong to him. 
 
 It has been a source of great satisfaction to the Trustees to wit- 
 ness the manner in which Mr. Dick's design has been seconded by 
 various Teachers, whose examination has proved that they have 
 imbibed the spirit and cultivated the attainments which the Bequest 
 requires. One of their most pleasing duties has consisted in con- 
 ferring both special and permanent distinctions on such candidates. 
 
 The appearance of the Teachers just referred to has satisfied the 
 Trustees both of the practicability of Mr. Dick's design, and that 
 the Examination instituted is, in respect of its subjects and extent, 
 within the capacity of all Teachers eligible to the Parochial Schools 
 of the three Counties. 
 
 On the other hand, it cannot but be a source of pain to the Trus- 
 tees to be compelled at any time to take a diiferent view of any 
 Schoolmaster's appearance, and to find that he is not worthy to 
 participate in the Fund. The Testator's directions, however, leave 
 them no other course ; and whatever feelings of indulgence and 
 consideration may have prevailed at the outset, while the Exami- 
 nation was new and comparatively untried, the Trustees regard it 
 as their plain duty to require, now that the Examination has been 
 established for fourteen years, and its nature and details are gene- 
 rally known and understood, that every Teacher examined shall in 
 accordance with the foregoing rules exhibit a fair degree of attain- 
 ment, as the condition of his receiving any share of the Fund. The 
 Trustees think it right to call the attention of all newly appointed 
 Schoolmasters to this announcement ; and they are well aware that 
 it will afford satisfaction and encouragement to the deserving a 
 class which, it is hoped, may in future embrace every Teacher ap- 
 pointed within the district. They are earnestly entreated to bear 
 in mind Mr. Dick's purpose, and the necessity of intelligent and 
 honest exertion upon their part to secure its success, and they need 
 hardly be reminded that the consciousness of such exertion will 
 add a double value to any allowance which they may receive. 
 
356 REPORT ON EDUCATION. [API 1 . I. 
 
 EXAMINATION PAPERS, 1864. 
 NOTICE. 
 
 To Candidates preparing for Examination in September 1865, 
 the following hints may be of consequence : 
 
 1. In examining on Geography an acquaintance must be pre- 
 sumed with at least the outline of the Geography of the globe at 
 large, and the Elements of Physical Geography. But Candidates 
 will be expected to possess a much more minute and exact know- 
 ledge of the Geography of Europe, and more particularly of Great 
 Britain and Ireland ; together with that also of Ancient Palestine. 
 Questions in Classical Geography will be confined to Ancient Italy, 
 Greece, and Asia Minor. The Examination will not extend beyond 
 what is contained in Clyde's School Geography, and Pillans' First 
 Steps in Classical Geography. 
 
 2. The Examination on History and Chronology will relate to 
 (1.) Bible History; (2.) History of Ancient Rome; History of 
 England and Scotland in the 17th and 18th centuries. 
 
 3. In the department of English, a general acquaintance will be 
 expected with the history of English Literature, its chief epochs, 
 and their characteristics. On this subject, Spalding's History of 
 English Literature is recommended; and Candidates will be ex- 
 pected to be well versed in the outline of our Literature as there pre- 
 sented. The special study of a definite work is moreover required ; 
 and the main object and drift of the Examination will be to test 
 the Candidate's literary information and appreciation in connexion 
 with this work, and especially with reference to a passage selected 
 from it, his knowledge of the sources, structure, etymology, and 
 syntax of the English language, with the application of the prin- 
 ciples of general grammar to the construction and resolution of 
 English phrases and sentences. The work which has been fixed 
 upon for the ensuing year is Gowpers Task. A further recom- 
 mendation to be given under this head is the attentive study of 
 some such treatise on the structure and grammar of the English 
 language, as Morell's Grammar and Analysis of the English Lan- 
 guage. 
 
 4. In Latin, the field of Examination for September 1865 will 
 be limited to Livy (Book V.), and Horace (Ars Poetica), along 
 
AIM'. I.] EXAMINATION J'Al'KK's. 357 
 
 with a Latin version ; in Greek, to Acts, chaps, xi.-xx., Xenophon 
 (Anabasis, Book IV.), and the thirteenth Book of the Iliad. 
 
 5. In the study of Greek, accuracy and precision should be 
 aimed at from the outset. With this view the Student ought, in 
 the first place, to confine his reading for some time to Attic prose 
 alone ; endeavouring, by rigorous practice, to acquire an exact 
 mastery of its common forms of .inflexion and conjugation, whether 
 regular or irregular, and a firm hold of the ordinary Greek Gram- 
 mar. And for the same end, while encouragement will be given 
 to higher acquirements by the occasional introduction into the 
 Examination Paper of a short passage from Homer, the main and 
 by far the most important part of the Examination will always be 
 made to turn upon a thorough knowledge of Attic prose. In the 
 next place, while the Grammar which the Student employs should 
 be accurate and trustworthy, his Lexicon should not only be equally 
 so, but should correspond with the former as closely as possible. 
 It is only necessary to add that in reading the Student should 
 constantly have at hand, and refer to, his list of Irregular and 
 Defective Verbs, with their several parts in use, and their modes 
 of conjugation. 
 
 6. For attaining due proficiency in Geometry, little can be sug- 
 gested beyond a careful study of Euclid and the actual application 
 of the different propositions, as they are successively acquired, to 
 the practical solution of exercises. 
 
 7. With respect to Arithmetic, it cannot be too strongly im- 
 pressed, that a loose facility of mere calculation is not enough ; 
 that the theory the ground and reason of the several rules and 
 processes should be clearly understood, by the help of some such 
 treatise as De Morgan's or Professor Thomson's Arithmetic, or 
 Tate's Compendium ; and, in particular, that Proportion and Frac- 
 tional Arithmetic should be thoroughly mastered. 
 
 8. In Physics, there will be demanded the Elements of Statics 
 treated mathematically, together with Hydrostatics and Optics. 
 
 It is specially ordered that no Candidate shall bring into the 
 room on the day of Examination any books or MS. whatever. 
 The infringement of this rule by any Candidate will, if discovered, 
 vitiate, his whole examination. 
 
 EDINBURGH, October 1864. 
 
358 REPORT ON EDUCATION. I AIM'. I. 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND LITERATURE. 
 
 JULIUS CJESAR, in. 2. 
 
 If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. 
 You all do know this mantle : I remember 
 The first time ever Caesar put it on : 
 'Twas on a summer's evening, in his tent ; 
 That day he overcame the Nervii : 
 Look ! in this place ran Cassius' dagger through : 
 See, what a rent the envious Casca made : 
 Through this, the well-beloved Brutus stabb'd ; 
 And, as he pluck VI his cursed steel away, 
 Mark how the blood of Csesar follow'd it, 
 As rushing out of doors, to be resolved 
 If Brutus so unkindly knocked, or no ; 
 For Brutus, as you know, was Csesar's augel : 
 Judge, you gods, how dearly Caesar loved him ! 
 This was the most unkindest cut of all : 
 For when the noble Cassar saw him stab, 
 Ingratitude, more strong than traitors' arms, 
 Quite vanquish'd him : then burst his mighty heart ; 
 And, in his mantle muffling up his face, 
 Even at the base of Pompey's statue, 
 Which all the while ran blood, great Csesar fell. 
 Oh, what a fall was there, my countrymen ! 
 Then I, and you, and all of us fell down, 
 Whilst bloody treason flourish'd over us. 
 Oh, now you weep ; and, I perceive, you feel, 
 The dint of pity : these are gracious drops. 
 Kind souls, what weep you, when you but behold 
 Our Csesar's vesture wounded? Look you here, 
 Here is himself, marr'd, as you see, with traitors. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. State what facts are known concerning the life of Shakspeare. 
 
 2. (a) To what category of his plays does Julius Ccesar belong ; 
 
 and (b) what is the probable date of its composition ? 
 
 3. From what probable source were the main elements of the play 
 
 derived ? 
 
 4. (a) Describe very briefly the historical circumstances of the 
 
 death of Julius Csesar ; and (b) point out any particulars in 
 which Shakspeare has departed from these circumstances in 
 his representation. 
 
AIT. 1. 1 EXAMINATION PAPKIiS. 359 
 
 .">. " His life was gentle; and the elements 
 
 So mixed in him, that Nature might stand up 
 And say to all the world, i There was a man.' " 
 
 (a) Who speaks here ; and (b) who is spoken of? 
 
 6. There is a tide in the affairs of men. (a) Who says this; and 
 
 (b) in reference to what is it said? 
 
 7. The troubled Tiber chafing with her shores. In what part of 
 
 the play does this line occur ? 
 s . " There was a Brutus once that would have brooked 
 
 The eternal devil to keep his state in Rome 
 
 As easily as a king." 
 (a) What Brutus is here spoken of ; (b) who speaks ; and 
 
 (c) to whom is the speech addressed? 
 
 9. Even at the base of Pompey's statue. What is the various 
 reading in this verse ? 
 
 10. What is the meaning of the line, 
 
 " Whilst bloody treason flourished over us." 
 
 11. The dint of pity. (a) What is an equivalent word to dint; 
 
 and (b) what is the derivation of the word ? 
 
 12. (a) Parse the several verbs in the passage; and (b) classify 
 
 them according to Mr. Morell's classification. 
 
 13. Point out the Saxon words in the passage. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 1. Enumerate the distinguishing epochs of the Bible history. 
 
 2. (a) Mention the chief characters on both sides in the war of 
 
 Greece with Persia ; and (b) the causes out of which the 
 war sprang. 
 
 3. What were the special and what the general causes of the 
 
 Peloponnesian war? 
 
 4. What part did the Thebans play in the later history of Greece, 
 
 and who was their great leader? 
 
 5. (a) At what age did Henry vin. ascend the throne of England; 
 
 and (b) whom did he then marry ? 
 
 6. (a) What is the date of the battle of Flodden; and (b) what 
 
 were the circumstances which led to it ? 
 
 7. (a) What was the cause of Henry's rupture with Rome? (b) 
 
 Describe the successive steps of the process of the rupture, 
 
360 REPORT ON EDUCATION. [AFP. I. 
 
 8. Mention the most prominent ecclesiastical measures connected 
 
 with the Reformation in England. 
 
 9. (a) Wh was Cromwell in Henry's reign ; and (b) what were 
 
 his relations to Wolsey ? 
 
 10. What was the Pilgrimage of Grace? 
 
 11. What two distinguished men suffered martyrdom in Henry's 
 
 reign in connexion with the progress of Henry's rupture 
 with Rome ? 
 
 12. Describe the nature of Wyatt's rebellion, and the circumstances 
 
 out of which it arose. 
 
 13. Who were the chief ecclesiastical agents of Mary of England 
 
 in her persecutions ? 
 
 14. State the claims of Mary Queen of Scots to the English 
 
 throne. 
 
 15. Who was Sir Francis Drake? 
 
 16. Describe the career of Sir W. Raleigh. 
 
 17. What was the Babington conspiracy? 
 
 18. Describe the relations of the Earl of Essex with Elizabeth, 
 
 and the charges against him. 
 
 19. What was the Hampton Court Conference? 
 
 20. (a) Who were the chief Puritans of Elizabeth's reign ; and 
 
 (b) for what special objects did they contend? 
 
 21. What were the chief political causes which led to the growth 
 
 of Puritanism in the reigns of James and Charles i. ? 
 
 22. What was the Gunpowder Plot ? 
 
 23. Explain Tonnage and Poundage? 
 
 24.* Explain the chief religious grounds of dissatisfaction in the 
 commencement of Charles' reign. 
 
 25. Mention the leaders on the Parliamentary and Royal side. 
 
 26. State the origin of the "Covenant" in Scotland, and its rcla 
 
 tion to the civil war. 
 
 27. Briefly note the chief events in the career of Cromwell, par- 
 
 ticularly the chief battles in which he was engaged, and 
 their dates. 
 
 28. At what battle did Lord Falkland fall? 
 
 29. Describe the career of Montrose, and his connexion with the 
 
 civil war. 
 
AIM'. I. | EXAMINATION PAPEKS. 361 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 1. Explain the following terms of Mathematical Geography: 
 (a) equator ; (b) meridian circle ; (c) ecliptic ; (d) equinox. 
 
 2. Explain the following terms of Physical Geography : (a) 
 glacier ; (b) cyclone ; (c) mirage ; (d) prairie ; (e) delta. 
 
 o. Why are there two tides daily? 
 
 4. Why do isothermal lines not coincide with parallels of latitude ? 
 
 5. Mention the chief seats of the cultivation (a) of the sugar- 
 
 cane, (b) of the coffee -plant. 
 
 6. Give the names, and describe generally the course, of the 
 
 leading rivers that spring from the Alps. 
 
 7. State () the boundaries of Holstein ; (b) the chief towns of 
 
 Holstein and of Schleswig. 
 
 8. Mention the counties that border on Northamptonshire, Armagh, 
 
 and Perthshire respectively. 
 
 9. Describe the course of the Trent, the Shannon, and the Tweed, 
 
 naming the chief towns on their banks. 
 
 10. Name the universities and great public schools of England. 
 
 11. Where are the following towns situated: Queenstown, Har- 
 
 wich, Stockport, Alba, Kidderminster, Dundalk, Dor- 
 chester, Beverley, Walsall? 
 
 12. Name the chief seats of the manufacture of silks, pottery, and 
 
 hardware in Britain. 
 
 18. () What is meant by " Galilee of the Gentiles " ? (b) by which 
 of the tribes was it formerly occupied ? (c) what were the 
 principal towns in it at the time of our Saviour ? 
 
 14. Where were Jericho, Joppa, Sychar, Gadara, Carmel, Ascalon, 
 
 Peraa? 
 
 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 15. Name the chief mountains and rivers of the Peloponnesus. 
 10. Name the chief colonies of Magna Grsecia. 
 
 IT. State the position of Tarsus, Capua, Hymettus, Sicyon, Thya- 
 tira, Lilybaeum, Ariminum, Chacronea, Soracte. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 To be translated into Latin Prose. 
 
 No one, it is plain, experiences the death of relatives without having 
 met with many rnisfortiines before ; so encompassed is human nature 
 
362 REPORT ON EDUCATION. [APR I. 
 
 with a variety of troubles on all sides. Why, therefore, should one, who 
 has bravely endured heavier or at any rate as heavy trials, lose courage 
 and give himself up to grief, when he ought most of all to become callous 
 and to harden himself against fresh distress ? We mentioned a little 
 before, that to act thus was moreover unjust. For nature has given us 
 the use of life, as if of money, without any prescribed term. If, at her 
 pleasure, she demands back her own lent on condition of being restored, 
 why is she arraigned ? or why do you not thank nature for delaying to 
 demand back what she might have claimed sooner, rather than assail her 
 with unjust complaint for making the demand at length? For it is 
 beyond doubt that we are allowed not a place for our dwelling, but a 
 lodging for our sojourn ; and when we remove from it, we ought to de- 
 part with eagerness as from an inn full of troubles and discomforts, and 
 to fly with the utmost joy to the future life as to our native land. 
 
 LIVY iv. 30. 
 
 To be translated accurately. 
 
 Veientes in agrum Romanum excursiones fecerunt. Fama fttit, quosdam 
 ex Fidenatium juventute participes ejus populationis fuisse : cognitioque 
 ejus rei L. Sergio et Q. Servilio et Mam. ^milio permissa. Quidam 
 Ostiam relegati, quod, cur per eos dies a Fidenis afuissent, parum con- 
 stabat. Colonorum additus numerus, agerque his bello interemptorum 
 assignatus. Siccitate eo anno plurimum laboratum est : nee coelestes 
 modo defuerunt aquse, sed terra quoque, ingenito humore egens, vix ad 
 perennes suffecit amnes. Defectus alibi aquarum circa torridos fontes 
 rivosque stragem siti pecorum morientium dedit ; scabie alia absumta. 
 Vulgatique contactu in homines morbi ; et primo in agrestes ingruerant 
 servitiaque ; urbs deinde impletur. Nee corpora modo affecta tabo, sed 
 animos quoque multiplex religio et pleraque externa invasit, iiovos ritus 
 sacrificandi vaticinando inferentibus in domos, quibus qusestui sunt capti 
 superstitione animi : donee publicus jam pud or ad primores civitatis per- 
 venit, cernentes in omnibus vicis sacellisque peregrina atque insolita 
 piacula pacis deum exposcendse. Datum inde negotium oedilibus ut ani- 
 madverterent, ne qui nisi Romani dii, neu quo alio more, quam patrio, 
 colerentur. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. From what sources did Livy derive the materials for the earlier 
 
 history of Rome ? 
 
 2. Where were Veil, Fidense, and Ostia? 
 
 3. Colonorum, primores civitatis, cedilibus Explain these terms. 
 
 4. Datum inde negotium By whom? 
 
 5. Give the derivation of populationis, relegati, cur, perennes, 
 
 stragem, ingruerant, religio, piacula. 
 
All'. I.] EXAMINATION PAPERS. 363 
 
 (j. Parse the words inyenito, inter em ptor urn, cgens, suffecit, siti, 
 vaticinando, cernentes, exposcendce, conjugating the verbs. 
 
 7. Why are Ostiant, humor e, vaticinando, infer entibus, qucestui, 
 
 deum, in their respective cases? 
 
 8. What are the more usual forms for contactu and tabo ? 
 
 9. How do you explain alibi f 
 
 10. Express the clause novos ritus, $c. in such other form or forms 
 as occur to you. 
 
 HORACE in. 16. 
 
 To be translated accurately into English Prose. 
 Aurum per medios ire satellites, 
 Et perrumpere amat saxa potentius 
 Ictu fulmineo. Concidit auguris 
 
 Argivi domus, ob lucrum 
 5 Demersa exitio. Diffidit urbium 
 Portas vir Macedo, et submit semulos 
 Reges muneribus. Munera navium 
 
 Ssevos illaqueant duces. 
 Crescentem sequitur cura pecuniam, 
 10 Majorumque fames. Jure perhorrui 
 Late conspicuum tollere verticera, 
 
 Maecenas, equituin decus. 
 Qnanto quisque sibi plura negaverit, 
 Ab dis plura feret. Nil cupientium 
 15 Nudus castra peto, et transfuga divitum 
 
 Partes linquere gestio, 
 Contemptse dominus splendidior rei, 
 Quam si quidquid arat impiger Appiilus 
 
 Occultare meis dicerer horreis, 
 20 Magnas inter opes mops. 
 
 Purse rivus aquae, silvaque jugerum 
 Paucoruni, et segetis certa fides mese 
 Fulgentem imperio fertilis Africae 
 Fallit sorte beatior. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. State when Horace flourished, and describe briefly his char- 
 
 acter. 
 
 2. Mention his leading literary contemporaries. 
 
 3. Maecenas, equitum decus, (a) Who was Maecenas? (b) What 
 
 were the Equites in the time of Horace ? 
 
 4. Kxplain the allusions in auguris Argivi domus, vir Macedo, 
 
 munera navium, and puree rivus aquae. 
 
364 REPORT ON EDUCATION. [API'. I. 
 
 5. Parse satellites, potentius, conctdit, demersa, diffidit, perhorrui, 
 
 fallit, conjugating the verbs. 
 0. Point out any phrases or constructions formed after a Greek 
 
 model. 
 
 7. Explain the meaning of the following expressions : Major uni- 
 
 que fames, nudus, contempts dominus splendidior rei, mag- 
 nets inter opes inops. 
 
 8. To what philosophical school did the idea expressed in lines 
 
 13 and 14 belong? 
 
 9. Give any parallel sentiments, or expressions, of Horace that 
 
 occur to you as illustrative of these verses. 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 XENOPHON'S ANABASIS, in. 1. 
 
 To be translated accurately. 
 
 t 8e a,7ropia ijv, eAvTretTO fjJkv o~vv TO is aAAois /cat OVK eSv 
 /xiKpov 8' virvov Aa^wv efScv ovap. e'Soev avrco 
 CTK^TTTO? Treaetv ets rrjv Trarpwav oiKiav, xat eK TOVTOV 
 Tracrav. 7rept<^o/?os 8' evOvs dvrjyfpOr), KOI TO ovap TTYJ /xei/ 
 aya^ov, ort ev TTOVOI? wi/ Kal KLvSvvois <ws yu,cya CK Atos tSetv 
 T]7 Se /cat I^o/Jeiro, ort arro Atos />ti/ /^acriAew? TO ovap 
 avTO> etVat, KV/cAw 8e e8oKt Aa/XTrea^at TO TTV/O, /x^ ov SvvaiTO eK 
 e^XOeiv rfjs /^aortAew?, dAA' tZpyoiro TrdvroOev VTTO 
 
 . OTTOIOI/ Tt [JLfVTOi O~Tt TO TOCOVTOV OVOip ISfiV e^eCTTt (TKOTTf.lv 
 
 IK TOJV o-vppdvTiDV /ACTO, TO 6Va/o. ytyveTat yap TaSe. v$t>s 67Ti8r) 
 dvrjyepOr] vpStTOV fJikv evvoca avrw e/zTTtTTTet, Tt KaTaKt/xai ; 17 8e vv^ 
 7rpoj3aivi' a/xa 8e TT; ^epa ct/cos TOI>S TroAe/xtovs y^ew. tl St 
 a.o~iXei, TL I/JLTTO^MV p.7^ ov^t TravTa p,ev TO, 
 TravTa 8e TO, SetvoTaTa TraOovras v/3p 
 OTTWS 8' dfivvovfAeOa ovSets -jrapao-Kevd^Tat ovot 
 AetTat. dAAa KaraKtifJieOa wsTrep e^ov ^o-v^iav ayetv. eyw ovv TOV K 
 TToAews o-TpaTrjyov TrposSoKW ravra irpd^eiv j TTOIOLV 8' r)\LKiav 
 (o eA^etv dvafieva) ; ov yap lywy' eTt 7rpeo~^vTepos ccro/iat, eav 
 vrpoSw e/xavToi/ TOI? 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. What is the subject of this work of Xenophon? and what are 
 the chief elements of its value ? 
 
AIM*. I.] KXAMINATFON PAPERS. 30") 
 
 2. Describe briefly the contents of the Third Book. 
 
 ;>. I 'arse X.a^iov, Trearelv, dvrjyepOr), ei/cos, o-v/x/^oVrtoi/, e/XTroSwv, 
 
 d/xvvou/xe#a, eVtSovras, TrpoSw, conjugating the verbs. 
 4. Give the derivation or affinity of /3povrfj<s, o-Kr/Trrog, diropiwv, 
 
 5. eK TOVTOV Ad//7To-$at Tracrai/. Why is TraVai/ in the accusa- 
 
 tive ? 
 
 6. o-KTj-ep eoV rt e/ATToSwv /xr) ovx^- Explain the syntax, and give 
 
 the Latin equivalents, of these expressions. 
 
 7. OTTOIOV TL <TTL K.T.A. What is the nominative to eo-T6? 
 
 S. eyw 01^ v TOV e/c Trotas TroAew? K.T.A. Resolve this question into 
 
 a less elliptical form. 
 D. ovap. What other forms of the word are in use ? What is its 
 
 opposite ? 
 
 HOMER'S ILIAD, xn. 230-250. 
 To be translated accurately into English Prose. 
 Tov 8' ap' VTroSpa tSa>f Trpocreffrr) KopvOaioXos 
 
 arv fj.ev OVKCT' e/xot ^>tAa ravr 1 dyo 
 oi'cr$tt Kai ttAAov f^vdov d/x,etvova TOV&C vorjcrai 
 el 8' Ireov 87) TOVTOV aTro (TTrovSrJ? ayo/oevet?, 
 e a/^a 87^ rot 7retra &eot </>/3eva? toAeo-av avroi, 
 6s KeAeat ZTyvos Aev cpL-ySoviroLO 
 f3ovX.(i>v, as re ^uot avrus VTricr^ro KOU 
 Twrj 8' ouoi/CHcri 
 Tret^ecr^at, TWV ov rt 
 eiV CTTI Se^t' iwcrt TT/OOS 7710 T' ^eAtoi/ re 
 etV CTT' apifTTepaft roiye TTOTL 
 
 Se /xeyaAoto Atos Tret^to/xe^a f$ovXrj, 
 Traicri ^vr/TOiort KCU d$avaTOto~6V dvdo~o~ei. 
 otwvc/s aptaros, dfjivvecrOat irepl 
 crv 6W8oiKas TroAe/xov /cat 
 ydo T' aAAot ye 
 
 iv CTT' 'Apyeiwv, o~ot 8' ov Stos O-T' a 
 ov yap rot KpaStt] /xeveS^ibs ov8e /la^/uo 
 eeat re rtv' aAAoi/ 
 
 aiVtV e/*u) VTTO Soi'pt TVTTCIS (iVo ^v/xov 
 
366 REPORT ON EDUCATION [APR T. 
 
 NEW TESTAMENT. ACTS ir. 22-28 ; x. 34-43. 
 
 To be translated accurately. 
 
 yja^AiTai, a/covcra/re TOVS Aoyov? TOVTOVS* 'lycrovv TUV 
 , avSpa UTTO TOV Geov aTroSeSety^ae'vov ei? lyxas Svvd/zeo-t 
 Kai TtpaorL Kai o-^/xeiot? ots ciroirjcre Si' avrov 6 Gees ev /^Vw i'/zwv, 
 Ka#tos /cat avYoi ot'SaTe, TOVTOV TrJ wpto-fJikvTf fiovXy Kai Trpoyvwo-et 
 TOV 0ov e/cSorov Aa^8ovTes, 8iot ^etpwv dvo/A(oi/ 7r/JocT7r'^avTS dvet- 
 Aere. '^Ov 6 0us dvecrT^a-e, Avcra? ras w8u/as roi; ^-ai/drov, Kadort 
 OVK TJV Svvarov KpareicrOat avrov VTT' avrov' Aa^8t8 ya/> Aeyct ets 
 ai'rov TIpo<apu>fJir)v TOV Ki?ptov IVCOTTIOV /xov Sta Travros, ort IK Seiwi/ 
 //ov Icrriv, t'va /XT) a-aXcvOw. Aia TOVTO tixfrpdvOt] f] KapSta /JLOV, Kat 
 ^yaAAtacraTO ^ yAwcrcra ytiov ert 8e Kai ^ crdp JJLOV 
 ITT' lAvrtSt, ort owe lyKaraAet^ct? TT)V i/a^^f /^ov cis aSov, 
 TOV ocrtoi' <rov tSetv Sia<f)0opdv. 'Eyvco/)t(ra5 /xot oSovs 
 v<j>po(rvv'r)'$ />tera rov Trpocrunrov crou. 
 
 Se ITer/oos TO o-TO/xa, erTrcv 'Err' 
 
 OTt OVK 6CTTt TTOO-COTroATTTS 6 0OS' 'AAA' V TTttVTt C^VCt 6 
 
 vTov, KCU epya^o/xevos ftiKaioo'vv'rjv SCKTOS avTW eo~Ti. 
 Toi/ Aoyov oi/ aTrecTTeiAe TOIS vtois 'Io-/)a7)A, evayyeAt^o/zei/o? etp^- 
 v^v Sta 7 l7yo-ov X/DtcTTOV' ovTos eo~Tt TrdvTWv K^jOios. "Y/teis oi'SaTe TO 
 yevo/xevov p-^/xa Ka^' 6'A^s Trys 'lovSatag, cx/o^a/zevov CXTTO TT)S FaAt- 
 iTa TO /?a7TTtcr/xa o eKijpv^tv 'Iwavv^?' 'I^o-ovv TOV <X7ro 
 , cos e^picrtv avTov 6 Geos Ilvcu/xaTt uytw Kat 8vvdfjiL } os 
 cvepycTtov Kat tw/xevos TrdvTa? TOVS KaTaSwao-Tvo/xevovs 
 TOV Sta/^oAov, OTt 6 Geos -)Jv /XCT' avTov. Kai i^/xets [eoyxev] 
 Trai/Toov, wv eTrot^crcv eV TC T?/ X^P a ^^ 'lou&uiwv Kat Iv 
 ov dvetAov K/oe/xdcravTes 7rt ^vAov. TOVTOV 6 Gee? 
 7}'yetpe T7/ Tptry ^e/oa Kat e'SwKev avTov l/x^av^ yevcr$af Ov vrarrt 
 TW Aaw, dAAa /xdpTVo-t TOIS TrpoKe^etpoTO^/xevots VTTO TOV Geov, 
 ^/xtv, otVtves o-vve^dyo/xev Kat o-vveTRo/xev avrw /xTa TO dvao-T^vat 
 avTov IK VCK/OWI/. Kai Trappy yetAev T^/xtv KV)pvj~ai TW Aaw, Kat Sta- 
 fjLapTVpa<rOai, on avYos lo-Ttv 6 wptcr/xevos VTTO TOV Geov K/HT?)S 
 ^WVTWV Kat veKpwv. TovVw TrdvTcg ot 7rpo(f>rJTa.L fJLaprvpova-iv, a^eatv 
 a^apricov Aa/3etv Sta TOV ovo/zaTOS avTOV ;rdi/Ta TOV 7rto-TvovTa t? 
 avrov. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. Gn what grounds do you determine the authorship of the Acts 
 of the Apostles ? 
 
AIT. I.] EXAMINATION PA PEES. 367 
 
 2. At what part of the Acts of the Apostles, and in connexion 
 with what event in the life of St. Paul, docs the author 
 begin to speak in his own name ? 
 
 :J. (live a brief summary of the events recorded in the first ten 
 chapters. 
 
 4. Define the precise meaning of the several expressions used in 
 
 one of the above passages to denote the miraculous power of 
 Jesus Christ. 
 
 5. Parse the following words : a7roSeSeiy/zei/ov, wptcr/xei/y, TTWOCT- 
 
 7rr/avTes, a vet Acre, TrpowpufArjv, craAeu^co, v<f)pdv6r), ey/cara- 
 XeiiftiS, avoi'a, iw^uevo?, K^e^aeravres, /o^t^at, Sia/xap- 
 TVpacrQai, afJLapruov. 
 
 6. Give the derivation of the following words : wStvas, 
 
 v<f>pocrvvr]<s, TrtoocrwTroA^TTT^s, euayyeAi^o/xevos, 
 
 TTpOK)^LpOTOVrj[MVOL^, a<j>(TlV, djUapTltol/. 
 
 7. Explain the following phrases occurring in the course of the 
 
 first five chapters : 
 
 ot i/ewre/306 
 
 V7TO TOV 
 
 ol 
 
 8. (a) What space of time is covered by the narrative of the first 
 ten chapters ; and (&) what is the special significance of the 
 event recorded in the tenth chapter, in relation to the spread 
 of the Gospel? 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 1. Find, by Practice, the cost of 19 cwts. 3 qrs. 20 Ibs. at 27, 
 
 13s. 7d. per cwt. 
 
 2. Add together the fractions 3|, 4 T ^, 7J J3 and p 
 
 3. Reduce 4s. 2Jd. to the decimal of 5s. lid., and divide the result 
 
 by -0014. 
 
 4. If the proportion of deaths be annually 1 in 45 in towns and 1 
 
 in 56 in the country, what is the percentage of mortality, 
 when the town population bears to that of the country the 
 proportion of 3 to 7 ? 
 
 5. Extract the square root of 1^|, and the cube root of 4 feet 1088 
 
 inches cubic measure. 
 
368 REPORT ON EDUCATION. [AIM'. I. 
 
 0. Two clocks are together at 12 ; when the first again comes to 
 
 12 it has lost a minute, and when the second comes to 12 it 
 has gained a minute. How long must elapse before they are 
 a quarter of an hour asunder ? 
 
 7. Between 1801 and 1811 the population of Edinburgh increased 
 
 by 24f per cent., and in the latter year it was 102,987 ; 
 what was it in the former ? 
 
 What would it have become in 1821 had the yearly rate of 
 increase from 1811 been 2 per cent. ? 
 
 8. At an examination, the respective marks attainable are as fol- 
 
 lows : For classics, 1500 ; for English, 1200 ; for mathe- 
 matics, 1400 ; for modern languages, 1000 ; for geography, 
 750. The relative proficiency of two candidates in these 
 five departments is indicated by the following numbers : 
 A's, 3, 4, 2, 5, 1 ; B's, 4, 3, 5, 0, 2 ; which should stand 
 first in the examination ? 
 
 2. If I buy 15 dozen of wine, 6 bottles containing a gallon, for 
 35, 10s., at what rate must I sell it per quart so as to gain 
 15 per cent.? 
 
 10. Of what is i the logarithm ? Find approximately the logarithm 
 of 6. 
 
 ALGEBRA. 
 
 1. Multiply x't-Txy-Sy* by 8/-^ 2 -7xy, and l+2 x +3x- + 
 
 &c. + nx n - 1 by 1 2x+x\ 
 
 2. Divide x z -\- y z -\- z z $xyz by x -\-y-\-z; and admitting that 
 
 46V (b'-\-c" a 2 ) 2 is divisible by a-{-5-f-c; resolve it 
 into simple factors. 
 
 3. Extract the square root of 
 
 (a-&)*-2( 2 + 6 2 )( 
 and the cube root of 
 27^-27^ 5 ?/-45^ 
 
 4. Add together the fractions 
 
 I 
 
 ^ 
 
 (3 'i 4-- 
 
 ' '' 
 
 2^-23.77-6* 
 
 b ca 
 
AIT. I.] EXAMINATION PAPERS. 369 
 
 f>. Prove that 
 
 and that the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle, together 
 with the perpendicular on it from the right angle, are 
 greater than the two sides of the triangle. 
 
 6. Solve the following equations : 
 
 n \ 2a? 1 _3ar 2_5a?~ 4_7a?+6 
 
 ~~3~ ~T~ 6 12 
 
 (2.) 
 (3.) 
 
 7. Sum the arithmetical series 
 
 1^. 3_|_5 -j- etc. to n terms ; 
 and the geometric series 
 
 1_|. 3-|_ etc. to 20 terms. 
 
 A sum of money rather more than doubles itself in 15 years at 
 5 per cent, compound interest. Suppose the interest to be 
 such that the sum is exactly doubled in 15 years ; it is re- 
 quired to determine how much a penny would amount to 
 from the date of the death of Wallace, 1305, to 1860. 
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 1. Define a square ; and a parallelogram. Prove that a square is 
 
 a parallelogram. In what respect is Euclid's definition of 
 a square faulty ? What consequence can be deduced from 
 it, if it be admitted ? 
 
 2. If the square described upon one side of a triangle be equal to 
 
 the sum of the squares described upon the other two sides 
 of it, the angle contained by these two sides is a right 
 angle. 
 
 3. If a straight line be divided into two equal and also into two 
 
 unequal parts ; the squares of the two unequal parts are 
 together double of the square of half the line, and of the 
 square of the line between the points of section. 
 If the point which, in this proposition, divides the line into 
 two unequal parts, be taken in the line produced, what 
 change ought, from the nature of the case, to be made in 
 the enunciation? 
 
 2 A 
 
370 REPORT ON EDUCATION. [AIM'. I. 
 
 4. The angle at the centre of a circle is double the angle at the 
 
 circumference. 
 
 Assuming that there is no limitation as to the magnitude of an 
 angle, deduce from this proposition, in immediate corollaries, 
 the propositions that " the angles in the same segment of a 
 circle are equal," and that " the opposite angles of a quad- 
 rilateral described in a circle are together equal to two right 
 angles." 
 
 5. To inscribe an equilateral and equiangular pentagon in a given 
 
 circle. 
 
 0. If two triangles have one angle of the one equal to one angle 
 
 of the other, and the sides about the equal angles propor- 
 tionals, the triangles shall be equiangular. 
 
 7. Similar polygons may be divided into the same number of 
 similar triangles, having the same ratio to one another which 
 the polygons have ; and that ratio is the duplicate ratio of 
 homologous sides. 
 
 TRIGONOMETRY, ETC. , 
 
 1. Prove the relations which exist between radius and (1) sine 
 
 and cosine, (2) tangent and cotangent, (3) secant and 
 cosecant. 
 
 2. The three sides of a triangle are 148, 195, and 329; find its 
 
 area. 
 
 3. The three sides of a triangle are 2, ^6, and 1 + ^3 ; find the 
 
 least angle. 
 
 4. Prove that R sin. (A -f- E} = sin. A cos. B -\- cos. A sin. B. 
 
 Find the numerical value of sin. 75. 
 
 5. Determine the volume and convex surface of a cone, the area 
 
 of whose base is 16 feet, and whose slant height is 3 
 feet. 
 
 PHYSICS. 
 
 1 . If a straight lever support weights in equilibrium, they are to 
 one another inversely as the lengths of the arms which sup- 
 port them. 
 
 '2. Two forces, represented by 1 and ^/2, act at an angle of 45.; 
 find the magnitude and direction of their resultant. 
 
AIM-, ii.] IJKSULTS OF EXAMINATIONS. 371 
 
 o. Water weighs 1000 oz. avoirdupois per cubic foot; find the 
 pressure on a square yard 100 feet below the surface of the 
 water. 
 
 A man just floats in water, what is his specific gravity? If he 
 weighs 14 stone, what is his cubic measure ? 
 
 4. Explain the action of the siphon. How does this action 
 account for intermitting springs ? 
 
 f>. Enunciate the laws of reflexion and refraction of light. Ac- 
 count for total internal reflexion, and mention some of its 
 applications. Find the positions of the successive images 
 of objects placed between two mirrors inclined to one 
 another by the angle of 30. 
 
 ). State the physical explanations of sound and light. Give the 
 relative values of the notes in the diatonic scale. Are the 
 'values of the different colours in the solar spectrum similarly 
 related ? 
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 
 RESULTS OF EXAMINATIONS OF SCHOOLMASTERS 
 AND SUBSTITUTES. 
 
 TABLE No. I. SCHOOLMASTERS. 
 
 THE classification of Teachers, with respect to their examinations, 
 during the ten years from 1854 to 1863 inclusive, has been made 
 under four divisions, as shown from the Table, viz. : 
 
 I. Teachers who have appeared for examination for the 
 
 time, ..... 61 
 
 II. Teachers who did not pass the examination in whole at their 
 
 first appearance, but were examined a second time, . 49 
 
 III. Teachers who failed to pass their first examination, and 
 
 appeared for a second examination, <> 
 
 IV. Teachers who have never been examined at all, although 
 
 two or more examinations have taken place since their 
 appointment, ... 
 
372 REPORT ON EDUCATION. [AFP. II. 
 
 These classes are further subdivided, thus, Class I., contain- 
 taining 61 : 
 
 Teachers who have passed the whole of the examination at their 
 first appearance, and received a special extra allowance as a 
 mark of the Trustees' approbation for distinguished pro- 
 ficiency, ....... 6 
 
 Teachers who have passed the whole of the examination at their 
 first appearance, and received the usual allowance for scholar- 
 ship, but without special commendation, ... 6 
 
 Teachers who have passed only part of the examination at their 
 first appearance, but completed their trials at next appear- 
 ance, ....... .37 
 
 Teachers who have failed on a second appearance, but passed at 
 a second examination, 
 
 Teachers who have died or resigned before tune for second 
 appearance, ...... 
 
 Teachers who have made a first appearance, but have not ap- 
 peared to complete examination, .... 
 
 Teachers who have failed at second appearance, and have not 
 appeared for a second examination, . 
 
 Teacher who has made a first appearance, but has not returned 
 
 to complete examination, being in ill health, . 1 
 
 Class II., containing 49 : 
 
 Teachers who, having passed only part of the examination at 
 their first appearance, have returned and completed their 
 trials at a second appearance, 41 
 
 Teachers who have failed on second appearance, but passed at a 
 second examination, ..... 
 
 [Two of these appeared twice at second examination, and one 
 
 passed at first appearance.] 
 Teachers who have failed on second appearance, and have not 
 
 returned for a second examination, . . 5 
 
 49 
 
 Class III., containing 6 : 
 
 Passed second examination at first appearance, . 
 
 Do. at second appearance, 4 
 
 Failed to pass at second appearance, 
 
APP. II.] RESULTS OF EXAMINATIONS. 373 
 
 Class IV., containing 12 : 
 
 Teachers who did not appear for examination at all, in conse- 
 quence of ill health, and who are now dead, ... 4 
 
 Teachers who have not appeared for examination, and have 
 
 resigned, ....... 5 
 
 Do., and are still teaching, ..... 8 
 
 12 
 
 TABLE No. II. ASSISTANT-SUBSTITUTES. 
 
 This Table also consists of four divisions ; and the same classi- 
 fication has been made as in No. I. It only requires to be noticed 
 that, in the case of Assistants, very few came up for a second 
 examination. The Trustees generally, in the case of an Assistant 
 who fails to pass the examination at his second appearance, request 
 him to resign, without allowing him to come forward for a second 
 examination, unless they have good expectations that he will devote 
 his leisure time to study, and qualify himself for passing in a 
 creditable manner. 
 
 Class I., containing 39 : 
 
 Teachers who have passed the whole examination at their first 
 appearance, and received a special extra allowance for dis- 
 tinguished excellence, ..... "2 
 
 Teachers who have passed the whole examination at their first 
 appearance, but without special commendation, receiving, 
 however, the usual addition to their allowances for scholar- 
 ship, ........ 2 
 
 Teachers who have completed their trials at a second appear- 
 ance, . . . . . . . .21 
 
 Teachers who have been allowed a second examination, and 
 
 passed [one appeared as schoolmaster], . . . 3 
 
 Teachers who died or resigned before time for second appear- 
 ance, ........ 2 
 
 Teachers who resigned at request of Trustees after their first 
 
 appearance, ....... 3 
 
 Teacher who failed to make a second appearance, but after- 
 wards resigned, ...... 1 
 
 Teachers who failed on second appearance, and afterwards 
 
 resigned, ....... 3 
 
 Teacher who failed on second appearance, and did not appear 
 
 Carry forward, 37 
 
374 REPORT ON EDUCATION. [A PP. II. 
 
 Brought forward, 87 
 
 for second examination (being appointed a schoolmaster he 
 could not be called on to resign), .... 1 
 
 Teacher who appeared for second examination as schoolmaster, 
 
 and failed, ....... 1 
 
 89 
 
 Class II., containing 23 : 
 
 Teachers who passed part of the examination at their first ap- 
 pearance, and completed their trials at a second appearance, 20 
 
 Teachers who failed to complete their examination at a second 
 
 appearance, and resigned afterwards, ... 8 
 
 28 
 
 Class III., containing 4 : 
 
 Passed second examination at first appearance, . . 1 
 
 Do. at second appearance, . . 1 
 
 Failed to pass second examination, and resigned, . . 2 
 
 Class IV., containing 2 : 
 
 Teachers who did not come up for examination at all, in conse- 
 sequence of bad health ; one resigned and one died, . 
 
 Teachers who have failed to pass examination 1854-1863 : 
 Of the 61 schoolmasters who have come up for examination for 
 
 the first time, those who have failed to pass, as on page 372, are, 
 Of the 39 assistant-substitutes, do., as on page 373, 
 Schoolmasters who have not come up for examination at all, as 
 
 on page 373, . . . . . .. .12 
 
 Assistant-substitutes, do., as on page 374, 
 
 After the examinations of 1863, the teachers on active duty, 
 whom the Trustees have been unable to admit on account of 
 failure to attend the examinations, were : 
 
 (1.) Those who have not yet been examined at all, though two 
 or more examinations have passed since their election, . 
 (2.) Those who have failed to attend a second or subsequent 
 examination, 
 
 20 
 
ail 
 
 .C o "~ 
 
 e 5 "^ 
 
 j 
 
 s 
 
 00 00 _ W "2 
 
 - i| 
 
 m 
 
 |?l 
 
 O 
 
 JS 
 
 : iffiiiiifg ; 
 
 oSS-OTS-Ox-gg. 
 OCOCOOOO'O'S 
 
 I alg 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 I 
 
 Judgment, on examina- 
 tion. 
 
 ii! M Ii 
 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 ^ : : : ::':: : 
 
 
 
 11! 
 
 d ri CM 
 
 
 
 1 slip 
 
 1-. rH . . . . CM r-l 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 ft r-l 
 
 :: 
 
 a 
 
 
 r* O * (M r-i . 
 
 00 
 
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AIM'. III. I REPORT BY PRESBYTERY. ."> 77 
 
 APPENDIX III. 
 
 REPORT BY THE PRESBYTERY OF REGARDING 
 
 SCHOOLS IN THE PARISH OF .1864. 
 
 The Trustees of Mr. Dick's Bequest have prepared this Formula, 
 and now transmit it, agreeably to the wish and suggestion of several 
 clergymen in the three counties. It has not proceeded from any 
 wish to interfere with the plan of the copious and valuable Reports 
 with which the Trustees have been favoured by some Presbyteries. 
 But if the Presbyteries generally shall think it advisable to act upon 
 the suggestion, to issue this Schedule, it is believed that it will 
 tend to simplify and facilitate the discharge of this important branch 
 of their functions, while the uniformity thus introduced into the 
 nature and detail of reports influential in determining the appor- 
 tionment of the Bequest, will obviously afford material assistance to 
 the Trustees. 
 
 It is unnecessary to specify minutely the nature of the observa- 
 tions with which the Trustees hope to be favoured. They have no 
 doubt that these will comprehend what may be worthy of notice 
 respecting particular branches, and, in general, the considerations 
 of the method pursued success evinced by the accuracy and 
 extent of acquirement in the scholars peculiar excellence of any 
 kind improvement in any department since a previous examina- 
 tion knowledge of the Holy Scriptures and of Christian doctrine 
 and duty, and any other important information. 
 
 PRIVATE SCHOOLS. 
 
 Total number of day schools in the parish, besides the 
 parochial schools, '..... 2 
 
 Total number of scholars attending these, . 
 
 PAROCHIAL SCHOOL. 
 Examined upon the day of February 18G4. 
 
 Number of scholars attending, .... 58 
 Number present at examination, . . . 47 
 
378 REPORT ON EDUCATION. [APR III. 
 
 Number learning Religious Knowledge, . . 52 
 Ditto, English, .... 58 
 
 Ditto, English Grammar, ... 29 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. The pupils very well taught from the alphabet class 
 onward to highest. 
 
 The spelling very good, and remarkably good in all the more advanced 
 classes. The scholars generally gave a good account of the lessons, which 
 in all cases were selected by the visitors. The English reading is so dis- 
 tinct as to create the expectation that the lesson will be found to have 
 been well entered into and appreciated, when a minute examination is 
 made. Lessons in verse were well read, and pieces of poetry tastefully 
 and correctly recited by many of the pupils. The Catechism had been 
 thoroughly attended to, and the answers were accurately, readily, and 
 intelligently given. Paraphrases well recited. 
 
 The Holy Scriptures were read well ; by the junior class, New Tes- 
 tament history successfully attended to. The examination by the visitors 
 was on the Acts, particularly on Paul's history, journeys, and preaching. 
 The senior Bible class did equally well on the Old Testament. The 
 department of English grammar is very well taught ; and the scholars 
 have entered heartily into this branch of education, and have profited 
 accordingly. 
 
 Number learning Analysis of Sentences, . . 10 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. The pupils in this branch are in two divisions, and arc 
 carefully instructed ; the junior division well grounded, and the senior 
 able to analyse with very considerable acuteness. They are instmcted 
 from Morell's Grammar. 
 
 Number able to compose a simple Narrative satisfactorily, 7 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. These scholars did the prescribed exercise not only 
 satisfactorily but remarkably well. The subject was chosen by the 
 visitors, and was one on which they had never written before, but with 
 which it was known they should have been well informed ; and the result 
 on examining their narratives very much gratified the examiners. 
 
 Number learning Writing, .... 40 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. Careful attention must have been bestowed on this 
 branch of school-work. The copies were all clean, the progress mani- 
 fest ; and the writing of many of the more advanced pupils was very 
 good indeed. 
 
AIT. 111.] REPORT BY PRESBYTERY. "7D 
 
 Number learning Arithmetic, . .40 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. The youngest class had got through simple addition, 
 and did very fairly. The middle class were on through compound addi- 
 tion, and also did very fairly. The highest class were on to compound 
 proportion and fractions. They worked out various questions put by the 
 visitors very readily, and could give a good account of the mode adopted 
 for getting the answer. 
 
 Number learning Geography, Political and Physical, 22 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. Junior class : The examination here by the visitors 
 was on the British Isles, Europe, and part of Asia. They had been 
 taught from the Young Child's Geography, with the aid of good maps ; 
 and they made a very good appearance. 
 
 Senior class : The examination here was on all the Continents gene- 
 rally, and on Europe and the British Isles specially. Clyde's smaller 
 class-book had been used, and used with success. This department of 
 geography very well taught. 
 
 Number learning Mathematics, . . . None. 
 
 Number learning Latin, ..... 3 
 
 Ditto, Greek, .... None. 
 
 Ditto, French, .... None. 
 
 Oi'.sKRVATiONS. The three Latin pupils were reading Caesar's Commen- 
 taries. The parts read were chosen by the visitors from what they had 
 gone over with the teacher. They did remarkably well, considering their 
 years and opportunities. They analysed and parsed the sentences with 
 readiness and accuracy. 
 
 Number taught to sing from notation, . . . None. 
 Number learning the elements of outline drawing, None. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. The parish school of is in a very efficient 
 
 state, and maintains a high character. The order is very good ; and the 
 scholars are lively and hearty at their school-work. The visitors hold 
 
 that it has not suffered in efficiency during Mr. 's absence at college. 
 
 His substitute-assistant is a good scholar and a very painstaking teacher, 
 and has carried on the work with diligence, intelligence, and success. 
 
 One-half of the pupils have entered for the first time during Mr. 's 
 
 absence this winter ; and this shows, among other things, that the assis- 
 tant-substitute has been well appreciated. 
 
380 KEPORT ON EDUCATION. [APR IV. 
 
 The number of prizes for the scholars, subscribed for by the parishioners, 
 and presented after the examination, shows the interest taken hitherto in 
 the school is not diminished. 
 
 of , 
 
 and Convener of Presby. Comm. 
 
 , Minister of . 
 
 , Minr. of . 
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 ABSTRACT OF REGULATIONS OF THE DICK BEQUEST, in so far as 
 these relate to the Appointment and Qualifications of PAROCHIAL 
 SCHOOLMASTERS, ASSISTANT-SUBSTITUTES, ASSISTANTS and SUC- 
 CESSORS, and ORDINARY and TEMPORARY ASSISTANTS. 
 
 I. PAROCHIAL SCHOOLMASTERS. 
 
 1. After a newly-elected schoolmaster has been examined and 
 admitted by the Board of Examiners prescribed by the Statute, 
 he must pass the Examination prescribed by the Trustees before 
 being allowed to participate in the Bequest. 
 
 2. A schoolmaster, on going up for examination, must, in the 
 first year, profess at least five branches of study whereof English, 
 Arithmetic, and Latin must be three. 
 
 3. To gain distinction for eminence, a schoolmaster must at first 
 appearance profess all the subjects of trial. 
 
 4. Where a schoolmaster's examination extends over more than 
 one year, any modified allowance on partial profession and success 
 is reserved, and not paid till the whole examination is passed. 
 
 5. Where the examination of a schoolmaster is not completed in 
 the second year's examination, he must begin his examination de 
 novo, excepting only on those subjects on which he shall have re- 
 ceived the mark " Good." 
 
 6. Where a schoolmaster passes with distinction, an addition is 
 made to his allowance in respect of " Scholarship," which he 
 retains throughout his incumbency, as part of his annual allowance. 
 And the Trustees further, in cases of extraordinary proficiency 
 
AIT. IV.] ABSTRACT OF REGULATIONS. 381 
 
 displayed at examination, sometimes bestow a single donation in 
 money as a mark of special approbation. 
 
 7. When a schoolmaster has not gone up for examination, he 
 can never in any shape participate in the benefits of the Bequest. 
 Thus, in such a case, were he to fall into bad health, the Trustees 
 will not give any aid toward procuring an assistant, nor will they 
 assist him to get rid of the active duties of his office by making him 
 a retiring allowance. 
 
 8. Bad health is accepted as a good excuse for not attending the 
 examination ; but only if it be pleaded beforehand, and medical 
 certificates produced. 
 
 0. The expenses of teachers attending the examinations are paid 
 for two years, but not longer. 
 
 10. Where schoolmasters are found to be inefficient, and their 
 schools, consequently, in bad order, the Trustees are in use to 
 restrict their allowances, or to keep them back altogether. 
 
 11. Where there appears no hope of amendment, the Trustees 
 are in the practice of endeavouring to persuade the inefficient 
 schoolmasters to retire from the active management of their 
 schools. 
 
 The terms on which this is arranged are shown under the head 
 " Assistant- Substitutes," and the Trustees sometimes induce incum- 
 bents to retire by making money payments to them, which, however, 
 in no case exceed the aggregate amount of the incumbent's allow- 
 ances, which had been reserved during the years previous to his 
 retirement. 
 
 12. No parochial schoolmaster can participate in the benefits of 
 the Bequest until he is twenty-one years of age. 
 
 For regulations as to schoolmasters absent from duty, see page 
 384 hereof, at 1, 2, 3, 4. 
 
 II. ASSISTANT- SUBSTITUTES. 
 
 1. In every case where an arrangement is made for the retire- 
 ment of a schoolmaster and the appointment of an assistant, it is a 
 sine qua non that the entire responsibility, and consequently the 
 entire authority, shall rest with the assistant, and, as he thus comes 
 in place of the schoolmaster, he is called the " Assistant- Substitute." 
 
 2. The Trustees deem it unnecessary to interfere with the mode 
 of appointing assistant-substitutes, but in every case where they 
 
REPORT ON EDUCATION. [A PP. IV. 
 
 have had to suggest the mode of appointment, they have recom- 
 mended that the election should, as in the case of schoolmasters, 
 rest with the minister and heritors. 
 
 3. The usual terms of the arrangement with schoolmasters retiring 
 in favour of assistant-substitutes are always embodied in a regular 
 stamped deed of obligation by the incumbent of the Trustees, and 
 are as follows, viz. : 
 
 (1.) The retiring schoolmaster receives the allowances to be 
 provided to him by the heritors, under the Act 24 & 25 
 Yict. cap. 107, and a retiring allowance from the Trustees 
 of 12 per annum. 
 
 (2.) The assistant-substitute receives from the heritors a yearly 
 salary, not under the rate of 35, when there is only one 
 school in the parish, and <25 when there are two or more, 
 along with possession of the dwelling-house and garden. 
 He also receives the school fees and the ordinary allow- 
 ance from the Bequest. 
 
 4. The assistant- substitute is required to produce a certificate of 
 his having been examined and found duly qualified by the Presby- 
 tery of the bounds. 
 
 5. It is a rule of the Trustees that no private agreement different 
 in its terms from that which they have sanctioned shall be entered 
 into between a schoolmaster and his substitute, and when any such 
 is discovered the allowances of both are retained till it is cancelled. 
 
 6. Contrary to the rule in the case of schoolmasters, assistant- 
 substitutes are capable of participating in the Bequest before they 
 are twenty-one years of age. 
 
 7. Assistant-substitutes must, on their appointment, submit to 
 examination like regular schoolmasters, but in their case participa- 
 tion is not suspended till the examination is passed in full, and the 
 ordinary allowances are paid under an obligation in writing by the 
 assistant that he will attend the examination till he passes. 
 
 8. Where, on examination, assistant-substitutes are found defi- 
 cient in scholarship, the Trustees do not generally restrict their 
 allowances ; but if their deficiencies are such as show it to be hope- 
 less that they will ever pass the examination, due notice is given to 
 enable them to look out for other employment ; after which the 
 allowance is wholly withdrawn, so as to compel them to resign. In 
 
AIT. IV.] AHST1IACT OF REGULATIONS. 
 
 some eases allowances past due have been paid only on condition 
 of immediate resignation. 
 
 I'\>r regulations as to assistant-substitutes absent from duty, see 
 l>aye 3$4 hereof, 1, 2, 3, 4. 
 
 III. ASSISTANTS AND SUCCESSORS. 
 
 1. Parties elected assistants and successors must undergo exa- 
 mination, and are in other respects treated on the same footing as 
 schoolmasters. 
 
 IV. ORDINARY ASSISTANTS. 
 
 1. The Trustees do not interfere with parties employed by school- 
 masters to aid them in the management of their schools in the 
 character of ordinary assistants. 
 
 2. In some cases, however, where schools were found to be ineffi- 
 ciently taught, the Trustees have insisted on a schoolmaster obtain- 
 ing the services of an able assistant, under pain of forfeiture of 
 allowance in case of refusal. 
 
 3. The Trustees do not generally give any pecuniary aid towards 
 the assistants' salaries in such cases, the only occasions on which 
 they have given such aid having been where an assistant has been 
 required in consequence of the incumbent being in bad health, or 
 too old for the full discharge of his duties. 
 
 V. TEMPORARY ASSISTANTS. 
 
 The following regulations were adopted by the Trustees in regard 
 to temporary assistants appointed to take charge of schools during 
 the absence of the schoolmaster or assistant-substitute at college : 
 
 1. By the general rule any schoolmaster who shall absent himself 
 from duty to attend College, or for any other cause, not involving 
 physical disability, suffers abatement proportionate to the duration 
 of his absence. And that regulation was, by the Trustees' Minutes 
 of 30th December 1851, extended (after the end of the session of 
 College in spring 1852) to assistant- substitute teachers, who are to 
 suffer abatement on the ground of absence, in the same way as if 
 they were schoolmasters fully inducted. 
 
 2. If any schoolmaster or assistant-substitute shall be absent at 
 College during two or more winters in succession, he shall, for every 
 
384 REPORT ON EDUCATION. [AIT. IV. 
 
 winter in succession after the first, forfeit his allowance for the 
 whole year. 
 
 3. Every schoolmaster and assistant-substitute proposing to attend 
 College, shall give notice of his intention to the Trustees' clerk at 
 least a month before the commencement of the session, and if such 
 notice is not given in any case the party shall be held to have for- 
 feited his allowance for the whole year. 
 
 4. In the case of any teacher forfeiting his allowance for the 
 period of absence only, and not for the whole year, the Trustees 
 will be ready to consider any application to have the forfeited por- 
 tion of the allowance, or a part of it, made available to the temporary 
 assistant officiating in the absence of the schoolmaster or assistant- 
 substitute, provided the following regulations shall be observed, 
 viz. : 
 
 (1.) Any schoolmaster, or assistant-substitute, intending to go to 
 College, shall, along with the notice of his intention, transmit a copy 
 of the testimonials of the person who is to teach during his absence, 
 and state the amount of the allowance (the same not being less than 
 at the rate of 1 per week) which he proposes to give to such tem- 
 porary assistant. 
 
 (2.) The qualifications of the temporary assistant, and his dis- 
 charge of the duties, shall be satisfactory to the minister of the 
 parish and the Presbytery of the bounds, of which evidence shall be 
 produced : in order to qualify a temporary assistant to receive any 
 allowance from the Trustees, the report of the Presbytery shall be 
 so specific and minute as to enable the Trustees to judge of the 
 actual condition of the school, and, in particular, to judge of the 
 degree of its efficiency as compared with its condition under the 
 immediate charge of the absent teacher. 
 
 (3.) If the Trustees shall be satisfied with the whole arrangement, 
 and that the temporary assistant has been diligent and successful, 
 they will, in their discretion, award to him (to be paid upon a dis- 
 charge by the schoolmaster) that part of the annual allowance which 
 the incumbent or assistant -substitute would himself have received if 
 not absent, or such part thereof as the Trustees may think fit. 
 
 (4.) It has been the practice of the Trustees, so invariable as to 
 amount to a regulation, not to allow a temporary assistant to receive 
 the forfeited allowances unless evidence be produced of his having 
 had a University education, or of his having obtained a Govern- 
 ment Certificate of Merit of the first class, second year. 
 
API 1 . V.] THK HKVISKP f'ODK. 
 
 APPENDIX V. 
 
 "THE REVISED CODE." 
 
 STATEMENT for THE TRUSTEES of the DICK BEQUEST in refer- 
 ence to the probable effects of the CLAUSE regarding ANNUAL 
 ENDOWMENTS in the " REVISED CODE," if applied to the work- 
 ing of the Bequest under their Management. 
 
 The funds under the management of the Trustees, which consist 
 of the residuary estate of the late James Dick, Esquire, sometime 
 of Finsbury Square in the city of London, were, by his Last Will 
 and Testament, specially directed to be applied " to the main- 
 tenance and assistance of the Country Parochial Schoolmasters as 
 by law established in the three counties of Aberdeen, Banif, and 
 Moray, excluding the royal burghs." 
 
 Mr. Dick, in dedicating the bulk of his fortune, which amounts 
 at the present time to 118,787, 11s., exclusive of forfeited and 
 reserved allowances, to this benevolent purpose, laid down the 
 following, inter alia, as the principles to be observed by hi v s Trustees 
 in administering the funds, viz. : 
 
 First, " That the Income of the Fund be applied in such manner 
 as not hi any manner to relieve the Heritors or other persons from 
 their legal obligations to support Parochial Schoolmasters, or to 
 dimmish the extent of such support, and so as not to interfere with 
 the rights or powers of Heritors and Presbyteries over School- 
 masters, or the schools intrusted to their care, as the same rights or 
 powers are by law insured to them." 
 
 Second, u That the Trustees for the time being shall have full 
 power to pay and distribute the Income of the said Fund, from 
 time to time, to or among all or such one or more of the Parochial 
 Schoolmasters aforesaid in such proportions, and generally to dis- 
 pose of the said Income among them in such manner as to such 
 Trustees shall seem most likely to encourage active Schoolmasters, 
 and gradually to elevate the literary character of the Parochial 
 Schoolmasters and Schools aforesaid ; and for these purposes to in- 
 crease, diminish, or altogether to discontinue the salary or allowance 
 
 2 B 
 
386 REPORT ON EDUCATION. [APP. V. 
 
 to be from time to time made to all or any of such Schoolmasters, 
 without being accountable for so doing," 
 
 The Trustees, with a view to carrying out the intentions of Mr. 
 Dick as thus indicated, have endeavoured to apportion the allow- 
 ances from the fund under their care in such a way that they shall 
 correspond in each case to the merits of the recipient as a teacher. 
 These accordingly form a direct encouragement to active teachers, 
 and become a means of elevating at once the literary character and 
 material comforts of the schoolmasters within the three counties. 
 
 Before a teacher can become a participant in the Dick Bequest, 
 it is imperative that he should pass a stringent examination before 
 examiners appointed by the Trustees on all the branches of a 
 thorough classical and literary education, including English Litera- 
 ture, History, Geography, Arithmetic, Latin and Greek, the higher 
 branches of Mathematics, and Physics. 
 
 The funds are divided annually among those teachers who are 
 eligible according to a regular scheme of division, in which effect is 
 given, in accordance with certain fixed rules, to the state of each 
 separate school in respect of (1 .) the numbers in attendance, (2.) the 
 branches of education taught, (3.) the number of scholars taught 
 gratuitously, (4.) the personal scholarship of the teacher as ascer- 
 tained by his preliminary examination, and (5.) the general merit 
 and efficiency of the teacher, as appearing from the yearly reports of 
 a visitor of schools employed by the Trustees for the purpose of 
 inspection. 
 
 Further, in order to prevent the Bequest from being made a 
 means of " relieving the heritors or other persons from their legal 
 obligation to support the Parochial Schoolmasters," or of " diminish- 
 ing the extent of such support," the Trustees have made the amount 
 of school salary an element in their scheme of division, increasing 
 or diminishing each teacher's allowance in proportion to the amount 
 of his salary, thus awarding the larger allowance to the teacher who 
 obtains the larger salary, and so creating an inducement to heritors 
 to grant the maximum salary to efficient teachers, that they may 
 thereby become entitled to the full enjoyment of the benefits of the 
 Bequest, 
 
 The Visitor of schools fixes the number of marks to be allowed 
 in the scheme of division to each teacher in respect of merit in 
 teaching, as ascertained by the condition of his school, and this he 
 does, not in relation to any fixed standard of merit, but on a com- 
 
AIM'. V.| TFII-: IIKVISKI) CODK. I5S7 
 
 purison of the state of the particular school with that of the others 
 eoimected with the Bequest. Thus, a schoolmaster who receives 
 .'loo merit marks one year, may in the next receive only 200, not 
 in consequence of any falling off in the actual condition of his 
 school, but from its having failed to advance along with other 
 si'h iota with which it is thus placed in competition. 
 
 A teacher's allowance thus fluctuates from year to year, and so 
 strongly does the element of merit enter into calculation, that, 
 though the number of scholars, the branches taught, and the various 
 other items above referred to, have an important bearing on fixing 
 the amount of a teacher's allowance, all is of no avail unless his 
 school, by its state of general efficiency, bears a satisfactory testimony 
 to his merits and activity in the discharge of duty. Accordingly, 
 whatever be the number in attendance on a school, if the Trustees 
 have reason to think, that through want of proper care and atten- 
 tion on the teacher's part, its condition is falling off, they are in the 
 constant practice of restricting his allowance to the extent of one- 
 third or one-half, and sometimes, in aggravated cases of neglect, of 
 withdrawing it altogether. 
 
 Under such a system, consistently and rigorously carried out, no 
 schoolmaster, merely because he has once participated in the Be- 
 quest, can calculate with certainty on doing so in any future year. 
 Allowances are not the right of a teacher in respect of his tenure 
 of office, but are emphatically the reward of merit. 
 
 The Dick Bequest has now been in operation for nearly thirty 
 years, and has been instrumental in carrying out in a remarkable 
 degree the views of its founder. Indeed it may be asserted, with- 
 out fear of contradiction, that this fund, as administered by the 
 Trustees, has raised the literary character of the parochial school- 
 masters and schools within the three favoured counties to a position 
 of marked pre-eminence over those of any other part of Scotland. 
 
 The Trustees have reason to fear, however, that the usefulness 
 of the Bequest is likely to be very seriously impaired, under the 
 operation of the " Revised Code," recently laid on the table of the 
 Utilise of Commons by the Committee of the Privy Council on 
 Education. 
 
 By Article f>:> I>. of the Code, the value of all " Annual Endow- 
 ments" is to be deducted in calculating the amount of the Govern- 
 ment grant to which any teacher shall be entitled, and the Trustees 
 understand that allowances from the Dick Bequest arc to be held 
 
388 REPORT ON EDUCATION. [API 1 . V. 
 
 by the Committee of Council as endowments falling under the 
 operation of this Clause. 
 
 In order fully to appreciate the injury which such a provision is 
 likely to inflict on the Bequest, it is necessary to contrast the re- 
 gulations in regard to participation by the Trustees on the one 
 hand, and by the Committee of Council on Education on the other. 
 
 1. As already seen, the Trustees require as a preliminary to par- 
 ticipation that teachers should pass a stringent examination on all the 
 subjects of a high class literary and classical education, and in par- 
 ticular in Latin, Greek, the higher branches of Mathematics, and 
 Physics ; while, under the examination for a Government certifi- 
 cate, Latin, Greek, and Physics are not required at all, and the 
 knowledge of Mathematics necessary is of the most elementary 
 character. 
 
 2. A teacher's allowance is liable to be restricted or wholly cut 
 off at the discretion of the Trustees, in case, through inattention on 
 his part or otherwise, his school shall fall off to any serious extent 
 in respect of efficiency ; while in the case of the Government grant 
 total deprivation is a thing almost unheard of, and the power of 
 restriction given to the Inspectors is limited to one-half, but in 
 practice is never exercised, excepting to the extent of one-tenth 
 only. 
 
 It will thus be seen that, unless the allowances from the Dick 
 Bequest far exceeded in amount those awarded out of the Govern- 
 ment grant, it would not be worth any man's while to offer himself 
 for the Trustees' examination, or to incur the risks of deprivation 
 or of restriction of allowance, to which necessarily every one is 
 liable who receives the benefits of the Bequest, when he can secure 
 his share of the Privy Council grant free from the risk of any seri- 
 ous fluctuation, and without the trouble of preparing for what is 
 truly a very severe examination. 
 
 So far, however, is it from being the case that the allowances 
 from the Bequest are likely to exceed those from the Government 
 grant, that, on the contrary, it appears they will be much smaller 
 in the case of large schools, and about equal in the case of smaller 
 schools in rural and remote parishes. Thus, in the case of the 
 school of - , where the enrolled scholars amount to 272, it is 
 calculated that the amount of the grant from Government would 
 exceed 90 yearly, while the allowance from the Bequest is no 
 more than 40 ; and in the case of , which is a remote school 
 
Al-P. V.J THE REVISED CODE. 389 
 
 consisting of only 65 enrolled scholars, the Government grant 
 would be probably about 30, while the allowance from the Bequest 
 would amount to about the same sum. 
 
 If, then, in the case first supposed, the schoolmaster of , in 
 
 claiming his share of the Government grant, is obliged to deduct 
 from it the amount which he receives from the Bequest, it is clear 
 that he has no interest whatever in the question whether that allow- 
 ance shall be greater or smaller, seeing that, if greater, he has still 
 to deduct it from his Government allowance, and if smaller, as a 
 consequence of the standard of excellence being higher with the 
 Trustees than under the " Revised Code," he may hope to receive 
 from Government full compensation for any amount which may be 
 struck off from his allowance under the Bequest. 
 
 In the case second supposed, namely that of , it is equally 
 
 clear that the schoolmaster has little interest in the question whether 
 he shall claim from the Bequest or from Government in the first 
 instance, though he too would, in the event of the Trustees putting 
 him on restricted allowance, probably be compensated for the short- 
 coming by the Government grant. 
 
 Indeed the result seems to be, that for the future, in all cases of 
 large schools in populous districts, where the Government grant, 
 under the system prescribed by the Code, would be at the largest 
 rate, the teachers will never dream of connecting themselves with 
 the Bequest at all, and the literary character of the schoolmasters 
 and schools will suffer in consequence. 
 
 The Trustees, however, though they have the power of withhold- 
 ing any share of the fund from those schoolmasters who do not com- 
 ply with their regulations, are under the necessity of apportioning 
 the whole annual income among those connected with the Bequest, 
 who, by obedience to the rules, and by their efficiency as teachers, 
 have qualified themselves to receive it. It may, therefore, be con- 
 fidently anticipated that, while the teachers of large schools will, 
 under the operation of the Clause 52 D. of the Code, cease to share 
 in the Bequest, and the free income for division among the re- 
 mainder be thus largely increased, the teachers of smaller schools 
 will throw off the Government grant altogether, in order that they 
 may continue to draw their allowances from the Bequest, for the 
 obvious reason, that under the supposed alteration of circumstances 
 these allowances would, in all probability, come up to the emoluments 
 derived from the grant by the larger school teachers, and, at all 
 
390 REPORT ON EDUCATION. [AIT. V. 
 
 events, would very largely exceed any to which their own small 
 number of scholars could ever entitle them under the Code. 
 
 Mr. Dick's view, in dedicating his fortune to educational pur- 
 poses, was to raise the character of the schoolmasters, and the 
 standard of education generally, throughout the three counties, so 
 as to make them an example to other parts of the country. This 
 purpose will, however, as appears from the foregoing statement, be 
 in a great measure frustrated if the allowances from the Bequest are 
 to be viewed as endowments under the " Revised Code." Moreover, 
 though, if the schoolmasters were to draw both the Government 
 grant and the allowance from the Bequest, they would no doubt 
 be better provided for than others of their class in Scotland, still it 
 must not be forgotten that the fund from which the excess is de- 
 rived is the result of private benevolence, and the allowances from 
 it wholly within the power of the Trustees, and granted as the 
 direct reward of tried merit. Farther, it will surely be a sad per- 
 version of the funds voted by Parliament for educational purposes 
 if, as will be the case in the three counties, they shall ever become 
 the means of lowering, instead of elevating, the literary character of 
 the teachers, and the standard of education within the schools. 
 
 It only remains to be remarked that, apart from all other con- 
 siderations, the Dick Bequest allowances are not " Endowments," in 
 the proper sense of that term. An endowment is properly a sum 
 mortified to a particular school for the benefit of its teachers, and to 
 the proceeds of which an individual becomes entitled by the mere 
 possession of office. Such, however, can never be said to be the 
 character of a fund which is not provided for the schoolmasters as 
 individuals, but is given for their behoof as a body, with power to 
 Trustees arbitrarily to divide it among such of them only, and sub- 
 ject to such conditions as they shall from time to time see fit. 
 
 The Trustees earnestly hope that, on the above grounds, Parlia- 
 ment, in its wisdom, may see cause so to modify the conditions of 
 the "Revised Code" as to except from its operation the Dick 
 Bequest under their management. 
 
 (Signed) JAMES HOPE, 
 
 Deputy -Keeper of the Signet, 
 
 Chairman of the Trustees. 
 ' LONDON, 23tZ February 1864. 
 
AIM'. VI. | LIST OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOLM A STKKS. :VJ 1 
 
 APPENDIX VI. 
 
 LIST OF PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS, AND OF THE SCHOOLMASTERS AND 
 ASSISTANT-SUBSTITUTES, IN THE COUNTIES OF ABERDEEN, 
 BANFF, AND MORAY, FROM 1854 TO 18G4. 
 
 Parochial Schools. 
 
 Date of 
 Appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Schoolmasters and 
 Assistant-Substitutes. 
 
 Cause of Vacancy. 
 
 Alterdour, . . 
 
 1837 
 1856 
 
 Charles Forbes, 
 James L. Ironside. 
 
 Died in 1856. 
 
 ,, Auehmedden, 
 
 1862* 
 
 Wm. F. S. Gordon. 
 
 
 Alu-rlour, 
 
 1844 
 
 Charles Grant. 
 
 
 Abeniethy, . . 
 
 1845 
 
 James Grant. 
 
 
 Aboyne, . 
 
 1854 
 1856 
 
 George M 'Irvine, . 
 Andrew Gray. 
 
 Appointed minister of St. Andrews 
 Church in Mauritius. 
 
 ,, Glen tanner, 
 
 1847 
 
 Andrew Christie, . 
 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Alford. 
 
 
 1864 
 
 James Kerr. 
 
 
 A I lord, . . . 
 
 1833 
 
 1856 
 1861 
 1864 
 
 Hugh M'Connach, 
 
 Chas. Dunn, Asst., 
 Chas. Dunn, 
 Andrew Christie. 
 
 School declared vacant under Act 
 24&2S Viet. cap. 107. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 Appointed minister of Birse. 
 
 Alvali, . . . 
 
 1850 
 
 James Duncan. 
 
 
 Alves, .... 
 
 1854 
 
 A. F. Smart. 
 
 
 Aurhindoir, . . 
 
 1849 
 1854 
 
 Wm. Gordon, . . 
 Kobert Smith, 
 
 Appointed minister of Glenbucket. 
 
 ,, Lumsden, . 
 
 1861* 
 1864 
 
 John Wilson, . . 
 J. J. Tindal. 
 
 Appointed schoolmaster of St. An- 
 drews-Lhanbryde. 
 
 Aur.hterless, . . 
 
 1845 
 
 1864 
 
 Thos. M. Pirie, . . 
 Andrew Soutter. 
 
 Appointed minister of Seafield 
 Church, Cullen. 
 
 ,, Biide.nscotii, 
 
 1864 
 
 Alexr. Machardy. 
 
 
 Banchory Devenick, 
 
 X 
 
 1852 
 1855 
 
 Wm. Skinner, . . 
 John Black, . . 
 
 Resigned ; now minister of Coull. 
 Appointed one of H. M. Inspectors 
 of Schools. 
 
 l)ate of admission of school. 
 
392 
 
 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 [A IT. vi. 
 
 Parochial Schools. 
 
 Date of 
 Appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Schoolmasters and 
 Assistant-Substitutes. 
 
 Cause of Vacancy. 
 
 Banchorv-Deven- 
 ick, 
 
 1858 
 
 1860 
 1863 
 
 Eobt. Ogilvie, . . 
 
 John Garden, . 
 Robert Gray. 
 
 Appointed Rector of Milne's Free 
 Institution, Fochabers. 
 Appointed Rector of Elgin Academy. 
 
 Banff Hilton, . 
 
 1839 
 
 1803 
 
 John Soutter, . . 
 Thomas Gentles. 
 
 Resigned in 1863 ; died same year. 
 
 Belhelvie, . . 
 
 1846 
 
 John Jack. 
 
 
 Bellie, . . . . 
 
 1833 
 1847 
 1856 
 1858 
 
 James Milne, . . 
 A. Anderson, Asst., 
 A. Anderson, . . 
 Alex. Brownie. 
 
 Died in 1856. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 Appointed minister of Rhynie. 
 
 Birnie, 
 
 1852 
 1857 
 
 Wm. Masson, . 
 Wm. Gordon. 
 
 Appointed a missionary in Canada. 
 
 Birse, .... 
 
 1847 
 
 Alexr. Essou. 
 
 
 Boharm, . 
 
 1853 
 1859 
 
 Wm. Burgess, . 
 Thomas Fraser. 
 
 Appointed to Church of Ardallie, 
 Old Deer. 
 
 ,, Maggyknock- 
 ater, 
 
 1857* 
 1862 
 
 Wm. MacLeod, . 
 Alexr. Ross. . . 
 
 Died in 1862. 
 
 Botriphnie, . . 
 
 1853 
 1860 
 
 Alexr. Carmichael, 
 Donald Stewart. 
 
 Died in 1859. 
 
 Bourtie, . 
 
 1833 
 
 James Mearns. 
 
 
 Boyndie, . . . 
 
 1834 
 
 George Hepburn. ' 
 
 
 Cabrach, . . . 
 
 1833 
 
 Win. Ronald. 
 
 
 Invercharrach, 
 
 1864* 
 1865 
 
 James Kissach, 
 Thos. Robertson. 
 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Portsoy. 
 
 Cairney, . . . 
 
 * 
 
 1852 
 1858 
 
 John Annand, . 
 James Wilson. 
 
 Appointed assistant and successor to 
 minister of Cairney. 
 
 Chapel Garioch, 
 
 1853 
 
 George Selbie. 
 
 
 Clatt, .... 
 
 1834 
 
 John Minto. 
 
 
 Cluny, . . . 
 
 1851 
 1857 
 
 1860 
 
 Robert Milne, . . 
 Wm. Middleton, . 
 
 Wm. Harper. 
 
 Appointed missionary, East Parish, 
 Aberdeen, now minister of Towie. 
 Appointed minister of quoad sacra 
 chxirch at Roslin, now minister of 
 Church of Scotland at Kurrachee. 
 
 Coldstone, . . 
 
 1833 
 
 1855 
 
 Francis Beattie, . 
 J. G. Michie. 
 
 Died in 1855. 
 
 Date of admission of school. 
 

 APP. VI.] LIST OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOLMASTERS. 
 
 393 
 
 Parochial Schools. 
 
 Date of 
 Appoint 
 merit. 
 
 Schoolmasters and 
 Assistant-Substitutes. 
 
 Cause of Vacancy. 
 
 Coull, .... 
 
 1847 
 
 1857 
 
 1858 
 
 John Kannie, . . 
 
 Alexr. T. MacLean. 
 John Robbie. 
 
 Appointed missionary in Canada in 
 connexion with Colonial Scheme 
 of Church of Scotland. 
 
 Crathie, . . . 
 
 1848 
 
 Joseph Copland. 
 
 
 Crimond, . . . 
 
 1833 
 
 1856 
 1861 
 
 James Wattle, . . 
 
 J. G. Niven, Asst., 
 J. G. Niven. 
 
 School declared vacant under Act 
 24 & 25 Viet. cap. 107. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Cromdale-Advie, 
 
 1851 
 
 1855 
 1857 
 
 James M 'Donald, . 
 
 William Gordon, . 
 James Grant. 
 
 Appointed minister of quoad sacra 
 church at Daviot. 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Birnie. 
 
 Dulnau, . . 
 
 1858* 
 
 James Menzies. 
 
 
 Cruden, . . . 
 
 1851 
 
 Robt. Dawson. 
 
 
 Bogbrae, . 
 
 1848 
 
 Alexr. Black. 
 
 
 Cullen, . . . 
 
 1834 
 1849 
 1857 
 
 Robt. Innes, . . 
 A. C.Webster, Asst., 
 C. R. H. D. Gordon. 
 
 Died in 1857. 
 See Kincardine O'Neil, Torphins. 
 
 Culsalmond, . . 
 
 1833 
 1861 
 
 1863 
 1864 
 
 Andrew Allan. 
 A. M< William, Asst., 
 
 Andrew Soutter, do., 
 James Cameron, do. 
 
 Appointed missionary in Nova 
 Scotia, in connexion with Church 
 of Scotland. 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Auchter- 
 less. 
 
 Dallas, . . . 
 
 1833 
 
 James Young. 
 
 
 Daviot, . . . 
 
 1854 
 1859 
 
 J. C. Grant, . . 
 James Brebner. 
 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Old Mel- 
 drum. 
 
 Deskford, . . 
 
 1850 
 
 1856 
 1858 
 
 James Allan, . . 
 
 Lewis Grant, . . 
 James Brander. 
 
 Appointed minister of quoad sacra 
 church at Grantown. 
 Appointed minister of Grantown. 
 
 Draiuie, . . . 
 
 1846 
 1856 
 
 Alexr. Milne, . . 
 Robt. M'Kerron. 
 
 Appointed minister of Fyvie. 
 
 Drumblade, . . 
 
 1844 
 1859 
 1861 
 
 John Souter, . . 
 Alexr. Thomson, . 
 John Robertson. 
 
 Appointed minister of Inverkeithny. 
 Resigned through ill health (died). 
 
 Drmnoak, . . 
 
 1848 
 
 John Davidson. 
 
 
 Duffus, . . . 
 
 18/54 
 
 James Bain. 
 
 
 Date of admission of school. 
 
394 
 
 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 [APP. VI. 
 
 Parochial Schools. 
 
 Date of 
 Appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Schoolmasters and 
 Assistant-Substitutes. 
 
 Cause of Vacancy. 
 
 Duthil, . . . 
 
 1853 
 1861 
 
 John Robertson, . 
 Charles M'Gregor. 
 
 Resigned. 
 
 Dyce, .... 
 Dyke, .... 
 
 1850 
 
 1833 
 1855 
 
 G. W. Kemp. 
 
 Win. Ogilvie, . . 
 Alexr. Paxton. 
 
 Died in 1855. 
 
 Echt, .... 
 
 1846 
 
 Wm. Malcolm. 
 
 
 Edinkillie, . . 
 
 1843 
 
 1857 
 1858 
 
 1859 
 1861 
 
 John Forbes, . . 
 Robt. Ogilvie, Asst., 
 John Smith, do., . 
 
 Win. Eraser, do., . 
 Wm. Fraser. 
 
 School declared vacant under Act 
 24 & 25 Viet. cap. 107. 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Ban- 
 chory-Devenick . 
 Appointed assistant-substitute at 
 Tough. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Ellon, .... 
 
 1844 
 
 John Davidson. 
 
 
 Tillydeask, 
 
 1841 
 
 William Hay. 
 
 
 Fintray, . . . 
 
 1842 
 
 David Milne. 
 
 
 Fordyce, . . . 
 
 1845 
 
 George Stephen. 
 
 
 ,, Portsoy, . . 
 
 1847 
 1854 
 1864 
 
 W. B. Moyes, . . 
 James Davidson, . 
 James Kissach. 
 
 Appointed a master of Circus Place 
 School, Edinburgh. 
 Appointed minister of Onl Chapel, 
 Banff. 
 
 Forglen, . . . 
 
 1833 
 1851 
 
 1856 
 1859 
 1861 
 
 John Webster, . . 
 
 John Webster, jun., 
 Asst. 
 Wm. M. Philip, do., 
 Wm. S. Caie, do., 
 Wm. S. Caie. 
 
 School declared vacant under Act, 
 24 & 25 Viet. cap. 107. 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Rothie- 
 may. 
 Resigned. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Forgue, 
 
 1833 
 
 1851 
 1854 
 
 1857 
 
 1859 
 1861 
 
 George Webster, 
 
 Wm.Macleod,Asst., 
 David Innes, do., . 
 
 Wm. Robertson, do., 
 
 Robt. Lippe, do., . 
 Robt. Lippe. 
 
 School declared vacant under Act 
 24 & 25 Viet. cap. 107. 
 Resigned on account of ill health. 
 Resigned on account of ill health 
 (died). 
 Appointed assistant-substitute of 
 Old Machar. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Wells of 
 Ythau, 
 
 1848 
 
 1861 
 1862 
 
 Alexr. M 'William, 
 
 J. Barclay. 
 George Davidson. 
 
 Appointed assistant-substitute at 
 Culsalmond. 
 
 Foveran, . . . 
 
 1849 
 
 James Anderson. 
 
 
API'. Vl.] LIST OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOLMASTERS. 
 
 395 
 
 1 Parochial Schools. 
 
 Date of 
 Appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Schoolmasters and 
 Assistant-Substitutes. 
 
 Cause of Vacancy. 
 
 Fraserburgh, 
 
 1833 
 1862 
 
 Wm. Woodman, . 
 George Murray. 
 
 Died in 1862. 
 
 Fyvie, .... 
 
 1833 
 
 1851 
 1854 
 1856 
 1859 
 1861 
 
 JohnStott, . . . 
 
 J. Davidson, Asst., 
 Fames Kidd, do., . 
 Jas. D. Cheyne, do., 
 Alexr. Bremner, do., 
 Alexr. Bremner, . 
 
 School declared vacant under Act 
 24 & 25 Viet. cap. 107. 
 Schoolmaster of Portsoy. 
 Resigned. 
 Died in 1859. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Gamrie, . 
 
 1848 
 
 David Chalmers. 
 
 
 Macduff, 
 Gartly, . . . 
 
 1847 
 1860 
 1862 
 
 1846 
 
 Walter Grigor, . . 
 Alexr. Mathieson, . 
 Hugh Mair. 
 
 William Smith. 
 
 Appointed minister of Macduff. 
 Resigned. 
 
 Glass, .... 
 
 1837 
 
 Arthur Stephen. 
 
 
 Glenb ticket, . . 
 
 1839 
 
 William Reid. 
 
 
 Gh-nmuick, . . 
 
 1833 
 
 1858 
 1860 
 1861 
 
 James Smith, . 
 
 D. M'Farlane, Asst. 
 Wm. Murray, do., 
 Wm. Murray, 
 
 School declared vacant under Act 
 24 & 25 Viet. cap. 107. 
 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Grange, 
 
 1841 
 
 Arthur Gerrard. 
 
 
 Huutly, . . . 
 
 1849 
 
 John Macdonald. 
 
 
 ,, Kinmoir, 
 
 1857 
 
 1858 
 1860 
 
 1862 
 
 Fowlie, . . 
 
 James Smart, . . 
 Wm. D. Frater, . 
 
 Walter Milne. 
 
 Resigned for situation as private 
 tutor. 
 Died in 1860. 
 Appointed assistant-substitute at 
 Premnay. 
 
 IllScIl, .... 
 
 1833 
 
 1855 
 
 Charles Norrie. 
 James Maclachlan. 
 
 Resigned. 
 
 Inveravon, . 
 
 1833 
 
 1853 
 1857 
 1860 
 1861 
 
 James Chree, 
 
 J. M 'Donald, Asst., 
 John Stewart, do. , 
 And. Meldrum, do., 
 Andrew Meldrum. 
 
 School declared vacant under Act 
 24 & 25 Viet. cap. 107. 
 Resigned for medical profession. 
 Appointedschoolmasterof Grantovvn. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Inverkeitlmy, . 
 
 1833 
 
 1855 
 1856 
 
 Ah: XT. Morrison, . 
 G. F.J.Philip, Asst., 
 G. F. J. Philip. 
 
 Died in 1856. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Iiiverury, 
 
 1833 
 1801 
 
 Geo. Cruickshank, 
 Alexr. Fowlie. 
 
 Died in 1861. 
 
 l>ate of uiluiisMou cf school. 
 
390 
 
 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 [APP. vi. 
 
 Parochial Schools. 
 
 Date of 
 Appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Schoolmasters and 
 Assistant-Substitutes. 
 
 Cause of Vacancy. 
 
 Keig, .... 
 
 1833 
 
 1852 
 
 1854 
 
 1861 
 
 Gordon Raeburn, . 
 Lewis Beaton, Asst. , 
 
 Walter Milne, do., 
 George Chree. 
 
 Died in 1861. 
 Appointed assistant-substitute at 
 Strichen. 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Huntly 
 Kinnoir in 1862. 
 
 Keith, . . . 
 
 1833 
 
 James Smith. 
 
 
 Keithhall, . . 
 
 1843 
 
 David Brown. 
 
 
 Kemnay, . . . 
 
 1833 
 
 1857 
 
 Andw. Stevenson, 
 George Proctor. 
 
 Died in 1857. 
 
 Kildrmmny, 
 
 1833 
 
 1859 
 
 Wm. Christie. 
 D. Christie, Asst. 
 
 
 Kincardine O'Neil, 
 
 1840 
 1854 
 
 James Hogg, . . 
 James Clark. 
 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 ,, Torphins, . 
 
 1833 
 1850 
 
 1857 
 1858 
 1861 
 
 Alexr. Ross, . . 
 Ben. Reid, Assist., 
 A. C. Webster, do., 
 Alex. Millar, do., . 
 Alex. Millar. 
 
 Resigned in 1861 ; died in 1862. 
 
 Left through ill-health ; since dead. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 ,, Tornaveen, 
 
 1833 
 
 1858 
 
 1859 
 1860 
 
 1864 
 
 George Reid. 
 Wm. Brand, Asst., 
 
 Wm. M'Rae, do., 
 James Webster, do. 
 
 John Smith, do 
 
 Appointed assistant to minister of 
 Renfrew. 
 
 Appointed assistant-substitute, after- 
 wards schoolmaster, of Shannas, 
 Old Deer. 
 
 Kinellar, . . . 
 
 1833 
 
 1850 
 1861 
 
 John Barclay, . 
 
 John Joss, Asst., . 
 John Joss. 
 
 School declared vacant under Act 
 24 & 25 Viet., cap. 107. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 King-Edward, . 
 
 1833 
 1852 
 1854 
 
 James Steinson, . 
 John Milne, Asst., 
 John Milne. 
 
 Died in 1854. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Kinloss, . . . 
 
 1833 
 
 1852 
 1855 
 1855 
 
 James White, . 
 John Knight, Asst., 
 R. R. Rannie, do., 
 R. R. Rannie. 
 
 Died in 1855. 
 Resigned. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Kinuethmont, . 
 
 1833 
 
 1851 
 1862 
 
 Alexr. Minty, . 
 
 F. A. Wilson, Asst. 
 Wm. Gerrard. 
 
 School declared vacant under Act 
 24 & 25 Viet. cap. 107. 
 
 Kintore, . . . 
 
 1836 
 1857 
 
 John Brotchie. 
 R. Kennedy, Asst., 
 
 Died in 1861. 
 
API'. VI.] LIST OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOLMASTERS. 
 
 39' 
 
 Parochial Schools. 
 
 Date of 
 Appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Schoolmasters and 
 Assistant-Substitutes. 
 
 Cause of Vacancy. 
 
 Kintore, . . . 
 
 1861 
 1864 
 
 W. M. Brown, Asst., 
 
 D. M. Cruickshank, 
 Asst. 
 
 Appointed by Church of Scotland 
 Committee for Conversion of 
 Jews to school at Constantinople. 
 
 Kirkniicliael, . 
 
 1845 
 1856 
 1859 
 
 Alexr. Cameron, . 
 Robert Cameron, . 
 Donald Robertson. 
 
 Appointed minister of Kingussic. 
 Died in 1859. 
 
 Tomintoul, 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 R. B. Burgess, . . 
 James Maclean, . 
 
 Appointed teacher of a school in Kent. 
 Appointed rector of Pulteneytown 
 Academy, Wick. 
 
 Knockando, . . 
 
 1852 
 1864 
 
 Robert Smith, . . 
 John A. Sutor. 
 
 Appointed minister of Rafford. 
 
 Elchies, . . 
 
 1848 
 1856 
 
 Lewis Grant, . . 
 James Fraser. 
 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Deskford. 
 
 Leochel, . . . 
 
 1833 
 1855 
 
 Chas. Humphry, . 
 Wm. M 'Robert. 
 
 Resigned. 
 
 Cushnie, 
 
 1833 
 1857 
 
 Andw. Malcolm, . 
 James Reid. 
 
 Died in 1857. 
 
 Leslie, . . . 
 
 1854 
 1861 
 
 Alexr. Machardy, . 
 Wm. Macfarlane. 
 
 Appointed a master in Dollar 
 Academy, now schoolmaster of 
 Badenscoth, Auchterless. 
 
 Logie Buchan, . 
 
 1853 
 
 Wm. Jaflrey. 
 
 
 Longside, . . 
 
 1854 
 1863 
 
 Wm. Center ^ . . 
 Alexr. Center. 
 
 Died in 1863. 
 
 ,, Mintlaw, 
 
 1834 
 
 John Farquhar. 
 
 
 Rora, . . . 
 
 1843 
 
 John Beaton. 
 
 
 Lonmay, . . . 
 
 1845 
 
 Geo. Robertson. 
 
 
 Kinniraonth, 
 
 1833 
 
 Alexr. Stronach. 
 
 
 St. Combs, . 
 
 1848 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 Wm. Shand, . . 
 Arthur Rettie, . . 
 Artlnir Allan. 
 
 Resigned. 
 Died in 1858. 
 
 Luniplianan, 
 
 1833 
 1852 
 1856 
 
 Alexr. Birnie, . . 
 John Smith, Asst., 
 John Smith. 
 
 Died in 1856. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Marnoch, . . 
 
 1846 
 
 William Christie. 
 
 
 Methlic, . . . 
 
 1851 
 1857 
 
 Alexr. Gray, 
 Joseph Ogilvie. 
 
 Appointed minister of Holburn 
 Church, Aberdeen. 
 
308 
 
 REPOET ON EDUCATION. 
 
 [A PP. vi. 
 
 Parochial Schools. 
 
 Date of 
 Appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Schoolmasters and 
 Assistant-Substitutes. 
 
 Cause of Vacancy. 
 
 Methlic, Inverbrie, 
 
 1850 
 
 Alexr. Fraser. 
 
 
 Miclmar, . 
 
 1833 
 
 1860 
 
 George Mortimer. 
 J. W. Leith, Asst. 
 
 
 Monquhitter, . 
 
 1833 
 
 1859 
 1861 
 
 Alexr. Cheyne, 
 
 J. Cameron, Asst. 
 Donald Duff. 
 
 School declared vacant under Act 
 24 & 25 Viet. cap. 107. 
 
 Monymusk, . . 
 
 1849 
 1854 
 
 Duncan Anderson, 
 Alexr. Ogilvie. 
 
 Emigrated to America. 
 
 Mortlach, . . 
 
 1837 
 
 John Macpherson. 
 
 
 New Deer, . . 
 
 1844 
 
 Peter Farquharson. 
 
 
 Savoch, 
 
 1833 
 1851 
 1855 
 
 1855 
 1861 
 
 James Mair. 
 Jas. Mair, jr., Asst., 
 George Law, do. 
 
 George Chree, do., 
 James Moir, do. 
 
 Resigned. 
 Appointed assistant-substitute at 
 Old Machar. 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Keig. 
 
 Whitehills, 
 
 1833 
 
 Alexr. Greig. 
 
 
 Newhills, . . 
 
 1844 
 
 James Stewart. 
 
 
 New Machar, . 
 
 1835 
 1846 
 1856 
 
 Celin Falconer, 
 D. M 'Hardy, Asst., 
 Donald M'Hardy. 
 
 Died in 1856. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 New Spynie, 
 
 1853 
 1863 
 
 John Skeen, . . 
 William Smith. 
 
 Appointed minister of Seafield 
 Church, Cullen ; died in 1863. 
 
 Old Deer, . . 
 
 1850 
 
 Robt. Wilson. 
 
 
 ,, Clochan, 
 
 1833 
 1863 
 
 James Anderson, . 
 Alexr. Greig. 
 
 Died in 1862. 
 
 Shannas, 
 
 1833 
 1862 
 1864 
 1865 
 
 David Wood, . . 
 Jas. Cantlay, Asst., 
 James Webster, do., 
 James Webster. 
 
 Died in 1864. 
 Resigned. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Old Machar, 
 
 1833 
 1855 
 1856 
 1859 
 
 1861 
 
 John Cowie, . . 
 J. Milligan, Asst., 
 George Law, do., . 
 W. Robertson, do., 
 Win. Robertson, . 
 John Gregory. 
 
 Died in 1859. 
 Died in 1856. 
 Resigned. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 Resigned. 
 
 Old Meldruni, . 
 
 1833 
 
 1856 
 
 1859 
 
 George Cooper. 
 Wm. M. Keay, . 
 
 J. C. Grant, . . 
 
 Died in 1855. 
 Appointed minister of Woodside, 
 Aberdeen. 
 Appointed minister of East Church. 
 Brechin. 
 
LIST OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOLMASTERS. 
 
 399 
 
 P.irochial Schools. 
 
 Date of 
 Appoint 
 ment. 
 
 Schoolmaster and 
 Assistant-Substitutes. 
 
 Cause of Vacancy. 
 
 Old Meldrum, . 
 
 1862 
 
 James Mackenzie. 
 
 
 Ordiquhill, . . 
 
 1833 
 1853 
 1855 
 
 1857 
 1858 : 
 1860 I 
 
 Wm. Cruickshank. 
 James Smart, Asst., 
 John Thomson, do., 
 
 James Brander, do., 
 Joseph Mackay, do.. 
 John Shand, do. 
 
 Resigned on account of ill-health. 
 Appointed assistant-substitute at 
 Turriff. 
 A ppoi nted schoolmaster of Desk turd. 
 Resigned. 
 
 l>\ IK', .... 
 
 1833 
 
 1848 
 
 1854 
 1857 
 
 1859 
 
 1860 
 1861 
 
 John Shand, . . 
 J. Ledingham, Asst., 
 
 William Watt, do., 
 Robt. Lippe, do., . 
 
 James Stuart, do., 
 
 J. R. Anderson, do., 
 J. R. Anderson. 
 
 School declared vacant under Act 
 24 & 25 Viet. cap. 107. 
 Appointed minister of Seafield 
 Chapel, Cullen. 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Rathen. 
 Appointed assistant-substitute at 
 Forgue. 
 Resigned on account of ill-health 
 (died). 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Peterculter, . . 
 
 1846 
 
 John Smith. 
 
 
 Peterhead, . 
 
 1844 
 
 James Lyall. 
 
 
 Pitsligo, . . . 
 
 1852 
 1864 
 
 Charles Sleigh, . 
 John Fowlie. 
 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Tarves. 
 
 Premnay, . . 
 
 1833 
 
 1855 
 
 1857 
 1858 
 
 1861 
 1864 
 
 John Mann, . . 
 
 J. Lumsden, Asst., 
 John Wilson, do., 
 Alex. Frater, do., 
 
 Wm. D. Frater, do., 
 Wm. D. Frater, . 
 Jonathan M. Grant. 
 
 School declared vacant under Act 
 24 & 25 Viet. cap. 107. 
 Resigned. 
 Resigned. 
 Received an appointment in the 
 War Office. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 Resigned. 
 
 KatlVml, . . . 
 
 1838 
 
 James Watson. 
 
 
 Rathen, . . . 
 
 1846 
 1856 
 
 John Watt, . . . 
 William Watt. 
 
 Appointed minister of Towie. 
 
 Inverallochy, 
 
 1845 
 
 Geo. Mathieson. 
 
 
 Rathven, . . 
 
 1848 
 
 John Russell. 
 
 
 Rayne, . . . 
 
 1850 
 
 G. W. Cruickshank. 
 
 
 Kliynio, . . . 
 
 1841 
 
 Geo. Stuart. 
 
 
 Hollies, . . . 
 
 1843 
 
 Archd. D. Wii-l.t. 
 
 
 Kotliieiiinv 
 
 1833 
 1856 
 1862 
 
 Wm. Webster, 
 John Webster, 
 George J. Sim. 
 
 Died in 1856. 
 Appointed minister at Buckle. 
 
400 
 
 REPORT ON EDUCATION. 
 
 [A PP. VT. 
 
 Parochial Schools. 
 
 Date of 
 Appoint 
 meat. 
 
 Schoolmasters and 
 Assistant-Substitutes. 
 
 Causes of Vacancy. 
 
 Skene, . . . 
 
 1844 
 1861 
 1862 
 
 David Smith, . . 
 A. Yoiingson, asst., 
 Alex. Youngson. 
 
 Resigned in 1862. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Slains, 
 
 1850 
 
 James R. Souter. 
 
 
 Speymouth, . . 
 
 1846 
 
 James Dawson. 
 
 
 St. Andrews- ) 
 Lhanbryde, j 
 
 1851 
 1864 
 
 Charles Bruce. 
 John Wilson. 
 
 
 St. Fergus, . . 
 
 1833 
 1849 
 1855 
 
 John Kennedy, . 
 James Taylor, asst., 
 James Taylor. 
 
 Died in 1855. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Strathdon, . . 
 
 1836 
 
 A. G. Anderson. 
 
 
 Strichen, . . . 
 
 1833 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 1857 
 
 John Gordon, . . 
 Alexr. Ogilvie, asst., 
 
 Lewis Beaton, do. 
 Lewis Beaton. 
 
 Died in 1857. 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Mony- 
 musk. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Tarland, . . . 
 
 1847 
 1857 
 1860 
 
 John Eeid, . . . 
 James Adams, . . 
 Robert Slessor. 
 
 Appointed minister of Savoch. 
 Died in 1860. 
 
 Tarves, . . . 
 
 1843 
 1864 
 
 George Melvin, . 
 Charles Sleigh. 
 
 Died in 1864. 
 
 Barthol Chapel, 
 
 1860* 
 
 William Wilson. 
 
 
 Tough, . . . 
 
 1833 
 1854 
 1855 
 
 1857 
 
 1858 
 1860 
 
 Alexr. Ingrain, . 
 J. Maclachlan, asst., 
 Robt. Kennedy, do. 
 
 James Adams, . . 
 Alexr. Grant, do. 
 John C. Smith, do. 
 John C. Smith. 
 
 Died in 1859. 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Insch. 
 Appointed assistant-substitute at 
 Kintore. 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Tarland. 
 Emigrated to New Zealand. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Towie, . . . 
 
 1833 
 
 John Fyfe. 
 
 
 Tullynessle, . . 
 
 1833 
 1860 
 1862 
 
 James Smith, . . 
 Hugh Mair, asst., . 
 James M'C. Pitlue. 
 
 Died in 1861. 
 Schoolmaster of Macduff. 
 
 Turriff, . . . 
 
 1833 
 
 1850 
 
 1856 
 1857 
 1862 
 
 John Clark, . . . 
 Geo. Ogilvie, asst. 
 
 Joseph Ogilvie, do. 
 John Thomson, do. 
 John Thomson. 
 
 School declared vacant under Act 
 24 & 25 Viet. cap. 107. 
 Appointed head-master of Stewart's 
 Hospital, Edinburgh. 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Methlic. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 Tyrie, .... 
 
 1833 
 
 William Fowlie, 
 
 School declared vacant under Act 
 24 & 25 Viet. cap. 107. 
 
 J>;tte of Admission of school. 
 
ATM'. VI.] LIST OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOLMASTERS. 
 
 401. 
 
 Parochial Schools. 
 
 Date of 
 
 Appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Schoolmasters and 
 Assistant-Substitutes. 
 
 Causes of Vacancy. 
 
 Tyrie, .... 
 
 1858 
 
 1859 
 1861 
 
 Geo. Sturrock, asst., 
 
 G. Ironside, do. 
 George Ironside. 
 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Kirkden, 
 Forfar. 
 Elected schoolmaster. 
 
 ,, New Pitsligo, 
 
 1846 
 
 1856 
 1861 
 
 J. L. Ironside, . 
 
 Strachan, . . 
 David Sturrock. 
 
 Appointed schoolmaster of Aber- 
 dour. 
 Resigned in 1861. 
 
 Udny, .... 
 
 1833 
 1854 
 1863 
 
 J. R. U. Bisset. 
 James Smith, asst. 
 Charles Low, do. 
 
 
 Urquhart, . . 
 
 1847 
 
 1860 
 
 John Russell, . . 
 Wm. R. Bruce. 
 
 Appointed minister of Skene. 
 
 2 
 
ERRATUM. 
 
 Omit decimal points from last four columns of Table on p. 348. 
 
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