SCHOOL D&WIHQ A REAL CORRELATION FRED H. DANIELS BY FRED HAMILTON DANIELS DIRECTOR OF DRAWING, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, NEWTON, MASSACHUSETTS Published by Milton Bradley Company Springfield, Massachusetts Boston New York Philadelphia Atlanta San Francisco Copyright, 1909, by Milton Bradley Company Springfield, Mass. CO NTENTS Page Introduction . . . . . 6 HISTORY 19 An Indian Camp Sand Table ... 19 Another Indian Camp Sand Table . . 21 An Indian Camp Blackboard Illustration . 23 An Indian Camp Individual Work . . 25 The Ships of Columbus . . . .27 Henry Hudson . . . 29 Early Plymouth 31 Early New England Settlements . . 33 The Settler's Home .... 35 Blockhouse and Settler's Cabin . . 37 Early Settler's Home Interior ... 39 The First Settlement . . . .41 Neighborhood of Boston 1775 . . 43 First Campaign in New York and New Jersey, 1776-1777 . . .45 The Fulton Steamboat . .47 Opening of the Mississippi River . 49 LITERATURE 53 The Three Bears' House . . .53 The Sunbonnet Babies in Winter 55 The Lake Dwellers . 57 Rip Van Winkle . 59 GEOGRAPHY . 61 The Arctic Regions . . 61 2065978 CONTENTS Page The Nile and the Desert . . 63 The Harbor . . 65 Commerce . . ... 67 Lumbering . . 69 The Beaver Dam . .71 Holland A Sand Table with Toys . . 73 Holland . 75 Holland Blackboard Class Work . . 77 A Holland Town . . 79 Japan A Blackboard Picture . .81 The Circuit Railroad . 83 CITY AND COUNTRY LIFE . . 85 Block Building . 85 The Village Street Sand Table . 87 The Lawn Party . . 89 Vegetable Drawings . 91 The Street Repair Department . . 93 The Farm . .95 The Farm in Winter . 97 Circus Parade Frieze . . 99 Circus Parade Constructed . .101 ANIMAL LIFE . .103 The Chicken Yard Sand Table . 103 Rabbits Blackboard Drawing . 105 The Rabbit Farm Sand Table . 107 The Spring Birds . 109 CONTENTS Page The Arrival of Spring Birds . .111 The Aquarium . . . .113 THE SEASONS . . .115 What the Wind Does . . .115 Winter Sport First Grade Sheet . .117 Winter Sports Sand Table . .119 Sliding Down Hill Blackboard Picture . 121 Sliding Down Hill Construction . . 123 The Base Ball Team . . 125 THE HOLIDAYS . .127 Thanksgiving Fruits and Vegetables . . 127 Thanksgiving Store Window . . .129 The Thanksgiving Table . . . .131 The Dining Room 133 The Christmas Store Window . . .135 Christmas Tree Blackboard Picture . 137 The Christmas-Time Room . . .139 Christmas Suggestions . . . .141 The Valentine . . .143 February 22, Memorial Day, etc. . . 145 Easter Cards . .147 IN GENERAL . 149 Well Mounted Drawings . . . .149 Primary Book Covers Washes . . 151 Book Covers Including Designs . .153 The Doll House 155 INTRODUCTION All over the land drawing schedules read, " Use drawing freely in other studies." Every teacher feels that she would gladly do so if some one would only tell her how! To answer this pertinent question is one aim of this book. In life, real, adult life, people draw for a purpose, rarely for the sake of drawing. Not even the artist draws unless he has something to say and a reason for saying it. Yet in school, much of our drawing has been done in the hopes that later we should be able to draw for a definite end. But this is all changing. We are coming to see that life in school may be made real living, instead of a mere preparation for later life. Children have a right to dislike this unceasing pursuit of knowledge in which they can see no reason. It is the " now " which interests them. All the constructive work which follows is related immedi- ately and intimately with the life in school or at home. The drawings are made for a purpose, as in life. Any one who doubts the wisdom of surrendering older ways has but to try the new, has but to make drawing a thing of use, and then study the attitude of the children toward the subject, to be convinced that it has been our fault, not the children's, if the drawing lesson has been dull in bye- gone years. It is not for a moment contemplated that this work is to disrupt any course of study in drawing. It will fit in with any course or system in the country. It need never even be outlined in the course of study. It should be brought into play freely when needed, and discarded and the regular drawing course taken up again when the problem in hand has been solved. 6 This miniature sand-table work, or scene painting, is suggested to take the place in part of illustrative sketching. It should accompany illustrative drawing, rather than dis- place it. It is easier for the child to construct the picture of the ocean and the three ships of Columbus, for example, than it is for him to make the ordinary illustrative sketch of this subject. Children naturally construct before they draw. The principles of perspective, such as the idea that distance decreases the apparent size of objects, are easily and thoroughly taught in this constructive work. It is excellent practice for each child to make an illustra- tive sketch from his constructed picture. The experience he has had in the construction will enable him to produce a result far in advance of what he otherwise could picture. There seem to be no particular grades in which this kind of work is best. Repeated trials in the ninth year show that when such work is correlated with the history or literature, the older pupils are as much interested as are those in the first school years. The reason more of it is done in the lower grades than in the higher is because in the latter there are what appear to be more important things to be done, principles to be taught, problems to be solved, which must be attended to in the later school years or not at all. Hence most of this work is relegated to the primary and intermediate grades. In some cases on the following pages the grades in which the problems were solved have been indicated, but these problems are prac- tically all good for any grade, time permitting, providing they are necessary for the more complete teaching of the subject in hand. Of this thing we may be sure, there is no better way for the teacher to present salient facts of history, geography, etc., than to have the class work them out with their 7 PAPER COM3TfcCKTJOri--I HEAW.V ALL F THESE PAPER. CO H STRUCT I OM 5 CAM 5E MADE: FROM A SQUARE FOLDED TO HAKE S1ATEE.M SMALL SQUARES v v * PRELiniMARV FOLDS ." LICMT DOTTED L1HES CCJT o^ MEAVV FULL LldES firiAL FOLDS " hEAVY DOTTED LIMES SMoVEL SLED WITh BACK AMD BOARDS iHOW PLOW PAPER COnSTWJCTlON 3L THKE PRO5LEH5 ARE SO ARRAhOED THAT THEY INCREASE in DIFFICULTY FROM PLATE PLATE 5MOW PLOW TOUR CMA1R5 MAY BE CUT AS in THE LOWEST CM A' ft. TA5LE TADLE IP DESIRED TME TA5LE LECiS MAV DE PAPEP. THE CRADLE ' 5TOVE AttD CART DIFFER A5 TO DETAIL!) OHLV" n CP.ADLE CART WITH 5TOVE CMIMhEV FOR TOP OllhMtY fOft EHD MOUSE WITH- PAPER. VERTICAL 31DE5 fbfc WIMDMLL ToP fok WinDMILL CAF1OE: fOLD BErORE CUTTINC PYRAMIDAL 3IDE5 WiriDMlLL ART15 roR WinDHILL hands. Ideas grasped in this manner are never forgotten; the interest of the class is increased ten fold; and all the while the pupils are learning to draw in the easiest and most natural manner. Let one point be made plain. There is no reason why these problems cannot have as much real art work in them as any ever given in school. There is no excuse whatever for placing slipshod work in any of these con- structions. It should be insisted that nothing but the best work of the pupil will be taken. It is generally neces- sary to work, and work, and work at each thing before success is achieved. This training the pupils to work hard and continuously at one thing until it has been con- quered is morally one of the finest kinds of training. No teacher has any right to teach school on any other basis. This does not mean that results in the schoolroom will ever be uniform, but that insistence be firm that each pupil should work at a problem until he has done his best. This training is rendered the easier because of the active interest children take in making things for real use. It has been proved that teachers who have made a few simple forms by folding and cutting paper can make, through the knowledge and experience thus gained, any of the desired sand-table or other constructed work re- quired in school, in so far as that work is to be carried out in paper. These forms are diagrammed on the first four pages of working drawings. Each page of diagrams has opposite it photo-reproductions of the finished ob- jects. It is believed that these diagrams are so simple that with the accompanying illustrations, it is unnecessary to describe them at greater length. To make them all, 16 it will tal:e from one and a half to two hours, and thus equipped, the teacher is ready for further and larger problems. On the pages following will be found short directions or suggestions for working out the various constructions. Sometimes the directions are duplicates from other pages, because it is believed that this book ought to be referred to as a small dictionary when the need arises, rather than to be read through at one sitting. Ordinary drawing paper is generally specified in the text for the construction work, as it is easier for little fingers to manipulate this than a heavier paper. Oak tag paper may be employed if more durable structures are desired. It will be noted that the drawing, construction and per- spective are occasionally at fault in some of the illustra- tions. Without the most skillful and vigilant guidance from the teacher these errors are inevitable. The author wishes to make no apologies for such mistakes, believing it better to present the work of children under good average conditions than to show the more perfect craftsmanship of adults. The illustrations are intended only as suggestions. The subject matter in schools varies, consequently the con- structive work must vary in different localities. It re- mains for each teacher to solve her own problems in accordance with the best light she can obtain. 17 HISTORY AN INDIAN CAMP SAND TABLE The land was separated from the water, the zinc floor- ing of the sand table. The trees were drawn in color, cut out, and placed in position upright in the sand. A lesson or two followed in building Indian wigwams from paper, which were pasted and then colored from pictures of Indian life. Canoes were constructed, colored with the brown like birch bark, and on them were painted the Indian symbols. The animals and people were drawn from memory when possible, otherwise they were copied from pictures. All things were grouped to picture the camp of migrating Indians. 19 ANOTHER INDIAN CAMP SAND TABLE It is seen at once that the background for this table was made from branches of evergreen trees. The collected Indian toys were brought into play in making the picture, although these toys were not always in right proportion to the other things. The remainder of the table was con- structed as in the previous illustration. This table was placed in a corner of the schoolroom where it made an effective showing against the dark blackboards. 21 AN INDIAN CAMP BLACKBOARD ILLUSTRATION The background was drawn by the teacher. In order that the sky might be luminous, it was first scrubbed in with white chalk, thus doing away with the gray of the board. Over this, with the side of the chalk, was rubbed light blue mixed with a little pink and yellow or orange to warm the blue near the horizon, growing bluer and colder as the color recedes from the line of the hills. The hills or mountains were made with darker blue, with violet showing here and there, and as the hills come for- ward and downward, green begins to show in delicate tints in with the blues. The mass of the forest rises deep in value; sometimes it is necessary to cover this part of the board with charcoal before applying color in order to get a green deep and rich enough to suggest the forest. Light and dark tree trunks show occasionally. From the edge of the woods to the water in front stretches the meadow, blue green or grayed brown in back, becoming greener or browner as it approaches us. Near the water a dark brown line shows the shadow under the grass, or the mud at the edge of the water. One or two wigwams and canoes are drawn by the teacher, and the children finish the picture by adding these and other elements, people, animals, etc. Care must be taken to place the largest forms in front and the smallest in back, that a true per- spective effect may be secured. After the canoes are pasted on the board in place, a white line in front will indicate where they cut the water in their forward motion, and a dark blue trail may be added behind. The reflection of each canoe in the water should also be suggested with the colored blackboard chalk. 23 AN INDIAN CAMP INDIVIDUAL WORK Here is an Indian camp such as each pupil in the class delights to make. Begin with the ground, a sheet of nine by twelve drawing paper. The meadow in the dis- tance is blue green, light in value, becoming greener as it approaches the foreground. Light orange or brown may indicate in places the changing color of the grass. The mountains are painted upon a second sheet of paper; they are light blue in color, the one in front, of course, being slightly darker. These are cut out, and a flap is bent back at the bottom for pasting each mountain to the ground. Next a line of trees, a forest in the distance, is painted in deep brown greens, blue greens and browns, adding a few tree trunks as shown. This is now cut out, leaving the usual flap for pasting. When this is placed in position, individual trees of various sizes and kinds may be painted, cut out, and placed in proper position, the largest in front. In cutting out the trees, leave flaps at the bottom. The wigwams and canoes form subjects for several les- sons; and last, the element of life may be added, Indians, animals, the camp fire, etc. 25 THE SHIPS OF COLUMBUS A very simple composition made on ordinary drawing paper by each member of the class, is here shown. The entire sheet of nine by twelve paper is first covered with a wash of rich blue, a little green showing now and then. It should be placed on smoothly at the back of the paper (the top), and somewhat more roughly in front. Im- mediately in front, place horizontal strokes of yet darker blue to indicate the under sides of waves, and later, white- caps may be put on with Chinese white or chalk. Note how nearly flat, or horizontal, these touches are children are apt to draw them as miniature mountains and how they diminish in size as they recede into the back- ground, finally disappearing altogether. The ships are copied, of course, from some book or from the teacher's drawing on the blackboard. Make them of three sizes, color them, and cut them out leaving a flap for pasting to the ocean. A mixed trail of white and dark blue back of the ships, the waving flags, and the white water at the prows add to the effect of motion. 27 HENRY HUDSON From the histories we learn that Henry Hudson sailed the Hudson River in his boat the Half -Moon in 1609. It is said that he was greatly impressed with the Palisades. Here, then, are the three elements for our picture. The Hudson is made on drawing paper according to the de- scription given for making the ocean in the Columbus picture, page 27. The mountains are painted blue and cut out with flaps for pasting at the bottom. These form the distance for our picture. The Palisades are darker blue and gray green, with a few rocks and trees in still stronger color at their base. Turn the flap at the bottom of the Palisades forward and we have the land at the base of the rocks. Tiny wigwams and canoes may be located here, if desired. The Half -Moon is drawn from a picture or a blackboard sketch by the teacher, cut out with a flap and pasted in place. Color the flap to agree with the color of the water. 29 EARLY PLYMOUTH This sand table was constructed in a sixth-grade room. It was a large one, probably seven feet long. Having decided upon the general plan for the table as later built, the class was set to work painting the large, distant hills. These were of a gray blue color. Then came a lesson painting the brown and green hills that appear immedi- ately back of the trees. This was followed by lessons in tree painting, from memory, from copy, and from nature. The best trees, hills and mountains were cut out, and be- ginning with the real background for all, the mountains, these three elements were mounted in position. Next the sand was scattered about the table, and the landscape was ready for the coming of the settlers. (The progress of the settlement might have been delightfully worked out by using the table as thus far finished to show (1), the wilder- ness without habitation; (2), the coming and encampment of Indian tribes; (3), the arrival of the white man by boat, his trading with the Indians and final establishment on the land.) Several lessons in the construction of log cabins and chimneys resulted in some very creditable structures, which, with the aid of water colors, were painted to imitate houses built of logs and chimneys of stone. Blockhouses were now fashioned; then came the stacks of corn and the pumpkins growing near by. Both of these elements were first painted, then cut out and placed in position in the sand near the houses which had been ranged along the village street. The early settlers themselves might well appear along the street and in the field at work. The ordinary clothes of today in the draw- ings made for this table may be changed to those of the 31 Pilgrims through reference to pictures to be found in all schoolrooms at Thanksgiving. Plymouth Rock will be noticed in the immediate front, right foreground. EARLY NEW ENGLAND SETTLEMENTS This communal blackboard picture was a natural out- growth of the study of the Pilgrim settlements on the Massachusetts coast. With colored crayons the teacher drew upon the board the sandy shore of Massachusetts Bay, the blue sky and ocean, one or two trees, houses and wigwams. Other trees, houses and wigwams were added by the children of this fourth-grade room. Then from pictures, the Indians and the people in the quaint garb of our forefathers were portrayed. These were added by means of paste to the teacher's drawing. In all these illustrations, perhaps particularly in the blackboard drawings, the half-tone reproductions do not really give a fair idea of the charm which these composi- tions really possess because of their color. If possible, let the reader try to interpret (in his " mind's eye ") these masses and forms in terms of color, instead of black and white, and at once they appear far more interesting. 33 THE SETTLER'S HOME If this picture is made in autumn, we may use autumn coloring for land and trees. Indicate the land and water, for obvious reasons the settler located near water when he could do so. The land may be brown, if in autumn; green, if in spring. The log cabin is constructed like the house previously shown (page 13), and painted to imitate logs, a footpath in dirt color leads to the water where we find a canoe in waiting. The trees are the results of several lessons in painting trees from nature, the teacher's drawings, and pictures. Each is cut out with a flap at the bottom for pasting. Stumps are painted and cut out in the same way. Notice how tree and stump spread out as the roots enter the earth. The backwoodsman may be the result of a lesson in pose drawing. The best time for pose drawing is when we actually want to use the drawing. 35 BLOCKHOUSE AND SETTLER'S CABIN This simple " sand table " was constructed in a third grade in connection with the history study. It seems unnecessary to describe it in detail as all its elements are used several times in other parts of this book. It is offered merely to show another way to work out the problem. 37 EARLY SETTLER'S HOME INTERIOR The fireplace is of the old-fashioned kind, wide, low and simple. It is constructed from one sheet of drawing paper plus a second slip for the board at the top. The chair, bench, table and spinning wheel present no difficulties in construction. On the fireplace hang the sword and the old musket. On the table is a candle, while beside it lies the peace pipe. The floor represents the boards, and the tiles of clay are shown in front of the hearth. The figures may be drawn from boys and girls who pose for the class, or may be drawn from imagination. All parts of the picture were drawn with colored crayons. 39 THE FIRST SETTLEMENT The children were studying local history and it was decided to reconstruct the little settlement which later became the full-grown city in which they now live. First the river was located in the background of the flat piece of manilla paper, about two by five feet in area. Next the main street of the village (and of the later city) was placed near the front of the composition. Then came the most imposing building, the town hall, made from pictures of the old hall. Around this were grouped the log cabin, trees, other streets, early fences, peopled canoes on the river, and the forefathers and foremothers in peculiar costume. Everything was colored to suggest the original, and the result was a remarkable teaching of fourth-year history. 41 NEIGHBORHOOD OF BOSTON 1775 This sheet was done by a boy in the sixth grade. The following description of the illustration was kindly fur- nished by the class teacher: The brown road shows the retreat of the British from Concord and Lexington to Charlestown and Boston. The semi-circle of blue uniformed soldiers represents the Minute Men who have followed the retreating British army to pen it up in Boston. The small red boat is carrying the British from Boston across the mouth of the Charles to storm the American fort at Bunker Hill. The fortifi- cations at Dorchester Heights are guarded by Americans (blue), and Howe, compelled by circumstances and the threatening attitude of Washington's cannon, is leaving Boston in the large, red British ship, for Halifax, never- more to return. 43 FIRST CAMPAIGN IN NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 1776-1777 The British leave Staten Island, attack the American division at Long Island, and capture Brooklyn Heights. The American army, under Washington's leadership, leaves Long Island for New York, thence up the Hudson, abandoning Forts Lee and Washington, across the Hud- son, southwest across New Jersey to the Delaware. The interrupted red and blue line shows that Cornwallis is in pursuit, at the very heels of the American army. Washington crosses the Delaware, recrosses it to cap- ture the Hessians at Trenton (red) and another division of Cornwallis's army at Princeton (red), and then marches to the heights of Morristown to spend the winter. All parts of the diagram were worked out in color in the original. A plan like this means that there has been a real teaching of history. 45 THE FULTON STEAMBOAT The pupils in a fifth-year room were studying about the first steamboat, and it occurred to the teacher that it would be possible to portray graphically the influence of this small boat upon the world of commerce and travel. The Hudson River with the Palisades was drawn upon the board in color (see page 29). In class discussion it was learned that all the steam craft of the world were the out- growth of this first Hudson River steamboat, hence the importance of this invention. The pictures of the boats which were the descendants of the Fulton boat were made much as described on page 67. 47 OPENING OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER This large sand table is so complete and interesting that two views of it are shown. The following description of the table was written by one of the girls in this seventh- year class: " The Union army had made four plans, to be carried out during the Civil War, one of which was to open up the Mississippi River. The Confederates had stationed many boats about the ports. Two strong and substantial forts were placed on each side of the river at its mouth. But before the Union fleet could get past these forts to get up the great river, they would have to cut their way past the gigantic cables which were fastened deep in the ground on each side; these cables were to prevent the Union fleet from getting any farther up the river. " Farragut and Porter kept their courage, however, and managed to get past all forts, cables and Confederate fleets, and took New Orleans. Farragut and Porter were now to continue on up the Mississippi and meet Grant at Vicksburg. Here they knew that the fighting would be desperate, so they planned to work together, etc." The class teacher has kindly supplied the following notes on the work: " All work including the sand table, dia- grams and written papers was done in connection with the study of the Civil War in the Seventh Grade, B division. Sand and modeling clay were used for the land and the cliffs. The boys carved and made the forts and boats of wood, while the girls made the houses, churches, flags, etc., of paper. A small watch chain served as a cable, and hits of shrubs as trees. Pictures, maps and reading were the sources of the work. 49 It is one of the privileges of the special teacher or super- visor of drawing to aid the grade teacher in the blackboard drawings which serve as backgrounds for many of the pictures which the children are to complete, or to assist in planning the sand table constructions. 51 LITERATURE THE THREE BEARS' HOUSE The house was made from cardboard. A large hat box will make a good beginning. The trees were sprigs from evergreen trees, the road was of paper, folded and colored to suggest logs or planks. The class drew bears of various sizes from copy, of course, and the best were selected to grace the sand table. The carpets, rugs, wall papers and other furnishings of the house were made and selected in a similar manner. All was colored with crayons or water colors. 53 THE SUNBONNET BABIES IN WINTER Children always delight in the stories relating the doings of the Sunbonnet Babies. The class in this first-year room had learned to make sleds, houses and snow men, for it was the winter season. The teacher proposed that the children show on the table what the Sunbonneters might do in winter. The table was covered with white drawing paper and on this cotton batting was laid. At one end the hill was constructed. The background was built to resemble blocks of snow piled up, after the fashion of the Eskimo house. Sleds of all kinds formed the subject of several lessons. Then the Sunbonnet Babies began to arrive upon the scene. All this drawn with colored crayons presented a busy and most interesting picture, particularly to the children. 55 THE LAKE DWELLERS The children in the second grade painted several sheets of paper light blue. When these were pasted together the lake was formed. The green bank along the edges was prepared in like manner. In back, placed upright, was a semi-background of small trees. Then came the building of the pier on which these people lived, the houses and the people, and the canoes, trees and real rocks were added below. The school portable blackboard (of course any blackboard would do as well) was placed behind the table, and from the picture in the reader the mountainous land- scape was drawn in color to complete the picture. 67 RIP VAN WINKLE In an upper-grade class the pupils were reading the story of Rip Van Winkle. It was decided that the class should construct, during the drawing period, an illustra- tion of the story. A sheet of nine by twelve drawing paper was first covered with color to represent the ground, blue green in the distance, growing greener and in places brown toward the bottom (the front of the picture). The moun- tains were painted on a second piece of paper, some were made blue for the distance, others blue green for the middle distance, and the foothills that arise from the plain were gray green. Houses, trees and a church were painted for the village. Finally, Rip Van Winkle himself was portrayed. All these things in due time were cut out, each with a flap at the bottom for pasting. It only re- mained to paste them in position and add the path to the mountains. In back of the constructed picture is a water color drawing made from the construction by the pupil who made the latter. 59 GEOGRAPHY THE ARCTIC REGIONS This picture of life in the Arctic regions was made chiefly with cotton. The iceberg or snow mound, the snow hut, and the dog-team driver's suit were all made from cotton, The bear, reindeer, and dogs were toys, but can as well be made of paper, colored with crayons or water colors. The fish may be drawn from those in the school aquarium and hung up to dry. A doll will serve for the Eskimo driver. 61 THE NILE AND THE DESERT This is a simple, interesting, and easily made sand table. The zinc bottom of the sand table, paper painted blue, or glass with blue paper under it, will serve for the Nile. A flat arrangement of the sand will represent the desert. The pyramid and mud house may be made of clay, small wooden cubes, pulp or paper. The camels, palm trees and Arabs may be drawn in color from pictures. Daha- beeyahs may sail upon the Nile, and an Egyptian drawing water by means of a shaduf will add interest, 63 THE HARBOR Few children probably get an accurate idea from word pictures of the real meaning of the word " harbor." When they have created a harbor, placed ships in the water, located the lighthouse where it will best serve the mariners, protected the ships in the harbor by islands and a breakwater, and then, because ships naturally would seek such a sheltered stopping place, have built wharves and storehouses with the street in the rear for the removal of goods, and last, around this have constructed the city or town (if time permits) which naturally grows up where ships come and trade flourishes, then is their image of a harbor and its functions made clear. The illustration shows an individual " sand table " made on an ordinary sheet of nine by twelve drawing paper. The blue water was first painted, a river running to the ocean. On another sheet of paper the green land with its edges of sand was painted and cut out to fit over the water. The ships, breakwater, lighthouse, wharves and buildings were drawn and painted side view, and cut out with a flap left on each piece for pasting. This same idea could as well be carried out on a larger scale on a sand table, using sand for land. 65 COMMERCE The teacher said that the fourth-year class was studying about the means for carrying on commerce between the nations, was it not possible to relate the drawing work to this subject? Of course it was; it always is, only some- times it takes time and experimenting to find out just how to carry a plan through. The drawing teacher was therefore asked to draw upon the board the sea and sky, the field for future action. (For drawing sea and sky see pages 23 and 27.) From toy boats, newspapers, magazines, penny pictures, the class knowl- edge of the ships which aid in carrying on commerce was enlarged. The knowledge thus gained was made their own by expressing it through drawing. Then, when many illustrations had been collected, a lesson was taken for pasting the most satisfactory on the blackboard drawing, which had been patiently waiting to receive its guests for three weeks. The picture in colors is a striking and decorative addition to the schoolroom, and no picture at whatever the cost could be more in keeping with the school work. 67 LUMBERING This is one of the occupations which enters into the geography of today. Let us build the lumberman's camp. One can be made by each pupil in the class. The nine by twelve paper is left white to indicate the snow. The shanty and lean-to are painted and cut out, leaving white paper on their tops to suggest the snow on the roofs, and flaps at the bottom for pasting. The trees are painted with dark green water color; the snow may be added after- wards with white paint or chalk. Several stumps and fallen trees ought to be shown, also a pile of large logs ready for hauling. A river may be placed in the fore- ground with logs in it ready to float downstream when the ice goes out. The team in the back of the picture adds the touch of life necessary for the completion of the sub- ject. With light blue, the tracks in the snow may be placed here and there. 69 THE BEAVER DAM The children in a fourth-year class in geography became much interested in the beavers and their method of build- ing dams. In a back number of " Country Life," a finely illustrated article was found, giving all the necessary information for building the sand-table picture. The illustration on the opposite page shows the beavers gnaw- ing trees, felling them into the water, carrying the mud on their tails, and depositing it on the partially built dam. The beavers were drawn wholly from pictures, of course. 71 HOLLAND A SAND TABLE WITH TOYS In the study of any country or people it is customary to have illustrations of the land brought into the schoolroom. These toy illustrations, the woman, cow, boat, and wind- mills were grouped to present a more intelligible idea of the country and customs of the people than would come from seeing these things disassociated. Such a sand table is not as valuable educationally as one in which all the ele- ments are constructed by the children, but it is better than none, and it is oftentimes advisable because of a lack of time. 73 HOLLAND It will be noticed that the little (?) girl walking on the dyke, and the cow at the rear of the table are too large to be proportionate elements in this table. However, these are not vital defects in a child's table. It would have been better to have all things in true proportion, but these toys were a delight to the class and were used because of the pleasure they afforded. All the other elements in the picture were made by this third-year class. The sea and the canal were first formed by massing the earth to make the dykes. The bridge, windmills, houses, trees, and gardens were other subjects for consideration during several lessons. One by one these elements were placed in position and the picture built up as shown. A study of sea-going ships produced those sailing on the calm waters in the picture. 75 HOLLAND BLACKBOARD CLASS WORK This is a remarkably successful blackboard picture for the children of the first school year to have made. The teacher drew upon the board the sky, sea, canals and land, one or two windmills, a house and a few boats, near and distant, to suggest the effect of distance upon the apparent size of objects. All the other elements were colored draw- ings made and cut out by the little children. One lesson was devoted to drawing windmills, another was spent in picturing houses, a third took up the problem of drawing the people in Dutch costume, etc. Boats were drawn from pictures, from memory, and from toy boats. All the results were extremely amateurish. Better so ! It is a children's picture. 77 A HOLLAND TOWN It requires both time and good teaching to produce a table as comprehensive as that shown in this picture. It measured about three by five feet. Each object shown was the subject of several lessons, and the best results were grouped for the final composition. The figures, as usual, are out of scale in size. It is often a difficult problem for a third -year class to make them sufficiently small to enter the house doors. The impression of the scene would be much more pleasing with miniature figures of the right size toddling along the streets, and it probably could have been made right if the attention of the class had been concentrated upon this defect. (See page 87.) 79 JAPAN BLACKBOARD PICTURE This picture was made in a fourth-year classroom. The teacher drew the background on the blackboard with colored chalks. The sky was blue, becoming warmer, grayer and lighter as it approached the horizon. Fusi- yama with its snow-covered peak was elsewhere of a slightly darker blue; beyond it appeared faintly other hills or distant mountains. The distant plain was almost as blue as the mountains, becoming gradually greener and browner as the foreground was approached. Everything land, trees, houses must be kept blue when in the distance if we are to have the real effect of atmosphere and distance in our picture. A winding stream tends to lead the eye back to the real center of interest in the dis- tance, the sacred mountain of Japan. Note how small the river becomes as it goes back into the picture, finally disappearing altogether. In the front there may be seen the peculiar foot bridges (built for foot passengers, not for automobiles, built high that boats may sail under them), and the summer house for viewing the scene. Thus far the work has been done by the teacher. The children copied pictures of all kinds of Japanese land- scape accessories, pagodas, temples, trees in blossom, boats, lanterns and people, all drawn in color. These were cut out and located according to size to agree with the perspective of the picture. 81 THE CIRCUIT RAILROAD The fifth-grade geography required a knowledge of the route and stations on the circuit railroad on which the city was located. It is said that we know only those things which we have thought out with our muscles, and the teacher decided that if the class were to build the railroad and stations they would become fixed memories. A large piece of wrapping paper was secured and painted gray- green grass color, the river which winds about through the community was painted blue. The route of the railroad was marked out from maps, and the terminal station (at the right) was placed in position. Then came lessons in drawing and cutting the side views of the small depots. A few trees were added to avoid suggesting a Sahara. In constructed pictures of this kind, it is well to remember that they are to be seen, as stage scenery, from one side only, this fact must be borne in mind while coloring the details of the picture. 83 CITY AND COUNTRY LIFE BLOCK BUILDING In a first-grade room there was a surplus of type solids, no longer used for drawing purposes. For " busy work " the teacher drew upon the board pictures of noted build- ings; or placed before the group of workers illustrations of these buildings, such illustrations as may be found in primary educational journals. The little ones interpreted these drawings with supreme pleasure, and the results were astonishingly good. 85 THE VILLAGE STREET SAND TABLE In this first-year room there was a large kindergarten sand table. The sand was arranged by the teacher and children to suggest a street. Lawns were smoothed out and the locations for the houses marked. Then the houses were constructed in class lessons, colored and placed in position. Trees, lights and telegraph poles were cut, or made and located. Class lessons produced the milk wagon, the mounted policeman, and the other figures seen in different parts of the composition. In one place there is an exciting game of croquet; in another, the children are playing " Ring Around A 'Rosie." At the end, the school dismissal has just cheered the juvenile mind, etc. The table is noteworthy because the correct proportion between the houses and other elements has been almost perfectly reproduced. 87 THE LAWN PARTY A lawn party was held near the primary school in which this " sand table " was built. The children were en- thusiastic about the party, and the constructed illustration here shown is the outcome of their interest. It was planned and put together as any composition would be, the large things first, the foundation colored green to represent the lawn, the house, fence, trees and table, followed by the details, the people, lanterns, and dishes. Everything was in color, worked out with colored crayons. 89 VEGETABLE DRAWINGS The interest of the class will be doubled if a way can be found by means of which the fall or early winter vegetable drawings may be utilized. One such way is illustrated in the accompanying cut. With colored chalks, the teacher drew upon the blackboard the body of a grocery wagon, and printed on it the name of the school firm which pro- posed to fill this wagon for delivery. Baskets were drawn in the wagon as shown. Now came the part which the children were to play. Lessons were held in which the children drew the fruits and vegetables in color. The drawings were later cut out and with a bit of paste they were placed in the baskets. The children were astonished when the teacher told them that she proposed to drop these drawn objects into the drawn baskets they vowed that it could not be done! But while talking to the class, the teacher, unobserved, cut a pumpkin, for example, into two parts, and temporarily hides the basket by standing in front of the board. With paste, she placed the half of the pumpkin in place so that the straight, cut edge just touches the edge of the basket. The children reason, one with another, as to how that pumpkin got into that basket, and they marvel at the miracle which has come to pass ! The other objects, higher up, are best slipped behind those in front. This entire result when worked out in color is very attractive indeed. 91 THE STREET REPAIR DEPARTMENT In front of the two-room primary school building the streets were being repaired. A second-grade class took as its problem the construction of the teams and machines used for this purpose. A very close observation of these objects was necessary to obtain satisfactory results. At recess, and before and after school, the street repair de- partment had its due share of attention from the children. The class had previously made houses, wagons and a few other simple forms, and the construction of these similar forms was attended with no difficulty. 93 THE FARM After the children in this fourth-year room had learned how to construct a house it was but a step to the making of the farmyard and buildings. The type of house is varied to meet the demands of the various farm buildings, doors and windows vary in their position, but nothing really new is involved. The fence, old well and sweep, wagon and chicken coops needed only a hint of suggestion here and there. The walks were of sand, the grass of moss, the trees were twigs. The hens and chickens were the results of lessons in drawing these live forms. All was colored appropriately. 95 THE FARM IN WINTER This was constructed on a large sheet of white paper. Snow was imitated through using rock salt. The sleighs are sleds with sections of boxes placed on them. The letter box for the rural free delivery suggests the country. Whether it is better to draw such things as trees and horses and then cut them out, or to cut them out first and then color them, probably no one knows. Some children work better one way, some the other. It is well to try various ways of getting at a thing. The animals are best reproduced from memory, but where there is need of rein- forced memory, as there generally is, pictures will serve the purpose. It is a fact that artists have to learn to draw each new form: how can we expect children to draw any- thing we may chance to suggest? It is somewhat im- practicable to bring horses and cows into the schoolroom, hence we must use pictures. 97 CIRCUS PARADE FRIEZE These two photographs were made from portions of a parade which extended over half-way around the third- year schoolroom. It was placed immediately over the blackboard. The spring circuses had been to town; they had encamped near the school; circus was in the blood of the youth of the land. What better time to draw animals than then? The memory of these animals, chariots, and bands was revived by constant reference to the bills posted on fence and barn on the way to school. Reference was also made to books of animals, when hi doubt as to the detail of some animal. Circus pictures of all kinds were drawn, colored, and cut out. They were then arranged on separate sections of gray cardboard which had seen previous service as mounting board. These cardboard sections had a uniform height, their widths varied, as seen in the illustrations. An effect of perspective was secured by mounting the smaller drawings in back (up high) ; those larger were placed hi front, pasting one in front of another as shown. In this way a wonderfully attractive effect was obtained. And it was said outside, sub rasa, that the children never could have made such a pageant, but they did! 99 CIRCUS PARADE CONSTRUCTION WORK In another room the children constructed their circus. If the class has learned to make a box, house, cradle or other object of like nature, it is but a step to the wagon, and the chariot is the wagon de luxe. Inside these chariots, of which some are shown in the accompanying illustration, were to be found the bespangled snake char- mer with her " largest snakes in captivity"; the lion tamer sits with alert eye, whip in hand; the members of the band play with real circus uncertainty; the unopened cages suggest the mystery of the unseen, be it tent canvas or hippopotamus, who knows? The drivers look as sleepy and bored in the midst of this splendor as do the originals; and the steam calliope seems a fitting tail piece, well equipped to sirenize the rural inhabitant. 101 ANIMAL LIFE THE CHICKEN YARD SAND TABLE This was the work of second-year children. The coops, trees in blossom, background of hills, and sheets of draw- ing paper colored green for grass, were the results of regular drawing lessons. The chickens and the hens were the products of other lessons. The grouping is especially good, showing the strong family ties noticeable in hen community life. An effect of distance was gained by placing the smaller groupings in the background. This idea could as well be worked out on the blackboard similar to the illustration on page 105. 103 RABBITS BLACKBOARD DRAWING Almost any landscape in the book, with the addition of a rabbit hutch, will serve as the background upon which to mount the cut-out drawings of rabbits. These rabbits were drawn with white chalk on gray paper, and were mounted on the board so as to suggest the perspective effect of distance. 105 THE RABBIT FARM SAND TABLE The possibilities for variation of the sand-table idea have no end. Here the children built a farm home for the rabbits instead of placing them on the blackboard. The details are clearly shown in the picture, and the general construction is so like others described on other pages that it is unnecessary to repeat it here. 107 THE SPRING BIRDS The sky, the distant tops of hills, the bird houses, and the trees were drawn by the teacher. The bird houses may be drawn by the pupils if preferred, and the supports which hold them in the air added afterwards by the teacher. The real point is to concentrate the interest of the class upon bird drawing. These birds, drawn in a sixth-year class, were painted in color from memory, from bird charts, and from penny pictures. The best were cut out and mounted on the blackboard drawing. The whole drawing in color was very life like. 109 THE ARRIVAL OF THE SPRING BIRDS In a third-grade room, the teacher asked some of the boys to bring in branches of trees, branches which had been trimmed from trees or had fallen to the ground and were therefore useless. These were placed in a corner of the classroom. A pole was next secured and a bird house constructed out of cardboard and placed in position, locating several horizontal perches beneath the pole as resting places for birds. The suggestion of spring was made by means of little blossoms fashioned from tinted tissue paper. The composition was now fitted to receive the drawings of birds made by the children. There was never a question of interest in bird drawing in that room. Birds of all colors and species known thereabouts soon enlivened the corner of the schoolroom. The result was so dainty and interesting that the pupils from other rooms, the parents, and others came to see the wondrous achieve- ment! ill THE AQUARIUM This illustration shows the preparation made by the teacher to hold the interest of the class in drawing fishes. Directly across the blackboard, between two doors, were drawn the top and bottom mouldings which hold the glass of the aquarium. To suggest strength and perhaps a classification of fishes, a third moulding was added, in the center. The bottom of the tank, or tanks, was covered with yellow-brown chalk to suggest sand. A few shells, pebbles and sea growths were sketched to add attractive- ness. Some of the sea weeds flow out and up, even to the top of the water, and at the right is seen a water lily on the surface. Several fishes were drawn in color by the teacher. Over the sand and weeds and fish, here and there, is drawn a blue film to suggest the water. Two labels were added in an unknown tongue, after the manner of all real aquariums! It now remains for the children to draw fishes in color, cut them out, and paste them to the board in position. After the fishes drawn by the children are in place, it is well to hold them inside the tank by again adding with blue chalk the suggestion of water in front of them. 113 THE SEASONS WHAT THE WIND DOES This was the topic for consideration in the kindergarten. The houses were made from the type forms, the boats came from paper folding. Kites were cut out, and weather vanes were fashioned. Pussy willows served for swaying trees. A man, the kite flyer, was drawn in color, cut out, and placed in position. 115 WINTER SPORT FIRST-GRADE SHEET Here is a good problem for any grade. The illustration shows the product of a child in the first school year. It was made on nine by twelve drawing paper. A certain portion, varying in size and in area on the different papers, was first set apart for the ice. The color of the ice was blue, put on with blue crayon. The tree was drawn from observation and memory, as was the seat under it. The children were drawn during pose drawing lessons, and the woman was a memory drawing. The result is simple in the extreme, and yet it is a problem that can be made to fit the ability of any class, even in the high school. 117 WINTER SPORTS SAND TABLE The first-grade class had learned to construct things used in the winter time and the picture " Winter Sports " was planned. The ice at the right end of the table was drawing paper painted gray blue, the snow was cotton, and the hills at the back were cut from white drawing paper. Trees were of two kinds, sprigs cut from evergreens, and those cut from paper by the children. The cutting of a tree minus its foliage is a very difficult task for little fingers. Houses, sleds and sleighs were made in class lessons, and the children posed for the figure drawings, boys and girls sliding and skating. All the details were drawn with colored crayons, presenting a lively contrast with the general snowy-white scheme of the ground and background. 119 SLIDING DOWN HILL BLACKBOARD PICTURE This was an exceedingly attractive picture. The teacher first covered the blackboard area, about four by six feet, with white crayon to prevent the gray slate board from showing through. The lines of the hill were next marked out. This particular sky happened to be a representation of a sunset, orange and red near the horizon, passing upward through yellow, green and blue to the top of the board. The white was now added vigorously with strokes suggesting the downward slope of the hills. A few ruts in the snow were made with blue chalk, and the trees and the house were put on the drawing. Figures were placed here and there, one in front, one half-way back, and several in the distances to indicate the effect of distance upon the apparent size of objects at various distances from us. It was now ready for children to complete by making pictures in color of boys and girls as they would appear when coasting. This work was done in a first-grade room. 121 SLIDING DOWN HILL CONSTRUCTION The children in this third-grade room had learned to make sleds. To add interest to interest, the teacher placed a few boards in one corner of the room and covered them with cotton to represent snow. Lessons in drawing from life, different children in the class posing, resulted hi an abundance of figure drawings wherewith to burden the sleds. The hill was surrounded with branches of ever- green trees, which effectively framed the scene. 123 THE BASE BALL TEAM In the spring the very young man's fancy turns ardently to the national game. Boys are keenly interested to show their ability to represent the actual facts of the ball field and its players. This illustration was made upon four sheets of drawing paper by a boy in the fifth grade. It would have been better had there been more action and a greater variety of positions on the part of the players. This can be secured by having the boys in school pose in turn in the various positions assumed by players in action. The pitcher, for example, distorts himself in attitudes ranging from the picturesque to the grotesque. A num- ber of pose lessons, all with the intention, not of drawing merely for the sake of drawing, but of drawing for this baseball picture, will produce all the figures required and some to spare. 125 THE HOLIDAYS THANKSGIVING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES To utilize the Thanksgiving fruit and vegetable draw- ings, the teacher drew upon the board with brown chalk a long, broad line to serve as the store window or bench. Then she drew boxes and baskets and all was ready to hold the drawings made by the children. (For suggestions as to placing the fruits and vegetables in the baskets, see page 91.) The apples hanging from above were first pasted in position and the strings were drawn afterwards. 127 THANKSGIVING STORE WINDOW This show window may be constructed easily from the illustration. It is all made from one piece of nine by twelve drawing paper, with the exception of the cap at the top which has to be fashioned from a second piece. Each pupil in the class can make a store window of this kind. Have a lesson in lettering and print the word " GROCERIES"; when it has been well done, cut it out and paste it in place. All the fruits and vegetables are made in regular drawing lessons, from the objects. At a later lesson they may be drawn from memory on a small scale for this window display. The baskets and boxes may be worked out in like manner. The fruits and vegetables are cut out, when painted in small size; those which are to stand upright on the bench are cut with a flap at the bottom for pasting. The others are cut out and pasted partly behind the basket or box as shown. 129 THE THANKSGIVING TABLE The construction of this table is given in the fore part of this book. The dishes were drawn in front or top view, as may be seen in the picture, and decorated in color to suggest their belonging to one dinner set. Each was cut out and placed in position to " set the table." Those that were to stand upright were cut with a flap left at the base for pasting. The flowers in the vase, the fruits and the vegetables were painted, cut out and pasted as shown, on the dishes or partially in back of them. Napkins were made by folding small squares of tissue or tracing paper. This is an interesting problem to develop accurate hand work in any grade. 131 THE DINING ROOM This subject is but a more complete working out of the preceding problem. The dining-room floor, rug, chairs and fireplace are added. It is the object of this book to suggest various ways of attempting these problems, that the teacher may find the necessary stimulus for the solution of her own problem. 133 THE CHRISTMAS STORE WINDOW The use of scissors is always good manual work. It is more interesting for children to cut out pictures of toys than to cut circles and other abstract things, and the training is equally effective. One first-grade teacher drew upon her board the picture of a store window. From the gifts desired (or later, from those received) by the children at Christmas time, pictures of toys were drawn in colored crayons. For drawing things having an abundance of details, as toys, colored crayons are generally better than are water colors. Later, these toy drawings were cut out and placed on the shelf, or hung up in the window with strings drawn with white crayon. 135 CHRISTMAS TREE BLACKBOARD ILLUSTRATION As Christmas time approached, the teacher made a drawing of the fireplace and fixings, and the Christmas tree upon the board. That the blackboard was a poor one (of cracked plaster) is evident from the photograph. Then began the fun of decorating the tree; candy canes, cornu- copias, mysterious packages, the contents of which no one knew, and the desired toys of domestic and foreign shops were ardently fashioned. With a touch of paste these were placed upon the tree or floor. Then came the aftermath. The holidays were over; the children returned to school and brought with them their toys, and from these toys were made colored draw- ings. These drawings were in turn cut out and placed in position in the picture. Sometimes variety was intro- duced by having the toys constructed and colored, as the sleds in the photograph. 137 THE CHRISTMAS-TIME ROOM The construction of these little rooms is so simple as to need no comment. Each child in a third-grade room made one of them from drawing paper. They were all some- what different in detail, some having a tree in the corner, others showing Santa Glaus at work while the children hi bed sleep peacefully. 139 (SRADE5 I- 5UG5 THE VALENTINE There may be as much merit in the design for a valentine as in any other arts and crafts' production. In lower grade work, simplicity is the key note of success. The symbols are few, and their meaning generally evident at a glance. A middle and a dark tone of red or violet will serve for color. Envelopes may be constructed to contain the valentine, and a heart will answer satisfactorily for the seal. If printing is placed on the sheet, take time to practice it that it may be well done. As with other problems with little children just entering school, it is best, perhaps, for the teacher to trace the hearts, or to hekto- graph the whole design and let the children fill in with color. Most children can, however, cut out hearts from folded paper. Two or three trials will produce fairly good results, about which they may trace upon another paper. 143 FEBRUARY 22, MEMORIAL DAY, ETC. This kind of work gives an opportunity for insistence upon accuracy of workmanship. Shields are easily made with the two sides alike by folding a piece of paper hi the middle, drawing a line to represent the outline of one-half of the shield and cutting the folded paper along the drawn line. Now open the paper and rule the stripes to measure- ment. Another way is to rule the stripes on one-half of the paper only, fold the paper and rub on the back with the unsharpened end of the pencil, rubbing with the corner. This will cause the lead or graphite of the pencil marks to come off upon the other side of the paper, making the two sides exactly alike. The shield may now be colored, or the entire pattern may be transferred to another piece of paper by placing it on the second paper, marking around the outline of the shield and rubbing off the pencil marks as with the half -shield. Always be sure that the pencil lines are black when transferring a drawing in this manner. The coloring should be done well; it should be even in tone, and it should not run over the boundary lines. 145 . I9O7 EASTER CARDS. The Easter lily, the chicken and the rabbit are among the more usable of the Easter symbols. Of these, the two latter are the more popular with little children, the lily being better fitted for the intermediate and grammar grades, although there is no objection whatever to using it with the primary children. To achieve success in a thing of this kind, several lines of practice are necessary. The children must draw chickens or rabbits over and over again until they know how to draw them. (On other pages in this book are suggested ways to retain the interest in animal drawing.) There must be practice in laying washes of water color or colored crayons, if washes are to be used on the final result. Ruler work, lettering, and the orderly placing of the elements of design on the sheet, all these never " happen " successfully in class work. They come only through adequate preliminary drill. It is a good plan to make several trial Easter cards or booklets on cheap paper. For the very little ones it is best that the teacher hektograph the card and ask the children to fill it in with appropriate colors. White and green are the Easter colors; white is the symbol of purity, and green of life. The illustrations herewith are intended to be sug- gestive only, they may be varied in a thousand ways. 147 r IN GENERAL WELL MOUNTED DRAWINGS It is worth while, now and then, to take time to have the pupils properly mount a well-made drawing. First of all, there is no reason for mounting a lot of unoccupied space about a drawing; lay the ruler on each side of the drawing and rule lines to cut away the part of the paper not needed. In doing this, keep the main direction (the axis) of the drawing in accord with the main direction of the paper, in other words, have the drawing " straight " upon the paper. To be sure, plants do grow tipping in all directions, but when we draw the plant on a piece of rectangular paper, the lines of the drawing must be related to the lines of the paper, if we are to have a proper relation between the two. Note also that the lines are ruled so that the drawing is balanced upon the sheet. Cut out the drawing to the ruled lines. The color of the mount depends upon the color of the drawing. A drawing in which brown is the dominating color may have a brown mount. It is safe to have the value of the mount lighter than the darkest part of the drawing and darker than the lightest portions. Oftentimes it is best to have each pupil tint a sheet of drawing paper for a mat for the particular colored drawing which he is to mount. Harmony is agreement, in color as in anything else. If anything, the general tone of the mount should be grayer than the color tones of the picture, never brighter, lest the mount become more attractive than the painting. There are three common ways of spacing the margins on the mount. The first (and poorest) is to have the margins all alike. The second is to have the margins at the top and sides alike in width, and the lower one a little 149 wider, thus allowing for room to hold the drawing and at the same time giving it an effect of stability. The third and most difficult method is to have a gradual increase in widths from the top margin, through the side margins to the lower margin; for example, the top may be one inch, the sides one and one-half inches, and the lower margin two inches. PRIMARY BOOK COVERS WASHES The success of these very simple covers for booklets or portfolios depends upon the lettering and its orderly placing. Children have no difficulty in making light washes with water colors or crayons, but to get good lettering and place it horizontally and in the center of the space reserved for it are more difficult matters. Wher- ever there is lettering to be done, children (and most adults) should copy the letters. In school, the teacher can carefully draw the lettering upon the board. Lettering is really an exacting kind of drawing, and a title should generally be taught one letter at a time. The lettering may first be done on a piece of ruled writing paper, such as is cheap and abundant in school. Tear off the left- over space at the end of the words so that the words appear in the middle of the paper. Cover the back of this piece of paper with lines made by scrubbing on it with a pencil. Now turn it right side up, place it in the desired position on the cover and with a pencil carefully go over the lines of the letters. Lifting the paper it will be seen that the letters have been transferred to the cover paper. They should then be gone over with brush and color, paying 151 particular attention to the ends of each line of every letter. See that these are made a bit heavier to give a finish to the letters. Two or three tones of one color produce a safe color effect. The title is the most important thing on the cover, it should be strongest in color. BOOK COVERS INCLUDING DESIGNS For the lettering, etc., of book covers, see the preceding pages. If a design is added, it is best that it should have a meaning in agreement with the title of the book. In general shape it should agree with the cover itself or the space in which it is to be placed. In lines it should repeat, so far as possible, the vertical and horizontal lines of the cover. In color it safely may repeat in half value the color used for the title. The conventional design is almost always more decorative and fitting than the naturalistic drawing because the cover itself is a con- ventional thing. (If the outlines of the cover were rudely torn into odd shapes, it is evident that the reverse would be true.) The naturalistic, the semi-conventional and the conventional forms of design are illustrated on the accompanying plate. Whatever plan is followed, it is wise to keep the design and the title placed close together, that they may form one spot on the page, thus avoiding the common error of having two centers of interest in one composition. 153 THE DOLL HOUSE The manual training boys in the upper grades are generally entirely willing to build a rough doll house for the little ones in the primary rooms. If not feasible, the interior of a box will answer. A lemon or an orange box comes with an inside shelf, which makes an adequate second floor when the box is placed on end. It takes quite a long time for the children to furnish the entire house. All of the things in the house are made in class, and the best selected for the house. Thus we shall have a lesson on wall papers, probably followed by several others before we secure satisfactory results; then perhaps a series of lessons on chairs, and so on. The order hi which these things ought to be made is unknown; we may make them as we need them, finishing one room, or keeping all four rooms in the process of construction at the same time. Generally the first lessons ought to be worked out with cheap manilla paper, and later the same objects may be made, if desired, with oak tag paper, which, having more body, will not so rapidly grow old. The paper may be colored to form a unit in agreement with the general color scheme of the room. Brown or green paper may be used for furniture in certain rooms; white for others, as the bed rooms, thus doing away with the necessity for later coloring with water colors or crayons. This is a ripe chance to suggest the thought that color harmony is color agreement, that in the furnishing of a house all the articles in a room ought to have something hi common in the matter of color. In one room the prevailing color may be brown; there may be quite a range of browns running from an orange-red brown to a yellow brown, sometimes grayed, sometimes more intense or 155 purer. The larger the area, the grayer the color should be, this is a good standard rule to teach and to follow. Even the little children may produce rooms, by following this simple principle, in which the color harmony is much better than in many homes. If we are to furnish a toy house, why not do it well? Why not make a thing of beauty ? It costs no more, and the result is immeasurably superior. The curtains may be made from tissue paper; the floors ought to suggest hardwood, with rugs on them. The kitchen floor maybe designed to indicate tiling or linoleum. A lesson or two in simple landscape or flower painting will furnish the pictures. All these things are well done only where there are definite lessons which aim to do certain things, and these lessons ought to be repeated until the children do the thing required as well as they can at their age. 156 A 000 053 632 6