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 THE 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR : 
 
 BEING A GUIDE TO 
 
 BuilUers, iiraugljtsmtn, ^tuUents, antj SSaoriimtn, 
 
 STUDY, DESIGN, AND EXECUTION OF ARCHITECTURE 
 
 CONTAirs'INO 
 
 COMPREHENSIVE COMPARATIVE TABLES 
 
 OF THE RESPECTIVE PROPORTIONS OF EACH MEMBER OF THE ORDERS OF ANTIQUITY, AND 
 THOSE OF THE MODERN MASTERS ; 
 
 AND DETAILED TABLES 
 
 PRESENTING THE DIMENSIONS OF EVERY MOULDING IN THE ORDERS OF VIGNOLA. 
 
 TOGSTHER WITH 
 
 i^Iatee stiotoiiig tfjc l^artirular jform of cacfj Dtstiiirt i3art, 
 
 AND THE DIFFERENT METHODS OF TRACING THEM ; 
 
 WITH ARCADES 
 
 ADAPTED TO THE SEVERAL ORDERS, WHEN EMPLOYED EITHER WITH OR WITHOUT PEDESTALS 
 
 THE PUREST EXAMPLES 
 
 OF ALL THE OTHER PARTS WHICH ENTER INTO THE COMPOSITION OF EDIFICES ; 
 
 THE -WHOLE 
 
 REDUCED TO MODULES AND MINUTES, OR PARTS; 
 
 POLLO-WED BT 
 
 ?3Ian6, (Slebattons. anU Sections of barious JSuiltrtugs anU iSUifires : 
 
 TO WHICH ARE ADDED, 
 
 A HISTORY OF THE ART FROM ITS ORIGIN: A DESCRIPTION OF, AND OBSERVATIONS ON. 
 
 THE MOST CELEBRATED ANTIQUE AND MODERN EDIFICES: A DEVELOPMENT OF TH 
 
 ESSENCE OF THE ART, EMBRACING THE IDEAS OF ORDER, SYMMETRY, VARIETY, 
 
 HARMONY, UNITY, BEAUTY, INVENTION, ETC. : A MINUTE EXAMINATION OP 
 
 THE PARTICULAR QUALITIES AND SUITABLE EMPLOYMENT OF THE 
 
 CONSTITUENT PARTS OF EDIFICES: 
 
 A GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 CARPENTRY, JOINERY, MASONRY, BRICKLAYING, SLATING, PLUMBING, 
 PAINTING, GLAZING, PLASTERING, ETC. 
 
 By JOHN BILLINGTON, Architect. 
 
 SerontJ ISUition, cyiratls enlarged. 
 ILLUSTRATED BY NEARLY ONE HUNDRED PLATES AND TABLES. 
 
 LONDON: 
 HENRY G. BOHN, YOIIK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 
 
 1848. ■
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 A WORK on Architecture which would supply the 
 place of a great number of books that treat only on 
 distinct parts of the subject, and also present a clear 
 and perspicuous detail of the theory and practice of 
 the art, has long been a desideratum, both to the 
 practical man and the student. Indeed, a knowledge 
 of the theory and beauties of architecture, concerns 
 almost all ; since it is only by the possession of this 
 knowledge, that architectural productions can be 
 appreciated. In order to give au increased interest 
 to the present work, and to facilitate the attainment 
 of a correct taste, a comprehensive history of the art 
 is given, from its origin to the present time ; con- 
 taining an ample description of the most celebrated 
 antique and modern edifices, a comparison of the 
 .styles of the different artists who executed them, and 
 a brief notice of their beauties and defects It 
 furnishes a body of useful and interesting information, 
 which is rendered still more complete, by the com- 
 parative tables thitt accompany the detailed explana 
 tions of the orders; in which will be found a com- 
 parison of the general proportions, according to which 
 the different parts of each of the orders were executed, 
 in the most celebrated edifices of antiquity. To these 
 are added the proportions assigned to them ])y modern 
 masters. Each of the constitutcnt parts of edifices, 
 and also what relates to distribution and decoration,
 
 IV PREFACE. 
 
 are treated on at considerable length. The sources 
 whence the art derives its means of expressing- 
 character are fully developed ; and are offered to the 
 notice of the student, as worthy his most serious 
 attention. 
 
 In illustration of the historical portion of the work, 
 the examples furnished by Italy have been offered. 
 These are not given as copies for servile imitation, nor 
 are they supposed to be entirely exempt from faults ; 
 neither must it be forg'otten that our climate, mate- 
 rials, and customs, often prescribe other forms than 
 those which they exhibit. The liberty has been 
 taken of divesting them of everything that might be 
 considered injurious to their good effect. 
 
 On construction, the necessary information will be 
 found in the glossary ; which also contains an expla- 
 nation of the terms used in the theory and practice of 
 the art ; and comprises separate treatises on every 
 branch relating to building. 
 
 Landscape gardening, as connected with architec- 
 ture, is not omitted. 
 
 The Author's object has been to produce a complete 
 body of information ; in doing which, he has availed 
 himself of assistance from the most valuable and 
 authentic sources, both in England and France ; and 
 he has endeavoured to condense and simplify the 
 opinions of others, in uniting them with his own. 
 Should his labours conduce to the advancement of 
 architectural knowledge, his desires will be realized ; 
 and his labours will be repaid by the gratifying con- 
 sciousness of their utilitv.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 What arcliUectiire is ; and the knowledge requisite to 
 
 an architect ___---- 1 
 
 In what architecture consists - - - - - 10 
 
 On the origin of each of the constituent parts of archi- 
 tecture - - - - - - - -15 
 
 A brief review of the progress of the antique achitec- 
 ture, from the earliest oeriod to the last century - 49 
 
 The antique orders - - - - - -115 
 
 Of the five orders in general - - - - .117 
 
 P'pTe I . The five orders of Vignola. 
 
 The general divisions of the five orders of architecture 118 
 The extreme proportions of the five orders of architec- 
 ture. -" - - 119 
 
 The Tuscan order .,_._- 121 
 
 Comparative table of the general proportions assigned 
 to the Tuscan order, by the most eminent modern 
 masters. 
 Table presenting the names and detailed proportion of 
 the members and mouldings of which the Tuscan 
 order is compored, according to Vignola. 
 Manner of drawing the orders _ > « - 125 
 
 I'late 2. Mouldings 
 
 3. Tuscan order 
 
 4. Details of the Tuscan order. 
 
 Of the arrangement of mouldings - - - - 127 
 
 The Doric order - - - - - - -130 
 
 Comparative table of the general proportions of the 
 Doric order, from the most celebrated edifices of 
 antiquity, together with those assigned to it by the 
 most eminent modern masters. 
 Detailed table of the mutule ana dencicu.ated Doric 
 entablatures of Vignola, and the column and pedestal 
 common to both. 
 Plate 5. Miitulp Doric order. 
 
 6 Details of the mutule Doric order. 
 
 ■ 7. Denticulated Doric order. 
 
 ' 3. Details of the denticulated Doric order. 
 
 The Ionic order. .-_.-. 142 
 
 Comparative table of the general proportions of the 
 lonir order.
 
 VI CONTENTS. 
 
 TAGS 
 
 Detailed table of the Ionic order. 
 Plate 9. Ionic order. 
 
 10. Details of the Ionic order. 
 
 Of pikisters - - w - - - - 153 
 
 Plate 11. Capital of the Ionic pilaster. 
 
 Method of tracing the Ionic volute - - - - 158 
 
 Plate 12 Drawing of ditto. 
 
 The Corinthian order - - - - » -159 
 
 Comparative table of the Corinthian oruer 
 Detailed table of the Corinthian order 
 
 Method of tracing the Corinthian modi'iJion - - 174 
 Drawing of ditto. 
 Corinthian order 
 Details of the Corinthian order. 
 Method of drawing the Corinthian capital - •• 1 74 
 
 Plate 15. Plan and elevation of the Corinthian capital «n front 
 and at the angle. 
 Corinthian pilaster - - - • - -17B 
 
 Plate 16. Capital of the Corinthian pilaster. 
 
 The Composite order - - - - - -177 
 
 Comparative table of the Composite order. 
 Detailed table of the Composite order. 
 Plate 17. Composite order. 
 
 • 18. Details of the Composite order. 
 
 Method of drawing the Composite capita - - 183 
 
 Plate 19, Plan and elevation of the Composite capital, in front 
 
 and on the angle. 
 Plate 20. Detailed elevations of the Corinthian and Composite 
 
 capitals. 
 Plate 21. Details of the soflBts of the five orders. 
 
 To obtain a proportional gradation of the orders - 184 
 
 Plate 22. Gradation of the orders. 
 
 Diminution and entasis of the shafts and columns - 185 
 Plate 23. Method of tracing the diminution and entasis of 
 columns. 
 Comparative table of the diminution of columns, taken 
 
 from the be.st antique examples - - - - 186 
 
 Rules of proportion for the diminution which should 
 be given to the superior diameter of the shafts of the 
 different columns, according to their height, from 
 
 fifteen to fifty feet 187 
 
 Plate 24. Manner of tracing ditto. 
 
 Proportion of entablatures, according to the heights of 
 
 olumns, after the manner of Vitruvius - - 188 
 
 P'ate 25. Drawing of ditto. 
 
 Intercolumniations for sacreo and other public edifices, 
 
 according to Vitruvius - - . - l90 
 
 Pediments, according to Vitruvius - - - - 191 
 
 late 26. Pronortion of pediments.
 
 CONTENTS. V:i 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Comparative table of the inclination of pediments and 
 
 roofs, from antique and modern edi-fices - - 193 
 
 Intercolumniations, equally distanced, for edifices ot 
 
 less importance, according to Vitnivius - - 193 
 
 Intercolumniations, given by Vignola - - - 194 
 Plate 27. Plans of intercolumniations of each of the orders. 
 
 Application of columns to arcades - - - - 194 
 Plate ^17 . Plans of intercolumniations of columns without pedes- 
 tals, applied to arcades. 
 Plate 28. Elevations of the intercolumniations of the Tuscan order. 
 
 with and wthout arcades. 
 Plate 29. Doric ditto. 
 
 30, Ionic ditto. 
 
 31. Corinthian ditto 
 
 32. Plans of the intercolumniations of columns with pedes 
 
 tals, applied to arcades. 
 Plate 33. Elevation of the intercolumniation of the Tuscan oider 
 
 with pedestals, applied to arcades. 
 Plate 34. Elevation of the intercolumniation of the Doric order 
 
 with pedestals, applied to arcades. 
 Plate 35. Ionic ditto. 
 
 36. Corinthian ditto. 
 
 37. Imposts and archivolts of the five orde 
 
 Comparative tible of the respective relations in the 
 heights of columns, when employed above each other, 
 with arcades in the same facade, taken from the 
 most celebrated antique and modern examples - 197 
 
 Of rustics - - -_ - - - -liiii 
 
 P.'ate 50, figures 7 and 8. Examples of the fonn and proportion 
 of iiistics. 
 
 Of doors 200 
 
 Plate 50, fig. 2. General proportion of doors. 
 
 40. Door under the portico of the pantheon, at Rome. 
 
 41. Rustic door of Vignola. 
 
 42. Doric door. 
 
 — — 43. Door of S. Lorenzo in Damaso, at Rome. 
 
 ■ 44. Details of ditto. 
 
 ■ 45. Door of the saloon of Farnese palace. 
 
 46. Details of ditto. 
 
 Of windows _-_..-- 203 
 
 Plate 50, fig. 1 . General proportion of windows. 
 — — 50, fig. .3. Mezzaninas. 
 
 47. Window of the ground story of Farnese palace, in the 
 
 fd<jade fronting the place. 
 Plate 48. Window of the second story of Farnese palace, in the 
 facade fronting the place. 
 Of balusters - - - - - - 212 
 
 Plate 50, figures 5 and 6. Form and proportion of balusters. 
 
 OfnicJies - 215
 
 Vlii CONTENTS. 
 
 Pi.an 
 P'.ate 49. Niche in the interior of the templf at Nismes. 
 
 Of crowning entablatures - - _ _ 220 
 
 Plate 38. Crowning entablature of Vignola 
 
 39. Crowning entablature of Farnese palace. 
 
 Of the form and proportion of the interiors of buildings 
 
 and edifices ------- 222 
 
 Of distribution ------ 227 
 
 Of domes 234 
 
 Comparative table of the proportions of the most consider- 
 able cupolas, constructed in various countries, and at 
 different epochs • from the earliest period to the pre- 
 sent time. 
 Method of tracing the compartments of cupolas - 249 
 
 Plate 51. Drawing of ditto. 
 
 Of decoration ------- 250 
 
 Plate 52. Ornaments of mouldings. Cymas, and cavettos. 
 
 53. Ditto ditto. Cymas, cavettos, talons, and 
 
 cyma reversas. 
 
 54. Ditto ditto. Quarter rounds, talons, and 
 
 astragals 
 ■ 55. Ornaments. Details of the compartments of ceilings, 
 from the arches of Titus and Septimus Severus, and 
 the temples of the Sun and of Peace 
 On the principles and beauty of architectural composi- 
 tion or design ----- 280 
 Plate 56. Plan and elevations of a liouse, at Rome. 
 
 57. Elevations of ditto 
 
 58. Plans of ditto 
 
 59. Elevation of ditto. 
 
 • 60. Plans of ditto. 
 
 61. Elevation and section of ditto 
 
 ■ 62. Plan and section of ditto. 
 
 63. Plan of ditto 
 
 64. Plan and elevation of ditto 
 
 65. Plan of ditto. 
 
 66. Elevation of ditto 
 
 - 67 & 68. Plan of a design for an arcade 
 69. Elevation of ditto. 
 
 — ^ 70, Ditto of a design for a theatre. 
 
 . 71 &: 72. Plan of St. Peter's church, at Rome. 
 
 Elevation of ditto — see Frontispiece. 
 
 73 A, 74. Section of ditto. 
 
 75. Section of a church at Genoa. 
 
 • ■ ■ 76. Plan of a design for a church. 
 
 — — 77 Elevation of ditto 
 
 A Glossary of Architecture, including carpentry, joinery, 
 masonry, bricklaying, slating, plumbing, paiiiting, 
 glazing, plastering, &c., is inserted at the end of tiie 
 Director.
 
 AiV ALPHABETICAL LIST 
 SUBJECTS TREATED OF I\ THE GLOSSARY 
 
 Abacus 1 
 
 Abbey ib. 
 
 Abele Tree ib. 
 
 Abbrouvoir 2 
 
 Absis ib. 
 
 Abutment ib. 
 
 Acacia 11 
 
 Academy ib. 
 
 Acantlius 12 
 
 Accesses ib. 
 
 Accessories ib. 
 
 Accidental Point ib. 
 
 Accouplement ib. 
 
 Acroteria ib. 
 
 Admeasurement ib. 
 
 Advtura ib. 
 
 Edes ib. 
 
 >¥)dicula ib. 
 
 /Egicranes ib. 
 
 iEolus ib. 
 
 ./El arium jb. 
 
 Agora ib. 
 
 .*.ireeraent ib. 
 
 Aisle ib. 
 
 Air-holes ib. 
 
 Air-trap il). 
 
 .■Vlabaster 13 
 
 Alcove ib. 
 
 .\lder ib 
 
 Algebra ib 
 
 .\IIcy 14 
 
 .\lms-house ib. 
 
 Altar ib. 
 
 Altar-piece ib. 
 
 Altar-.<!Creen 15 
 
 Alto-relievo ib. 
 
 Ambulatory ib 
 
 .Amphiprostyle ib. 
 
 Amphitheatre ib. 
 
 .Vacones ib. 
 
 Angle ib. 
 
 .\ngle-bar 17 
 
 Angle-bead ib 
 
 Angle-brace, Augle-tie, Dia- 
 gonal-tie 18 
 
 Angle-bracket ib. 
 
 Angle of a Wall ib. 
 
 Angle-rafter, Hip-rafter .... ib. 
 
 Anifle-rib ib. 
 
 Angle-staff ib. 
 
 Angle-stones ib. 
 
 Annie-tie ib. 
 
 Annularmouldin^'s ib. 
 
 Annular-vau't ib. 
 
 Annulets it). 
 
 Anta ib. 
 
 Ante-chamber ib. 
 
 Ante-mural ib. 
 
 Ante-pagmenta, Pegmata . . ib. 
 
 Ante-room ib. 
 
 A nte-cour ib. 
 
 ADticum ib. 
 
 .Antique 
 
 Antonine Column. Trajan 
 Column 
 
 Apartment 
 
 Aperture 
 
 Apsis 
 
 Apron 
 
 Apron-piei-e 
 
 Apron-lining 
 
 Aquaeduct 
 
 Arabesque 
 
 Arseostyle 
 
 Araeosvstvie 
 
 Arc .."..." 
 
 Arcade 
 
 Arc-boutant. Arch-butraent. 
 Flying-but'ress. Arched- 
 buttress 
 
 Arch 
 
 Architect 
 
 .Architecture, Grecian 
 
 Architecture, Roman 
 
 Architrave 
 
 Ai chive 
 
 Archivolt, or Archivault .... 
 
 Area 
 
 Arena 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Arsenal 
 
 Art 
 
 Artificer 
 
 Artist 
 
 Artizan 
 
 Artistlike 
 
 Ash 
 
 Ashlar 
 
 Aspect 
 
 Asphaltum 
 
 Astragal 
 
 Athenian Architecture .... 
 
 Atlantes 
 
 Atrium 
 
 Attic . . 
 
 Attic Door 
 
 Attic Base 
 
 Attic Order 
 
 Attributes 
 
 Auditorium 
 
 Aurum M usivum 
 
 Aviar>' 
 
 Axiom 
 
 Authority 
 
 Axis 
 
 Axis 
 
 Back of a Hip ib. 
 
 Back of a Slate ib 
 
 Backer ib. 
 
 Balcony lb. 
 
 Raluster ib. 
 
 Balustrade - Ib. 
 
 Band 36 
 
 Pt.aa 
 
 Base 36 
 
 Basement ib. 
 
 IJasilica ib. 
 
 3ass-relief 37 
 
 Bastard Stucco ib. 
 
 Batten ib. 
 
 Bitten Door ib. 
 
 Batter. Battering ib. 
 
 Bay ib. 
 
 Bay Window ib. 
 
 Bead ib. 
 
 Beaking-joiat ib. 
 
 Beam ib 
 
 Bear 38 
 
 Bearing ib 
 
 Bearer ib. 
 
 Bed 39 
 
 Bed-moulding ib. 
 
 Bed of a Slate ib. 
 
 Bevel ib 
 
 Bevel-joint ib. 
 
 Biuding-j .ists ib. 
 
 Bitumen ib. 
 
 Bond 40 
 
 Bond of a Slate. Lap of a 
 
 Slate 41 
 
 Bond-timber ib. 
 
 Bottom-rail ib. 
 
 Brace ib 
 
 Breaking-joint ib. 
 
 Breakinp-down or Cut . . . . ib. 
 Breastsummer, Bressummer 42 
 
 Brick ib. 
 
 Brickwork 44 
 
 Brick Trimmer 59 
 
 Bridire ib 
 
 Bridging Joists 51 
 
 Bring-up ib. 
 
 Building Act ib. 
 
 Butment ib. 
 
 Butt-joint. Abuttin,' ib. 
 
 Cabinet 52 
 
 Cable Ib. 
 
 Caisson lb. 
 
 (Camber ib. 
 
 Camber Beams ib. 
 
 Cantilevers ib. 
 
 Capital ib. 
 
 Carcass of a Building ib. 
 
 Carpentry ib 
 
 Carry-up 59 
 
 Caryatides ..... lb. 
 
 ( asting. Warpinjr ib. 
 
 Cavetto ib. 
 
 Caiilicoli ib. 
 
 Celling ib. 
 
 Ceiling-joists ib. 
 
 Cement 60 
 
 Centering 62 
 
 Chimney ib. 
 
 Cistern 63
 
 u 
 
 PAOB 
 
 City 64 
 
 Clamp ib. 
 
 Clear 65 
 
 Clear Story Windows ib. 
 
 Clinkers ib. 
 
 Closer ib. 
 
 Closet ib. 
 
 Coarse Siuff ib. 
 
 Coat ib. 
 
 Cockle Stairs ib 
 
 Coffer ib. 
 
 Coin ib. 
 
 CoUarin. Collarino ib. 
 
 Collar-beam ib. 
 
 Colonnade ib. 
 
 Column ib. 
 
 Compartment Ceiling ib. 
 
 Composite Order ib. 
 
 Conxe ib. 
 
 Cono-conic .\rch ib. 
 
 C'lno-conic Groin ib. 
 
 Conservatory ib. 
 
 Console ib. 
 
 Construction ib. 
 
 Ciintinued ib. 
 
 Contour G6 
 
 Coping ib. 
 
 Cope-over i b. 
 
 Coib.ils ib. 
 
 Cordon ib. 
 
 Core ib. 
 
 Corinthian Order i h. 
 
 Cornice ib. 
 
 Corona ib. 
 
 Corridore ib. 
 
 Cortile ib. 
 
 Cottage ib. 
 
 Counter Fort ib. 
 
 Counter Lath ib. 
 
 Countersink ib. 
 
 Country House ib. 
 
 Coupled Columns ib. 
 
 Course 67 
 
 Course ib. 
 
 Court ib. 
 
 Cousinet. — Cushion ib. 
 
 Cove Bracketing ib. 
 
 Coved and Flat Ceiling .... ib. 
 
 Cover ib. 
 
 Cover Way ib. 
 
 Cradling ib. 
 
 Cramp ib. 
 
 Cross-grained Stuff ib. 
 
 Cross-vaulting ib. 
 
 Cro'.vn-post. Joggle -post. 
 King-post ib. 
 
 Cupola ib. 
 
 Curb ib. 
 
 Curb Plate ib. 
 
 Curtain Step ib. 
 
 Cylindrie Ceiling. Waggon- 
 headed Ceiling ib. 
 
 Cylindrie Groin ib. 
 
 Cylindro-cylindric Arch . . ib. 
 
 Cylindro-cp'indric Groin .. ib. 
 
 Cylindro-spheric-Arch ....ib. 
 
 Cylindro-spheric Groin .,,,ib. 
 
 Cylindroldic Groin ib. 
 
 Cyma Uecta .^...ib. 
 
 Cyma Reversa ..,...»,o-. . 68 
 
 Cyma Taloa , ib. 
 
 Deil ib. 
 
 Decastyle ib. 
 
 Decoration ib. 
 
 Dentils ib. 
 
 Design i^. 
 
 De ails ib. 
 
 I>' -sty'e '.'.'. ih. 
 
 Die. ,b. 
 
 ALPHABETICAL LIST. 
 
 PAOB 
 
 Die 68 
 
 Diminished Bar ib. 
 
 Diminished Arches ib. 
 
 Diminution ib. 
 
 Dining Room ib. 
 
 Dipteron ib. 
 
 Discharge ib. 
 
 Discbargin? Arches ib. 
 
 Discharging Struts ib. 
 
 Dishing-out ib. 
 
 Disposition ib. 
 
 Dog-legged Stairs ib. 
 
 Dome 69 
 
 Door ib. 
 
 Door Frame ib. 
 
 Doric Order ib. 
 
 Dormant, or DormerWindow ib. 
 
 Dormitory ib. 
 
 Double Fir Laths ib. 
 
 Dove-tailing ib. 
 
 Dragon Beam, or Piece ib. 
 
 Drag. Dragging ib. 
 
 Drawing, or Withdrawing 
 
 Room ib. 
 
 Dressing ib. 
 
 Dressing Room ib. 
 
 Drift. Ihrust. Shoot ib. 
 
 Drip ib. 
 
 Dripping Eaves ib. 
 
 Drops ib. 
 
 Droved Ashlar 70 
 
 Dwarf Walls ib. 
 
 Eaves ib. 
 
 Eaves Lath, or Board ib. 
 
 Rchinus ib. 
 
 Edging ib. 
 
 Edifice ib. 
 
 Elbows of a Window ib. 
 
 Embossing ib. 
 
 Embrasure ib. 
 
 Engaged Columns ib. 
 
 En>emble ... lb. 
 
 Entablature ib. 
 
 Entasis ib. 
 
 Equi-a!titudinal Groin ....ib. 
 
 Equi-angular Groin ib. 
 
 Equi-Iateral Groin ib 
 
 Eurythmy ib. 
 
 Eustyle 71 
 
 Exchange ib. 
 
 Extrados ib. 
 
 Eye of a Volute ib. 
 
 Fagade 
 
 Face Mould 
 
 Face of a Stone 
 
 Facings 
 
 False Roof 
 
 Fascia 
 
 Feather-edged Boards .... 
 
 Fence Walls 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Filling-in-pieces 
 
 Fine Stuff 
 
 Finishing «. 
 
 Fir-in-bond 
 
 First Coat 
 
 Flatting 
 
 Floated Lath and Plaster set 
 
 for Paper 
 
 Floated Work 
 
 Floating 
 
 Floor 
 
 Flooring Boards 
 
 Flue 
 
 Flush 
 
 Flutings 
 
 Flyf rs 
 
 PAOB 
 
 Foliage .,., 75 
 
 Footings ib. 
 
 Foot-pace ib. 
 
 Forum . ib. 
 
 Foundation 76 
 
 Fox-tailed Wedging ib. 
 
 Franking ib. 
 
 Free Stuff. Frowy Stuff ib 
 
 Frieze ib. 
 
 Frieze-panel 77 
 
 Frieze-rail ii> 
 
 Furrings ib 
 
 Fut ib 
 
 Gathering of the Wings ib 
 
 Geometrical Stairs ib 
 
 Girder ib. 
 
 Glazing ib 
 
 Ground-joists 78 
 
 Ground-niche ib. 
 
 Ground-plate, or Sill ib. 
 
 Grounds ib 
 
 Grout ib. 
 
 Half-space ib. 
 
 Hall ib 
 
 Halving ib. 
 
 Hanging Stile ib. 
 
 Headers . ib. 
 
 Head-way ib. 
 
 Heart-bond ib. 
 
 Helix ib. 
 
 H exastyle ib. 
 
 Hick-joint Pointing ib. 
 
 Hips 79 
 
 Hip-moulds ib. 
 
 Hip-roof ib 
 
 Holing ib 
 
 Impost. Springing ib. 
 
 Intercolumnialion ib. 
 
 Intertie ib. 
 
 Intrados ib 
 
 Inverted Arch ib. 
 
 Ionic Order ib. 
 
 Jack Timber ib. 
 
 Jack Rafters , Ib. 
 
 Jack Ribs ib. 
 
 Joggled Joint ib. 
 
 Joggle Piece ib. 
 
 Joinery ib. 
 
 Joists ib. 
 
 Key-stone 
 King-post , 
 
 Lap 
 
 Lath floated and set fair 
 
 Lath layed and set 
 
 Lath plastered, set, and co- 
 loured 
 
 Lath pricked-up, flouted, 
 and set for Paper 
 
 Laying 
 
 Light-house. Fanal. Pharos 
 
 Lime 
 
 Lime and Hair, CoarseS;u£f 
 
 Lintel 
 
 Lower Rail 
 
 Lucarne, Luthorn, or Dor- 
 mer Window 
 
 Lying Panel 
 
 ib. I 
 
 Margin 
 
 Margins, Marten 
 
 .Masonry 
 
 .Midide R^il ... 
 Mitre
 
 PAGE 
 
 Modillion, Modillion Cornice 82 
 
 Modiaature t'>. 
 
 Mor ar S3 
 
 M uMiiigs :b. 
 
 Moiihiings in. 
 
 Mullion ib. 
 
 Mu nio.i i'^. 
 
 Mu.it. IIS. Moiitiiiits ib. 
 
 Mutules- ib. 
 
 Mutuie Cornice ib. 
 
 Nakod Flooring ib. 
 
 Naked of a Wall ib. 
 
 Nave ib. 
 
 Niche ib. 
 
 Oak ib. 
 
 Oclastyle ib. 
 
 Off-set ib. 
 
 Ogee ib 
 
 Orders ib. 
 
 Ord )iina-.ce ib. 
 
 Oriameiits ib. 
 
 Ovolo ib. 
 
 Painting 84 
 
 Paving 85 
 
 Ptfde-tal ib. 
 
 Pediment ib. 
 
 Perip'eron ib. 
 
 Peristyle ib. 
 
 Pia/ja ib. 
 
 Pier ib. 
 
 Pilaster ib. 
 
 Pitch ib. 
 
 Plastering ib. 
 
 Platband ib. 
 
 Plate ib. 
 
 Plinth ib 
 
 Plumbery ib. 
 
 Polvslyle 86 
 
 Por. h ib. j 
 
 Portail ib. ' 
 
 Portico ib. I 
 
 Pon ib. ! 
 
 Pricking up ib. 
 
 i'liiic pal Kafiri ib. 
 
 Prostyle ib. 
 
 Pseudo-Jipteron ib. 
 
 Pseudo-perip'eron 87 
 
 uggiiig ib. 
 
 ALPHABETICAL LIST 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Punchton S7 
 
 Purline i ■• 
 
 Push ib. 
 
 Putty ib. 
 
 rycnostylo ih. 
 
 Quarters v> 
 
 Quarteriiiif ih. 
 
 tjuarier-roiind ib 
 
 Quoius ib. 
 
 Rafters ib. 
 
 RaiU 8S 
 
 Raising Plates. Wall Plates. 
 Top Plates ib 
 
 Random Courses ib. 
 
 Rectangular Groin ib. 
 
 Rendered and floated. — 
 Floated, rendered, and 
 set ib. 
 
 Rendered, fioaied, and set ib 
 
 R ndered and Set ib. 
 
 Return ib 
 
 Ridje ib. 
 
 Risers ib. 
 
 Roof ih. 
 
 Hough cast ib. 
 
 Hough rendering ib. 
 
 Ri'unh Stuoco ii). 
 
 Roughing-in ib. 
 
 Rud^nture. Cable 89 
 
 Rules ib. 
 
 Rustics ib. 
 
 Rnstic Coins ib. 
 
 Rustic Door ib. 
 
 Sail- over ib. 
 
 Scanll'.ng ib. 
 
 Scotia ib 
 
 Set fair ib. 
 
 Set Work. Layed and set . . ib. 
 
 Setting Coat ih. 
 
 Sewer ib. 
 
 Sifoot. Push. Thrust Jb. 
 
 Skew Back ib. 
 
 Skirs ib. 
 
 Slating ih. 
 
 Sleepers SO 
 
 Somi lb. 
 
 S»n-.mering ib. 
 
 Spars. Common Raften .. ib. 
 
 PAOE 
 
 Spheric Oroin 9j 
 
 •^pher'c v. ur =,,. 
 
 Sph.^rocvlind io .-loiii .. jb 
 
 taif.... .b" 
 
 ■Stai'-s i.> 
 
 St mche i ib. 
 
 Si:,e it," 
 
 St'C'cliers ib 
 
 St.)ie 91 
 
 >trength <)2 
 
 Struts \ 93 
 
 Summer ii,_ 
 
 Stuci-ii. Finishing ib. 
 
 Stucco i 
 
 Stud Work 94 
 
 Systyle ib. 
 
 Tail ib. 
 
 Temple jb. 
 
 Templets 95 
 
 Te'rastyle ib. 
 
 Through Stones ioi 
 
 Tie ib! 
 
 Tie Beams ib. 
 
 Timber ib. 
 
 looling jo.j 
 
 Toothing ib. 
 
 Toius ib. 
 
 Transon Window )b 
 
 Trimmers ib. 
 
 Trimmer )b 
 
 Trimming-joist ib 
 
 Truncaed lioof ]04 
 
 Truss lb 
 
 Truss Post ir). 
 
 Tu-can Order ib. 
 
 Tusk lb. 
 
 Tusk Tenon ib. 
 
 Valley ib 
 
 Vault lb. 
 
 Vestibule lb. 
 
 Volute lb. 
 
 V 'ussoirs. Voussors .... ib. 
 
 Wall b 
 
 Wall lb. 
 
 VV:.l! PlatHS 105 
 
 Aater Table ib 
 
 Window , , lb
 
 THE 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 ViHAT ARCHITECTURE IS ; AND THE KNOWLEDGE REQUI- 
 SITE TO AN ARCHITECT, 
 
 Architecture is generally defined to be the art of 
 building , but this definition does not carry with it a 
 sufficiently positive and extended meaning. If the art 
 of building be considered relative to architecture, it is 
 nothing more than construction ; if it be considered 
 relative to our wants, it appertains to all ages and to 
 all countries : but the art of architecture, according 
 to the etymology of the Greek w^ords apxv reKrovia, far 
 from being common to all nations and to all ages, is 
 confined to a few centuries, and only to a few privi- 
 leged countries ; and ouo-ht to be defined the art of 
 building according to certain rules and proportions, 
 determined by natural causes and the perfected facul- 
 ties of man. The art of building: is found amono;st all 
 savage nations ; but the art of architecture can only 
 be the result of society, enlightened by civilization 
 and the other arts. 
 
 Architecture is an art that requires great judgment 
 and diversity of studies, to enable a person to form 
 correct opinions of the works of others appertaining 
 to it. Ir is acquired by theory and practice.
 
 2 ARCHITECTURAL DI RECTOR. 
 
 The theory of arcliittcture is that knowledge of it^ 
 acquired by the study of the remains of antiquity, by 
 the writings of the most learned authors, by travels, 
 and by meditation. Ttu- «, practice, is the knowledge 
 which is gained by the cxecutino' and conducting of 
 buildings. 
 
 The etymology of the word architect indicates that 
 the person thus designated is the inspector and chief 
 of those employed in the erection and completion of 
 edifices ; and that he has the general direction of the 
 works and of their execution ; which supposes a union 
 of rare qualities and very extended knowledge. The 
 knowledge Vitruvius required of an architect, shows 
 the idea the ancients formed of architecture, and the 
 dearee of esteem to which those might aspire who 
 professed it. Pythius, one of the most celebrated 
 architects of antiquity, required of an architect a more 
 profound knowledge of each particular branch con- 
 nected with the construction and decoration of edifices, 
 than he considered necessary to him who exercised 
 only one of these. But Vitruvius, more judicious, 
 required only a medium knowledge of each. 
 
 When we consider the time required for the study 
 of architecture, the necessary expence incurred, the 
 travelling and difficulties incident to the attaining of 
 that degree of talent, which warrants the assumption 
 of the title of architect ; how few resources does it 
 present, to those who follow it as a profession, notwitli- 
 standing that its utility doubtless ranks it, first amongst 
 the Arts. Furnish a painter with a small piece of 
 canvass, pencils, and a few colours, and if he be a 
 talented artist, he will in a short time produce a 
 painting of considerable value ; his fame and fortune
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 3^ 
 
 resting entirely witliin the power of his pencil. But 
 an architect is placed in a very ditTerent situation; 
 his talent is obstructed and confined by a multiplicity 
 of circumstances. His first business is to examine 
 well the site of the intended edifice ; after this he 
 forms his designs, which he studies, finishes, and then 
 arranges the whole for execution. His attention is 
 next directed to the quality of the materials that may 
 be necessary, their judicious appropriation and value; 
 as also the choice of workmen whose abilities he has 
 to appreciate and direct ; and finally that his design 
 when executed shall possess solidity, convenience, 
 and beauty ; and which, generally, must be efiected 
 by an economical application of resources. What 
 are the gains of a talented architect, after his com- 
 pletion of an edifice that shall be a credit to the age, 
 and which shall have cost him so much exertion and 
 care ? That portion of fame awarded to those who 
 follow with talent and disinterestedness, the practice 
 of the fine arts. More fortunate still if he can peace- 
 ably enjoy this fame. Perhaps he is attacked by that 
 envious calumniator, detraction ; his edifice is cri- 
 ticised, and its cost exaggerated ; he is accused of 
 having studied to enrich himself; whereas probably 
 he has sacrificed his fortune to ensure his fame. 
 Hence all confidence is destroyed, and his talents lie 
 unsolicited and neglected. 
 
 The same remarks will partly hold good as respects 
 public works ; the designs that may be tendered, will 
 perhaps be examined, commented upon and passed ; 
 but when the final selection is made that is to deter- 
 mine the design intended for execution, then it is that 
 me man of talent is driven away to make room for
 
 4 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 the patronized. Hence arise those productions which 
 are found so unworthy of being transmitted to 
 posterity. 
 
 Literary knowledge and history are much more 
 useful to a modern, than they were to an ancient 
 architect. Vitruvius required that an architect should 
 be able to assign a satisfactory reason for the employ- 
 ment of every architectural object, which his designs 
 might present. How much more indispensable then 
 are these studies at the present day, since by the 
 adoption we have made, or rather ought to make, of 
 the antique architecture, an architect finds himself 
 perpetually necessitated to employ an infinity of parts 
 or ornaments ; the common and parasite use of which 
 can only become ridiculous, if not directed by a judi- 
 cious and enlightened mind. The science of history, 
 as it includes that of architecture, discloses the revo- 
 lutions of an art which, more than any other, is linked 
 to the destiny of the nations that employ it. In fol- 
 lowing its origin, progress, and decadency, the student 
 will distinguish the changes of taste, and varieties of 
 style, adopted in different ages by different nations ; 
 he will habituate himself to the discernment which 
 the monuments of antiquity require, and the studies 
 he ouo-ht to make from them. 
 
 Drawing ought to fornt the basis of his education ; 
 and some authors have insisted that no one can 
 become a good architect without having a perfect 
 knowledge of painting or sculpture. It is astonishing 
 to contemplate how great a number of celebrated 
 architects, who, to a proficiency in architecture, 
 united a superiority in other arts, of which it is rare 
 at the present day to attain eminence in one. But
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. O 
 
 without going so far back as to the Greeks and 
 Romans, do we not find this union of superior talents 
 in individuals in the flourishing centuries of modern 
 Italy ? Do not all the arts related to drawing, dispute 
 the right to the renowned names that Fame has 
 inscribed on the records of each? To make a just 
 enumeration would be almost to except none. It was 
 as rare at that time to profess but one art, as it is in 
 our days to possess more than one. It would form 
 too long a list to mention all the celebrated painters 
 and sculptors who also possessed, to a very high 
 degree, a knowledge and taste in architecture, and who 
 have left posterity in doubt under which of the arts 
 their names ought to be inscribed. Amongst them 
 we read the names of Giotto, Orcagna, Mantegna, 
 Michael Angelo, Rafl'aello, Giulio Romano, Polidoro, 
 Vasari, Volterra, Pellegrini Tibaldi, Cigoli, Giovanni 
 Bolognese, Domenichino, Cortona, Algardi, Bernini, 
 and Carlo Maratti. Opposite to this list may be 
 placed the gi-eat masters of architecture, who, to a 
 knowledge of that art, united, in a more or less emi- 
 nent degree, a practical knowledge of the other arts 
 related to drawing ; at the head of which stand Brun- 
 neleschi and Ammanati, who left more than one 
 monument of their knowledge of sculpture ; Sanso- 
 vino, Palladio, and San-Gallo, who were equally able 
 sculptors ; Bramante, Vignola, Alberti, and many 
 others, who exercised in turn the pencil and com- 
 passes. In fine, it may be proved that there exist 
 few beautiful architectural productions, which are 
 not the result of a combined knowledge of the arts in 
 those who were their authors. 
 
 The reason of this union of talent in several arts,
 
 6 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 formerly so common, but at the present day so rare 
 in one individual, was, that in former times, one spirit 
 presided over the arts, one chain connected them, 
 and this common bond was, drawing, or a practical 
 knowledge of natural proportions, which forms the 
 base of architecture, sculpture, and painting. By 
 consulting the memoirs of the lives of the celebrated 
 artists of that early period, the truth of what is here 
 advanced will be discovered ; namely, that their early 
 education was the same, and that the most able 
 architects formed themselves in the school of the most 
 eminent painters. Modein institutions, in extending 
 and rendering the mechanism of each art more diffi- 
 cult, and in contracting genius within a limited circle, 
 have not broken this fraternity, though at the present 
 day it has no more than a name, and no longer exists 
 but in the writings of those who treat on the subject. 
 The arts at that time were really fraternal, and the 
 artists formed a family that enjoyed and enriched 
 themselves from a common patrimony. Instructed 
 in the principles of all the arts, they passed indiffer- 
 ently from one to another, or confined themselves to 
 that with which their taste or circumstances rendered 
 them most familiar; but always preserving the analo- 
 gies which their first studies had tauoht them. It 
 often happened that chance alone caused them to 
 exercise an art in which they had not until then had 
 any practice, and suddenly developed a talent, the 
 acquisition of which at the present day seems to 
 require the exertions of a whole life. 
 
 " The cause of the facility which painters and 
 sculptors have in learning architecture," says Yasari. 
 " is that the one and the other, whether in tlie rela-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 7 
 
 tion of Statues to edifices, or the necessity of drawing 
 and composing architecture in their paintings, are 
 obliged to acquire a knowledge of this art, and to 
 study the rules and proportions relative to it." But 
 a more immediate relation unites the arts tooether — 
 that of drawing ; and it may be easily perceived in 
 what manner it necessarily applies to architecture. 
 If the proportions given to this art were partly the 
 result of those offered in nature, then he who habit- 
 uated himself to the study of them in the book of 
 nature itself, would make more correct applications 
 of them, than they who are impelled by a mere prac- 
 tical imitation of works and edifices, in which they 
 are less sensibly imprinted. 
 
 It is inexpressible how much this practice is useful 
 to an architect, in the execution of drawings ; even 
 independent of the great light which may be derived 
 from the study of the other arts, for invention, correct 
 expression of character, and resources of decoration. 
 A knowledge of chiaroscuro effects of light, contrast 
 of parts, and their accord or antipathy, furnishes him 
 with all kinds of resources ; it shows him the faults, 
 which a flat and mute manner of shading and colour- 
 ing designs, will never' make him perceive ; which 
 only discover themselves in the execution, when it is 
 too late to remedy them. 
 
 Professed architects have justly reproached some 
 painters of having rendered the spirit of architecture 
 unnatural in their edifices, by substituting decoration ; 
 and of having made the resources of their art pre- 
 dominant in the edifices. It is well known that for a 
 long time painting and sculpture governed architec- 
 lure, by which it lost its greatness and intrinsic
 
 8 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR 
 
 beauty : but this circumstance must be attributed to 
 the bad taste reigning at that time in all the arts, to 
 which indeed the painters materially contributed. 
 If the edifices invented and conducted by the painters 
 and sculptors of the flourishing centuries be examined, 
 they will be found to exhibit the correct taste which 
 reigned in their other works. It was not because 
 Cortona and Boromini were painters, that they em- 
 ployed licentious architecture, since Raflaello, Giulio 
 Romano, and many other painters and sculptors, 
 have left us models of the most regular and best 
 reasoned architecture : but the one and the other 
 applied to architecture the taste and style of the 
 other arts which they professed, the principles of 
 which, good or bad, according to the time, were 
 common to architecture. 
 
 But Avhatever may be the strength of these autho- 
 rities, and the consequences that may be drawn from 
 them, a union of the different arts cannot be made 
 at the present day. For though nature has united 
 them, and their common interests draw them together, 
 yet the modern form of education and manner of 
 study, tend to insulate and divide them. Timidity 
 and weakness, the result of method so fatal to genius, 
 makes the idea of re-uniting the sister arts chimerical; 
 as they are separated by barriers which are become 
 insurmountable. But if we can no longer require of 
 an architect, with Vitruvius and Vasari, that he excel 
 at the same time in painting and sculpture, at least 
 ought not a theoretical knowledge of these arts to be 
 required of him ? The art of drawing cannot be too 
 much practised by him, whether it be for the figures 
 which ought to ornament his designs, for ornaments
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. U 
 
 of all kinds, the composition of which belongs only to 
 him, or for the direction of the workmen and artists, 
 to whom he ought to communicate his ideas, and 
 transmit his taste and style. 
 
 All the branches of knowledge hitherto enumerated, 
 form but the accessories of the art ; but architecture, 
 above all other things, requires discernment, and the 
 talent of invention. What fineness of taste, what 
 energy of mind does it demand ! The same feelings 
 which animated Homer and Raffaello ought to have 
 inspired Palladio, and must be possessed by every 
 architect who aspires to appear in the first ranks of 
 an art which is the base of all the others, and which 
 first announces a degree of civilization, taste, and 
 intelligence in a nation. The genius of an architect 
 developes itself on contemplating the monuments of 
 antiquity, which he ought to examine with reason 
 and discernment ; and should endeavour to discover 
 the few rules which they dictate ; for originally the 
 rules were but few in number, though subsequently 
 routine and precedent have greatly multiplied them. 
 
 A student ought to commence early to invent and 
 produce. As soon as he has acquired a general idea 
 of architecture, a facility in drawing, and a know- 
 ledge of the most beautiful models, antique and 
 modern, he should apply himself to compose. Inven- 
 tion, in architecture, is to produce from the imagina- 
 tion an idea of an edifice which is not copied from any 
 other already in being; and the invention will be good 
 if the parts are distributed with order, proportion, and 
 convenience ; if the ornaments are combined with 
 correctness, elegance, and propriety ; if the edifice in 
 its pa.rts and total be appropriate to its intended uses; 
 
 c
 
 10 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 and if it has the requisite solidity. To invent so that 
 the designs may be executed without difficulty, and 
 may obtain the approbation of persons instructed in 
 the principles of the art, is that degree of knowledge 
 in architecture at which he ought to aspire. But it 
 is much more difficult to attain than is imasfined. 
 Tlie eiforts and ambition of those who are destined 
 for this art, cannot be too soon directed to this object: 
 they too often lose the most precious of their years in 
 copying the works of others — working through life 
 on barren traces, without fruit and honour. 
 
 IN WHAT ARCHITKC'I URE CONSISTS. 
 
 Architecture consists in forming an edifice or 
 building, so that it shall be solid, agreeable to the 
 view, convenient, have all its parts in perfect relation 
 to each other, and be of a convenable character, 
 which is always determined by the uses for which it 
 is destined. 
 
 By a solid building is understood one which has all 
 its parts bound with exactness, is of sufficient thick- 
 ness to give them a proper consistence, and in which 
 the footings, retreats, and necessary exterior inclina- 
 tion, are not neglected ; so that the whole is fixed by 
 an invariable equilibrium. 
 
 But as a building that is merely solid will have 
 riothinff ao^reeable to the view, or useful for the pur-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 11 
 
 pose to which it is destined, it is therefore necessary 
 to produce beauty in the ordonnance, or proportion 
 and decoration of the parts, and convenience in the 
 distribution. 
 
 A building which is convenient is one whose parts 
 are such as its destination require ; and this destina- 
 tion determines the number and situation of the apart- 
 ments, stairs, passages, and communications ; which 
 latter should be free and easy, each part showing its 
 use and importance in the respective proportions, 
 when compared one with the other. 
 
 A well-proportioned building is one which in all 
 the parts of its plan presents such harmony in its 
 divisions, that each of its parts has evidently an 
 essential relation to the others ; it is also necessary, in 
 the elevations, that the heights should be adapted to 
 the lengths, and that the apertures should be sup- 
 ported by symmetrical and proportioned planes. The 
 genius of the art consists in proportion. It requires 
 the deepest study, with a correct taste. 
 
 Thus, eurithmy, or proportion, is the agreeable 
 relation of the parts to each other, and with the 
 whole. From this accord, unity, and modulation, 
 results the harmony of all the parts of an edifice, 
 whether it be in the general division of the elevation, 
 or in the interior and exterior decoration. 
 
 Symmetry is the uniform correspondence of similar 
 parts, which ought to be the same in number and 
 disposition at each side of an edifice, in order that the 
 whole may have an imposing appearance, and be 
 easily understood. 
 
 To eurithmy and symmetry belong unity, variety, 
 order, simplicity, and the progression from the simplest
 
 12 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 to the most ornamented. But architecture having 
 necessity for its foundation, there results — Firstly, 
 That its beauty ought to imprint this character of 
 necessity : and the necessity of all its parts ought also 
 to be apparent. Secondly : That the ornaments ought 
 to be derived from the nature of the edifice itself, and 
 result from the want which it might have of them. 
 Hence to ascertain the merits of architectural com- 
 positions, the following rule may be advantageously 
 employed. Examine if each and every part separately 
 and collectively unite to the greatest possible extent : 
 a characteristic expression of beauty; convenience; and 
 a real and apparent solidity. Whoever adopts these 
 principles, which are founded on reason, will neither 
 be imposed upon by authority, celebrity, nor custom. 
 They will also observe the two following rules : — 
 
 The first is of indispensable necessity in all kinds 
 of buildings, and in each of their parts, and cannot be 
 neglected without the risk of incurring censure ; such 
 as false bearings, planes over apertures, shapeless and 
 misplaced pediments, penetration of pilasters, bastard 
 orders, different orders on the same plan or in projec- 
 tion, as also the most solid placed under the most 
 delicate, or the heaviest under the lightest, without 
 their intermedials. These are necessary deductions, 
 drawn from the true principals of beauty, propriety^ 
 and solidity, which properties ought to be found in 
 every building ; and not only exist, but be apparent. 
 
 The second is useful or agreeable on certain occa- 
 sions, and may be used when required, or according 
 to circumstances. The relations of the dimensions in 
 the orders are not of a precision that admit of no 
 variation. What necessity is there, for example, that
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 13 
 
 the Ionic columns should be exactly nine diameters? 
 and why the metopes perfectly square ? But as it 
 before has been observed, it is only in cases of the 
 greatest necessity that these licences should be taken; 
 for care should be observed to give to them only a 
 latitude of a certain circumference, and to endeavour 
 to produce beauty by various means ; at the same 
 time being attentive to those invariable principles and 
 necessary rules, the transgression of which can only 
 produce wanderings that will serve rather to shock 
 our sight, than enlighten and conduct our reason. 
 
 Justness of sight decides the second rule which 
 may be omitted or modified, according to circum- 
 stances, not only in the harmony of the dimensions, 
 but in the choice and number of the ornaments, and 
 the quality of the forms. Is there a reason for not 
 applying the Doric frieze to the Corinthian order? 
 Yes ; the delicacy of the one would be injured by the 
 expression of strength in the ornaments of the other. 
 
 The application of the above-mentioned rules 
 relates to the principal ordonnance of the edifice, 
 which is the form, proportion, and distribution of its 
 parts, as also to the decoration of the whole and of 
 its parts, interior as well as exterior. 
 
 After an architect has formed a precise idea of the 
 required conveniences of any edifice, it rests with him 
 to design it in the best possible manner A sound 
 judgment will enable him to determine, in aL cases, 
 the particular expression of character which his edifice 
 should assume ; how to dispose the accessories and 
 adjacent objects; to overcome all obstacles by for- 
 tunate inventions, according to the nature of the site; 
 to give it a uniform and yet varied appearance, and
 
 14 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 to prevent confusion in those parts where the different 
 wants are found to be in opposition. To the arclii- 
 tect also belongs, if the locality permit, the privilege 
 of determining the extent of the edifice, and the 
 number of its principal parts ; of giving them a suit- 
 able size, according to the uses to which they are to 
 be appropriated ; of afterwards distributing and re^- 
 uniting them so as to form a whole, in such a manner 
 that each part will be found placed where it is most 
 suitable or convenient, and that the total will present 
 interiorly and exteriorly, a convenient, solid, and 
 beautiful edifice, analogous to its kind and destination. 
 No one part ought to predominate to the detriment 
 of another ; and while there is no appearance of excess, 
 still nothing should be omitted that could be desired 
 for its completion. It will thus manifest the genius of 
 the artist ; and thus alone will it be beautiful in its 
 details and total ; and so much the more so in pro- 
 portion as the total and its parts present distinctly 
 and at the first glance a free accordance, and a 
 combination that agreeably fixes the sight. 
 
 The appearance of such an edifice gives rise to an 
 inexpressible pleasure and fascination in the beholder. 
 It awakens in the mind exalted and enlarged ideas. 
 The spectator feels those delightful emotions and 
 agreeable transports which are excited by productions 
 bearing real marKs of superiority of mind.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 ON THE ORIGIN OF IIACH OF THE CONSTITUENT PARTS OF 
 THE ANTIQUE ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Architecture, says M. Quatremere, did not com- 
 mence to be an art in the countries into which it was 
 introduced, till its inhabitants had attained a certain 
 degree of civilization, opulence, and luxury. It was 
 then that man, removing more from rustic labours and 
 occupations, and seeking society in cities, endeavoured 
 to substitute for the pleasures of nature, which were 
 lost to his view, those of the arts, which are the 
 imitators of nature. Before this epoch, architecture 
 ought to rank only amongst the occupations necessary 
 to the wants of life, which in those early days being 
 very limited, its use was confined to making shelters 
 from the inclemencies of the seasons. It was from 
 these rude shelters, which varied in form in most 
 countries, that those remarkable differences originated 
 which we find impressed on the architecture of 
 different nations. 
 
 The first model, rude as it was, had in it certain 
 characters which have never been lost sight of, and 
 which may be traced in edifices of the highest gran- 
 <leur. But whose eye is sufficiently exercised to 
 detect the delicate shades in all countries ? When 
 the art had arrived at the greatest perfection, it was 
 oflen attempted to search after its infant progress ; but 
 was it not then too remote for discovery ? We are 
 doubtless in want of the means to make accurate 
 researches amongst people separated from us by an 
 immense interval of centuries and of place; and like-
 
 16 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 wise of gaining a positive knowledge of the exact sites 
 of the states founded by the first societies, their phy- 
 sical situation, the nature of their climates and pro- 
 ductions, the number of inhabitants, their origin, first 
 social institutions, modes of life, and such other causes 
 as account for the variety in the modes of construc- 
 tion of different nations. Nevertheless, the general 
 differences remarked in the architecture of different 
 people of the earth, may be attributed to the three 
 distinct states which nature seems to have assigned 
 to man ; for it is certain that these had a necessary 
 influence on the first habitations of natural life, which 
 in all countries have served for the models of archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 In primitive times, man, docile to the hand of 
 nature, received from it the three states or modes of 
 life vi^hich distinguish, even at the present day, the 
 different nations of the universe. Those aborigines, 
 according to the nature of their climate and locality, 
 must have been hunters, shepherds, or husbandmen ; 
 and the first habitations, analogous to these three 
 kinds of life, could not but be adapted to their wants, 
 and bear very distinct characters. 
 
 Those people or nations who lived by the chase 
 (and in the same class the lehthyophagers are 
 included) could not for a great length of time have 
 built themselves shelters. The Ions: courses the 
 hunters made prevented them from watcliing their 
 property, which must have comprised few articles; 
 and they found it more convenient to make hollows in 
 the rocks for their dwellings, or to profit by those 
 which nature offered them in its caverns. It was the 
 same with those who lived by fishing : passing a
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DiliKCTOR. \ I 
 
 sedentary life on the sea shores, the sides of rivers or 
 the borders of Jakes, they aivvays made themselves 
 such abodes, or took advantage of those already 
 formed by nature. The little industry which this 
 mode of life required, and the natural idleness which 
 followed it, was sufficient to induce them to prefer the 
 dwellings presented by nature, to those of art. This 
 flict is proved by experience at the present day. as 
 these descriptions of persons continue to adopt the 
 same plan of life in countries where the arts of civiliza- 
 tion have not extended their beneficial iniluence. The 
 pastors or shepherds, as they were inhabitants ol the 
 plains during a great portion of the year, could not 
 make use of the retreats hollowed and prepared in 
 the mountains and rocks by the hand of nature : 
 bemg obliged continually to seek cliange of pasture, 
 and thus lead an ambulatory life ; it was requisite to 
 have dwellings, or shelters, that could be carried with 
 them wherever they went; and hence originated the 
 use of tents. But the active operations of agricul- 
 ture requiring locality of situation, necessity suggested 
 the propriety of building solid and fixed abodes. The 
 agriculturist then living on his own grounds, and in 
 tlie enjoyment of his property, had to store his 
 provisions ; it was therefore necessary to have a 
 habitation at once commodious, safe, healthful, and 
 extensive : and the wood hut, with its roof, was soon 
 erected. 
 
 Such are the three states of natural life ; and to 
 these may be attributed the origin of all constructions, 
 find the differences of taste met with in different 
 nations. It is impossible for these three modes of life 
 not to have produced a sensible expression in archi- 
 
 D
 
 18 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 tectiirCj and very remarkable varieties of style. The 
 proof will be found visibly imprinted in the works of 
 art which succeeded these rude sketches of nature 
 The simplicity and truth of this theory cannot be 
 denied, since it is so far removed from the spirit of 
 system, as to ground on that circumstance a convinc- 
 ing argument in its favour. 
 
 The strange contradictions found in all works 
 which treat on the origin of architecture have been 
 occasioned by not having perceived this triple cause 
 of difference, and by endeavouring to subordinate to 
 one system alone, the various productions and effects 
 of an art which must have been diversely modified 
 according to local circumstances. But it wouici be 
 an erroneous idea to suppose that each country had 
 one principle only for the results of this art, since it is 
 probable that architecture had in certain nations a 
 double principle, as may be seen in the Egyptian. 
 Though other circumstances might have influenced 
 the formation and taste of the different styles of archi- 
 tecture, they will nevertheless be found dependant on 
 the causes just mentioned. It is particularly necessary 
 to trace the art to the three states of liie, and to learn 
 the reasons of the great variety observable in it, in 
 order to prevent the confounding of the art of one 
 nation with that of another. Without this knowledo:e 
 the risk would be incurred of fallins^ into the error of 
 forcing into one system the most contradictory and 
 discordant ideas, or of substituting chance for the 
 natural order of things. Chance or caprice might 
 have had influence in some of the detached forms of 
 architecture, in the details, or in some of the objects 
 of decoration ; but it could not have produced the
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 19 
 
 peculiar and characteristic taste of each conntry, the 
 principle of which may be clearly distinguished in 
 their edifices. Should there, then, be any hesitation in 
 acknowledging the causes, when, independently of all 
 other considerations, their effects are sufficient proofs ? 
 Some philosophers, struck by the prodigious exca- 
 vations made by the hand of man in many parts of the 
 globe, have endeavoured to find the birth-place of 
 architecture in subterrains only; but by generalizing 
 this system too much, and extending its application to 
 all the nations of tlie universe, they have fallen into 
 gross errors. Subterrains have been found in almost 
 all the nations of antiquity ; but philosophers have put 
 themselves to little trouble to discover the motives for 
 making these excavations, which were much varied in 
 their forms. It is known, however, that these singular 
 and prodigious works in many places are nothing 
 more than the natural and progressive result of 
 quarrying. There are many convincing examples of 
 these quarries ; for instance, such as those of Syracuse, 
 which cease to be marvellous, when it is remembered 
 that this immense city, in all its constructions, em- 
 ployed only the stone cut from its mountains. Many 
 other proofs of similar errors might be adduced, as 
 where the catacombs, sepulchres, and hypogeums, 
 the depositories of the dead, have been blindly 
 mistaken for the first habitations of the living. Hence 
 it is indubital)le, that tlie nature and destination of a 
 great number of subterrains have been misunderstood ; 
 and thus has a very false principle been applied to 
 the architecture of particular nations, which, though 
 it may sometimes happen to be correctly used, cannot 
 be applied universally, it requires then the assistance
 
 20 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOK. 
 
 of history, a knowledge of the manners of a nationj of 
 its origin, and of its first mode of life, and to be 
 acquainted with the parallel of its subterrains with its 
 architecture, and the predominant style in it, to decide 
 such subjects. When this knowledge is gained it will 
 be owned that the Egyptian architecture was governed 
 by the taste of the subterrains, which formed the first 
 habitations in this country, the natural and immemorial 
 employment of which has never been lost in this 
 nation. The massive and colossal character of their 
 constructions has too much resemblance to their most 
 ancient subterrains, and to their grots, afterwards 
 hollowed and embellished by art, to suppose any other 
 origin to this style of architecture. And though 
 afterwards they acquired the art of joining the com- 
 posed forms, and the parts indicative of the carpentry, 
 to this primitive taste, it may notwithstanding be 
 perceived that wood was never the first type of the 
 Egyptian architecture. 
 
 The same spirit may be discovered in one part of 
 the Asiatic architecture : the climate and the same 
 physical causes must there have inspired the same 
 taste for subterraneous dwellings. The mighty works 
 of this kind that are admired even at the present day, 
 but the epoch of which has been lost in the lapse of 
 time, leave no doubt as to the probability of their 
 origin. The columns of the Pagoda Elephanta, cut 
 in the rock, bear no resemblance to a tree. Their 
 short and massive proportions, the forms of their 
 capitals, and all the accessories are so different from 
 the columns resulting from carpentry, that it is neces-- 
 sary to be not only blind, but partial, to refuse a 
 derivation so natural and reasonable. But from the
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 21 
 
 architectural taste of India can that of China and 
 Japan be inferred? The first certainly results from 
 stone, or the hewn caverns and grots, and is dis- 
 tinguished by the want of an inclined roof, and by the 
 hugeness of its massive proportions ; but must the 
 same origin be assigned for the Chinese architecture, 
 in which wood is particularly predominant, and in 
 which the lightness, the ornaments, and the general 
 taste, show little resemblance in the formation, or 
 concurrence in the productive causes? M. Paw 
 observes, that one cannot mistake the object which 
 has served for a model to the first habitations of 
 China ; they have imitated a tent ; and this is 
 conformable to what can be learnt from the truest 
 accounts of the primitive state of the Chinese, who, 
 like the Tartars, the Nomades, and the Scenitae, 
 encamped with their flocks before they had cities. It 
 is impossible not to discern this origin in their curved 
 roofs made in the pavilion form, in the little solidity of 
 their edifices, and in the peculiarity of their construc- 
 tions. A Chinese city, when first beheld, may be said 
 to resemble a fixed camp ; and the immense extent of 
 their cities proves, that their houses are not sufficiently 
 solid to support several stories. 
 
 It is thus certain that the primitive wooden con- 
 struction, with its inclined roof, which is generally 
 taken for the universal model of the architecture of all 
 nations, could not have given birth either to that of 
 Egypt or China ; but it was indubitably the type of 
 that of the Greeks, amongst whom, as will be here- 
 after shown, the art of finding a model at once solid 
 and varied, learnt to transfer to stone the forms of the 
 carpentry, and to appropriate, by a happy imitation,
 
 22 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 the first essays of necessity. This kind of construction 
 must have originated in an agricultural nation. 
 
 Tlie principal intent of this article is directed to the 
 art of architecture in its limited sense, and that of the 
 Greeks having a particular claim to this name, it is a 
 knowledge of its principles, origin, progress, nature, 
 and history, which ought to be more strictly the object 
 of our researches. Without wishing to depreciate the 
 merit of the architecture of other nations, it is impos- 
 sible not to assign to that of Greece a superiority over 
 all. Independently of its particular advantages, it 
 alone merits the name of being an art, as it is reduced 
 to fixed and just proportions, which may be sought in 
 vain in the architecture of other nations. Again it 
 only has claim to this title in producing in its first 
 essays a simple, rich, and varied model, the imitation 
 of which afforded the means of bringing the art to 
 the perfection it attained. 
 
 It is granted that the architecture of other nations 
 is equally the offspring of nature ; but it is in vain for 
 any to contend with the Grecian for superiority. This 
 architecture does not contest for eldership, nor the 
 advantages of richness and ornaments ; but there must 
 be perceived in it a kind of predilection of nature, in 
 the donation which it appears to have made to it of 
 all its greatness. Above all, a pre-eminence of beauty 
 is remarkable in it, at which the others cannot arrive, 
 because they can never acquire those rules and pro- 
 portions which form its principles, and because they 
 can never enjoy, from the nature of their origin, the 
 same happy means of developement. 
 
 It was, incontestably, carpentry which served as a 
 model to the Grecian architecture ; and it must be
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 23 
 
 admiited, that of the three models which nature pre- 
 sented to the art, this is the most perfect and elegant. 
 In it both unity and variety are amply displayed. 
 The subterrains indeed already seemed to present to 
 the art a model so imposing and accomplished, as to 
 dare imitation to undertake any thing beyond it. In 
 the tents also the art found plenty to imitate ; but this 
 model being deficient in solidity, the architecture 
 derived from it could not acquire that most desirable 
 quality, and of which the appearance is as necessary 
 as the reality. Extreme heaviness and lightness were 
 the consequent results of these two imitations. There 
 is too little to imitate in the first model, or rather 
 there is nothing to imitate, since there is not even a 
 change of matter; and in the second, the imitation 
 could not be otherwise than vicious and puerile, 
 because there is too great a diti'erence between the 
 matter of the model and that employed in the copy. 
 The art must necessarily have been impoverished in 
 an imitation where there could be so little analogy to 
 its model. Again, in the subterrains there reigned 
 such a monotony of forms, as could not but communi- 
 cate to architecture the perpetual repetition of the 
 same parts. And as the tents easily admitted of 
 being folded with the most capricious taste, this cir- 
 cumstance must have communicated ever-varying and 
 uncertain forms to the art derived from it, and a 
 fantasticalness in the details incompatible with that 
 simplicity and correctness of ordonnance, which are 
 so estimable in the Grecian architecture. 
 
 The carpentry of the Grecian architecture being at 
 once solid and light, or at least susceptible of acqm'ring 
 more or less of these two qualities, proved a fortunate
 
 24 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 medium between the two former kinds of architec- 
 ture. Wood, as Algarotti observes, was the most 
 proper matter to furnish the art with the greatest 
 number of modinatures, modifications, and ornaments 
 of all kinds. By attention to the subject it may be 
 seen, without difficulty, that from its nature it may be 
 made to comprehend all the parts which can contri- 
 bute to utility and beauty, and that the most simple 
 wood hut contains the germ of the most magnificent 
 palace. The subterrains no where offered any thing 
 but plain surfaces. In those hollowed by necessity 
 nothing was presented that could convey the idea of 
 parts, relation, or proportion ; and what was invented 
 for their decoration, being only the fruit of caprice, 
 and not of necessity, could not be reduced to rules. 
 The art therefore derived from it, in its subsequent 
 imitations, could not have rested on any scientitio 
 basis. Carpentry, on the contrary, every where pro- 
 duced just projections and elevations, a judicious 
 distribution of parts in relation to each other, and of 
 the bodies in advance or in retreat ; and thus a rich 
 and varied picture was offered to the eye. The art, in 
 carpentry, was subjected to a reasonable employment 
 of objects and parts, which could neither be transposed 
 nor discomposed by the spirit of decoration, without 
 doing violence to the beauties of the model which 
 was imitated, and to the constant and invariable 
 principles derived from it. The roof was an abundant 
 fund of resources. But the art was not perfected by 
 the first sketch of architecture ; it afterwards required 
 calculations, intelligence, a just disposition of pressure 
 and resistance, an accord in the equilibrium of forces, 
 and all the knowledge which was matured in afler
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 25 
 
 ages, to raise it to its present eminence. It may then 
 be affirmed, that without the aid of carpentry, archi- 
 tecture would never Have been an art subjected to 
 rules and proportions. 
 
 The source of the art being discovered, it should 
 be followed step by step in its course, and the 
 manner in which it was formed and composed in the 
 bosom of nature, if the expression may be allowed, 
 should be carefully examined, till it is traced to its 
 greatest developement. The authors, whether an- 
 cient or modern, who have written on the art of 
 architecture, furnish no authorities that can be de- 
 pended on for the support of this theory. Their tes- 
 timony does not accord with the principles which are 
 about to be explained ; an appeal, therefore, shall be 
 made to the objects themselves, the inspection of 
 which will prove the truth of what follows. 
 
 Trees or pieces of timber sunk in the ground, were 
 at iirst used to support a shelter of any kind, and were 
 the origin of the detached columns which have since 
 served as supports to the porticoes of temples, and 
 are amongst the greatest riches of architecture. As 
 trees are of a greater circumference at their lower 
 extremities, and diminish in rising, the diminution of 
 columns was suggested by it. This is strikingly illus- 
 trated in the Grecian Doric order. These timbers, 
 consisting of trunks of trees planted in the ground, 
 offered not as yet the idea of bases and pedestals, as 
 is seen in the Doric order, which is without base. 
 But in the course of time the inconvenience of this 
 method was perceived, as it exposed the wood to rot; 
 and to remedy this inconvenience, pieces of wood were 
 placed under each support, to give it a better founda- 
 
 E
 
 20 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 tioDs and to protect it from humidity. This practice 
 may be traced in some of the ancient edifices, m 
 which the columns have no other base than a block 
 of stone. But afterwards the number of pieces of 
 wood employed for the base were increased, in order 
 to give greater elevation to the supports, or to afford 
 better security against the effects of humidity. From 
 this multiplication of blocks as footings, sprung the 
 torus and the other mouldings of the base, an origin 
 far more probable than that of ligaments of iron, as 
 imagined by Scamozzi and others. It is also more 
 conformable to the nature of capitals, in which it is 
 known that the same proceeding was employed. 
 After beginning w-ith a simple abacus several others 
 were afterw^ards added, which were enlarged as they 
 rose one above another, in such a manner that, as the 
 base was to the column a kind of footing on wdiich it 
 rested more solidly, so the capital made a head more 
 capable of receiving and supporting the weight and 
 form of the architrave. 
 
 The architrave announces by its name what was 
 its origin, and the way in which it was employed. 
 This was nothing more than a large beam placed 
 horizontally upon perpendicular supports, and was 
 destined to receive the covering of the whole edifice. 
 
 The joists of the ceiling being placed upon the 
 architrave, give the space or height of the frieze ; and 
 thus the joists are seen figured by the triglyphs in 
 the Doric, and sometimes by the consols, as in the 
 Composed Corinthian of the Coliseum. Vitruvius gives 
 another origin to the triglyph, which he supposes to 
 have been an ornament applied upon the extremities 
 of the joists ; but this opinion does not affect the pre-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 27 
 
 vioiis theory. There may be observed on the ceiling 
 of the temple of Theseus, at Athens, that at the 
 meeting of each triglyph are found strong joists of 
 marble, the disposition of which is conformable to the 
 ancient construction in wood, and to the forms of car- 
 pentry. The intervals between the triglyphs were 
 named metropes : they continued to be empty spaces 
 for a long time, as may be learned from a passage of 
 Euripides, in the tragedy of Iphigenia, where Pylades 
 advises Orestes to creep through the metopes, and by 
 that means to introduce himself into the interior of 
 the temple. The empty spaces were afterwards 
 filled and ornamented in different ways. Sometimes 
 the extremities of the joists were covered with boards, 
 together with the whole of that part called the frieze ; 
 and then the signs of this construction disappeared 
 altogether from view ; as may be remarked in several 
 of the orders, although the place of the frieze has 
 always been observed. 
 
 The inclined rafters of the roof composed the 
 cornice projecting from the edifice, in order to secure 
 it from rain. This great projection of the rafters of 
 the roof may be remarked at the present day in the 
 houses of Italy. And hence sprung the modillions 
 and mutules which immediately support the roof, and 
 which were for a long time made in an inclined plane ; 
 from which may be traced back their origin and 
 ancient destination. They may be seen tlius disposed 
 in many of the antique edifices, and more particularly 
 in the temple of Minerva, at Athens. 
 
 The roof necessarily gives the form of the pedi- 
 ment. This invention became the source of one of 
 the greatest beauties in architecture. Cicero judged
 
 28 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR 
 
 thus when he said, " It is not to pleasure that we are 
 indebted for the pediment of the capitol and those of 
 our temples. Necessity suggested the form, for the 
 better draining off the water ; nevertheless its beauty 
 is so very great, and it is become so necessary to 
 edifices, that if a capitol were to be built in Olympus, 
 where it was never known to rain, it would, notwith- 
 standing, be necessary to give it a pediment." The 
 pediment is, and ought to be, the form of the roof. 
 The Greeks, living in an exceeding mild and tem- 
 perate climate, had no need for strong and solid roofs 
 to resist the inclemency of the seasons, or the dura- 
 tion or violence of the rains. The great inclination 
 given to their pediments proves this fact. The 
 Romans, situated in a less propitious climate, gave to 
 their roofs a greater rise, and made them more solid. 
 On going towards the north, high and pointed roofs 
 will be seen, on account of the quantity of rain, and 
 the abundance of snow, which falls in northern coun- 
 tries; whilst this form of architecture disappears in 
 the south, M here all the houses terminate in terrass. 
 The height of pediments, which is always subordi- 
 nate to that of the roofs, seems to have become a 
 kind of visible measure of the different degrees of 
 temperature. 
 
 In this anatomy of the wooden constructions may 
 already be seen the disposition of the principal mem- 
 bers of architecture. The posts which supported the 
 main beam were at first placed very near each other^ 
 in order that the architrave, which bore all the weight 
 of the construction, might not be bent or broken by 
 the distances being too considerable. But to enlarge 
 the intercolumnations as much as might be desired.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 29 
 
 and to remedy the weakness of the beams, pieces of 
 wood were contrived to fit in between the pillars of 
 support in an oblique direction ; so as to form a kind 
 of strut, supporting and strengthening the archi- 
 trave. From this contrivance arcades, with and 
 without columns, had their rise. In wood bridges, 
 in particular, these first operations of carpentry may 
 be observed, which were the origin of arches, in the 
 construction of which stone was afterwards substi- 
 tuted for wood. Nor is it to arcades only that 
 carpentry lias given rise, but to the different ways of 
 employing arches, which themselves bear evidence of 
 the imitations. Any one may be convinced of this by 
 comparing the proceedings in the employment of 
 carpentry in ceilings, in the various forms of arches, 
 which took their figure and conformations from the 
 inventions of cross timbers, and from being directed, as 
 before shown, to support the beams. 
 
 Whether it was for a better defence against the 
 injuries of the weather that it was devised to fill up 
 the spaces caused by the intercolumnations, or to 
 give greater solidity to the building, there were still 
 sufficient openings left for doors and windows : and 
 this was the origin of what by some is termed 
 architecture in basso relievo, where engaged columns 
 project from the face of the wall half or two-thirds of 
 their diameters. The supports which gave birth to 
 columns were at first cut in the form of the trunk of a 
 tree; afterwards they were made square; and thus 
 gave rise to pilasters, which are square pillars, 
 engaged more or less in the thickness of a wall. 
 
 But to render habitations more wholesome, and to 
 secure them against humidity, it was soon contrived
 
 30 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 to raise these constructions of wood upon large beam,^> 
 or tim])ers, placed horizontally upon each other ; the 
 interior was then filled with earth and levelled. 
 From this contrivance, pedestals, and continued base- 
 ments, had their source. But as this elevation 
 might become dangerous, and alter the solidity of the 
 edifice, its height was stayed by spurs, which have 
 since been adapted to walls of brick and stone. 
 Thus also in the buttresses or water-breakers which 
 defend the piers of stone bridges, and cut the current 
 of the water, are seen the imitation of the stakes 
 placed for the same effect in wood bridges, of which 
 the famous bridge of Julius Caesar, upon the Rhine, 
 gives us an example. In following the traces of 
 imitation, many other details may be discovered, that 
 carpentry has communicated to architecture. In order 
 to preserve the doors and windows of the primitive 
 simple huts from the dripping of rain, small projecting 
 pieces were placed over them, in the manner of a 
 shed, hanging aslope from the wall, or in the form of 
 a small roof, so as to throw off the water either in 
 front or on each side of the opening ; this was the 
 model of the pediments and cornices, which have since 
 ornamented doors, windows, and niches. The entrance 
 of houses, above all, required such precautions : and 
 these first inventions were continued in many coun- 
 tries till they became metamorphosed by art. There 
 may yet be seen in many places over doors, large 
 projecting roofs, convenient for different uses, which 
 suggested, according to the climate, the various 
 methods of decoratins: the entrances to buildino^s. 
 
 The horizontal and transverse joists have been the 
 model for the compartments of ceilings, and all the
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. J^l 
 
 accessories of soffits. In Italy the ordinary method of 
 forming a ceiling proves the incontestability of this 
 origin. 
 
 There mio'ht be drawn from this unerrinor and 
 fruitful principle, a number of other applications to the 
 art of architecture, as in the variety of the proportions, 
 the invention of the orders, the origin of the decora- 
 tions, and a multitude of ornaments, such as flutings, 
 grooves, foliage, leaves, &c. But it is unnecessary in 
 this place to proceed further into the minute details of 
 this subject, many of the applications made to orna- 
 ments being mixed and equivocal ; and numbers of 
 them, being the posterior inventions of pleasure rather 
 than necessity, and not entering into the general 
 system of architecture, ought to be excluded from 
 this theory. It is sufficient to have proved that 
 carpentry is the sole principle of the Grecian archi- 
 tecture. It remain} now to be shown, that this 
 imitation of the carpe itry of the primitive construc- 
 tions of wood, is one of the principal sources of the 
 pleasure produced by architecture, the spirit of which 
 can be neither renounced, changed, nor misapplied, 
 without affecting the laws of nature and verisimility. 
 
 It is evident that of the two substances, stone 
 and wood, which were employed, according to the 
 different countries, in the first essays at constructing 
 habitations for man ; that wood furnished for the art 
 of imitation the greatest variety of modifications and 
 resources ; and when stone was substituted for wood, 
 the art, in preserving all the forms of the first sub- 
 stance, enriched itself still more by the suggestions of 
 the latter, and so united the qualities of both. It may 
 be further remarked, that it owes to the other arts
 
 t32 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 the combinations of proportion and beauty, the germ 
 of which existed in carpentry. 
 
 There are many persons who blame this imitation 
 of the first constructions in wood; they dishke that 
 stone should be the representative of another material, 
 and complain of marble being thus degraded by taking 
 an inferior character, and being made to assume the 
 poor and miserable forms of the first wooden build- 
 ings. They wish that the art should draw upon the 
 properties of each substance for diversity of forms and 
 taste. It has already been shown that in copying 
 from stone itself, it has offered no pleasing forms to 
 the art, no variety to the eye, no agreement to the 
 mind. This is proved by the cold sameness, and 
 tasteless elevations in the Egyptian architecture. 
 
 But it would show little knowledge of the essence 
 of the arts, the nature of their power on the imagi- 
 nation, and the means by which they please, to take 
 from architecture this agreeable fiction, and happiest 
 of inventions ; to deprive it of this ingenious mask, 
 which associates it to the other arts, permits it to 
 appear on their theatre, and to rival them in useful- 
 ness and excellence. 
 
 By this happy delusion, man enjoys in architex^ture 
 a most delectable pleasure. Divest it of the imita- 
 tive art, which is its most pleasing charm, and that 
 pleasure is lost to him. The habitual fictions of 
 architecture are in part the cause of the pleasure this 
 art procures him, by tlie imitation of the primitive 
 carpentry, which is at once delusive and real. Even 
 if it were proved that this imitation does not exist, and 
 that it is only an ingenious system, the product of 
 af^er invention ; yet all that can be drawn from this
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 33 
 
 proof is, that, though the early buildings were not so 
 constructed, necessity demands that they should have 
 been ; and this would be conceding to the art the 
 merit of having created a model, the imitation of 
 which would convey still greater pleasure, inasmuch 
 as the supposed primitive constructions ought to ha\'e 
 been its prototype. 
 
 But it is not thus that things are invented : all the 
 inventions of man are drawn from nature; and if this 
 principle may be perceived even in those things, the 
 traces of whose origin are lost, w^ould it not be absurd 
 to refuse it to an art which has faithfully preserved 
 the happy tradition of its origin, and all the titles of 
 its genealogy? But what is this pretended imitation? 
 demand some persons who would throw off the yoke 
 of rules. Is it not a sophism — a theory founded on 
 precedent and custom? Nature ought to be the basis 
 of all imitation; but can the first rude essays in the 
 art of building be ranked amongst its productions? 
 Nature does not produce the columns, capitals, and 
 entablatures of habitations ; all these, in their origin, 
 are the product of an imperfect art: why then give 
 the first rough sketches of the art as a model to it? 
 If nothing in Nature presents a perfect type, the art 
 can have no laws but what are imposed by itself; 
 why then enslave it to those laws? 
 
 It is, doubtless, well known, that this imitation is 
 much less absolute in architecture than in the ( thcr 
 arts, which model directly after Nature ; and it will 
 shortiy be seen that it is not precisely in this way 
 that architecture ranked amongst t!ie imitative arts, 
 but by a law of imitation much superior to that which 
 governs the others. Yet if this model is not in Nature, 
 
 F
 
 34 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. • 
 
 as insisted upon above, she is nevertheless its author- 
 for though not her work, it results from her laws ; if 
 not produced, it was at least suggested by her. This 
 art and nature are so united, that to renounce the one 
 would be to reject the other. 
 
 What is understood by the primitive wooden 
 construction, which is asserted to be the model of 
 architecture? And what is meant by the imitation 
 ot it? It is not a servile copy which the art has 
 adopted ; and though the period at which the model 
 existed is distant, the tradition of it has been pre- 
 served, and the imitation is so much superior, as to 
 leave the model far behind. The trees cut in the 
 manner of supports, have not been, nor could they 
 ever have been, faithfully copied. The invention of 
 the orders and proportions has greatly surpassed the 
 first type ; indeed, to such a desfree, that to return to 
 the type would be endeavouring to attain perfection 
 by conforming to that which is not perfect in itself 
 Thus, though this imitation of the first forms of the 
 carpentry is an unquestionable tr th, and demon- 
 strated by architecture, there may still be found those 
 that will not be prevailed upon to admit it. Though, 
 however they may refuse to acknowledge in the 
 matter and form of the early buildings the original 
 model of the art, the judgment which presides in its 
 composition, in the principles of utility, propriety, 
 order, and symmetry of disposition, are not the less 
 manifest. If we could not prove that the primitive 
 wooden construction had been materially copied, is it 
 not evident that the simple and correct maxims which 
 directed its fabrication exist in the principles of the art? 
 Nature certainly did not form the early carpentry ; but
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. S)o 
 
 it guided man in its formation by a principle which 
 could not mislead him, and which caused him to 
 transmit its impressions in his first rude essays. This 
 piinciple is to architecture what an axiom is to a 
 moral. But if it could be established, that this is 
 only a fictitious data, and a sign of convention, what 
 would it amount to? The principles on which the 
 carpentry in question is constructed, are to architec- 
 ture what fjo'ures are to mathematics ; and thoujrh 
 this shell be abandoned, yet the principles on which 
 it is established are so impregnable, that to attack 
 them would be as idle as to combat a shadow, or to 
 contend with a chimera. Those who have endeavoured 
 to proscribe the imitation have succeeded only in cor- 
 rupting it ; and have adopted, in spite of themselves, 
 and without perceiving it, the laws they conceived they 
 had rejected, but which it is impossible to renounce. 
 They repulsed the rigour of its laws, which, by 
 setting limits to fancy, are the happiest safeguards of 
 the art. But in their vain innovations, what have 
 they changed or effected, since they liave always 
 preserved all the constituent parts of that which they 
 reproved ? All they have effected has been to trans- 
 pose the parts, or rather to discompose them. They 
 have changed simple combinations into those that are 
 complicated, natural order into fantastical disorder, 
 symmetrical forms into irregular ones, proportions easy 
 to be understood into others difficult and compound ; 
 and yet they never could substitute other members 
 for those of the early constructions. In these dis- 
 organizing; proceedings it lias been their mistake to 
 suppose, that to confound was improving ; to displace, 
 inventing; and to innovate, making perfect. But
 
 36 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 their efforts have proved, that a rude imitation of the 
 laws of nature has the advantage over their unmean- 
 ing inventions, and that the imitation of the carpentry, 
 real or fictitious, cannot be abandoned, without 
 renouncing the principles which it has demonstrated 
 to be strictly correct, and abjuring the natural causes 
 which prompted and imprinted them. 
 
 Can tliose who make exceptions against the primi- 
 tive carpentry, and reject its imitation, dispute the 
 following maxims, which are manifested in its con- 
 struction ; viz. 
 
 That the strong; ouo^ht to bear the weak : 
 The solidity ought to be real and apparent : 
 The employment of all the parts ought to be justified 
 by necessity: 
 
 Unity and variety are constituents of beauty : 
 Nothing is beautiful in architecture but what is 
 useful, or serves some end : 
 
 The parts ought to be subordinate to the total : 
 Symmetry and regularity are inseparably connected 
 with order and solidity : 
 
 And that simple proportions are the most beautiful. 
 To these might be added other rules resulting from 
 the first essays of necessity, and the subsequent 
 operations of the art. Whether the existence of the 
 type in question be real or imaginary, it is certainly 
 th2 theorem of all these truths : and who would 
 proscribe its imitation, if it be a visible rule, and a 
 material and evident example of the principles which 
 constitute architecture ? The excellency of the imi- 
 tation is clearly proved by the reality of the model, 
 the necessity of the copy, the utility of its principles, 
 and the pleasure man finds in it. The artist, unless
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. ^7 
 
 he entirely change the model, ought rigorously to 
 follow the rules and laws which it prescribes. It 
 cannot be followed in certain parts and abandoned in 
 others; obliged to be consequent in the imitation, it 
 ought to be conformed to in all that it exacts, or be 
 entirely renounced. It is only by placing the model 
 before him, and tracing the object of his imitation, 
 that he can hope to please. If he happen to lose 
 sight of this rule of conduct, or pass an instant the 
 bounds of an exact imitation, he may be seen falling 
 by degrees into a disorder and confusion of ideas 
 which render him the sport of the most extravagant 
 and false combinations. No more clear and precise 
 ideas present themselves ; all is unnatural : the forms 
 are continually changing ; the signs of which alone 
 remain, and become at last unintelligible. The 
 columns are no longer the natural supports which the 
 proportions between them, and that which they have 
 to sustain, ought to make apparent ; they become 
 objects that might be dispensed with, the frivolous 
 accessories of a needless ostentation, of which the 
 disposition appears no longer to appertain to archi- 
 tecture. The entablatures are no more the represen- 
 tation of the parts which compose the roof, but are 
 broken and turned in a thousand ways ; the pediments 
 also cease to represent the gables of the roofs ; 
 straight lines are succeeded by curved surfaces of all 
 descriptions; and the plans of edifices being perverted, 
 unity, regularity, and proportion no longer exist. All 
 the unskilful forms that the pencil can produce are 
 realized in durable substances, and the strength and 
 skill of workmen are prostituted to a warped imagi- 
 nation. The ornaments absorbing the members, and
 
 38 ARCHITECrrxAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 the accessories e'jminanding the principal, there can 
 be no law between the parts, nor correspondence 
 between tliem and the total ; and the construction 
 itself must disappear under this profusion of licentious 
 decoration. From this destruction of the principles of 
 architecture, and introduction of confusion into it, the 
 art would become a puerile exercise for the artists, 
 and an enigma for the generality of mankind. 
 
 On the contrary, the edifices, both ancient and 
 modern, that possess the most general and least 
 contested reputation for beauty, are those in which 
 this scrupulous imitation of the primitive type has 
 been most carefully observed. The esteem in which 
 they are held depends on the degree in which the 
 principles of the model have been applied. There 
 remains in France, says Laugier, a most beautiful 
 monument of the ancients ; this is what is called at 
 Nismes the Maison quarre. The beauty of this 
 edifice is admired, not only by the connoisseur, but by 
 those also who are ignorant of the rules of the art. 
 Why ? Because the whole of it is according to the 
 principles of the early constructions. A prolonged 
 square, where thirty columns support an entabla- 
 ture, and the roof terminated at the two extremities 
 by a pediment, are all that it presents; exhibiting a 
 degree of simplicity and nobleness that strikes all 
 beholders. 
 
 In thus retracing the history of architecture to that 
 point of which we have just been speaking, we have 
 discovered only the crude types which constitute, as 
 it were, the skeleton of the art. I'he concurrence of 
 other arts, more direct imitators of nature, was neces- 
 sary to bring architecture from the point where it
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTO; . 39 
 
 vvonUl have rested witiiout them, to that degree of 
 perfection in which it was found among the ancients, 
 i^efore this necessary junction with the arts, architec- 
 ture resembled the celebrated statue formed by 
 Prometheus, that waited only the torch of Minerva to 
 communicate to it movement and life. Jt was from 
 this union that it received animation, and was made 
 to participate in those riches which the arts had de- 
 rived from their common imitation of nature. In the 
 appropriation, however, of these riches, and the choice 
 and comparison of these new models, of which archi- 
 tecture previous to that time was entirely ignorant, 
 considerable knowledge and judgment was required. 
 Restrained to the forms commanded by necessity, it 
 followed only the rude proportions that its limited 
 knowledge enabled it to perceive. It could not, 
 however, rest at this point amongst the Greeks, as it 
 lias done with many nations where it is yet in its 
 infancy. Greece, fertile in genius, could not be an 
 unfruitful soil for any art. Blessed with a mild and 
 beautiful climate, and enjoying political and civil 
 institutions the most favourable to genius, sculpture 
 was marching at a slow but sure pace, having 
 followed a route until then unknown. Raising itself 
 by degrees from the most shapeless signs to the 
 principal dimensions in the termes, from the termes or 
 iierma^ to the figures called dedales, it at length 
 attained a tolerably accurate knowled2:e of the true 
 proportions of the body of man, in the imitation of 
 which architecture discovered, if not a fresh model, 
 at least a new analofry of imitation. In the applica- 
 tion of this system of natural })roportions and relations, 
 a similitude of principles was discovered, 'by the
 
 40 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 appropriations of which the art became more imme- 
 diately the adopted of nature, and enlarged its capf- 
 biJities of effective design. 
 
 In the formation and imitation of types, architecture 
 knew only the simple dimensions of necessity. In its 
 progress towards perfection, a model of proportions 
 applicable and conformable to its first disposition 
 became necessary, which, without contradicting the 
 spirit of its original, would embellish the form. The 
 application of human proportions was eminently cal- 
 culated to answer this piu'pose : it afforded such 
 means of perfecting the first essays of the sketch, that 
 one is almost tempted to regard the excellence which 
 followed, as the result of previous computation and 
 reflection, rather than the concurrence of successive 
 and unforeseen causes. Nevertheless, experience 
 proves that the principal inventions of men are the 
 result of a fortunate application of fortuitous disco- 
 veries. To this imperceptible conjunction of cau.^es, 
 which were beyond the reach of human foresight, and 
 which determined, in a great measure, the destiny of 
 the arts, architecture was subordinated more than any 
 other art. In adverting, however, to the commence- 
 ment of the arts amongst the Greeks, it may be 
 remarked of them generally, that they contained in 
 themselves the seeds of perfection ; nor is it easy to 
 discover any cause that could have operated to 
 prevent them from arriving at maturity. The rude 
 representations of Thespis were preludes to the 
 master-pieces of Sophocles ; and the architecture of 
 Greece, unlike that of modern nations, which received 
 from the Gothic a vicious principle, advanced from its 
 origin, urmiarked by vacillation, and without retro-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 41 
 
 grading in that course which naturally led to per- 
 fection. 
 
 Architecture, constituted and founded upon the 
 types of carpentry, offered to the art of imitation a 
 fertile field, which required but more favourable 
 circumstances, and a more fortunate cultivation. The 
 art of proportions ought to perfect the work. The 
 ancients were sensible that the forms of the carpentry 
 could be improved by bringing them to points of 
 comparison of another kind. Estimating the form of 
 man as the most perfect in nature, they perceived that 
 in imitating the plan, disposition, conformity, and the 
 means that nature had employed in its most perfect 
 work, the art would, in some measure, become its 
 rival. Believing they had discovered the secret by 
 which nature pleases, and from whence she derives 
 her beauty, they conceived that an edifice disposed 
 after the same spirit and principle that nature itself 
 had pursued, would be alike beautiful, and please 
 from the same reasons. Thence an edifice was 
 regarded as a form which ought to have its members, 
 divisions, and parts subordinate to the total. Observ- 
 ing that nature has disposed the form of man in such 
 a manner, that there exist a necessary correlativeness 
 from the smallest part of his body to the whole, they 
 would not from that time admit in architecture any 
 thing which could not, as in nature, be justified by a 
 necessary employment, or was not dependent on the 
 general order. 
 
 [t was on this plan that all the forms invented by 
 necessity were put in order, and consecrated by the 
 imitation of types, the employment of which had not 
 as yet found a basis in reason and enlightened senti- 
 
 o
 
 42 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 ment. Hence that happy division into three paits, 
 that ternary distinction, which may be remarked "n 
 the form of the original model, was afterwards 
 founded upon nature itself, in the works of which this 
 same division is generally adopted. Architecture, 
 says M, D'Hencarville, is composed of three parts ; 
 the column, entablature, and pediment, to which a 
 basement has since been added. Each of these parts 
 are subdivided into three others. The reason of this 
 division is, that it contains the greatest number of 
 proportions that the eye of man can embrace at once, 
 and may observe with attention, without being 
 fatigued. 
 
 Nature has given to sculpture a determined measure 
 of relations, a scale of proportions of the human form, 
 which, whether it be taken from the foot or the head, 
 will serve as a module to the whole figure : it rules 
 the slightest shades of proportions, in establishing 
 a constant accord of the parts, independent of the 
 variety of the models, and the errors of the sight. 
 Architecture also has created for itself a scale of 
 proportions of a similar nature, which in the different 
 ordonnances, was the inferior diameter of the columns 
 of the order employed. From that time an edifice 
 became a kind of organized object, subordinate to 
 constant laws, in which it found the principle and 
 reason. It made a code of proportions which assigned 
 to each part its measure and ratio, according to the 
 design of the total ; connecting in such a manner the 
 whole with the part, and the part with the whole, 
 that it placed them in a reciprocal dependance, and 
 secured to them an inviolable accord. The study of 
 the human form having been investigated in all its
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 43 
 
 varieties, caused sculpture to perceive the differences 
 of age and nature, which form the diverse manners 
 that Polycletus has described in his treatise of sym- 
 metry, and of which the antique statues have 
 preserved to us the visible rules. Architecture has 
 formed for itself a similar expression of character in 
 the invention of the orders, which are reduced to these 
 three : the one expresses strength, the other elegance, 
 and by the union of these two qualities, the third 
 exhibits the expression of nobleness and majesty. 
 
 Such was the progressive advance of architecture. 
 It was in assimilating itself to another model, that it 
 succeeded in producing one much more perfect than 
 the first It is useless to remark that it never traces 
 materially upon the model of the human form, but only 
 makes an intellectual copy. The imitation is not posi- 
 tive, but figurative. It is not the form that architecture 
 appropriates, but the proportions and principles that 
 are contained therein. When Vitruvius tells us that 
 the Doric order was made in imitation of the body of 
 man, and the Ionic in that of a woman, it must be 
 understood that this vvas an imitation of analogy, and 
 not of resemblance. Hence he gives us to understand, 
 that in one was imitated the neglected and naked 
 simplicity of the body of man, and in the other the 
 delicacy and ornaments of that of woman. But when 
 he endeavours to establish a similitude between the 
 column without base and the naked foot of man ; 
 between the ornamental base of the Ionic, and the 
 elegant sandals of women ; between the folds of their 
 dress, the ringlets of their hair, and their bracelets, 
 and the Ionic volutes and flutings, the comparison 
 is pursued too far. It becomes an abuse of analogy
 
 44 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 that banishes reason, or at most an ingenious allegory, 
 intended to disguise truth, but which tends rather to 
 alter and render it unnatural. Others, reversing this 
 order of imitation, have pretended to see in the capital 
 of a column, the head of a man, and his body in the 
 shaft ; and have attempted by a fictitious and absurd 
 interpretation to prove the truth of their hypothesis. 
 
 It is evident that man, in seeking a model of 
 proportions to apply to the rude delineations of 
 carpentry, could not possibly have found one more 
 sensible, or more within his power, more analogous or 
 happy than the human form. This analogy is so 
 natural, that in praising the human figure, it is 
 generally compared to a well-<lisposed edifice ; and 
 architecture pleases the sight in proportion to the 
 greater degree of approximation which it has made to 
 the principles and proportions of nature. Vitruvius 
 plainly tells us, that a building cannot be well dis- 
 posed, if it has not this proportion and relation of all 
 the parts with regard to each other, which are fomid 
 in those of a well-formed man. 
 
 It was in this living book of proportions, which the 
 artists of Greece always kept in view, that the 
 ancients formed those happy combinations, just ap- 
 plication of means, and delicate shades of character, 
 with which they enriched architecture ; and by these 
 means, this art, which is apparently so little suscep- 
 tible of fixed principles, became nevertheless, not only 
 the creator of its own laws, but also gave them to the 
 other arts, of which it rendered itself the moderator. 
 The possibility^ however, that these principles and 
 laws of proportion, which were intended only to 
 prevent the excesses of the imagination, might become
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR, 45 
 
 a chain to the art, by a too slavish adherence to 
 them, was early perceived by the Greeks. They were 
 sensible, that if an exclusive authority were given to 
 them in all cases without bounds, the art would 
 lano'uish in fetters which it had foroed for itself. The 
 merit of discerning the degree of liberty that was 
 allowable to architecture, and of giving it that happy 
 constitution, which is equally distant from the licence 
 of Asia, and the absolute system of Egypt, is 
 undoubtedly due to the Greeks. But this judicious 
 medium must have been the result of the fortunate 
 concurrence of the best moral and physical causes ; 
 and the perfection of the art must have depended on 
 the nation which invented it. 
 
 It has been shown that architecture, depending 
 only on a system voluntarily established, and exer- 
 cising an imitation in some degree metaphorical, 
 might have found itself subjected to laws which 
 would have been more tyrannical from the circum- 
 stance of their being arbitrary. But it may be observed, 
 in addition to what has been previously remarked, 
 tiiat as nature exhibits occasional exceptions to her 
 general laws, it is understood that the rules drawn 
 from her temple, and applied to art, may be equally 
 modified in their details. It should also be remarked, 
 that the proportions of the human form, although 
 fixed and unchangeable in the nature of their exist- 
 ence, are subjected to much variation in the different 
 members of the species ; and sculpture, in its most 
 perfect imitation, was itself governed by these varia- 
 tions. It was much more congenial to the genius of 
 architecture to follow the spirit of nature, than to 
 subject itself to a servitude, the effects of which would
 
 46 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 have been peculiarly detrimental to the art. Hence 
 it may be seen that the rules of modinature and 
 relative proportions ought to be subordinated to the 
 maxims of a superior order; and instead of being the 
 governing principles, they should always be subjected 
 to the order which they are intended to embellish. 
 By constantly referring to nature in their endea- 
 vours to enrich the capabilities of architecture, the 
 ancients discovered some of the means whereby the 
 former affects man with sensations of delight, and 
 which they sought to appropriate to the latter. Until 
 then they had perceived only a slight intimation of the 
 resources of architecture, but now they distinctly 
 saw, and comprehended them to their full extent, and 
 their principal object of research became a correct 
 knowledge of that which affects the mind most agree- 
 ably, by the interposition of the sense of sight. In 
 their endeavours to attain this desirable end, they 
 perceived that, notwithstanding the intimate connec- 
 tion which exists between the mind and the senses 
 each of them is nevertheless independently susceptible 
 of pleasure ; that the pleasure of sight is peculiar to 
 the eye, and results from certain impressions depend- 
 ent on the relations which nature has produced 
 between the object and the organ. From the know- 
 ledge of these principles two distinct studies became 
 necessary to perfect the art. The one was that of 
 optics, or the science of vision in general, which 
 accounts for the modifications of the rays of light in 
 their passage through the eye, explains the causes of 
 distinct and confused vision, and also the effiect which 
 distance and height has upon different objects. The 
 second was that of harmony, named eurithmy by the
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 47 
 
 Greeks. The art of harmony consists in a general 
 kncvvledge of the laws of nature, their purposes, the 
 means by which they attain their ends, and the 
 relative effects of disposition, form, and proportion. 
 
 By generalizing more and more the idea of its 
 model, architecture extended its sphere of imitation. 
 It was no longer exclusively indebted to the early 
 constructions from which it originated, nor to the form 
 of man from which it modelled itself, but to the entire 
 area of nature, which had become the type of its 
 imitation, and its directing genius. The happy form 
 which it drew, from the imitation of carpentry, 
 constituted, in a manner, the placing of the bones of 
 the art; the analogical imitation of the human form, 
 by the study and application of its proportions, fur- 
 nished this skeleton with that just relation of the parts 
 which was essential to its harmony. The general 
 appropriation of the principles of order and harmony 
 which exist in nature, and from which the mind 
 derives its ideas of beauty and greatness of design, 
 became the animating principle, by the exercise of 
 which, was formed an art no longer the mere copier 
 or imitator of nature, but its rival. 
 
 It is evident that architecture, which is apparently 
 more subjected to matter than the other two arts, is 
 in reality more ideal, intellectual, and metaphysical, 
 than either of them. We have seen that nature 
 furnishes it only with analogies. It rather com p ires 
 itself to its model, than imitates it ; it does not follow 
 after, but goes by its side ; and whilst it docs not 
 materially copy the forms with which it is conversant, 
 it appropriates the harmony and general effect which 
 they exhibit. Studying the cause by which that
 
 48 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 harmony and general effect are produced, architecture 
 assumes an originality even in its imitation, and 
 becomes the competitor of nature, whose laws of 
 proportion, of harmony, and of effects, are interwoven 
 with the study of its progress, its genius, and its 
 means. The other arts are presented with models 
 which they imitate or rectify : architecture created its 
 own. The order of nature was the fertile field of its 
 active researches, and from the almost infinite variety 
 of form and design which are manifest in its spacious 
 area, it has deduced its principles of order and 
 arrangement, by the fortunate application of which it 
 has conferred upon man the blessing of a secure retreat 
 from the inclemencies of the weather, combining 
 comfort and convenience with ornament and taste ; 
 and has given to nations their temples, their asylums, 
 and their palaces. 
 
 If then architecture is an imitative art, it is not 
 from its having embellished the rude forms that 
 necessity had dictated in the dwellings of the earliest 
 race of man ; but it is because in prescribing laws to 
 itself it studied the sublime code of nature, and 
 modelled its own in the spirit of that of its great 
 prototype. 
 
 The rules which architecture has given itself, rest 
 consequently on a double basis ; that of the positive 
 imitation of types, and that of the ideal imitation of 
 nature : the one submitted to a method, and the other 
 superior to all calculation. The first has never been 
 servilely followed by the ancients ; and perhaps there 
 cannot be found two antique edifices where the 
 proportions of the same order are precisely similar. 
 This circumstance, said M. D'Hencarville, is agree-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 49 
 
 able to the ideas of the ancients, according to whom 
 the edifices were not made for the orders, but the 
 orders for the edifices ; and it appears consistent that 
 they should be subjected to the particular character 
 that each structure is intended to express. Thus if 
 some of the antique remains, which have escaped the 
 ravages of time, were judged after those rules which 
 we believe to be derived from them, those master- 
 pieces of architecture w^ould very often be considered 
 only as exceptions, the real beauty of which might be 
 very great : it is because we are not aware, that it is 
 not by our scanty rules that those-sublime productions 
 must be judged; but, on the contrary, it is our rules 
 which should be judged by those which have been 
 followed, to produce such examples of perfection. To 
 construct according to rules requires nothing but 
 memory and practice ; but to execute after those great 
 maxims, to invent after those principles of imitation, 
 and to draw from them all the resources which they 
 can possibly furnish us, requires genius. 
 
 A BRIEF REVIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF THE ANTIQUE 
 ARCHITECTURE, FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD, TO THE 
 LAST CENTURY. 
 
 The principles of the arts being the progressive 
 results of the researches of men, those antique remains 
 possessing the greatest merit, must necessarily have 
 been erected at a great period of time posterior to the 
 first application of those principles. 
 
 H
 
 &) ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 The most distant period of Grecian history, is that 
 when it was divided amongst petty princes. This is 
 confirmed by the poems of Homer, in which is given 
 the first indication or description of their palaces at 
 that remote epoch. If it be asserted that the descrip- 
 tive matter contained in the poem may be fictitious, 
 the poet must nevertheless be acquainted with models, 
 whence he derived his information. The palace of 
 Priam is described in the Iliad as a spacious edifice, 
 the lower part of which presented covered porticoes of 
 stone, over which were fifty richly decorated cham- 
 bers. At the opposite extremity of the court of this 
 edifice were erected twelve other chambers; the 
 former for the use of the sons, and the latter for the 
 daughters of that Prince. 
 
 The Doric order, which was doubtless the most 
 ancient, does not indicate any epoch more certain. 
 The circumstance of its name is insufficient to prove 
 that its invention was due to Dorus, son of Helenus, 
 King of Achaia and Peloponnesus. Perhaps it 
 received its name by having been employed in the 
 famous temple which this Prince (according to 
 Vitruvius) had built in Argos, in honour of Juno. It 
 might have originated amongst the Dorians, among 
 whom, it appears, that the Doric order was held in 
 great estimation long before it had spread itself over 
 the rest of Greece. However, it is evident that 
 the most ancient of their edifices, or those at least 
 which exhibit the most striking marks of antiquity, 
 are of this order; the invention of which must have 
 preceded that of the other \ (See Doric Order.) 
 
 It is certain, however, that in the century of Alex- 
 ander the Great, the three orders which constitute
 
 ARCIIITECTUP.AL DIRECTOR. 51 
 
 architecture, had attained, in a great degree, the 
 perfection of which they were susceptible. Moral 
 and physical causes combined to bring the art to this 
 point. Liberty, love of their country, and the desire 
 of national fame, had rendered Athens the common 
 centre of the arts and sciences. The defeat of the 
 Persians at Marathon, and other noted victories, had 
 procured peace to all Greece. The space of time 
 which preceded the Peloponnesian war, witnessed a 
 general developement of talent : it was at this epoch, 
 observes Diodorus of Sicily, that sculpture was carried 
 to its highest point by the chisel of Phidias. Philo- 
 sophy, eloquence, in fine, all the arts and sciences, 
 were seen at once disputing for pre-eminence. It 
 was then that they commenced to rebuild the 
 edifices that the Persians had thrown down ; the 
 ruins of which had been preserved by the wisdom of 
 the state, in order that this spectacle of misfortune and 
 desolation, might furnish an eloquent lesson to the 
 Greeks, of the perils which always menaced them. 
 It was not in fact until after the flight of Xerxes, that 
 this general restoration of the structures, and the 
 re-construction of Athens was begun. Such was the 
 epoch of the grandest and most beautiful style of 
 architecture. If the monuments of this age are com- 
 pared with the statues of the same time, it will be 
 seen that there reigned the same character of grandeur 
 and energy ; that courage and stateliness, which the 
 circumstances of the times could not fail to imprint on 
 all the works of art : for the arts, being the works of 
 man, are always the true representatives of his state. 
 The edifices of the Doric order that were then raised, 
 exhibited this air of heroism and manly energy, the
 
 62 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 cause of which is seen in the political position of 
 Greece. This order appears to have attained at 
 Athens, near the time just mentioned, the state 
 approaching to perfection, and the medium between 
 the two excesses. 
 
 The Ionic order (to judge from remains in that 
 city,) had also attained nearly all the grace and 
 delicacy of which it was susceptible. The Grecian 
 architecture passing into Asia Minor, acquired that 
 luxurious taste which characterizes the country. In 
 this voluptuous climate it lost a part of its original 
 character; and the presumed elegance which it 
 acquired, was by the sacrifice of several attributes of 
 solidity. The scrowl of the volute was injured by the 
 vigorous outline of the abacus and echinus. The 
 columns of the temple of Ephesus are covered with 
 ornaments in relief; and thus the sculpture insensibly 
 softened the manly stateliness of the construction. 
 (*SVe Ionic Order.) Whether the perfection of this 
 order is due to the lonians or to other nations is of 
 little consequence ; it is certain that, in the temple of 
 Minerva Polias, the construction of which is referred 
 to the time before mentioned ; this order had attained 
 great beauty, lightness, and exquisite taste of orna- 
 ment. 
 
 Callimachus had already preceded the age just 
 spoken of; and consequently the Corinthian capital 
 required nothing from the genius of the following 
 centuries for its decoration, as experience has proved. 
 In substituting the acanthus plant for the olive and 
 laurel leaves, or the nymphae of Egypt, Callimachus 
 seems to have imposed on all ages the necessity of 
 imitatinof this beautiful distribution, the idea of which
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 53 
 
 was fortuitously suggested to himself. (^See Corinthian 
 Order.) Nevertheless there remain few monuments 
 really Greek, of the Corinthian order, which can be 
 traced to the time of Alexander, or which are worthy 
 of being imitated. 
 
 When architecture, with the other arts of Greece 
 was transported to Etruria by the Pelasgi, it appears, 
 according to the general opinion, that the Doric order 
 reigned alone in Greece ; at least it is the only one 
 that the Etrurians have employed. They stripped it 
 of its try glyphs, and gave to it a base. It was under 
 the name of Tuscan, that the Romans received these 
 innovations in the Doric order; which the moderns 
 have since sought, by false distinctions, to constitute a 
 distinct order. (*S<?e Tuscan Order.) 
 
 If the monuments of history, and the remains of 
 many very authentic edifices in Etruria are consulted, 
 it will be seen that the art of building developed itself 
 in that country under the greatest and noblest of 
 forms. But if the analogy of the other arts with 
 architecture be examined, the latter appears to have 
 rested in the same state in which it was in Greece, 
 previous to its introduction into the former country ; 
 and had not acquired those valuable shades of cha- 
 racter exhibited in the three orders. If, however, in 
 its origin, the architecture of Etruria identified itself 
 with that of Greece; in the decadency of this nation, it 
 mixed with the taste afterwards displayed at Rome. 
 
 The early works of the Romans were executed 
 by the Etrurians: it was to them that Tarquininus 
 confided the construction of the famous sewer, an 
 immense work ; in which has since been seen an 
 assured presage of the greatness towards ^vhich
 
 54 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 architecture had advanced from its early essays, and 
 with the whole extent of which it appeared, even 
 then, quite conversant. 
 
 Augustus knew the importance of promoting the 
 arts, and he employed the extent of his power to aid 
 their progress. Titus Livius calls him the author and 
 restorer of the temples. The encouragement given 
 by this emperor, caused all the great masters of 
 Greece to come to his capital ; and under his reign 
 architecture attained a high degree of perfection. 
 The Pantheon, the finest monument that remains of 
 Roman magnificence, was built by Agrippa, son-in- 
 law to Augustus ; who prided himself in embellishing 
 Rome with an innumerable variety of superb edifices. 
 He introduced the thermae, and caused a great 
 number of fountains, temples, &c. to be constructed. 
 
 The spirit for these great structures again revived 
 under the successor of Augustus. Nevertheless, 
 under Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius, taste had 
 greatly degenerated. Nero showed less predilection 
 for the arts than for cupidity. Nevertheless, his reign 
 was favourable to the employment of talent in the 
 erection of public edifices. Severus and Celer con- 
 structed for him the palace called the Golden Mansion, 
 the magnificence of which has never been equalled ; 
 all the pomp of decoration was exhausted in its 
 construction; and, in the midst of so much grandeur, 
 all that could be despised was the possessor. 
 
 Under the happy reign of Trajan, architecture 
 resumed its former correct taste, a circumstance prin- 
 cipally owing to the character of this great emperor. 
 The triumphal arches, the column, and forum, built 
 by this prince, attest by their great splendour the
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 55 
 
 degree of superiority to which this art had risen under 
 his patronage. The architect Apollodorus, had the 
 greatest share in designing the edifices which immor- 
 talize the memory of Trajan. It was this architect 
 who superintended the erection of the famous Column, 
 at present existing, being the master-work of this 
 age, and perhaps of the Roman empire. 
 
 Adrian and Antoninus encouraged architecture : the 
 first exercised it himself Marcus Aurelius practised 
 drawing under Diognetus. Antoninus Pius built the 
 Lanuvium, a villa or country seat, after the antique : 
 the remains of which prove, even, at the present day, 
 its grandeur and magnificence. Nevertheless, as 
 Winckelmann observes, the art was then approachmg 
 to its decline ; the splendour which it threw around it 
 at this epoch, resembles the bright glimmer of a lamp 
 before it dies away. Under the emperors which 
 followed, it was seen first to decline and then to 
 disappear. Greece no longer possessed those privi- 
 leges which it had previously enjoyed. The Greeks, 
 at this early period, had forgotten their own language, 
 and few amongst them could read and understand 
 the best writings of the Ancients. 
 
 The arch of Septimus Severus made one of the 
 remarkable epochs of the commencement of the 
 decadency. It is difficult to conceive how sculpture 
 could have fallen in such a manner, so soon after the 
 time of Marcus Aurelius. The arch, vulgarly called 
 the goldsmith's, presents nothing of the character and 
 form of good architecture. The profiles arc imper- 
 fect; and the ornaments cover and overcharge ilie 
 members. 
 
 The predilection of Alexander Severus for the ans.
 
 66 ARCHITECTUUAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 revived architecture for some time ; but he could not 
 prevent it from sinking with the fall of the western 
 empire. It is to the reign of G allienus, however, that 
 the date of the total annihilation of the arts is gene- 
 rally fixed. The arch of this prince proves to us, the 
 disgraceful state to which they were then reduced. 
 Nevertheless, the genius of architecture was not 
 entirely extinct ; at least it appeared to have sur- 
 vived the ruin of the other arts. In an age \vhen 
 there was not a statuary existing, Dioclesian, in his 
 Thermae, displayed a greatness, which, whilst survey- 
 ing the prodigious remains that have descended to 
 us, demands our admiration even at the present day. 
 Dioclesian's palace at Spalatro, also proves vvhat 
 efforts architecture was then capable of It is nearly 
 to the same epoch, or to the time of Aurelian, that 
 the vast constructions of Palmyra and Balbec, in 
 Coelosyria, are ascribed. Notwithstanding the imper- 
 fections of taste, and the viciousness of the details, we 
 cannot help being astonished at the grandeur of the 
 plans, the boldness of the undertaking, and the 
 resources which have been employed, in the erection 
 of these great works. 
 
 It might be asked why architecture, deprived of the 
 aid of the other arts, supported itself alone, and for 
 such a length of time without them ? Why, after 
 having being raised with and by them, it did not 
 immediately follow them in their fall? There may be 
 more than one reason assigned. Inseparably con- 
 nected with the prosperity and comfort of man in 
 civilized countries, and retaining a hold upon the 
 public mind in the erection of temples, &c. architec- 
 ture survived, though not without injury, the operation
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 57 
 
 of those political causes which caused the destruction 
 of the statues, the effacing of the paintings, and the 
 conversion of the bronze and metal statues of the 
 deities into money. Statues were no longer required ; 
 but it was still necessary to erect edifices, and the 
 ancient temples were stripped of their ornaments and 
 columns, to embellish the edifices devoted to the new 
 form of worship. To necessity, therefore, architecture 
 is principally indebted for its preservation ; whilst 
 sculpture, witnessing the destruction of its finest 
 forms, drooped its head; and, together with its 
 kindred art, painting, (which received but liitle 
 encouragement amid the prevalence of such a de- 
 praved taste,) sinik iiito disrepute and temporary 
 oblivion. Such were the principal causes of the 
 inequality in the duration of these arts. But a 
 common destiny soon afterwards overwhelmed them. 
 The translation of the seat of empire to Byzantium, in 
 dividing the riches of the arts and the pow^r of the 
 state, caused a mortal stroke to one and the other. 
 Vainly did Constantine endeavour to raise this new 
 metropolis to an equal eminence with Rome, which 
 he had stripped. All the efforts that he made to 
 embellish it with similar edifices, taught him that 
 those productions which result from the highest 
 cultivation of the human faculties, are not at all 
 periods subservient to power, " 
 
 Italy being abandoned to the fury of the Visi- 
 Goths, they destroyed all that Constantine had left. 
 A general ruin, buried in the dust, the structures 
 which had been the pride of Rome. All the edifices 
 afterwards constructed were fiom the precious re- 
 mains that ignorance or avarice had gathered from 
 
 I
 
 58 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 all parts. A disgraceful ignorance of the appro- 
 priate application of these fragments, occasioned a 
 confusion in all the members of architecture, and 
 completed, by this medley, the unnatural perver- 
 sion of its principles. The columns were collected 
 and employed as pillars ; upon which were con- 
 fusedly extended the different entablatures, placed 
 at hazard. Arches were formed, supported by 
 columns, and from their inability to construct plat- 
 bands, they were to supply their place. Archi- 
 tecture also lost the division which constitutes its 
 nature ; and it descended from abuse to abuse, until 
 the idea and remembrance of its types were almost 
 forgotten. There was no longer any remedy : it fell 
 into a real chaos; and from the total ruin arose what 
 is named the Gothic style. 
 
 In the midst of the darkness with which ignorance 
 had for many ages covered the finest countries of the 
 earth, some rays of light discover to us that the 
 antique system of architecture was not entirely lost. 
 The spirit for great undertakings was not altogether 
 extinguished in Italy. The attentive observer, in tra- 
 velling through those countries, (with whose records 
 the history of the arts is immediately connected,) 
 will perceive, in different situations, the scattered 
 monuments of architectural genius, which serve as 
 guide-posts to direct the historic traveller. 
 
 In the fourth century the Christians abandoned 
 their retreats in the catacombs, and raised themselves 
 basilics, or spacious edifices divided into a nave and 
 two side isles by two range of insulated columns, and 
 terminated at the extremity by a semicircle. There 
 soon appeared in Rome St. Giovanni Laterano,
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 59 
 
 St. Pietro, St. Croce in Gerusalemme, St. Lorenzo, and 
 St. Agnese, which were the basihcs erected under 
 Constantine ; St. Maria Maggiore and St. Vitale, 
 under Constanzo ; St. Paolo, under Theodosio ; St. 
 Sabina, St. Pietro in Carcere, and St. Giovanni e 
 Paolo, under Valentiniano. In the sixth and seventh 
 centuries the church of St. Sofia, at Constantinople, 
 was erected by Gustiniano, and forms the only pro- 
 duction of this kind that exists in the empire. 
 
 The tenth and eleventh centuries witnessed in the 
 church of St. Mark, at Venice, the dawn of that 
 correct taste which afterwards shone so brightly. 
 
 Some improvement in taste began to manifest itself 
 also in the different cities of Italy : in 1013 the church 
 of St. Miniati was commenced. But the principal 
 edifice of this century was the cathedral of Pisa, built 
 in the year 1016 by Buschetto, of Dulichium, a 
 Grecian architect. 
 
 In the twelfth century, a high tower was erected 
 adjoining to the cathedral of Pisa, to serve as a belfry. 
 This tower is well known by the singularity of its 
 inclination, which is owing to the insufficiency of its 
 foundations. In its construction little progress can be 
 discovered to have been made in architecture. 
 
 In the thirteenth century, Lapo, a Floientine 
 architect, built in Tuscany the church of Assisi ; and 
 Fuccio, another Florentine artist, constructed at 
 Naples the castle of Uovo. Niccola of Pisa, of the 
 same country, and in the same asre, erected at 
 Bologna, Padua, and Venice, many esteemed edifices. 
 The belfry of the Augustines, in the first of theses three 
 cities, offers interesting details. His greatest under- 
 taking was the church at Padua, dedicated to the
 
 60 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 patron of that city : it is less remarkable for its archi- 
 tecture, than for its sculpture in basso-relievo, the 
 greater part of which is from the hand of this architect. 
 Nevertheless^ the church of the Trinity, at Florence, 
 was that which of all his productions was most 
 esteemed by Michael Angelo, who was one of the 
 greatest admirers of the talents of this artist. Archi- 
 tecture had not as yet entirely emancipated itself from 
 the chains of barbarism and ignorance. Arnolpho di 
 Lapo built the church of St. Croce, and gave designs 
 for the costly temple of Santa Maria del Fiore. There 
 still remained great efforts to be made before they 
 could approach in the slightest 'degree to the taste, 
 simplicity, and beauty of the antique architecture. 
 At this time a strong emulation seemed at once to 
 animate all the cities of Italy. The church of Santa 
 Maria Formosa was constructed at Venice, by Paolo 
 Barbetta, some part of which is in the antique taste. 
 Several edifices were erected at Bologna ; and the 
 admired chapel of marble in the church of St. Maria 
 Maggiore, at Rome, was built about the year 1216, 
 by Marchione, architect and sculptor. The whole of 
 this epoch indicates an animated combination of talent 
 and energy to raise architecture from the abyss into 
 which it had fallen. 
 
 But these indications of reviving taste did not extend 
 beyond the borders of Italy. In all the spacious 
 constructions which were raised at this time in the 
 rest of Europe, we only behold an excessive passion 
 for that which was strange and marvellous, and a 
 profusion of ornaments, without choice, rule, or taste ; 
 amongst which class may be placed the cathedral 
 of Strasburg, a production of the thirteenth or
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 61 
 
 fourteenth century, and one of the greatest edifices 
 which at that time had been undertaken. It was 
 constructed by Erwin, of Steinbach. The total 
 presents a strange union of extended, and at the same 
 time trivial and ridiculous ideas. 
 
 In the fourteenth century Charles V. continued the 
 erection of the Louvre, which was commenced by 
 Philippe Auguste ; and then he undertook the palace 
 of St. Germain-en-Laye, which the English aug- 
 mented and embellished under the reign of Charles 
 VI. In the same century also, William Wykeham, 
 an Englishman, presented to king Edward III. 
 designs for the construction of Windsor Castle. He 
 likewise erected several edifices in Oxford, At this 
 time Giovanni, of Pisa, in Tuscany, constructed in 
 that city the Campo Santo, in which, although of so 
 late a date the Gothic taste prevailed. 
 
 The basilical form of the primitive churches is verj' 
 advantageous. We discover their total at the first 
 glance, and at whatever point we may be placed ; 
 presenting a noble and elegant appearance. The 
 insulated and equally-spaced columns fill their oflSce of 
 supports with admirable effect, and give an increased 
 apparent extent, which at each movement of the 
 spectator presents to him different perspectives. 
 This it is which constitutes the principal and positive 
 beauties of architecture. Nevertheless, these edifices, 
 which were derived from the antique basilicas, convey 
 but a faint idea of the perfection of their model. 
 
 As soon as one of the ancient basilicas had passed 
 to the service of a church, it became an absolute rule 
 to the architects, to give to churches the basilical 
 form, and they stripped and destroyed the most mag-
 
 62 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 nilicent remains of antiquity at Rome, for their em- 
 bellishment. Its columns were employed at hazard, 
 and without regard to the character of the orders, 
 retreat of their shaft, relations of their parts, or suit- 
 ableness of their bases, capitals, and entablatures. 
 There no longer existed the least degree of taste. 
 Necessity alone directed those who were employed in 
 these constructions ; and it was considered a meritori- 
 ous work to destroy the inimitable remains of antiquity, 
 in order to employ its fragments in the erection of 
 these new temples. When they had not under their 
 hands great masses to form entablatures, they had 
 recourse to the expedient of passing arches upon the 
 heads of the columns ; they also believed that these 
 arches diminished the weight of the masonry, and 
 rendered the construction lighter. The form of these 
 arches was always semicircular at Rome ; and they 
 were esteemed so convenient, that they were adopted 
 even at the exterior of edifices, to sustain other con- 
 structions, as if in air ; and to give to them a greater 
 exterior projection. This practice continued for a 
 considerable length of time, and was extensively em- 
 ployed, as may be observed at the palace of Venice, 
 castle of St. Angelo, Vaticano, and in many other 
 places. 
 
 We may remark the great use made of columns at 
 this time : they abounded in Rome. But it is much 
 more worthy of attention, to examine whether they 
 have been constantly employed as the essential sup- 
 ports of structures. To see the use made of columns at 
 this period, we have but to regard the belfries of the 
 churches erected at this early date, the names of 
 which have been before enumerated. We there per-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 6B 
 
 ceive that they always sustain arches. But what kind 
 of columns were they ? Mere spindles, without ele- 
 gance, or the redeeming merit of appertaining to any 
 order. All the belfries of this time resemble high 
 square towers of several orders of semicircular arcades, 
 supported by small columns surmounted by cornices 
 cut in a similar manner to the teeth of a saw, and 
 ornamented with small pieces of marble or glass of 
 different colours, placed here and there. The most 
 profuse employment of columns is made in the clois- 
 ters. Witness those in Rome, of St. Lorenzo fuori le 
 mura, St. Sabina, Chapter of St. Giovanni Laterano, 
 and St. Paolo; where we behold small slender co- 
 lumns, sometimes coupled, at other times insulated, 
 supporting arches which bear the great walls of the 
 edifice. 
 
 It cannot be doubted, but that these embryos of 
 columns have been wrought expressly for the use to 
 which they serve, for they are all alike. Their 
 capitals are rudely and irregularly formed; some of 
 their shafts are spirally fluted, and others have their 
 flutings and shaft spirally twisted. Such were their 
 futile attempts at beauty, and elegance of form and 
 design. These small columns were placed, as an 
 excellence, even in windows, which at this time were 
 small, narrow, and terminated by a semicircle. Those 
 of St. Agnes, St. Clemente, and St. Lorenzo, are so 
 small that they resemble loop-holes. These, how- 
 ever, are without columns. Columns were better 
 employed at this period in porticoes than in any other 
 part ; there they had architraves, as is seen in the 
 porticoes of St. Lorenzo, St. Giovanni e Paolo, St. 
 Giorgio in Vclabro, and St. Vitale.
 
 64 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 The other ornaments which were most in fashion 
 at this time are really singular. In the cornices of 
 churches, porticoes, belfries, and other constructions, 
 were placed pieces of stone or brick cut to very acute 
 angles, resembling the teeth of a saw ; and where 
 they wished to place several ranges, they took care 
 that the teeth above were placed in a contrary direc- 
 tion to those below. The many absurd ornaments 
 which force themselves upon our notice, in many of 
 these edifices, are too numerous to be mentioned. 
 Those which have the greatest pretensions to this 
 ludicrous style of embellishment, are the portico of 
 St. Giovanni e Paolo, on Monte Celio. These saws 
 are accompanied by a kind of small modillion, with 
 a species of ove underneath, which are doubtless 
 intended to represent drops of rain. This rude 
 description of ornaments is again found at the An- 
 nuntiata, contiguous to the Foro Transitorio, where 
 " the noble remains of the temple of Mars the A\'enger, 
 are seen. What a difference of taste in the same 
 city and in the same edifice ! 
 
 We may perceive other strange effects of the taste 
 which ruled at this time, in the ruins of the edifice 
 commonly named Palazzo di Pilato; which others 
 believe to have been that of Niccolo di Rienzo ; but 
 which is, in fact, neither that of the one nor the other. 
 Upon one of its faces is an inscription in verse which 
 explains the whole. The poetry perfectly corresponds 
 with the sublime architecture and pure taste of the 
 eleventh century : it says that this marvellous palace 
 was erected by Nicola, son of Crescenzo, first duke 
 of Rome, and of Feodora. It presents a heap 
 of the fragments of different species of sculptured
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 65 
 
 ornaments. The platbands, raodillions, and consoles, 
 are covered with them ; the columns and their capi- 
 tals, which are of brick, tooether with different 
 members of the cornices, are all decorated with the 
 saw-tooth ornaments. Besides these favourite em- 
 bellishments, they imagined other pretty tilings, which 
 passed at this time for the efforts of the most refined 
 taste ; such as the fringe Avhich ornaments the exterior 
 wall of the choir of St. Giovanni Laterano, and that 
 of the church of Aracceli, near the Campidoglio. In 
 one part there is a single, and in another a double 
 range of small arches upon consoles, from which a 
 species of tufls descends. 
 
 From this brief sketch it must appear evident, that 
 from the fourth to the fifteenth century, the architec- 
 ture of modern Rome, as well as that of other cities 
 and countries, will bear no comparison with that of 
 ancient Rome ; nor indeed can they be said to have 
 possessed any pretensions to architectural fame. In 
 modern Rome necessity caused them to employ the 
 columns of the antique edifices : but in what manner 
 did they employ them? Beautiful as they were, they 
 rendered them disagreeable; and even at Rome, in 
 the midst of chef-d'ceuvres, the rules of propriety and 
 taste seemed no longer to exist. This destruction of 
 taste extended to all the arts and sciences ; painting, 
 sculpture, poetry, and eloquence ; all the operations of 
 the human understanding suffered the same fate as 
 architecture. The arts spring, improve, arrive at 
 perfection, change, decline, are destroyed, and flourish 
 again, from the same causes which produce the revo- 
 lutions of cities, of nations, and of empires. 
 
 It will be very difficult at the present lime, * 
 
 K
 
 66 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 follow, by any formal inrlication, the abridged history 
 of the taste and disposition of the palaces and princi- 
 pal residences, situated in different countries, in this 
 night of the arts, which is named the middle ages, 
 without having recourse to ideas of the Gothic species, 
 and to castles or fortified mansions, of which there 
 scarcely remain either fragments or confused tradi- 
 tions. It is therefore necessary to pass over a great 
 number of centuries in the history of architecture as 
 connected with Italy, before we arrive at the epoch of 
 erecting the ducal palace of Venice ; the taste of 
 which totally differs from that of the fortified seats 
 constructed in Enoland and France durino^ the feudal 
 governments, Italy was not governed at this time 
 by the same system as the rest of Europe ; feudality 
 there was not so deeply rooted, and did not extend 
 itself under the same forms. It was not seen covered 
 with castles, the lords of wliich, being at war with 
 their neighbours and sovereigns, inhabited bastions 
 surrounded by moats and draw-bridges, instead of 
 residences expressive of hospitality and civilization. 
 It appears certain, however, that in Italy, the system 
 of the antique architecture was never entirely extinct ; 
 at least some traces of it may be found in the edifices 
 of all ages. 
 
 We now approach to the revival of architecture, 
 and of all the other arts, of which the fifteenth century 
 was the epoch. The cities that were desolated by 
 the troubles which had agitated Europe, re-estab- 
 lished it with emulation. The tranquillity which 
 followed, permitted the undertaking of numerous 
 constructions. The monuments of antiquity were 
 remembered, and Brunelleschi appeared. Brunei-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 67 
 
 leschi, one of the greatest men of whom modern 
 architecture can boast, was the first who, with the 
 scale and compasses in hand, surveyed the ruins of 
 ancient Rome. After having exercised his talent in 
 different arts, and formed his mind and taste by the 
 study of ancient authors, he undertook to revive the 
 maxims of antique architecture, and to draw them 
 from the ruins in which time and barbarism appeared 
 to have buried them for ever. He discovered and 
 distinguished the orders ; and was the first who, after 
 having found their valuable laws, employed their just 
 applications in his works. 
 
 The cupola of St. Maria del Fiori opened the way 
 to the numerous similar structures that have since 
 been erected ; and this edifice, which gained the 
 admiration of Michel Ano'elo, will alwavs astonish 
 those who know how to appreciate the merits of the 
 inventors, and the difficulty attached to the first steps 
 of every undertaking. This edifice, and several others 
 with which Brunelleschi was entrusted, gained him 
 great reputation as an architect. The students edu- 
 cated in his school spread themselves in the different 
 parts of Italy, awakened a taste for architecture, and 
 at the same time, propagating its true principles, 
 raised a spirit of emulation for its encouragement, 
 amongst the governing powers. Shortly afterwards 
 the beneficent genii of the house of Medici, the dukes 
 of Milan, and other princes and Italian nobies, opened 
 their palaces and treasuries to cherish the arts, and 
 seemed to be animated by a common desire to raise 
 them from the oblivion into which they had sunk. 
 The books of Vitruvius were communicated to the 
 architects of Italy, who consulted them, and spread the
 
 68 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 opinions of the author amongst the pubHc ; he being 
 the only one of the ancients, whose writings upon 
 architecture have descended to us. 
 
 Leon Battista Alberti, the second of the artists who 
 constructed according to the principles of V'^itruvius 
 and the maxims of antiquity, contributed greatly at 
 this time to the progress of architectural knowledge. 
 He succeeded Brunelleschi, whose talents he emulated, 
 and endeavoured to give to architecture more ele- 
 gance and variety in ornaments, than his predecessor. 
 His works on architecture evince great erudition, and 
 perhaps tended more to correct the taste of his 
 country, than that of Vitruvius himself; whose num- 
 berless obscurities cannot be explained even by expe- 
 rience and learned dissertation. 
 
 At this period the principal residences in France 
 and England, were constructed after the system of 
 military defence, at that time prevalent ; which had 
 no relation whatever to the Greco-Romano architec- 
 ture, nor any resemblance to what is generally 
 received as constituting a mansion. And from this 
 time to the revival of the antique architecture, the 
 habitations of kings, princes, and nobles, presented 
 nothing but an assemblage of round and square 
 towers; united by ranges of buildings forming spa- 
 cious courts, and presenting to the eye, both inside 
 and out, only masses of stone, pierced with apertures. 
 Nevertheless,, at the epoch in which these were 
 constructed, Italy was covered with mansions, in the 
 construction of which all the regularity of the antique 
 forms and ordonnances, the masses, details, and pro- 
 portions of the finest architecture were manifest. 
 Already Majano, Rossellini, Pintelli, and Guiliano da
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 69 
 
 Sangallo, had erected residences from which archi- 
 tects will continue to form their taste. In the palaces 
 and private habitations erected at Rome in this the 
 fifteenth century, the exteriors exhibit greatness, few 
 divisions, and a well-preserved eurithmj'. The win- 
 dows are equally spaced : if in one story they are 
 rectangular, and in great edifices traversed by a 
 marble cross, in the next story they are terminated by 
 a semicircle. Centred windows were at first with- 
 out imposts, but afterwards they were added. Near 
 to the old government house in the same city is a 
 small house, which is probably of this century. The 
 windows of each of its four stories are centred. What 
 a degree of elegant simplicity is exhibited in this small 
 construction ! 
 
 Generally the architraves of the windows and 
 doors have few members and little projection ; 
 the cornices being very simple, and without pedi- 
 ments. 
 
 The divisions of the stories were indicated by small 
 projecting and acute cornices, which were after- 
 wards tempered and changed to string courses. 
 
 In the interior of large mansions, they continued to 
 construct loggias with insulated columns supporting 
 arches, as is apparent in many of the monasteries, the 
 palace Vicolo del Governo, and that of the duke 
 Sforza Cesarini. Sometimes, instead of marble co- 
 lumns, they employed those of stone or brick, not 
 cylindrical, but polygonal, as at the palace di Vcnezia, 
 Piazza de SS. Apostoli, and the cloister Delia Pace. 
 There exists but one example of the employment of 
 these species of columns by the ancients, which is at 
 the Templum Rediculi.
 
 70 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 It was at this time that the use of piers or pillars 
 was introduced, decorated with engaged columns or 
 pilasters, on pedestals, for the support of arches. 
 They employed in the facades of the churches several 
 orders ; but without the former number of pediments, 
 projections, and breaks Their interior was no longer 
 basilical, but divided into three parts by arcades, or in 
 one alone with chapels ; sunk more or less, in such a 
 manner that the two last corresponding to the great 
 altar, were gradually constructed so far in retreat, 
 that the churches afterwards were designed accord- 
 ins: to the form called the Latin cross. There was 
 afterwards another form employed, named the Greek 
 cross. The greatest novelty that was introduced in 
 the churches at Rome was the cupola, which had 
 been at this time a thing of some date at Venice, and 
 still greater at Constantinople. 
 
 Lastly, great and well-proportioned distributions, 
 rectangular and monotonous forms, a sufficient solidity, 
 a simple and dry decoration, without projections, 
 breaks, or superfluity of ornaments, formed the cha- 
 racter of the architecture of the fifteenth century, 
 which may be regarded as the Aurora of the regene- 
 ration of taste. 
 
 We behold in the sixteenth, the boasted century, 
 during which the fine arts flourished most in Italy, 
 and particularly at Rome. In this century the arts 
 approached nearer to that state of perfection which 
 characterized them under Augustus, than they had 
 previously or have since attained. Italy prided itself 
 in having wrought this great change ; and Tuscany 
 claimed the merit of having, by means of the excellent 
 artists which it had produced, spread good tast^
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 71 
 
 throuo^h the greater part of Europe. Florence be- 
 lieved itself a second Athens, and thought that in the 
 century during which the Medici presided over Tus- 
 cany and Rome, it had revived the flourishing periods 
 of Pericles, Alexander, and Augustus. It is suffi- 
 cient to cite the mansions Giraud, Doria, Buoncam- 
 pagni, Delia Cancellaria (^See pi. QQ, the details of 
 which, like those of all the drawings presented in this 
 work, are modified ; and are not strictly according 
 to the originals) and the Tempietto di Bramante, 
 by Lazzari, generally named Bramante. His style 
 was at first rather dry, and partook of that of the 
 preceding century ; but it afterwards became nobler, 
 less broken, and hence more correct. The houses 
 Caffarelli, Stalle d'Agostino Chigi, and chapel Chigi, 
 by Raffaello. His works present the same purity of 
 style that distinguished his predecessor, without 
 having that meagreness with which he is reproached. 
 The houses Massimi, Altemps, Papa Guilia, Farne- 
 siana, and Salviati (^See pi. 58, 59, and 63,) by 
 Peruzzi, in whose productions there exist an exqui- 
 site choice of beautiful forms, the purest profiles, and 
 a perfect accord in the parts. The whole presents 
 solidity without heaviness, richness without luxury, 
 and character without affectation. The houses Sac- 
 chetti, Farnese, Palma, church della Madonna di 
 Loretto, chapel Paolina, and gate di St. Spirito {See 
 pi. 60,) by .Viitonio Sangallo, whose works are 
 generally esteemed for their simplicity of form, just- 
 ness of proportion, sobriety of ornaments, puiity of 
 style, and their real and apparent solidity. A part 
 of Farnese house, Campidoglio, and Sapicnza college, 
 bv Michel Anselo, whose talents were sublime, but
 
 72 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 without curb or measure ; fertile in great ideas, but 
 still more so in those which were capricious. 
 
 The villa Madama, Casino Lante, residences Ciccia 
 Porci, Cenci, and the church della Madonna dell 
 'Orto, were erected by Giulio Romano, whose edifices 
 are in general constructed and decorated with judg- 
 ment. Lancelloti house, and Casino del Papa, by 
 Pirro Ligorio. His works are models of good taste and 
 elegance. The facade of St. Petronio, Isolani house, 
 and Casa di Achille Bocchi, at Bologna ; the Ducale 
 palace, at Piacenza ; the churches di Mazzano, di 
 Sant 'Oreste, and della Madonna degli Angeli, at 
 Assisi ; the church di St. Francesco, at Perugia ; 
 Firenze house, at Florence ; the villa Giulio, church of 
 St. Andrea di Ponte Molle, Caprarola palace, gallery 
 dipinta dai Carracci, with the doors and windows and 
 interior arcades of Farnese palace, Doric door of the 
 Cancelleria palace, Corinthian door at St. Lorenzo 
 e Damaso, frontispiece at the Orti Farnese, gate del 
 Popolo, and church del Gesu, at Rome, by Giacomo 
 BarozzidaVignola. His productions may serve asguides 
 both for elegance and solidity. They are devoid of all 
 fantasticalness and caprice, being the result of a fertile 
 imagination and a sound judgment; which qualities 
 distino^uished Vimiola as one of those who contributed 
 most towards the regeneration of architecture. But 
 that which will cause his name to live, when the 
 hand of Time shall have destroyed his edifices, is his 
 work on the orders of architecture. It was composed 
 in the last years of his life, and completed under his 
 immediate superintendance, at the time that his 
 knowledge was matured by long experience. It will 
 be seen, on consulting the preface to his work, that
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 73 
 
 Vignola studied rather the sph'it manifested in the 
 whole of the antique remains, than confined himself to 
 a detailed imitation of any one in particular. In each 
 of his orders, Vignola observed the antique examples 
 which were generally reputed as the most beautiful. 
 He remarked that they all owe their reputation to 
 simple relations easily distinguished, which render the 
 lesser parts dependant on the greater. " Wishing, for 
 example, to establish the proportions of the Doric 
 order, I have observed," says he, " that the Doric of 
 the theatre of Marcellus was the most esteemed ; I 
 have therefore taken it for the principal rule of the 
 essential parts of my Doric : but when I found that 
 any lesser member departed from the division pre- 
 scribed by the ordonnance in general (which often 
 happens, either from the inaccuracy of execution, or 
 other reasons), instead of renouncing the fundamental 
 base, which I had adopted, I sought to establish the 
 proportion of these les"ser parts ; not after any system 
 of my own, but from other Doric monuments of an- 
 tiquity equally esteemed, and in which these parts 
 had not received the same alteration. I have always 
 made choice of the antique orders ; and on my part 
 have only given the distribution of the proportions 
 founded on simple relations, without employing mea- 
 sures in feet or palms of any country, but solely an 
 arbitrary measure taken from the order itself, named 
 module, and divided into a certain number of equal 
 parts." 
 
 Vignola never departed from great proportions, 
 such as halves, thirds, or fourths, the observance of 
 which, in part, constitutes the principle of that l>eauty 
 so much admired in his productions, and which has 
 
 L
 
 74 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 raised his work on the orders of architecture, into 
 universal repute. 
 
 The basilica di Vicenza, houses Tiene, Trissino, de 
 Porti, and Valraarana, at Vicenza ; Foscari house, 
 monastery de' Canonici della Carita, refectory de' 
 Monaci di St. Giorgio Maggiore, churches di St. 
 Giorgio Maggiore, St. Francesco della Vigna, II Re- 
 dentore, Olimpico theatre, and many other edifices at 
 Venice, were constructed by Palladio. It appears to 
 have been his object, to shew that the principles of 
 beauty and design exhibited in the antique edifices, 
 are suitable to all periods and to all European coim- 
 tries, with the modifications that the ancients them- 
 selves have admitted in their works. From his 
 manner of imitating them, he seems to have had no 
 other system than that of making such a judicious 
 application of their principles, as they themselves 
 would have made had they exercised their art amongst 
 the moderns. Thence the free, easy, and elegant 
 application of the masses, lines, plans, and ornaments 
 of the antique in all his constructions. The style of 
 Palladio has been imitated in England by Inigo Jones, 
 Wren, Gibbs, Chambers, and many others, who have 
 modified his plans, fa9ades, adjustment of his forms, 
 profies, ordonnances, and details. 
 
 The Pitti palace, at Florence; houses Ruspoli, 
 Sacripanti, Negroni, and Romano college, at Rome, 
 by Bartolomeo Ammanati. His works are admired 
 for the judicious ordonnance of their details, beauty of 
 their forms, disposition of the planes, apertures, 
 profiles, and the harmony of the parts with the total. 
 
 The chapel del Presepio in St. Maria Maggiore, 
 villa Negroni, Vaticana library, facade of St. Gio.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 75 
 
 Laterano, palaces Vaticano, elevation facing the city, 
 and Albani, at Rome, by Domenico Fontana. This 
 artist cannot be considered amongst those masters of 
 the art whose works are classic. In his edifices a 
 great knowledge of construction is developed, and a 
 taste which, without being absolutely pure, wanted 
 neither simplicity nor greatness. 
 
 The college della Sapienza, churches del Gesu, St. 
 Luigi de' Francesi, St. Maria in Via, Madonna de' 
 Monti, St. Paolo alle tre Fontane, and de' Greci, at 
 Rome, by Giacomo della Porta. The architecture of 
 his churches presents a great number of projections, 
 pediments above each other, and other similar extra- 
 vagances. In his mansions the style of this architect 
 is very unequal. Some are passable, such as the 
 Sapienza, and the houses Gottofredi, Nicolini, and the 
 Belvedere at the villa Aldobrandini ; others again 
 abound with the ordinary abuse that he made of 
 pediments, projections, mezzaninas, &c. as the houses 
 Marescotti and Serluppi. That of Chigi has a majestic 
 vestibuivi, and a spacious and commodious court. 
 There are many fountains designed by this architect, 
 which are situated in the squares Navona, Colonna, 
 Popolo, Rotonda, Campidoglio, and Madomia de Monti. 
 The best are, that in the Piazza Mattei, and another in 
 the Campidoglio, where the statue of Marforio is placed. 
 
 '^I' he houses Cornaro, Trissino, Molini, Pisani, Strozzi 
 Ravaschieri, Fino in Bergomo, and many others at 
 Vicenza, Venice, Florence, Padua, and Genoa, by 
 Vincenzo Scammozzi. It is easy to perceive that his 
 style is formed from that of Palladio, but it is repro- 
 duced by this learned author with great discernment 
 and purity.
 
 76 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 It was in this century, during which England, 
 France, and Germany, were a prey to religious wars, 
 that ten pontiffs, in succession, contributed to the 
 erection of St. Peter's church, at Rome. (^See the 
 Frontispiece, and pi. 71 to 74 ; in which the 
 defects exhibited in the details of the original, are 
 omitted, and the whole modified.) This celebrated 
 edifice was erected on the site of that which was 
 built by Constaatine, and which, from the plans that 
 remain, appears to have been divided into five parts, 
 by a hundred Corinthian columns ; and presented two 
 isles at each side of the nave. Its entrance consisted 
 of a large square area formed by a colonnade. Pope 
 Nicola V. finding it in a most dilapidated state, 
 formed the idea of erecting another church, that 
 should surpass the former in magnificence. He con- 
 fided the important trust to Leon Battista Alberti and 
 Bernardo Rosellini. The first-mentioned architect 
 wishing to prepare for the execution of this great 
 enterprise, first constructed a spacious apsis at the 
 extremity of the site of the former : and for this pur- 
 pose he demolished the temple of Probus, which was 
 situated near it. The work, however, was not raised 
 more than three cubits in height when Alberti died. In 
 a short time afterwards Nicola V. died, without having 
 enjoyed the satis^faction of seeing the designs of Alberti 
 executed; and one of his successors, Giulio II., laid 
 the first stone of this edifice. After having employed 
 the most able architects in Italy to furnish designs for 
 the intended church, the preference was given to 
 those offered by Bramante ; notwithstanding Michel 
 Angelo Bonarroti, who had lately arrived in Rome, 
 openly condemned them. To accelerate the construe-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 77 
 
 tion of this new church, Bramante demolished the 
 materials of the former church, together with the 
 columns; the latter, Michel Angelo asserted might 
 have been preserved and employed. Nevertheless 
 Bramante raised the edifice in a short time to the 
 entablature of the principal pillars. 
 
 Leone X. successor to Giulio H., gave all his atten- 
 tion to this new undertaking. He confided it to the 
 care of Giuliano da Sangallo, Fra Giocondo Veronese, 
 and the celebrated Raphaello, who had studied archi- 
 tecture under Bramante. Already this pontiff despaired 
 of seeing the entire execution of the designs of Bra- 
 mante, when Baldassare Peruzzi advised him to make 
 several alterations in the project; this architect stating 
 that the plan of Bramante was defective in its solidity. 
 In his alterations, he preserved the great cupola, but 
 gave the edifice a square form instead of a rectangular 
 one, which was the form Bramante had assisrned it. 
 About this period, namely, 1521, Leone X. died. 
 
 Adriano VI. only survived him a year: the troubles 
 with which the pontificate of Clemente VII. was dis- 
 quieted, did not permit him to forward the execution 
 of this edifice. Paolo III. testified his taste by the 
 embellishments which the capital of his states re- 
 ceived ; and showed much zeal for the construction of 
 the new church. After the death of Peruzzi, Antonio 
 Sangallo made a new project and model, which were 
 agreed to by Paolo III. In this plan, which was more 
 extended than that of Peruzzi, he totally perverted 
 the designs of Bramante. Sangallo dying in 1546, 
 the pontiff was for some time undecided to whom it 
 should be intrusted At length Paolo III. appointed 
 Michel Angelo to be the architect of St. Peter's, with
 
 78 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 full power to make such alterations in what was 
 already built, as he might judge necessary ; and to be 
 guided solely by his own judgment in prosecuting the 
 remainder of the design. 
 
 Michel Angelo altered the plan of this church to 
 that of Peruzzi ; namely, a cross, with its four ex- 
 tremities of an equal length, in the centre of which 
 are placed four piers to support the cupola. He 
 suppressed a great portion of the beauties exhibited in 
 the designs of Bramante and Peruzzi, and augmented 
 the dimensions of the different parts, without increas- 
 ing the solidity in an equal ratio. He had not super- 
 intended the construction of this edifice more than 
 three years, when Paolo III. expired. Giulio III. 
 succeeding him,- continued to Michel Angelo the trust. 
 Shortly afterwards Giulo III. died ; and the pontificate 
 of Marcello II., w^ho succeeded him, was of still shorter 
 duration. Paolo IV. was elected to the pontificate, at 
 which time Michel Angelo was studying the con- 
 struction of the cupola. The model was finished, but 
 its execution was retarded by the death of Paolo IV. 
 This pontiff was succeeded by Pio IV., who continued 
 the trust to Michel Ano:elo. 
 
 The church of St. Peter's was raised to the height 
 of the spring of the cupola, when Michel Angelo died, 
 in 1564; when he had superintended the erection of 
 this edifice seventeen years. Some time before his 
 death, he caused a detailed model to be made in 
 wood, to which he affixed the drawings and specifi- 
 cations. After his death Pope Pio IV. appointed 
 Pirro Ligorio, and Giacomo Barozzi, known by the 
 name of Vignola, to succeed Michel Angelo ; and he 
 enjoined them to follow with exactness the project of
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 79 
 
 their predecessor. It was an opinion so generally 
 entertained that no additional improvement could be 
 made in the model of Michel Angelo, that at the 
 expiration of two years, Pio V. dismissed Ligorio for 
 having departed from it. Vignola alone remained, 
 and occupied himself for the rest of his life in execut- 
 ing the exterior accordino' to the desions of Michel 
 Anofelo. After the death of this architect, which 
 took place in 1579, Gregorio XIII. deputed in his 
 place, Giacomo della Porta, who had been the pupil 
 of Vignola. This pontiff did not continue the con- 
 struction of the cupola, but preferred terminating the 
 decoration of the interior parts of the church. Sisto V. 
 having succeeded Gregorio XIII., wished to have 
 the reputation of erecting the celebrated cupola de- 
 signed by Michel Angelo. Besides Giacomo della 
 Porta, he engaged Domenico Fontana, whose talents 
 had been proved on several occasions. They com- 
 menced to work at the attic of the great cupola, on 
 the fifteenth of July, 1588. Sisto V. being anxious 
 to finish this cupola, employed six hundred work- 
 men, who relieved each other, so as to work night 
 and day without intermission. The undertaking was 
 forwarded with such ardour, that in a year and ten 
 months, the attic and two cupolas were completed 
 to the basement of the lantern. The pontiff gave 
 solemn thanks over the last stone, which was laid the 
 fourteenth of May, 1590; the cannon of the castle of 
 St. Angelo announcing the circumstance. He caused 
 the exterior of the cupola to be covered with lead, 
 and decorated the seven projecting sides in face of 
 the entrance with gilt bronze. Notwithstanding the 
 celerity with which Sisto V. caused this work to be
 
 80 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 erected, he had not the satisfaction of seeing it com- 
 pleted; for he died in the month of August, 1590; 
 and the lantern, globe, and cross were not completed 
 before November in the same year, under Urbano 
 VII. The rest of the parts were executed by Gia- 
 como della Porta, in the pontificate of Clemente VIH. 
 Afterwards Paolo V. caused the church to be length- 
 ened after the designs of Carlo Maderno; but he 
 constructed the facade from those of Michel Angelo. 
 All the different works were completed in 1614. 
 Urbano VIII., Innocentio X., Alessandro VII., and 
 several other pontiffs, enriched this temple with 
 chapels, sepulchral monuments, and other embellish- 
 ments; which were executed after the designs of the 
 most celebrated artists of Italy. 
 
 The merits of this great work are exhibited, in the 
 plan previous to its alteration : in the employment of 
 only one order, and in the tambour of the dome ; 
 which are beauties that compensate for a portion of 
 the following defects presented in this edifice. 
 
 In the interior: the projection of the imposts ex- 
 ceeds that of the pilastres; the continuity of the 
 principal entablature is interrupted by numerous 
 breaks ; and the ornaments with which the whole of 
 the interior is decorated, are too abundant to be 
 effective, and not in a correct style. 
 
 At the exterior : first, in its plan, by the distribu- 
 tion of its entrance, as also by the massives placed in 
 the exterior of the circular parts of the three principal 
 branches ; secondly, in the elevations, by an erroneous 
 application of pilastres, as also the numerous breaks 
 in the entablature over them ; by the ordonnance of 
 its facade, which, although possessing the advantage
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 81 
 
 of presenting only one order, produces but little relief 
 to the elevation, from the circumstance of its columns 
 being engaged in the masonry ; and the disproportion 
 of the members of the entablature, which is said to 
 have arisen from the extraordinary module of the 
 columns. Lastly, the attic is too high ; added to 
 which, the employment of windows in the same, 
 together with their defective form, and decoration ; 
 as also the decoration of the lantern of the dome. 
 
 The bad effects which result from Maderno adding 
 three arcades in length to the western extremity of 
 St. Peter's, which from a Greek became a Latin 
 cross, are : first, that it no longer presents the spec- 
 tator with a point of sight from whence any portion of 
 the tambour of the great dome can be discovered ; 
 not even from the extremity of the immense area 
 fronting the church ; so that the most beautiful parts 
 of this edifice remain concealed : secondly, the interior 
 of the church is entered, under the expectation of 
 enjoying the effect of the grand cupola, of which so 
 much has been said, and which expectation is in a 
 great measure disappointed. For the spectator, per- 
 ceiving only a curved aperture in the vaulted ceiling, 
 is obliged to advance a considerable distance before 
 he obtains a perfect view of this rotundo, which 
 ought to present itself from all points. 
 
 There have been a multitude of embellishments 
 successively added to the interior of this temple, 
 which, however, from the profuse gilding, the stuc- 
 coes of the arches, and the walls being covered with 
 different kinds of marble, have not merely destroyed 
 the harmony, but have lessened, very materially, the 
 general effect. Nevertheless tlie faults and errors 
 
 M
 
 82 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 which are met with in so great an undertaking, ought 
 not to excite astonishment, when it is considered tliat 
 its construction was the work of three centuries, 
 carried on under the direction of different individuals, 
 several of whom made considerable innovations in the 
 simplicity of the original design. A mixture of beauty 
 and deformity, of greatness as well as littleness of 
 design, might naturally be expected to result from the 
 amalgamation of so many grades of genius and talent 
 in the erection of one edifice. It cannot be denied, 
 that no church has yet been erected, the area of 
 which is equal in extent to that of St. Peter's ; yet it 
 by no means exhibits that apparent magnitude which 
 a spectator, previous to entering it, expects to witness; 
 and it is often matter of dispute whether it is equal in 
 extent to the cathedral at Milan, or even St. Paul's at 
 Rome. It is however sufficient to state, that the 
 principal nave of St. Peter's is 610 feet in length, and 
 the transverse 457 feet ; and that the total length of 
 the basilic of St. Paul at Rome is scarcely 267 feet. 
 Nevertheless, St. Paul's appears to be of greater 
 extent than St. Peter's. Place two ranges of insulated 
 columns in the interior of the latter, as is the case 
 with the former, and you will immediately discover 
 St. Peter's to be the most spacious church in the 
 world. The employment of insulated columns in an 
 edifice increases its apparent extent ; they fill up the 
 vacancy of an extensive area, and form a lengthened 
 perspective, by furnishing the eye with objects on 
 winch it can rest, and from which the mind is enabled 
 to form an estimate of the extent of space which they 
 occupy, whicli is apparently increased by their number; 
 Tliis deme»"''t of St. Peter's is derived from modern
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 83 
 
 architecture, which, having proscribed the forms of 
 the ancient basihcae and Hnes of insulated columns, 
 employed only pillars and massives ; which producing 
 but little effect, present heavy and monotonous struc- 
 tures. 
 
 At the commencement of this century, celebrated 
 for the prosperity of trie arts and hence the cultivation of 
 a correct taste, archi-;€ cture exhibited a very promising 
 display of genius and talent at Rome. Bramante and 
 Sangallo treated architectural decoration with the 
 reserve which a study of the antique remains, as yet 
 little known, inspired. Peruzzi, Raphaello, and Vig- 
 nola, advanced with more liberty, and greater intelli- 
 gence : thus the proportions of the orders were more 
 correctly delineated ; the beauty of insulated columns 
 was discovered ; the use of arches placed upon the 
 capitals of columns was condemned ; a great variety 
 of forms for churches and palaces was introduced, and 
 their distribution enlarged ; presenting at this period 
 real and important advantages to architecture. 
 
 These benefits and this progress were increased by 
 the translation of the work of Vitruvius, and the 
 commentaries made by Alberti, Serlio, Vignola, Palla- 
 dio, Scamozzi, and many other professors of architec- 
 ture. Every thing appeared favourable for the 
 establishment of a correct architectural taste, and the 
 opportunity seemed at hand to give permanency to 
 whatever was excellent in the art ; \vhen Michel 
 Angelo appeared, wlio, with the capricious sublimity 
 of his genius, oveithrew all and introduced the most 
 fantastic forms. lie prescribed to and governed 
 Fontana, Porta, Ammanati, and a multitude of others ; 
 corrupted the taste of this century, and influenced that
 
 84 ARCHITECTURAr. DIRECTOR. 
 
 of the following by the evil of his example. The 
 abuses which he introduced, or that he and his parti- 
 zans raised into credit, are, niched and coupled 
 columns, together with others supporting little or 
 nothing. A repetition of the same order in several 
 stories. Those of different heights and species in the 
 same story; a single order which embraces several 
 stories, others without character, or again mingled with 
 different characters. An injudicious application of 
 pedestals and pilasters of various kinds, and some even 
 reversed, being larger at the upper extremity than the 
 lower. An absence of proportion ; capricious profiles ; 
 and a superfluity of mouldings; together with a 
 profusion of insignificant ornaments. Pediments of 
 different descriptions employed without discrimination, 
 both in the interior and exterior. The application of 
 entablatures to irregular plans, as also oflfering a con- 
 tinued series of breaks. And lastly, churches with 
 facades, presenting two stones, and interiorly encum- 
 bered with heavy pillars instead of columns, which 
 form one of the greatest beauties of architecture. 
 
 The architecture of the seventeenth and eighteenth 
 centuries adopted many of these imperfections ; so 
 that a detailed description of their edifices would be 
 tedious. A chronological list of those which are most 
 deserving of notice will suffice. The chapel Paolina 
 in St. Maria Maggiore, Basilic di St. Sebastiano fuori 
 le mura, and Sciarra Colonna palace, by Flaminio 
 Ponzio. In the last-mentioned production, the fine 
 division of the different stories, the judicious and noble 
 proportioned distances of the apertures, a reasonable 
 employment and distribution of ornaments, at once 
 simple and majestic, are generally admired.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 85 
 
 At this period the system of the antique architec- 
 ture was introduced into England by Inigo Jones. It 
 had been introduced into France during the preceding 
 century by Serlio, Primaticcio, and Pierre Lescot, in 
 the construction of the Louvre and other edifices. In 
 the year 1620, Inigo Jones was charged with the 
 repairing of St. Paul's cathedral, at London. This 
 old Gothic church was falling into decay in many 
 places. Our architect erected a portico of the Corin- 
 thian order at each side of the Gothic frontispiece 
 that he repaired. We find amongst his works the 
 plan and elevation of one of these porticoes (that of 
 the western side), which construction disappeared 
 with that of the ancient cathedral, at the time of its 
 re-construction by Sir Christopher Wren. We are 
 obliged to acknowledge the justice of the critique that 
 has been passed on the style employed in these addi- 
 tions. Nothino' is so unbecomino: in the restorations 
 which are obliged to be made in Gothic edifices, as 
 this medley of different styles, and above all of antique 
 ordonnances, the system of which is totally different, 
 and can produce no other effect than that of a contra- 
 diction, which offends the sight as much as the 
 understanding. Inigo Jones was afterwards charged 
 with the construction of the great enterprise of the 
 royal palace at Whitehall, the designs for which he 
 nad commenced and finished in the reijjn of James I. 
 
 It is from this production that we are best enabled 
 to judge of the genius of our architect. It may be 
 affirmed, that a greater or more magnificent ensemble 
 of a palace was never conceived and projected by any 
 modern architect; and if the disasters of the period 
 had not interrupted its execution, London might have
 
 86 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 boasted of possessing the most magnificent palace in 
 Europe. Unhappily, it is but in his designs that we can 
 form an idea of its merits. The combination of variety 
 and regularity, of greatness and simplicity, exhibited in 
 the plan of this immense edifice, which was intended 
 to form a perfect quadrangle, are truly admirable. 
 The space occupied by this plan is divided into three 
 equal parts. That in the centre is a spacious court? 
 which traverses the whole of the palace : the other 
 two are each composed of three courts, environed by 
 buildings, the masses of which correspond in their 
 general appearance. The elevation of this total offers 
 the most perfect symmetry in its four exterior facades, 
 each of which is formed of masses of buildings, of 
 which the dispositions and ordonnances are balanced 
 by a general, uniform, and always greatly varied 
 motive, either by the advance or retreat of the parts, 
 or by the diversity of the elevations. Each fa9ade is 
 similar to the other exteriorly. The interior of the 
 palace presents in its different elevations, details which 
 seem to present all the variety that good taste could 
 unite. 
 
 To gain a more precise idea of this design, it will 
 be necessary to examine the works of Inigo Jones, 
 published by Kent in 1770, where the beautiful details 
 of this great enterprise are engraved. It is in these 
 designs that we may discover how much Inigo Jones 
 appropriated the style of Palladio. Every part of 
 this immense composition brings to mind, in the em- 
 ployment of the orders, porticoes, bossages, basements, 
 profiles, details, form of the windows, doors, &c. that 
 rich and simple, noble and elegant style, that Palladio 
 and the architects in Italy of the (sixteenth century,
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. O . 
 
 applied in the palaces of the great, and also in the 
 dwellings of private individuals. 
 
 We may be convinced by that beautiful fragment 
 of Whitehall palace, named the banqueting-house, 
 with what ability Inigo Jones appropriated the 
 beauties of the great masters from whom he copied. 
 
 It is composed of a very high rustic basement, on 
 which rise two stories, each of which has seven 
 vvindow.5. The height of each story is occupied by 
 an odonnance of columns and pilasters; the lower are 
 Ionic, and those above Composite. The whole is 
 surmotinted by an attic and balustrade. Some of the 
 details in this ensemble give rise to criticism. It 
 woi.ld be better if the cornice was not in projection 
 over the engaged columns and pilasters. It is also 
 to be wished that Inigo Jones had not followed the 
 bad practice of a swelled or cur\ ed frize in the entab- 
 lature of his Ionic order. Notwithstanding these 
 little irregularities, the aspect of tliis edifice is rich, 
 and exhibits a nobleness of character. The windows 
 have elegant architraves ; the execution is pure and 
 choice ; and a person of adequate judgment acknow- 
 ledges at once tlie .style of a Palladio. 
 
 The church of St. Paul, Covent Garden, is mentioned 
 as being; constructed from the desio:ns of Iniiio Jones. 
 This edifice presents a portico of columns, of what is 
 called the Tu.scan order ; which is of great sinijdicity. 
 It cannot be denied that this mass bears a sufficiently 
 serious character, yet neither the interior nor exterior 
 is distinguished by any merit either of composition or 
 execution. • 
 
 The Royal Exchange, at Lojidon, built after ♦.ho 
 great I. re in this city, is also said by some to have
 
 88 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 been erected from the designs of this artist ; though 
 others attribute both the design and execution to Sir 
 Ciiristopher Wren ; but if it be the design of Inigo 
 Jones, it is considered at the same time as not beina: 
 one of his best productions. This edifice has an 
 arcade in the centre of its facade, accompanied by a 
 smaller one on each side, the latter extending round 
 the front and lateral elevation forming a piazza, the 
 whole of which is decorated with the Corinthian order. 
 It is from the middle of this part of the Exchange that 
 a lofty tower is raised, ornamented with the Ionic, 
 Corinthian, and Composite orders. The superior part 
 of the structure is terminated by a balustrade and 
 ornamented with statues. 
 
 The large arcade in the centre of the two elevations, 
 serves as entrances to a noble area, in which the 
 merchants assemble ; and is surrounded by a piazza, 
 that serves as a convenient shelter from the sun and 
 rain. A staircase in the north and another in the south 
 front, communicates with a gallery on the second story, 
 which runs round the whole building, and leads to 
 various offices occupied by underwriters and merchants. 
 
 One of the greatest and most remarkable edifices in 
 England is Greenwich Hospital, situated on the south 
 bank of the Thames, at the distance of five miles from 
 London bridge. It was designed by Inigo Jones, and 
 completed from his projects by Webb, his pupil. Tliis 
 immense total of buildings, which at the present day 
 serves as an hospital for invalid seamen, was originally 
 destined for another purpose. Inigo Jones had pro- 
 jected it for a palace for Charles I. It appears that 
 he had but completed a part of this vast construction, 
 when its continuation was interrupted by political
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOll. SU 
 
 circumstances. It remained in this state until ^\'illiam 
 in. resolved to grant the land and buildings intended 
 for a royal palace, for the establishment of an hospital 
 for invalid seamen ; and accordingly the part executed 
 by Inigo Jones was accompanied with the corres- 
 ponding parts and buildings which constitute the 
 whole of the present plan. It cannot be affirmed 
 that all the parts of this edifice are executed accord- 
 ing to the original designs of our architect, since the 
 change of its destination would necessarily require 
 particular disposition. The present ensemble is com- 
 posed of two spacious square masses of buildings, 
 situated on an extensive terrace, on the south bank of 
 the Thames. Each of these buildings, which are 
 perfectly symmetrical, has a court in its centre. 
 Their anterior and posterior facades are formed of a 
 basement, upon which the Corintliian order is placed, 
 tliat occupies the height of the two stories ; an attic, 
 surmounted with a balustrade, crowns this ordonnance. 
 Two parts in advance, with four engaged columns 
 supporting a pediment, are disposed in the facade at 
 eacli side of the entrance, flanked with coupled pilas- 
 ters, corresponding with others at (he angles, which 
 are also coupled. These pilasters accord with four 
 others in return, which terminate the ordonnance and 
 delineate the dimensions of the facade. The two 
 anterior and posterior elevations just mentioned, are 
 united at each sitle by a mass of building less elevated, 
 by the height of the attic, and perforated in each of 
 the two stories with windows cut in the bossages, 
 which give to these wings a very masculine character. 
 The centre is occupied by four columns in advance, 
 similar to those of the facade. As the whole of this
 
 90 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 ensemble is composed of two parts perfectly symme- 
 trical, the description of one, as above, will serve to 
 convey a just idea of the other. 
 
 The grand area or esplanade which separates the 
 two above-mentioned buildings, discovers two domes 
 of considerable elevation, which rise over insulated 
 porticoes. These domes terminate a long range of 
 buildings at each side, evidently of a style posterior to 
 Inigo Jones. The whole ends in an avenue, which 
 leads by a slight ascent to the royal observatory. 
 
 From a view of all the parts of which this great 
 edifice is composed, it becomes evident that it is the 
 work of different times and successive artists. The 
 style of Inigo Jones is only found in that part of the 
 edilice of which a more special description has been 
 given, and in which the style of Palladio is evident, 
 particularly in the bossaged wings before-mentioned. 
 Criticism would find somethino; still further to observe 
 respecting the facades, both as to the disposition of 
 the columns and pilasters, and the distribution of the 
 masses and parts in advance, which leave the prin- 
 cipal entrance with a secondary decoration. The 
 weight of the attic also, which appears too heavy for 
 the ordonnance, is objectionable. But this composi- 
 tion has, nevertheless, great beauties ; it presents a 
 noble and masculine character, greatness in its masses, 
 and tha t symmetrical and complete total in its lesser 
 parts, which it is rare to find in extensive structures. 
 
 M. Milizia, in speaking of this edifice, blames it as 
 regards its character, w^hich^ according to him, ought 
 to have been simple, and without luxury, conformable 
 to its uses. The critique is just; but it is necessary 
 to observe that this fault cannot be attributed to Inigo
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 91 
 
 Jones, who could not foresee this change in its employ- 
 ment. 
 
 We find, in some Itineraries, frequent mention of 
 extensive country seats, erected in the different counties 
 of England by Inigo Jones ; but these notices are not 
 of sufficient authority. The collection of liis works, 
 published by Kent, contains indeed a great number of 
 plans and elevations for public and private buildings, 
 but the publisher has omitted to state whether these 
 designs are those of buildings executed, or merely pro- 
 jects found in the portfolio of the artist. All that can 
 be said of these designs is, that if they have not been 
 executed it is to be regretted, as there is not one the 
 erection of which would not have been creditable. 
 Thev all exhibit the taste, style, purity, and elegance 
 of Palladio, and the best architects of the sixteenth 
 century. This collection maybe usefully consulted by 
 those who wish to apply to architecture the forms, 
 ordonnances, and particular character which distin- 
 guish the works of the Greeks and Romans. It may 
 indeed be said of the character of the ancient archi- 
 tecture, that it was imitated with more success in the 
 course of the sixteenth century, than at any period from 
 the time of its restoration to the present. 
 
 The churches St. Carlo de Catenari, St. Gresforio, 
 and St. Caterina da Siena, at Rome, were erected from 
 the designs of Battista Soria, whose works exhibit 
 sumptuosity and irregularity. The churches della 
 Pace, St. Maria in via lata, St. Martina, or St. Luca, 
 and Sacchetti ad Ostia palace, at Rome, are by Pietro 
 Bcricttini da Cortona. His works present great abuse 
 of decoration, and all that viciousncss of style that an 
 indolent mind, corrupt and irregular in its taste, cannot
 
 92 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 fail to introduce. The frontispiece of the church des 
 Feuillans, rue 8t. Honore, the palaces de Berny and 
 de Baleroy, in Normandy ; de Blezancouit, a part of 
 tiiat of Choisy-sur-Seine, de Petit-Bourg, de Blois, 
 part of the interiors of the palaces de Richelieu and de 
 Coulomniers, the exterior of the palace and gardens 
 de Gesvres en Brie, the principal part of that of Fresne, 
 together with a chapel which was, in some respects, 
 the model of the church du Val-de-Grace, at Paris. 
 The palace de Maisons, hotel de la Vrilliere, and de 
 Jars, the church des Filles-Sainte-Marie, in the rue 
 St. Antoine, part of the hotel de Bouillion, the frontis- 
 piece des Minimes de la Place Royale, to the second 
 order exclusively, termination of the hotel Carnavalet, 
 and its fa9ade, the church du Val-de-Grace, and the 
 projects for the competition of the Louvre, at Paris^ 
 are all by Francois Mansart. He has produced no 
 work which, from its merit, is capable of fixing the 
 attention of posterity ; and the history of good taste in 
 architecture is as little indebted to him as to many 
 other modern architects. 
 
 The facade of the church di St. Ignazio, and the 
 villa Pamfili, at Rome, are by Alessandro Algardi. 
 Alaardi, in the decoration of this seat or casino, has 
 avoided the faults of the architects of his time, which 
 consisted in covering the fa9ades of palaces with bass 
 reliefs and antique statues, confusedly placed, which 
 injured the ordonnance and symmetry. This disposi- 
 tion in the works of Algardi is the result of a correct 
 and judicious taste. The interior presents details of 
 decoration which might serve as models for their 
 species. Algardi also passes for the designer of the 
 superb gardens of this country seat, which are disposed
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 93 
 
 in the most picturesque and varied manner, accordino- 
 to the iiiequahty of the situation. They abound with 
 fountains, cascades, and amphitheatres of water, 
 which embellish and render them the most delightful 
 at Rome. 
 
 The churches di St. Agnese, decoration of St. Gio. 
 Laterano, the oratorio de' PP. della Chiesa Nuova, di 
 St. Carlino alle quattro Fontane, di Propaganda, della 
 Sapienza, and della Madonna de' Sette Dolori, the 
 palaces Falconieri a Strada Guilia and Panfili or Doria, 
 at Rome, are by Francesco Borromini. He reduced 
 architecture to a species of mechanical operation, and 
 obeyed no law in the forms which he had adopted; 
 but that of his own caprice. His fantastical elevations 
 present a mass of vicious forms, which were never em- 
 ployed previous to his time, the only merit of which con- 
 sists in the possibility of executing them. The fertility 
 of his invention ceases to astonish us, when we reflect 
 that it is much more easy to form designs for an edifice, 
 unshackled by the rules of art and correct taste, than to 
 produce such as will bear the test of an enlightened 
 criticism, and exhibit judgment, ability, and propriety of 
 disposition. His style of decoration resembles that of a 
 gold or silversmith, which is capricious, and without any 
 immediate relation to necessity or propriety. It obeys 
 no other authority than that of an indetermined and 
 puerile pleasure. The only principle which Borro- 
 mini cither practised or possessed, was that of contra- 
 dicting all who had preceded him. 
 
 The palaces Barberini, di Monte Citorio, and di 
 Bracciano, churches del Noviziato de' Gesuiti, nell' 
 Ariccia, and Gandolfo, and the fountains di Piazza 
 Navona, and in Piazza Barberini, at Rome, were from
 
 94 ARCIIITECTUIIAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 the designs of Gio. Lorenzo Bernini, who also executed 
 in St. Peter's at Rome, the tombs, chair of St. Peter, 
 and the high altar. It may be remarked, that in the 
 disposition of the chair of St. Peter, he has been very 
 successful in the judicious choice of its situation. A 
 window is situated behind the four colossal statues of 
 the doctors that support it, the light of which produces 
 considerable effect. Of the high altar, or rather that 
 senseless production of four twisted columns, which 
 sustain a canopy, as if placed expressly to encumber 
 and obstruct the grand intersection of the four branches 
 of the temple, it may be further observed, that it is 
 difficult to conceive how such an absurdity could have 
 originated with that same Bernini who constructed the 
 colonnade of the Piazza di St. Pietro. The Piazza di 
 St. Pietro, or place of St. Peter, is of an elliptical form, 
 surrounded by four rangesof insulated columns, which 
 bear an entablature crowned by a balustrade and 
 statues. There is an obelisk at its centre, on either 
 side of which is an immense fountain, which emits, 
 with great force and sound, a considerable body of 
 water. The immense area, terminated by the facade 
 of the church, the spacious steps of which form two 
 spaces resembling terraces, presents one of those rare 
 productions and fortunate conceptions which impart 
 the greatest delight to the spectator ; yet how much 
 more enchanting would it be, were it not for the bad 
 taste exhibited in the facade of the church, and the 
 mass of the pontifical palace which overload one of its 
 sides. Notwithstanding the faults and licences which 
 this place offers, in spite of the bellied columns, and 
 Ionic cornice with the Doric order, it is one of the 
 finest productions of modern architecture. The archi-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 95 
 
 tects wp to this time, had never employed so many 
 columns to such advantage. The facades of the 
 entrances at the extremities, and in the middle of the 
 colonnade, are agreeable, and the lateral arches, with 
 architraves, very judicious. The pilasters in the two 
 porticoes of communication between this colonnade and 
 the frontispiece of the church, do not appear to advan- 
 tage in their inclined situation, and accord badly with 
 the decoration of the facade. 
 
 The royal staircase erected by Bernini, in the best 
 possible manner that the situation would permit, 
 namely, in the middle of old constructions, is very 
 remarkable ; the light is arranged with great art, the 
 steps easy and little raised, and the ensemble majestic. 
 What a view in descending ! The insulated columns, 
 in perspective, upon the first ramp, and the coupled 
 pilasters upon the second, show the talent by which 
 the artist has overcome the difficulty with which he 
 had to contend, in a given and limited site. The 
 part that he has taken is admirable, but not imitable. 
 The style of Bernini, in architecture, presents more 
 licenses than absolute errors, and his graces prevent 
 us from dwelling' too lono; on his faults. 
 
 The peristyle du Louvre, and observatory, at Paris, 
 are by Claude Perrault. This artist, in the facade of 
 the Louvre, has presented toour notice coupled columns, 
 which may serve as a useful example to show their 
 inconsistency. They add nothing to the strength, 
 under which pretext they have been employed, since, 
 if equally divided, they would have afforded much 
 greater solidity, iiidependentof their increase of beauty, 
 by having a considerable less portion of the soffit to 
 support. The peristyle du Louvre, indeed, as origi-
 
 96 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 nally designed by Peirault, that is, before the windows 
 were made under the colonnade, seems to Iiave been 
 erected to exhibit the pompous magnificence of a court, 
 and not for the purposes for which similar erections are 
 employed. Yet notwithstanding the greatness of the 
 style which is expressed, the proportions of the 
 windows of its basement, and also the application of 
 the pilasters which are employed at the angles of its 
 pavilions or extremities, are not in correct taste. In the 
 rest of its details, however, we are indebted to Per- 
 rault for having revived with great ability the justness 
 and beauty of the antique proportions ; a purity in the 
 profiles, elegance in the forms and ornaments, and a 
 correctness and finish in the execution. 
 
 The palaces Renuccini, Aitieri, Astalli, and Muti, 
 and the chapel del Monte della Pieta, at Rome, were 
 erected from the designs of Gio. Antonio de' Rossi, 
 whose style in architecture was great, and of large 
 division. None showed more ability in lighting the 
 interiors. His taste in decoration was correct. He 
 particularly possessed the art of accommodating his 
 designs to, and of drawing an advantage from, the 
 different situations of his productions, and of giving 
 an appearance of greatness even to the least spaces. 
 
 The bridge de Saintes, the gate of St. Denis, and 
 the restoration of those of St. Bernard and St. Antoine, 
 at Paris, are by Francois Blondel. The celebrated 
 gate St. Denis exhibits an architectural character 
 between that of gates and arches ; custom has how- 
 ever sanctioned the name of gate. It was according 
 to this character that it was composed and that it 
 ought to be examined. Its just denomination will 
 then be a triumphal gate. Some details of its archi-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 97 
 
 lecture, as also the fine execution of the sculpture, are 
 composed after the antique style, whilst the adjustments 
 are according to the style in vogue at the time of its 
 erection, which consisted in observing certain systems 
 that have for a long time impeded the progress of 
 architecture. Francois Blondell, being a learned ma- 
 thematician, in designing the masses and general 
 dimensions for this gate, professes in his treatise on 
 architecture to have subjected them to, and deter- 
 mined them by, a rigorous calculation, although in the 
 execution the measures do not altogether correspond. 
 He has inscribed the general mass in a perfect square, 
 and intended that the width of the aperture of the 
 gate should be equal to that of the piers. The height 
 of this gate is twice its width, the pedestals are a 
 fourth of the height of the mass, and the impost of the 
 arch is one half of its height. He conceived that he 
 had demonstrated, by the exactness of his relation^, 
 that the eye ought to be satisfied ; because the science 
 of numbers did not permit of the least doubt, in his 
 estimation, as to the beauty of the forms so determined. 
 When, therefore, an enlightened traveller, whose taste 
 has been formed from the noble character of the antique 
 architecture, presents himself before this monument, 
 and criticises the mass as having a little meagreness, 
 he may be immediately answered, It forms a perfect 
 square. If he finds the width of the aperture of the 
 gate too contracted, and not bearing suflScient propor- 
 tion to the planes, he is as quickly informed, It is equal 
 to the piers. But its aperture is proportionally too 
 high. It is of twice i/s tvidtli, and this is an ad- 
 mirable dimension. 'JTlie massive > ants thickness, and 
 does not convey a su'Iicient idea of resistance. I^his 
 
 o
 
 98 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR 
 
 thickness is exactly the sixth of its face, Sfc. SfC. The 
 observer is obliged to agree that the calculations are 
 just, but not entirely satisfactory ; in which exampie 
 he proves for himself that beauty in architecture can- 
 not be founded solely on the relation of numbers. Is it 
 not, on the contrary, evident, that this equality of mea- 
 sures destroys the government which the essential parts 
 ouo-ht to have over the proportion of the rest, and gives 
 a monotony which is injurious to the effect of this great 
 composition ? Indeed a mind exempt from the preju- 
 dice of false systems, and conversant with the impres- 
 sions which bodies, happily modified, make upon the 
 eye from the effect of perspective, and the combination 
 of light and shade, would, in judging of a piece of 
 architecture, feel itself authorized to say that numbers 
 do not suffice to determine the proportions of archi- 
 tectural designs. As to the decoration of this triumphal 
 entrance, although great and majestic, it presents dis- 
 similar and compound ideas. Such are the pyramids, 
 which ornament the faces of this monument, whose 
 mixed forms partake of that of an obelisk, and the 
 principal fault of which is in being applied to a tri- 
 umphal entrance. This form being dedicated to tombs 
 and funeral objects, imparts a sepulchral expression to 
 this monument, which is evidently in contradiction with 
 its real character. 
 
 The palaces Royal de Clagny and de Versailles, 
 the establishment de Saint Cyr, church des Invalides, 
 and the place de Louis-le-Grand, or Vendome, at 
 Paris, were constructed from the designs of Jules- 
 Hardouin Mansart. The palace de Versailles presents 
 only an architectural total in the elevation fronting 
 the gardens. The fa9ade in face of the avenue, which
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 99 
 
 forms the principal entrance, conveys rather the idea of 
 a number of different edifices than of a palace. The 
 masses are so dissimilar, both as regards the style and 
 proportion, that the attempt which has been made to 
 form a regular total of the whole has been without 
 effect. If we examine the facade facing the garden, 
 its disproportion strikes us at the first glance ; it pro- 
 ceeds from the want of relation which exists between 
 its length, which is about thirteen hundred feet, and 
 its height, w hich does not exceed sixty feet. Every 
 one must feel the insipidity of this long line, in the 
 disposition of which there is neither relief nor move- 
 ment. The columns, forming small parts in advance, 
 which are disposed at intervals, produce no effect; 
 the basement, ordonnance of the principal story, and 
 continued attic, possess no other merit than that of a 
 contracted conception of regularity and symmetry, 
 which displays a very ordinary taste, and is not at all 
 suited to give value to the composition of this great 
 edifice. 
 
 The master-piece of Jules-Hardouin Mansart is the 
 dome of the Invalides, at Paris. It appears certain 
 that the project of a cupola did not at first enter into 
 the views of the projector of this edifice, nor in 
 the designs of the architect of the church and hospital 
 des Invalides. The manner in which the church was 
 conceived and executed by Liberal Bruantis the proof; 
 and when it was desio^ned to embellish the total of the 
 establishment dcs Invalides with a cupola, this cupola 
 could not be placed elsewhere than at the extremity of 
 the church, which produced in reality a union of two 
 churches, without any relation existing between them. 
 
 Jules-Hardouin Mansart being more at liberty, in
 
 100 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 the conception of his cupola, than the other architects 
 of similar edifices, since this cupola only became an 
 addition of the then existing church, was led to design 
 it as a separate construction, with dispositions solely 
 in relation with itself So that in considering the plan, 
 we find, by the distribution of the chapels which 
 surround this dome, that it presents a total which is 
 different from any that has ever been erected in a 
 similar situation. 
 
 The dome des Invalides being carried perpendicularly 
 from the pavement, and the great solidity which the 
 architect found in the accessory massives with which 
 he could dispense, gave him the means of practising a 
 new manner of distribution in the four piers of his 
 cupola. He penetrated them with arcades, without 
 injuring the strength of his supports, and these aper- 
 tures not only served as entrances to the chapels 
 situated at each angle, but also gave a lightness which 
 on the whole produces a more varied and picturesque 
 effect than is often met with elsewhere. It cannot be 
 denied that in this respect Jules-Hardouin Mansart 
 has given proofs of considerable talent. 
 
 The extravagances and inaccuracies with which 
 Michel Anofelo infected the architecture of the sixteenth 
 century, were increased in the seventeenth by the 
 caprices of Borromini, of which the following enume- 
 ration forms a part. Twisted, bellied, and intricated 
 columns, placed without motive upon heaps of pedes- 
 tals, socles, and plinths ; fantastical capitals with 
 the volutes reversed ; interrupted and undulated 
 entablatures; misplaced, broken, and deformed pedi- 
 ments ; inverted balusters, with facets, multiplied 
 even to the summits of pediments; the facades of
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 101 
 
 churches in caricature, and their interiors heavy and 
 without expression, together with a superfluity of 
 ornaments. 
 
 The simplicity of Ponzio, Algardi, and Jones, and 
 the elegance of Bernini, ought to have had some 
 influence in the architecture of tlie eighteenth century. 
 How far that elegance and simplicity were imitated 
 will be seen as we pursue our researches. 
 
 The churches di St. Marta, and the fa9ades della 
 Beata Rita and di St. Marcello al Corso, palazzi Gri- 
 mani a Strada Rosella, and Bolognetti, and the 
 fountain di St. Maria in Trastevere, and another near 
 the gate Cavallegieri, at Rome, are by Carlo Fontana. 
 The taste of this architect is the same as that of Bernini 
 his master. Like him he was incorrect ; he neHected 
 like him the purity of his details, and wasted to sacri- 
 fice essential forms to the spirit of decoration. But 
 his elevations wanted neither greatness in the masses 
 nor a certain eleoance in execution. 
 
 It was at this period that the erection of St. Paul's 
 cathedral was completed by Sir Christopher Wren. 
 It is situated on the site of a former church, that is 
 said to have been built on the ruins of an ancient 
 temple of Diana ; and had been embellished, at consi- 
 derable expense, about the year 675, by Erkinvald, 
 the fourth bishop of London. This church was second 
 in extent only to the then existing basilic of St. Peter's, 
 at Rome, and was afterwards destroyed by fire. 
 Maurice, of this city, undertook to construct a second, 
 worthy, from its magnificence, of the worship to which 
 it was intended to be consecrated ; and he caused it 
 to be erected on the same foundations. The carpentry 
 and belfry of this church also were consumed in the
 
 102 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 middle of the sixteenth century. After this accident, 
 and during the time it was undergoing the necessary 
 repairs, the whole was burnt by the great fire at London. 
 It is related that this second church contained many 
 valuable ornaments; and that the festivals and obse- 
 quies of the kings and princes were solemnized in it 
 with great pomp and magnificence. After the entire 
 ruin of this edifice, Christopher Wren was employed 
 to give designs for a third church, to be subjected to 
 the former foundations. For the space of two years 
 Sir Christopher repeatedly advised those who were 
 interested in the erection of this new edifice, to 
 demolish the old foundations, at the end of which 
 time he obtained their consent, and immediately after 
 desisfned and constructed a church more worthv of 
 his talents, and of the nation for which it was intended. 
 The plan of this edifice is a species of cross composed 
 of four branches. That at the principal entrance, and 
 the one at the opposite extremity, are much longer 
 than the other two. Each of these is divided by two 
 ranges of arcades into a great nave, and two lateral 
 ones, the pillars of which are decorated with Corin- 
 thian pilasters. It has three porticoes, one at the 
 principal entrance, facing the west, and the other two 
 are situated opposite the north and south at each 
 extremity of the cross. The western portico consists 
 of twelve Corinthian columns below, and eight Com- 
 posite above, supporting a pediment ; the whole resting 
 m an elevated base, the ascent to which is by a flight 
 of steps running the entire length of the portico. At 
 each of the two extremiti s of this facade is placed a 
 Ksmall cupola, after the example of those of St. Peter. 
 The porticoes of the northern and southern entrances
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 103 
 
 are semicircular, and consist of an entablature supported 
 by six Corinthian columns. At the eastern extremity 
 of the church is an apside, or semicircular part, within 
 which the communion table is placed. The walls are 
 ornamented with two ranges of coupled pilasters, one 
 above the other, the lower being Corinthian, and the 
 other Composite. It is at the intersection of the four 
 branches of which the plan of the edifice is composed, 
 that the dome or cupola is situated. Its plan at the 
 lower extremity forms a regular octagon ; each of its 
 faces is occupied by large arcades, forming the com- 
 munication of the naves. Four of these arcades, which 
 aie those situated opposite the angles of the cross, are 
 constructed as immense niches ; the low er part of each 
 is penetrated by two smaller arcades, forming a right 
 angle. These arcades correspond to the lateral naves 
 of the two contiguous branches. This ingenious dis- 
 position procures very interesting overtures, the idea 
 of which was probably derived from the plan of the 
 cupola di Maria del Fiore, at Florence : be that as it 
 may, this arrangement is much better than that of 
 placing a massive in each angle, which has been 
 adopted in almost all modern cupolas. There is a 
 further advantage of forming a more solid base, and 
 of the pendentives having less projections, by being 
 composed of eight points of support instead of four. 
 
 The interior of the lower part of the cupola is deco- 
 rated with a continued stylobate, upon which are 
 placed Corinthian pilasters at equal distances, and sur- 
 mounted by a complete entablature ; over which is 
 placed a second stylobate, from which springs the 
 cupola. The thirty-two equal spaces between the 
 pilasters arc occupied by twenty-four windows and
 
 104 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 eight large niches. In the exterior decoration of this 
 part of the dome, Wren wished to apply the effect ot 
 a regularly disposed colonnade of equal intercolumnia- 
 tions, and supporting a continued entablature, instead 
 of being interrupted by projections resembling those of 
 St. Peter's at Rome, and the Invalides at Paris. In 
 saying that he wished to produce an effect similar to a 
 colonnade, the expression is justifiable, for it is rather 
 the appearance of one, than one in reality. First . the 
 columns, which are placed on a continued stylobate, 
 perfectly similar to that of St. Peter's, are engaged in 
 piers from which arches are sprung that bind them to 
 the dome, and massives are placed between every 
 fourth intercolumniation, in the angles of which they 
 are eno:ao:ed. In the interiors of these massives are 
 windino^ staircases, beino- in the whole eis^ht in number. 
 This disposition, particularly at a distance, gives a very 
 rich effect to the dome, which appears to be surrounded 
 by a circular colonnade. The passages in the massives 
 permit of free circulation round the whole of the dome. 
 The regularity of the intercolumniations, and continu- 
 ance of the entablature, give a value to this decoration, 
 which on a nearer inspection, is perhaps slightly in- 
 jured by some irregularities. Be that as it may, it 
 cannot be denied that the whole produces a fine effect. 
 The attic is in retreat the whole widih of the colon- 
 nade, which latter is ornamented with windows of 
 rather a correct taste. The calotte, or exterior of the 
 dome, has its sides decorated with flutings. The 
 lantern presents nothing very remarkable. The curve 
 of the dome is very fine, and nearly equals that of 
 St. Peter's. 
 
 Of late years, there have been placed in the interior
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 105 
 
 of this church a number of statues and sepulchral 
 monuments, which partake of the same false taste of 
 invention as those in Westminster abbey, among which 
 it is difficult to discover any considerable number that 
 are consistent with the correct taste, and appropriate 
 sentiment, which these species of monuments ought to 
 present. In this country these kind of productions are 
 in want of a principle of imitation, to form a regulating 
 type. Religion does not at all enter into the first 
 conceptions ; and the more a taste for these monu- 
 ments has increased, within the last half century, the 
 more the artists have felt this want of a fundamental 
 idea to serve as a base for their compositions. These 
 monuments, whatever be the merit for their execution, 
 are almost always dramatic compositions, in which we 
 see contrasted, in a manner the most revolting to good 
 taste, unsuitable costumes, mi-placed allegories, and a 
 style of composition altogether at variance willi an 
 enlightened judgment. 
 
 Independent of the monuments just mentioned, the 
 decorative part of St. Paul's is the least striking part 
 of this celebrated edifice. This cathedral derogates 
 in the most evident manner from that purity of style 
 which ought to enter into the composition of such 
 edifices. At the exterior, the frontispiece is decorated 
 with two orders raised one above the other, the 
 columns of which are coupled in a line parallel to the 
 horizon. In the interior, the piers of the naves and 
 choir are enriched with pilastres of large and smaii 
 dimensions. The entablature is complete only per- 
 pendicularly over the large pilasters. The arcanes 
 which repose upon the lesser pilasters, enter into the 
 height of the architrave and frieze of the entablature.
 
 106 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 The supports of the dome, decorated also with pilas- 
 ters, are perforated by a first range of arcades, which 
 is placed directly upon the cornice of the large pilas- 
 ters, and penetrates its acroteria. A second range of 
 arcades, the curves of which are of different species 
 from those of the first, rises upon the same acroteria. 
 
 These are striking dissonances in the style of this 
 cathedral, otherwise so justly celebrated for its great 
 extent and the judicious execution and beauty of its 
 cupola, which furnish lessons by the study of which 
 may be formed just ideas of the digressions from 
 purity of stvle. 
 
 The fountain of Trevi, at Rome, the greatest that 
 this city presents, was constructed from the designs of 
 Nicola Salvi. The subject of this fine composition is 
 the ocean personified, gigantic in stature, and in an 
 upright and commanding position, proceeding from a 
 fine niche decorated with Ionic columns. Neptune 
 borne on a shell, and draw^n by sea-horses, which 
 are guided by Tritons, appears to be forcing his way 
 over a mass of rocks, from all parts of which issue 
 streams of water. In the midst of tumultuous currents, 
 the horses appear at full speed, with their Triton 
 guides, labouring through the troubled element, which 
 falls with considerable effect into an immense basin 
 beneath. This beautiful production is situated imme- 
 diately contiguous to the palace of the Duke di Poli, 
 which forms its extremity, and is decorated on each 
 side of the Ionic niche with Corinthian columns, which 
 embrace two stories, and contain in their intercolum- 
 niations statues and bass reliefs. Upon the two sides, 
 but in retreat, are four Corinthian pilasters, which 
 also embrace two ranges of windows. Upon their
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 107 
 
 entablature is an attic, which is lower than that part 
 in advance. This description may suffice to make 
 known its beauties. 
 
 The hospital II gran Reclusorio, and cemetery of 
 the hospital II Tredici, at Naples; the palaces Gior- 
 dan! and Caramanica, near Spadaletto ; and the villa 
 Jaci, at Resina, near Portici ; the churches Maria 
 Maggiore, del Bambin Gesu, Maria dell' AppoUinare, 
 and della Morte, hospital St. Spirito, and the palaces 
 della Consulta, Petroni, and Corsini, at Rome, were 
 erected from the designs of Ferdinando Fuga, whose 
 works partake, in their decoration and details, of the 
 vices and abuses of the school of Borromini. The 
 interior distribution, and exterior disposition of the 
 last-mentioned palace is, however, admired ; and it 
 may be remarked, that few palaces have been better 
 conceived, or executed more at large, than this. Its 
 three overtures, great staircases, and the proportions 
 of its facade, all exhibit greatness of design. More 
 correctness and purity in the details and style would 
 have increased the merit in the eyes of artists and 
 men of taste. 
 
 At the commencement of the eighteenth century 
 flourished Lord Burlington, who was not only dis- 
 tinsruished for his correct taste and o:eneral knowledge 
 of the fine arts, but also celebrated for his skill in 
 architecture, which he had cultivated with great 
 success. He travelled for a considerable time in 
 Italy ; during his residence in which country he 
 studied with particular attention the immortal remains 
 of this classic soil, as also the works of Palladio, sixty 
 of whose original designs he collected and published, 
 together with a volume of the Antique Thermae. To
 
 108 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 the above designs of Palladio, Lord Burlington also 
 added several of his own compositions, at the lower 
 part of which he modestly inscribed " Burlington, 
 architectus invenit." This great man, who was a 
 most zealous patron of the arts, was prouder of that 
 title, which he derived from his favourite art, and 
 which he had deservedly acquired by a long and 
 diligent study, than of that which he possessed from 
 his noble ancestors. In 1724 he furnished designs for 
 the stately mansion of General Wade. The ground 
 story is decorated with rustics, which gives to it a very 
 imposing effect ; and the story above is ornamented 
 with well-distributed Doric pilasters, supporting a 
 simple frieze. The windows with balustrades possess 
 great simplicity. The whole of this total presents a 
 degree of solidity, correctness, and unity, that affords 
 considerable pleasure to the spectator. His beautiful 
 villa at Chiswick, which was erected from his own 
 designs, and which he embellished with a number of 
 fragments of architecture, is an ensemble, capable, by 
 the happy motives which are manifest in its distribu- 
 tion, of doing honour to most of the architects of the 
 century. He furnished designs for the arcade and 
 front of the dormitory at Westminster and Burlington 
 House, London ; together w ith several other classical 
 productions, which will be lasting memorials of the 
 talents of this celebrated, zealous, and enlightened 
 patron of the arts. 
 
 The most important production of its kind in this 
 century was the palace of the king of Naples, at 
 Caserte, by Van Vitelli ; being the only enterprise of 
 this century which for the simplicity of its plan, 
 immensity of its superficies, and greatness of its mass
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 109 
 
 and elevation, brings to mind the eminent productions 
 of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The principal 
 work at the close of the eighteenth century was the 
 completion of St. Genevieve's church at Paris, com- 
 menced from the designs of Soufflot. The plan of this 
 church is in the form of a Greek cross, composed of 
 four principal naves. A hundred and thirty fluted 
 columns support its arches, under which are galleries. 
 The cupola is placed in the centre of the edifice, and 
 is sustained by four triangular pillars, the angles of 
 which are fortified by engaged columns ranging with 
 those of the naves. The interior faces of these pillars 
 are decorated with pilasters of the same order and 
 diameter of the columns, which are Corinthian. 
 These four pillars form, at the exterior of the angles, 
 a large square, the interior angles of which are inter- 
 rupted by a third face. The four principal sides are 
 opened by large arcades, between which, and over 
 the interior faces of the pillars, rise the four parts of 
 the arch termed pendentives, which serve to form the 
 circular plan of the tower of the dome. These arcades 
 and pendentives are crowned by a large entablature 
 with modillions. The interior of this tower is deco- 
 rated with a continued stylobate, which serves as 
 basement for a colonnade composed of sixteen Corin- 
 thian columns placed at equal distances. These 
 columns are almost insulated, being only attached to 
 the wall of the tower by a kind of tongue, which does 
 not appear from any point of view, and which serves 
 to strengthen the wall to which they are joined. Be- 
 hind this stylobate, and between the bases of the 
 columns, are a species of galleries. In the interco- 
 iumniations above are sixteen large windows, four of
 
 110 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 which are feint, and correspond with the four pillars 
 previously mentioned. The colonnade is crowned by 
 a complete entablature, over which is a large socle, 
 which rises to the height of the spring of the interior 
 cupola. The arch is decorated with octangular com- 
 partments and roses, and is terminated at the summit 
 by a large circular aperture. Through the opening of 
 this first cupola the extremity of an intermediate arch 
 may be perceived, upon which a subject in painting 
 is executed. 
 
 The exterior of this church presents at its principal 
 entrance a peristyle composed of twenty-two Co- 
 rinthian columns, which support an entablature and 
 pediment ornamented with bass reliefs. Behind this 
 peristyle, and from the centre of the edifice, a circular 
 gallery rises, which is placed upon a stylobate of the 
 same form, and is composed of thirty-two insulated 
 Corinthian columns. The four massives which serve 
 as buttresses, and in the middle of which are staircases, 
 are situated directly under the gallery. Although this 
 colonnade is in a manner divided by these massives 
 into four equal parts, nevertheless there remains suffi- 
 cient space between them and the columns to admit of 
 free circulation under the gallery ; where no column 
 is either strengthened or engaged, and the appearance 
 of a colonnade effectively exists in all its reality, both 
 near and at a distance. In retreat from this colonnade 
 rises an attic with circular-headed windows, immedi- 
 ately above which rests the cupola, surmounted by a 
 lantern. 
 
 The church of St. Genevieve loses greatly as re- 
 gards style, both in the massives of its plan, and in the 
 proportions of the order employed. Firsts at the
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. I ! t 
 
 exterior, the peristyle of the frontispiece is vicious in 
 its plan. Tlie columns which accompany its extremi- 
 ties are in retreat. A species of pilaster is also pidced 
 at all the projecting angles of the church, and the 
 angles which join its four branches are interrupted. 
 Such are the faults committed in the masses against 
 purity of style. Afterwards the essential parts of the 
 orders, interior and exterior, are altered in their prin- 
 cipal members. Lastly, the arches, penetrated l>y a 
 multitude of lunettes, and covered with ornaments of 
 an improper kind, destroy the purity of style which 
 ought to exist in so important an edifice. 
 
 Rome, if we except some of the buildings and edifices 
 erected in Great Britain and France during the present 
 century, possesses more numerous examples of arciii- 
 tecture capable of supporting the severity of criticism^ 
 than can be found elsewhere. The examples which It 
 presents are formed of parts so great and beautiful, that 
 no other country can vie with them in quality or 
 number. Such of its edifices as may be censured with 
 the greatest reason have still some merits ; and often 
 fewer faults than those which are considered master- 
 pieces in other countries. They offer a judicious 
 conception, happy and picturesque dispositions, beauty 
 in the total and details, and an almost never-ending 
 variety. It is true that all the epochs of its history 
 have not been equally remarkable, nor distinguished 
 by a similar purity of taste ; but genius has always 
 presided in the conceptions produced in this beautiful 
 country. 
 
 Italy presents a multiplicity of delightful habitations, 
 which, under the most simple forms, bear the marks 
 of genius, and show that it is possible to exhibit talent
 
 112 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 even in the least productions. This observation ought 
 to console those who profess an art in vvl.iich only a 
 very rare concurrence of fortunate circumstances, can 
 afforvl them an opportunity of displaying their talents 
 in the erection of any important edifice. 
 
 If Bramante, Vignola, Palladio, Sangallo, and Per- 
 ruzzi, have .Wnd models in antiquity for the edifices 
 that they have erected ; if these great masters have 
 been enabled to employ even in the least dwellings, 
 that beauty of ordonnance, happy disposition, and re- 
 search, which constitute the charm they possess; why 
 has not their example been more generally followed ? 
 
 No one can behold, without the most lively interest, 
 the works of the able men just mentioned, who in the 
 construction of a simple habitation, manifested the 
 same talent, care, and research, that they displayed in 
 the erection of churches and sumptuous edifices. They 
 have embellished all ; and in their hands the modest 
 retreat became as agreeable as the magnificent palace. 
 They were sensible of the importance of their art, and 
 from their works may be learned how to redeem it 
 from the prejudices of routine and extravagances of 
 caprice. They adopted nature for their guide, and its 
 imitators for their models ; they have, in a manner, 
 restored architecture, by reclaiming it to its real end. 
 We behold them everywhere profit from the difference 
 of site, and fill with an admirable skill the wants which 
 the object requires. They were ingenious even in ttie 
 most minute details, and never executed at hazarci^ 
 They perceived that nothing can be beautiful in archi- 
 tecture, unless commanded by an acknowledged uiiiity: 
 that true genius is manifested, not as some moderns 
 have believed, by making war upon reason to creiite
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 113 
 
 noveltj' and produce fantastical extravagances, but in 
 happily employing in tlie art the means that the nature 
 of the intended uses of a structure indicates, and that 
 the site commands. It was by fulfiiling' these condi- 
 tions that they were enabled to give to each object its 
 proper character; and being always thus guided by a 
 correct taste, they have succeeded in overcominir the 
 difficulties which they had to encounter. The greater 
 part of their productions bears the stamp of that rare 
 simplicity that enchants the mind like an unveiled 
 truth, which appears always easy to those to whom it 
 is disclosed. 
 
 It appears to have been their endeavour to produce 
 the greatest effect by the simplest means ; whilst the 
 artists of other nations appear often to have sought its 
 production in the contrary extreme. These erroneous 
 ideas were by no means favourable to economy ; for it 
 is evident that such architectural productions are more 
 expensive, as the buildings and edifices designed by 
 the above-mentioned architects, owe their splendour 
 rather to the arrangements of their plans and aspect 
 of their mass, than to any vain profusion of ornaments. 
 
 It is no proof that the fine arts have made their abode 
 in a city, because a number of sumptuous l)uildings 
 may be found therein. Powerful individuals mioht for 
 a time have favoured the ait from pride or caprice ; 
 but when at each step we are arrested by a master- 
 piece of magnificence or simplicity ; when, above all, 
 we meet with structures erected for public utility ; 
 when the most minute details bear the marks of that 
 delicate taste which announces that an entire people 
 has cultivated the fine arts; fhon it is that we know 
 we are in Itdy. in which beautiful region the arts 
 
 1
 
 114 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 were for a long time domesticated. It is there alone 
 that the most modest habitation offers to the observing 
 artist beauties which are less imposing from their 
 extent, than by the correct distribution which they 
 present; satisfying all that necessity requires. It is 
 that refined taste, so long possessed by this ingenious 
 people, that ought to be emulated. Our century, 
 although enlightened by so great a degree of scientific 
 knowledge in construction, has not made a propor- 
 tionate progress in architectural design. Indeed, 
 until there are places instituted, either public or 
 private, where the student can receive instructions in 
 its general principles, and also compete with others, 
 the whole to abide the decision and remarks of 
 qualified individuals, the rising architects cannot be 
 expected to possess any great degree of talent in 
 architectural design. The instruction to be gained 
 in an architect's office, is inadequate to produce a 
 talented artist. A knowledge of the different branches 
 in construction, and the general routine of an office, 
 are certainly essential ; but to be able to conduct the 
 execution of buildings, without possessing the ability 
 requisite to produce judicious and skilful designs, 
 allowing each of these to be unquestionably necessary 
 qualifications, the former is certainly of minor import- 
 ance, during the limited period allotted for a pro- 
 fessional education, inasmuch as it is remediable by a 
 little experience ; while the latter quality rarely can be 
 acquired, except when enjoying peculiar advantages 
 for its study. 
 
 The spirit of improvement manifested in London, 
 Edinburgh, Glasgow, and the principal towns of 
 Great Britain, during the last sixteen years, has
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. Il5 
 
 of'^red such frequent opportunities for the display of 
 architectural talent, that a mere enumeration of the 
 principal edifices erected during* that period, could 
 not be given in the present work. 
 
 THE ANTIQUE ORDERS. 
 
 HwiNG reviewed the productions of the most 
 celebrated artists, as fully as the nature of the present 
 work will permit, and endeavoured, whilst doing 
 justice to the merits of their works, to draw a useful 
 lesson from their errors as well as from their beauties, 
 we shall now proceed to the consideration of each of 
 the constituent parts of architecture, and to the de- 
 velopment of those rules by which their employment 
 is regulated. 
 
 An architectural order, and the particular expres- 
 sion of c haracter attached to it, should not be con- 
 sidered as exclusively confined to a certain kind of 
 columns, but is exhibited in all the parts of an 
 edifice ; nevertheless, the column is the regulator. 
 For this reason, the name of order is given to sup- 
 ports which differ from each other both in proportion, 
 form, and decoration; and are distinguished by the 
 terms Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Each of these, 
 from the nature of the proportions attached to it, and 
 the characteristic effect which these proportions pro- 
 duce, serves to express a principal quality, with 
 which the relation of its parts, its form, and orna- 
 ments concspond. Yet it is not to be concluded that 
 the particular expression of the quality belonging to
 
 IIG ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 each of the three styles, is not susceptible of a great 
 variety of modifications. 
 
 Thus, the Doric order, which is characteristic of 
 strength, may be made to express many degrees and 
 shades of this quality, by the variations practicable 
 in its proportions and profiles. The antique remains 
 of this order are a sufl^icient proof of what is here 
 advanced. 
 
 The Ionic presents the medium quality, being that 
 of elegance. Whilst the Corinthian order, exhibiting 
 delicacy and richness, possesses every requisite to 
 produce the various degrees expressive of the par- 
 ticular quality belonging to it, in the modified em- 
 ployment of its proportions, forms, and ornaments. 
 
 It does not follow from what has been advanced, 
 that the information and methods given by Vitruvius, 
 Yignola, and Palladio^ should be rejected ; but that 
 the orders allow of a great variety of expression, 
 without injury to the uniformity of the character of 
 each ; and that architecture cannot, either in its total 
 or details, be subjected to geometrical relations. 
 
 It is perhaps unnecessary to observe, that the sup- 
 posed Composite order has the same proportion as 
 the Corinthian, being only a mixed composition of 
 this order and the Ionic ; that the Tuscan is nothing 
 more than a simplification of the Doric ; and that, in 
 reality, there are but three orders in architecture, 
 namely, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Never- 
 theless, the proportions and different expressions of 
 these five orders, in conformity to the usual method, 
 will be treated of, commencing with the Tuscan, and 
 ending with the Composite, without regarding the 
 different dates of their origin.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 117 
 
 OF THE FIVE ORDERS IN GENERAL. 
 PLATE I. 
 
 A GENERAL idea of the five orders will be obtained 
 from this plate, in which they are all reduced to 
 the same height, thereby rendering their comparative 
 proportions more apparent, and exhibiting at one view 
 the difference of diameter and general expression. 
 
 The Tuscan order is distinguished by the sim- 
 plicity of its members, and its massive proportion; 
 the height of the column being but seven times its 
 diameter, or fourteen modules, which is its extreme 
 height. The Tuscan order may be employed in 
 prisons, barracks, hospitals, entrance gates, magazines, 
 markets, &c. 
 
 The column of the Doric order has for its extreme 
 height eight diameters, or sixteen modules ; and is 
 distinguished by the triglyphs which are distributed in 
 the frieze of its entablature, and by a less equivocal 
 expression of originality than the preceding order. It 
 might often be judiciously employed in the different 
 kinds of sacred, public, or private edifices; such as 
 churches, tribunals, and banks ; or in commercial 
 edifices, as halls or exchanges, and in all other erec- 
 tions that require a character either of solemnity or 
 of stability and security. 
 
 In the Ionic order the column has nine diameters, 
 or eighteen modules, in height, and is characterized 
 by the volutes of its capital, and by its proportions 
 being lighter than those of the Doric. It may be 
 suitably employed in the exterior of edifices requiring
 
 118 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 an expression of elegance, and in the interior of 
 apartments, and may also sometimes be placed as 
 the second order in the exterior elevation of buildino-s. 
 
 The Corinthian order is still lighter than the Ionic, 
 its column having ten diameters, or twenty modules, 
 in height. It is characterized by the delicacy of its 
 forms and proportions, and the richness of its orna- 
 ments. The Corinthian order may be employed in 
 the decoration of palaces, in the interior of churches, 
 &c. and generally in all situations where delicacy 
 and magnificence ought to be preferred to strength, 
 solemnity, simplicity, or elegance. 
 
 Lastly, the Composite order, being of the same 
 proportions as the Corinthian, distinguishes itself by 
 the ornaments of the medium and delicate orders, of 
 which its capital is composed. This order might be 
 appropriately used in the decoration of triumphal 
 arches, theatres, public fetes, and on all occasions 
 where symbolical ornaments ought to have the pre- 
 ference over those essentially consecrated to the other 
 orders. 
 
 THE GENERAL DIVISIONS OF THE FIVE ORDERS OF 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 An order of architecture is generally composed of 
 three principal parts ; namely, of the column, which 
 assigns to all the rest of the ordonnance its propor- 
 tions ; the pedestal ; and the entablature.
 
 a O 
 
 :; O 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 f) 
 
 
 S 
 
 ^ 
 
 *n 
 
 « 
 
 n 
 
 «; 
 
 rn 
 
 i 
 
 H 
 
 
 W 
 
 ^J f / S g lo a 11 i3 i4 j^ j£ 17 iS 10 
 
 -VKr'^ 
 
 g Dumulirs or it Meiliilt.t . '4.V.1./.1 
 
 Mii/amin 
 
 f-ji 
 
 1^^ 
 
 
 /!» TtiamrTfKt »/• to Mixliile^ I .i .VoJuLv j
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 119 
 
 In each of these three parts are comprehended 
 three others, namely, the pedestal, which is com- 
 prised of a base, die, and cornice ; the column, the 
 parts of which are the base, shaft, and capital ; and 
 the entablature, consisting of the architrave, frieze, 
 and cornice. 
 
 These different parts are composed of several others, 
 to which is generally given the name of mouldings. 
 By this word is understood all the lesser parts of archi- 
 tecture, which constitute the art of profiling, whether 
 the application be made to the orders, or to the 
 ordonnance employed in the decoration of buildings. 
 Mouldings, in general, take their expression of solidity, 
 elegance, or delicacy, from the different orders to 
 which they belong. They are reduced to seven dif- 
 ferent kinds, the names of which, together with their 
 respective dimensions, centres, and manners of tracing, 
 will be found in the tables and plates of the details 
 belonging to each of the orders. See also pi. 2. 
 
 THE EXTREME PROPORTIONS OF THE FIVE ORDERS 
 OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 According to Vignola, the height of the pedestal 
 ought to be one-third of that of the column, and the 
 entablature one-fourth. To find this relation, it will 
 be most expedient to divide the total height of the 
 ordonnance into nineteen equal parts, appropiiating
 
 120 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 four for the height of the pedestal, twelve for that 
 of the cohimn, and reserving the three remaining 
 parts for that of the entablature. Three being the 
 fourth of twelve, and four the third of this number, 
 and these three quantities, four, twelve, and three, 
 being equal to nineteen, form a division which serves 
 as a general rule ; not only to determine the heights 
 of the Tuscan pedestal, column, and entablature, but 
 also the relations of those of all the other orders. To 
 determine the expression of the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, 
 Corinthian, and Composite column, the height of the 
 Tuscan must be divided into seven parts, the Doric, 
 into eight, the Ionic into nine, and the Corinthian and 
 Composite into ten. These divisions being made 
 under a given height, which is common to the whole, 
 as in plate 1, the different diameters which each order 
 ought to possess will be immediately found ; the pro- 
 portions of which will be — the Tuscan one-seventh, 
 the Doric one-eighth, the fonic one-ninth, and the 
 Corinthian and Composite one-tenth of the height of 
 the column. That being determined, each of these 
 diameters will be divided into two equal divisions, 
 and one of these divisions will form a module, destined 
 to measure the principal parts and details of the 
 order. This module is again divided into twelve 
 parts or minutes for the Tuscan and Doric orders, and 
 into eighteen for the Ionic, Corinthian and Composite 
 orders, in order to avoid fractions. The system most 
 generally adopted for the diminution of columns, is 
 that which commences from a third of their height.
 
 A COMPARATIVE TABLE 
 
 OF THE 
 
 GENERAL PROPORTIONS ASSIGNED TO THE TUSCAN ORDER, 
 
 BY THE MOST EUINEtiT MODERN MASTERS. 
 
 
 PALLADIO 
 
 SCAMOZZI. 
 
 1 
 
 SERLIO. 
 
 
 VIGNOLA. 
 
 Hfighl 1 Projection' Height. .Projection 
 of the from the 1 of the from the 
 Mem- 1 axis of the Mem- axis of the 
 bers. 1 Columns.' hers. 1 Columns 
 
 Height Projection 
 of the from the 
 Mem- axis of the 
 bers. Columns. 
 
 Height Projection 
 of the from the 
 Mem- axis of the 
 bers. Columns 
 
 » i 
 
 3 CO '^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 (£ 
 
 b S i|S b 
 
 1 -^ 
 
 1 1 
 
 . J 2 
 
 \\ - 
 
 e 
 11 
 -2 i 
 
 1 i 
 
 2 i 
 
 9 '.'. 
 
 "3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 10 
 
 1 
 12 
 
 'T 
 
 IE 
 
 i 1 1 Jl 
 '- 'i li 1 
 
 '. 1 S la. b. 
 
 . 1 1 !22' il 
 .]....'22' J 
 .]^;22JJ 
 
 '■ (!•|'^^^ 
 1 12 .. 
 
 1 4 ] 
 i\S I 
 
 110. 
 1 5 . 
 1 .. . 
 
 lis" 
 
 1 .. . 
 12.. . 
 1 .. . 
 
 14 - - 
 
 nisT 
 
 .. 15 . 
 
 •a 
 
 1 
 
 '. 2 
 
 1 
 
 {i- 
 
 1 
 
 £|£ 
 9'.. 
 
 24 .. 
 
 24;.. 
 
 ~r 
 
 iifj 
 
 l'l3 
 
 t 2 6 
 .... 22 
 .... 27 
 
 ..' 111. 
 
 i' l! 9. 
 
 i'3J_ 
 
 . 1 323 
 
 
 
 1 5. 
 3 14 
 
 
 1.. . 
 12.. . 
 
 1 .. . 
 14 - - 
 
 17 14 ) 
 
 1 10 
 
 . 1 .. . 
 i 13... 
 '. 1 .. . 
 - 15 - - 
 
 .i 18 22 i 
 . . . 22 i 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 Column < Shaft 
 
 f Base 
 
 
 
 .1 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 1 1 
 
 - 1 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 -: 
 
 - 
 
 ) 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 21|1 
 
 " i 
 21; i 
 
 
 2.. . 
 
 1 13 
 
 . 2 .. . 
 1 .. . 
 
 - 3 22 ^ 
 
 q 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 8 . 
 . . 15 . 
 
 (, Base 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2I - - 
 
 
 
 
 T± 
 
 j~i~ 
 
 lilt: 
 
 Height 
 jf.Mem 
 bers. 
 
 From fac 
 
 of 
 Arcades 
 
 e Height 
 
 of Mem 
 
 bers. 
 
 From face 
 
 of 
 Arcades 
 
 Hei(,ht 1 From face 
 ofMem- ' of 
 bers. 1 Arcades. 
 
 Height 
 of Mem 
 bers. 
 
 From f:4ce 
 
 of 
 Arcades. 
 
 ArchfVoIt 
 
 . 26. 
 
 .... 3 
 
 . . . 25 i 
 
 |::;: 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 . 25 .. 
 
 
 3 .. 
 
 Key of Arcades without Pedestals 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 Key of Arcades with Pedestals 
 
 
 ....!..! 
 
 . 1 1 16 .. 
 
 i::;:::i:: 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Intercolumniations from axis to axis 
 
 Height 
 
 Width. 
 
 Height 
 
 Width. 
 
 Height 
 
 Widlh. II 
 
 Height 
 
 Widfii. 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 (6 2 
 »8 . 
 
 12 . 
 
 7 2 
 
 13 1 
 
 8 2 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 |20 . . 
 9 15.. 
 6 |15 .. 
 12 22 { 
 
 Columns of Arcades withoi'.t Pedestals, from axis to axis. . 
 
 
 
 \" 
 
 
 
 
 Apertures of Arcades without Pedestals 
 
 
 
 . 14 26 . . 
 
 '. i? "e 'i 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 3 .. .. 
 
 Columns of Arcades with Pedestals, from axis to axis 
 
 
 12 25 . 
 9 13 . 
 
 3 .. 
 
 
 
 \'.'.'.'. 
 
 
 
 ' ' w St i,|.„j.. 
 
 J .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 22 i 
 
 i 
 
 
 „r ,Z . ^^1, . A A^ "mains of the Tuscan order amongst the antiquities, il is only possib le to nre-ent in this Table the opinion 
 of the most celebrated modem njasters ; who. with the exception of Vignola, have divided the module into thirty parts or minutes To 
 hrm a comet comparison, therefore ,t is necessary that his also be subjected o the same divisions-excep" in the detailed Tables and 
 fil- , H -"^'hod of V.gnola has been strictly adhered to, namely, of dividing the modules of the Tuscan and Doric orders .mo 
 orr cC'mn^s ?o'?hrfa/.htt ^^^^^^n^^^Zil^ '"'» »'^'"-- ''^^ ^'"'^-^"^ '" »" "- "^^"s ar. ^ken from the axis 
 ^rUi':\Xt':lt^:T:^\^i'^Zu^^^^ •'^''"'»"' •"" ■ « '°«"' -"" *"- ""O -« -"^o'^ - he**", and .ne module twelve
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. i2i 
 
 THE TUSCAN ORDER. 
 
 The clearest and most incontestable proofs which 
 remain for us of the style of the Etruscan architecture 
 is, without doubt, that ordonnance of the Tuscan 
 temple, employed at the time of Vitruvius ; who has 
 given the measures and details, not as if this style 
 were out of use, but in language similar to that which 
 he employed in describing the other temples existing 
 at his time. This ordonnance of the Tuscan temple, 
 the only monument that we have of the Etruscan 
 architecture, as preserved at Rome, has been the 
 source of great error in the modern systems of the 
 orders. 
 
 To this may be attributed the appearance of a 
 pretended Tuscan order, whicii has been placed as 
 the first in the scale ol' the orders. From a similar 
 error, a supposed Composite order, which has never 
 had existence as a distinct order, has been raised to 
 the highest place in the scale. 
 
 The Tuscan ordonnance, as given by the moderns, 
 is not, however, purely of their invention ; but, as will 
 be shown, the error has been committed by taking 
 that for a separate order which is, and always was, 
 tlie order called Doric ; but practised in Etruria with 
 some variety of proportion and slight modifications, 
 independent of the imitation of the carpentry, or con- 
 structions of wood, which constitutes the special and 
 original character of the Grecian architectuie. 
 
 In order to be convinced of this identity of origin 
 between the Tuscan ordonnance and that of the 
 Greeks, it is necessary to consult the specimen of 
 
 R
 
 122 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 the Tuscan temple designed from the description 
 given by Vitruviiis, a drawing of which may be 
 found in Piranesi's work on the magnificence of the 
 Romans. The reader shall, however, be presented 
 with a faithful translation of the text of the Roman 
 architect, on the ordonnance of the Tuscan temple. 
 
 Vitruvius, b. 4, c. 7. " The diameter of these 
 columns, taken at the bottom, should be the seventh 
 part of their height. Their height should be a third 
 of the breadth of the temple. Their diminution at 
 the top should be a fourth of the diameter at the 
 bottom. Their base should be half a diameter in 
 height ; it is composed of a circular socle or plinth, 
 having the half of the base in height, and of a torus 
 which, with its fillet, should be of the height of the 
 plinth. 
 
 " Upon the columns should be placed coupled 
 beams, the thickness of which should be propor- 
 tionate to the size of the edifice, and the breadth 
 equal to that of the coUarin of the column. These 
 beams should be joined together by a dovetail, so as to 
 leave between them a space of two fingers breadth ; 
 for if they are placed so near that the air cannot pass 
 between, they will produce heat, which causes the 
 wood to rot. Upon these beams, and upon the 
 masonry which is placed thereon, should project the 
 mutules, having a projection equal to a fourth of the 
 diameter of the column. To their ends may be 
 applied the usual ornaments, over which should be 
 placed the tympanum, with the pediment, either of 
 masonry or carpentry. Upon the pediment should be 
 disposed the pans and boards, in such a manner that 
 the stillicidium or eaves may correspond in projection
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 128 
 
 to the tertiarium (that is to say, to the eighth part of 
 the total of the tectum.)" 
 
 Nothing is easier, as may be seen, than to restore 
 the Tuscan ordonnance, after such a detailed descrip- 
 tion; and such a restoration can have nothing arbi- 
 trary, since not only the whole, but each of the parts 
 of which it is composed, have been described by 
 Vitruvius, who has taken great care to give us the 
 measures and relations of their proportions, which the 
 moderns have certainly departed from. Indeed, the 
 designs which all the translators and commentators of 
 this writer have placed to his text, most satisfactorily 
 demonstrate, that the modern Tuscan sensibly differs 
 from the ordonnance of the Tuscan temple as des- 
 cribed by Vitruvius. 
 
 A faithful drawing of this ordonnance, such as 
 would necessarily result from the description and pro- 
 portions given by Vitruvius, would exhibit all the 
 parts and details of the Grecian arclutecture.
 
 124 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 
 TUSCAN ORDER OF VIGNOLA 
 
 Ileigh's. 
 
 Proj 
 
 Iron 
 
 Co 
 
 ections 
 axis of 
 
 uinus. 
 
 
 
 Plates 3 and 4. 
 
 Names and detaiUd Proportion of the Members and 
 Mouldings of which the Order is composed. 
 
 '3 
 •0 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 « 
 
 :3 
 •a 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 \" " 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ..... 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 V 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 a 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Entablature 
 3 mod. 6 parts. ' 
 
 Column J 
 14 modoies. 
 
 A. CORNICE. 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 11 
 
 in 
 10 
 9 
 
 7- 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 9 
 9 
 
 T 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 10 
 9 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 JO 
 9 
 9 
 
 i ! 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 "i' 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 i 
 i 
 i 
 i 
 i 
 i 
 
 "i' 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «Canal 
 
 
 
 
 *Klute 
 
 
 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 "T 
 
 
 
 B. FRIEZE. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 C. ARCHITRAVE. 
 Tenia 
 
 
 
 Conae 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D. CAPITAL. 
 ^Fillet 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Conge. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quarter Round 
 
 
 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coildrin 
 
 
 
 
 SHAFT. 
 A =*rapai , . . , 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 IM.e 
 
 
 
 
 Conge 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 5 
 6 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 2 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 1 ^ 
 2 
 
 
 
 Shaft from Conge to Conge 
 
 Conge 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 1 
 4 
 4 
 
 8 
 8 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 6 
 8 
 
 i 
 i 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 
 
 E. BASE. 
 Fillet 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 Torus 
 
 
 
 
 I, Plinth 
 
 
 
 
 
 F. CORNICE. 
 Fillet 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 
 
 
 Pedestal 
 4 mod. 8 parts 
 
 1 DIE. 
 
 ( Pie 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Conge 
 
 
 
 G.BASE. 
 Fillet 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 > Piimb , 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Total.... 
 
 23 
 
 
 • The dimenMons of the canal and flute should not be included in that of the cornice, as 
 the height of the canal is taken from the corona, and that of the flute in the height of the tillet. 
 j^ The moduls of the Tuscan order is divided into twelve parts.
 
 ARailTECTURAL DIRECTOR. 125 
 
 MANNER OF DRAWING THE ORDERS. 
 
 After having constructed the scale of the modules, 
 in such a manner that the total height of the order 
 may be contained in the given height or surface to be 
 employed, draw a line of base for the pedestal. In 
 the middle of this line raise a perpendicular, Avhich 
 w^ill form the axis of the column. Having proceeded 
 thus far, draw the heights of the different parts, as 
 given in the tables, parallel to the base, observing 
 that it is more correct to take the dimensions of the 
 different heights from the base, than to add them 
 successively to each other. 
 
 Thus, 4 modules and 8 parts (of the Tuscan order 
 for example) should be taken with the compasses, and 
 placed on the perpendicular from the line of base, to 
 obtain the top line of the pedestal ; 5 modules and 8 
 parts for the upper part of the fillet of the base of the 
 column ; 17 modules and 8 parts for the top part of 
 the astragal of the column ; 18 modules and 8 parts 
 for the top line of the capital ; and lastly, 22 modules 
 and 2 parts for the top line of the cornice of the en- 
 tablature. 
 
 These principal divisions being once determined, it 
 will be easy to find the sub-divisions of each part, with 
 the aid of the table. That done, the projections only 
 remain to be determined. These are contained in the 
 same tables in which the dimensions are given from 
 the axis of the column ; whilst in the plates 4, H, 8,
 
 126 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 10, 14, and 18, of the details, they are given from 
 the face of the entablature. 
 
 The profiles which result, ought always to be made 
 on both sides at the same time : for the same opening 
 of the compasses being employed in all the parts 
 which are of the same projection, greater correctness 
 will be the result, than when they are taken at different 
 times. Plate 2 gives the drawings of the different 
 mouldings, which enter into the composition of the 
 members of the different orders. 
 
 To describe the torus, fig. 1, divide the line mn 
 into two equal parts, which point will form a centre 
 from whence to strike the semicircle ; observing that 
 its projection should not be greater than that of the 
 face of the plinth. The height of the quarter round, 
 fig. 2, and the projection of the fillet below being de- 
 termined, raise a perpendicular from its face until it 
 intersects the line above atp, which is the centre. 
 
 The projection of the lower extremity, and height 
 of the cavetto, fig. 3, being given, draw a line from 
 the two points till they meet at p, which gives the 
 point of centre from which to strike the moulding. 
 Having determined the two points, b, of the cyma 
 talon, fig. 4, divide it into two equal parts at a, which 
 line will serve as base for two equilateral triangles, 
 the summits of which, as at c, will be the centres for 
 the segments, d. 
 
 The cyma reversa, fig. 5, is generally employed 
 below the eye, as in the base of pedestals; and is 
 traced after the same method as fig. 4, which also 
 applies to the cyma recta, fig. 6. 
 
 The fillet, fig. 7, is a square member, consisting of 
 right angles.
 
 DETAITLS 0]F TIKLE Tl^SCA^ OMlD'EiR. 
 
 Mi!M FtrSmtr^lkn-s ybihSi^^iTal IHreibr Try Ji>f.-3imnett!, Three JiatyJ'as.'ui^e,Tater/t,
 
 TT'.s r \-^- 'D]E]D]EiR 
 
 '^■:-'/,wm«^y 
 
 .iu,J -V- '-• » ' / 
 
 £ MfiJ . ' piw/ 
 
 i^. 
 
 k- 
 
 :^^ 
 
 Ml 
 
 '"5 -i 
 
 +11"'^" -Hit- 
 •a J /> 
 
 J 3 
 
 J ^ J 
 
 nia^ I'TLb'U.z'kei Ffff "B-CP^Stm. ■ s A^^^Zat-nral X'vrtclir' k^- J'Ay. J:en^uj6t. ^a^tarryCS'^er Jto'w , Uc3'4
 
 /
 
 p:oiuiLi])i]K'&§ 
 
 t 
 
 WMMjM 
 
 Fiq. to 
 
 Fuj A? 
 
 Fig 14 
 
 -mrm 
 
 
 ^B 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 --i 
 
 
 •S£-<\'la- K Y 
 
 M>^^^^^^ 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 I^ffttiat. I^'uiZtihad, 1^^ ST-Xtctft^n.- s ^y^chHst^co^tiL Jh^^oCffr ~hy ^oh.'>i. 3e7in>fsct>, J'iCterTicstcr' JRow,J.BS£ .
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 127 
 
 The astragal, fig. 8, is traced by the same method 
 as fig, 1, except that the face of the part below should 
 have the same projection as the vertical line passing 
 through the centre o. 
 
 The conge, fig. 9, of the shaft of the column <?, and 
 fillet h, is drawn from the point of intersection o, of 
 the two linesy and g, making of equal to og 
 
 To trace the scotia, fig. 10, draw a vertical line from 
 the face H to h, which must be divided into three 
 equal parts ; then from the point C with the radius 
 CB, describe the arc UF ; afterwards divide the 
 line FG into five parts, four from F to C, and one 
 from C to G ; from G draw the arc FK, and from 
 F describe a segment, having for its radius two parts, 
 which will determine the line that passes through the 
 points K and G. From the fillet E raise the per- 
 pendicular EQ ; after which, from G strike another 
 arc, having for its radius two parts, which will fix the 
 extremity of the line IK; from 1 describe the arc 
 KM, and through the points MI draw the line MQ^ 
 making EL equal to MI ; and from the points I 
 and L, raise a vertical line to determine the inter- 
 section at Q, which will form the centre ; whence to 
 describe the rest of the curve ME. 
 
 OF THE ARRANGEMENT OF MOULDINGS. 
 
 The judicious execution of profiles depends on 
 several rules, which may be reduced to two principal 
 ones. The firstgovcrns the proportion that the projection 
 of the profile ought to have in relation to its height ;
 
 128 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 the second determines the greater or less number of 
 mouldings, which the nature of the ordonnance to 
 which they are adapted, requires. By the first of 
 these rules, the base of a column of any order ought 
 not to exceed in height the half of its diameter, and 
 its projection should be about one-sixth. The same 
 principles require that the cornice of the Doric order 
 be two-thirds of its projection in height ; whilst the 
 Ionic and Corinthian cornices, ought to present a pro- 
 jection equal to their height. The second rule, admits 
 in a base of the Doric order, but three or four mould- 
 ino's ; but in the other orders allows from seven to 
 twelve. According to the same rule, the mouldings 
 ouji'ht to be few in number, in the entablature of the 
 first order ; whilst, on the contrary, they may be in- 
 creased in the Ionic and Corinthian entablatures. 
 
 Hence with regard to cornices in general, it is neces- 
 sary that the divisions or different masses of mould- 
 ings of which they are composed, be well marked ; 
 whence springs the movement in profiles. In the cor- 
 nices belonging to the first order, two divisions or 
 masses of mouldings are employed ; in those of the 
 other orders, three at least are employed. The lesser 
 mouldings, such as fillets and astragals, are in all pro- 
 files destined to serve as passages to the principal 
 mouldings, and to give them relief. The principal 
 mouldings are, the cyma recta, larmier, quarter round, 
 cavetto, cyma talon, &c. It is essential to the per- 
 fection of a profile, that each of the mouldings be 
 well expressed, and present the natural form that it 
 ought to have. The same remark applies to the 
 cyma recta and cyma talon, which are each formed 
 by two continued curves, but opposite in their deve-
 
 ^ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 129 
 
 lopments, and described by similar radii ; in such a 
 manner that one is in projection and the other in 
 retreat. These two mouldings are inverse the one to 
 the other. The modillion, as forming part of the cor- 
 nice, ought to present in its length or projection, dou- 
 ble its breadth, while the dentils cannot exceed double 
 their breadth in height ; the interdentil, or space 
 which separates them, should not exceed half the 
 breadth of each dentil. 
 
 As to the profiles of architraves, and archivolts, 
 they ought to be of different proportions, whatever 
 number of mouldin2:s be admitted. The fascias should 
 always exceed each other in their proportions, in such 
 a manner, that the uppermost, which is always 
 crowned by some moulding, be of the greatest dimen- 
 sions ; projecting over the next inferior fascia. 
 
 But if there are rules for the disposition of profiles, 
 with regard to the orders in general, there are also 
 others which relate to the disposition of mouldings 
 combined together. It would be contrary to cor- 
 rect taste, to place mouldings indiscriminately near 
 each other ; because on their combination depends 
 the elegance of profiles. Thus the cyma recta ought 
 always to be immediately surmounted by a fillet or 
 face, and to have an astragal or fillet below it. The 
 cyma talon should be crowned in the same manner ; 
 but it ought never to be situated near to a quarter 
 round, whether it be placed above or below. The 
 same moulding separated only by a fillet, would have 
 a bad effect ; but the cyma talon may be placed upon 
 an even face of any dimensions whatever. This rule 
 is applicable to the quaiter round and cavetto. The 
 astragal and fillet are not subjected with such seve- 
 
 s
 
 180 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 rity to these rules, being employed discretional ly. The 
 torus often requires two fillets, or to be environed by 
 even parts, as the socle or plinth : the scotia also 
 requires two fillets. That indispensable member in 
 all cornices, the larmier, wdiich is essential to their 
 preservation and the effect of the profile, ought to 
 occupy the predominant part of their projection ; and 
 although we can cite examples, even in antiquity, 
 where this member is suppressed, the suppression is 
 a real fault, which it is essential to avoid. 
 
 THE DORIC ORDER. 
 
 Every thing tends to prove the high antiquity of 
 this first of the orders of architecture. It may be 
 looked upon as the generating principle of all propor- 
 tion in this art ; of which it is easy to be convinced, 
 by attentively considering that the other orders, 
 namely, the Ionic and Corinthian, have the same prin- 
 cipal members as the Doric. All three have a shaft, 
 capital, architrave, frieze, and cornice. They only 
 differ from each other by the greater or less number 
 of their parts, and the elegance and magnificence 
 which respectively belong to them. The Doric, how- 
 ever, amongst the ancients, was never employed with 
 a base ; although the moderns have invariably given 
 one to each of these three orders. 
 
 Vitruvius is the only author of antiquity whose 
 writings upon architecture have been transmitted to 
 us ; it is to him that we are indebted for the scale of 
 proportion that the ancients employed in the construc- 
 tion of their edifices. But what this architect relates
 
 GENERA 
 
 OST CELEBRATE 
 
 ED TO IT B 
 
 icooJ\tlnlip 
 r ofJIacedo- 
 ■n the Isle of 
 Delos. 
 
 From face 
 
 of 
 Arcades, 
 
 (Iliployod ill tt
 
 A COMPARATIVE TABLE OF THE GENERAL PROPORTIONS OF THE DORIC ORDEE. 
 
 FROM THE MOST CELEBRATED EDIFICES OP ANTIQUITY. 
 
 TOGETHER WITH THOSE ASSIGNED TO IT BY THE MOST EMINENT MODERN MASTERS. 
 
 f CaplUl . 
 Column ...\ Shaft. .. 
 
 (Uuse 
 
 Key o[ Aieadcu without Pedestals 
 Key fit Arcades with Pcdeelals. . . 
 
 Intercoluminatione, from axis to axis 
 
 Colamna of Arcades without Pedestals, from a 
 
 Apertures of Arcades without Pedc-tals 
 
 Columns of Arcades with Pedestals, from asis 
 Apertuxes of Arcades with Pedestals 
 
 Great Temple of 
 
 Temph 
 of Apollo, in the 
 IslofDtlos. 
 
 of the I from the 
 Mem- axisofthe 
 hers. Coll 
 
 of the Templf! of 
 Athens. 
 
 Fort.co'^i'orticooJ rhihp 
 Kinq ofAlacedo- 
 nia,'ln the Isle of 
 
 hers. Columns 
 
 i\ I? 
 
 Discovered 
 at Albano, na 
 
 Height Projection 
 
 I.J. 
 
 {r 
 
 Prom face 
 A reader. 
 
 of the from t; 
 
 axisofthe 
 Columns. 
 
 Height Projection 
 
 {v' 
 
 27j J 
 12 4 
 23 I 
 
 From face 
 
 of 
 Arcades. 
 
 Proui face 
 
 of 
 Arcades. 
 
 I'rom face 
 Arcades. 
 
 Prom face 
 of 
 
 c height given by Pallad.o to the Doric culumi, is 15 module, ul,.. employed vin.,ut ba.e. 16 modules with base, and 17 modules when placed upon a pede.tal 
 
 moizi has placed a socle under the bases of the columns of arcades without pedestals, of this order, 1 modolc In height, and 1 module and 15 parts in projection from the 
 
 (dts iKia; \-,\ \r< each of the orders ie, for the Tuscan 10, and for the other orders 1.^ partf. al me the inipost. 
 
 lO The module employed in this table \* divided into tbirty parts.
 
 VIGNOLA, 
 
 TOORTABLATl'RES, AS ALSO OF THOSE OP THE 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Projections 
 
 
 ] 
 
 L'MN AND PEDESTAL ^ 
 mou to the two Entabliiurei. 
 
 leights. 
 
 from axis of 
 Columns. 
 
 
 1 1" 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 U. « e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Plates 5. 7, & 8. = 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 Parts 
 
 Minute 
 
 1 Fractio 
 
 3 
 
 •a 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 D. CAPITAL. 
 
 
 \ 
 
 Fillet. 
 
 • --. i 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 Cvma Talon 
 
 1 • 
 
 
 
 
 Abacus 
 
 2 • i 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 
 Quarter liound 
 
 2 h 
 
 ; i 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 Three Fillets 
 
 1 { 
 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 Coliarin 
 
 4 .. 
 
 
 lU 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I - - 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 SHAFT. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 , J 
 
 Astragal 
 
 1 . 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 \o ( 
 
 Fillet 
 
 .... t 
 
 
 ii 
 
 \ 
 
 
 Entab«s- ^ 
 
 Conge 
 
 1 i 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 4 moc 
 
 1 
 
 Shaft between Conges ... 1 
 Conge 
 
 3 7 . 
 2 . 
 
 (i- 
 
 1 1 
 
 10 
 
 '■• 
 
 
 
 
 ) 
 
 1 - - 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E. BASE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fillet 
 
 . ... ■ 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 
 Astragal 
 
 . 1 \ 
 
 
 
 
 Torus 
 
 4 . 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 
 I. Plinth 
 
 . 6 . 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 '' F. CORNICE. 
 
 1 - |- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 
 1 . 
 
 '1 1 
 
 11 
 10 
 
 'i 
 
 
 Quarter Round 
 
 
 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 Corona 
 
 . 2 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 Cyma Talou 
 
 1 
 
 k I 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 
 D. Pla 
 
 
 6 - 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 E. Plafc 
 F Elet'"'*''- 
 
 DIE. 
 Die 
 
 3 U . 
 1 . 
 
 .^ 1 
 1 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 
 
 Conge 
 
 
 
 
 4 - • 
 
 
 
 
 
 • Th. 
 
 G. BASE. 
 Fillet 
 
 
 
 h 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 Astrai;al 
 
 1 . 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 Cyma Reversa ,. . 
 
 . 2 . 
 
 .1 1 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 First Plinth 
 
 . 2 
 
 1 1 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 Second Plinth . 
 
 * • 
 
 1 
 
 ' 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 - 10 - 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Total [a 
 
 S 4 1- 
 

 
 MUTULE AND DENTICULATED DORIC ENTABLATURES OF VIGNOLA, 
 
 AND THE COLUMN AND PEDESTAL COMMON TO BOTH, 
 
 TOORTHER WITH TilE NAMES AND DETAILED PROPORTIONS OP THE MEMBERS AND MOULDINGS OP THE TWO ENTABLATURES, AS ALSO OP THOSE OP THE 
 
 COLUMN AND PEDESTAL. 
 
 MUTULE 
 
 DORIC ENTABLATURE. 
 Plates 5 & 6. 
 
 A. CORNICE. 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Cyma Recta 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 Corona 
 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 Mutule 
 
 * Canal 
 
 Drop or the Mutule ... 
 
 Quarter Hound 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Capital of the Triglyph . 
 
 Triglyph 
 Metope.. 
 
 C. ARCHITRAVE. 
 Tenia 
 
 t Capital of the Drops . . . , 
 Drops 
 
 First Fascia 
 
 Second Fascia 
 
 Projections 
 from axis of 
 Columns. 
 
 D. Plan of a Triglyph on a double scale 
 
 E. Plan of round and square Drops. 
 F Elevation of a Triglyph and Drops 
 
 • Tlie heieht of the canal is included in that of the mutule. 
 
 DENTICULATED 
 
 DORIC ENTABLATURE. 
 Plates 7 & 8. 
 
 A. CORNICE. 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Cavetto 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 Corona 
 
 * Canal 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Drops under the Corona 
 
 « Dontil 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 Capital of the Triglyph. . 
 
 B. FRIEZE. 
 
 t Triglyph 
 
 t Metope 
 
 C. ARCHITRAVE. 
 
 Tenia 
 
 I Capital of the Drops . . 
 
 J Drops 
 
 Fascia 
 
 Heights 
 
 Projections 
 
 frorii axis 01 
 
 Columns 
 
 s {ii.is 
 
 • The canal and dentil take each half a pait in height from the soffit 
 of the corona. See plate 8. 
 
 t Only one of these two parts should be taken for the neight of the 
 frieze. 
 
 J The capital of the drops, and the drops, are included in the fascia 
 
 COLUMN AND PEDESTAL 
 
 Commou to the two Entablaluret. 
 Plates 5, 7, & 8. 
 
 D. CAPITAL. 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 Abacus 
 
 Quarter Round 
 
 Three Fillets 
 
 Collarin 
 
 SHAFT. 
 
 Astragal 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Conge 
 
 Shaft between Conges 
 
 Conge 
 
 Fillet . 
 A.stragal 
 
 PeaejiB. 
 5 mod. 4 parts. 
 
 F. CORNICE. 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Quarter Round 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Corona 
 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 Die .. 
 Conge 
 
 G. BASE. 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Astragal 
 
 Cyma Reversa . . . 
 
 First Plinth 
 
 Second Plinth 
 
 Heights. 
 
 2 ■ 1 
 
 Projections 
 from axis of 
 Columns. 
 
 The modul* employed ia this T»Weli divided into twelve pans
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. IBl 
 
 to US of the origin of each order, is insufficient to 
 satisfy an enliglitened inquiry ; since he rests what he 
 has said of the different orders, so much upon fable. 
 
 This author, speaking of the Doric order, says, 
 " Dorus, son of Helenus, king of Achaia and of all 
 Peloponnesus, and of the nymph Optice, having caused 
 a temple to be built to Juno, in the ancient city of 
 Argos, which was of the style that we call Doric: 
 afterwards this order was employed in all the other 
 cities of Achaia, without having as yet any estab- 
 lished rule for the proportions of its architecture. 
 But as they, the Greeks, were unacquainted with the 
 proportion that it was necessary to give to columns, 
 they sought the means of making them sufficiently 
 strong to sustain the weight of the edillce, and to ren- 
 der them ao;reeable to the view, p'or that end tliev 
 took the measure of the foot of a man, which is the 
 sixth part of his height ; according to which they 
 formed their columns. In proportion to the thickness 
 of the foot of the column, they made it six times that 
 height, including the capital : and thus the Doric 
 column, which was first employed in edifices, had the 
 proportion, strength, and beauty of the body of man." 
 
 The opinion of Vitruvius, on tlie origin of the Doric 
 order, does not appear to be more exact than the rules 
 which lie gives relative to it; and without directly 
 attacking the fable which he relates, the observations 
 shall more particularly be confined to the proportions 
 which he prescribes ; because they have an essential 
 relation to the subject under examination. He sup- 
 poses that in its origin, there w^ere given to the columns 
 of this order, six diameters for its height ; that is to 
 say, six times its breadth. It is at least surprising
 
 132 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 that this learned architect, in treating on the orders, 
 has not distinguished the different proportions under 
 twelve modules, or six diameters; and the surprise is 
 not lessened, when we consider that he lived during 
 the reign of Augustus, and had under his eyes many 
 temples and other edifices of the Doric order. Exam- 
 ples of this order may be found in Greece that are less 
 than four diameters in height. 
 
 Without recurring to the fable of Vitruvius, in 
 order to fix the precise epoch of the origin of the 
 Doric order, it appears much more conformable to 
 probability, that, as it is the principle of architecture, 
 it takes its date from the earliest state of society. This 
 order, which, in its origin, was shapeless and rude, 
 gradually emerged from its state of disproportion, and 
 acquired those proportions which rendered it lighter 
 to the view, and more relatively useful. 
 
 Examination will prove the truth of the above re- 
 marks, for which purpose the different antique monu- 
 ments will serve as examples. It perhaps will not be 
 necessary in enumerating this class of the remains still 
 existing in Greece, to offer any earlier examples than 
 those which may be the most profitably referred to. 
 The earliest examples of the Doric order, in Greece 
 and Sicily, exhibit short and massive columns, with 
 capitals of an immense projection ; which appear as if 
 they were crushed under the excessive weight of their 
 entablatures. They present nothing imposing but their 
 mass; their composition offering no particular parts 
 from which any advantages may be derived. 
 
 The proportion of the columns of two of the six 
 tempfes of Selinus, is 3| diameters. At Corinth, 45 dia. 
 At Paestum, 4 dia. : as also 4\ dia. At Agrigentum,
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 133 
 
 4i dia. and 4| dia. At Segresta, 4.f dia. And at 
 Syracuse, 4i dia. 
 
 The echinus of their capitals underwent, in the 
 progress of this order, three striking variations. In 
 the capitals of the columns at Thoricus and Delos, 
 the inclined face of the intended mouldins; forms a 
 straight line. Paestum presents a second species, 
 having a slight curve. And lastly, those of a later 
 date at Athens, gradually approaching nearer to the 
 form of a quarter round. 
 
 The diminutions of the shafts of the columns, have 
 imdergone equal alterations. This diminution in the 
 columns at Syracuse, is almost one module ; whilst 
 those at Athens of a later period, have less by one 
 half, not having quite a fourth of the diameter. The 
 relation between the height of the entablature and 
 that of the columns, is at Paestum and Syracuse, as 1 
 to 2 and \ ; and at Agrigentum, at 1 to 2 and h 
 
 The architrave has generally | of a diameter ; the 
 frieze an entire diameter; whilst the cornice has often 
 but the fourth of a diameter. 
 
 The intercolumniations of the columns at Paestum, 
 Corinth, and Segresta, are but of one diameter; at 
 Syracuse they are less than a diameter. 
 
 Commencing then with the temple of Theseus at 
 Athens, which is situated to the left, as you pioceed 
 to the academy, and is remarkable for the fetes which 
 the ancients there solemnized in honour of this hero, 
 and by the distributions of flour which were made to 
 the poor of the city. But that which best serves to 
 prove the veneration of the Atlienians for their founder, 
 is their having made tills temple an inviolable refuge 
 for menials from the abusive treatment of their masters.
 
 134 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 It was erected after the battle of Marathon, dedicated 
 during the victories of Cimon, and was repaired, as 
 many other edifices were, by Adrian. 
 
 This temple is of the Doric order, and presents six 
 columns at its entrance facade, the same number at 
 the opposite extremity, and thirteen at the sides ; thus 
 forming a peristyle around the whole. The interior of 
 its celia offers a parallelogram of twice and a half its 
 breadth in length. The application of Antse is confined 
 to the exterior angles of the cella, the situation of which 
 does not, however, exactly correspond with any of the 
 columns either in face or return ; the reason of which 
 appears to have been, to obtain a convenient width for 
 the peristyle, without affecting the necessary harmony 
 between the ordonnance and intercolumniations. This 
 inaccuracy of correspondence of the Antee with the 
 opposite columns, cannot, in the present instance, be 
 considered a defect, inasmuch as it is not perceivable 
 in execution. 
 
 The columns have for basement two lofty steps, 
 each two-thirds of a module in height. Their diameter 
 is 3 feet 6 inches, and their height including the capital, 
 18 feet 8 inches and 9 lines; that of their capital being 
 1 foot 9 inches or 1 module. The entablature is 7 
 feet 7 inches in height, of which the architrave is 2 
 feet 11 inches, the frieze 3 feet 2.j inches, and the 
 cornice 1 foot 51 inches. The pediment situated 
 at each extremity, presents an inclination of fifteen 
 deorees. The centre intercolumniation is 5 modules 
 6 parts, from axis to axis ; the others are a little less. 
 The ceiling exhibits a striking imitation, executed on 
 marble, of the tie-beams of the roof extending from 
 the triglyphs to the wall of the cella The metopes
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. JP>> 
 
 of the eastern elevation present bass-reliefs, repre- 
 senting', in ten designs, the labours of Hercules, 
 and on eight of the metopes situated in return, are 
 sculptured the achievements of Theseus. Casts, 
 taken from four and twenty of its metopes, forma part 
 of the collection in the British Museum. 
 
 In conclusion, it may be obser\ed, that the general 
 harmony of this temple is so well preserved, that it 
 may be considered a very valuable model of its kmd. 
 
 The temple of Minerva at Athens, also named the 
 Parthenon, was erected by Ictinus and Callicrates, 
 during the time of Pericles ; to replace a former temple, 
 which had been burnt by the Persians. Ictinus wrote a 
 work, which has not descended tons, giving a descrip- 
 tion of this celebrated edifice. It is to the emperor Adrian 
 that we are indebted for the repairs made in this, as 
 also in the other edifices that this city contained ; and of 
 which, from their former good state of preservation, not- 
 withstanding the ravages they h-ave undergone, many 
 remains still exist. This temple the situation of which 
 was on an emimence in the centre of the citadel, 
 elevated on all sides above the city, presents a plan in 
 the form of a parallelogram, like the generality of those 
 of the ancients, extending from east to west. Its peris- 
 tyle consisted of a range of eight columns at the prin- 
 cipal facade and opposite extremity ; and seventeen at 
 the sides. The entrance to the cella, either by the 
 eastern or western facade, was preceded by a second 
 range of six columns; in addition to which, at the 
 latter entrance, was a .spacious vestibule. The superior 
 part or frieze of the exterior of the wall of the cella, is 
 decorated by a basso rilievo, representing a procession 
 to the same temple during the Panathenaic festival
 
 13t5 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 The whole was covered by a roof, extending in a 
 straight hne from one extremity of the pediment, 
 situated above the entablature at each entrance, to 
 the other ; forming one imposing total. 
 
 The ordonnance is Doric, the columns of which are 
 raised upon three lofty steps, having a medium be- 
 tween a half and one third of a module in height; the 
 uppermost of which is 101 feet 2 inches in breadth, 
 and 227 feet 7 inches in length. The diameter of 
 the columns is 6 feet 1 inch and 8 lines, and their 
 height, including their capitals, which is 2 feet 9 
 inches 9 lines, is 34 feet 2 inches and 6 lines. 
 The height of the entablature is 12 feet 1 inch and 
 10 lines, of which the architrave is 4 feet 5 inches 
 and 1 line, the frieze 4 feet 5 inches 1 line, and 
 the cornice 3 feet 3 inches and 8 lines. The inter- 
 columniations are 4 modules 20 parts from axis 
 to axis. 
 
 The metopes are decorated with designs executed 
 in alto rilievo, representing the battles of the Centaurs 
 and Lapithee, at the nuptials of Pirithous. Each 
 metope contains two figures grouped in various 
 attitudes. Each of the pediments was equally orna- 
 mented with sculpture. The one represents the 
 birth of Minerva ; and the other relates to a dispute 
 between Minerva and Neptune, concerning the pos- 
 session of Attica, which is executed in extraordinary 
 hiofh relief 
 
 The principal of the remaining fragments of these 
 sculptural productions, have been transferred to the 
 British Museum. They consist of some of the figures 
 that formed a part of the compositions of the pediments ; 
 a number of the metopes ; the whole remaining
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 137 
 
 frieze before mentioned, of whicli about two hundred 
 and fifty feet is original ; the remainder being in casts 
 executed on the spot. From the excellence of their 
 execution, there is little doubt that they were super- 
 intended by Phidias, and finished by his chisel ; and 
 perhaps, for the greater part, wrought by Alcamenes, 
 his distinguished pupil. This temple, from the beauty 
 of its total, is one of the most esteemed edifices of this 
 ordonnance existing in Greece. 
 
 Many of the examples of the Doric order discovered 
 in Greece, are, however, of a very difficult application, 
 scarcely conformable to modern wants and customs, and 
 can only with propriety be employed in such edifices 
 as admit of great simplicity of plan, and a character 
 of strength and solemnity. 
 
 One of the best examples of this order in Italy, was 
 found at Albano, near Rome. The height of the 
 column is seven diameters and a half, or fifteen 
 modules; the capital of this column has a collarin, and 
 its abacus is crowned with a fillet and cyma talon. 
 The architrave is one module, the frieze one module 
 and a half, and the cornice a module and one-fifth. 
 With the exception of the defect in the architrave, 
 this example may undoubtedly be pronounced a master- 
 piece. It appears to have served as the model for 
 Vignola's mutule Doric, and is cited in the present 
 instance in preference to the theatre of Marcelius, or 
 the Thermae of Dioclesian, the composition of which 
 appears inferior. It is true that the order of the first 
 of the two last-mentioned edifices has been generally 
 and deservedly esteemed ; but that of the latter has 
 its capital soft and effeminately profiled ; its cornice, 
 which is too high, is composed of too many mcmoers, 
 
 T
 
 1R8 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 and is of a proportion that disfigures the essential 
 ciiaracter of the order. 
 
 The cokimns of the theatre of Marcelkis, at Rome, 
 have nearly sixteen modules, or eight diameters, in 
 height ; their entablature is nearly four modules, which 
 establishes its height at almost one-fourth of that of 
 the column; and this proportion of one-fourth of the 
 column, is still more precise in the Thermae of Diocle- 
 sian. This rule is also observed with as much fidelity 
 in the column belonging to the fragment found at 
 Albano ; it has but fifteen modules in height, and the 
 entablature three and two-thirds, which also ap- 
 proaches to one-fourth. 
 
 Another example of this order, found in a tomb 
 near Terracina, exhibits great beauty and largeness of 
 division, in each of its parts. 'J'he columns are seven 
 diameters in height. 
 
 The Doric columns at the quarters of the soldiers 
 at Pompeia, are also seven diameters in height. 
 
 These are the principal and best examples of the 
 Doric order, which the existing remains of Greece 
 and Italy at this time present ; in the whole of w hich 
 examples it is employed without base. There were 
 doubtless many temples and other edifices erected at 
 Rome, of this order, which were destroyed during the 
 middle ages. Labaco, in his work, published at Rome, 
 in 1559, presents us with plates of the remains of three 
 temples of this order which existed at that late period : 
 and they were situated in the vicinity of the theatre 
 of Marcellus. 
 
 Vignola's Doric entablature is of two kinds ; the one 
 is called mutule, and the other denticulated. The 
 lirst is taken from the antiquities found in Italy, and is
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 139 
 
 ornamented with miitules, which are a kind of bracket, 
 and serve to crown the triglyphs. The frieze is deco- 
 rated with triglyphs of a module in breadth, sub- 
 divided into triangular flutes and half flutes. They 
 should be placed directly over the columns, and 
 divided from each other by a space called metope, 
 equal to the height of the frieze. The shaft of the 
 column is sometimes ornamented with flutings, or por- 
 tions of a circle, to the number of twenty, which, in 
 meeting, form a sharp angle. 
 
 The second Doric entablature is called denticulated, 
 because its cornice is ornamented with dentils ; it was 
 taken from the theatre of Marcelius, at Rome. It 
 differs from the mutule in its architrave, which has 
 but one fascia ; and in its cornice, in the lower part of 
 which is placed a cyma talon, whilst the mutule has 
 a quarter round ; and in the upper part is placed a 
 cavetto, whilst the other has a cyma recta. As the 
 column and pedestal are the same in each of these 
 two examples, to prevent repetition, their details will 
 be given in the table and in plate 8, as being common 
 to both. 
 
 The exclusive employment of the Doric and Ionic 
 orders, discovered amongst the remains of Greece, as 
 also of those presented in Italy, has each its partisans. 
 The one party disclaims all but the examples offered 
 in the former country; amongst which may be enume- 
 rated our English travellers, to whom we are mostly 
 indebted for the discovery of them ; whilst the other 
 decries all but the latter. This party may be said 
 chiefly to consist of such as are disinterested in the 
 introduction of the former. 
 
 In proof, reference may be made not only to the
 
 "r40 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 Uterary works of the first mentioned class, but like- 
 wise to their professional productions; in which the 
 Grecian Doric, of the exact measurements of existing 
 examples, has been introduced on almost all occasions, 
 however injudicious the application. 
 
 As regards the opposite party, if equal reference be 
 made to their writings, as also to the buildings and 
 edifices designed by them, the same exclusive spirit 
 will be manifested. Truth, as is commonly the case, 
 lies midway between the two parties. For architec- 
 ture, unlike those arts in which the rules are impera- 
 tive, admits of modiHcations in all its constituent parts, 
 which are governed by the character of the edifice, 
 the situation of the site, &c., as is fully proved by the 
 various examples of antiquity quoted in the accom- 
 panying tables. 
 
 If the proportions of architecture could be reduced 
 to a determinate calculation, it would cease to be an 
 art of invention and taste, and become nothing more 
 than a mechanical art, in which every thing is sub- 
 jected to rigorous rules. Though, by a strict obser- 
 vance of the rules and proportions of the ancients, we 
 might succeed in producing examples similar in their 
 abstract form ; yet without the attendant circum- 
 stances which governed those artists in the choice of 
 proportions and ordonnance, the application of such 
 proportions and ordonnance would be a breach of the 
 fundamental law of architecture, which demands that 
 they shall be governed by the character and object of 
 the edifice. The principles of calculation being abso- 
 lute, can never be applied to architecture as the sole 
 governing power. Such an application, by enslaving 
 the artist to a system unchanged by circumstance, and
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 141 
 
 absolute in its rules, would destroy at once the prin- 
 ciple of invention, and give a death-blow to the 
 powers of the art. The orders of architecture, and 
 the rules which govern the proportions of their details, 
 are means only whereby an expression of character is 
 given to an edifice; the judicious application of which 
 characterizes genius, and distinguishes the man of 
 talent from the mere copyist. Such of the constituent 
 parts of architecture as apparently rest on a system 
 of the most fixed proportions, and between which a 
 constant and uniform relation exists, though unvary- 
 ing in their regular and symmetrical organization, are 
 nevertheless susceptible of being modified in their 
 application according to the expression of character 
 required. Architecture does not merely permit, but 
 demands a latitude in the application of its parts, 
 which is governed by the general intention. A com- 
 parison of the different edifices of antiquity, will prove 
 the truth of these remarks, and render them more 
 striking by exhibiting the fact. Whilst we discover 
 in their works a uniformity of principles, we shall also 
 find that variety in the details of the constituent parts 
 which has been alhided to, and from which exam- 
 ples may be derived that knowledge of general ex- 
 pression, and judgment in distribution, which will 
 serve to restrain the digressions of imao:ination within 
 proper bounds, without enslaving the efforts of genius. 
 Hence, it is possible judiciously to profit from the 
 spirit exhibited in the best examples found in both 
 Greece and Italy. The Doric of the former country, 
 in edifices presenting a simplicity of plan, and requir- 
 ing a masculine and solemn expression ; while those 
 presented in the latter country are well calculated for
 
 142 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 edifices that demand less severity of character. It 
 may, however, be remarked, that there are but few 
 modern edifices, in which the extreme of the expres- 
 sion of strength and solemnity can be judiciously ap- 
 plied, in proportion to the number of those requiring 
 the intermediate shades. 
 
 THE IONIC ORDER. 
 
 It will easily be perceived, by a minute investigation 
 of the progress of the Ionic order, that it has not been 
 subject to the same variations in its principal divi- 
 sions as the Doric ; because the art had made some 
 progress in the proportions of this first of the orders, 
 and they served as a principle to the ancients in the 
 composition of the two last. 
 
 Freart de Chambray, in treating on the origin of the 
 Ionic order, says, " The first productions of the arts 
 have always been very limited ; because it is more 
 difficult to invent than to imitate. After that regular 
 buildings and the famous Doric temples had appeared, 
 of which Vitruvius and some others have made men- 
 tion, architecture did not long remain in its infancy : 
 the competition and emulation of the neighbouring 
 people caused it to make rapid progress in its advance 
 towards perfection. The lonians were the first com- 
 petitors against the Dorians in this divine art ; and as 
 these people had not the fame of its invention, they 
 endeavoured to enrich it more than its authors had
 
 CH THE ORDEE 
 
 lights 
 
 Projections 
 
 from axis of 
 
 Columns. 
 
 « 3 j-g 
 
 a ~ ' 2
 
 IONIC ORDER OF VIGNOLA, 
 
 WITH THE NAMES AND DETAILED PROPORTIONS OP THE MEMBERS AND MOULDINGS OP WHICH THE ORDEB 
 
 IS COMPOSED. 
 
 PLiTES 9, 10, 12. and 2) 
 
 
 
 Heights 
 
 Projections 
 from axis of 
 Columns. 
 
 COLUMN AND PEDESTAL. 
 
 Heights 
 
 Projections 1 
 from axis of 1 
 Columns. | 
 
 ENTABLATURE. 
 
 1 
 
 . 5 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 &, 
 
 1 
 
 1 . 
 
 2 . 
 
 1 . 
 
 3 . 
 
 5 . 
 
 12 . 
 
 2 . 
 
 1 . 
 
 2 . 
 15 
 
 2 . 
 1 
 
 6 - 
 
 5 . 
 
 " 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 '. 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 1 
 
 ' \ 
 
 ,1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 II 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 17 
 4 
 
 17' 
 15 
 15 
 
 "2' 
 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 3 
 6 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 15 
 12 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 10 
 
 9 
 13 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 'i 
 
 i 
 
 
 EolAblature , 
 4 mod. 9 parts 
 
 C A. CORNICE. 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Cyma Recta 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Column 
 IS modules. 
 
 Pedestal j 
 6 modules. 
 
 1- D. E. CAPITAL. 
 Fillet 
 
 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 'i 
 i 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 'i 
 
 'i 
 i 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 1 
 I 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 I 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 4 
 2 
 11 
 
 10 
 7 
 6 
 3 
 6 
 2 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 17 
 16 
 15 
 
 8 
 17 
 
 'i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 'i 
 'i 
 
 'i 
 i 
 
 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 Corona 
 
 •Fillet 
 
 Quarter Round 
 
 Astragal 
 
 Fillet 
 
 . 2 
 
 . 6 
 
 . 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 Canal of the Volute 
 
 Quarter Round 
 
 SHAFT. 
 Astragal 
 
 Fillet . . . 
 
 7 
 
 i 
 
 t String of the Dentils 
 
 Dentils 
 
 RestofBandbehindDentils . 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 B. FRIEZE. 
 
 I 
 . 6 
 
 1 
 . 4 
 
 1 13 
 
 1 9 
 
 1 9 
 
 I 
 . S 
 
 . 7 
 
 6 
 
 . 4 
 
 1 4 
 
 1 I 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 'i 
 
 'i 
 
 i 
 
 'i 
 'i 
 
 'i 
 i 
 
 
 Shaft between Conges . . . 
 Conge 
 
 15 
 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 
 F. BASE 
 Torus 
 
 16 
 
 
 C. ARCHITRAVE. 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 First Faicia 
 
 Second Fascia 
 
 Third Fascia 
 
 D. Section of the Capital 
 and Baluster of the Volute 
 
 E. Side elevation of the Ca- 
 pital and Baluster of the 1 
 Volute 1 
 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 . 
 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 
 Two Astragals 
 
 Fillet ^ 
 
 
 2 . 
 
 "2 . 
 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 
 .Plinth 
 
 
 6 . 
 
 .... i 
 1 i 
 3 . 
 
 . i 
 
 
 G. CORNICE. 
 
 Fillet 
 
 1 
 
 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 Corona 
 
 • Fillet 
 
 
 
 '' 
 
 1 
 
 Quarter Round 
 
 Astragal 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 3 . 
 1 . 
 
 1 . 
 
 10 - 
 
 T i 
 
 12 3 
 
 2 . 
 
 16 - 
 
 1 . 
 
 1 i 
 
 3 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • The heigut of the fillets in the cornice of the entablature and of the 
 pedestal, are included in those of each corona 
 
 1 The height of the string is included in that of the dentils. 
 
 The flutings of the shaft of the column of this order are separated bv 
 
 a mia. 
 
 The attic base may be judiciously substituted for that given by 
 Vignola to this order. For the form and dimensions of the attic base. 
 
 DIE. 
 
 J. 
 
 
 Die .;;::;:::;.■::;;;•■■ 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 H. BASE. 
 Fillet 
 
 4 
 
 
 Astragal 
 
 
 
 Cyma Reversa 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 
 -Plinth 
 
 
 4 . 
 
 lo" i 
 
 9 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 28 
 
 
 The module emp'oyed in this Table is divided Into eighteen parts.
 
 IIMTI'TT^X"? '-.r.i^Tc ni^-iiT.'w 
 
 luj f^TitUat^Jm.- ^-rc'Vhiiiml Oi»«i>- ii .'iV J»i/Mee.i»»YwJloi JSn
 
 d:etai]ls of tede :i>njTnJE ©oiric o:ri31^,:r. 
 
 7^ riMlilttd. T'r BOUyrn .■ ^rAtttOH-jJ Mfilrr »• rrii, :B •nat-'-X; jnrrr An J-i-.-Mf-fan'm^
 
 BENTKDCI. ATjEB JlDdD^RIC ©IRIDEIR o 
 
 l-tn •'.-n i^oLi:, i«) y," Hilhitat't-n '■ -^V^c?ij,-5»*a/J>'vr^' 
 
 ji^,.j,.-« rhf,^ Tu^- ."..-
 
 JETMIS OiFTEE BEF'Tjri'T^^TEUDOJOr OlEOi)EK 
 
 .^ee.Jltre^ 2%'
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 143 
 
 done." To this remark of Chambray's, it will not be 
 uninteresting' to add the grounds of his opinion. Vitru- 
 vius informs us, that Hermogenes, of Alabanda, hav- 
 ing a great quantity of marble, intended for building 
 a temple to Bacchus, and not having at that time 
 any other models than the Doric order, but inspired by 
 his genius, he discovered a mode not differing sensibly 
 from the rules of this order, and executed it on a new 
 design. As he was an inhabitant of Caria, of which 
 the lonians had made themselves the possessors, this 
 manner of building acquired the name of Ionic. 
 
 Without proceeding further in this inquiry, or 
 attaching any credit to the above fabulous account, it 
 may be asserted, that this order, as forming a part in 
 the system of the antique architecture, owes its in- 
 vention neither to a single indi^'idual nor city ; but to 
 the general progressive results of experience and 
 talent at a very remote period. 
 
 The characteristic distinctions of the Ionic from 
 the Doric order, are, firstly, in the form of its capital, 
 the outline of its shaft, together with the addition of 
 a base ; and also in the profile of its entablature. 
 Secondly, in the proportion of its column, and the 
 relative proportion between this and the parts of the 
 entablature. And thirdly, in its decoration, in the 
 sculpture of the capital, as also of the mouldings in the 
 entablature : the frieze either presenting a continued 
 plain surface, or decorated with sculpture. Hence the 
 Ionic differs from the Doric, both in its form, propor- 
 tion, and decoration. 
 
 Tliis second order, in some dci^rce a rival to the 
 first, made great progress. Experience having taught 
 them to raise the Doric order in its proportions, the
 
 144 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 Ionic also underwent additional improvement. Genius 
 perfected both. The means were multiplied by ob- 
 servation, whence sprung that variety in the relations 
 of the different orders ; and these relations, taken and 
 employed with judgment, became the source of an 
 almost innumerable number of agreeable effects. 
 
 After having made thus far an, inquiry into the 
 conjectural origin of this order, it is not less essential 
 that the various shades of character it exhibited be 
 also examined; in doing which, recourse must be had 
 to the examples presented to us, in the different 
 antique edifices. 
 
 Minerva was held in such reverence by the Athe- 
 nians, that they erected to this divinity two temples 
 in the citadel ; one of which has been described iu 
 treating of the Doric order, and the other, which was 
 of less extent, was dedicated to Minerva Polias. The 
 order is Ionic. Columns are employed only at its en- 
 trance ; six of which form its peristyle, and four are 
 engaged in the wall of the cella, forming the opposite 
 extremity or posticum. 
 
 The peristyle is situated upon a flight of three 
 steps ; each of which are rather more than two-thirds 
 of a module in height ; the lower torus of the bases 
 of the columns, are placed direct upon these ; being 
 without plinths. The bases are formed of three divi- 
 sions, the heights of which decrease in a small degree 
 as they rise ; namely, a superior and inferior torus, 
 having a scotia and two fillets intervening. It is pro- 
 bable that this base has served as the type for the one 
 named attic. The columns, each of the shafls of 
 which are decorated by twenty-four flutings, are two 
 feet three inches and one line, in diameter, and in
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 145 
 
 heig-ht twenty-one feet, seven inclies, and six lines, 
 which includes the base and capital ; the former of 
 which is one foot, ten inches, and the latter eleven 
 inches and three lines. That part of the capital, 
 between the abacus and echinus, whence spring- the 
 volutes, is composed of three fillets, forming different 
 curvatures ; two of which descend very low. These 
 three fillets present themselves in the volutes, and 
 considerably augment the number of their revolutions, 
 which gives the capital more variety and richness. 
 Both these qualities are increased by the addition of 
 a large collarin, placed under the echinus, and which 
 descends lower than the volutes. This collarin is 
 decorated with the palmetta ; and the abacus and 
 echinus are sculptured in oves. The nett height of 
 the volutes is one foot four inches. 
 
 The entablature is four feet, ten inches, and ten lines 
 in height ; of which the architrave, composed of three 
 fascias, is two feet one inch ; its frieze is of a still 
 greater height, when compared with the cornice, being 
 one foot, eleven inches, and nine lines. The cornice is 
 composed of a corona of large proportion, having a 
 bold cyma talon sunk in the thickness, and under the 
 soffit of this member. Above the corona is a fillet 
 and echinus, which, from their smallness, makes it 
 more than probable that the whole was terminated by 
 a cyma recta ; of which we have examples in the cor- 
 nices of the portico of Philip, and in the temple of 
 Apollo, at Delos, although of the Doric order. This 
 moulding from its being the uppermost of an ordon- 
 nance, is necessarily the first which is subject to 
 decay. The height of the cornice as it now remains, 
 is only ten inches and one line : great relief is 
 
 u
 
 146 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 given to the corona, by means of the small moulding, 
 under and over, being sculptured. Tlie whole was 
 surmounted by a pediment. The intercolumniations 
 are eiffht modules from axis to axis. 
 
 Against the left side of this temple, is another 
 of snail dimensions; dedicated to Pandrosia, one of 
 the three daughters of Cecrops, who had continued 
 faithful to the order of Minerva. Its fa9ade presents 
 the statues of four female figures, commonly named 
 Caryatides, (one of which is in the British Museum,) 
 there being also two in return on each side, (counting 
 the one at each angle a second time,) which are 
 situated upon a lofty continued pedestal ; having a 
 species of capital adjusted to their heads, for the 
 better receiving the architrave and cornice. The frieze 
 is suppressed, apparently to decrease the height of the 
 part supported, and thereby to establish a just har- 
 mony between this and its supports. 
 
 The height of this imperfect entablature exceeds a 
 third of that of the figures, the cornice being 1 foot, 
 6 inches, and the architrave 1 foot, 5 inches; the 
 height of the statues are 7 feet, 1 inch; and of 
 the total, including the pedestal, and the three steps 
 0. on which it is planted, is 9 feet. The socle of the 
 statues is 2 feet, 1 inch square, and the distance 
 between them 3 feet, 4 inches, and 1 line. Some 
 amongst the moderns have endeavoured to institute a 
 new order on the authority of these antique remains. 
 This vain determination proceeded from a misunder- 
 standing on the part of such individuals, in what the 
 necessary constituents of an order consist. 
 
 The introduction of these objects in an architectural 
 composition, and their occupying the place of one of
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 147 
 
 the most essential parts, namely, the column, is of 
 itself a license ; and hence it is, that it can bur, rareiy 
 be judiciously employed. 
 
 The temple of Erectheus, situated at the opposite 
 flank or right side of the temple of Minerva, was 
 erected to replace a former one ; the site of which 
 likewise occupied a part of the Acropolis; and was 
 destroyed by Xerxes on gaining possession of the 
 citadel. This temple is composed of four columns in 
 front, and two at its sides ; counting the angular one 
 a second time. The details of this temple are similar 
 to those of Minerva Polias. The columns, the 
 diameter of which is 2 feet, 5 inches, and 9 lines, 
 in their height, including the base and capital, are 
 22 feet, 8 inches; the entablature is one-fourth 
 of this height, and is surmounted by a pediment. 
 The intercolumniations are 51 modules from the 
 axis. 
 
 The architects of these two temples, in order that 
 the capital at the angle might offer two similar faces, 
 the one at the front of the edifice, and the other at its 
 side in return, extended the outer volute in a curved 
 line, in such a manner, as to be enabled to execute a 
 volute exactly similar in the elevation in return. This 
 arrangement, which is intended to decrease the degree 
 of iiregularity in the form and appearance of the Ionic 
 capital, and which renders its employment so difficult 
 at the return of an angle ; is so far overcome as to be 
 much more striking in plan than elevation. The 
 Ionic columns (of which the capitals form so striking a 
 feature) in the small temple, situated near the river 
 llissus, may serve to shew the great varieties that the 
 few existing: remains of Greece offer in this order, wiien
 
 148 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 coraparea with the two examples just described; and 
 which may be further illustrated by a comparison of 
 the remains above cited with those of the temple of 
 Apollo Didymaeus, near Miletus. 
 
 The capitals of the columns of the temple of Apollo, 
 are composed of an abacus sculptured in oves, and a 
 fillet and band forming a straight line ; from which 
 spring the volutes, together with a quarter round, de- 
 corated with oves, and an astragal with berries. This 
 example presents as great a degree of simplicity as 
 most of those offered in the remains of Greece, if we 
 except the example at Athens, designated by the 
 name of the aqueduct of Adrian ; which is of a similar 
 design to the one last mentioned, only tiiat its orna- 
 ments are confined to the large quarter-round of its 
 capital, which is sculptured in oves. This example 
 resembles the one mentioned by Yitruvius. 
 
 The temple of Manly Fortune, at Rome, now S. 
 Maria Egiziaca, presents a rectangular plan, 58 feet, 
 1 inch in length, and 30 feet, 7 inches in breadth; 
 situated upon a basement 1 1 feet, 1 inch, and 6 lines in 
 height. The cornice of this basement is composed 
 of too many small mouldings ; its lower part ofiers a 
 larger style. 
 
 The fa9ade, of the fiight of steps leading to which 
 only two remain, was composed of a portico, having 
 four columns in front, and two in projection ; the third 
 being engaged at the angle of the wall of the cella, 
 which was repeated at the three remaining sides, by 
 ten others that projected half their diameter from the 
 wall. 
 
 The ordonnance is Ionic, the columns of which are 
 fluted, having 3 feet, 6 lines in diameter, and 28 feet,
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 149 
 
 4 inches, and 8 lines in height ; comprising their attic 
 base, which is 1 foot, 6 inches, and 2 Hnes in height, 
 together with that of their capital, being 1 foot 1 
 inch and 4 lines. The capitals of the columns situated 
 at the angles, have each an angular volute, so as to 
 present at each side of the portico, the same appear- 
 ance. Many of the modern masters, and amongst 
 others Palladio and Scamozzi, have, under similar 
 circumstances, imitated this disposition. 
 
 The intercolumniations are 6 modules, 6i parts ; 
 that of the centre being 7 modules, and 5 parts, from 
 axis to axis. 
 
 The height of the entablature is nearly one-fourth 
 of that of the columns. The architrave has three 
 fascias. Tlie frieze is judiciously ornamented with 
 candelabra, festoons, and genii ; the situation of the 
 last of these, corresponds to the middle of each 
 column. The relative proportion of the cornice is 
 very great, being three parts more in height than that 
 of the architrave and frieze, when taken together. 
 The ornaments, sculptured on the mouldings of the 
 pediment, are perpendicular in their position. The 
 entablature of this edifice appears massive; yet on 
 further examination, it will be found to express, by the 
 distribution of its mouldings, the particular character 
 of the order to which it belongs. Some of the mo- 
 dern masters have profited from this example, by 
 reducing the height of the cornice, and increasing 
 that of the other two members. 
 
 The exterior of the wall of the cella is wrought in 
 rustics. The erection of this edifice takes its date 
 from Servius Tullius, one of the first Roman kings. 
 
 The Temple of Concord, situated at the capitol, near
 
 150 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 Campo-Vaccino, presents, in its remains, a portico 
 composed of six columns in front, and one in return 
 on each of its sides ; with some vestiges of a founda- 
 tion on its southerly side, being all that is left of this 
 edifice. Tlie precise date of its erection is uncertain, 
 though attributed to Fabius Camillus. From the 
 following inscription : " S. P. Q. R. Incendio consump- 
 tum restituit," cut in the architrave and frieze, which 
 present in their entire length one united and uninter- 
 rupted surface, it appears to have suffered from fire, 
 and afterwards to have been either wholly or in part 
 rebuilt. 
 
 The ordonnance of this temple is Ionic, and the 
 diameter of the columns is 4 feet 5 inches and 6 
 lines ; which is given as a proportional measure, as 
 their dimensions are not uniformly the same. Their 
 height is 42 feet, 8 inches, including the capital 
 and base. The latter is composed of an upper and 
 lower torus, and two intervening scotias in all the 
 columns, except those at the angles, which have the 
 addition of a plinth, the dimensions being equal, by 
 means of a reduction in the upper mouldings of the 
 same. The capital is of a mixed character, partak- 
 ing in its lower part of the expression of the Doric, 
 and its volutes are angular, and therefore without 
 balusters. The architrave of this temple, which on 
 its right side is profiled, forming three fascias, with 
 astragals similar to that on the corresponding side, 
 under the soffit of the portico, is in projection beyond 
 the superior diameter of the columns, the whole of 
 their diminution. The proportion of the cornice, when 
 compared with the rest of the ordonnance, presents a 
 meagre appearance. The compartments formed in
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 151 
 
 its soffitj are ornamented with some very fine roses, 
 and the modillions by which they are separated, are 
 placed independently of any correspondence with the 
 columns ; indeed the intercolumniations themselves 
 are unequal ; that in the centre is 3 modules, 25 
 parts, for the others the medium proportion is 3 
 modules, 15 parts. In the construction above the 
 cornice, arches are employed that extend from one 
 column to the other, in order to secure the entablature 
 in the width of the intercolumniations, from being 
 injured by the weight of the pediment. 
 
 In the Ionic order, at the theatre of Marcellus, the 
 superior mouldings of the cornice to the lower part of 
 the corona being decayed, the proportions of the part 
 wanting have been supplied in the table of this order; 
 where this part is given, according to the spirit of the 
 rest. Its columns are 18 modules in height, and the 
 entablature 4 modules, 25 parts, and two-thirds ; 
 in which the architrave is 1 module, and 13 parts, 
 the frieze 1 module, and 6 parts and two-thirds, 
 and the cornice 2 modules, and 6 parts. The part 
 of the cornice which remains, is well proportioned 
 and profiled ; the lower extremities of the fascias 
 retire inwards ; the capital of the column is graceful, 
 and in perfect relation with the rest of the order; 
 the base is attic. This example of the Ionic order 
 appears to have served as a model to many modern 
 authors. 
 
 The entablature of this order at the Colosseum, is 
 4 modules, and 16 parts, and the column 17 modules, 
 and 9 parts and a quarter. The whole of this 
 example is without ornaments ; and the volutes of Its 
 capital are without the ordinary spiral Huangs,
 
 152 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 depending entirely on the harmony of its proportions 
 for effect. The base is attic. 
 
 The example of this order at the Thermae of Dio- 
 clesian, has its entablature supported by a pilaster, 
 which was doubtless placed in the angle of one of the 
 saloons of this immense edifice, corresponding with 
 columns or pilasters. The entablature is 3 modules 
 and 18 parts in height, and the pilaster 17 modules. 
 Some of the mouldings of the entablature are deco- 
 rated with sculpture, the quarter round of the pilaster 
 with oves, and its shaft with flutings. Its base is 
 attic. Vignola, in making his researches amongst 
 the antique remains, on meeting with this example, 
 appears to have benefited from its profile, if we may 
 judge from the similarity which exists between this 
 part and that of his Ionic order. 
 
 Of the Ionic order, Greece itself offers great variety 
 of expression, as has been just before remarked, and 
 which is proved by comparing the columns, (the 
 capitals of which form so conspicuous a feature in 
 this order,) of the temple on the Ilissus, with those of 
 Minerva Polias and Erectheus, and these latter with 
 those of the temple of Apollo Didymaeus, at Miletus. 
 Between the example last-mentioned and that of For- 
 tuna Virilis, at Rome, there exists an almost incom- 
 parably less degree of difference, than between that 
 of Apollo, just cited, and of Minerva Polias, both of 
 which are of Greece. 
 
 In fine, architecture demands, in the numerous com- 
 positions that are intended to exhibit a conformity to 
 modern customs and wants, that the different shades 
 comprehended in the character of each order be 
 applied according as the nature of each edifice may
 
 ]D):etaixs dy tjte iqt^it: dirdish. 
 
 Ar ol'Oif Volute 
 
 I mdm JtMUUm Tsr SiHfii^ftm s ArMZtdurxl DircA-'^ Ti; JAn, Scnm-trtC: X7ira- TTtn.l'a.j-s.v^e,I-yy Z.^
 
 i©:st:c o]K3j):e,]r 
 
 r-..J\tblu:hi.i F^ J^iTUn f:- 
 
 Men*ietC. Three* jlAn/ ^G*ssa*3^. Jtat^rrrose&r J^<
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 153 
 
 require; and these shades are nothing more than varia- 
 tions in the expression of the special quality which 
 constitutes the prominent feature in each architectural 
 ordonnance. Thus, in the execution of the Corin- 
 thian, a degree of simplicity may be given, without 
 losing the characteristics of the order; and so in like 
 manner, a less masculine expression may be given 
 to the Doric, without detriment to its distinguishing 
 features. 
 
 OF PILASTERS. 
 
 Pilasters, according to their present employment, 
 present nothing more than square pillars, supposed to 
 be engaged in a wall, which may be employed in this 
 state, in the ordonnance of edifices, with as much 
 reason and propriety as columns may, when placed 
 aorainst, or eno:aored in a massive. 
 
 Pilasters may also be considered as a fictitious 
 representation of columns, superseding them in many 
 cases. Some persons have wished to exclude the em- 
 ployment of pilasters in architecture, on the ground 
 that the Grecian edifices which exist do not exhibit 
 this species of ordonnance. On this subject one obser- 
 vation may be made. Few original productions of 
 this part of architecture, as practised in Greece, have 
 descended to us, from which any thing either general 
 or absolute can be concluded on this subject. The 
 works which have been cited as peremptory precedents 
 against the employment of pilasters, are mostly temples 
 of considerable uniformity in their plans and elevations ; 
 from which nothing can be determined, except that 
 
 X
 
 154 ARCHITECTURAL DiRECTOR. 
 
 the general custom of their ordonnances only admitted 
 of insulated columns. 
 
 The antique architecture at Rome, presents many 
 examples of the employment of pilasters. There also 
 exists great diversity, in the numerous structures in 
 which they have been employed. Examples may be 
 cited in which pilasters were used as a decorative 
 ordonnance, without any connexion with columns; 
 whilst in others they have been placed in correspond- 
 ence with insulated columns; besides a multitude of 
 cases, where the columns of a portico, or a part in 
 advance, have been suitably repeated by corresponding 
 pilasters. When the soffit of an architrave finishes 
 against the face of a wall, who would not approve of 
 it resting upon the capital of a pilaster of the same 
 order, instead of remaining without any apparent 
 support ? 
 
 With regard to the projection of pilasters, Perrault 
 observes, "that those which present but one face from 
 the wall, should have half of it in projection, or at least 
 a sixth part, when there is no necessity for a greater 
 thickness, as in the frontispiece of Nero." 
 
 The pilasters at the exterior of the Pantheon, have 
 but the tenth part of their surface in projection ; whilst 
 in other examples the fourteenth part only is given, as 
 was practised in the pilasters of the forum of Nerva. 
 
 But when it is intended to profile imposts against 
 their sides, they have one-fourth of their diameter given 
 for projection. This proportion is convenient, because 
 it prevents an irregular diminution of the Corinthian 
 capital ; for it then causes the inferior leaf and stem 
 of the capital to be cut exactly in their centre For 
 the same reason, when semi-piiasters are employed
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 155 
 
 in internal angles, it is essential to their symmetry that 
 they should project more than half their diameter. 
 
 The diminution of pilasters is essentially connected 
 with their form. There is on this point a diversity of 
 opinions. "Pilasters," says Perrault, "do not ordi- 
 narily diminish, when they present but one face from 
 the wall. Those at the exterior of the portico of the 
 Pantheon, are without diminution. But when pilasters 
 are on the same line with columns, and it is intended to 
 continue the entablature upon each, without break, as 
 at the two sides of the exterior of the Pantheon, it is 
 then necessary to give the same diminution to pilasters 
 as to columns, but to the front face only, leaving the 
 sides without diminution, as is observed at the temple 
 of Antoninus and Faustina. When pilasters, situated 
 at an angle, present two faces from the wall, if one of 
 the fiices be opposite a column, this face should be 
 diminished in the same proportion as the column, 
 whereas that which is not opposite, is left undiminished ; 
 as at the portico of Septimus Severus. There are, 
 nevcitheless, examples in the antique, where pilasters 
 have no diminution, as in the interior of the Pantheon ; 
 and others where they have very little, or less than 
 that of the column, as at the temple of Mars the 
 Avenjrcr, and the arch of Constantine. On these 
 occasions it was sometimes the practice of the ancients 
 to place the architrave over the face of the columns, 
 which caused the face of the pilasters to retire inwards. 
 The temple of Mars the Avenger, interior of the 
 Pantheon, and portico of Septimus Severus, present us 
 with examples of this description. At other times 
 they divided it into half, by making the architrave pro- 
 ject in false bearing, beyond the fiice of the column
 
 156 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 one half; and retire the other half from the face of the 
 pilaster, as at the forum of Nerva. 
 
 When pilasters are employed in ordonnances of 
 columns, they are submitted, as has been shown, to the 
 same forms and proportions. As to flutings, there 
 exists a greater liberty in their application to pilasters ; 
 the ancients having left us more than one diversity. 
 Sometimes pilasters with flutings, are found associated 
 with columns without, as at the portico of the Pan- 
 theon; which doubtless may be explained by the 
 difference of the materials. The pilaster being of white 
 marble, and the columns of granite ; which latter 
 material will not admit of being worked in flutings ;. 
 its principal worth and merit consisting in its fineness 
 and polish. There are also at other times fluted 
 columns accompanied with pilasters without flutings ; 
 examples of which may be seen at the temple of Mars 
 the x'lvenger, and the portico of Septimus Severus. 
 It may be added, that when pilasters have less pro- 
 jection than half of their diameter, fl,utings are not 
 practised in the part which is termed i?i return. 
 
 If we consult the authority of the antique as to the 
 number of flutings in pilasters, we find nothing deter- 
 minate. For example, there are seven in the pilasters 
 of the portico of the Pantheon, the arch of Septimus 
 Severus, and that of Constantino. The pilasters in the 
 interior of the Pantheon have nine flutings ; although, 
 according to the ordinary practice, columns have but 
 twenty-four. Flutings in pilasters are always employed 
 in an uneven number. If they be semi-pilasters, 
 forming an internal angle, four are placed instead of 
 three and a half; and five instead of four and a half, 
 when the entire pilasters of the same ordonnance have
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 157 
 
 seven or nine. It is thus arranged, to avoid the bad 
 effect that would otherwise result in adapting the 
 capital to the angle, the centre of wliich should coin- 
 cide with it, and without which, an inequality would 
 take place that would prevent the full extension of the 
 capital in its upper members; particularly a capital 
 ornamented with foliage, for, without this arrangement, 
 it could not be sufficiently developed. 
 
 The proportion of capitals is the same in pilasters as 
 in columns, as regards the heights; but the breadths 
 are different, and the developments of their forms 
 gives a greater space to each of their faces, because 
 they are quadrangular. In the design (pi. 11) of 
 the Ionic pilaster, the volutes are placed in projection 
 from its face ; in like manner as in the column of the 
 same order. In its height, the same proportions and 
 mouldings are observed; the only difference being in 
 the fillet, astragal, and quarter-round. If the projec- 
 tion wliich this last moulding has beyond the face of 
 the shaft be strictly followed, it would be seven parts ; 
 but in this design it is fixed at six, that the curve 
 which it is necessary to give it may be softer, and cut 
 less upon the right lines against which it finishes. 
 But it may have seven parts given to it, by observing 
 that the extremities be brought to the same point ; 
 namely, to the superior point of the quarter round. A, 
 at the intersection of the perpendicular to the axis of 
 revolution, at the height of B. The fiutings have the 
 same breadth as those of the lower part of the shall of 
 the column, and the angle of the pilaster may be ter- 
 minated as shown in the design ; or otherwise by 
 increasing the breadth of the fiutings, so that the part 
 which is next to the angle be equal to the others. It
 
 158 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 may be further observed, that the canal, marked two 
 parts in depth over the horizontal line of the quarter 
 round, (see section) ought to decrease in depth, ac- 
 cording as the spiral of the volute approaches towards 
 the eye. 
 
 METHOD OF TRACING THE IONIC VOLUTE. 
 PLATE XII. 
 
 After having drawn the mouldings of the capital, 
 the eye of the volute should be placed upon the hori- 
 zontal line E, at the intersection of the vertical line D ; 
 afterwards from this centre should be drawn a circle, 
 a part of the radius of the vertical diameter of whicli 
 is named cathetes, and forms the diagonal of a square, 
 the sides of which are divided into two equal parts. 
 From these points should be drawn the subdivisions 
 of the axis, 1, 3, and 2, 4 ; which are to be divided into 
 six equal parts : these points will be the centres, which 
 serve to describe the exterior contour of the volute. 
 
 Placing one point of the compasses on the point 1, 
 and extending the other to D, describe the quarter of 
 the circle DA. Afterwards take the point 2 as a 
 centre; and then in the same order, as fig. I, pi. 10. 
 
 To find the centres for the interior contour of the 
 volute, the divisions which served for the first should 
 be divided into four parts. The first subdivision 
 under each of the former points, will serve as centre 
 for the interior of the spiral fillet. 
 
 The total height of the volute is sixteen parts of a 
 module; nine of which are over the horizontal line E, 
 and seven below it. Plate 12.
 
 CAPITAl, OF IIDPTIC ]PII^\§T1EI^ 
 
 s ^, 
 
 -^—4 
 
 fiE, 
 
 \M«fulrs
 
 CORINTHIAN ORDER OF VIGNOLA, 
 
 THE NAMES AND DETAILED PROPORTIONS OF THE MEMBERS AND MOULDINGS OF WHICH THE ORDER 
 
 IS COMPOSED. 
 PlATES 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, and 21. 
 
 
 
 Heights. 
 
 Projections 
 from axis of 
 Columns. 
 
 COLUMN AND PEDESTAL. 
 
 Heights. 1 
 
 Projections 
 from axis of 
 Columns. 
 
 ENTABLATURE. 
 
 S 
 
 ■S a 
 
 i 
 
 9 
 
 II 
 
 "i 
 
 't 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 'i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 'i 
 
 "i 
 * 
 * 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 3 
 
 £ 
 
 i 
 
 'i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 i 
 i 
 
 i 
 i 
 'i 
 'i 
 i 
 
 i 
 i 
 i 
 i 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 "5 
 ■§ 
 
 I 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 I 
 
 1 
 I 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 I 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 I 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 II 
 9 
 
 ii' 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 "'2' 
 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 3 
 3 
 5 
 7 
 7 
 
 15 
 15 
 14 
 
 12 
 8 
 7 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 8 
 7 
 7 
 7 
 8 
 
 9 
 8 
 12 
 14 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 Entablature 
 5 modules. ' 
 
 (■ A. CORNICE. 
 Fillet 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 "i 
 
 5 
 1 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 "e 
 
 1 
 
 "»' 
 
 1 
 i' 
 
 6 
 
 ~9~ 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 6 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 'i 
 i 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 'i 
 
 'i 
 i 
 
 'i 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 {? 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 ) 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 17 
 17 
 12 
 U 
 10 
 
 9 
 11 
 
 S 
 
 10 
 10 
 7 
 6 
 6 
 5 
 2 
 1 
 
 16 
 16 
 15 
 
 i5 
 
 2 
 I 
 17 
 16 
 16 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 
 Column , 
 20 modules. ^ 
 
 Pedestal , 
 6 mod. 12 parts. 
 
 r CAPITAL. 
 Capital (For DelnUs see 
 Plates 13, 15. & 20) 
 
 SHAFT. 
 
 Cyma Recta 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 Modillion 
 
 Rest of Band behind Modil- 
 
 Fillet . . . . 
 
 
 
 
 Shaft between Conges . . 
 
 16 
 
 
 Astragal 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 E. BASE. 
 
 16 
 
 Dentils 
 
 » String of Dentils 
 
 Rest of Band behind Dentils 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 B FRIEZE. 
 
 Astragrf. 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fillet .. 
 
 Two Astragals 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 C. ARCHITRAVE. 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 Plinth 
 
 
 F. CORNICE. 
 Fillet 
 
 1 
 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 
 
 First Fascia ,,. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Astragal 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 Astragal ...., 
 
 V. Third Fascia 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 DIE. 
 Fillet 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 • T\e height of he string of dentils is taken In that of the dentils. 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 Die 
 
 4 
 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 G. BASE. 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 12 
 
 Cyma Reversa 
 
 Fillet 
 
 _, 
 
 Torus 
 
 
 .Plinth 
 
 
 The fiuMngt o 
 a ftll«t. 
 
 r the snalt of the column of th 
 
 
 dera 
 
 
 epara 
 
 fed h 
 
 y 
 
 Total 
 
 31 
 
 The module employed in this Talile is divided into eighteen oarts
 
 A COMPARATIVE TABLE OF THE GENERAL PROPORTIONS OF THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. 
 
 'ICES OF AMIQUITr. 
 
 TOGETHEll »ITH THOSE ASHKNED TO IT Br THE MOST EMINENT MODERN MASTERS. 
 
 I 
 
 f Capital 
 
 u^ ::: 
 
 I Atliem. \\jujjitrr Olymytu 
 
 till 
 \ 
 
 Height Prujcetion 
 
 Neio, at Rome. 
 
 From face 
 Arcade e. 
 
 II 
 
 \W^\ 
 
 PALLADIO. 
 
 SCAMOZZI. 
 
 c proJccUoD of the a 
 
 or Constantlne. which la 1B| pvl§ in height, and I d 
 
 e moduJFi i>mployed ii 
 
 lodulo and S parte in height, and 3]nii>(!lule« i
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR, ]59 
 
 THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. 
 
 It has already been remarked, that all the orders take 
 their origin from the Doric ; — that the Ionic itself is 
 but a richer and more varied composition of this first 
 order ; and it will not be difficult to prove the same 
 assertion with regard to the Corinthian, which is the 
 subject of this article. 
 
 The circumstance of the basket covered with a 
 flag, which was placed upon the tomb of a young 
 maiden ; and the fortunate chance which occasioned 
 the composition of the capital known by the name of 
 Corinthian, has been treated as a fable by many 
 writers. But in the Corinthian capital two things 
 must be distinguished which are greatly different, and 
 very independent of each other ; namely, its form and 
 decoration. As to its form, it is certain that the 
 Corinthian existed a long time before Callimachus, its 
 supposed inventor ; and it is the opinion of some, that 
 the idea of its form and decoration, has been imitated 
 from the capitals of the Egyptians ; which were sur- 
 rounded with leaves and sacred plants. On the sup- 
 position, however, of the truth of the circumstance 
 above alluded to, it is not improbable that Callima- 
 chus, on seeing the effect of the plant on the sides of 
 the basket, derived from thence the idea of substi- 
 tuting the acanthus for the other plants or leaves 
 which had been employed previous to his time ; and 
 the accidental arrangement of this acanthus might also
 
 160 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR 
 
 have suggested that order and disposition of the 
 leaves, which custom has since established as a law 
 for this capital. Nevertheless, the great variety ob- 
 served in the decoration of the Corinthian capital 
 amongst the ancients, sufficiently proves, that its form 
 or type was always independent of the accessory orna- 
 ments, that religion, allegory, and the taste of the 
 sculptors, caused to be applied in so many di^erent 
 ways. 
 
 Amongst the antique edifices that time has spared 
 at Athens, the two most remarkable are the tower of 
 the Winds, and the small monument commonly called 
 the Choragic momument of Lysicrates. The capitals 
 of the tower of the Winds are very different, in the 
 arranorement which their foliao^e offers, to that agreed 
 upon to distinguish the Corinthian capital. The 
 general form of the capital is well expressed, and is 
 ornamented with one range of olive and another of 
 water-plant leaves. Neither volutes, cauliculi, nor 
 roses, are to be found. The capital of the Choragic 
 monument has volutes, it is true, but not resembling 
 the ordinary composition of the Corinthian capital. 
 The first, or lower range, is, water-plant leaves ; there 
 is no astragal ; and nothing of the acanthus appears 
 in its decoration. 
 
 These two examples are sufficient to prove, how 
 much the decoration of the capital was at this time 
 arbitary, although its form was always the same. 
 
 If the primitive state of the order be examined, does 
 not it appear that the only invention for which Calli- 
 machus is entitled to credit, is, that of having substi- 
 tuted acanthus leaves for those of the olive or others 'i 
 lie certainly did not invent the form of the vase, nor
 
 ARCHITECTUKAL DIRECTOR. 161 
 
 the manner of decorating it with fohage : since, in the 
 remains of different edifices, there are examples pre- 
 served, where this form exists withont foliage ; and 
 otiiers where the foliage is not of the acanthus. It 
 would be contrary to the ordinary progress of inven- 
 tion, to suppose that the most complex forms of deco- 
 ration should precede the simplest, or that the per- 
 fecting of this capital has consisted in diminishing the 
 richness of its decoration. What is related of Calli- 
 machus, in the discovery of this capital, proves, that 
 its form, and the custom of ornamenting it with foliage, 
 already existed at the time that he by chance saw 
 this basket covered with a tile ; under the edges of 
 which were bent the leaves of the acanthus. It is 
 indeed improbable, that in a country where no capital 
 of this kind had ever existed, that the feeble indica- 
 tion just spoken of, could have given rise to the con- 
 ception and composition of the Corinthian capital. Tha 
 human mind does not thus effect its discoveries. On 
 the contrary, it may be presumed that Callimachus 
 was already acquainted with, and habituated to, the 
 form of a vase as a capital ; and as it was the usage 
 to surround it with ornaments of foliage, he, on meet- 
 ing accidentally with the basket surrounded by acan- 
 thus leaves, might indeed be struck with the analogy 
 between it and a capital ornamented with other leaves. 
 From the descriptions and dates of the edifices of this 
 order, sufficient may be deduced to convince us, in 
 what the discovery of Callimachus consisted. 
 
 The different accounts concerning this architect, 
 do not agree as to the period at which he lived ; but 
 there can be little doubt that it was before the ninety- 
 fifth Olympiad ; for at this epoch, Pausanias places 
 
 Y
 
 162 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 the construction of a temple by Scopas ; in which, over 
 the first range of cokimns, a second was placed, of 
 the Corinthian order. It is not, however, in Greece, 
 but at Rome, that we must look for the most beauliful 
 models of the Corinthian order. 
 
 The temple of Jupiter Tonans is the first that shall 
 be described ; it is situated near the capitol, and is 
 said to have been erected in fulfihnent of a vow, made 
 by Augustus on his return from Spain; from the cir- 
 cumstance of the electric fluid having' struck one of 
 his attendants dead by his side. It appears to have 
 been afterwards either rebuilt or repaired, from the 
 word — estituer,\\\nc\i is inscribed upon the remaining 
 frao"ment of the architrave and frieze. 
 
 Of this majestic edifice, there remains but three 
 columns with their entablature of the Corinthian 
 order ; forming in their plan a right angle. Their 
 diameter is 4 feet, 7 inches, and two lines, and their 
 height 47 feet, 1 inch, and 5 lines ; which includes 
 the base and capital. The base, like the generality 
 of those applied to the Corinthian order, is composed 
 of an upper and lower torus, two astragals, and 
 two scotias, together with fillets, employed in the 
 usual manner. The capital, and above all, its upper 
 part, presents the greatest elegance ; but it may 
 perhaps be observed, that the disposition of the leaves 
 with which it is decorated, inclines too much in an 
 outward direction. The volutes at the angles rise a 
 little hiofher than the under side of the abacus. The 
 proportion of the entablature is between one-fourth 
 and three-quarters, to one -fifth part of the height of 
 the columns. The architrave and frieze, at the front, 
 present an even face, surrounded by a moulding ; the
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 163 
 
 extent of which finishes perpendicularly over the 
 centre of the last column, at the angle of the facade, 
 serving as the place for an inscription. The rest of 
 the architrave at the front, as also that at the side, 
 offers three fascias with mouldings ; which latter are 
 richly sculptured ; the ornaments wrought on its soffit, 
 both as regards design and execution, are exquisite. 
 
 Upon the frieze on the side, are sculptured heads 
 of animals, as well as the instruments used in sacri- 
 fices ; the whole is arranged with the greatest taste. 
 
 All the mouldings of which the cornice is composed, 
 are sculptured in ornaments ; they are even applied 
 to the corona and the modillion band. The corona is 
 finished by a small cyma talon and fillet ; without hav- 
 ing the ordinary crowning moulding, the cyma recta ; 
 which makes it more than probable that it was sur- 
 mounted by a pediment. There is no correspondence 
 cither between the ornaments or modillions, with which 
 this cornice is decorated, and the middle of the columns. 
 The intercolumniation at the front is 5 modules, 3 
 and a half parts, from axis to axis ; that at the side 
 is rather less. In fine, the whole of this ordon- 
 nance presents an example of the highest degree of 
 richness that it is possible for architecture to assume. 
 
 The temple known by the name of Jupiter Stator, 
 though it is probably that of Castor and Pollux, is 
 situated in the forum at Campo Vaccino ; which, 
 according to the tradition preserved, was erected by 
 Romulus, and dedicated by him to Jupiter, in com- 
 memoration of his having, on the spot occupied by its 
 site, arrested the incursions made by the Sabines. Of 
 this edifice, there remain but three insulated columns, 
 bearing a fragment of their entablature, which are of
 
 164 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 the Corinthian order. Whatever credit be attached 
 to the tradition, both the design and execution, most 
 indubitably prove that the present remains are of the 
 Augustan age. 
 
 The diameter of these columns is 4 feet, 9 
 inches, and 4 lines ; and their height, including the 
 base and capital, is 48 feet, 3 inches. The base 
 resembles that of the preceding example. The 
 form and proportion of this capital are of the most 
 elegant description, and present in the execution of 
 its foliage, volutes and interlaced helixes ; a decided 
 masterpiece of art, both as regards finish and effect. 
 The height of the entablature is rather more than 
 one-fourth of that of the columns. The architrave 
 is divided into three fascias ; the second of which 
 is decorated with light ornaments, which it is 
 desirable should be plain. The cornice is of large 
 division, and the ornaments, modillions, and dentils, 
 regularly correspond to each other, and to the middle 
 of the columns ; being the only antique example, 
 where this degree of exactness is observed. 
 
 The whole of this ordonnance presents a noble and 
 imposing character. 
 
 The Temple of Mars the Avenger, erected by order 
 of Augustus, in memory of his victory over Brutus 
 and Cassius, the remains of which are situated at the 
 Foro Transitorio, consists of three columns, a pilaster, 
 and a semi-pilaster, forming a portion of its portico ; 
 all that remains of its entablature being the architrave 
 and a fragment of the frieze. This edifice was of the 
 Corinthian order. There still exist some vestiges of 
 the wall of its cella, together with that of the forum 
 of which it formed a part.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 165 
 
 The diameter of the columns is 5 feet 9 inches 
 and 4 lines. The foliage of their capitals is com- 
 posed of olive leaves, that have but little projection, 
 which serves to increase the apparent projection of 
 the abacus ; and the principal contours of this foliage 
 are subdivided into few divisions. The total of this 
 capital presents a largeness of design, added to an 
 elegant simplicity in its composition, which makes it 
 a valuable model of its kind. 
 
 The architrave, the soffit of which, as also the 
 compartments under the portico, are sculptured in 
 beautiful ornaments; it is formed of three fascias, the 
 divisions of which are marked by suitable mouldings ; 
 the inferior part of each fascia is inclined inwards, 
 and the frieze is plain. The intercolumniations are 
 4 modules, 28 and a half parts, from axis to axis. 
 
 The small circular edifice known by the name of 
 the Temple of Vesta, situated near the Tiber, has the 
 wall of its cella round in its plans, as also is that of 
 the peristyle of columns with which it is surrounded. 
 These columns are twenty in number, and of the 
 Corinthian order ; having 3 feet, 11 lines, in diameter, 
 and 21 modules in height; comprising their base and 
 capital. 
 
 Their base is attic, without plinth, placed upon a 
 continued socle, below which it is probable there 
 might have been others, forming a flight of steps 
 around the whole. 
 
 The capitals are decorated with olive leaves, the 
 lower range of which exceeds in height those of the 
 second range. The abacus also, instead of being pro- 
 filed at its angles, in the ordinary manner, presents an 
 acute angle. There exists no remains of the entabia-
 
 166 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 til re. The intercolumniation of these cokimns is 5 
 modules from axis to axis. Tiie height of the wall 
 of the cella is divided by a small cornice, having below 
 it a die and base ; thus forming a kind of stylobate, 
 7 modules in height. The remaining portion of 
 the wall is wrought in rustics ; and its thickness is 
 1 module and 14 parts. 
 
 The diameter of the cella is 18 modules ; and 
 the aperture of the door is 4 modules and 28 parts ; 
 the head or horizontal part of which, instead of 
 following the curve of the wall, is straight ; by which 
 any appearance of false bearing is avoided. 
 
 Although there remains no indication of the cover- 
 ins: of this small construction, the wall of the cella 
 being destroyed considerably below the height of the 
 columns ; yet there can be little doubt, but that it was 
 terminated by an hemispherical arch. The remains 
 of the temple of Antoninus and Faustina, in the Via 
 Sacra, now S. Lorenzo in Miranda, presents a por- 
 tion of the lateral walls of its cella, which are wrought 
 in rustics ; and a facade, formed of a range of six 
 Corinthian columns ; having at the return on each 
 side, two other columns ; giving to the peristyle three 
 intercolumniations in projection, together with a 
 corresponding pilaster at each angle of the wall. 
 The diameter of the columns is exactly 4 feet, 10 
 inches, and 8 lines : and their height, including 
 their capi al and attic base, is 46 feet, II inches, 
 and 8 lines. The intercolumniation of the tw^o 
 columns at the centre of the peristyle, is 5 modules, 
 12§ parts ; the others are 5 modules, 1 part, 
 taken from axis to axis. The entablature, which 
 is rather less in height than one-fourth of that
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 167 
 
 of the columns, has its architrave composed of 
 two fascias : a portion of which, in the centre of the 
 fa9ade, is left undivided, bearing the latter part of the 
 following inscription, the rest being immediately above, 
 upon the frieze : " Divo Antonino, et divee FaustinaB 
 ex S. C." The beauty of the frieze, which is deco- 
 rated in a large style with griffins, candelabra, and 
 foliage, is seen to the greatest advantage at the side 
 of the temple ; as also is the whole of the entablature; 
 being uninterrupted, and offering one continued line. 
 The cornice of this example, unlike the generality of 
 others of the same order, presents under its corona, 
 which is of a large proportion, neither modillions nor 
 dentils ; but a bold quarter round, sculptured in oves; 
 below which are other mouldings. The capital of 
 this example may be classed amongst the best models 
 of its kind. 
 
 At the front of this temple was an inclosed area, 
 the centre of which was embellished with the bronze 
 equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius ; now at the 
 capitol. 
 
 The Forum of Nerva was also of this order. This 
 forum was inclosed or terminated by a wall decorated 
 with an ordonnance of columns, surmounted with 
 statues ; a temple occupying one extremity, and a 
 colossal figure the centre of the area ; there rest only 
 two fluted columns with their entablature and attic, 
 the shafts of which are buried half their height. This 
 fragment formed a portion of the innclosurc just men- 
 tioned. The diameter of these columns is 3 feet, 5 
 inches, and 10 lines, and they project from the face of 
 their corresponding pilasters, situated against the 
 wall, of wliich the capital of one alone remains, 3
 
 168 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 modules, 23J parts, taken to the axis of the columns. 
 The intercolumniation of the two columns, the entab- 
 lature and attic being profiled over each, is 12 modules, 
 27 parts, from axis to axis. 
 
 The architrave is composed of three fascias, the 
 mouldings of each being delicately sculptured, and 
 the frieze is decorated with figures in basso- rilievo, 
 representing Minerva superintending the manufac- 
 ture of different articles. The cornice is very richly 
 ornamented ; and the modillions, oves, and dentils, of 
 which its lower parts are composed, offer no exact 
 correspondence, either to each other, or to the centre 
 of the columns ; the capitals of which produce a most 
 admirable effect, and the modinature of the entab- 
 lature strongly resembles that of the portico of the 
 Pantheon. 
 
 In the centre of the attic is a quadrangular niche, 
 containing a statue of Pallas ; and the cornice of this 
 attic presents dentils in the place of a corona. 
 
 When such beauty is exhibited in the inclosure of 
 these edifices, what must their principal parts have 
 presented ? 
 
 The next example is, the remains of what is 
 generally named the Basilica of Antoninus, the accu- 
 racy of which denomination is however very doubtful ; 
 consisting of eleven Corinthian columns, supporting a 
 portion of their entablature ; and which now form a 
 part of the Custom-house at Rome. 
 
 The diameter of these columns is 4 feet, 9 inches, 
 and 6 lines, and their height, including their attic, 
 base, and capital, is 48 feet, 8 inches, and 7 lines. 
 The lower extremity of the shafts of the columns is 
 terminated by an astragal, which is situated imme-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 16^ 
 
 diately upon the upper torus of the base ; and the 
 capital is distinguished by the smallness of its volutes, 
 which project considerably beyond the lower part of 
 the abacus ; as also by the inclined position of the 
 leaves that decorate its sides. 
 
 The architrave at the exterior is composed of two 
 fascias ; in the interior it has three ; the superior part 
 of each of which, projects beyond the lower ; perhaps 
 with the intention of preserving their real dimensions 
 to the eye of the spectator ; as they could only be 
 seen under a very acute angle. 
 
 The frieze, with the exception of a small portion at 
 its upper and lower extremities, is curved ; it was 
 doubtless left in that state, to receive the labours of 
 the sculptor ; hence, the ignorant and unmeaning 
 adoption of a curved frieze in modern architecture. 
 
 A few of the inferior mouldings of the cornice still 
 remain ; the rest have been destroyed. 
 
 These columns are situated upon two socles ; the 
 upper part of the superior one, which is two-thirds of 
 a module in height, is equal with the pavement of 
 tne edifice. The intercolumniation is 5 modules, 10^ 
 parts. 
 
 Many other examples might be enumerated of this 
 order, presented in the antique remains of Rome ; for 
 the general proportions of which the reader is referred 
 to the Comparative Table of the Corinthian order. 
 
 '"The Corinthian capital," says Perrault, "differs 
 in every respect from those of the two other orders ; 
 for it has neither al)acus nor echinus ; which are the 
 essential parts, and are common both to the Doric and 
 ionic. It has indeed an abacus, but it is totally dif- 
 lererit from two others, its four faces forming segments 
 
 z
 
 170 ARCIUTECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 of a circle, having a rose in the centre of each, and 
 each face incliiiing inwards from its upper to its lower 
 edge. In the place of echinus and fillets it has but 
 the edge of a vase; the body of which occupies the 
 part of the coUarin, and is of a considerable height ; 
 beino; decorated with a double rano;e of ei^ht leaves, 
 the upper extremities of which are bent outwardly. 
 Between these leaves issue stalks, from whence spring 
 the volutes, which have no resemblance, either in form 
 or number, to those of the Ionic capital ; being in the 
 Ionic, four, and in the Corinthian, sixteen. 
 
 One diameter and a sixth is given for the height of 
 the capital. This height is divided into seven parts, 
 four of which are given for the height of the leaves, 
 namely, two parts to the first range, and the same to 
 the second. The height of each leaf is divided into 
 three, the highest of which is given for the descent of 
 its curve. The three parts which remain of the seven 
 are for the stalks, volutes, and abacus. These parts 
 are again subdivided into seven others ; the uppermost 
 two of which are given to the abacus, the three next 
 to the volute, and the two last to the stalks or cauliculi ; 
 one of which is given for the descent of the curve of 
 its leaves. Under the angles of the abacus, where the 
 volutes join, there is a small acanthus leaf, between 
 the volutes and the abacus ; which inclines towards 
 the angles of the latter, so as to fill the vacancy that 
 there would otherwise be between the volute which 
 descends, and the underside of the abacus, which 
 remains horizontal. 
 
 The proportions of this capital, as found in the 
 remains of antiquity, differ from many of \}wse pre- 
 sented in the works of different arcUiiecis. in in^
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 171 
 
 former, the height of the capital is sometimes lower by 
 a seventh part ; being but the diameter of the column 
 as is seen at the temple of the Sibilla, at Tivoli, which 
 accords with that given by Vitruvius. Sometimes it 
 is higher, as in the temple of Vesta, at Rome, and at 
 the frontispiece of Nero, where it is nearly two-sixths 
 more than the diameter of the column, whilst at other 
 times they are found of the height which is here given ; 
 as at the portico of Septimus, and at the temple of 
 Jupiter Tonans. At others it is somewhat less, as at 
 the Pantheon, the three columns of Campo Vaccino, at 
 the temples of Faustina and of Mars the Avenger, at 
 the portico of Septimus, and at the arch of Constan- 
 tino. There are other examples where it is higher, as 
 at the Thermae of Dioclesian. The moderns also differ 
 in their opinions on this point ; for some have made it 
 the height which is here given, as Vignola, Palladio, 
 Scamozzi, Viola, and De Lorm ; whilst others, such 
 as Bullant, Alberti, Cataneo, Barbaro, and Serlio, 
 have made them low, after the manner of Vitruvius. 
 
 The abacus, in Vitruvius, as also in the three 
 columns of Campo Vaccino, and at the temple of 
 Faustina, is the seventh part of the height of the 
 capital. It is sometimes less, having but an eighth 
 part, as at the Pantheon, at the Basilica of Antonius, 
 and at the Market of Nerva. In others, it has from 
 a fifth to a sixth, as at the temple of Vesta, at Rome, 
 and that of the Sibilla, at Tivoli. 
 
 The leaves of this capital have suffered no less 
 variation. Vitruvius divides or outlines them after 
 the manner of the acanthus ; those of the temple of 
 the Sibilla, at Tivoli, are of this kind. The gicater 
 part of the antique edifices present the olive leaf
 
 172 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 divided into five. In some, they are divided into four, 
 as at the temple of Mars the Avenger ; others into 
 tliree, as is seen at the temple of Vesta, at Rome. 
 These leaves, amongst the antique examples, are 
 sometimes unequal in their heights, the lower range 
 being the highest ; in others, the second range is the 
 highest, and others present them perfectly equal. The 
 part which occupies the centre of the leaves is very 
 often cut or w orked, as is observed at the Pantheon 
 and other places. At other times it is left plain, as at 
 the temples of Vesta, of the Sibilla, &c. The first 
 range of leaves have ordinarily a slight projection near 
 the inferior extremity. This form is very remarkable 
 at the temple of Vesta. 
 
 The base which is often applied to the Corinthian 
 column, and which is considered by some authors as 
 most suited to this order, is that named the attic. This 
 base is composed of an upper and lower torus, having 
 between them a scotia, which is separated from each 
 torus by a fillet. The base commonly assigned to this 
 order differs from the attic in having a second scotia, 
 two additional fillets, and two astragals. 
 
 The entablature is commonly divided into ten parts, 
 three of which are given to the architrave, three to 
 the frieze, and the remaining four to the cornice. These 
 proportions are variable, and the antique edifices 
 present much diversity in this respect. The frieze is 
 higher than the architrave at the temple of Jupiter 
 Tonans, as also at that of the Sibilla, w hilst, on the 
 contrary, it is less at the portico of the Pantheon, the 
 temple of Peace, and at the Basilica of Antoninus ; 
 but the frieze is equal to the architrave in the interior 
 of the Pantheon.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 178 
 
 The architrave is divided into three fascias ; never- 
 theless there are examples where there are only two. 
 
 The frieze of the Corinthian order has this pecu- 
 liarity, that whilst it is susceptible of the greatest 
 ricliness, it may also with great propriety be executed 
 plain. The shaft of its column is often ornamented 
 with flutings, although it is not uncommon to find it 
 without ; its base either receives ornaments, or offers 
 its profiles plain. Its cornice and frieze are ordinarily 
 the parts where the luxury of decoration has the best 
 effect ; nevertheless, there are many examples of the 
 gi'eatest simplicity in their embellishment, without 
 either incoherence or disparity resulting from it. 
 
 The character of richness attached to the Corinthian 
 order belongs to its proportions, its forms, and to their 
 numerous and varied disposition, as much as to sculp- 
 ture, which is employed only in embellishing its details. 
 As this order presents considerable power in the extent 
 of its details, by which expression is given in archi- 
 tecture ; it may be observed that it is susceptible of a 
 very great variety of modified expression, according 
 to the taste which presides in its composition, and the 
 employment of its means. 
 
 There exists a greater power of characterizing the 
 intermediate shades of expression, from the simplest 
 Doric to the richest Corinthian, than is generally 
 imagined. The Doric, when it is necessary, is suscep- 
 tible of considerable richness and elegance, of which 
 we have many examples in Italy and in Greece, whilst 
 considerable gravity of expression may be given to 
 the Corinthian, as at the portico of the Pantheon ; or a 
 noble and imposing character, by the projection of its 
 profiles, as in the fragment of the frontispiece of Nero,
 
 174 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 METHOD OF TRACING THE CORINTHIAN MODILLION. 
 PLATES XII. AND XIV. 
 
 Outline the part upon which the modillion rests, 
 as also the rose which ornaments the soffit, or under 
 side of the corona. Take six parts for the height of 
 the modillion, and sixteen for its projection. Form a 
 small scale, three parts and a half in height, as in 
 plate 12, and divide it into sixteen parts. The figure 
 in plate 12 shows the dimensions to be given to the 
 small squares, the angles of which serve as centres 
 from which to describe the curved parts of the modil- 
 lion. Draw the line AB, and divide it into four equal 
 parts by perpendicular lines, which, at the intersection 
 of the verticals coming from AB, will give the points 
 from whence to draw the segments of the circle which 
 completes the form of the modillion. 
 
 The acanthus leaf which supports the modillion, 
 and the profile of the rose which ornaments the soffit, 
 may also be drawn with the compasses. 
 
 method of drawing the CORINTHIAN CAPITAL. 
 PLATE XV. 
 
 The half of the plan is given as seen in face, and 
 the other half upon the angle. After having drawn 
 the axis of the plan to correspond with the axis of the 
 elevation of the capital, describe a circle of a radius
 
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 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. ] T'5 
 
 of two modules, and divide its circumference into six- 
 teen equal parts. The points of division will correspond 
 to the middle of each leaf, namely, eight for the centres 
 of the lower range of leaves, the intermediate points 
 forming the eight centres for the upper range. The 
 vase of the capital is determined by a circle of a radius 
 of fourteen parts and a half: the figure shows the 
 circles which determine the leaves risino- as-ainst the 
 sides of the vase. The elevation shows the heights 
 to which the projections of the plan are carried. 
 Above the leaves are sixteen volutes, of which eight 
 of the largest support the four angles of the abacus, 
 and the eight smaller ones the inferior edge of the 
 vase ; as also the four flowers which ornament the 
 middle of the abacus. 
 
 The volutes, seen in profile, may be drawn with 
 the compasses ; but they are always more agreeable 
 to the eye when the hand afterwards completes the 
 contours. 
 
 The different parts of the capital are marked as 
 follows : — 
 
 A. Plan of the leaves and of the abacus. 
 
 B. Plan of the large and small volutes 
 
 C. Vase or body of the capitaf . 
 
 D. First range of leaves-. 
 
 E. Second range of leaves. 
 
 F. Cauliculi. 
 
 G. Large volute. 
 H. Small volute. 
 I. Flower. 
 
 K. Abacus. 
 
 L. Boraer ol the vase.
 
 176 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 CORINTHIAN PILASTER. 
 
 The capital of the Corinthian pilaster, like that of 
 the Corinthian column, is decorated with two ranges 
 of leaves, each range being in numerical proportion to 
 those of the column, having two to each face, which 
 gives eight for the whole. I'here are, however, at 
 the Thermae of Dioclesian, and the frontispiece of 
 Nero, examples of twelve leaves instead of eight. 
 
 The ordinary disposition of leaves in the Corinthian 
 pilaster is such that two are placed in the lower range, 
 one in the upper in the centre, and two halves at the 
 sides, which are half of the large leaves placed at the 
 angle. It may be further remarked, that the top of 
 the vase has not its surface straigrht as at the lower 
 part, but curved. It is thus at the basilica of Antoninus, 
 having the eighth part of the inferior diameter of the 
 column: but at the portico of Septimus Severus, it 
 has only one-tenth, and at the portico of the Pantheon, 
 one-twelfth. 
 
 The present design (plate 16) of the Corinthian 
 pilaster is a production after the example of those of 
 the Pantheon at Rome, submitted to the proportions 
 given by Vignola to this order. The abacus has the 
 same diagonal projection, and a line from this point to 
 the extremity of the astragal determines that of the 
 leaves and volutes at the angles. The border of the 
 vase diminishes on the sides, so as to relieve the lar^e 
 volutes. The projection of the volutes at the angle 
 gives also that of the leaf under the same line. The 
 flutings are seven in number, one of wnich corresponds 
 to the middle of the small leaves, so that the remaining
 
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 A COMPARATIVE TABLE OF THE GENERAL PROPORTIONS OF THE COMPOSITE ORDEK, 
 
 FROM THE MOST CELEBRATED EDIFICES OF ANTIQUITY, 
 
 TOGETHER WITH THOSE ASSIGNED TO IT BY THE MOST EMINENT MODERN MASTERS. 
 
 
 
 Arch of Titus 
 at Rime. 
 
 
 Arch of 
 Septimus S'erc 
 at Rome. 
 
 ..s 
 
 
 
 ThernuB of 
 
 Dioclesian,at 
 
 Rom^. 
 
 
 PALLADIO 
 
 
 SCAMOZZI. 
 
 
 
 VIGNOLA. 
 
 
 Height 
 of the 
 Mem- 
 bers. 
 
 Projection 
 from the 
 
 axis of the' 
 Columns- 
 
 Height 
 of the 
 Mem- 
 bers. 
 
 Projection 
 from the [ 
 
 axis of the 
 Columns.] 
 
 Height 
 of the 
 Mem 
 bers. 
 
 Projection 
 from the 
 
 axis of the 
 Columns, 
 
 Height 
 of the 
 Mem- 
 bers. 
 
 Projection 
 from the 
 axis of the 
 Columns. 
 
 Height 
 of the 
 Mem- 
 bers. 
 
 Projection 
 from the 
 
 axis of the 
 Columns. 
 
 Height 
 of the 
 Mem- 
 bers. 
 
 Projection 
 from the 
 
 axis of the 
 Columns. 
 
 S 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 5 
 2 
 16 
 
 : 
 
 14 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 i 
 
 1 
 •a 
 
 S 
 .... 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 28 
 10 
 
 19 
 26 
 
 ii 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 _l 
 
 'i 
 
 S 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 16 
 1 
 
 23 
 
 s 
 
 B 
 25 
 15 
 
 !! 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 10 
 29 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 21 
 26 
 6 
 
 16 
 26 
 
 12 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 J 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 4 
 2 
 16 
 1 
 
 19 
 24 
 
 2lL. 
 14'.. 
 
 i9;_4 
 ii'.. 
 
 17 i 
 > i 
 29, i 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ~^ 
 1 
 
 {r 
 
 1 
 
 18'. .1 
 27'.. 1 
 
 a' 4 
 
 16 .. 
 
 26..; 
 ", i 
 
 -1- 
 _Ei 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 4 
 2 
 16 
 1 
 20 
 24 
 
 20 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 1 
 
 IS 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 3 
 2 
 16 
 1 
 19 
 23 
 
 1 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 10 
 5 
 
 .. 
 
 15 
 12 
 25 
 
 1 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 "a 
 t 
 
 s 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 z 
 
 f 
 
 13 
 26 
 3 
 
 £ 
 
 2 .. 
 l'l5 
 115 
 
 2 10 
 16 20 
 
 'I- 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 S 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 z 
 
 1 
 
 (i- 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 25 
 25 
 6 
 
 16 
 25 
 
 ii 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 z 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 Jl 
 15 .. 
 26'.. 
 ..i.. 
 12 .. 
 
 ~i" 
 -1- 
 
 ■1- 
 
 
 22 .. 
 29 J 
 
 6] - 
 
 wr. 
 
 ^ Base 
 
 
 20 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 
 - 
 
 S 
 
 i 
 
 25, - 
 - 26 
 
 ~23 
 5' 6 
 
 ..'20 
 620 
 
 i 
 i 
 5 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 : 
 
 25 
 11 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ! ■ 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 22j i 
 
 
 28 
 21 
 25 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 12 
 15 
 13 
 
 - 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 10 
 15 
 12 
 
 i 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 20 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 27' 
 12 .. 
 
 27[.. 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 24 
 15 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 28 
 11 
 
 25 
 
 - 
 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 1 121 
 
 H|4 
 
 
 
 
 - -1 
 
 ' 
 
 20 
 
 - 
 
 • 
 
 -i- 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 - 
 
 
 Height 
 
 ofMem- 
 
 bers. 
 
 Krom face 
 
 of 
 Arcades. 
 
 Height 
 of Mem- 
 bers. 
 
 From face 
 
 of 
 Arcades. 
 
 Height 
 
 ofMera- 
 
 bers. 
 
 From face 
 1 of 
 1 Arcades. 
 
 Height 
 ofMem- 
 bers- 
 
 From face 
 
 1 "' 
 1 Arcades. 
 
 Height 
 ofMem- 
 bers. 
 
 From face 
 
 of 
 Arcades. 
 
 Height 
 
 ofMem- 
 
 bers. 
 
 From face 
 
 of 
 Arcades. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 22 
 8 
 
 » 
 
 
 2 
 10 
 
 2 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 .... 20 
 
 1 2 
 
 .... 7 
 
 .... 10 
 
 i 
 "i 
 
 } 
 } 
 
 ..!.. 
 
 .... 
 
 
 ;; 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 
 15 
 6 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 28 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 .... 
 
 13 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 ■• 
 
 
 10 
 8 
 
 
 
 Key of Arcades without Pedestals 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 |(2 1 5 
 
 
 1}.... 
 
 
 
 
 '••■■ 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 1 utercolumniatioDs from axis to axis 
 
 J| , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kelgnt. 
 
 Widlh. 
 
 Height. 
 
 ] Width. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Widlh, 
 
 Height. 
 
 Width. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Width. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Width. 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 20 
 18 
 25 
 23 
 
 15 
 20 
 16 
 
 
 12 
 8 
 14 
 
 10 > 
 
 12 ! 
 
 24 .. 
 28 .. 
 28 .. 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 6 
 12 
 
 9 
 16 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 Columns of Arcades without Pedestals, from axis to axis 
 
 Apertures of Arcades witlvout Pedestals 
 
 
 
 
 l"" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ...::;:: 
 
 
 
 
 Columns of Arcadeswilh Pedestals, from axis to axis 
 
 Apertures of Ai cades with Pedestals 
 
 29 
 26 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 / 8 
 \21 
 
 1 16 
 
 24 
 18 
 24 
 
 'i 
 
 }29 
 
 2 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 (12 
 
 \21 
 6 
 
 21 i 
 10.. 
 23 .. 
 
 1 
 } 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 
 14 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 li 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 ■■ir-TT' 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 __ 
 
 
 __ 
 
 „ 
 
 irus is a second plinth, or socle, which in the former is 25 parts in neight. ami 
 odule and 14} parts in projection. The arch of Septimus Severus has als( 
 
 Between the bases of the columns and cornices of the pedestals of the Arches of Titus and Sepli 
 
 1 module and 15J parts in projection from the axis of the column ; and in the latter 20 parts in height ^ . -- 
 
 unoer the bases of its pedestals 1 module and 11 parts in height, and 2 modules and 12i parts in projection, which dimensions are not included In the separate proporlions of the ccl 
 psdestal, but in the height given of the columns of arcades with pedestals. There is lilrewise a s.icle un-ier the bases of the columns withou pedeilols nf the arcades of Scamoai ', m-ille 
 • taken from the axis of the column, which dimension will be found include<: 'n its proper place 
 W The modu> employed in this table is divided into lliirlv r«rt» 
 
 height, and 1 module and 14 parts in projecti(
 
 COMPOSITE ORDER, 
 
 WITH THE NAMES AND DETAILED PROPORTIONS OF THE MEMBERS AND MOULDINGS OP WHICH THE ORDER 
 
 18 COMPOSED. 
 PtiTEs 17. 18. 19. 20. and 21. 
 
 
 
 Heights. 
 
 Projections 
 from axis of 
 Columns. 
 
 COLUMN AND PEDESTAL. 
 
 Heights. 
 
 Projections 
 ftomaxisof 
 Columns. 
 
 ENTABLATURE. 
 
 1 
 S 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 II 
 
 1 
 5 
 1 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 4 
 
 "i' 
 
 7 
 1 
 5 
 
 z 
 
 i 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 1 
 10 
 2 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 i 
 
 'i 
 
 "i 
 'i 
 
 'i 
 'i 
 
 1 
 S 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 I 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 .... 
 
 1 
 1- 
 
 1 
 
 ■si 
 
 15 
 15 
 10 
 9 
 7 
 7 
 5 
 15 
 M 
 11 
 8 
 11 
 5 
 4 
 
 17 
 16 
 15 
 15 
 4 
 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 'i 
 i 
 
 'i 
 
 i 
 
 'i 
 'i 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 'i 
 
 'i 
 i 
 
 i 
 i 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 'i 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 ■{■}• 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 I 
 1 
 1 
 
 I 
 ] 
 1 
 1 
 I 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 £s £ 
 
 9 .. 
 
 17' '.'. 
 15 .. 
 
 15 .. 
 
 "'2' '.'. 
 2 .. 
 
 4 .. 
 
 2 i 
 
 2 .. 
 
 3 i 
 3 1 
 3 i 
 2 i 
 
 5 .. 
 7 .. 
 
 7 .. 
 
 15 .. 
 
 14 i 
 13 4 
 10 i 
 
 8 i 
 7 i 
 
 7 .. 
 9 
 
 8 * 
 7 .. 
 7 .. 
 
 9 .. 
 9 .. 
 
 9 i 
 
 12 i 
 
 13 i 
 
 15 .. 
 15 .. 
 
 Entablatitre 
 5 modules. 
 
 C A. CORNICE. 
 Fillet 
 
 Column 
 20 modules. 
 
 Pedestal , 
 6 mod. 12 parts. 
 
 C CAPITAL. 
 Capital (for Delaili tee 
 P(alMl7,19.i20).... 
 
 SHAFT. 
 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 Astragal 
 
 Corona 
 
 Cyma Recta under Corona . 
 Fillet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shaft between Conges . . . 
 
 16 
 
 
 • String of Dentils 
 
 Dentils 
 
 RestofBand behind Dentils 
 Quarter Round 
 
 B FRIEZE. 
 
 Astragal 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 E. BASE. 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Conge 
 
 Frieze 
 
 Conge . . 
 
 C. ARCHITRAVE. 
 Fillet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 
 
 P. CORNICE. 
 
 1 
 
 Cavetto 
 
 Aat/sgai 
 
 First Fascia 
 
 Cyraa Talon 
 
 Cyma Talon 
 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 ^ Second Fascia ,,,.. 
 
 Cyma Recta 
 
 
 [ 
 
 • The height of the string of dentils is taken 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 16 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 3 
 1 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 Frieze 
 
 Astragal 
 
 DIE 
 Fillet 
 
 
 
 n that of the dentils. 
 
 
 
 Die^ 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 G. BASE. 
 
 5 
 
 Cyma Reversa 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • The module employed in this T»bl« i. Mv ded Into eighteen parU
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 17? 
 
 space at the angle of the pilaster would become too 
 large, if not ornamented with an astragal which ex- 
 tends the whole height of the shaft of the pilaster, 
 [f it is found necessary to the regularity of the soffit 
 to diminish the superior diameter of the pilaster A, 
 according to that of the column behind which it is 
 intended to be placed, the disposition of the leaves 
 will then change their place to B, and become 
 narrower. All the projections in the proportions given 
 by the line drawn from the extremity of the diagonal 
 of the abacus C to the astragal D, equally retire ; but 
 the height of the whole still remains the same. It 
 may sometimes happen, in decorating a facade with 
 pilasters, that according to this first design, the abacus 
 may not have sufficient projection ; in such cases it 
 may receive the same apparent projection as that of 
 the abacus of columns, from the face of the architrave 
 E, to the extremity of the diagonal F, giving the same 
 projections to all the leaves and volutes on the line 
 GH, so as to give it greater development, since on 
 these occasions there is no necessary restraint on ac- 
 count of its being employed independent of columns. 
 
 THE COMPOSITE ORDER. 
 
 The order named Composite owes its origin entirely 
 to the moderns. More than one cause has operated 
 in giving rise to the unnecessary distinction of this 
 supposed order ; and among the most prominent may 
 be enumerated an erroneous mode of reasoning, re- 
 sulting from a want of adequate knowledge of the true 
 principles on which invention in architecture is founded 
 
 2 A
 
 178 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 together with a hasty assumption of the existence of 
 this order from equivocal examples ; an ignorance of 
 the character of numerous antique edifices, in which 
 the greatest variety of decoration may be found in the 
 same order; and a consequent erroneous judgment. 
 
 The orders are to architecture what tones are to 
 music, or the proportions of the human form to painting 
 and sculpture ; and it would be equally as ridiculous 
 to seek new modes of architecture, as to assume new 
 proportions in the structure of man. This false idea 
 of invention, which has so gratuitously employed the 
 genius of certain architects, has indeed been the real 
 origin of the pretended Composite order. 
 
 The principal mistake of those who believed in the 
 invention of new orders, rested upon an illusion very 
 easily dissipated. They imagined, in their inventive 
 mania, that to compose a capital in the taste of a new 
 adjustment, was sufficient to produce a new order ; 
 they believed that to change the profiles of a base, in 
 substituting one moulding in the place of another, or of 
 adapting to the capital of a column some few allegorical 
 emblems, was sufficient to entitle them to the honour 
 of having formed a new order. The three orders of 
 architecture possess the entire means whereby this art 
 renders sensible the various o:rades of character or 
 expression ; and though that expression or character 
 may be considerably varied, and something novel pro- 
 duced, yet it will be found upon close examination, to 
 result only from a combination of the means contained 
 in the three primitive orders, and not from invention. 
 
 Thus, the pretended Tuscan order, which the 
 moderns have believed to be a superlative of the 
 Doric, exhibits in reality but a diminution of the cha-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. ]79 
 
 racter of strength of this order ; whilst the supposed 
 Composite has been placed from its conformation 
 between the Ionic and Corinthian, without possessing 
 either the elegance of the one, or the richness of the 
 other. 
 
 It is not intended to deduce from the above, that 
 architecture is confined to three distinct ratios of pro- 
 portion in the three orders, or that it cannot nor ought 
 to modulate them, when necessary to express the 
 various shades requisite to characterize the different 
 edifices. On the contrary, it is in the happy combi- 
 nation of different proportions, &c., that the talent of 
 the architect displays itself; the proportions of each 
 order being so susceptible of variety, that the art draws 
 from thence its most numerous resources for the ex- 
 pression of difference in character. And since it 
 cannot be denied that the proportions are the true 
 characteristics of each order, it must be left to taste 
 sometimes to vary the accessories, which are still more 
 distinctive in appearance than the substance of the 
 order itself 
 
 The decoration of the capitals of columns may be 
 placed amongst the number of these accessory parts ; 
 for it is neither by the echinus, the volutes, nor the 
 foliage alone, that the intelligent mind will determine 
 the essentially distinguishing character of the orders. 
 
 In speaking of the Corinthian order, it was shown 
 that the decoration of the capital of this name, is 
 entirely independent of its form ; and it shall now be 
 proved that the ancients, without changing its essential 
 form, have diversified its decoration ad injinitum. 
 
 If the opinion be erroneous that decoration consti- 
 tutes the capital, and that any new ornament applied
 
 l8U ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 to lU form may produce a new species of capital, it is 
 still more erroneous to make the existence of a new 
 order depend, not in a new composition of proportions, 
 nor in a particular distribution of the modinature and 
 forms, neither in a characteristic formation of a capital, 
 but solely in a new combination of ornaments, or of the 
 parts of capitals. 
 
 Now the pretended Composite order has the same 
 proportions, the same modinature, the same principles, 
 and the same form of capital as the Corinthian order ; 
 it differs only in the combination of the ornaments of 
 two capitals, and therefore does not contain that which 
 is requisite to constitute a new order. 
 
 It is not amongst the Romans, with whom this new 
 order is pretended to have had its origin, that we must 
 seek for examples and authorities to justify the suppo- 
 sition ; for it may be shown, in the most satisfactory 
 manner, by a deep and accurate investigation of the 
 varied symbolical compositions employed by the Ro- 
 mans in the decoration of capitals, to mark more 
 strongly the character of particular monuments, that 
 they who are represented as its inventors did not so 
 much as suspect its existence. If the architecture of 
 the Arch of Titus be examined, there will not be found 
 either in the profiles of the entablature, or in those of 
 the base of the column, in the proportion, or in the 
 decoration of the ordonnance, greater variety than is 
 frequently found between one antique edifice of the 
 Corinthian order and another. There is in every 
 respect a greater difference between the Corinthian 
 of the frontispiece of Nero and that of the Pantheon, 
 or of the Thermae of Dioclesian, than between the 
 pretended Composite of the Arch of Titus and the
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 181 
 
 frontispiece of Nero above-mentioned ; that difference 
 being only in a part of the decoration of the capital. 
 But if the difference of the capital constitutes an order, 
 it follows that there must be as many different orders 
 as there can be found capitals ; consequently several 
 hundreds may be enumerated. 
 
 The ancients, considered the capitals of columns 
 rather under a significant relation, (of which allegory 
 might avail itself to characterize the particular uses of 
 edifices,) than as the characteristic types of archi- 
 tecture. The Corinthian capital, by the extent of its 
 developments, variety of its aspects, facility of modi- 
 fying its decoration to the purposes of allegory, and 
 the richness of its sculpture, was that which best 
 answered their taste for symbols and the magnificence 
 of attributes. 
 
 To prove what has been asserted, reference may be 
 made to the collection of antique fragments by Piranesi, 
 to shew the fertile invention of the ancients in the 
 composition of capitals, and the decoration of the Co- 
 rinthian order. These examples are taken from hun- 
 dreds of the same kind, which have escaped the 
 general destruction of Roman magnificence, and which 
 will serve to show that the existence of a pretended 
 Composite order, is in reality but a precedent trans- 
 mitted to us by the renovators of architecture, the 
 existence of which as a distinct order is instantly de- 
 stroyed by the indicated comparison. 
 
 The only just inference that can be deduced from 
 these facts and authorities is, that the pretended 
 Composed or Composite capital, is but one of the 
 thousand and more capitals invented amongst the 
 Romans ; and which has no more claim to a distinct
 
 182 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 place amongst the orders than those which have just 
 been referred to. 
 
 There are three things very distinct in the Doric, 
 Ionic, and Corinthian orders; their form, ornament, 
 and proportion. These three distinguish themselves 
 from the other two, the supposed Tuscan and Com- 
 posite, in all these points : therefore it must be a great 
 mistake to pretend to invent a new order by changing 
 one of these characteristics only. For if the form be 
 changed without changing the ornaments, or the orna- 
 ments without the form, or both without changing the 
 proportion, the production would be nothing new. In 
 architecture, as in other arts, the ancients acknow- 
 ledged only three points of comparison ; the greatest, 
 the least, and the medium between the two. All the 
 edifices of which we have any knowledge, or that it 
 is possible to invent, always express in their appearance 
 more or less solidity, gravity, simplicity or elegance, 
 lightness, grace or magnificence. As between the 
 greatest and the least there can be but one mean 
 term that unites in a certain degree these opposite 
 qualities, the ancients have done nothing more than 
 fix these three terms. In the Doric, by the characters 
 which convey the idea of solid supports, grave orna- 
 ments, and strong or short proportions. In the Corin- 
 thian, by the most delicate forms, by rich decoration, 
 and by light and graceful proportion. In the medium, 
 or Ionic order, by the medium employment of forms, 
 ornaments, and proportions equally distant from the 
 strength and simplicity of the one, and the lightness 
 and richness of the other.
 
 f 
 
 r^iM 
 
 Ql 
 
 m
 
 ill __«J, 
 
 v^
 
 jDETAIILS OJF THE COMPOSITE 0]RIi)M., 
 
 3«j^*», JTt^cff 2hrv Ta^-sa^e T^Xforyi.osvtr- 2c-c-^. .
 
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 3;fe^7 j 
 
 n-.^3?2ij^i? 7*yr JSiiZ-vn^aTyn' 's Ar^fiZecl^tcraZ 2Hreitt^ 2y z.'eh:i jBejvtct^, l^t
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 183 
 
 METHOD OF DRAWING THE COMPOSITE CAPITAL. 
 PLATES XIX. AND XX. 
 
 The Composite capital consists in the union of a 
 part of the Ionic and Corinthian capitals. It has only 
 eight volutes, which repose upon the second range of 
 leaves, and in ascending, enter into part of the abacus. 
 Its total mass is the same as that of the Corinthian. 
 The two ranges of leaves are the same, and conse- 
 quently the body of the vase has the same proportion. 
 
 The abacus, which crowns the capital, has also the 
 same form in its plan. 
 
 The volute of this capital, vertically developed, and 
 seen in face, is drawn in the same manner as the 
 Ionic volute ; but as regards its position in a design, 
 it can only be well described by the hand. 
 
 It may be seen by the plan, that these volntes are 
 inclined, and partake of the curvature of the abacus. 
 
 The plan of the Composite capital should be dis- 
 posed in the same manner as that of the Corinthian, 
 at the same time paying great attention to pursue the 
 same method for the elevation of the corresponding 
 points. The parts of the capital, as shown in plate 
 19, are as follows : 
 
 A. Plan seen in face. 
 
 B. Plan seen upon the angle. 
 
 C. Vase or body of the capital. 
 
 D. First rano;e of leaves. 
 
 E. Second range of leave*. 
 
 F. Volutes. 
 
 G. Flower. 
 H. Abacus.
 
 184 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 TO OBTAIN A PROPORTIONAL GRADATION OF THE 
 ORDERS. 
 
 PLATE XXII. 
 
 To compare the orders of architecture with each 
 other, take a line of any convenient dimension for the 
 heio'ht of the Tuscan order, and divide it into nineteen 
 equal parts, four of which will give the extreme height 
 of the pedestal, twelve that of the column, and three 
 that of the entablature. 
 
 The module adopted for the Tuscan order being 
 the fourteenth part of the total height of the column, 
 it follows that the nineteen divisions of the entire ot 
 the order should be thus subdivided. The four divi- 
 sions of the pedestal will be four modules and eight 
 parts ; the twelve divisions of the columns fourteen 
 modules ; lastly, the three divisions of the entablature, 
 three modules and six parts. 
 
 To determine the relative height of the Corinthian 
 order, take a line of ten modules in length from' the 
 Tuscan scale, and divide it into twelve equal parts^ 
 which will give a scale of modules for the Corinthian. 
 From this scale erect a perpendicular line of thirty-one 
 modules and twelve parts, at any convenient distance 
 from the axis of the Tuscan column, and divide it into 
 nineteen equal parts. The four divisions for the 
 pedestal will then be equal to six modules and twelve 
 parts, the three divisions for the entablature equal to 
 five modules, and lastly, the twelve divisions for the 
 column equal to twenty modules of the scale of the 
 Corinthian.
 
 i:i]ET'ATIO:S' 0:F THE COMPOSITE CAPITAI., 
 
 I I I 1 , 1 I I I I II I 1 1 1 II H — '■ 1 ^ . , 
 
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 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 185 
 
 Having proceeded thus far, raise at equal distances 
 between them two other vertical lines, to form the 
 axis of the Doric and Ionic orders. Draw a line from 
 the top of the axis of the Corinthian order to the top 
 of that of the Tuscan, and the points of intersection 
 between this line and the two axes of the Doric and 
 Ionic will give the corresponding heights of the parts 
 of these intermediate orders, as is shown in plate 22. 
 
 The Composite order being of the same dimensions 
 as the Corinthian, it was considered better to substitute 
 upon the same plate, the proportions of the Corinthian 
 of Palladio, as presented in some of the edifices erected 
 in Italy. 
 
 DIMINUTION AND ENTASIS OF THE SHAFTS OF COLUMNS. 
 PLATE XXIII. 
 
 The ancients have diminished and imperceptibly 
 curved the outline of the shafts of their columns; 
 commencing; either from a third of the heiorht of the 
 shaft, taken from the top part of the superior torus of 
 the base, or otherwise from its lower diameter, and 
 likewise from the astragal, if there be one, to the under 
 part of the astragal upon which the capital is placed. 
 The fillet over the base always forms a part of the 
 shaft, as also does the astragal at the upper extremity ; 
 the projection of which from the centre of the column 
 always corresponds to half the lower diameter of the 
 shaft, which is of one module. The outline of those 
 which diminish from the bottom to the top is not pre- 
 cisely straight, but is slightly curved, as may be seen 
 
 2b
 
 186 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 by the first figure. The second example is most 
 practised, and may be employed when the diminution 
 is intended to commence from one-third of the heijiht. 
 This last means may serve for any height, by multi- 
 plying the divisions from the inferior to the superior 
 diameter. 
 
 A TABLE OF THE DIMINUTION OF COLUMNS, TAKEN FROM THE BEST 
 ANTIQUE EXAMPLES. 
 
 SHAFTS OF COLUMNS 
 
 /■Temple of Theseus, at Athens 
 
 Doric ) Temple of Minerva, at Athens 
 
 J Theatre of Marcellus 
 
 Ionic , 
 
 Temple on the Ilissus, at Athens .... 
 Temple of .Minerva Pjlias, at Athens 
 
 Temple of Fortuna Virilis 
 
 T^mpie of Concord 
 
 . Theatre of Marcellus 
 
 Corinthian 
 
 ' Temple of Jupiter Tonans 
 Temple of Jupiter Stator 
 Interior of the Pantheon . . 
 
 Altars of the Pantheon 
 
 Portico of the Pantheon . . , 
 
 Temple of Vesta 
 
 Temple of the Sibilla 
 
 Frontispiece of Nero 
 
 Temple of Peace 
 
 Colosseum 
 
 Temple of Faustina 
 
 Basilica of Antoninus .... 
 Portico of Se])timus 
 
 ^ Arch of Constantine 
 
 Composite 
 
 Arch of Titus 
 
 Arch of Septimus .... 
 I ThermJe of Dioclesian 
 Temple of Bacchus . . 
 
 OP THE SHAFTS. 
 
 Proportion. 
 
 Height. 
 
 17 1 
 31 1^ 
 23 4i 
 
 18 lOi 
 
 24 4i 
 
 38 5 
 21 1 
 
 I 
 
 39 3i 
 
 40 8 
 29 4 
 11 7i 
 40 2i 
 29 3 
 
 20 Si 
 52 5i 
 52 65 
 
 21 4* 
 38 7| 
 40 5 
 28 9 
 23 i 
 
 17 4 
 
 23 U 
 
 38 4i 
 
 11 5 
 
 Dimi- 
 nution. 
 
 The diminution of the shafts of the columns, in all the antique edifices at Rome, commences 
 from their inferior diameters ; except in those at the Colosseum, Arches of Severus and Con- 
 stantine, and Temple of the Sibilla, at Tivoli, where it commences from a third of their height. 
 
 N. B. The above Table presents both the height and proportion of each of the shafts of the 
 difTerent orders of columns it contains, thereby facilitating the comparison of their diminution, 
 which is of the whole of the superior diameter of the shaft. The module employed is divided 
 into thirty parts.
 
 IDIMIMIUTItD:?5r OiF coiLir&fErs 
 
 J'?" 
 
 ^9'^- 
 
 
 
 \ :>* A, >■ 
 
 
 5. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 : * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 »»»»- 
 
 1 « V.rf- 
 
 
 ^?.^....i.. 
 
 Af-^ 
 
 /•*rr rhra* RtA T.' . i.utf 7. v Z,r
 
 X)::ii>Ji:^rTio:^ dt tub shafts ot cDX-r:Mi-T§» 
 
 '^-'W^ 
 
 \... 
 
 „ ^^fr-.-r I ■ I L lAi_L-. a-L-l-i- ir
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 187 
 
 RULES OF PROPORTION FOR THE DIMINUTION WHICH 
 SHOULD BE GIVEN TO THE SUPERIOR DIAMETER OF 
 THE SHAFTS OF THE DIFFERENT COLUMNS, ACCORDING 
 TO THEIR HEIGHT, FROM FIFTEEN FEET TO FIFTY. 
 
 PLATE XXV. 
 
 The shafts of columns of fifteen feet should have the 
 inferior diameter of their shaft divided into six parts ; 
 five of these same parts given to the superior diameter 
 of the shaft will determine the diminution. Those of 
 twenty feet, being divided into six parts and a half at 
 their lower diameter, should be reduced at their upper 
 diameter to five parts and a half Those of thirty 
 feet must be divided into seven parts at their lower 
 diameter, and reduced at the upper to six. Those of 
 forty feet, being divided at their inferior diameter into 
 seven parts and a half, must be reduced at the superior 
 diameter, under the astragal, to six parts and a half 
 Lastly, those of fifty feet in height, should be divided 
 into eight parts at their inferior diameter, seven of 
 which should be given for the superior diameter. 
 
 The same plate likewise explains the reason why 
 columns of different hei2:hts should varv in their dimi- 
 nution ; by showing that the lines which proceed from 
 that part of any object which is situated at a con- 
 siderable elevation, forms a more acute angle to the 
 sight than those connected with one of equal dimen- 
 sions, but which is less elevated. 
 
 These are the rules and opinions given by Vitru- 
 vius ; yet the remains of antiquity do not furnish us
 
 tS8 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 with examples where they have been strictly applied 
 (^see the Table) ; which serves to show that rules of 
 this kind, as well as all others, require a suitable 
 modification, according to the attendant circum- 
 stances, which the judgment of the artist can alone 
 determine. 
 
 These different proportions do not change in the 
 least those fixed upon for modern capitals. Those 
 which are antique may be consulted under the dif- 
 ferent relations of the heights of the columns, nearly 
 all of which vary, either in their general proportions, 
 or in those of their details. (^See the Table of each of 
 the Orders.) 
 
 PROPORTION OF ENTABLATURES, ACCORDING TO THE 
 HEIGHTS OF THE COLUMNS, AFTER THE MANNER OF 
 VITRUVIUS. 
 
 PLATE XXV. 
 
 For columns from twelve to fifteen feet high, the 
 architrave should have half a diameter in height; and 
 dividing the architrave into four parts, three should 
 be given for the height of the frieze. Those from fif- 
 teen to twenty feet should be divided into thirteen 
 parts, one of which will be the height of the archi- 
 trave. Divide this part into four others, and appro- 
 priate three for the height of the frieze. For those 
 from twenty to twenty-five feet, the columns must be 
 divided into twelve parts and a half, and one of these 
 parts will be the height of the architrave. The frieze
 
 Fm®TP®KTI®IT <0)]P ]EMTA]Bl,A.TinR'Ef'' 
 
 L^^ 
 
 U 
 
 TO THE HEI9HTS OF COLTMl-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 189 
 
 has the same proportion as the example last men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Columns from twenty-five to thirty feet must have 
 their height divided into twelve parts : one of these 
 parts will give the height of the architrave. The 
 frieze has the same proportion as the preceding 
 example. 
 
 If it is wished to place a basso-relievo, or any other 
 ornament, on the frieze, it is then necessary to make 
 it equal to the whole height of the architrave, and to 
 give to the cornice such a proportion as is stated 
 below. 
 
 The different proportions that Vitruvius assigns for 
 each of the mouldings which compose his entablatures, 
 do not coincide with any other adjustment. The 
 proportional heights are as follow. The architrave 
 and frieze, being already determined by the rules 
 before given, must be divided into eight equal parts ; 
 and taking five for the height of the cornice, in which 
 height its mouldings must be distributed, observe that 
 their total projection, perpendicular from the face of 
 the frieze, must be equal to the height of the cornice ; 
 so that if the cornice have two modules in height, it 
 will also have two modules of projection. 
 
 The columns in this plate are drawn to an equal 
 height, having only marked on each the relative 
 proportion which ought to exist between the column 
 and entablature ; it being considered more easy to 
 judge of the differences in the proportion of entabla- 
 tures when compared one with another, than when 
 each is compared with its column. 
 
 The proportion of entablatures may always be the 
 same with relation to columns; but the members of
 
 190 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 which they are composed ought to have more or Jess 
 expression, at all times avoiding confusion, according 
 to their different dimensions. 
 
 This rule for the entablatures supported by columns^ 
 is applicable more or less to those employed in the 
 generality of buildings, which may be characterized 
 either by simplicity or richness ; and also by the 
 ordonnance of the details, in such a manner that they 
 will clearly express the character of the order to 
 which they belong, although there be neither columns 
 nor pilasters employed. 
 
 INTERCOLUMxNriATIONS FOR SACRED AND OTHER PUBLIC 
 EDIFICES, ACCORDING TO VITRUVIUS. 
 
 The intercolumniation for the Ionic order of six 
 columns in front, should be six modules, or three 
 diameters, from the axis of one column to that of the 
 other ; the centre one being four diameters. 
 
 In the Corinthian order of eight columns in front, 
 the intercolumniation should be six modules, or three 
 diameters from axis to axis ; the centre one being 
 three diameters and a half 
 
 In the Ionic order of eight columns in front, the 
 intercolumniation should be three diameters and a 
 quarter from axis to axis; the centre one five dia- 
 meters. 
 
 The intercolumniation for the Corinthian order of 
 ten columns in front, should be two diameters and a 
 half from axis to axis ; the centre one three diameters. 
 
 The reason assigned by Vitruvius for making mc
 
 PROPOMTIOIf OF PEJ3IMJ31N"T§, 
 
 J^t4iU:\tdr Fer SiCxr^ten.' f ^rcKitecZtxrxt Dxwacirr hy Jjhiv J3enn'ttt&, Th^ft^ J5t7t-Sfc.-.Ci^(-,_S?,i*?Ti^-'C«.-_l.'^
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 191 
 
 centrfc :ntercolumniation larger tlian the others, ap- 
 pears to he frivolous; as hy it the entire symmetry of 
 an ordonnance is sacrificed, merely to allow of (and 
 that from only a single point of sight) the whole of 
 the aperture of the entrance door being seen. 
 
 The intercolumniations of the Doric order in Greece 
 are, at the Temple of Theseus at Athens, live 
 modules, six parts, taken to the axis or centre of each 
 column. The portico of the Temple of Minerva at 
 Athens, four modules, and twenty parts. And at the 
 portico of Philip, in the Isle of Delos, seven modules 
 and five parts. 
 
 The intercolumniations of the Ionic order at Athens 
 are, at the temple on the Ilissus, six modules, fifteen 
 parts. The Temple of Erectheus, five modules ; and 
 at the Temple of Minerva Polias, eight modules. 
 
 The only principle of taste that can be advanced as 
 regards intercolumniations, is governed by the effects 
 which ought to characterize the compositions in which 
 the columns are employed. 
 
 PEDIMENTS, ACCORDING TO VITRUVIUS, 
 PLATE XXVL 
 
 If it be required to crown these intercolumniations 
 with pediments, it is necessary, after having deter- 
 mined the proportion of the entablature, (whether it 
 be a fourth, or between a fourth and a fifth, or a fifth 
 of the height of the columns, or of whatever other 
 proportion it may be,) to divide the space in the
 
 192 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR 
 
 whole length of the cornice, from the extremity of one 
 cyma to the other, M'hich form the opposite angles, 
 into nine equal parts ; taking one for the height of the 
 tympanum, and placing the height for the cornice 
 above it, observing that the tympanum is measured 
 from the top part of the fillet which covers the small 
 cyma. 
 
 Between Vitruvius and Scamozzi there exists a 
 medium proportion, which is given by Serlio : it con- 
 sists in taking for a point of centre the half of the 
 space, A, between each extremity of the cyma, form- 
 ing the two two extremities of the cornice, B, markmg 
 it below by intersecting the perpendicular, C, of the 
 centre ; opening the compasses from this point to the 
 extremities of the cymas, B, and describing a segment 
 of a circle, passing through the upper part of the 
 perpendicular line of the centre. The intersection D 
 will give the height of the pediment, the cornice being 
 also included. 
 
 In conclusion, it may be remarked that the propor- 
 tion of pediments is subordinate to the climate, as 
 well as to the order to which they are applied, and 
 also to the extended or limited dimensions of their 
 base. But as two extreme terms, their height may 
 be varied from one-fourth to one-sixth of the length 
 of their base.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 19? 
 
 A TABLE OF THE INCLINATION OF PEDIMENTS AND ROOFS, FROM 
 ANTIQUE AND MODERN F.PIPICES. 
 
 Antique 
 Eililices. 
 
 Modern 
 Edifices. 
 
 Degrea* 
 
 ^ Temple of Miner\-a . . 
 
 ~ " Krectheus 
 
 Theseus . . 
 
 Athens •? Temple of 
 
 •*'''®°^ S Temple of 
 
 (^Propylea 
 
 Portico of Septimus Severus 
 
 Temple of Concord 
 
 Tem])le of Mars the Avenger 
 
 Tem, le of Fortuna Virilis 
 
 Tem le of the Pantheon 
 
 Temple of Antonmus and Faustina 
 
 ' Roof of the Basilica of S. Paolo fuori delle 
 
 ' niura 
 
 I Roof of tlie Academy of France, at Rome 
 Roof of the Theatre U'Ar^enliiia 
 
 16 
 15i 
 15" 
 14i 
 
 23 
 
 23* 
 
 23i 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24i 
 
 23 
 
 21V 
 
 INTERCOLUMNIATIONS, EQUALLY DISTANCED, FOR EDIFICES 
 OF LESS IMPORTANCE, ACCORDING TO VITRUVIUS. 
 
 Corinthian order of si.x columns in front, five 
 modules, or two diameters and a half, from axis to 
 axis. 
 
 Ionic order of six columns in front, six modules, or 
 three diameters, from axis to axis. 
 
 Ionic order of four columns in front, eight modules, 
 or four diameters, from axis to axis. 
 
 Doric order of four columns in front, ten modules, or 
 five diameters, from axis to axis. 
 
 Ionic order of four columns in front, six modules 
 and a half from axis to axis; the centre one eigni 
 modules. 
 
 The Doric intercolumniations are governed by the 
 
 vision of the tiii^^lyphs. 
 
 2 c
 
 i^4 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 INTERCOLUMNIATIONS. 
 
 The plates 27 and 32, fig. A, present the distances 
 which ought to be observed for each order between 
 the axis of the cohimns of porticoes, and those applied 
 to arcades, according to Vignola. Fig. B represents 
 the intercohimniations arranged to one common axis, 
 so as to facilitate their execution, when it is found 
 necessary to employ them in the same facade. The 
 plates 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, and 36, contain the 
 elevations, drawn according to the proportions given 
 in the plans, fig. B, plates 27 and 32. 
 
 APPLICATION OF COLUMNS TO ARCADES. 
 
 Arches have been more or less employed in modern 
 architecture, according to the country and the nature 
 of the materials which it furnishes. The difficulty of 
 finding architraves of a single block from column to 
 column, or of supplying it by the artifice of voussoirs, 
 at the decline of the antique architecture, had sug- 
 gested the idea of raising centres upon detached 
 cohimns. Thence, doubtless, may be dated the 
 employment of continued arches, which afterwards 
 became so general in the construction of the interiors 
 of spacious churches ; which require solid supports for 
 the weight of the vaulted ceilings, and materials 
 destined to serve for their covering or roof 
 
 Rut arches forming arcades, submitted to the pro- 
 portions of, and decorated with, the several orders of 
 architecture, as employed at the exterior of edifices,
 
 
 ~ ■-:n'thia>7 
 
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 CORINTKIAU 
 
 n 
 
 
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 M^-—r--£S£i*-i 
 
 --^ii 
 
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 ft ^ ft 
 
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 I -in fnlU.iit trr AOMylM r A-rMXtJb^ia Th-
 
 TX'SrAJ?- DRjDT'.Pv, 
 
 AF.CaDES with COLUM'WS and PE1jESTaL3. 
 
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 411,1.^9 
 
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 7/:tk "^ -i.::\A.\'s J?- F
 
 lOlTIC OMBZEIR. 
 
 » J i S 4 ^ i / 3 ,f M) M iM j3 j4 iJ j$ J- j3^t-JtJe^ 
 
 rrtde^ r%tb.:\4d. Frr HOiJia^; ^TiTutMitUnZ 7y\na»r t;, 'A1..&'
 
 C©]R.lKTHIAir OJRlDEm. 
 
 ■■T-l-i-JudF^BUUn^.-'^
 
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 j'j ki/ 1 
 
 34 
 
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 'M#' J !«{/ J « j^ U 
 
 fe-Jb 
 
 3 ■ 3 fi :<t^.j 
 
 ■ ^ 
 5 * \, 

 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 1^5 
 
 nave examples in many remains of antiquity, such as 
 the theatres and ampliitheatres. They may be em- 
 ployed either with or without pedestals. The models 
 just cited present applications of the last-mentioned 
 mode in their first range, the columns of those above 
 having pedestals, which are prolonged between the 
 sides of the aperture of the arcades, and serve as 
 balustrades. 
 
 The beautiful remains of the theatre of Marcellus, 
 at Rome, of which there still exists a considerable 
 range of arcades, has doubtless served as a model to 
 the architects of the sixteenth century ; and it is from 
 this style and these proportions that both the interior 
 and exterior of the greatest number of palaces were 
 constructed. See Table, page 197. 
 
 The employment of arcades, considered as galleries, 
 has become almost general in the courts of extensive 
 palaces. Modern Rome presents many examples. 
 Sometimes they are supported by two columns placed 
 under the impost, instead of a pier or pillar ; at others 
 reposing upon pillars, and forming, round the cortiles, 
 a covered walk, serving likewise as means of commu- 
 nication to the different apartments. The examples 
 are too numerous to permit of being further cited, and 
 the above may be considered as a tolerably correct 
 type of the interior of all the great palaces in Italy. 
 
 Aicadcs, without columns, arc particularly suitable 
 for edifices which require a character combining 
 strength with simplicity; and they may be judiciously 
 em|)loycd at the exterior of buildings forming pul)lic 
 squares or places, markets, &c., as is practised in 
 Italy. There are many cities, where arcades are 
 erected on both sides of the streets, so as to form a
 
 J 96 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 cover to the causeways, which is productive of as 
 much utility and comfort as of beauty. 
 
 There are again other examples of two ranges of 
 arcades, with columns one above the other. Such 
 was originally the immense interior of the court of 
 the Vaticano, by Bramante ; the apertures of which 
 were afterwards obliged to be filled, to remedy the 
 lightness of the construction. Such is also the beau- 
 tiful court of the palace of the Cancelleria, by the 
 same architect ; which is composed of arcades of 
 greater elegance, supported by columns of marble. 
 At the head of these examples the court of the loggie, 
 at the Vaticano, the architecture of Raphaello, must 
 not be forgotten ; which consists of three ranges of 
 open galleries, the one above the other. 
 
 Amongst the most classical productions of this kind, 
 is the interior of the court of Farnese palace, by Vig- 
 nola ; where the beauty of the proportions, forms, and 
 construction, rivals any thing of the same kind ever 
 executed. See Table. 
 
 The proportions of arcades decorated with orders of 
 architecture vary according to the order applied, 
 which determines the dimensions, forms, and taste. 
 In the Tuscan, which the moderns have distinguished 
 from the Doric by a greater appearance of simplicity, 
 the arcade has no archivolt, and but a simple band 
 for an impost. The same order with a pedestal has 
 an architrave and impost, less simple than that with- 
 out pedestal, which is the case with all the arcades of 
 Vignola. See pis. 28, 33, and 37. 
 
 The Doric arcade is ornamented with an archivolt 
 of two fascias, crowned with a few mouldings : the 
 same mouldings are used in the impost. See pis. 29,
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIIIECTOK. 
 
 j97 
 
 34, and 37. The Ionic arcade has ornaments less 
 simple than those of the Doric, and is further distin- 
 guished by a key in form of a console. See pis. 30, 
 
 35, and 37. The Corinthian and Composite arcades 
 have their archivolts and imposts still more orna- 
 mented. See pis. 31, 36, and 37. The proportions of 
 these arcades are determined, as regards their heights, 
 by those of the columns which are applied to them : 
 thus the Tuscan arcade is the lowest of all, and the 
 Corinthian the hiohest. 
 
 \ COMPARATIVE TABLE OF THE RESPECTIVE RELATIONS IN THE 
 HEIGHTS OF COLUMNS WHEN EMPLOVED ABOVE EACH OTHER WITH 
 ARCADES IN THE SAME FACADE ; TAKEN FROM THE JIOST OELB- 
 ItRATED ANTIQUE AND MODERN EXAMPLES. 
 
 t Entablature 
 
 Th 
 
 M< 
 
 at 
 
 Hei 
 
 ea(rp of 
 rrellus, 
 Rome. 
 
 Co 
 at 
 
 losspum 
 Rome. 
 
 Barharini 
 
 Ptdace, at 
 
 Rome. 
 
 h 
 
 Pi 
 
 H.i 
 
 ''nrnf:^e 
 /fire, at 
 Rome. 
 
 
 'ht"f the 
 'arts. 
 
 ;ht of the 
 Parts. 
 
 Hei 
 
 ;htof the 
 Parts. 
 
 ,'ht(.f the 
 P:.rts. 
 
 
 1 
 
 iZ 
 
 c 
 
 6 
 
 2) 
 
 6 
 
 1 \l 
 
 7 1 3 
 7 1.... 
 4 ; 9 
 
 7 1 - 
 
 u. 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 2 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 4 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 9 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (. Pedestal . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Superior and inTprior dia- 
 meters of tlip ciilumns .. 
 
 ( Kntablature 
 
 Ionic I <'i)lumn . ... 
 
 ( Pedestal . . 
 
 Superior and inferior dia- 
 meters of the cijlunins . . 
 
 ( Kntalilature 
 
 Doric . ...\ Column 
 
 ( Socle 
 
 Superior and inferior dia- 
 meters of the columns .. 
 
 - 
 
 » 
 
 ( " 
 
 6 
 23 
 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 .5 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 - 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 3s 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 (2 
 12 
 
 7 
 11) 
 
 7 
 8 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 19 
 3 
 
 28 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 "l 
 
 - 
 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 G 
 
 fi 
 
 33 
 
 2 
 
 G 
 27 
 
 5 
 9 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 4 
 2 
 
 U 
 
 (i 
 8 
 
 7 
 1 
 2 
 
 
 33 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 •1 
 
 5 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 29 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 .1 
 22 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 ~4~ 
 6 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 •1 
 9 
 
 
 1 
 
 10 I'io" 
 
 6 7 
 S 9 
 5 .... 
 
 «| 4 
 
 9 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 4 
 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 11 
 6 
 
 9 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 32 1 8 
 
 11 
 
 37 
 
 29 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 {i 
 
 6 
 2 
 
 7 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 2 
 10 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 8 
 4 
 
 
 When cidiiiiins are employed above each othi'r, tlie same line of axis is j;cneriilly i>li'<erred, 
 For the intercoluinniations and projiortions of tlie apertures of the arcades, see the Tables and 
 Plates of the Orders. 
 
 • The line employed in this woi k I? the twelfth part of an inch
 
 )'8'\.-^ ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 OF RUSTICS. 
 
 There are but few examples of rustics or bossages 
 preserved amongst the antiquities of Greece, besides 
 those employed in the basement of the choragic monu- 
 ment at Athens. The grooves are httle sunk, forming 
 compartments that express a greatness of division. 
 The same species (^see pi. 50, fig. 7,) have often 
 been suitably employed in a great number of the 
 ancient edifices erected in the Roman empire. Tlie 
 mausoleum of Cecilia Metella, which is circular in its 
 plan, presents them at its exterior. This style was 
 introduced into almost all the edifices erected at this 
 period, of which the temple at Nismes, named the 
 Maison quaree presents an example, the walls of which 
 are exteriorly wrought after this manner. 
 
 This style is employed with much discretion and 
 judicious arrangement in the antique edifices of Italy. 
 They generally present themselves in walls serving as 
 inclosures to edifices, which is doubtless where they 
 are most suitable ; and in basements, or any part 
 which occupies the situation of a support. The most 
 admirable example of this style, is the immense wall 
 that incloses the forum of Nerva. Others are found 
 at the aqueduct of Claudius ; and at the arch of 
 Drusus, which supports a portion of the canal of the 
 aqueduct. There are rustics of a similar description 
 employed in the amphitheatre of Verona, and that of 
 Pola, in Istria. Rustics should never divide or inter- 
 rupt the face of columns or pilasters, whatever may 
 be the authority for this practice ; such examples, as 
 that of Verona, finnish sufficient proofs of an absurdity 
 which ought not to be imitated.
 
 ARCHrTECTURAL DIRECTOR. 199 
 
 Florence was the first city, at tlie commencement 
 of the restoration of the arts, that presented examples 
 of an erroneous and confused application of this style ; 
 which became more temperate as the art advanced to 
 its revival, at which time it was adopted in different 
 parts of Italy, where it was employed more sparingly, 
 and with greater judgment. Thence it was introduced 
 into the different cities of Europe, where it has been 
 employed in greater or less profusion. For examples 
 of their employment, form, and proportion in basements, 
 arcades, &c., see the different elevations, commencing 
 with pi. 6Q. Rustics and bossages, when judiciously 
 arranged and appropriated, produce in edifices an 
 agreeable effect. They characterize the different 
 parts, distinguish the masses, and serve as shades of 
 expression. Sometimes they are employed to produce 
 relief to the pilasters, or to give a value to the parts 
 left plain ; at others to vary the effects of plans by 
 means of their increased or decreased application ; so 
 as to render the parts more lively or serious, light or 
 heavy, according to the character required to be 
 expressed, and which is effected by means of their 
 divisions. 
 
 PI. 50, fig. 8, presents an example of those suitable 
 for quoins ; their angles are of 45 degrees ; which 
 produce a soft shadow on the upper, and a strong 
 opposition on the lower face, by which they are sepa- 
 raiea.
 
 200 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 OF DOORS. 
 
 The style of decoration, and the proportion of tfie 
 doors which serve as entrances to public edifices, are 
 naturally connected with that of the orders with 
 which they are employed. Vitruvius has made men- 
 tion of those suitable to temples only, of which he 
 distinguishes three kinds ; the Doric, Ionic, and Attic 
 or Corinthian doors ; the soffits of which form right 
 lines. Their difference consists in some variety in the 
 proportions and in the details, for the purpose of 
 adjusting them to the columns forming the peristyles 
 of the antique temples. But that which agrees with 
 a more general and usual theory is, that he prescribes 
 that the profiles of the architrave and crowning mem- 
 bers of doors be conformable to the character of sim- 
 plicity or elegance which characterize each of the 
 orders. Thus the antepagmenta, or architrave of the 
 Doric door, is composed of a very simple band. That 
 of the Ionic has an increase of mouldings, together 
 with crowning members. The Attic door nearly 
 resembles the last-mentioned, except that the jambs 
 are a little inclined ; but this would be an inadmissible 
 caprice at the preseat day. These rules, given by 
 Vitruvius, as before observed, were peculiar to tem- 
 ples ; but their principle is founded on the harn?onv 
 which the style of architecture, expressed in eacn 
 order, ought to prescribe to the parts that enter into 
 the composition ; of which the order is the regulator. 
 Admitting for a moment, as was the case at the period 
 of the revival of the art, that there are five orders,
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 201 
 
 which have been reduced to three by judicious exa- 
 mination; it results from the observations of most 
 modern authors, that the doors of the order named 
 Tuscan (which, together with the four following, are 
 in this instance supposed to have semicircular heads) 
 ought to have twice the width of the aperture in 
 height ; those of the Doric, twice and a sixth ; those 
 of the Ionic, twice and a fourth ; the Corinthian, 
 twice and a half ; and the Composite, twice and a 
 third. 
 
 The proportion of doors with platbands or straight 
 heads, is determined by dividing the width of their 
 apertures into twelve parts ; giving twenty-three for 
 the height of the Tuscan doors, twenty-four for the 
 Doric, twenty-five for the Ionic, twenty-six for the 
 Corinthian, and twenty-five and a half for the 
 Composite. 
 
 But the general proportion given to doors is twice 
 the width of their aperture in height, as fig. 2, pi. 
 50 ; one-lifth to a sixth of the width of the aperture 
 for the breadth of the architrave, and one-third to 
 one-fourth of the height for the distance from the 
 soffit of the architrave to the summit of the cornice, 
 that is, from B to A. 
 
 This theory relative to the dimensions of doors, has, 
 as may be easily discerned, no other object in view 
 than to make the apertures of edifices partake of the 
 measures assigned to the proper character of each 
 order. Whence it results that similar measures are 
 not geometrically fixed ; as it is the judgnieiil alone 
 that is capable of making suitable applications, and 
 determining the different relations that doors ought to 
 bear with their intended situation. For examples of 
 
 2d
 
 202 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 their various forms, proportions, and style of decora- 
 tion, see the elevations and sections commencing with 
 pi. 56. 
 
 PI. 40 presents the general proportions, together 
 with the details of the exterior door under the portico 
 of the Pantheon, at Rome. The aperture is a little 
 less than twice its width in height, having the same 
 width at the upper as at the lower part. 
 
 In presenting the following plates of doors, from 
 the designs of Vignola, as the most perfect models of 
 their kind, it has been judged necessary to suppress 
 any irregularity of detail which they offered, whether 
 caused by the custom of the period, or the situation 
 in which they were executed ; such, for example, as 
 the key-stones of the rustic door interrupting the 
 architrave and frieze. In the Doric door, a second 
 plinth under the bases of the columns, apparently 
 placed there to gain more height in their arrangement; 
 as likewise the projection of the horizontal architrave 
 of the door, beyond the exterior sides of the vertical 
 ones. In the two examples of Corinthian doors, the 
 last-mentioned license is suppressed, together with 
 that of a curved frieze ; and any similar errors that 
 the original designs, which have been consulted for 
 the formation of the plates for this work, contained, 
 have also been suppressed ; taking the greatest care 
 never to affect the spirit of the former, but to enable 
 them to be offered as the best and purest models for 
 imitation. 
 
 The rustic door, pi. 41, presents simplicity and 
 regularity of character, which gives a value to the 
 composition. 
 
 The Doric door, pi. 42, is given by Vignola as
 
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 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 203 
 
 Having been designed for the Cancelleria palace. It 
 would be difficult to imagine any thing more simple 
 or better arranged than this example ; which offers 
 nothing forced, all the parts of its composition appear- 
 ing naturally placed. The order which forms its 
 decoration is taken from his denticulated Doric. The 
 continuation of the astragal between one column and 
 the other, gives a finish to the horizontal architrave, 
 that produces a good effect. 
 
 The door of S. Lorenzo, in Damaso, pis. 43 and 
 44, may be considered as forming the principal 
 entrance of an edifice, and is a valuable model of its 
 kind. All its proportions are well preserved, and 
 in good relation with each other ; and it is susceptible 
 of being enriched by the application of ornaments to 
 its mouldings, according to the character of the edifice 
 to which it is intended to be applied. 
 
 The door of the saloon of t'arnese palace, pis. 45 
 and 46, offers the same excellences as the foregoing 
 example ; with this difference, that the former was 
 intended for exterior, the latter for interior decoration ; 
 having the general and detailed proportion of their 
 parts regulated accordingly. 
 
 OF WINDOWS. 
 
 Of all the parts of an edifice, the windows have the 
 most immediate relation with the interior distribution. 
 To disregard all but external decoration, and to 
 neglect the relation which ought to exist between the
 
 204 archite:ctural director. 
 
 exterior and interior of an edifice, would at best pro- 
 duce a very defective structure. The first duty being 
 to satisfy the laws of symmetry, the windows, which 
 form a part in the regular ordonnance at the exterior, 
 should be conformable to the interior of each apart- 
 ment ; so that the piers be of an equal proportion, and 
 the spaces be symmetrical and corresponding in the 
 saloons, apartments, cabinets, &c. Without this discri- 
 mination, the art of distribution, and also that of 
 architecture, would return to that state of infancy and 
 barbarism, which characterizes the edifices erected 
 from the fourth to the fifteenth century ; during which 
 period light was admitted into the difierent apartments 
 through apertures, the distribution of which did not 
 bear the least external relation to each other. 
 
 As symmetry at the present day holds its due rank 
 in the ordonnance of buildings and edifices, distribu- 
 tion has become an art that requires the highest degree 
 of judgment in those who wish to profit by all the 
 resources of which the art is capable. It is not suffi- 
 cient to observe that all the windows be placed per- 
 pendicularly over each other, but that there also exist 
 a relation of proportion between them. It is for this 
 reason that in buildings of any importance, blank or 
 imitation windows are often employed, above, below, 
 at the side, or directly opposite those which are loiown 
 to be necessary ; in order to preserve the laws of 
 symmetry in the exterior of their fa9ades. Vitruvius, 
 Palladio, Scamozzi, and many other architects, have 
 variously treated the proportions of windows. Their 
 opinions must necessarily differ, according to the 
 custom of the countries treated on in their writings. 
 Nothing effectively admits of greater variety, accord-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 205 
 
 ing to the climate, degree of temperature, duration of 
 light, purity of the atmosphere, commercial occupa- 
 tions, customs, and the wants of society, than the aper- 
 tures bv which lio;ht is admitted into the interior of 
 apartments. 
 
 In warm climates, windows are few in number, and 
 small in their dimensions. According as we advance 
 towards those countries where the sun has less power, 
 and the winter season is of longer duration, it may be 
 remarked, that the windows are employed so as to 
 derive all possible advantage from the light. 
 
 If windows are, of all the parts of edifices, those 
 which are the most governed by the laws of necessity, 
 it is no less certain, that notwithstanding these impe- 
 rious reasons, they are also susceptible of receiving 
 from the art the most harmonious relations. 
 
 An edifice may be considered exteriorly as a com- 
 position of planes and apertures, independently of the 
 wants and conveniences of the interior. There are 
 some laws prescribed by solidity, and others that 
 propriety and a perfect accord of the parts, render 
 evident to all who are exercised in the research of 
 this description of beauty. 
 
 For example, solidity prescribes that the piers 
 between windows be at least equal to the breadth of 
 their aperture. In countries where it is customary to 
 give to piers but one- half or one-third of the breadth 
 of the opening of the window, it must be evident, 
 from the aperture exceeding the plane, that the con- 
 struction must be weakened ; and consequently the 
 buildings must require more frequent repairs. In 
 other countries, where it is customary to give to piers 
 twice the width of the aperture of the windows, the
 
 206 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 houses present a massive and serious appearance, 
 which is inconsistent with their character. For good 
 effect in architecture, it is, however, better to fall into 
 the last-mentioned excess than the former. The 
 greatest evil in all constructions is a want of solidity, 
 and the appearance alone of this defect is almost as 
 great a fault as when it exists in reality. 
 
 The medium term for the proportion of windows 
 consists in giving them twice the width of their aper- 
 ture in height, as in pi. 50, fig. 1 ; where the breadth 
 of the antepagmenta, or architrave, is a fifth, and may 
 be employed from this to a sixth of the width of the 
 aperture. The height of the entablature, from the 
 soflSt of the architrave to the upper fillet of the cyma 
 in the cornice, may be from one-third to one-fourth 
 of the height of the aperture. The architrave and 
 frieze should be equal in their height ; and the 
 cornice may be augmented one-fifth or one-sixth, but 
 rarely one-fourth more than the height of the two 
 other members, according as it may be judged neces- 
 sary for its character and effect. This rule has 
 generally been adopted in the most celebrated edifices 
 at Rome and Florence. These proportions, however, 
 vary according to the nature of the stories. Windows 
 of the ground story are generally reduced an eighth 
 part less in their height than double their width ; 
 whilst those of the superior story receive an eighth, 
 and sometimes two, more than the lower story ; and 
 the heights of the windows in the stories above 
 gradually decrease according to the width of their 
 apertures. 
 
 In the distribution of windows in the parts in 
 advance, and those in retreat of a facade, it ought
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 207 
 
 always to be observed, that one should occupy the 
 centre, or that they be of an uneven number ; it being 
 much more consistent for an aperture to be in the 
 centre of the different divisions of all facades than a 
 pier. Notwithstanding the examples in which this 
 rule has been neglected, it ought in general to be 
 regarded as inviolable ; except in private dwellings, 
 where the total is subordinated to the irregularity of 
 the site, and the necessary wants and conveniences, 
 which renders it impossible to follow the rules of an 
 exact symmetry. 
 
 The distribution of windows is not confined only 
 to the relation of the horizontal position of their ordon- 
 nance in a story ; there is another relation no less 
 important, which is that which regulates their intervals 
 and correspondence from one story to another. As 
 an edifice is displeasing to the sight in which there is 
 too great a portion of aperture, or when the open- 
 ings exceed the surface of the piers ; so in like manner 
 it is repugnant to solidity, and also to correct taste, to 
 separate the stories only by a trivial intervening space. 
 There ought to exist between the inferior and superior 
 stories, a space which indicates not only the thickness 
 of the floor, but likewise a space necessary to make 
 the sill of the window serve as an easy support. In 
 this respect, the windows which have their sill as 
 high as it is convenient in the interior of an edifice, 
 give to the exterior a more happy distribution. This 
 part of architecture, however, is subordinate to the 
 manners of the nation in which it is employed. Win- 
 dows amongst the ancients only served to admit light 
 into their apartments, and not to render the view into 
 the street their principal object; therefore the inter-
 
 208 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 vening height of the space between the head of one 
 window to the sill of the window immediately above 
 it, was very considerable. Nothing can be more 
 favourable to good effect in architecture than this: 
 whether the walls be plain, or decorated with an 
 ordonnance of columns or pilasters. 
 
 It is impossible to give precise rules for the distri- 
 bution of windows in the interior of apartments. The 
 only one is to follow symmetry. By this is meant the 
 most exact correspondence between the intervals or 
 piers which separate the windows, as also their 
 uniform repetition in such apartments as occupy the 
 whole breadth of a building. 
 
 The principal difference in the forms of windows, 
 consists in the diversity of their apertures : amongst 
 which are those which serve as doors, and those that 
 Serve only as windows. 1'he first are employed in the 
 ground story, and have ordinarily the form of arcades ; 
 though sometimes they are employed with horizontal 
 or straight heads. 
 
 Of the second description, or those which serve as 
 windows only, there are three kinds ; namely, those 
 with semicircular heads, those that have their soffit or 
 head straight, and those in which it forms the segment 
 of a circle. 
 
 Semicircular windows are only employed with 
 success in large masses of buildings, of which the 
 edifices at Florence present us many fine examples. 
 They are also often employed in churches that require 
 very large apertures. 
 
 Windows with straight heads are those most gene- 
 rally used; being the least expensive in their con- 
 struction. (^See pis. 50, fig. 1, and pis. 47 and 48.)
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 209 
 
 Segmental windows are the least elegant in their 
 form, being an equivocal medium between the two 
 former. 
 
 Semicircular-headed windows, when employed in 
 the ground story, often serve also as doors. They are 
 generally employed to admit light into vestibules, and 
 at the same time to serve as their entrance ; as also in 
 laige saloons, galleries, or any other extensive apart- 
 ment. Those that are placed at the exterior of a 
 fa9ade, whose decoration requires the same ordonnance, 
 ought to correspond in their base or plan with the 
 arcades that ornament the other parts of the edifice. 
 (^See, for the respective proportions of the arcades 
 belonging to each of the orders, when employed 
 without pedestals, pis. 27, 28, 29 30, and 31.) This 
 description of windows may likevvise be employed in 
 the second story of an edifice ; in which case the 
 columns forming their decoration, if any be employed, 
 may have pedestals, and the intervening spaces be 
 occupied by balusters. (^See arcades with columns 
 and pedestals, pis. 32, 33, 34, 35, and 36 ; their 
 impost and archivolts, pi. 37 ; and the balusters, 
 pi. 50 ; fig. 5 and 6.) 
 
 When the dimensions of some of the apartments 
 in such buildings do not require or admit of openings 
 so large as those of the aperture of the arcades, these 
 latter are feint, leaving such a proportion of aperture 
 as is necessary for the admission of the light required 
 in the interior. If the form of the head of the window 
 so situated be semicircular, it ought to have the same 
 point of centre as the arch of the arcade; if it be 
 straight, and employed with a cornice, the upper 
 member of the cornice ought to be equal in height to 
 
 2£
 
 210 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 that of the impost; if the aperture be plain, it ought 
 likewise to extend to the height above-mentioned. 
 To proportion these windows to their restricted width, 
 it is necessary to raise them upon a plain continued 
 pedestal, bahistrade, or elevated string-course ; the 
 feint arcade being employed only when essential to 
 the symmetry of the general ordonnance of the rest 
 of the facade. 
 
 Mezzaninas are stories of low dimensions, employed 
 in Italy, and generally placed betvveen two loftier 
 ones ; sometimes between the ground and second 
 story, and at others between the second and third 
 story, which serve as small apartments for winter, for 
 wardrobes, or as chambers for servants. The part 
 where these can be employed with the greatest pro- 
 priety, which in other respects are generally to be 
 condemned, is in the basement story, when it is not 
 intended to be employed for any particular purposes; 
 as also in different situations in commercial building's, 
 and private habitations of less importance. Light is 
 admitted into this description of rooms by means of 
 small square windows, (^see pi. 50, fig. 3,) whose 
 apertures are equal in width and height, and divided 
 into six parts, one of which determines the breadth 
 of the architrave. 
 
 If an architect be not always at liberty to appro- 
 priate the form, proportion, and disfX)sition of windows, 
 to the general character of the ordonnance of an 
 edifice, this is not the case with regard to their deco- 
 ration. There are many degrees of character, from 
 the naked window finishing with the face of the wall, 
 to that where the architrave is employed, on the 
 mouldings of which are sculptured the richest orna-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR 2ii 
 
 ments. Windows without architraves ought ne\er to 
 be employed but in private houses, where architecture 
 and art are no way connected; or in such extremely 
 simple parts of edifices as do not admit of embellish- 
 ment. It is in the degree of richness or simplicity of 
 the architraves of windows that means may be found, 
 which will conduce to give to edifices the particular 
 expression that marks their uses. 
 
 The Doric order, in presenting a masculine cha- 
 racter repugnant to all delicacy of decoration, does 
 not necessarily demand a total exclusion of ornament. 
 Harmony requires that all edifices which present this 
 expression, be accompanied in the different parts 
 which enter into the ordonnance, by profiles and orna- 
 ments exhibiting a similar character. Many exam- 
 ples present themselves in the Florentine architecture, 
 that may be proposed as models for this description 
 of windows. 
 
 The manner of decorating windows after the rustic 
 style of'ordonnance, consists in surrounding them with 
 bossages or rustics, of more or less projection, rough- 
 ness, &c., according to the degree of strength or 
 rusticity required to be expressed in the general mass. 
 The edifices of Tuscany present imposing and almost 
 terrifying models of this style ; which can rarely be 
 judiciously employed, and only in extensive edifices; 
 on which occasions, if an ordonnance of cohimns is 
 employed, the architraves of the windows ought to be 
 plain and unbroken, and to present a character of 
 strength consistent with the style adopted. 
 
 The Ionic architraves ouo'ht to exhibit more elegance 
 than richness, and to follow a progression of form, as 
 also of ornament. Windows of the Ionic ordonnance
 
 212 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 may present an entablature without pediment. (^See 
 pi. 47.) 
 
 All the delicacy and richness of form, proportion^ 
 and decoration, are reserved for the windows of the 
 Corinthian ordonnance, as in pi. 48; which pre- 
 sents an example decorated with an entablature and 
 pediment, supported by columns, having composed 
 Corinthian capitals. The pediment may be traced as 
 in pi. 50, fig. 4 ; by taking for a centre the point C, 
 which is half the distance between each extremity of 
 the cyma, MN, intersecting the vertical line below at 
 F, with a radius of CM ; afterwards placing the point 
 of the compasses at F, and extending them to M, 
 describe the arc MN, whose intersection at D will 
 determine its height; or, according to the method 
 given by Vitruvius, by dividing the whole length 
 between the two extremities of the pediment into nine 
 equal parts, and taking one of these divisions for the 
 height of the tympanum. (^See pi. 26.) For nume- 
 rous examples of the form, proportion, and decoration 
 of windows, see the different elevations and sections, 
 commencing with pi. f56. 
 
 OF BALUSTERS. 
 
 There are no examples of the employment of ba- 
 lusters amongst the ancients. Their origin can only 
 be assigned to the different fences or parapets executed 
 in wood, and employed in situations not requiring 
 other or more expensive materials. Modern architec-
 
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 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 2] 3 
 
 ture has not only adopted and imitated these forms in 
 stone and marble, but has likewise given to each 
 different proportions, according to those of the order, 
 which they are intended to accompany. 
 
 The earliest productions of balusters are those exe- 
 cuted at Florence, and a few other cities in Italy; 
 which take their date from the first centuries of the 
 restoration of the arts, and represent small columns. 
 This method, though puerile, is perhaps better than 
 that which custom appears to have confirmed. 
 Modern balusters present no other reason for their 
 peculiar forms than caprice. 
 
 Balusters are ordinarily a species of column, occu- 
 pying the place of the die in a continued pedestal, 
 composed of three principal parts, a capital, shaft, and 
 base ; which, when placed upon a socle, and sur- 
 mounted with a cornice, forms what is termed a 
 balustrade. Balusters, as also balustrades, should 
 partake of the character of the edifice in which tliey 
 are employed. They are best situated when placed 
 between the sides of the apertures of arcades, above 
 the ground story, or between the pedestals of a range 
 of cohimns forming a gallery ; in balconies, staircases 
 of important edilices, enclosures for altars, thrones, 
 state-beds, &c. ; and not upon the entablature of 
 buildings or edifices, except when their roof is con- 
 structed in the form of a terrace. 
 
 Balusters should be of an even number, never ad- 
 mitting tlie half of a baluster at the extremities of each 
 range ; and the distance which separates them be- 
 tween their greatest diameter should be equal to one- 
 half of that diameter, so that the aperture may be 
 equal to the plane. There are five species of balus-
 
 214 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 trades : the socle of the Tuscan is plain, and the cor- 
 nice is an even face, surmounted with a fillet ; its 
 baluster is massive in its proportions, and has few 
 mouldino:s. The Doric is lis-hter and more ornament- 
 ed ; and the other three species present a similar gra- 
 dation. The proportions and mouldings of the cornice 
 and socle are governed by those of the pedestals of 
 the different orders. 
 
 To find the general heights of balusters, divide the 
 die of the pedestal, which will be the height of the 
 baluster, into five parts, one of which will give that of 
 its base, dividing the remaining four parts into five, 
 one of which will determine that of the capital. Again 
 divide the space between the capital and base into 
 five other parts, three of which will give the height 
 of the neck, and two that of the swell. The plinth 
 should be one-third of the height of the base, and the 
 abacus one-third of that of the capital. These are 
 the general proportions common to the five species of 
 balusters; the number of their mouldings, their ex- 
 pression, the outline or swell of their shafts, the ele- 
 gance or strength of their forms, being governed by 
 the order to which they belong. The Tuscan balus- 
 ter is of the greatest diameter, has the least number 
 of mouldings, and is generally square in its plan. Its 
 height is divided into five parts, two of which are 
 given for the diameter of its swell. As the Corinthian 
 baluster ought to present a degree of elegance, its 
 greater diameter is but a third of its height ; the Doric, 
 Ionic, and Composite balusters, have the same com- 
 parative proportion. For example, if the height of 
 the baluster be divided into sixty parts, the greatest 
 diameter or swell of the Tuscan should be twenty-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 215 
 
 four of these parts; that of the Doric twenty-three; 
 that of the Ionic twenty-two ; and those of the Corin- 
 thian and Composite twenty-one. Each of these 
 diameters should be divided into two equal parts, one 
 of which will give the diameter of the collarin of the 
 capital, scotia of the base, and the lesser diameter, or 
 upper part of the shaft ; that of the plinth of the base 
 is equal to the greater diameter of the shaft, and the 
 abacus of the capital one-fifth or one-sixth part less. 
 
 In the employment of balustrades to principal stair- 
 cases, care should be taken always to preserve the 
 horizontal position of the mouldings of the balusters, 
 making the inclination, caused by the stairs, in the 
 heighth of the plinth of the base and the abacus of 
 the capital. As to the number of balusters that should 
 be employed between any two solids or planes, namely, 
 between pedestals and sides of apertures, it should 
 never exceed twelve, nor be less than four. The 
 figures 5 and 6, pi. 50, may serve in some degree 
 to illustrate the general expression of the two extremes 
 in balusters, that of strength and lightness. For ex- 
 amples of their employment and form, see the dif- 
 ferent elevations and sections which follow. 
 
 OF NICHES. 
 
 The employment of niches, when considered as to 
 their primitive form, is of the highest antiquity ; but 
 their employment as an object in architectural deco- 
 ration is much less ancient. The Greeks gave tne 
 first proportion to niches, according to their situation,
 
 216 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 at the exterior or interior of edifices. They intro- 
 duced statues in characterizing the different edifices ; 
 and the employment of niches in architectural decora- 
 tion very naturally followed. The proportions of their 
 statues determined those of the niches ; which were, 
 however, subjected to the order and ornaments of the 
 edifices in which they were employed. There can 
 be few examples of niches cited amongst the existing 
 remains of Greece. In their temples the statues were 
 colossal, and placed at the extremity of the cella ; 
 being insulated, as at the temple of Jupiter Olympus, 
 and that of Minerva, at Athens. Amongst the exam- 
 ples of niches presented in different edifices, there are 
 some which are square, as at the choragic monument 
 of Thrasyllus, and likewise at the monument of Philo- 
 papus ; where there are one circular and two quad- 
 rangular niches, which are still ornamented with 
 statues. But if we had not these references, as proofs 
 of the employment of niches in the antique edifices, 
 there could be nothing adduced against their exten- 
 sive employment, from the number of those discovered 
 amongst the existing remains, erected at a certain 
 epoch, being small ; as all the edifices of Greece, such 
 as the Gymnasii, Agorai, Stadia, &c., as also all the 
 magnificent productions belonging to private indivi- 
 duals, have perished. Those examples presented in 
 the remains of the antique edifices, erected in the 
 Roman empire in the most flourishing centuries of the 
 art, and for the greater part by Grecian artists, will 
 serve as proofs of the manner in which niches were 
 employed by the ancients, of which there are two 
 Kinds. The first serve for the placing of statues ; the 
 second are destined to different uses, as the exedrce,
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 217 
 
 or hollow spaces of greater or less dimension, of a 
 square or semicircular form, in walls of a considerable 
 extent. The first are situated in temples, saloons, 
 and basilicas, between the intercolumniations of por- 
 ticoes, and in plain walls ; being' generally about seven 
 feet in height, so as to contain a statue the size of 
 life, as those at the temple of Mars the Avenger. 
 This is the most suitable dimension, since it serves as 
 a scaJe of comparison to judge of the exact dimensions 
 of the edifice. Niches of this size were often em- 
 ployed in the interior of temples, when constructed 
 of brick, as at the temple of the forum of iVntoninus, 
 and that of Venus, at Rome ; together with a great 
 number of other constructions of brick, where this 
 description of niche has been adopted, both at Rome 
 in the thermae, and of Tivoli, in the private buildings 
 of the villa of Adrian. Of this first kind of niche 
 there were both round and s^i«Jlare ; when they were 
 square in their plan, they weie'^ square also in their 
 elevation; as likewise when they presented a semi- 
 circular plan, their elevation terminai^ed in the same 
 manner. Sometimes they were without U^rA',?ments, at 
 others decorated with architraves, as at the arch of 
 Janus: they were also employed with columns and 
 pediments, as at the Pantheon and thermae, and also 
 at a temple at Nismes, generally named that of Diana. 
 The interior of this edifice has its two sides decorated 
 with six Corinthian columns engaged in the walls. 
 Each intercolumniation is occupied by a niche, placed 
 upon a stylobate, and ornamented with an arcliitrave, 
 formed by two pilasters tliat support an entablature 
 with a pediment; presenting one of the most beau- 
 tiful models of its kind with which antiquity has 
 
 2 F
 
 218 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 furnished us. {See pi. 49.) At other times, when 
 employed with columns which were situated at too 
 great a height to admit of pedestals, the columns were 
 placed upon consoles, as at the thermse of Dioclesian, 
 and at the facade of t'le Temple of Peace. 
 
 The second kind of niche is of large dimensions, 
 having the pavement for its base. It is employed at 
 the exterior of edifices, to contain groups of figures, 
 or colossal statues ; as those under the portico of the 
 Pantheon at Rome. Others of this descrifjtion, though 
 of still greater dimensions, were sometimies placed at 
 the extremity, in the interior of templ/es, for the re- 
 ception of colossal figures ; as at t\ie cella of the 
 temple of Venus at Rome ; and at /Other times in the 
 basilicas, to contain the seats of tire tribunal, as at the 
 misnamed Temple of Peace ; ''which Constantine em- 
 ployed as a basilica; and .-in the basilica at Pompeii. 
 In these last instances, it is named the chalcidicum. 
 Those presented in *{\\q saloons of the thermae were 
 surrounded by se^ts, for ease and conversation ; ex- 
 amples of whichi may be found in the different thermae, 
 and in sp\^j2;1 saloons at the villa of Adrian, and are 
 distinguished by the term exedrse. Lastly, niches of 
 greater dimensions than the preceding were con- 
 structed in the walls which served as inclosures for the 
 thermae, answering as abutments : some were semi- 
 circular, others square in their plan ; and were often 
 employed alternately. When their dimension was 
 very considerable, they were left open at the top, 
 and contained many rows of seats placed above each 
 other, serving as amphitheatres for the delivery of 
 public discourses, or the exhibition of particular 
 o-ames; examples of which may be seen at the
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 219 
 
 tnermae Caracalla and Dioclesian: this kind of niche 
 is also termed exedra. They were also employed in 
 Greece, in the inclosures surrounding the temples, as 
 at the temple of Jupiter Olympus, repaired by Adrian ; 
 which presents niches of this description, some of which 
 are square and others semicircular in their plan, and 
 are placed alternately. Their front was decorated 
 with columns, and their summit presented a covering 
 of wood; their dimensions not being great, and the 
 soffit was divided into compartments, and ornamented 
 with paintings. 
 
 The antique examples above cited furnish models 
 of each of the different kinds of niches; and what 
 has been said will doubtless show what character 
 they ought to bear, according to the nature of the 
 edifice in which they are to be employed. This cha- 
 racter ought to be governed by the same judgment 
 which presides in determining the form and decoration 
 of doors and windows; not as regards utility, but as 
 decorative objects entering into the ordonnance of the 
 same edifice. 
 
 Of those amongst the first kind mentioned in this 
 article, employed by the moderns, there are three 
 classes. The first expresses strength and simplicity, 
 the third delicacy and richness, and the second the 
 medium : their form, in their plan and elevation, is 
 either quadrangular or semicircular. The first is 
 without any decoration ; the second class is orna- 
 mented with an archivolt; and the third class com- 
 prehends that which is ornamented with an entabla- 
 ture and pediment supported by two columns. 
 
 This classification of niches is similar to that of all 
 the other parts of architecture, expressing three dis-
 
 220 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 tinct characters corresponding to each of the orders. 
 Each of these niches ought to be of a proportion con- 
 sistent with the ordonnance to which they relate ; 
 which is alone determined by judgment. It has in 
 vain been attempted by many authors to determine 
 the invariable proportion of niches, as also the other 
 parts of architecture, without success. 1 he general 
 rule given for the proportion of niches is twice and a 
 half their width in height ; but the particular rule is, 
 to divide the width of each of the three classes of 
 niches into twelve parts, giving twenty-eight of these 
 divisions in height to the first, thirty to the second, 
 and thirty-one to the third. This determination of 
 the proportions of niches, like those of the orders and 
 the other parts of an ordonnance, are only a species 
 of medium terms, established to serve as approximate 
 measures to the combinations of the artist. For ex- 
 amples of their employment, see the different plates of 
 plans, elevations, and sections, which follow. 
 
 OF CROWNING ENTABLATURES. 
 
 The expression of character, suitable to each edi- 
 fice, is greatly aided by tlie entablature. This ex- 
 pression may be given in two ways ; namely, by the 
 details of the modinature, and by the choice of the 
 ornaments. The details of the modinature are what 
 are termed the profiles ; and by the combination of 
 these profiles, their number, greater or less projection, 
 strength or lightness, a solemn or gay, light or strong, * 
 simple or composed character, may be produced. It
 
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 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 221 
 
 is from these details of the ordonnance that the con- 
 noisseur, in part, forms his judgment of the ability of 
 the architect. No part of architecture is capable of 
 receiving such variety in the application of ornaments. 
 Their union with the profiles, and the due proportion of 
 richness and repose that ought to be observed accord- 
 ing to the nature of each edifice, is but rarely to be 
 met with. The principal mansions of Italy are almost 
 all crowned with sumptuous and magnificent enta- 
 blatures; yet amongst this great number, two only 
 have become classic ; namely, that of Strozzi palace, 
 at Florence, and that of Farnese palace, at Rome. 
 (^See pi. 39.) The entablature, pi. 38, given by 
 Vignola, the proportion of which is the eleventh part 
 of the whole height of the elevation, is well adapte(/ 
 for crowning an extensive facade. Its total, partak 
 ing of the Doric and Corinthian, is judiciously com- 
 bined ; and it will bear enriching or simplifying with 
 equal propriety, according to the employment to 
 which it may be destined. But care must be taken 
 not to support it with columns. It is too rich for the 
 Doric, and of too great strength for the Corinthian ; 
 and not proper for orders to which their own entabla- 
 tures are alone suitable, or others which are analo- 
 gous and well combined. It is not always judicious 
 to follow step by step the compositions of authors, 
 although they may have been adopted and acknow- 
 ledged as classical. Tlie ancients did not slavishly 
 copy even the most esteemed examples ; that which 
 was acknowledged as beautiful and perfect, was 
 sometimes repeated, but never in a servile maimer. 
 
 The mechanical method often adopted to determine 
 the proportions of crowning members for ordinary
 
 222 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 buildings, in which neither columns nor pilasters are 
 employed, is to divide the total height from the line of 
 base to the level of the ceiling of the uppermost story 
 into about eight parts, giving one of these for the 
 height of the entablature ; but when it is intended to 
 suppress the architrave, the last division is subdivided 
 into five, two of which are given for the cornice, and 
 the half of the remaining three for the frieze ; and 
 likewise when the cornice alone is employed, the same 
 practice is followed in the subdivisions, two of which 
 are given for its height. 
 
 OF THE FORM AND PROPORTION OF THE INTERIORS OF 
 BUILDINGS AND EDIFICES. 
 
 The general forms and proportions assigned by 
 modern authors to the different apartments are, that 
 the forms of spacious cabinets, dining, drawing, and 
 ball-rooms, be rectangular ; and that their length be 
 equal to the diagonal of a square formed on their 
 breadth ; whilst those of saloons may be square, cir- 
 cular, elliptical, or octagonal. The proportions of 
 great galleries and extensive libraries may extend 
 from four to seven times their breadth in length. 
 The general height of apartments is given by taking 
 one-half of their length and breadth ; for those of 
 galleries and libraries of considerable length, once 
 and a half their breadth. The proportions of stair- 
 cases and passages or corridors (the breadth of the 
 latter may be from one-third to one-fourth of that of 
 the principal rooms) are determined by the extent
 
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 of the buildings and apartments; it being essential 
 in architecture, always to observe a strict relation 
 between the parts and the total. 
 
 The height of the chambers on the second story are, 
 according to the common methods, made about one- 
 twelfth part less than that of the rooms below; and 
 the height of a third story three-fourths of that of the 
 second. As all the rooms of the same story are com- 
 monly of an equal height, while convenience requires 
 them to be of different lengths and breadths ; the 
 proper relation between their height and the other 
 dimensions cannot always be preserved without addi- 
 tional expense. Where this is not an obstacle, the 
 height of the story may be governed by that of the prin- 
 cipal rooms ; while the proportions of the lesser rooms 
 may be regulated, and their appearance improved, by 
 means of coved and flat, groined, arched, or vaulted 
 ceilings. 
 
 Vitruvius gives three diiferent rules for the propor- 
 tion of vestibules. The first consists in dividins; the 
 length of the vestibule into five parts, three of which 
 are given for the breadth ; the second into three 
 parts, giving two for the breadth ; and the third in 
 taking the diagonal of a square for its length, whose 
 side is equal to the breadth of the vestibule. Their 
 heiji'ht is less by a fourth part than their length. 
 
 The pteromata (a range of columns at each side of 
 the vestibule, leaving a passage between them and 
 the wall,) situated on the rioht and left, should have 
 in breadth, if the length of the vestibule be from 
 thirty to forty feet, each a sixth part of its length ; if 
 it he from forty to fifty feet, a .seventh part ; if from 
 fifly to sixty feet, an eighth part ; if from si.^ty to
 
 224 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 eighty, a ninth part ; and lastly, if from eighty to one 
 hundred feet, each one-tenth part of its length for 
 their breadth. The architrave placed upon the 
 columns forming these passages should be of such an 
 elevation as to make the height equal to the breadth. 
 The intercolumniations should not be less than three 
 diameters, nor more than four. If the Doric order be 
 employed, they are governed by triglyphs. 
 
 The tablinum, or cabinet, should be, if the width 
 of the vestibule be twenty feet, of two-thirds of that 
 dimension; if it be from thirty to forty, one-half; and 
 if from forty to fifty feet, the proportion of the cabinet 
 should be two-fifths of the width of the vestibule. 
 The height of the cabinet should be an eighth part 
 more than its width. The principal entrance of the 
 least vestibules, should be two-thirds of the width of 
 the cabinet, and that of the large vestibules one-half 
 of the same width. 
 
 The triclinia, or dining-rooms, the ceci, or banquet- 
 ing-rooms, and the exedrae, or drawing-rooms, should 
 have double their breadth in length, and their height 
 should be equal to half of their length and breadth 
 taken together. The pinacotheca, or picture-gallery, 
 like the drav/ing-room, should be spacious,. The 
 oeci, or Corinthian, and the tetrastyle, or Egyptian 
 apartments, though of similar proportions to those 
 prescribed for dining rooms, should be of great di- 
 mensions, on account of the columns employed. 
 
 The Corinthian and Egyptian apartments differ from 
 each other, by the Corinthian having but one order of 
 columns placed upon a pedestal, or otherwise upon 
 the pavement, and supporting their architrave and cor- 
 nice of wood, or coated with stucco ; above which is an
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 225 
 
 arched ceiling. But the Egyptian apartments have 
 an architrave upon their cokimns, and above the 
 architrave is a floor, which extends from the columns 
 to the wall. 
 
 This floor is constructed in such a manner as to 
 form an open terrace around the whole. Above the 
 architrave, and perpendicularly over these columns, 
 others are placed, whose height is less by a fourth 
 part than those beneath them. There is an archi- 
 trave, with other ornaments, upon the upper range of 
 columns ; and the roof has a straight ceiling. Be- 
 tween the upper range of columns are windows, 
 which give to it the appearance of a basilica, and 
 this constitutes the diff'erence between the Egyptian 
 and the Corinthian apartments. 
 
 The Greeks, adds Vitruvius, have a room which 
 they name Cyzicene. It has a northern aspect, with 
 a door in the centre, and is surrounded by gardens. 
 Its length and breadth should be suflScient for the 
 convenience of placing two tables in opposite but 
 similar situations to each other. On the right and 
 left are windows in form of doors, for the accommo- 
 dation of enjoying the exterior aspect. Its height is 
 once and a half its breadth. Thus the cyzicene of 
 the Greeks answered the same purposes as the tric- 
 linium of the Romans. 
 
 It would be diiflcult to assign, even to the most ex- 
 tensive and remarkable rooms in modern architecture, 
 either particular forms or a general character, which 
 would furnish the basis for a theory of a detailed 
 description. 
 
 Palladio states, that the most elegant forms for 
 apartments and rooms are seven in number ; namely, 
 
 2 G
 
 2*26 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 the round, which are the most rare ; the square ; 
 those whose length is equal to the diagonal of the 
 square formed upon their breadth ; those of a square 
 and a third ; a square and a half; a square and two- 
 thirds ; and lastly, of two squares ; and that the best 
 proportion for the height of these -different apart- 
 ments, when they have flat ceilings, is in giving their 
 breadth for their height. But if those which are 
 square in their plan be terminated by semicircular or 
 vaulted ceilings, they should have one-third more 
 than their breadth to the key of the arch ; and the 
 height of those whose length is greater than their 
 breadth is given by adding the length to the breadth, 
 and taking the half. 
 
 Scamozzi observes, that the ancients made their 
 apartments square, or otherwise twice their breadth 
 in length, and that their general heighth at the least 
 was their breadth ; or, at the most, the half of the 
 length and breadth together. The following are the 
 five different proportions which he proposes for apart- 
 ments. The first, says he, are square ; the second 
 have once and a quarter their breadth in length; the 
 third, once and a half; the fourth, once and three- 
 quarters; and the fifth, twice their breadth in length. 
 For the height of the first, he prescribes their breadth ; 
 to the second, an eighth more than their breadth ; to 
 the third, a fourth ; to the fourth, three-eighths more 
 than their breadth ; and to the fifth, once and a half 
 their breadth ; and he further adds, that the first, or 
 ground-story, ought to have the greatest elevation, 
 which agrees with the opinion of Palladio, who says, 
 that each story ought to have a sixth less in height 
 than that immediately below it.
 
 iiRCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 227 
 
 OF DISTRIBUTION, 
 
 One of the most important parts of architecture, 
 the aim of which is to render its various productions 
 healtliful, convenient, and agreeable, consists injudi- 
 cious distribution. This branch of the art, as prac- 
 tised by the ancients, is that of all others, of which 
 we have the least knowledge. Private habitations 
 are not constructions of a nature capable of surviving 
 the overthrow and revolutions which destroy cities. 
 Was it not for the discoveries made of the cities 
 buried by the eruptions of Vesuvius, our knowledge 
 would be confined to the obscure and problematic 
 descriptions given by a few writers of antiquity. The 
 small number, and the state of preservation of those 
 houses which have been discovered, have, however, 
 tended to throw but little lio'ht on the distribution of 
 interiors. Nothing is more subordinate to domestic 
 customs and habits than this part of architecture. 
 What is remarked in the plans of these houses is, a 
 very simple and almost uniform distribution. At the 
 villa of Pompeii, however, the studied and skilful 
 application of ornaments, and the judicious distribu- 
 tion of offices and interior conveniences, make it pre- 
 sumable that this part of comfort and pleasure must 
 have been carried to a great extent, both in town and 
 country houses belonging to wealthy individuals. 
 
 Modern artists concur in the probability of this 
 conjecture, from an examination made of the plans of 
 the villa of Adrian, at Tivoli. The apartments are 
 distributed with the greatest art ; the baths, and all 
 the other conveniences, arc arranged in the most
 
 228 AUCIIITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 diligent and able manner; those rooms which were 
 of a large dimension were li<5hted in a manner very 
 appropriate to the climate ; and with great art accom- 
 modated to the djnereiit hours cf the day during 
 which they were employed. These shapeless ruins 
 prove to us, that the art of distribution, and the luxury 
 of conveniences, were carried to the greatest extent 
 in the Roman empire. 
 
 Vitruvius, treating on this subject, c. 7, b. 6, makes 
 the following observations. The winter triclinium, or 
 dining-room, and the bath, should be situated oppo- 
 site to the winter's declining sun, because its light is 
 there useful; besides, the western sun shining thereon, 
 produces heat, and makes the aspect warm and 
 pleasant in the evening. Bed-chambers and libra- 
 ries should face the east, for in these the morning 
 light is required ; it is also necessary in order that the 
 books in libraries may not decay, for in those that are 
 situated to the south and west they will be damaged 
 by the damp and by the worms which the humid 
 winds generate and nourish. The rooms destined 
 to be employed during spring and autumn, should 
 face the east ; for the windows being then turned 
 from the sun, proceeding westward, render those 
 apartments temperate at the time they are generally 
 employed. The summer dining-room should be situ- 
 ated towards the north, because this aspect is not, 
 like the others, rendered hot at the summer solstice ; 
 for being turned from the course of the sun, it remains 
 always cool, and when used, is salubrious and plea- 
 sant. The same aspect is also the most proper for 
 the pinacotheca, or picture-rooms or galleries, on ac- 
 count of the equality of light.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 229 
 
 The most general observations, as regards aspects 
 in our own country, are, that the south-east is the 
 most esteemed ; and that the south and due east rank 
 next. Again, the south-west is regarded as the most 
 objectionable, because the rains proceed more from 
 that point than from any other. An aspect due north 
 or west, has equally a disadvantage ; the former from 
 being deprived of the sun, and the latter by being 
 incommoded with it, during a considerable portion of 
 the day. 
 
 Distribution is intimately connected with the cli- 
 mate, customs, social habits, and the precedents of 
 ostentation and vanity; and if these differ in each age 
 and nation, it is difficult to conceive how this part of 
 architecture can be submitted to rule, or any positive 
 examples be proposed. One point only can be agreed 
 upon, which is conveniency ; as this doubtless consti- 
 tutes the base of distribution. Nevertheless, even 
 conveniency is local and dependent on habit ; which 
 differing every where, mu^t necessarily produce dif- 
 ferent results. 
 
 A summary of the different opinions of those who 
 have treated on this subject, more particularly as re- 
 gards residences, is contained in the following general 
 remarks. 
 
 A building ought to present itself in an advanta- 
 geous manner, and have a good entrance. 
 
 The best situation for the body of the house, is 
 between (if it is intended that there should be each 
 of these) the court and garden. 
 
 The offices and stahles should be placed in such a 
 manner that the apartments may not be incommoded ; 
 which may be avoided by placing them so as to range
 
 230 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 with each side of the court. One of these sides, that 
 on which the offices are placed, should be connected 
 by a passage or vestibule that leads to the dining- 
 room ; in order that the service of the table may be 
 conveniently attended to. 
 
 Irregularity in the forms of the different rooms or 
 apartments should be avoided : it ought only to be 
 permitted when its application to some detailed part 
 may procure a greater space or more desirable situa- 
 tion to any of the principal apartments. 
 
 When, in a spacious mansion, it is intended to form 
 an extensive range of apartments, it is necessary to 
 avoid placing any rooms destined for the use of 
 servants in the same range. 
 
 In interior as in exterior distribution, symmetry 
 ought generally to be observed, except in some cases 
 of interior distribution ; on which occasions the neces- 
 sary relation of the opposite sides should be judi- 
 ciously arranged. 
 
 It is an indispensable rule, that the interior distribu- 
 tion accord with the exterior decoration. 
 
 In concluding this subject, which, as before re- 
 marked, forms one of the most important parts of 
 architecture, it may not be superfluous to offer some 
 further observations. If a vestibule, gallery, or any 
 other part, present itself at the entrance of a house or 
 edifice of more than one story, the staircase ought to 
 be conspicuously situated, and the distribution of each 
 story should be so judiciously conceived and arranged, 
 that the landing may afford the greatest facility to 
 each principal or private room or apartment. But as 
 this subject will not admit of a detailed indication, it 
 is necessary, before forming plans of the distribution
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 231 
 
 of either public or private edifices or buildings, to 
 ascertain the particulars of all that is required, the 
 general and detailed relations of locality ; and of the 
 situation, ^vhich is no less essential, so as to profit by 
 the different prospects that may present themselves 
 from the interior, as also for the aspect of the exterior. 
 For a judicious composition of a plan cannot be ex- 
 pected to result from an inaccurate knowledge of the 
 desired conveniences, or an inadequate study of the 
 advantages or disadvantages of the site. To effect 
 this desirable end, no design should be attempted 
 without previously forming a correct and detailed 
 memorandum of all the exigencies. 
 
 OF DOMES. 
 
 Before proceeding to pass any observations on the 
 nature and employment of the dome, it will, perhaps, 
 be necessary to give a history of the form and appli- 
 cation to which the arch was subjected amongst the 
 ancients, and afterwards that which it presents in the 
 middle ages ; and lastly, the differences it underwent, 
 in its form and application, on its introduction into 
 modern architecture. 
 
 The generality of writers who have visited Egypt, 
 agree as to there being no indication of a real arch 
 amongst the constructions of that country. There 
 are, however, many examples that present a kind of 
 essay or rude attempt at this method of construction. 
 In the pyramids are found a species of raised ceilings, 
 vvhich terminate in a point by means of stones, which
 
 232 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 are laid flat, and project the one over the other. The 
 uppermost, or centre stone, instead of forming a 
 key, that is to say, being dressed conically, is laid flat 
 upon the others, without forming any stay whatever 
 to the superior part of the masonry. All the different 
 erections of the same period, which present this form 
 in their construction, offer the same arrangements. 
 Pliny, in speaking of the repairs which the subter- 
 rains of the labyrinth had undergone, employs the 
 word fornex, which is applicable to straight ceilings. 
 The remains of a bridge over a canal leading to 
 Coptos, exhibits flat stones of considerable length, 
 extended from one pier to th^ other. Those disco- 
 vered by Pocock, are of a date posterior to the ar- 
 rival of the Greeks in that country; and the arch 
 spoken of by Lucus, was erected at the decline of the 
 Roman empire. 
 
 As the climate of Egypt accorded well with the 
 early custom of forming excavations, and subterra- 
 neous constructions, so likewise it was very favourable 
 to those which were afterwards erected in imitation 
 of the same type and slyle. The employment of flat 
 coverings is also justified by the absence of rain, 
 which is substituted by the periodical overflow of the 
 Nile. In constructing the coverings of galleries, slabs 
 of stone were used ; extending in one piece from the 
 columns to the wall. The temples do not appear to 
 have been composed of interiors requiring immense 
 coverings ; and, indeed, independent of the practices 
 which were already established, the scarcity of wood 
 in this country must have prevented its extensive 
 employment in their edifices. 
 
 The inclined carpentry, on the contrary, with which
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 283 
 
 the constructions of Greece were surmounted, gave 
 rise to the pediment ; and in like manner the arched 
 covering was suggested by the roof. Hence we may 
 account for their absence in Egypt. In the last-men- 
 tioned country, the soffits of the ceilings present only 
 a smooth surface, without indication, as in Greece, of 
 the framing of the carpentry producing compartments. 
 This indication of the employment of wood particu- 
 larly characterizes this part of tlie Grecian architec- 
 ture. Its absence sufficiently proves that of the 
 material in the model of the Egyptian architecture. 
 
 Carpentry affords simple and economical means of 
 uniting; under one coverins: the most extensive inte- 
 riors ; and this being once established by necessity, 
 the natural progress of ideas must have endeavoured 
 to replace it, by constructions more solid and durable. 
 That the Greeks have constructed what we de- 
 signate rotundas is beyond a doubt, as also that they 
 have employed carpentry to cover similar interiors. 
 The Odeon furnishes us with an example. Pausanias 
 describes a circular edifice named Philippeum, erected 
 in honour of Philip, king of Macedonia, the covering 
 of which was likewise of wood ; having at its summit 
 a species of ornament of bronze, to which the ends of 
 the rafters were secured. The same writer makes 
 mention of a circular structure at Epidaurus, the whole 
 of wliich was constructed of white marble. Also of 
 another of the same form and materials, but of a more 
 ancient date, at Orchomenos ; covered with an he- 
 mispherical arch, or what is termed a cupola of 
 stone; having its key of the same material. Thus 
 hemispherical arches were constructed in Greece, not 
 only of wood, but of stone. 
 
 2 II
 
 234 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 This manner of construction was afterwards adopted 
 at Rome, and, as forming a part in the thermae, pa- 
 laces, &c. received new modifications, which gave 
 rise to arches presenting other forms than those which 
 had hitherto been employed. Such were the sur- 
 based arch (testudo), the hemispherical arch, applied 
 to elliptical and octagonal plans with pendentives 
 (hemisphserium), and the arch with lunettes, or groins 
 (camera lunelata). The employment of this last 
 species became indispensable in the construction of 
 immense interiors requiring large openings for the 
 admission of light; the windows naturally being in- 
 scribed within the space formed by the intersecting 
 arches. There is no example of this description of 
 arch on an extensive scale, anterior to the construc- 
 tion of what is commonly, though doubtfully, named 
 the Temple of Peace. The same species was Hkewise 
 employed in the thermae. 'I'hose bearing the name 
 of Dioclesian are the best preserved. The great 
 saloon in the centre of this thermae exists in its entire 
 state, and is used at the present time as a church. 
 If this construction be minutely examined, the germ 
 and principle of the pointed, or what is more gene- 
 rally termed the Gothic arch, to which such trivial 
 and improbable origins have been assigned, may be 
 discovered. This saloon is covered by a groined arch 
 or vault; the springing points of which are supported 
 by eight granite columns, which decorate it sides. 
 The whole of this vaulted covering is composed of 
 three large compartments, formed by a longitudinal 
 and transversal, or by intersecting arches. 
 
 This example, which has been selected in prefer- 
 ence to any other, on account of its being moie
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 235 
 
 generally known, may serve to show, that necessity 
 aione, which requires that extensive interiors be con- 
 structed after this solid manner, suggested long before 
 the time of the Gothic, the system of intersecting 
 arches. By comparing the naves of Gothic churches 
 with the above-mentioned example, no other differ- 
 ence will be found than what results from the nature 
 and employment of the materials. The springing 
 points of the arches of the thermae rise from cohimns, 
 in the same manner that Gothic arches rest upon 
 pillars. 
 
 We shall now resume our researches into the 
 alterations that the forms and employment of the 
 hemispherical arch of the ancients underwent, in its 
 application in modern architecture, from the restora- 
 tion of the arts to the present time. 
 
 The general form of the antique temples, saj^s M. 
 Quatremere, is that of a parallelogram. But a con- 
 siderable number were erected that were circular in 
 their plan. This last-mentioned form appears more 
 particularly to have been observed in temples dedi- 
 cated to certain divinities, such as Vesta, Sybilla, 
 Bacchus, &c. The most celebrated, and also the best 
 preserved, of the antique rotundas, is that at Rome 
 which bears the name of the Pantheon, supposed to 
 have been dedicated to all the deities. The ancients 
 executed no edifices, cither of a curvilineal, or any 
 other form, presenting the particular character which 
 distinguishes the modern cupolas or domes from the 
 antique rotundas. The worship of the ancients con- 
 sisted of sacrifices, followed by torrefactions, libations, 
 and many other customs, which from the smoke, odour, 
 and cleansino^s, that attended (hem, would have been
 
 2S6 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 insupportable in the interior of a confined edifice, and 
 which alone could he practised in the open air. Thus 
 a temple amongst the ancients was in reality but a 
 species of sanctuary, generally of a limited extent, and 
 in some cases without covering. The sacrifices were 
 made at the front of the temple, in an inclosurc which 
 was often of great extent, and by which it was sur- 
 rounded. It is even doubtful whether the rotundas, 
 or other edifices of this kind, have been temples. The 
 Pantheon is suspected, and not without great proba- 
 bility, as having formed part of the thermae of A grip- 
 pa. It is the only one of the saloons that has escaped 
 destruction, amongst all those whose remains are ap- 
 proximately situated, and the great total of whose 
 plan is known to the generality of artists. 
 
 The difference of the mode of worship introduced 
 by the Christian religion, required interiors of a suf- 
 ficient extent to contain the number of those who 
 attended the ceremonies; and as instruction formed a 
 principal portion of that worship, it became necessary 
 that the limits of their extent should be such as to 
 admit of the minister being heard by all the indivi- 
 duals present. Amongst all the ancient edifices, none 
 presented a form so well adapted for that which was 
 required as the basilica, whose spacious interiors were 
 proportionate to the nature of the ceremonies. The 
 disposition of their plans being in the form of the letter 
 T was alone sufficient, independently of their analogy 
 with the sign of Christianity, to cause the form of a 
 cross to be adopted in the plans of the first churches 
 afterwards erected. 
 
 The desire which they manifested to retrace in this 
 form the sign which was the principal object of their
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 237 
 
 veneration, caused them to depart from time to time, 
 from the simplicity of the basiHca, by the addition of 
 a transversal nave crossing the principal nave at riffht 
 angles. This point of the intersection of the two 
 naves, presenting itself from all parts of the edifice, 
 necessarily formed one of its most prominent features. 
 And if the custom of placing the principal altar in this 
 situation was for a time undetermined, it was because 
 time had sanctioned its anterior disposition in the 
 semicircular recess at the extremity of the edifice ; 
 whence the construction of a plan thus disposed, na- 
 turally conduced to the decoration of this part in a 
 particular manner, and which could not fail to foster 
 and give rise to the idea of erecting domes or cupolas. 
 
 The first cupola with pendentives, after the antique 
 constructions, was that of St. Sophia, at Constanti- 
 nople, which exhibits the progression observed in pro- 
 ductions of this kind. It cannot be positively asserted 
 that this dome is situated precisely in the centre of a 
 cross, as the four branches have not the extent which 
 it has since been customary to give to naves; in other 
 respects the exterior form of this edifice is square, 
 except that one of the parts is prolonged more than 
 the others, and terminated by a hemicycle, wherein 
 the altar was placed. 'J'he first employment of pen- 
 dentives, as forminjT a portion of the base of a cupola, 
 is not of modern invention ; the antique presents us 
 with an example in a saloon of the thermae Caracalla^ 
 the plan of which forms an octagon having eight pen- 
 dentives, constituting a part of the base of the hemi- 
 spherical arch with which it was covered. 
 
 The church of St. Mark, at Venice, which is sup- 
 posed by some to have been formed from that of St.
 
 238 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 Sophia, at Constantinople, expresses in its plan the 
 form of a cross still more distinctly. In reality there 
 is but little similarity between the flat curved cupola 
 of St. Sophia, and the five domes which rise in so sin- 
 gular a manner above the church of Venice. The 
 plan of St. Sophia is of a form resembling those of the 
 square saloons of the antique thermae ; having a por- 
 tion of its sides decorated with a range of columns, 
 and at each extremity there is a large semicircular 
 niche. The pendentives, which form the circular base 
 of the dome, spring from internal angles. Those of 
 St. Mark are in projection, the principal nave being- 
 intersected by a transversal one at right angles. Last- 
 ly, the greatest similarity which exists between these 
 two edifices, consists in the style of their architecture, 
 and certain parts of their decoration. The cupolas of 
 these two churches, even those of St. Mark's, not- 
 withstanding their elevated curve, present nothing 
 resembling modern domes ; namely, the elevation of a 
 cupola upon a circular basement, forming a tower in- 
 teriorly and exteriorly. 
 
 Passing over the numerous Gothic attempts, such 
 as those at the cathedral of Milan, formed of ogives, 
 the situation of which is announced at the exterior, by 
 a species of decoration rising above the edifice, the 
 cathedral of Pisa presents the first example. If Bus- 
 chetto acquired any degree of fame in the erection of 
 this cathedral, it was not on account of its cupola, 
 which forms so puerile and uninteresting an accessary 
 of an edillce, that in other respects presents so im- 
 portant a feature in the history of architecture, but by 
 the disposition and extent of its naves. 
 
 Brunelischi, who raised the cupola of St. Maria del
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 239 
 
 Fiore, at Florence, was the first that presented the 
 idea of double cupolas, as also their elevated curva- 
 ture ; which has generallj^ been imitated in those since 
 erected. 
 
 The church of the Augustines, situated at Navonnf. 
 Place, at Rome, is supposed by some writers to be th<j 
 earliest example of a dome placed upon a cylindrical 
 body or tower, supported by pendentives, which sprung 
 from between the four arches that united the principal 
 and transverse naves ; yet Constantinople and Venice 
 presented, a long time previous to the erection of the 
 edifice in question, cupolas upon pendentives ; and at 
 Pisa and Florence we see examples of those rai.ed 
 upon a circular basement or tower. The dome of Jie 
 church of the Augustines, above alluded to, has existed 
 but two hundred and eighty years. 
 
 The designs of Bramante, for the erection of St. 
 Peter's, at Rome, were more pure and correct than 
 those of iVIichel Angelo. The unity that exists be- 
 tween the actual dome and the other parts of the 
 church is much admired ; but a more perfect accord 
 would have existed under more simple forms from 
 the designs of Bramante. Being less burthened with 
 details, and more correct in its forms and decorations, 
 though of less dimensions, its proportions would have 
 been greater; and being less ornamented, it would have 
 been richer. Bramante intended to have imitated, in 
 the naves of his church, the Temple of Peace : and the 
 designs which he composed bear testimony to this. 
 The divisions which the total presents arc great and 
 simple ; no useless projection, or complicated lines ; 
 but great and even masses, plainly ornamented, and 
 crowned with an entablature destined to receive the
 
 240 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 spring of the arches. In the plan, details, and also 
 the general form of his cupola, he appears to have 
 borne in mind that of the Pantheon. The simplicity 
 of the immense naves which were to have formed its 
 basement, would have served to increase its intended 
 richness. Bramante so well knew the effect that 
 would result from this opposition, that he sought the 
 same arrangement of contrast at each of the three 
 extremities of the naves, where the colonnades that he 
 adopted would have given great relief and harmony 
 to this vast total, such as it is impossible to obtain by 
 the employment of massives. It is, doubtless, ques- 
 tioned by some, whether Bramante did not sacrifice, 
 in many respects as regards solidity, the possibility of 
 the execution of his plan, to its elegance and regu- 
 larity; as we learn that, after his death, Peruzzi, San- 
 gallo, and Raphaello, were employed to devise the 
 most proper means to be adopted, so as to render the 
 supports of this great edifice of a sufficient consistence 
 in proportion to the masses which they had to sustain. 
 The foundations laid by Bramante were badly and too 
 precipitately executed ; and Michel Angelo, who was 
 afterwards the architect of this edifice, hastened to 
 repair this fault, by strengthening those that were 
 commenced, and devising the necessary means of 
 securing the solidity of those connected with his own 
 designs. He changed the form of the plan of Bra- 
 mante from a Latin to that of a Greek cross, profiting 
 from Brunelischi, by the idea of a double cupola ; to 
 which he proportioned the pillars and pendentives, 
 securing such advantages in each part as the solidity 
 of the construction of the whole required, and also 
 making them subservient to the purposes of decoration.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 21? 
 
 Michel Angelo, more fortunate than Bramante, had 
 successors who adhered to his designs. Vignola and 
 Giacomo della Porta were compelled to follow them 
 with exactness, except in giving a slight increase of 
 elevation to the exterior curvature of the cupola. 
 This production, so astonishing, from the immensity 
 of its dimensions, and the great exertions that its con- 
 struction required, is in its form and proportion, in- 
 teriorly and exteriorly, the most perfect example of its 
 kind that modern architecture presents; notwithstand- 
 ing the puerile and unmeaning, although colossal 
 facade, which serves it as a base. 
 
 Italy soon witnessed the employment of cupolas in 
 almost all the edifices destined for religious purposes, 
 each presenting similar designs to that of the great 
 model at St. Peter's, w^ith the exception, however, of 
 some degree of variety in their construction or decora- 
 tion, which in the present instance does not merit an 
 enumeration. This taste for cupolas also spread itself 
 through the rest of Europe. England and France, 
 almost at the same period, entered into competition to 
 rival the fame of modern Rome, in the construction of 
 similar edifices. Sir Christopher Wren erected St. 
 Paul's, whilst Jules-Hardouin Mansard raised that of 
 the Invalidcs ; the first resting its claim on its extent 
 and judicious construction, and the second on the 
 magnificence of its decoration. The most striking 
 particularities in the construction of these two cupolas 
 are, that Sir Christopher Wren was the first who 
 formed apertures in the massive pillars of the dome, 
 to serve as a free passage to the side aisles, and Man- 
 sard was the first to produce that effect which arises 
 from the judicious introduction of light, in the dis- 
 
 2 1
 
 242 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 position of the double arches, or calottes, of the cupola 
 which he erected. The latest production of any im- 
 portance of this kind, which will probably be the last, 
 is St. Genevieve's church, at Paris. This example 
 offers no remarkable differences in its conception from 
 those already enumerated, except that its total, in- 
 cluding the three calottes of its cupola, is constructed 
 of stone ; which will obtain for it a distinguished rank 
 in the history of similar structures. The opinion that 
 this example will probably be the last of its kind is 
 founded on the following- reasoning. To judge of the 
 invention and employment of modern cupolas or domes 
 from the prodigious expense which they incur, from 
 the exertions that their construction requires, and the 
 emulation that has induced the different nations of 
 Europe to dispute the point of daringness, elevation, 
 and magnificence, in productions of this species ; or 
 from the sentiments of admiration and the keenness of 
 the different critiques that this subject has in turn 
 called forth, would lead us to believe that their com- 
 position constitutes the great principle of the power of 
 architecture, and that this discovery was wanting to 
 complete the fame of the ancients. And again, that 
 such a cupola as might present the various beauties 
 contained in the finest works of this description, would 
 form the point of supreme knowledge and of beauty in 
 the art. Other critiques on this ambitious mode of 
 construction, by developing all the vices which it has 
 introduced into modern architecture, would induce us 
 to infer, that this pretended achievement has rather 
 wasted the resources of the art than increased its 
 dominion. In reality, say they, what has architecture 
 profited by this introduction of forms, masses, and
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 243 
 
 constructions, whose union is unnecessary, and im- 
 mensely expensive ? Did not the ancients construct 
 vast interiors, as the naves of the basihcas ; the pro- 
 portions of which, both as regards their elevation and 
 extent, were prodigious? Did they not construct 
 rotundas of a superior dimension to those of the 
 moderns? What then has this conjunction of the 
 basilicas with rotundas produced ? Nothing, except 
 churches of a more imperfect design, and rotundas 
 less solid. And further, what signifies this imposition 
 of one edifice upon another ? And what object is 
 gained by this circular edifice being placed upon one 
 that is square ? 
 
 These objections, say the opposite party, are only 
 specious. If the ancients have not united these two 
 descriptions of buildings, which they separately em- 
 ployed in the formation of their edifices, it was be- 
 cause the uses to which their temples were employed, 
 rendered it impossible to draw thence the idea of 
 such a union. As regards this species of superfeta- 
 tion, which is considered as a pleonasm of intention, 
 why not make the same objections to the repetition 
 of stories, or any part which crowns another? When 
 the disposition of two naves which traverse each 
 other appear to require decoration, so as to conceal 
 their intersection; when the possibility presents itself 
 of deriving, by means of this disposition, a mass of 
 imposing and magic light, and also of presenting an 
 opportunity for the employment of a composition 
 offering the grandest effects that architecture has ever 
 produced; when the sight, which rests with pleasure 
 upon pyramidal forms, and the imagination, which no 
 less delights in all that bears the character of great-
 
 2 1 1 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 ness and boldness of enterprise, seem to require some- 
 thing to surmount the summit of our sacred edifices, 
 whose aerial elevations may ascend towards the 
 Divinity to whom they are dedicated. What mean 
 then these timid and confined ideas ? Is it not allowable 
 to elevate above any part which will serve as a base 
 all that it is capable of supporting ? and except the 
 limits of possibility, is it not imagination that ought to 
 determine the bounds which the artist should observe, 
 rather than judgment deduced from the principles of 
 the art? 
 
 All these considerations have doubtless their value, 
 particularly with those who appreciate architecture 
 according to their caprice rather than from practical 
 judgment; and who seek greatness in excess of di- 
 mension, in preference to justness of proportion. To 
 gain, however, a just knowledge of the causes that 
 propagated the employment of cupolas, it may be ob- 
 served, that they rest on two precedents. 
 
 The first of these precedents may be traced to the 
 taste transmitted by the Gothic mode of construction, 
 in the employment of the antique architecture, at its 
 revival by the moderns. When the secret of true 
 sublimity and beauty was lost to the arts, and artists 
 were ignorant of the means whereby real greatness is 
 produced, they employed their imaginations to effect 
 such designs as appeared marvellous and gigantic. 
 They believed, that on increasing the decoration, or 
 multiplying the ornaments, applied to any object, de- 
 pended its degree of beauty; and that to exceed in 
 greatness, it was necessary to exceed in height. It 
 was at this period that the fa9ades, towers, roofs, and 
 belfries of churches, disputed, with each other the
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 245 
 
 merit of elevation ; their reputation being established 
 accordino; to their heio^ht. So that when the taste 
 created by the purity of the antique began to manifest 
 itself, and to redeem the then existing architecture 
 from all these prejudices, which are in opposition to 
 the judgment of an enlightened mind, the only one 
 which it was found impossible to overcome was this 
 prodigious height of construction, employed in the 
 erection of churches. If an edifice had been raised 
 at this period, possessing in its architecture all pos- 
 sible merit, it would, from the power of habit, have 
 been regarded as the timid production of a dege- 
 nerated style of the art, if its extent did not equal that 
 of the Gothic naves. Hence it became necessary to 
 continue to erect these prodigies of elevation, in order 
 to insure the public opinion in their favour. When 
 the orders of architecture are employed, it is neces- 
 sary to adhere to the respective proportions which 
 they prescribe; but if these are not considered to 
 present sufficient solidity as points of supports to 
 arches of an extended diameter, arcades with columns 
 offer themselves, affording at the same time a regu- 
 larity of decoration, together with that solidity which 
 is requisite for supporting, even at the highest degree 
 of elevation, the most extensive constructions. They 
 also present the means of surpassing in height, great- 
 ness, and solidity, the Gothic style ; without the aid of 
 that multiplicity of buttresses that prop its elevations. 
 
 It was from being habituated to behold the appen- 
 dages, spires, towers, points, pinnacles, &c., elevated 
 ill the air, so as to present themselves at a distance, 
 that the idea of domes was suggested, to replace 
 these objects, by preseming the same advantages:
 
 246 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 and it was adopted with emulation by all those cities, 
 the inhabitants of whicii were desirous of establishing 
 the reputation of their churches. 
 
 The second precedent that gave rise to the employ- 
 ment of domes was, the form that was given to 
 churches. The use that the early Christians made 
 of the basilicas, for the public celebration of the mys- 
 teries of their religion, might have in some degree 
 concurred to give those which were afterwards 
 erected the form of a cross ; but it appears certain, 
 that at this period they studied to represent as often, 
 and in as many situations and forms as possible, the 
 sign expressive of their newly-established religion ; 
 and that, whether it was due to chance in the com- 
 mencement, or to invention afterwards, the form of a 
 cross became the characteristic of the plans of the 
 churches of Christianity. It was doubtless the idea 
 of uniting the principal and transverse naves at a 
 common point by an imposing decoration, that gave 
 rise to this employment of cupolas ; which produce 
 many reflections in an enlightened judgment, that the 
 repeated application of these objects cannot fail to call 
 forth. Was it, however, really deserving of so much 
 trouble and expense, to avoid, in the interior dispo- 
 sitions of churches, the defect occasioned by the point 
 of intersection of the naves, to conceal which the 
 cupola is said to have been employed ? Would it not 
 have been more effectual to have avoided this defect, 
 by adopting a more simple form of plan ? Was this 
 form of a cross prescribed in such a manner that it 
 could not be renounced ? Do not a multitude of ex- 
 amples prove the choice of the forms most suitable 
 for Christian churches to b^perfectly free ? What a
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 24"7 
 
 sacrifice of expense this disposition of the form of a 
 cross incurred, whilst, at the same time, it produces 
 less effect than might otherwise have been obtained ; 
 for if the expense occasioned by the transverse nave, 
 which presents an insignificant addition, had been 
 employed in enlarging or embellishing the principal 
 nave, how many advantages would have been gained, 
 both as regards unity, and all the other qualities 
 which serve to perfect the art ! 
 
 Since the time that these prejudices lost a portion 
 of their influence, true greatness has been acknow- 
 ledged to exist in proportions, and not in dimensions ; 
 and the pure and rich style of the antique ordon- 
 nances have replaced the massive piers of the mo- 
 derns, which are of considerable dimensions, and 
 present few openings. Thus it was discovered that 
 the construction of cupolas must necessarily be re- 
 nounced ; and the more the antique style was intro- 
 duced in the composition of churches, the more this 
 unnecessary combination Tthat incurs an expense equal 
 to ten churches constructed according to the laws of 
 correct taste, and offering in their place but one, and 
 that imperfect,) has fallen into disrepute. The most 
 striking proofs of the want of solidity in certain 
 cupolas has, perhaps, further contributed to suppress 
 their employment. The most noted of all, th it of St. 
 Peter's, has occupied, during half a century, the con- 
 tinued care and inspection of several architects, by 
 exhibiting in its construction many very considerable 
 rents. Bortaii, more than any other, applied liimself 
 to discover the means by which the security of this 
 edifice might be insured, and declared the generality 
 of similar constructions t^'be liable to the same disad-
 
 248 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 vantages. If time and experience prove, independent 
 of any opinion on this subject, that this description of 
 constructions is subject to an incurable evil, can any 
 reasonable mind confide the fame of a nation on a 
 species of construction which, although it incurs the 
 most enormous expense, contains in its very nature 
 the germ of destruction ? The greatest advantage of 
 architecture is in the property it possesses of immor- 
 talizing the genius of the nation that has employed it. 
 It is surely necessary, therefore, in important national 
 edifices, to be assured of their duration. Indeed, the 
 pleasure derived from the appearance of edifices is 
 more dependent than is generally imagined on the 
 idea which is formed of their solidity. Numerous 
 other observations might be made on the nature of 
 these constructions, as regards the want of unity they 
 occasion in the interior of churches, in the form of a 
 Latin cross ; and also the dissonance and want of 
 Iiarmony of their exterior, which presents a circular 
 edifice, elevated, or apparently situated, upon the roof, 
 or above the pediment of the peristyle of a quadran- 
 gular edifice, which serves it as a basement. It is 
 reserved for the judgment of others to determine how 
 far these considerations may be applied to the em- 
 ployment of cupolas. And without attempting to 
 prescribe to what extent, as regards an exact imita- 
 tion, the form and disposition of the ancient basilicas 
 may with propriety be followed in the composition of 
 our churches, it is, hovvever, manifest that they ought 
 not to be lost sight of If designed after this manner, 
 they would present a regularity in their plan, joined 
 to a nobleness in their elevation; and the talented 
 artist would find himself enabled, bv following: this
 
 A COMPARATIVE TABLE OF THE PROPORTIONS OF THE MOST CONSIDERABLE CUPOLAS, 
 
 CONSTRUCTED IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES, AND AT DIFFERENT ElOCHS, FROM THE EARLIEST TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 FIRST EPOCH. 
 
 ntiqu* Cupolas, constructed preiious to the reign of Constantin 
 
 NAMES OF THE CUPOLAS, 
 j4nd of the Cities in which they are situated. 
 
 ROME. 
 Cupola of the Pantheon 
 
 Cupola or the Temple or Mioerva-Medica. whose 
 plan presents a regular polygon often sides . ., 
 
 PUZZUOLI. 
 
 Cupola of a Temple of Diana 
 
 Cupola of a Temple of Venus 
 
 ROME. 
 
 Cuoola of an Antique Temple, at the present time 
 forniiag a part of the Church of SS. Cosma, e 
 Dan-.iano 
 
 Cupola of a Temple of Bacchus, now the* Church 
 of S. Conntanza 
 
 Cupola of the Circular Saloon belonging to' ihe 
 Therms of Caracalla. taken from the existing 
 ruins, and th** restorations of Palladio 
 
 Cupola. Circilur with pendentives, in aa octagon 
 I'-on oflhe last-menlionpd Therm® 
 
 Cupola of a round Saloon of the Therms of Diocle- 
 sian. now thr Church ut S. Benardo . . 
 
 Cupola of am ther of the same Thermae, at present 
 Tving as Vestibule to the Churck 
 
 Interior dia- 
 meter, taken 
 at the spring 
 oflhe cupola 
 
 Height of the 
 
 nterior, taken 
 
 from the 
 
 the edifice to 
 the summit 01 
 border of the 
 
 aperture 
 of the cupola, 
 
 Period 
 at which 
 
 pleted. 
 
 Cupolas constructed fn 
 
 SECOND EPOCH. 
 
 I the reign of Const&ntine to the time oj Bramante. 
 
 NAMES OF THE CUPOLAS. 
 And of the Ciiiu in which they are situated 
 
 RAVENNA. 
 
 Cupola of S. Maria della Rotonda, at the environ 
 of Ravenna, formed of an excavation made i 
 one solid block of Istria stone 
 
 Cupola of S. Vitale 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 Cupola of S. Sofia 
 
 VENICE. 
 
 Cupola af S. Marco ; that in the centre 
 
 The four others of the same church 
 
 SIENNA. 
 Cupola of II Duomo 
 
 FLORENCE. 
 
 Cupola of S. Maria del Fiore 
 
 Cupola of the Chapel di Medicis 
 
 Cupola of the Baptistery of Florence 
 
 MILAN. 
 Cupola of II Duomo 
 
 Interior dia- 
 meter, taken 
 at the spring 
 ofthecupola. 
 
 border of the 
 
 aperture 
 of tnecAipola. 
 
 THIRD EPOCH. 
 
 Modern Cupolas, constructed from ihe time of Bramante to the present day. 
 
 NAMES OP THE CUPOLAS, 
 And of the Cities in which they are situated. 
 
 ROME. 
 Cupola' projected by Bramante for St. Peter's .... 
 
 Cupola of the Tempietto di Bramante 
 
 Cupola of Madonna di Loretto 
 
 Cupola ofSt Peter's, asexecuted byMichel Angelo 
 
 Cupola of S. Agnese. in Piazza Navona 
 
 Cupola of the Church del Gesu 
 
 Cupola of S, Maria, in Vallicetia 
 
 Cupola of S. Luca, e S. Martina 
 
 Cupola of S. Andrea deila Valle 
 
 Cupola of S. Carlo al Corso 
 
 Cupola of S. Maria in Portico 
 
 PLASENCIA. 
 
 Cupola of S. Agostino 
 
 VENICE. 
 Cupola of a Church at Trevigiaoo. by Palladio. . . . 
 
 Cupola ofS. Giorgio Maggiore 
 
 Cupola de;ie Zitelle 
 
 Cupola of II Redentore 
 
 Cupola della Madonna della Salute 
 
 NAPLES. 
 
 Cupola of S Filippo 
 
 TURIN 
 
 Cupola of S. Lorenzo 
 
 Cupola della Superga - 
 
 PALERMO. 
 
 Cupola of S. Giuseppe 
 
 Cupola of S. Micbele 
 
 LONDON. 
 
 Cupola of St. Paul's 
 
 PARIS. 
 
 Cupola des Invalldes 
 
 Cupola of S. Genevieve 
 
 Interior dia- 
 meter, taken 
 at the spring 
 ofthecupola. 
 
 Height of thi 
 Interior, taken 
 
 from the 
 pavement o 
 
 or border of 
 
 the aperture 
 
 of the interior 
 
 cupola. 
 
 Period 
 at which 
 
 1507 
 
 1580 
 1660 
 1578 
 1599 
 166S 
 1607 
 1664 
 1665 
 
 1560 
 1566 
 1570 
 1580 
 1640 
 
 1664 
 1731 
 
 I of the different i 
 
 arranged according to the earliest period at which the construction of the edifices they contAii
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 249 
 
 form and disposition, to produce, not only beauty in 
 their interior, but also that ma2:nificence at their ex- 
 terior, of which the antique temples have left us such 
 imposing examples. In concluding this article, it will^ 
 perhaps, be no less interesting than useful to present 
 a comparative table of the different heights and 
 diameters of the most celebrated antique and modern 
 cupolas. 
 
 METHOD OF TRACING THE COMPARTMENTS OF CUPOLAS. 
 PLATE LI. 
 
 From the centre A, fig. 1, describe the arc BDC 
 likewise from the centre A, fig. 2, trace the plan BC, 
 and determine the number and proportion of the 
 compartments and their intervals, which must be 
 prolonged to the centre A ; afterwards trace the 
 inteivals, or horizontal divisions BP, QV, &c., fig. 1, 
 which, by drawing lines from each of these points 
 parallel to the line AD, and being prolonged to the 
 line AB, fig. 2, will give the circular divisions in the 
 plan. In like manner the curved lines in the eleva- 
 tion are obtained, by raising perpendiculars from each 
 determined point of the lines in the plan which tends 
 towards the centre, bisecting the horizontal lines of 
 the elevation. Fig. 3, is a development of the pro- 
 portions of the ornaments and intervals of the com- 
 partments. For the details, see pi 55. 
 
 2k
 
 if 50 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOI^. 
 
 OF DECORATION 
 
 If architecture be examined, independently of the 
 science of building or construction, it presents itself 
 to our view under the special relation of decoration. 
 Indeed architecture, when thus considered, is the art 
 of embellishing constructions, and of creating pleasure 
 to man, through the medium of the forms commanded 
 by necessity. To accomplish this, it employs two 
 principal means. The first of these is the art of pro- 
 portion, the second that of ornament. 
 
 Although proportion is the first, and one of the 
 most sure means that architecture employs to create 
 pleasure, yet, as it requires considerable knowledge 
 to appreciate the just proportions of approximate 
 forms, the effect produced will be dependent on the 
 understanding of the observer. Indeed, though there 
 can be no judicious decoration without proportion, 
 the latter is not ordinarily considered amongst the 
 means to be employed in decoration. 
 
 The second means is the art of combining orna- 
 ments, and of disposing them so as to form a part in 
 the general system, in the total, and in the particular 
 qualities suitable to each edifice. 
 
 Such is the art of decoration. It presents an archi- 
 tect with means, by the judicious application of which 
 he is enabled to give to an edifice a specific expres- 
 sion, and to inscribe upon it the character appropriate 
 to its uses. 
 
 Independently of the resources which form an 
 architectural ordonnance, decoration compreiiends 
 those which are presented ^y sculpture, and which
 
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 .v^XL'
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 25 i 
 
 are equally applicable to the exterior and interior 
 parts of edifices ; and those which may be derived 
 from painting'. The resources of decoration are 
 indeed so considerable, that they may be said to 
 comprise even a part of the means employed in 
 construction, and to exercise some degree of power 
 over the quality of the materials. 
 
 But all these means, far from serving to characterize 
 edifices, or to make their uses distinguishable,^ become 
 only the instruments of confusion, if their application 
 be not directed by an enlightened understanding. 
 
 Decoration in itself is the art of appropriately em- 
 ploying the ornamental resources of architecture; and 
 as richness in architecture is one of the signs repre- 
 sentative of power, greatness, and majesty, to employ 
 the same species or proportion of richness or decora- 
 tion to all edifices, would be a manifest and glaring 
 impropriety. It must be evident, therefore, that an 
 architect is not at liberty to employ these resources 
 indiscriminately ; and that the nature of each edifice 
 indicates the kind and the proportion of decoration 
 which appropriately belongs to it. 
 
 Considered in its partial resources, or in its details, 
 decoration is a language the signs and expressions of 
 which ought to present a precise signification, capable 
 of conveying to the mind the intended ideas. With- 
 out this, it forms but an unintelligible jargon, com- 
 posed of puerile and insignificant formules, or of signs 
 that are mute to the mind ; the capricious and fortui- 
 tous distribution of which is calculated only to attract 
 the sight, at the expense of shocking the under- 
 standing. 
 
 It is in vain that the arti>t possesses the most
 
 252 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 energetic means of expressing his ideas, and of giving 
 to his edifices a species of visible, though mute elo- 
 quence, in the resources of decoration; unless he 
 endeavours to attain that intelligence, which is re- 
 quisite to profit ably by those resources. 
 
 The origin of decoration, taken generally, may be 
 deduced from the passion for variety, and that ad- 
 miration of beautiful forms so natural to man, which 
 impelled him to devise the means of multiplying and 
 varying his sensations, and consequently of increasing 
 the sources of his pleasure and happiness. 
 
 The utility of decoration becomes manifest from a 
 consideration of the necessity of characterizing edi- 
 fices, according to the ends for which they may be 
 designed. To construct a prison and a palace alike, 
 is an absurdity that needs but to be mentioned to be 
 admitted ; and to say that because the decoration and 
 construction of the one is characterized by largeness 
 of division, and whatever may contribute to the ap- 
 pearance of strength, &c., the other ought not to be 
 characterized by elegance of form and proportion, and 
 richness of decoration, would be to deny the utility of 
 architectural character in buildings, and to destroy 
 one of the most classical sources of pleasure which 
 this art possesses. Hence two general rules may be 
 inferred. First, that decoration ought at least to 
 appear necessary. Secondly, that it ought to employ 
 only such objects as are in relation with the general 
 design to which they are applied. 
 
 In saying that decoration ought at least to appear 
 to be necessary, is meant, that all the parts of edifices 
 cannot be considered as being alike susceptible of 
 receiving ornaments.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 253 
 
 By a necessary decoration is understood, that just 
 application of ornaments, the absence of which would 
 produce a vacancy in the mind ; and the presence of 
 which tends to express the nature of the object to 
 which it is applied, by developing its character, in a 
 direct appeal to the sense of sight. It derives the 
 motives of its inventions or combinations from the 
 particular properties of that which it is intended to 
 embellish, or from the circumstances relating to them ; 
 and it draws its objects, and the necessity of varying 
 them, from three sources, which it is important should 
 be well understood ; namely from the passion for 
 variety, from analogy, and from allegory. Indeed, in 
 the decoration of the antique architecture, which of 
 all others is the best systematized, there may be 
 found a considerable number of forms and details for 
 which no other apology can be offered than that of 
 the pleasure which is produced by the variety. 
 There is an effect which ornaments of all kinds pro- 
 duce in architecture; it is that of multiplying and of 
 strenfjthening the impressions which they are capable 
 of exciting in the mind, by the variety in their forms 
 and application. These impressions depend on the qua- 
 lities which are developed in decoration, and which 
 may be reduced to those of greatness, harmony, rich- 
 ness, and variety. Indeed, it must be evident, that 
 the absence or presence of ornaments in architecture, 
 like colours in painting, modify the appearance of the 
 total ; and give to an edifice all the variety of expres- 
 sion that our minds arc capable of receiving. The 
 disposition of the objects employed in decoration, is 
 another means which contributes to the production of 
 agreeable sensations. A judicions arrangement of
 
 254 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 decorative objects, resulting from a correct taste in 
 forming combinations, and an adequate conception of 
 order and harmony, cannot fail to produce corres- 
 ponding sensations in the mind of an observer. The 
 details of ornaments form so important a part of the 
 pleasure w^hich results from a perfect accord in an 
 architectural composition, that the effect which would 
 otherwise result from correctness of proportion and 
 harmony of design, may be totally destroyed by the 
 confused application, or the injudicious employment 
 of decorative objects. There are many edifices which 
 would be acknowledged as good architectural pro- 
 ductions, were they stripped of their decorations ; and 
 those decorations replaced by others chosen with 
 judgment, and applied with taste. A beautiful edi- 
 fice may be defined to be an object of harmonious 
 relations of order and disposition. It is essential, 
 however, to its correctness as an architectural pro- 
 duction, that its ornaments be in unison with the order 
 according to which it is constructed ; and it is there- 
 fore important to bear in mind that each of the orders 
 has its appropriate ornaments ; the character of which 
 corresponds to that of its form and proportion. The 
 Doric order, which expresses strength and simplicity 
 will in some instances, admit of ornaments being placed 
 on the contour of its capital, on its frieze, and on dif- 
 ferent mouldings of its cornice ; but they must partake 
 of its general style and proportion. The Ionic, which 
 from its proportions, forms, and modinature, is con- 
 sidered as the medium order, admits of the application 
 of a greater number of lighter and more varied orna- 
 ments on its capital, and the mouldings of its entab- 
 lature. The Corinthian, by a more abundant and
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 255 
 
 diversified employment of all the details of ornaments, 
 on its base, capital, and the other parts of its ordon- 
 nance, establishes such an accord between its pro- 
 portions and forms, that gives it the property of 
 expressing th.e qualities of richness, lightness, and 
 magnificence. 
 
 Sculpture is the great means which architecture 
 employs to decorate its productions. The ornaments 
 wliich are applied to the different parts of an edifice 
 by this means, may be divided into two kinds. The 
 first consists of compartments, which may be sub- 
 divided into large and small, of which tiie former are 
 panels of considerable dimension, arranged with others 
 that are smaller ; the latter is a compartment of much 
 less extent than the former, containing a rose, or other 
 ornament, conformable to its figure ; and which occu- 
 pies the centre of the first It may be employed in 
 the form of a square, lozenge, pentagon, hexagon, 
 octagon, or circle ; and the larger compartment may 
 also assume an equal variety of forms. PI. 55 pre- 
 sents examples adapted both for flat and cylindrical 
 surfaces, together with the details of sculpture appli- 
 cable to this description of ornaments; the enumeration 
 of which may be concluded by referring to pi. 2, 
 fig. II and 12, for examples of those applicable to 
 the sofll^its or platbands of architraves ; and to pi. 21, 
 for those to the soflfits of cornices. 
 
 The second kind of ornaments may also be divided 
 into two species. The first consists of posts, or scrolled 
 foliage, composed of acanthus leaves and flowers, with 
 which genii, tripods, or animals, are sometimes com- 
 bined. These ornaments are generally applied to the 
 hieze of the Ionic and Corinthian entablatures. 'I'o
 
 256 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 this species likewise belong festoons and garlands, 
 composed of flowers and fruits ; which may be em- 
 ployed either together or separately. Sometimes they 
 are simply formed of oak or laurel leaves. Festoons 
 and garlands are applicable to the same parts as 
 scrolled foliage, and may be also adapted to decorate 
 some portion of extensive plain surfaces, such as the 
 faces of walls. This first species of the second kind 
 of ornaments, may be terminated by adding the roses 
 applied to the compartments of ceilings, those which 
 belong to the abacus of the Corinthian capital, and 
 the culots, or masses of upright leaves ; whence the 
 different foliage, in general spring, and may be applied 
 according as the nature of the compositions appear to 
 require them. The last species of ornaments of the 
 second kind are, acanthus, olive, and water-plant 
 leaves ; which possess the particular qualities of not 
 materially altering the forms of the mouldings to which 
 they are applied; and are the cyma, cavetto, and 
 sometimes the talon. This latter moulding is occa- 
 sionally enriched with trefoil, and flower- work, with 
 water-plant leaves. The quarter-round is generally 
 sculptured in oves, or other ornaments presenting a 
 similar appearance, which are ordinarily separated by 
 darts, and on some occasions by small flutings. To 
 the astragal, chaplets or beads are commonly applied, 
 the forms of which are susceptible of a very great 
 variety. The pine apple is the last description of 
 ornament belonging to this species, and is employed 
 to detach dentils at their angle or return. 
 
 It may easily be conceived that it is neither possible 
 nor necessary to give a more particular definition of 
 each of these ornaments, the form of many being
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 257 
 
 sufficiently designated by their own denominations ; 
 a knowledge of which will be more easily and effec- 
 tually obtained by an inspection of the examples 
 presented in pi. 2, fig. 13 and 14; and pi. 20, 21, 
 38, 39, 52, 53, 54, and 55. 
 
 Independently, however, of the possibility of assign- 
 ing any particular origin to some portion of these 
 objects, or the reason of their employment in decora- 
 tion otherwise than from the passion for variety ; it 
 is, nevertheless, required from the artist, that he be 
 capable of making their utility apparent, in the effect 
 which they should produce in the total of architectural 
 compositions. If;, therefore, tne application of these 
 different ornaments be not guided by judgment, and 
 a proper consideration of the relation which ought to 
 exist between the extent of their employment and the 
 destination of an edifice, the true expression of the 
 character of the total will be proportionately injured ; 
 and consequently the general effect, which might 
 otherwise result, be destroyed In order to perfect its 
 decorative language, architecture is obliged to draw 
 upon another source ; and to increase its means of 
 expressing character by an appeal to analogy. The 
 aid of analogy, however, could only have been called 
 in after a considerable diffusion of knowledge, as it 
 was necessary to understand this analogy, or it would 
 fail in its intended effect. This was not the case with 
 simple variety. The language of analogy is progres- 
 sive in its nature, and is not the same in all countries, 
 as it has its origin in the connexion which exists between 
 certain forms and the purposes to which they have been, 
 or are, usually applied. The gloom of a prison is 
 proverbially and inseparably connected with massive 
 
 2 L
 
 258 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 walls and imperfectly lighted apartments; whilst 
 ideas of pomp, magnificence, pleasure, and gaiety, 
 are as inseparably connected with the elegant form 
 and proportion, and the rich decoration of a palace. 
 The idea of pleasure on the one hand becomes asso- 
 ciated with edifices of elegant form and proportion, 
 richly decorated, and beautifully executed ; whilst on 
 the other, the rough-hewn massive walls of a prison 
 are associated with misery, afl^iction, and gloom. Be- 
 tween the two extremes, a palace and a prison, there 
 exists many grades — to characterize which appro- 
 priately, will call forth the judgment of the artist. 
 If it be required that an edifice should express one of 
 the intervening qualities, such a disposition of the 
 parts must be adopted, and such ornaments chosen, 
 as are in unison with the intended eft'ect. The em- 
 ployment of such ornaments as present the most 
 finished execution, and are light in their details, gives 
 rise to that idea of richness, which is a never-failing 
 source of pleasure to the beholder. If, on the con- 
 trary, the intended effect be that of resistance or 
 strength, few ornaments must be admitted ; because 
 that division of the parts which results from their 
 employment weakens the idea of strength, and some- 
 times also reduces that apparent solidity which is 
 necessary to its character. The only ornaments ad- 
 missible in this case are such as present but few 
 details, or that appear to be principally dependent on 
 the construction itself 
 
 The objects of decoration, drawn from the analogy 
 of the primitive constructions of necessity, have in the 
 commencement of this work been sufficiently made 
 known, and therefore require no farther enumeration.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 259 
 
 The bases, shafts, and capitals of columns, parts of ihe 
 entablature, soffits or ceilings, and pediments, bear 
 with them such incontestible marks of their origin, as 
 not to require further proof Thus modinature forms 
 a very important part of architecture, as also one of 
 the bases of decoration, proceeding from the system of 
 analogy, which constitutes the principle of imitation 
 in the art. 
 
 It is doubtless possible, by the scrupulous employ- 
 ment of the indicative types of the origin of the art, 
 to join all the variety that the taste of decoration 
 requires, and, without altering their forms, to multi- 
 ply, almost indefinitely, the shades of character which 
 each edifice ought to receive. The system of archi- 
 tecture, and its division into three styles, proves how 
 capable the forms of necessity are of admitting in their 
 decoration a well-characterized expression — liovv well 
 they are adapted to receive a progressive gradation 
 of richness or simplcity, of variety or uniformity. 
 This constitutes a very intelligible language, the value 
 of which is proportionately enhanced when the artist 
 knows how to express his ideas, and the spectator is 
 able to comprehend them. Ornaments, in the sense 
 in which they have been hitherto considered in this 
 article, are particularly composed of objects sculptured 
 upon mouldings and profiles, and those which are 
 applied to the surfaces of the principal forms of archi- 
 tecture. The effect, however, may be considerably 
 modified in the execution of these kinds of ornaments. 
 Tlicy are a species of characters, the expression of 
 which sculpture is enabled to render more or less 
 striking, by giving to them, in the execution, more or 
 less projection ; tracing them lightly or deep, or
 
 260 
 
 ARCHITECTURAI. DIRECTOR. 
 
 exhibiting in their contours a greater or Jess degree 
 of sharpness, and consequently detaching them with 
 more or less vivacity. Thus all the different shades 
 which may be produced in their effects, contribute, 
 in some measure, to the expression of character. In 
 the execution of ornaments, it is also essential to take 
 into consideration the dimensions or extent of the 
 edifice, and the distance of the parts, intended to be 
 sculptured, from the sight. There is a soft and light, 
 strong and deep, a rough and a finished manner of 
 executing ornaments, which is governed, like that of 
 statues, by their dimensions and the point of sight. 
 
 Another great source whence architecture has 
 enriched its decorative powers, and draws its most 
 numerous and best adapted means of hieroglyphic 
 expression, is allegory. 
 
 Allegory is the simple and natural language of the 
 imitative arts, which convey their meaning through 
 the medium of signs and figures. From the applica- 
 tion which architecture makes of this language of the 
 arts, and the symbols which it affords, the most 
 abundant means are obtained of giving to the deco- 
 ration of edifices, as determined a signification and 
 distinct property, as is possessed by, each of the arts 
 from which those means are drawn. 
 
 The resources which allegory presents in decoration, 
 are such as enable an architect to characterize all 
 species of compositions by its symbols. It is in its 
 decorative appropriations that architecture becomes 
 a powerful auxiliary and handmaid to history. It 
 explains thereby the general and particular object for 
 which an edifice was destined ; informing us of the 
 moral or physical purpose for which it was employed.
 
 A.KCH1TECTUKAL DIRECTOR, 261 
 
 Allegorical decoration is more expressive than all tlie 
 inscriptive matter which it may be possible to make 
 use of. 
 
 When the suitable compositions employed in the 
 decoration of an edifice have been drawn from alle- 
 gory, we are enabled even from its ruins, to discover 
 its original destination. How many of the antique 
 edifices would have sunk into a nameless oblivion, and 
 their destination have remained for ever unknown, if 
 some fragments of their allegorical decoration, found 
 amongst their remains, had not explained to us what 
 they were, and the uses for which they were em- 
 ployed ! The principal objects made use of in alle- 
 gorical decoration, whether employed by means of 
 painting or sculpture, may be divided into three classes. 
 The first comprehends attributes, the second is com- 
 posed of figures, and the third embraces subjects of 
 composition. 
 
 Under the name of attributes are comprehended all 
 the symbols and emblems, rendered visible by means 
 of painting or sculpture ; which become, by their 
 conciseness, a species of monograms in the figurative 
 composition of architecture. At the head of attributes 
 may be placed the greater part of foliage and plants, 
 which form so important a feature in the composition 
 of ornaments. It was from the religious ceremonies 
 of the primitive race, from their desire to deck and 
 embellish, by the productions of nature, the construc- 
 tions dedicated to their deities; and also from the 
 offering of fruits, plants, and roots, at their oblations 
 and sacrifices , that the greater part of compositions 
 presenting scrolled foliage bearing fruits and flowers 
 took their origin. It would be difficult to contradict
 
 262 ARCHITECTURA.L DIKEGTOU. 
 
 such an etymology, since even at the present period 
 and in the midst of an artificial luxury of decoration 
 in edifices, the natural decorations just mentioned are 
 employed in civil and religious /e^e*. Thus garlands, 
 festoons, flowers, wreaths, and the foliage of capitals, 
 owe their origin to the same source. Each of these 
 objects may, as an attribute, or emblem of a known 
 and expressed custom, be employed in decoration with 
 a special and characteristic signification. 
 
 The instruments of sacrifice, ornaments of the sacri- 
 ficer, sanctified vases, heads of the animals sacrificed, 
 fillets, paterae, and all those objects that were employed 
 in that part of the worship of the ancients, have been 
 transmitted as attributes in the decoration of sacred 
 edifices. Architecture has made conventional signs of 
 all these emblems, which, notwithstanding the differ- 
 ences of custom adopted in modern worship, are no less 
 received as a metaphorical means of indicating the 
 destination of the edifice to which they are applied. 
 
 Among the ancients, each divinity had its particular 
 attributes. Indeed, the divinities were but a species 
 of attributes expressive of the different properties of 
 nature, or the physical or moral relation of things. 
 Although there is no longer any faith in the powers of 
 Jupiter, Venus, Neptune, Nymphs, Diana, Apollo, the 
 Muses, and the other figurative beings, the ideas at- 
 tached to these allegorical forms, and their relations 
 to the different qualities, &c., of which their names 
 and figures are the representation, cannot be dispelled. 
 The attributes which form their retinues, have, indeed, 
 long been admitted as so many devices or emblems, 
 which constitute the figurative language of the imi- 
 tative arts. Architectural decoration, above all, profits
 
 ARCHITECTUBAL DIRECTOR. 263 
 
 by them to characterize its productions. The eagle and 
 thunderbolts were, with the ancients, the symbohc 
 representatives of eternity and almighty power ; the 
 myrtle-branch and the dove characterized affection: 
 the lyre and the laurel-branch were the symbols of 
 harmony and of fame ; and the employment of shells, 
 dolphins, &c. in an edifice, indicated its devotion to 
 aquatic purposes. The helmet and lance were the 
 symbols of war ; the palm-branch and wreath an- 
 nounce victory ; and the olive, peace. The balance is 
 the natural and beautiful representative of justice ; the 
 quiver and arrows, the synonyms of Cupid ; and the 
 serpent, of ^^sculapius. Ears of corn, of Ceres ; the 
 owl, of Minerva ; and the cock, of Mercury ; who were 
 themselves considered as the presiding divinities over 
 abundance, science, and vigilance. 
 
 The instruments belonging to the arts and sciences, 
 are all objects which may be employed, as the natural 
 ensigns of those purposes for which an edifice may be 
 destined. The matter that the combination and em- 
 ployment of attributes affords to decoration, is as 
 varied as it is extensive. They may be changed, 
 modified, and reproduced under difTerent forms, by 
 the genius of the artist ; taking care not to sacrifice 
 the clearness of their expression to novelty of combi- 
 nation. There is in this respect a medium to be ob- 
 served ; so as not to present to the sight enigmas in 
 place of inscriptions. There are certain given forms 
 and acknowledged attributes which require to be 
 judiciously applied ; as well as precedents which it is 
 necessary to respect. But the most essential thing in 
 their application, is, that the greatest possible judgment 
 and discretion be observed in their distribution ; and
 
 264 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 in the choice of them, as regards the relation which 
 tney bear to each other. How inconsistent it must 
 appear to apply sphinxes to a fountain, to throw out 
 water ; trophies to a monument, not triumphal ; or 
 the symbols of the arts, and those of the virtues, to 
 places serving as receptacles for neither art nor virtue ! 
 Indeed, the inconsistencies which have been, and even 
 now are practised, in the decoration of modern archi- 
 tecture, are almost innumerable. 
 
 The second class of objects which architecture em- 
 ploys in its allegorical decorations is composed of 
 figures. Figures may be considered either as relates 
 to the subjects that they express, or the manner in 
 which they are emyloyed. Figures, with respect to 
 the subjects intended to be expressed, may be divided 
 into two kinds, simple and composed. Composed 
 figures are those which have taken their orig^in from 
 the hieroglyphical style of writing, and w ere originally 
 figures of objects, serving as real characters ; but 
 which, by an early license, were transmitted into ar- 
 chitectural decoration, although their literal value was 
 lost. It is named the arabesque style, and is for the 
 greater part composed of capricious, fantastical, and 
 imaginary objects, represented in architecture by 
 painting or sculpture, and employed in the decoration 
 of walls, panels, sides of doors, surfaces of pilasters, 
 friezes, and sometimes to the soffits of flat and cylin- 
 drical ceilings. This style consists of three things 
 which are very independent of, and present themselves 
 in a distinct manner from, each other. 
 
 The first comprises those representations and ar- 
 chitectural compositions, the irregular and capricious 
 forms of which are mostly taken from oriental monu-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 265 
 
 meiits and edifices, and were introduced into decora- 
 tion amongst the Romans, as the absurdities of the 
 Cliinese have been introduced into this country. 
 
 The second is composed of all kinds of figures, and 
 imaginary animals ; having the head and foreparts of 
 one species of animals joined to the body of another ; 
 of which sphinxes are examples. Such forms served, 
 in the early ages, as signs of a language ; or the 
 allegories which they represented belonged to the 
 dogmas of the Egyptian and oriental mythology. 
 
 The third comprehends scrolled foliage, festoons, 
 leaves, and other similar objects; invented by the 
 Greeks and Romans, and employed by them in their 
 edifices, either by the means of painting or sculpture. 
 
 The most numerous examples of this species of 
 architectural decoration, as practised by the ancients, 
 are those presented in the remains of the thermae of 
 Titus, and those at Pompeii. Almost the whole of 
 the interiors are decorated with views and perspectives 
 of edifices ; the singular forms and compositions of 
 which, instead of having excited researches into their 
 true cause and origin, have given rise only to erroneous 
 opinions, and strange conjectures. 
 
 The Romans, like all nations habituated to luxury, 
 sought pleasure in the novelty and variety produced 
 by differences in style and taste. Yet this is certain, 
 that they never extended their caprice, as has been 
 practised in this country, to such acts as those of 
 realizing, in a durable manner, designs of edifices 
 presenting the most barbarous styles ; the contrast 
 produced by which would have been considered by 
 them as too revolting. 
 
 The most severe critic can find nothing to condemn 
 
 2 !VI
 
 266 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 in that description of arabesque which is composed of 
 scrolled foliage, leaves, and running ornaments ; the 
 origin of which can only be attributed to the same 
 causes as ornaments in general. The best examples 
 of this kind, executed in painting, are those of the 
 thermae of Titus, and those at Pompeii. Those exe- 
 cuted in sculpture, are the face of the pilasters of the 
 arch ofPola, in Istria ; the arch of Titus, at Rome; 
 and the fragments of the villa Medici. These exam- 
 ples are models of taste and execution, in which the 
 trtist will always find fresh resources for the embel- 
 jishment of his edifices. Such compositions as the 
 foreo'oins: should not be confounded with those so 
 justly reproved by Vitruvius, which present an ex- 
 travagant compilation of objects, composed of unna- 
 tural forms. After having spoken on the taste of the 
 ancients in decoration, who, in all subjects of painting, 
 represented the objects as they naturally were, this 
 author remarks, " I know not from what caprice the 
 rule which the ancients adopted is not still followed, 
 of always taking such things for models as are con- 
 sistent with nature. For the paintings that are at the 
 present time executed upon walls, instead of forming 
 real and regular imitations of objects, present nothing 
 but extravagances. In place of columns, reeds or 
 stems are substituted, bearing interwoven fluted 
 branches of plants, and having their leaves divided 
 and turned in imitation of volutes. Small temples are 
 placed upon the summits of candelabra ; whence, as 
 if they had roots, scrolled foliage rises, upon which 
 fio'ures are seated. In other places flowered work is 
 represented as connected with half figures : some of 
 which bear the heads of men, and others those of
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 267 
 
 animals; which are things contrary to the laws of 
 nature. Such is the power of habit or mode, whether 
 it proceeds from indolence, or from want of judgment, 
 that the greater part of mankind shut their eyes to the 
 true principles of the arts. For how can it be sup- 
 posed that these reeds sustain a roof; that the can- 
 delabra support an edifice ; that weak branches bear 
 figures ; or that half-formed figures could spring from 
 stems, roots, or foliage ? Notwithstanding their in- 
 consistency, no one corrects these impertinences ; on 
 the contrary, they are encouraged, without questioning 
 their consistency ; so little are the generality of minds 
 capable of judging of that which merits to be approved 
 and authorized. For myself, I think that painting 
 ought only to be esteemed in proportion as its repre- 
 sentations are natural and true ; that it is not suflficient 
 that the execution be good ; but it is also necessary 
 that the design be reasonable ; and that it present 
 nothing to shock the understanding." 
 
 In this passage, Vitruvius has defined the nature of 
 arabesques, in as correct a manner as he has also 
 indicated their origin and history. From it may be 
 perceived, that this style, which was introduced at the 
 period at which he wrote, had not as then attained 
 that point of perfection, for which it was afterwards 
 distinguished. Nevertheless, wiien we reflect on the 
 superiority that accompanied all sorts of decoration 
 amongst the ancients, on the character of originality 
 which they always presented, and when we examine 
 the astonishing variety that the antique arabesques 
 oflcr, their masterly execution, the charming details 
 which they contain, the htippy ideas and valuable 
 analogies which they afi'ord, it will be seen why the
 
 2G8 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR 
 
 minds of so many able men have been led away by 
 them. Nor will it be difficult to discover, why the 
 greatest man of whom modern painting can boast, did 
 not judge them with so much severity as Vitruvius. 
 
 About the fifteenth century, when the arts had 
 reached a higher degree of perfection than they have 
 ever since attained amongst the moderns, Raphaello, 
 on the discovery of arabesques, presented in the frag- 
 ments of the thermae of Titus, though they offered but 
 a sketch of antique painting, discovered therein what 
 was sufficient to inspire a mind so acute and penetra- 
 ting. He succeeded in restoring and redeeming the 
 taste of decoration ; and all the details of ornaments 
 condemned until then to the arid monotony of the 
 Gothic. The secret of stuccoes was discovered ; the 
 preparations of the ancients reappeared ; and ara- 
 besques were employed in the decoration of the most 
 magnificent palaces. This style, executed by Ra- 
 phaello, guided by an exquisite and delicate taste, and 
 aided by his able co-operators, who prided themselves 
 in being his disciples, could not fail to obtain that 
 reputation by which it was distinguished amongst the 
 ancients as well as amongst the moderns. 
 
 Raphaello has had many copyists in this branch of 
 the art, but not one successful imitator. The best 
 modern examples of arabesques in Italy are his pro- 
 ductions, or those of his school. Such are those of 
 the Doria palace, at Genoa; Cancelleria, Villa Lanti, 
 and the Villa Olgiati at Rome ; with several others. 
 
 The arabesque style ought to be governed in its 
 caprices, so that the union of things possible and im- 
 possible form not too striking contrasts. Arabesques 
 should be employed in the decoration of superfices, or
 
 ARCniTECTUKAL DIRECTOR. 269 
 
 apartments, whicli are only of medium dimensions. 
 When applied to immense surfaces, this style loses all 
 the effect of its details, and that species of verisimili- 
 tude which is not objected to when on a lesser scale ; 
 without however being able to attain the propriety, 
 harmony, and just relation which the decoration of 
 large apartments requires. 
 
 Arabesques should never be employed in the deco- 
 ration of any situations that require solemnity, and 
 ought to inspire respect ; as this style presents a di- 
 versity of discordant subjects and objects, whicli are 
 incompatible with such sentiments. It is in small 
 apartments that the application of its resources are 
 best employed. In such situations will be found, by 
 means of ingenious compositions, suitable occasions for 
 the display of the most vaiied motives. Allegory 
 furnishes it with inexhaustible means, by the meta- 
 phorical decoration of each apartment, and the dedi- 
 cation of it to the divinity that presides over the use 
 to which it is applied. The different emblems of 
 sleep, Apollo, Bacchus, the Muses, &c. ; the plants 
 which are consecrated to them, their attributes, w hich 
 together with the animals, birds, and insects, that bear 
 an affinity to each of these deities, ought to be dis- 
 tinctly and separately represented in each apartment; 
 indicating the reigning subject and proper character 
 of the locality ; the appropriate use of which is in- 
 tended to be expressed. 
 
 This manner of decoration has the advantage of 
 being adapted to the irregularity and disproportion of 
 apartments. In the hands of an intelligent artist, it 
 seldom fails in concealing the most striking and disa- 
 greeable forms ; and it affords the means of decorating
 
 270 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 any surface. If the height of the part to which it is 
 intended to be applied be not of a suitable proportion, 
 it may be subdivided, so as to reduce it to a more 
 apparent relation with its length. If the length of the 
 apartment be too great for its height, this inconvenience 
 may be remedied, by dividing its length according to 
 the proportions prescribed by the least spaces ; which 
 will form those of pilasters, friezes, and panels. 
 
 The last permit of being filled, either with figured 
 drapery, or with round, oval, or square forms ; that 
 receive paintings attached from space to space by 
 ribands ; or by draperies forming folds at each part 
 from which they are suspended. By these means a 
 regularity of proportion, and also a symmetry of design, 
 may be given to apartments. The vacant spaces w^ill 
 permit of the insertion of rising ornaments composed 
 of leaves, flowers, branches, &c., executed either in 
 painting or sculpture. 
 
 This style of ornaments requires the greatest care 
 on the part of the artist, both as regards composition 
 and execution. When scrolled foliage rises to the 
 height of from ten to twelve feet, it is necessary to 
 avoid gaining that elevation at one cast, or from one 
 point at the lower extremity ; and to distribute the 
 height into three parts. The stem should be of such 
 a sufficient consistence, as reasonably to produce all 
 that may be introduced along the surface until it 
 reaches where it is divided by means of a cameo, or 
 by a painting; the total should be terminated by 
 objects bearing some analogy to the rest. 
 
 It should be observed, not to make the scrolled 
 foliage too rich or too heavy ; as flowing forms and 
 simple contours constitute its greatest merit. The
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 211 
 
 different branchings or ramifications which may be 
 introduced, to give variety to a composition, should 
 be motived and authorized ; the parts ought to follow 
 each other, and be naturally introduced, making the 
 reason of their situation evident. The choice of lea\ es 
 may be ranked among the means which afford the 
 greatest abundance and variety of contours, and of 
 striking effects. Such are the wild acanthus, artemisia, 
 matricaria, hemlock, large parsley, &c. ; all of which 
 produce sharp outlines and effective touches. 
 
 In the employment of these leaves, it is necessary to 
 study the natural order and gradation of their masses. 
 The first masses should be small, the others succes- 
 sively increasing as they approach the centre, after- 
 wards diminishing as they reach their extremities, 
 which should be weaker ; it being requisite that the 
 stronger bear the weaker parts. The imiiation ought 
 to be sufficiently perfect to make known the different 
 plants which have served as models to this style. 
 Although such licenses may be taken in their execution 
 as characterizes this branch of decoration, yet from 
 this departure from a scrupulous imitation of nature, 
 one of the greatest pleasures which their employment 
 is capable of producing, is lost. 
 
 The details of the arabesque style are so numerous, 
 tlie combinations by which they are modified so 
 various, that the precepts of taste in their employment 
 might almost be infinitely multiplied. The greater 
 lart of them being: common to the other branches of 
 decoration, they will be found treated upon in the 
 different parts of this article. But it is harmony, (hat 
 great principle of the arts, which ought to be most 
 observed in the composition, execution, and arrange-
 
 272 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 ment of arabesques, I'his liarmony may be divided 
 into three classes ; namely, the harmony of ideas, of 
 colours, and of masses. 
 
 The harmony of ideas, in the unity of motive or 
 design, in the intelligence of the details, the intellectual 
 relation of each of the parts, and the concert of all the 
 attributes and accessories ; w^hich, when guided uni- 
 formly towards the same end, gives to this style a 
 forcible symbolical expression. 
 
 Harmony of colours results from a skilful accord of 
 all the parts which form the composition and grounds 
 presenting a variety of colours ; the agreeableness and 
 mellowness of the tones, judicious introduction of stuc- 
 coes, bassi-rilievi, scrolled foliage and figures ; and 
 from the manner of executing them according to the 
 situation, effect of the light, and the distance of the 
 objects. 
 
 Harmony of masses is that which presides most 
 predominantly in the arrangement of arabesques ; it 
 consists in the distribution and employment of the 
 parts, so as not to let too great a portion of the ground 
 be perceived, or unequally covered. It is from this 
 judicious disposition of the lines, that arise the agree- 
 able impressions afforded to the sight ; the execution 
 presenting nothing either wanting or out of place. 
 That part of arabesques, of which the scrolled foliage 
 of the ancients offers the most beautiful models, is the 
 most difficult ; and but rarely introduced in modern 
 arabesques. 
 
 Simple figures, which constitute the second kind ot 
 the second class of allegorical objects, are those that 
 possess an evident model in nature. It is in this 
 class, more than in any other, that allegory becomes
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 273 
 
 unlimited It furnishes decoration with matter which 
 is as rich as it is inexhaustible. 
 
 To whatever use an edifice may be destined, or 
 whatever be the style of its architecture, figures, if they 
 be characteristic, will add greatly to its effect. A 
 triumphal arch, entrance gates, theatre, hospital, 
 market, fountain, palace, church, &c., are all suscep- 
 tible of receiving allegorical motives or designs. 
 
 Simple figures, in decoration, comprehend bassi-ri- 
 lievi, together with figures in rilievo, as statues. The 
 latter are too generally considered as objects purely 
 decorative. Niches, pedestals, and colonnades, in 
 which statues are placed, are often employed merely 
 to give effect to a composition ; without the least 
 question as to the propriety of the subject of the 
 design with the use of the edifice. The application 
 of statues, as being one of the greatest luxuries of 
 decoration, should be principally confined to publi ; 
 monuments, and public edifices. 
 
 The third class of allegorical subjects, or extensive 
 compositions in painting or sculpture, has been the one 
 most employed by the moderns. 
 
 It is not probable that the ancients ever introduced, 
 in the interior decoration of their edifices, allegorical 
 compositions of such gigantic dimensions as the 
 moderns have. It is true that the ancients applied 
 subjects in painting to the interior of their edifices ; 
 but it may be affirmed, that they consisted only of such 
 compositions as could easily be taken in by the sight, 
 and as easily understood by the mind. They were 
 by no means so extensive as those executed by the 
 modems, particularly in the decoration of cupolas and 
 ceilings. These immense compOvsitions have no other 
 
 2 N
 
 274 ARCHITECTURAFv DIRECTOR. 
 
 value than the effect ot'tlie colours, and the cleception 
 of the perspective. In such applications it is indeed 
 difficult to develop a correct taste, and the true 
 principles of imitation. 
 
 The too great extent of a composition in painting, 
 has the disadvantage of not being able to address the 
 comprehension of the spectator. For how is it pos- 
 sible that the mind should be able to comprehend the 
 total of a composition at an elevation of three hundred 
 feet, and comprising also a circumference of three 
 hundred feet? When it is necessary to represent 
 objects at such a distance, it is better to employ simple 
 allegorical characters ; or the ornaments that archi- 
 tecture furnishes, as being more suitable to such situ- 
 ations. 
 
 Sculptured figures, and subjects executed in basso- 
 relievo, have sometimes been introduced in the deco- 
 ration of cupolas and cylindrical ceilings. Nothing 
 can be more improper than this employment of sculp- 
 ture, the heavy appearance of which seems to menace 
 the safety of the spectator. 
 
 Sculpture, when injudiciously employed in deco- 
 ration, is fatiguing ; both to the sight and the under- 
 standing. Equally offensive are misplaced allegorical 
 characters and subjects of composition ; which, when 
 applied with discretion, are invaluable to architecture, 
 as being one of the most natural and appropriate 
 means of decoration. The greater part of the antique 
 edifices, and some modern ones, prove what a degree 
 of expression may be attained in their decoration by 
 means of sculpture in basso-rilie\ o. 
 
 The Greeks and Romans applied a considerable 
 portion of the riches of sculpture to the pediments of
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 275 
 
 their edifices. The Partlienon, at xA.thens, has pre- 
 served some fragments of the decoration of its pedi- 
 ment ; which exhibits to us an example of perfection 
 in execution, united to greatness in composition. The 
 metal cramps in the tympanum of the portico of the 
 Pantheon, at Rome, indicates that its pediment was 
 decorated with a basso-rilievo. The columns of 
 Trajan and Antoninus, and the triumphal arches, may 
 be further cited as varied examples of the inexhausti- 
 ble resources of sculpture. These last-mentioned pro- 
 ductions exhibit to advantage, the resources of the art 
 as a medium of historical communication ; its monu- 
 mental inscriptions serving as records of past events. 
 
 There are three kindsof relief by which figures are 
 more or less detached from the ground upon which they 
 are sculptured, namely, the alto-rilievo, or bold relief; 
 mezzo-rilievo, the medium or half-relief; and the 
 basso-rilievo, or low relief; but each of these is at the 
 present day indiscriminately termed a basso-rilievo. 
 
 Although the execution of this style particularly 
 relates to sculpture, yet, from the frequent, necessary, 
 and varied employment of it in architectural decoration, 
 both internally and externally, it would have been a 
 blameable omission not to have mentioned it in this 
 article in its proper place. An architect, doubtless, 
 stands in less need of being familiarly acquainted with 
 all the details and precepts of execution in this branch 
 of art than a sculptor ; but, he ought not to be igno- 
 rant of the origin, nature, and correct rules of taste, 
 which constitute the perfection of this part of decora- 
 tion. By this knowledge he will be enabled to direct 
 the sculptor in the form, disposition, and style, suitable 
 to ba.ssi-rilievi ; according to the maniici in which he
 
 276 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 may judge requisite to employ them, and the accord 
 which ought to exist between them and the ordon- 
 nance, conformably with the character of each edifice. 
 
 Amongst the ancients, bassi-rilievi were never em- 
 ployed independently of architecture. Whether this 
 branch of art displayed its riches in the pediments of 
 temples, or on the triumphal arches — whether it 
 decorated the face of a frieze, or the more confined 
 space of a metope, in its applicatian to pedestals and 
 stylobates, vases, altars, and tombs, ornamenting their 
 contours, designating their employment, or giving 
 movement to their aspect, yet it will be found invari- 
 ably to be subordinate to the architecture, or to the 
 forms of the objects to which it is applied. 
 
 The principle followed in the application of bassi- 
 rilievi to the triumphal arches is the same as that 
 which is manifested in the construction of the Trajan 
 column, and all other monuments presenting the same 
 spirit of design. The bassi-rilievi employed in these 
 examples constitute a long and visible narration of the 
 actions of this emperor ; they form an ocular recitative ; 
 a material and strikins; historv of his actions and vie- 
 tories, The division w^hich the historical sculptor 
 should make of the portion of this style belonging to 
 art, and that part of it which properly belongs to 
 history, ought to be such as to induce him to regard 
 his figures under a double relation ; endeavouring to 
 make them express the reason of their employment, 
 rather than to draw admiration ; they ought to instruct 
 rather than please. He should make them speak to 
 the nnderstanding, in the clearest manner, all the 
 language which they adopt ; rather than employ his 
 skill to render their contours more agreeable.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 277 
 
 It should be observed, not to employ a multitude of 
 ornaments around bassi-rilievi ; as these attract the 
 sight and attention from the principal subjects which 
 they offer. If they are not insulated by means of a 
 moulding, there should be an even surface left around 
 them to give repose to the sight, and effect to their 
 relief; likewise similar arrangements ought to be made 
 between them and the different members of architec- 
 ture. The proximity of the principal parts, the pro- 
 files and details, injures the effect of bassi-rilievi, and 
 introduces discord in the total. 
 
 The relation of the proportions of bassi-rilievi, and 
 the figures of which they are composed, with an 
 ordonnance, is another point which ought not to be 
 neglected by an architect. There might result, 
 from this want of an exact and judicious relation, a 
 striking disproportion in the whole of the composition. 
 The figures in bassi-rilievi serve as a sort of scale, 
 whereby to appreciate the different dimensions. The 
 small or exagro^erated size of the figures would render 
 
 DO O 
 
 th'3 appearance of the ordonnance either trivial or 
 colossal; and by this means injure the propor- 
 tions of an edifice, which in themselves might be 
 beautiful. 
 
 The same may be said as regards the greater or less 
 |)rojection that bassi-rilievi ought to have. An archi- 
 tect ought to regulate it according to the degree of 
 strength or delicacy of his ordonnance, greater or less 
 expression of force and energy of the profiles, the 
 general character of the style adopted, the point of 
 view of the edifice, and also the situation of the bassi- 
 rilievi ; the light they may receive, the effect it is 
 ticressjuy to j)ioduce, and its accordance with the
 
 278 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 reigning style of the ornaments, and the quality or 
 value of the surrounding parts or details. 
 
 The rules of taste relative to a good and judicious 
 employment of sculpture, whether allegorical or his- 
 torical, in edifices, equally appertain to all the pre- 
 ceding precepts and observations. 
 
 The importance of this article, the subject of which 
 constitutes a great portion of the art of architecture, 
 will form a sufficient apology for its being so conside- 
 rably extended. It shall, however, be concluded by 
 offering a few remarks on decorative painting, and the 
 imitation of all that is employed in the embellishment 
 of edifices by that means. 
 
 This part of decoration consists in the imitation 
 of another imitation. Indeed, if we except figures, 
 landscapes, flowers, and some other objects which 
 sometimes form a portion of the combinations of the 
 decorator, the principal parts of this branch of the art 
 consist in perspective or geometrical views of archi- 
 tectural ornaments in relief; of statues, niches, vases.^ 
 altars, monuments, &c., produced by painting, under 
 different forms. This imitative decoration has the 
 same principles, and is governed by the greater part 
 of the rules which are applicable to the original deco- 
 ration, which serves as its model. 
 
 An arcV.ltect, who ought always to guide the deco- 
 rator, should only permit the employment of feint 
 decorative architecture on walls and superfices ; of 
 which the point of view is common to a great number 
 of spectators ; admitting nothing in his compositions 
 inconsistent with correct taste. 
 
 The decorator may be less restricted in the embel- 
 lishment of the interior apartments and galleries, where
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 279 
 
 his art is not subjected to any pre-existing ordonnance. 
 Under these circumstances, decorative painting has 
 two different ways of employing its resources. It 
 may either be considered as presenting architectural 
 paintings, or as replacing the different parts of an or- 
 donnance by an exact and deceptive imitation of them. 
 
 In the first, the decorator paints on the walls ideal 
 views of edifices, representations of well-known monu- 
 ments, or ruins. This part is dependant on painting, 
 and enters into the ordinary rules of imitation. This 
 species of illusion, which tends to conceal, by the 
 effect of aerial and lineal perspective, the apparent 
 consistence of the surface to which it is applied, is not 
 suitable to all kinds of interiors, and would often be 
 misplaced in the decoration of certain apartments ; 
 which, by being destined for important uses, require 
 an expression of gravity. It is adapted for the deco- 
 ration of dining-rooms, and others of a similar use. 
 
 In the second way, the decorative painter replaces, 
 by the effect of imitation, the resources of real archi- 
 tecture. In place of columns in relief, entablatures, 
 pilasters, niches, and real statues, all these objects 
 may be executed in painting. This style of decora- 
 tion is then subjected to the same rules of proportion 
 and propriety as real architecture : none but an archi- 
 tect should conduct its execution. Its great merit 
 consists in the purity of its forms, and the truth of its 
 tones. This species of illusion, when well executed, 
 will sometimes at the first glance deceive the most 
 experienced eye. There are examples of this kind of 
 deception, which are so ably combined with real 
 architecture, that it is difficult to avoid being deceived 
 thereby.
 
 280 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 All the other objects of which decoration is com- 
 posed, forming an assemblage of ornaments which, by 
 means of painting, are employed to embellish edifices, 
 too nearly appertain to the art of painting itself, to 
 claim a more extended notice in this work. An 
 architect should superintend each branch of decora- 
 tion applied to his design ; directing and making 
 choice of such subjects as are conformable to the 
 locality they are intended to decorate, and to the 
 character of his edifice ; so that the entire decoration 
 of an edifice may present a harmonious conformity 
 to the general design and taste of its architecture. 
 
 ON THE PRINCIPLES AND BEAUTY OF ARCHITECTURAL 
 COMPOSITION OR DESIGN. 
 
 All edifices and buildings are destined for some 
 use ; and it is the apparent adaptation to this use, 
 that constitutes their proper or relative character. 
 This adaptation excites, and serv^es as a guide to the 
 public mind, in estimating their value ; and enables 
 men to judge of the precise degree of importance of 
 each to society. Nature has given to all its produc- 
 tions a peculiar physiognomy ; which makes them 
 distinguishable from each other, and serves to indicate 
 their several properties. The mind of man naturally 
 follows this general law, in the formation of a multitude 
 of its productions ; which though produced by neces- 
 sity, yet make apparent the particular use for which 
 they were destined. The effect of this law may be
 
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 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 281 
 
 discovered, even in the utensils and furniture, which 
 have been formed to supply our wants, except where 
 their form has been changed by caprice. 
 
 There is necessarily then, a rule of taste dictated 
 by nature, which prescribes to each kind of edifice, 
 the character that it ought to present, in correspond- 
 ence to the use for which it is intended. 
 
 There is another law of nature, that architecture 
 has followed ; which is, that beauty should be con- 
 sistent with utility. Hence, if nature has joined a 
 pleasure to the satisfying of every want, architecture 
 has equally established a law, that the details of con- 
 struction in serving their office, shall at the same 
 time present a pleasing object to the spectator. Thus 
 this art requires that all ornaments, by being applied 
 on the principle of utility, shall indicate their purpose ; 
 in order that its productions may satisfy our imagina- 
 tion and judgment. 
 
 Without entering into all the causes of character ; 
 whether in nature, in painting or sculpture, or in the 
 architecture of different countries ; it is intended to 
 confine the present article to edifices constructed 
 according to the principles of the antique architecture ; 
 which is intended to be examined theoretically and 
 practically. 
 
 The best modern productions exhibit merit, only in 
 proportion to their judicious imitation of the antique 
 The most celebrated men have not failed to render a 
 just acknowledgment to the great masters of antiquity, 
 for the success which they have obtained, in following 
 the spirit of their invaluable models. Far from 
 envying them of their desert, let us rather acknow- 
 ledjre the eminence at which these talented men 
 
 2o
 
 282 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 have arrived, and imitate the immortal lessons they 
 have left us. 
 
 It is solely from the study of the antique, that the 
 eminent architects of Italy, gained that judgment and 
 taste, which presents itself in the productions erected 
 in that country, during the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuries. It is from this study, that Vignola, Serlio, 
 Scamozzi, antl Palladio, owe the style and character 
 which pervade the generality of their works. It is 
 again, from it that Michel Angelo acquired his know- 
 ledge of construction ; and attained that greatness of 
 manner which his works exhibit, notwithstanding the 
 many licences that disfigure them. In fine, it was 
 from this study, that Alberti, Ligorio, Bruneleschi, 
 Eramante, Sangallo, Peruzzi, and other celebrated 
 artists and connoisseurs, gained their knowledge of 
 architecture. 
 
 But this study of antique remains, requires a greater 
 degree of critical discernment than is generally 
 admitted. What may be recommended on this sub- 
 ject, can be reduced to two principal observations. 
 The first relates to the choice of objects proposed for 
 imitation. The second, to the spirit which ought to 
 direct this imitation. 
 
 These remains require, in their choice, a distinction 
 of two kinds ; the one relates to the period from which 
 they take their date , and the other, to the people by 
 and amongst whom they were erected. 
 
 Like empires, the arts and sciences have their revo- 
 lutions; cultivated in one age and nation, neglected 
 and forgotten in another ; their improvement was 
 necessarily the result of the labours and exertions of 
 many generations.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 283 
 
 We are, generally speaking, ignorant of the origin 
 of an art or science, because the earliest essays are 
 effaced by those more perfect attempts which imme- 
 diately follow. 
 
 In the arts and sciences nothing is produced 
 suddenly, or without a preparatory step ; and all 
 discoveries are made in such a gradual manner, that 
 they appear almost imperceptible. Nevertheless, there 
 are periods at which observations accumulate, and 
 the necessity of improvement being more generally 
 felt, induces those, gifted with a more perfect organi- 
 zation and placed under more favourable circum- 
 stances, to discover more powerful means of giving a 
 new and better direction to preconceived ideas, and 
 forms a remarkable feature in their advancement 
 towards perfection. These distant intervals of time, 
 are termed epochs ; and the preference given to any 
 one, is determined by the merit of its productions. 
 The epoch of Grecian art, designated by the term 
 antique, is generally extended from the century of 
 Alexander the Great, to the reign of the Emperor 
 Phocias, or near the sixth century of the Christian 
 era; but which, perhaps, may with more justice be 
 supposed to have terminated with the fourth century. 
 It is reasonable to suppose, that during so many 
 centuries, the causes which contribute to the perfec- 
 tion of the arts, could not have been equally favour- 
 able. Hence, it is necessary to become acquainted, 
 through the medium of their remains, with those ages 
 that were the most propitious ; without which know- 
 ledge, we should be equally liable indiscriminately to 
 adopt the early essays of the art, and also to be misled 
 by the abuses that cliaracterized its decline.
 
 284 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 Ill order to be possessed of this necessary discern- 
 ment, it is requisite to be acquainted with the princi- 
 ples upon which the art is founded ; which are of 
 three kinds. The tirst is founded upon the nature of 
 things, or necessity ; and is required for the satisfac- 
 tion of the most uncultivated minds, and consists in 
 the solidity of its parts; such is the perpendicularity 
 of columns, the parallelism of stories, and natural 
 symmetry. 
 
 The second is, the principles of beauty and suit- 
 ableness. These are derived from experience and 
 comparative excellence. 
 
 The third is termed, principles of taste. They 
 more immediately relate to that portion of the art, 
 connected with ornament and decorative details. 
 These principles will be found sufficiently treated on, 
 under their respective articles. They are mentioned 
 in this place, to shew that not only a knowledge of 
 these principles is necessary, but likewise that they 
 should be adhered to, in the study of imitation of the 
 antique. Two powerful motives ought to influence 
 this observance. The first is, the slowness with which 
 the human mind attains a correct knowledge of what 
 is really beautiful. The attempts made to arrive at 
 this point, often produce no other effect than a further 
 removal from it, when not in possession of a rule where- 
 by to direct our researches ; and the principles just 
 named are this rule. The second motive is, the abuse 
 which may be made in the application of the most 
 fortunate discoveries. Experience proves that man, 
 from the time he has attained the highest and most ex- 
 tended degree of intelligence, being unable to improve 
 further the productions which are (he result of his
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 28d 
 
 discoveries, commences innovations, and abandons 
 those principles that constituted the perfection of his 
 former works. From this cause proceed those arbi- 
 trary rules, which mislead many individuals ; and 
 who from a deficiency of proper information, make an 
 indiscriminate choice, as shall be immediately sheuii. 
 But independently of falling into these errors, which 
 are almost inevitable, the student is compelled to 
 follow a slow and monotonous imitation, the result of 
 which is always uncertain. The truth of this observa- 
 tion is much more important as regards architecture, 
 because the imitation which this art makes of nature, 
 is less direct than in painting and sculpture. Hence 
 it is necessary to be possessed of fixed principles, 
 which produce that degree of excellence, of which 
 this art is capable. Nothing can be more valuable 
 than such examples amongst the antique remains; in 
 which genius has transmitted the immutable rules of 
 beauty. Nothing is more reasonable, than the pre- 
 ference which has been given to these productions ; 
 founded on the suffrage of so many generations and so 
 many countries. 
 
 It doubtless required the concurrence of the most 
 favourable circumstances, in order that the same form 
 that was determined by necessity, should be likewise 
 that which was the most capable of exhibiting pleasing 
 proportions. If we consider antique architecture, as 
 regards its beauty, we shall be inclined to conclude, 
 that the sole object in its formation was to convey 
 pleasure to the sight, and that it had never been 
 subjected to the laws of necessity. If it be examined 
 as respects utility, no other architecture presents in so 
 clear a manner, the stamp of necessity ; which in the
 
 286 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR 
 
 Grecian, is satisfactorily proved never to have been 
 sacrificed to appearance. 
 
 Thus it must be admitted, that this fortunate union 
 of necessity and ornament, is one of the most valuable 
 discoveries of the Greeks ; and that this art is one of 
 the most valuable results that man has deduced from 
 nature. 
 
 It is from these antique remains, that the archi- 
 t ctural taste adopted by this and other nations, has 
 drawn its resources, since the restoration of the arts. 
 The experience of modern times has too often proved 
 the necessity of this imitation. Every artist up to the 
 present century, who has lost sight of this imitation, 
 has invariably incurred the reproach of his successors. 
 The spirit of caprice may for a season applaud novelties, 
 but the judgment of posterity never fails to hold him 
 up to just contempt, who has contributed to prevent 
 the progress of a correct taste 
 
 There are few abuses but may find countenance 
 even in the antique, when it is imitated without dis- 
 crimination. Hence the necessity of the strict em- 
 ployment of the principles of the art ; without which 
 exceptions would be changed into laws, and the 
 abuses of rules would themselves become precedents 
 for our observance. It is from the antique, that in- 
 ventions the most opposite to its real spirit, are sup- 
 posed to find justification. 
 
 It must therefore appear eviaent, tnat the antique 
 remains require in the student a cultivated mind, to 
 distinguish those objects most worthy imitation, and 
 which, when suitably employed in the composition of 
 edifices, will gain the admiration of the present age, 
 and serve as models to posterity.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 287 
 
 It has been stated, that the antique requires a 
 distinction of two kinds ; that the first relates to the 
 time at whicli these structures were erected, the 
 necessity of which has just been shewn ; the second 
 regards the artists by whom, and the country in which, 
 they were erected, which remain to be proved. 
 
 There exist fragments of a considerable number of 
 edifices in Greece, which take their date from a period 
 considerably anterior to that distinguished by the per- 
 fection which the art afterwards attained : amonast 
 others, are the ruins which maik the decline of the art 
 in Italy, as also that of the Roman empire ; such as 
 the thermae of Dioclesian at Rome ; also the remains 
 at Spalatro in Dalmatia, and Palmyra and Baalbec in 
 Coelosyria. These, nevertheless, present parts, from 
 which a well-instructed mind might derive profit; 
 but v.'ithout just discrimination, a risk is incurred, of 
 falling into the grossest errors. The following enumera- 
 tion will afford a proof of what is here advanced, by 
 shewinof the liberties and abuses that have been intro- 
 duced from an indiscriminate imitation. Thus the 
 width of the intercolumniations at Spalatro, has given 
 rise to the distancing of columns in the most faulty 
 manner. Friezes prepared to the hand of the sculptor, 
 but left without receiving his embellishing aid, gave 
 rise to the introduction of a curved frieze, as an archi- 
 tectural form. At the decline of the arts and of Rome, 
 from the scarcity of marble and the insufficiency of 
 materials necessary for the construction of architraves, 
 arches were raised from column to column. This 
 custom has been continued, notwithstanding the con- 
 trary examples exhibited in the productions of the 
 previous centuries. A few coupled columns amongst
 
 288 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 the remains of Palmyra, have been sufficient authority 
 for this abuse in their employment. Two mutilated 
 pediments at Baalbec have been imitated, though they 
 are in contradiction to the system of carpentry, and the 
 laws that tradition have transmitted to us, in the 
 edifices of Greece and Italy. 
 
 In conclusion, it may be observed, that it is to the 
 edifices erected in Greece during- the advanced state 
 of this art, and to those at Rome in the reigns of Au- 
 gustus, Trajan, and Adrian, the greater portion of 
 which were conducted and executed by Grecian 
 artists, that the attention should be directed in the 
 choice of models for imitation. 
 
 It has already been remarked, that the antique 
 requires observations of two kinds. The first relates 
 to the choice of the remains proposed for imitation, the 
 remarks upon which have just been concluded ; and 
 the second to the spirit that ought to direct this imi- 
 tation, which shall be forthwith treated upon. 
 
 The antique may be imitated in two ways; one in 
 imitating its style, and the other in embracing the 
 principles and genius which it exhibits. 
 
 It has been elsewhere asserted, that the imitation of 
 these remains is indispensable to the artist ; as we do 
 not enjoy a union of the same causes which promoted 
 the perfection of this art amongst the ancients. These 
 remains have become the focus in which are concen- 
 trated the scattered and fugitive beauties of nature. 
 The gift of making a free imitation, is possessed by 
 only a few individuals : and it is almost inseparable 
 from invention. Indeed, those only who have given 
 the most incontestable proofs of the latter, possess the 
 former qualification. Thus a servile imitation, far
 
 ARCHITECTUKAL DIKECTOR. 289 
 
 from leading to excellence, soon diverts us even from 
 the path which conducts to it. A blind routine 
 takes possession of the mind, and destroys the germ 
 of invention. 
 
 It is difficult to conceive a more servile imitation, 
 or a more injudicious application of the antique, than 
 in the frequent and almost exclusive employment of 
 the early Grecian doric, in most modern edifices. 
 Such of our structures, the real character of which 
 consists in an expression of lightness and elegance, 
 almost invariably exhibit a servile imitation of the 
 heaviest style of Grecian art, which would induce an 
 observer to conclude, that their authors were totally 
 ignorant of an appropriate style. 
 
 The imitation of the antique should not be servile, 
 but free ; that is, we should use its essence and 
 appropriate its means ; and not repeat without motive 
 its details and forms. For how can it be supposed 
 possible, by the last-mentioned means, to raise the art 
 to that excellence, which it attained in countries, 
 whose successful cultivation of it has rendered them 
 immortal, when the extreme difference is considered, 
 which exists between our manners, customs, and laws, 
 and those of the ancients. In order to be enabled to 
 attain the same eminence, there must be a corres- 
 ponding conception ; but the servile imitator, heavily 
 and blindly pursues his course, without having any 
 praiseworthy object in view. 
 
 From the resources of this art and the inexhaustible 
 variety of their application, why, in imitating the an- 
 tique, should we restrict the whole merit of invention, 
 so congenial to the feelings of an artist, and so neces- 
 sary in stimulating his exertions, to the servile talent 
 
 2p
 
 i^90 AllCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 of copying, without modification, a limited number of 
 forms and combinations ? It is granted, that the pro- 
 portions exhibited in the best remains of the antique, 
 are eminently calculated to captivate the mind ; and 
 further, that credit is due also to those who imitate 
 them, in preference to those of any other system of 
 architecture. But it is essential to remember, that 
 amongst the ancients, these proportions constituted 
 only a means ; and that the real end of the art was to 
 adapt their employment to the manners of the period, 
 and to local circumstances. They thus produced an 
 art, previously considered purely geometrical, whose 
 means of communication were as rich and expressive 
 as those of painting and sculpture. It was from a 
 profound study of the different effects, characters, and 
 expressions, that resulted from the application of these 
 forms and proportions, that the ancients succeeded in 
 laising architecture to a sublime art. In this it is 
 highly commendable to imitate them ; and from their 
 example, to study the alterations that the progress of 
 time, manners, and information, have produced amongst 
 the moderns; drawing from the immediate and in- 
 variable resources of the art which have been trans- 
 mitted to us by the ancients, those secret analogies 
 that nature may have established between these 
 resources and our wants. Whatever difference there 
 may exist between our customs and theirs, they were, 
 nevertheless, of the same human nature, and sus- 
 ceptible of the same sentiments and efforts. 
 
 The art of characterizing, that is to say, of rendering 
 evident, by material forms, the intellectual qualities 
 and moral ideas required to express in edifices, or to 
 make known, by the harmony and suitableness of al".
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 291 
 
 the constituent parts tliat enter into their composition, 
 the use for which they are intended, is perhaps, of all 
 the secrets of architecture, the most difficult to 
 developeorto attain. This happy talent of conceiving 
 and of communicating the conception, in the physiog- 
 nomy suitable to each edifice ; this sure and delicate 
 discernment, which exhibits the distinguishing parts 
 of such edifices, that at first appear susceptible of no 
 characteristic distinctions ; this judicious employment 
 of the different styles, which are as the tones of archi- 
 tecture ; this skilful application of the signs, which 
 the art employs to affect the sight and understanding ; 
 this exquisite feeling, which errs neither in the just 
 disposition of the masses and employment of the 
 details, nor in the just dispensation of richness and 
 simplicity ; and which is able to combine true expres- 
 sion of character with the harmonious accord of all 
 the qualities susceptible of being represented by archi- 
 tecture ; all this requisite talent, which study perfects, 
 but does not produce, is a gift possessed by few. Tliis 
 suitable expression presents itself under two relations; 
 the one appertaining to architecture in general, and 
 the other to edifices in particular. The first consists 
 in the expression of the qualities or intellectual ideas, 
 which are the result of the art metaphysically con- 
 sidered. The second, in the true indication of the 
 uses for which edifices are designed; that i.s, in con- 
 sidering architecture as a certain mode of expressing 
 or painting. This expression, according to the nature 
 of the buildings and edifices, maybe produced by the 
 gradation of richness and greatness proportionate to 
 their nature, and the object for which they were 
 ericted ; bv the indication of (he ?>»()rnl o'laHties
 
 292 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 attached to each edifice, the manner of expressing 
 which, is beyond the reach of rules ; by the general 
 and particular forms of architecture ; by the species 
 of the construction and the quality of the materials 
 that may be employed in their execution ; and lastly, 
 by the resources of decoration. 
 
 The first and most important rule in expressing the 
 proper character of buildings and edifices is, doubtless, 
 to know their nature and analogous qualities. If the 
 character and use of any edifice be examined, they 
 will be found to present a necessary relation to, and a 
 decided analogy with, some of the qualities that archi- 
 tecture is enabled to express. From the simple hut 
 of the husbandman, to the sumptuous palace of the 
 sovereign ; from the habitation of the citizen to the 
 temples of the Divinity ; from the least public estab- 
 lishment to the great monuments which form the 
 embellishment of cities ; there exists an extensive 
 variety of grades, to each of which the art affords an 
 appropriate character. 
 
 The want of this proper character in the different 
 classes of edifices of which cities are composed, cannot 
 always be attributed to the artists. Public manners 
 have a very decided influence in causing this striking 
 disproportion in, and confusion of, the scale of propriety 
 in the appearance of edifices. When the acquirement 
 of power and the possession of riches afford men the 
 means of obtaining luxuries, the simplicity of the style 
 adopted in the habitations of their fellow-citizens is 
 rejected ; they w^ill no longer inhabit constructions 
 which designate them as being mortals, but they raise 
 for their dwellings, temples and other similar edifices. 
 At Athens, the houses were simple, and the public
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 293 
 
 edifices sumptuous. Rome also retained, for a long 
 period, this same moderation in the residences of 
 individuals. 
 
 Architecture suffers great injury from these customs 
 and mistaken ideas of luxury ; which tend to destroy 
 the arts, although they may be profitable to the artists. 
 This art is injured by the influence of corrupt manners ; 
 by the apparent decrease of richness and greatness in 
 public edifices, which is caused by the increase of 
 these qualities in the residences of individuals. For 
 how can it be expected that the characteristics of an 
 edifice will be observed amongst a nation which does 
 not observe even the most ordinary gradations in the 
 order of the distinctions belonging to the different 
 classes of buildings ? Again : greatness, elevation, 
 extent, richness and luxury of decoration, are the 
 means by which edifices are characterized. If an 
 injudicious melange of these means be applied to all 
 kinds of constructions; if the residence of an individual 
 presents in its peristyle the appearance of a church ; 
 if the magnificence of the richest of the orders be 
 applied to buildings, the nature of which is in contra- 
 diction with their employment, is it not evident that 
 the most material of the distinctive signs of edifices 
 will disappear ? What means could be employed 
 to express that this edifice is a church ; or that that 
 is destined to some important public use ; if the signs 
 which are absolutely necessary for the expression of 
 these qualities, be indiscriminately employed in all 
 kinds of buildings ? 
 
 There is no doubt, that the manners of a people 
 influence the character of their architecture. Where 
 there exK«ts a great inequality of niu^ and fortune
 
 294 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 amongst a people, it is strongly marked in their 
 architecture. Where public edifices are neglected, 
 this art only exhibits the luxury of individuals. 
 
 If we consider the antique cities, where the arts 
 took up their abode, how modest and unassuming- 
 appeared the residences ! But how immense were 
 their public edifices; how their temples, tribunals, 
 &c., majestically distinguished themselves from the 
 adjacent habitations ! It was in them that the public 
 pride and enjoyment was placed, being considered 
 as the property of each citizen ; and the fame and 
 pleasure attached to their magnificence, was not in- 
 dividual, but national. 
 
 The Greeks have left us the following proof of their 
 ideas on this subject : " He who erects a residence 
 that shall exceed in splendour and majesty the tem- 
 ples of the deities, or the edifices destined to public 
 service, far from being worthy of esteem, merits but 
 reproach. No private construction ought to insult, 
 by an appearance of importance and magnificence, 
 the public edifices." — Laivs of Charondas. 
 
 The public edifices form a history of the taste of 
 each generation. Every generation, like every indi- 
 vidual, desires to leave marks which may serve to 
 shew^ the epoch of their existence upon the earth ; 
 and also that they weie rich, powerful, and favoured 
 by nature in the possession of talent. The love of 
 immortality, vvhich is next to that of life, exists 
 amonsrst all classes of men. 
 
 In fine, the public edifices represent the nation 
 itself; inasmuch as they attest the degree of taste, 
 wealth, and refinement, at which it had arrived. 
 
 It must not be imagined that to give the proper
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOK. 295 
 
 character to public edifices, incurs a greater expense. 
 Talent may supply expense. Wiien funds are in- 
 sufficient for the ordinary means, still it is possible 
 to display a certain magnificence ; for there is a mag- 
 nificence which is unattended with expense, it is that 
 of taste. 
 
 By these means, the energy of the character 
 proper to each edifice, would acquire more value. 
 Independently of their particular elevation and real 
 dimension, they would gain upon the public opinion, 
 by the striking contrast they would oifer to the sur- 
 rounding buildings ; exhibiting at once to the eyes 
 of the spectators, the real character and importance 
 of each. If the peristyle with a pediment was 
 exclusively dedicated to churches, what a majestic 
 influence, and, as may be said, sanctity^ would it 
 not acquire, by the certain and determined idea that 
 it would awaken in the mind of the spectator. If 
 the employment of columns, judiciously arranged, 
 were reserved for the decoration of public edifices; 
 how imposing and significant would they not be- 
 come ! The resources of sculpture would be ef- 
 fective according to the greatness of the design to 
 which they might be applied. 
 
 This gradation in the different edifices of towns and 
 cities, is the first means of indicating their relative 
 character. Thus an architect is not at liberty arbi- 
 trarily to dispose, and indistinctly use, all the resources 
 of his art, in the edifices which he erects. So that in 
 the composition of any design, he should bear in mind, 
 that each edifice must possess relative qualities, which 
 architecture is enabled to express and manifest to the 
 sight. F.vtcU of ihvsc qualities will accordingly serve
 
 296 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 him as a type in his invention. By displaying an 
 ignorance of them, he will draw upon himself the just 
 criticisms of those who are versed in the art. 
 
 The residences of individuals may be varied by 
 presenting appearances of simplicity, together w ith a 
 certain elegance free from luxury ; though still con- 
 forming to the general type which habitations ought 
 to present. The palaces and mansions of sovereigns 
 and nobles, are governed by the rank and quality of 
 those who it is intended should occupy them. Palaces, 
 and large mansions in general, ought not to exhibit 
 other forms or style than are applied to private houses ; 
 the difference should only exist in their scale and 
 proportions. The palaces of Florence and some other 
 cities in Italy may be adduced as examples ; they all 
 present houses that are more lofty and spacious than 
 ordinary, yet always exhibiting the same style as the 
 other habitations. All the riches of architecture ought 
 to be reserved for the public edifices. In them, like- 
 wise, an artist should exhibit all his talent and pene- 
 tration, in proportioning and modifying his resources, 
 according to the nature of the edifices ; indicating in 
 them their analogy with the moral qualities which they 
 ought to represent. 
 
 It is very important that the language of architec- 
 ture have its value, so that its signs be understood 
 and produce those effects of which they are capable. 
 Therefore it follows, that to express a particular 
 quality by means of certain objects, it is necessary 
 that the same means be not indiscriminately employed 
 for the expression of any other quality. An architect 
 ought then, in order to characterize his productions, 
 to apply all his diligence and study to the perfect
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 297 
 
 attainment of the expression of the respective quali- 
 ties in edifices. 
 
 The analogy of some edifices with the qualities 
 which they ought to present, are of so decided a nature, 
 as not to be easily mistaken. Thus it is evident that 
 a prison ought to inspire terror, and an assembly and 
 concert room, pleasure. If the impression of the ideas 
 which should be conveyed by such edifices, fail in their 
 effect ; it is not from the individual's ignorance of the 
 evident quaHties that tliese ought to express, neither 
 that they do not offer sufficient scope for the exercise 
 of his talents, nor that he is wanting in suitable re- 
 sources from the art ; but is caused by the absence of 
 that requisite qualification, ability. To form an exact 
 and distinct idea of the special and proper qualities of 
 the different numerous edifices, in which the similarity 
 of their uses seems to strengthen their affinity, re- 
 quires considerable talent to accomplish. 
 
 Often false ideas, even in the judgment that ought 
 to conduct the student in the choice of character, cause 
 liim to err ; from a conviction that all the richness of 
 his art ought to be applied to edifices which, in reality, 
 require but a very inferior and subordinate portion. 
 The evident gradation of richness or simplicity in 
 aichitecture, is one of the most striking means that 
 can be employed to characterize objects; but this and 
 other means are applied, or at least ought to be applied, 
 to the metaphorical or ideal expression of edifices. It 
 is this progression of opinion relative to the employ- 
 ment of edifices, as respects their uses, and the ideas 
 attached to them, by which a student should be 
 guided in the distribution of the resources of the art. 
 
 Churches present themselves as the first objects of 
 
 2 Q
 
 298 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 consideration. In them tne artist ought to express 
 all the sentiments of greatness, power, and majesty, 
 attached to the Being to whose honour they are 
 erected. 
 
 Now, richness in architecture is one of the sisrns 
 representative of power. Richness, and the greatest 
 richness, is then appHcable to churches. By richness 
 is not understood a confused mass of decoration, com- 
 posed of marbles and metals ; the vain display of which, 
 only serves to convey an idea of luxury and superfluity ; 
 and for this reason it tends to impoverish the sentiment 
 which is wished to be expressed. Richness consists 
 in the multiplied employment of the columns of those 
 orders that present the greatest number of ornaments, 
 and the greatest magnificence. The Greeks assimi- 
 lated the several orders to the different characters of 
 their divinities. They possessed the art of exhibiting 
 this expression of the different qualities susceptible of 
 being represented by architecture. Strength, great- 
 ness, and majesty struck the astonished spectator in 
 the temples of Jupiter. Nobleness and gravity, in 
 those of Hercules, Mars, and of Minerva. Pleasure, 
 gaiety, and grace, presented their fascinating smiles at 
 the temples of Venus, Flora, and the Naiades By a 
 judicious employment of the different styles, they 
 succeeded in exhibiting a precise expression in their 
 productions, even when the divinities to which they 
 were dedicated, offered a mixed character ; and 
 therefore requiring very minute and particular shades 
 to make the indication apparent. Such were the 
 temples of Juno, Diana, Bacchus, and others of the 
 same class. No people ever carried to such perfection 
 the poetical language of architecture. But what other
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 299 
 
 people ever existed under circumstances so favourable 
 to this development? As each divinity was itself but 
 the emblem of some moral quality; the religious, in 
 consecrating temples to them, imposed on architec- 
 ture the task of expressing and making evident each 
 of their qualities, which were to form a particular 
 feature in the composition of each edifice. Thus an 
 architect charged with the erection of a temple to a 
 divinity, employed by study the whole powers of his 
 mind in order to gain a just and accurate conception 
 of the real character of this divinity ; that is, the 
 qualities that had been given by the imagination to 
 these allegorical beings; and thus to employ such 
 means as would enable him to fix, through the medium 
 of architectural forms, these fugitive results of the 
 mind. 
 
 Although we have not in tliis respect all the re- 
 sources that result from polytheism, we may, notwith- 
 standing, vary the aspect and ordonnance of churches, 
 by applying to each, as motive for their styles, some 
 one of the attributes of the divinity corresponding to 
 the qualities which are within the bounds of the art. 
 
 If, then, columns produce the greatest degree of 
 richness in architecture, the artist that is economical 
 and discreet in the employment of his means, will 
 readily conceive that all edifices, of whatever nature 
 they may be, do not require the same degree of this 
 species of richness, as sacred edifices ; and lastly, that 
 all objects which convey any idea of, or approach to, 
 the form of a church, when applied to other purposes, 
 presents a contradiction. 
 
 It doubtless requires considerable study to attain a 
 knowledge of the propriety ^vhic]l should be observed
 
 300 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 in each edifice ; to determine the style applicable to 
 its uses ; and to establish the physiognomy which it 
 ought to have, on the nature of the qualities attached 
 to it. Thus an exchange, where merchants, bankers, 
 brokers, &c., meet to ncgociate their affairs, ought to 
 express the qualities of those branches related to it. 
 Opulence without luxury, convenience and commo- 
 diousness without elegance, and gravity without 
 majesty, should be the characteristics of such an 
 editice : presenting a spacious interior, surrounded by 
 a piazza. 
 
 It would be erroneous to establish the expression of 
 the proper qualities of an edifice, either upon undeter- 
 mined ideas, or puerile relations between the appear- 
 ance of the edifice and its uses : as for example ; to 
 suppose that the place appropriated to the coinage of 
 money, that in which it is circulated, or that which 
 serves as a depot, should announce by an exterior 
 richness of architecture, the material and metallic 
 riches which may be contained in it. Thus, then, to 
 determine the proper expression of character in edifices, 
 their nature and propriety should always be consulted. 
 By their nature is understood the rank which they 
 hold in the public opinion ; by propriety, the degree 
 of suitableness that their employment requires. 
 
 If dedicated to the cultivation of the Sciences, the 
 study of the Belles Lettres, and of the Arts ; a noble 
 appearance, without too much gravity, agreeable 
 without voluptuousness, and simple without austerity, 
 at once make known its destination ; galleries, form- 
 ing colonnades, surrounding the principal parts of the 
 edifice, enlivening its avenues, and embellishing its 
 interior areas. Amongst the number of those erected
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 301 
 
 for similar uses in cities, there are many grades to be 
 observed. If it be a place for education, it requires a 
 greater degree of modesty, temperance, and economy. 
 
 If an hospital destined as a receptacle for the indi- 
 gent, or the curing of their diseases ; the great extent of 
 the plan, exterior simplicity, convenience in all the ac- 
 cessory parts, numerous apertures for the circulation of 
 air, a large and solid style of construction, presenting 
 great and uninterrupted surfaces, constitute the cha- 
 racteristic contrast between this and other edifices. 
 
 If a store-house, custom-house, or warehouse ; all 
 that enters into their composition requires a character 
 more of massiveness than strength, and a style pre- 
 senting more rusticity than severity. The employment 
 of columns is altogether in contradiction with their 
 character ; no degree of ornament whatever ought 
 to present itself in these productions. Their mag- 
 nificence consists in massive proportions, elevated 
 arches and strengthenings forming chains, or bonds 
 of projecting stones. 
 
 If a theatre, museum, or concert-room, all the graces 
 of architecture may be called into action. Pleasure, 
 gaiety, and delicateness, may in turn decorate its 
 walls ; but ought rather to be produced by taste than 
 luxury. The amenity and lightness of the muses, 
 and the sentiment of harmony, of which these edifices 
 are the abode, are sufficient to inspire the real artist 
 with a knowledge of the style suitable to them. The 
 type for tribunals, ought to present an expression of 
 irravitv, decorum, nnd austeritv. Their noble and 
 .serionsly imposing ordonnance, should produce a sen- 
 timent of respect and awe. 
 
 If a town-hall ; it ought to represent the wealth
 
 302 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR, 
 
 and extent of the town or city, and the commerce and 
 opulence of its inhabitants ; serving as their rendez- 
 vous, and the principal place for the settling of their 
 affairs. This kind of edifice ought to partake of the 
 forms applied to palaces, but surpassing them in 
 greatness, elevation, richness, and decoration. 
 
 There are many other edifices, the particular phy- 
 siognomy of which might be given, were it not for 
 increasing the length of this article which is already 
 of considerable extent. These details may be easily 
 supplied by a careful examination of the nature of 
 edifices, and of the most proper means to render it 
 apparent. By following this rule, neither the resources 
 of architecture will be found too limited, nor its signs 
 too few in number ; but will afford all the variety of 
 expression which the different compositions require. 
 
 Architects, doubtless, stand in need of being sup- 
 ported in their attempts to express the delicate senti- 
 ment of propriety of character in their designs, by the 
 enlightened taste of the public ; by the intimate in- 
 telligence between their manner of expressing, and 
 that of comprehending, on the part of those to whom 
 the signs are addressed. Notwithstanding which, 
 architects have greatly contributed to corrupt and 
 mislead the understanding of the public, by the abusive 
 application of the means necessary to characterize 
 edifices ; and above all by the confused employment 
 of the general and particular forms of architecture. 
 
 To characterize edifices, it does not suffice to have 
 observed the necessary gradation of richness which 
 propriety demands ; nor to conceive the qualities ana- 
 logous to the nature and suitableness of each. But 
 when a student has determined in his mind the just
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 303 
 
 proportion of these grades ; when his imagination has 
 attained an exact idea of the scale and style proper 
 for each edifice ; it is then requisite that he be ac- 
 quainted with the active and material means, whereby 
 he may be enabled to fix his thought and give it 
 consistence. 
 
 There exists between the nature of the greater part 
 of edifices and many of the general and particular 
 forms of architecture, a relation of conformity, with 
 which it is extremely important to be acquainted ; so 
 as to prevent their employment in a contradictory 
 sense ; and also to derive an advantage by their 
 judicious application. It does not suflSce that this 
 distinctive character should alone be indicated by the 
 resources of decoration ; though this aid, when judi- 
 ciously employed, may, it is true, add to its perfection. 
 But it is likewise required that the disposition of the 
 total of a composition be judicious; that the forms 
 employed be appropriate ; and the whole harmonious ; 
 in order to produce the suitable expression of character 
 necessary for each particular class of edifices. 
 
 It is upon the composition of the plan that depends 
 the merit that ought to be apparent in an edifice; and 
 firstly, that desirable quality, conveniency. It should 
 be disposed so as to satisfy the wants and degrees of 
 suitableness that the uses for which it may be intended 
 require. In this respect, a talented artist is one that 
 succeeds in uniting conveniency for the service of the 
 interior, and the necessary depeudances; so as to 
 present a regularity is always desirable. Nevertheless, 
 there is a pleasure produced by symmetry, in tlie 
 uniform correspondence of all the parts of a plan ; to 
 effect which, it would be injudicious to sacrifice the
 
 304 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 conveniency and propriety of its distribution. This 
 exact observance of a symmetrical distribution, which 
 is so agreeable to the sight, is seldom so connected as 
 to present itself in the elevation. Inasmuch as this 
 exactness ought to be observed, when unopposed by 
 any reasonable motive ; so likewise it should be re- 
 nounced when it is found to interfere with that first 
 obHgation in all compositions, its relation to the wants 
 and employment of the edifice. 
 
 In the composition of a plan, there exists a merit of 
 another kind ; which more particularly depends on 
 taste. It is the general motive adopted, which deter- 
 mines the form of the edifice, its character, and what 
 may be termed its particular physiognomy. 
 
 This merit depends chiefly on the form that the 
 artist may employ for his plan. An edifice of a cir- 
 cular form will convey a totally different idea to one 
 that is quadrangular. It may be remarked further to 
 depend on what may be principally required that the 
 plan should present ; on the number of columns em- 
 ployed, and the solidity of the masses, to characterize 
 an edifice ; by making known that such dispositions 
 are in relation with such and such uses. 
 
 In the plan of an edifice that is well conceived, as 
 it determines the elevation, there must result from the 
 vertical masses which arise from it, an agreeable 
 aspect ; by the mutual relation alone which the mind 
 may perceive in it. 
 
 It may be generally observed, that upon the sim- 
 plicity of a plan depends that of the elevation ; and 
 that this quality is the principle of greatness. A 
 capricious and irregular plan, produces a multiplicity 
 of projections, vicious forms, and interrupted lines ;
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. HO-) 
 
 and destroys, from the number of details it introduces, 
 the effect of the architecture. In fact, the great effect 
 in the antique temples, proceeds from the simplicity of 
 their plans. Indeed, there is no edifice, the use of 
 which does not determine the general and particular 
 forms that should concur in its formation. Churches, 
 for example, are considered the terrestrial abodes of 
 the Divinity ; but they ought not to resemble in any 
 respect human habitations. Their plan should be 
 simple, and uniform. The ancients never employed 
 other forms for this purpose, than those which were 
 either round or square. Thus, as regards our customs, 
 the parallelogram appears the best adapted. Nothing 
 is more in contradiction with the interior arrangement 
 of churches, than the form of a cross : whatever may 
 have been the religious opinion, on which its appli- 
 cation has been so injudiciously established. This 
 form interrupts their unity ; introduces a union of, as 
 it were, two edifices ; and is in opposition to that 
 necessary law of suitableness, which requires that the 
 minister may be seen from all parts of their interior. 
 It follows, that from these precepts of propriety, and 
 the idea attached to the Being to whose service they 
 are erected, that the less their details resemble those 
 applied to our habitations, the more they will contri- 
 bute to the expression of their true character. Also, 
 the less the apertures for the admission of light, &c., 
 be multiplied the greater will be their contrast with 
 ordinary buildings. Or, if the manner of service re- 
 quire a considerable degree of light in the interior, 
 the windows should differ as much as possible in 
 form, distribution, and appearance, from those of 
 houses ; which serve at the same time for the intro- 
 
 2 R
 
 300 ARCHITECTUKAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 duction of light, and to open to the inhabitants the 
 agreeableness of the prospect which their situation 
 may afford. All the other objects which enter into 
 their composition, and which hkewise form a part in 
 the ordinary wants of Hfe, should be dignilied as 
 much as possible in their application to these edi- 
 fices. The ancients were strict observers of these 
 principles of propriety ; inasmuch as the general, as 
 also some particular forms, were exclusively reserved 
 for the temples of their deities. The essential differ- 
 ence that exists between the religious service of the 
 ancients and that of Christianity, necessarily gave rise 
 to the adoption of those peculiar distributions, remark- 
 able in the temples of the former, and the churches of 
 the latter. Thus the principal service of the ancients 
 was performed in the enclosed area at the front of 
 their temples; the temple itself forming but a species 
 of sanctuary. Whilst the religious service of the 
 Christians, required spacious interiors, capable of con- 
 taining those who assembled to assist at the devotions; 
 likewise that the officiating minister might be visible 
 to all present ; and also that each individual might 
 possess the advantage of distinctly hearing those 
 public discourses, which formed a part of the service. 
 Amongst all the edifices employed at that time for 
 different uses, none seemed to present a total so capable 
 of satisfying all the exigences of the then newly 
 established religion, as the basilica. 
 
 Hence, the principal reason for the adoption of the 
 form of the basilicas in the erection of the churches of 
 the early Christians, in preference to that of the tem- 
 ples, was, independently of their aversion to the wor- 
 ship of the ancients, their want of interior capacity.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 307 
 
 Some writers have remarked, that the early Christian 
 emperors caused the antique basiUcas to be employed 
 for the celebration of the new worship, which is evi- 
 dently incorrect ; for if this had been the case, some 
 of these edifices must necessarily, from being- applied 
 to this service, have been preserved ; however, far from 
 there being any existing remains, it is even difficult 
 to discover the sites which they occupied. The most 
 ancient Christian basilicas, or those which date their 
 erections from the first centuries of the public exercise 
 of this religion, were constructed expressly for the 
 uses to which they were applied. This statement is 
 indubitably confirmed in the details of their architec- 
 ture, which remain as undeniable proofs of the period 
 at which they were executed. In the erection of 
 these new edifices, the disposition of the antique basi- 
 licas was followed ; and whether they retained their 
 denomination, from the impossibility of changing a 
 name, which custom had established for centuries, 
 this appellation was given to those afterwards raised. 
 The finest churches at Rome still retain this name, 
 and take their date from the reign of Constantine. 
 This disposition was afterwards imitated in the con- 
 struction of Gothic churches ; presenting a principal 
 nave elevated above the side aisles, tooether with o'al- 
 leries, apsis, &c. The basilical form gradually disap- 
 peared in those churches erected after the revival of 
 the arts ; the principal reason for which proceeded 
 from the desire that the moderns manifested, to unite 
 the dimension of the western basilicas with the con- 
 struction of the churches of the east; of which St. 
 Sophia at Constantinople presents one of the earliest 
 examples. The <rreater or less degree of exprcssioti
 
 308 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 of tliis union, may be discovered from the era of ihe 
 one just mentioned, to the erection of St. Peter's at 
 Rome. The plan and construction of this famous 
 church, has since become the model of a multiplicity 
 of others, raised in different countries ; which, not- 
 withstanding the imposing appearance that they 
 derive from their cupolas, the employment of which 
 was to unite the four branches of the cross formed by 
 their plan, has introduced into modern architecture a 
 number of complicated forms and immensely expensive 
 constructions, which are more opposite to a correct 
 and judicious application of the principles of architec- 
 ture, than is generally conceived. In their interior 
 the heavy and monotonous effect produced by the 
 piers of the arcades, destined to support the vaulted 
 ceilings, the excessive expense of the different species 
 of arches employed, and many other disadvantages 
 which cannot be obviated without renouncing this 
 complicated system of composition, and having re- 
 course to more simple and elegant forms. At their 
 exterior, the most conspicuous object is a rotunda or 
 circular peripteral temple, situated upon one of a 
 composed quadrangular form ; producing the idea of 
 an edifice altogether independent and entirely without 
 relation to that which it surmounts. Is it not more 
 desirable that these circular temples, surrounded by 
 peristyles, indicating their conveniency for perambu- 
 lation, had terra firma for their base, like those of 
 ancient Rome, rather than to be raised in the air ? 
 The basilical form produces the most effective and 
 appropriate plan, for the uses to which our churches 
 are applied. It presents that admirable unity which 
 satisfies the mind, and that pleasing variety which
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 309 
 
 gratifies and refreshes the sig^ht, affording to the spec- 
 tator innumerable diversified effects, produced by the 
 same causes, almost without changing his situation. 
 In fine, this disposition offers that desirable harmony 
 contained in no other form ; presenting the requisite 
 dimensions for religious service ; that richness of 
 effect, combined with a grave simplicity, suitable to 
 sacred edifices; conveniency in the accessory parts, 
 economy of construction, and solidity added to 
 lightness. 
 
 The soflSts of the ceilings may be divided into com- 
 partments, as it contributes to enrich the ordonnance, 
 which should progressively increase from the foot to 
 the summit. It is es!«;ential that the entablature be 
 not interrupted by projections, the angles produced by 
 which fatigue the sight, and destroy the degree of 
 noble simplicity that should preside in these compo- 
 sitions. It is likewise in general preferable, that the 
 greater volume of light be admitted from the upper 
 part of the edifice. Lastly, churches composed after 
 this manner, would unite that beauty in their interior, 
 and that expression of nobleness at their exterior, of 
 which the antique basilicas and temples afford us 
 such invaluable models ; exhibiting such a system of 
 unity l)etween the exterior elevation and the con- 
 struction of the interior, as to produce in each edifice 
 a iiarmonious total. 
 
 Although, as before remarked, the disposition of 
 the above-mentioned examples cannot be applied to 
 modern churches, without considerable modification, 
 it is, however, of the greatest importance to possess a 
 knowledge of their nature and proportions. From not 
 having sufficiently studied these models, the architects
 
 310 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 of many of our churches, have committed the most 
 glaring errors. It is in these only, that examples can 
 be found, presenting an expression of dignity and 
 greatness suitable to sacred edifices. 
 
 From this knowledge would result the most useful 
 guide for the progress of the ordonnance of those that 
 may hereafter be constructed. And it may further be 
 remarked, that the ideas acquired from these edifices, 
 would greatly conduce to the perfection of others of 
 every description, with which the individual might be 
 intrusted. 
 
 The principle of applying to the fa9ades of churches 
 several orders of columns, situated above each other, 
 is generally to be condemned ; as, independently of 
 every other consideration, the exterior of all edifices 
 should be composed of greater parts, or larger 
 divisions, than the interior ; which gradation should 
 not only exist in the proportion, but likewise in the 
 deo"ree of richness intended to be expressed. Hence 
 the module employed in the ordonnance of the interior, 
 should be less than that of the exterior. The student 
 who is aware of the resources that the antique 
 examples afford him, will not fail, in the construction 
 of these edifices, to benefit from their system. His 
 compositions will present the principal mass situated 
 upon a slightly elevated basement, the ascent to which 
 is o-ained by a spacious flight of steps. Upon this 
 imposing base he distributes the fa9ade ; never for- 
 o'ettino' the great object to which they are to be 
 consecrated, and at the same time having the ex- 
 pression of the ordonnance in unison with the cha- 
 racter of those to whom they may be dedicated. In 
 fine, our churches should present majesty and solem-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 311 
 
 iiiiy ; their aspect should attract, aftect, and raise the 
 mind of the spectator, to a contemplative aamiration. 
 
 There are certain forms employed to represent and 
 express the nature of monuments ; which are in such 
 a manner appropriated to them, by the nature of the 
 objects, custom, and opinion, that their misapplication 
 ^vould be discerned by all. Such is, amongst others, 
 the form of pyramids, relative to tombs and sepulchral 
 monuments. 
 
 Arches or triumphal monuments have also, from 
 the customs which have given rise to them, their 
 characteristic forms. 
 
 The forms of some edifices are imperiously pre- 
 scribed and determined ; and the observance ought to 
 be strictly adhered to ; yet. as if this palpable idea of 
 suitableness was a secret of the art, or a refinement, 
 the acquisition of which was extremely difficult, many 
 of the moderns have not even suspected its necessity. 
 
 It is their interior form which should determine that 
 of their exterior; and inform the passing spectator of 
 the uses for which they are employed. Is it not a 
 strange caprice, to establish such a contradiction 
 between their interior and exterior, as to require the 
 aid of an inscription to determine their use. When 
 the form is governed by necessity, it becomes the 
 essential motive and type of all edifices of the same 
 description. The ancients doubtless varied the dimen- 
 sions, proportions, decorations, and accessories of each 
 of the same species of edifices they erected; but there 
 can be no example cited, where they departed from 
 the ffcneral and elementary form, that constitutes the 
 distinguishing characteristic of each class of edifices. 
 
 According to these same principles, circular forms
 
 v^12 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 arc not suitable for houses ; as the necessity, type and 
 progress of invention, does not require that a house 
 should be so disposed. This kind of plan, Avhen ap- 
 plied to habitations, produces a sensation of inappro- 
 priateness; and if the cause be sought, it will be 
 found to be produced by the real and apparent diffi- 
 culties which their interior distribution offers. There 
 are besides semi-circular, or segmental walls, or por- 
 ticoes, employed at the entrances of houses and edi- 
 fices ; which, by their form, belong to the same class. 
 Nothing can be more injudicious than the application 
 of convex forms for entrances ; as, from their appear- 
 ance, they rather serve to repulse the spectator, than 
 to invite him to enter. It cannot be said that these 
 observations are punctilious, or that these principles 
 of suitableness are imaginary; although absolute ne- 
 cessity is not affected, and does not suffer from many 
 supposed improprieties. This argument might be 
 used, if the application of architecture was confined 
 to benefit material beings alone, who possessed neither 
 intellectual knowledge nor any sentiment of propriety ; 
 as it would not then be required that any efforts of 
 judgment be employed to improve the mind by making 
 it form a part in their necessities. A door is but an 
 aperture placed in a certain situation for the admission 
 of particular forms ; then, provided that its dimensions 
 suffice for the introduction of that which is to be 
 admitted, necessity is satisfied, and requires nothing 
 more. Yet it is doubtful whether any architect would 
 deliberately employ apertures to serve as doors, the 
 form of which should present a perfect circle. For 
 as iong as the human form is not changed, there can 
 be no reason for changing that of our doors.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 318 
 
 The ancients observed two points that have ren- 
 dered their combinations more excellent than those of 
 their successors. They adopted a positive model, 
 which prevented any fantastical wanderings of the 
 imagination ; and secondly, the details necessary for 
 the embellishments of this model, were also derived 
 from the same source. Thence it resulted, that in 
 their productions, like those of nature, pleasure was 
 not only united to necessity, but was produced by it. 
 From this also arose a species of pleasure which can 
 be found in the original productions of no other 
 nations; which is, that the principal objects which 
 serve as its embellishments, were, in their origin, the 
 forms of the construction itself; and thus there are 
 few of these details, of which taste is not enabled, in 
 their employment, to render a satisfactory motive to 
 the faculty of reason. 
 
 Thus a very important part of architecture, which 
 is named modinature, proceeds from the system of 
 analogy which constitutes the principle of imitation in 
 this art. It is to preserve this analogy, that the 
 student, in his compositions, should direct his atten- 
 tion. If once this origin be forgotten, if, from a want 
 of observance of these principles, confusion or disorder 
 l)e introduced, the architecture loses its value and 
 signification ; and that which should have addressed 
 both the sight and understanding, now even fatigues 
 the visual sense, by its useless and idle repetition. 
 All that should have a motive and reason, no longer 
 present either ; and the mind ceases to find, in an art 
 with wnich it thus no longer sympathizes, the plea- 
 sure that it ought to enjoy from it. 
 
 M'hen the architect supposes himself uncontrolled 
 
 2 s
 
 -314 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 by analogy, all the cliaracteristic forms are distorted, 
 perverted, and rendered iinnatvu'al. Who, indeed, can 
 discover amidst the scrolls, twisted forms, breaks and 
 mutilations, exhibited in the pediments, entablatures, 
 capitals, shafts, profiles, &c., of Boromini, any trace 
 either of the characteristic forms of these constituent 
 parts, or any attempt at a significant application of 
 them, in the edifices erected by him. 
 
 This abuse proceeds from two causes. The first 
 took its rise from the equivocal nature of some few 
 objects of embellishments that are employed in 
 architectural compositions. That as certain minute 
 details have received their origin from the pleasure 
 produced by variety in the embellishment of the 
 different productions of this art, and offering a trans- 
 position of objects ; the reason for their employment 
 being either connected with too early a period, or 
 being too metaphorical in itself to be determined by 
 an exact and severe analysis ; it has been concluded 
 that all in this art, even its constituent parts, might 
 be considered as a metaphor ; and, as it would natu- 
 rally follow, all objects employed as embellishments, 
 w^ere treated as being arbitrary in their application, 
 from the mere circumstance of there being some 
 amongst the minuter class for which no positive sig- 
 nification could be assigned. The cause appears to 
 have originated in the false idea that some architects 
 have attached to invention. To them, the antique 
 architecture exhibits a deficiency of genius, from the 
 exact observance in the employment of the same 
 forms for similar purposes ; and they judged that to 
 be monotonous, which presented the desirable quality 
 of regularity. Being unable to appreciate the delicate
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 315 
 
 shades with which all the modifications of character 
 may be expressed, they preferred the most exagge- 
 rated means, which in reality produce but little effect, 
 from the circumstance alone of aiming at producing 
 too much. 
 
 It cannot be doubted, that by a scrupulous observ- 
 ance in the suitable employment of the constituent 
 parts of this art, all the variety and beauty of expres- 
 sion may be exhibited that correct taste can require. 
 Thus, without affecting the principles by which the 
 form and application of these parts are governed, 
 there can be produced, at will, an almost indefinite 
 number of shades of expression, from the most simple 
 to the most compound character that an edifice may 
 be required to present. 
 
 There would be required, by following in detail all 
 the particular forms of architecture, a long enumera- 
 tion of precepts of this kind, founded upon the essen- 
 tial and proper degrees of suitableness of each object ; 
 columns, pedestals, niches, windows, entablatures, 
 and even the smallest profiles that the sight can 
 distinguish in the most extensive masses. All have 
 more or less relation to that which is required, or 
 with those principles of suitableness which are more 
 or less imperative. It is from a knowledge and the 
 observance of all these relations, and from their exact 
 and rcfiected indication, that results in the detail as 
 in the total, that which is called the proper character 
 of edifices. But it is not in the present article, which 
 is destined to a general theory, that more detailed 
 applications should be entered into, as they have 
 already been given in each of the articles 'treating 
 on the constituent parts of edifices.
 
 316 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR, 
 
 If the examples and general principles which have 
 been developed are true, it is for the reader to draw 
 from thence all the results which may be derived ; 
 and to complete this catalogue of all the inconsistencies 
 that a total forgetful ness of the necessary principles 
 of the art have, during a long period, accumulated in 
 modern architecture. He will discover the reason 
 of this want of character ; which, like a secret disease, 
 attaches itself to edifices, without either the cause 
 or remedy being known. He will, above all, discover 
 the reason of this great disparity of effect and im- 
 pression, between the works of the ancients and those 
 of the moderns. 
 
 An intelligent modification of the resources of con- 
 struction, is another of the means that an architect 
 possesses to particularize the style of his edifices, 
 and to enable him to imprint on each the necessary 
 degree of suitableness and propriety. By construction 
 is understood, that part of architecture' which more 
 particularly relates to the different materials and the 
 conducting of their employment, so as to aid in 
 giving the true expression. 
 
 What different impressions the varied resources of 
 construction are capable of producing! Noble and 
 multiplied openings may display themselves to at- 
 tract; and heavy masses of masonry that obstruct 
 the view, will convey the opposite sensation. The 
 lofty elevation of vaulted, and the calm effect of flat 
 ceilings, or their surbasement, will each produce 
 different effects upon the mind. The proximity and 
 contrast of even and projecting parts; the marked 
 expression of the carpentry or primitive type in an 
 edifice, and the scientific combination of the masonr\%
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 317 
 
 or the skilful distribution of all the material means 
 employed ; though they act in a less decided manner, 
 nevertheless they affect both the understanding and 
 taste. Construction has then its styles, and their 
 grades cannot be classed amongst those which have 
 the least hold upon the mind. On the contrary, they 
 present a palpable relation to the nature of the object 
 for which they are employed ; and it is therefore very 
 important not to neglect such resources. 
 
 In proportion to the difficulty there arises in work- 
 ing materials, owing to their hardness, the less their 
 forms are exposed to the variations of caprice ; and 
 hence results in the same ratio an expression of great- 
 ness and strength in the edifices in which they are 
 employed. Materials, in masonry, of a free quality, 
 convey an equivocal and indefinite appearance ; both 
 by the impression that results from the fragility of 
 the substance, and by the details exhibiting the little 
 difficulty required in their formation ; as they easily 
 yield to the hand and chisel by which they are 
 wrought. 
 
 Wood, likewise, according to the talent that directs 
 its different combinations, and its employments, is 
 also susceptible of producing a strong and imposing 
 aspect. • 
 
 The absence of this character of solidity, proceeds 
 doubtless from the beauties of architecture being little 
 appreciated or understood. Thence, that natural 
 indiflerence towards this art; and from this indiffer- 
 ence. the small number, and confined extent of the 
 public edifices, and the little care manifested in their 
 construction. Also that routine which has redrced 
 simply to a trade the most fine and delicate com-
 
 318 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 binations of the favourite art of the ancients; and 
 changed into a mere mechanical process, the opera- 
 tions of genius. 
 
 All the economical means, the mechanical oper- 
 ations, mathematical demonstrations, and all the inge- 
 nious processes and discoveries adopted in this art, 
 have only served to destroy that expression of simple, 
 imposing, and visible solidity; and even when it is 
 proved that real solidity loses nothing from these 
 economical resources, it nevertheless always loses in 
 appearance. 
 
 One of the most energetic means of giving to a con- 
 struction, an expression of strength, is to work its 
 masonry in rustics. By the employment of these 
 means, which increase in the mind of the spectator 
 the real dimensions of the materials, there may be 
 given an appearance of greatness proportionate to the 
 expression that it may be intended to exhibit. The 
 projection of the masonry thus wrought, conveys an 
 idea of duration and resistance ; by which is depicted 
 strength and power. 
 
 The smaller the apertures of an edifice are in dimen- 
 sions and number, the greater will be its expression 
 of solidity. Close intercolumniations, large parts left 
 plain, extensive surfaces uninterrupted by details, wide 
 piers between windows, considerable spaces in the 
 division of stories, each of these contributes to this 
 character of strength. 
 
 Hence the employment of materials ought not to 
 be made without discernment. The general rule is, 
 that their size should be proportioned to that of 
 the edifices. However, they may be proportioned 
 according to the expression of strength, delicacy,
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 319 
 
 majesty, gaiety, magnificence, or lightness which 
 should constitute the character of the edifice. The 
 quality, length, and dimensions of its materials, should 
 form a part in the degree of suitableness requisite for 
 the expression of the total. Large masses of stone of 
 solid division, square and rustically wrought, would 
 aid to designate prisons, and such works as are 
 intended to resist the attacks of men, and also of time. 
 But the sensation of indestructibility in edifices serves 
 also to produce those of astonishment and admiration. 
 There are examples, such as churches, where it con- 
 veys an idea of eternity. On such occasions it cannot 
 be too evidently manifested. But in giving to the 
 materials the largest dimensions possible, their surface 
 ought not to present any appearance of resistance. 
 Their joints, instead of being raised in bossages, should 
 be imperceptible ; so as not to present that multi- 
 plicity of parts which forebode their decomposition. 
 The unity that ought to constitute the moral motive 
 in the conception of the plan, should apparently exist 
 in the materials of which it is formed. When all the 
 joints of the masonry present themselves to the spec- 
 tator; when he is able to count the number of the 
 courses ; it causes him to calculate before-hand the 
 time necessary for its destruction. After a period of 
 three thousand years, the joints in the masonry of the 
 Egyptians, may be sought for in vain. No people 
 has better conceived the manner of conveying an idea 
 of eternity in their constructions : and it is necessary 
 to imitate them, when we intend to erect aught to 
 the Divinity. 
 
 'I'he hardness of materials, besides affording a pre- 
 cision and finish of execution, further serves to convey
 
 320 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 an idea of solidity ; and is therefore particularly 
 suitable for public edifices. In them the multiplied 
 employment of timber is misplaced ; it being better 
 adapted to residences and minor constructions. But 
 bricks, in such situations where these materials are 
 common, present for private habitations a just degree 
 of economy, solidity, and lightness. These materials 
 are inferior, in public opinion, as also in reality, to 
 stone ; and can only be employed with success, for the 
 effect of the character which they produce, in con- 
 structions of a mixed kind; as magazines or stores; 
 serving as depot and place of sale for various com- 
 modities and merchandise ; aqueducts, and rural 
 buildings. 
 
 The effect of materials is another resource from 
 which the art may profit. By this is meant, the effect 
 that is produced by the beauty, rarity, and colour of 
 certain materials ; as also from their mixture, manner 
 of working, and the varying of their appearance. 
 
 The ancients understood better than we, in what 
 the essential beauty of architecture consists. For 
 their constructions, stripped as they are at the present 
 day of all ornament, do not fail to move us to the 
 highest degree ; and to excite such impressions as 
 modern edifices, although entire, are unable to produce. 
 
 The colour of materials has certainly a command 
 over our senses ; and for that reason has a natural 
 connexion with the other means proper to characterize 
 the productions of this art. Marble of an austere 
 and monotonous tone, inspires gravity and reflection. 
 That of a dark colour, or black, produces melancholy. 
 Flowered or veined marbles, of a delicate hue, excite 
 gay and lively sensations. The last of the resources
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 321 
 
 that are employed to characterize edifices is deco- 
 ration. 
 
 The ornaments employed in the decoration of archi- 
 tecture, are, as regards their execution, a positive and 
 direct imitation of nature ; but their composition and 
 employment are governed by the appropriate character 
 of edifices. The Greeks, amongst whom they were 
 first employed, possessed the art of submitting them 
 to the laws of suitableness, if not of necessity ; but at 
 least of utility. Ornaments, among them, were a 
 species of allegorical writing; the general characters 
 of which always designated something relative to the 
 edifice to which they were applied. 
 
 To the capricious taste exhibited in arabesques, 
 may be attributed the introduction of those numerous 
 irregularities which have so greatly prevented the 
 progress of this art. 
 
 Ornaments ought to compose an assemblage of in- 
 telligible and expressive characters, capable of con- 
 veying the ideas of those by whom they may be 
 employed. Placing aside, for a moment, all motive of 
 utility in the application of ornaments, correct taste 
 requires that they afibrd pleasure to the sight, and 
 add to the general harmony of a composition ; by the 
 just, agreeable, and economical disposition of all the 
 objects of which ornaments are composed. 
 
 The same taste likewise proscribes the introduction 
 of the arabesque style in sculptural ornaments; which 
 in exposing to the sight such extravagant combina- 
 tions, would, from the absence of colours in sculptural 
 ornaments, present a still greater degree of deformity. 
 
 hi the proscribed class of ornaments, may be placed 
 those of the .school of Boromini ; consisting of fantas- 
 
 2 T
 
 J^22 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 tical foliage, grotesque heads, cliartouches, shells, 
 escutcheons, and many other puerilities, with which 
 architecture has been so long burdened. 
 
 Among other means employed in the decorative 
 part of architecture to strengthen the expression of 
 an appropriate character, attributes hold a conspicuous 
 rank. But if these attributes are admitted as consti- 
 tuting the letters, words, or phrases of a language ; 
 what is to be understood when we find the signs 
 indicative of divine worship applied to edifices totally 
 unconnected with such purposes? Or when their 
 ordonnance is decorated with the symbols of festivity, 
 without being employed for the celebration either of 
 public fetes, or amusements, the spectator must neces- 
 sarily be deceived. Hence by arbitrarily transposing 
 the various attributes, and indiscriminately applying, 
 in the decoration of capitals, friezes, pediments, &c , 
 all the signs representative of the qualities, or pro- 
 perties of objects, the decoration of an edifice is sup- 
 posed to be perfected. Such an application resembles 
 the conduct of an individual, who, ignorant of the 
 value of the characters employed in writing, amuses 
 himself by idly tracing them, without questioning their 
 signification. 
 
 It is by preserving these signs, and the relations 
 which they bear to edifices, that the desirable end is 
 attained of satisfying both the sight and understanding. 
 
 Attributes should be appropriated to the expression 
 of the nature of such edifices as require their exclusive 
 employment. The Greeks and Romans arranged and 
 applied to their principal edifices, characteristic sym- 
 bols and attributes. Means so simple and numerous 
 ought not to be neglected ; and ought to displace the
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 323 
 
 employment of inscriptions : above all in a nation in- 
 structed in and familiar with allegorical signs. What 
 more pitiful resource than that of an inscription applied 
 to an edifice ; when without it, a spectator would be 
 ignorant of the use to which it was dedicated ! It 
 would remind him of those old paintings executed in 
 the middle ages, which present figures without either 
 life or character, requiring for the interpretation of the 
 subject, that legends and inscriptions be employed, as 
 if proceeding from their lips. 
 
 Having preceded thus far with this theory, in which 
 it has been the endeavour to exhibit the resources of 
 the art necessary for expressing the character of pri- 
 vate buildings and public edifices ; a few remarks on 
 the gardens that are sometimes required to accompany 
 them, might not be misplaced. 
 
 It is the general aspect of a building or edifice that 
 should determine the degree of magnificence or sim- 
 plicity that a garden, attached to such architectural 
 productions, ought to present. Hence it is on this 
 distinction alone, that the general principles of this 
 branch of art are founded. 
 
 Gardens, when considered relative to their par- 
 ticular destination, oiler very distinct qualities. A 
 symmetrical distribution is necessary for gardens at- 
 tached to palaces and town residences. The regular 
 and confined surface to be employed; the importance 
 of the building, and the infiucnce which it should 
 naturally have over the limited space attached to it ; 
 all concur to shew the necessity of submitting gardens 
 of this nature, to a symmetrical distribution. The 
 same observation may apply to all gardens, public and 
 private, situated in towns or cities.
 
 324 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 The gardens attached to the palaces of sovereigns, 
 require to be as extensive as possible, and ought to 
 exhibit pomp and magnificence. 
 
 Public gardens ought to be regarded as essentially 
 necessary to the inhabitants of large towns. Their 
 site, when it is possible, should be an open situation ; 
 surrounded by pleasing and agreeable distances. 
 Shade is one of the first requisites during almost all 
 the hours of the day. The trees planted should be 
 such as, from the size and foliage, are enabled to pre- 
 serve the walks from the rays of a summer sun. 
 The alleys should be numerous and commodious. 
 Those forming a straight line are to be preferred in 
 the present instance. The public, for whose relaxa- 
 tion such gardens are intended, require, in taking 
 their promenades, both to see and be seen ; as also ta 
 enjoy the society and conversation of their respective 
 parties. To answer these purposes, therefore, spa- 
 cious straight walks are more favourable than narrow 
 and winding paths. Nevertheless, a public garden 
 occupying a considerable extent of land, may, besides, 
 its avenues, contain a few picturesque walks distri- 
 buted through its principal masses of verdure, foliage, 
 and flowers ; which in fact may be considered as 
 necessary in order to produce a degree of variety in 
 the total. 
 
 The o'ardens attached to €olleo:es and other edifices 
 dedicated to the cultivation of science and education, 
 are susceptible of receiving a distinct and particular? 
 feature. They should present a pleasing and lively 
 aspect. Recesses consecrated to Apollo and to the 
 Muses, arranged in a characteristic manner, and deco- 
 rated with the statues or busts of these divinities,
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 325 
 
 may be judiciously employed. Temples dedicated 
 to the most useful sciences, might also be introduced 
 with allegorical decorations ; or monuments, bearing 
 short inscriptions, which, when arranged with judg- 
 ment, serve to convey instruction and useful advice. 
 A few shady arbours of an agreeable and serene 
 appearance, might invite the studious reader. In 
 other parts, many free and open situations should 
 present themselves, surrounded only by such light 
 foliage and plantations, as do not prevent the cir- 
 culation of the air or hide the points of sight. 
 
 The gardens belonging to religious establishments, 
 are required to present an obscurity and an imposing 
 silence from their secluded situation ; so as to prepare 
 the mind for and invite it to appropriate reflections. 
 Clusters of dark evergreen shrubs, together with 
 shadv retreats formed in the thick foliao:e of trees, 
 serve to convey a corresponding expression in their 
 compositions. 
 
 Gardens connected with public baths, should not 
 only offer commodious and varied walks, to induce 
 the visitors to exercise themselves by a promenade in 
 the open air, but also numerous places of assembly 
 and amusement ; together with seats distributed in 
 various situations, forming a species of arbour, afford- 
 ing those who repose, a pleasant shade. 
 
 The gardens attached to hospitals may present dry 
 gravel ^valks, occasionally bounded by low trees or 
 shrubs, and have seats placed at convenient distances. 
 Insulated groups are preferable in the present instance 
 to alleys. 
 
 To render the plan laid down complete, it remains 
 to treat on country residences.
 
 326 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 The remains of the antique villas, that Italy 
 possessed at the restoration of the arts, doubtless 
 produced those inspirations, that gave rise to the 
 excellent productions erected during the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries. The elegant erections, with 
 their magnificent gardens, that arose during this 
 period, afforded additional aliment for the genius of 
 the arts. 
 
 The art of laying out and decorating gardens, 
 which has so intimate a relation with architecture, at 
 this time formed a part, as it apparently did amongst 
 the ancients, in the qualifications of the architect. 
 
 The parks of the great, ornament and form a con- 
 spicuous feature in the extended landscape ; whilst 
 the gardens of private individuals embellish the 
 suburbs of towns and cities. Many of the most cele- 
 brated cities of Europe, present such an enchanting 
 scene, arising from the country residences with which 
 they are surrounded, that the observer remains fixed 
 with admiration. It is thus with the charming vale 
 of Arno. The city of Florence occupies its centre, 
 encircled on all sides by an amphitheatre of fertile 
 hills, covered with country houses. Of all the cities 
 which present the above advantages, together with 
 the most beautiful detailed models, modern Rome 
 stands pre-eminent. 
 
 The characteristic features of those of Florence, 
 Frascati, the Villa Reale, at Pratolino, Villa d'Este, 
 at Tivoli, and others situated in different parts of 
 Italy, are magnificent conceptions, extended plans, 
 ingenious ideas, the union of architectural produc- 
 tions with plantations ; of foliage with statues ; and 
 the employment of water forming basins, cascades.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 327 
 
 and fountains ; which produce numerous pleasing 
 effects, and have served as models for the greater 
 part of Europe, during the last two centuries. 
 
 Many of these great and beautiful compositions of 
 gardens still exist, as monuments of the correct taste 
 of the period from whence they take their date. The 
 most conspicuous are those of modern Rome, a few 
 of which number, presenting majesties, simple, pic- 
 turesque and mixed styles, shall be enumerated. 
 
 The o'ardens of the Villa Boro'hese are imposino; at 
 their entrance, and majestic in all the parts leading 
 to the villa, consisting of spacious alleys. Abundant 
 fountains, ornamented with allegorical groups, are the 
 first objects that prepare the imagination for the 
 reception of the master-pieces of art, and the beauties 
 of nature, presented in and around this habitation. 
 Groves of varied appearance are seen through the 
 openings in the thick foliage forming the alleys ; com- 
 partments of flowers surround the residence ; and 
 cascades, whose liquid and transparent masses ani- 
 mate the scene. Proceeding further, are piscines, 
 furnished with different species of fish ; and animals 
 of various kinds gambol under the shade of a plan- 
 tation or on an open lawn. 
 
 From this scene the sight and mind will find repose, 
 by contemplating the beauties of the gardens of the 
 Villa Ludovisi, situated upon the same Mount, Pincio. 
 A pleasing melancholy is the effect produced by their 
 simplicity. Long alleys, bordered with myrtle and 
 cypress trees, presenting at their extremity fragments 
 of antique tombs, and groups of figures shaded by 
 thick foliage. On arriving at the most elevated 
 point in these gardens, an imposing view of the sur-
 
 328 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 rounding country presents itself; and on descending 
 in another direction, clusters of fragrant shrubs refresh 
 the senses. 
 
 On entering the Villa Albani, the visitor suddenly 
 finds himself in a spacious and elegant vestibule ; 
 having its elevation, fronting the gardens, composed 
 of arcades with columns, above which rises the rest 
 of the facade. In face is an extensive area occupied 
 by compartments of flowers, by statues, vases, and 
 fountains of numerous jets ; the whole of the per- 
 spective being terminated by an orangery of a semi- 
 circular form, above and at the sides of which rise 
 evergreen shrubs and trees. On the one side are 
 shady walks formed of flowering shrubs, in a part 
 devoted to the cultivation of vegetables. On the left 
 extends a lengthened terrace, offering a commodious 
 promenade, and at the same time commands a most 
 delightful prospect. 
 
 There are the Villas Negroni, Madama, Matei, and 
 many others that are particularly deserving of notice ; 
 amongst which is the Villa Pia, and the gardens of 
 the Villa Pamfili. 
 
 It mio'ht be well to ofler a brief sketch of the 
 
 a 
 
 architecture of the first of the two last mentioned : 
 the Villa Pia, situated in the gardens of the Vatican ; 
 to shew the ability with which the architect has con- 
 trived, in a very confined space, to present all that 
 can contribute to form a delightful habitation. In 
 the centre of an amphitheatre of flowers, surrounded 
 by masses of verdure, is an open pavilion decorated 
 with delightful paintings and stuccoes, and is elevated 
 on a basement that is washed by the water contained 
 in a basin, placed against its base, for receiving the
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 329 
 
 jets of several fountains, around which statues, vases, 
 and fragments of sculpture are arranged. 
 
 Two flights of steps lead to the principal building, 
 sheltered by low walls, ornamented with niches and 
 marble seats, and aflbrd repose under the shade of 
 trees with which they are surrounded. Two por- 
 ticoes, the walls at the back of each being wrought 
 in stucco, form the entrance to a court, having for its 
 pavement compartments of mosaic ; which are enclosed 
 by a dwarf-wall, and likewise present seats disposed 
 at equal distances. 
 
 In the centre of this court is a fountain, which 
 renders the air particularly cool and refreshing. At 
 its extremity, and fronting the pavilion, an open ves- 
 tibule, supported by columns, precedes the different 
 apartments of the ground story of the principal build- 
 ing, above which rises a second story. The interior 
 of the vestibule and apartments, is decorated with 
 mosaics, stuccoes, bassi-rilievi, and paintings ; beautiful 
 both in their composition and execution. At the 
 summit of the building is a small Belvedere, which 
 commands an enchanting view of the surrounding 
 scenery. 
 
 The gardens of the Villa Pamfili are entered by 
 avenues bordered with flowering shrubs ; when after 
 having passed a retired and shady spot, rendered 
 sombre by the thickness of the surrounding foliage, an 
 elegant pavilion presents itself; and an extensive plan- 
 tation of rare trees, bounding a lawn, which serves as 
 pasturage to a number of animals of diflercnt kinds. 
 An immense terrace sustains the rising gardens level 
 with the second story of the casino; and the extremity 
 of the extended superficies, in face, is terminated by a 
 
 2 u
 
 330 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 second terrace. Proceeding on, are clusters of foreign 
 shrubs; and beyond, pine and fir trees form a mountain 
 of evergreen foliage. The almost infinity of agreeable 
 scenes and effects that these enchanted grounds pre- 
 sent, are too numerous to be described. On arriving at 
 the most elevated point, in order to leave the gardens 
 of the Villa Pamfili, what an imposing spectacle offers 
 itself! The whole of modern, together with the ruins 
 on ancient Rome, and the surrounding country, are 
 developed to the astonished sight. 
 
 The situation of country residences requires two 
 essential qualities ; salubrity and agreeableness. The 
 proximity of marshes, boggy ground, or stagnant water, 
 should be avoided. An eminence is the most suitable, 
 being out of reach of unwholesome fogs, which rise 
 from low grounds ; at the same time affording an ex- 
 tensive view of the surrounding country, and of the 
 rustic occupations applied to their cultivation. 
 
 Country residences situated upon a moderate emi- 
 nence, possess a further advantage, if near the banks 
 of a fine river, or a lake, or in the vicinity of a bay 
 formed by the sea, acquiring not only agreeable dis- 
 tances, but becoming, from the nature of their site, 
 the most imposing parts of the picture that the land- 
 scape presents. 
 
 The most general observations as regards aspects in 
 our own country, are, that the south-east is the most 
 esteemed ; and that the south and due east rank next. 
 Again, the south-west is regarded as the most objec- 
 tionable, because the rains proceed more from that 
 point than any other. An aspect due north or west, 
 has equally a disadvantage ; the former from being 
 deprived of the sun, and tlie latter by being incom-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 331 
 
 moded with it, during a considerable portion of the 
 day. 
 
 Neatness, order, and taste, ouj^hi to constitute the 
 ruling features around villas and country residences ; 
 and should present objects in which art, divested of all 
 appearance of constraint, affords as great a degree of 
 comfort as of pleasure. As the grounds immediately 
 adjacent to the residence may be considered to form a 
 part of the site which it occupies, they may be distri- 
 buted with regularity, governed by the plan of the 
 seat ; and prolonged in a right line towards the 
 entrance or avenue. The total negligence of regu- 
 larity offends the sight ; for the architectural compo- 
 sition of a villa is an object of sufficient importance, 
 to influence the observance of symmetry at least in the 
 space immediately connected with and surrounding it. 
 These parts, in extensive villas, may be embellished 
 with statues, vases of flowers, and other suitable objects. 
 
 It has been customary to enrich the area in front of 
 country seats, w ith fountains and orange trees. These 
 two objects doubtless contribute to render them agree- 
 able and refreshing. The site ought not to be covered 
 with buildings, or lofty and thick trees ; as they de- 
 prive the landscape of one of its most pleasing features, 
 openness of view. 
 
 As the principal motive in the erection of country 
 seats, is to possess an uninterrupted enjoyment of 
 peaceful pleasure ; it follows that no object should be 
 placed in their environs, but such as are capable of 
 producing agreeable sensations. Thus they ought not 
 to be immediately surrounded by a number of con- 
 structions, as barns, stables, &c. ; the best situation 
 for which, is, at a short distance from the residence.
 
 332 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 Villas are distinguished from country residences, 
 by their greater extent, dignity, and magnificence. 
 Country seats of the first order, inhabited by persons 
 of distinction, approach the nearest to them. 
 
 Although villas serve as habitations for princes^ 
 they do not require either the same extent, dignity, or 
 sumptuousness as palaces, situated in capitals. In the 
 villa, a sovereign resigns, as may be said, the public 
 character that he holds in the midst of his people. 
 
 It is otherwise with the country seats of nobles, 
 because they more particularly serve them as their 
 ordinary abodes. They reside on their estates, where 
 their presence seems almost indispensable. The coim- 
 try is where their interests and influence are greatest ; 
 and therefore their habitations may with propriety be 
 more magnificent than in the capital. Therefore the 
 character of the country seats of nobles, consists in a 
 mixed though somewhat limited expression of dignity 
 and magnificence. 
 
 Country residences of persons of quality, may be 
 distinguished by a character of elegance. 
 
 The country houses of tradesmen should be res- 
 pectable and pleasant ; and an expression of modera- 
 tion and dignified modesty, be predominant. 
 
 A few remarks may, in the present instance, be 
 offered on those species of constructions named cot- 
 tages ; exhibiting at their exterior, clay walls and 
 roofs thatched with straw ; whilst their interior pre- 
 sents all the luxuries of life. This humble roof, and 
 its mossy w^alls, are but a disguise employed by 
 luxury, to awaken by an unexpected contrast, the 
 exhausted allurements of its impotent charms. Such 
 is doubtless the object proposed in this species of
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 33^5 
 
 productions — which, in misleading the expectation 
 under the external appearance of the most rustic 
 simplicity, exhibits interiorly, a display of marbles, 
 gilding, paintings, the most costly furniture, and all 
 the refinements introduced into modern life. 
 
 It cannot be requisite to follow this subject further, 
 in order to prove its absurdity ; as it must be admitted 
 that imity of character, or analogy of taste, demands a 
 relativeness between the interior and the exterior o 
 all buildings. 
 
 In designing: a country residence, attention should 
 be paid, not only to the general and suitable character 
 of these kinds of buildings, but likewise to the par- 
 ticular character which the composition ought to 
 present, according to the differences which have just 
 been enumerated ; from which should be determined 
 the choice of the materials, method of construction, and 
 also the decoration of all the parts interior and exterior. 
 
 Presupposing all that is necessary for a habitation, 
 together with whatever may contribute to the con- 
 venience of its distribution, which vary according to 
 the ideas or wants of the proprietor, it is requisite, 
 first, as connected with the ordonnance of the building, 
 inasmuch as it is intended to be submitted to the rules 
 of taste, to direct the attention to its general form. 
 
 The more simple it may be, the less it will divide 
 the attention of the spectator, and the more striking 
 will be its advantages. Any complicated form is pro- 
 ductive of less effect than one which is simple. No 
 property contributes more to the beauty of architecture 
 than this. The total mass of a building ought, then, 
 to present, a unique, undivided, and complete form ; 
 producing on tlie sight an agreeable sensation.
 
 334 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 In general the rectangular form is to be preferred ; 
 being more convenient for interior distribution, and as 
 before observed, it offers a pre-eminent simplicity, 
 which permits the sight to observe the accord of the 
 exterior sides, and the proportions of the lines, with 
 facility. A plan having a proportion of about three 
 times or more the length in front than at the sides, 
 fails considerably in the effect it is intended to pro- 
 duce ; as also does that which presents the contrary 
 extent in sides with regard to the front. 
 
 A plan of a square form suffices for an elegant 
 country residence. Those of greater extent, may offer 
 a total, composed of several squares ; or after the 
 Italian manner, presenting four ranges of buildings of 
 equal length ; or again, according to the French 
 method, in which the court is formed by means of 
 three ranges ; that is, by a front and two wings in 
 projection. The first mode possesses considerable 
 dignity, and is still more suitable when the building 
 is composed of several stories ; the second is more 
 open and less confined ; the wings of which may be 
 arrano:ed so as to be of less elevation than the centre 
 part provided they be well proportioned and of a 
 suitable exten.*:. 
 
 The fa9ade should be analogous to the character of 
 the building ; presenting a dignified simplicity, to 
 which a degree of magnificence may be added, ac- 
 cording to the class in which it is placed. It should 
 not be divided and separated by a variety of insulated 
 Darts ; nor covered with superfluous ornaments which 
 nide the principal parts ; nor encumbered by acces- 
 sories that divert the eye from the beauty of the total, 
 nor should it present a multitude of angles and pro-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 33o 
 
 jections, which destroy the impression of unity that 
 the whole ought to convey. The entrance should be 
 elegant, and situated in the centre of the facade. 
 
 Windows, exclusively of their necessity, are a fur- 
 ther means of embellishing these elevations. Their 
 number depends on the interior convenience of the 
 ouilding, and on the decoration of its exterior. If 
 there be too few, it causes a dull appearance in the 
 interior; on the other hand, the multiplicity of win- 
 dows divides the exterior into too great a number of 
 small parts, thereby diminishing the idea of solidity, 
 which is so indispensable for the good effect of the 
 building ; and it attenuates the impression of a neces- 
 sary degree of dignity and simplicity. The propor- 
 tionate size of windows, should be governed by that 
 of the story in which they are situated. 
 
 Colonades or piazzas have, in Italy, been attached 
 to the body of buildings, affording a promenade shel- 
 tered from the rain or sun ; offering an agreeable 
 place for repose, besides giving to the total a lively 
 and magnificent aspect, they further allow of having 
 covered galleries above. If their employment be ad- 
 missible, it is only in villas of the first order. 
 
 The roof never contributes any thing to the beauty 
 of a building; but when its conspicuous appearance 
 cannot be avoided, its form should be such as not to 
 injure the good effect that the whole would otherwise 
 oroduce. The flatter or less raised the roof may be, 
 the more agreeable it will appear. A simple roof is 
 the best adapted for country residences. They may 
 further have a roof in form of a terrace, or again one 
 which has a portion left flat on each of its sides ; 
 serving after sun-set as an agreeable situation to enjoy
 
 336 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 the distant prospects and the refreshing atmospliere ; 
 and it should be surrounded by an elegant and solid 
 balustrade. 
 
 Turrets are not compatible with the expression of 
 liberty and pleasure, which ought to characterize 
 villas and country seats. They bring to mind those 
 barbarous ages, when they sometimes served as for- 
 tresses, at others as magazines for plunder, and also 
 for prisons. 
 
 The decorations that are added to the essential 
 parts of villas and country seats, to increase the feeling 
 of pleasure, require the same degree of judicious 
 application as in other works of art. First, it is ne- 
 cessary that they be suitable to and harmonize with 
 the buildings in general ; that they appear as if the 
 nature itself of their disposition had caused their 
 origin ; that they be susceptible of strengthening the 
 effect of each essential part to which they may be 
 added ; and of rendering them still more agreeable to 
 the sight. They should be distributed with judgment 
 and economy; without injuring the impression which 
 the essential parts ought to produce ; so as not to hide 
 their forms and also not to affect the simplicity, or 
 interrupt the magnificence of the principal parts. It 
 is necessary that they be conformable, both to the 
 rank and fortune of the proprietor, and to the char- 
 acter of a country residence ; presenting a relative 
 signification. Lastly, they should accord with the 
 particular character of the building; for an elegant 
 country residence does not require the same degree of 
 richness and the same number of ornaments, as villas 
 and country seats, of the first class. 
 
 The exterior form and ordonnance ought to an-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 337 
 
 noiince to the spectator, the determined character of 
 country residences : and Hkewise, that on his entering, 
 he beholds the same character distributed in the 
 whole of the interior disposition and decoration. 
 
 The agreeable impressions produced by a judicious 
 choice of decorations, and their perfect harmony, may 
 be farther augmented by variety : for a dining room 
 requires a style of decoration different from that of a 
 bed-chamber, and the decorations are also different, 
 both as regards the resources employed, and also in 
 their execution. The decorations applicable to the 
 interior, namely, vestibules, rooms, and apartments, 
 together with those which appertain to the exterior 
 of a building, consist in paintings, bass reliefs, vases, 
 statues, &c., which should present a rural air, expres- 
 sive of the liberty, pleasure, and gaiety, that reign in 
 the country. 
 
 The employment of statues in the embellishment of 
 villas and country seats, may considerably increase 
 their beauty. They ought not only to present all the 
 perfection of art, but likewise possess the power of 
 awakina: those ideas and sentiments, suitable to the 
 situation. The statues of Jupiter, Mars, and Hercules, 
 should not be placed where we expect to find those 
 of the goddess of Peace, of Ceres, Bacchus, Pomona, 
 and of Flora. The charms of the Graces, together 
 with allegorical representations of the different periods 
 of the day and year, may further serve to convey 
 agreeable impressions. 
 
 In country residences, forming the medium class, 
 the application of these means would be unsuitable : 
 and still more so, in those that should present a more 
 modest and simple style. 
 
 2x
 
 338 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 The remarks which have hitherto been offered on 
 the subject of the different classes of country re- 
 sidences, have generally been confined to the principal 
 building or habitation. Their total is composed of 
 several other constructions that are less considerable ; 
 vvhich are separated from it, sometimes for conveni- 
 ence, at others for pleasure, and also from the neces- 
 sity of proportioning the principal mass to the extent 
 of the site, and to the landscape of vvhich it forms a 
 part. This disposition may also furnish agreeable 
 accidental effects in the composition; and it pos- 
 sesses advantages in many other respects, besides 
 facilitatino' the interior distributions of the habitation, 
 and affording an opportunity of removing from it 
 those parts of the arrangement which are inconi- 
 modious or disagreeable. Thus the stables and 
 other constructions may be detached from the prin- 
 cipal mass. 
 
 There are again others of these insulated buildings, 
 which occupy a medium place between pleasure and 
 utility. As a pavilion dedicated to the pleasures of 
 the table; for the site of which should be chosen, a 
 refreshing and shaded situation, that offers a delightful 
 perspective ; having in its vicinity a limpid stream, 
 and also a grove. The apartment which it forms 
 should be lofty and well hghted; and in its decora- 
 tion, pleasure and taste ought to preside. The 
 kitchen should be hidden in the shade of the sur- 
 rounding foliage. 
 
 Another devoted to the dance and musical perform- 
 ances, requires neither a fascinating site, lengthened 
 perspective, nor movement in the surrounding objects. 
 The midst of a tranquil shade is its most suitable
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 339 
 
 situation. The character of its exterior should an- 
 nounce the uses for which it is employed, and with 
 which its interior decoration should correspond. 
 
 A cabinet for study, requires a peaceful and retired 
 situation, affording moderate light. Adjacent to which 
 may be introduced a small rippHng stream, that pro- 
 duces a soft murmur. It should offer varied and 
 distant views, to refresh the mind and sight during 
 the intervals of relaxation. A statue of the deity of 
 the arts, or that of a philosopher, may be placed near 
 its entrance. Simplicity ought to be the predominant 
 feature in this building, and the ornaments, distributed 
 with economy, should indicate the agreeable occupa- 
 tions of the Muses. A library may be considered as 
 indispensable. Its environs should present retired 
 walks ; that by tranquillity and silence, they may 
 invite the mind to meditation. As the serenity of 
 morning is the most favourable for these pursuits, the 
 east is the most advantageous aspect. 
 
 Another, for sleep, may be placed in the centre of a 
 flowery shade. The stillness of the situation should 
 announce it as being destined to repose ; and aided 
 by the scarcely perceptible sound of a purling brook, 
 it may contribute to invite slumber. All objects in 
 the environs should repose in favoured retirement, 
 and present a kind of immobility : and at twilight the 
 air should be perfumed by the surrounding flowers. 
 The silvery light of the moon will only penetrate 
 through the foliao;e of the neiijhbouring branches. 
 The chamber should be situated so as to receive the 
 first rays of the sun obliquely, and not to be all at 
 once inundated by his broad light. Rural and agree- 
 able paintings should ornament its walls.
 
 340 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR, 
 
 Hunting boxes may be erected on grounds contain- 
 ing game. A habitation is not required, but simply 
 a refug-e agrainst unfavourable weather: to take re- 
 freshment, and to rest, in case of fatigue, from the 
 exercise of the sport. They require a dry, agreeable 
 and exposed site. An elevated spot that overlooks 
 the park, and from whence the eye may be enabled 
 to trace the direction of the chase, is the best. These 
 buildings require no appearance of magnificence, but 
 merely convenience and neatness. The ordinary deco- 
 rations, consisting of the horns of deer, may be re- 
 placed by more tasteful emblems ; and by mythologi- 
 cal paintings, that relate to the chase. 
 
 Other similar buildings, situated on particular 
 grounds, are connected with fowling. Their site 
 should be solitary and thickly surrounded with shrubs. 
 In their vicinity should be sufficient and suitable nu- 
 triment for the birds ; at the same time it should be 
 arranged so as to present an agreeable appearance. 
 These buildings require but a simple and small 
 apartment, serving to make the little preparatives 
 attendant on, as also for occasional retirement during, 
 the sport. 
 
 Aviaries which are intended to contain different 
 species of living birds, require a situation affording 
 verdure, fresh water, and shade ; as also one that is 
 neither too humid nor too cold. They may be sur- 
 rounded with a trellis wrought with wire, which 
 should be of sufficient height to permit of the shrubs 
 gathering underneath. A fountain composed of a 
 single jet, placed at a convenient distance, would 
 produce a refreshing sensation, and further aid to 
 animate the scene. A small apartment, adjacently
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 341 
 
 situated, may serve as a pleasing retreat to observe 
 tlie manners and liabits of each of these interesting 
 objects. 
 
 A rustic shed, open on all its sides, will afford 
 suitable and agreeable accomodation for the enjoy- 
 ment of the sport of angling. It ought to present in 
 its construction considerable apparent negligence, as 
 it permits of no species of decoration ; it should be 
 placed so as to project a little over the lake or basin 
 on the borders of which it may be situated, and ought 
 to be accompanied with a canoe or small bark. 
 
 A building employed as a bath should not be placed 
 in an exposed situation. It ought to be in a retired 
 and shady spot, overhung with foliage ; through the 
 leaves of which the mild rays of the setting sun, 
 which is the most suitable aspect, may throw an 
 agreeable light. Fragrant shrubs and flowers should 
 here exhale their perfumes. Its architecture ought 
 to be simple, and the roof low ; there should be but 
 few apertures, as also great reserve in the application 
 of ornaments to its interior. 
 
 Rural constructions, besides the conveniences they 
 afford, further serve to spread life and movement in 
 the grounds where they are introduced. They take 
 from them their uniform and deserted appearance, in 
 shewing that they are inhabited by man. There is 
 scarcely a situation but is suitable for some of them, 
 nor grounds on which they would not form important 
 objects. But to produce animation from their employ- 
 ment, it is necessary to restrict their number. For if 
 they be too much multiplied, however conformable to 
 the essential character of gardens, or suitable to aug- 
 ment the effects of sites, they will weaken the ini-
 
 342 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 pression of natural scenes, destroy all rural and retired 
 appearance ; and rather assume that of a small town 
 or village, than a place dedicated to the beauties of 
 nature. 
 
 Rural constructions may further be considered as 
 objects susceptible of beauty ; and as means of indi- 
 cating, as also of strengthening, the character of 
 grounds. First, beauty is indispensable to them, since 
 they are intended to gratify the sight, recreate the 
 imagination, and agreeably to occupy the mind. But 
 it is not by their sumptuousness that this can be 
 effected ; it is obtained by the elegance of forms ; by 
 simplicity, be ease, and grace of ordonnance, and by 
 an apparent consistency between the appearance of 
 the building and its use. 
 
 Their site has considerable influence on the par- 
 ticular expression of beauty that ought to be applied. 
 If the building be placed upon an eminence, and have 
 all its sides exposed to view, its architecture should 
 be elegant ; other situations more or less picturesque, 
 are tavourable to the other devolopments of art. 
 
 Rural buildings, though often destined to serve as 
 points of sight, ought sometimes, from other motives, 
 to be entirely hidden. By this means very sudden 
 and agreeable surprises may be produced. If, for 
 example, they serve but for refuge or shelter; this 
 idea may be adopted. 
 
 Rural buildings may also be regarded as affording 
 means to characterize natural sites. 
 
 There is no person that, having cast an attentive 
 glance on landscapes, has not remarked the impression 
 which fabrics spread around them. It is the same as 
 respects their introduction into gardens. They not
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 343 
 
 only determine the character of the grounds, but they 
 likewise produce a new energy in them ; and augment 
 the degree of pleasure, gaiety, gravity or melancholy 
 of the scenes, of which they form a part. An open 
 rotunda situated upon an eminence, will increase the 
 aerial character indicated by the tall and thinly planted 
 sl».r\ibs which rise on its sides. A temple strengthens 
 a solemn, a hermitage, a melancholy, and a thatched 
 cottage, a rural character. 
 
 But if, instead of making the buildings accord 
 with the character of each scene, a pavilion of a 
 noble style be raised on a wild site, ruins on one that 
 is level and highly 'cultivated, a cabinet for study ad- 
 jacent to a principal walk or promenade, or a bath on 
 the summit of an eminence ; the laws of suitableness 
 would manifestly be broken. To imagine that by such 
 injudicious applications it would be possible to change 
 the character of a site, would be an error; a building 
 strengthens, but does not change it. 
 
 When a number of these buildings are introduced 
 into grounds, they should be distinguished by the 
 diversity of their forms and appearance, and all sym- 
 metry and equality of position between them ought to 
 be avoided. For although a building, inasmuch as it 
 is an architectural production, requires in its compo- 
 sition an exact observance of symmetry; nevertheless 
 this rule cannot be extended to the situation, distance, 
 and position of a number of rural buildings ; each of 
 which forms an insulated total ; is independent of the 
 others ; and governs the particular portion of the 
 grounds belonging to it. They may concur in pro- 
 ducing a rich perspective, may present to each other 
 a harmonious relation, and an agreeable connexion
 
 344 ARCHITECTURAL DIRECTOR. 
 
 with the surrounding objects, without being symme- 
 trically disposed. 
 
 A capricious medley of the architecture of different 
 nations should be carefully avoided. There ought 
 not to be placed in the same perspective, an Egyptian 
 obelisk, a Grecian temple, a Roman monument, a 
 Gothic tower, and a Chinese pavilion ; though this 
 species of extravagance does exist in several parks m 
 this country. This monstrous assemblage ofj and 
 confusion in, productions which differ both in time and 
 place, that so ill accords with the charms of nature 
 and the simplicity of pleasure grounds, can only have 
 been the result of a perverted taste, and an inordinate 
 mania for imitation. 
 
 Rural constructions may be further extended in 
 their use, by being dedicated to the memory of a per- 
 son, or of some object. In this case, that which it is 
 intended to commemorate, should not only merit the 
 distinction, but likewise its character ought to be con- 
 sonant with the ideas and emotions peculiar to rural 
 retirement. To prevent these objects from failing in 
 their effect, it is necessary that they be strongly cha- 
 racterized by their ordonnance and situation. Their 
 signification should not only be unequivocal, but it 
 should be sufficiently evident to be understood without 
 much consideration. The general expression may be 
 increased by exterior emblems ; but such resources 
 should not constitute the sole means of imprinting on 
 architectural productions, the character of truth and 
 harmony. 
 
 3. HADDO.V, PRI.VTEH, CASTLE STREET, FIireJJURV.
 
 GLOSSARV 
 OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 ABACUS. — The uppennost part or crowning member of the capital 
 of a column. Its form differs according to the orders. In the Tuscan, 
 Doric, and Ionic, it is square in its plan ; in the Corinthian and Com- 
 posite, its faces present a sweep, or curvature, which is called the arch 
 of the abacus, the centre of which is ordinarily decorated with a rose oi 
 some other similar ornament. The angles of this member, in the twc 
 last-mentioned orders, are cut off in a corresponding direction witli the 
 radius of the arch, and are named the horns of the abacus. 
 
 The proportion of the abacus in the early examples of *^he Doric order, 
 is about half the total height of the capital ; but in tie Dr»ric examples 
 of a later date, as also in the rules ordinarily obs«rved by the modern 
 masters, the height of the Doric abacus, as also that of the Tuscan and 
 Ionic, is nearly one-third of that of their capitals. The height of the 
 Corinthian and Composite abacus, is in general one-seventh of the 
 capital. More than ordinary care, however, is requisite in the proportion 
 of the abacus of these orders, so as to preserve the beauty and harmony 
 which the.se capitals ought to present. 
 
 ABBEY. — A religious cstablisliment of 3 jumber of persons of either 
 sex, governed by an abbot or abbess. 
 
 ABELE TREE.— The wood of this tree which is of the wliite pop- 
 lar kind, is of a very regular texture; its olour is white, occasionally 
 mi.xed with a shade of brown. This species of wood, when employed 
 for such purposes as ensures its being kept Iry and free from moisture, 
 is equally as durable a.s pine. The weight if a cubic foot of abele, when 
 well seasoned is 32^1bs., and the cohesive force of a square inch is 
 about 5711 lbs.: it Is almost iVtJ toughe than oak, without possessing 
 more tiian /o of its stiffness. 
 
 B
 
 ABREUVOIR. — Any joint in masonry which is ordinarily filled with 
 mortar or cement. The same word is also often employed to sigaify a 
 watering place for cattle. 
 
 ABSIS.— See Apsis. 
 
 ABUTMENT. — The masives of masonry constructed on the banks of 
 a river, to resist the entire thrust of the bridge, and to serve as spring- 
 ing points to the arch, of which it may be formed, or each of those by 
 which it is terminated, when composed of several arches. These are 
 termed artificial abutments. Natural abiUments are rocks, the situa- 
 tion and solidity of which, are found to be sufficient for ordinary pur- 
 poses without the aid of masonry. 
 
 The twofold office for which abutments are required, necessitates their 
 being constructed with the greatest solidity. As regards the dimen- 
 sions which should be given to abutments, the most essential one to 
 detennine, is their thickness; this dimension ought to be proportionate, 
 firstlv, to the span of the arches for which these abutments serve as sprin- 
 ing points ; — secondly, to the form of the arches •, aad, thirdly, to the 
 height of the main land, and solidity of the matter of which it is 
 composed. 
 
 When a bridge is composed of several arches, the thrust acting 
 against the abutments, increases in proportion to their number and the 
 thickness of the piers ; when this thickness is insufficient to resist the 
 thrust of the arches which spring from them. 
 
 To determine with precision the thickness which it is necessary to 
 give to piers and abutments, recourse must be had to complicated opera- 
 tions. As these operations require a knowledge of mathematics which 
 all practical men are not possessed of, the following tables are given, 
 not as a safe substitute for experience, but as being not altogether 
 devoid of interest. 
 
 A TABLE 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE THICKNESS OF ABUTMENTS AND PIERS, TO 
 SUPPORT SEMI-CIRCULAR ARCHES. 
 
 bpa" 
 of the 
 arches. 
 
 Heights of 
 
 the piers 
 
 from their 
 
 foundations, 
 
 or footings, 
 
 to the 
 
 spring. 
 
 Thickness of the 
 
 arches 
 
 at their key. 
 
 1 
 
 6 < 
 
 3 0^ 
 
 4 6 > 
 6 J 
 3 
 
 feet in. lines 
 
 1 1 3 
 
 1 2 6 
 
 Thickness of the 
 piers and abutments 
 th? hanches, or 
 flanks, being filled 
 level with tlie ex- 
 trados of the key. 
 
 feet in. lines 
 
 1 
 
 1 5 
 
 1 7 
 1 8 
 
 1 10 
 
 2 1 
 2 3 
 
 Thickne<-s of the 
 
 piers and abutme?its 
 
 the arches having 
 
 above their crown, 
 
 ffravel and pavement 
 
 ISin. deep, the fall or 
 
 declivity being 1.1 in 
 
 in 6 feet. 
 
 feet in. li
 
 A TABLE 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE THICKNESS OF ABUTMENTS AND PIERS, TO 
 SUPPORT SEMI-CIRCULAR ARCHES. 
 
 Span 
 ofthe 
 arclies. 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 54 
 
 1 
 
 12 <^ 12 
 15 
 
 Thickness of the 
 
 arches 
 
 at their key. 
 
 Thickness ofthe 
 piers and abutments ; 
 thehanc!:e-,or flanks, 
 
 being filled level 
 
 with the extrados of 
 
 the key. 
 
 feet in. lines 
 
 1 3 9 
 
 > 1 5 
 
 1 10 
 
 V 2 
 J 
 
 G 
 
 2 5 6 
 
 2 8 
 
 2 10 6 
 
 feet 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 4 
 4 
 3 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 5 
 4 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 4 
 5 
 G 
 1 
 6 
 7 
 7 
 « 
 7 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 3 
 9 
 3 
 
 10 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 7 8 
 
 10 1 
 
 11 11 
 
 1 4 
 
 2 7 
 7 10 
 1 9 
 6 1 
 
 1 
 5 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 4 10 
 1 
 
 7 8 
 8 
 
 11 5 
 
 8 
 
 2 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 9 
 5 
 
 
 Thickness of the 
 piers anil abutments; 
 the arches having 
 above their crown, 
 sravel and pavement 
 15in. deep, the fall or 
 declivitv being IJin. 
 in 6 feet. 
 
 feet in. lines 
 
 2 8 3 
 
 3 4 8 
 3 10 5 
 
 5 9 11 
 
 6 6 9 
 
 7 2 1
 
 A TABLE 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE THICKNESS OF ABUTMENTS AND PIERS, TO 
 SUPPORT SEMI-CIRCULAR ARCHES. 
 
 Thickness of the 
 
 arches 
 
 at their key. 
 
 Thickness of the 
 
 piers and abutments ; 
 
 tl/e hanchcs,iir flanks, 
 
 being filled level with 
 
 the extrados of the 
 
 key. 
 
 Thickness of the 
 
 piers and abutments; 
 
 the aiches having 
 
 above their crown, 
 
 gravel and pavement 
 
 15in. deep, the fall or 
 
 declivity being Uin. 
 
 in 6 feet. 
 
 feet 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 72 
 
 78 
 
 84 
 
 90 
 
 96 
 
 feet in. lines 
 
 3 1 
 
 3 3 6 
 
 > 3 6 
 
 3 8 6 
 
 3 11 
 
 1 6 
 
 4 4 
 
 feet in. lines 
 
 7 6 
 
 8 4 
 
 9 6 
 9 8 
 8 1 
 
 8 10 10 
 
 9 7 
 10 3 
 10 10 
 
 8 7 
 
 9 5 
 10 2 
 
 10 10 
 
 11 5 
 9 1 10 
 9 11 9 
 
 10 9 
 
 11 5 3 
 
 12 10 
 
 10 5 11 
 
 11 3 7 
 
 12 1 
 
 12 7 11 
 
 13 3 1 
 11 2 4 
 
 11 11 
 
 12 8 
 
 13 4 
 13 11 
 
 11 7 
 
 12 4 
 
 13 1 
 
 13 9 
 
 14 5 
 
 feet in. lines 
 
 7 11 4 
 
 8 9 3 
 
 9 6 1 
 10 1 11 
 
 10 10 4 
 
 11 7 II 
 
 12 4 8 
 
 13 8 
 13 8 1
 
 A TABLE 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE THICKNESS OF ABUTMENTS AND PIERS, TO 
 SUPPORT SEMI-CIRCULAR ARCHES. 
 
 Heights of 
 
 the piers 
 
 from their 
 
 foundatiuns, 
 
 or footings, 
 
 to the 
 
 spring. 
 
 102 <^ 
 
 108 
 
 114 
 
 120 
 
 126 
 
 132 
 
 138 
 
 Thickness of the 
 arches 
 at their key. 
 
 feet In. lines 
 
 4 6 6 
 
 4 9 
 
 4 11 6 
 
 5 2 
 
 5 4 6 
 
 5 7 
 
 5 9 6 
 
 Thickness of the 
 
 piers and abutments; 
 
 the hanches.or flanks, 
 
 being filled level 
 
 with the extrados 
 
 of the key. 
 
 in. lines 
 
 Thickness of the 
 
 piers and abutments 
 
 the arches having 
 
 above their crown, 
 
 gravel and pavement 
 
 I5in. deep, the fall or 
 
 declivity being IJin 
 
 in 6 feet 
 
 feet In. lines 
 
 12 10 11 
 
 13 9 
 
 14 6 4 
 
 15 3 1 
 15 11 3 
 
 14 11 2 
 
 15 9 7 
 
 16 7 5 
 
 17 4 8 
 
 18 1 5
 
 A TABLE 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE THICKNESS OF ABUTMENTS AND PIERS, TO 
 SUPPORT SEMI-CIRCULAR ARCHES. 
 
 Span 
 of the 
 arches. 
 
 Heights of 
 
 the piers 
 
 from their 
 
 foundations, 
 
 or footings, 
 
 to the 
 
 spring. 
 
 Thickness of the 
 
 arcljes 
 
 at their liey. 
 
 Thickness of the 
 piers and abutments ; 
 the hanches, or 
 flanks, being filled 
 level with the ex- 
 trados of the key. 
 
 Thickness of the 
 piers and abutments; 
 the arches having 
 above their Crown, 
 gravel and pavement 
 Ijin. deep, the fnll or 
 declivity being IJin. 
 in 6 feet. 
 
 feet 
 
 feet 
 
 r 9 -^ 
 12 
 
 feet in. 
 
 lines 
 
 feet in. lines 
 
 ' 15 9 6 
 16 7 9 
 
 feet in. lines 
 
 144 <( 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 L 21 J 
 9 - 
 12 
 
 > 6 
 
 < 
 
 17 5 6 
 
 18 2 11 
 18 11 8 
 
 r 16 3 8 
 17 2 3 
 
 
 150 < 
 
 15 
 
 > 6 2 
 
 6 < 
 
 18 3 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 18 9 8 
 
 
 
 21 . 
 
 
 
 19 6 8 
 
 
 
 r 9 1 
 
 
 
 ^ 16 10 1 
 
 16 11 3 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 17 8 8 
 
 17 10 
 
 156 < 
 
 15 
 
 > 6 5 
 
 < 
 
 18 6 9 
 
 18 8 2 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 19 4 4 
 
 19 5 9 
 
 
 . 21 ^ 
 
 
 
 20 1 5 
 
 20 2 11 
 
 
 > 9 i 
 
 
 
 ^ 17 4 2 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 18 2 11 
 
 
 162 < 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 21 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 > 6 7 
 
 6 < 
 
 19 1 1 
 
 19 10 8 
 ^20 7 11 
 " 14 10 7 
 
 15 11 2 
 
 16 11 2 
 
 17 10 5 
 
 
 168 < 
 
 12 
 15 
 18 
 21 
 
 > 6 10 
 
 < 
 
 18 9 3 
 
 19 7 4 
 
 20 5 2 
 
 21 2 5 
 
 
 
 I 24 , 
 
 
 
 21 11 4 

 
 A TABLE 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE THICKNESS OF ABUTMENTS AND PIEUS, TO 
 
 SUPPORT ARCHES DIMINISHED TO ONE-THIRD OF THFIE 
 
 SPAN IN HEIGHT. 
 
 1 !„. i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thickness of 
 
 ches. 
 
 ers fron 
 1 or foot 
 ring. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thickness of 
 the piers and 
 abutments ; 
 
 the piers and 
 abutments • 
 the arches 
 
 ° i 1 5-2 
 
 
 Lesser 
 radii. 
 
 Princi 
 radi 
 
 lal 
 
 Thickness of 
 
 the arches at 
 
 their key. 
 
 the hanches, 
 
 or flanks, 
 
 being filled 
 
 level with the 
 
 having above 
 their crown, 
 gravel and 
 pavement 
 
 a 
 
 a. 
 m 
 
 Si 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 extrados of 
 the key. 
 
 lain, deep, 
 the fall or de- 
 clivity being 
 lUu. in 6 feet. 
 
 ft. 
 
 feet feet 
 
 in. 1. 
 
 feet 
 
 in. 
 
 1. 
 
 feet 
 
 iu. 
 
 1. 
 
 feet in. 1. 
 
 feet ill. 1. 
 
 r 3-10 
 
 3< 4J.>0 
 
 9 9f 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 1 6 6 
 
 
 9 9| 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 1 8 4 
 
 
 L 6 Jo 
 
 9 9| 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 1 9 5 
 
 
 r 3 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r2 3 5 
 
 
 6< 41^1 
 
 7 71 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4| 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 ^i 
 
 2 6 9 
 
 
 L 6 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 2 9 1 
 
 
 C 3 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^2 8 2 
 
 
 9<^ 6 ^2 
 
 4 11 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 <5S 
 
 3 3 4 
 
 
 1 
 
 L 9 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 7 3 
 
 
 
 r "" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '1 8 10 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 2 4 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 11 3 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 4 7 
 
 3 9 2 
 
 12< 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 ^24 
 ' 6 ^ 
 
 >3 
 
 3 2^ 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 9* 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 4< 
 j 
 
 4 8 1 
 
 4 10 9 
 
 5 7 
 5 2 1 
 5 3 3 
 
 '4 10 3 
 
 4 8 8 
 
 5 3 11 
 
 .s^ 
 
 9 U 
 l12 J 
 - 6 ^ 
 
 10 10 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 10< 5 5 5 
 1^5 10 6 
 f 5 8 5 
 
 
 24<^ 
 
 9 Ve 
 
 6 5 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 7^ 6 5 
 
 
 \l2 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V(> 11 5 
 
 
 r 6 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fG 5 9 
 
 
 30< 9 >8 
 
 2 0^ 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 11^ 
 
 2 
 
 G 
 
 0<^ 7 3 7 
 
 
 \l2 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 U 1 12 
 
 
 3G/ 9 >9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r7 3 2 
 
 8 
 
 9 8 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 1<^ S 2 
 
 9 3 
 
 ll2i 
 
 f 6 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^8 10 S 
 
 9 9 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rs 
 
 
 42< 9 >11 
 
 5 3 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 0<J 8 11 8 
 
 
 
 L12 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 9 8 11 
 
 i
 
 A TABLE 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE THICKNESS OF ABUTMENTS ANE PIERS, TO 
 
 SUPPORT ARCHES DIMINISHED TO ONE-THIRD OF THEIR 
 
 SPAN IN HEIGHT. 
 
 
 •s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thickness of 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 It 
 
 ^ .2 
 
 
 Lesser 
 radii. 
 
 ■ Principal 
 radii. 
 
 Thickness 
 
 of the 
 arches at 
 their key. 
 
 Thickness of 
 
 the piers and 
 
 abutments ; 
 
 the hanches, 
 
 or flanks, 
 
 being filled 
 
 level with the 
 
 the piers and 
 abutments : 
 the arches 
 having above 
 their crown, 
 gravel and 
 pavement 
 
 a 
 a. 
 05 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 extrados of 
 the key. 
 
 loin, deep, 
 the fall or de- 
 clivity being 
 IJiu. in6feet. 
 
 ft. 
 
 a. 
 ' 6 ^ 
 
 feet 
 
 in. lines 
 
 feet in. lines 
 
 feet in 
 
 1. 
 
 feet in. 1. 
 
 r 8 8 ■- 
 
 ft. in 1. 
 
 ^H.2 
 
 >13 
 
 10 
 
 34 11 2 
 
 3 5 
 
 8< 
 
 9 8 i 
 > 10 6 8 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 1^11 3 2 
 
 
 ^ 6 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 r 9 4 7 
 
 oy 10 5 5 
 ^-)ll 4 3 
 
 
 Hi2 r^ 
 
 8 6 
 
 39 3 6 
 
 3 8 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 (^12 1 5 
 
 
 ; 6 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 rio 4 
 
 10 9 
 
 6oJ ^l ll6 
 
 4 1 
 
 43 7 11 
 
 4 
 
 J 11 2 5 
 ''S 12 1 10 
 
 11 11 5 
 
 12 11 8 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 12 11 8 
 
 13 10 2 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 '10 9 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 11 
 
 
 66<; 12 ^17 
 
 11 8A 
 
 48 3f 
 
 4 4 
 
 0^ 12 10 11 
 
 
 1 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 9 3 
 
 
 LIS J 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 6 3 
 
 
 ' 6 ^ 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 '^11 5 7 
 12 7 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 72<' 
 
 12 >19 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 7 31 
 
 52 4 8i 
 
 4 7 
 
 6<( 13 8 2 
 14 6 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 4 5 
 
 
 
 6 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 12 1 8 
 
 13 4 4 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 78<; 12 V21 
 
 2 11 
 
 56 9 1 
 
 4 11 
 
 6< 14 5 
 
 
 il5 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 4 4 
 
 16 2 3 
 
 
 LIS J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 9 1 
 
 
 
 
 ri4 1 
 15 2 3 
 
 14 9 1 
 
 12 1 
 
 
 
 
 15 10 10 
 
 84<; 15 >22 
 1 18 1 
 
 10 6 
 
 61 1 6 
 
 5 3 
 
 0< 16 1 1016 11 
 
 
 
 
 17 317 9 11 
 
 I 
 
 -21 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J7 9 7, 
 1 
 
 18 7 9
 
 9 
 
 A TABLE 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE THICKNESS OP ABUTMENTS AN1> PIERS, 
 SUPPORT ARCHES DIMINISHED TO ONE-THIRD OF THEIR 
 SPAN IN HEIGHT. 
 
 "H. o 
 
 CCS 
 
 Lesser 
 radii. 
 
 96< 
 
 108< 
 
 114. 
 
 120< 
 
 126< 
 
 5 >27 9 4 
 
 .29 4 Il;i 
 
 21 
 
 Principal 
 radii. 
 
 feet 
 
 in. 
 
 lines 
 
 65 
 
 5 
 
 10| 
 
 69 
 
 10 
 
 H 
 
 74 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 78 
 
 7 
 
 0| 
 
 82 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 87 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 91 
 
 8 
 
 23 
 
 Thickness of 
 
 tbe arches at 
 
 their key. 
 
 feet in. 1 
 
 5 6 
 
 5 10 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 5 
 
 6 9 
 
 7 
 
 Thickness of 
 
 the piers and 
 
 abutments ; 
 
 the flanks 
 
 being filled 
 
 level with the 
 
 extrados of 
 
 the key. 
 
 ft. in. 
 
 14 9 
 
 15 11 
 9< 16 10 
 
 I 17 9 
 
 118 
 flS 
 
 116 
 
 O-^ 17 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 16 
 17 
 
 10< 18 
 119 
 120 
 
 11^ 
 
 Thickness of 
 the piers and 
 
 abutments ; 
 
 the arches 
 having above 
 
 their crown, 
 
 gravel and 
 pavement 
 
 15in. deep, 
 the fall or de- 
 clivity being 
 liin. in 6 feet. 
 
 17 6 
 
 18 8 
 2< 19 10 
 
 20 10 
 
 21 9 
 1 
 19 
 
 6< 20 
 21 
 
 18 2 
 
 4 111 
 
 6 4] 
 
 (23 
 
 7 4 4 
 
 18 10 
 
 20 1 
 
 21 3 
 
 22 3 
 
 23 3 
 
 3 10 
 
 2 4 
 
 '16 9 1017 4 11 
 
 18 218 7 
 
 5< 19 1 119 9 
 
 20 1 1 20 9 
 
 1 20 11 8 21 8
 
 10 
 
 A TABLE 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE THICKNESS OF ABUTMENTS AND PIERS, TO 
 
 SUPPORT ARCHES DIMINISHED TO ONE-THIRD OF THEIR 
 
 SPAN IN HEIGHT. 
 
 
 ^ bi> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thickness of 
 
 
 *- S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the piers and 
 
 a 
 
 i"| 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thickness of 
 
 abutments; 
 
 J= 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the piei s and 
 
 the arches 
 
 J5 
 
 '5.5 
 
 J5 S 
 
 
 Lesser 
 radii. 
 
 Principal 
 railli. 
 
 Thickness 
 of Ihe arches 
 at llieir key. 
 
 abutments; 
 
 the flanks 
 
 being filled 
 
 level with the 
 
 having above 
 their crown, 
 gravtl and 
 pave me i t 
 
 S 
 
 "5 *' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 extrados of 
 
 15in. deep, 
 
 O. 
 
 jiTJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the key. 
 
 the fall or de- 
 
 M 
 
 *5 «2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 clivity being 
 lUn. in 6 feet 
 
 ~~ 
 
 ^_._ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 " 9^ 
 12 
 
 feet 
 
 in. 
 
 lines 
 
 feet 
 
 in. lines 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 I. 
 
 ft. in. 1. 
 
 '19 6 7 
 
 ft in. I. 
 
 20 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 15 >35 
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 rt 
 
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 r 9^ 
 
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 r ^"^ 
 
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 22 8 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 5 
 
 n 
 
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 11 
 
 A TABLE 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE THICKNESS OF ABUTMENTS AND PIERfl, TO 
 
 SUPPORT ARCHES DIMINISHED TO ONE-THIRD OF THEIR 
 
 SPAN IN HEIGHT. 
 
 
 j- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 .= ti 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i Thickness of 
 
 ■> 
 
 ■" a 
 
 is. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thickness ol 1 '^^.P'^/^?:"^ 
 ... J 1 abutments : 
 
 1 
 
 el 
 
 Is 
 
 
 LMaei 
 radii. 
 
 
 Prindpal 
 
 Wdll. 
 
 Thickness of 
 
 the arches 
 at their key. 
 
 the piers and 
 abutments ; 
 
 the 
 
 flanks being 
 
 filled level 
 
 with the 
 
 the arches 
 having above 
 their crown, 
 gravel and 
 pavement 
 
 o 
 a. 
 
 -2 "o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 extrados of 
 
 loin, deep, 
 the fall or de- 
 
 la 
 
 n 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t^e key. 
 
 clivity being 
 IJin. in 6 feet. 
 
 ft. 
 
 ft. 
 
 a 
 
 In. 
 
 L 
 
 feet 
 
 In. 
 
 lines 
 
 feet. 
 
 in. 
 
 lines feet in. lines 
 
 feet. in. I. 
 
 
 r ®^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fl8 11 8 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 7 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 1 11 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 23 7 1 
 
 
 168< 
 
 12 
 
 >45 
 
 9 
 
 01122 
 
 2 
 
 llf 9 
 
 5 
 
 9< 24 11 1 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26 2 1 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 27 4 1 i 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 28 5 3 
 
 
 
 L24 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^29 5 7 
 
 
 174 
 
 12 
 
 47 
 
 4 
 
 8 126 
 
 7 
 
 4 9 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 25 6 10 
 
 
 180 
 
 12 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 3 130 
 
 11 
 
 9 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 26 2 9 
 
 
 215 
 
 12 
 
 57 
 
 2 
 
 4 152 
 
 9 
 
 8 11 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 29 7 3 
 
 
 240 
 
 12 
 
 65 
 
 4 
 
 4 174 
 
 7 
 
 8 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 11 5 
 
 
 2/0 
 
 12 
 
 73 
 
 6 
 
 5 196 
 
 5 
 
 7 14 
 
 6 
 
 , 
 
 35 11 4 
 
 
 300 
 
 12 
 
 81 
 
 8 
 
 5 218 
 
 3 
 
 7 15 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 38 11 3 
 
 
 lu the construction of a briduje composed of several arches, a less 
 thickness may be given to the ])iers by increasing that of the abutments. 
 This is often practised, in order to change as little as possible the current 
 of the river, and to render tlie navigation easy. Thus for a bridge 
 having arches 84 feet span, and 28 feet of a rise, the abutments and 
 piers m;iy have 14^ feet in thickness; but if it be required to diminish 
 the thick ne.ss of tlio piers to 12 feet, it would be necessary to increase 
 that of the abutments to 17 feet. 
 
 Abutment is also used by joiners and carpenters to signify a joint in 
 which the grain of the two pieces of timber employed, runs at about a 
 right angle ; such is the joint of a brace with a truss-post. 
 
 ACACIA. — A wood of a yellow colour with a bluish .shade ; having 
 its pores tinged with red. When well seasoned, it is of a hard and 
 compact texture, and averages 50 lb. per cubic foot ; its stiffness, strength, 
 and toughness, being about equal to that of oak. Tiie dur.ibilitv of 
 acacia when employed in situations either to be constantly wet or diy, 
 exceeds that of most other wood in ordinary use. 
 
 AC.\DFMY. — .\n edifice conii)osed of several apartments for the use
 
 2 
 
 cf a society whose principal object is to promote th3 cultivation of one 
 or more of the arts or sciences. 
 
 ACANTHUS. — The name of a plant, of which there are two species; 
 the one wild, and tlie other cuitivated ; the latter is much imitated in 
 architectural decoration. The Corinthian and Composite capitals, and 
 particularly the latter, are most generally ornamented with this leaf. 
 ACCESSES. — See Corridor, Passage. 
 
 ACCESSORIES. — Any object entering into a composition without 
 its being absolutely necessary, may be termed an accessory. 
 
 ACCIDENTAL POINT. — This, in perspective, is a point to which 
 certain lines converge; the situation of which is determined by the posi- 
 tion of the object intended to be represented. 
 
 ACCOUPLEMENT. — A framing of carpentry ; also applied to signify 
 a brace or tie. 
 
 ACROTERIA. — A species of pedestals often without base and cor- 
 nice, employed to support statues or other decorative objects in the 
 centre and at the extremities of pediments. According to Vitrnvius the 
 latter of these should have in height, half of that of the tympanum, and 
 the one situated in the centre an eighth more. The same term is occa- 
 sionally applied to the solid placed between the cornice and base of a 
 balustrade. 
 
 ADMEASUREMENT.— The estimate of the labour and the ma- 
 terials used in the execution of any work. 
 
 ADYTUM. — A species of sanctuary in antique temples 
 
 jEDES. — A lesser kind of sacred buildings, used amongst the Ro- 
 mans, and consecrated to some divinity ; though not formally so by the 
 augurs as were the temples. 
 
 iEDICULA. — This word is used under several acceptations ; some- 
 times to signiiy a small house, at others a building smaller than the 
 sedes, but applied to the same purposes; as also to a species of shrine, 
 containing the statue of a divinity. 
 
 .EGICRANES. — The heads and skulls of rams and oxen, sculpture ' 
 at the angles of antique altars, and on the metopes of the Doric en- 
 tablature. 
 
 iEOLUS. — In mechanics, a small portable machine, for renewing 
 the air in rooms ; adapted in its dimensions to supply the place of a 
 square of glass in a sash window ; and executed in such a compass as 
 to project very little beyond the sash. This machine introduces only 
 such a quantity of air as will make a room wholesome ; and discon- 
 tinues to work when the window or door is opened. 
 
 ^RARIUM. — The name of the public treasury amongst the Romans. 
 
 AGORA.— See Forum. 
 
 AGREEMENT.— ,Sfe Harmony. 
 
 AISLE. — ^When a church is divided, in a longitudinal direction, 
 into three or five divisions, by ranges of columns or pillars, the centre 
 division is termed the nave, and the others the aisles. 
 
 AIR-HOLES. — Apertures made to ventilate rooms, as also to renew 
 the air in roofs and floors, in order to preserve the timbers from decav. 
 
 AIR-TRAP. — An aperture to admit the escape of fo»al air from 
 sewers and drains.
 
 l;> 
 
 ALABASTER. — A name indistiuctively applied to two separate 
 minerals, namely, the gypseous and the calcareous alabaster. Alabasters 
 are more or less transparent, according to their quality ; are of a gra- 
 nular texture, softer than marble, and not susceptible of being brouo-ht 
 to so fine a polish. 
 
 Calcareous alabaster is of two kinds, the oriental and common ; these 
 are again distinguished by the variety of their colours. The common 
 is found in France and Germany ; and the oriental in Italy, Spain, and 
 Egypt. 
 
 Gypseous alabaster, which is procured both in Derbyshire and Not- 
 tinghamshire, is employed to a great extent for the manufacture of 
 what is termed plaster of Paris. This ingredient is of immense utility 
 both in the constructive and ornamental branches of architecture ; it is 
 used as a very strong cement by the sculptor and mason, to form close 
 joints of marble, and enters into many cements employed in construc- 
 tion. It is also employed for the forming of cornices, ornamented 
 friezes, capitals, foliage, and many other decorative objects. 
 
 ALCOVE. — A recess formed in large apartments, fitted up with 
 stationary seats. A light building forming a kind of arbour or summer- 
 house in gardens. Its most appropriate application is, to signify a 
 recess in a chamber, which is occupied by the bed. 
 
 ALDER. — A wood of a bright brown colour, of a uniform grain, 
 and has the quality of great durability under water. In some places it 
 is used for piles, in fonning foundations in boggy parts, as also under 
 the piers of bridges. 
 
 The white or common alder averages about 47 lbs. per cubic foot when 
 well seasoned ; it is as tough as oak, has four-fifths of its strength, and 
 better than half its stiffness. 
 
 ALGEBRA. — A term signifying in general the art of comparing and 
 equalizing quantities, and of resolving questions in arithmetic, where 
 these operations are required. By algebra we discover a general form 
 of expressing the results of all questions, including similar circumstances, 
 relative to magnitude, quantity, or number ; or in other words, by 
 algebra we perform the several operations of addition and subtraction, 
 of multiplication and division, employing not the common arithmetical 
 cyphers, but other characters or symbols, of no real intrinsic value in 
 themselves, but qualified to represent magnitudes, quantities, and num- 
 bers of every description. P'or example, let us suppose any number, as 4, 
 to be represented by the letter a, and 5 to be signified by b, and 
 their sum 9, to be signified by c : then in algebraic language a and b 
 added together will be equal to r, or thus a-\-b^c ; that is in this 
 case 4+5=:9. But the values of the arithmetical symbols 4, 5, and 
 9, having by long and unvaried usage obtained specific determinate va- 
 lues they are not susceptible of any change ; whereas the values affixed 
 to the letters a, 6, r, and the like, may be varied indefinitely, and ope- 
 rations ])erformed by them still give correct results; thus a may .stand 
 for 12, 6 fur 18, and c for their sum 30, then a-|-6=r, will represent 
 12-1-18=30. 
 
 Although any letters of the alpliabet may be cmplnyed to represen* 
 quantities in algebraic operations, yot it lias been fund conveuienf. fo
 
 14 
 
 distinetion's sake to use the letters in the beginning as a, b, c, d, e, &c. , 
 for quantities of which the vahies are given or known, and the letters at 
 the end as v, x, y, z, for quantities neither given nor known, but w^hich 
 are required to be discovered. Thus in the foregoing example the values 
 of a and 6 being given, and their sum required, we would say a+6=,r. 
 
 Algebraic quantities are connected by certain signs as (+) j)lus, a 
 term signifying more, denoting that the two quantities between which it 
 is placed are to be added together ; thus 4-|- 5 are equal to 9. The sign 
 ( — ) minus or less, denotes that one of the quantities between which 
 this sign is placed is to be subtracted from the other : thus 9 — 5 is 
 equal to 4. 
 
 The sign ( X ) between two quantities signifies that they are to be 
 multiplied together : as 4x 5 are 20, or aX 6 = 2. The product of two 
 or more quantities multiplied into one another is also represented by 
 writing down the letters standing for them, close together as the letter in 
 a word: thus the product ofaXi is written ab, that of aX6XcXrf, is 
 written abed. 
 
 Division is represented by placing the dividend above the divisor, with 
 
 a small line between them, as — : thus let a b^ 20, and b be 4, then - 
 
 
 
 =T, the quotient or value of x will be 5. 
 
 Equality of quantities in value is signified by two parallel lines. Let 
 a multiplied by b, be equal to c ; it is expressed thus, aX b=c. 
 
 When an arithmetical figure is placed before the algebraic symbols, it 
 is then termed the numeral co-efficient, and distinguishes how often the 
 algebraic quantity is to be repeated: thus 7n will signify the same 
 number of times the value of n. 
 
 Quantities consisting of the same characters are said to be like : so 
 7an and 9a?i are like quantities ; but 7an and 9ann are unlike quan- 
 tities. Quantities having the same signs before them, whether plus+, 
 or minus — , have like signs : but one having +, and another — , have 
 unlike signs. Quantities with the sign plus + before them are positive, 
 and those with minus — before them are negative. It is true that in 
 the nature of things, a properly negative quantity cannot exist ; but in 
 algebra the expression is used to describe such quantities as are to be 
 deducted from others with which they are connected. Thus the full 
 measurement of a thing may be considered as a positive quantity, and 
 that of its deductions as a negative quantity, which being deducted from 
 the former will leave the true measurement. When no sign stands before 
 an algebraic quantity, it is always considered to be positive, and to have 
 the sign plus -f-. 
 
 ALLEY. — A walk traversing a garden, and conducting to the en- 
 trance of a building. A passage situated between main streets. 
 
 ALMS-HOUSE. — A building endowed by charitable individuals, for 
 the reception and support of a particular description of poor persons. 
 
 ALTAR. — A table situated at the east end of Christian churches : the 
 form of which is generally square, and raised one or more steps above 
 the floor or pavement. 
 
 ALTAR-PIECE. — This word is sometimes applied to the entire ar- 
 chitectural decorations of an altar ; at others to the partition that divides
 
 13 
 
 the altar and presbytery ; as also to a scriptural composition executed iu 
 painting or sculpture, and situated behind the altar. 
 
 ALTAR-SCREEN. — A partition which serves to divide tiie choi- . 
 from the presbytery. 
 
 ALTO-RELIEVO. — Is that relief in which almost the whole con- 
 tour of the figures are detached from the ground of the material in 
 which they are wrought, being only connected in a few places. 
 
 AMBULATORY. — A covered place, under which to promenade ; 
 one side of which is supported by columns or otherwise. 
 
 AMPHIPROSTYLE. — A temple having a range of four columns 
 only, at the front and rear of its cella. 
 
 AMPHITHEATRE. — An antique edifice of extensive dimensions, 
 and ordinardy of an oval form, used for the exhibition of different 
 sorts of games. The exterior of these edifices generally presented two 
 ranges of arcades, which served by means of corridors, to communicate 
 with every part of their interior. From the arena in the centre, rose 
 ranges of seats which ran parallel with the exterior wall. 
 
 Amphitheatre is also sometimes used to signify a lecture-room ; the 
 seats in these generally form a portion of a circle, and rise gradually 
 above each other, leaving at the opposite extremity, a vacant place for 
 the lecturer. 
 
 The same term is also occasionally applied to the area of a modern 
 circus. 
 
 ANCONES. — A name given to brackets, shouldering pieces, cross- 
 beams, and quoins. 
 
 ANGLE. — The space comprised between the surfaces of two planes, 
 which meet in a point. 
 
 Angles are of several different kinds, as rectilinear, curvilinear, 
 spherical, mixed, solid, &c. A rectilinear angle, is formed by tlie meet- 
 ing of two right lines. A curvilinear angle, by that of two curve 
 lines. A mixtilinear angle, is that which is formed by the meeting of 
 a right line and curve. A spherical angle, is formed on the surface of 
 a sphere, by the intersection of two great circles. And a solid angle, 
 by the mutual inclination of more than two planes, meeting in a com- 
 mon point. 
 
 Rectilinear angles are, according to the magnitude of their angle, 
 
 distinguished by the terms right. 
 Jig. 1. acute, a.nd oblique angles. Thus in 
 
 the adjoining fig. 1, the two right 
 lines FC and BC meet in the 
 point C, and their meeting is called 
 the angle at C, or more correctly 
 the angle FCB, or BCF : for in 
 reading or naming an angle, the 
 letter standing at the point of 
 meeting, must be placod in the 
 middle of the three. This h par- 
 C tlcularly necessary when more an- 
 gles than one are formed at the 
 same point, as in this figure ; where the three lines DC, B(^ and
 
 16 
 
 FC all meet AB in the point C : the angles made by these lines wil". 
 therefore be read or named ACD, DCE, ECF, and FCB. 
 
 When one right line meets another in such a way that the openings 
 on each side are equal, or when one line stands upon another lying 
 horizontally, in such a way that if it were movable, it would have no 
 tendency to fall over on either side ; in these cases the first line Is said 
 to be perpendicular to the second, and the equal angles are called right 
 angles. Thus in fig. 1 , upon the horizontal line AB stands EC, such 
 that the openings on each side are equal ; that as the distances EA 
 and EB measured equally remote from C, the point of meeting, are 
 equal ; in this case EC is perpendicular to AB, at the point C^ and 
 the two angles ACE and ECB being equal, are both right angles. 
 But if the line FC meet AB in such a way that the angles are not 
 equal, and consequently not right angles, the one as the angle FCA 
 must be greater than a right angle, and the other FCB must be less , 
 the greater is therefore said to be obtuse, and the less acute. Angles 
 like all other magnitudes may be augmented or diminished ; thus the 
 angle ACE is made up of the two angles ACD and DCE ; and if 
 to these we add the angle ECF, we have the whole angle ACF 
 equal to the three angles ACD, DCE, and ECF. It is always to 
 be remembered that in speaking of angles, we mean nothing more than 
 the mere opening formed by the meeting of two lines, without in the 
 least taking into consideration the lengths of those lines ; thus the 
 angle FCB is of the same magnitude, whether the lines forming it be 
 in length only from C to a and ?i, or to F and B, or to points at any 
 distance from the angular point. 
 
 Adjacent angles, are the two angles formed by one line meeting 
 another, any where, except at its extremities ; such are the two angles 
 FCA and FCB in fig. 1 . These angles are said to be supplements to 
 each other, their sum being equal to two right angles. 
 
 Vertical, or opposite angles, are those whose planes or lines form 
 mutual continuations of each other; such angles are invariably equal. 
 
 Alternate angles, are such as are formed on the opposite sides of a 
 line cutting two other lines ; and supposing those two lines to be 
 parallel, the alternate angles will then be equal. 
 
 Eocternal angles, are those formed by the exterior sides of any right- 
 lined figure ; and the sum of all the angles in such, is equal to four 
 right angles. 
 
 Internal angles, are those within a figure, formed by the meeting 
 of two of its adjacent sides; and their sum, in any right-lined figure, 
 is equal to twice as many right angles as the figure has sides, deducting 
 four. 
 
 Angle at the centre of a circle, is one whose angular point is at the 
 centre. 
 
 Angle at the circumference, is that whose angular point is in any 
 part of the circumference. An angle at the centre is double an angle 
 at the circumference, when both stand on the same arc. 
 
 Angle in a semicircle, is an angle at the circumference contained in 
 a semicircle, or standing upon a semicircle or diameter ; and it i« a 
 right angle. An angle in a segment greater than a semicircle, is less
 
 \: 
 
 tnan a right angle. An angle in a segment less than a semicircle, U 
 greater than a right angle. 
 
 fi9 2. 
 
 Problems. — I. fig. 2 and 3. 
 At a point, as D, of a right line 
 DE to make an angle which shall 
 be equal to a given angle BAC. 
 On A, as a centre, with any con- 
 venient opening, the larger the 
 better, describe the arc ab ; with 
 the same precise opening, from D 
 describe the arc de: talie in the 
 compasses the space ab and set it 
 up from d to e, and from D through 
 e draw the line DF, which will, 
 with the given line DE, form the 
 angle FDE equal to the given angle 
 CAB, as was required. 
 
 II. fig. 4. To bisect, Of Cat 
 into two equal parts a given angle 
 ABC. On B, as a centre, de- 
 scribe the arc ac : from these 
 points make an intersection at m: 
 a line joining B and ni will cut the 
 angle ABC into two equal parts ; 
 consequently the angle ABm will 
 be equal to the angle 7nBC. - The 
 same line Bin also bisects the 
 small arc ac, in 7i; so that an is 
 equal to nc. 
 
 To measure an angle on paper, place the centre of a protractor to 
 the vertex of the angle, in such a manner that the radius may answer to 
 one of the lines ; and the degree given by the other line, will be the 
 measure of the angle required. 
 
 ANGLE-BAl{. — A term used in joinery to signify an upright piece 
 of wood placed at the angles of projecting windows, of a polygonal or 
 circular form. 
 
 ANGLE-BEAD. — A small slip of wood worked round on one side 
 to nearly three-fourths of a circle, when intended for a single bead ; if 
 com))osed of more than one, that in the centre is always the largest, so 
 as to form the angle ; this is fixed to bond timber or plugging, at the 
 projecting or external angles of interior walls, in order to ensure their 
 preservation. Sometimes the angle-bead is employed only to the height 
 of ahout six feet ; the rest of the angle being wrought in plaster. At
 
 18 
 
 ether times it is either workerl to an ari's with the wa!!, or entirely 
 omitted. 
 
 ANGLE-BRACE, ANGLE-TIE, DIAGONAL-TIE.— A piece reach- 
 ing across the angles of a square frame, making tlie opening an 
 octagon. 
 
 ANGLE-BRACKET. — A kind of bracket placed in the extremity of 
 an angle. 
 
 ANGLE OF A WALL. — The line where the two sides of a wall or 
 building meet, 
 
 ANGLE-RAFTER, HIP-RAFTER.— A piece of timber situated on 
 the line formed by the junction of the two sides of the roof. 
 
 ANGLE-RIB. — A light piece of timber, forming a curve, which is 
 fixed in the angle between the wall and ceiling when intended to form 
 an arched ceiling. 
 
 ANGLE-STAFF.— See Angle-bead. 
 
 ANGLE-STONES. — Stones forming the angles of buildings, and 
 employed to strengthen or ornament them. See Quoins. 
 
 ANGLE-TIE. — See Angle-brace. 
 
 ANNULAR-MOULDINGS. — All rounded mouldings, or whose sec- 
 tion at a right angle forms a greater or less portion of a circle. 
 
 ANNULAR-VAULT. — A vault springing from two walls, wliich in 
 their plan, form any portion of a circle. 
 
 ANNULETS. — Small fillets, such a.s are placed under the echinus or 
 quarter round of the Doric capital. 
 
 ANTA. — A species of pilaster, having a very trifling projection from 
 the wall, which were in the antique temjjles of Greece, situated at their 
 exterior angles, and are sometimes termed angular antse, presenting two 
 entire faces. They were also used behind, and corresponded with the 
 columns forming the porticoes of the temples ; the capital and base of the 
 antje being in general without any conformity to those of the order 
 with whicli they were employed. 
 
 Anta, is applied by some to those projecting faces, resembling the 
 ends of walls, or the sides of pillars, without either base, capital, or any 
 other mouldings. 
 
 ANTE-CHAMBER. — A chamber leading to the chief apartment. The 
 first ante-chamber, or hall, is intended for domestics. The second ante- 
 chamber, is more ornamented than the first, and is employed for the 
 reception of such persons as may have business with the master, and 
 sometimes also serves for a dancing or an eating room. The third kind 
 of ante-chamber, is a species of cabinet, boudoir, or small saloon, 
 attached to grand or principal apartments ; and which, on levee days, is 
 used for the reception of individuals of distinction, untd the opening of 
 the saloon ; its style of decoration should be elegant. 
 
 ANTE-MURAL. — A palisade or wall forming an inclosure. 
 
 ANTE-PAGMENTA, PEGMATA.— The two moulded jambs and 
 tra'. erse piece, which form the frame of a doorway. 
 
 ANTE-ROOM. — A room leading to a principal apartment. 
 
 ANTE-COUR. — A court serving as passage to the principal court af 
 an edifice or house, and also sometimes to the offices. 
 
 ANTRUM. — An entrance door with a portico at the rear or south
 
 19 
 
 end of the antique temples ; and also applied to the space between the 
 columns and the wall of the cella. 
 
 ANTIQUE. — A term used to signify all productions of the Arts 
 executed from the time of Alexander, to the end of the sixth century. — 
 See Architectlre. 
 
 ANTONINE COLUMN. TRAJAN COLUMN.— The Trajan column 
 at Rome is constructed of white marble, consisting of thirty blocks ; eight 
 of which form the pedestal, nineteen the column, and three the basis of 
 tlie statue, with wliich it was surmounted. 
 
 The length of the lower plinth of the pedestal is 20ft. Sin. which is 
 formed of two blocks 4ft. 5^in. in height. The lower part of the door 
 is in one of the longer sides of one of these stones, and their joint is 
 consequently at right angles with it. 
 
 Upon these blocks lie two others 5ft. 6gin. in height which terminate 
 the door, tlieir upjier edge ranging with the bottom of the inscriptions. 
 
 Two other courses above these, the height of which is 4ft. 5fin. and 
 the upper bed of which reaches to the underside of the cornice of the 
 pedestal. 
 
 Two more which form the cornice, and the curved plinth below the torus 
 of the column, have in height 6ft. 4i-in. 
 
 The several heights of these blocks, make the lieight of the pedestal 
 and before-mentioned plinth, 20ft. lO^in. 
 
 In this pedestal are 32 steps, all of which are wrought in the solid 
 blocks of which it is constructed; viz. 6 in the first range, including the 
 step at the door, 9 in the second, 7 in the third, and iO in the fourth. 
 
 The torus of the base of the column is fonned of a single block ; the 
 lieight of which is 5ft. lin. ; in which are wrought 8 steps, having a 
 newel in the centre. 
 
 Upon this, 17 cylindrical blocks are placed, forming the shaft of the 
 column ; liaving 8 steps with a newel wrought in each ; the respective 
 heights of these courses are, as follows : — 
 
 5ft. 0|in. 
 
 5ft. 
 
 11 in. 
 
 5ft. 0|in. 
 
 4ft. 
 
 lllin. 
 
 4ft. 
 
 ll|ia, 
 
 5 Of 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 5 Of 
 
 4 
 
 11| 
 
 5 
 
 0| 
 
 5 Of 
 
 4 
 
 lOf 
 
 4 lOX 
 
 4 
 
 lOf 
 
 4 
 
 nt 
 
 4 lit 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Above these is another block, which forms the capital ; it is 
 4ft. ll^in. in height, and the side of the square abacus, is 14ft. Ogin.; 
 tills like the preceding also contains 8 ste])s. 
 
 The lieight of the column from- the under part of tlie torus of the 
 base, to tlie upper face of the capital is 95ft. O^^in. and tliat of the 
 pedestal 20ft. lO^in.; lience the total height is 115ft. 1 Of in. The 
 courses are laid without mortar, but still present all possible solidity; 
 the joints being wrought to a most astonishing degree of accuracy. 
 
 The number of the steps to the summit of the capital which ser\'es as 
 a balcony, is then l84. 
 
 'I'he first block above the balcony is 4ft. ll^in. in height, and its 
 diameter, taken at its jilinth, is lOft. liin. ; the thickness of the shell 
 at the same part is 1 ft. 2^mi., and tin- length of the higliest step is 
 2ft. 4^in. ; whicli leaves for the diameter of the newel 2ft. ] l^in. ; which 
 is the general diameter of tlie newel from the pedestal.
 
 20 
 
 Above the last mentioBed block is another, the height of which is 
 3ft. S^-in., upon which another is situated that is somewhat higher than 
 the last mentioned, and which immediately sustains the brass statue 
 with which this column is at present surmounted ; but, however, as both 
 this last block and statue are modern, their dimensions are of little 
 importance. 
 
 It has been asserted that the bassi-relievi on the shaft of this column, 
 increase in their dimension in proportion as they ascend, in order to 
 appear all of the same size to the spectator. This, however, is erroneous, 
 as the casts from the column in the possession of the French Aca- 
 demy at Rome prove ; in which some of the most prominent figures 
 situated at the lower part of the shaft measure 2ft. lin. The greatest 
 height of any of the figures upwards is 2ft. 4in., wliich is the dimension 
 of one better than half way up the shaft. The general size is 2ft. lin., 
 and but few measure 2ft. 2in. The height of these spiral bassi-relievi, 
 or the distance between the two fillets, is not of an exact conformity, 
 it being in some parts 3ft. 9in., and in others 4ft. 4in. ; without pre- 
 senting any regularity of increase upwards, the narrowest being that 
 which is situated at the distance of ten feet from the summit. 
 
 The column of M. Aurelius, commonly called the Antonine, presents 
 a general conformity to that of Trajan ; but it has suffered much more 
 from time and accidents. 
 
 The circular steps in the pedestal descend below the level of the 
 plinth, down to its foundations ; and the exterior masonry of the pedestal 
 appears to be of a more modern date than the rest. In this pedestal 
 from the level of its plinth are 37 steps, and its height is 25ft. 8|^in. 
 Above the pedestal are, as in the Trajan column, 19 blocks; in each of 
 which are 8 steps, the whola being in height 97ft. 0|in., making a total 
 height, including the pedestal, of 122ft. 9^in. 
 
 The height of the capital is 5ft., and the square of the abacus, the 
 upper part of which serves as balcony, is 17ft. 4-|in. 
 
 Above the capital, is a cylindrical block of 6ft. O^in. ; the diameter 
 of which at its plinth, is 12ft. 7f in., and the thickness of the shell at 
 the same part is 2ft. 2in. ; the length of the highest step being 
 2ft. 5|-in. having for the diameter of the newel, which appears to be the 
 same all the way down, 3ft. 4|-in. Immediately above the base of this 
 block, there is a diminution of 5|-in., and near the upper beds, one of 
 ll^in. Upon this is another block, which is at present surmounted by 
 the brazen statue of St. Paul. 
 
 The thickness of the shell of the column varies from 1ft. Sin. to 
 1ft. 9in., its diameter being lift. lOin., and presents but little diminution 
 upwards. 
 
 APARTMENT. — A suite of rooms apart from the rest of the house, 
 consisting of a hall, ante-chamber, chamber, cabinet, wardrobe, closet, 
 rooms for servants, together with the requisite ofhccs, as kitchen, &c. ; 
 forming of themselves a complete habitation, though only part of a house. 
 As this arrangement is but seldom practised, the word aparlment is 
 almost entirely confined to signify a single room. 
 
 Palladio states, that the finest forms for apartments are seven in 
 number ; namely, the round, which are the most rare ; the square ; those 
 whose length is equal to the diagonal of the square formed upon their
 
 31 
 
 breadth ; those of a square and a tliird ; a square avd a half; a square 
 and two thirds ; and lastly? of two squares : and that the best proportion 
 for the height of these difte rent apartments, when they have fi.it ceilings, 
 is in giving their breadth for their height. But if those that are square 
 in their plan be terminated by semicircular or vaulted ceilings, they 
 should have one third more than their breadth to the key of the arch ; 
 and the height of those whose length is greater than their breadth, is 
 given by adding the length to the breadth, and taking the half. For the 
 different practical observations on this subject. See Hall, Dixjng- 
 RooM, Chamber, &c. 
 
 APERTURE. — The openings in buildings, such as doors, windows, 
 &c., are termed apertures. 
 
 APSIS. — The large semicircular recess situated at the east end of 
 churches. A large arched recess in an apartment : also the canopy of 
 a throne. 
 
 APRON. See Flashing. 
 
 APRON-PIECE. — A piece of timber used in the landings of a dou- 
 ble-flighted staircase, fixed horizontally to bear the joists and carriage- 
 pieces, 
 
 APRON-LINING. — The facing which covers the apron-piece. 
 
 AQLLEDUCT. — A species of canal or channel, constructed of brick 
 or stone, for conveying water, by means of a regular descent, through 
 an uneven country to a town or city. These are either visible or sub- 
 terranean. The first serve to convey the water over valleys and plains, 
 by means of arches supported on piers ; and the second to carry it 
 through mountains. 
 
 ARABESQUE. — Arabesques are composed figures, which have taken 
 their origin from the hieroglyphical style of writing ; and were origi- 
 nally figures of objects, sendng as real characters ; but which, by an 
 early licence, were transmitted into architectural decoration, although 
 their literal value was lost. It is named the Arabesque style, and is for 
 the greater part composed of capricious, fantastical, and imaginary 
 objects ; represented in architecture by painting or sculpture ; and 
 employed in the decoration of walls, panels, sides of doors, faces of 
 pilasters, friezes, and sometimes applied to the soffits of flat and 
 cylindrical ceilings. 
 
 AR/EOSTYLE. — An intercolumniation of four diameters, taken to 
 the face of each shaft. 
 
 AK/EOSYSTYLK. — The employment of columns in pairs, the in- 
 termediate space between them being so small, as to cause their bases 
 and ca])itals nearly to touch each otiier. 
 
 ARC. — See Gkometky. 
 
 ARCADE. — One or more arches formed in the thickness of a wall, 
 and s ipported by piers and columns. A name also given to a range 
 (if shops forming a passage from one street to another ; as the Burling- 
 ton and Lowther Arcades, at London. 
 
 The designs for an arcade, given in the Architectural Director, are 
 adapted to an irregular site, on whicli of all othors they are the most 
 diificult to arrange. Arcades might be judiciously erected in all the 
 principal towns ; being profitable to a proprietor, by enhancing the value
 
 22 
 
 of back land ; and also a great accommodation to the public, by affording 
 a convenient covered promenade. 
 
 ARC-BOUTANT. ARCH-BUTMFNT. FLYING-BUTTRESS. 
 ARCHED-BUTTRESS. — A species of arch constructed at the exterior 
 of an edifice, to serve as an abutment to the springing-point of a 
 vaulted roof. 
 
 ARCH. — An arrangement of bricks or stones, the beds or joints of 
 which, tend to one or more centres ; so as to support themselves and a 
 superincumbent weight. 
 
 There are four kinds of arches in ordinary use : semicircular, scheme, 
 elliptical, and straight arches. 
 
 The first of these arches is an exact semicircle ; and has its centre in 
 the middle of the diameter, or right line passing the feet of the arch. 
 It is employed in circular-headed doors and windows, groins, &c. The 
 improved method of brick groining, consists in raising the angles from 
 an octagonal pier, in the place of one that is square. By this plan, 
 the angles of the groins are strengthened, tlie band being carried round 
 the diagonals of equal breadth ; thus giving better bond to the bricks ; 
 which are on the otlier plan so much cut away, that instead of affording 
 .support, they are themselves supported by the adjacent filling-in arches. 
 
 A scheme arch is a segment, or any portion of a circle less than half; 
 the height of which varies from one-fourth to one-sixth of its opening. 
 It is used in foundations, for discharging weights over openings, and 
 sometimes as an ornamental arch above doors and windows. 
 
 An elliptical arch is one struck from three centres, and whicli is sur- 
 based, or less in height than half its span. For the methods to strike an 
 ellipsis. See Geometry. 
 
 A straight arch, is one of which the soffit and top forms right and 
 parallel lines; the beds or joints tending to one centre. This arch is 
 generally employed over windows. The diminishing point, for the 
 joints, may be the apex of an equilateral triangle ; the base of which 
 will be the soffit of the intended arch. This arch may be from four to 
 five courses of bricks in height, according to the quality of the building. 
 To key the arch in, it is usual, to have a brick in place of a joint, in 
 the centre ; and as this centre brick tapers a trifle more than the others, 
 though of an equal length, attention should be paid to ease it a little ; 
 when, as is usual, they are all prepared from the same mould. 
 
 The depth of brickwork used in semicircular, scheme, and elliptical 
 arches, depends on the size of the apertures, and quality of the building, 
 where they are intended to be employed. Thus they may be made two 
 bricks, a brick and a half, or, for ordinary houses, one brick deep, will 
 be found sufficient. In arches of one brick deep or high, when the 
 walls are only half a brick thick, there can be no necessity for joints 
 following the course of the arch in every alternate brick. Thus, when 
 joints are shewn in such arches, they are generally false ; being merely 
 nicks of little depth, cut with a tin saw ; and are made as a kind of 
 decoration, to produce, when pointed like the other joints, a more lively 
 appearance. When the walls are one brick or more in thickness, it is 
 requisite that the joints in question be real ; and formed of two bricks, 
 used as headers, for the purpose of bond.
 
 23 
 
 ARCHITECT. — A person who possesses a knowledge of the prin- 
 ciples of architecture ; and who is capable of making a judicious and skilful 
 application of those principles, in such edifices as he may design. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, GRECIAN.— There is nothing more frequent, 
 and at the same time more erroneous, than to suppose the existence of 
 an architecture common to all people or nations, and of a local origin. 
 There cannot liave existed a universal architecture, from the circum- 
 stance of the waiits which the inhabitants of different countries ex- 
 perienced, not being uniformly the same. The habitations that self- 
 preservation led them to construct, were governed by, and hence neces- 
 sarily adapted to a variety of local circumstances; diifering greatly 
 amongst the several distinct settlements of the human race. The only 
 particular in which the various styles of architecture resemble each 
 other, is intellectually ; it is in those impressions that the qualities 
 exhibited in the art of building, is enabled to produce on the minds of 
 all men, from every part of the globe. Some one of these impressions 
 may result from all the styles. Further, there are the principles of 
 solidity, which are common to all nations, and are connected with 
 general piivsical laws. 
 
 But as respects that which is understood by system, taste, style, and 
 species of architecture ; if the f icts wliicli have been produced in the 
 present work ; and if the principles which have been deduced from 
 them are admitted to be incontestible ; it therefore would be both un- 
 necessary and useless to have recourse to the same subject, in order to 
 endeavour to discover those relations between the forms of the various 
 styles of architecture, which can only have been fortuitous. Architec- 
 ture has had no birth-place. It has sprang from no particular country, 
 inasmuch as it is common to every part of the globe. Neither has it 
 proceeded from the huts of Greece, the subterrains of Egypt, tJie tents 
 of Asia, nor from divers compound principles of which we are unac- 
 quainted. It must be an abuse of language to employ the word archi- 
 tecture thus. It is essentially requisite to state the name by which the 
 architecture in question is distinguished. Between the general idea of 
 architecture, and the special idea of a particular architecture, there exists 
 the same difference, as between language and a language. Thus to 
 direct the attention to discover a unique origin of architecture, would 
 be as futile an employment, as to endeavour to discover a primitive 
 language. 
 
 Hence, the points of resemblance which may be found between the 
 Egyptian and Grecian ardiitecture ; does not destroy, in any respect, 
 the originality of this last; because to effect this, it would be required 
 that the similarities related to tlie system, to the general types and con- 
 fisjuration, and to the pliysiognomy of the architecture in que.stion. 
 Now as respects each of these relations, there exists such a striking 
 difference between the two systems of architecture, that a simple inspec- 
 tion is a sufficient proof A portion of objects employed as embollish- 
 ments, when taken from one system of architecture and ajiplieil to 
 anotlier, proves only that there existed between the two nations a com- 
 munication and ac(|uaintance, through the medium of commerce. Tliis 
 could not occur, nor continue for any duration of time, without intro-
 
 24 
 
 dficing into one of the nations, the inventions and uses peculiar to the 
 other. 
 
 Now, it is indubitable, that political and commercial communications 
 were established at an early period, between Egypt and Greece. It is 
 in consequence beyond a doubt, that with the great number of beliefs, 
 opinions, and institutions, which had been introduced from the former 
 into the latter country, the Greeks, the most imitative race that ever 
 existed, had likewise received some suggestions from the decorative 
 details of the architecture of the former people. 
 
 Although the Grecian temples present an original character in the 
 special forms of their architecture, yet it would be difficult to ailirm that 
 in their plans and general dispositions, that the Greeks have not been 
 influenced by an imitation of the Egyptini customs. 
 
 From all the plausible points of resemblance, which would by a judi- 
 cious critique be acknowledged to exist between these two systems of 
 architecture, the Egyptian taste never seems to have entered into the 
 Grecian architecture ; and that the points of resemblance consist in the 
 appropriation of inconsiderable details ; which were further embellished 
 and perfected by the Greeks. In fine, the Greeks appear never to have 
 estimated the Egyptian architecture under the relation of art ; except 
 with that indifference, that the eyes of a people exercised by a correct 
 imitation of the beauties of nature, would naturally look upon an archi- 
 tecture so tasteless and monotonous. 
 
 The Grecian Architecture presents neither the licences of the Asiatic, 
 nor the cold sameness of the Egyptian ; but an expression resulting 
 from order and harmony. This distinguishing quality is produced by 
 the proportions, to which its most extended conceptions, as also its 
 minutest details, are subjected by art. The proportions, by which the 
 Greeks constituted, of architecture, a real art, were the result of a 
 fortunate concurrence of circumstances. The carpentry of which their 
 primitive architecture was formed, gave the first elements of its propor- 
 tions ; the study of the other arts, and particularly those which consist 
 in the imitation of the human form, constituted their basis ; but it was 
 from the great area of nature, that this architecture deduced those 
 general laws of order and harmony, by which it became enabled to 
 produce in man such sentiments of admiration, varied impressions and 
 effects, which rival those produced by nature. 
 
 The Greeks employed the same spirit of order and harmony in all 
 their arts. At the time in which they determined the forms of beauty 
 in painting and sculpture ; they also instituted laws for the diiferent 
 kinds of poetry, scenic effects, and for the dramatic art ; for the enthu- 
 siasm of the lyre, for the canto of the epic muse, as also for the art of 
 speaking, and for the emotions of eloquence. These laws are so just, 
 and founded in such a manner upon nature, that they have become the 
 guides of all nations ; and serve as a scale to determine the degree of 
 advancement made in the arts by any people. 
 
 ARCHITECTITRE, ROMAN. — Roman Architecture, is no other \a 
 reality than Grecian ; that is to say, that the architecture of these two na- 
 tions, is in effect one and the same ; for reasons which are shewn in various 
 parts of the present work, of its having propagated itself, wherever tne
 
 p 
 
 Greeks penetrated ; and wherever their genius, more powerful than their 
 arms, extended its influence. From communications much more ancient 
 than are imagined, the Greeks had, from the highest antiquity, carried 
 into Italy the seeds of the language, religion, worship, customs, arts, 
 and opinions of Greece. Numerous Grecian colonies had established 
 themselves upon the shores of the Italian peninsula ; and built cities in 
 the interior of these territories, a long time before the birth of the 
 supposed founder of Rome. Whatever may have been the origin of this 
 city, or to whatever century it may be traced by historians, far from their 
 discovering the first steps of a civilization in its infancy, they discover, 
 on the contrary, a people already enriched with the knowledge and the 
 arts of its neighbours. Now all its neighbours, whosoever they may have 
 been, whether natives of the country itself, or descendants of foreign 
 colonies, and of the arrivals from Greece have had, with very trifling 
 differences, their language, customs, arts, and architecture, in intimate 
 relation with those in Greece. Rome then never possessed any other 
 architecture, than that of Greece. Thus there is not, correctly speak- 
 ing, a Roman architecture ; if by it is meant one that is original. 
 
 By the early communications before mentioned that existed between 
 Etruria and Greece, there was introduced, at a remote period, into the 
 superior regions of Italy, the language, writing, religion, mythology, 
 and images of Greece. It has been shewn in treating of the Tuscan 
 order, that all the information which has descended to us, descriptive of 
 the Etruscan architecture, testifies an identity of system, on all points, 
 with that of the Greeks. History further informs us, that Rome, from 
 its origin, and in the construction of its earliest works, adopted the taste 
 of the Etruscans ; and also employed the skill of their artists in tlieir 
 execution. Rome, as will be shewn, afterwards possessed a considerable 
 number of native architects ; an advantage not afforded to the other 
 arts. Architecture is more immediately connected with the interests of 
 a nation, as regards its politics, manners, and religion, than is generally 
 conceived. When considered under this triple point of view, it need 
 not excite our astonishment, that it was cultivated at Rome with a kind 
 of predilection, from the earliest ages. Numerous remains which t^ike 
 their date from that period, together with the testimony of histoiians, 
 prove the injustice of regarding the early Romans as barbarians, or as 
 being unacquainted with architecture. 
 
 In proof of the above remarks may be cited, the circus, situated 
 between the hills Palatinus and Aventinus, commenced by Tarquinius 
 Priscus, and surrounded by a covered portico by Tarquinius Supeibus. 
 At the same time the great cloaca was in progress. Tarquin the elder 
 added to the Forum, Vetns or Liitinum, all that could contribute to its 
 utility and embellishment. He constructed the walls of Rome, and 
 commenced the erection of the Temple of .'upiter Capitolinus ; wliich 
 presented the architectural system of Greece, continued by Servius 
 TuUius and Tarquinius Superbus. Its interior was distributed in such a 
 manner as to present a naos having an aisle on each of its two sides; 
 and at the exterior i>« peristyle, consisting of three ranges of columns, 
 Vis surmouoied with a pediment. These statements which are corro- 
 borated by the testimony of the historians, Titus Livius, LHoi^sius Hali-
 
 26 
 
 oaroassas, and Tacitus. The beauty of the above mentioned temple, 
 IS spoken of by the last of these writers in the strongest terms of 
 admiration; and may serve to convey an idea of the taste of the 
 Romans in architecture, from the earliest period. 
 
 Such was the state of architecture, under the reign of kings who 
 founded this empire, as also under that of the rppublic which extended 
 it. Utility was exhibited in their design, and greatness and solidity 
 in their construction. Such also was the degree of propriety observed 
 in the application of the resources of the art at this epoch, that all its 
 magnificence, tire employment of which was prohibited from being used 
 for individual purposes, was reserved for temples and other public 
 edifices only. 
 
 If architecture, according to Vitruvius, should present in its pro- 
 ductions, utility, solidity, and beauty; the architeclure at Rome of the 
 above mentioned period, evidently fulfils the first two conditions. As 
 to the third, notwithstanding that the idea of beauty may be applied 
 to that whicli presents simplicity of construction ; and likewise, that 
 greatness and solidity also form a part of that which constitutes beauty 
 in architecture ; yet Vitruvius must necessarily liave understood by its 
 application in this instance, that species of beauty, which is produced 
 by delicate display of forms, harmony of proportions, elegance of mem- 
 bers, and all that relates to ornament or decoration. 
 
 This kind of beauty, thus understood, as the idea of necessity and 
 utility alone would not produce it ; and as it appertains to tlie perfecting 
 of a moral sentiment, wliich, to develope itself in architecture, requires 
 the aid and inspiration of the other arts ; all tend to prove, that this 
 complement of the three principal qualities of architecture, was reserved 
 for a posterior period ; and that this beauty which is the perfection of 
 art, or rather art itself; waited but at Rome for more favourable times 
 and circumstances. 
 
 Architecture doubtless requires, that the aid which it receives from 
 painting and sculpture, be in harmony with it ; both as regards the 
 sentiment of proportions, and the elegance of ornaments. ]\'ow, 
 this was produced at the conquest of Greece, by introducing and en- 
 couraging in Rome, both the works of Grecian art, and also the ablest 
 artists of that country From this it is evident, that the sources for 
 the furtlier advancement of this art, which Greece lost by its impover- 
 ishment, Rome gained by being enriched with all the necessary means. 
 Already were the edifices at Rome laid out on a much more extensive 
 scale, than what was practicable in the small separated states of Greece. 
 Architecture at Rome, being seconded by immense riches, l)oth public 
 and private, found a more extended scope fur its conceptions, greater 
 variety of subjects for composition, and a less limited employment of 
 its resources. 
 
 Many remains which take their date from the reign of Augustus, are 
 existing proofs. Of this period is the celebrated edihce named i\\e 
 Pantheon ; which is the fragment of an immense total, that was desig- 
 nated the Thermfe Agrippa; and was the work of a single individi*a(. 
 Thus to appreciate the architectural taste of this epocii, it would oe 
 ntves'-.ary tj;*t the above toentJoned remains, which at the preseit eay
 
 %1 
 
 aie the wonder of modern Rome, be examined, with uU tlie precious 
 fra-nnents of wliich time and barbarism have robbed it : sucli as the 
 brcnze o nainents of its pediment and peristyle, the golden rosettes 
 of its cupola, the sculpture with which it was decorated, &c. ; who can 
 for an instant doubt, that the remains of such an edifice, spared by 
 chance amongst so many others, would not have increased the celebrity- 
 even of one of the greatest cities of Greece. Rome became the 
 capital of the then known world, and the depot of its riches ; hereby 
 offering an immense theatre to architecture. This imperial city con- 
 tained, within its own jurisdiction, all the means that could conduce 
 to the perfection of this art. The wealth of some private individuals 
 equalled and even surpassed the ordinary revenue of princes. Their 
 religious zeal was expressed in the erection of temples; to what 
 remained of the political institutions of the republic, were added those 
 expressive of the magnificence and power of the monarchy. Military 
 fame and the successes of war, created monuments, which together 
 with the theatres, circusses, and amphitheatres, constructed so as to 
 contain an immense multitude of spectators, afforded architecture 
 unparalleled opportunities to increase its means and conceptions. 
 
 Rome witnessed the erection of monuments and edifices, that were 
 unknown in Greece ; such as triumphal arches and columns ; Thermae, 
 which in their extent resembled small towns ; the Septizonium Severi, 
 mausolea, immense porticoes, amphitheatres, naumachiae, &c. In 
 these the marbles of all the known quarries were employed and others 
 discovered, whirh were wrought by the chisel of the ablest artists, 
 and to the designs of the most celebrated architects. 
 
 With such means, arcliitecture must necessarily rise at Rome; as 
 it did in reality, to such a state of perfection, as it never had been 
 previously brought to by any nation ; and, to wliich it is probable, it 
 will never again arrive in any future ages. Witness the wonderful 
 remains that still exist ; and of wliich it may be remarked, that never 
 were siuh a multiplicity of causes of destruction united against any other 
 empire ; never so many sieges, pillages, and irruptions ; nor ever were 
 there so many ])olitiral and religious revolutions. The contemplative 
 mind finds its admiration divided between their beauty and magnifi- 
 cence, and the wonderful quality that has served to prevent their 
 entire annhilation. Thus, still surviving itself iu its remains, Rome 
 must inevitably remain the school, where all luirope will investigate 
 its ruins. They will revive, and jiropagate over the entire world, that 
 architectural system whidi was brought to so eminent a degree of 
 perfection at Rome, by the united talent of Greece, and the wealth 
 of the universe. 
 
 Nevertheless it may be remarked in favour of the Romans, 
 that architecture was from the earliest age, their favourite art. 
 At a period when there was scarcely the name of a single Roman 
 statuary known, nor more than two or three painters cited by Pliny ; 
 Vitruvius tells us, that long previous to his time, Rome possessed many 
 a celebrated native architect. He himself lias transmitted to us, the 
 names of Fussitius, Terentius Varro, I'ublius Septimius, Cossutius, 
 and C. Mutius ; who had severally written on tliis art. Witlwut (his
 
 digression of Vitruvius, in his Preface, we should have been ignorant, that 
 anterior to the century of Augustus, which is the time at which it is cus- 
 tomaiy to date the most peifect state of this art; more than one treutise 
 on architecture had been composed. Terentius Varro was the author of 
 one, P. Septimius of two, and Fussitius had written on this art with ths 
 greatest success. Vitruvius again greatly regrets the loss of the writings 
 of Cossutius on architecture, and still more those of C. Mutius, a man of 
 great judgment, and who had completed the temple to Honour and Virtue. 
 It is well known, that theoretical writings on any subject never precede 
 experience. An art must have made great progress, before the neces- 
 sity be felt of fixing its rules, or describing its different productions. 
 Vitruvius also informs us, that, in the centuries preceding his own, 
 Rome possessed great architects ; and that at his time there were a con- 
 siderable number. 
 
 At the time that the conquest of Greece, and the fame of Augustus, 
 liad drawn to Rome the Grecian architects ; these artists did not consider 
 themselves in a foreign country. They there found the same style of 
 art that they had exercised in their own ; the same practices, and (he 
 same svstem of ordonnance and of proportion. Time and experience 
 had progressively made improvements in columns and profiles, in Greece. 
 The Doric was losing a portion of its primitive austerity ; and the 
 increasing number of their edifices, the diversity of their cliaracter, some 
 re juiring elegance and others richness; led to a more frequent employ- 
 ment of the other orders, than had hitherto been exercised ; which at 
 the same time must have contributed to increase the height of tl.e Doric, 
 and to diminish the severity of its forms and profiles. Thus we find, 
 from examples of this order, as employed in some of the latter produc- 
 tions at Athens ; that they had, at that period, forsaken the continued 
 employment of the short and massive proportions manifested in their 
 earlier edifices. The fall of that country prevented its possessing more 
 models of perfection in this art ; whilst the skill of its most celebrated 
 artists was employed in the edifices of the Augustan age, wliich wore 
 produced by the united talent of Greece and Rome ; and the wealth and 
 splendor of the state. 
 
 No city ever approached in greatness and magnificence to Rome. The 
 greatness of states is judged by that of their capital ; and reciprocally, 
 the extent and sumptuosity of each capital, is necessarily in proportion 
 to the poputilaon, wealth, and power of a nation. Now, what capital, 
 even of th« greatest states, can approach to that which had for provinces 
 the most extensive kingdoms; and for its empire the known world. 
 Rome, the unique phenomena in the history of the univer.se, possessed 
 all the sources of wealth and talent necessary to accomplish the greatest 
 enterprises ; as also monuments and edifices whose completion required 
 the most immense resources, and all the means that can immortalize the 
 works of man. 
 
 Thus the most indubitable testimony of the power of ancient Rome, 
 exists in its remains. A great number of the most considerable cities 
 of antiquity, have disappeared from the surface of their sites ; so as almost 
 to defy the research of Antiquarians to discover any trace that may sen'e 
 M an indication of them. Rome has still preserved some remains of its
 
 29 
 
 monuments, which rise majestically above all modern constructloiui 
 Lastly, the means adopted for their preservation, will procure to these 
 remains renewed life and fame. They have become the centre of the 
 arts, and above all of architecture. It was this indestructible focus, 
 whose brilliancy was restored by the enlightened zeal and talents of 
 patrons, connoisseurs, and artists ; which has diffused that light, that has 
 propagated a knowledge of the perfection of Grecian architecture. Such 
 is the solidity of the remains of these edifices, such their number, beauty, 
 and diversity of kinds ; that, as they have been since the restoration of 
 the arts, so will they continue to be, the grand school of the art and 
 science of architecture amongst all enlightened nations, and in all ages. 
 It does not follow because certain remains in Greece, which have 
 escaped the destructive hand of barbarism, from their presenting, above 
 all in the Doric order, a more original character and greater simplicity, 
 that they can be regarded as examples, the imitation of which is adapted 
 to modern wants. There is also a greater number of temples preserved 
 in Greece ; but these admirable monuments are rather to us, abstract 
 models of beauty in architecture, than usual or practicable examples 
 whose application is convenient or consistent with the different degrees 
 of suitableness which the character and destination of modern edifices 
 require. Antique Rome, on the contrary, contains in its remains, the 
 fragments of almost all the edifices that it is possible to enumerate. It 
 offers examples of the employment of all kinds of materials, adapted to 
 all sorts of constructions, in all the fonns, and presenting all the qualities 
 that architecture can assume. 
 
 What must have been the number, extent, and magnificence, of the 
 temples, basilica, fora, baths, theatres, amphitheatres, palaces, and 
 numerous other buildings and edifices of this metropolis; adapted to an 
 immense population ; as given by different historians ? Indeed the 
 descriptions handed down to us, would not be credited, if some few 
 remains of this greatness, which have survived the annihilation of all 
 surrounding objects, were not existing testimonies to prove the truth of 
 their assertions. Yet the great Montaigne was impressed with such an 
 idea of its former greatness, that its present appearance serves, s;iys he, 
 rather to indicate the sepulchre of ancient Rome, than its ruins ; and he 
 further observes, that the few existing remains that have, almost 
 miraculously escaped entire annihilation, from the many incendiaries, 
 together with the united efforts of ignorance to exterminate them, must 
 necessarily have been the least eminent of its edifices; as the most 
 celebrated naturally must have become the first objects for I'estruction. 
 This opinion of Montaigne cannot excite surprise, when we consider that 
 the surprising height to which the surface of the soil in some parts of 
 modern Rome is raised, by the substance of the antique edifices, is such, 
 that in excavating to the depth of from thirty to forty feet, sometimes 
 the summit of a column in its vertical position presents itself, and at 
 others, the pavement of a street. 
 
 The sight of these remains, although blackened, and their ornaments 
 corroded, by a lapse of two thousond years, yet elevate the mind of the 
 •Dcciator. Some Idea mav be formed of the eslinntion in which they 
 were oeSd hrv the comprehensice understanding of Winkelmann, from
 
 30 
 
 the following fragment of a letter addressed to a friend on his first 
 examination of the few remains of the greatness of ancient llome.—- 
 " I am unable," says he, " to convey to you any adequate idea of Rome ■ 
 you are not acquainted with one hundredth part of the treasures it 
 contains. Hitherto I believed myself in possession of the knowledge 
 of all that was excellent in art, whereas I now discover that the extent 
 of my former acquaintance with objects of this nature was comparativelj 
 trifling; and those who have attempted to describe these remains, have 
 succeeded better, in displaying a total ignorance of their particular 
 merits. In the midst of these inestimable objects, I find that I do not 
 possess the least portion of that talent which I imagined myself to have 
 attained, at the termination of my first studies. If you wish to become 
 acquainted with the extent of the intellectual power of man, you must 
 visit these remains ; in them you will find manifested, the superior 
 talent, the astonishing genius, and the exquisite beauties which charac- 
 terize the productions of the Greeks." 
 
 ARCHITRAVE. — The lowest of the three parts that form an en- 
 tablature ; and is placed immediately upon the capitals of columns. 
 
 The form of an architrave varies according to the character of the 
 order to which it is applied; thus the face of a Doric architrave, should 
 be plain and even. In the best examples of Greece, it is equal in 
 height to the frieze ; whilst in those at Rome, the frieze exceeds that of 
 the architrave. The proportion assigned to it by Vitruvius is one 
 module, and that its soffit should be equal to the superior diameter of 
 the column. Palladio and Vignola have followed the proportion given 
 by Vitruvius. The architraves of the Ionic and Corintliian orders, have 
 tlieir surface divided into from two to four fascias ; and the relative pro- 
 portion between the architrave and frieze of each, is partly similar. 
 Vitruvius gives the following rule for the proportion of Ionic archi- 
 traves : — For columns from twelve to fifteen feet high, the architrave 
 should have half a diameter in height ; and dividing the architrave into 
 four parts, three should be given for the height of the frieze. Those 
 from fifteen to twenty feet should be divided into thirteen parts, one of 
 which will be the height of the architrave. Divide this part into four 
 others, and appropriate three for the height of the frieze. For those from 
 twenty to twenty-five feet, the columns must be divided in twelve parts 
 and a half; and one of these parts will be tiie height of the architrave. 
 The frieze has the same proportion as the example last mentioned. 
 Columns from twenty-fiv-e to thirty feet, must have their height divided 
 into twelve parts. One of these will give the height of the architrave. 
 Tlie frieze has the same proportion as the preceding example. See 
 Plate 25, of Architectural Director. For accurate measurements 
 of the architraves of the best examples in Greece and at Rome, tiin reader 
 is referred to the comparative Tables ; and to the articles treating on 
 the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders. The practical methods will 
 be found under the heads, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Entablature- 
 Architrave, is sometimes used to signify a number of mouldings placed 
 horizontally and vertically round the sides of rectangular apertures ; as 
 doors and windows. The plates 37, 40 to 4S, present a varietr o. 
 designs for architrives, with dimensions : in oraei more reacAn' lo ftiM
 
 31 
 
 the proportion of their respective parts in practice. The best proportioa 
 tor tlie breadth of architraves is, one sixtii piirt of the width of the 
 opening they are intended to surround. 
 
 ARCHIVE. — A phice destined to keep the charters, records, &c., of 
 a nation. The temple of Saturn was used for this purpose amongst the 
 Romans. 
 
 ARCHIVOLT, or ARCHIVAULT.— A member situated round the 
 curvature of an arch. It is sometimes accompanied by a liey-stone, or 
 console. As regards their details, the same remarivs are applicable to 
 them, as to those contained under the head, Architrave. See Ar- 
 chitrave. 
 
 The Plate 37, of Archivolts, presents a variety of designs, wilh 
 dimensions, to facilitate their practical application. 
 
 AREA. — Tlie space preceding any important edifice, or by which it 
 may be surrounded. Also court yards and other openings, arranged so 
 as to admit light to various parts of buildings. This word is sometimes 
 used synonimous with Site and Place. For methods to find the super- 
 ficial contents of areas, See Mensuration. 
 
 ARENA. — An open space, situated in the centre of the antique 
 amphitheatres. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. — The science of numbers. The various operations 
 so useful to practical men, will be each familiarly explained in their 
 proper place. 
 
 ARSENAL. — A magazine, for the making or keeping of arms, naval 
 or military furniture, and equipments ; as the arsenal of Woolwicli. 
 
 ART. — This term may be emploj'ed to signify either the useful or 
 mechanic, liberal or polite arts ; the former requiring manual labonr 
 principally, the latter requiring the exercise of mind more than of the 
 hand and body. As regards its application to architecture, as a fine or 
 liberal art, it may be defined, a mixed art ; the produce of necessity and 
 pleasure; the object of which is to add to our comfort and pleasure by 
 a combination of forms, the most suitable for onr corporal necessities, 
 and the most analagous to the affections of our senses. 
 
 ARTIFICER. — /\ workman; as a joiner, mason, bricklayer, &c. 
 
 ARTIST. — A term applied to a person who professes one of the fine 
 or liberal arts ; as an areiiitect, painter, sculptor, or engraver. 
 
 ARTIZAN. — One who follows a mechanical art. 
 
 ARTISTLIKE. — That which exhibits tlie judgment and skill of an 
 able artist. 
 
 ASH. — A wood very common in England, and mostly used for im- 
 plements of husbandry. It soon decays when exposed to the weather ; 
 but when kept dry, it is of great duration. This wood is naturallv of a 
 spongy consistence ; and that is of the best quality which has its fibres 
 long and straight; which quality is ranch the same through the whole 
 thickness of the tree, except its being rather tougher at the oufs'de. 
 The proper time to fell ash, is in the winter ; and it may also be proper 
 to remark, tiiat it requires a similar ]iroccss of seasoning to oak. 
 
 ASHLAR. — Is applied to vvafls which are faced with square stones, 
 Jiewn or rubbed ; and backed with ruuiile, sione, or brick. 
 
 The stones of an ashlar front, sliouM have their upper and under
 
 32 
 
 surface parallel with each other, and at right angles to the face. If fhe 
 joints he wrought hollow, the edges will be apt to splinter under great 
 pressure. The vertical joints may be bevelled oif to the back, com- 
 mencing one or two inches from the face. Tlie stones thus having the 
 form of a truncated wedge, will in each course offer a continuatioa of 
 angular indentations within the wall. The stones are so chosen and 
 arranged, that the upright joints, and hence the angular spaces formed 
 by the bevelling of the upper course, fall on the middle of each stone in 
 the course immediately below. By this plan, the ashlar is bonded to 
 the brick, rubble, or rough stone of the back ; and the wall itself is 
 stronger than when the stones are wrought square. A further increase 
 of strength may be given to an ashlar wall, by making such a choice 
 and arrangement of the stones, that in every alternate course they may 
 extend farther in the wall, than those next above and below. Bond 
 stones, which ought frequently to be introduced in ashlar work, must be 
 square from the face to the back, and not bevelled like the other stones; 
 and should be so placed in each course as to be in the centre of the 
 space between the two bond-stones, placed in the courses immediately 
 above and below. 
 
 ASPECT. — A term sometimes used to signify the position in which 
 the different parts of a building or edifice may be situated ; and at oihers 
 to express the beauty of its appearance. 
 
 Vitruvius, treating on this subject, as understood in the former sense, 
 makes the following observations : — "The winter dining-room and the 
 bath, should be situated opposite to the winter's declining sun ; because 
 its light is there useful. Besides, the western sun shining thereon, 
 produces heat; and makes the aspect warm and pleasant in the evening. 
 Bed-chambers and libraries should face the east ; for in these the morn- 
 ing sun is required. It is also necessary, in order that the books in 
 libraries may not decay ; for in those that are situated to the south and 
 west, they will be damaged by the damps and worms, which the humid 
 winds generate and nourish. The rooms destined to be employed 
 during spring and autumn, should face the east ; for the windows being 
 then turned from the sun, proceeding westward, renders those apartments 
 temperate at the time they are generally employed. The summer 
 dining-room should be situated towards the north, because this aspect 
 is not, like the others, rendered hot at the summer solstice, for being 
 turned from the course of the sun, it remains always cool ; and when 
 used, is salubrious and pleasant. The same aspect is also the most 
 proper for picture rooms or galleries ; on account of the equality of 
 the light." 
 
 As regards the best aspects, for the principal fronts of buildings in 
 our own country, that of the south-east is the most esteemed ; and the 
 south, and due east, rank as being the next best. Again, the south- 
 west is regarded as the most objectionable, on account of rain corning 
 more from that poii)t, than from any other. An aspect due north, or 
 west, have also a disadvantage ; the tormer from being deprived of the 
 snn; and the latter from being incommoded with it, during a considerable 
 portion of the day. 
 
 ASPHALTUM. — In painting. A solid bituminous substance, of a
 
 33 
 
 Jeep shining black, or brown colour within ; with scarcely any smell ti 
 it is heated ; when it emits a strong pitchy odour. It is plentiful in 
 several parts of Egypt, and on the surface of the Dead Sea. From 
 France, Germany, and Switzerland, a similar bitumen is procured ; dif- 
 fering only in its smell, which is more pitchy. Sometimes pitch itself, 
 and the residuum after the distillation of amber, are both substituted for it ; 
 but are easily distinguishable from the natural bitumen. See Bitumen. 
 
 ASTRAGAL. — Is a name given to a small semi-circular moulding 
 and a fillet, commonly situated at the upper extremity of the shafts of 
 columns ; sometimes plain, and at others sculptured in berries. 
 
 ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE.— A term sometimes used to signify 
 the antique architecture of Athens. See Architecture. 
 
 ATLANTES. — A name given to a species of male statnes, sei-ving 
 the place of columns. These are also known by the name of Telamones. 
 Which see ; as also, Persian, and Caryatide. 
 
 ATRIUM. — A part in the houses and palaces of tlie Romans, that 
 was situated at the principal entrance ; having, in the Corinthian atrium, 
 a covered area in its centre, named C'av3edium ; which wlis surrounded 
 by numerous columns. The apartments necessaiy to the senice, were 
 distributed around the atrium. As this was a part much frequented, it 
 generally displayed great magnificence. The lower part of the walls 
 was incrusted with marble ; while the upper presented graceful arabes- 
 ques, forming compartments, in which were executed different compo- 
 sitions in painting. The cavaedium, although covered, had in the middle 
 an open space, which served to admit light, and was named comphivium; 
 through which the water from its roof was conducted to a square basin, 
 placed in the centre of the area ; and from this it was conveyed into 
 cisterns. From this basin there sometimes issued ^jet d\'au. 
 
 The atrium is often confounded with the vestibule ; but the real ves- 
 tibule was the area or court-yard which preceded the principal entrance, 
 and which was generally surrounded by a colonnade, anfl planted witli 
 trees. Besides tlie species of atrium just described, which is called the 
 Corinthian, there are f(nu' others, deriving their ditferent denominations 
 from the manner in which the cavsedium was covered. The first is the 
 Tuscan, the roof of which is simply sustained by four beams, which 
 bisect each other at right angles. The second, named the Tetrastyle 
 atrium, is supported by a column at each of its four angles. The 
 third kintl is tiie Corinthian atrium, which lias been already described^ 
 and is the most magnificent. The fourth is the Displuviatum atrium, 
 and ditl'ers from tlie former, inasmuch as its roof, instead of throwing 
 the water into the centre of the compluvium, is so inclined as to con- 
 vey it beyond the cavsedium. Tiie fifth species is called the Testu- 
 dinatum, and is distinguished from the others by its having no opening 
 in the centre of its roof. 
 
 ATTIC. — A term occasionally used to signify any architectural object 
 peculiar to Athens. It is likewise employed to denote a low story, 
 situated ab .ve the crowning entablature of a building. 
 
 ATTIC DOOR. — ,'\ door haviug its jambs so inclined, as to render 
 its opening less under the lintel than at tiie foot. 
 
 ATTIC BASE. — The most suitable base for the Ionic order. Sec 
 
 p
 
 34 
 
 pi. 10, of Architectural Director. Also often applied to tUa 
 Corinlliian. Vitruvius assigns the following proportions to this base.: — 
 " Divide the total, which is one module, into three parts, taking one for 
 the height of the plinth. The remaining two parts must be subdivided 
 into four ; one of which must be given to the superior torus. The other 
 three parts must be again divided into two ; one of which must be given 
 to the scotia, and the two fillets ; and the last to the lower torus. 
 
 ATTIC ORDER. — A species of short pilaster peculiar to attic stories. 
 The height of this pilaster varies from one-half to one-third of that of 
 the order below; from a fifth to one-sixth of this height, is taken for its 
 diameter. The usual decoration of its capital, presents a mixture of 
 those of the Ionic and Corinthian ; and it should be regulated by the 
 character of the ordonnance to wh:ch it is intended to be applied. — 
 See Frontispiece. 
 
 The windows employed in attics should be square, or otherwise not 
 present any very striking difference between their height and width. 
 See pi. 69. 
 
 ATTRIBUTES. — Are symbols, the judicious employment of which, 
 materially contributes to characterize architectural productions. See 
 Decoration, Design, 8zc. 
 
 AUDITORIUM. — A place amongst the ancients, in which poets and 
 orators recited their productions. 
 
 The auditorium of the judges was situated in Caesar's palace ; and was 
 used for the immediate dispensation of justice, in unimportant cases. 
 
 AURUM MUSIVUM. — One of the richest mixtures used for var- 
 nished works ; producing an appearance resembling gold in powder. The 
 following are its component parts : — To three parts of mercury put twelve 
 parts of the purest tin ; to which must be added three parts of sal ammoniac, 
 and seven parts of flower of sulphur; which mix in a stone mortar, and 
 afterwards raise to a gentle sand-heat in a matrass. This heat must be 
 continued until it has ceased to emit any white vapours, when it should 
 be increased a trifling degree by cinnabar sublimes, with a portion of 
 oxvgenated muriate of tin ; at which time the sulphur unites with the re- 
 maining tin, and presents a rich golden matter, which is the aurum musivum. 
 
 AVIARY. — A place in wliich different species of living birds are 
 reared. The composition of an aviary should be marked by lightness 
 and elegance of form. Its situation, which should be neither cold 
 nor humid, ought to abound in verdure, forming a sufficient shade. 
 Water, when it is judiciously introduced, is desirable, and indeed indis- 
 pensable, when the aviary is intended to contain birds of the aquatic 
 species; but it is essential that it be so arranged, that tiie water may 
 continue in a pure state. 
 
 AXIOM. — In Geometry, is a proposition or assertion, of which the 
 truth is at first sight so evident, that no proof or demonstration can 
 make it more manifest. Such as, that two things each equal to a third, 
 must be equal to one another: — that the whole of any thing is greater 
 than any part of it : — that the whole of any thing is equal to the sum 
 of all its component parts : — that two bodies which precisely coincide 
 with each other, or which precisely till the same space, are equal the 
 one to the other, &c.
 
 35 
 
 AUTHORITY. — A particular employment of the objects vvhicli enter 
 into an architectural design ; and which has for its precedent an example 
 amongst the productions of some celebrated architect ; or otherwise in 
 edifices erected by certain artists in some particular century or epoch, 
 that may be more or less esteemed amongst the enlightened part of 
 mankind for the correct taste which their works, during this period, 
 exhibited. See Architecture. 
 
 AXIS. — In mechanics, a certain line about which a body turns. 
 
 AXIS. — In Geometry, the straight line in a plane figure, round 
 which it revolves to generate a solid. 
 
 Axis, is commonly employed to signify a supposed right line drawn 
 from the centre of one end to that of the other of any figure. 
 
 Axis of a circle or sphere, is a right line passing through the centre, 
 and touching the circumference at each side. 
 
 Axis of a cone, is a right line passing through the centre of its base 
 to its vertex. 
 
 Axis of a cur\'e line, is sometimes used to signify a diameter, which 
 has its ordinates at right angles to it. 
 
 Axis of a cylinder, is a right line extending to the centre of 
 each end. 
 
 Axis minor, conjugate, or second axis, of an hyperbola and ellipse, is 
 a straight line drawn through the centre, perpendicularly to the axis 
 major, or transverse axis. 
 
 Axis major or transverse axis, in the ellipse and hyperbola, is the 
 diameter passing through the two foci, and the two principal vertices of 
 the figure. This axis forms the longest diameter of the ellipse, but in 
 the hyperbola it is the shortest. 
 
 B. 
 
 BACK OF A HIP. — The upper edge of a rafter, situated between the 
 two sides of a hipped roof, which is formed to an angle, in a line with 
 the rafters on each side. 
 
 BACK OF A SLATE.— Its upper side. 
 
 BACKER. — A narrow slate laid on the back of another that is 
 broader and square-headed, where the slates commence to be narrower. 
 
 BALCONY. — A projection situated at the foot of windows in the 
 front of buildings ; generally supported by consoles, and surrounded bv 
 a balustrade of stone, or by an iron railing. 
 
 BALUSTER. — An ornamental object resembling a small column ; and 
 composed of a base, shaft, and capital. For their form anil proportion, 
 see ])1. 50, fig. 5 and 6. 
 
 BALUSTR.\DE. — A range of balusters placed upon a plinth, and 
 surmounted by a cornice. 
 
 A balustrade is best situated when placed between the sides of the 
 apertures of arcades above the ground storj-, or between the pedestals of 
 a range of columns forming a gallery ; in balconies, staircases of im- 
 portant edifices, enclosures for altars, thrones, and state beds ; and not 
 upon the entablature of buildings or edifices, except when their roof is 
 constructed in tlie form of a terrace.
 
 36 
 
 BAND. — A flat member or facia, that has little projection, 
 
 BASE — The lowest part or member, serving as a support, and pro- 
 jecting beyond the superincumbent body. Particularly applied to the 
 lower member of a column and a pedestal. For their form and propor- 
 tions, see the Plates and Tables of the various orders. 
 
 BxlSEMENT. — The inferior part, or the lower stoiy in a building ; 
 sometimes decorated with I'ustics, at other times left plain : and serving 
 as a pedestal or base to the upper portion of the structure. See pi. 77- 
 
 BASILICA. — The antique edifices that class next in importance to 
 the temples are the basilicas. These were extensive edifices, situatea 
 contiguously to every forum, in which the magistrates presided to ad- 
 minister justice. According to the ancient plan of Rome, the existing 
 remains, and the descriptions given by Vitruvius, they were composed 
 in their interior, of a principal nave and two side aisles, formed by two 
 ranges of insulated columns, which were continued round the third side ; 
 and the opposite extremity presented a large semi-circular. niche, occu- 
 pied by the tribunal. The fi-rst range of columns supported a gallery ; 
 at the front of which was a plain continued balustrade, that served as a 
 stylolate to a second range of columns, intended to support a portion of 
 the roof of these extensive interiors; and the whole exhibited a great 
 degree of majesty and beauty. 
 
 Windows were situated on each side of the galleries for the admission 
 of light, which was likewise admitted in the same manner under the 
 galleries, or otherwise by means of intercolumniations. 
 
 The observations made by Vitruvius as regards basilicas are, that the 
 general proportion of the breadth of their interior should not be less 
 than one-lhird of their length, nor exceed one-half; except in cases 
 where these rules cannot be adopted. When the given site presented 
 too great a ratio of length, compared with its breadth, it was customary, 
 in order to remedy this, to construct a chalcidicum at each extremity. 
 
 The height of the lower range of columns was equal to the breadth 
 of the side aisles ; and these to one-third of the principal nave. The 
 columns forming the second range, having their height and diameter less 
 than those below, were situated upon a continued pedestal, which served 
 as balustrade. Of the fourteen basilicas that were erected at Rome, there 
 exist no remains capable of throwing further light on this subject. 
 
 Tlie principal difference that existed between the religious service of 
 the ancients and that of Christianity, necessarily gave rise to the 
 adoption of those particular distributions remarkable in the temples of 
 the former, and the churches of the latter. Tims the ceremonies of 
 the ancients were performed in an enclosed area, at the front of their 
 temples; the temple itself forming but a kind of sanctuary; whilst the 
 religious service of the Christians required spacious interiors, capable 
 of containing those who assembled to join in the devotions. The 
 churches were so constructed, that the officiating minister was visible 
 to all present; and also, that each individual might distinctly hear 
 those public discourses which fonned a part of the service. 
 
 Of all the edifices employed at this time, none presented a total so 
 capable of meeting all the exigences of the then newly established 
 religion, as the, basilica. Hence the principal reason of their adoption.
 
 37 
 
 liASS-RELIEF. — There are three kinds of relief, by which figures, 
 executed in sculpture, are more or less detached from the ground upon 
 which they are wrought ; namely, the alto-rilievo, or bold relief; mezzo- 
 rilievo, the medium, or half relief; and the basso-rilievo, or low relief: 
 but each of these is often indiscriminately termed a bass-relief, or a 
 basso-rilievo. 
 
 BASTARD STUCCO.— Three-coat plaster, but is not hand-floated ; 
 and the troweling requires less labour tiian troweled stucco. The first 
 coat consists of the rendering or roughing-in ; the second is floated 
 similar to troweled stucco ; and a small quantity of hair is added to 
 the sand, in the third coat. 
 
 BATTEN. — Wood, technically name 1 stuff"; varying in thickness 
 from half an inch to one inch and a half; and from two to seven 
 inches in breadth. 
 
 BATTEN DOOR. — This description of door is of two kinds : it is 
 said to be singly battened, when the battens are applied to one side 
 only; but when applied to both sides, it is termed doubly battened. 
 This latter manner forms a door of considerable strength, from the 
 stiles on each side being bolted together; and jiresents the appearance 
 of a framed door. Boards which are grooved and glued togetlier, 
 form the ground on which are nailed the stiles, munnions, and rails 
 made of battens. This method is almost exclusively applied to gothic 
 doors. 
 
 BATTER. BATTERING.— When the face of a wall, or of a piece 
 of timber, inclines inwards, so that the plumb would fall within its base, 
 the inclination is called battering ; it is usually made about one inch 
 in J foot. 
 
 BAY. — In the framii}g of a iiour; the space between an_\ two a IjuCL-nt 
 supports, is termed a bay of joisting. A bay of joisting situated next 
 to the wall, is named a tail bay. And the space, either between two 
 girders, or binding joists, is termed a case bay. 
 
 BAY WINDOW. — One that projects from the face of the wall ; and 
 which is generally either circular or polj'gonal in its plan. 
 
 BEAD. — The name of a moulding, in ordinary use in joinery ; which 
 is worked on the lower edge of facia boartls and architraves ; and on the 
 upper edge of skirting boards. The panels of doors, wiien of the same 
 thickness as the frame-work, are generally beaded. To do tliis, the 
 ]iane!s are first fitted into the frame, and the whole worked level; it is 
 afterwards taken to pieces, and the edges of the fram^-work are worked 
 vvitli the bead-plane. 
 
 liEAKING-JOINT. — A joint made by the concourse of sev<^ral 
 heading joints in the same line. 
 
 BEAM. — See Tie-Beam, Girder. When the weight which a beam 
 will bear at its middle is found, the weight which it will bear at any 
 other point may be found thus: — Multiply the square of half the lenj^th 
 of the beam, by the weight it will bear at its middle. Divide the pro- 
 duct by the rectangle, or product of the parts of tlie beam into which it 
 is divided by the weight; and tlie quotient will be the weight wliich it 
 will bear at that point. 
 
 A beam supported at both enils, will be;ir twice ;is much, wl e i iwe
 
 38 
 
 ends beyond the points of support are prevented from rising, as vvfte.. 
 they rest loosely on them, 
 
 A beam, when fixed only at one end, is as strong as one of equa. 
 scantling, and twice the length, which is fixed at both ends 
 
 BEAR. — A term applied to a piece of timber which has no other 
 points of support except those at its two extremities ; it is then said to 
 bear at its whole length. 
 
 BEARING. — The distance between the two nearest points of support 
 of a piece of timber. 
 
 With respect to the timbers employed in roofing, many opinions 
 have been formed by different architects. It seems generally agreed, 
 that all beams of twenty feet and upwards, ought to be trussed up in 
 one or more places. Beams .should not exceed 1 5 feet in bearing, not 
 purlines, and rafters 12 feet. The last dimension likewise applies to 
 flooring joists. 
 
 BEARER. — A wall, pier, partition, or post, that stands between the 
 two ends of a piece of timber, and hence shortens its bearing. Price, in 
 the following scantlings, for bearing-posts, makes those of fir, of a less 
 scantling than those of oak. Muschenbroek, in liis experiments on 
 timber, discovered that fir is able to bear compression in the direction of 
 the length of its fibres, or to sustain in a vertical position a much 
 greater weight than oak ; though it is far inferior to oak when the 
 weight is suspended. 
 
 FOR SMALL BUILDINGS. 
 FIR. 
 
 Height 8ft. 4in. square. 
 10 5 
 12 6 
 
 OAK. 
 
 10 6 
 12 8 
 14 10 
 
 FOR LARGE BUILDINGS. 
 FIR. 
 
 Height 8ft. 5in. square. 
 12 8 
 16 10 
 
 OAK. 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 16 
 
 In explanation to these dimensions, Price observes : — " If it be not 
 convenient to allow the posts in partitions to be square, which is the 
 strongest form, in such cases, multiply the square of the side of the 
 posts, as here given, by itself. For instance, if it be six inches square, 
 to keep this post nearly to the same strength, find two numbers pro- 
 ducing thirty-six inches. Suppose the partition to be four inches thick, 
 then let the post be nine inches the other way, so that the area of its 
 horizontal section is the same, and its strength nearly equal to the 
 square post." 
 
 "Posts that embrace the height of two or three stories, need not have 
 the dimensions here given ; because every floor forms a tie. Admit a 
 post to be thirty feet high, and that in this height there are three 
 stories, two of ten, and one of eight feet. The scantling of fir posts 
 ten feet in height, is five inches square; that is, twenty-five square 
 inches, which double for the two stories ; and also include that of eight 
 feet high, which, being four inches, gives sixteen inches square, the sum
 
 39 
 
 total of which is sixty-six inches ; so that such a post would be rathe 
 more than eight inches square. On some occasions its scantling irm 
 be reduced in each superior story." 
 
 The dimensions assigned by Price to posts of fir, are evidently insuf- 
 ficient. The following scantlings are adapted for bearing-posts placed 
 at the sides of openings, in which their breadth or face is required to 
 be less than their side ; so as to offer less obstruction to the passage or 
 to the light, than insulate posts, which are generally square. These 
 may be employed in the generality of buildings, except such as have 
 their floors greatly loaded. 
 
 FIR BEARING-POSTS. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Scantling. 
 
 8 ft. 
 
 5 in. by 9 
 
 10 
 
 6i lOi 
 
 12 
 
 8 12 
 
 14 
 
 H iH 
 
 16 
 
 11 15 
 
 18 
 
 124 Uk 
 
 20 
 
 14 18 
 
 BED. — The beds of a stone are its upper and under surface, whicli 
 are generally in a horizontal position within the wall. 
 
 BED-MOULDING. — Generally applied to the mouldings placed 
 under the corona or drip of a cornice. In joinery, the term is applied 
 to an arrangement of four mouldings ; consisting of a quarter-round, 
 and an ogee, having a fillet or list above and another intervening. 
 
 BED OF A SLATE.— Its under side. 
 
 BEVEL. — The two planes of a stone or piece of timber, meeting in 
 a right line, are bevel, when forming an obtuse or an acute angle. 
 
 BEVEL JOINT. — When a joint is parallel to the fibres of one piece 
 of timber, and oblique to those of the other, it is called a bevel-joint. 
 
 BINDING-JOISTS. — The binding-joists are the chief support of 
 the floor. 
 
 It is better to notch ceiling joists to the under side of the binding- 
 joists, and nail them, than to mortise and chase them in ; because it 
 requires less labour, it does not weaken the binding-joists, and the 
 ceiling stands better 
 
 BINDING-JOISTS. 
 
 
 FIR 
 
 0.\K 
 
 Length. 
 
 Scantlin;;. 
 
 Scantling 
 
 8 ft.- 
 
 7 X 3^ - 
 
 Gi X 3^ 
 
 10 - 
 
 7f X 31 - 
 
 7 X 31 
 
 12 - 
 
 8^ X 3i - 
 
 7f X 3^ 
 
 14 - 
 
 91 X 31 - 
 
 81 X 31 
 
 16 - 
 
 101 X 31 - 
 
 91 X 31 
 
 BITUMEN. See Asphai.ti'm. — The ancients employed bitumen on 
 ■ome occasions, in their bnildinga, to unite the bricks and .^^ones ; and
 
 40 
 
 Pliny infonns us that statues were preseiTod from tlie injuries of tlie 
 air, by coating them with that substance. 
 
 Bitumen is met with in large masses in the departments of the Bas- 
 Rhin, Puy-de-Dome, and Ain. The Park-mine, near Seyssel, in the 
 last-mentioned department, affords the most abundant supply. 
 
 Bitumen may be employed in a solid, glutinous, or liquid state; and 
 for some purposes may form various combinations with fat substances. 
 
 It is well known, how difficult it is to preserve apartments on the 
 ground floor from damp ; especially when the walls contain saltpetre. 
 It has, however, been effected by covering those walls with two coats of 
 bitumen. This covering was applied on a considerable surface several 
 years since, has lasted perfectly, and every where has prevented the 
 damp from penetrating. 
 
 In like manner it has been used on the outside of plastered chimneys, 
 and on the plastered part of roofs ; which have been thus preserved 
 from the rapid dilapidation they commonly experience. Busts and 
 statues, in plaster, have been preserved by the same means, though 
 applied some years since. 
 
 Pipes and plates of sheet or cast iron, exposed to the action of the 
 weather for six years, have been presei-ved from rust after having 
 received two coats of bitumen. 
 
 Bitumen has likewise been employed for fixing the balustrades of 
 stair- cases, instead of lead ; for cementing squared stones, forming 
 water-troughs, or cisterns ; tresselated pavements, a kind of mosaic 
 work, &'c. A cistern which was composed of five plates, was coveretl 
 inside and out with a coat of bitumen ; it held water perfectly, and was 
 none the worse for being in constant use for several years. 
 
 BOND. — In masonry, are the stones which run through the thick- 
 ness of a wall, in order to bind it, and are called bond stones ; in some 
 parts of the country they are named through stones. See Ashlar. 
 
 Bond. — In bricklaying the term bovd is applied to any disposition of 
 the bricks, by which the continuity, in a straight line, of the joints of 
 a vrall is interrupted. 
 
 A bond may be adopted, which will interrupt the rectilinear direction 
 of both the horizontal and vertical joints of a wall ; but in the two 
 kinds of bond which have hitherto pi^evailed, (he horizontal joints are 
 continued in the same line round the whole building, and the vertical 
 ones only intermpted. When the wall is only intended to be half a 
 brick, or four inches and a half in thickness, the whole of the bricks a'e 
 laid so as to form stretchers ; that is, their length is laid in the direc- 
 tion of the length of the wall, and the bond consists only in making 
 the vertical joints in every course exactly opposite the middle of the 
 bricks immediately above and below. But when the wall is intended 
 to be the length of a brick or more in thickness, it would be apt to 
 split into parts, if it consisted only of two or more walls separately 
 bonded, as in the instance just mentioned of the half brick wall. The 
 bricks, therefore, in thick w'alls, must be connected in their breadth as 
 well as in their length, and thi3 is done according to two principal 
 methods, one of which is called English, and the other the Flemish 
 bond. English bond consists of headers and stretchers crossingr each
 
 41 
 
 other In separate horizontal courses. In Flemish bond, the headc's and 
 stretcliers are placed alternately in the same horizontal course. Flemish 
 bond is now so common, that scarcely any other kind is to be seen. 
 Its appearance gains it the preference over the English, thongh the 
 latter is stronger and easier to execute. Many unsuccessful attempts 
 have been made to unite Flemish facings with complete bond. Tiiin 
 slips of iron, placed at equal distances, have been worked in tlie 
 horizontal joints between the two courses ; and again, diagonal courses 
 of bricks have been laid in the core of thick walls, so as to cross each 
 other at right angles in successive courses. Though the bricks in the 
 middle of the course have a strong bond, yet as they form triangular 
 interstices with the bricks on each side, the bond of the whole is very 
 incomplete. As the adjustment of the bricks in the uppermost course 
 of tiie Flemish bond, must depend on the course next below, the view 
 of the under course is constantly covered by the mortar, upon which tiie 
 bricks of tlie succeeding course bed, rendering it perplexing to the 
 workmen, at all times, to remember their arrangement. Hence the 
 joints are frequently made to correspond, which make the bond imperfect. 
 In the English bond, the face of the bricks in the last course, points 
 out the proper disposition of the bricks intended to form the course next 
 above. For further remarks. See Wall. 
 
 BOND OF A SLATE. LAP OF A SLATE.— The space from the 
 nail of the under slate, to the tail or bottom of the upper. 
 
 BOND-TIMBER. — Pieces of timber which are built in walls to 
 connect and strens^then them. It is usual to insert a line of bond- 
 timber in the middle of a story, of a greater strength than that placed 
 opposite to surbases, bases, and other horizontal mouldings. As the 
 walls in which bond-timbers are introduced, are apt to warp or even full in 
 case of fire, the use of them should be avoided in strong well-built walls. 
 
 A patent has within a few years been taken out, for a vertical bond, 
 which is intended to supersede the use of the bond-timbers introduced 
 to secure the equal settlement of the wall. In case of fire, when the 
 bond-timbers of a house are consumed, the falling of the wall almost 
 necessarily follows. The patentees, therefore, instead of these timbers, 
 place rows of hard strong bricks perpendicularly in the middle of their 
 walls, at short distances from each other in height, as well as horizontal 
 measurement ; and they place each row of the perpendicular bricks in 
 such a manner, as to be opposite the middle of the space between the 
 row standing in the same position immediately above or below it. Its 
 application is intended for stone walls, as well as for those of brick. 
 
 BOTTOM RAIL.— The lower rail of a door. 
 
 BRACE. — An inclined piece of timber, disposed in pairs, and placed 
 in opposite directions, in roofs and truss partitions ; and which serves 
 to render their framing immoveable. When a brace is used to support 
 a rafter, it is then termed a strut. 
 
 BREAKING JOINT. — In joinery, signifies the preventing of the 
 union of two joints. 
 
 BREAKING DOWN OR CUT.— The longiln linal division or saw- 
 ing of a baulk, into boards or planks. Wlien the saw- way is through 
 the thickness of a plank, it is then termed a ripjjing cut.
 
 42 
 
 BRRASrSUMMER, BRES SUMMER. —• A beam, longitudinally 
 placed in an exterior wall ; and employed to support a pcrviion of in 
 super! ncnmbent weight over an aperture. 
 
 BRICK. — Bricks, like most other useful articles in this country, are 
 subject to a duty ; and form an important part of the annual revenue of 
 the government. By the 17 Geo. III. cap. 42, all bricks made for 
 sale, shall, when burned, be not less than eight and a half inches long, 
 four wide, and two and a half thick ; and by 43 Geo. III. cap. 69, 
 which consolidated the excise duties, every thousand bricks made iji 
 Great Britain, not exceeding ten inches long, three inches thick, and 
 five inches wide, are liable to a duty of five shillings; and when exceed- 
 ing these dimensions, ten shillings. 
 
 The principal bricks used in the United Kingdom, are stock and place 
 bricks, from the stock-brick clamp. Marl stocks, cutters, seconds, and 
 pavers, from the marl clamp. And, red stocks, paving bricks, fire bricks, 
 and foot, and ten inch tiles, from strong clay, burned in a kiln. The 
 best fire bricks are from Windsor, Wales, Stourbridge, and the different 
 iron countries. 
 
 Marls are smooth yellow-coloured bricks, and are superior, not only 
 in appearance, but also in durability, to the stocks. The best kind of 
 marl and red bricks, are called cutting bricks ; and are used in the con- 
 struction of arches over doors and windows ; as also in the quoins of 
 buildings, for which purposes they are gauged to a height, and rubbed 
 to a centre. 
 
 Brick-moulds are ten inches in length, and three in breadth ; and 
 bricks when burnt, usually measure nine inches long, four and a half 
 broad, and two and a half thick. 
 
 The excellency of bricks, depends on the quality and working or 
 tempering of the earth from which they are moulded, and on the burning 
 of them. The proper drying of bricks before they are burned, prevents 
 cracking and crumbling in their burning. In burning bricks, the heat 
 applied should be gradual, increasing as they become harder. If these 
 different operations were duly attended to, there would not be so great 
 a quantity of place, or partially burned bricks ; which is generally the 
 result of negligence, and they ought never to be employed in any per- 
 manent building. These place-bricks are often used in inside walls, 
 and from being naturally soft, are subject to rapid decay; besides beuig 
 acted upon by every change in the weather. The wall itself imbibing 
 moisture, which discolours the plastering, produces the decay of the 
 plates and bond-timbers. Walls in which this kind of bricks is used, 
 not having a solidity equal to those employed at the exterior, the 
 inequality in strength produces a bad effect on the bearing-timbers that 
 rest on the two walls. 
 
 The dampness, arising from inside walls constructed of place-bricks, 
 has been endeavoured to be obviated, by leaving a space between the 
 brickwork and plastering, which is termed battening. But as these 
 bricks engender mould, which is doubtless the secondaiy cause of dry 
 rot, the cause being in the bricks themselves ; and the effects of which 
 are soon visible in the wood emplo}'ed in battening. 
 
 The numerous improvements which have been made, are more
 
 43 
 
 generally confined to the formation of bricks, than to the materials of 
 which they are composetl. The patent for one of the most important of 
 these improvements has recently expired. The name of the patentee 
 is Cartwright. His improvement consists in giving bricks such a form, 
 that they shall mutually lock or cramp each other. Tlie principle may 
 be comprehended by supposing the upper and lower beds of a common 
 brick, to have a groove down the middle, rather more than half the 
 breadth of the brick ; this leaves a shoulder at each side of the groove, 
 each of whirli will be equal to one-fourth of the bed of the brick, and 
 to one-half of the groove. A course of these bricks being laid 
 shoulder to shoulder, will form an indented line of nearly equal divi- 
 sions ; the grooves being made a trifle wider than two of the shoulders, 
 to allow for a small body of mortar. lu living the next course, the 
 shoulders of the bricks that compose it wdl fall in the grooves of the 
 first course, and the shoulders of the first course will fit info the 
 grooves of the second, and the same with all the other courses. This 
 principle may be applied to many forms, the main point consists in 
 their binding each other; and the principal recommendation of the 
 form just described, is its simplicity. It is not absolutely necessary 
 that the bricks used in the angles of walls, should correspond in shape 
 to each angle ; as the grooves in the bricks of each wall, where taey 
 cross or meet each other, may be levelled, and the bricks lap over as in 
 the ordinary method. To break the joints in the thickness of a wall, 
 bricks of an increased length, though of the same breadth, will be 
 required. Brickwork on this principle requires no bond-timber ; one 
 general bond running through and connecting the whole together; and 
 the walls cannot either crack or bulge out, without first breaking the 
 bricks themselves. 
 
 When bricks of this form are employed in the constniction of arches, 
 the sides of the grooves and the shoulders should be the radii of the 
 circle of which the intended arch is to be a segment. In forming an 
 arch, the bricks must be coursed across the centre on which the arch is 
 turned, and the grooved side of the bricks must face the workman. It 
 may be advisable, though not indispensably necessary, in laying the 
 first two or three courses at least, to commence at the crown and work 
 downwards. The bricks may be either laid in mortar, or dry ; and the 
 interstices afterwards filled and wedged up, by pouring in lime putty, 
 plaster of Paris, grouting, or any other suitable material. It is stated, 
 that arches on this principle, having no lateral pressure, can neither 
 expand at the foot, nor spring-at the crown ; consequently they want 
 no abutments, requiring only perpendicular walls to rest upon. They 
 want no incumbent weight upon the crown, to prevent their springing up. 
 Another of the advantages enumerated is, that the centres may be 
 struck immediately; so that the same centre, wliich in no instance requires 
 to be many feet in width, whatever may be the breadth of the arch, may 
 be regularly shifted as tlie work advances. But the greatest advantage 
 consists in the security it oflers, and that at an economical rate, against 
 the possibility of fire ; for, from this arcii requiring no abutments, it may 
 be laid upon, or let into, ordinary walls, no stronger than wliat are re- 
 quired for timbers ; of which, superseding the use, it saves the expense.
 
 44 
 
 Seat-coal, or that fossil which lies between coal and the rock, will, 
 when mixed with a due portion of clay, produce a kind of bricks, that 
 will resist the action of fire. It has been further discovered, that seat- 
 coal, suitably prepared, answers all the purposes of tarras, in construc- 
 tions under water. 
 
 A great loss in time and materials is caused by workmen having to 
 reduce the size of bricks to suit different parts. This inconvenience is 
 greatly obviated by bricks now made, which in their soft state were 
 nearly cut through by pressing a wire upon them ; so that when used, 
 they can be divided, if required, by a single blow. A small portion of 
 these, mixed with the ordinary kinds, effects a considerable saving. 
 
 BRICKWORK. — The practice in the details of building differ almost 
 with the county. Some are produced by the local peculiarities of 
 materials. In the south, the scaffolding for the bricklayer is at the 
 exterior of the building ; and in the north, in the interior. Without 
 canvassing the respective merits of each custom, it may be observedj 
 that when the scaffolding is erected in the interior of a building, it 
 offers a saving in expense, is an additional security to the workmen, 
 and is less obstructive and dangerous to the public. 
 
 To obtain dry walls, battening in the interior has generally been 
 resorted to The other course often adopted to effect this, consists in 
 laying the bricks in the middle of the walls, without mortar, from the 
 footings to the top. Another method is, leaving a half-brick cavity in 
 the wall, not precisely in the middle, but nearer to the inside ; the bond 
 crossing the cavity and connecting the wall at equal distances. 
 
 The effect of frost is very injurious to new brickwork. When frost 
 is expected, the upper course of an unfinished wall, sliould be protected 
 by straw or boarding, or both. At such periods in winter, as will 
 admit of bricklaying, the mortar employed should be of a greater con- 
 sistence than usual, and if a small portion of fresh powdered lime be 
 added, it will materially hasten its setting. Immersing bricks in lime- 
 water greatly strengthens the work, but it is not necessary that they 
 should imbibe the same quantity of moisture in winter as in summer ; 
 but where this plan is found inconvenient, the best substitute is to 
 sprinkle each course with water. 
 
 Mortar that has been prepared for any length of time, should, previous 
 to its being used, be well worked. 
 
 In canying up the walls of a building, no single portion, if they are 
 intended to be of an equal height, should be raised beyond the other, 
 more than the height of one scaffold, that is four or five feet ; in order 
 that they may have an equal settlement, and the bond be more com- 
 plete. When it is absolutely requisite to carry up any particular part 
 higher than the rest, each end should be sloped off, in order to furnish 
 a better bond to the adjoining work when executed. 
 
 When a building is not intended to be insulated, either every 
 stretcher or every alternate one, within nine inches from the face of the 
 front wall, should be left projecting half its length, to give such a bond 
 to the intended buildings, as will eventually prevent those disagreeable 
 disunions oi the brickwork, which injure the appearance of con- 
 tiguous houses. An expert workman, having all necessary materials at
 
 hand, will, with the aid of a labourer, lav from ten to twelve hundred 
 bricks per day. 
 
 Brickwork is ordinarily computed on the supposition that a wall is 
 only one brick and a half in thickness ; and when it is either more or 
 less, it must necessarily be brought to that thickness. When the height 
 of a wall is unequal, take the different heights and add them together, 
 and divide the sum by the number of heights taken ; the quotient will 
 give the medium height. An indiscriminate application of this method, 
 is however liable to error, unless where the different heights are so 
 balanced that the excess in one part may exactly make up for the 
 deficiency in another. A chimney standing by itself, without any party 
 wall adjoining, is measured by taking its girth for the breadth, and the 
 height of the story for its length ; but if the chimney stand against a 
 wall it must be measured round only from wall to wall, for the breadth. 
 Sliafts of chimneys rising above the roof are girt about for the breadth ; 
 if they be only half a brick in thickness, they are reckoned as a brick ; 
 and if nine inches, as a brick and a half; as a recompense for the extra 
 labour they require, comprehending the plastering. A deduction is 
 made for the materials only, and not for labour, for openings ; such as of 
 a door, windows, niches, &c. ; and allowances are granted to the work- 
 men for returns or angles of walls, for feathered gables, ornaments, &c. 
 A rod of brickwork actually contains 30-j square yards, or 272^ square 
 feet; but in practice it is customary to consider the rod as containing 
 only 272 feet. To compute the quantity of brickwork in a wall, multiply 
 the superficial feet in it by the number of half bricks in thickness, and 
 divide the product by three ; and the quotient is the content required. 
 Example 1. How many rods of brickwork are in a wall 125ft. Gin. 
 long, by 22ft. Sin. high, and 3| bricks thick ? 
 
 Length . 
 Height . 
 
 ft. 
 . 125 
 22 
 
 in. 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 ft. in, 
 272 3 
 
 12 
 
 in. R. yds. ft. 
 
 3267)79651(24 11 4^ 
 6534 
 
 
 2750 
 83 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 14311 
 
 Hilf bricks 
 
 2844 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 13068 
 
 108") 1243 (11 
 
 
 3)19912 
 
 8 
 
 108 
 
 
 6637 
 
 7 
 12 
 
 163 
 
 108 
 
 
 79651 
 
 
 
 12) 55 (4 
 48
 
 4Q 
 
 In the foregoing operation, by duodecimals, the length 125ft. 6in., 
 
 multiplied by 22ft. Sin. give 2844ft. Sin. for the superficial content 
 of the wall ; which multiplied by 7? the half-bricks in the thickness, and 
 the product divided by 3, the half-bricks in the standard thickness of 
 a wall ]^ brick, the quotient 6637-1^^ solid feet, gives the content of 
 the wall in standard measure. This quantity multiplied by 12 to take 
 in the remainder 7? and divided by 3267, the product of reducing the 
 solid feet in a rod, 272-^ by 12, will give 24 rods: and the remainder 
 divided by 108, the twelfth part of a foot in a square yard of 9 feet, 
 will quote 1 1 yards ; and the remainder divided by 12 will give 4A feet, 
 making the whole solid content of the wall 24 rods, 11 yards, and 
 4^ feet of brickwork. 
 
 The same operation may be performed by decimals : but the result 
 is a little less than the truth, on account of the fraction of height lost 
 in converting 8 inches into a decimal fraction, which cannot be done 
 without a remainder. 
 
 Example 2. The gable of a building rises 20 feet above the square 
 of the wall, which is 36ft. high, by 24ft. 6in. wide ; and the wall 21 
 bricks in thickness. Required the quantity in the whole end of the 
 building, and in each part. The length 36 multiplied by the height 
 of the wall under the gable 24ft. 6in. gives 882 square feet; which 
 multiplied by 5, the half-bricks in the thickness, and the product 
 divided by 3, the quotient 1470 is the standard feet ; and this divided 
 by 272, the feet in a rod, neglecting the fraction, gives 5 rods, with 
 a remainder of 110 feet ; which divided by 9, the feet in a square yard, 
 will quote 12 yards and 2 feet over; making the content of the wall 
 below the gable, 5 rods, 12 yards, and 2 feet. 
 
 Again, the gable is a triangle of 24ft. 6in. base, by 20ft. of per- 
 pendicular: computing this by multiplying half the height of the 
 pei-pendicular by the length of the base ; or half of the latter by the 
 whole of the former ; or the full dimensions of each, and the product 
 divided by 2 ; the result will be 1 rod, 15 yards, and 1 foot : and these 
 two quantities added together will give 6 rods, 27 yards, and 3 feet, 
 fcr the total measurement of the end wall. 
 
 Facing and gauged arches are measured by the superficial square 
 foot ; and cornices by the lineal or running foot. 
 
 The following is an abstract of that portion of the Building Act, 
 which relates to bricklayers. All the buildings erected in London and 
 tlie several parishes within the bills of mortality, are subjee'ibd to the 
 regulations of this act; being the 14 Geo. III. 
 
 Every master bricklayer must give twenty-four hours notice to the 
 surveyor of the district, from the first to the seventh rate, of the 
 building to be altered or erected ; but if the building is to be piled or 
 planked, or begun -with wood, it becomes the "rc^siness of the carpenter 
 to give such notice. 
 
 Tlie footings of tiae walls are to have equal projections on each side ; 
 but where any adja a'ltJg building will not admit of such projection to 
 be made on the side adjoining to such building, it is to be complied 
 with as nearly as the case will allow, according to each of the four rates. 
 
 The timbers in each rate, as girders, beams, trimming joists, &c.,
 
 47 
 
 nav have as much bearing as the nature of the wall will admit, provided 
 fear inches be left between the ends of such timber, and tiie external 
 surface of the wall. 
 
 EXTERNAL WALLS. 
 
 Every front, side, or end wall not being a party-wall, is termed an 
 external wall. 
 
 External walls, and other external inclosures to the first, second, 
 third, fourth, and fifth rates of buildings, must be of brick, stone, 
 artificial stone, lead, copper, tin, slate, tile, or iron ; or of some or all 
 of these materials; except the planking, piling, &c. for tlie foundation, 
 which may be of wood. 
 
 If any part of an external wall of the first and second tate is built 
 wholly of stone, it is not to be less in thickness than as follows:— 
 first rate, fourteen inches below the ground-floor ; second rate, nine 
 inches above the ground floor. 
 
 Where a recess is meant to be made in an external wall, it must be 
 arched over, in such a manner, that the arch and the back of such 
 recess shall respectively be of the thickness of one brick in length ; 
 hence a recess cannot be made in walls, except they exceed one brick 
 in thickness. 
 
 No external wall of the first, second, third, and fourth rate, is ever 
 to become a party-wall ; unless the same shall be of such height and 
 thickness above the footing, as is required for each party-wall of its 
 respective rate 
 
 PARTY WALLS. 
 
 Buildings of the first, second, third, and fourth rate, which are not 
 designed by the owner thereof to have separate and distinct side walls, 
 on such parts as may be contiguous to other buildings, must have party- 
 walls. They are to be placed half and half on the ground of each 
 owner, or of each building respectively ; and may be built thereon, 
 without any notice being given to the owner of the other part, the first 
 builder having a right so to do when building against vacant ground. 
 
 Party-walls, chimneys, and chimney shafts, hereafter to be built, 
 must be of good sound biick or stone, or of sound bricks and stone 
 together ; and must be coped with stone, tile, or brick. 
 
 Party-walls, or additions thereto, must be carried up thirteen inches 
 above the roof, measured at right angles with the back of the rafter; 
 and twelve inches above the gutter of the higliest building which gables 
 against it. But where the height of a party-wall so carried up, exceeds 
 the heiglit of the blocking course or parapet, it may be made less than 
 one foot above the gutter, for the distance of two feet six inches 
 from the front of the blocking course or parapet. 
 
 Where dormers (a term applied to vertical windows in roofs) or other 
 erections are fixed in any flat or roof, within four feet of any party- 
 wall, such party-wall is to be carried up against such dormer, and must 
 extend at least two feet wider, and to the full lieight of every such 
 dormer or erection. 
 
 I\o recess is to be hereafter made in any party-wall of tl'.e 6jst,
 
 48 
 
 second, third, and fourth rate, except for chimney flues, girder?, <Sc. ; 
 and for the ends of walls or piers, so as to reduce such wall in any 
 part of it to a less thickness than is required by the act, for the highest 
 rate of building to which such wall belongs. 
 
 No opening is to be made in any party-wall, except for communica- 
 tion from one stack of warehouses to another, and from one stable 
 building to another ; and the communications allowed must have 
 wrought iron doors, and the pannels thereof are not to be less than a 
 quarter of an inch thick ; and must be fixed in stone door-cases and 
 sills. But there may be openings for passages or ways on the ground 
 for foot passengers, cattle, or carriages, which must be arched ovei 
 throughout with brick or stone, or brick and stone together, of the 
 thickness of a brick and a half at the least, to the first and second 
 rates ; and a brick to the third and fourth rates. And if tliere is auy 
 cellar or vacuity under such passage, it is to be arched over throughout 
 in the same manner as the passage over it. 
 
 No party-wall, or party arch, or shaft of any chimney, new or old, 
 must be cut into, except for the following purposes. If the fronts of 
 buildings are in a line with each other, a recess may be cut, both 
 in the fore and back front of such buildings, as may be already 
 erected, for the purpose of inserting the end of such other external 
 wall, which is to adjoin thereto. This recess must not be more than 
 nine inches deep from the outward faces of such external walls, nor be 
 cut beyond the centre of the party-wall. And for the purpose of 
 inserting bressummers and story-posts, that are to be fixed on the 
 ground floor, either in the front or back wall, the recess may be cut 
 from the foundation of such new wall to the top of such bressummer, 
 fourteen inches deep from the outward face of such wall, four inches 
 wide in the cellar story, and two inches wide on the ground story. 
 The same may also be done for the purpose of tailing-in stone steps, 
 or stone landings, as for bearers of wood stairs, or for laying-in stone 
 corbels for the support of chimney jambs, girders, beams, purlines, 
 binding or trimming joists, or other principal timbers. 
 
 Perpendicular recesses may also be cut in any party-wall, whose 
 thickness is not less than thirteen inches, for the purpose of inserting 
 walls and piers therein ; but they must not be wider than fifteen inches, 
 or more than four inches deep ; and no such recess is to be nearer than 
 ten feet to any other recess. All such cuttings or recesses must be 
 immediately made good, and effectually pinned up, with brick, stone, 
 slate, tile, shell, or iron, bedded in mortar. 
 
 No party-wall must be cut for any of the above purposes, if the 
 same will injure, displace, or endanger the timbers, chimneys, flres, or 
 internal finishings of the adjoining buildings. 
 
 The footing may be cut off on the side of any party-wall, where an 
 independent side wall is intended to be built against such party-wall. 
 
 When any buildings (inns of Court excepted) that are erected over 
 gate-ways, or public passages, or have different rooms and floors, the 
 property of different owners, are to be rebuilt, they must have a party- 
 wall, with a party-arch or arches, of the thickness of a brick ana i half 
 at the least, to the first and second rate ; and of one bricic to the third
 
 49 
 
 and fourth rate, between building and building ; or between the different 
 rooms and floors that are the property of different owners. 
 
 Inns of court are required to have party-walls only where any room 
 or chamber communicates with each separate and distinct staircase ; and 
 are also subject to the same regulations as other party-walls. 
 
 If buildings of different rates adjoin each other, and any addition is 
 intended to be made to the lower rate, the party-wall of such building 
 must be such as is required for that of the higher rate adjoining. 
 
 When any party-wall is raised, it is to be made of the same thickness 
 as the wall in the story next below the roof of the highest building 
 adjoining ; but it must not be raised at all, unless it can be done with 
 safety to such wall and the building adjoining thereto. 
 
 Every dwelling-house built four stories high from the foundation, 
 exclusive of rooms in the roof, must have its party-wall built according 
 to the third rate, although such dwelling-house may be of the fourth 
 rate. Eveiy dwelling-house, also, exceeding four stories in height, 
 from the foundations, exclusive of the rooms in the roof, must have its 
 party-wall built according to the first rate, altliough such house may not 
 be of the first rate. 
 
 CHIMNEYS. 
 
 No chimney is to be erected on timber, except on the piling, plank- 
 ing, &:c. of the foundations of the building. 
 
 Chimneys may be built back to back in party-walls ; but when this is 
 done, they must not be less in thickness from the centre of such party- 
 wall than as follows : — First rate, or adjoining thereto, must be one 
 brick thick in the cellar story, and half a brick in all the upper stories. 
 Second, third, and fourth rate, or adjoining thereto, must be three 
 quarters of a brick in the cellar story, and half a brick in tlse upper 
 stories. Such chimneys in party-walls of any of the four rates, as do not 
 stand back to back, may be built as follows : — From the external face 
 of the party-wall to the inward face of the back of the chimney, in the 
 cellar story, one brick and a half thick ; and in the upper stories, one 
 brick thick from the hearth to twelve inches above the mantle. If such 
 chimney is built against any other wall, the back may be half a brick 
 thinner than above stated. 
 
 Those backs of chimneys which are not in party-walls of the second, 
 third, and fourth rates, must be in every stoty one brick thick at least, 
 from the hearth to twelve inches above the mantle. These backs may 
 also be half a brick thinner, if such chimney i>e built against any other 
 wall. 
 
 The breasts of chimneys, whether in party-walls or not, are not to 
 be less than one brick thick in the cellar story, and half a brick thick 
 in every other story. 
 
 All partitions between flues must not be less than half a brick thick. 
 
 Flues may be built opposite to each other in party-walls, but they 
 must not approach nearer to the centre of such wall than two inches. 
 
 All chimney breasts next to the rooms, and chimney backs, and all 
 flues, are to be rendered or pargeted. 
 
 Backs of chimneys, and flues in p;iity-walls, against vacant ground, 
 
 II
 
 50 
 
 must be lime-whited, or maiked in some durable manner ; and must be 
 rendered or pargeted as soon as any other building is erected adjoin- 
 ing them. 
 
 No timber must be over the opening of any chimney for supporting 
 the breast ; but all chimneys must have a brick or stone arch, or iron 
 bar, or bars. 
 
 All chimneys must have slabs or foot paces of stone, marble, tile, or 
 iron, at least eighteen inches broad; and at least one foot longer than 
 the opening of the chimney when finished ; and such slabs or foot 
 paces must be laid on brick or stone trimmers at least eighteen inches 
 broad from the face of the chimney breast, except there be no room or 
 vacuity beneath, in which case they may be bedded on the ground. 
 
 Brick funnels must not be made on the outside of the first, second, 
 third, or fourth rate, next to any street, square, court, road, or way, 
 so as to extend beyond the general line of the building in such 
 situations. 
 
 No metallic funnel or other pipe, for conveying smoke or steam, is 
 allowed to be fixed near any public street, square, court, or way, to the 
 first, second, third, or fourth rate , and no such pipe is to be fixed on 
 the inside of any building nearer than fourteen inches to any timber, 
 or other combustible material. 
 
 BRICK TRIMMER. — Applied to a brick arch used in fire places ; 
 and which springs from the wooden trimmer. 
 
 BRIDGE. — The difficulty attendant on the construction of bridges, 
 increases more than in an equal ratio with their dimensions. 
 
 Bridges differ, according to circumstances, both in their construction, 
 and in the materials employed. 
 
 Timber or wooden bridges. When bridges of this kind are con- 
 structed over rivers that are shallow, and have but little fall, they are 
 generally supported upon piles, which are driven into the bed of the 
 river, at short distances from each other ; or upon framed work. Over 
 broad and rapid currents, they should be laid upon piers and abutments 
 of stone, as distant from each other as the strength of the carpentry 
 will allow. The carpentry should consist of a stiff framing of timber ; 
 so constructed, that it may act as one piece, and not bend or break 
 with its own weight, or any additional load to which it may be exposed. 
 When this frame is straight, the upper part is compressed by the weight 
 of the whole ; while the lower part is extended. Framings possessing 
 greater strength, may be constructed by the employment of curved ribs, 
 which should rise from the piers or abutments, similar to an ordinary 
 arch ; and which are not subjected to a longitudinal strain by extension. 
 These segmental ribs should be connected and strengthened by diagonal 
 braces, keys, bolts, and straps of iron. 
 
 Stone bridges. These are the most durable kind of bridges, as the 
 antique bridges of Rome testify. The form of their arches are either 
 semicircular, segmental, or elliptical. In constructing the foundations 
 of abutments and piers, a coffer-dam is employed. It consists of a 
 temporary enclosure, formed by a double range of piles and planks, 
 which have their intervals filled with clay. Tlie interior space is kept 
 dry, by means of pumps, until the completion of the work within.
 
 51 
 
 For the relative dimensions of arches, piers, and abutments, Sne 
 Abutments. 
 
 Cast-iron bridges. They are composed of ribs or frames of cast- 
 iron, connectedly adapted to each other, so as to form arches. Thssc 
 kind of bridges possess great strength ; but are liable to be disturbed 
 by the expansion and contraction of the metal with heat and cold. 
 
 Suspension bridges. They are formed of strong chains, hanging in 
 the form of an inverted arch, extending from elevated points of support. 
 From these the road-way is suspended by means of iron rods. The 
 points of support consist of strong pillars of masonry or iron, over the 
 summit of which the chains pass, and are secured, on the land side, to 
 masonry or massive frames of iron sunk into the ground. The principal 
 advantage in suspension bridges consists in their stability of equili- 
 brium ; hence, less materials are necessary in their construction, than 
 in that of any other kind of bridge. If a suspension bridge be shaken, 
 or thrown out of equilibrium, it returns by its weight to its proper 
 place ; but the contrary occurs in all other kinds of bridges. 
 
 BRIDGING JOISTS.— Those small timbers in a naked flooring, 
 which are notched upon the upper side of the binding joists, and to 
 which the flooring boards are attached. 
 
 Bridging joists ought not to be above fourteen inches apart, measured 
 from the middle of each; nor their bearing to exceed ten or twelve 
 feet. When employed in ground floors, they are laid upon sleepers ; 
 in which situation if proper care is not taken to drain and ventilate the 
 under side, the joists are subject to very rapid decay. It is a good 
 practice to strew smiths' ashes, or even common ashes, under such 
 floors, to prevent the growth of fungi. The ashes and scorice from a 
 foundry, or any ashes that contain much iron, are the best. 
 
 SC.\NTLI\G8 OF BRIDGING JOISTS. 
 
 Bearing. 
 
 
 Fir. 
 
 
 Oak 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 in 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 bv 2 
 
 H 
 
 by 2 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 ■ 3 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 5i 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 H 
 
 6| 
 
 n 
 
 BRING UV.—See Carry Up. 
 
 BUILDING ACT. — All the buildings erected in London, and in 
 the different parishes within the bills of mortality, are subjected to the 
 regulations of an act of parliament, of the 14 Geo. III. ; for an abstract 
 of which, See Biuckwork, and Carpentry. 
 
 BUTMENT.— .Set' A n i t m ent. 
 
 BUTT-JOINT. ABUTTING.— The plane of this joint is at right 
 angles lo the fibres, and the fibres of the two pieces arc in the same 
 right line.
 
 c. 
 
 CABINET. — A name applied to a small retired apartment ; as also to 
 that part of a building which ser\'es to contain collections of paintings, 
 •plants, animals, coins, minerals, and curiosities of every description. 
 
 CABLE. — A wreathed circular moulding. Also the staff" which is left 
 in the lower part of the flutings of the Corinthian and Composite columns. 
 
 CAISSON. — A kind of chest or case, used in the construction of 
 bridges, of a sufficient size to contain an entire pier, whicli is built in 
 it. The caisson sinks to the bed of the river as the work advances, 
 and the sides are removed from the bottom, leaving the lower part 
 under the pier. 
 
 CAMBER. — The roundness of the upper side of a beam, made to 
 prevent its sinking beyond a straight line, by the continued weight it 
 may be required to support. The convexity may be about one incli in 
 eighteen or twenty feet. 
 
 CAINIHER BEAMS. — Those beams employed in truncated roofs. 
 Their middle is raised to a very obtuse angle, in order to throw off 
 the rain. 
 
 CANTILEVERS. — A kind of plain mutules, placed under the soffit 
 of cornices of great projection ; hence they are called cantilever-cornices. 
 
 CAPITAL. — The upper part of a column. See the different orders 
 with the Plates and Tables in the Architectural Director. 
 
 CARCASS OF A BUILDING.— A building, before the flooring 
 boards are laid, or the walls plastered. 
 
 CARPENTRY. — The art of carpentry is chiefly directed to the 
 support of weight or pressure. 
 
 With respect to the scantling and lengths of timber employed in 
 carpentry, many different opinions exist. 
 
 Beams should not exceed 15 feet in bearing; and those of 20 feet 
 and upwards ought to be trussed up in one or more places. The 
 bearing of rafters should not be more than 10 feet, especially in roofs 
 of a very low pitch ; the coverings of which act with a greater pressure 
 on their rafters than those of a higher pitch. 
 
 Timber is considerably weakened by its own weight, unless it stands 
 in a perpendicular direction ; and when a mortise is required to be cut 
 in the side of such timber, it will retain greater strength if cut near the 
 top, than when made at the lower part, if the tenon be driven in tight 
 so as to fill the mortise. 
 
 As the bending of timber is governed by the weight with which it 
 may be loaded, a beam ought not to support for any considerable time 
 above one-third or one-fourth of the weight it will bear without 
 fracturing. For experiment proves, that a much less weight is required 
 to break a piece of timber, when hung to it for a considerable period, 
 than that which would break it when first applied. 
 
 If several pieces of timber, of the same scantling and length, are 
 laid upon each other, and supported at each end, they will possess no 
 greater strength than when placed side by side ; or the pieces that are 
 applied above each other, are no stronger than a single piece, whose 
 width is that of the several pieces, and its depth that of one of these.
 
 53 
 
 Hence, it is useless to cut a piece of timber lon^itudioally for the 
 purpose of applying the pieces so cut one above another ; for these 
 pieces are not so strong as before, even when bolted. 
 
 In making choice of timber, care should be taken to avoid knotty and 
 cross- grained wood, such pieces not having equal strength with those 
 which are straight in the grain ; and if judgment be not exercised in 
 selecting timber, the application of rules to determine its strength is 
 useless. Timber in general retains some degree of moisture ; hence 
 bearing timber ought to have a moderate camber, or roundness, on the 
 upper side, as timber will sway, even from its own weight, until divested 
 of all moisture. It is likewise best to truss girders when they are first 
 sawn, as in drying and shrinking the trusses become lighter. The 
 camber in bearers or ties, should be effected either in their cutting, or 
 otherwise in framing them ; and may average about one inch in twenty 
 feet. This is equally applicable to principle rafters ; because without 
 this precaution, timbers in general tliough well framed, will, from the 
 shrinking of the timber and tlie weight of tlie covering, eventually sway. 
 
 Case bays in roofs and floors should not, if practicable, exceed twelve 
 feet ; that is, the bearing of the ]H]rlines and joists. In bridging floors, 
 the binding or strong joists should not be above five feet apart ; nor the 
 bridging or common joists more than twelve inches. Also, in fitting 
 down tie-beams upon the wall plates, the cocking should not be made 
 too large, nor too near the outside of the wall-plate ; for the grain of 
 tlie wood being cut across in the tie-beam, the piece that remains upon 
 its end will be apt to split off; whilst keeping it near the inside, will 
 tend to secure it. 
 
 Double tenons should not be made for the purposes of bearing, as in 
 binding-joists, common joists, or purlines. In the first place, they greatly 
 weaken the part they are framed into ; and in the second, it is a rare 
 occurrence to have a draught in both tenons, that is, to draw both 
 joints close. For the pin, in passing tlirough both tenons, if there be a 
 draught in each, will bend so much, that, unless it be verv- tough, it will 
 break in driving, and consequently be injurious. Roofs are considerablj' 
 stronger when the purlines are notched above the principal rafters, tlian 
 when they are framed into the side of tlie principals ; for when any 
 weight is applied to the middle of the purline, according to this plan, it 
 cannot bend, from being confined by other rafters ; and sliould it so 
 occur, the sides of the other rafters must necessarily bend with it ; con- 
 sequently it receives additional strength from the other rafters. 
 
 The strength of the timber is exerted in four different ways : in sus- 
 taining a longitudinal tension ; as in tie-beams : in supporting a longitudinal 
 compression ; as in bearing-posts: in withstanding a transverse pressure ; 
 as in joists, &c. : and, in opposing the act of twisting or wrenching. 
 
 Longitudinal tension. The tension which a piece of timber can beer 
 when pulled lengthways, depends on the cohesion of any cross section. 
 As the material stretches out, the longitudinal attraction of the particles 
 becomes augmented. This increase is, at first, proportional to the 
 dilatation ; but it afterwards decreases slowly, and a small additional 
 strain is then sufficient to produce that limit of extension which occasions 
 total fracture. Its length will not influence the greatest strain which
 
 54 
 
 it can bear, this being determined entirely by the smallest cross section, 
 where the dislocation of the particles will take place. 
 
 The following table shews the weights which were necessary to tear 
 asunder rods of the principal kinds of wood, whose bases were each a 
 square inch, the weights being applied in the direction of their length. 
 Beech, oak - - . . 17,300 lbs. 
 
 Alder 13,900 
 
 Elm 13,200 
 
 Mulberry 12,500 
 
 Willow ----- 12,500 
 
 Ash - ... - 12,000 
 
 Plum 11,800 
 
 Elder ----- 10,000 
 
 Fir ----- 8,330 
 
 Pitch, pine - - . - 7,656 
 
 Cypress 6,000 
 
 Poplar 5,500 
 
 Cedar 4,880 
 
 Rondelet asserts the relative strength of oak and fir to be, when em- 
 ployed in longitudinal tension, as 17 is to 11. 
 
 Longitudinal compression. The compression which any piece of 
 timber suffers is at first equal to the dilatation occasioned by an equal 
 and opposite strain, being in both cases proportional to the modulus of 
 elasticity. But while the incumbent weight is increased, the power of 
 resistance likewise augments, so long as the piece withstands inflexure. 
 After it begins to bend, a lateral disruption quickly t;ikes place. A 
 slender vertical prism is hence capable of supporting less weight than 
 tension. Thus a cube of English oak was crushed by a load of 38601bs. 
 but a rod of an inch square, and five inches high, was fractured by a 
 weight of 2572 lbs. It would evidently have been weaker had its 
 length been increased. On the other hand, if the scantling of a piece 
 be considerable in proportion to its height, it will sustain a greater 
 pressure than its cohesive power. 
 
 According to the experiments of Rondelet, made on cubes of an inch 
 in length, it recjuired from 5,000 to 6,000 lbs. per square inch to crush 
 oak ; and under this pressure its length was reduced more than one- 
 third. To cmsh fir, it required from 6,000 to 7^000 lbs. per square 
 inch, and the length was reduced one-half. Hence he remarks, that 
 the relative strength between oak and fir, wlien employed in a vertical 
 position for bearing, is as 100 to 119 ; that is, that fir, in the situation 
 of a vertical bearer, is one-fifth stronger than oak when employed for 
 the same purpose. 
 
 The results of Mr. Rennie's trials are considerably lower than those 
 of M. Rondelet ; they were given as follows : — 
 
 A cubic inch of Elm was crushed by - - 1,284 lbs. 
 
 American pine - - 1,606 
 
 White deal - - - 1,928 
 
 English oak - - - 3,860 
 
 English oak, 4 inches long 5,147 
 Hence, if the cubic content of a piece of timber in inches, be multi-
 
 55 
 
 plied by the weight that has been found capable of crushing a square 
 inch of the same kind of wood, then one-fourtli of the product vrill give 
 the load in pounds which the piece will bear with safety. Thus, required 
 the load that a piece of oak, six inches by four, will carry with safety. 
 Then, 6 x 4=24 inches; and, according to Rennie, a piece of oak is 
 
 crushed by 3,860 lbs. ; consequently^ix^860^23l601bs., the weight 
 required. 4 
 
 In general, while the resisting mass preserves its erect form, the 
 several sections are compressed and extended by additional weight ; and 
 their repellent particles are not only brought nearer, but multiplied. 
 This repulsion is likewise increased by the lateral action arising from 
 the confined ring of detrusion. The primary resistance becomes hence 
 greatly augmented in the progress of loading the pillar. 
 
 Transverse or lateral pressure. The strength of a beam, having one 
 end firmly inserted in a wall, or its power to resist a pressure at its 
 opposite extremity, is compounded of the direct ratios of its breadth, 
 and of tlie square of its depth, and the inverse ratio of its length. Thus, 
 a beam having the same length and breadth as another, but twice the 
 depth, is four times stronger ; and a beam of the same depth and breadth 
 and double the length, is only half as strong. Hence, also, a beam, 
 whose depth is triple its width, will sustain a load three times greater. 
 For the same reason, a square prism will have its strength inversely to 
 its length and the cube of its thickness. 
 
 A TABLE 
 
 OF THE RELATIVE STRENGTH OF TIMBER COMPARED WITH ITS 
 CUBIC CONTENTS. 
 
 DIMENSION OF THE PIECES. 
 
 COMPARATIVE 
 STRENGTH. 
 
 CUBIC 1 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Breadth. Depth. 
 
 12 in. 12 in. 
 
 1728 
 
 144 
 
 11 13 
 
 1852 
 
 143 
 
 10 14 
 
 1960 
 
 140 
 
 9 15 
 
 2025 
 
 135 ! 
 
 8 16 
 
 2048 
 
 128 
 
 7 17 
 
 2023 
 
 119 
 
 6 18 
 
 1944 
 
 108 
 
 5 19 
 
 1805 
 
 95 
 
 4 20 
 
 1600 
 
 80 
 
 3 21 
 
 1323 
 
 63 
 
 2 22 
 
 968 
 
 44 
 
 1 23 
 
 529 
 
 23 { 
 
 Thus it is shown in the above table, that in the piece which is 
 12 X 12, the comparative strength is 1/28, and the cubid content 144 ; 
 which establishes the relation between the strength and solidity, as 12 
 to 1. But the last piece, that is 1 X 23, the strength is 529, and the
 
 content 23. Consequently, the first piece, which is square, will have, 
 in comparison with its cubic content, half the strength of the latter. 
 
 In general, the resistance of a beam of any form, but of a given 
 length, to a cross strain, will be the same as if the whole power 
 exerted were collected in the centre of gravity of each section. Thus 
 the strain of a triangular prism, may be conceived as concentrated in a 
 point at one-third of the distance of the perpendicular from the vertex 
 to the base. Such prism is, therefore, twice as strong when placed on 
 its edge as when laid on its side. This simple fact is of some import- 
 ance in the practice of carpentry. If a beam be supported horizontally 
 at both ends, and loaded in the middle, the pressure will be equally 
 shared between the props. The effect is the same, as if it were fixed 
 at the middle, and each end pulled upwards by half its load. The 
 breaking weight is consequently double that which would be required 
 to fracture a beam of half the length, having one end fixed in a wall. 
 Hence, this limit is inversely as the length of the beam, and directly as 
 the breadth and the square of the depth. Thus, a piece of oak, four 
 inches square and ten feet long, broke under the weight of 40151bs. ; 
 and another of the same timber, eight inches square and twenty feet 
 long, was broken by a load of 16,700 lbs. The latter being twice the 
 thickness, would have been eight times stronger with the same length ; 
 but the length being doubled, reduced the excess to four times. 
 
 Rondelet states, that the comparative strength between fir and oak, 
 when employed for horizontal bearing, is as 8 to 9. 
 
 Duhamel made the following experiments : — A piece of oak 9-6 
 inches deep, and 1066 inches in breadth, was placed upon two supports, 
 24-5 inches distant ; and a weight of 8198 pounds was suspended to 
 the middle, which bent it 3-73 inches. The piece broke with 9613 
 pounds ; but on examination, the timber was found to be faulty. 
 
 Another piece of oak, which was sound and straight grained, the 
 depth 12-2 inches, the breadth 1066 inches, and the bearing 245 
 feet, with a weight of 8198 pounds, bent 2-65 inches. 
 
 A third piece of oak, like the last, sound and straight grained, was 
 tried; its depth was 13'83 inches, the breadth 128 inches, and the 
 length 24'5 feet; and with a weight of 8198 pounds, it bent an inch 
 in the middle. 
 
 The strength of wood of the same kind, is, it will be observed, 
 extremely variable, depending on the nature of the soil, and the situa- 
 tion and the climate where it is grown. The following tables present 
 the results of the experiments of IJarlowe- Ebbles, Tredgold, and 
 Buffon.
 
 57 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bent in 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity. 
 
 Length 
 in feet. 
 
 Breadth 
 in inches. 
 
 Depth 
 iu inches. 
 
 the 
 middle, 
 
 in 
 
 suspended 
 
 from the 
 
 middle, in 
 
 
 English oak 
 
 
 
 
 
 inches. 
 
 pounds. 
 
 •960 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1275 
 
 200 
 
 Adriatic oak . 
 
 •948 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1-55 
 
 150 
 
 Canadian oak . 
 
 •867 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 107 
 
 225 
 
 Dantzic oak 
 
 •787 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 126 
 
 200 
 
 Riga fir . . . 
 
 •765 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 •912 
 
 150 
 
 Scotch fir . . . 
 
 •715 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1560 
 
 125 
 
 Pitch pine . 
 
 •712 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1-33 
 
 150 
 
 New England fir . 
 
 •560 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 •970 
 
 150 
 
 Ash 
 
 •760 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1-27 
 
 225 
 
 Teak .... 
 
 •744 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1276 
 
 300 
 
 Beech 
 
 •688 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1025 
 
 150 
 
 Elm 
 
 •540 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 142 
 
 125 
 
 Oak, English, young tree . 
 Norway fir, fiom Longsound 
 Oak, from Riga .... 
 Christiana white deal . 
 American pine, Weymouth 
 Ash, from young tree . 
 
 Ash 
 
 American white spruce . 
 
 Oak, medium quality 
 
 Beech, medium quality . 
 
 Oak, old ship timber 
 
 Mahogany, Honduras, seasoned 
 
 Ash, medium quality 
 
 Larch, choice specimen 
 
 Acacia, green 
 
 Plane tree .... 
 
 Scotch fir, English growth 
 
 Poplar (abele) . . . 
 
 Larch, medium qual 
 
 Oak, green 
 
 Oak, from old tree 
 
 Memel fir . . . 
 
 Svcamore . 
 
 A'lder .... 
 
 Riga fir ... 
 
 ty 
 
 Length 
 in feet. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 2-5 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 2-5 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 2-5 
 
 25 
 
 2-5 
 
 2-5 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 Breadth 
 in inches. 
 
 Depth 
 iu inches. 
 
 Weight in 
 
 pounds 
 
 that broke 
 
 the piece. 
 
 482 
 396 
 357 
 343 
 329 
 324 
 314 
 285 
 284 
 271 
 264 
 255 
 254 
 253 
 249 
 243 
 233 
 228 
 223 
 219 
 218 
 218 
 214 
 212 
 212
 
 58 
 
 Birch 
 
 Walnut, green .... 
 Elm, wych, green 
 Spruce fir, British growth . 
 Chesnut, green .... 
 Mahogany, Spanish, seasone'l 
 Cedar of Lebanus, dry . 
 Scotch fir, English growth 
 
 Willow 
 
 Poplar, Lombardy 
 Larch, very young woo'3 
 
 Oak, green 
 
 Teak 
 
 Mar forest fir 
 
 Length 
 in fett. 
 
 2-5 
 2-5 
 25 
 25 
 2-5 
 2-5 
 25 
 25 
 2-5 
 2-5 
 2-5 
 1175 
 7 
 7 
 
 Breadth 
 in inches. 
 
 Depth 
 in inches. 
 
 Weigh' in 
 
 pounds 
 
 that broke 
 
 the piece. 
 
 207 
 195 
 195 
 186 
 
 180 
 
 170 
 
 165 
 157 
 146 
 131 
 129 
 25812 
 820 
 360 
 
 If a piece be spliced on a divided beam, equal in depth to half the 
 depth of the beam, the strength is greater than that of the entire beam, 
 in the ratio of 1 to 0-54. 
 
 The following is an abstract of that portion of the building act, 
 which relates to carpenters ; and to which all buildings erected in 
 London, and the several parishes within the bills of mortality, are 
 subjected. 
 
 Timber partitions between building and building, erected or erecting 
 previous to the passing of the act, may remain till one of the adjoining 
 houses is rebuilt, or till one of the fronts, or two-thirds of the fronts 
 which abut on such timber partition, is taken down to the bressummer, 
 or one-pair of stairs floor, and rebuilt. 
 
 Three months' notice of the pulling down of such wooden partitions, 
 when decayed or of insufficient thickness, is to be given by the pro- 
 prietor to the owner or occupier of such a house ; and if the house be 
 empty, such notice to be stuck up on the front, or front door of it. 
 
 No timber hereafter to be laid in any party-arch, or party-wall, 
 except for bond to the same ; nor any bond timber within nine inches of 
 the opening of a chimney, nor within five inches of the flue ; nor any 
 timber within two feet of any oven, stove, copper, still, boiler, or furnace. 
 
 The wood work of chimney breasts to be fastened to the said breast 
 with iron wall hooks, spikes, nails, or holdfasts, which must not be 
 driven more than three inches into the wall, nor nearer than four inches 
 to the inside of the opening of the chimney. 
 
 No timber bearer to wooden stairs let into an old party-wall, must 
 come nearer than eiglit inches and a half to the flue, nor nearer than 
 four inclies to the internal finishing of the adjoining building 
 
 No timber to be laid under any hearth to a chimney, nearer than 
 eighteen inches to the upper surface of such hearth.
 
 69 
 
 In'o timber must be laid nearer than eighteen iijclies to anv door uf 
 C'jmniunicatiun, through tJie party-walls of warehouses and stables. 
 
 Bressummers, story-posts, and plates thereto, are only permitted in 
 the ground story, and may stand even or fair with the outside of the 
 wall, but must go no deeper than two inches into a party-wall ; nor 
 nearer than seven inches to the centre of a party-wall, when it is two 
 bricks thick ; nor nearer than four inches and a half, provided the 
 party-wall does not exceed one brick and a half in thickness. 
 
 Every corner story-post must be of oak, and at least twelve inches 
 square, when employed for the support of two fronts. 
 
 Window frames and door frames to the first, second, third, and fourth 
 rate classes, are to be recessed in reveals, four inches at least. 
 
 Door-cases and doors to warehouses only, of the first, second, third, 
 or fourth rate classes, may stand fair or even with the outward face of 
 the wall. 
 
 No external decoration to be of wood, except cornices or dressings 
 to shop windows, frontispieces to doorways of the second, third, ani 
 fourth rate classes, and covered ways or porticoes to buildings ; but 
 not to project beyond the original line of the house in any street or 
 way. Such covered way or portico not to be covered with wood; nor 
 such cornice, covered way, or roof of the portico, to be higher than the 
 underside of the sill to the windows of the one pair of stairs floor. No 
 flat gutter or roof, nor any turret, dormer, or lantern light, or other 
 erection placed on the flat of the roof belonging to the first, second, 
 third, fourth, and fifth rate classes, to be of wood. 
 
 No wooden water tanks, or trunks, must be higher from the ground 
 than the tops of the windows of the ground story. 
 
 CARRY-UP. — Used by carpenters and bricklayers, synonymously 
 with bring-up ; each equally signifying build-up, when applied to a 
 stack of chimnies, or a wall. 
 
 Caryatides. ^.See Ionic Order, in the Director. 
 
 CASTING.— WARPING —The twisting of the surfaces of a piece 
 of wood from their former position, arising from a partial influence of 
 heat or moisture, inequality of texture, or by weight. 
 
 CAVETTO. — A hollow or concave moulding, being the fourth part 
 of a circle. See pi. 2. 
 
 CAULICOLI. — Applied to the small volutes of the Corinthian capital ; 
 though it properly belongs only to the stems from whence fhey spring. 
 
 CEILING. — Ceilings are generally plastered upon laths nailed to 
 the joists, and are set in two different ways. The best is named 
 gauge. Common ceilings have no hair mixed in the plaster, it being 
 the same as that used for the finishing coat for walls set for paper. 
 Ths setting coat of the best ceilings, is composed of fine stuff" and 
 plaster, or putty and plaster. 
 
 CEILING-JOISTS. — Small pieces of timber fixed to tlie underside 
 of the binding-joists. Ceiling-joists require to be no thicker than is 
 necessary to nail the laths to: stuff" two inches in breadth is sufficient 
 for that purpose. 
 
 it is a better method to notch ceiling-joi.sls to (lie tmder side of lii« 
 binding-joists, and nail thf'm, liian ti mortis.' and chase tl\eiii in;
 
 60 
 
 because it not only requires less labour, but preserves the strength of the 
 binding-joists, and the ceiling stands better. Oak is not so good a 
 material for ceiling-joists as fir, because it is more subject to warp 
 particularly if it be not well seasoned. 
 
 CEMENT. — Calcareous cements are of three kinds : simple calca- 
 reous cement, water cement, and maltha. 
 
 The following are some of the best methods of preparing durable 
 cement : — 
 
 Sharp sand, free from clay, salts, calcareous, gypseous, or othe* 
 grain less hard and durable than quartz, is the best. When a coarse 
 and a fine sand, similar in the size of their grains to the coarse an^ 
 fine sand described below, cannot be obtained in the locality, ready for 
 use, the following method of cleansing and sorting it may be em- 
 ployed. Sift the sand by streaming clear water through a sieve that 
 will permit all grains not larger than one-sixteenth of an inch to pass, 
 the water being so regulated as to wash away the finer particles of the 
 sand, clay, and all lighter matter. The coarse rubbish remaining in 
 the sieve must be thrown aside. The sand which has passed through 
 the sieve must be further cleansed and sorted into two parcels, by 
 means of a sieve that allows no grains to pass but such as are less than 
 one-thirteenth of an inch in diameter. That portion which passes 
 through this sieve, may be tenned fine, and the other part coarse sand. 
 Each should be dried either bv means of the sun or a fire. 
 
 That kind of lime should be chosen which heats the most in slak- 
 ing, and slakes in the shortest time when properly watered ; which is 
 fresh from the kiln, and has been kept close covered ; which dissolves 
 in distilled vinegar with the least effervescence, and leaves the smallest 
 residue insoluble: and in this residue the smallest quantity of clays, 
 gypsum, &c. Put fourteen pounds of such lime into a bi-ass wire sieve, 
 still finer than the one last mentioned. Slake the lime by alternately 
 plunging it into and raising it out of a butt of soft water. Reject all 
 the matter that does not easily pass through the sieve, and use fresh 
 portions of lime in a similar manner, until as many ounces of lime 
 liave passed through the sieve, as there are quarts of water in the butt. 
 This is the lime-water, which contributes materially to the excellence of 
 the stucco. When it has received a sufficient portion of lime, it 
 should be closely covered until it becomes clear ; and then be drawn 
 off, by means of wooden taps, placed at different heights, as the lime 
 subsides, without breaking the crust formed on the surface. The less 
 saline matter the water contains, the better will be the quality of the 
 licjuor; which should be kept in air-tight vessels till used. 
 
 Slake fifty-six pounds of lime, chosen as before directed, by gradu- 
 ally sprinkling on it the lime-water. Sift the slaked portion of the 
 lime immediately through the last mentioned fine brass wire sieve. 
 The lime which passes must be used quickly, or kept in air-tight 
 vessels, and the rest rejected. This finer, rich part of the lime, may 
 be called purified lime. It is better to sift the lime immediately after 
 the slaking, in order to prevent the ill-burnt lime and other objection- 
 able matter from passing through the sieve. 
 
 To mix this cement, take fifty-six pounds of coarse, and forty-two
 
 61 
 
 po .nils of fine sand, mixing and spreading it so far as to form a fiat bev- 
 of six inches deep. To this, as much lime-water must be added as it 
 can possibly retain. To the moistened sand add fourteen pounds of 
 the purified lime, in several successive portions, and mix them well. 
 Lastly, add fourteen pounds of bone-ashes, thoroughly mixing and 
 beating the whole together. As the above cement is shorter thaa 
 water or common stucco, and dries sooner, it should be worked expe- 
 ditiously ; and, in stuccoing, should be laid on by sliding the trowei 
 upwards. The ground on which it is to be laid, ought to be first well 
 moistened with lime-water; and the same applied to the cement should 
 it require moisture. 
 
 The above proportions are adapted for a quick drying cement, to be 
 used in exposed situations, where the effects of powerful sun and rain 
 might speedily follow the application. Half the above quantity of 
 bone-ashes will in general be found to be sufficient, though it will not 
 thoroughly harden as soon ; yet, should the weather be favourable, it 
 will be stronger. 
 
 For a cement of a fine quality, take ninety-eight pounds of the fine 
 sand, and let it be moistened and mixed with the lime-water, purified 
 lime and bone-ashes in the quantities and manner above described ; 
 except by using an additional pound of lime. 
 
 To mix a coarsely grained cement, a coarser sand than that de- 
 scribed must be used ; of which take fifty-six pounds ; of the coarse 
 sand before mentioned, twenty-eight pounds ; and of the fine, fourteen 
 pounds. After mixing and moistening it witli lime-water as before, 
 add fourteen pounds of purified lime ; and the same quantity of bone- 
 ash. When these cements are required to be very light-coloured, the 
 white^st sand, lime, and bone-ash should be employed. Gray sand and 
 half-burnt bones form a gray-coloured cement ; and any other colour 
 may be obtained either by the use of coloured sand, vitreous or metallic 
 powders, or other ingredients. 
 
 If any of the above cements are required for water-fences, two-thirds 
 of the above given quantity of bone-ashes should be substituted by an 
 equal portion of powdered terras ; and if the sand used be fine, the 
 quantity of terras must be increased, so as to be equal in weight to 
 one-sixth of that of the sand. 
 
 For a cement of the finest grain, or in a fluid state, to be applied 
 with a brush, to finish and smooth the surface of coarse cements, or 
 for the purpose of giving to a wall a uniform and lively colour, the 
 fine powder of calcined flints, or the powder of any quartzose or hard 
 earth V substance, may be used in the place of sand; but in a less 
 quantitv, proportionate to the fineness of the powder, so that it shall 
 not exceed six times the weight of the lime, nor be less than four 
 times. A wash for walls should not be of a greater consistence tiian 
 new cream, and should be used in dry weather; and if it is intended 
 to represent a warm light coloured stone, a fine yellow ochre is the 
 cheapest colouring matter. 
 
 Terras powder and lime, as a water or aquatic cement, possesses 
 the quality of setting quickly, and being impenetrable ; liut it requires 
 to be kept constantly wet, otherwise it is apt to crack and perisb when
 
 62 
 
 exposed to the action of the uir ; yet it never attains the same degree 
 of hardness, neither will it endure the weather, equal to cement made 
 with lime and sand. Terras is a volcanic production, and its compo- 
 nent parts are clay and oxide of iron ; and powdered baked clay may 
 be employed as a substitute, as it gives similar properties to cements 
 in which it is introduced. Dutch terras consists of a soft rock stone 
 found in the vicinity of Cologne, is calcined like lime-stone, and after- 
 wards reduced to a powder. It is in great repute in aquatic works, 
 but its price is considerable. A substitute may be formed by mixing 
 two parts of well-sifted coal-ashes with one-part of lime ; or, again, by 
 mixing one of plaster of Paris with two parts of lime. 
 
 Pozzolana is a species of ashes thrown out of volcanoes, and differs 
 little in quality from terras. The cement employed in the masonry 
 of Eddystone lighthouse was formed of an equal measure of this sub- 
 stance and lime. But two parts of lime, one of pozzolana, and three of 
 sand, may be used as a good cement for the generality of aquadc works. 
 The following is a valuable composition for a water cement, in 
 which manganese forms a principal ingredient. Mix six parts of the 
 black oxide of manganese, four of gray clay, and ninety of the best 
 limestone ; the whole of which must be well calcined. It may after- 
 wards be mixed to the consistence of paste, by adding sixty parts of 
 clean washed sand. 
 
 Parker's Roman cement consists of the following ingredients, and in 
 the proportions here given : — 
 
 Carbonate of Lime . - . _ . '647 
 
 Magnesia -005 
 
 Iron -070 
 
 Mang-anese - - - - -019 
 
 Clay Silica -180 
 
 ■ Alumina ..._-_ -066 
 
 Water 013 
 
 1 000 
 
 Two parts and a half of chalk, added to one of common clay, will 
 make a good hydraulic lime, and it will act as soon as Parker's 
 cement; and also a limestone containing six per cent, of clay, affords 
 a cement perceptibly hydraulic. Lime, containing from fifteen to 
 twenty per cent, is a strong cement ; and when from twenty-five to 
 thirty, it sets immediately, and will answer the generality of the 
 purposes of Roman cement. 
 
 CENTERING. — In the framing of centres, the principal points to 
 which the attention must be directed, are, an accurate calculation of 
 the weight required to be supported, the exact quantity of timber 
 requisite for such support, and the best methods of framing it. 
 
 CHIMNEY, — The aperture from a chimney into a room, is called 
 the fire-place. The projecting parts of the wall, on the right an 1 Lft 
 of the fire-place, are named jambs. The head of the fire-place, sn!i- 
 ported by the jambs, is termed the mantle. The mantle, together 
 with the whole side of the chimney above it up to the to^, are called
 
 63 
 
 t]i<» breast. The back points out its own situation, being on the 
 ;)|)posite side to the breast. The sides of the fire-place, between the 
 jambs and the back, are named covings. The throat is the openino- 
 between the mantle and back, immediately above the fire. 
 
 In rooms, half of whose lengtli when added to their breadth, does 
 not exceed twenty-five feet, the width of the fire-place may be four feet 
 and a half. In those of thirty feet, it may be five feet. However 
 large the room, if the width of the fire-place extend much above 
 six feet, the effect will be injurious, supposing the grate to be propor- 
 tionate. Under such circumstances, two fire-places are to be preferred. 
 The fire-place, in ordinary rooms, is generally square ; but in small 
 rooms, and particularly when situated in an angle, its height exceeds 
 its width. The width of a fire-place has no influence on the draft, if it 
 be not too contracted to allow the covings from being placed witli 
 their greatest power of reflection towards the room ; but the height to 
 the under side of the mantle, ought not generally to exceed two feet 
 six inches. The dimensions for the width of the throat may be five 
 inches ; but it should be supplied with a moveable part at the back. 
 The strength of the draft is regulated in proportion as the throat is 
 nearer to the fire. The flues of chimneys connected with fire-places 
 from three to four feet wide, are usually above the throat, made equal 
 to about twelve inches square ; but the rule is, to make the opening 
 in the horizontal section of the flue equal to that of the fire. Bends in 
 flues should form curved and not angular lines ; and the shafts shou'd 
 be carried to an equal height with any adjoining. 
 
 To increase the draft of a chimney, set the grate, if a Bath-sfove, 
 ten inches or a foot back from the face of the chimney-piece, leaving 
 an opening of two inches between the back of the chimney and that of 
 the grate. An ordinary grate will require the sides to be filled up with 
 brick-work. According to this plan, the current of air that ascends 
 at the back of the grate not only increases the draft, but likewise 
 prevents the smoke from descending when influenced by the wind. 
 
 The expense of circular or oval flues is, doubtless, the reason why 
 they are not generally adopted, as their advantages are well known ; 
 and particularly that of their being free from the currents of air, to 
 •vhich square rhimnies are subject. 
 
 CISTERN. — A vessel used for containing water. Cisterns built of 
 square stones, put together with the following cement, will never leak 
 or require any repairs. Boiled linseed oil, litharge, red and white lead 
 mixed together to a proper consistence, applied on each side of apiece 
 of flannel, previously shaped to fit the joint, and then put between the 
 joints before they are brought home, as it is technically termed, to their 
 place by the fastenings employed, make a close and durable joint. The 
 quantities of the ingredients may be varied, without inconvenience, 
 taking care not to make the mass too thin with oil. Where flannel 
 is found to be too thick a substance, linen may be substituted ; or 
 otherwise tlie stones need not be entirely bedded in it. An inch, or 
 even less, of the edges that will be next to the water, require only to 
 06 so prepared ; the rest of the joint may be filled with good lime 
 This cement also answers for joining broken stones.
 
 64 
 
 CITY. — In England, is " a town corporate, having a bishop, and a 
 cathedral church." 
 
 In a town or city, the display of architectural skill ought not to l)e 
 confined to the habitations of a few individuals; but should extend to 
 the entire city. The greater number of our towns still exhibit evident 
 proofs of that spirit of confusion and disorder, that pervaded all the 
 public undertakings of our ancestors. Many cities present a mass of 
 buildings, erected without system, economy, or design. 
 
 In a city, the streets cannot render the communications easy and 
 convenient, if they are not in sufficient number to prevent any con- 
 siderable returning, so conveniently large as not to occasion confusion, 
 and in right lines, so as to shorten the communication. To render a 
 town well constructed, the fagades should not be abandoned to indi- 
 vidual caprice. All buildings fronting a principal street, should be 
 determined by and subjected to public authority; so as to form a part 
 in the design fixed upon for the whole of such street. 
 
 The heights of the buildings ought to be proportioned to the width 
 of the streets. Nothing produces a worse appearance than their want 
 of elevation, when situated in large and spacious streets. However 
 beautiful the buildings may be of themselves, under this disadvantage, 
 they will appear low and diminutive, and present nothing either 
 imposing or agreeable. 
 
 The fa5ades of the houses should exhibit both regularity and variety. 
 To produce in a street a proper character and effect, there must be a 
 uniformity in its corresponding and parallel facades. The same design 
 ought to reign in the whole space uninterrupted by another street; 
 and should not be repeated in any of the corresponding spaces. The 
 art of varying the designs, consists in the diversity of the forms and 
 proportions employed, the greater or less application of decorative 
 objects, and their different combinations. With these three resources, 
 there is no necessity, in the greatest city, to repeat the same facade. 
 
 But the application of these decorative objects should be made with 
 great discernment ; also a building, remarkable for its simplicity, 
 might judiciously be in the vicinity of another, exhibiting elegance and 
 magnificence. By these means there would be produced that pleasing 
 variety and harmony, which constitute the charm of decoration. 
 
 Our principal towns and cities contain edifices, whose real character 
 calls forth all the different species of decoration possible to be employed. 
 These public structures afford an opportunity of frequently relieving 
 the appearance of the ordinary buildings, by their noble and predomi- 
 nant forms. Finishing the borders of the river passing through a 
 town, in an appropriate manner, by placing on its sides large and 
 commodious quays, so as to leave a spacious street between the houses 
 and the river ; and the whole should be constructed according to the 
 intent of the general design. 
 
 CLAMP. — A means used in joinery, to prevent boards from casting. 
 It consists in working the end of a board in form of tenons, or other- 
 wise a tongue ; a narrow piece is then chosen of equal thickness, 
 whose length is equal to the breadth of the board, in the side of which 
 either mortises or a groove are made ; the fibres of the two piece.5,
 
 65 
 
 wlieii thus applied, running at right angles to each other. Ihe toM 
 is then said to be clamped. 
 
 CLEAR. — The distance between the two nearest bodies or surfaces. 
 
 CLEAR STORY WINDOWS.— Windows which are without 
 transom. 
 
 CLINKERS. — A name sometimes given to bricks, containing a 
 small portion of nitre, and which are, from having been placed near 
 the fire in the kiln, more burnt than the rest of the bricks. The term 
 is also applied to hard brimstone coloured bricks, imported from Hol- 
 land. They are generally used in paving stables and yards ; for which 
 purposes they are often laid heriing-bone ways. Their length is six 
 inches, breadth three, and thickness one inch. 
 
 CLOSER. — A part of a brick, or a stone, laid to complete a course, 
 when the last remaining space is less than the usual size. 
 
 CLOSET. — A small room belonging to an apartment or bedchamber. 
 
 COARSE STUFF. — A composition of lime and hair employed in 
 first coating and floating. 
 
 COAT. — One thickness of plastering. 
 
 COCKLE STAIRS. — Applied to a winding staircase. 
 
 COFFER. — Sometimes used to signify panels in the soffits of cor- 
 nices, architraves, and ceilings. 
 
 COIN. — The masonry under the base of a column or pilaster, when 
 situated on an an inclined plane. Likewise applied to tlie angle of a 
 building. 
 
 COLLARIN.— COLLARING.— The neck of a column, or the space 
 comprised within the astragal and the lower part of the capital. 
 
 COLLAR-BEAM. — A beam extending across ; and is, in ordinaiy 
 roofs, framed into the rafters ; but in trussed roofs, it is framed into 
 the queen-posts. 
 
 COLONNADE. — A range of columns surrounding the interior area 
 or the exterior of an edifice ; forming galleries of communication or 
 an ambulatory 
 
 COLUMN. — A cylindrical support, composed of a base, shaft, and 
 capital. 
 
 COMPARTMENT CEILING. — A ceiling decorated with panels or 
 coffers. 
 
 COMPOSITE ORDER.— .See the Director. 
 
 CONGE.— See pi. 2 ; fig. 9. 
 
 CONO-CONIC ARCH. — A name given to the arches resulting from 
 the cono-conic groin. 
 
 CONO-CONIC GROIN.— The groin formed by the intersection 
 made by a lesser conic vault, entering or piercing a similar vault of 
 greater height. 
 
 CONSERVATORY. — A building for the preservation of exotic 
 plants ; and which is sometimes so connected with a house, as to com- 
 municate with one of the princijial apartments. 
 
 CONSOLE.— .S'ee pi. 38, 39, 43 to 47. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION. — The execution of architectural designs. 
 
 CONTINUED. — Any member or part not broken or interrupted, is 
 said to bf continued.
 
 GG 
 
 CONTOUR. — The outline of any part ; as of an entablature, volute, 
 or the shaft of a column. 
 
 COPING. — Masonry which projects beyond the face, and crowns 
 the upper course of a wall. There are three kinds : saddle-backed, 
 feather-edged, and parallel coping. The first is thin at each edge and 
 elevated in the middle ; the second is thicker at one edge than the 
 other ; and the third is of an equal thickness. 
 
 COPE OVER. — The soffit of a projecting body, when it inclines 
 towards the wall. 
 
 CORBEILS. — The masonry or timber in a vault or wall, intended 
 to receive the timbers of a floor or roof. 
 
 CORDON. — The exterior edge or coin in masonry. 
 
 CORE.— The middle of a wall. 
 
 CORINTHIAN ORDER.— See Director. 
 
 CORNICE. — The upper member of an entablature. A block cornice 
 has its drip supported by plain rectangular blocks. A mutilated cor- 
 nice is one that is broken or interrupted by some intervening body. An 
 architrave cornice, signifies an entablature in which the frieze is 
 omitted; and a coved cornice presents a concave form. 
 
 CORONA. — The drip or larmier of a cornice. 
 
 CORRIDORE. — A passage leading to different apartments, 
 
 CORTILE. — A court-yard or area in the centre of a mansion ; which 
 is often surrounded by galleries of communication. 
 
 COTTAGE. — A small and humble habitation, which serves as a 
 dwelling for persons of the labouring class. 
 
 The following suggestion is given by Mr. Miller, of Glasgow : — 
 " Suppose clay can be got close by where you mean to build, work 
 the clay well ; then put it into wooden moulds, the same as bric"ks ; when 
 the walls are at their required height, bore the outside of the walls full 
 of little holes, about the size of your little finger. When this is done, 
 have ready a mixture of smithy ashes, lime, and sand ; let these ingre- 
 dients be well wrought with water ; then plaster the outside of your 
 walls with this mixture. In a short time it will be as hard as some 
 kinds of stones , and will resist frost and water, and stand one 
 hundred years." — " A man can wheel from the pit, clay for 4,000 bricks 
 in a day, 2s. ; ditto can work clay for 4,000 in one day, 2s. ; ditto can 
 mould 4,000 in a day, 2s. ; ditto can carry to the builder's hand 4,000 
 in a day, 2s. ; ditto building 4,000 bricks in three days, 6s. ; lime for 
 building, 4,000, when it can be got reasonable, 16s. — Total 11. 10s. 
 Eight or ten thousand bricks will build a neat and commodious cottage, 
 with four apartments." 
 
 COUNTER FORT. — A buttress or pier, employed to give additional 
 strength to a wall. 
 
 COUNTER LATH. — A lath fixed between every two gauged 
 laths. 
 
 COUNTERSINK.— To sink or let-in the heads of screws, bolts, 
 plates, &c. into wood-work. 
 
 COUNTRY HOUSE.— See the Director. 
 
 COUPLED COLUMNS.— Two columns placed so near each otliet 
 as almost to touch.
 
 67 
 
 COURSE. — In masonry and bricklaying, signifies a horizontal range 
 of stones or bricks, extending the entire length of a wall. 
 
 COURSE. — In slating, is a row of slates which liave their bottoms 
 placed or ranged horizontally. 
 
 COURT. — An area at the front, back, centre, or sides of a buildins: 
 
 COUSINET.— CUSHION.— The first stone of an arch above the 
 impost. Also applied to the form connecting the volutes in the side 
 elevation of the Ionic capital. — See pi. 10, II. 
 
 COVE BRACKETING.— Concave brackets, forming the quadrant 
 of a circle. 
 
 C0\T:D and flat ceiling.— One that rises from the wall 
 of an apartment in a concave form ; and which immediately terminates 
 in a flat surface. 
 
 COVER. — In slating, that part of a slate which is covered by the 
 lap of another. 
 
 COVER WAY. — The vacancy left in walls to receive the timbers of 
 the roof. 
 
 CRADLING. — A term given to the woodwork that serves for the 
 support of entablatures over shop windows. The ribs to which the 
 lathes are nailed in vaulted ceilings. 
 
 CRAMP. — A piece of metal employed to bind stones together. 
 
 CROSS-GRAINED STUFF.— Timber in which the fibres run in 
 contrary directions. 
 
 CROSS-VALTLTING. — A term s\Tionimous with groins. 
 
 CROWN-POST.— JOGGLE-POST.— KING-POST— The centre 
 post in a trussed roof. 
 
 CUPOLA. — When an edifice presents an interior and an exterior 
 dome, the appropriate name for that in the interior, is a cupola. 
 
 CURB. — A rib of wood fixed at the angle or noosing of brick steps, 
 for the purpose of keeping the brick-work compact. 
 
 CURB PLATE. — A term given to the plate of a sky-light, and the 
 wall-plate of a ribbed dome. 
 
 CURTAIN STEP. — A step having its outer end worked in the 
 form of a scroll ; being the lowest in a staircase. 
 
 CYLINDRIC CEILING.— WAGGON-HEADED CEILING.— A 
 simple vaulted ceiling, forming any portion of a cylinder not exceeding 
 half. 
 
 CYLINDRIC GROIN. — Similar portions of cylinders of equal 
 height, piercing or intersecting each other. 
 
 CYLINDRO-CYLINDRIC ARCH.— The line formed by the inter- 
 section of two cylindrical vaults of unequal height. 
 
 CYLINDRO-CYLINDRIC GROIN.— A groin formed by the inter- 
 section of cvlindric vaults of unequal height. 
 
 CYLINDRO-SPHERIC ARCH. The line of intersection made by 
 a spheric vault of less height, into a cvlindrical vault that is greater. 
 
 CYLINDRO-SPHERIC GROIN.— A groin made by a spheric 
 piercing a cvlindric vault, the latter exceeding the former in height. 
 
 CYLINDROIDIC; GROIN. — Made by the intersection of spheric 
 vaults. 
 
 CYMA RECTA.— .See pi. 2, fig. 6.
 
 68 
 
 CYMA REVERSA.— St?e pi. 2, fig. 5. 
 CYMA TALON.— See pi. 2, fig. 4. 
 
 D. 
 
 DEAL. — The timber of the fir tree, when sawn into boards, planks, 
 and various pieces of different scantlings intended to be employed in 
 buildings. Of this wood there are two kinds, the white and the yellow; 
 the latter being generally used in out-door work. 
 
 DECASTYLE. — A portico, composed of ten columns. 
 
 DECORATION.— See the Director. 
 
 DENTILS. — Indentations used in cornices of the different Orders. 
 See pi. 8, 10, 14, and 18. 
 
 DESIGN.— See the Director. 
 
 DETAILS. — Drawings on a large scale, for the guidance of those 
 engaged in the execution of the work; and hence they are named 
 working drawings. 
 
 DIASTYLE. — Intercolumniations of three diameters. 
 
 DIE. — The body of a pedestal, comprised between the cornice and 
 base. See pi. 3. 
 
 DIE. — In plastering, this term is applied to plaster that has lost its 
 tenaciovis quality. 
 
 DIMINISHED BAR. — Bars in a sash window, which gradually 
 become thinner as they recede from the glass towards the room. 
 
 DLMINISHED ARCHES. — Arches havLng less than their semi- 
 diameter in height. 
 
 DIMINUTION. — Signifies the tapering or diminishing of the shaft 
 of a column. — See pi. 23 and 24. 
 
 DINING ROOM. — This is often one of the most spacious apart- 
 ments in a house ; varying in length from twenty feet, to nearly three 
 times that dimension, according to the size of the house. 
 
 DIPTERON. — Two ranges of columns surrounding the cella of an 
 antique temple. 
 
 DISCHARGE. — An overloaded piece of timber is said to be dis- 
 charged, when a post is trimmed imder it, or brickwork carried up. 
 
 DISCHARGING ARCHES. — Segmental arches built over aper- 
 tures, wooden lintels, or any part not capable of supporting the weight 
 required. 
 
 DISCHARGING STRUTS. — This tenn has the same significations 
 in its general use, as principal braces, or auxiliary rafters. 
 
 DISHING-OUT. — Synonimous with cradling. 
 
 DISPOSITION. — This term comprehends not only the situation 
 and arrangement of the different parts of a plan, but likewise that of 
 every architectural object exhibited in the elevations and sections of a 
 design. 
 
 DOG-LEGGED STAIRS.— Stairs without well-hole. The same 
 vertical planes contain the balusters and rail of both flights, the steps 
 of which are fixed to strings, carriages, and newels.
 
 69 
 
 DOME. — This word is commonly used indifferently with cupola ; but 
 the application of the word dome is more appropriately employed to 
 express the exterior construction or convex surface of these architec- 
 tural objects ; and that of cupola, to the interior concave surface. 
 
 DOOR. — The dimensions of doors are determined by the height of 
 the story, and the extent of the building for which they are intended. 
 The doors of private houses can seldom exceed four feet in width ; but 
 three feet is the general dimension. The proportion between the 
 height and breadth of small doors may be as seven to three ; for those 
 of larger dimensions, double their breadth will suffice for their height. 
 Doors serving as entrances to extensive mansions may be from five to 
 six feet wide, and those of public edifices from six to ten feet. Doors 
 of large dimensions should have folding leaves. The use of folding 
 doors, in respectable dwellings, possess many advantages over cumber- 
 some partitions, when it is required to form two apartments into one. 
 
 DOOR FRAME. — It is sometimes formed of two upright pieces and 
 a head ; which are wrought, beaded, rebated, and framed by mortise 
 and tenon ; and at others it consists of linings, with facings formed by 
 architraves, pilasters, or columns. 
 
 DORIC ORDER.— See Director, and \)\. 5 to 8. 
 
 DORMANT, OR DORMER WINDOW.— A vertical window pro- 
 jecting from a roof, having its lower part resting upon the rafters. 
 
 DORMITORY. — A sleeping room in a public establishment. 
 
 DOUBLE FIR LATHS.— The laths employed for the ceilings of 
 best apartments and staircases ; and which are three-eighths of an 
 inch thick, 
 
 DOVE-TAILING. — Fastening boards together by letting one piece 
 into another, by means of projections and indentures resembling 
 triangles. 
 
 DRAGON BEAM, OR PIECE.— That piece in the framing of a 
 roof which assists to support the hip rafter. 
 
 DRAG. — DRAGGING. — A door is said to drag, when it rubs the 
 floor in opening or closing. 
 
 DRAWING, OR WITHDRAWING ROOM.— One of the most 
 spacious and elegant apartments in large houses, and which is used for 
 the reception of company after meals. 
 
 DRESSING. — When the stones intended for building have been 
 squared and faced solely with a hammer, they are then termed hammer- 
 dressed. When faced with chisels, the work is called tooling ; and 
 the stones themselves are said to be tooled. If the surface is required 
 to be smooth, their faces are rubbed with another stone of large 
 dimensions, and sand and water applied. Dressing is likewise applied 
 to many decorative objects on exterior walls and surrounding apertures. 
 
 DRESSING ROOM. — A small room adjacent to a bedcliamber. 
 
 DRIFT —THRUST.— SHOOT.— The horizontal force applied by 
 an arch, against the piers or abutments. 
 
 DRIP. — This term signifies the same as larmier or corona. 
 
 DRIPPING EAVES.— Those parts of slated or tded roofs which 
 project Ijcyond the face of the wall, when they are without gutters. 
 
 DROPS. — C^rnaments placed under the sollit nf the cornice, ;uid at
 
 70 
 
 the lower extremity of the triglyphs of the Doric Order. — See pi. 
 6, 8, and 21. 
 
 DROVED ASHLAR. — The most common sort of hewn stone. 
 
 DWARF WALLS. — Low walls in general ; but particularly those 
 under ground floors, and others that surround buildings, and which are 
 often surmounted by ornamental railing. 
 
 E. 
 
 EAVES. — The lower edges of the sides of a roof projecting beyond 
 the face of the walls. 
 
 EAVES LATH, OR BOARD.— A board wrought to a feather- 
 edge, and placed under the bed of the first row of slates at the eaves. 
 
 ECHINUS. — The principal moulding in the Doric capital, placed 
 immediately under the abacus. 
 
 EDGING. — Working the edges of rafters or ribs to the same level. 
 
 EDIFICE. — A term that can only with propriety be applied to public 
 stmctures. 
 
 ELBOWS OF A WINDOW.— The flank under each of the two 
 shutters. They are generally panelled. 
 
 EMBOSSING. — If a depression be made with a blunt instrument 
 on the surface of wood, the depressed part will again rise to its original 
 level by being immersed in water. Accordingly, if the wood to be 
 ornamented be stamped with a steel tool or die, in the parts intended to 
 be raised, and then planed or filed down to the level of these parts, it 
 will, on being immersed in water, exhibit above the surface, the exact 
 impression of the pattern which was stamped on it with the instrument. 
 This raised impression, or embossed work, may then be finished by the 
 usual operations of carving. 
 
 EMBRASURE. — The interior splaying or enlargement of the sides 
 of a door or window, for the greater convenience of the door, or to 
 increase the volume of light. 
 
 ENGAGED COLUMNS.— Such as have a small portion of their 
 diameter engaged in a wall. See pi. 27 and 32, 
 
 ENSEMBLE. — This term is generally used to signify the total of an 
 architectural design. It is likewise, on some occasions, employed to 
 express the general harmony and unity exhibited. 
 
 ENTABLATURE. — It is composed of an architrave, frieze, and 
 cornice. See pi. 4, 6, 8, 10, 14, 18, 25, 38, and 39. 
 
 ENTASIS. — The almost imperceptible curved outline of the shafts 
 of columns. See pi. 23. 
 
 EQUI-ALTITUDINAL GROIN.— The groin which results from 
 the cross vaults being of equal height. 
 
 EQUI-ANGULAR GROIN.— That in which the axis of each vault 
 form similar angles at the same point. 
 
 EQUI-LATERAL GROIN.— That in which the breadths of the cross 
 vaults are equal. 
 
 EURYTHMY. — An harmonious relation between the parts and tlie 
 whole of an architectural production.
 
 n 
 
 EUSTYLE. — An intercolumniation of two and a quarter (Uametf-*. 
 
 EXCHANGE. — A public edifice in which brokers, merchants, iVc, 
 assemble to transact business. 
 
 EXTRADOS. — The exterior curvature of a vault or arch. 
 
 EYE OF A VOLUTE. — A circular figure in the centre of tlie 
 spiral contour of a volute. See pi. 10 and 12. 
 
 F. 
 
 FACADE. — This word, though s3'nonimous with elevation, reftMs 
 more strictly to the principal or entrance-front of a building or edifice. 
 
 FACE MOULD. — Applied by joiners to the patterns from which 
 they cut hand-railing, S:c. 
 
 FACE OF A STONE. — Its exterior surface ; which should always 
 be in a contrary direction to its splitting grain. 
 
 FACINGS. — The wood work fixed round the openings of doors and 
 windows in the interior of buildings. 
 
 FALSE ROOF. — The space comprised between the roof and the 
 ceiling of the upper story. 
 
 FASCIA. — The band of an architrave. This terra is likewise on 
 some occasions applied to the moulded work over the windows of brick 
 buildings, but not including the upper range. 
 
 FEATHER-EDGED BOARDS.— Such as are wrought thinner on 
 one edge than on the other. 
 
 FENCE WALLS. — Such as are used for inclosures. 
 
 FILLET.— .See pi. 2, Fig. 7. 
 
 FILLING-IN-PIECES. — Timbers of short dimensions, used in frame 
 work, as the jack rafters of a roof. 
 
 FINE STUFF. — In plastering, it is used for ordinary walls and 
 ceilings, set for colour or paper; and is composed of slaked lime, passed 
 through a fine sieve; to which is added a suitable quantity of hair, and 
 on some occasions a small portion of fine sand. 
 
 FINISHING. — This is the third and best coat of three-coat plaster, 
 when intended for stucco. The best is twice hand-floated, properly 
 trowelled, and is composed of sand and fine lime. When the third coat 
 is composed of fine stuff, and intended for paper, the work is termed 
 setting. 
 
 FIR-IN-BOND. — Signifies bond-timbers, wall-plates, and lintels. 
 
 FIRST COAT. — When the first of two-coat work, and the same of 
 Ihree-coat work, is applied to brick-work, the former is termed rendering, 
 and tlie latter, roughing-in. Likewise when the first of two-coat work 
 is applied to laths, it is named laying ; and the first of three-coat work, 
 pricking-up. 
 
 FLATTING. — It is used as a finishing coat in inside painting, to 
 avoid the gloss that common oil-painting gives to surfaces ; to effect 
 which a great portion of spirits of turpentine is used, and sometimes a 
 small quantity of unboiled oil. 
 
 FLOATED LATH AND PLASTER SET FOR PAPER.— Is three-
 
 7-1 
 
 coat wort, the first of which is picking-up, the second floating, and the 
 setting is fine stuff. 
 
 FLOATED WORK. — In plastering is such as is pricked-up, floated, 
 and set. 
 
 FLOATING. — In plastering is the second of three-coat work. 
 
 FLOOR. — In cai-pentry, tlie timbers which serve to support the 
 flooring boards and ceiling, are termed the naked flooring ; of which there 
 are three kinds, single joisted floors, double floors, and framed floors. 
 
 A single joisted floor is composed of one range of joists ; but it 
 admits of an improvement which will answer some of the purposes of a 
 double floor, in situations that will not allow of the increased depth of 
 the latter. It consists in giving every third or fourth joist an increase 
 of depth, to which the ceiling joists should be notched and nailed, 
 crossing the said joists at right angles. This method gives but a 
 trifling increase to the thickness of the floor, yet it will not allow 
 sounds to pass as freely as an ordinary single joisted floor, and the 
 ceiling will stand better. 
 
 To make a strong single joisted floor, with the smallest quantity ot 
 timber, the joists should be thin and deep, but not less than two inches 
 in thickness. 
 
 Where joists cannot have a bearing on the wall, as near fire-places, 
 and flues, or from other causes, a piece of timber named a trimmer, is 
 framed between two of the nearest joists that have a bearing on the 
 wall. Into the side of this, the ends of the intervening joists that 
 require to be supported, are mortised. This operation is termed trim- 
 ming. The two joists that support the trimmer, are named trimming- 
 joists, and are required to be stronger than the common joists, in the 
 proportion of one-eighth of an inch added to their thickness for each 
 joist supported by the trimmer. 
 
 When the bearing of single joisting exceeds eight feet, a single row 
 of struts should be placed midway between the joists, to prevent their 
 turning or twisting sideways, and to render the floor stiffer. When 
 the bearing exceeds twelve feet, two rows of struts will be required ; 
 thus adding one row of struts to each additional four feet in bearing. 
 Each row of struts should be fixed so as to form one continued line 
 across the floor. The quality of the ceiling depends in a great mea- 
 sure on their fitting. For this purpose the short ends of boards, nearly 
 of an equal depth with the joists, inserted moderately tight, will 
 answer every purpose ; and when simply nailed, they are preferable to 
 keys mortised into the joists ; being at the same time a saving in labour, 
 and the strength of the joists is preserved by the omission of the 
 mortises. 
 
 Single joisting may be used, for ordinary purposes, to any moderate 
 extent for which the necessary scantlings of timber can be obtained, 
 excepting where a good and perfect ceiling is required, when the bear- 
 ing should not exceed fifteen feet. In any case, where the passage of 
 sound is to be prevented, a framed floor will be preferable. 
 
 A double floor is formed of binding-joists, bridging-joists, and ceil- 
 ing-joists. The former constitute the principal support of the floor, 
 and have the bridging-joists notched upon their upper sides ; and the
 
 73 
 
 ceiling-joists are either notched, or framed, with chased mortise* 
 between their lower sides. 
 
 The only difference between framed floors and double floors, consists 
 in the binding-joists of the former being framed into larjje pieces of 
 timber, named girders. Girders should, invariably, when employed for 
 long bearings, be made as deep as may be practicable ; for the loss of 
 a couple of inches in the height of a room is trifling, compared with 
 a cracked and uneven ceiling, and an unsteady floor. The most 
 straight-grained of the two surfaces forming the breadth of a girder, 
 should be placed for the under side ; and as the greatest strain is 
 exactly midway between the two extremities, it is advisal)le so to 
 arrange the mortises, that they shall not fall precisely in that point. 
 Neither should girders be built into the walls ; but, the portion at 
 each end, that beds on the walls, which varies from nine to twelve 
 inches, according to their bearing, should liave a flat stone laid over 
 it, or otherwise an arch, for the purpose of carrying the wall above. It 
 is better not to lay girders over openings, except when found to be 
 indispensable ; on which occasions the wall-plates or templets should 
 have a proportionate scantling and length to transfer the weight to the 
 piers. The latter method is generally preferable to laying girders very 
 obliquely across an apartment. 
 
 The principal part of the obsen'ation made on single joisting, applies 
 equally to bridging-joists. They should seldom be less than two inches 
 in thickness ; but, when laid upon sleepers, on ground floors, there is 
 generally a little addition made to their scantling. In such situations, 
 if proper care be not taken to ventilate and drain the under side, the 
 durability of the joists will be comparatively short. The application of 
 .smiths', or even common ashes, laid from one to two feet deep 
 beneath such floors, will contribute greatly to the preservation of the 
 timbers. The best are the ashes and scoriae from founderies, or any 
 ashes containing iron. 
 
 Ceiling-joists do not require to be thicker than for nailing the 
 laths ; for which purpose, two inches will generally be found sufficient. 
 To notch and nail ceiling-joists to the under side of the binding-joists, 
 will generally be found better than to mortise and chase them in ; for 
 it not only diminishes the labour, but by it the strength of the binding- 
 joists is preserved, and the ceiling stands better. 
 
 In conclusion, it may be observed, that single-joisting forms a floor 
 of greater strength than a double or framed floor; though each shall 
 contain an equal quantity of timber, and may be made with the same 
 ease to a similar extent of bearing; but the ceiling is more liable to 
 cracks and irregularities ; and hence single-joisted floors of long bear- 
 ings are only adapted to common buildings. To ensure a perfect 
 ceiling, a double floor is requisite ; but for an extensive bearing, a 
 framed floor is the most suitable. 
 
 When the ends of the joists of floors are supported by walls of con- 
 siderable height, the middle of the joists should never bear upon any 
 partition which extends no hijjher than the under side of the floor ; 
 otherwise the unequal settlement of the walls may cause the floor to be 
 unlevel, and probably injure the ceiling. 
 
 r.
 
 74 
 
 The strength of wall-plates and templets should be regulated by the 
 extent of the span. The following may serve for general purposes : — 
 
 Inch(><;. Inchos. 
 
 For a 20 feet bearing, wall-plates - 4|- x 3 
 
 30 6x4 
 
 40 7i X 5 
 
 Floors should be framed so as to be three-quarters of an inch higher 
 at the centre than at the sides ; the same as ceding-joists, which 
 should be three-fourths of an inch higher in twenty feet in the middle 
 than at the sides, to allow for the settling of the floors. 
 
 FLOORING BOARDS.— The best wood for flooring, is the fine 
 yellow deal, as it retains its colour longer than the white kind. These 
 boards are sorted into three classes, which differ in quality and breadth ; 
 and the choice of them is regulated by the description of budding for 
 which they are intended. The first of these kinds is free from cross- 
 grained stufi', shakes, sap-wood, or knots. The second is likewise 
 without sap-wood and shakes, but not free from small sound knots. 
 And the third sort is formed of the residue of the two preceding kinds. 
 The best boards are about five inches broad, while the breadth of the 
 common extends to nine inches. 
 
 A variety of methods is practised for jointing and fastening floor- 
 boards to the joists. The ordinary way is to work the elges to a 
 straight line, so as to be square with their surfaces ; after which they 
 are pressed close to each other, and nailed through their upper surface. 
 When the boards are suspected of not being sufficiently seasoned, the 
 practice often resorted to is to fasten the first and fourth boards in the 
 usual manner, allowing a little less space between the two than the 
 breadth of the boards ; and the same with every other fourth board. 
 The intermediate boards are then laid together, and the meeting of 
 their middle joint necessarily causing them to form an obtuse angle, 
 these edges being a little bevelled, a sufficient force or weight is then 
 applied to this part to bring them to a level. The boards by this 
 operation are said to be folded, and their edges being nailed through the 
 surface, the heads are hidden by putty. 
 
 The best floors are either plowed and tongued, rebated, or dowelled. 
 
 The dowelling of the joints of boards consists in inserting wooden 
 pins in their thickness, parallel with their surfaces ; one half of each 
 pin entering the two edges of every couple of boards, which are best 
 placed when midway between the joists. In the best work of this kind, 
 the nails are driven in a slanting direction through the outer edge of 
 each board, in the process of laying; by which means they are con- 
 cealed when the floor is finished. 
 
 When flooring boards are either plowed and tongued or rebated, so 
 as to allow the edges to lap over each other, both methods prevent the 
 appearance of crevices in the event of the boards contracting or run- 
 ning-in ; but they are necessarily more expensive. 
 
 In case of boards not being of sufficient length, the headings should 
 invariably rest upon a joist ; nor should those of two adjoining boards.
 
 75 
 
 be in the same line These a'e jointed in various ways ; namely, 
 square, plowed and tongued, or splayed. 
 
 In laying floors, the boarding towards the doorways shonld rise a 
 little ; which prevents the doors from dragging, and at the same time 
 enables them to clear the carpet. 
 
 The general method of measuring floors is by squares of ten feet on 
 each side. Henre by multiplying the length by the breadth, and cut- 
 ting oif two decimals, the contents of a floor in squares will be given. 
 Thus 24 by 18 gives 432, or 4 squares and 32 decimal parts. 
 
 FLUE. — Applied to the cavity or funnel which rises from a fire- 
 place. 
 
 FLUSH. — Used in joinery to signify that the part spoken of has its 
 surface even with tliat of another, with which it may be connected. 
 
 FLUTINGS- — Segmental cavities in the shafts of pilasters and 
 columns. See pi. 6. 
 
 FLYERS. — Stairs or steps having their risers parallel to each other. 
 
 FOLIAGE. — Compositions of leaves used in architectural decorations. 
 
 FOOTINGS. — Broad courses projecting beyond each face of the 
 superincumbent wall, for the purpose of furnishing it with a firm base. 
 
 FOOT-PACE. — A broad tread situated between the lower step and 
 landing. Also applied to a horizontal piece of handrailing over such 
 part. 
 
 FORUM. — Adjacent to the antique temples and basilicas, other 
 public edifices were situated ; as the serarium or treasury, curis or 
 town-hall, bank, exchange, public library, markets, and prisons ; which 
 were so arranged and connected together, as to form one total, named 
 the forum, or market-place. Thus, the first forum which ancient Rome 
 possessed, being the Forum Roraanum, naturally occupied the centre of 
 the city. It is the earliest established part in the foundation of a 
 town or city, because it comprises all that relates to the necessities of 
 life and the affairs of commerce. It formed the general rendezvous for 
 all transactions, and a great number of the inhabitants passed a con- 
 siderable portion of the day there. As this city increased in extent, it 
 assumed the appearance of a union of several cities ; thence each 
 quarter or district contained its own forum. Ancient Rome had seven- 
 teen of these public places; fourteen of which were appropriated for the 
 sale of different commodities, and were named foravenalia. The others 
 were used for holding meetings for the arranging of public affairs, for 
 the administration of justice, &c. ; and were named civilia and ju- 
 diciaria. 
 
 The area in the centre of the fora, was two-thirds of its length in 
 breadth. Those of Greece were square. It appears from Vitruvius 
 that the fora of Rome were environed by two ranges of galleries, 
 situated above each other : as he recommends that the superior columns 
 should be one-fourth less in height than those below. It was under 
 the lower gallery that the shops and stores were situated. These 
 contained for sale the different articles of commerce, leaving a sufficient 
 space for free passage between the fronts of these and the columns. 
 The upper gallery was arranged for the transaction of public and pri- 
 vate busine.**"*-
 
 76 
 
 FOUNDATION. — There are two kinds of foundations, iialur;il and 
 artificial. In the former, the ground presents a hard bed of gravel or 
 rock ; and in the latter it consists of sandy, boggy, or loose earth ; 
 when piling, or similar means are employed to obtain a sufficient 
 .solidity. When the ground is found to be ver}' objectionable, after 
 having sunk a requisite depth, dry straight-grained piles should be 
 used, whose sides are equal to one-twelfth of their length ; this latter 
 being regulated by the depth it may be to the solid earth, which they 
 ought to reach, and should be driven as close to each other as the 
 weight of the intended building may require If the quality of the 
 ground be equal, and not very objectionable, it may be strengthened 
 by placing pieces of sound oak about two feet distant, firmly bedded 
 across the bottom of the excavation made for the wall. Over these, 
 planks of oak or pitch pine may be laid, having a foot more in width 
 than the intended foundation wall, and should be spiked upon the 
 pieces below. Ground of the same kind may also be strengthened by 
 another method, which consists in laying firmly, and near to each 
 other, a course of single stones, hammer-dressed, of a sufficient size to 
 reach a foot beyond each side of the foundation wall. Another course, 
 rather less in width, may be added ; the joints of the upper meeting 
 between those of the lower stones. The breadth of a foundation may 
 be made double that of the intended superincumbent wall ; the con- 
 traction being equal at each side. And if wood be laid in the trench 
 of such foundation, the first course, whether of stone or brick, should be 
 of a hard quality, so as not to imbibe moisture, should be laid as close 
 as possible, and without mortar. These precautions are requisite for 
 the preservation of the timber. When ground is solid only in parts, 
 and these portions range with the planes or piers in the intended plan, 
 inverted arches having half their width in depth, may be turned under 
 the apertures, thus forming one continued base ; that should the walls 
 sink, the effect will be equal in all parts. Indeed, this precaution is 
 necessary in all extensive buildings, as it will prevent the fractures 
 presented in many parts of walls, which have good foundations ; occa- 
 sioned by the pressure of the low walling, under the apertures, not 
 being equal to that of the piers : hence the unequal settlement. Should 
 the hard or solid portions of the ground, in tlie foundations, be situ- 
 ated under the intended apertures, piers must be built in such places, 
 and arches suspended, whose curvature at their apex should be increased, 
 in proportion as the breadth of the pier intended to be built upon the 
 centre of each, may be less. By this, as by the former method, the 
 sinking will be uniform, if the ground be equally good under the piers. 
 
 FOX-TAIL WEDGING.— The forcing of a wedge down the middle 
 of the end of a tenon, wlien framed into a mortise, in order to enlarge 
 the extremity, and thus render it more binding. 
 
 FRANKING. — The method of making the joints of the cross-pieces 
 in window-sashes. 
 
 FREE STUFF.— FROWY STUFF.— Such as is without knots, and 
 is wrought with ease. 
 
 FRIEZE. — Is the part situated between the architrave and cornice 
 
 an entablature.
 
 FRIEZE-PANEL. — When a doAr •^resents six panels, this terra is 
 applied to the uppermost. 
 
 FRIEZE-RAIL. — In a door of six panels, the frieze-rail is placed 
 immediately under the top rail. 
 
 FURRINGS. — Slips or flat pieces of wood used for the purpose of 
 raising the sunken or hollow parts in rafters or joists, so as to form a 
 level surface. 
 
 FUT. — The same signification as shaft, when applied to a column. 
 
 G. 
 
 GATHERING OF THE WINGS.— The joining of a flue with the 
 breast of a chimnev. 
 
 GEOMETRICAL STAIRS.— Such as are supported by having one 
 end of each step inserted in the wall, and the lower edge of the riser of 
 every upper step attached to the tread of the step next below. Thus 
 rendering it impossible for them to descend either in a vertical or in an 
 inclined direction. 
 
 GIRDER. — The beam used to shorten the bearing of the binding- 
 joists in a framed floor. 
 
 Beams should be cut to a camber of about one inch, in a bearing of 
 eighteen or twenty feet. 
 
 GIRDERS. 
 
 Length 
 
 Fir Scantl 
 
 ng- 
 
 Oak 
 
 Scantling. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 1 12 
 
 10 X 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 X 7 
 
 16 
 
 llf X 
 
 H 
 
 lOi 
 
 X H 
 
 20 
 
 13i X 
 
 10^ 
 
 12 
 
 X 9^ 
 
 24 
 
 15 X 
 
 12 
 
 13^ 
 
 X lOf 
 
 GLAZING. — Glaziers measure their work and materials by feet, 
 inches, and twelfth parts of an inch ; and estimate by the square foot. 
 Windows are sometimes measured by taking the dimensions and area 
 of one pane, and multiplying that quantity by the number of panes. 
 But the more usual way is to take the length and breadth of the whole 
 .sash for the dimensions of the glazing. Circular and oval windows, 
 fan-lights, &c., are measured as if they were square, taking their 
 greatest length and breadth, in compensation for the waste of glass, 
 and the additional labour in cutting it to the required shape. 
 
 To ascertain the quantity of glass required for six windows, eacli 
 5 feet 8 inches high, and 3 feet 2 inches broad.
 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 
 5 «t 
 
 3 2 
 
 15 
 
 2 10 
 1 4 
 
 
 17 Hi 
 
 6 
 
 Feet 
 
 107 8 
 
 GROUND-JOISTS.— Those used for the bearing of the floor of the 
 lowest story. 
 
 GROUND-NICHE. — One rising immediately from the floor of an 
 apartment. 
 
 GROUND-PLATE, OR SILL.— Pieces of timber sometimes used 
 in a lower story for the purpose of securing the ends of the floor- 
 ing timbers, which are formed with tenons, and thus framed into the 
 plates. 
 
 GROUNDS. — Small pieces of wood built in walls, to which bases, 
 surbases, and architraves, are attached. 
 
 GROUT. — Mortar, rendered sufficiently fluid, by an additional por- 
 tion of water, to fill all cavities that may remain in walls. In order to 
 render it effective, it requires to be made from mortar that has been 
 well mixed and beaten a length of time previous. 
 
 H. 
 
 HALF-SPACE. — The space introduced between two flights of stairs. 
 
 HALL. — See Director. 
 
 HALVING. — To cut away half the thickness from the ends of two 
 pieces of timber in order to join them. 
 
 HANGING STILE.— That stile of a door to which the hinges 
 are secured. 
 
 HEADERS. — In masonry, are stones placed lengthways across a 
 wall. The same term is applied in bricklaying, when the length of 
 the bricks is placed in the thickness of a wall ; and should this arrange- 
 ment be continued for an entire course, it is named a heading course. 
 
 HEAD-WAY. — Applied to a staircase, signifies the intervening 
 place between the stairs or landing-place and the ceiling. 
 
 HEART-BOND. — In masonry, is the bond formed by a stone placed 
 over two others of equal breadth, each of which extend to the middle 
 of the wall. 
 
 HELIX. — The small volute which decorates the middle of each 
 face of the Corinthian capital. 
 
 HEXA STYLE. — A portico of six columns. 
 
 HICK-JOINT POINTING.— A better kind of mortar inserted in 
 the joints of brickwork, and made smooth with its face.
 
 HIPS. — Timbers in an iiu-Iined position, situated at the angles of a 
 i<)of. 
 
 HIP-MOULDS. — Sometimes signify the backs of a hip, and at 
 others a pattern for setting it out. 
 
 HIP-ROOF. — When the meeting of each of the two inclined planes 
 of a roof form hips, the roof itself is called a hip-roof. 
 
 HOLING. — The piercing of slates, through which to drive the 
 nails. 
 
 I. 
 
 IMPOST.— SPRINGING— The upper part of a wall or pier, 
 forming the springing point of an arch. For examples of moulded 
 imposts, see pi. 37- 
 
 INTERCOLUMNTATION.— The intervening space betweeu two 
 columns. See pi. 27. 
 
 INTERTIE. — A piece of timber framed horizontal) v between two 
 posts, and serving as a tie. 
 
 INTRADOS. — The concave or interior surface of a vault or arch 
 
 INVERTED ARCH.— S(^e Foundation. 
 
 IONIC ORDER.— See Director, and ph. 9, 10, 11, and 12. 
 
 JACK TIMBER. — Such as is of shorter lengths than the other tim- 
 ber emploved in the same range. 
 
 JACK RAFTERS.— The short rafters which join the hips. 
 
 JACK RIBS. — Short ribs which join the angle ribs in domos and 
 groins. 
 
 JOGGLED JOINT. — In masonn,-, is a method of uniting stones so 
 as n(jt to be divided by lateral force. 
 
 JOGGLE PIECE. — In carpentry, is a truss post. It is formed with 
 shoulders, against which the ends of the struts abutt, and are secured 
 in sockets. 
 
 JOINERY.— St'e each part under its respective head. 
 
 JOISTS. — All timbers employed in flooring except girders: namelv, 
 bridging, binding, and ceiling joists. 
 
 K. 
 
 KEY-STONE. — This is used by some synonymously with bond- 
 stone ; but its proper signification is the centre voussoir of an arch or 
 vault. 
 
 KING-POST. — A post placed in the middle between the two prin- 
 cipal rafters of a roof. 
 
 L. 
 
 LAP. — In slating, see Bond, 
 
 LATH FLOATED AND SET FAIir- .9ee PnicKED-Trr. 'rt.j.irsu 
 and Set.
 
 LATH LAYED AND SET.— Two-coat plastering, which, when 
 applied to ceilings, is whited ; and to walls, coloured. 
 
 LATH PLASTERED, SET, AND COLOURED.— Synonymous 
 with lath layed, set, and coloured. 
 
 LATH PRICKED-UP, FLOATED, AND SET FOR PAPER — 
 Three-coat plastering. See each of these terms. 
 
 LAYING, — The first of two-coat plaster on "aths, the surface of 
 which is swept with a broom. 
 
 LIGHT-HOUSE.— FANAL.— PHAROS.— It was a beautiful prob- 
 lem of this kind, which Mr. Smeaton, the English engineer, solved so 
 perfectly in the construction of the far-famed Eddystone light-house. 
 He had to determine the form and dimensions of a building, which 
 should .stand firm on a sunken rock, in the channel of a swift ocean tide, 
 and exposed to the fury of tempests from every quarter. Only he who 
 has been driven before an irresistible storm in the darkness of night, 
 and in the midst of dangers, and whose eyes have watched the steady 
 ray from the light-house which saved him, can appreciate fully the 
 importance of studies which afford such useful results. He feels how 
 happy he is, to have fellow-men, whose talents, although exerted, 
 perhaps, for individual good, are yet, by divine Providence, made to 
 accomplish the most philanthropic ends ; and to bind the whole of 
 human kind into one great society of helping brotherhood. 
 
 LIME.-^There are two kinds, the simple lime-stone, or pure car- 
 bonate of lime, and argillo-ferruginous lime, which contains previous to 
 its being burnt, from one-twelfth to one-twentieth of clay and oxide of 
 iron. The former when burnt is of a white colour ; the latter inclines 
 to yellow or brown, and when used becomes much harder than the 
 other. 
 
 Lime should be used fresh from the kiln ; for if suffered to slack by 
 the moisture of the atmosphere, it shortly returns to the state of 
 unburnt lime. Mortar that has lain exposed a considerable time, like- 
 wise loses its binding qualities, when the outsides of the heap are mixed 
 with the interior mass. The following method precludes the necessity 
 of preparing mortar except when required ; and at the same time pre- 
 serves the quality of the lime. 
 
 Take lime fresh from the kiln ; and excavate a pit about four or five 
 feet in breadth, and twice that length. By one side fix a wooden 
 trough, of about six feet in length, two in breadth, and one in depth. 
 At that extremity of the trough which should hang over the pit, make 
 a hole of about six inches square, before which nail a grating of iron, 
 with the bars about a quarter of an inch asunder. Inside the trough, fix 
 a slider to cover the grating, which can, when required, be drawn up. 
 Prat two or three bushels of lime at a time into the trough; pouring a 
 sufficient quantity of water upon it, and working it well with a hoe per- 
 forated with holes. When a sufficient quantity of liquid lime is formed, 
 draw the slider, and the trough will empty itself into the pit. Throw 
 more water on the remaining lime-stones ; and those which will not 
 s'ljick, uust be rejected. When lime, thus slacked, has been a few hours 
 in the pit, it will take the consistence of paste, which it will preserve 
 for years. It should be covered, to keep it clean, and to exclude the
 
 81 
 
 fixed ail flcating in the atmosphere ; as well as to preserve it from heat 
 and cold, especially the latter, as frost destroys its quality. Small pits 
 are preferable to those of larger dimensions, augmenting the number 
 according to the quantity of lime required. 
 
 Lime thus prepared, when mixed with water, is much superior to 
 whiting for whitewash ; and, as it requires no size, is more wholesome ; 
 for the effluvia from size, which invariably attracts damp, causes a 
 nauseous odour. It produces a resplendent white for ceilings, and 
 possesses a peculiar tenacity on walls, and in situations exposed to 
 moisture. 
 
 Lime, prepared according to this method, is equally good after 
 remaining a considerable time in the pit; besides the advantage of 
 always being ready for use ; for when mixed with a little water, and a 
 proper proportion of sand, mortar mav be prepared in a few minutes. 
 
 LIME AND HAIR.— COARSE STUFF.— In plastering, is a 
 composition of lime and hair, employed in first coating and floating. 
 
 LINTEL. — A short piece of timber, placed over the aperture of a 
 door or window, to support the portion of the wall above. Lintels 
 over windows usually bear only the interior part of the wall. 
 
 LOWER RAIL.— The bottom rail of a door. 
 
 LUCARNE, LUTHORN, OR DORMER WINDOW,— A vertical 
 window, situated in the roof of a building. 
 
 LYING PANEL. — One that has its fibres in a horizontal position. 
 
 M. 
 
 MARGIN. — In a course of slates, that part is termed the margin, 
 which is visible to the sight, or extends beyond the lap or bond. 
 
 MARGINS, MARGENTS.— In the framed work of joineiy, it sig- 
 nifies the flat surface of rails and stiles. 
 
 MASONRY. — An attention to the position of stones, and to veins, 
 or other signs that may indicate the existence of lamina, merit par- 
 ticular notice. Stones that are required to support a considerable 
 weight, as piers, columns, and pilasters, should have the same position 
 hat they had in the quarry. 
 
 The different stones intended to be used in the formation of columns 
 and pilasters, should be so selected and arranged, that no difference in 
 colour ought to be perceptible, so as to indicate the joints,which should 
 be as few and as close as possible. To ascertain the exact diameter 
 for each end of the stones so selected for columns, draw an outline of 
 the shaft to the full size, dividing it into as many parts as there are 
 separate stones; making each the precise height that it should be when 
 wrought. This being determined, the extremities, or beds of each 
 stone must be wrought to form exact parallel planes ; on each of which, 
 after finding their centres, the circles of their diameters may be de- 
 scribed as given in the full-sized drawing. These circumferences may 
 be divided into the same number of equal parts ; which, for instance, 
 may be six or eight; through each two of which, lines should be drawn 
 
 M
 
 82 
 so as to pass through the centre, making those on the opposite b.»d if 
 e.ich stone exactly in the same plane, the extremities of such lines 
 being designed to regulate the progress of the chisel along the face 
 of the stone. One-third of the height of the shaft is cylindrical, and 
 hence its surface may be determined by a straight-edge ; but for the 
 remaining two-thirds, a diminishing rule will be requisite for each stone, 
 to determine its curvature or swell, and likewise to plumb in setting. 
 To find the curvature of the diminishing rule, one of the methods 
 presented in plate 23, may suffice, which should be applied to the first 
 formation of the outline of the full-sized drawing, from which the cui-ve 
 of each rule ought to be taken. Hence to draw the curve from fig. 2, 
 after having made the necessary lines at all the points from 1 to 7 
 inclusive, drive two nails, so far distant from each other, as to admit a 
 slip or lath of wood, or any other flexible body ; the nails being so 
 placed, that either the inner or outer perpendicular surface of the lath 
 shall correspond with the several points of diminution of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
 6, 7. It only remains to mark a line along the surface of the lath, 
 which will be the curve required. If it be required to flute the shafts, 
 the following is the method to be adopted. If, for example, the columns 
 be of the Ionic or Corinthian Order, to find the necessary divisions, 
 take half of the diameter at each end, which when applied to the cir- 
 cumference, will divide it into six equal parts, each of which should be 
 subdivided into four, making in the whole twenty-four divisions. 
 Divide one of the last-mentioned divisions into four parts, taking half 
 of one of these parts, and marking it on each side of the lines forming 
 the twenty-four divisions ; thus making the fillets equal to one-fourth, 
 and the flutes to three-fourths of each division. "The arrangements 
 being completed, the lines required may be made with any finely-poitited 
 instrument drawn close to the edge of a rule properly secured, and 
 accurately placed to the divisions at each end. When pilasters require 
 to be decorated with flutings, supposing the sides to be diminished, draw 
 a line down the centre of the shaft, the height of which line may be 
 formed into any number of equal divisions drawn across the face. On 
 these, make the divisions for the flutes and fillets, in the proportions 
 before given ; and by fixing pins at each of the points, and applying a 
 pliable lath, the lines may be drawn in the same manner as has been 
 previously described for the diminishing rules of a column. See pis. 6, 
 11, 16, and 21. 
 
 The shafts of columns are sometimes set upon milled lead, which 
 when employed, should not extend entirely to the surface, but so as to 
 leave a small space round the surface to be filled with putty. But they 
 are mostly set with oil-putty, or white lead mixed with chalk-putty, or 
 fine mortar. 
 
 MIDDLE RAIL. — That rail of a door to which the lock is fixed. 
 
 MITRE. — The joint formed by two pieces of wood, each of which is 
 ordinarily cut to an angle of forty-five degrees. 
 
 MODILLION, MODILLION CORNICE.— See pis. 12, 14, 21, 38, 
 and 39. 
 
 MODINATURE. — The arrangement and distribution of the mem- 
 bers, profiles, or mouldings of an ordonnance. This term, derived from
 
 83 
 
 the Italian word modanatura, is not generally adopted ; nevertheless, 
 there is no other word capable of conveying the signification attached 
 to it. 
 
 MORTAR. — The prevailing practice in London, is to mix two loads 
 and a half of sand, with thirty-seven bushels, or one hundred weiglit 
 and a half of lime. 
 
 In ordinary cases, it is better to slack only about a bushel of lime at 
 once ; employing no more water than may be sufficient to cause the 
 whole to fall, and cover it immediately with sand, so as to retain the 
 tenacious quality of the lime. This process may be repeated until the 
 whole be slacked. It afterwards requires to be well beaten, adding to 
 each bushel of lime about two and a half of sand ; in incorporating 
 which, the least quantity of water possible should be used. 
 
 MOULDINGS.— See pi. 2. 
 
 MOULDINGS. — In plastering, mouldings are successively run with 
 coarse gauge, fine stuff gauge, putty gauge, and finished with raw putty. 
 
 MULLION. — A division, or large bar in a window. 
 
 MUNNION. — A vertical bar between the glass frames of a window. 
 
 MUNTINS.— MONT ANTS. —The vertical pieces between the stiles 
 of a door. 
 
 MUTULES. — Rectangular blocks placed under the soffit of a cornice. 
 
 MUTULE CORNICE.— See pis. 5, 6, and 21. 
 
 N. 
 
 NAKED FLOORING.— The carpentry of a floor, previous to the 
 flooring boards being laid. 
 
 NAKED OF A WALL.— The even vertical face. 
 
 NAVE. — The body of a church extending from the western entrance 
 to the rail or balustrade u{ the choir. 
 
 NICHE.— See Dirkctor, and pi. 49. 
 
 o. 
 
 OAK. — See Carpentry. 
 
 OCTASTYLE. — A range of eight columns, situate at the principal 
 facade in antique temples. 
 
 OFF-SET. — The space left on one or both sides of the upper sur- 
 face of a wall, by the superincumbent part being reduced in thickness. 
 
 OGEE. — A name common to both the cyma-recta and cvma-talon. 
 See pi. 2, fig. 4 and 6. 
 
 ORDERS — See Director, and pis. 1 to 25. 
 
 ORDONNANCE. — This term, according to modern acceptation, is 
 svnonvmous with disposition and distribution. 
 ' ORNAMENTS.— See pis. 20, 21, 52, to 55. 
 
 OVOLO. — The same as quarter-round. S,'e pi 2, ti^r. 2.
 
 84 
 
 P. 
 
 PAINTING. — To prepare new wood-work for painting, apply to 
 the knots newly slacked lime, which may be removed the following 
 day, and twice rubbed over with white and red lead, mixed with 
 either glue size, or linseed oil, bringing the raised parts each time 
 down to a level. The whole may afterwards receive the priming 
 colour, composed of linseed oil and white lead, to which a small por- 
 tion of red lead may be added. The following are the principal 
 colours employed in painting. — Red colours : — Carmine ; a very valuable 
 rich crimson colour. Florentine-lake, the kind in general use, and 
 known by the name of lake: it is a very beautiful colour when first 
 used, but it does not stand ; but for which there is no proper substi- 
 tute. Madder-lake, a colour recently brought into use, which without 
 being so rich and bright a colour as that last mentioned, stands better, 
 and answers many of its purposes. Rose-lake, or rose-pink, is merely 
 a coloured chalk, which does not stand. Vermilion is a scarlet colour, 
 which stands well ; and whose brightness and inclination to a crimson 
 hue, denotes its goodness. Red lead, or minium, is a colour which is 
 apt to become black ; hence it is seldom used, but for very coarse pur- 
 poses. Indian red is a colour which is sometimes substituted for lake. 
 Venetian red differs little from the common Indian red. Spanish 
 brown is nearly of the same colour as Venetian red, and is only used 
 for the commonest purposes. Light red, or burnt ochre, is an excellent 
 colour, and stands well. Burnt terra di Sienna is a rich standing 
 colour. 
 
 Blue colours: — Prussian blue is an extremely fine colour, when pro- 
 perly prepared, and stands tolerably well ; except the common kind, 
 which is apt to turn to a green or olive hue. 
 
 Yellow colours: — King's yellow is a bright yellow, which does not 
 stand well. Naples yellow is a fine and durable colour. Yellow ochre 
 is a permanent colour, but not bright. Roman ochre is a rich and 
 superior ochre. Raw terra di Sienna is a fine warm and durable colour. 
 Green colours : — It is the practice to form the generality of the 
 different shades of green, by the mixture of blue and yellow. Verdi- 
 grise is a bluish green colour ; used for ordinary purposes, being with- 
 out body, and not durable. 
 
 Brown colours : — Cologne earth is a useful dark brown mineral 
 colour. Raw umber is a durable light brown colour. Burnt umber 
 is a fine permanent deep brown. 
 
 White colours :— White lead is the same as flake white, but of an 
 inferior quality. 
 
 Black colours : — Lamp black is a durable colour. Blue black is 
 similar to ivory black, with a tint of blue. 
 
 When four-coat work is intended to be flatted, the proportion of oil 
 and turpentine should, in the third coat, be equal ; in the fourth, one of 
 the former to two of the latter ; and finished with colour mixed entirely 
 with turpentine. The same process to be observed for stuccoed walls, 
 if they are intended to be flatted ; but they require an additional coat.
 
 85 
 
 The less quantify of turpentine is used foi exterior work the bette*. 
 except for white, when it is customary to mix equal portions of this 
 spirit and oil. 
 
 Painting is measured by girting round the surface of the mouldings 
 and swelling panels, in taking the height. It is in general executed 
 by the square yard, and valued according to the number of coats 
 applied. Window-lights, railings, and similar parts, are commonly 
 painted by the piece. 
 
 PAVING. — Paviors' work is computed by the square yard. 
 
 PEDESTAL. — A cubical body, composed of a base, die, and cor- 
 nice ; serving as a basement to columns. See pis. 1 to 18. 
 
 PEDIMENT. — A triangular form, representing the gable of a roof. 
 See pi. 26. 
 
 PERIPTERON. — Applied to temples surrounded by a single range 
 of columns. 
 
 PERISTYLE. — Signifies a range of columns surrounding an edifice. 
 But its present application is unlimited ; sometimes being used to 
 express a range of columns surrounding an interior area ; at others, a 
 gallery at the exterior of an edifice, presenting a line of columns ; and 
 further, to the columns at the facade forming an entrance, or what is 
 termed a portico. 
 
 PIAZZA. — This is in general used to signify a covered walk or gal- 
 lery of communication, having its outer side decorated with arcades. 
 
 PIER. — That portion of an exterior wall situated between a coin 
 and a window, two windows, or a window and a door. 
 
 PILASTER.— .See Director, and pis. 11, 12, and 16. 
 
 PITCH. — When applied to an arch, it signifies the distance from the 
 spring to the soffit of the key. If this term be applied to a roof, it 
 means the difference between the height and the span. 
 
 PLASTERING. — The materials used in plastering are, coarse stuff, 
 fine stuff, stuff, putty, plaster, gauge, and stucco. 
 
 PLATBAND. — The masonry of an architrave, formed of one or 
 several stones, in one intercolumniation. 
 
 The general application of the word signifies the horizontal heads or 
 lintels of doors and windows, a band situated immediately under a tri- 
 glyph, and the bands which separate the panels or coffers in a compart- 
 ment ceiling. 
 
 PLATE. — This may express either a floor or a roof plate, according 
 as it is situated under the ends of the joists or the rafters. 
 
 PLINTH. — The lowest part of the base of a column, pilaster, or 
 pedestal. 
 
 PLUMBERY. — Plumbers' work is, in general, done by weight. 
 Sheet lead is of two kinds, cast and milled. That which is used in 
 roofing, guttering, 6i:c. commonly averages from seven to twelve pounds 
 per square foot. 
 
 The following table expresses the weight of each square foot of sheet 
 lead, according to its thickness. The left-hand columns contain the 
 thickness of the lead expressed in tenths, hundreths, or other parts of 
 ati inch ; and opposite, in the righl-hand columns, are the respective 
 weights of a square foot. Thus the weight of a square foot of sheet
 
 86 
 
 lead, one-tenth of an inch in thickness, is 5 pounds and 899 thousandth 
 parts, which is nearly nine-tenths. 
 
 Thick. 
 
 16. per sq. ft. 
 
 Thick. 
 
 lb. per sq. ft. 
 
 •1 
 
 5-899 
 
 15 
 
 8-848 
 
 •11 
 
 6489 
 
 ■16 
 
 9438 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 6-554 
 
 i 
 
 9-831 
 
 •12 
 
 7078 
 
 •17 
 
 10028 
 
 i 
 
 7373 
 
 •18 
 
 10-618 
 
 •13 
 
 7-668 
 
 •19 
 
 11-207 
 
 •14 
 
 8-258 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 11-797 
 
 T 
 
 8^427 
 
 •21 
 
 12-387 
 
 POLYSTYLE. — This word is applied to an edifice, or to any part, 
 interior or exterior, where the columns employed are of an extraordinary 
 number. 
 
 PORCH. — A construction situated at the front of a house, for the 
 purpose of sheltering the principal entrance. 
 
 PORT AIL. — The principal facade of a church 
 
 PORTICO. — In modern architecture, this word, in its limited sense, 
 signifies a range of arcades, forming the entrance to an edifice, or a 
 gallery of communication round an interior area. But, in the more 
 general sense, it signifies a construction and decoration which precedes 
 or embellishes the entrance to an edifice. And further, to any exterior 
 or interior gallery of communication, in which either columns or arcades 
 are employed. 
 
 POST. — A piece of timber employed in a vertical position ; as 
 quarters in partitions, truss, or door-posts. 
 
 PRICKING-UP. — In plastering, is the first of three-coat work upon 
 laths. 
 
 PRINCIPAL RAFTER.— One of the inclined pieces of timber in a 
 trussed roof. The following is a table of the scantlings of the prin- 
 cipal rafters. 
 
 Bearing. 
 
 Fir Scantling. 
 
 Oak Scantling. 
 
 ft. 
 
 18 
 24 
 30 
 36 
 
 in. in. 
 
 H X 3f 
 7i X 4i 
 8f X 5± 
 10 X 6 
 
 in. in. 
 7^ X 4A 
 8| X 5^ 
 10:j X 6 
 llf X 7 
 
 PROSTYLE. — Such amongst the antique temples as presented 
 columns only at their principal facade. 
 
 PSEUDO-DIPTERON.— The dipteral temples were surrounded by 
 two ranges of columns, forming a kmd of double gallery, presenting 
 eight at the front and opposite extremity, and fifteen at each side,
 
 87 
 
 including those at the angles twice. In the pseudo-dipteron, the 
 second range of columns was omitted ; still preserving the full space 
 between the columns and the wall of the cella. 
 
 PSEUDO-PERIPTERON.— That disposition in which the columns 
 at the sides are engaged in the walls of the cella ; instead of forming 
 a gallery round the whole of the exterior. 
 
 PUGGING. — The method employed to prevent the passage of 
 sound from story to story, effected by the plasterer laying stuff upon 
 sound boarding. 
 
 PUNCHEON. — One of the short vertical timbers placed over the 
 door in a stud partition, or any low post. 
 
 PURLINE. — A piece of timber serving to shorten the bearing of 
 common rafters. The following is a table of the scantling of purlines. 
 
 Bearing. Fir Scantling. 
 
 Oak Scantling. 
 
 ft. 
 
 8 
 10 
 12 
 14 
 
 in. in. 
 
 8 X 41 
 
 H X 5i 
 101 X 6 
 lli X 7 
 
 in. in. 
 
 7x4 
 
 84 X 4| 
 
 91 X 5^ 
 
 101 X 61 
 
 PUSH.— See Drift. 
 
 PUTTY. — A fine cement used in plastering, made of slacked lime 
 passed through a hair sieve ; which, unlike fine stuff, is used without 
 being mixed with hair. 
 
 PYCNOSTYLE. — An intercolumniation of one diameter and a 
 half. 
 
 Q. 
 
 QUARTERS. — The pieces of timber employed in a stud partition. 
 QUARTERING.— The carpentry of a stud partition. 
 QUARTER-ROUND.— 5ee pi. 2. 
 QUOINS.— See Coin. 
 
 R. 
 
 RAFTERS. — Pieces of timbers, which, standing by pairs on the 
 raising plates, meet in an angle at the top, and form the roof of a 
 building. They consist of principal rafters, hip rafters, and spars, or 
 common rafters. The following is a table of the scantling of common 
 rafters. 
 
 Bearing. 
 
 Fir Scantling. 
 
 Oak ScanUing. 
 
 ft. 
 
 8 
 12 
 
 in. in. 
 
 4^ X 21 
 5^ X 2^ 
 6^ X 2^ 
 
 in. in. 
 
 4X2^ 
 5 X 2^ 
 5f X 2^
 
 88 
 
 RAILS. — ^These, in joinery, are stuff which have each extremity cut 
 in tenons ; and, when framed, are placed horizontally. 
 
 RAISING PLATES.— WALL PLATES.— TOP PLATES.— Ho- 
 rizontal pieces of timber, generally flush with the inside of the walls, 
 serving to rest the ends of the timbers of the roof upon. 
 
 RANDOM COURSES,— Irregular courses, in paving, without uni- 
 formity in the joints. 
 
 RECTANGULAR GROIN.— The vaults of this groin have their 
 line of axis at right angles to each other. 
 
 RENDERED AND FLOATED.— FLOATED, RENDERED, AND 
 SET.— Three-coat work. 
 
 RENDERED, FLOATED, AND SET.— Three-coat work, when 
 floated and set for paper. 
 
 RENDERED AND SET.— Two-coat work upon walls. 
 
 RETURN. — The side forming an angle with a corresponding 
 straight surface, is named the return. 
 
 RIDGE. — The line formed by the meeting of the two inclined sur- 
 faces of a roof. 
 
 RISERS. — The vertical parts of stairs, serving to join the treads. 
 
 ROOF. — This term includes not only the exterior covering of a 
 building, but is likewise applied to the carpentry by which it is 
 supported. 
 
 In order to determine the pitch of a roof, the nature of the covering 
 material should be considered. Thus, for lead, one-fourth of the span 
 may be taken for the pitch of the roof. For pantiles, three-eighths of 
 the span may serve. And for plain tiles, one-fourth of the span. 
 
 In proportion to the lightness of the covering material, the pitch of a 
 roof may be reduced ; and hence the proper inclination for slates may 
 be regulated by their weight, compared with that of the materials already 
 given. 
 
 The following is the average weight of the covering laid upon forty- 
 two square yards of roofing, according to the material employed. 
 
 Materials. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Copper .... 
 
 Fine Slate . 
 
 Lead .... 
 
 Coarse Slate . 
 
 Tiles .... 
 
 4 cwt. 
 26 
 27 
 36 
 54 
 
 ROUGH CAST. — The application of plaster, without its being 
 smoothed. 
 
 ROUGH RENDERING.— One coat rough. 
 
 ROUGH STUCCO.— Finished with stucco floated, aod slightly 
 brushed with watw, 
 
 ROUGHING-IN.— The first of three-coat work.
 
 8» 
 
 RUDENTURE.— CABLE.— A form resembling a shaft or cord-, 
 «vlu:;h fills the lower part of the flutings of the Ionic and Corinthian 
 columns, in order to preserve them from injury. 
 
 RULES. — Architecture, unlike those arts in which the rules are 
 imperative, admits of modifications in all its constituent parts ; vi'hich 
 are governed by the character of the edifices, the situation of the site, 
 &c. These constituent parts, and the rules which govern the propor- 
 tions of their details, are means only whereby an expression o. character 
 is given to an edifice ; the judicious application of which evinces 
 genius, and distinguishes the man of talent from the mere copyist. 
 Such of these parts as apparently rest on a system of the most fixed 
 proportions, and between which a constant and uniform relation exists, 
 though unvarying in their regular and symmetrical organization, are 
 nevertheless susceptible of being modified in their application, according 
 to the expression of character which is required. So that architecture 
 not only permits, but demands a latitude in the application of its parts, 
 which is governed by the general intention. 
 
 RUSTICS.— .S(?c the Director, and pis. 43 and 50. 
 
 RUSTIC COINS.— See pi. 38, 
 
 RUSTIC DOOR.— See pi. 41. 
 
 s. 
 
 SAIL-OVER. — If one or several courses project beyond the face of 
 brickwalling, they are said to sail-over. 
 
 SCANTLING. — The dimensions of the breadth and depth of timber. 
 Otherwise this term is applied to small timbers themselves, as common 
 rafters, or joists. 
 
 SCOTIA. — A concave moulding, employed in the bases of columns. 
 See pis. 2 and 10. 
 
 SET FAIR. — Applied after pricking-up and floated, or roughing-in 
 and floated. 
 
 SET WORK.— LAYED AND SET.— Two coat work upon lath. 
 
 SETTING COAT. — A third coat upon floating, or a second coat 
 upon rendering or laying. 
 
 SEWER. — Drains should be made before the foundation of a building 
 is commenced ; in constructing which, cess-pools should be made at 
 different distances to receive the sediment. For a drain of two- 
 brick length, in width, the sides may be one brick thick, twelve 
 inches high, with a half-brick arch. For one of three-brick length, 
 the sides may be one brick thick, fifteen inches high, with a half-brick 
 arch. And a drain of two feet six or three fc^et wide, may have its 
 sides nine inches thick, fifteen or eighteen inches high, and a nine-inch 
 arch. Tlie bottoms of drains are usually paved with bricks laid flat. 
 
 SHOOT.— PUSH.— THRUST.— See Drift 
 
 SKEW BACK. — A bevel abutment for scheme or straight arches. 
 
 SKIRTS. — This term, when applied to a roof, signifies tiie over- 
 hanging of (he eaves. 
 
 SLATING. — The following a-e the names of the ])rincipal kinds ot 
 slates in ordinary use, arranged a-cording to their quality. Westmort 
 land, r;igs, imperial, duchess, countess, ladies, and doubles. 
 
 N
 
 90 
 
 It would require one third more of tlie coarsest than of t\\o, finest 
 slate to cover the same roof; hence the ultimate difference "in the 
 expense is not considerable. But as the fine slate derives its lightness 
 less from the quality of the stone than the tViinness to which it is 
 reduced, it is less durable than the heavier kind. The ordinaiy 
 colours of slate are white, brown, and blue. The dark blue kind is the 
 most, and the light blue the least porous. When a slate produces a 
 complete sound on being struck, it is a sign of its good quality ; but it 
 should cut clear, and not shatter by the use of the zax. The most 
 certain method is to weigh one or more pieces of slate, and immerse 
 them in water for twelve hours. After wiping them, ascertain their 
 increase of weight ; which, in good slate, should not exceed one drachm 
 in a dozen pounds. 
 
 For what is termed patent slating, slates of a large size are screwed 
 upon the rafters, without boarding ; and narrow slips of slate laid in 
 putty, applied to their joints. 
 
 SLEEPERS. — The timbers used forbearing ground joists, and which, 
 for boarded floors, may be placed at nine or ten feet distance. The space 
 between the stones or small brick pillars, which serves to shorten the 
 bearing of sleepers, may vary from five to nine feet, according to their 
 strength. 
 
 SOFFIT. — The under side of the heads of apertures, architraves, or 
 the corona of cornices. 
 
 SOMMERING. — The radiating or continued joints of an arch tend- 
 iijg to its centre. 
 
 SPARS — COMMON RAFTERS.— 5fee Rafters. 
 
 SPHERIC GROIN.— The intersection of two spherical vaults. 
 
 SPHERIC VAULT. — A vault, forming the whole, or any portion 
 of a hemisphere. 
 
 SPHERO-CYLINDRIC GROIN.— Formed by the intersection of a 
 spherical vault of a greater, with a cylindrical vault of a less height. 
 
 STAFF. — A slip of wood at the projecting angle of a wall, intended 
 to preserve it from injury. 
 
 STAIRS. — Stairs are of different kinds. Those in ordinary use are, 
 dog-legged, bracket, and geometrical stairs. 
 
 To ascertain the requisite number of steps in a staircase, divide the 
 height of the story, reduced into inches, by that of one of the intended 
 steps. 
 
 The dimensions of staircases, like their design, are governed by the 
 quality of the building for which they are intended. The length of the 
 steps vary from two feet and a half to ten feet ; the height of the risers 
 from five to eight inches ; and the breadth of the treads, from ten to, 
 sixteen inches. 
 
 STANCHEON.— See Puncheon. 
 
 STILE. — The stile of a door is the perpendicular portion of the 
 framing at each of the two sides. 
 
 STRETCHERS.— Bricks laid le:igthways in the length of the wall. 
 A course of these, uninterrupted by headers, is named a stretching 
 course. The term stretchers bears the same signification in masonry, 
 Deing those stones whose length is placed in the direction of that of 
 the wall.
 
 91 
 
 STONE. — The structure of stone is either laminated, granulated, or 
 of a m'xed kind. 
 
 Laminated stones stones consist of thin plates or layers, cohering 
 more or less, stronglv together. When the layers are of considerable 
 size, and cohere so slightly that they may be easily separated, the 
 stones are said to be slaty. The layers are always nearly parallel to 
 the quarry-beds of the stones; and they should invariably be hori- 
 zontal, or as nearly so as possible, in a building; otherwise the action 
 of the weather will cause them to separate and fall off in flakes : 
 besides their being apt to split in any other position, when under a great 
 strain. If, for example, a block of flag-stone were converted into a 
 pillar, so as to leave each lamina, or flag of which it is composed, 
 posited horizontally, it would sustain any weight not capable of 
 crushing it to atoms; but if the lamina were placed in an inclined 
 position, so as to form an acute angle with the axis, an inconsiderable 
 pressure would occasion them, where the cohesion was slightest, to 
 slide over each other. Again, if the lamina were placed parallel to the 
 axis, the pillar, under sufficient pressure, would divide vertically into 
 several parts ; and though rather stronger than in the last instance, 
 would still be comparatively weak. Hence, attention to the position of 
 stones, and to veins, or other indications of the existence of lamina, 
 deserves particular notice. 
 
 In sand stones, the direction of the layers may often be discovered by 
 their different shades of colour : in others, by the positions of minute 
 scales of mica, which always lie parallel to the layers. In most stones 
 the direction of the layers may be ascertained by the facility with which 
 the stone yields to the tool in that direction ; but a considerable 
 degree of practice is necessary to acquire so nice a discrimination of 
 resistance. Among laminated stones, those are the most durable in 
 which the laminae are least distinct, and the texture uniform. When the 
 laminae do not perfectly cohere, they are soon injured by frost, and 
 they are wholly unfit for situations alternately wet and dry. 
 
 Granular stones consist of distinct concretions resembling grains, 
 either of the same, or of different simple minerals cohering together. 
 When the structure is uniform, and the grains or concretions small, 
 stones of this kind are always strong and durable, if the concretions 
 themselves are so. Granular stones are sometimes open and porous, 
 but when they are uniformly so, they seldom suffer materially by frost ; 
 because their uniform porosity allows the expansive force of the con- 
 gealing water to be distributed in every direction. 
 
 Stones of a compound structure, partly laminated and par.ly granular, 
 have more or less of the characters of the two classes just descrii)ed ; 
 for it mav be observed in coarse-grained granite, thit the laminated 
 structure of some of its parts renders it very susceptible of disintegra- 
 tion. All kinds of stones obtained from quarries, are found divided by 
 vertical or inclined seams, which are sometimes so close, that they 
 cannot be distinguished till the stones are wrought ; but they often 
 separate under the tool at these seams. Hence it is not safe to employ 
 stone to resist any considerable transverse strain, on account of the 
 difficulty of knowing where those seams are.
 
 92 
 
 Portland stone, from Dorsetshire, is much used in the neigk'aour'nood 
 of London. It is of a dull colour approaching to white; and when 
 recently brought from the quarry, is easily wrought; but afterwards 
 increases in hardness, 
 
 Purbeck stone, also from Dorsetshire, is generally employed for steps, 
 paving, &c. 
 
 Freestone is a general name for stones, whose relative value for the 
 purposes of building greatly differ. It consists of clay and silex ; the 
 proportion of the latter being sometimes one half, though generally it is 
 much less. The hardness of the stone depends on the relative quantity 
 of each substance. This plentiful stone often passes under the name of 
 grit or sand stone ; the various kinds of which are softer when new 
 from the quarry, than after having been exposed for some time to the 
 action of the air. The general colour of freestone is a dull red ; but 
 it is sometimes found of a colour resembling Portland stone, as at 
 Knipersly, in Staffordshire ; and at Hollington, near Uttoxeter. Free- 
 stone, from the same quarry, commonly presents a diversity of colour ; 
 and if used without care, would give a motley appearance to the 
 buildings in which it might be employed. To prevent this, the stones 
 should be faced, dried, and sorted before they are used ; because when 
 recently brought from the quarry, and damp, these shades do not 
 present themselves. 
 
 STRENGTH. — The following experiments shew the weights required 
 to crush cubes, of brick and stone, of one and a half inch. 
 
 
 Specific 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Brick of a pale red colour 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 Avoirdupois. 
 
 2-085 
 
 1265 
 
 Roe-stone, Gloucestershire 
 
 
 1449 
 
 Red brick ...... 
 
 2168 
 
 1817 
 
 Yellow face-baked Hammersmith paviors 
 
 
 2254 
 
 Burnt ditto ..... 
 
 
 3243 
 
 Stourbridge, or fire brick 
 
 
 3864 
 
 Derby grit, a red friable sand-stone . 
 
 2-316 
 
 7070 
 
 Ditto from another quarry 
 
 2-428 
 
 9776 
 
 Killaly white freestone, not stratified 
 
 2-423 
 
 10264 
 
 Portland 
 
 2-428 
 
 10284 
 
 Craig Leith, white freestone 
 
 2-452 
 
 12346 
 
 Yorkshire paving with the strata . 
 
 2-507 
 
 12856 
 
 Ditto ditto against the strata . 
 
 2507 
 
 12856 
 
 White statuary marble, not veined 
 
 2-760 
 
 13632 
 
 Bramley Fall sand-stone, near Leeds, with 
 
 
 
 strata ...... 
 
 2505 
 
 13632 
 
 Ditto, against the strata 
 
 2-506 
 
 13632 
 
 Cornish granite ..... 
 
 2662 
 
 14302 
 
 Dundee sand-stone, or brescia 
 
 2 530 
 
 14918 
 
 Craig Leith, with the strata 
 
 2-452 
 
 15560 
 
 Devonshire red marble, variegatrJ 
 
 
 16712
 
 93 
 
 
 Specific 
 
 Pounds 
 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 Avoirdupois. 
 
 
 Compact limestone .... 
 
 2-584 
 
 17354 
 
 Peterhead granite, hard, close-graineJ 
 
 • . . 
 
 18636 
 
 1 Black compact limestone, Limerick 
 
 2-598 
 
 19924 
 
 j Purbeck ...... 
 
 2-599 
 
 20610 
 
 Black Brabant marble .... 
 
 2697 
 
 20742 
 
 Very hard freestone .... 
 
 2-528 
 
 21254 
 
 White Italian veined marble 
 
 2-726 
 
 21783 
 
 Aberdeen granite, blue kind . 
 
 2-625 
 
 24556 
 
 STRUTS. — Pieces of timber which abut against the lower extremities 
 of truss-posts ; and which serve to strengthen the principal rafters. 
 
 SUMMER. — A piece of timber, which when placed for the support 
 of a portion of an exterior wall, is termed a bressummer ; but when in 
 the middle of a floor, it is named a beam or girder. 
 
 STUCCO.— FINISHING.— The last of three-coat plaster, well 
 floated and troweled. 
 
 STUCCO. — The following is the method of preparing Liardet's or 
 Adam's oil-cement or stucco. 
 
 For the first coat, take twenty-one pounds of fine whiting, or oyster- 
 shells, or any other sea-shells calcined, or plaster of Paris, or any 
 calcareous material calcined and pounded, or any absorbent material 
 whatever, proper for the purpose ; add white or red lead at pleasure, 
 deducting from the other absorbent materials in proportion to the white 
 or red lead added; to which put four quarts, imperial measure, of oil ; 
 and mix them together with a grinding mill, or any levigating machine. 
 Afterwards mix and beat up the same with three pecks and a half of 
 any sand or gravel, or of both, mixed and sifted ; or of marble or stone 
 pounded ; or of brick-dust, or of any kind of metallic or mineral 
 powders ; or of any solid material whatever, fit for the purpose. 
 
 For the second coat, take sixteen pounds and a half of superfine 
 whiting, or oyster-shells, or any sea-shells calcined, &c., as for the first 
 coat ; add sixteen pounds and a half of white or red lead, to which put 
 six quarts and a half of oil, and mix them together as before. In like 
 manner mix and beat up the same with three pecks and three-quarters 
 of fine sand or gravel sifted; or stone or marble pounded; or pyrites 
 or any kind of metallic or mineral powder, <Src. This composition 
 requires a greater proportion of sand, gravel, or other solids ; according 
 to the niiture of the work, or the uses to which it is applied. If it be 
 recjuired to have the composition coloured, add to the above ingredients 
 such a proportion of painter's colours, as will be found necessary to 
 produce the colour refjuired. In making the composition, the best lin- 
 seed, or hempseed, or other oils proper for the purpose, are to be used, 
 lioiled or raw, with dryin^j ingredients, as the nature of the work, the 
 season, or the climate requires; and, in some cases, bees-wax may be 
 substituted in place of oil. All the absorbent and solid materials must
 
 94 
 
 be kiln-dried. If the composition is to be of any other colour tha» 
 white, the lead may be omitted, by taking the full proportion of the 
 other absorbents ; and also white or red lead may be substituted alone, 
 instead of any other absorbent material. The first coat of this com- 
 position is to be applied with a trowel, and floated to an even surface 
 with a handle-float. The second coat should be applied when the first 
 is nearly dry ; and worked down and smoothed with floats, edged with 
 any hard smooth substance, not liable to stain. In order to make the 
 composition adhere more strongly to the surface to which it is intended 
 to be applied, it may be necessary to moisten the part, previous to laying 
 on the first coat, with the same kind of oil and ingredients before men- 
 tioned, passed through the levigating machine, and reduced to a more 
 liquid state. This composition admits of being either modelled, cast in 
 moulds, or of receiving plain or decorative painting. 
 
 STUD WORK. — The quartering in a trussed partition. 
 
 SYSTYLE. — An intercolumniation of two diameters. 
 
 T. 
 
 TAIL. — When applied to a slate, it signifies the opposite end to that 
 which is pierced for nails. 
 
 TEMPLE. — Amongst antique remains, those which hold the first 
 rank, are temples. The rites of paganism caused the people to as- 
 semble at the temples of the principal divinities on certain solemn days 
 of the year: and the worship chiefly consisted of sacrifices which were 
 offered at the foot of the peristyle, in the centre of the enclosures by 
 which they were surrounded. The temples dedicated to the same 
 deities, but under particular invocations, as also those of the divinities 
 of a second order, although unceasingly, yet were only successively 
 frequented, by those who attended to present libations, or merely obla- 
 tions. Thus, it is easy to discover the extent and disposition of their 
 temples; and that the interiors were not required to be of any consider- 
 able dimensions; as the cella was principally destined to contain the 
 statue of the tutelary deity ; as also the vases and tripods belonging 
 to, and necessary for, the sacrifices. The reflected study of the structure 
 of the antique temples alone, demonstrates the truth of this opinion ; 
 independently of the support it receives from history. Hence, the 
 purposes for which those edifices were erected, the remains of which are 
 erroneously denominated by the names of the Temple of Peace, the 
 Pantheon, &c. ; being the only constructions bearing this name, that 
 present spacious interiors, and originated, at an early period, in the 
 unfounded conjectures of those writers that examined them. The 
 temple of Jupiter Capitolinus may be classed amongst the most import- 
 ant of the earliest temples erected at Rome. It was commenced by 
 Tarquin the elder, and completed by Tarquin the Superb. Its interior 
 disposition presented a principal naos, having an aisle on each of its (wo 
 sides; the naos was consecrated to Jupiter, and the aisles to Juno and 
 Minerva. At its exterior, the principal fagade, which served as 
 entrance, was composed of three ranges of columns, with an entablature
 
 95 
 
 nd pediment, and the sides presented two ranges. It was under these 
 peristyles that the triumphant warriors, after having offered sacrifice to 
 the great deities, gave a sumptuous feast to the senate. Ths entire of 
 this temple was, including the porticoes, 193 English feet in length, 
 and 179 in breadth. 
 
 The Temple of Pietj' ; now St. Nicholas in Carcere, Montanara-place, 
 is supposed to be the site of the prisons constructed by the orders of 
 Claudius the decemvir, in which, an old man condemned to die by 
 starvation, was preserved by being nourished from the breast of his 
 affectionate daughter, who for this purpose visited him daily ; and this 
 circumstance caused the consuls Quintius and Attilius to erect a temple 
 dedicated to Piety in memor*- of it. 
 
 Serlio conjectures it to have formed a quadrangular nave, having a 
 fagade presenting six Doric columns, with an entablature and pedi- 
 ment ; the columns being likewise continued round each of its sides. 
 
 The Temple of Saturn, situated near the capitol, formerly served as 
 the public treasury, All that remains, which is antique, is a portion of 
 brick walling; presenting, in some parts, detached pieces of cement, 
 with which it appears to have been covered. 
 
 For a description of the existing remains of the antique temples, see 
 the Architectural Director ; articles, Doric, Ionic, and Co- 
 rinthian Orders. 
 
 TEMPLETS. — Short pieces of timber placed under girders, in order 
 to prevent settlements, by distributing the weight over a more extended 
 surface. 
 
 TETRASTYLE. — A disposition of four columns at the entrance of 
 antique temples. 
 
 THROUGH STONSS.— See Ashlar, and Bond. 
 
 TIE. — This term, in cajrpentry, is applied to such pieces of timber in 
 a frame, as tend to bind two other pieces together. 
 
 TIE BEAMS. — The following is a table of the scantling of tie 
 beam"!, according to their length. 
 
 Bearing. \ Fir Scantling. j Oak Scantling. j 
 
 ft. 
 
 30 
 40 
 50 
 60 
 
 in. in 
 
 10 X 6 
 12 X 7 
 14 X 8 
 16 X 9 
 
 in in ' 
 
 ir X H 
 
 I Of X 6 
 121 X 7 
 141 X 8 
 
 TIMBER. — The wood of different trees varies in strength, hardness 
 durability, and beauty ; and, consequently, in its fitness for the many 
 purposes to which it is applied. The wood which is felled and seasoned 
 for the purpose of buildintj, is called timber. 
 
 If the stem or tnink of a tree be cut across, the wood is found to be 
 made up of numerous concentric layers or rings; very distinct in some 
 trees, but less so in others. One of these layers is formed every year ;
 
 96 
 
 • 
 
 consequently their number corresponds nearly with the age of the tree. 
 Each layer consists, in general, of two parts ; the one solid, hard, 
 heavy, and dark coloured; the other of a lighter colour, porous, and 
 soft ; which renders the lines of separation between the annual layers 
 distinct. Scarcely any two layers of the same tree are precisely alike, 
 either in the proportion of the hard part, or in the thickness of the 
 layers ; as the layers vary in thickness according to the degree of vege- 
 tation which took place in the years of their formation. They also vary 
 in thickness in the same tree ; owing either to the situation of the 
 principal roots, or to the aspect ; the annual layers being always thicker 
 on that side of the tree which has been most favourable to the growth 
 of the roots, or that has had the advantage of a good aspect. 
 
 Wood appears to be composed of various vessels, which in the jiving 
 tree convey the fluids necessary to its growth ; and between those vessels 
 cells intervene. There is nothing of the character of solid fibres in 
 wood, except the thin membraneous coats of the cells and vessels; 
 which adhere so slightly together in recently formed wood, that it is 
 easy to separate them. The vessels, in the growing tree, are intended 
 to convey a watery fluid, called the sap, from the root to the leaves ; 
 when it arrives at the leaves it undergoes some changes, and returns 
 through the bark ; and the bark being expanded by this accession of 
 moisture, rises from the wood, and leaves a cavity that becomes filled 
 with the returning sap; which gradually hardens, and forms a new 
 layer of wood. The rising sap flows chiefly through the annual ring 
 nearest to the bark ; and from the experiments of Mr. Knight, it 
 appears that the sap, during its ascent, dissolves some portion of a sub- 
 stance that had been deposited in the vessels of the wood during the 
 preceding winter, for the nourishment of the buds, leaves, and young 
 wood ; hence the flowing sap is more dense in the upper than in the 
 lower part of a tree. Dr. Darwin draws a like conclusion from the 
 debarked oaks producing leaves. 
 
 In trees, as the leaves expand, the sap ceases to flow, and the bark 
 again adheres to the wood; and from the middle of June to the middle 
 of August, there appears to be a pause in vegetation ; but after this 
 period the sap again begins to flow, and the bark which adhered so 
 closely in the preceding months, may be separated as easily as in 
 spring. 
 
 The sap, which rises through the wood, from the roots, is very 
 different in its nature from that which descends through the bark to 
 form the new layer of wood. That which ascends, is nearly as liquid as 
 water, and is called the common sap. It has, in general, a sweetish 
 taste ; and contains sugar and mucilage. It always contains an acid, 
 sometimes in a free state ; and, at others, combined with lime, or pot- 
 ash. When this sap is left to itself, it soon becomes sour ; and when 
 the proportion of sugar is considerable, it will undergo the vinous 
 fermentation. 
 
 The descending sap, called the proper sap, differs so considerably in 
 different trees, and is so difficult to procure in a separate state, that its 
 properties can not be easily examined. It is invariably less liquid, and 
 contains a much greater proportion of vegetable matter than the comraoR
 
 97 
 
 sap. It is also probable that trees of the same kind produce proper sap 
 of dift'erent qualities in different climates ; as we find the facts estab- 
 lished, respecting timber grown in one climate, are not applicable to the 
 same species of timber grown in another. 
 
 That part of wood next the bark is called sap-wood, because it is 
 through it chiefly that the sap ascends : and, as it is shown by Mr. 
 Knight, to contain the vegetable matter to be expended in fonning 
 leaves and buds, it is reasonable to suppose that the sap-wood must be 
 more prone to decay than the internal part of the tree called the heart- 
 wood. 
 
 As trees increase in size, the oldest part of the sap-wood gradually 
 loses all vegetable life, and the more fluid parts of it are either absorbed 
 by the new forming sap-wood, or evaporated ; its vessels and cells 
 become closed by the pressure of the new forming wood ; and it ceases 
 to perform any other part in the growth of a tree than to support it. 
 When these changes have taken place, it is found to be more compact, 
 and generally of a darker colour; and also contains only a small pro- 
 portion of vegetable matter, besides that kind which is named, by 
 chemists, the woody fibre. It is then heart-wood, or wood in its most 
 perfect state. 
 
 The sap-wood is softer, and generally lighter coloured than the heart- 
 wood, and contains a considerable portion of vegetable matter, that 
 partakes of the nature of the sap which ascends through it. It is found 
 to decay rapidly, and is also very subject to worms. The reason is 
 obvious, for it contains the food which they live upon, and is absorbed 
 or evaporated from the heart-wood. 
 
 The proportion of sap-wood, in different trees, varies greatly. 
 Spanish chesnut has a very small proportion of sap-wood ; oak lias 
 more ; and fir, a still larger proportion than oak ; but the proportions 
 vary according to the situation and soil. Three specimens of a medium 
 quality gave the following: — 
 
 Chesnut, entire age 58 yrs. 15^ in. diam. 7 yn. sap-wood ^ in. thick. 
 Oak 6 517 17 
 
 Scotch Fir 34 
 
 Therefore, if the diameter be unity, or 1, that part of it which is 
 sap-wood, will be in the chesnut, 1 ; in the oak, 0294; and in the 
 Scotch fir, 0'416. The Scotch fir was the produce of Mar Forest. 
 
 The life of trees, like ihat of men, has been commonly divided into 
 three stages ; infancy, maturity, and old age. In the first, the tree 
 increases daily ; in the second, it maintains itself without sensible gain 
 or loss ; but in the third it declines. These stages vary in every 
 species according to the soil, aspect, climate, or the nature of the 
 individual plant. 
 
 Sir H. Davy states, that oak and chesnut trees decay sooner in a 
 moist soil than in one lliat is dry and sandy; and that their timber is 
 less firm. The sap-vessels being expanded by moisture, without the 
 necessary degree of nourisliing matter, the general texture becomes 
 
 o
 
 98 
 
 necessarily less firm. Such wood splits easily, and is very liable to 
 shrink and swell with the changes of the weather. 
 
 Trees of the same kind arrive at the greatest age in that climate 
 which is best adapted to their nature. The common oak, the fir, and 
 the birch thrive best towards the north ; whilst the ash, and the olive 
 tree thrive best towards the southern parts of Europe. 
 
 We find, says Mirbel, the ashes of Calabria and Sicily to be longer 
 lived tlian those of Prussia or Great Britain. Oak and chesnut trees, 
 under favourable circumstances, sometimes attain an age of 1000 years ; 
 but beech, ash, and sycamore seldom attain half that age. The decline 
 of trees appears to be caused by the decay of the heart-wood ; and it is 
 this, as Sir H. Davy remarks, that seems to constitute the great limit to 
 the age and size of trees. 
 
 In trees that have not arrived at maturity, the hardness and solidity 
 of the wood are the greatest at the heart, and decrease towards the sap 
 wood ; but in the mature or perfect tree, the heart-wood is nearly 
 uniform, while that of a tree on the decline, is softer at the centre than 
 it is next to the sap-wood. These observations were made by Buffon 
 in the course of his numerous experiments, and also by Duhamel. 
 
 Felling timber. " It should be," says the venerable Evelvn, " in 
 the vigour and perfection of trees that a felling should be made," 
 When a tree is felled too early, the greater part of it is sap-wood ; and 
 in a young tree, even the heart-wood has not acquired its proper degree 
 of hardness ; indeed the whole tree must partake so much of the nature 
 of sap-wood, that it cannot be expected to be durable : and when a tree 
 is not felled till it be on the decline, the wood is brittle and devoid of 
 elasticity, tainted, discoloured, and soon decays. But in trees that have 
 arrived at a mature age, the proportion of sap-wood is small, and the 
 heart-wood is nearly uniform ; and is hard, compact, and durable. 
 Hence it is important that Evelyn's advice should be carefully attended 
 to. It is true, that the proper age for each species has not been satis- 
 factorily determined ; but it is a point where great accuracy is not 
 necessary, for half a dozen years in the age of a tree will not make 
 much difference, provided it be not cut too early. It is cutting trees 
 before they arrive at maturity, that is most to be deprecated ; and as it 
 is most likely to happen from interested motives, it is the more neces- 
 sary to caution tlie practical man in this respect. Trees increase slowly 
 in size after they arrive at a certain age, therefore it is the interest of 
 the timber-grower to fell tliet.i before they come to maturity ; because it 
 is his object to oDtain the greatest possible quantity of timber, without 
 regard to the qualify. But when the builder is sensible of the inferior 
 quality of young timber in respect to duration, it is his province to 
 check this growing evil, by giving a better price for timber that has 
 acquired its proper degree of density and hardness. 
 
 The period, generally allowed for an oak tree to arrive at maturity, 
 is 100 years ; and the average quantity of timber produced by a tree of 
 tliat age, is about one load and a half, or seventy-five cubic feet. In 
 some instances oak trees arrive at maturity in less time than a hundred 
 years, and in others, not till after that period. 
 
 The age of an oak tree, according to Daviler, should never exceed
 
 99 
 
 200 years, nor should it be felled at a less age than sixty. Belid.ir 
 slates about 100 to be the best age for the oak. It is mu<;a to be 
 regretted, that in districts where the oak flourishes, it is seldom suffered 
 to attain a mature age ; being often cut before the trees will produce 
 fifty feet uf tiuinber each. The ash, larch, and elm, should be cut when 
 the trees are between 50 and 100 years old; and between 30 and 50 
 is a proper age for poplars. The Norway spruce and Scotch pine are 
 generally cut when between 70 and 100 years old. 
 
 In order tliat timber may be durable, it is also necessary to attend to 
 the proper season of the year for felling. But, on this point, there is 
 much difference of opinion ; and it is only to be decided by attending 
 to the state of trees at different seasons of the year. The most proper 
 period for felling timber is undoubtedly that in which it is most free 
 from extraneous vegetable matter ; or such matter as is intended to be 
 expended in leaves and buds, and which is of a more saccharine and 
 fermentable nature than the proper juices, or such as form the wood. 
 A tree deposits in the sap-wood, and also in that part of the heart- 
 wood which adjoins it, a portion of matter to be dissolved by the rising 
 sap ; and at the period when the leaves are putting forth, the wood 
 must be filled with matter in a state ready for germination ; conse- 
 quently timber cut at that period, must be easily acted upon by heat and 
 moisture, and subject to rapid decay ; or to be destroyed by worms. 
 Now there are two periods in the year, the spring and autumn, when 
 trees are in a state of vegetation ; therefore at these times it is desirable 
 to avoid felling timber for any other than temporary purposes. Of these 
 periods the spring must be the worst, because then trees contain the 
 greatest quantity of matter in a state fit for germination. 
 
 On the other hand, the best time for felling timber is in mid-winter, 
 or mid-summer; as at these times the vegetative powers are at rest, or 
 have expended all the most changeable parts in producing leaves, &c. 
 In some kinds of trees, a little after midsummer, appears to be decidedly 
 the best time for felling. Alder, felled at that time, is found to be 
 much more durable ; and Ellis says, that beech, when it is cut in the 
 middle of summer, is better and less liable to be worm-eaten ; particu- 
 larly if a gash be cut to let out the sap some time before felling. And 
 as summer felling is an advantage in some species, it seems reasonable 
 to conclude that it will be so in all 
 
 But, in oak tre'^s, the bark is too valuable to be lost; and as the 
 best period for the timber is the worst for the bark, an ingenious 
 method has been long partially practised, which not only secures the 
 bark at the best season, but also materially improves the timber. This 
 method consists in taking the bark off the standing tree early in the 
 spring, and not felling it till after the new foliage has been put forth, 
 and is dead. For by the jiroduction of new bnds, the fermentable matter 
 is expended, an<i the sap-wood becomes nearly as hard and durable as 
 the heart-wood; being both less liable to decay, anil to injury by 
 worms. 
 
 Hiiff'on has ascertained, by experiment, that the wood is materiallv 
 imuroved by this method of barking the trees in the spring, and felling 
 ;hem about the end of October. Duhamel, whose extensive knowledge
 
 100 
 
 ot tlie nature and qualities of woods is well known, recommends the 
 same method ; and Evelyn states, that " to make excellent boards and 
 planks, it is the advice of some that you should bark your trees in a fit 
 season, and so let them stand naked a full year before felling." But a 
 tree will not be benefited by standing so long ; and the best time for 
 felling appears to be when the new foliage has been put forth, and 
 is dead, as Mr. S. Pepys observes in his paper on the subject. Mr, 
 Knight, to whom we are indebted for many interesting, as well as 
 important facts respecting timber, has made some experiments and 
 observations, from which he concludes, that in all cases where it is 
 essential to give durability to the sap-wood of oak, the trees should be 
 barked in the spring, and felled in the ensuing winter. 
 
 When the bark of a tree is not of sufficient value to defray the 
 expense of stripping, the timber should be felled during the months of 
 December, Januaiy, or February; or during the month of July. Winte 
 felling is recommended by most writers. According to Vitruvius, the 
 proper time for felling is between October and February ; and he directs 
 that the trees should be cut to the pith, and then suffered to remain till 
 the sap be drained out. The effusion of the sap prevents the decay of 
 the timber, and when it is all drained out, and the wood becomes dry, 
 the trees are to be cut down ; when the wood will be excellent for use. 
 A similar effect might be produced by placing the timber on its end as 
 soon as it is felled ; and it would, no doubt, compensate for the extra 
 expense by its durability, when used. 
 
 In France, so long since as 1669, a royal ordinance limited the 
 felling of naval timber from the 1st of October to the 15th of April. 
 Bonaparte directed that the time for felling naval timber should be 
 effected between the 1st of November and the 15th of March, in order 
 to render it more durable. 
 
 Seasoning timber. When timber is felled, the sooner it is removed 
 from the forest the better; it should be removed to a dry situation, 
 and placed so that the air may circulate freely round each piece ; but it 
 should not be exposed to the sun and wind. Squared timber does not 
 rift or split so much as that which is round; and when the size of the 
 trees wdl allow of it, it is better to quarter them. When beams are to 
 be used the full size of the tree, it would be a good preservative against 
 splitting, to bore them through from end to end. Irregular drying 
 causes timber to split ; and this method would assist in drying the 
 internal part of the beam, without decreasing its strength. 
 
 Duhamel has shown that it is a great advantage to set the timber 
 upright, with the lower end raised a little from the ground; but as this 
 cannot always be done, the timber-yard should be well drained, and 
 kept as dry as possible. Paved yards are to be preferred, and the 
 paving should have a considerable fall, to prevent water standing. If 
 the paving vpere laid with ashes it would be better ; those from a forge 
 or foundry would be excellent : even an unpaved yard would be im- 
 proved by a coat of ashes, to prevent any thing growing among the 
 timber. 
 
 If timber can be kept some time in a dry situation before it be cut 
 Into scantlings, it is less subject to warp and twist in drying; but
 
 101 
 
 •'uring the time that it is kept in the tree or log, it should be carefully 
 viif'cl, so as to leave a space for a free circulation of air between each 
 piece, and also between the timbers and paving, or ground. Latterly, 
 Ltj some of the Government-yards, the timber has been laid upon cast- 
 'ron bearers, instead of being laid upon refuse pieces of wood ; as the 
 refuse wood is often half rotten, and must in some degree contribute to 
 infect the sound timber. Timber is often suffered to lie half buried in 
 the ground, or grown over with weeds, till it be covered with fungus, 
 and impregnated with the seeds of decay, before it is brought into use. 
 
 When it becomes desirable to convert timber into small scantlings, it 
 still requires attention ; as the better it is seasoned, when brought into 
 work, the better the work will stand, as well as being more durable. 
 The experiments of Duhamel show, that such scantlings will dry 
 soonest in an upright position ; and that the upper end dries more 
 rapidly than the lower one. But whether the pieces of timber be piled 
 on the end, or laid horizontallly, a free space should be left round each 
 piece, and the situation should be dry and airy ; yet not exposed to the 
 direct rays of the sun. If the scantlings be laid horizontally, short 
 blocks should be put between them ; which will preserve them from 
 becoming mouldy, and will contribute much towards rendering the 
 sappy parts more durable. 
 
 Gradual drying, where the time can be allowed for it, is the most 
 certain means of giving durability to timber, by fixing those parts of it 
 which are most liable to be acted upon by heat and moisture. 
 
 It is well known to chemists, that slow drying will render many 
 bodies less easy of dissolution, while rapid drying, on the contrary, 
 renders tlie same bodies more soluble; besides, all wood in diying iDses 
 a portion of its carbon, and the more in proportion to the heiglit of the 
 temperature. 
 
 There is, in wood that has been properly seasoned, a toughness and 
 elasticity which is not to be found in wood rapidly dried. This is an 
 evident proof that some essential parts are dissipated by a high heat. 
 Also a forced seasoning produces a hard crust on the surface, whicli 
 will scarcely permit the moisture to evaporate from the internal part, 
 and is very injurious to the wood. 
 
 For the general purposes of carpentry, timber should not be used in 
 less than two years after it is felled ; and this is the shortest time that 
 ought to be allowed for seasoning. For joiners' work it requires four 
 years, unless other methods be used ; but for carpentry natural season- 
 ing should have the preference. 
 
 Duhamel savs, that the quantity of matter which ought to be evapo- 
 rated from green oak, is about one-third or two-fifths of its weight ; 
 the proportion, however, will vary according to the age and quality of 
 the timber, and the nature of the soil that produced it. 
 
 Water seasoning. On account of the time it requires to season 
 timber in the natural way, various methods have been tried to effect the 
 same in ;i shorter time. Perhaps the best of these is to immerse the 
 tim! er in water as soon as it is cut down ; and after it has remained 
 about a fortnight in water, but not more, to take it out, and dry it an 
 airy situation.
 
 102 
 
 Evelyn directs to " lay your boards a fortnight in water (if running 
 the better, as a mill-pond head), and then setting them upright in the 
 sun and wind, so that they may pass freely between tlieni, turn tnem 
 daily ; and, thus treated, even newly-sawn boards will floor far better tiian 
 those of many years' dry seasoning, as they call it:" and he adds, " I the 
 oftener insist on this water-seasoning, not only as a remedy against the 
 worm, but for its efficacy against warping and distortions of timber, 
 whether used within or exposed to the air."" 
 
 Duhamel, who made many experiments on this important subject, 
 states, that timber for joiners' use is best, put in water for some time, 
 and afterwards dried ; as it renders the timber less liable to warp and 
 crack in drying ; but he adds, " where strength is required, it ought 
 not to be put in water." And he found from numerous experiments, 
 that timber which had remained some time in fresh water, lost more of 
 its weight in drying than that which was dried under cover; and he 
 observed, that green timber that had been steeped in water for some 
 time, was invariably covered with a gelatinous substance. 
 
 Timber that has been cut when the tree was full of sap, and particu- 
 larly when that sap is of a saccharine nature, must be materially 
 benefited by steeping it in water; because it will undoubtedly remove 
 the greater part of the fermentible matter. Duhamel has ascertained 
 that the sap-wood of oak is materially improved by it, being much less 
 subject to worm-eat; and also, that the tender woods, such as alder 
 and the like, are less subject to the worm wlien water-seasoned. Beech 
 is said to be much benefited by immersion; and green elm, says Evelyn, 
 if plunged four or five days in water (especially salt water) obtains an 
 excellent seasoning. When timber is put into water, it must be sunk 
 so as to be completely under; as nothing is more destructive than 
 partial immersion. Salt-water is considered best for ship-timber; but 
 for timber to be employed in the construction of buildings, fresh water 
 is better. 
 
 Steaming and boiling timber. Though steaming or boiling impairs 
 the strength and elasticity of timber, it gives another property, which 
 for some purposes is still more desirable than strength ; for boiled or 
 steamed timber shrinks less and stands better than that which is 
 naturally seasoned. Therefore it may often be useful to season 
 timber in this manner, where joiners' work is to be executed in oak of 
 British growth ; as, without this precaution, it requires a lot.g time to 
 season it so as to be fit for such purposes 
 
 The timber should not remain long in boiling water or steam ; four 
 hours will, in general, be quite sufficient; and after boiling or steaming, 
 the drying goes on verj' rapidly; but it is well not to hasten the drying 
 too much. Steamed wood dries sooner than that which is boiled, 
 according to Mr. Hookey's experiments. 
 
 How far steaming or b!)iling affects the durability of timber has not 
 been .satisfactorily ascertained ; but it is said that the planks of a ship, 
 near the bows, which are bent by steaming, have never been obseiTed to 
 be iiifected with the dry rot. The changes produced by boiling, as 
 obseiTed by Duhamel, are not very favourable to the opinidn that it 
 adds to the durability of timber. For when a piece of dry wood wa.s
 
 103 
 
 tn.oiersed in boiling water, and afterwards dried in a stove, it not only 
 lost the water it had imbibed, but also a part of its substance ; and 
 when the experiment was repeated with the same piece of wood, it lost 
 more of its substance the second time than it did the first. The same 
 thing takes place in green wood; and tender woods, or those of a 
 medium qualit_v, are more altered by these operations than hard woods, 
 or those of a good quality. Dr. Watson found steeping long in cold 
 water produced similar effects ; and that box, oak, and ash, lost more 
 weight by this process than mahogany, walnut, or deal. 
 
 Smoke-drying, scorching, and charring timber. It is an old and well 
 founded obserration, that smoke-drying contributes greatly to tlie hard- 
 ness and durability of wood. But this method can only be effectually 
 applied on a very small scale; yet sometimes, for particular purposes, it 
 may be useful to season in the smoke. As a substitute for the smoke of 
 an open chimney, Ellis advises to burn fern, furze, straw, or shavings, 
 under the timber, which would destroy any seeds of fungi or worms, 
 and so embitter the external surface as to prevent any future ill effect 
 from either. It would be easy to contrive the means of smoke-drying 
 for the use of an establishment, where much seasoned wood was used. 
 
 Scorching must do timber great injury when it is done hastily, so as 
 to cause rents and cracks in it; as these become receptacles for mois- 
 ture, and consequently must be the cause of rapid deca3^ 
 
 It should be always remembered, that charring the surface is only 
 useful in as far as it destroys and prevents infection ; and that it should 
 be applied only to timber already seasoned ; for when it is applied to 
 green timber, it only closes up the pores at the surface, so that the 
 internal sap and moisture cannot evaporate. 
 
 In that kind of decay which arises from the constant evaporation of 
 moisture, charring the surface produces no effect. Duhamel made some 
 experiments on this point, and found that there was very little difference 
 between the posts he had charred, and those he had not charred, at the 
 end of six years ; but as a preventative of infection by diy rot, and of the 
 worm in timber, charring appears to be very beneficial, and will, no 
 doubt, be assisted by impregnating the timber with the bitter particles 
 of smoke. 
 
 TOOLING. — In masonry, the operation of tooling is finishing the 
 face of stones, by working them in narrow stripes, at uniform distances. 
 The face of a stone, thus finished, is said to be tooled. 
 
 TOOTHING. — Stretchers projecting half their length at the end of 
 a brick wall, for the purpose of affording bond to an intended adjoining 
 Trail. 
 
 TORUS.— See pi. 2, fig. 1. 
 
 TRANSON WINDOW. — A window divided in its height by an 
 horizontal bar or mullion. 
 
 TRLMMERS. — Joists placed round chimneys, and ilie opening for 
 staircases ; for the purpose of receiving the ends of the other joists. 
 
 TRIMMER. — In bricklaying, is an arch springiag from a wood 
 trimmer below the slab of a fire-place. 
 
 TRIMMING-JOIST. — ^The joist that receives one end of a wooden 
 trimmer.
 
 104 
 
 TRUNCATED ROOF. — A roof tiial terminates flat at its summ.i 
 
 TRUSS. — Pieces of timber so rllsposed and framed, as to be able tx> 
 resist any particular strain. 
 
 TRUSS POST. — A vertical piece of timber in a trussed partition, 
 that receives tlie ends of the braces. The same term is likewise app-lied 
 to t?ie king or queen j)osts of a roof: and the roof itself in which thase 
 are empioyed, is named a trussed roof. 
 
 TUSCAN ORDER. — See the Diufxtor, pis. 3 and 4, and the 
 fable. 
 
 TUSK. — A sloping shoulder made above a tenon, for the purpose o 
 increasing its strength, 
 
 TUSK TENON. — A short bearing tenon, attached to the principal 
 tenon of such binding joists as have a considerable strain at their 
 extremities. 
 
 V. 
 
 VAI..LEY. — The internal angle of a roof. Rafters so srtu-^ted, arc 
 termed valley rafters. 
 
 VAULT. — An arched ceiling or roof, constnu-ted of masonry or 
 brickwork ; so arranged that tiie materials of which it is composed 
 support each other. 
 
 VESTIBULE. — A part situated at the entrance, or at the foot of the 
 principal staircase of a builing or edifice; and sendng as a tiiorough- 
 fare to th'i different apartments. 
 
 VOLUTE.— A spiral scroll, forming the principal characteristic of 
 the Ionic capital. The Corinthian and Composite capitals, have each 
 eight angular volutes ; those of the former capital being accompanied 
 by eight le.-iser ones named helices. — See pis. 9, 10, !1, 12, \f), 16, 
 19, and 20. 
 
 VOUSSOmS.— VOUSSORS.— The stones employed in the cod- 
 struction of an arch, or such as form its face. 
 
 w. 
 
 WALL. — Walla of unhewn stone are named rubble walls ; of vhicb 
 there are the coursed and the uncoursed; the stones of the former being 
 axed or haromer-dressed, and each course wrought to a certaivi height ; 
 «1iild iu the uncoursed walls the stones are employed nearly in the 
 iw.*:i«i state as they came from the quarry. 
 
 'f 4<i1:ji.§' completes tlie finish of the face of some walls. In others 
 th* surface is smoothed. Walls faced with stones, averaging nine 
 \XickK9 thick, one foot high, and two feet six inches long, and backed 
 viitb hr'.;S -.IT rubble, are tenned Ashler ; which see, as also Masonry. 
 
 \V\>jL.— The brick-wallmg of houses of from three to five stories, 
 ,^i(f Ui'tu t^e footings to the floor of the first or ground story, be 27 
 ii ihes i!> thickness, making the walls of the highest story nine inches ; 
 sod in those of each intermediate story a proportiorwte reduction, 
 .t-tiir T the water table on the insrde of the wall. The walls of a two- 
 f'lc.rv '^ .o«* 'naybe eighteen inches thick to the first floor, reducing
 
 1 05 
 
 aalf a brick up to the second floor, thus leaving the remainder uine 
 inches thick. The thickness of partition walls may be half a brick, 
 
 WALL PLATES. — Horizontal pieces of timber, generally laid even 
 with the inside of the walls, for receiving the ends of the joists and 
 rafters ; in the former instance they are termed joists-plates ; and in 
 the latter, raising, or top-plates. 
 
 WATER TABLE.— A kind of ledge on one or both tne sides of a 
 wall, forming the taking-in or off-set, by the superincumbent Dart 
 being reduced in thickness. 
 
 WINDOW.— iSee the Director, aad pis. 47, 48, sod 50.
 
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