'^^^ iMPeRlAL IlBRARY UC-NRLF $B 751 53fi >— «> • «»^ — «iV S^ Hliili THEODORE JOHNSON. \ LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Class S'NtHA: THE IMPERIAL LIBRARY IMPERIAL BRITAIN TLbc imperial Xibrar^, CONDUOTED BY FRANCIS GEORGE HEATH, Will be issued in a series of Volumes which, elegantly bound, will be published from time to time. "The Imperial Library" is to consist of works of far-reaching interest, giving information upon every subject concerning our great Empire — all designed to aid the noble movement, now progressing, for strengthening the ties which unite the Mother Country to the splendid Colonies which are the power and the pride of " Greater Britain." The great and far-reaching object for which " The Imperial Library " has been founded is to bring home to the minds of the millions of our splendid Empire a knowledge of what they, as citizens in their huge commonwealth, are so proud to possess; and thus, it is hoped, may be built up, by gradual means, and at a cost that may come (by easy instalments) within the pecuniary resources of the humblest of intelligent readers, a storehouse of information collected with one object and under one system ; and ultimately, it may reasonably be hoped, there will be produced an Encyclopaedia Britannica such as no private person at present London : THE IMPERIAL PRESS, Limited, 21 Surrey Street, Victoria Embankment, W.C. Her Most Gracious Majesty., Queen Victoria. rti^ iMPeRIAL LlBRARTT IMPERIAL BRITAIN A Comprehensive Description of the Geography, Historj', Commerce, Trade, Government, and Religion of the British Empire. With Maps and Ulustrations. rOL. I. The British Empire in Europe, etc., etc. BY THE REV. THEODORE JOHNSON, Late Chief Diocesan Inspector of Schools for Rochester Diocese. Author of " T fie Parish Guide" "A Geography and Atlas of the British Empire" " Hand- book of English History" etc., etc. INlVERSir OF X n & n THE IMPERIAL PRESS, LIMITED 21 SURREY STREET, VICTORIA-EMBANKMENT, W.C, 1898 {All Rights Rgserved.) T) ^,oO ^ (O GENERAL " Britannia needs no bulwarks, No towers along the steep ; Her march is o'er the mountain wave, Her home is on the deep." — " Ve Mariners of England''* — Thomas Campbell. " A land of settled government, A land of just and old renown. Where freedom broadens slowly down, From precedent to precedent." — Lyric, " Yoii ask me why, etc.''' — Lord Tennyson. " This royal throne of kings, this sceptr'd isle. This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, This other Eden, demi-paradise ; This fortress, built by Nature for herself, Against infection and the hand of war ; This happy breed of men, this little world ; This precious stone set in the silver sea. Which serves it in the office of a wall, Or as a moat defensive to a house, Against the envy of less happier lands ; This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England." — William Shakespeare. BeMcatet) TO All True and Loyal Sons and Daughters OF THE Vast Dominions OF IMPERIAL BRITAIN throughout the World. 102204 ** Righteousness exalteth a Nation/' — Prov, xiv., 34, IMPERIAL BRITAIN, PREFACE TO VOL I. Under this comprehensive and noble title, the author has endeavoured to represent the Geography, History, Com- merce, Trade, Government, and Religion of the vast territories and possessions of the British Empire, which now comprises one-sixth of the earth's surface, with a population numbering one-fifth of the inhabitants of the whole world. The present aim is not so much to add yet another volume to the existing list of Geographies of the British Empire, as it is to present to the general reader, in a popular form, statistics and facts relating to the descrip- tive nature ; the progress and wealth ; and the general position and resources of Imperial Britain. The range is therefore made considerably wider than that generally taken for ordinary purposes of study, by the introduction of such subject matter as : — Her national position and re- lationship to foreign powers ; her belt of defences, power- ful safeguards, and means of communication, both external and internal ; her navigation and foreign markets ; together with the numerous links. National, Social, Commercial, and Religious, that bind her vast foreign possessions to the Mother Country, however distant they may be situated from it. ix X PREFACE. In all instances where quotations have been made from other works, the same has been fully acknowledged so far as the Author could do so. Should there, however, be any omissions, he now begs to offer his apologies for the same, and he will gladly have the corrections made in all future editions of this work. That " Knowledge is Power " and " Union is Strength " are two well-known truisms. May they be realised and acted upon by Britain's sons and daughters in every clime and in every station. The units make up the grand whole, so that while her children remain loyal to her Government and Laws ; strong and courageous in their labour and aims ; true and faithful in their Religion ; so long will Britain's Greatness and Glory shine among the many nations of the earth, and in the noble words of Shakespeare : " Naught shall make us rue, If England to itself do rest but true." THEODORE JOHNSON. BoDiAM Rectory, Sussex, 1898. CONTENTS OF VOL. I PART I. Page The British Empire— General Description— i. name and position - - - - i 2. inhabitants - - - - - i 3. population ----- 2 4. emigration and immigration - - - . 2 5. AREA ------ 3 6* NATIONAL EXPENDITURE OF POSSESSIONS - 3 7. NATURAL PRODUCTIONS - - - - 3 FOREIGN Possessions— ----- 3 1. HOW ACQUIRED, ETC. .... 4 2. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION - - 5 3. CONSTITUTION ...... 6 4. LAW - - - - - - 7 5. home control ..... 8 6. agents general - - - - - 8 7. colonial institute and imperial institute 9 8. advantages and uses of colonies - - lo Future Growth and Prospects of Foreign Pos- sessions — - - - - . . • , . 13 1, new overland route to INDIA - - 1 3 2. imperial and commercial federation of the empire ..... 15 Short History of British Commerce - - - 19 Table of British Possessions, with Dates, etc. - 30 Mail Intelligence, Post and Cable Rates - - 34 Passenger Steamship Lines - - - - 38 Table of Distances from London to Sydney, P. & O. Line ....... 42 Ethnology— Origin of British People - - - 43 xi Xll CONTENTS. PART II. Page The British Islands— General Information— 1. introduction ... - . 48 2. CONNECTION WITH THE CONTINENT - - 49 3. CLIMATE .-...- 49 4. POSITION -.-... 50 5. SHAPE AND EXTENT, INCLUDING SMALLER ISLANDS ------ 50 6. CENSUS NOTES, 1 89 1 - - - - 5 1 7. ANNUAL EXPENDITURE AND REVENUE - - 52 8. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION - - 52 9. ARMY AND NAVY, COMPARED WITH FOREIGN POWERS ------ 56 10. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION, INCLUDING :— {a) RAILWAYS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRE- LAND ----- 60 {b) POST AND TELEGRAPH ... 67 {c) CANALS AND NAVIGABLE RIVERS- - 69 {d) ROADS ----- 70 11. EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION, INCLUDING:— {a) COMMERCE - - - - 71 (b) IMPORTS AND EXPORTS - - - 72 12. FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN ' ' - 73 13. LITERATURE AND THE PRESS - - - 76 14. RELIGION ...... jy 15. EDUCATION ------ 80 16. ROYAL FAMILY, ETC. - - - 82 17. ROYAL RESIDENCES- - - - - 84 18. PATRON SAINTS AND NATIONAL SYMBOLS - 84 19. NAVAL BATTLES SINCE IO66 - - - 84 20. PRINCIPAL WARS SINCE I066 - - - 86 21. LANGUAGES OF THE BRITISH ISLES - - 87 22. GENERAL HISTORY— NOTABLE EVENTS - - 87 23. TRADE STATISTICAL NOTES, COMPARED WITH FOREIGN POWERS - - - - 90 24. AGRICULTURAL RETURNS, 1 896 - - - 92 25. TABLE OF CHIEF FEATURES OF BRITISH ISLANDS 94 CONTENTS. Xlll PART III. Page England and Wales, Physical and Political— 1. SHAPE and extent " - " " 95 2. AREA AND POSITION " * ' " 95 3. BOUNDARIES - .... 95 4. COASTLINE, SHOWING CAPES AND HEADLANDS, BAYS AND INLETS " " " " 95 5. STRAITS AND ROADSTEADS .... loo 6. ISLANDS .._-.. 102 7. COAST DEFENCES AND SAFEGUARDS - - I08 8. CINQUE PORTS ----- 109 9. PHYSICAL FP:ATURES — SURFACE (GENERAL DE- SCRIPTION), - . - . . 109 10. MOUNTAINS AND HILLS - - - - IIO 11. PLAINS AND LOWLANDS, INCLUDING VALLEYS - I16 12. RIVERS - - - - - - IlS 13. LAKES, INCLUDING BROADS AND MERES - 124 14. CLIMATE - - - - - - 126 15. NATURAL PRODUCTIONS :— - - - 1 27 {a) MINERAL, INCLUDING MINERAL SPRINGS AND NATURAL CURIOSITIES - - 1 28 {&) VEGETABLE - - - - 1 32 {c) ANIMAL - - • - - - 136 16. POPULATION AND PEOPLE - - - - 1 38 17. TABLE OF DETAILED IMPORTS AND EXPORTS - 1 39 18. TRADE AND MANUFACTURES - - I4I 19. PRINCIPAL SEAPORTS - - - - I43 20. POLITICAL DIVISIONS, WITH TABLES (ENGLAND AND WALES) ----- 143 21. ENGLAND— DERIVATION OF COUNTY NAMES - 1 47 22. CONCISE DESCRIPTION OF ENGLISH COUNTIES : — {a) MARITIME (20) .... 149 {b) INLAND (^20) - - - - '55 23. THE COUNTY COUNCIL - - - - 161 24. CHIEF TOWNS ----- 162 25. WALES— COUNTIES :— MARITIME (9) ; INLAND (3) 1 72 26. CHIEF BATTLEFIELDS (ENGLAND AND WALES) - 175 xiv CONTENTS. PART IV. Page Scotland— 1. NAME - - - - - - 177 2. POSITION - - - , - - 177 3. AREA AND EXTENT- - - - ' ^77 4. POPULATION— CENSUS, 1 89 1 - - - 177 5. BOUNDARIES - - - - - 1 78 6. COASTLINE, INCLUDING CAPES AND HEADLANDS, BAYS AND INLETS - - - - 1 78 7. STRAITS - - - - - - 179 8. ISLANDS ..-..- 180 9. PHYSICAL FEATURES— SURFACE - - - 185 10. MOUNTAINS - - - - - - 187 11. PLAINS - - - ' - - - 190 12. RIVERS -.-..- i^ 13. LAKES ...... 194 14. CLIMATE - - - - - - 196 15. SOIL AND AGRICULTURE - - - - 197 16. NATURAL PRODUCTIONS :— {a) MINERAL ----- 197 {b) ANIMAL ..... 198 {c) VEGETABLE - - - - 1 99 17. MINERAL SPRINGS AND NATURAL CURIOSITIES - 200 18. PEOPLE, RACE, AND LANGUAGE - - - 20I 19. RELIGION ------ 202 20. EDUCATION - - - . ' - - 202 21. GOVERNMENT ..... 202 22.. NAVAL AND SEAPORTS ... - 202 23. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION - - - 203 24. COMMERCE, INCLUDING IMPORTS AND EXPORTS 203 25. POLITICAL DIVISIONS, WITH TABLE - - 204 26. CONCISE DESCRIPTION OF COUNTIES - - 205 27. CHIEF TOWNS - - - - - 2X6 28. TRADE AND MANUFACTURES - - . 221 29. CHIEF BATTLEFIELDS - - - - 221 30. SHORT HISTORICAL NOTES ^ - - - 222 CONTENTS. XV PART V. Ireland I. 2. 3- 4. 5. 6. 9- 10. II. 12. 13. 14. ^5- 16. 17. 18. 19, 20. 21. 22. 23- 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. NAME ...... SHAPE, AREA, AND EXTENT POSITION .-.-.. COASTLINE, INCLUDING CAPES AND HEADLANDS, BAYS AND INLETS - - - - STRAITS - - - - - - ISLANDS ...... PHYSICAL FEATURES— SURFACE - MOUNTAINS AND HILLS .... PLAINS ...... RIVERS ...... LAKES ...... CLIMATE ...... SOIL AND AGRICULTURE - - - - NATURAL PRODUCTIONS :— {a) ANIMAL - -. - {b) VEGETABLE - - - - - (c) MINERAL ..... MINERAL SPRINGS AND NATURAL CURIOSITIES - RACE AND LANGUAGE .... POPULATION, NOTES, CENSUS, 1 89 1 POLITICAL DIVISIONS . . - . COUNTIES, WITH TABLE .... TRADE AND MANUFACTURES SEAPORTS .---.- NAVAL AND MILITARY STATIONS - CHIEF TOWNS ..... GOVERNMENT ..... RELIGION ...... EDUCATION .-.--. REVENUE .-..-. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION COMMERCE, INCLUDING IMPORTS AND EXPORTS - HISTORICAL NOTES - - BATTLEFIELDS - ... 223 223 223 223 225 226 228 228 229 229 231 233 233 234 235 236 237 238 238 238 240 241 241 241 242 248 250 250 250 250 250 251 252 XVI CONTENTS. PART VI. British Possessions in Europe— i. isle of man - - 2. channel islands :— - - - {a) JERSEY - . - . {b) GUERNSEY, WITH HERM AND JETHOU {c) ALDERNEY AND THE CASQUETS - {d) SARK, LITTLE SARK, ETC. 3. GIBRALTAR - - - - - 4. MALTA, WITH GOZO AND COMING 5. CYPRUS ..... Page 262 264 266 267 268 269 275 282 INDEX 289 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, LONDON - - - II HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT, LONDON - - - 53 PORTSMOUTH - - - 59 WINDSOR CASTLE - - 85 THE THAMES — WOOLWICH REACH - - - - 121 IN THE MERSEY - - 1 23 THE ROYAL ALBERT DOCKS 1 63 MILWALL DOCKS - - 1 65 THE PORT OF LIVERPOOL - 1 67 LIME STREET, LIVERPOOL- 1 69 QUEEN'S DOCK, HULL - 171 SOUTHAMPTON DOCKS - 1 73 BASS ROCK - - - 181 FORTH BRIDGE - - - 1 89 TAY BRIDGE - - - 191 BEN AND LOCH LOMOND - I93 LOCH KATRINE - - - 195 ABERDEEN - - - - 207 EDINBURGH, FROM CASTLE HILL .... 213 UNIVERSITY, EDINBURGH - 21 5 THE TRONGATE, GLASGOW THE UNIVERSITY, GLASGOW KINGSTOWN HARBOUR, IRE- LAND, - - - - CHRISTCHURCH CATHEDRAL, DUBLIN - - - - ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL, DUBLIN SACKVILLE STREET, DUBLIN 245 Page 217 219 242 243 244 THE CASTLE, DUBLIN, LONDONDERRY - BRADDA HEAD, ISLE OF MAN 257 SOUTH STACK LIGHT, HOLY- HEAD - - - , - CORBIERE LIGHT, JERSEY SARK, FROM THE WEST COAST STRAIT OF GIBRALTAR GIBRALTAR STREET IN GIBRALTAR PLAN OF VALETTA HARBOUR GRAND HARBOUR, VALETTA MARINA, LARNAKA, CYPRUS LIMASOL, CYPRUS, 247 249 259 265 268 269 270 273 275 277 283 285 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. MAP I. IMPERIAL BRITAIN. PART T. THE BRITISH EMPIRE. Name and Position. — Under this name is included not only the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, but the vast and numerous foreign possessions — known as Colonies or Dependencies — scattered throughout e very- part of the world, so that the familiar proverb, " The sun never sets upon the British Empire," is absolutely a fact, for the British dominions are to be found throughout the five great divisions of the world — Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and Australasia. Inhabitants. — This immense territory comprises people of every race, colour, religion, and language, varying widely in habits, and appearance, according to the position they occupy upon the earth's surface, e.g.^ the British flag has been planted from the burning plains of the Equator to the frozen regions of both the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, or, as Cotton has quaintly described it : — ** The Colonial Empire of Britain is as varied in its com- position as it is vast in its extent. The Colonies proper vary in character from a settled country, with a civilisa- 2 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. tion more than a century old, like Lower Canada, to an unexplored wilderness of savages, like New Guinea ; from the Continent of Australia to the Rock of Gibraltar ; from Hong-Kong, the emporium of Chinese trade, to Heligoland,^ the favourite watering-place of Hamburgers." Population. — Thus we find the inhabitants of the British Empire to be about 327,000,000. This multi- tudinous mixed race of many nations, including about one- ■fifth of the inhabitants of the whole world, are represented in our different possessions under the names of Hindoos, Mahommedans, Chinese, Parsees, Burmese, Malays, Cin- galese, and Cypriots in Asia ; Negroes, Kaffirs, Zulus, Hotten- tots, Soudanese, and Arabs in Africa; Indians of various tribes in North and South America ; Maories and Bushmen with other mixed island Melanesian races in Australasia ; and English, Scotch, Welsh, Manx, Irish, Genoese, and Maltese in Europe. To the native population of our vast foreign possessions must be added the millions of emigrants and settlers, which, beyond those of our own nationality, in- clude most of the European nations — the principal peoples being the French, Germans, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, Jews, Italians, and Danes. • Emigration. — Later on will be found fuller infor- mation relating to emigration, but here it will suffice to mention that recent statistics show that since the year 1815, or during the past eighty years, more than seventeen millions of the British peoples have left their homes as emigrants to our Colonies. And by far the greater portion have found new life and employment in the United States, Canada, Australia, and South Africa. The average number of persons emigrating each year 1 N.B. — Heligoland is no longer a British possession ; it was ceded to Germany in 1890. THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 3 from Great Britain is about 250,000. Of this number nearly three-fourths are bound for our greater Colonies. The Immigration of persons of foreign or colonial birth is small compared with this number. In 1891, the Census only showed 400,629 foreigners residing in the British Isles, but this number has of late years increased. Another system of emigration exists by which the Coolie labourers, chiefly from India and China, are transported to Mauritius and the West Indies, in place of the old slave traffic, which happilj^-, has been abolished. To a certain extent also, the Polynesian islanders emigrate, for purposes of labour, to Queensland, and some other of our Australian Colonies. Area. — The area of the British Empire throughout the world now stands at nine millions of square miles, or about one-sixth of the land surface of the globe ; whereas, the area of the British Islands is only 123,000 square miles. Professor Meiklejohn states, in his " Comparative Geo- graphy of the British Empire," that " the Empire is equal to three Europes, but that Great Britain alone is only xJir P^^t of the whole Empire." Expenditure. — The annual expenditure of Great Britain, on account of her Colonies, has been estimated to be £100,000,000. Natural Products. — The vast dominions of the British Empire include some of the most fertile countries in the world, so that if the rest of the civilised countries of the world closed their ports against us, we could easily supply all our needs from our own possessions ; e.g.^ Britain stands first among the corn-growing countries of the world ; her forests of timber, and her wool supplies, are unrivalled, and the output of her minerals exceeds that of any other nation, more especially in coal, iron, copper, and salt. Foreign Possessions of Great Britain.— The foreign 4 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. possessions of the British Empire, which date from the reign of Queen Elizabeth (Newfoundland, so called from the discovery of Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1583), may be classed under four heads, viz. : — 1. The Empire of India, which began in 1757 under George II. 2. Crown Colonies, as Gibraltar, 1704, etc. 3. Those possessing a representative Government, as Canada, 1623-1760, etc. 4. Protectorates, as Bechuan aland, 1885, etc. How Acquired. — These world-wide and valuable pos- sessions have been acquired either by conquest, purchase, or settlement, since the reign of Queen Elizabeth, as shown by the following table : — 1. Conquest by War^ as Canada from the French in 1760. 2. Cession by Treaty, as Florida from Spain in 1763. 3. Colonisation by Settlers, as South Australia in 1836. 4. Discovery by Navigators, as Newfoundland in 1583. 5. Exploration by Travellers, as interior of Australia and Africa. 6. Purchase by Treaty, as Singapore from the Maharajah of Johore in 1824. 7. Exchange with Foreign Powers, as Malacca for Sumatra, from the Dutch, in 1823. 8. Trading Ports and Districts established, e.g., the East India Company, as portions of India, and Further India since 1600. and Hudson's Bay Com- pany, Canada, etc. 9. Presentation, as Malta given by Charles V. of Spain, 1530, to the Knights of St. John, who in 1798 capitulated to Napoleon, but after two years it was again taken by the English, and its possession finally confirmed by the Treaty of Paris, 1814. THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 5 10. Annexation to existing or neighbouring possessions, as Bermuda in 1609, and Oudh in India, 1856. 11. Royal Dowry, as Bombay to Queen Catherine of Braganza, wife of Charles XL, who allowed the East India Company to rent it as a trading port for £10 a year. 12. Missionary Enterprise, as Central Africa, New Guinea, and South Pacific Islands, where trade and annexation have followed the work of re- ligion. N.B. — Other possessions have been added as penal settle- ments, as Port Blair for Indian convicts in the Andaman Islands. Government and Administration. — We must here dis- tinguish between the two teims Colony and Dependency, ia) A COLONY, in the strictest sense of the name, is a settlement by people sent from the Mother Country (Latin, colonia), to possess and cultivate the soil, and to open up commercial relations and trade with the parent country, besides forming a new home as an important provision against the excess of population, e.g., Australia, etc. {h) A DEPENDENCY (from the Latin dependeo, in sub- jection to), is a foreign land acquired by conquest, cession, etc., where the native population are in subjection to another country, and receive their support and protection from that country, e.g., India, etc. Thus it is that in our Colonies the inhabitants are called colonists or settlers, who are strangers to the country, but who have been sent there as emigrants from the Home Country, where emigrants from other lands have joined them, and so they make a mixed and varied population in their new home ; whereas, in our Dependencies, the 6 • IxMPERIAL BRITAIN. original native population remains unchanged, without these additional settlers from the parent country — the majority of Europeans in our foreign Dependencies being those who hold appointments as Government officers in the army and navy, or others engaged in trade and commerce. Constitution. — The Government and Constitution of the vast and scattered Empire of Great Britain is naturally of the highest importance. The Imperial control and super- vision of such an immense territory, with its many millions of subjects, is vested under the administration of the British Government acting for the Sovereign, Queen, and Empress; but the general administration of our foreign possessions, with the exception of the Indian Empire and its Dependencies, including Aden, Perim, and the Kuria Muria Islands, Socotra, the Somali Coast Protectorate, the Laccadive, Andaman, and Nicobar Islands, is vested in the Colonial Office; and the British Empire in India is governed by the Viceroy, or Governor-General, and his Legislative Council, among whom the Commander-in-Chief, or head of the Indian army, holds a prominent place. They arc re- presented at home by the Secretary of State for India, and his numerous staff of officials at the India Office, Whitehall, London. Beyond this the foreign possessions of Great Britain have but three different kinds of constitution : — {a) Crown Colonies^ that is Colonies ruled by Crown officers, who are alone held responsible to the British Government at home. Most of these have a native population, as Ceylon, Gibraltar, Jamaica, Gold Coast Settlements, New Guinea, etc. etc. {U) Colonies under Representative Government^ that is, Colonies possessing their own legislature or repre- sentative institutions, but they have no responsible THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 7 Government, inasmuch as their chief public officers are appointed and controlled by the Crown, or Home Government, which also retains a veto on legislation through the Colonial Office in London, e.g., Natal, Barbadoes, etc. etc. (c) Colonies possessing a Responsible Government, ^nohd^s Canada, Cape Colony, the Australian Colonies, New Zealand, etc. In these countries the Home Government appoint but one officer, the Gover- nor, who possesses for the Crown a veto on legis- lature, which happily is seldom exercised. Such Colonies elect their own Government, i.e., ministers and parliament, independently of the Home Government. {d) In addition to the above-named classes of Colonies, the Island of Ascension in the Atlantic is treated as an Admiralty possession under the direct control of a naval officer as Governor. Law. — The Criminal and Civil Law of Great Britain extends throughout all those Colonies which have been annexed by settlement, and which are peopled for the most part by British subjects ; but in those Colonies which have been acquired by force of arms, or treaty, etc., the native laws found there are allowed to remain with such modi- fications, alterations, and additions as may be considered to be necessary to uphold justice, peace, and order among the inhabitants. The Duke of Devonshire, as Lord Hartington, ably described the Government of the British Empire in 1890. He said : " Our Government, like other Governments, has a great deal to do besides making laws. It has to ad- minister the affairs of an enormous Empire. It has to conduct the foreign relations of an Empire not less powerful than any Empire in the world. It has to conduct the 8 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. relations of that Empire with every foreign State- civilised or uncivilised — all over the world. It has to administer the affairs of a great Indian Empire— a task the like of which does not devolve upon any other Govern- ment in tlie world. It has to regulate the relations of the Mother Country with vast self-governing Colonies ; to provide to a certain extent for the government of those great communities ; to watch over their interests, and to regulate their relations with each other and with ourselves. Our Government has vast naval and military departments to administer, not to speak of such unconsidered trifles as the post-office and telegraph department, which are in themselves departments as great as any of those railway or industrial companies with whose affairs we are ac- quainted. Above all, it has to superintend the collection and the expenditure of an enormous annual revenue." Home Control. — The vast foreign possessions of Im- perial Britain are controlled and directed by the Home Government acting for the Sovereign as Imperial Ruler under the following Government Offices : — 1. Admiralty, Whitehall, S.W. {See Ascension Island.) Chief Officer, The First Lord of the Admiralty. 2. Colonial Office, Downing Street, S.W. Chief Officer, Secretary of State for the Colonies. 3. Crown Agents for the Colonies, Downing Street, S.W. Three Chief Crown Agents. 4. Home Office, Whitehall, S.W. Secretary of State for Home Affairs. {See The Channel Islands.) 5. India Office, St. James' Park, S.W. Secretary of State for India. 6. Emigration Information Office, 31 Broadway, West- minster, S.W. Agents General. — Before passing away from the ad- ministration and government of our Colonies in every part THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 9 of the world, it may be well to point out the important work of the Agents General in London. Each principal Colony has an Agent General at home to represent its interests, and to act as an Ambassador to the Home Government. All matters relating to politics, commerce, law, and government, are thus placed directly before the authorities, so that the Secretary of State for the Colonies is able to discuss these important matters at first hand, while the particular interests and needs of each Colony represented must receive individual attention. A stroll along Victoria Street, leading from the Houses of Parliament, will reveal the principal Agents General Offices in close proximity to the centre of Government. Here the latest information and statistics of our large dominions of Canada, the Cape, Natal, and Australasia may be obtained at these Colonial Offices. Colonial Institutes.— Two other institutions have of late years been founded as strong links to bind our foreign possessions into closer union with the Mother Country, vis: — The Colonial Institute in Northumberland Avenue, Char- ing Cross^ London, IV.C, founded in 1868, with its staff of officers, its valuable library of colonial literature, its interesting lectures and discussions, and its stream of visitors, from every distant quarter of the British dominions, which daily meet within its walls, is no mean factor in representing the power and value of colonial life and enter- prise. The Imperial Institute at South Kensington}- is now known far and wide for its many-sided representation of all matters relating to the Empire of Greater Britain. Here may be found valuable and costly specimens of native and colonial produce, arts, and manufactures in the museums ; ^ The Outcome of the Indian and Colonial Exhibition of 1886. 10 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. a second library of books upon Imperial subjects ; offices of enquiry upon matters concerning colonial life, work, and government in every quarter of the globe, with photo- graphs, maps, and diagrams exhibited upon a scale of magnificence not to be met with elsewhere. Advantages and Uses of Colonies. — 1. Tlie secret of Britain's wealth, power, and prosperity lies in a great measure in her vast foreign possessions, for by means of her numerous Colonies and Dependencies, she commands the highways of the ocean, and proudly owns the title of " Mistress of the Seas." As an example of this, Professor Meiklejohn states in his interesting and able volume, " The British Empire : Its Geography, Resources, Commerce, Land ways, and Waterways, 1895," on page 5, when dis- cussing the commercial position of Great Britain, " Of the tonnage of all the ships that pass through the Suez Canal, Great Britain has 79 per cent. ; France has only 5^ per cent. ; Germany, 4i. This is sufficient proof of the leading commercial position of Great Britain, since the Suez Canal is the highway to the whole East." 2. Again, our Colonies furnish a new home, with a better means of living, for the surplus population of this country. 3. They enable us to trade with other distant lands, for we import from these lands not only food supplies and general produce, but the raw materials of those countries provide us with home manufactures, both for consumption and use here, as well as for export in the form of manu- factured goods; e.g., British India and the Australian Colonies are among the largest markets in the world for the sale of our manufactured goods. 4. They form stations and forts to protect our ships of war and commerce, so that a commercial belt of navigation has been gradually formed by our steamship and tele- THE BRITISH EMPIRE. II ■■■■'■ 'i. < X, 12 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. graphic communication by sea, and the connecting railway sj'^stems on land. 5. They are continuous and extensive markets for the sale of English goods and produce. 6. They form calling - ports and stations where our ships may be replenished with fuel, food, and water supplies. 7. By increasing the export and import trade of Great Britain they materially increase the revenue. It has been estimated that nearly one-half of our commercial trade is with India and our Colonies. 8. They are powerful aids in the spread of civilisation and religion. Although, in certain districts in Africa and elsewhere, Christianity has led the way for the planting of the English flag as a protection to the natives against oppression and slavery, yet as a rule our missionaries follow the flag, and their powers of teaching both religion and civilisation are a hundred-fold strengthened when this is so. 9. They oflfer protection, and attract both the British capitalist and workman to a new sphere of labour, so that the Colony receives the full benefit of these powerful in- fluences, and the links of commercial, social, political, and religious life are thus strengthened both at home and abroad. Professor Seeley, in writing upon the growth and com- mercial prospects of our colonial possessions, says, " The time is certainly not far distant when of these new States, some of which are of yesterday, many will equal the European States, which they will surpass in natural wealth and equally-diffused prosperity." It will be seen from the above-named advantages and uses of our Colonies and Dependencies that it would have been impossible for Great Britain to have attained her THE BRITISH EMPH^E. 1 3 present great position in the world of trade, commerce, or politics without them. Future Growth and Prospects of our Foreign Pos- sessions. — Among the more important matters relating to the future of our Colonies may be mentioned : — (a) The New Overland Route to India. {b) Imperial Federation. THE NEW OVERLAND ROUTE TO INDIA. The following is a short abstract of a paper written by Colonel A. T. Eraser, R.E., and published in the Journal of the Society of Arts, on *'An Egypto- Assyrian Railway as the New Overland Route to India." The Sublime Porte has long ago conceded a railway right athwart Asia Minor, from the Bosphorus into the heart of Assyria, and this is already open as far as Angora, the exact course to be taken after reaching Mosul being as yet undecided. The line thus conceded, when prolonged to Kurrachee, is evidently the straightest that can be made between the English Channel and India. But owing to the insistence of the Porte that railroad concessions can only be given to Turkish subjects, great delay is occurring on the Syrian lines. It would be of great advantage if the distance between India and the Mediterranean were reduced to a quick and cheap i&ve days' journey. The existing route via the Red Sea is liable to be blocked, and British trade would then be diverted again round the Cape. Laying a rail- way between Ismailia and the head of the Persian Gulf would at once alter the whole complexion of affairs, at a cost of some £5,000,000, and steamers already trading to India could then do the remainder of the work. There are no special engineering difficulties to be encoun- tered. From Ismailia there would be a plunge into the winding valleys and sublime desolation of the desert of Sinai, and then the line would make for the head of the Gulf of Akaba, for convenience of access and protection by the British fleet in Indian seas. The only serious engineering operations would be in crossing the deep valley above Akaba, which is a continuation of that of the Jordan, and getting upon the tableland of Arabia. The route across Arabia is the most favourable possible for a railway ; it crosses an insignificant amount of drainage, and is remarkably clear of settled inhabitants. The few Arab tribes will warmly welcome the line, as it will give them access to markets, and its safety can be ensured by fixed payments to the tribal sheiks. It will be necessary to carry the line 80 miles 14 IMPERIAL BRITAIN, south of Bussorah, to the deep water anchorage of the port of Koweit, and clear of the muddy bar at the mouth of the Shatt-el-Arab, which is at present impracticable for large steamers. The new route will then have Alexandria at one extremity and Koweit at the other. Fast vessels can run down the Persian Gulf to Kurrachee in less than three days, so that the time of journey from the Mediterranean to India will be reduced from ten to four days, thereby lessening the cost of transit. For private interests and commerce there would be the great advantage of a daily mail (six times a week) to India. As it is, there is almost daily steam communication between continental ports and Alexandria. The Persian Gulf is not long and is easily navigated, though it has the reputation of being, in summer, the hottest sea in the world. But in a well-appointed steamship the inconvenience of extreme heat, lasting barely three days, would be scarcely noticed. Colonel Fraser recapitulates the advantages resulting from the con- struction of this railway as follows : — 1st, the virtual extension of the commercial frontier of India westward by 20 degrees of longitude ; 2nd, a daily mail to India, and cheaper passages ; 3rd, an economical trooping service ; 4th, the salubrious port of Kurrachee taking the place of Bombay as a depot for mails and passengers ; 5th, Alexandria becoming practically the port for Western India ; 6th, the opening of a coalfield in Mesopotamia ; and lastly, the termination of all uncer- tainty with respect to our Egyptian policy. The construction of these railways to Mesopotamia would be speedily followed by an extension of the British line from Bussorah along the northern shores of the Persian Gulf and the Mekran coast, to meet the Indian system of railways converging in Kurrachee. There is no difficulty in taking a rail- way over the low strips of land at the base of the chain of mountains which bounds the plateau of Persia, and the whole length of line would be under the observation of our fleet in Indian waters, giving Great Britain a material stake in the Persian littoral. Branch lines of railway would bring down the trade of Southern Persia to its old centre at the Straits of Ormuz, connecting the port of Bunder-Abbas with Bagdad via Shiraz and Ispahan, and giving Indian passengers a cool alternative route for a section of the journey. But the directness and advantages of the Egypto-Assyrian route over that advocated by the Euphrates Valley Railway are so marked that the new overland route has to be considered apart from the extensive system of Persian lines to which it must inevitably lead, and those railways in Turkish territory with which India has no present concern. — Reprinted by special permission from " The Imperial Institute Journal," Vol. IL, No. 22, October, 1896, p. 363. THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 1 5 Imperial Federation. — Since the year 1867, when Canada became the leader in the van of federation, there has been a growing desire among the dominions of Great Britain for Imperial Federation. Throughout the greater Colonies of Australasia and South Africa the feeling is a strong one for a federal constitution or union ; the only difficulty is how best to formulate a successful scheme of Imperial Federation which shall both strengthen the home powers and the scattered lands and peoples of Great Britain. Through the kindness of the author, Mr. J. G. Colmer, C.M.G., Chief Secretary to the High Commissioner for Canada in London ; and the Librarian of the Imperial Institute, Mr. H. H. Hebb, I am enabled to give the follow- ing synopsis of the prize essay on Commercial Federation as published in The Statist of May 2nd, 1896. THE COMMERCIAL FEDERATION OF THE EMPIRE. The following is a synopsis of the prize essay written by Mr. J. G. Colmer, C.M.G., on the Commercial Federation of the Empire in connection with The Statist thousand guineas competition on the sub- ject. The essay was published in full in The Statist of May 2nd. The scheme may be divided into four parts : (1. ) The granting of prefer- ential treatment to Colonial and Indian products in the United Kingdom. (2.) Preferential treatment of British products in the Colonies and India. (3.) The additional revenue so derived to form a fund, if the Mother Country and the Colonies and India agree, with a view to improve and supplement the defences of the Empire outside the United Kingdom. (4.) The formation of a Colonial Council to give the Colonies a greater voice in Imperial affairs, and to provide for the administration of the fund. 1. It is suggested that in the United Kingdom small specific duties should be placed on certain enumerated articles, about twenty in number, when imported from foreign countries — similar imports from the Colonies and India to remain duty free, as at present. That the proposals are moderate in their nature will be understood when it is stated that the duties, with one or two exceptions, are equivalent to an ad valorem duty of about 3 per cent, on foreign imports of the l6 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. articles specified. On foreign wheat and flour a revival of the duties in force up to 1869, of about Is. per quarter, is recommended. The imports in 1894 of the enumerated articles from foreign countries were valued at £85,539,794, and from the Colonies and India at £44,958,350. The duties, it is anticipated, would realise about £2,700,000. The enumerated articles are live animals, meats, cheese, butter, wheat, flour, hemp and other fibres, ivory, undressed leather, sugar, unrefined and refined ; wool, tallow, seal skins, fish oil, logwood, mahogany, and nuts and kernels for oil. It would have been easy to mention many other articles produced in the Colonies, on foreign imports of w^hich duties might be imposed, such as india-rubber, indigo, farinaceous substances, ornamental feathers, fish, fruits, gutta-percha, hides, palm oil, rice, furs, skins, silver and tin ore, wine, and wood. But, in the judgment of the writer of the essay. Commercial Federation will have a greater chance of immediate adoption and success if it is inaugurated on a moderate basis. It is also proposed to reduce by one-half the existing duties on imports, from the Colonies and India, of cocoa, coffee, and tea, the duties on the foreign imports of those articles to remain as at present. This rearrangement of the existing tariff", with a reduction of 5 per cent, in the duties on tobacco from all countries, would mean a decrease in the revenue to the extent of about £2,000,000. It will be seen, therefore, that the scheme involves, roughly speaking, a net increase in the revenue of the United Kingdom of about £700,000. It is urged that an increase in price is not likely to result from the placing of duties on foreign imports of the enumerated articles, at any rate to the extent of the proposed duties. In every case there would still be a considerable importation of the different commodities from the Colonies and India. As they would remain duty free, the supplies coming from within the Empire would dominate the market, and with the foreign competition, have a tendency to prevent the increase in prices which perhaps might follow if duties were placed upon such imports from all countries. 2. As the fiscal systems in the Colonies and India are so varied, and the nature of their trade exchanges so different, it has apparently been found difficult to make any proposal for giving preferential treatment of a uniform character to British imports in those markets, in return for the concessions suggested on the part of the United Kingdom. It is, therefore, recommended in the essay that the Mother Country should take the initiative in the matter, inform the Colonies and India what advantages the United Kingdom is prepared to offer to the imports of the articles enumerated from within the Empire, and ask what conces- sions of a preferential character they would be -prepared to extend to imports from the United Kingdom over imports from foreign countries. THE BRITISH EMPIRE. I7 It is believed that correspondence of this nature would pave the way for an Imperial conference, at which the details of the proposals could be discussed, and definite arrangements agreed upon, by which in every part of the Empire there would be preferential treatment, on a mod- erate scale, for Inter-Imperial trade. The scheme, which is essentially in the nature of a "family arrangement" between the Colonies and Possessions and the Mother Country, would naturally be subject to alteration from time to time, as required, in the interests of all the parties concerned. 3. Assuming that the Colonies were prepared to grant preferential treatment to British trade (upon which no doubt appears to exist, in view of the resolutions of the Ottawa Conference) ; assuming also that India was ready to follow their example, and that they re-arranged their tariffs in favour of British Trade in a manner satisfactory to the United Kingdom, and that the formation of a fund for defence pur- poses was agreed upon as part of the scheme, it is fair to suppose that the Colonies and India would be able to contribute, as partly or entirely the outcome of their preferential treatment of British imports, accord- ing to their local circumstances, a sum equal in the aggregate to the net amount of additional revenue (£700,000) to be raised in the United Kingdom. In one of the appendices of the essay a suggestion for the apportionment of the £700,000 among the Colonies and India is offered. This would provide a fund of nearly £1,500,000 per annum, the joint contribution of the Colonies and India and the United Kingdom, which, it is suggested, could be used to supplement and improve the existing defences, including graving docks and coaling stations, in the outlying parts of the Empire. Among other things the maintenance of guard-ships in the leading ports of the Empire is proposed. These vessels would be useful not only for harbour defence, but in connection with the training of naval militia, which, it is believed, could readily be formed in the leading maritime ports of the Empire. This force would not only be valuable locally, but would also be available for drafting on Her Majesty's ships that might be operating in the neigh- bourhood of the Colonies in the time of war. 4. In order to give the Colonies a larger voice in the affairs of the Empire than they now have, and to enable them to participate in the administration of the proposed fund for defence, the formation of a Colonial Council is suggested. It would consist of the Secretaries of State for the Colonies, Foreign Affairs, India, and War, the First Lord of the Admiralty, and the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Colonial Secretary being President. The High Commissioner for Canada and the Agents-General of the self-governing Colonies— or such other persons as the Colonies might appoint — would be members of the 1 8 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Council. It would be, as its name implies, a Council in which the Colonies would have a voice through their representatives in regard to any matters arising out of the preferential trade arrangements, and upon all other subjects in which the Colonies they represented had the right to consult, or to be consulted by, the Imperial Government. The only serious obstacle of an international character in the way of carrying out the scheme is contained in the restrictive clauses of the commercial treaties with Belgium and Germany, which oblige the Colonies to admit imports from those countries on the same terms as those from the United Kingdom. By the action of the most-favoured- nation clauses in other treaties this obligation is made more or less general. As British imports from Belgium and Germany are greater than British exports to those countries, and as, even if the objection- able clauses were cancelled, the Colonies could still be made amenable to the general most-favoured-nation clauses, which form part of the treaties, it is suggested that if the proposition were made to the countries in question they would prefer the modification of the treaties rather than their abrogation. The treaties are terminable in any case on twelve months' notice. Retaliation on the part of foreign countries is not anticipated as the result of the adoption of the scheme, because their import duties are now as high, generally speaking, as they can be made, and any increase would react on the countries themselves. Besides, with the Imperial Customs Union in existence, a policy of retaliation would hardly be lightly undertaken. The following are some of the advantages which, it is claimed, would be derived by the Mother Country on the one hand, and the Colonies and Possessions on the other, from the adoption of the scheme of Commercial Federa- tion. It would bring the Mother Country into closer union with the Colonies. By giving preferential treatment, on a moderate scale, to British trade within the limits of the Empire, the bond of unity would be material as well as sentimental. By such preference the doctrines of Free Trade that prevail in the United Kingdom would not be seriously endangered, and freer trade than at present would be made possible Avithin the Empire. On the other hand, the British manu- facturer would retain the control of the rapidly increasing Colonial markets. There would be a unity for the defence of the outlying parts of the Empire, and a Colonial Council for mutual consultation on matters of general interest. Greater attention than ever would be attracted to the Colonies. Emigration would flow in larger numbers to their shores and increase the demand for British goods. The invest- ment of capital in the Colonies would be encouraged, and their powers of production be so increased that the United Kingdom would, year by year, depend less upon foreign sources for her food supplies. — THE BRITISH EMPIRE. I9 Attached to the essay are several statistical appendices, illustrating the commercial affairs of the Empire, and showing that, relatively speaking, the trade of the United Kingdom with the Colonies has been increasing in a greater ratio than the trade with the other parts of the world. — From ^^ The Imperial Institute Journal^" Vol. II. , No. 18^ Jutie^ 1896. A Short History of British Commerce. — British Com- merce really commenced during the Plantagenet period. Then it was that England was first made an entrepot for foreign goods, and many foreigners — chiefly craftsmen and traders — were encouraged to settle here, in order to pursue their trades. To aid them in this object they were specially protected by Statutes and Acts of Parliament. Thus, at this early period, we find the following trading companies existing : — 1. German Merchants of the Steelyard. 2. Merchants of the Staple. 3. Brotherhood of St. Thomas-a-Becket. 4. Italian and Flemish Merchants. Henry L, 1100-1135. — Commerce, even as early as Henry I., was encouraged by the Lords selling their charters to guilds and townsmen in order to raise money for the wars of the Crusades. In 1108 a colony of Flemings settled at Worsted, near Norwich, to introduce the woollen cloth manufacture into this country. Henry II., 1154-1189.— The Royal Navy of England was first established in 1166, under Henry II., the first Plantagenet King. John, 1199-1216. — Under King John, the Magna Charta, signed at Kunnymede, June 19th, 1215, provided that "Cities and Towns should be protected in their liberties, and foreign merchants should be free from exactions. A year previous to this, 1214, commerce had been greatly encouraged by the charter given to London City to elect its own Mayor and Corporation Officers. For a lengthened 20 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. period the English people were prohibited from exporting articles of merchandise, or home goods. This was some- what disastrous to British trade, but the object desired was to retain here all goods for home consumption or use. Henry III, 1216-1272.— In 1261 the exportation of raw wool and the importation of manufactured cloth were for- bidden. Owing to the Hanseatic League, which consisted of the steelyard merchants from the Rhineland and the Baltic having settled in London in 1220, and having so greatly increased their trade by attending the fairs in the chief towns of England, which at this period were the general places of sale and merchandise, commerce increased. Hallam says, "The English had also their factories on the Baltic Coast, as far as Prussia, and in the Dominion of Denmark." Edward I., 1272-1307.— The Company of Merchant Adventurers was formed in 1296 with the object to im- prove the manufacture of jvooUen goods in England, and to sell cloth at Antwerp, and other towns on the Continent of Europe. In Edward I.'s reign, foreign merchants received a charter of justice to improve commercial interests. Edward II., 1307-1327. — Under Edward IL, commerce received but little assistance beyond the regulation by Treaty, 1325, of Trade with the Venetian Republic. Edward III., 1327-1377. — Under Edward IIL, by reason of the expensive foreign wars. Parliament granted Tunnage and Poundage in 1340. This greatly hampered commerce, inasmuch as two shillings were levied upon every tun of wine imported by foreigners, and sixpence upon each pound of merchandise, either as imports or exports, and all English ships were charged according to their tonnage. Yet it was to Edward III. that Hallam gives the title of ** Father of English Commerce " — inasmuch as commerce THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 21 now became, next to liberty, the leading object of Parlia- ment ; and Prof. Longman adds : — " Commerce, indeed, became so important that, following the example of his father, Edward felt the necessity of summoning a Com- mercial Parliament — apparently more numerous than the National Parliament itself — to discuss questions of trade. Merchants soon became so rich, and were held in such high esteem, that in the year 1363, one, Picard, Mayor of London, entertained Edward the Third, the Black Prince, and the Kings of France, Scotland, and C^^prus, with many of the nobility in London, at his house in the Vintry, where the foreign wine merchants carried on their business." KiCHARD IL, 1377-1399. — During Richard XL's reign, commerce rapidly increased in wealth, and the first Navi- gation Act, 1382, required, for the first time, all merchandise to be imported and exported in English ships only. The Mariner's Compass, invented in Henry III.'s reign, so aided geographical discovery, that we note the following new places found in Africa during this reign : — 1344 — Madeira, by one Robert Macham. 1345 — Canary Islands, by the Genoese. 1364— The Guinea Coast, by the French. 1392 — Cape of Good Hope, by the Portuguese. Henry IV., 1399-1413.— The great wealth of the foreign merchants caused Parliament, under Henry IV., to impose some restraint upon them, as follows : — 1. Foreign money forbidden to be circulated in England. 2. Foreign goods to be sold three months after ex- portation. 3. English goods to be bought with the profits. Henry V., 1413-1422.— In Henry V.'s reign the Royal Navy was improved, and the first Great Harry built. Tunnage and poundage were again granted by Parlia- 22 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. ment during the King's life, with an additional subsidy on wool and leather. Henry VI, 1422-61.— In the time of Henry VI, far greater progress than has hitherto been noted was seen in the growth of British Commerce ; our merchant ships now exceeded 900 tons burden. All importation of manufactured articles was forbidden by statute in 1463, under Edward IV. ; and to export British coin, or plate, without the royal sanction, was treated as a felony. During this reign the trading classes remained remarkably prosperous. Edward V. and Richard III, 1483-85. — Little was done to benefit commerce or trade under the next two reigns of Edward V. and Richard III Henry VII, 1485-1509. — To the Tudor monarchs belong the full glory of an extended system of British Commerce. As our Colonies date from the reign of Henry VIL, who was the first English monarch to fit out an expedition of enterprise and discovery to the New, World, so one of the greatest events in European history is linked with his name. The new world of America was given to commerce, to civilisation, and to Christianity. Christopher Columbus, the servant of Queen Isabella of Castile, was the first to discover the new continent in the West India Islands in 1492 ; and, five years later, John and Sebastian Cabot and others, the fearless navigators em- ployed by Henry VII, made the important discovery of the Mainland of North America and its islands, viz.^ New- foundland, Labrador, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Cape Breton, with other neighbouring parts of the New Continent. In right of this discovery, England claimed a large portion of North America with the surrounding fisheries, but it was not until the reign of George II.-III THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 23. that the vast Dominion of Canada, etc., was finally annexeci as a British possession. The year following the success of Cabot, 1498, in the West — Vasco-da-Gama, a Portuguese ex- plorer, discovered the passage round the Cape of Good Hope to India, and thus opened out the great future trade route to the East. Under Henry VII., the Royal Navy was improved, and the second Great Harry was built, being so named after that monarch. In addition to coin, plate, and bullion, horses were for- bidden to be exported ; and, by commercial treaties, English trade was strengthened with the Flemish merchants. The impetus given by England and Spain to foreign dis- covery quickly spread to other countries, so that we find during the next ten years the following important dis- coveries made by eminent navigators : — 1. The Eastern Coast of America, by Americas- Vespu- cius, 1499. 2. Brazil, by the Portuguese, 1500. 3. Ascension Island and Sumatra, 1501. 4. St. Helena, 1502. 5. Ceylon, Madagascar. Henry VIII., 1509-47.— The first introduction of hops from Flanders, 1524, was made under Henry VIII. During this reign hemp, flax, and currants were imported for the first time. In 1543 the first merchant ship sailed to India, and as a further improvement of the Royal Navy, Wool- wich Dockyard was established, the Trinity House founded, and a Naval Department established. Hume says :— " The foreign commerce of England, during this age, was mostly confined to the Netherlands. The inhabitants of the Low Countries bought the English commodities, and dis- tributed them into other parts of Europe." Edward VI., 1547-53.— In Edward VI.'s reign the first 24 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. English ship entered the Russian port of Archangel, and other voyages of discovery were made in the Polar dis- tricts. This opened the way to a new trade with Russia and other Eastern powers ; but commerce received a slight check in the repeaj of the Charter of the Hanseatic Steel- yard in 1552. Mary, 1553-58. — Upon Mary's accession this charter was again granted to the merchants of the steelyard, and the new Russia Company was incorporated in 1554. The fol- lowing year, Mercator produced his chart for navigation, as the globe unfolded to show the earth's surface at a glance. Elizabeth, 1558-1603. — Under Queen Elizabeth, mon- opolies hindered commerce and trade; but in 1600, the East India Company obtained a charter to carry on trade with the East Indies. The expeditions to the north brought about the Whale Fisheries, which afterwards became a most important source of revenue, although many valuable lives were lost in the pursuit. Among other commercial events of this period may be mentioned : — 1. The West Coast of African Trade, introduced by Sir John Hawkins in 1562. 2. The Royal Exchange in London founded by Sir Thomas Gresham in 1571. 3. The Hanseatic Steelyard closed upon the appeal of the London merchants. 4. Sir Walter Raleigh imported Tobacco and Potatoes. The greatest geographical discovery of this age was the treble circumnavigation of the world by Sir Francis Drake, whose name appears as the chief among a brilliant company of English navigators, including Sir Martin Frobisher, Sir John Hawkins, Sir John Davis, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, and last, though not least, Sir Walter Raleigh, who discovered THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 2$ Virginia in 1585, having chosen this name for the new Colony after Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen. James I. and Charles L, 1603-49.— The Civil Wars of the Stuart period greatly advanced civilisation. Under James I., the East India Company renewed their charter in 1609. Virginia was re-colonised, and James Town, on the river James, was founded in 1607. The charter for the Colonisation of North America was passed in 1609, and Plymouth, the first town of the New England States, was founded, in 1620, by a body of English Non-Conformists, who called themselves "The Pilgrim Fathers." Australia, with the New Hebrides, were discovered in 1606, and during the next ten years, much attention was given to Arctic exploration by Hudson, Baffin, and others, who named their discoveries after themselves. In 1619, our trade with the East Indies was regulated by an important commercial treaty with the Dutch. The Commonwealth, 1649-60. — During the great Re- bellion, many persons, both Republican and Royalist, founded new Colonies in North America and else- where. The great naval wars between England and Holland during 1652-3, through the valour and energy of the British Admirals Blake, Penn, and Monk, proved that Britain had advanced above Holland as " Mistress of the Seas." The Commonwealth, by reason of internal home troubles, left commerce very much alone, although several treaties and charters were passed. Charles II., 1660-85. — After the Restoration, there was a great increase of British commercial trade, as shown by the incorporation of — 1. The Hudson's Bay Company. 26 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. 2. The Colonisation of Carolina, 1676, and Pennsyl- vania in 1683. 3. The granting of Bombay to the East India Com- pany, 1678. It was during this reign fCharles II.) that the Board of Trade was established in 1670. James II., 1685-88.— From 1660 to 1688, Hume says:— " The shipping of England was more than doubled during these 28 years ; " but, strange to say, so great was the change in the general decline of resources that Hallam writes : — " In 1696 — the very nadir of English prosperity — it was hardly possible to pay the fleet from month to month, and a national bankruptcy seemed to be near at hand." This shows a falling off of commercial trade, as com- pared with the glorious period before the Revolu- tion. William and Mary, 1689-1702.— In 1698, under William III, a rival East India Company was founded, but four years later the old and the new company united. The nine years' war with France, from 1689 to 1697, greatly interfered with commerce and colonisation, until the grand alliance of England, Holland, and Germany in 1701 put matters upon a surer financial basis. Anne, 1702-14. — Under good Queen Anne, we have, the war of the Spanish Succession by England, Holland, and Germany, against France and Spain, which lasted for eleven years from 1702-13. As a result of this war, the Treaty of Utrecht, 1713, gave to Great Britain, Hudson's Bay, Nova Scotia, New^foundland, St. Christopher's, Gibraltar, and Minorca, among other commercial advantages. George I., 1714-27. — To the Hanoverian Period belongs the chief growth of our Colonial Empire, although this Period was unfortunate at the commencement by the burst- THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 2/ ing of the South Sea Bubble in 1720, which gave a great shock to public credit. George II., 1727-60.— Under George II., the Seven Years War, 1756-63, gave England the final possession of Canada, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Tobago, Dominica, St. Vincent, Grenada, and Senegal. While a considerable portion of India became subject to the British Crown by the victories of Clive, Hastings, and Wellesley. George III, 1760-1820. — We have now to record the first great British loss of dominion : the United States, including man^^ of our earliest Colonies, were lost by the war of American Independence, 1775. The Colonists' Congress passed the Declaration of Inde- pendence against Great Britain. Thirteen States — Massa- chusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia were included as breaking away from the Mother Country. In 1788, the Penal Settlement of Port Jackson, on Botany Bay, in New South Wales, was formed. The convicts after a time became settlers in their new home until transporta- tion was discontinued in 1840. The reign of George III. added greatly to our foreign possessions, in addition to the American and other French territories ceded by the Treaty of Paris in 1763. The Falkland Islands were settled in 1766 ; Sierra Leone and Norfolk Islands in 1789. The Seychelles were gained by conquest from the French in 1796. Ceylon was taken from the Dutch the same year, and Malta wrested from the French in 1800. Tasmania was settled in 1803. Cape Colony lost to the Dutch in 1806. Heligoland became a British possession, and was added in 1807. Mauritius in 1810, with Ascension Island and a further portion of India annexed in 1815. 28 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. George IV., 1820-30.— The first Free Trade measure passed was Huskisson's Reciprocity of Duties Bill, in 1823, under George IV. This reign also saw the duty reduced on the importation of silk ; the laws extended for the im- port and export of wool ; the Corn Laws modified, and foreign grain brought in at a fixed duty; the currency regulated ; and the northern limits of North America laid down by Sir John Franklin and others. William IV., 1830-37. — The overland route to India was first used in 1834, and the Liverpool and Manchester Rail- way opened in 1830, followed by the London and North Western line to London. Victoria, 1837. — The grandest period of British Com- merce has been reserved for the present reign of Queen Victoria. In spite of the commercial panics of 1847, 1857, and 1866, so great advances have been made by the inven- tion of the electric telegraph and telephone, the perfection of the British postal system, and the development of steam- ships and railways, that no other period has possessed such facilities for the encouragement of foreign and home commerce and trade. In a little time the advance was marked by millions sterling upon our export and import trade. Again, the absence of foreign wars has enabled Britain, during a lengthened period of peace, to devote both capital and interest to the extension of her commerce. Commercial Treaties have been signed with nearly every civilised country in the world, and the system of inter- national trade has opened up markets for British manu- factured goods in all quarters of the globe ; while we in return, receive, by means of our excellent merchant navy, their raw produce, with food supplies of every kind. Lastly, the marked extension of the British Dominions, since 1837, has provided new spheres of British trade to THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 29 such a degree, that as above stated (pp. 10 and 12) we are now quite independent of the foreign trade of all other Powers, inasmuch as our possessions are at last able to supply every home need, whether animal, vegetable, or mineral productions, food supplies, or raw or manufactured goods. *' Queen Victoria's reign has been one long series of acces- sions to the Empire. Our Colonies are young, healthy, prosperous, and loyal : the magnificent Empire of India has been added to and consolidated ; Africa has been ex- plored, and is being colonised ; and all over the whole globe the English are pushing their way ; even the river Ob, so long deemed impracticable, has been opened to commerce by an Englishman. Steam has practically anni- hilated distance ; and the old six months' voyage to India died the death when, on October 31, 1845, Lieutenant Waghorn practically demonstrated the feasibility of his ' overland route ' to India The cutting of the Suez Canal brought India and Australia, China and Japan, far nearer to us — you can now get to Bombay in 25 days ; Melbourne in 45 days (going to Brindisi will knock off 8 days) ; and the Ocean Greyhounds will whisk you to New York in 5^ days." — From " The Longest Reign in English History," by John Ashton, by permission of the author. — English Illustrated Magazine, 30 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. 1 1 g 1 S. John's. Declared Independent as one of the United States in 1776. Hamilton. Bathurst and Cape Coast Castle. Declared Independent as one of United States in 1776. Basseterre. Declared Independent in 1776 as one of the United States. Bridgetown. Nassau. S. John and Plymouth. Declared Independent as United States in 1776. Kingstown, lloadtown. Declared Independent as U^iited States in 1776. Belize. Jamestown. Declared Independent as United States in 1776. Gibraltar. Declared Independent as United States in 1776. Ottawa. i 1 Si 1 1 i S"| i 1 1 IJi 1 \^^^' I i^"^"i ^\ '1 .as i 11 1 ^" \^^\ 1 1 III 1^5 1^ '^ 5-^ 1 i ^" 1 1 ^^ 1 CO 1 18 1 -.^« S S g^l .a .2 3 " :: 5 ■ 4 S 3 Cm il g 1 1 § il S^cS .2 eS -^ CC •« -^ :: " 1 « ll- i Pli 02 o a 1 CO) < 11 1 ^ 1 Is J 1 2 f if 02 C-l T-t - in 5 Si o 1^ 12^ Is 50 ^. 88 8 I ^" eo t- I :3 8S r-l (N /I Sot I" o n 53 c *5 O r2 o5 Cti "C! i3 O 002 -2a s s a s a «^" a a gocoo., o og C -r a o s o .. .2 Si's 020 fiO So o a s s a .2 » * O C/2 a> «» - 'J 5 fcj (- es tM r >4 c5 0) (V ^ a>- " « i-l ^ 3 es eu 1 1 His 1 1796 1797 1800 1S03 1803 1806-77 liii 1 "o 1 1 ddc4 d d 1 d |p^'«tf« d 1 d 1 d d '^d p^ 32 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. I " 1 \ \ II 08 "" I I -^1 ^ ^ 00 'O l^ ! I 00 O O S ^"O ^ 00 « •^"co 00 ■» s -*"^ ■* iS $553 |^--1 ta ^^ e s^ t- o ^ t>; ' <» 1— I CO ~eo I II 2 pq 2 eS O M O ° >^ 0020 Ph CO '3 :^f=i ft >.a5 bcia g' & ".2 " "" "-.S 1 I M % Gog's II3 I O.S e8fl( O "o "^ .S 02 5 c s eS O S o 3 Wo a .2^.2 83 g ^ ^ ^ § ^'S s S o fi c OS'S C aj ta «Ocn os (N eo co 05 10 ?o coos o -* t- 00 os O t-h e3 00 0000 000000 00000000 0000 00 00000000 00 0000 Or-liH ■*, _ b- t— t^ b- c 00 00 00 00 00 < Oj Q^ d Oh d P^ waww oph d o !«P^ d I I I 2dd I i I THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 33 I I I I > S^ T; |s¥g I- Kfl 1 A% I 1'^ 03 c8 >^ « ° fe ^.S-rt* S 5) 5 c 3 ^ o flag 2 o a 2 1>.: {111 l| C5 fL, P4Q •« "^ fe* •> •i^B.255 «0 m r. 035-H lo'a-glrt t o o" u-^ g ^-'^ -q (M (M IM ©q (M Aden Bahamas Barbados Bermudas British Guiana British Honduras British India British New Guinea Brit. North Borneo Canada THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 35 02 Wo IS iJ« e§ WQ idi-i ca-^ ^os S « o <* ^-« 1^ II! il S35 'S s rs, O - IP c3 O i& S t) w Q OJ o t» Ol C u P I I o^ ?^ 'ZS^ Ha §§ §H "^ ^ I .. p^ SP^ ..-3.2 ^ S oh3 03 c o «8 ...S S o s ij| if .§ e > § e - S •• r ■P-t P 6> ^ o.-t^ P< -.2§^-.2g acS a scH ft CS oJ CTS c3 C-C c8 fi-C c8 ctj ce 2 c-c cs S'O 03 S-O c8 ^'i's ^.'S? 'S'i'o'gl'S ^■S's-ll'S's ^'i'Sl'S'S £■« "■ 11^ ill §11 oS2oS2 a ste- -6 -6 '6 -d -d -d 'd'd •d -d A! ^•SS § sli^ PQ Ph £ t t!^? -6 -6 tJ •d -d •d -d-d •d -d 3 ^^l (N (M ei 4 (N c^ 'A >5d si H 1^ 36 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Wo ■2 1 6d. E. 5/5 /9 E.E. F. Durban 5 E. D.S. Other places 5/2 1/- (same as Canada). 4/11 E. I.E. 1.,= § 1?^ OS be — ' B 1 s ^ o. n |. -O c3 "IS ill !■£ = 1 1 O J a onday it fixed aesday via i & Naples tely n "3 1 « 1 i III a 1 1 1 :- 1 Every M Dates no Every Ti Brindis alterna' Uncertai o B s 1 ..bo very Saturday wice Monthly -Brindisi : E., Twice Monthly > Naples: E., 1 Vancouver: E., Monthly Mails supplementary E. n if. -1 fi si 1 -Italy : M., DaUy very Saturday -Marseilles: E., 8, supplementary fo 5.S B te San Francisco : Aft French Packet : E. supplementary f o jrman Packet: M., as New South Wales 0) '.2g t (S bc.-:^ p** bc-s c^ bc'^ -^ o be-* ^ o y3 . ^"i O SC^'i O-g 6cl^ bcS'S bo^ bus's 'io'g **0'S 93 O ^ ^ i IZi i Not excel For each fraction (Includin Not exce For each fraction Not exce Exceedin bc.Sbcg.S ceeaing Exceedin ceeding Not exce For each fraction Not exce For each fraction Not exce For each fraction § « 1 «H ''iz;;^ 1 1 4) Hi 1 111 "O 'C "O -d -c -d ;d •d ^^ „{C „|o «|cq r^lM HCl H« ^ ^■ss O »« »■§ (§ ess 1 ^P -e -d -d ?; :t t ^ !*i ^ ^^§. (N e5 (N (N (M (M c? oS' A p »' O 1 1 i. ^« 3 < ^ 1 s S S3 %$ pa is a a s ;zi ^ !2; Iz; 0? THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 37 CO o3 E. LE. (by post from ape Colony). E. D.S. E. I.E. E. LE. (same as arbados). H ^ l^""^ ^ ^ ^- i« o ^ ^«^ 05 >0 «D T»( U3 OiO S ^ ^ «a«^ *« S ^ «^S? Q'SS OS ^ ^ ;5 ^ ngapore enang 2 37 131 ^ u renadal .Vinc'tl Lucia 1 5Z5- J^ ^ OrnVl ill III 'uesday via d or Naples ,tely. New South 5S ' Mails uesday New South Hong Kong New South Barbados. 5 1 § 1 111 Every T Brindis alterna Same as Wah Monthly Every T Same as Wales Same as Same as Wales Same as 17, 25 ea Same as Wales Same as Wales s -V- -O ^ « d ■§ 3 Brindisi or Naples: E., every Friday lrz;?isco I «r th^vr French Packet) South Wales M,, Monthly Mails By British Packet: E., every Friday an Monthly Mails Same as New South Wales ales Same as Barbados 1 ..oo;3 1 1 .£3 1 Hong Kong New South W •uthampton ( 1^1 1 S'S. s S§ S ^^ ^ S f s « ..2):ra'S>^>'^ " S'-Eert cc ^ !» 3 :2; -^e a ^ ^ '^0000 I— 1 'C "O "O _^a a a k:ik3 h1 »_i h^ !» ;:^i-q h^ i-q ^a3 hqt-;;:^: ft 03 S S c i Orient. I Lloyd aritimea rica Lin< P. P4 d Line al Mail S. rison Line bee Steam insul thG sage man alM by L sage man alM mil a^q boo ^, PM 02 ^ .S a 2o a-e a=^ 3-S a-c 03- -jjpqpq pqpqpq Mpo THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 39 Reference to OTHER Pages FOR FURTHER DETAILS. •p9 'jvuxnof Hm^uo]^ dfnitpui ' ivuddmi aq^ aas {■SAuiy puB aan:}i'Bda(i jo sa^'BCE loj < o 1 Colombo Colombo Larnaca Stanley Suva Bathurst Bathurst Gibraltar Gibraltar St. George's Hong Kong Hong Kong Hong Kong Hong Kong Bombay Calcutta Calcutta Bombay and Kurrachee Calcutta Kurrachee Bombay Bombay Bombay Madras and Calcutta Calcutta Bombay Kingston Lagos Lagos VMetta o . Jfl §3 -^ 1 o i (v) Liverpool Liverpool Marseilles Punta Arenas (Straits of Magel- lan) London Liverpool Liverpool London (iv) London Southampton London Vancouver (m) Southampton Marseilles (i) London do. Liverpool Liverpool Liverpool Liverpool » Liverpool ) (vi) Marseilles Liverpool Liverpool Jjiverpool Liverpool Southampton Liverpool - Liverpool London i Bibby Line Clan Line Messageries Maritimes Kosmos Steamers N. Zealand Shipping Co. British & African S.N. Co. African S.S. Peninsular and Oriental Orient Line Royal Mail S. P. Peninsular and Oriental Canadian Pacific S. L. ^'orth German Lloyd Messageries Maritimes Peninsular and Oriental do Harrison Line Anchor Line do Hall Line do Messageries Maritimes Clan Line | City Line do Royal Mail S. P. British African S. N. Co. African Steamship Co. Antigua). Peninsular and Oriental IH o H CsYhOJi— Continued Cyprus Falkland Islands Fiji Islands Gambia, The Gibraltar Grenada Hong Kong India Jamaica Lagos Lbeward Islands (see Malta 40 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. III" •P9 '2»«j«o/ fim'^^oj\[ nnnsui jvusdmj am aas x^Auay Po« aan^Bdao; jo sa^BQ; ao^i 4 o Port Louis Port Louis Port Natal Port Natal Port Natal Durban Durban Sydney Sydney Sydney Sydney Sydney Sydney Sydney Sydney Sydney Sydney Wellington Auckland Auckland Auckland Brisbane Brisbane Freetown Freetown Adelaide Adelaide Adelaide Adelaide Adelaide Adelaide Adelaide (Port Darwen) }fl ■ r Ports of Departure. Marseilles (ii) London (ii) London Southampton London Hamburg London (i) London (iv) London London (Hi) Southampton (m) Marseilles Vancouver London San Francisco San Francisco London London London San Francisco San Francisco London London Liverpool Liverpool (i) London (iv) London {Hi) Southampton (vi) Marseilles London London London London (monthly) i Messageries Maritimes Castle Line do Union Line British & Colonial S. N. C. German E. Africa Line Aberdeen Direct Line Peninsular and Oriental Orient Line Shaw, Savill & Albion Co. North German Lloyd Messageries Maritimes Canadian-Austral Aberdeen Line Union S. S. of N. Zealand American & Austrl'n Line New Zealand Shipping New Zealand Shipping Shaw, Savill & Albion Co. Union S. S. of N. Zealand American & Austr'l'n Line Aberdeen Line Queensland Royal Mail African Steamship British & African S.N. Co. Peninsular and Oriental Orient Line North German Lloyd Messageries Maritimes Aberdeen Line N. Zealand Shipping Co. Shaw, Savill & Albion Co. Bethell, Gwyn & Co. 1" •< Mauritius Natal New South Wales New Zealakd Queensland Sierra Leone South Australia THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 41 •p9 ^ivuxnor dmpio^ 9infi'ttuj pyuadvii aq^ aas iBAjjay pa« ajnvi«da(i jo sa^BQ loj HI III i4 < (A Pi Penang Singapore Singapore Hobart Hobart Port of Spain Trinidad Melbourne Melbourne Melbourne Melbourne IMelbourne Melbourne King George's Sound Albany King George's Sound Albany Fremantle Fremantle (via Singapore) Albany m i •3 a IP 1 <2 a (vi) Marseilles London London Southampton Liverpool (i) London (iv) London London (vi) Marseilles London London (i) London (i») London (vi) Marseilles Southampton London Liverpool (every fortnight) Southampton il 1 III 111 III 1 1 1 .5 Messageries Maritimes N. Zealand Shipping Co. Shaw, Savill & Albion Co. Royal Mail S. P. Harrison Line. Peninsular and Oriental Orient Line Aberdeen Line Messageries Maritimes N. Zealand Shipping Co. Shaw, Savill & Albion Co. Peninsular and Oriental Orient Line Messageries Maritimes North German Lloyd Bethell, Gwyn & Co. Bethell, Gwyn & Co. North German Lloyd t t i ill III Ort c S Name op Colonies, ETC, < 13 < M 2 -< i^ III I ^ ^ > ^ t t < 1 SB sill 42 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. m w o Z < h en I— I Q O W CQ << h (II 5i •s < K CM § ^ <& o » ^ 2 « I — I — S 5|8|i I l|s|s e II 2 u 5 i eJ a 5 s ll illllli Sil§lilili g § § ? ii £ i § s g g s 11 J2 ?3 S I ^ i g ||S i i i § ^ s S i sis Slsl S S 55 S s|s s|s| S S S S § ? S S S 5 |S|S| :? ?3 S != Sjs s]s| g s 1^ § i i §15 ?1§ s^ ffi III i s § 5 S l|l|i|l| i|ili|i §|i S !C ^ :2 52 irt § § § i 11 i lis ^ s iiii i^ ?, 5 i i •J>;ji3tjsfv vui 'va* ii{ aopnor\ (nojj •t>}4vfj vui '»ai iq aopaoq uiojj •)3tAtp '«M ^ aop(io>i oioij K i s e E? § s 2 THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 45 Ethnology — Origin of the British People— In the ab- sence of reliable historical records from the earliest ages, we are alone enabled to find a clue to the past among the arch- aeological remains of a powerful race, together with the modern light thrown upon ancient inscriptions, tumuli, etc. See Prof. Key's " Celtic Britain" True, we have the fable of Pytheas, who is supposed to have visited Britain during the Fourth Century, B.C. ; with Julius Caesar's romantic description of the inhabitants of Britain, previous to the Christian era ; yet these may scarcely be regarded as reliable sources. Next follows Tacitus, who clearly describes two or more distinct races as dwellers in Britain, e.g., " interior and coast lands ; '* while Gildas, a British monk, in his weird song, tells of the forlorn state of Britain after the departure of the Romans. The Venerable Bede, who wrote two centuries later, un- fortunately used conjecture rather than facts ; and the Saxon Chronicle, some two centuries afterwards, cannot be altogether trusted. Then we meet with a remarkable gap until the Tw^elfth Century, when GeofFry of Monmouth wrote his strange history of the English race, which is more peculiar than correct. Professor Burrow^s, in his recent work, " Commentaries on the History of England," ^ states, " The people of Great Britain are not only composed of more various elements than any other in Europe, but those elements have been more gradually compounded and ultimately more com- pletely fused. That circumstance, perhaps, considering what races formed the compound, is at the root of the position which they and their offshoots hold." The great Aryan waves gave to Europe the following ^ " Commentaries on the History of England," by Professor Burrows. W. Blackwood & Sons, 1893. 44 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. races : — The Celtic in the west, the Teutonic in the centre, and the Slavonic in the east. These Aryan races further drove before them, in their progress from east to west, an earlier race called the Turanians, among whom were the Ivernians, who inhabited Britain, together with the Cave men, the remnant of a still earlier race. Some of the Ivernians were driven as far west as Ireland, hence the name " Erin " or " Ernia." Now these Celtic peoples were composed of two distinct branches, viz. : — 1. The Gaels, or Mountain Men, who were fierce warriors. 2. The Brythons, or Men of the Plains, who were lovers of peace and agriculture. Undoubtedly it was these two branches of Celtic inhabi- tants which the Romans found dwelling in Great Britain, B.C. 54-55. The Gaels undoubtedly were nearly related to the Gaels or Celts who inhabited Gaul. (See Caesar " De Bello Gallico.") They appeared to have understood the uses of metals, and though they wore but little clothing, and pro- bably stained their bodies with vegetable dyes, ^.^., woad, which made them appear fierce savages, yet in times of peace they dwelt in huts, and were semi-civilised, although much engaged in the chase. The Roman Invasions of Britain, from Caesar, 54 B.C., to Agricola, 78 A.D., changed everything, and the war-like Celts or Gaels were driven to the utmost portions of the Island — Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall — where they remained, still as bitter enemies to Rome, under the names of Picts, or painted men of the North (Scotland) ; the Scots of Ireland ; and the Cymry, or Strangers of Wales ; while the Brythons, or more peaceful Celts, accepted the yoke of Rome and learned civilisation, agriculture, law, and govern- THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 45 ment. The walls of Aojricola and Hadrian were erected to prevent the war-like Picts from plundering the more northern portion of Roman Britain. When the Eoman armies were withdrawn from Britain, the Brythons were left well-nigh powerless to resist any foreign invaders ; hence the success of the Teutons or English, who came in shoals from the western mainland of Europe until they gained possession of Britain. Mr. J. R. Green, in his excellent "History of the English People," describes these Teutonic invaders as under : — 1. Engle, or English folk, who dwelt on the banks of the rivers Elbe and Weser. 2. Jutes, from Jutland, who were found to the north of the English. 3. Saxons, dwelling to the south of the English, and occupying a wide tract stretching from the Elbe to the Rhine. These three Teuton tribes combined, and became the English race. He says, " The blood-bond gave both its military and social form to old English society. Kinsmen fought side by side in the hour of battle. ... So they dwelled side by side on the soil .... and each ' wick,' or * ham,' or * stead,' or ' tun ' took its name from the kinsmen who dwelt in it" (p. 3). The same author in another volume, " The Making of England," divides their history into four periods : — 1. The Conquest of the Saxon Shore, e.g., the Jutes, under Hengist and Horsa, in the centre ; and north and south of these, the East and South Saxons ; and finally the Angles. 2. The Conquest of Angles from the Forth to the Thames, with that of the West Saxons, from the Thames along the South Coast of Britain. 46 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. 3. The Heptarchy, or Government of the Invaders. 4. The Triarchy, which, later still, merged into one kingdom and ruler, under Egbert. In this way England was made. A later period tells the story of the Invasion by the Norsemen, or Fingaels {Fairmen)^ who, sometime in the Eighth Century, had settled in the Scottish Islands, the Isle of Man, and the Eastern Coast of Ireland. Next came the Danes or Dubhgaels {Darkmen). These two united were known as Ostmen {Eastmen), and they ravaged the French Coast, and invaded England, giving the English but little rest from warfare. Their object appears to have been more plunder and destruction than settlement, and it rested with Alfred the Great to restore order, and to quell the power of these fierce sea-warriors. The season of bloodshed and disorder ends with the Danish sovereignty, and the Celtic races of Wales (Wealas) displayed their hatred of the English by leaguing with the Norsemen against them. A number of minor incidents, partl}^ religious and partly historical, brought about the later conquest by the Normans, under the Duke William, their leader, which, though it ushered in a horde of strangers, as foreign retainers of the new king, William the Conqueror, did not annihilate the habits or manners of the English race, other than the planting of a new system of royal service, called the Feudal System, by which all land was declared to belong to the king, and the rights of his subjects to hold estates was vested in service, etc. The English Language. — Under the Normans, the language of the poor in England was unchanged, while the Court and Church adopted the more fashionable French- Latin tongue. Hence it is that the history of the English language, now so widely known through the civilized world. THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 47 is plainly and simply the history of the English people. It is a fusing together of many tongues, and her literature in this way has become greatly enriched by the gradual weld- ing together of so many different peoples, minds, and languages. Dr. Angus, in his excellent manual. Handbook of the Eng- lish Tongue (p. 4), says: — ''The English, though a com- posite language, is derived mainly from the Anglo-Saxon. The classic languages, Greek and Latin, and their modern representatives, the French, Italian, and Spanish, have con- tributed largely to produce the English language; but Anglo- Saxon is the chief source. To it may be traced both the matter of our tongue, the words that compose it, and many of the forms which these words assume." There are, roughly speaking, about 40,000^ words in ordinary everyday use among the English people. Of this number, it is generally estimated that five-eighths are Saxon ; two-eighths or one- fourth are Latin, either direct or through the French ; and one-eighth miscellaneous in origin, and varying greatly in importance. Of these last, the Keltic stands first. Then follows a numberless class, including the Norse or Danish, Greek, and Hebrew, with contributions from nearly every known tongue, by reason of Britain's continuous intercourse with foreign nations. After these root words, we have a large number of naturalized and trade terms taken from persons and places, etc.; but these may hardly be considered as strictly belonging to the English Language in the same historical sense as the former classes. ^ If we include Scientific and Terms of Art, the numbers rise to 80,000 words. PART II. THE BRITISH ISLANDS. Introduction. — In the Atlantic Ocean, lying off the western shores of the Continent of Europe, there may be seen a small and irregular cluster of islands, about 2000 in number, of which not quite one-fifth are inhabited, and forming the most important Archipelago in the world. It is known by the name of the British Isles. This remarkable group of islands belongs to the Contin- ent of Europe, from which they are separated by the North Sea or German Ocean on the East, and on the South by the English Channel and the Straits of Dover, which at its narrowest part is but twenty-one miles in breadth. They are situated in a central position of the great land and water Hemispheres, which naturally gives them unrivalled facilities for commerce. Great Britain, the largest island in Europe, and the seventh} in size among the islands of the world, is the chief or queen of this group, and the sister island lying off its western coast, and separated from it by the Irish Sea, and St. George's Channel, which ranks next to it in size, is called Ireland. There is a marked contrast in the coast-line of these islands on the east and south compared with the 1 A comparison of the Islands of the World gives the following in order of size : — Australia, New Guinea, Borneo, Sumatra, Niphon or Hondo, Madagascar, and Great Britain. 48 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. MAP II. BRITISH ISLES ByKeitkJolmstan.F.R.S.E. I Fair I. 6 Lonfitnae^Test 4 of Greenwich. 2 W&.A.K. Jolmstoii, Edinttir^ euid. Lcmdan Of THE UNIVERSITY THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 49 west and north. These latter shores are fully exposed to the Atlantic Ocean, and, consequently, the coast is wonder- fully broken and irregular, being clothed as it were with a fringe of smaller islands, varying in size from mere barren rocks, rising abruptly from the water, to the larger islands of the Western Group, called the Hebrides, situated off the coast of Scotland, or the Island of Achill, lying off the western shores of Ireland. Connection with the Continent. — Many thousands of years ago, the British Islands formed a part of the main- land of Europe. This is no mere conjecture ; but it may be proved by a complete chain of evidence, such as : — 1. The shallowness of the Ocean between England and France. 2. The corresponding nature of the rocks upon the opposite shores, e.g., the soft chalk hills of Northern France are continued in the Downs of Kent ; the harder granite rocks of Brittany occur in a con- tinuous range in Cornwall. 3. The formation of the rocks, and the particular shape of the remaining portions of land in the North of Scotland and the outlying islands of the Orkney and Shetland groups, prove a connecting link with the Continent on the shores of Norway. Professor Meiklejohn, in his Comparative Geography of the British Islands, states: — "The Submarine Plateau, of which the British Isles are prominent or outstanding parts, is a vast continuation of the European Continent, and stretches from the corner of the Bay of Biscay to the north of the Shetland Isles. It drops, in a long steep cliff, to the deeper depths of the Atlantic Ocean, a little to the West of Ireland" (p. 33). Climate. — The great Gulf Stream, or '* Atlantic River of Warm Water in the Sea," greatly moderates the extreme 50. IMPERIAL BRITAIN. cold of winter in the British Islands beyond places, both in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, having the same position as regards latitude. These are much colder, and the winter season more severely prolonged than with us. Again, the influence of the sea breezes upon all parts of the British Isles tends to lower the summer heat. On the whole, then, these islands may be described as possessing a most variable climate yet of equable temperature, the aver- age degrees registered being from 45° to 52°. The rainfall is naturally excessive from their position in the Atlantic Ocean. The average is 30 inches, and the heaviest fall is along the Western Coasts. Position. — The principal island, called Great Britain, is somewhat irregular in shape. It is situated between par- allels of latitude 49° and 61° North of the Equator, and longitude 2° East and 8° West of Greenwich. It includes the two kingdoms of England and Scotland^and the princi- pality of Wales. Ireland is situated about 60 miles to the west of Great Britain, lying in the Atlantic Ocean between parallels of north latitude 51° 26' and 55° 23', and west longitude 5° 20' and 10° 26'. Extent. — (a.) Great Britain. — The extreme length, measured from Dunnet Head in the north to Start Point in Devonshire, is 600 miles, and in breadth it varies from 280 miles between Lowestoft and St. David's Head, to about 35 miles between the Forth and the Clyde. The area, 88,340 square miles, may be sub-divided thus: — England, 51,000 square miles ; Wales, 7,363 square miles ; Scotland, 30,000 square miles. (b.) Ireland. — This island is more compact in shape than Great Britain. Its length, from Fair Head in the north- east to Mizen Head in the south-west, is about 300 miles, and its greatest .breadth, from Howth Head to Slyne Head, THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 51 is 200 miles. Its area is 32,520 square miles, or, roughly- speaking, about one-third the size of Great Britain. {c.) The total area of the smaller coast islands is about 260 square miles, so that the total area of the British Isles is estimated at 120,883 square miles, or equal in extent to about one-iJiirtieth of that of Europe. The chief islands and groups on the coasts are : — Scotland. 3,700 sq. miles in area. England. Ireland. All small. , The Orkneys — 67 islands, including Pom- On the North 1 *^^^^' ^^^^ North and South Ronaldshay, Coast ^ Westray, etc. f The Shetlands — 100 islands, including ^ Mainland, Yell, Unst, etc. f The Hebrides — (Outer and Inner groups) a large number, including Lewis, Skye, Mull, Jura, Islay, N. and S. Uist, etc. Islands of the Clyde — The principal being Arran, Bute, Great and Little Cumbray. Few and unimportant, except for Light- house Stations, as Bass Rock, Bell Rock, May Isle, and Inchkeith. On the West Coast. On the East Coast. Holy Island, the Fame Islands, and Coquet. Sheppey and Thanet are only Islands in name, and part of the County of Kent. Isle of Wight, Lundy, the Scilly Isles, 145 in number (6 inhabited). On the West < Anglesey, Holyhead, Bardsey, Walney, Coast. \ with the Isle of Man, etc. On the East Coast. On the South Coast. On the North Coast — Rathlin and Tory. On the South Coast — Clear, Spike, Saltee Islands, etc. On the East Coast — Dalkey, Ireland's Eye, Lambay. On the West Coast— N. Aran, Achill, Clare, Valentia. Population.— The Population of the British Isles in 1891 was as follows: — (-England, 27,501,362 \ Great Britain.-! Wales, - (Scotland, 4 Ireland, 4,704,750 7,501,3621 29 002 525 ) 1,501,163/ ^y'"OAt)Ji) ^33,028, 4,025,647— 4,025,647 ) 172 37,732,922 52 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. The Census of 1891 gave the following interesting sta- tistics of the occupation of the inhabitants of the British Isles : — ( 45 per cent, of the people were employed. 1. < 55 per cent, of the people were unemployed, including wives ( and children, etc. 2. Of the 45 per cent, employed : — 54 per cent, were in towns engaged in trade and manu- facture. 15 per cent, were in the country engaged in agriculture 100<( and fishing. per cent, were in domestic and other service. 9 per cent, were in commerce. 8 per cent, were professional persons. \ ft Expenditure. — T/ie annual expenditure or cost of the Government of the United Kingdom was £103,360,000 in 1897. This large sum includes the interest on money borrowed by the Government, popularly called "The National Debt," to the amount of £25,000,000 ; the ex- penses of maintenance for the Army and Navy, which may be estimated at another £36,000,000 ; the postal and tele- graph services, together with elementary education, and the Courts of Law and Justice, etc., etc. Revenue. — The sum annually voted by Parliament to meet this expenditure, and known as the Budget of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, is raised by means of Customs Duties on the imported goods ; Excise Duties on luxuries, such as beer, spirits, etc., produced at home; taxes on incomes, houses, property, and land ; stamp duties on all legal docu- ments and money payments, with the receipts of the postal and telegraph services of the country. In 1897, £103,949,885. GovEKNMENT. — The form of Government is a limited hereditary monarchy, which consists of the Sovereign as head and chief, aided by the two Houses of Parliament — the Lords and the Commons — without whose joint approval no measure may become law, although the Executive have THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 53 54 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. large powers of discretion. These powers are vested in the Cabinet or Crown Ministers for the time being, who are responsible to both the Sovereign and the people during their period of office. "The Cabinet," says Mr. Gladstone, "is the threefold hinge that connects together for action the British Consti- tution of King or Queen, Lords and Commons. Every one of its members acts in these capacities : as Administrator of a Department of State, as member of its Legislative Chamber, and as a confidential adviser of the Crown." — Gleanings of Past Years. " The House of Lords, or the Upper House, consists of {ex- clusive of 14) Minors) 6 Princes of the Blood, 2 Archbishops, 22 Dukes, 22 Marquises, 121 Earls, 30 Viscounts, 24 Bishops, 387 Barons, 16 Scottish Representative Peers elected for each Parliament, and 28 Irish Representative Pqers elected for life (2 Irish Representative Peers are also included as Peers of England), in all, 658." — W Intake/ s Almanack, 1898. The House of Commons consists of 670 Members of Parliament : — England, 465 ; Wales, 30 ; Scotland, 72 ; Ireland, 103 ; who are elected by the people. Under our present Queen Victoria, whom may God pre- serve, the British Parliament has passed through 20 Ministries, as follows : — Administrations or Ministries during Queen Victoria's Heign. 1835. Viscount Melbourne 2nd. 1841. Sir Robert Peel ... 2nd. 1846. Lord John Russell 1st. 1852. Earl of Derby 1st. 1852. Earl of Aberdeen ... 1st. 1855. Lord Palmerston . . . 1st. 1858. Earl of Derby 2nd. 1859. Lord Palmerston ... 2nd. 1865. Earl Russell 2nd. 1866. Earl of Derby 3rd. 1868. Benjamin Disraeli ... 1st. 1868. William E. Gladstone f Benjamin Disraeli 1 EarlofBeaconsfield 1874. 1st. ■ I 2nd. 1880. William E. Gladstone 2nd. 1885. Marquis of Salisbury 1st. 1886. William E. Gladstone 3rd. 1886. Marquis of Salisbury 2nd. 1892. William E. Gladstone 4th. 1894. Lord Rosebery ... 1st. 1895. Marquis of Salisbury 3rd. THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 55 The present Parliament is also the fourteenth of Her Most Gracious Majesty's reign. The Executive Power, or Cabinet of Ministers, is given below : — ' . , THE STATE :— CHIEF OFFICERS WITH STIPENDS ATTACHED TO THE OFFICE. England. *' Prime Minister. * Chancellor of the Exchequer ... ... £5, 000. * Lord High Chancellor ... ... ... 10,000. * Lord Privy Seal ... ... ... ... 2,000. * Lord President of the Council ... ... 2,000. * Secretary of State for Home Department ... 5,000. * „ „ Foreign Afiairs ... 5,000. * „ „ Colonies ... ... 5,000. War 5,000. India ... ... 5,000. * First Lord of the Admiralty ... ... 4,500. * President of the Board of Trade ... ... 2, 000. * President of Local Government Board ... 2,000. President of Board of Agriculture ... ... 2,000. * Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster ... 2,000. * Postmaster-General ... ... ... 2,500. General Commanding-in-Chief ... ... 6,632. Paymaster-General ... ... ... Unpaid. * Chief Commissioner of Works ... ... 2,000. * Vice-President of Council for Education ... 2,000. Attorney-General ... ... ... ... 7,000. Solicitor-General ... ... ... ... 6,000. * First Lord of the Treasury ... ... ... 5, 000. Judge Advocate General ... ... ... By Fees. Her Majesty's Household. Lord Steward ... ... ... ... £2,000. Lord Chamberlain ... ... ... ... 2,000. Master of the Horse ... ... ... 2,500. Master of the Buckhounds ... ... ... 1,500. Treasurer of the Household... ... ... 904. Comptroller of the Household ... ... 904. Scotland. * Secretary for Scotland and Keeper of the Great Seal £2,000. Lord Advocate ... ... ... ... 5,000. Solicitor-General 2.000. 56 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Ireland. Lord-Lieutenant ... ... ... ... £20,000. Lord Chancellor * Chief Secretary and Keeper of the Privy Seal , Attorney-General for Ireland Solicitor-General for Ireland 8,000. 4,425. 5,000. 2,000. * The asterisk marks the Cabinet Ministers. Army and Navy. — The British Army at home is decidedly a small one, if taken in comparison with the greater armies of Europe, but the Navy is the largest and most powerful in the world. Yet, if we include the Colonial forces and foreign troops under the British flag, we represent the third largest Standing Army in the world, China and Russia alone being greater in numerical strength. Britain has gained for herself the title of " Mistress of the Seas " solely through the immense power and strength of her Navy ; and it is the ambition of our Naval Authorities not only to fully maintain this high standard of power in the future, but to increase, and improve, our naval de- fences, and ships of war, that we shall alone be able to stand against an attack made by the United Navies of the World. The following table will show the strength of the British Army and Navy with that of foreign countries : — Area Square Standing Navy Country. Miles. Population. Army. Warships. British Empire 9,000,000 327,000,000 715,683 632 United States 2,935,004 62,622,250 27,038 79 Russia 8,450,081 108,787,235 800,000 247 Germany 208,670 49,428,470 584,734 191 France 204,146 38,218,903 550,429 353 Austro-Hungary.... 204,219 41,359,202 391,675 133 Italy 110,623 30,947,307 279,982 200 Spain 194,744 17,545,160 120,000 126 Norway & Sweden 295,182 6,785,898 57,553 111 Ottoman Empire ...1,710,000 39,500,000 180,000 102 China 4,468,750 300,000,000 1,200,000 154 Japan 162,655 41,390,000 273,268 117 THE BRITISH ISLANDS. $7 N.B. — 1. The Standing Army figures are those quoted in time of peace, but the war standard of most of the countries is considerably higher. 2. Again, the numbers quoted above are for Imperial Britain, or including the vast territories of Britain through- out the world. The home Army, not including Militia, Cavalry, Volunteers, or Army Reserve, is only 160,000 men. The British Empire is distinctly a maritime power, so that it is but of little importance if her home Army falls below the huge armies of continental powers, so long as her Navy maintains the highest place to guard her shores and vast foreign possessions. The Army. — The total strength of the British Army numbers 160,000 men, including officers and privates. Then we have the Army Reserve, numbering 80,100 ; the Militia another 140,000 men; the Volunteers, 263,000; and the Cavalry Yeomanry, 12,000. So that, roughly estimated, the entire British Army is about 655,000 men, and these numbers do not include the great Native Indian Army,and the Colonial Militia and Volunteer Forces ready to protect our foreign possessions in all parts of the w^orld. It has been said : — " War has been revolutionised. Rifled small arms, breech- loading and with magazines, rifled cannon carrying many miles, with gunpowder getting effete, owing to newer and more powerful explosives, range-finders, heliographs, field - telegraphs, and balloons all belong to this reign ; while the famous ' Wooden Walls of Old Enorland,' of the Georofian era, would be knocked into matchwood in a very few minutes by the guns of, or torpedoes fired from, an armour- plated steamship." — From " The Longest Reign in English History," by kind permission of the author, Mr. John Ashton. {English Illustrated Magazine^ Army Board. — Upon the retirement of H.R.H. the Duke of Cambridge, Nov. 1st, 1895, from the command of the 58 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. British Army, the Government established an Army Board of five members in place of the one man in command. Each of these five members is respectively responsible for his own department to the Secretary of State for War, who is the representative of the Government. The Army Board consists of the Commander-in-Chief (Viscount Wolseley, for five years) ; the Adjutant-General ; the Quarter- Master General; the Inspector-General of Fortifications ; and the Inspector-General of Ordnance. Akmy Stations. — The chief Army Stations at home in- clude Aldershot, Belfast, Birmingham {^Small Arms Factory) ; Brixton (^Military Prison); Chatham, Chelsea {Duke of York's School); Chester, Colchester, Cork, Curragh, Devon- port, Dover, Dublin, Edinburgh, Enfield Lock {Small Arms Factory); Hounslow, Hythe {School of Musketry); London {Horse Guards, numerous Barracks, and the Tower) ; Netley {Army Medical School) ; Portsmouth, Shoeburyness {School of Gunnery) ; Shorncliffe, Waltham Abbey {Royal Gun- powder Factory) ; Woolwich and York. The Army Esti- mates amount annually to £18,000,000 sterling. The Navy. — The total strength of the British Navy is nearly 100,000 officers, seamen, boys, coastguards and marines. It is imperative upon Great Britain, with her vast Colonies and foreign possessions, year by year to in- crease and improve her vessels of war, so that no estimate of her fighting power will stand good for any length of time, and the numbers given below may have materially changed in a few months' time, as new warships are con- tinually being launched. The British Fleet now numbers 61 battleships ; 41 first- class cruisers ; 60 second-class cruisers ; 54 third-class cruisers ; with 18 port defence ships, and 199 torpedo boats. There are also 95 new rapid torpedo boat destroyers, which mark off* a new era in maritime warfare and its weapons. THE BRITISH ISLANDS, 59 In addition to the above, there are now building 5 first-class battleships ; 4 first-class cruisers ; 16 second-class cruisers ; 7 third-class cruisers; and 9 torpedo boat destroyers. These numbers do not include gunboats, etc. The Navy Estimates amounted in 1897 to £22,780,473 sterling. Naval Stations. — The principal Dockyards for the 6o IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Royal Navy at home are at Chatham, Devonport, Pembroke, Portsmouth, Sheerness, and Woolwich. Naval and Victualling Yards and Stations have been established at Deptford, Gosport, Haulbowline, Plymouth, at home; and abroad, at Ascension Island, Bermuda, Cape of Good Hope, Esquimalt, Gibraltar, Halifax in Nova Scotia, Hong Kong, Jamaica, Malta, and Sydney (Australia). The Naval Hospitals are at Dartmouth, Haslar (Gosport), Plymouth, Portsmouth, Walmer. There are Naval Prisons at Bodmin and Lewes, and Schools and Training In^titutions, in addition to the several Training Ships, have been established at Greenwich College, Naval School, Eltham, etc. Internal Communication. — This may be considered under the different heads of (1) Railways ; (2) Post and Telegraph ; (3) Canals and Navigable Rivers ; (4) Roads. I Railways. — The Railways of the British Isles are one of its grand features as describing its internal trade, wealth, and industry. A Railway Map of England will suffice to show at a glance what a perfect network the principal railway systems and their branches have cast over the whole country, and this remarkable growth dates from the first railway constituted in 1832 (The Liverpool and Manchester), but 62 years ago. Though the same in- crease of " The Iron Road " has not yet extended to the Sister Kingdoms of Ireland or Scotland, yet they are well supplied in comparison with the amount of trade and population to be found there. Next to Belgium, Great Britain shows the most perfect system of railway accommodation among the European powers. Its railways measure 21,000 miles, and new lines are being projected each year. This gives about 17 miles of railway to each 100 square miles in area, so that few parts of England and Wales are more than 10 miles from a IMPERIAL BRITAIN. MAP III. BRITISH ISLES By &itk Johnston. F, R.S . E . |J'«rX 6 Lon^tude'West 4 of Greenwich. W.&, A. K. Johnston., Edinbur^ and London. THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 6l railway station which connects them, however distant, with the Metropolis, the coal fields, and the manufacturing centres of trade. The chief railway systems of Great Britain radiate from London, as the main centre of wealth, pleasure, trade, and commerce. There are other local systems which are not directly connected with the Metropolis except by the more important trunk lines of other systems. Such are the Scottish Railways ; the Cambrian Railways of Wales ; and several systems in the North of England ; viz.^ the Lancashire and Yorkvshire Railway ; the North Eastern Railway ; and the Cheshire Lines. The Board of Trade have recently sanctioned Light Railways, some of which we may hope to see constructed shortly, for the conveyance of agricultural produce, goods and passengers, in those districts unprovided at present with railway communication. Truly may it be said : — " Our civil engineers have performed feats which had no counterpart in former times. They have surveyed and laid a perfect network of railways all over England, over- coming every mechanical difficulty ; they have made the bridges which span the Menai Straits, the Forth, Tay, and Tower bridges, tunnels innumerable through hills and mountains, five under the Thames, and the Mersey and the Severn tunnels. In architecture we have vastly improved in this reign, not only because the architects are better educated, but their patrons are so as well, and are far better able to judge of the fitness of style than they were." — From " The Longest Reign in English History," by kind permission of the author, Mr. John Ashton. {English Illustrated Magazine^ English Railways radiating from the Metropolis : — 1. — The London and North- Western Railway stands first on account of its great services for passengers and goods to America {via Liverpool), Scotland, Wales, and 62 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Ireland {via Holyhead). It is also the richest of our rail- way systems. Its London terminus is Euston station, from which every hour numerous trains are leaving for Carlisle, its connecting point with the Caledonian Railway of Scotland, Liverpool, Manchester, Crewe, Stafford, and the Potteries, Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Rugby, Coventry, and North- ampton, etc., or Holyhead for the Irish Steam Packet. 2. — The Great Western Railway is the longest system in England, its length being 2,500 miles. Its London terminus is Paddington Station, and it forms the main route for passengers and traffic to the Western, Central, and South- Western districts of England and Wales. Its trunk lines run through Reading, Swindon, Bath, Bristol, Exeter, Plymouth, to Penzance in Cornwall ; but there are many important branches connecting Oxford, Warwick, Birming- ham, Wolverhampton, Chester, Shrewsbury, Gloucester, and the lines of South Wales with the Metropolis. 3. — The Midland Railway, so called because it connects London with the Midland Counties of England, and thus unites the largest number of manufacturing and other towns within its area, has St. Pancras Station for its London terminus. The chief towns situated upon its system are Bedford, Kettering, Leicester, Derby, Sheffield, Nottingham, Leeds, Birmingham, Worcester, Cheltenham, Gloucester, Manchester, and Liverpool, by means of its numerous branches. 4. — The Great Northern Railway, as its name implies, is the main line to Scotland. After York, which is, strictly speaking, the end, this route is continued by means of the North-Eastern Railw^ay as far as Berwiclt-on-Tweed, where again the Eastern Coast trunk of the North British Rail- way connects the Metropolis with Edinburgh and other northern towns. This system combined is popularly called the East Coast Route to Scotland, to distinguish it THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 63 from the West Coast Route, which is a combination of the London and North- Western and Caledonian Railways. The Great Northern, with its colleagues, the North-Eastern and the North British Railways, attain the highest speed of any of the British railways. The Flying Scotsman, which completes the entire journey from London to Edinburgh in 8i hours, a distance of 395 miles, is the fastest train in the world. The London terminus of the Great Northern Rail- way is King's Cross. 5. — The Great Eastern Railway, with its London ter- minus, Liverpool Street, is a dual line. It consists of two main trunks running through the Eastern Counties, with numerous smaller branches. One trunk runs from London to Harwich, and conveys passengers and goods to and from the Continent ; the other main line connects London with Yarmouth, Norwich, Ely, and Cambridge, etc. There is also the Ipswich branch. Milk, fish, and agricultural pro- duce are conveyed to the Metropolis at exceedingly low rates by this railway. 6. — The Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railway Company are constructing a new main line to the Metro- polis with a view to convey passengers, and bring their mineral and heavy goods traffic, direct to London upon their own system. By this means, Manchester, Sheffield, and other large northern towns will gain another im- portant communication with London, as at present the M. S. and L. Railway is a cross country system, running from east to west, i.e., from Liverpool and Manchester, through Sheffield to Grimsby, on the Lincolnshire coast. The railways south of the Thames do not compare favourably with those running in the opposite direction. This is probably owing to the shorter distance traversed, the loss of the mineral and other traffic, and the small populations of the towns upon the routes, which are not, 64 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. as a rule, centres of manufacture — yet these four railways possess the advantages of the principal continental traffic. 7. — The most important of the southern lines is The London and South- Western Railway, which has its Lon- don terminus at Waterloo Station. This railway runs direct from London to Devonport, through Basingstoke, Salisbury, and Exeter, while with its branches it connects Portsmouth, Southampton, and Weymouth, the two latter ports having a direct communication, by a daily service of steam packets, with the Channel Islands. Since the recent dock strikes on the banks of the Thames, there is a tendency to increase the commercial traffic with Southampton, and this, with the passenger and mail service, falls into the hands of the London and South- western Railway Company. 8. — The South-Eastern Raikuay, with its double London termini, Charing Cross and Cannon Street, has direct mail and passenger service with the Continent of Europe via Folkestone and Boulogne ; Dover and Calais ; Port Vic- toria and Flushing, etc. The chief places of importance along its route are Tunbridge, Tunbridge Wells, Ashford, Canterbury, Dover, Hastings, Ramsgate, and Margate. 9. — The London, Brighton, and South Coast Railway also possesses a double London termini at London Bridge and Victoria Stations. This railway has an important continental service via Newhaven and Dieppe. It is also in direct communication with the fashionable seaside towns of the South Coast, which are each year visited by a large number of visitors. The main trunks are two, which divide near Croydon, one proceeding direct to Brighton, Hastings, and Eastbourne, passing through Redhill, Three Bridges, etc., and the other running through Horsham and Chichester for Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight Railways. THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 6$ 10. — T/ie London J Chatham and Dover Raihvay has a double termini at St. Paul's and Victoria Stations. This railway possesses a considerable passenger and goods traffic with the Continent, via Dover and Calais, and Queenboro' Pier and Flushing. The home traffic touches in many points the same districts as the South-Eastern Rail- way. 11. — The London, Tilbury ^ and Southend Railway has its London terminus at Fenchurch Street. It has lines running along the north side of the Thames as far as Shoeburyness. This company takes a considerable number of passengers to Tilbury Docks for the Orient, and Penin- sular and Oriental, steamships to India, Australia, etc. 12. — The North London Railway is one of the suburban railways which encircle the Metropolis, either as an under- ground, or overground, system. This line extends from Broad Street to Richmond. It has a considerable passenger traffic. 13.— 77/^ West London Extension is another suburban railway connecting Kensington with Clapham Junction, where it meets the London and South- Western, and the London, Brighton and South Coast systems. 14. — The East London, a third suburban line, connects the Great Eastern Railway with the Southern lines, the London, Brighton and South Coast, and the South-Eastern Railways, by way of the Thames Tunnel. 15. — The Metropolitan Railway extends as far as Ayles- bury in Buckinghamshire, via Willesden, Harrow, and Rickmansworth, although its principal service of trains is confined to the suburban districts, which it connects with the City and the other London district railways. 16. — The District Railway consists of an Inner and an Outer Circle, with branches in connection, that is, the trains continue running in the same direction, and the '' up " or 66 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. " down " trains are thus marked for the convenience of passengers. Other railway systems, either projected or in course of construction, are : — 1. — T/ie Lancashire, Derbyshire, and East Coast, connect- ing Lincoln with the West Coast. 2. — Electric Railways : — a. The City a?td South London Electric Railway runs under- ground from the Monument to Stockwell at present. b. The Waterloo and City Railway, an electric underground line to connect the London and South- Western with the City. c. The Central London Railway, running from Liverpool Street to Shepherd's Bush. The chief railway systems in Great Britain which do not touch the Metropolis are: — 1. — The N or th-E astern Railway, which connects the Great Northern Main Line at York with the East Coast Lines of Scotland at Berwick-upon-Tweed. 2. — The Caledonian Railway, which joins the London and North-Western railway system at Carlisle, and runs in a north-easterly direction to Edinburgh, Glasgow (by connecting branches), Stirling, Perth, and Aberdeen. 3. — The Glasgoiv and South-Western Railway connects the Midland Railway also at Carlisle, with Dumfries, Paisley, Ayr, and Glasgow. 4. — The North British Railway is a double connect- ing link with the English Railways at Carlisle, where it joins the Midland system at Berwick-upon-Tweed with the North-Eastern system. This railway runs principally from Edinburgh by various routes through the Lowlands. 5. — The Highland and Great Northern of Scotland, with the West Highland Railways, have opened up new districts for tourists and goods in these parts, where the scenery is proverbially beautiful. THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 6j 6. — The Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway. 7. — The Cambrian Railways. 8. — The Cheshire Lines. 9. — The Isle of Wight Railways^ and some other minor lines. More than nine hundred millions of passengers, exclusive of season ticket holders, were conveyed by the British Railways in 1896. The principal Irish Railways have their centres at Dublin and Belfast. United they possess about 3,178 miles of line. They are : — 1. — The Great Southern and Western^ from Dublin to Cork, and Queenstown, where the American mails are taken. 2. — The Midland Great Western^ from Dublin to Gal way. 3. — The Dublin, Wicklow, and Wexford, from Dublin to Wexford. 4. — The Great Northern, from Dublin to Belfast. 5. — The Belfast and Northern Counties, from Belfast to Londonderry. 6. — The Waterford and Limerick, ]ommg these ports. N.B. — A considerable portion of the West of Ireland knows no railway communication. II. Postal and Telegraphic Communication. — The most perfect system of Postal and Telegraphic Communi- cation exists in all parts of the British Empire. These are now in the hands of the Government, hence their efficiency, and regularity of transit, are well-nigh perfect. The head offices are at S. Martin's-le-Grand in the City of London, where continuous communication exists with every part of the world by means of the submarine cables which connect Great Britain with both the Old and the New World. 68 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Nearly 100,000 persons are employed in the Postal and Telegraphic Service in the British Isles. Eighteen hundred millions of letters, besides an innumerable quantity of post- cards, book-packets, and newspapers, are delivered each year. This gives an average of 45*6 letters to each person in population, being nearly at the rate of one each week. The New Parcels Post carries some fifty-seven million parcels annually. Another branch of the Post Office system is the Postal and Money Order Department, which is largely used to the enormous amount of twenty-five millions per annum ; then its Post Office Savings Bank has a capital of more than seventy-six millions sterling. The Telegraph Department sends each year some eighty million messages along its 86,000 miles of telegraph lines ; and in addition, the National Telephone Company, which is not at present under Government, passes about two million messages per week. " We must not forget that to the reign of Queen Victoria we owe the uniform postage rate of one penny per letter. " It was early in 1837 that Mr. (afterwards Sir) Rowland Hill broached his plan of a uniform penny postage ; but as a tentative measure, a uniform rate of fourpence was im- posed in 1839. By this means the machinery of the Penny Post was inaugurated, and letters were carried at that price on January 10th, 1840. " At first the postage was paid as before, but on May 1st the Mulready envelope, so well known to collectors, was issued ; but it was the subject of so much ridicule, as to necessitate the destruction of nearly all the vast number prepared for issue. Then other stamped envelopes were made, and finally, in 1841, adhesive stamps were issued. Book-post came in 1855. Money orders, inaugurated in 1792, first became general in 1840, when the tariff was re- duced. Halfpenny postcards were first issued on October THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 69 1st, 1870, and the Parcel Post came into operation on August 1st, 1883. The Post Office Savings Bank began in 1861, and work commenced on the Post Office Telegraphs on February 5th, 18G9."— From "The Longest Reign in English History," by John Ashton, by kind permission of the Author. {English Illustrated Magazine?) III. Canals and Navigable Rivers. — The internal water-ways of Great Britain have decreased in importance as the iron roads have increased, yet a considerable trade is still maintained by means of our water traffic. Some 4,000 miles of canals spread their lines as con- necting links between our colliery, and other mining districts, with the more important centres of trade and manufacture. Many of our rivers are navigable, and therefore avail- able for barge and steamboat traffic at all seasons of the year. The grandest canal in the United Kingdom is the Man- chester Ship Canal, which connects the River Mersey, at Eastham, with the City of Manchester, thus making this inland town, a port, and commercial city. It is 37 miles long, and wide enough to allow sea-going vessels up to 7,000 tons burden to pass through it. This magnificent piece of engineering skill took more than six years to con- struct, at a cost of more than £15,000,000 sterling. The Scotch and Irish Canals are of less importance than those of England. The chief canals in England are : — (1) Lancashire ; (2) Leeds and Liverpool; (3) Grand Trunk; (4) Grand Junction; (5) Oxford ; (6) Trent and Mersey ; (7) Kennet and Avon ; (8) The Shropshire Union. There are other smaller ones. In Scotland we find :— (1) The Forth and Clyde ; (2) The Caledonian ; (3) The Crinan ; (4) The Union. These are the principal ones in Scotland. 70 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. In Ireland, The Grand, and The Royal Government Canals are the most important ; but there are several others connected with the trade centres, such as Belfast, etc. IV. Roads. — It is somewhat surprising to find that the roads of the United Kingdom have not been taken up by the Government, instead of being left as they are at present to the control and management of local bodies, such as the County Council, and District Highway Boards. By the Government making the roads and highways of Great Britain and Ireland a national matter, an immense burden would be lifted from the now overtaxed landowner and agriculturist, and by a universal tax spread upon all classes alike, for all use the roads in common, a much fairer system of rates would be levied, and uniformity with ex- cellence would prevail throughout the country. N.B. — Since the abolition of the toll gates upon our turnpike, or highway roads, with the exception of the parliamentary grants voted for a few years after the Act, the whole burden of repairs and maintenance has fallen upon the land, whereas the landowners do not use the roads in proportion one-third so much as the manufacturing and trading classes of population do, who escape scot-free in this particular. The highroads of England alone would, if stretched out continuously in one line, encircle the surface of the globe, being 25,000 miles in length ; and the cross roads and bye- lanes would, in addition, pass round it four times, being 100,000 miles in length. Both in Scotland and in Ireland there are excellent turnpike roads. External Communication. — This is a wide subject, almost demanding more space than we can give to it in a passing notice here. A volume rather than a chapter THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 71 would be needed to treat fully of this magnificent work, as it embraces not only travel, but commerce, trade, and the entire defence and protection of our numerous and vast foreign possessions. If at any future period the external communication should become either broken, or weakened, in any particular, the wealth, power, and greatness of Great Britain would fall with it. It is important, there- fore, that our external communication should not be limited, or curtailed. The supremacy of the sea is our golden key to the markets of the world, and our best, in Men, Matter, and Money, must not be grudged to maintain this, whatever may be said, or written, to the contrary. Again, our central position, in both the Land and the Water Hemispheres of the world's surface, opens out for us grand facilities for commercial relations with every nation, how- ever distant from us ; while the sea, which is our servant to aid us in maintaining our magnificent position in com- merce and trade, is also our safeguard, and defence, from any attack from the enemy so long as our ships of war and coast defences are of the first order. Under the heads of Postal and Telegraph Communication and Foreign Trade (imports and exports) details are given {see p. 72), so that it remains but to speak of England's commerce here as the main secret of her greatness and power. Commerce. — The old theory, that the sea separates countries and people, has been entirely refuted, for it has become, by reason of extended navigation, the great, and only means, of uniting them. Thus it is that Britain's vast possessions and wealth arise from her unique position as a sea power. Being in command of the great ocean high- ways, Britain is eyer extending her multitudinous lines of navigation eastward, westward, northward, and southward. Her merchant navy, which is the best and largest in the 72 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. world, being staffed with nearly 300,000 officers and men, carry foreign and home goods and produce as imports and exports to the enormous amount of £1,050,000,000 sterling. The granaries and markets of the world are thus placed within her reach for the sale and purchase of every con- ceivable kind of raw material, or manufactured article ; thus it is that foreigners regard us as a nation of shop- keepers, or traders. One-fourth of the entire trade of Great Britain is confined to her own possessions abroad, viz.^ India and the Colonies. According to Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign Shipping, showing the total number of vessels (steam- ships and sailing) of 100 tons register and upwards, to be 30,368 vessels with a tonnage of 25,107,632; the British Empire claims 11,536 vessels with a tonnage of 13,242,639. It will thus be seen at a glance that nearly two-fifths of the whole merchant service of the world belongs to us, and that our vessels carry more than half the produce of the world's markets. Imports and Exports. — It naturally follows that if the United Kingdom is the first commercial country in the world, her imports and exports must be both valuable and varied. The combined trade value of these imports and exports exceeds £640,000,000 sterling per annum. Of this enor- mous amount, nine-tenths belong to England and Wales, and the remaining tenth rests with Scotland, and Ire- land, to the proportion of 7 to 3. Again, nearly one- fourth of the goods imported into this country comes from our own possessions, while in exchange we send them about one-third of our exports. The principal imports are food supplies and raw materials. The principal exports are woollen and other manu- THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 73 factured goods, clothing, coal, metals, articles, and general wares. Our corn supplies come chiefly from Russia, the United States, Australia, and Canada. Our timber supplies come from the Baltic and Canadian forests, although fancy woods, etc., are imported from all parts of the world. Our wool comes from Australia and New Zealand, etc. Our cotton from the United States, Egypt, India, etc. Our hides and skins from India, South Africa, South America, the United States, and the Continent. Our flax and hemp from Russia, Ireland, Italy, and India. Our tea EXPORTS. IMPORTS Value £230.000.000 PER ANNUM 3 TO FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 4: FROM FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Value £410,000.000, PER ANNUM. from India, China, Ceylon. Our coflee from India, Ceylon, Central and South America. Our wines from the Con- tinent, Australia, and the Cape. Fisheries. — The Board of Trade has power, under the Sea Fisheries Regulation Act, passed in 1888, to form coast districts within the territorial waters of England and Wales. The chief coast fishery districts are : — (1) The Northumbrian Coast; (2) The North-Eastern, from Durham to Lincolnshire ; (3) The Eastern, from Donna Nook (Lincolnshire), including The Wash with Norfolk and Suffolk ; (4) Kent and Essex, including the Estuary of the Thames; (5) The Sussex or South-Eastern Coast ; (6) The Southern, Hampshire and Dorset ; (7) The Devonshire Coast ; (8) The Cornish Coast ; (9) Glamorgan, from Nash 74 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Point to Worms Head ; (10) Milford Haven from Worms Head to Cemmaes Head ; (11) The Western, from Cemmaes Head to Carnarvonshire ; (12) The Lancashire Coast. Scot- land and Ireland have each a separate Fisheries Board. Nearly every kind of sea-fish abounds, but certain districts are noted for particular kinds, e.g., the Norfolk Coast for herrings and crabs, etc. ; the Cornish Coast for pil- chards ; the cod fisheries of North and Eastern Scotland. Mackerel are also plentiful upon the South and East Coasts at certain seasons. It will be gathered from the above-named division of the coast districts that sea-fishing is an important industry with the British people. The Eastern Coast of Great Britain is perhaps the richest field of labour, as the North Sea is noted for its excellent yield of fish. It is estimated that about 255,000 tons, or five-sixths of the whole amount taken each year, comes from these waters. The total yield of the English and Welsh Fisheries equals 330,000 tons per annum ; Scotland adds another 300,000 tons ; and Ire- land from 30,000 to 40,000 tons each year, so that the British sea-fisheries are valued at nearly £8,000,000 per annum. To give some idea of the extent of labour employed to produce this vast amount each year, we find that 126,000 men are regularly employed in the work, and that nearly 35,000 boats, varying in size from the huge steam trawler to the tiny smack, are engaged throughout the greater portion of the year at this perilous employment. The chief markets for sea-fish in England are London (Billingsgate, the largest in the world), Hull, Grimsby, Yarmouth, and Harwich ; but fish are conveyed both by sea and land to every part of the country, and it forms no small part of the food supply of both the rich and the poor. Besides the home consumption of fish, we export some THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 75 40,000 barrels of pilchards each year to the ports of the Mediterranean from the Cornish Coast. These alone are valued at £3,000,000 per annum. The freshwater fishing is confined to the rivers and lakes of the British Isles. Many of the lakes and rivers, as well as the smaller streams, teem with salmon, salmon-trout, gray- ling, pike, perch, tench, dace, chub, eels, etc., so that angling is a most common pastime throughout the country. The following description of our fishermen by H.R.H. the Duke of Saxe Coburg and Gotha, or, as he is better known to us by his more homely title, " Duke of Edin- burgh," will be of marked interest here : — Our Fishermen, — How few there are who consider that, if, from any cause, the thousands of fish now swarming in the sea were to swim away to the depths of the ocean be- yond the range of man's power to take them, to-morrow over half-a-million of our fellow-subjects would be without the means of buying their bread ! In this half million, I include only the fishermen and their wives and children, and do not reckon the buyers, curers, coopers, carters, boat- builders, net-makers, and dealers in the towns. It is of the fishermen I wish to speak. They must toil hard and long to gain enough to supply their wants, and risk dangers and hardships known only to those who have spent a long time upon the sea. In winter cold, and summer heat, almost every port and bay sends out daily to the fishing-grounds its fleet of boats, manned by their eager crews, prepared almost to face any danger to gain its treasures from the deep. From the earliest times the people of our coasts have made the sea yield them food. This calling has produced a race of men — strong, used to hardships, patient and hard- working, brave, active, and ready to meet danger. 76 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Our first commerce must have been conducted by our fishermen, who also manned our fighting ships. The fisheries of the west of England were the nurseries, or train- ing places, of the sailors who enabled Drake to sail round the world, and, as he said, to " singe the King of Spain's beard," on more than one memorable occasion. — H.R,H, Duke of Edinburgh. Rise of Literature during the Reign of Queen Victoria. — Steam printing, and the withdrawal of the " Paper Tax " of 1862, have greatly aided the production of cheap literature, which is one of the greatest glories of Queen Victoria's reign. The brilliant and ever increasing body of British authors, both grave and gay, have done, and are still doing, noble work, which will live on and tend to enrich this great Empire and its language, spread- ing, as it does, to every region of the globe. No nation, past or present, has such a great and varied glory-roll of authors, both living and dead. " The Newspaper Press has resembled everything else in this reign — it has developed in an extraordinary manner. No exact information as to the numbers of periodical literature can ever be obtained, for some papers have but an ephemeral existence ; but the following is the latest list of newspapers I can obtain : — -c, , , (London, England (provinces, 4561 1,342/ 1,798 Wales 98 Scotland Ireland ... 217 168 British Isles 23 Total ... ... 2,304 " The magazines now in course of publication, including the quarterly reviews, number 2,081, of which more than THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 7/ 487 are of a decidedly religious character." — From "The Longest Reign in English History," by kind permission of the author, Mr. John Ashton. {English Illustrated Magazine.) Religion. — In Great Britain the greatest freedom, and protection, in religious worship is extended to all classes ; but there are two State Churches — the Established P]pis- copal Church of England, in England and Wales, and the Established Presbyterian Church of Scotland, with numer- ous other branches. The National Religion, therefore, of the British Isles may be described as : — A. The National Church of England, in England and Wales. B. Presbyterianism of various kinds, including the Church of Scotland, the Free Church of Scotland, and the United Presbyterian Church, with the Auld Lights' Com- munity, or Original Secession Church in Scotland. C. Roman Catholics in Ireland, with the Church of Ireland (Episcopal) ; being a daughter of the Church of England. A. — 1. The National Episcopal Church of England is governed by 2 Archbishops — Canterbury and York; and 32 Bishops^ — London, Durham, Winchester, Norwich, Gloucester and Bristol, Hereford, Bath and Wells, Chichester, St. David's, Liverpool, Newcastle, Llandaff, Oxford, Southwell, Ripon, Lincoln, Exeter, Salis- bury, Ely, Manchester, Wakefield, Chester, St. Asaph, Bangor, St. Albans, Worcester, Rochester, Peterborough, Truro, Lichfield, Carlisle, and Sodor and Man. To assist the Bishops there are 26 Suflfragan and Coadjutor Bishops engaged in diocesan work; also 30 ^ The Bishoprics of the English Church in Wales are indicated by italics. 78 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Deans, 89 Archdeacons, 132 Residentaiy Canons, 810 Rural Deans, and about 14,300 Beneficed Clergy, with nearly 10,000 Unbeneficed, who are engaged as curates, school- masters, or in secretarial work, etc., to the various Church Societies. The 2 Archbishops and 24 of the Bishops have seats in the House of Lords to protect, and arrange, the laws relat- ing to the Church and its institutions. 2. The Episcopal CPiurch in Scotland, being a daughter of the Church of England, in addition has 7 Bishops — Brechin {Primus), St. Andrews, Moray and Ross, Aberdeen, Argyle and the Isles, Edinburgh, Glasgow, with 182 Beneficed Clergy and 150 Unbeneficed in 1895. 3. The Church of Ireland, a second daughter of the English Church, has 2 Archbishops — Armagh (Primate) and Dublin ; and 11 Bishops — Meath, Limerick, Derry, Cashel, Cork, Ossory, Killaloe, Kilmore, Down, Clogher, Tuam. N.B.—Some of these Bishops have a double and others a treble title, e.g., as Down, Conjtor, and Dromore, but only the first is given here. The total number of Beneficed Clergy in Ireland is 1,232, and Unbeneficed Clergy about 360. N.B. — It must not be taken that the above figures represent the entire working body of the Church of England, for the enormous growth in our Colonies, and Foreign Possessions, is now represented by another 82 Indian, Colonial, or Missionary Bishops, and a large and influential body of English and Native Clergy working under them. B. The Church of Scotland (^Presbyterian) abolished the Order of Prelates, or Bishops, at the Reformation, and its present constitution was arranged. Its government is strictly Presbyterian, i.e., it recognises the equal episcopacy of all presbyters. Each congregation is ruled by a Session, or board of elders, of which the parish minister is the Pre- THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 79 sident. The Session in turn is governed by the Presby- tery, or board of ministers, with one elected elder for each congregation within the district. Next follows the Synod, or representatives from the Presbyteries of each Province ; and above all is the General Assembly, or Supreme Court, which meets annually, in May, in Edinburgh. There are some 1,700 ministers, and nearly 10,000 elders in the Church of Scotland proper ; and 1,100 ministers in the Free Church of Scotland, which broke away from the former in 1843 under the leadership of Dr. Chalmers. The United Presbyterian Church and " Auld Lights " con- nection are smaller and less important bodies. Other Religious Bodies. — The Registrar General's list shows a mixed company of Nonconformists of every shade of religion, thought, and practice. Some 300 different sects are there enumerated as holding their own separate places of worship and teaching. Our Services are well cared for with regard to religious ministration ; both the Navy and the Army have their special chaplains, which are paid by the Government. The Merchant Service receives marked attention also by means of the various sea and waterside missions of the Church of England, which carry on a great and good work among all classes of sailors and dock labourers, etc., at our principal ports. And lastly, the foreign sailors who visit our ports have been, in many instances, provided with churches and mission rooms, where they may be gathered together for worship in their own mother tongue, e.g,, the Danish and Swedish Churches for sailors. C. There is no State Church in Ireland. The National Religion is Roman Catholic, which is governed by 4 Arch- bishops and 23 Bishops. What is popularly called the Irish Church (see above) is really the Church of England 8o IMPERIAL BRITAIN. in Ireland, which is both Protestant, and Episcopal. This Church was disestablished in 1871. The Preamble and Declaration of Authority in matters legal and civil sets forth : — " The Church of Ireland, deriv- ing its authority from Christ, Who is Head over all things to the Church, doth declare tliat a General Synod of the Church of Ireland, consisting of the Archbishops and Bishops, and of representatives of the Clergy and Laity, shall have chief legislative power therein, and such ad- ministrative power as may be necessary for the Church and consistent with its Episcopal constitution." Education. — Every class in the British Isles is well pro- vided for under the head of education. A. The ancient Universities of Oxford and Cambridge amply provide for the education of the more wealthy classes, in addition to the great Public Schools of Eton, Harrow, Winchester, Rugby, Westminster, etc., etc. B. The smaller Universities of London, Dublin, Durham, St. Andrews, Glasgow, Edinburgh, etc., together with a large number of Public and Endowed Schools, meet the general needs of the middle classes. C. The poor and working classes have Elementary Education now provided free in all State-aided Schools, if so required. Elementary Education is compulsory in theory, if not in practice, throughout the United Kingdom. The Elementary Schools are of two kinds : — (1) Volun- tary Schools, belonging to the Church of England, the Wesleyan, or Roman Catholics, which are maintained by private subscription ; and (2) Board Schools, which are sup- ported by the rates. D. Secondary Education, Science and Art, and Technical Instruction, have received much attention of late years from the Government, and in addition there are Naval and Military Schools, Medical and Engineering Schools, with THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 8i Agricultural and Science Colleges ; also, Training Colleges for Teachers, and Theological and Missionary Colleges for the Clergy. The following statistics show at a glance the chief features of Elementary Education, as provided for in our Voluntary and Board School systems in England and Wales : — CHIEF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ACTS SINCE 1870. 1. 1870—33 and 34 Vic, c. 75, W. E. Forster. 2. 1873—36 and 37 Vie., c. 86, W. E. Forster. 3. 1876—39 and 40 Vic, c 79, Lord Sandon. 4. 1880—43 and 44 Vic, c 23, Mr. A. J. Mundella. 5. 1889—52 and 53 Vic, c 40, Welsh Intermediate Education. 6. 1889 — Technical Instruction Act. 7. 1891— 54 and 55 Vic, c 26, Sir W. Hart Dyke, BsltL {Free Education), 8. 1896—59 Vic, c 172, Further Provisions for Education, Eng- land and Wales, Sir John Gorst {Dropped). 9. 1897—60 Vict., c. 5, Voluntary Schools Act, Mr. A. J. Balfour. GROWTH OF THE GOVERNMENT GRANT FOR ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 1833— £20,000. 1843— £50,000. 1851— £151,000. 1860— £798,167. 1870— £903,978. 1880— £2,497,216. 1890— £3,678,540. 1891— £4,106,657. 1892— £5,965,516. 1893— £6,500,000. 1896— (Including Science and Art) about £7,000,000. GOVERNMENT INSPECTION STATISTICS, YEAR ENDING AUGUST 31, 1896. Voluntary Contributions. Kind of SchooL Accommo- - No. on dation. : Kegisters. Average Attendance. £643,386 Church Schools .J 2,780,939 2,297,659 88,541 I British „ ... 351,807 286,455 21,593 ; Wesleyan „ ...i 184,570 157,477 97,448 i R. Catholic „ ...1 371,647 i 294,627 By Rates. | Board „ ...| 2,433,411 \ 2,386,771 1,871,653 232,763 125,998 235,505 1,956,992 £850,968 i Grand Totals 6,122,374: 5,422,989 ' _ i 4,422,911 82 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. VOLUNTARY EXPENDITURE ON CHURCH SCHOOLS AND TRAINING COLLEGES. From 1811 to 1870— £15,149,938 Since 1870— 23,840,080 Total— £38,990,018 CHURCH SCHOOLS. 1 1870. 1896. Increase. Accommodation Average Attendance.. 1,365,084 1 844,334 2,730,939 1,871,653 1 1,365,855 1,027,319 NUMBER OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS INSPECTED BY H.M. INSPECTORS IN ENGLAND AND WALES — 19,756. From "The Clergyman's Ready Reference Diary," 1897, by the Author. (Messrs. Bemrose & Sons, 23 Old Bailey, E.G.) The Royal Family of England. The Queen. (Alexandrina) Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Empress of India, only child of Edward, Duke of Kent; born May 24th, 1819 ; succeeded to the throne on the decease of her uncle, King William IV., June 20th, 1837; Proclaimed June 21st, 1837; Crowned June 28th, 1888; married February 10th, 1840, H.R.H. Albert, Prince of Saxe- Coburg and Goth a, born August 26th, 1819, died December 14th, 1861. Issue: — Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa, Princess Royal, boi^n November 21st, 1840 ; married January 25th, 1858, to H.R.H. the Crown Prince of Germany (who died June 15th, 1888), and has had issue four sons and four daughters. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, K.G., born November 9th, 1841; married March 10th, 1863, to H.R.H. the Princess Alexandra of Denmark, born December 1st, 1844, THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 83 and has had issue three sons — Prince Albert Victor, born January 8th, 1864. {died January 14th, 1892) ; George Frederick Ernest Albert, born June 3rd, 1865, married Princess Victoria Mary Louise Pauline Claudine Agnes of Teck, July 6th, 1893, issue two sons — Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David^ born June 23rd, 1894, and Albert F.A.G., born December 14th, 1895; Alexander, born April 6th, 1871 {died April 7th, 1871) ; and three daughters, Louisa Victoria Alexandra Dagmar, born February 20th, 1867, married July 27th, 1889, to Alexander W. George, Marquis of Macduff and Duke of Fife, issue two daughters ; Victoria Alexandra Olga Mary, born July 6th, 1868, and Maude Charlotte Mary Victoria born November 26th, 1869, married Prince Charles of Denmark July 22nd, 1896. Alice Maud Mary, born April 25th, 1843 {died December 14th, 1878); marYied July 1st, 1862, to H.R.H. Prince Louis of Hesse {died March 13th, 1892). Issue now living — one son and four daughters. Alfred Ernest Albert, Duke of Edinburgh, born August 6th, 1844; married January 9th, 1874, to the Grand Duchess Marie of Russia, and has issue one son and four daughters. Helena Augusta Victoria, born May 25th, 1846; married July 5th, 1866, to H.RH. Prince Frederick Christian Charles Augustus of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg- Augustenburg. Issue living — one son and two daughters. Louise Caroline Alberta, born March 18th, 1848 ; married March 21st, 1871, to the Marquis of Lome. Arthur William Patrick Albert, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, born May 1st, 1850 ; married Princess Louise Margaret of Prussia, March 13th, 1879, and has issue two daughters and one son. Leopold George Duncan Albert, Duke of Albany, born 84 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. April 7th, 1853 ; 7narried Princess Helena of Waldeck, April 27th, 1882; died March 29th, 1884. Issue— a daughter and son. Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore, born April 14th, 1857; marriedH^^. Prince Henry of Battenber^, July 23rd, 1885 (^j'/^^Z January 20th, 1896). Issue — three sons and a daughter. Other Royal Princes and Princesses. Ernest, Duke of Cumberland, born September 21st, 1845. George, Duke of Cambridge, born March 26th, 1819. Augusta G., Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, born July 19th, 1822. Royal Palaces, Castles, etc. 1. Ancient. — Windsor Castle, Tower of London, West- minster Hall and Palace, Winchester, Savoy Palace, Wood- stock or Blenheim Palace, Greenwich Palace, St. James' Palace, Whitehall, Hampton Court Palace, etc. 2. Modern. — Kensington Palace, Somerset House, Kew Palace, Buckingham Palace, Osborne, Balmoral, Marl- borough House, Sandringham, etc. British Patron Saints and National Symbols, etc. 1. England S. George Lion, Rose, S. George's Cross 2. Scotland S. Andrew Thistle 3. Ireland S. Patrick Shamrock 4. Wales S. David Leek NAVAL BATTLES SINCE THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 1. Damme 1213 13. Cape Passaro .. 1718 2. Dover 1217 14. Cape Finisterre .. 1747 3. St. Mahe 1293 15. Minorca .. 1756 4. Sluys 1340 16. Doggerbank .. 1781 5. The Spanish Armada 1588 17. Guadeloupe .. 1782 6. North Downs 1652 18. Brest .. 1794 7. I. Goodwin Sands . . . 1653 19. St. Vincent .. 1797 8. Portland and Texel 1653 20. Nile .. 1798 9. II. Goodwin Sands 21. Baltic .. 1801 and N. Foreland 1666 22. Trafalgar ... .. 1805 10. Southwold Bay 1672 23. Navarino ... .. 1827 11. Beachy Head 1690 24. Bomarsund ... .. 1854 12. La Hogue ... 1692 THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 85 S6 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. PRINCIPAL WARS. Date. B.C. 55 to A.D. 410 A.D. 450 787 827 871-896 1013 1136 1139-1151 1169-1171 1189 ,1216 1265-1269 1276-1282 1297-1304 1312-1322 1337-1360 1415-1421 1455-1485 1642-1651 1652-1674 1702-1713 1756-1763 1775-1783 1793-1802 1803-1815 1824-1826 1837-1841 Wars. Roman Conquest Saxon Invasion Danish Invasion Egbert and Heptarchy Alfred the Great Danish Invasion Norman Conquest Scotland Scotland [sion Civil War of Succes- Conquest of Ireland Third Crusade I. Baron's War II. Baron's War Invasion of Wales Scottish Wars III. Baronial War French War Wars of the Eoses Spanish Armada Civil War Dutch Wars Spanish Succession Seven Years' War American Independ- French War [ence French and Peninsula Burmese War Canadian War Contending Parties. 1840 Chinese War 1845-1849 , Sikh War 1854-1856 ' Crimean War 1856-185S I Indian Mutinv 1868 I Abyssinian War 1873 I Ashanti War 1878-1880 I Afghan War 1879 Zulu War 1880-1881 Boer War 1882 1881-1885 1885 1895 1895 1896 1896 1896 1897 Egyptian War Soudan War Burmese War First Matabele War Chitral Expedition Ashanti Campaign Dr. Jameson's Raid Second Matabele War Dongola Expedition Afridis War II. Soudan War Romans and Britons Saxons and Britons Danes and Saxons Egbert became First Alfred and the Danes Sweyn and Ethelred the Unready Duke William & Harold Malcolm III. and Percy David I. and Stephen Matilda and Stephen Strongbow, Henry II. and Irish Richard I. and Saladin John and the Barons Henry III. and Barons Edward I. and Welsh English and Scotch Edward II. and Barons Edward III. and French Henry V. and French York and Lancaster Elizabeth and Spain King and Parliament English and Dutch English, French, and Allies English, French, and Allies English and Americans English and French English and Burmese English and Canadian Rebels English and Chinese English and Sikhs Eng., French, & Russia English and Sepoys English and King Theo dore English and KingKoflfee English and Shere Ali Cetewayo and English English and Dutch English & Arabi Pasha Ah Mahdi and English King Theebaw& English English and Matabele Chiefs English and Native Tribes English and Ashantis S. African Republic and British S. Africa Co. Eng. & Matabele Chiefs English and Dervishes English and Natives English and Dervishes Remarks. Romans conquer Britain Saxons conquer Britain Danes made Settlements King of England The Danes defeated Danish Victory and Settlement William I. crowned King Malcolm slain ) To win the Crown for the Em- r press Matilda Irish Princes give homage To regain Holy Land To claim Natural Rights Refusal of King to comply with Barons Non-submission of Llewellyn Competition for the Crown of Scotland Foolish government of Edward Competition for Crown of France Loss of French Possessions ContendingClaimants for Throne English plundered Spanish Pos- sessions King deposed and beheaded Jealousy of Dutch of English [Power Death of Charles II. of Spain Jealousy of French in America and India Opposition of Americans to Taxes Execution of Louis XVI. Open- ing Scheldt [Engl'd. Napoleon's wish to subjugate Burmese trespassed in Bengal Wish of Canadians to form a Republic Opium Trade Rebellion of the Sikhs Protection of Turkey Mutiny of Sepoys in India Imprisonment of English in Abyssinia [territory King Koffee plundered English Cabul occupied & Candahar taken Cetewayo taken prisoner English Parliament recalled troops at moment of victory Arabi Exiled. British occupa- tion of Egypt Gordon and Col. Burnaby slain Burmah Annexed to India, 1886 Rising quelled, Lobengula de- feated, & Cap. Buluwayo taken British Authority Established, and Road from Peshawar to Chitial opened up No fighting. Capital Coomassie taken and King imprisoned. Dr. Jameson defeated and im- prisoned Rising quelled as in 1893-4 Dervishes defeated and district To punish Afridis [liberated Dervishes defeated and Chief Mahmoud taken THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 8/ ^ Languages of the British Isles. — The several languages spoken in the British Islands are : — 1. English. — " And how hear we every man in our own tongue wherein we were born ? " Acts ii. 8. 2. Welsh. — " A pha fodd yr ydym ni yn eu cly wed hwynt bob un yn ein hiaith ein hun yn yr hony'n ganed ni ? " 3. Gaelic. — " Agus cionnus a ta sinne 'gan cluinntinn gach aon 'nar canain fein, anns an d'rugadh Sinn ? " 4. Irish. — "^S^r cionnof t>o fcLtjin fnne 5A6 ^on ff^ © g- fi 0) v3 0:73 Ph ;h "-• tn -rt 1 OQ gs ^'2 ^a gs 1 a ^i HS ^J5 1 3 (M I-l (M 02 CM -.5 4^ fl O 2> s5 CO IZjCO IS 02 CO 1*^ ^CO 1 1 (M j>. CO (M s CO Til CO 10 CM .2 co^ <© T— 1 !>. 05 IS i-T >o y-i ^■^ CM §. o Cq O CO lo o lO !>• It- £ S^'^ ^•^ i—T TlT CO i • ^ ^ CO CO S-s Q Q CO c^ 00 02^ ^ (^ CO 10 00 i I-T o" ic cm" 0" lO CO CO s 1 Q 4j Q 05 Q Iz; 1 g s 13 02 ^^ -in ^ OF THE UNIVERSITY OF IMPERIAL BRITAIN. MAP IV. 5 Longitude West 4- of Greenwicli 3 WTJb.A.KlJoiiTiston, Ediiiburgh. and London PART III. ENGLAND AND WALES. Extent. — The irregular triangle, not unlike the letter A in shape, forming the largest, and most southern portion, of the British Isles, is called England and Wales. The extreme length, from Berwick-upon-Tweed in the North, to Start Point in the South of Devonshire, is about 400 miles ; and its breadth varies from 300 miles in the South, from Dover to Land's End, to onl}" 60 miles in the North, from the Solway Firth to the River Tyne. Area. — The total area, if we include the adjacent islands, is 58,186 square miles, England alone being 50,823 square miles, and Wales 7,363 square miles. By comparison we find this small country is equal in area to -^jy part of Europe, or it represents but 9-^^ of the area of the world. Position. — England and Wales is really a peninsula, sur- rounded on three sides by the sea, vi^., on the East, West, and South, and joined with Scotland on the North. It lies between parallels of latitude 50° and oQ° North of the Equator, and between longitude 2° East and 6° "West of Greenwich. Boundaries. — NortA by Scotland ; Easl by North Sea or German Ocean; South by English Channel, and the Straits of Dover; and West by Irish Sea, St. George's Channel, and the Bristol Channel. Coast Line. — The coast line is considerable, the total length being 2,765 miles. Excellent harbour accommo- dation abounds, and every part of it is fringed and studded with signs of commerce and coast industry, from the crowded seaports, where our ships carry on their continuous 95 96 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. trade of passengers, and merchandise, to and from other lands, to the quiet fishing villages, where the tiny craft quietly put forth to take the harvest of the deep for the food of the inhabitants. England and Wales have one mile of coast for every 21 square miles of area. Twenty-nine of the counties touch the sea-board, so that every part of the country is most easily accessible to the coast. These facts, with the preva- lence of high tides, which enable the largest vessels to enter our ports, and the many river mouths, or estuaries, offering the best facilities for docks and harbours, have tended to bring our commercial interests to the present high standard of value. The coast scenery is, also, both varied, and beautiful for the most part. The smooth chalk cliffs of the Eastern and Southern shores are a most pleasing feature, and contrast, in a marked way, with the bolder, and more broken, rocky parts of the Western Coast. With but few exceptions, small boats may put in to nearly every part, the shores being chiefly of sand, pebbles, and broken shells, although clay and marl are to be met with. Sea-bathing can be in- dulged in with safety in many parts, as the water is shallow, and the shores slope gradually, while the beach is firm and even. The more rugged and wilder portions of the coast are to be met with in Cumberland, Wales, and Cornwall on the Western side. Here the coast is somewhat dangerous, owing to the existence of numerous rocks and headlands jutting abruptly out of the deep water, while the sea is less calm, and more subject to storm exposure. A. The Eastern Coast. — This coast is remarkably even, whether we view it from the land or from the sea. Passing from North to South, we lose the bold, rocky, coast line, with Flamborough Head on the Yorkshire coast, and from ENGLAND AND WALES. 97 this point until we reach the North Foreland in Kent, there are to be seen only a succession of flat marsh lands, or occasional sand hills or levels, with here and there, as on the Norfolk coast, a range of low clifls formed by the neighbouring chalk hills. The gain and loss on this Eastern Coast of England is somewhat remarkable. Whereas the sea is rapidly en- croaching along a portion of the Yorkshire coast, so that considerable tracts have been lost ; a little further south, on the Lincolnshire coast, the land appears to be gaining on the sea. The chief Capes and Headlands on the East Coast are six in mimber: — 1. Flaraborough Head in Yorkshire, the highest point on this coast, in olden days used as a Beacon Station, hence its name. 2. Spurn Head, or Point, also in Yorkshire, jutting out and forming the mouth of the Humber. 3. Hunstanton Point in Norfolk, the extreme point of the East Anglican heights. 4. Lowestoft Ness, or Nose, in Suffolk, the most easterly point in the British Isles. 5. The Naze (another form of Nose), and Foulness ia Essex. 6. The North Foreland in Kent, which is noted as the beginning of the White Cliffs of Albion's Isle. The chief Openings or Inlets are six in number : — 1. Tynemouth, noted for its shipbuilding and colliery trade. 2. Mouth of the Tees, an important outlet for coals and iron, etc. 3. The Humber Estuary, with its ports of Hull and Grimsby. 98 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. 4. The Wash, between Lincolnshire and Norfolk. It is shallow and full of dangerous sandbanks. 5. Mouth of the Rivers Stour, and Orwell, between Suffolk and Essex. 6. The Estuary of the Thames, forming the great w^aterway to London, the Metropolis of the world's trade and commerce. B. The Southern Coast. — At the eastern part the striking chalk cliffs are continued as noted on the Eastern Coast. Here the shores are most even, and less indented than the Western part, which partakes in great measure of the bolder scenery of the Western Coast of Britain. The chief Capes and Headlands are eight in number : — 1. The South Foreland, again terminating in White Chalk Hills of Kent. 2. Dungeness, probably the nose, or point of danger, also in Kent. 3. Beachy Head 4. Selsea Bill 5. St. Alban'sHead ) ,, ^ ^ -r^ ,1 -, T^.i, > on the Dorset coast. 6. Portland Bill \ 7. Start Point, sometimes called the tail of Devonshire. 8. The Lizard, the most southerly point of the British Isles. There are also St. Catherine's Point, and the Needles, in the Isle of Wight. The chief Openings or Inlets are seven in number : — 1. Portsmouth Harbour, an important naval station and dockyard. 2. Southampton Water, one of our chief openings for commerce. 3. Weymouth Bay, protected by Portland breakwater. 4. Selsea Bill [ '° ^"'^'^- ENGLAND AND WALES. 99 4. Torbay, in Devonshire. 5. Plymouth Sound, also a naval station and excellent harbour. 6. Falmouth Harbour, in Cornwall. 7. Mount's Bay, so called from St. Michael's Mount here. C. The Western Coast. — We now meet with grander scenery, a bolder and more irregular outline of coast, having much deeper indentations than on the Eastern and Southern Coasts. This is due to the exposure of this Western Coast to the storms of the Atlantic Ocean. The chief Capes and Headlands are ten in number : — 1. Land's End, in Cornwall, the most westerly point of England. 2. Hartland Point, in Devonshire. 3. Morte Point, opposite to Lundy Island, also in Devonshire. 4. Worm's Head, in Glamorganshire. 5. St. David's Head, in Pembrokeshire, is the most westerly part of Wales. 6. Braich-y-Pwll, the extreme south-western point of Caernarvonshire. 7. Great Orme's Head is 673 feet high, making it the highest point on the coast of England and Wales. 8. Point of Aire, in Flintshire. 9. Formby Point, in Lancashire. 10. St. Bees' Head, in Cumberland. Here the cliffs are a red sandstone. The chief Openings or Inlets are fourteen in number : — 1. Barnstaple Bay | I in the Bristol Channel, where ^ ^ _^ high tides are prevalent. 3. Swansea Bay 4. Caermarthen Bay lOO IMPERIAL BRITAIN. 5. Milford Haven is one of the grandest natural har- bours in the world. 6. St. Bride's Bay, in Pembrokeshire. 7. Cardigan Bay, the largest in Wales. 8. Tremadoc Bay, the most northern part of Cardigan Bay. 9. Caernarvon Bay, of small size. 10, 11, 12. Mouths of the Dee, Mersey, and Kibble. Un- fortunately, there are sandbanks which hinder large ships from entering except at high tides. 13. Morecambe Bay is both sandy and shallow. 14. Solway Firth, dividing England and Scotland. Before leaving the sea coast, which has been most ap- propriately called the battleground between sea and land, on account of the gain and loss which continually takes place, and so ever changes the line of boundary, we must mention the Straits, and Islands, which surround it on every side. Straits. — The Straits of Dover are the first of im- portance, separating England from France, on the main- land of Europe, and joining the North Sea with the English Channel. In the narrowest point, between Dover and Calais, the breadth is but 21 miles, and the depth does not exceed 200 feet. Many dangers are experienced here to vessels entering the English Channel, by reason of the meeting of cross currents from the wider expanse of waters at either end, and the shifting saridbanks, known as the Goodwin Sands, which impede navigation at the entrance. To do away with these difficulties two schemes have been promulgated. The English plan is to bore a submarine tunnel from England to France, which would be a some- what costly and difficult enterprise ; and the French scheme is to bridge the Channel across by constructing enormous piers of sufficient strength to carry a railway over it. This will never be accomplished, as it not only bristles ENGLAND AND WALES. 10 1 with difficulties of construction and maintenance, but it would add tenfold to the dangers of navigation during sea storms. Well-nigh every conceivable style of steamer has been tested on this short passage, the most novel being the Calais-Douvres, or twin steamship, which literally consists of two small steamers rivetted firmly together to prevent the rolling motion, and give comfort and confidence to passengers crossing the Channel. There are several daily passages carried on by the Southern Railway Companies of England. {See pp. 64-5.) The other two Straits are narrow water passages lying between the mainland of England and Wales and two of the principal islands. Thus on the Southern Coast we have the Solent and Spithead, dividing Hampshire from the Isle of Wight. This Strait ofifers great protection to vessels of all kinds as a sheltering roadstead during stormy weather. On the Western Coast, the Menai Straits, lying between Anglesea Island and Caernarvonshire, are 14 miles long, and vary in width from 260 yards to 2 miles. The island has a double connection with the mainland, in the two finely constructed bridges, commonly known as (1) Stephenson's Tubular Railway Bridge, and (2) Telford's Suspension Chain Bridge, 560 feet long. The scenery here is very beautiful. Roadsteads. — Here may be mentioned also the prin- cipal roadsteads, or natural harbours of refuge, situated along the shores of England and Wales. They are shelter- ing places for our shipping during the all too sudden and frequent storms which overtake them. The chief are The Downs, or Smooth Channel, lying between the shores of Kent and the Goodwin Sands. This is the largest natural harbour in the world. It will accommodate hundreds of vessels during a storm. Yarmouth I02 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Roads is also formed by a number of sandbanks lying off* the coast of Norfolk. This roadstead is a great protection to the coasting vessels which pass from London to Aber- deen, Dundee, Leith, Hull, etc. Other roadsteads on the southern shores of England are, Plymouth Sound, and the channel known as Portland Roads. Islands. — If we compare the Navigation Charts of the Admiralty with the ordinary map of England and Wales, we shall well-nigh be disposed to query the truth they repre- sent of the numerous islands, rocks, shoals, and sandbanks, thickly studded with danger signals in the form of light- houses, lightships, and floating buoys, which apparently surround every part of our coasts. Such charts are a necessity to safe navigation, and even with these valuable aids which all vessels carry to direct their course, each year brings a long list of shipwrecks, and coast casualties, in which there is recorded a heavy loss of valuable lives and property. For general purposes we must, however, pass over these minute details, which strictly belong to navigation rather than to descriptive geography, and restrict ourselves to a survey of the well-known islands lying off" our coasts. On the Eastern Coast we have no large islands, and but few smaller ones to mention here. The principal islands in order of position we meet with in travelling from North to South are : — I. Those of the Northumbrian Coast, including — 1. Lindisfame, or Holy Island, which by ancient law belongs to the county of Durham, although it is situated \\ miles off" the coast of Northumberland, is about 9 miles in circuit, with an area of nearly 1,000 acres. This island, with the cluster of the Fame Islands, some seven miles distant, constitutes a parish. The inhabitants are mostly fishermen. Occasionally at low water mark, Lindisfarne ENGLAND AND WALES. IO3 may be reached by a dangerous though possible winding track across the sands ; but quicksands abound here, and a guide is a necessity. This island received its title of Holy from the ancient Abbey, and Bishopric, founded here towards the end of the seventh century. By reason of the marauding Danes, who visited these parts to plunder and kill, the monks and their bishop removed to Durham, A.D. 900, hence its present connection with that See and County. The population, in 1891, was under 1,000. 2. The Fame, or Feme, Islands are a cluster of 17 rocky islets lying off the Northumbrian Coast, on a line with Bamborough Head. The largest of the group is barely a mile in circumference, and the surface is generally barren. Two lighthouses mark out the dangerous channels and hidden rocks of this coast. These islands have been long noted as the scene of fearful wrecks ; yet of these the loss of the Forfarshire is still the most noted, by reason of the courage and skill of the lighthouse-keeper and his noble daughter, Grace Darling, who toiled alone to save the crew and passengers from drowning during a fearful storm in 1838, 3. Coquet Isle is an important lighthouse station, situated at the mouth of the River Coquet in Northumberland. It is about a mile in circumference. There are two lighthouses here, the keepers of which are the only inhabitants during a portion of the year ; at other times a few fisher- men visit the huts provided for their accommodation there. 4. N.B. — Spern Island, off the Yorkshire Coast, is only an island at high tide. II. The Islands of Thanet and Sheppey, on the southern shore of the Estuary of the Thames, and forming part of the County of Kent, are islands only in name. 1. Sheppey is the largest and most important. It is about eleven miles in length, by eight in breadth, and its 104 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. surface is a low, flat, marshy pasturage. It is formed by the mouths of the Rivers Thames and Medway, together with the Swale Strait, which now has become a mere narrow drainage channel to carry off the flood waters. The chief town is Sheerness. 2. Thanet is more of a district of Kent than an island, although it is surrounded by the River Stour, which forms two branches, or mouths, at Sarrwall before entering the sea. It is ten miles long, by eight broad. Although the surface presents a barren appearance, yet vegetation is good, and early crops are always produced. Margate and Ramsgate are the two chief towns. On the Southern Coast, the Isle of Wight is the only one of importance. It has been described as " the garden of England,'' or *' England in miniature ; " and by reason of its natural attractions of position, climate, and scenery, besides being one of the royal residences of our great and good Queen, it has naturally become one of the most fashionable watering-places in the British Isles. The island is '11\ miles long from east to west, and ISJ miles broad from north to south. Its coast line is about 56 miles, and its area 186 square miles. It is included in the diocese of Winchester for ecclesiastical, and in the county of Hampshire for civil purposes, from which it is separated by the Solent and Spithead. The interior is beautifully diversified, and the soil most fertile. A range of chalk hills forms a pleasant feature in the landscape, stretching through the centre of the island from east to west. One point, St. Catherine's Hill, is 800 feet high, and there are several rivulets, called the Medina, Yar, Wootton, Newton, and others, which flow on to the coast through lovely woods, or rich park-like lands, making the inland scenery attractive in nearly every part. The coast scenery is also charming, and there is great IMPERIAL BRITAIN. MAP VI. ISLE OJF WIGHT '*' Dimiiose rtit* tftnif Ilia. K* CHAN. W !t A-K. Johnstou, E.linburg'h. i-Londcn. ENGLAND AND WALES. IO5 variety seen in the bold rugged coasts of the neighbourhood of the Needles, when compared with the shallow shelving sands of Sandown, etc. The chief towns are Newport (the capital, in the centre of the island), Ryde, East and West Cowes, Yarmouth, Ventnor, Shanklin, Sandown, Freshwater, Brading, and St. Helens. The royal residence of Osborne stands a little to the east of Cowes, where it commands an excellent view of Spit- head and Portsmouth Harbour. History. — But little is known of the island or its in- habitants before the Roman invasion of Britain, 55 B.C. In A.D. 686, Cadwalla gave as a present to Archbishop Wilfrid of York one-fourth of the island. Later on William the Conqueror bestowed the whole island as an estate upon his kinsman, William Fitz-Osborne. In 1293 Edward I. purchased it as a Crown possession. Charles I. was imprisoned here in Carisbrooke Castle in 1648. The Princess Beatrice of Battenberg, Her Majesty's youngest daughter, is now the governor of the island, since the death of her husband, Prince Henry, in 1895. Portland Isle, in Dorsetshire, is a penal settlement for convicts, who are chiefly employed in the famous stone quarries there. On the Western Coast the chief islands are : — 1. The Scilly Isles, wrongly called by the ancients *' Cassiterides," or the Tin Islands, are a picturesque cluster of about 45 islands, and 100 smaller ones, some of which are mere granite rocks, lying about 30 miles south-west of Land's End, and included for ecclesiastical and civil purposes within the county of Cornwall. The united area is nine square miles. On a clear day these islands may be seen from Land's End. Only six of the larger islands are inhabited, the chief being St. Mary's, I06 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. which is 10 miles in circumference. Its capital is Hugh- town. The other inhabited islands are Fresco, St. Martin, St. Agnes, Samson, and St. Helen. Steam packets ply frequently between Penzance in Cornwall and Hughtown. As the coasts of these islands are somewhat dangerous, several lighthouses have been erected on the rocks, the chief being St. Mary's Pier Lighthouse, Bishop's Rock Lighthouse, and a floating lighthouse on Seven Stones. The soil of these islands is most fertile, and the in- habitants being industrious, large quantities of early fruit, flowers, and vegetables, are grown for the London markets. The Prince and Princess of Wales visited the Scilly Isles in 1865. 2. Lundy Isle is situated some 10 miles to the north- west of Hartland Point in North Devon, at the entrance to the Bristol Channel. It is a lofty granite rock, only accessible on the eastern side, while its northern coast, where stands the Constable Rock Lighthouse, is very high and precipitous. This rocky islet is about three miles long and one broad. Its area is 2,000 acres. The inhabitants, which are under 100, are engaged in agriculture and the rearing of cattle, sheep, pigs, and poultry. Lundy Island, throughout the Middle Ages, was the home of pirates. Morisco dwelt here in the twelfth century. During the reign of William and Mary, the French seized possession of the island, but shortly afterwards they gave it up. Lying off the Welsh Coast are several islands of minor importance. Among these may be mentioned : — 1. Tuskar Rock^ Flat holme and Steepholme, off" Gla- morganshire, in the Bristol Channel ENGLAND AND WALES. lO/ 2. Caldy, Skokhani, Skomer^ Ramsey, St. Margaret's^ and Bishop and Clerk's Rocks, off the coast of Pembroke. 3. St. TudwaVs Island in Tremadoc Bay. 4. Bardsey Island, lying off the Braich-y-Pwll in Carnarvonshire. There are others, merely used as lighthouse stations, which are occasionally visited by the coast fishermen. 5. Anglesea, with Holyhead, situated of}* the north- western coast of Carnarvonshire. Anglesea, or Mona, is an island and county of North Wales, situated in the Irish Sea, and separated from the mainland by the Menai Strait, over which are two re- markable bridges — the Stephenson Tubular Railway Bridge and the Telford Suspension Bridge. {^See Straits, p. 101.) The island is 24 miles long and 17 miles broad, and its area is 271 square miles. Coal is found on the Island. The surface is undulating and the scenery diversified. There are several small streams, and the soil is fertile, yielding a large quantity of corn, potatoes, and other vegetables. Excellent pasturage abounds. The island consists of seventy-four parishes, and its chief towns are Beaumaris (capital), Holyhead, on Holy Isle, Amlwch, Llangefni, and Llanerchymedd. Many Druidical remains are to be met with in different parts of the island, the surface of which was once covered with forests, wherein the Druids held their services. The circular stone temples may yet be seen there. It was here that the Romans massacred the several religious orders of Druidism during one of their great festivals, because they incited the Britons to revolt against their conquerors. The small island of Holyhead,^ so named after the Cape, i>Sfee Illustration, page 259, "South Stack Lighthouse." 108 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. is really a small island seaport town, included under Anglesea. The harbour here is a safe one ; and there is an excellent pier and landing-stage, from which the Irish passengers, travelling by the London and North-Western Kailway, embark for Dublin. This being the chief station of the Irish steam packets, the letters and mails are de- spatched through Holyhead. The Isle of Man^ situated in the Irish Sea, midwa}' be- tween England, Ireland, and Scotland, and The Channel Islands, lying off the French Coast, being classed as dependencies of Great Britain, have been placed among the British possessions in Europe, rather than as parts of the British Isles. Coast Defence and Safeguards. — No country in the world is provided with the same means of coast defence against a foreign foe, and safeguards for life from either wrecks or boat accidents, as the British Isles. A. In addition to the Channel Squadron of warships, the coasts are under a strict surveillance of armed cruisers, and other smaller vessels, in every part. Training ships are moored at the mouths of several of the larger rivers, and a continuous chain of coastguard service has been established, as land watchmen and guardians over our mercantile interests. B, The principal methods of saving life resorted to are : — 1. Lighthouses and lightships. 2. Floating buoys. 3. Lifeboat stations. These are principally under the care of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution, which was founded in 1824. This excellent Society has 303 lifeboats engaged in service around the coasts of Great Britain, and others IMPERIAL BRITAIN. MAP V. ENGLAND PHYSICAL MAP ale of Engash. go to 5P^ T&i«tits Coast tine to _. ZSO feety P ZSOtoSOOff fl SOO to ISOO .. L_ lSOOti>ZSOO„ L. Abm» 2S0O ,. \JL Isottifmis . JaiO' - J.t^ Depthii CoastMntj to ZSOfitt SSOtoSOOff ISOO to 2S00., ZSOOtoSOOO., ' 50 OO . ■W.S: AX Johnston. Eambnrgh. and. London, ENGLAND AND WALES. IO9 are being added each year by the munificence of private donors, or by public subscription. " Dur- ing the past 40 years the self-righting boats have been launched more than 7,400 times on service, and have saved upwards of 16,000 lives. The total number of lives saved since the Institution was founded is 38,992." — From HazeWs Annualy ]896. Cinque Ports. — The Cinque Ports are seven in number, although, as the name implies, there were originally but five towns, or ports, claiming this ancient title. All are situated in Kent and Sussex, on the South Coast of England, viz., Dover, Hastings, Hythe, Romney, and Sand- wich, to which have been added. Rye and Winchelsea. William the Conqueror granted certain rights and privileges to these Cinque Ports, conditionally to their maintaining and providing certain ships of war for the king's use. The Chief Officer is called the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports ; but the duties are now not observed. The Marquis of Salisbury is the present Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. Surface. — It is a little difficult to fully gauge the great variety of surface which is presented in the limited area of this country from a general study of the map, unless it be a raised one, showing the diversified nature and varied situations of mountain range and valley, of isolated peak and low-lying plains, of forest and meadow, of wild tracts and highly cultivated lands ; yet a careful survey presents all these changes of surface. Generally speaking, the surface of England is an un- dulating plain, with here and there bolder ranges of verdure- clothed hills of aqueous formation, and occasionally broken somewhat abruptly by either steep rugged mountain ranges no IMPERIAL BRITAIN. or groups. Few parts of England and Wales are really flat, yet nearly two-thirds of the whole surface may be considered to be a plain, so much so, that Professor Geikie, in his " Geography of the British Isles," says ^ : — "It is important to realise how low and level a great part of the country really is. If the island were sunk 500 feet below its present level, England would be reduced to a scattered group of islands, the largest of which would extend from near Derby to Hexham. Wales would form a second island of about the same size; the uplands of Eastern Yorkshire would make a third ; and a scattered archipelago would run from Cornwall eastwards to Kent, northwards to Shropshire, and north-eastwards to Lincolnshire. If the depression were only to the extent of 250 feet, the sea would spread over all the low grounds from the Tees to the Thames, and from Westmoreland to Shropshire." Mountains. — This somewhat quaint description of the surface of England and Wales graphically points out the position of the mountain ranges and highlands, and arranges for us the mountainous districts of England and Wales under three heads or systems : — 1. The Northern System, consisting of the Cheviot Hills, the Pennine Chain, and the Cumbrian Group. 2. The Cambrian or Western System, which includes all the mountains of Wales. 3. The Devonian or Southern System, consisting of the hills of Cornwall, Devon, and Somersetshire. I. In describing the Northern System of mountains and hills, we must commence with the : — 1. Cheviot Hills, an historical range of pastoral moun- tains, running in a south-westerly direction between England and Scotland, and forming, with the River Tweed, ^ "Geography of the British Isles.'' {Macmillan.) ENGLAND AND WALES. - I [I the boundary of the two countries. The Cheviots separate the western part of Northumberland from the county of Roxburgh, and though their average height varies from 1,000 to 2,000 feet, yet the highest point, known as The Cheviot, is 2,636 feet. The rich, sloping pastures of these hillsides afford excellent grass for the well-known breed of sheep called " the Cheviots." Throughout the Middle Ages, the rival border lords, Percy and Douglas, often met in battle here. Each regarded these hills as his hunting grounds ; and beneath the range, where now the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway runs, the Romans at an earlier period raised the Wall of Hadrian to keep back their warlike and most troublesome neighbours, the Picts. The northern branch of the River Tyne takes its rise in the Cheviots. The boundary river, the Tweed, flows from the Lowther Hills in Scotland, and not from the Cheviots. 2. Almost at right angles to the Cheviot Hills runs the Pennine Range^ which is really the backbone of this country. This is the longest and most important range in England, as its extends from the Cheviots, on the borders of Scotland, as far as the Peak in Derbyshire, nearly 200 miles in length. Strictly speaking, the Pennine Range is an elevated tableland, made up of clusters of hills and peaks, and interspersed with moorland and valleys. Its width varies from 15 to 30 miles; and the scenery is much bolder in parts than in others. The average height is about 2,000 feet, but many of the peaks rise far above this, e.g., Cross Fell, the highest point, and the meeting-place of four counties — Northumberland, Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Durham, is 2,900 feet ; and other peaks, Whernside, Mickle- fell, Ingleborough, and Penyghent are nearly 2,500 feet in height. The Peak, 1,800 feet, in Derbyshire, is the culminat- ing point of a remarkable cluster of grandly formed eleva- 112 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. tions, representing a great variety of lovely scenery by the strange rugged peaks, deep caves, perpendicular ciiifs, and broken clefts, which form the valleys between. Some parts are well wooded, and clear sparkling streams add not a little to the romantic scenery which is always an attraction to tourists, especially as the Pennines are, as a rule, treeless and barren, with the exception of a scanty rough herbage barely sufficient to feed sheep. The real value of this range is that it forms an im- portant watershed for the northern, and north-midland, counties of England. Its mineral wealth is also of im- portance, for on either side of the chain there are rich coalfields, in addition to iron, lead, and building stones ; so that we naturally find the districts surrounding the Pennine Range, viz, : — the counties of Northumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cheshire, Derbyshire, Nottingham, and Stafford, exceedingly rich in trade and manufactures of various kinds. T/ie chief Rivers which have their source in the Pennine Range are : — A. The Tyne (S. Tyne), Wear, Tees, Ouse, and Trent, flowing eastwards into the North Sea. B. The Eden, Lune, Wyre, Pvibble, and Mersey, flow- ing westwards into the Irish Sea. 3. The Cumbrian Group includes the mountains of Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Lancashire, which form the Lake District, so renowned for its beautiful scenery. This is a grand group of more than a dozen peaks, all above 2,000 feet in height, and having the most picturesque valleys intervening, in which lie the silver surfaces of the lovely lakes, while tiny cascades and huge torrents pour down their streams from the heicjhts above. Rich wood- land, and rugged crag, vie with each other to perfect the scene, while villages, or mansions, peep out here and there. ENGLAND AND WALES. II3 making the whole one vast fairyland of beauty. No wonder the Lake District has attracted our poets, and artists, to dwell in this land of Nature's enchantment, for in few spots could her ever-varying changes be better studied than here. The principal peaks are Scafell, 3,230 feet, the highest mountain in England ; Helvellyn, 3,055 feet ; and Skiddaw, 3,022 feet high. Other peaks are Saddleback, Coniston Old Man, Fairfield, etc. See also " Lakes " {Lake District) for a further description of this group. The only important rivers rising in the Cumbrian Group are the Derwent and the Kent, both of which flow^ west- wards into the Irish Sea. A large part of the natural drainage of this district flows into the Lakes. 11. The Cambrian^ or Western System^ comprises the whole of the Welsh mountains. They principally consist of several short chains, branching out in different direc- tions, which take their names after some peak occurring in them, e.g., the Snowdon Range, the Plinlimmon Range, the Brecknock Beacons, etc. Thus, they may be described as a cluster of mountain knots, linked together, either by varying ranges, or high tablelands, in which occur deeply-cut clefts and fissures, with steep valleys or glens, through which rush mountain tarns or rapid streamlets, with here and there a cascade to diversify the ever-changing beauties of this magnificent scenery. The chief peaks include Snowdon, the highest mountain in England and Wales, 3,570 feet ; Cader Idris, 2,929 feet Plinlimmon, 2,465 feet; and the Brecknock Beacons, a pair of twin heights about 2,900 feet high. The view from the summit of Snowdon upon a clear day is both extensive and maofnificent. The three Kincrdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland may be seen, together with a large portion of North Wales, also the Isle of H 114 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Man and Anglesea, including a grand stretch of the Irish Sea. III. The Thirds arid least important^ of our Mountain Systems is the Southern Range, known as " The Devonian," which includes the hills and highlands of Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Cornwall, so that Dartmoor, Exmoor, the Mendip Hills, and the Cornish Heights belong to this system. This system of highlands are, strictly speaking, moun- tains, inasmuch as they are of igneous or volcanic formation, like the Northern and Cambrian Systems, and not of aqueous matter, like the oolitic, or chalk ranges, of other parts of England. Thus we find the same rough, rugged scenery as we meet with in Cumberland or Wales, though, generally speaking, more in miniature with regard to size and grandeur. Bold granite rocks, with rich slate beds, or layers, intervening, are found here, while the mineral yield is highly valuable, including tin, copper, lead, manganese, marble, and building stone of excellent quality. The chief Peaks in the Devonian Range are : — Yes Tor, 2,040 feet, and Cawsand Beacon, 1,800 feet, on Dartmoor; Dunkery Beacon on Exmoor, 1,700 feet; and Brown Willy, 1,368 feet, in Cornwall. Exmoor, in North Devon and Somersetshire, is a chain of hills, in olden times covered with forests, but now chiefly clothed with rough pasturage and heather, with marshlands intervening. Dartmoor, also originally a forest, is an elevated table- land, studded with rough tors or granite rocks, and inter- sected with streams, many of which are well known and frequented by anglers. Hills, etc. — We now pass on to the hills of England and Wales. 1. The Central Heights carry southwards the vertebral ENGLAND AND WALES. II5 column of England's structure in a less marked manner south of the Pennine Chain ; but though the elevations are minor ones, yet the course may be distinctly traced until the Devonian Range is reached. These are all of aqueous formation, and therefore less bold in outline. This range of hills naturally divide England and Wales into two parts : — (1) To the North and West we find the chief manufactur- ing and mining districts ; (2) To the South and East the agricultural and pastoral districts. 2. The Cotswold Hills, in Gloucestershire, stand first in importance here. They form a marked line of division between the two largest river-basins of England and AVales — the Thames and the Severn. They belong to the oolitic group of hills, which means that they are composed of minute egg-shaped particles of limestone, in contrast to the chalk ranges of Southern England. Other oolitic ranges are : The Edge Hills, running from Oxfordshire through Warwickshire ; The Lincolnshire and Yorkshire Wolds, running through those counties; and The Yorkshire Moors, running in a westerly direction from the coast near Whitb3^ Then the several chalk ranges of Southern Britain in- clude : The Blackdown Hills and Dorset Heights ; The Chiller n Hills in Oxfordshire, a continuation of which range is known as the East Anglican Heights, as far east- ward as the Wash ; The Gog and Magog Hills in Cam- bridgeshire ; and The North and South Downs, two somewhat parallel ranges, running East and West through Hampshire, Surrey, Sussex, and Kent. The Wrekin, in Shropshire, is an isolated peak ; and Inkpen Beacon in Dorsetshire is in a similar position. Some smaller hills are the Clee Hills in Shropshire ; the Clent Hills in Worcester- shire ; the Malvern Hills running through Worcestershire and Herefordshire, and the Quantock Hills in Somerset- Il6 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. shire ; the White Horse Hills, a continuation of the Chiltern Hills. Plains. — Our next natural features, after the highlands of England, are the plains and lowlands. These we have referred to on page 110 under the head of " Surface.'' Two- thirds of England and Wales may be considered as plains and valleys. 1. The largest plain in England and Wales is The Plain of York, which extends through the central part of York- shire, on the eastern side of the Pennine Range. It is 160 miles long, and nearly 50 miles broad, with an area of about 1,000 square miles. 2. This plain is really the most norfchern portion of the Eastern Lowlands, which are continued southwards through the Fens of Lincolnshire (where the land sinks to the lowest level in the country) to the East Anglian Plain of Nor- folk, Suffolk, and Essex. 3. The Seaboard Plain, or low pasture land, between the Wolds and the North Sea, is generally called Holderness. 4. The Central Plain of England, sometimes called The Vale of Trent, is somewhat higher in elevation than the Eastern plain. It comprises roughly the counties of Derby, Leicester, Warwick, and Stafford, which are situated south of the Pennine Range. In parts, this plain is 400 feet above the sea-level. 5. A second portion of the Central Plain yet continues as far south as the Thames ; so ^that if we regard the two portions as one plain, we find it is bounded, roughly speak- ing, by four rivers — the Ouse, Trent, Thames, and Severn. 6. The Cheshire Plain, lying to the west of the Pennine Range, is also of importance. It includes parts of Lanca- shire and Cheshire. 7. The Fens of Lincolnshire and Huntingdonshire are a miniature representation of Holland. If we include the ENGLAND AND WALES. II7 Bedford Level in this area, it is extended over parts of several counties, bordering the Wash on the East Coast. The Fen country is damp and in parts unhealthy. Parts of it are still covered with reeds and coarse grass, where geese and sheep thrive, although, since the year 1629, much has been done to reclaim the land from the floods for agri- cultural purposes. The Fen District is about 60 miles long and 30 miles broad. The other smaller plains are : — 1. The Cumbrian Plain, or Vale of Eden. 2. The Valleys of the Thames and Severn Rivers. 3. The Isle of Ely, or Eel Island, a raised plateau standing out from the Fen District, and in olden days always surrounded by water. 4. Salisbury Plain, which is more of a plateau than a low plain, resembling in a measure parts of Dartmoor in Devonshire in this particular. 5. The Vales of Worcester and Evesham in the West of England. 6. The Vale of the White Horse in Berkshire, with the more picturesque plains of Pewsey in Wilt- shire and the Neath Valley in Glamorganshire. 7. The Weald of Kent is only a plain inasmuch as it lies between the two chalk ranges of hills known as the North and South Downs. Valleys. — The Valleys of England and Wales deserve to be noticed here, owing to their singular beauty and natural fertility. In the North of England they are called " dales," but in the South they are known as '* vales " — thus we speak of the dales of Yorkshire, and the vales of Somerset. As most of the principal valleys are well watered by navigable rivers, the chief of our large com- mercial and manufacturing towns have been placed therein. Il8 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. KiVERS. — Nearly all the rivers of importance are navig- able, which is a distinct advantage to the trade of the country, and there are a considerable number of excellent ports planted at their mouths, which give an uninterrupted communication with the interior. The rivers of Endand and Wales are both numerous and of considerable length for the size of the country. From the fact that no high mountains exist, and the hills have gentle slopes, they are generally slow-flowing. They drain the land both naturally, and artificially, for purposes of agriculture, and many of them provide water power for driving the machinery of mills, factories, etc. The triangular shape of the coast-line of England and Wales, and the general position of the highlands, naturally arrange the river system into three divisions : — I. Rivers of the East Coast. II. Rivers of the South Coast. III. Rivers of the West Coast. I. The Rivers of the East Coast flowing into the North Sea are first of importance if taken together for com- mercial and general purposes. They are the Coquet, Tyne, Wear, Tees, Humber, formed by the Yorkshire Ouse and the Trent, the Witham, Welland, Nen, Great Ouse, which enter the Wash after winding slowly through the central and eastern plains ; the Yare, Orwell, Stour of Essex, Colne, Chelmer, and Blackwater flowing from the East Anglian Heights ; the Thames, the Med way, and the Kentish Stour. The six chief commercial rivers of this group are : — A. The Tyne, which is made up of two streams, called the North Tyne rising in the Cheviots, and the South Tyne flowing from Crossfell in the Pennine Chain. These two streams join near Hexham in Northumberland. The river is 73 miles long, and its importance arises from its ENGLAND AND WALES. II9 course running tlirougli the centre of the Northumberland colliery district, where both iron and coal abound. On this river stands Gateshead and Newcastle, with North Shields (Tynemouth) and South Shields at its mouth, where there are extensive shipbuilding yards. B. The Wear is another important commercial river, with Sunderland at its mouth. Its length is 65 miles, and it flows from the Pennine Range, through a rich and increasing coal and iron district within the county of Durham. The city of Durham, with its magnificent cathedral, stands in a most picturesque position upon the banks of the Wear. C. The Tees forms the southern boundary of the county of Durham, dividing it from the North Riding of Yorkshire. It rises in Crossfell like the Tyne, and its course is nearly 80 miles in length. This river is the principal outlet of the Cleveland iron district. On its banks stand Barnard Castle, Darlington, Middlesborough, and Stockton. The wide opening or estuary is known as Teesmouth. D. The Humber is an important arm of the sea, or river estuary, from two to five miles wide, formed by the united waters of the Yorkshire Ouse and the Trent. It ranks high in importance as a commercial waterway, for on its northern shore stands Hull, or, as it is sometimes called, Kingston-upon-HuU, the third seaport in England, posses- sing an enormous trade with the Baltic in timber, corn, flax, hemp, wool, oil, tar, etc. ; and forming an outlet for the manufactured goods of Yorkshire and the Midlands. Then there is Grimsby upon the southern bank, with its important docks and shipping, as well as its enormous fish trade with the interior. 1. The Yorkshire Ouse^ or Northern Branch of the Humber, consists of the following tributaries — the Swale, Ure, Nidd, I20 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Wharfe, Aire, Calder, Don, and the Derwent, in addition to the main stream, which begins at the junction of the Ure and the Swale. It waters the eastern plain of Yorkshire from the Pennine Range to the Humber. The valleys, or dales, are noted for their extreme beauty, the chief being Swaledale, Airedale, and Wharfedale, which are greatly visited by tourists. On the banks of the Ouse and its tributaries are situ- ated Richmond, Ripon, Ilkley, Leeds, Bradford, Halifax, Huddersfield, Sheffield, York, and Goole. The length of this river is 150 miles. 2. The Trent, or Southern Branch of the Humber, rises in the moorlands of Staffordshire, and flows onward for 180 miles to the Humber mouth through the counties of Stafibrd, Derby, Nottingham, and Lincoln. The chief tributaries are the Soar, and the Tame, on the right bank, and the Dove, and the Derwent, on the left bank. The following towns stand upon the Trent and its tributaries — Burton-on-Trent, Nottingham, Newark, Derby, Leicester, and Stafford. E. The Great Ouse, though it may not attain to such commercial importance as the above-named rivers, has a length of 145 miles. It rises in Northamptonshire, and drains the district of Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire, Huntingdon, Cambridge, and Norfolk, until it finally enters the sea in the Wash. The chief tributaries are the Cam, Lark, Little Ouse. The county towns upon its banks are Buckingham, Bedford, and Huntingdon, while Cambridge stands on a tributary, the Cam. F. The Thames is the Queen of English rivers for impor- tance and commerce. Its length is 215 miles, and it flows nearly across the southern part of the country from the Cotswold Hills in Gloucestershire, within ten miles of the ENGLAND AND WALES. 121 122 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Severn, to the North Sea. The chief tributaries on the right bank are the Kennet, Loddon, Wey, Mole, Darent, and Medway ; and on the left bank the Windrush, Even- lode, Thame, Colne, Brent, Lea, and Roding. Below Oxford the Thames is called the Isis. No river in the world has the same amount of trade and commercial traffic as the Thames. Vessels laden with the produce and manufactures of nearly every country in the world are to be found in its grand docks, and numerous landing-stages. This river is navigable for barges throughout the greater part of its course. The Thames and Severn Canal, which unites the two rivers, makes it possible to sail across England from London to the Bristol Channel. The chief places of importance standing on the banks of the Thames are Cirencester, Lechlade, Oxford, Abingdon, Reading, Windsor, Eton, Kingston, Richmond, London, Greenwich, Woolwich, Gravesend, with Rochester and Chatham on the Medway. II. The Rivers of the South Coast flowing into the English Channel. These are of minor importance compared with the rivers of the East and West Coasts of England, owing to the nearness of the hills to the sea in this district. The chief are the Rother, Sussex Ouse, Arun, Itchen, Avon, Exe, and Tamar ; and the smaller streams are the Dorset Ouse, Teign, Dart, and Fal. III. The Rivers of the West Coast may be again divided into {a) those flowing into the Bristol Channel, as the Taw, Parrot, Avon, Severn, W^ye, Usk, TafF, and Towy ; {b), those flowing into the Irish Sea, as the Teifi, Wye, Dee, Weaver, Mersey, Ribble, Lune, Derwent, and Eden. 1. The Severn, the longest river in England and Wales, stands first in importance in this group. It rises in Plin- limmon, and by a circuitous course of 240 miles reaches the ENGLAND AND WALES. 123 Bristol Channel. A curious fact about this river is that the tide rises much higher here than in any other estuary in Europe. This sudden rising of the tide is called the BorCy or wall of water. It is caused by the meeting of the waters of the sea and the river at its mouth ; so great is the difference between high and low tide that it varies from 20 to 60 feet. The principal tributaries of the Severn are the Wye, Usk, Upper and Lower Avon. Several towns of impor- tance stand on its banks, as Welshpool, Shrewsbury, 124 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Worcester, Bridgenorth, Tewkesburj^ Gloucester, Ludlow on the Lune, Leamington, Warwick, and Stratford on the Avon. 2. The Mersey, only 68 miles in length, proudly owns Liverpool, the second seaport in Britain, near its mouth, with the shipbuilding yards and port of Birkenhead on the opposite bank. One great feature of its estuary is its depth, enabling ships of the largest size to pass up and down in safety. This opening is called the Liverpool Channel. It is an excellent harbour for the merchant vessels lying at anchor there. The chief tributaries are the I r well, upon which stands Manchester; and the Weaver, which flows through Nant- wich and Northwich, the salt districts of Cheshire. Lakes. — The two lake districts of England and Wales are situated in the northern counties of Cumberland, West- moreland, and Lancashire ; and in Merioneth, Carnarvon, and Brecknock in Wales. There are also the Norfolk Broads, which are large shallow lakes connected with the rivers Bure, Tare, and Waveney. They are fringed with reeds and wild flowers, and they are noted as the favourite haunts of all kinds of waterfowl. Thus we see that there are two kinds of freshwater lakes in this country ; the first, planted in the mountain hollows, naturally formed by the drainage of the higher lands surrounding them ; and the second, lakes, or meres, of the plain, formed by shallow depression in some river-basin area. I. The English Lake District Proper is that of the Cumbrian Group of mountains. These delightful fresh- water expanses add greatly to the grandeur and beauty of the wild mountainous districts in which they are situated. Thousands of tourists are to be met with here during the summer months. ENGLAND AND WALES. 12$ There are seven well-known lakes surrounding Helvellyn, with numerous smaller ones. 1. Windermere, the largest in size, and sometimes con- sidered the most beautiful, is about 14 miles long, and with an averaofe breadth of 1 mile. It is situated between Lancashire and Westmoreland. 2. Ullswater, lying immediately at the foot of Helvellyn, which appears to rise immediately out of its waters, is the second in size. 3. Dertventwater, another beautiful lake, nestles under Skiddaw. 4. Conision Water lies at the foot of the mountain called Coniston Old Man. 5. Thirhnere, which has been of late years utilised as the main water supply for the city of Manchester. 6. Wastwater is situated in a still wilder district, higher up the mountains than the other lakes of this group. It is considerably deeper than the above-named lakes. 7. 8. Buttermere and Criunmock Water are other lakes in this district. 9, 10. Among the smaller lakes, Grasmere and Rydal Water take the highest place for their beautiful scenery. Here, too, are the associations of English poetry, rich and lasting, for this neighbourhood was the home of Wordsworth, Southey, the two Coleridges, and others. II. The Welsh Lakes are smaller than those of the Cumbrian Group. The chief are : — 1. Bala Lake in Merionethshire, the largest and most important, is 4 miles long, and rather under a mile in width. It is beautifully surrounded by rockland and forest. 2. The Lakes of Llanberis, in Carnarvonshire, lying at the foot of Snowdon, are remarkably picturesque. 126 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. 3. Lake Vyrnwy gives to Liverpool its water supply. 4. Lyn Conway is another beautiful lake in North Wales. 5. South Wales possesses but one lake of importance. It is called Brecknock Mere, as it lies near to the town of Brecknock. III. The Norfolk Broads, or Meres, are lowland lakes of remarkable size and interest. Mr. G. C. Davies, in his ^'Rivers and Broads of Norfolk," says^ : " From Yarmouth, looking inland, three main waterways radiate. The chief is the Yare, flowing from the westward ; then comes the Bure, flowing from the north-westward, and having her large tributaries, the Ant and the Thurne, flowing from the northward. From the south-west come the clear waters of the Waveney. All these rivers are navigable for consider- able distances, and on the Bure and its tributaries the greater number of the Broads are situated. These Broads are large shallow lakes, connected with the rivers, and are many of them navigable. Flat marshes follow the lines of the rivers, and while higher and well-wooded ground rises near the upper portions of the rivers, near the sea the country is perfectly flat, and vessels sailing on all three rivers are visible at the same time." Other meres or lowland lakes of less importance are to be met with in Cheshire and the Fen District ; but some of these are simply the effects of an imperfect system of drainage. Climate. — While the climate of England and Wales may be truly described as cool, temperate, and salubrious, yet it is distinctly variable. Though we may not be exposed to such extremes of climate as other countries situated in the same latitude on the mainland of Europe, owing to the influence of the Gulf Stream upon our coasts, yet great and sudden changes of temperature take place frequently, so 1 ^^ Bivers and Broads of Norfolk.'' — Jarrold. ENGLAND AND WALES. 12/ that often foreigners are disposed to describe it as '^ un- bearahky As a rule the inhabitants of our rural districts live to a far greater age than in other countries of Europe, so that it cannot be considered anything but healthy. Drought is seldom known, and too much rain seldom falls, so that it is equable in this respect, which aids vegetation greatly. The average rainfall varies from twenty inches on the East Coast to thirty inches on the West Coast. This is owing to the prevalence of the moist west winds of the Atlantic ; and in consequence of the same influence, Ireland, or *' Erin, the Green Isle," has a larger rainfall than England and Wales. That the climate is health-giving, to vegetation, as well as to man, may be seen in its abundant forests, which are unrivalled ; its well- wooded plains ; its richly- cultivated fields and pasturelands ; its orchards and garden grounds ; and its luxuriant hedgerows and wayside flowers. The mean temperature of an English summer is 63', and of winter 37'*5'', giving a mean annual temperature of 50'-55". It has been wisely said that in no other country in the world do its inhabitants live out of doors so much as in England. It is undoubtedly this fact which enables our countrymen to dwell in other lands without great incon- venience to themselves, whether they be placed in the Torrid, Temperate, or Frigid Zones. Natural Productions. — The natural productions of a country of necessity must rule its position in commerce and trade with other countries to a great extent. Though these are all important and extremely valuable, be they animal, vegetable, or mineral, in Britain, they have not alone contributed towards our National Greatness, inasmuch as the English people are " a Nation of Shopkeepers," which really means they are the Traders of the World. 128 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. In other words, the English, as a people, have so widened their interests and aims with regard to trade and com- merce, that this country has become the manufacturing centre of the world's products, rather than of its own. The raw material imported is sent out again in the form of exported, manufactured goods, while her food supplies are far more gathered in from foreign nations than produced at home. With these general remarks, we may introduce the natural productions of England and Wales under the three heads of Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal. This reversed order represents their value commercially. I. Mineral Productions : — The geological structure of England and Wales is both varied and valuable in its formation. The rocks are chiefly stratified, being rich in all kinds of mineral wealth, although granite, and other unstratified rocks, occur in Cornwall and Wales. The principal stratified rocks are : — 1. Cambrian and Silurian, in Wales. 2. Devonian, in the South- Western Counties of Devon and Cornwall, and also in parts of Wales. 3. Carboniferous, in the North, Midland, and some Southern Counties. 4. Permian, in the Counties bordering the North- West Coast. 5. New Red Sandstone, chiefly in the Trent Valley, and the Vale of*Cheshire. 6. Oolitic, a strong band extending through Central England in a south-westerly direction, from Yorkshire to Dorset, with traces also of this formation in the Weald of Kent. 7. Cretaceous, or Chalk Ranges. These are four in number: — A. Extending from Salisbury Plain to ENGLAND AND WALES. 129 Norfolk, and known as the White Horse Hills, the Chiltern Hills, and the East Anglian Heights. B. North Downs. C. South Downs. D. Dorset Heights. A mixture of clay and sand is often found blended with the chalk. Alluvial beds occur in the valleys of the Trent, Severn, Thames, Great Ouse, etc. Minerals. — 1. The Coalfields stand first in importance among English minerals. They spread over an area of 12,000 square miles. The annual yield is estimated at 150,000,000 tons, and the supply is considered well- nigh inexhaustible. The richest coalfield is that of Durham. Throughout the larger colliery districts iron abounds. We may arrange the coalfields of England and Wales into three groups : — A. The Northern Group, comprising Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, South Lancashire, and Cheshire, Yorkshire, Nottingham, and Derby Coalfields. B. The Midland Group, comprising the Coalfields of Leicester, Shropshire, Stafford, and War- wick. C. The Western Group, comprising the Welsh Colliery Districts, Shropshire and Gloucester- shire, Somerset and Worcestershire. Of late years several successful attempts have been made to open out coalfields in Kent, Sussex, and other places on the South Coast. Not one-fourth of the coal produced in England and Wales is exported to other countries. By far the greater portion is consumed at home, for smelting iron ; for driving the machinery of our 130 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. great manufacturing centres ; for railways and steamships ; for the making of gas; besides every kind of domestic and general use. 2. Iron. — The great advantage of iron being found in or near our colliery districts is that the cost of smelting is so much cheaper. Nearly all our great colliery districts abound in iron ore, so that an enormous yield of from 15 to 20 million tons is the annual result. 3. The other metals and mineral products found here are : — Lead and Zinc from Northumberland, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Shropshire, Devonshire, and in certain districts in Wales, where it is occasionally mixed with silver, etc. 4. Copper and Tin come principally from the south- western district of Devonshire and Cornwall. These mines have been worked from the earliest times, and they are still excessively rich in ore. Copper also is found in smaller quantities in Anglesea. 5. Antimony and Manganese are generally met with in the copper and tin mines. 6. Plumbago is chiefly obtained from the mines around Keswick, and Borrowdale, in Cumberland. Of late years the suppl}^ has been somewhat limited, so that artificial lead for pencils is now commonly manufactured both at home and abroad. 7. Rock Salt occurs in thick layers in Worcestershire and Durham, and Common Salt comes from the districts of Cheshire and Worcestershire ; the chief centres being Northwich, Middlewich, Nantwich, and Droitwich, etc. Salt is also procured in Hampshire and Dorsetshire, where, by means of evaporation tanks, it is procured from the sea water, as is so common in other places on the Continent of Europe. The annual yield of salt from the western districts of Cheslnre and Worcestershire exceeds 2,000,000 ENGLAND AND WALES. I3I tons, which fully explains the cheapness of this most useful article for household purposes. 8. Alum and Jet are found at Whitby, in Yorkshire. 9. Slate, for roofing, and other building purposes, is obtained from the extensive quarries of Carnarvon and Merioneth in North Wales ; also in Cumberland, Westmore- land, and other parts of the North of England ; and in Cornwall. In the latter district, the slate slabs are enamelled to represent marble, and so used for decorative purposes, such as chimney-pieces, etc. 10. The Granite quarries of Cornwall, Devonshire, and Cumberland, are the first in importance. Next follow those of Wales and Leicestershire, where the Mount Sor- rel Quarries are of importance, chiefly for road-making, etc. 11. Building Stone varies greatly in quality, and quantity, in different parts of England and Wales. The best-known building stones are : A. Portland, from the Isle of Portland, in Dorsetshire, where it forms labour for one of our chief convict settlements. B. Bathsione, so called from the Cotswold Quarries, in the neighbourhood of Batb, etc. C. Purbeck Marble, which is really a superior lime- stone, hard enough to take a finished polished surface when dressed. Other varieties are the Derbyshire and Devonshire marbles, some veins of which are exceedingly beautiful. D. Alabaster comes from near Tutbury in Derbyshire, in the Dove Valley, and other places. E. Other important quarries of building stone exist at ^Veldon in Northamptonshire ; Ancaster in Lincolnshire ; and Masham in Yorkshire ; and in various local quarries throughout the country. 132 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. F. China Clay, which is generally soft and plastic, is found in Central England, Cornwall and Devon- shire, etc. G. Fuller's Earth comes from Redhill, in Surrey, etc. H. Several mineral drugs used in medicine, such as arsenic, Epsom salts, soda, lime, and sulphur, etc., are also found in this country. Mineral Springs. — These are principally: — 1. Chalybeate, or Iron, such as Cheltenham, Tun- bridge Wells, Malvern, Clifton, Harrogate, and Scarborough. 2. Saline, that is springs impregnated with salts (lime, magnesia, soda, sulphur), such as Bath, Cheltenham^ Buxton, Matlock, Harrogate, and Epsom, etc. 3. Warm Springs, which occur at Bath, Clifton, Bux- ton, Middleton, and Matlock. These are greatly frequented by invalids. Natural Curiosities. — Under the head of Mineralogy we may include those curious natural formations which form an attraction to travellers from other countries, as well as the native tourists of this country. Here may be- mentioned as a few among numerous others : — 1. The Peak Cavern and Pool's Hole, in Derbyshire. 2. The Wynj'ats (Windgates) of Derbj^sbire. 8. Elden Hole, a wonderful chasm, near Buxton. 4 The Loggan (Balance Stones) of Cornwall. 5. The Warm Springs of Derbyshire. 6. Yorda's Cave, in Yorkshire. 7. Parliament House Cave, in Holyhead. II. TJie Vegetable Productions of England and Wales ^cc^ both rich and varied. They should be classed rather under the head of Cultivated Products than Natural Products, although the latter are of considerable importance, inas- much as the whole country presents to a stranger the ENGLAND AND WALES. 133 general appearance of a well-wooded and highly-cultivated land, divided into park, woodland, and farm, with here and there forests, moors, or commons of a wilder nature. In olden days, Britain was undoubtedly the land of forest and marsh, when the wolf, stag, wild ox, wild cat, with innumerable wild birds and numerous smaller animals, roamed at will. These were a terror to the inhabitants, who lived nomadic lives, and attended but little to cultivation, but depended upon the chase and the natural or wild products for subsistence. Forests. — Extensive forests still remain to us as traces of a past age, while new additional plantations have been made for centuries past for purposes of sport, trade, or scenery. Thus we have the New Forest, in Hampshire, once the favourite hunting-ground of the Norman kings and barons ; Windsor Forest ; Dean Forest, in Gloucester- shire ; Whittlebury Forest, in Northamptonshire ; Wych- wood, in Oxfordshire ; Needwood Forest, in Staffordshire ; Epping Forest, in Essex; Sherwood Forest, in Nottingham- shire, which brings us memories of bold Robin Hood and his followers. Dartmoor, once an extensive forest in South Devon, has been greatly broken up, as has also the Weald of Kent ; but some forest districts still remain to tell the tale of other days. Our Forest Trees include the oak, elm, birch, ash, beech, poplar, maple, alder, aspen, yew, Scotch and other firs, many of which are natural products, or indigenous to the soil of England and Wales. England has ever taken a high place for her oak forests, so valuable for shipbuilding, the roofing of churches, and other large buildings, etc. The varied beauties of her forest trees have been praised by poet and artist alike; and her valuable timber is a source of wealth to her landowners. The botanist will also find throusfhout the forests 134 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. meadows, lanes, and hedgerows of England, many rare and beautiful specimens of flowers, ferns, grasses, and herbs, as well as the better-known commoner kinds ; but as England is, above all things, a land of cultivation, these smaller examples of the vegetable kingdom naturally fall into insignificance when compared with her rich cereal or root crops, which provide ample food for both man and beast. Vegetation. — The vegetation of this country far exceeds in both the quantity and quality of its native productions that of other countries placed in the same belt of latitude. Although we have records of the vine having been cultivated in the open in England in times past, yet this is quite impossible now. Apples, pears, plums, cherries, nuts of various kinds, with the peach, fig, and apricot in sheltered situations, are among our orchard trees ; while among the fruit bushes are the gooseberry, raspberrj", currant, growing well in every part. The bilberry, cranberry, and black- berry are wild fruits. An English garden is generally regarded as a scene of 'beauty. Among its flowers are roses, lilies, carnations, peonies, with a countless host of annual and perennial flowering plants. Many of the native fruits and flowers of warmer countries flourish here owing to the mildness and even temperature of the English climate. Its vegetables also comprise many valuable kinds, including potatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, asparagus, sea- kale, beans and peas, parsnips, carrots, and turnips, etc., so that even the poor in this country are amply provided with a large and varied stock of vegetables for their food supply. Cereals and Roots. — Wheat stands first in importance among our corn plants, yet our harvests are rich and abundant with barley, oats, rye, pulse (beans and peas), mangel-wurzel, turnips, kohl rabi, and other valuable root plants. Hops are largely cultivated in Kent, Sussex, ENGLAND AND WALES. 1 35 Surrey, Worcestershire and Herefordshire; and rape on the Eastern Coast. Not only does England stand in a high position among the nations of the world for her cultivated products, but she can further boast of a higher and larger area of cultivation than any other country in the world, viz.^ only one-twelfth of the whole of this country is not under cultivation ; two- fifths of the whole is pastureland ; and the remainder of the cultivated districts is arable corn-growing land, etc. The agriculture of England has risen to a very high state of perfection, owing to the vast improvements in machinery, and the application of steam power for agricultural purposes ; as well as the remarkable advantages resulting from the extreme fertility of the soil, and the perseverance and industry of the people. Nearly every tract of land which will not admit of cultivation is covered with pasture for cattle and sheep. The chief pasturelands are situated in the South and West ; and the chief mining and agricultural districts are situated in the centre, East, and North. In a few years our agricultural machinery, waggons and carts, may all be propelled with automotor power instead of steam or horses. The present depression among farming interests is not in the least due to any neglect in cultivation, but rather to foreign competition lowering the standard prices of the English markets, by reason of imported vegetable and animal products not being taxed in accordance with those produced at home. {See note upon Roads and Taxation of Land, etc.) The fact that one-fifth only of the population of this country are entirely and solely interested in agriculture, renders it the more difficult for any Government to intro- duce measures to aid the landowner and farmer. The manufacturing and mining districts at once could send a vote of four-fifths of the population against such a measure, 136 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. especially as the English people pride themselves upon what is known as Free Trade. III. Animal Productions. 1. The Wild Animals of England and Wales are few and unimportant. They are generally small in size, and none are either dangerous, or savage. The fox, badger, otter, hare, rabbit, squirrel, stoat, weasel, polecat, hedgehog, mole, rat, and mouse, are the chief representatives. The stag, wild ox, bear, wolf, beaver, and wild cat, as wild animals are now unknown; although deer are still kept as ornaments in the noble parklands surrounding many country mansions; and at Chillingham Park in Northum- berland there still exists a herd of wild cattle, yet as these are kept in an enclosure, they can scarcely come under the head of wild animals. The fox, badger, otter, hare, and rabbit, are still regarded as animals for either sport, or the chase ; and in many districts they are carefully preserved for these objects. 2. Of Wild Birds, the heron, owl, hawk, wild goose, pheasant, partridge, grouse, waterhen, wild duck, magpie, carrion crow, crow and rook, jackdaw, jay, and wild pigeon are the largest. The numerous families of smaller wild birds are represented by the blackbird, thrush, starling, sparrow, linnet, lark, and finch tribes, robin and wren, with many others. England is a land of song-birds. Throughout the year the woods, meadows, lanes, and hedgerows are alive with the pleasant twittering of her feathered inhabitants, which are, for the most part, clothed in homely brown, or quiet grey plumage. The cuckoo, redwing, fieldfare, swallow, nightingale, and other birds, visit this country for a certain season, either during the spring, summer, autumn, or winter months; e.g., the Broads, or Meres of Norfolk, are rich with visitants from Norway and Sweden and other parts of Northern Europe at certain seasons. The ENGLAND AND WALES. 137 eagle very occasionally visits our shores, although it is sometimes met with in the more isolated parts of Ireland and Scotland. Gulls and various other sea-birds frequent our coasts, and during stormy weather may be seen making incursions into the swamps, or marshy lands, of the interior. The kingfisher still frequents certain streams, in spite of the cruel efforts of man to exterminate this richly- plumaged bird ; and the bird of paradise has only been met with at rare intervals of late years for the same reason. 3. Reptiles are not numerous. The English viper is now very scarce indeed ; the brown adder may occasionally be seen basking upon the close herbage of some out-of-the- way common. Of snakes, several kinds are still common in certain districts, but they are non-poisonous and most timid, always fleeing away at the approach of man. Tlie tree-lizard, toad, frog, newt, snail, and earthworm are to be met with everywhere, 4. Insects are also small and inoffensive. The dragon- tij', hornet, wasp, bee, gnat, and house-fly are the best known. Many beautiful butterflies and moths abound. Domestic Animals. — England is certainly rich in domes- tic animals. The horse, ox, cow, mule, ass, sheep, goat, pig, poultry of many kinds, with geese and ducks, are to be met with everywhere. The swan glides gracefully over the ornamental waters of the wealthy, and the peacock spreads out his rich plumes upon the garden terraces near by. The great companion to an Englishman is his faithful dog. Rich and poor alike keep dogs for every conceivable use or fancy, insomuch that the dog almost vies with the domestic cat in claiming a share of the fireside in most English homes. Fisheries. — We have already described at some length 138 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. the great value and importance of the British fisheries under the head of " The British Isles." (" General Remarks," pp. 73-6.) Population. — The census of England and Wales in 1891 was upwards of 30,000,000. Of this number 28,000,000 were in England, and 2,000,000 in Wales. The largest centres of population were London, Man- chester, Liverpool and Birmingham, Leeds and Sheffield, each containing more than 300,000 inhabitants. {See page 162.) People. — The English people are a bold, enterprising, honest, hard-working race, possessing steady perseverance, with inquiring minds. No nation, either ancient or modern, has made such advancement in commerce, trade, manufacture, art, and science, as the Eno^lish have, who proudly regard their country as the '' workshop of the world." In the chapter upon " Ethnology of the British People," we have named them a mixed race of the ancient Celtic and Teutonic families. The original inhabitants were of the Celtic race. The Roman Invasion brought strangers into Britain from Gaul and Italy, who introduced new customs and manners, together with a new language, and from this period the work of civilisation steadily progressed. Following these came the Saxons and Danes, who settled in the country ; they in turn became a part of the people of Britain, and so introduced their own language and ways of living. The Normans again made marked changes in the life, language, and manners of the English people, after the conquest of 1066, although they did not change them as a nation. We find, therefore, that the English are a mixture of British, Saxon, Danish, and Norman. The Romans entirely withdrew from Britain to maintain their foreign wars. In ENGLAND AND WALES. 1 39 Wales, Cornwall, and the Isle of Man, the people have some- what retained their ancient Celtic manners, with marked traces of the Erse, or Gaelic, language, more than in other parts of England and Wales. Imports and Exports from and to : — United States : — Imports. — Corn and flour, tobacco, turpentine, timber, cheese, oils, skins, wool, fish, rice, etc. Exports. — Cotton, woollen, and linen goods, silks, iron, steel, coal, hardware, machinery. India : — Imports. — Rice, sugar, cotton, silk, wool, spices, fruits, coffee, tea, hemp, gums, dyes. Exports. — Cotton, linen, and woollen goods, iron, machinery, beer, firearms, all kinds of manu- factured goods. France : — Imports. — Silk, brandy, wines, sugar, fancy goods, eggs, fruits, gloves, toys, etc. Exports. — Coal, iron, copper, woollen, linen, and cotton goods, horses, corn, flour, and machinery. Russia : — Imports. — Flax, hempseed, cordage, tallow, hides, wool, timber, corn, etc. Exports. — Woollen and cotton goods, porcelain, fancy goods, machinery. Australasia : — Imports. — Wool, gold, corn, hides, skins, timber, metals, gums, spermaceti, meat, fruits, etc. Exports. — Wearing apparel, cotton and woollen goods, tools, machinery, food supplies, manufac- tured goods. I40 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Germany : — Imports. — Corn, timber, oil cake, rape and linseed oil, iron, flax, wool, fancy ^oods, toys, etc. Exports. — Machinery, cutlery, cotton and woollen goods, earthenware, herrings, and manufac- tured goods. Egypt :— Imports. — Raw silk, wool, tortoise shell, corn, cotton, gum arable, coffee, rugs, rice, etc. Exports. — Cotton and linen goods, silks, books, tire- arms, machinery, tools, coal, iron, fancy goods. Netherlands : — Imports. — Butter, cheese, fish, poultry, corn, flax, wines, gin, tobacco. Exports. — Coal, machinery, barley, cotton and woollen goods, manufactured goods. China : — Imports. — Tea, silk, drugs, ivory, camphor, porcelain, gums, wool. Exports. — Iron and steel goods, firearms, beer and ale, clothing, machinerj^ Brazil : — Imports. — Raw cotton, sugar, hides, timber, drugs, coffee, guano, wool. Exports. — Manufactured goods, colonial produce, fancy goods, machinery, Spain:— Imports. — Wines, fruits, nuts, copper, metals, wool, cork, olive oil. Exports. — Iron and steel goods, coal, machinery, food supplies, glass and china. ENGLAND AND WALES. I4I British North America : — Imports. — Skins, furs, train oil, blubber, timber, corn, fish. Exports. — Clothing, tools, manufactured goods, machin- ery, drugs, fanc}'' goods. West Indies : — Imports. — Sugar, rum, cocoa, coffee, spices, arrowroot, fruits, sponge, timber. Exports. — Machinery, fancy goods, clothing, drugs, tools, and manufactured goods. Other Countries : — Imports. — Natural produce both raw and manufactured, etc. Exports. — All kinds of manufactured goods, machinery, clothing, drugs, etc. Trade and Manufactures. — These form the backbone of English industry. In no country in the world may be seen such a variety of manufactured goods ; and when we consider that this extensive system of natural industry has sprung up, more or less, during the past century, and that the national interests have been transferred from agricul- ture to manufacturing trade (as nearly four-fifths of the population are either engaged in trade, or in some way con- nected with it), we are the more amazed at the rapid progress made; the perfection of the goods produced; and the vast wealth invested in our manufacturing industries. The following are a sample of the chief manufactures of England and Wales, with the centre of trade of each : — Cotton Goods. — Manchester, Blackburn, Bolton, Preston, Wigan, Oldham, Bury, Rochdale, and other Lancashire towns. Woollen Cloth. — Leeds, Bradford, and other towns in 142 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. the West Riding of Yorkshire, including Halifax, Huddersfield, Wakefield, Dewsbury, also the West of England centres. Flannel. — Halifax in Yorkshire, Welshpool in Wales, etc. Blankets. — Dewsbury and Huddersfield in Yorkshire, Witney in Oxfordshire. Worsted Goods. — Bradford, Halifax, and other York- shire towns. Carpets. — Kidderminster, Axminster, Huddersfield, etc. Mixed Goods. — Norwich, Wales, with the towns of Yorkshire and Lancashire. Silk Goods. — Macclesfield, Congleton, etc., in Cheshire, Derby, Coventry, and Spitalfields in London. Hosiery: — Leicester, Derby, Loughborough, and Not- tingham. Lace. — Nottingham and Derby, etc. ; also Honiton in Devonshire, with hand pillow lace throughout the Southern Midland Counties. Ironfounding. — South Wales, Bilston, Wednesbury, and West Bromwich. Machinery. — Birmingham, Manchester, Sheflaeld, Nor- wich, and nearly all large towns. Cutlery^ Hardware.— Sheffield, Birmingham, Dudley, Wolverhampton, etc. Nails, etc. — Wednesbury, Dudley, Bilston, etc. Watches and Jeivellery. — London, Birmingham, Liver- pool, Sheflaeld, Coventry, etc. Needles and Pins. — Birmingham, Redditcb, Bristol, etc. China and Pottery. — Burslem, Stoke, and potteries in Staflfordshire ; Derby, Worcester, Torquay, and many other places. Glass. — Birmingham, Stonebridge, Wolverhampton, Tutbury, etc. ENGLAND AND WALES. 143 Paper. — Maidstone, Rickmansworth, Sittingbourne, High Wycombe, and throughout England. Leather Tanning. — South wark, Newcastle, and other midland and northern towns. Shoes. — Northampton, Kettering, Leicester, Welling- borough, and other midland towns. Gloves. — Woodstock, Yeovil, Witney, London, Birming- ham, etc. Bicycles. — Birmingham, Coventry, etc., etc. Ale and Porter. — Burton-on-Trent, London, Romford, and in most other large towns. Soap and Candles. — London, Hull, Dudley, Lewes, etc. Straw Bonnets. — Dunstable, Luton, St. Albans, and other parts of Hertfordshire and Bedford- shire. Pens^ Fancy Goods ^ and Toys. — London, Birmingham, Leeds, Manchester, Sheffield, and other towns. Seaports. — The principal seaports of England and Wales are : — 1. East Coast. — Newcastle, Gateshead, North and South Shields, Sunderland, Hartlepool, Hull, Grimsby, Yarmouth, Harwich, London, Graves- end, Dover. % South Coast. — Folkestone, Newhaven, Portsmouth, Southampton, Weymouth, Plymouth, Falmouth. 3. West Coast. — Bristol, Swansea, Pembroke, Cardiff, Newport, Liverpool, Manchester on the Ship Canal, Whitehaven. Political Divisions : — England and Wales are divided into fifty -two irregular portions called Counties or Shires. England has forty Counties, and Wales twelve. 144 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. A. The three largest Counties in England are York- shire, Lincolnshire, and Devonshire. B. The three smallest Counties in England are Rut- landshire, Middlesex, and Huntingdon. A. The most mountainous County is Cumber- land. B, The jflattest County is Cambridgeshire. A. The four Counties containing the greatest number of inhabitants are Middlesex, Lancashire, York- shire, and Surrey. B. The four most thinly populated Counties are Rut- land, Anglesea, Dorsetshire, and Westmore- land. A. The Maritime Counties of England are twenty in number. B. The Inland Counties of England are also twenty in number. A. England is divided into five parts : — Northern Counties^ six ; Eastern Counties^ four ; Southern Counties, ten ; Western Counties bordering Wales, four ; Midland Counties, sixteen. B. Wales is divided into two parts : — North Wales, six Counties ; South Wales, six Counties. {Nine of the Welsh Counties are Maritime, and only three are inland.^ A. The most Northern County in England and Wales is Northumberland. B. The most Southern County in England and Wales is Cornwall. C. The most Eastern County in England and Wales is Norfolk. D. The most Western County in England and Wales is Cornwall. england and wales. i45 England 1 :— A. The Shires of England are twenty-eight in number. They include two Northern ; one Eastern ; six Southern ; four Western ; and fifteen Midland Counties; and all the Inland Counties except Middlesex. B. The Counties are six in number; being lands or kingdoms. C. The Folk are two in number (East Anglia proper). D. The Sexes are three in number (South, East, and Middle people). The old kingdom of Wessex founded by Ordic, lying south of the Thames, no longer remains. E. The foreign portion is Cornwall, or West Wales. Wales ^ : — The Welsh Counties, excepting Anglesea, " The Ea or Isle of the Angles," are called Shires. The ancient Celtic name for Anglesea = " Mona." ^ These notes are important, inasmuch as the old English word " Sciran," to cut, shows how these divisions were apportioned in early- times for purposes of Law, Government, etc. ; whereas some older settlements were left untouched at this later division of the country, having been the ancient estates of Counts or Earls. {See "Derivation of English Counties," p. 147.) 146 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. POLITICAL DIVISIONS : FORTY COUNTIES OF ENGLAND. No. Counties. Area, Square Miles. Population. 1891. Capital and other Towns. On what River. ] Northumberland 1,871 506,030 Newcastle— -!s. Shields, Alnwick Tyne 2 Cumberland 1,523 266,549 Cariisie— Whitehaven, Keswick Eden 3 Westmoreland 762 66,098 A pi)leby— Kendal Eden 4 Durham 1,097 1,016,559 Durham— S underlan d Wear 5 Yorkshire 5,836 2,213,864 Torfc— Leeds, Sheffield [pool Ouse 6 Lancashire 1,766 3,906,721 iancasfer— Manchester, Liver- Lune 7 Lincolnshire 2,611 473,912 Lincoln— Boston, Gainsborougl) Witham 8 Norfolk 2,024 468,287 JYormc/i— Yarmouth, King'sLynij AVensum 9 Suffolk 1,515 361,790 Ipswich— Bury St. Edmunds Orwell 10 Essex 1,533 784,258 CTietois/brd— Colchester,Harwicli Chelmer 11 Kent 1,557 808,736 /kfftjrfstone— Canterbury, Roches- ter, Chatham [Hastings Medway 12 Sussex 1,466 548,979 Z/(;M7es— Chichester, Brighton, Ouse 13 Hampshire 1,625 611,425 frijicTies^er— Southampton Itchen 14 Dorsetshire 1,006 194,517 i'crc/ies^er— Weymouth Frome 15 Devonshire 2,585 631,808 Exeter— Flymouth, Torquay Exe 16 Cornwall 1,330 322,571 7)'odmi?i— Launceston, Falmouth Camel 17 Monmouthshire 496 258,054 Monmouth— Chei>stow, Newport Wye 18 Herefordshire 863 115,949 Hereford— B,oss, Leominster Wye 19 Shropshire 1,343 236,329 Shrewsbury— hudiow, Bridge- north Chester— Birkenhe&d, Maccles- Severn 20 Cheshire 1,052 743,869 Dee field, Stockport 21 Derbyshire 1,028 520,914 Derby— Chesterfield, Belper Derwent 22 Nottinghamshire 837 445,753 Nottingham— ^evfark, Mansfield Trent 23 Staffordshire 1,184 1,087,161 Stafford— Wolverham-pton Sow 24 Leicestershire 806 375,092 Leicester— Loughhorough Soar 25 Rutlandshire 149 20,659 Oakham— Uppingham Wreak 26 Northamptonshire 1,016 290,508 A' or^/iawipton— Peterborough Nen 27 Huntingdonshire 372 54,069 Huntingdon— St. Ives, St. Neots VA. Ouse 28 Cambridgeshire 857 121,961 Cambridge-mj, Wisbeach Cam 29 Warwickshire 897 838,030 IFarwicfc-Birmingliam, Coventry Avon 30 Worcestershire 723 385,309 Worcester— Budlej, Kiddermin- ster Gioucesier— Cheltenham, Bristol Severn 31 Gloucestershire 1,258 645,574 Severn 32 Oxfordshire 756 191,191 Oxford— Banbury, Witney Isis, or Thames at. Ouse 33 Buckinghamshire 738 160,700 Buckiiujham— Aylesbury 34 Bedfordshire 463 160,704 Bedford— Bunstdble, Luton (it. Ouse 35 Hertfordshire 630 224,550 Hertford -St. Albans, Hitchin Lea 36 Middlesex, includ- ing LONDON 282 4,792,130 LONDON— Brentford, Uxbridge Thames 37 Berkshire 752 236,163 Reading— Abingdon, Newbury Kennet 38 Surrey 759 521,551 Guildford— Croydon, Kingston Wey 39 Wiltshire 1,367 264,997 Salisbury-Devizes, Chippenham Avon 40 Somersetshire 1,629 438,710 Taunton— Bath, Wells Tone 1 WEL\ ^E COUNTIES OF WALES. 1 Flintshire 244 77,277 ilfo^rf— Flint,Holywell, St. Asaph Alyn 2 Denbighshire 633 118,843 Denbigh— Wrexham Clwvd 3 Caernarvonshire 544 117,233 Caernarvon— Bangor • 4 Anglesea 271 50,098 Beaumaris— Holyhead 5 Merionethshire 663 49,212 Dolgelly— Bala, Harlech Maw 6 Montgomeryshire 839 58,003 M ontgomery— W elshpool Severn 7 Cardiganshire 675 63,467 Card igra?i—Aberystwith Teifl 8 Radnorshire 426 31,791 Presteigne— 'New Radnor Lugg 9 Brecknockshire 754 51,393 Bicilth-Brecon Usk 10 Glamorganshire 792 467,954 Cardiff— Merthyr Tydfil, Swan- sea Taff 11 Caermarthenshire 97i 130,566 Caermari/ien— Llanelly Towy 12 Pembrokeshire 610 88,296 Pemfero/ce— Milford, Haverford- west ENGLAND AND WALES. 147 Six Northern - Counties. Derivation of the Names of English Counties : — ( 1. Northumberland. — The land north of the Humber. This county once comprised the wider area of this district. 2. Cumberland. — Cumbria, the land of the Cy?>ib, or Cymri, or Celts; or it may be Coomb, a valley. The place of valleys. 3. Durham. — Dune-holm, or the hill on the island ; or home of wild animals, e.g., Deor-ham (A. Saxon). 4. Westmoreland. — The West-moor-land of Northum- bria. 5. Lancashire. — Roman Castra, or Camp on the Lune. 6. Yorkshire. — Roman Eboracum, derivation unknown ; or A. Saxon, Eura-ivick, or place on the Ure {Ouse). 7. Lincolnshire. — Roman Lin, a pool, and colonia. The Colony by, or on, the pool. Two families of Angles. Hence "East Anglia,'' old name. 10. Essex. — East Seaxe, or Saxons, as opposed to Middle- sex and Wessex, Four Eastern Counties. 8. A^^;/^//^.— North Folk. 9. Sufolk.—^outh'FoWi. Ten 1^ Southern •<(' ig. Counties. (^11. Kent. — Corner county, from Celtic Can?i. 12. Surrey. — South kingdom or people — Suth-rice. 13. Sussex. — South Seaxe, or South Saxons. 14. Berkshire.— Vvo\i2i^A-^ Bare Oak Shire. Originally public meetings were held under a bare, or polled, oak in W^indsor Forest. Hampshire. — South Hamp Shire, probably from Southampton, the South-tow n-home. Wiltshire. — Probably a contraction of Wiltonshirc from the town of that name on the Wily. 17. — Somersetshire. — Derivation unknown. 18. — Dorsetshi7'e. — Probably a contraction of Dorchester- shire. {See Wiltshire.) 19. Devonshire. — Derivation unknown. 20. Cor?iwall.~T\\Q land of the Wealhas {Saxon name for strangers) ; or Welsh ( West), on the corner or jutting out land. 148 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Four Western Counties. 21. Cheshire. — Castra or Cester, a camp {Roman) on the Dee. 22. Shropshh'e. — VxohdXiX-^ Scritbshire^ the land of brush- wood, or scrub. 23. Herefordshire, — The ford of the Army, on the Severn. 24. Monmouthshire. — Literally Mumtow^ or Minnow Mouth ; so called from the River Munnow, a tribu- tary of the Wye. ''25. Nottinghamshire.— A. Saxon — Snotenga^ Caves, and ham^ home. The home or place of caves. 26. Leicestershire. — Legion Camp, a large central camp of the Romans. 27. Derbyshire. — Wild beast, or deer country {Norse derivation). 28. Sta^ords hire. —The ford of the StaJ" or Stave. The ford or river crossing was made here by means of leaping with a pole from stone to stone. 29. Rutlandshire. — Ru, Rud, or Red land county. 30. Worcestershire. — Probably Wigra Castra^ a war camp ; but uncertain. 31 Warwickshire. — A . Saxon^ Wering-wic, a fort d wellin g. 32. Northamptonshire.— A. Saxon — Ham., a home, and ton a town — the North town home ; as Southampton— the South town home. 33. Huntingdonshire.— The hunter's place — Dun-hill (A. Saxon). 34. Cambridgeshire. — The bridge or ford over the River Cam. 35. — Gloucestershire. — Welsh Gleau^ strong, and cestra^ camp. 36. — Oxfordshire. — The ford of Oxen through the Thames or I sis. 37. Bucki7ighamshire. — A. Saxo7i — Boc, a beech-tree, and ham^ a home. 38. Bedfordshire. — Probably A. Saxofi — Bedican, a for- tress, 2indiford. The fortress at the ford or river. 39. Hertfordshire. —A. Saxon— Hart^ a stag, and /<7r^. The crossing of stags. 40. Middlesex. — The land of the Middle Seaxe (Saxons). N.B. — The word county literally means the rule or estate of a Count or Earl. Shire^ from A. Saxon " Sciran" to cut. The Sheriff was the Shire-riff presiding over the Shire Court of each county. Sixteen Midland Counties. ENGLAND AND WALES. I49 The Twenty Maritime Counties are : — 1. Northumberland, the most northern of the English counties, is both a mining and a manufacturing district. Coal and iron abound ; lead also is found, and occasionally building stone. The chief manufactures are iron smelting, glass, shipbuilding, and chemical works. The coast yields some good fishing, and the country underlying the Cheviot Hills and the Pennine Range offers pasturage for cattle and sheep. The chief towns are Newcastle, Tynemouth, North Shields, Berwick-on-Tweed, and Hexham. 2. Durham, like its more northern neighbour, is the centre of a rich coal-field, and possesses manufactures of importance, including shipbuilding and hardware goods. Durham is the county town, university, and cathedral city; but Sunderland is considerably larger in both size and population. Other busy towns are South Shields, Gateshead, Darlington, Stockton, Hartlepool, and Jarrow. 3. Yorkshire. — The prince of counties for size and importance is subdivided into three Ridings — North, East, and West. The latter contains the chief centres of trade and population. York is the capital and cathedral city. It was once the capital of Britain, and it still remains one of the oldest and most beautiful of our cities. The York- shire coast fisheries are large and valuable, and the moors and valleys are rich in pastures and agricultural produce. The coal and iron-fields of England are of the highest importance, and this county is the centre of the woollen trade. The other towns in Yorkshire are : — A. West Riding. — Leeds, Bradford, Huddersfield, Wakefield, Halifax, Sheffield, and Ripon (a second cathedral city). B. North Riding. — Middlesborough, Scarborough, Whitby, and Northallerton. I50 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. C. East Riding. — Hull, Beverley, and Bridlington. 4. Lincolnshire. — This county, though in area it takes the second place, presents a remarkable contrast to busy Yorkshire. Its inhabitants are chiefly agricultural, and its population small. Lincoln is the capital and cathedral city; but Great Grimsby, on the coast, is the town of chief importance. Other towns are Grantham, Boston, Gains- borough, Stamford, and Louth. 5. Norfolk^ again, must be classed as an agricultural county, although some manufactures are carried on. The coast fisheries are exceedingly rich, and both pastures and arable land stand in value above the average. Norwich is the capital, chief town, and cathedral city. The other towns of importance are King's Lynn on the Wash, Yarmouth, Cromer, and North Walsham. 6. Suffolk, which forms the sister county in East Anglia, is strictly an agricultural district, with important coast fisheries. The capital is Ipswich. Other towns are Lowestoft, Bury St. Edmunds, and Sudbury. 7. Essex, if considered without that portion of the great Metropolis known as " London over the Border," is also an agricultural district. The fisheries are unimportant. The capital is Chelmsford, but Colchester is a much larger town. Harwich, Saffron Walden, Braintree, Romford, Ilford, and Maldon are other towns. 8. Kent, ofttimes called " the Garden of England," is a district of garden, orchard, and farm lands. Here grows much of the fruit supply for the London markets, such as apples, pears, cherries, plums, strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries, and currants. There are also nut groves and hop gardens, interspersed with rich corn districts, and plea- sant pastures. Canterbury is the capital, as it is the chief cathedral city of England. Other places of importance are Maidstone ; the five towns of Chatham, Rochester, Strood, ENGLAND AND WALES. 151 Brompton, and Luton, which form one group ; Woolwich, Gravesend, Greenwich, Dover, Folkestone, Sheerness, Margate, Ramsgate, Sandwich, Sevenoaks, Ashford, Tun- bridge and Tunbridge Wells, Deal, and Hythe. 9. Sussex, the next coast-lying county, bids fair for the same title as Kent. The scenery throughout is varied and beautiful. It is strictly agricultural, and rich in fashion- able watering-places or seaside resorts, such as Brighton, Hastings and St. Leonards, Eastbourne, Worthing, Bognor, and Littlehampton. Chichester is the cathedral city and capital, but Lewes is the county town. Other towns are Battle, Shoreham, Horsham, and East Grinstead. 10. Hampshire, another agricultural district, is more densely wooded than either Kent or Sussex. Although the soil is somewhat poor, yet agriculture is carried on to a large extent with cereals, roots, fruit, and pasturage. Winchester is the most ancient city. It was, for a short period, the capital of England, and its cathedral is a noble relic of England's power in the past. The largest towns are Portsmouth and Southampton. Aldershot, Basingstoke, Bournemouth, Christchurch, Lyndhurst and Lymington are places of some importance. The beautiful Isle of Wi^kt forms part of Hampshire for political and religious purposes. Its chief towns are Newport (the capital,) Ryde, Cowes, Ventnor, Shanklin, and Freshwater. Osborne House, near Cowes, is a favourite home of our great and good Queen Victoria. 11. Dorsetshire is sparsely populated throughout. Its interests are purely agricultural, and its inhabitants some- what poor. Dorchester is the capital, but Weymouth is of the most importance; Wimborne, Poole, and Lyme Regis are other towns. 12. Devonshire, the third largest county in England, justly deserves the name of "lovely Devon" sometimes 152 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. accorded it. It contains the high land of Exmoor, with the forests and plateaux of Dartmoor. We now have entered into the district of mines, and some few manufactures again; yet, on the whole, Devonshire is an agricultural county. The soil here is much richer than the neighbour- ing districts of Dorset and Hampshire, so that a higher state of cultivation exists. A marked feature in the scenery of South Devon is the numerous orchards, which have been planted for the purposes of cider-making. The fisheries on the south coast are of considerable value ; and this county is rich in seaports and health-giving watering- places. Exeter is the capital and cathedral city ; but there are several other important towns, viz.^ Plymouth, Devonport, Dartmouth, Exmouth, Sidmouth, Teignmouth, Ilfracombe, Barnstaple, Bideford on the coast, and Tiverton, Crediton, Tavistock, South Molton and Axminster in the interior. 13. Cornwall is certainly still the " land of the strangers." In no other part of England are the people so foreign-like in their habits and customs. This county also contrasts with any other in its geological formation and physical aspects. It is chiefly a mining district. Copper, tin, silver, manganese, etc., are still procured in large or small quantities ; and the immense slate and granite quarries are a source of great wealth. The people on the coast are mostly engaged in the pilchard and mackerel fisheries. In olden days the rocky, dangerous nature of the Cornish coast formed a rich harvest-ground for smugglers. The largest town is Penzance. Bodmin is the old capital ; but Truro, the new cathedral city, is generally now regarded as the chief town. Other towns of importance in Cornwall are Falmouth, St. Austell, Launceston. The Scilly Isles {see separate notice, " Islands of England and Wales," p. 105) are generally included in Cornwall. ENGLAND AND WALES. 153 The capital is Hugh Town, on St. Mary's Island. Large quantities of vegetables, fruit, and flowers are sent to London every year from these islands. 14. Somersetshire. — This county is almost entirely agricultural. Its pastures are proverbially rich and pro- ductive. It is most pleasantly situated along the shores of the Bristol Channel, and there are but few towns of any size or importance as regards trade or commerce. The capital is Taunton ; but Bath is of more importance by reason of its warm mineral springs, which attract large numbers of invalids and visitors every year for the waters. It is one of two cathedral cities, the other being Wells, from which the bishop takes his second title. Other towns are Bridgwater, Frome, Yeovil, Weston-super-Mare, and Glastonbury. 15. Gloucestershire is both an agricultural and a mining district. There are also woollen cloth manufactories in the neighbourhood of Stroud and Dursley. The coal-tields are called by the names of the Forest of Dean Colliery in the West, and the South Gloucester Colliery in the Avon Valley. Gloucester is the capital and cathedral city. The other towns are Bristol and Clifton, Cheltenham, Cirencester, Stroud, and Tewkesbury. 16. Monmouthshire. — This county, like Gloucestershire, is both mining and agricultural. Both iron and coal are found here, as it borders closely on the important South Wales colliery district. The scenery of the Wye here, as in Hertfordshire, is remarkable for its great beauty. The capital is Monmouth, but the largest town is Newport, which is a seaport of considerable importance. Other towns in Monmouthshire are Tredegar, Abergavenny, Pontypool, and Chepstow. 17. Cheshire. — Although this county is purely agri- cultural in nature, yet of late years the extensive cotton 154 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. manufacturinir district has spread its area over the northern portion of it, and its small county towns have been changed into cotton centres, as Stockport and Stalybridge. Other manufacturing districts of Cheshire are silk-weaving at Macclesfield ; salt works at Nantwich, Middlewich, and North wich ; shipbuilding at Birkenhead, which is con- sidered to be a suburb of Liverpool. The capital is Chester, an ancient cathedral city, which takes us back to Roman times, with its castle and fortifications. Other towns are Runcorn, Altringham, and Crewe, where are situated some of the most important railway works in the kingdom, belonging to the London and North-Western Railway Company. 18. Lancashire. — This county is the main seat of the cotton manufacture. It is the most densely populated portion of the United Kingdom, next to the Metropolis of London, as Manchester and Liv^erpool rank next in size and population. As Manchester is the central pivot of the English cotton trade, so Liverpool is the cotton port. It ranks as the second port of the world's commerce. The Manchester Ship Canal {see p. 69) now brings this important city within the lists of our seaport towns, as vessels of a certain size and freight are able to convey their cargoes direct to its warehouses. The principal cotton towns are Preston, Blackburn, Bolton, Oldham, Rochdale, Warrington, Wigan, Ashton-under-Lyne, Chorley, Bury, and Salford. Barrow-in-Furness has large steel and iron works ; St. Helens and Colne are busy places of trade and manufacture. Lancaster is the old capital, and the cathedral cities of Manchester and Liverpool have each a bishop to preside over the teeming population surrounding them. There are rich and extensive coal-fields throughout Lancashire, which add materially to the wealth of the county. ENGLAND AND WALES. 155 19. Westmoreland. — But a very small portion of this county touches the sea, yet it must be included among our maritime counties. It is the land of mountains, lakes, valleys, and pastures, so that it ranks as a pastoral, rather than an agricultural, or a manufacturing, district. Appleby is the old county town. It is of little importance beyond its beauty, as it is said to be the smallest county town in England. Kendal is somewhat larger, as there are several manufactories of minor importance. Ambleside is a popu- lar tourist resort for the Lake District. 20. Cumberland, another mountainous district, lies to the west of the Pennine Range. The scenery is bold and beautiful. Excellent coal is obtained from the Whitehaven Colliery district lying along the coast. Carlisle is the capital and cathedral city. Other towns are, Whitehaven, Workington, Cockermouth, Maryport, Keswick, and Penrith. The Twenty Inland Counties are : — 1. Nottinghamshire is well wooded and picturesque in many parts. It is both an agricultural and a manufactur- ing district. Coal is also plentiful. The chief trade is carried on in lace-making and stockings, although there are other various manufactures. Nottingham is the capital, but Southwell represents the cathedral city of the district. Other towns are Newark, Mansfield, Worksop, and Retford. 2. Derbyshire combines the mining, manufacturing, and agricultural interests. The northern part is mountainous, and noted for its scenery — called the Peak District. The South Yorkshire Coalfield is continued in the eastern por- tion, and the chief manufactures are iron ware, cotton goods, and hosiery. Some lace-making is carried on around Derby, which is the capital. Other towns are Chesterfield, Glossop, Ilkeston, Buxton, and Matlock ; also Belper, Wirksworth, and Ashborne. 3. Staffordshire is a thickly populated district of mines 156 LMPERIAL BRITAIN. and manufactures. There are two coal-fields, and the series of towns called The Potteries are to be found here. Numerous ironworks and furnaces, with every kind of hardware manufactures, have given the Wolverhampton district the name of The Black Country. The capital is Stafford, but the cathedral city is Lichfield. Wolver- hampton is the most populous and the busiest centre of trade ; with its neighbouring towns of Walsall, Wednesbury, Bilston, and West Bromwich. There are six pottery towns, ^'^>., Stoke-upon-Trent, Hanley, Burslem, Etruria, Longton, and Newcastle-under-Lyne ; and on the eastern side of the county stands Burton-on-Trent with its world- renowned breweries. 4. Shropshire is sometimes called " Salop." It is situated partly in the central plain, and partly in the higher lands bordering upon Wales. These districts are divided in a somewhat marked way by the River Severn. Shrewsbury is the capital; other towns are Wellington, Bridgnorth, and Coalbrookdale in the mining districts, where coal and iron are abundant. Oswestry has woollen manufactories, and the smaller towns are Ludlow, Wenlock, and Bishop's Castle. 5. Leicestershire. — The chief industries of this midland county are coal-mining, woollen hosiery, and boot-making, with extensive dairy and cheese farming. Besides these important manufactures, a large portion of Leicestershire is given up to agriculture. The Leicester breed of sheep are considered excellent, both for their large size and the quality of their mutton. The capital is Leicester. Other places of importance are Loughborough, Melton Mowbray, the centre of the famous hunting district, Ashby-de-la- Zouch, Hinckley, and Lutterworth. 6. Warwickshire, sometimes called the central county of England, is a fair spot, if taken as a whole, although the ENGLAND AND WALES. 157 colliery and manufacturing districts around Birmingham do scarcely come under this description. Warwickshire proudly owns the finest castle in England ; the birthplace of England's greatest poet; and the largest hardware manufacturing city in the world. It is a county of con- trasts. In a short space of time you may travel, from modern busy Birmingham, to old-world Warwick, or silent Stratford-on-Avon, and forget about its existence altogether. Coventry, of ancient silk ribbon renown, now makes cycles of all kinds, watches, and clocks, etc. The other towns are Leamington, Rugby, and Nuneaton. 7. Herefordshire, one of the western counties on the Welsh border, is 38 miles in length, and 32 in breadth. The surface is pleasantly diversified. Hills, dales, woodlands, meadows, hop gardens, and bright orchard plots follow each other in rapid succession, so that a tour through Herefordshire is always a treat to a stranger. It is a lovely agricultural district, as the soil is rich and productive. The capital and cathedral city is Hereford, picturesquely situated on the Wye. Other towns are Leominster, Ledbury, and Ross. 8. Worcestershire is a well- wooded midland county, partly mining, partly manufacturing, and partly agricul- tural in its interests. It is somewhat smaller in size than Herefordshire. It may justly be described as an impor- tant county, inasmuch as it possesses excellent coal and iron mines in its northern division, which forms part of the Black Country ; and the manufactures of the towns include carpets, cloth, lace, gloves, nails, and hardware goods, pottery and glass, cider and perry, leather, needles, salt, and oil-cake. Like Herefordshire, its hop gardens and large orchards are a pleasant feature in the landscape. The capital and cathedral city is Worcester, standing on the River Severn. Other important towns are Kidderminster, 158 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Dudley, Stonebridge, Droit wich, Malvern, Redditch, Bewd- ley, Bromsgrove, Stourbridge, and Evesham. 9. Rutland^ the smallest county in England, is chiefly agricultural, and may be considered a corn-growing dis- trict. It is only 152 square miles in extent. The whole county consists of small, even ridges or uplands, w^ith well- watered valleys lying between. Oakham is the capital, and it is the only town of importance. At Uppingham there is a large public school. 10. Northamptonshire^ another agricultural county, pos- sesses the chief centres of the boot-and-shoe trade, but few other manufactures of importance. It is a pleasant district, well diversified with hill, dale, and woodland. The farm- ing interests are of value. The area is 1,016 square miles. The capital is Northampton, on the river Nen, and the cathedral city is Peterborough. Other towns are Kettering, Wellingborough, and Higham Ferrers. 11. Huntingdonshire is another small inland county, being only 30 miles in length by some 23 in breadth. Its interests are purely agricultural, and dairy farming is carried on extensively throughout. For excellent cheese (Stilton) and butter, Huntingdonshire stands almost with- out a rival. Its rich pastures are productive of fat stock, and sheep are reared on the Hat fen-lands found in the northern district. The capital is Huntingdon, on the Great Ouse Kiver, where Oliver Cromwell was born. Other towns are St. Ives, St. Neots, and Godmanchester. 12. Cambridgeshire is also a dairy-farming county. It closely resembles Huntingdonshire in the richness of its pastures and natural features. It is about 50 miles long and 30 miles broad. The northern portion is known by the name of the Isle of Ely, and the land here is low-lying and marshy. The capital is Cambridge, the second of England's wondrous seats of learning. Its colleges and ENGLAND AND WALES. 159 halls, some eighteen in number, date back from the thirteenth century, as Peterhouse was founded in 1257. The cathedral city is Ely, and other towns are Chesterton, Wisbeach, and Newmarket. 13. Bedfordshire is also a low-lying {^n county. It is a small agricultural district, some 3G miles long by 22 miles broad. The only manufacturing interests of this county are straw-plait bonnet and hat making, and thread lace. The capital is Bedford, situated on the Great Ouse ; and other towns are Luton, Dunstable, Leighton Buzzard, and Biggleswade. 14. HertfordsJiire is an agricultural county, 38 miles in length and 20 miles in breadth. None of its towns are of large size, so that its manufactures are of less importance than those of other neighbouring counties. Yet, matting, straw-plaiting, hat and bonnet making, and ribbon weav- ing are carried on. Certain parts of Hertfordshire have extensive cherry and apple orchards. The capital is Hert- ford, on the River Lea. Other towns are St. Albans, Hitchin, Watford, Bishop Stortford, Barnet, and Ware. 15. Buckinghamshire, another agricultural and dairy county, has but few towns, and these are small and un- important. The rich pastures of the Vale of Aj^lesbury produce excellent butter and milk, and much hay is growm for the London markets in this county. The only manu- factures of Buckinghamshire are butter, condensed milk, turnery and wood ware, chairs, and some straw-plaiting. The capital is Buckingham, on the Great Ouse. Other towns are Aylesbury, Wycombe, Stony Stratford, and Great Marlow. The first of England's public schools is at Eton, which joins Windsor by a bridge. 16. Berkshire is an agricultural county, being 48 miles long, and so irregular in shape that its width varies from 7 to 28 miles. The scenery throughout is picturesque; l6o IMPERIAL BRITAIN. beautiful woods, including the Royal Park and Forest of Windsor, are situated in this county; and the Thames valley lends a special charm to the scenery. The corn-growing and dairy districts are excellent. Among the manufactures are biscuits, machinery, matting, chairs, etc. The capital is Reading, on the Kennet. Other towns are Maidenhead, Windsor, Abingdon, Wallingford, Newbury, and Wokingham. 17. Oxfordshire is an agricultural county, with some few manufactures. The natural features vary considerably. In the north-western district the monotony of stone walls, in- stead of green hedges, entirely spoils the otherwise pictur- esque scenery. The chief manufacturing interests are blankets, gloves, and lace. The capital and cathedral city is Oxford, England's oldest seat of learning, as it dates from the time of Alfred the Great. There are twenty- five colleges and halls, with many other public and edu- cational buildings. Other towns are Woodstock, Banbury, Chipping Norton, Henley-on-Thames, and Witney. 18. Wiltshire is a large county, chiefly agricultural and pastoral. Its manufactures include the famous West of England clotli, which is woven at Bradford, Trowbridge, and Westbury in this county. Excellent butter, cheese, and dairy produce also come from Wiltshire. Carpets and kerseymere are also made. The capital and cathedral city is Salisbury, on the River Avon. Other towns are Devizes, Chippenham, Bradford, Trowbridge, Calne, Swindon, Marlborough, Westbury, Wilton, and Warminster. 19. Surrey is generally considered one of the most beautiful of the southern counties of Enorland. It is perhaps fair to regard it as the garden of London, inas- much as immense supplies of fruit, flowers, and vegetables are conveyed ever}^ day to the Metropolis from the fields of Surrey. One of its chief interests is market gardening. The whole of South London, or London south of the ENGLAND AND WALES. l6l Thames, is situated in this county. This, with the addi- tional suburban towns of Croydon, Clapham, Putney, Barnes, Mortlake, Dulwich, Norwood, Richmond, Kingston, Kew, Surbiton, etc., make it one of the most populous districts in England. The capital is Guildford, on the River Wey. Other towns are Epsom, Dorking, Godalming, and Sutton, besides the above-named suburban districts. 20. Middlesex is but 233 square miles in area, yet it contains the highest population in the British Isles, as the chief portion of London, the Metropolis of the World, stands in this county, with its northern and western suburbs of Willesden, Kilburn, Tottenham, Highgate, Hampstead, and Hornsey. Other towns are Brentford, Uxbridge, Ealing, Harrow, with England's second great public school, Staines, and Enfield. The County Council is a modern innovation, which has been legalised for administrative purposes of local govern- ment. In addition to the government by the County Council of the 52 counties of England and Wales, London, the Metropolis, has been constituted a county, with an area of 120 square miles, and a population of nearly 5J million inhabitants. The following 61 provincial boroughs have also for local government purposes been formed into administrative counties : — Barrow, Bath, Birkenhead, Birmingham, Blackburn, Bolton, Bootle, Bradford (York), Brighton, Bristol, Burney, Bury, Canterbury, Cardiff, Chester, Coventry, Croydon, Derby, Devonport, Dudley, Exeter, Gateshead, Gloucester, Great Yarmouth, Halifax, Hanley, Hastings, Huddersfield, Ipswich, Kingston-upon-Hull, Leeds, Leicester, Lincoln, Liverpool, Manchester, Middlesborough, Newcastle- upon-Tyne, Northampton, Norwich, Nottingham Oldham, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Preston, Reading, Rochdale, St. l62 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Helens, Salford, Sheffield, Southampton, South Shields, Stock- port, Sunderland, Swansea, Walsall, West Bromwich, West Ham, Wigan, Wolverhampton, Worcester, and York. Towns. — It is not generally known that more than half the people of England and Wales reside, and work, in the towns. This may be the better understood when we have considered the population of London, which equals a sixth of the whole of the inhabitants of England and Wales. The last census returns for 1891 gave the following statistics (in round numbers), which are most interesting, inasmuch as they point out the great centres of population, trade, wealth, and labour : — 5,500,000 inhabitants. 730,000 703,000 429,000 368,000 324,000 222,000 1. London, . . - . 2. Liverpool, - - - - 3. Manchester, including Salford, 4. Birmingham, 5. Leeds, . . . _ 6. Sheffield, - - - - 7. Bristol, - - . . 8. Bradford, 216,000 9. Nottingham, . . - . 212,000 10. Hull, 200,000 11. Newcastle-on-Tyne. - - - 186,000 12. Portsmouth, - ' - - - 159,000 13. Leicester, 142,000 14. Oldham, ) 15. Sunderland, ( ' " " 16. Cardiff, -' - 17. Blackburn, - - - - 18. Bolton, .... 19. Brighton, .... 20. Preston, 108,000 21. Norwich, 101,000 22. Birkenhead, .... 100,000 N.B. — In 22 of our largest towns in England and Wales the popu- lation was, in 1891, 10,440,000 inhabitants, out of a total for the whole country of 29,002,525. 131,000 129,000 120,000 115,000 115,000 London, from Celtic Llyn, a pool, the town near the pool, is the Metropolis of the world, or in other words, it is the great social, political, moral, philanthropical, intellectual, literary, artistic, and commercial centre of civilised nations. ENGLAND AND WALES. 63 1 64 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. All alike feel its influence, wealth, and power. Not only the products of the world are gathered together here, but repre- sentatives of all nations visit this wonderful city every year. London is probably one of the most ancient of English cities. Situated on both banks of the Kiver Thames, about 60 miles from the sea, its far-stretching area of hundreds of square miles, with its teeming population of millions of in- habitants, place it among the modern wonders of the world. Strictly speaking, London is now a county for all legal and parliamentary matters. It contains two cities, London and Westminster, and seven parliamentary boroughs, viz.^ Marylebone, Finsbury, Southwark, Lambeth, Chelsea, Hackney, and the Tower Hamlets. It is represented in the House of Commons by 59 Members. The City of London proper is divided into 26 wards under a Lord Mayor, a Court of Aldermen, Sheriffs, and a large body of other important officers, and these have their jurisdiction and power within the old city wall boundaries, not including the metropolitan area. There are two cathedrals, St. Paul's in the City, and St. Peter's, or the Abbey, at Westminster^ ; besides the Koman Catholic Cathedral of St. George at Southwark ; The Bromp- ton Oratory, etc. Then, again, nearly every conceivable religious bod}^ has its place of worship within its area. For educational purposes, its universities, colleges, museums, art galleries, science schools, hospitals, lecture halls, and technical instruction rooms are unrivalled. For amuse- ment, its 67 theatres and music halls, its exhibitions and bazaars, include more than 100 holiday resorts open daily. Its principal parks are nine in number : Hyde Park ; Re- gent's ; St. James' ; Green ; Kensington Gardens ; Victoria ; Kensington; Battersea, and Southwark Parks; besides other ^ N.B. — A third cathedral is S. Saviour's, Southward . ENGLAND AND WALES. i6s l66 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. open spaces allotted for public use and recreation in the metropolitan area. These are carefully kept, and planted with choice flowers, and shrubs, to suit the varying seasons. Its squares, public buildings, clubs, monuments, shops,, and stores of trade are exceedingly numerous, and display many styles of design and architecture. Its provision and food markets outnumber those of any other city in the world ; while its docks, bonded warehouses, cellars, and immense storehouses are crowded with the produce of the world's markets, and workshops. Its manufactures and trades are so numerous, and varied, that it would be well- nigh impossible to enumerate them all. There are railways- above and underground, and, in addition, thousands of omnibuses, tramcars, and cabs, cross and re-cross each other's tracks, to convey passengers to every part. London, the largest city in the world, covers, within a circle of fifteen miles from Charing Cross, about 700 square miles of area, and its inhabitants exceed 5,500,000. More than 100,000 foreigners from every part of the world are to be found in London. Here we may find " more Jews than there are in Palestine ; more Roman Catholics than in Rome ; more Irish than in Dublin ; more Scotch than in Edinburgh. Its port and dock registers record thousands of ships of every kind and craft. The growth of its popu- lation is estimated at more than 50,000 each year, e.g., a birth and a, death taking place within its area every few minutes. Many miles of new streets are added to its boundaries each year. It is, indeed, a city of contrasts. It contains more wealth and more poverty ; more philanthropy and more crime ; more industry and more idleness ; more religion and more unbelief, than any other city in the world. Its immense water supplies ; its perfect system of sanita- tion; its lighting of streets and buildings; its fire brigades ; and police arrangements, are maintained at an immense cost ENGLAND AND WALES. 167 \ Vi^i'? '^^i^B^^^^^BIMHIyiii i Jr'; 'i^'* = Pi • '\ Sfe Jf , -Jl^k^ m ■'^Mr ' -0|.i M ,7^ n^^Bt -i " 1 I^^^BMH^^^^M^^^^^^^^^B^^^^^BBMllft if ^^^r 1 I- l68 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. to^ ensure health and security to the millions of people dwelling there." — Leisure Hour. Probably the most astonishing fact concerning London is its continuous and never-failing food supply. The greater the increase of population the better they are provided for. It now stands in four counties — Middlesex, Surrey, Kent, and Essex — and one naturally marvels to think what will be the population, and its needs and requirements in the future, if the present rapid growth continues. In the twelfth and the thirteenth centuries famine and plague were of frequent occurrence; but now in the nineteenth, with the command of the world's markets, and the incom- parable system of provision for the ever-increasing masses, these appear to be quite an impossibility. Liverpool, from '' LyrpooV or ''^ LlerpwW — Celtic, '^ the place on the pool,'' with a population in 1891 of 730,000, ranks as the second city, and commercial port, in Great Britain. The docks and warehouses, which receive, in the main part, the produce and manufactures of the western world of America, etc., are among the finest in the world, as they comprise some 25 miles of quay and landing stages, with more than 250 acres of docks and storage sheds. Liverpool is a well-paved city. Its streets are well drained and lighted, and its public buildings are magnificent. In 1690, or rather more than 200 years ago, the population of Liverpool was under 5,000, and its port of but little com- mercial value; nowits annual tonnage amounts to 10,000,000. Its southern suburb of Birkenhead is connected by a sub- marine tunnel. The great American lines of steamships have their centre here for both goods and passengers, and thus it is regarded as the chief emigration port of the empire. Again, Liverpool receives nearly the whole of the raw cotton and wool sent to this country for manufactur- ing purposes, as it is situated on the verge of the cotton and ENGLAND AND WALES. 169 woollen industries of Lancashire and Yorkshire. Its mer- chants are rich and prosperous, and probably in no other place upon the earth's surface could be found the same extensive trade interests, and private wealth, as upon the 170 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Liverpool Exchange and Chamber of Commerce. Liver- pool was made a Bishop's See in 1880. Manchester, from ''Main,'' a stone, and " Castrtim" a camp or fort, is therefore ''the place tipon the rock'' Its population in 1891, including Salford, was 703,000, thus placing it in order as the third city in Great Britain. It is the court and home of King Cotton. It is now a port, having in 1894 been joined to the River Mersey by the famous Manchester Ship Canal, which allows of vessels of a certain size to enter the port of Manchester, instead of trans- shipping their cargoes as heretofore. This fine municipal and parliamentary city contains many costly and beautiful public buildings, among which ma}^ be mentioned the Royal Exchange, Town Hall, Chamber of Commerce, Banks, Post Office, Athenaeum, Assize Courts, Free Trade Hall, Cathe- dral, and many magnificent Churches, Owen's College, Schools, Institutes, Hospitals, etc. Its manufacturing in- terests are world wide. Hundreds of thousands of opera- tives are employed in the cotton and other mills and factories, where every conceivable article of clotliing, con- sisting of cotton, silk, or woollen material, is made ; besides firearms, machinery, and various other things. Birmingham, the fourth city in Great Britain, numbered 429,000 persons at the last census of 1891. Standing as it does in the centre of the great midland iron and coal dis- tricts, it practically commands the principal of England's hardware goods manufactures ; and its trade is of world- wide importance for firearms, tools, and machinery, besides glass, toys, jewellery, and fancy goods. The derivation of its name is uncertain, probably it was originally " Brum-wych- am," or " the home of the Brum or Brummings in the wood." Birmingham is more like London, than either Liverpool or Manchester, in the arrangement of its streets, yet its atmo- sphere is even more dense and cloudy owing to the numerous ENGLAND AND WALES. 171 1/2 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. furnaces and manufactories surrounding it. The public buildings are very fine. It is not yet made into a Bishop's See, but it is included in the Diocese of Worcester. Leeds, from either '' Loidis" or " Ledes,'' of unknown origin, is the principal seat of the woollen manufactures of Yorkshire. Its population in 1891 w^as 368,000. All kinds of cloth are manufactured here, in addition to carpets, blankets, shawls, and other woollen goods. Leeds is a fine town, which is rapidly growing in importance. The streets and buildings are excellent. Its commercial value is said to exceed £12,000,000 per annum. The other manufactories of Leeds are machinery and iron goods, locomotive and agricul- tural engines, leather, chemicals, caps, shoes, glass, and paper. Sheffield is the sixth and last town of England and Wales whose population exceeds 300,000 souls. In 1891 the census gave the number as 324,000. The derivation of Sheffield is undoubtedly " Sheaf -field,'' as the town stands at the confluence of the two streams, Don and Sheaf. It is far from being pleasant in appearance. The choking fumes and dense clouds of smoke, from its many factories, render both people and buildings of a dreary, sallow aspect. Everything appears to be seen either through a fog, or a tainted atmosphere. This town is the grand centre of our cutlery and silver-plating manufactures. All kinds of iron and steel work are carried on here, so that Sheffield makes the best cutlery in the w^orld. The Welsh Counties are twelve in number. The natural divisions are : — North Wales. — Six counties : Anglesea, Caernarvon- shire, Denbighshire, Flintshire, Merionethshire, and Montgomeryshire. South Wales. — Six counties : Cardiganshire, Radnor- shire, Brecknockshire, Caermarthenshire, Pem- brokeshire, and Glamorganshire. ENGLAND AND WALES. 73 They may be further divided into nine maritime counties and three inland counties. s I I Montgomeryshire is the largest in area ; and Flintshire is the smallest county in Wales. 174 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Glamorganshire is the most thickly populated district, ^nd Radnorshire the least in population. The area of Wales is 7,442 square miles, and the popula- tion only 1,501,103. Generally speaking, more than half of the inhabitants speak their native language of Welsh in addition to English, which is now taught in the schools throughout the country. Wales is a mountainous district throughout, so that the agricultural interests are far below those of mining and manufactures. The hills, however, afford good pasturage for sheep and cattle, and the chief farming industry rests in rearing these animals. The mining interests are valuable and extensive. Coal and iron are plentiful in Glamorganshire, Flintshire, and Denbighshire. Excellent building stone, granite, and slate are quarried in large quantities ; and lead, copper, and tin, with some silver and gold, are produced. Besides the manufacture of metal goods, etc., the trade in slate dress- ing, flannel, carpets, etc., is flourishing and important. The counties and chief towns arranged alphabetically are : — 1. Angles ea, 275 sq. miles.— Beaumaris and Holyhead. 2. Brecknockshire, 734 sq. miles. — Brecon, Brynmawr, and Builth. 3. Cardiganshire, 692 sq. miles. — Cardigan, Aberyst- with, Lampeter. 4. Caennarthenshire, 91 9 sq. miles. — Caermarthen, Llan- dovery, Llanelly, and Kidwelly, o. Caernarvonshire, 563 sq. miles. — Caernarvon, Bangor, Llandudno, Conway, Pwllheli. 6. Denbighshire, ^^^ sq. miles. — Denbigh, Wrexham, Ruthin. 7. Flintshire, 256 sq. miles.— Mold, Flint, Rhyl, Holy- well. ENGLAND AND WALES. 175 8. Glamorganshire, 790 sq. miles. — Cardiff, Swansea, Merthyr Tydfil, Llandaff, Cowbridge, Aberavon, Neath. 9. Merionethshire, 668 sq. miles. — Dolgelly, Barmouth, Bala. 10. Montgomeryshire, 7d7 sq. miles. — Montgomery, Welshpool, Llanidloes, Llanfyllin. 11. Pembrokeshire, 613 sq, miles — Pembroke, Haver- fordwest, Tenby, Milford. 12. Radnorshire, 471 sq. miles. — Radnor, Presteigne. Chief Battle-fields of England and Wales : — Northumberland. — Berwick, 1296 ; Otterburn or Chevy Chase, 1888; Homildon Hill, 1402; Hexham, 1464 ; Flodden Field, 1513. Durham. — Neville's Cross, 1346. Yorkshire. — Stamford Bridge, 1066 ; The Standard (Northallerton) 1137; Boroughbridge, 1322; Branham Moor (York) 1408 ; Wakefield, 1460 ; Towton, 1461 ; Marston Moor, 1644. Lancashire. — Atherton Moor, 1643 ; Preston, 1648. Cheshire. — Row ton Heath, 1645. Lincolnshire. — Lincoln, 1141 and 1217; Stamford, 1470. Nottinghamshire. — Stoke, 1487. Leicestershire. — Bos worth Field, 1483. Staffordshire. — Blore Heath, 1459. Northamptonshire. — Northampton, 1460; Naseby,1645. Shropshire. — Shrewsbury, 1403. Worcestershire. — Evesham, 1265 ; Worcester, 1651. Herefordshire. — Mortimer's Cross (Leominster) 1461. Gloucestershire. — Tewkesbury, 1471. Warwickshire. — Edgehill, 1642. Oxfordshire. — Chalgrove Field, 1643 ; Cropedy Bridge 1644. 176 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Hertfordshire. — St. Albans, 1455-61 ; Barnet, 1471. Berkshire. — Newbury, 1643-4 ; Reading, 1643. Kent. — Sevenoaks, 1450 ; Blackheath, 1497. Sussex. — Battle (Telham Hill) 1066, commonly called Hastings ; Lewes, 1264. Somersetshire. — Sedgemoor, 1685. Cornwall. — Stratton, 1643. IMPERIAL BRITAIN. MAP VII. Eii|lisTi Miles 10 20 SO 40 7 LongLtTLde West 6 of Greeirwich. 5 W.&A.K.JolmstoiL,Edititu2-?h and London PART ly. SCOTLAND. Name. — Scotland, it is evident, means " The Land of the Scots," a northern Irish tribe of warriors who took pos- session of the southern and western portions of the country at a very early period. The Romans described Scotland as Caledonia. It has also been called in early times North Britain, and occasionally Albyn, or Albion, or white rock land. It is strange to find this latter title still used by the older inhabitants of the Highland districts. Position. — The northern portion of the Island of Great Britain is called Scotland. It is very irregular in shape, having its narrow parts towards the north and the south ; being only about 35 miles wide from the Firth of Clyde to the Firth of Forth. Scotland forms one of the few peninsulas of the old world pointing northwards. The sea entirely surrounds it, with the exception of the narrow neck of land about 60 miles in breadth which connects it with England on the south. This country is situated between the parallels of latitude 54° 88' and 58° 41' north of the Equator ; longitude 1° 45' and 6° 14' west of Greenwich. Area and Extent. — The area of Scotland is 30,000 square miles, or about half the size of England and Wales. The greatest length, measured from Cape Wrath in Suther- landshire in the North, to the Mull of Galloway in Wigton in the South, is 280 miles ; and the extreme breadth, from Peterhead in Aberdeenshire in the East, to Ardnamurchan Point in Argyllshire in the West, is 175 miles. Population. — In 1891, the last census taken gave the 177 M 1/8 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. population as 4,025,647, showing a slight increase of 8 per cent, during the past ten years. However, Scotland is a thinly populated country compared with England and Wales ; being only one-ninth of that of the whole of Great Britain, and giving only an average of 134 persons to each square mile of territory. Again, it will be seen that the population of London alone exceeded the population of the whole of Scotland in 1891 by 1,474,353 persons. The Highlands of the North are much less populated than the Lowland centres of trade, where most of the large towns are situated. Boundaries. — Scotland is bounded on the North by the Atlantic Ocean ; South by England and the Irish Sea ; East by the North Sea or German Ocean ; and West by the Atlantic Ocean, and the North Channel. Coast-line. — This is considerable for such a small country, being 2,500 miles in length, not including the 788 large and small islands which so thickly fringe and stud the Western and Northern Coasts. This enormous coast-line gives about 1 mile of coast to every 12 square miles of area, and so irregular is the boundary line that no part of Scotland is 50 miles from the sea. The Eastern Coast is much less indented than the Western, owing to the prevalence of the Atlantic storms beating upon the latter shores, so that the coast-line of this side of Scotland is less picturesque, as it is less bold than on the western side. It possesses, however, special advan- tages for navigation, trade, and commerce, in consequence of which the principal seaports, with the exception of Glasgow, situated on the Clyde, are to be found on the Eastern Coast. Capes and Headlands. — The chief capes are : — On the East Coast travelling from South to North — St. Abbs Head in Berwick ; Fifeness ; Buchanness ; SCOTLAND. 179 Peterhead ; Kinnaird's Head iu Aberdeen; Tarbet- ness in Cromarty ; and Noss Head in Caithness. On the North Coast — Duncansby Head, and Dunnet Head in Caithness; Strathy Point and Cape Wrath in Sutherland. On the West Coasts travelling from North to Souths the capes and headlands are too numerous to mention, owing to the serrated nature of this coast. The chief are : — Point of Stoir in Sutherland; Rhu Rea, and Red Point in Cromarty and Ross ; Ardnamurchan Point, and the Mull of Cantire in Argyll; the Mull of Galloway and Burrow Head in Wigton. Bays and Inlets. — On the East Coast there are the Firths of Forth ; Tay ; Murray ; Cromarty ; with Dornoch, and Sinclair Bays. On the North Coast. — Pentland Firth is a strait lying between Caithness and Orkney, although it is frequently classed as an inlet. Dunnet Bay and the Kyle of Tongue are the chief inlets. 071 the Western Coast there are a multitude of inlets, among which may be mentioned Lochs Broom ; Torridon ; Linnhe; Eil ; Leven ; Fyne; Long; with the Firth of Clyde, and Loch Ryan. On the South Coast, Luce Bay, Wigton Bay, and the Sol way Firth. Straits. — The principal straits are : — 1. The Pentland Firth, in the North, between Caithness and the Orkney Islands. 2. The Minch, ) between the Hebrides and the 3. The Little Minch, j Mainland. 4. The Sounds of Sleat ; Mull ; Jura ; Islay ; and Harris, between the Hebrides. 5. The North Channel, lying between Scotland and Ireland. l8o IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Islands. — The total number of islands, large and small, surrounding the coasts of Scotland, are 788 in number, yet only about 200 are inhabited. These are arranged in four groups or clusters, called : — 1. The Shetland Isles, 80 in number. 2. The Orkney Isles, 67 in number. 3. The Inner Hebrides, ) ^^^ . . ^, ^ -r^ , . , >300 in number. 4. The Outer Hebrides, ) p. There are, besides, the islands of the Clyde, forming Buteshire, 4 in number, vi^., Bute ; Arran ; Great and Little Cumbrae. 6. With the following less important isolated rocks or craigs, vi^. : — A. Ailsa Craig, a solitary rock in the Firth of Clyde. B. Inchcolm and Inchkeith, two small islets in the Firth of Forth, noted for the remains of a religious monastery, as well as being the burial place of several Scottish kings. C. Bass Rock, also in the Firth of Forth, upon which is placed a lighthouse. D. Bell Rock, in the Firth of Tay, noted for the light- house which bears its name. The islands of Scotland are of such importance that they deserve a chapter to themselves, but, for convenience sake, we will treat of the several groups in order here. The most northern groups are the Shetland and the Orkney Isles. The area of the combined groups is 1,320 square miles, and the united population was 59,164 in 1891. The two groups together form one of the Scotch counties. Commencing with the most northern group, the Shetland, or Zetland Isles, are 80 in number, of which 32 are regularly inhabited, although the fishermen occasion- ally occupy others to carry on their trade at certain seasons of the year. This cluster of islands is situated in the IMPERIAL BRITAIN. MAP IX. HEBRIDES OR WESTERN ISLES Scale of Engliak JCLm* ^^axlwi^^ 0ais A T L A N T I C (•apeWiatk W.!fcA.K..loi.nsinn. Eamlmrtfa ^. SCOTLAND. 8i i ^ o; 1 82 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. North Atlantic Ocean, about 100 miles to the north-east of the mainland of Scotland ; and lying between the parallels of latitude 59° and 61° north of the Equator, and longitude 0° 44' and 1° 44' west of Greenwich. The physical features are marked. Most of the islands are irregular in shape, and the surface is rugged and somewhat barren, so that agriculture is in a neglected state. The climate is cold, and much wet weather prevails. The in- habitants are the original successors of the old Celtic race. They are strong, hardy, honest, thrifty people, of simple manners and habits, and with but little education. For the most part they are engaged in the coast fisheries, or in the rearing of black cattle, sheep, ponies, and goats. The Shetland ponies are exported to all parts. Wild fowl, sea-birds, game, and fish are abundant. Occasionally the Arctic sperm whale and the seal visit these islands, when there is quite a stir among the in- habitants to secure these prizes for the market. The chief islands are Pomona or Mainland ; Yell ; Unst ; Thule ; and the chief towns are Lerwick, and Scallo- way. The imports are chiefly food supplies, tools, clothing, and manufactured goods. The exports are barley, whisky, cattle, ponies, fish, seal- skins, knitted goods, feathers. The total area of the Shetlands equals 551 square miles, and the population in 1891 was 28,711 ; of which 5,930 were inhabitants of Lerwick, the capital. The Shetlands, together with the Orkneys, were origin- ally governed by native earls or sea-kings, under the Crowns of Norway and Denmark. James I., by his marriage in 1590 with Anne of Denmark, received these as his possession. The Orkneys, or Orcades Islands, number 67 islands, of SCOTLAND. 183 which but 30 are inhabited. This second group is situated to the south-west of the Shetlands, at a distance of six miles only from the North Coast of Scotland, lying between the parallels of latitude 58° and 59° north of the Equator, and longitude 2° 22' and 3° 26' west of Greenwich. The surface of the Orkneys is generally rocky and barren. The same irregularity of shape as was noted in the Shetland group is seen here, but in addition many of the smaller islands are mere rocks, called " holms." The climate is less severe than the Shetlands, but the winters are long and trying, and much wet weather prevails. The soil and agriculture are in an advanced state compared with the Shetlands. Vege- tables and barley are produced, and the moors afford pasturage for cattle and sheep. The Orkneys literally teem with animal life. On the moors are grouse, snipe, wild fowl, geese, and ducks. Several species of eagle visit these islands, and the coasts are alive with gulls and other sea birds. Seals, sea otters, and fish are abundant. The people are the same as the Shetlanders. The chief islands are Mainland; Hoy; Ronaldsha; Sanda; Englisha; Burray ; Stronsa; and Westra ; and the chief towns are Kirkwall, and Stromness. Both imports and exports are similar to those of the Shetland group. The total area of the Orkneys is 376 square miles, and the population in 1891 was 30,453, of which 3,926 were in Kirkwall, the capital. For the history of these islands, see note on the Shetlands (p. 182). The Hebrides, or Western Islands, number some 300 islands, of which only 80 are inhabited. The area of the entire group is 2,750 miles. This group occupies a most exposed position in the Atlantic Ocean, lying off the West Coast of Scotland, between the parallels of latitude 55° and 1 84 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. 59° north of the Equator, and longitude 5° and 8° west of Greenwich. These islands may be sub-divided into an outer and an inner group, which are divided by the channel of the Minch and the Little Minch. The formation of the outer group shows distinctly that the whole have been united, though now so broken up into rocky mountainous islets beyond the main island of Lewis in the north of the group. The physical features of the whole group may be described as rugged and mountainous. All the islands are irregular in shape and covered with pasturage, but by reason of the absence of trees and woodlands they are somewhat barren in appearance. The water supply is excellent, and the lakes and rivers are well stocked with fish and wild- fowl. The climate is generally mild and somewhat humid, severe weather, of any length, being a rare occurrence. The soil is decidedly poor, so that agriculture is not in a flourish- ing state ; but large herds of kyloes, or black cattle, are reared for exportation. These, with the coast fisheries, are the chief sources of living for the inhabitants, who belong to the old Celtic race, and being hardy, thrifty people, of simple manners and modest wants, they manage to exist upon but little beyond the bare necessities of life. The outer group consists of the islands of Lewis ; North and South Uist; Benbecula; and Barra; besides other smaller ones. The inner group has Skye; Mull; Islay; Jura; Tiree; Coll ; Eigg ; Rum ; Canna ; Colonsay ; lona and StafFa, with Fingal's Cave ; also numerous smaller ones. The chief towns are Stornoway, in Lewis ; Portree and Broadford, in Skye ; Port Askaig, in Islay ; and Tober- mory, in Mull. The imports are chiefly food supplies, clothing, and ^ OF THE UNIVERSITY OF . , :H\Jb* IMPERIAL BRITAIN. MAP VIII. Coast line to 250 feet 2SO to 500 ff 500 to ISOO .. IBOO to ZBOO „ Above. 2500 „ Depfths Coast line, to Z50 feet. 250toS00f*' SOOtalSOO „ 1500toZS00„ ZSOOtoSOOO.. SCOTLAND PHYSICAl. MAP Ifiles . ScA.i:. Joimston. EdmbuvgU 8c Lu SCOTLAND. 185 manufactured articles ; and the exports include cattle, fish, game, skins, hides, barley, and oats. The Hebrides were once a Norwegian colony. They were probably first inhabited in the eighth century. In 1264 the Macdonals, a powerful Scottish clan, took possession of them, and assumed the title of " Lords of the Isles." In 1748 they were finally given up to the Crown of Great Britain as a part of the Dominion of Scotland. The four islands of the Clyde forming Buteshire consist of:— 1. Bute Island. — Length, 18 miles ; breadth, 5 miles. This island is separated from the mainland of Scotland by the narrow, winding, picturesque channel called the Kyles of Bute, so frequently visited by tourists because of its lovely scenery. The chief town, Rothesay, is a neat little seaport over- looking the mouth of the Clyde. 2. Arran Island is the largest in the group, being 20 miles long and 11 miles broad. It lies to the south-west of Bute. The surface is most mountainous. Goat Fell, its highest peak, is the highest mountain in the South of Scotland. The people are agriculturists and fishermen. The chief town is Brodick. 3. 4, Great and Little Cumbrae are two smaller islands, situated in the Clyde, to the east of Bute, and included in that county. The chief town, Millport, is exceedingly pretty. The Earl of Glasgow founded a theological college here under the Bishop of Argyll and the Isles some years . ago. N.B. — The area of the whole of Buteshire equals 218 square miles, and the population in 1891 was 18,404. Physical Features. — Few countries of the same size and area as Scotland present such diversified surface , features. High mountain masses rather than ranges, with l86 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. spurs branching out in every direction ; deep and rugged glens or narrow valleys intersecting each other at every conceivable angle ; hemmed-in mountain lakes, into which pour numerous torrents, some as cascades, and others as mere riplets, falling from the rocks above ; irregular and deeply-cut arms of the sea running far up into the land, with the order reversed of long, irregular tongues or points of the land stretching out to the sea. These, among others, are the special features of Scotland, and give to this northern portion of Britain a romantic beauty, wild and picturesque in the extreme. No wonder that Burns hath sung its glories in such stirring words of farewell : — Farewell to the Highlands, farewell to the North ; The birth-place of valour, the country of worth ; Wherever I wander, wherever I rove, The hills of the Highlands for ever I love. Farewell to the mountains, high covered with snow ; Farewell to the straths and green valleys below ; Farewell to the forests and wild hanging woods ; Farewell to the torrents and loud pouring floods. My heart's in the Highlands, my heart is not here, My heart's in the Highlands a-chasing the deer ; A-chasing the wild deer, and following the roe, My heart's in the Highlands wherever I go." The whole country of Scotland is more or less moun- tainous or hilly, yet no regularity exists as to the position of the high-lands, so that no definitely marked watersheds are to be found, and the rivers are necessarily shorter and more rapid in motion than those of England and Wales. Only two large plains are to be noted, although there are others of smaller dimensions. These are the broad valley of Strathmore ('* Great Valley "), dividing the Highland district from the Lowlands ; and the " Great Glen " of Glenmore, through which passes the Caledonian Canal. SCOTLAND. 187 Thus the Great Glen of Scotland divides the country into two parts. It extends from the shores of Caithness on the north-east, through the counties of Inverness and Argyll as far as the Atlantic shores. It also cuts the table-land of the Highlands into two distinct parts. The general surface of Scotland is divided into three parts : — A. The Northern Highlands. B. The Central Lowlands. C. The Southern Uplands. Yet a further division should be added : the Plain of Ayr, which stretches away from the Southern Uplands towards the South-Western Coast. Mountains. — The mountain system of Scotland consists of three principal clusters or masses of mountain groups, rather than district ranges, vi^., The Northern; The Central; and The Southern Systems ; or, as they are sometimes described, The Northern Highlands ; The Grampians ; and the Southern Uplands, which latter include the Cheviot and Lowther Hills, with the smaller ranges of the Moffat Hills, the Moorfoots, and the Lammermoors. Besides the above-named mountains, there are the — A. Sidlaw Hills, running south of the Grampians in a north-easterly direction through Perth and Forfarshire. B. The Campsie Fells, running from the Forth to the Clyde through Stirlingshire. C. The Ochil Hills, running through Kinross and Fifeshire. D. The Pentland Hills, stretching from the south-west of Edinburgh through Midlothian. E. Arthur's Seat near Edinburgh, The Scotch mountains are generally barren, bleak, and precipitous, and their rugged, cheerless appearance greatly 1 88 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. contrasts with the lovely and varied scenery of the valleys and glens intersecting them, many of which contain forests, with picturesque lakes or rivers, fed by the numerous cas- cades and streamlets, which leap from the rocky regions above. 1. The Northern Highlands traverse the counties of In- verness, Ross, Cromarty, and Sutherland, from west to east across the country. The chief peaks are Ben Nevis, 4,373 feet, the highest mountain in the British Isles ; Ben Attow, 4,000 feet ; Ben Wyvis and Ben Dearg, each about 3,600 feet. 2. The Grampians^ which comprise the great central mountain system of Scotland, are sometimes subdivided into two ranges — the Grampians proper, and the South Grampians. They run from west to east through Argyll, Perth, Inverness, Forfar, and Kincardineshires. The chief peaks are Ben Macdhui, 4,300 feet ; Cairntoul and Cairngorm, each a little over 4,000 feet ; with Ben More and Ben Lawers, 3,000 feet ; Ben Avon, 4,000 feet ; Ben Ledi and Ben Lomond, 3,200 feet. The two latter are situated near that lovely portion of Perthshire known as " The Trossachs." The Grampians form the principal watershed of Scotland. Other peaks are Ben Cruachan and Ben Voirlich. 3. The Southern Uplands lie in the district south of the River Forth. The two chief branches are the Cheviot and the Lowther Hills, which for some distance form the boundary line between England and Scotland, and then abruptly branch off at right angles in a north-westerly direction. The chief peaks are Mount Cheviot, 2,670 feet ; Broad- law, 2,700 feet : Lowther Hill, 2,500 ; Hartfell, 2,260 feet. This system forms the second important watershed of Scotland. SCOTLAND. 189 190 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Plains. — These are small in size and unimportant. The chief plains are : — 1. The Great Valley, or Sirathmore, lying to the south of the Grampians, and extending from the Forth to the German Ocean. It is about 80 miles long, and varies in breadth from 2 to 20 miles. This valley marks most distinctly the southern limits of the district of Scotland called " The Highlands." 2. The Plain of Forth and Clyde, as its name implies, is situated between the two rivers, forming their united river basins. It is only about 30 miles in length. 3. The Clyde Vale is a level tract in Lanarkshire through which flows the lower course of the Clyde River. 4. The Plain of Ayr is a fertile district near the West Coast. 5. The Dales of Solway border the Firth of that name. 6. Glenmore, or " the Great Glen," extends from Loch Linnhe on the Western Coast to the Moray Firth on the Eastern Coast. By a series of long narrow lakes now united by the Caledonian Canal, of which Loch Ness is the largest, navigation has been opened from the Atlantic to the North Sea, and thus the northern portion of Scotland has become an island, although geographically it is not regarded as one. Other minor plains are the Plain of Tweed, Plain of Caithness, Plain of Cromarty, and the Carse of Gowrie. Rivers. — The river system of Scotland is naturally divided into tw^o parts, vis. : — A. Rivers flowing eastward to the North Sea. B. Rivers flowing westward into the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea. In this way a journey round the Coast of Scotland, from Berwick-upon-Tweed to the Solway Firth, would show the following important rivers among other smaller ones : — SCOTLAND. 191 m mi WMl mm 192 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. 1. TJie Tweedy which is 96 miles in length, forms the boundary line between England and Scotland for some distance. This river rises in the South of Peebles, and by a circuitous route enters the North Sea by the ancient and independent town of Berwick, which is of great historical interest in connection with both countries. The chief tributaries are the Ettrick ; Yarrow ; Teviot ; Till ; Leader ; and the Black and White Adder. Other towns on the Tweed are Coldstream, Kelso, Melrose, Peebles, and Hawick. 2. The Forth is about 60 miles long. It rises near Ben Lomond in Stirlingshire, and flows in an easterly direction into the opening of the sea called the Firth of Forth, which in position somewhat resembles the mouth of the Thames, and like that river it runs through the chief town, Edin- burgh, with its docks and port (Leith) lying below it. At Queensferry the Forth Bridge crosses the Forth at an immense height, so that large ships are able to pass under it. The tributaries are few and of minor importance, viz., the Firth, Allan, and Devon. Other towns are Alloa and Stirling on the Forth. 3. The Tay, which is the longest river in Scotland, being 110 miles, carries the waste waters of Loch Tay, etc., to the sea. On its banks stand Perth and Scone, of his- torical importance as the ancient crowning place of the Scottish kings. The tributaries of the Tay are the Lyon, Tummel, Ardle, Isla, Earn, and Almond. This river is noted for its excellent salmon fishing. Dundee is an important trading seaport at its mouth. 4. The North and South Esk flow from the Grampians into the North Sea near Montrose. 5. The Don and the Dee flow into the sea at Aberdeen. The Dee is 90 miles long. It rises at some considerable height in Cairngorm in the Grampians. This stream is SCOTLAND. 193 noted for its lovely scenery, excellent salmon and other fivshing. Balmoral, the Royal Highland residence of Queen Victoria, is situated near its banks. The town of Aberdeen, which really stands on a tongue of land between tlie Don and the Dee, takes its name from the latter river, as " Aber-deen" means "Dee mouth." 6. The Speyy oftentimes called the " Thundering Spey," N 194 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. is more rapid than the other Scotch rivers. It is nearly 100 miles long, flowing from Loch Spey to the North Sea, near to the Moray Firth. It is useless for purposes of navigation, as it receives numerous mountain streams in its course, yet it affords the highest sport for the angler, and its salmon fisheries are excellent. The smaller rivers on the East Coast are the Tyne, Eden, Deveron, Findhorn, and Ness. The only river of importance flowing westwards is the Clyde. It is 98 miles in length, and it is always considered the chief commercial river of Scotland, as it flows through the principal mining and manufacturing districts. Glasgow, the largest manufacturing and commercial city of Scotland, stands near its mouth ; and other towns on its banks are Lanark, Renfrew, Dumbarton, Greenock, and Port Glas- gow. Near Lanark are the celebrated Falls of Clyde, where the river leaps by a double fall about 100 feet amid the surrounding rocks. This river rises in the Lowther Hills near to the Tweed, which flows in the opposite direction. Other smaller rivers on the West Coast are the Ayr, to the west of the Clyde basin ; the Southern Dee, Nith, Annan, and Esk, which drain the southern slopes of the Lowland Hills, and empty themselves into the Sol way Firth. Lakes. — One of the grandest features of Scotland is its lakes. These are both numerous and of considerable size. Their united area equals 700 square miles. The lakes are principally to be found in the Highlands. Certain of the mountainous districts abound in lakes, which are extremely beautiful, nestling, as they do, amid the wildest mountain scenery, while their banks, like Loch Katrine and others, are well wooded in parts. 1. Loch Lomond is the largest lake in Great Britain. It is 24 miles long, from 5 to 7 miles wide, and possesses an SCOTLAND. 195 area of 45 square miles. Its surface is broken by about thirty picturesque islands, and the mountain scenery around it is exceedingly grand, so that it may justly claim the proud title of the " Queen of the Scottish Lakes." 2. Loch Katrine lies a few miles to the north-east of telii y l!l,l 111':'' iiiiWi If.:^; I i "*W^^^^ Loch Lomond. This small, though beautiful, lake provides Glasgow with its water supply. The principal island here is " Ellen's Isle," of renown in Sir Walter Scott's "Lady of the Lake." It is 9 miles long, and has an average width of 196 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. 1 mile. It is situated in the narrow valley of " The Trossachs." 3. Loch Awey 23 miles long, and about 2 miles wide, is another beautiful lake surrounded by bold and lofty mountains. 4. Loc/i Ness, in Inverness-shire, is a lonp^, narrow lake in Glenmore. In parts, it is 800 feet deep, and its extreme length is 22 miles. The celebrated Falls of Foyers are close by. 5. Loc/i Shin is another long, narrow lake situated in the Northern Highlands. It is nearly 20 miles in length. 6. Loch Maree is another large lake in the Northern Highlands. It has a number of small islands near its centre. 7. Loch Leven, in Kinross, contains four islands, upon one of which stands the ruins of Loch Leven Castle, where Mary Queen of Scots was imprisoned. Other smaller lakes are Lochs Rannoch, Tay, Lydoch, and Earn, called the Perthshire cluster ; Lochs Lochy and Spey are very much frequented by tourists because of their wild and romantic scenery. Climate. — Compared with England, the climate of Scot- land is more trying, by reason of being much colder and more damp. This is explained by its more northern posi- tion in the first place, and secondly, by its being more exposed to the expanse of the Atlantic Ocean. Scotland is an exceedingly healthy country. The Gulf Stream so far effects the climate as to render the winter season less severe than in other countries situated within the same degrees of latitude on the mainland of Europe. The annual rainfall varies from 20 to 23 inches on the East Coast, and from 30 to 45 inches on the West Coast. It is a curious fact that the cold is oftentimes more severe in the Thames Valley than in the Hebrides or Shet- SCOTLAND. 197 land Isles. This is owing to the prevalence of warm and moist sea-breezes. Agriculture. — The soil of Scotland is generally described as poor, although there are many rich and fertile tracts. The Scotch people are a most industrious and persevering race, so that, wherever it is possible to cultivate the land, crops are produced. About one-fifth of the whole country is under cultivation ; two-thirds may roughly be estimated as pasturage, and the remainder is waste land. Barren and sterile districts are to be met with throughout the Highlands. The first impression a stranger has of Scotland is its somewhat barren appearance, by reason of the dearth of trees in the southern moorlands, and the bold, rugged nature of the mountainous districts of the North. One also misses, in the more remote parts, the home-like appearance of cottage gardens, with fruit trees, flowers, and vegetables. The soil is more adapted for the growth of oats and barley, than wheat or roots. The most fertile districts are Strathmore, portions of Fifeshire, Teviotdale and the Vale of Ayr, and part of Berwickshire, although many smaller tracts of fertility are known. The hilly districts of the Lowlands produce ex- cellent pasturage for sheep and cattle. The chief dairy districts are the south-western counties of Ayr, Wigton, Kirkcudbright, and Dumfries. Natural Productions. — These, with but fev/ excep- tions, are similar to those of England, and in the same way the reversed order of mineral, animal, and vegetable pro- ducts, represents their market value, or extent, as produc- tions. 1. Minerals. — The geological structure of Scotland is less varied than that of England and Wales. Granite prevails throughout the country ; that of Peterhead, in Aberdeen- shire, on the East Coast, is the finest in quality. Both the 198 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Silurian and the Devonian formations occur in the South, while gneiss, schist, etc., are found in the mountainous regions of the North. The Central Plain of Strathmore is composed of red sandstone, which is greatly mixed with local formations. Good building-stone is abundant in almost every part, and there are some good lime-stone quarries in Lanarkshire. The Coalfields of Scotland are of considerable value. They are restricted to one great district lying around the Rivers Clyde and Forth. The chief coalfields are the Fife, situated to the north of the Forth River ; the Lothian, to the south-east of Edinburgh ; the Lanarkshire, around Glasgow ; with several less important fields in Dumfries. The annual yield of coal has been estimated at more than 20 millions of tons. In the Vale of the Clyde and Forth, one large coal-bed extends through a district of nearly 1,000 square miles in extent, thus aflfording an almost endless supply. Lanark is the chief centre of this mining district, and, in consequence, here we find the principal manufactories of Scotland, and this district is more thickly populated than other parts of the country. Within the coal district of Lanark, iron ore is most plentiful, so that smelting furnaces are quite a feature in the landscape. Iron is also found in Fife, Stirling, and Perth. Marble is met with occasionally in Sutherland, Perth, Argyle, and West Lothian. Lead, in large or small quantities, exists in the Lowther Hills, — a part of which range is called the Leadhills, — Lanark, and Dumfries ; also at Dollar in Clackmannan ; Strontian in Argyle ; Belville in Inverness ; and Leadlaw in Peebles. Slate is found in the quarries of Argyleshire. Some local gems, known as Scotch agates, are to be found in several districts. 2. Animals. — The w^ild animals of Scotland are the same SCOTLAND. 199 as those of England, with but few exceptions. The species are smaller and more numerous, owing to the larger area of uncultivated districts, especially in the Highlands, and they consist principally of deer and game, which are largely preserved. The nightingale is seldom heard in Scotland, while many birds from colder countries, which are unknown to us in England, visit this country, such as eagles, solan geese, and several kinds of sea and water fowl. In domestic animals, Scotland can scarcelj'" compete with England either in respect to their size, breed, or numbers ; but several special breeds of cattle, sheep, and horses are reared there ; e.g.^ the horses of Galloway and Clydesdale are most valuable ; and the small ponies from the Shetland Isles are much in demand for pleasure purposes, and chil- dren's use. Another breed of cattle comes from Ayrshire ; and the Cheviot sheep are also excellent. The fisheries of Scotland are extremely rich. The species of fish taken are nearly the same as are found on the shores of England, but the yield is often more abun- dant. Off the North Coast, seals, herring, cod, and haddock are frequently taken ; and from Peterhead, and other towns on the East Coast, besides the Islands of Orkney and Shetland, whale ships are each year despatched on their perilous adventures. Most of the rivers and lakes of Scotland yield large, quantities of salmon, trout, and other fresh-water fish. 3. Vegetable Productions. — These certainly take the lowest place among the natural productions of Scotland. The more northerly position of this country, compared with England, and the poor nature of the soil, quite ex- plains this fact. The natural vegetation comprises some hardier species than we find in England, eg.^ the conifera 200 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. or pine family are more numerous, and more varied in kind than oiirs; while the heather family are far more luxuriant in growth upon the moors or mountains than anything of the kind we possess. Oaks, beeches, and elm trees, with many thorns, are met with in the valleys and lowland districts, but there are whole neighbourhoods quite void of our common forest trees. Natural Productions. — Wheat, and many of our Eng- lish flowers and fruits, do not attain to perfection here, yet it must not be thought that Scotland does not possess a Native Flora ; on the other hand, the Native Flora is an ex- ceedingly rich one, numbering more than 2,000 indigenous plants, although, as we have remarked above, many of these resemble those of colder regions — as the heather, mountain moss, firs, and pines, etc. In some parts of the Northern Highlands enormous pine and fir forests may be seen, not unlike those of Norway. Of late years much has been done to improve the barren appearance of many parts, by the landowners making very large plantations of forest trees, which, in addition to improving the natural scenery, form important covers for game. Mineral Springs. — These are few and unimportant compared with those of England. The best known are the following : — Dunblane, in Perth ; Oban, in Argyle ; Glenelg, in Inver- ness ; and Ballater, in Aberdeen. But of course there are iron springs in many other districts. Natural Curiosities. — Scotland, being still "a land of rugged and wild Nature," presents many natural curi- osities. The chief are : — 1. FingaVs Cave. — This wonderfully formed basaltic cavern, or chamber of gigantic size in the Isle of StafFa, is one of the greatest curiosities in the world. The sides or walls of this cave are composed of regular basaltic columns SCOTLAND. 20I placed closely together, which support a beautifully formed arched roof, in appearance like unto mosaic work. The sea forms the floor, so that it is somewhat difficult of ap- proach, except in calm weather. It is sometimes called " The Musical Cave," as the sea flowing into it produces sounds resembling distant harmony. This cave is 227 feet long, 42 feet wide at its mouth, and 66 feet high. 2. T/ie Bullers, or Boulder Rocks, on the Coast of Aber- deen, are remarkable for their regular curved appear- ance. 3. The Skye Caverns are most remarkable. In fact the whole of Skye consists of "serrated ridges, streets of lava, cup-shaped caldrons, silvery cataracts, mountain lakes, and spar caverns." ^ 4. The Clyde Falls^ in Lanark, are most interesting. Here the River Clyde rushes over a cascade of rocks, 100 feet high, by a double fall. 5. Foyers Fall, in Loch Ness, is another remarkable cascade. 6. Petrifying Springs occur at Hamilton, and Slane Castle, and Mosset Well, in Annandale, which springs sud- denly from a rock, and possesses great mineral proper- ties. These are only just a few examples of Scotland's natural curiosities. The tourist in the Highlands, or Western Isles, will gather more information upon this subject in a few weeks than would fill a volume, so rich is the whole country in Nature's wonders. This part of Scotland is now most accessible to travellers by reason of the Highland Railway's, which traverse the chief districts of interest. People, Race, and Language.— See " Great Britain " (p. 43), and *' England and Wales " (p. 138). ^ Sec Professor Meiklejohn's '•' Geography — Scotland," p. 79. 202 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Religion. — See " Great Britain " (p. 77). Education. — The Scotch as a nation are an educated people, although there may be numerous examples wliere this is wanting in the Western Islands, or the wild moun- tainous Highland districts of the North. There are four Universities in Scotland, which date from medieval times. These still continue to do excellent work in the higher Arts and Sciences. They are — St. Andrews, founded in 1411; Glasgow, in 1450; Aberdeen, in 1494; and Edinburgh, in 1589. The Scotch public and other large schools for the upper and middle classes are annually tested by a Government Board of Examiners, who have power to issue leaving certificates to the students, which are not only a proof of their school attainments, but further frank the holders of them from passing the preliminary examinations at the Universities, including Oxford and Cambridge, the Medical and Law Faculties, etc. The National School System of Scotland is uniform with that of England, but it works under a special code of regulations, called " The Scotch Education Act." Government. — The same as England. Scotland returns 72 Members to Parliament, and 16 Scottish Peers have seats in the House of Lords. Naval Ports. — None of importance. Vessels of the British fleet are stationed at intervals along the coast, which is alike protected by coastguard stations, and studded with lighthouses and lightships,' or floating lights, for the safety of vessels passing by, or approaching, the shores. Seaports. — 1. On the East Coast there are Berwick- upon-Tweed, Eyemouth, Dunbar, Leith for Edinburgh, Bo'ness, Grangemouth, Alloa, Burntisland, Kirkcaldy, Perth, Dundee, Arbroath, Montrose, Stonehaven, Aberdeen, Peter- head, Fraserburgh, Banfl", Inverness, Cromarty, and Wick. SCOTLAND. 203 2. On the North Coast there are no seaports. 3. On the West Coast the principal are Oban, Inverary, Campbelltown, Rothesay, Glasgow (the fourth largest port in Great Britain, and the commercial capital of Scotland), Greenock, Port-Glasgow, Ardrossan, Saltcoats, Irvine, Ayr, and Stranraer. 4. On the South Coast there are Wigton, Kirkcudbright, and Dumfries. 5. The Island Ports are Lerwick in Shetland ; Kirkwall and Stromness in Orkney ; Stornoway in Hebrides ; and Tobermory in Mull. Internal Communication. — For Railways, Roads, Canals and Rivers, Telegraph, etc., see " The British Isles " (pp. 60 and 70). The roads throughout Scotland are proverbially good, owing to the unlimited supply of excellent stone in nearly all parts. Some 4,000 miles of main roads are kept in this way in thorough repair, and so travelling is made compara- tively easy, even in the wildest and most out-of-the-way districts. The railways have considerably increased of late years, and the canal system is sufficient for the require- ments of the mining and trade industries. Commerce. — This is considerable, and increasing in im- portance and value each year. Not only is a large and varied coast trade carried on, but its western port, Glasgow, has a large trade with America, in addition to being one of the chief centres of shipbuilding in the British Isles. The eastern ports, of which Leith, Dundee, and Aberdeen are the principal, possess an important Baltic trade, be- sides sending vessels to the chief trading ports of the world. Imports. — Raw cotton, hemp, wool, flax, food supplies, and colonial produce, with metals, timber, corn, and wines, are among the chief imports of Scotland. 204 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Exports. — Manufactured goods, including cottons, linens, woollens, sailcloth, cordage, also cattle, sheep, fish, iron, coals, and machinery, are the principal exports. Political Divisions. — Scotland is divided into thirty- three counties. These may be arranged under the heads of eleven northern ; eleven central ; and eleven southern counties. Nearly all the counties are maritime, or touch the sea coast; the only inland counties being Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk, Roxburgh, in the extreme South, with Kinross and Clackmannan. The most northern county on the mainland (not including Orkney and Shetland) is Caithness ; the most southern county is Wigtown ; the most eastern county is Aberdeen ; and the most western (not including the Hebrides) is Argyll. The largest county in Scotland is Inverness ; the smallest county in Scotland is Clackmannan. A curious arrangement of the political divisions exists in the manner the islands are included with portions of the mainland to form counties, or taken by themselves for the same purpose ; thus we have Orkney and Shetland forming one county, and Buteshire, consisting of the Islands of Arran and Bute, with Great and Little Cumbrae in the Clyde. Again, Argyllshire includes Islay, Jura, Mull, w^ith numerous smaller islands ; Inverness includes Skye, Harris, North Uist, etc. ; and Ross- shire includes the northern part of Lewis and Harris, etc. SCOTLAND. 205 POLITICAL DIVISIONS TABLE. No Counties. Area. Square Miles. 1891 Population. Chief Towns. Where Situated. Orkney and ( Shetland, \ 375 551 30,438 1 28,711 ) Kirkwall, Lerwick, - | Mainland Island. 3 Caithness, ■ 685 37,161 Wick, Thurso, - .. ^ Sutherland, - 2,027 21,940 Dornoch, Golspie, Dornoch Firth. e Ross and Cromarty, 3,129 77,751 Dingwall, Tain - Dornoch Firth. Inverness, 4,088 88.362 Inverness, Grantown,- ' - River Ness. f Cromarty, - See Ross See Ross Cromarty, Ullapool, - Nairn, - - - 178 10,019 Nairn, Cawdor, - Nairn River, ;?; Elgin, . - - 475 43,448 Elgin, Forres, - Lossie River. a Banff, - 686 64,167 Banff, Keith, CuUen, - Deveron River. > Aberdeen, - 1,970 281,331 Aberdeen, Peterhead, - Dee River. L Kincardine, - 383 35,647 Stonehaven, Laurencekirk, - .. Fife, - - - 492 187,320 Cupar, St. Andrews, Dun- 00 1 fermline, - - - - River Eden. .2 1 Forfar or Angus, - 876 •277,788 Forfar, Dundee, Montrose, c Perth, - - - 2,527 126,128 Perth, Blairgowrie, - River Tay. 1 Clackmannan, 47 28,433 Clackmannan, Alloa, - River Forth. ^ ' Kinross, 72 6, '289 Kinross, - . . . Loch Leven, s. 1 Linlithgow, or ) ! West Lothian, f 120 52,789 Linlithgow, Bathgate, 1 Stirling,. - . 447 125,604 Stirling, Falkirk, - - River Forth, Renfrew, 244 290,790 Renfrew, Paisley, Greenock, s Port-Glasgow, River Clyde, 1 Dumbarton, - 241 94,511 Dumbarton, Alexandria, - River Clyde. p^ i Argyllshire, - 3,213 75,945 Inverary, Campbelltown, - Loch Fyne. 1 Bute, ■ 271 18.408 Rothesay, Brodick, - Isle of Bute. lAyr, . . . 1,128 224,222 Ayr, Kilmarnock, Irvine, - River Ayr. flS 1 Lanark, - 881 1,045,787 Lanark, GLASGOW, River Clyde. "S Edinburgh, or ) Mid-Lothian, / 362 444,055 EDINBURGH, Leith, River Forth. 1 Haddington, or f East Lothian, f 270 37,491 Haddington, Dunbar, River Tyne. s Berwick, 460 32,398 Dunse, Greenlaw, Cold- «. stream, Berwick, - River Tweed, 5 Peebles, - - 354 14,760 Peebles, Linton, - River Tweed. 1 Selkirk, 257 27,349 Selkirk, Galashiels, - River Ettrick. oc Roxburgh, - 665 53,726 Jedburgh, Kelso, Melrose, (U Hawick, .... River Teviot. ^ Dumfries, - 1,062 74,308 Dumfries, Annan, Moffat, - River Nith. 3 Kirkcudbright, ■ 897 39,979 Kirkcudbright, Galloway, . River Dee. Wigtown, - - 485. 36,048 Wigtown, Stranraer, Glen- Totals, luce, Port Patrick, - Wigtown Bay. 29,906 4,033,103 or 134 persons per square mile. Counties : — 1. T/ie Orkney and Shetland Isles form a single county. (^See Islands, p. 180.) 2. Caithness is a maritime county. The coasts are steep and rocky, and the interior barren and lacking trees. The town of Wick is the chief centre of the Scottish herring tisheiy. Stone is quarried throughout this county. The 206 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. most northern dwelling bears the name of " John o' Groat's House." 3, Sutherland is a Highland maritime county situated somewhat parallel with Caithness in latitude upon its northern shores. The population is scanty, as the interior is wild and rocky. Here there are large deer forests, and some sheep rearing is carried on. The inhabitants of the coast are employed in the fisheries. 4 and 5. Ross and Cromarty are generally taken together, as the latter county is made up of fragments, or scattered portions, distributed throughout Ross-shire. These are Highland counties greatly resembling Sutherlandshire in appearance. The northern division of the Island of Lewis belongs to Ross. The fisheries of the coast are important, and some sheep-farming is carried on in the interior. 6. Inverness is the largest of the Scottish counties. The surface is wildly beautiful and rugged. Here, too, deer forests and sheep tracts are abundant. To gain some idea of the grandeur of the scenery of Inverness, the traveller must visit Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in Great Britain, and then pass through the romantic Valley of Glenmore by the Caledonian Canal. Several of the larger of the Hebrides Islands are included in this county. They are Harris, North and South Uist, Skye, etc. The coast fisheries are rich and valuable, and both the sportsman and the angler have excellent pastime in the lochs, rivers, moors, and mountain districts. 7. Nairn is an agricultural coast county lying to the south of the Moray Firth. The soil is more fertile than in many other parts of Northern Scotland, and the coast oflTers good fishing. 8. Elgin, a small neighbouring county, is also fertile near the coast, which is a coast plain ; but in the interior the SCOTLAND. 207 208 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. surface is more of the nature of the Highlands. It also possesses good coast fisheries. The old name for this county was Morayshire. 9. Banff \^ similar in its physical features and industries to Elgin and Nairn, its next neighbours. 10. Aberdeen is a maritime county, consisting of two distinctly marked districts, viz., lowland and fertile in the north and east ; and highland, wild, and mountainous in the south and west. Here we meet for the first time among the northern counties with considerable trade in- dustries in the stone (granite) quarries, the paper mills, and shipbuilding yards. Farming is flourishing in certain dis- tricts, and cattle are reared for the London markets. At Peterhead the whalers are fitted out, and a considerable herring fleet is sent out. Aberdeen, the capital, is called the Granite City. It has an University and a Cathedral, with important manufactures in granite polishing, paper, linen, woollen, and iron goods. The Highland residence of Queen Victoria (Balmoral) is in this county. 11. Kincardine^ another coast county, situated immedi- ately to the south of Aberdeen, is a sportsman's county. It contains the most easterly portion of the Grampian mountains. There are but few industries beyond agri- culture and the fisheries. Stonehaven is another impor- tant herring-fleet station. 12. For^far^ or Angus, possesses a varied surface of hill and valley. Strathmore, one of the most fertile tracts of Scotland, is in this county, so that agriculture is in an advanced state here. Near, and around, Dundee and Arbroath, there are extensive linen and jute manufactures. Shipbuilding, rope, and carpet weaving are also carried on at Dundee and Montrose. 13. Fife^ a lowland county, situated between the Firths SCOTLAND. 209 of Tay and Forth, is a busy manufacturing district. The flat district near the coast is much more fertile than the interior; hence James VI. compared Fife to "a beggar's mantle edged with gold." Towards the south-western side there lies a flourishing colliery district; but by far the most important part of the county is the coast belt, with its seaport, manufactories, and shipbuilding. St. Andrews University is the oldest in Scotland. It takes its name from the Patron Saint of the country. 14. Perthshire is the queen of Scottish counties. All parts are beautiful, whether we pass through the highland wilds or the lowland tracts. Grand and picturesque scenery will be found in the Trossachs, or the mountain heights of the West and South-west. Lochs Katrine, Achray, Vennachar, and Tay adorn the valleys, with numerous smaller ones ; and the rich Carse of Gowrie con- tains the most fertile land in Scotland. The neighbour- hood around the capital (Perth) is exceedingly beautiful, with its woods and hilly pastures; and the wild district of Blair- Atholl, at the foot of the Grampian mountains, is a favourite haunt for tourists. Scone, the ancient crown- ing place of Scotland's kings, is in this county. The coronation stone wgis removed from here to the Royal Chair in Westminster Abbey. There are no manufactures in Perthshire beyond dye works, ropes, and the hosiery trade of the capital. 15. Clackmannan is the smallest county in Scotland. It is a mining county, lying between the Ochil i-ange and the River Forth. The coal and iron obtained here are of excellent quality, and large quantities are exported from Alloa, the port on the Forth, which is the largest town in the county. Excellent ale, and woollen tartans, are made here. 16. Kinross, another small county, is chiefly agricultural 210 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. in its interests. It is completely surrounded by the counties of Perth and Fife. Here lies the famous Loch Leven, where Mary, Queen of Scots, escaped from an island in the lake. 17. LinlithgoWy or West Lothian, is both an apjriciiltural and a mining county. Coal is abundant throughout the western portion, and paraffin oil is distilled from the shale of the eastern district. At Linlithgow Mary, Queen of Scots, was born. Queensferry and Bo'ness, near the Forth Bridge, are the chief ports of this county. 18. Stirling. — This county consists of two marked divi- sions. The eastward portion is mining and manufacturing, with a dense population ; but the western part is agricul- tural, and but thinly peopled. Stirling and Falkirk are the two centres of trade. The Castle of Stirling stands upon a bold eminence at one end of the town, and near by may be seen the site of Bannockburn Battle. The Bridge of Allan, immortalised by the pathetic ballad of " The Miller's Daus^hter," is now a fashionable health resort. 19. Renfrew. — This small county is one of the most important in Scotland. Its industries comprise mining, manufactures, and shipping. Iron founding, and ship- building are the chief trades, although sugar refining, woollen, silk, and cotton goods, with soap, and large engineering works are to be met with at Renfrew, Paisley, Port-Glasgow, Greenock, and Johnstone. 20. Dumbarton. — This is a mountainous, rugged county, containing mining and manufacturing districts. Coal, iron, slate, and limestone are procured as natural products, and its manufactures include cotton, calico weaving, and printing, with shipbuilding on the Clyde, which really is the source of most of the trade of this part of Scotland. The chief centres are Dumbarton, Alexandria, and Helens- burgh. The beautiful Loch Lomond is in this county. SCOTLAND. 211 with its ever varying scenery from Balloch to Ardlui in the Highland district of Rob Roy's country. 21. Argyle is a delightfu] district of mountains, lochs, peninsulas, islands, inlets, and capes. Its coast-line, by reason of the broken nature of the Western shores, is of considerable length, being about 600 miles from end to end, inclusive of the islands. Tourists, probably, visit this county- more than any other of the Scotch counties, as Oban on the coast is the chief port for the Hebrides, and the Western Tours through the Highlands, and other districts. Granite is quarried in great quantities, and the coast abounds in excellent fisheries. Inverary, Oban, Campbelltown (noted for its whiskey distilleries), and Dunoon are the chief towns. 22. Bute. — The county of Bute consists of the islands of Bute, Arran, Great and Little Cumbrae in the Firth of Clyde. {See '' Islands," p. 180.) 23. Ayrshire. — The dairy-farming district of Southern Scotland also possesses extensive coal mining districts in the North, and near the sea, so that its coast towns are of im- portance ; the chief being Ayr, Ardrossan, Saltcoats, Troon, Girvan, and Ballantrae. Kilmarnock is a manufacturing centre for woollen and ironware goods. The poet Burns was a native of Ayr. 24. Lanark. — The most populous centre of manufac- tures and commerce along the banks of the Clyde is not altogether a pleasant county, although there is a pastoral district in the southern, or upper part, where there are extensive sheep farms. The Clydesdale horses and orchards are also well-known throughout the country. The lower portion includes the principal commercial and manufactur- ing districts of Scotland ; the cotton and iron trade, in addition to the chief foreign trade and shipbuilding, centres around the Clyde in the towns and neighbourhood of 212 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Glasgow, Hamilton, Coatbridge, Rutherglen, Motherwell, Lanark, Airdrie, etc. 25. Edinburgh, or Mid-Lothian, is an agricultural county, with some collieries and stone quarries. The chief town of importance is Edinburgh, the capital city of Scotland, which is often styled the " Modern Athens^' by reason of its noble position, and its magnificent buildings. Its ports are Leith and Granton, Newhaven, Portobello, and Mussel- burgh on the Forth ; and the first corn market of Scotland is at Dalkeith, situated at the junction of the North and South Esk in this county. There are important paper mills in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. 26. Haddington, or East Lothian, is one of the best agri- cultural districts of Scotland. The surface is generally level, and the soil fertile, especially the lands bordering the Firth of Forth. There are a few coal mines in the- western side of the county. Beyond this there are few industries, except in the towns of Haddington, the capital ; Dunbar, a seaport ; and North Berwick, which stands at the entrance to the Firth of Forth. 27. Be7"wick, or Merse. — This county is situated at the foot of the Lamraermoor Hills, and stretches to the River Tweed, which forms its opposite boundary. The main part of this district is a fertile plain. There are many interesting ruins in Berwickshire, vis., Coldingham Priory,. Fast Castle, and Dry burgh Abbey, which last contains the burial-place of Sir Walter Scott. Greenlaw is the county town ; but Berwick, or Aberberwick, is of more importance,, situated as it is at the mouth of the River Tweed, although this, after many years of independence, is now regarded as- an English town. 28. Peebleshire, or Tweeddale, is a pastoral county of regular undulating surface ; green hills with fertile valleys, succeed each other. The northern side of this county joina SCOTLAND. 213 the Midlothian coal district, but there are no industries here beyond agriculture and sheep farming. The chief town is Peebles, on the Tweed. 29. Selkirkshire is another pastoral district, but rather more hilly than Peebleshire. The noted vales of Yarrow and Ettrick, with the forest and river of the same name. are in this county. Selkirk, the county town, has im- portant woollen manufactures ; and tweeds, tartans, and shawls are also made at Galashiels, which is now the chief centre for Scottish clan goods of this kind. 30. Roxburghshire^ or Teviotdale^ is a beautiful pastoial 214 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. and agricultural county, formed by the Vale of Teviot, and the basin of the Tweed River, and extending to the Cheviot range of hills. This is particularly the country of Sir Walter Scott, inasmuch as it contains Melrose Abbey, and Abbotsford his home. Besides the breeding of cattle and sheep, there are extensive manufactories of woollen goods and tweeds at Jedburgh, the county town; Hawick, and Kelso. 31. Dumfriesshire is divided into a hilly pastoral district in the north, and fertile lowlands in the south. Cattle, sheep, and pigs are reared in large numbers. The chief valleys are named after the rivers flowing through them, as Nithsdale, Annandale, and Eskdale, with Sol way Strath^ and Lochar Moss, in the extreme south. Dumfries is the capital. It is a fairly large town, and contains the chief market for the farmers of the south-western district of Scotland. Moffat possesses a mineral spring, and dur- ing the summer, tourists frequent this place for the waters. 32. Kirkcudbrightshire is another pastoral and agri- cultural county. The most fertile district is the lower portion bordering the Solway Firth. • The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in rearing cattle and sheep. Pigs are also bred in large numbers. One part is very hilly and wild ; Mount Merrick, the highest point, is 2,760 feet high. Near Creetown are large granite quarries. The capital is Kirkcudbright, which is a pretty seaport upon the estuary of the River Dee, where it enters the Solway Firth. 33. Wigtownshire is also a pastoral and agricultural county. The cattle here, and in Kirkcudbrightshire, are highly valued, and exported with agricultural produce from the capital and seaport Wigtown ; also from Stranraer, and Port Patrick, where the Irish steamboats ply across the North Channel to Belfast. It is only 21 miles across SCOTLAND. 215 V^». .- The University^ Edinburgh. 2l6 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. the Channel here to Donaghadee on the Irish coast ; that is about the same distance as from Dover to Calais across the Straits of Dover. Towns. — The chief towns in Scotland are : — Edinburgh, the capital, including the port of Leith ; Glasgow, the largest commercial and manufacturing city ; Dundee, Aberdeen, and Inverness, the capital of the High- lands, etc. 1. Edinburgh. — This city, which is both a royal and a parliamentary borough, as well as the metropolis of Scot- land, is situated upon the southern side of the Firth of Forth. The town is divided into two parts, Old and New Edinburgh. In the old town, the streets are exceedingly narrow, and the houses are built very high, sometimes jutting out in queer angles and irregular shapes, so that the tops nearly touch each other ; but in the new town the streets are among the finest in Europe ; Princes Street being unrivalled for its beauty of scenery and imposing buildings. Edinburgh is the terminus for several railway systems, and the most perfect system of tramways connects every part with Princes Street. The Castle stands upon an imposing eminence overlooking the public gardens, museums, and galleries which form one side of Princes Street. No wonder that travellers have named Edinburorh ''the Modern Athens," or the city of palaces. The Palace of Holyrood was for a time the seat of royalty for Scotland's rulers, and its associations are rich in the history of the unfortunate Mar}', Queen of Scots; while it was from here that James VI. of Scotland de- parted to claim the English throne as James I. of England. Edinburgh possesses two Cathedrals — St. Mary's Epis- copal, and St. Giles, which is the chief centre of the Scottish Presbyterian Church. There is also a University. Edinburgh has long been noted for its culture and SCOTLAND. 217 The Trongate, Glasgoiv. 2l8 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. literature. Its publishing trade still takes a high place, although of late years several of the leading firms have transferred their principal houses of business to London. Silk weaving, brewing, glass, chaire, fancy goods, jewellery, ropes, nails, shoes and boots, besides woollen and tweed goods, are among its manufactures. The population in 1891, including Leith, was 338,268. Leith, the port of Edinburgh, was originally a separate town, but for some years past streets have been added until the two now form one city. The commercial trade of Leith is of the highest importance. Besides the coast trade with England, and other parts of Scotland, vessels now ply regularly with the Baltic; the Mediterranean; and other parts of the world; bringing in colonial and foreign pro- duce in exchange for coal, iron, and home manufactures. 2. Glasgow. — This city is really the largest in Scotland. Its importance, so far as trade and commerce are concerned, place it far in advance of Edinburgh, It ranks as the sixth port in the United Kingdom, if we include the foreign trade of Greenock on the Clyde. From its unrivalled posi- tion, being situated on the greatest commercial river, and in the centre of the iron and coal districts, it is but little wonder that Glasgow claims to be the commercial capital of Scotland. Its manufactures comprise linen, woollen, silk, and cotton goods, muslins, machinery, steamships and rail- way engines, ironware and goods of all kinds, glass and pottery, calico printing, dyeing, brewing and distilling. In short, Glasgow has become the Birmingham, and the Liver- pool, of Scotland combined in one city. Its busy streets are full of fine buildings, erected for the promotion of culture, education, art, science, and amusement. It possesses a fine University and Cathedral; a Free Church College; noble Municipal and County Buildings ; Hospitals and Railway Stations ; Markets and Theatres. Its Public Parks are ex- SCOTLAND. 219 220 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. tensive, and laid out with taste and skill. Its water supply is abundant, coming from Loch Katrine, some 30 miles dis- tant. Its shipbuilding-yards are the wonder of nations; and its population in 1891 was 755,000. 3. Dundee^ a flourishing seaport, situated in Forfarshire on the north shore of the Firth of Tay, on the East Coast of Scotland, is the third largest town in Scotland. For several years this town has been the chief centre of the linen and jute manufactures of the country, but of late there has been some decline. It also carries on a consider- able trade in preserved provisions. The foreign trade is about £5,000,000 per annum. Here, too, is the chief seat of the whale and seal fishery trade. Ships are fitted out each year for tliis remunerative, though dangerous employment. The town has also an important coast trade, and fish-curing and drying give employment to many persons. The population in 1891 was 153,587. 4. Abei'deen, one of the chief cities of the North of Scotland, stands between the mouths of the Don and the Dee. It consists of the two towns of Old and New Aber- deen. Aberdeen is both a Cathedral City and a University. The chief manufactures are cotton and woollen fabrics, ropes, sailcloth, soap, and paper. Some shipbuilding is also carried on. Near to Aberdeen there are extensive granite works and quarries at Peterhead. The population in 1891 was 124,943. 5. Inverness, the capital of the Northern Highlands, stands on the River Ness, on a plain at the meeting of the basins of the Murray and Beauly Firths. It is hemmed in by mountain screens upon the land side, which add both beauty and grandeur to the scenery. It is a general meet- ing place for tourists for the many places of interest that are in the neighbourhood. The manufactures are small and unimportant, and as a port Inverness stands in a minor SCOTLAND. 221 position. This city contains a Cathedral, municipal build- ings, and excellent hotels, which during the summer and autumn seasons are crowded with travellers from all parts of the United Kingdom. The population in 1891 was 20.855. Teade and Manufactures :- Trade. Chief Towns and Centres of Manufacture. Woollen Cloth ... ,, Blankets ,, Tartans ) Tweeds ] ,, Shawls ,, Carpets Cotton Goods Linen Goods and Jute Silk Goods Iron- founding ... Shipbuilding Ale and Beer . . . Whisky Cutlery Fancy Goods Soap and Candles Glass and Pottery Paper Haddock and Fish- Curing, etc.. Galashiels, Selkirk, Stirling, Glasgow, Hawick, etc. Hawick is chief centre for Scotch Blankets and Flannels. Stirling, Galashiels, Bannockburn, etc. Dumfries. Paisley, Kilmarnock, Galashiels, Glasgow, etc. Kilmarnock, Glasgow. Glasgow, Paisley, Galashiels and neighbourhood. Dundee, Dunfermline, Forfar, Arbroath, Mon- trose, etc. Paisley, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Calder, Shotts, etc. Falkirk (Carron) and neighbourhood, Devin, Muirkirk, Clyde, Shotts. Glasgow, Greenock, Port-Glasgow, Ardrossan, Dundee, Aberdeen, Leith. Glasgow and Edinburgh, etc. Campbelltown, Glenli vet, Balloch, Edinburgh, etc. Kilmarnock, Glasgow, Falkirk (Carron), etc. Paisley, Dundee, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Gala- shiels, etc. Glasgow, Leith, Prestonpans, Aberdeen, Paisley, Dundee. Glasgow. Penicuik in Midlothian, Edinburgh, etc., etc. Stonehaven, Findon, Bervie, etc. Battlefields : — Inverness. — Inverlochy, 1645 ; Culloden Moor, 1746. Nairnshire. — Auldearn, 1645. Perthshire.— VLQi\\'^^i\, 1309 ; Tippermuir, 1644; Killie- crankie, 1689; Sheriffmuir, 1715. Argyllshire. — Glencoe, 1692. 222 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Stirlingshire.— '^iivlm^, 1297 ; Falkirk (1) 1298; Ban- nockburn, 1314 ; Kilsyth, 1645 ; Falkirk (2) 1746. Lanarkshire. — Langside, 1568 ; Bothwell Bridge, 1679. Selkirkshire. — Philiphaugh, 1645. Roxburghshire. — Roxburgh, 1460; Ancrum Moor, 1545. Haddingtonshire. — Dunbar (1) 1296 ; Haddington, 1548 ; Dunbar (2) 1650; Prestonpans, 1745. Midlothianshire. — Pinkie, 1 547. Elginshire. — Forres Sweyno Stone, 1014. Ross and Crojnarty. — Glen Shiel, 1719. Ayrshire. — Loudon Hill, 1307 ; Drumclog, 1679. Fifeshire. — Inverkeithing, 1651. Dumfriesshire. — Solway Moss, 1542. Aberdeenshire. — Aberdeen, 1644. History. — The original name for Scotland was Caledonia. The earliest known inhabitants were two Celtic tribes of a warlike nature, called Picts and Scots. Several of the Roman Governors of Britain, finding that they could not overcome these savage people, built large walls from coast to coast to prevent their frequent incursions. It was to destroy the power of these northern tribes that the British, after the withdrawal of the Roman armies, invited the Saxons to come to their aid. For several centuries a fierce warfare was carried on without much gain to the English. It was not till the reign of the warlike king, Edward I., that the brave and independent spirit of the Scotch nation was crushed, and then it proved to be a work of great difficulty to make headway against such noble leaders as Wallace and Bruce. During the weak Government of Edward II. everything was regained by the Scotch armies ; and once more Scotland was proclaimed an independent dynasty, with its own ruler and Government. Matters remained in this state until the two Crowns were united in 1603, by the Scottish king, James VI., becoming James I. of Enorland. bTar OF THE OF IMPERIAL BRITAIN. MAP JC. IRELAND 1 KeTfli Jdhaston lE.S.E. ijo 20 1 LongittLde We at 9 of Greeirwijch xgittLde Wy&.A.K. Jo"hnstoii,Edia"bur^ and London. PART V. IRELAND. Name. — The native title for Ireland is " Ernia " or " Erin — the Green Island," by reason of its supreme fer- tility and verdure. The Romans called the island "Hiber- nia, or The Wintry Land," because they considered it to be a damp, cold, and dreary place. Shape and Aeea. — Ireland is an irregularly-shaped, oval island, containing about 32,520 square miles of territory, or about half the area of England and Wales. Extent. — The greatest length is measured from Fair Head in the North-east to Mizen Head in the South-west, a distance of 300 miles ; and the greatest breadth is from Down Head in the East to Slyne Head in the West, about 200 miles. Position. — Ireland, the third largest island in Europe, being somewhat smaller than Iceland, is situated in the Atlantic Ocean, about 60 miles to the west of the island of Great Britain, this distance being reduced, however, in the narrowest part, the North Channel, to 21 miles. It lies between the parallels of — latitude, 51° 26' and 55° 23' north of the Equator ; longitude, 5° 20' and 10° 26' west of Green- wich. The Atlantic Ocean surrounds the North-west and South shores; but in the East the sea has the different names of the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and the Bristol Channel. Coast-line. — The exposed position of the North, West, and South Coasts of Ireland to the storms of the Atlantic is the cause of the broken coast-line. The rocks are precipitous, 223 224 . IMPERIAL BRITAIN. and in many parts well-nigh inaccessible from the sea on the North, West, and South Coasts; but the East Coast ismore flat; although hidden rocks and sandbanks abound. The length of this irregular and much-broken coast-line is 2,200 miles, which gives an average of one mile of coast to each 14 square miles of area. The magnificent coast scenery of the North and West far surpasses that of any other part of the British Isles, and more resembles that of Norway than the scenery of our shores. There are two wonderful inlets on the North Coast, Loch Swilly and Loch Foyle; and here, too, we find the greatest natural curiosity of Ireland in the remarkable columns of basaltic rock, called Giant's Cause- way, which extends along the coast for more than 2,000 feet. The same kind of formation is found in Fingal's Cave. (See " Scotland— Isle of Staffa.") Capes and Headlands. — From the preceding description given of the Northern and Western Coasts of Ireland, it will naturally be assumed that the rocky, bold, and rugged scenery is remarkable in these parts. The near proximity of the chief mountain groups to the coast, which in several points appear to project quite into the sea, produces a grandeur of scenery not to be surpassed in the British Isles. The high rocks, and the irregular nature of the whole coast- line of the North and West, give a peculiar wildness to the country as viewed from the Atlantic. The principal Capes or Headlands are : — On the North Coast: — Fair Head, Bengore Head, In- ishowen Head, Malin Head, Horn Head, and the Bloody Foreland. On the West Coast : — Dawros Head, Rossan Head, Malin- beg Head, St. John's Point, Knocklane Head, Rathlee Head, Downpatrick Head, Benwee Head, Erris Head, Saddle Head and Achill Head on Achill Island, Emlagh Point, Aghros Head, Slyne Head, Black Head, Hag's Head, Loop IRELAND. 225 Point, Dunmore Head, Bray Head, Bolus Head, Crow Head, Mizen and Brow Heads. The Southern and Eastern Coasts are lower and less marked than the Northern and Western, although a number of important headlands exist there, which adds greatly to the beauty of the coast-line. On the South Coast, if we continue our journey, we find : — Cape Clear, Galley Head, Old Kinsale Head, Power Head Blackball Head, Mine Head, Helvick Head, Hook Head, and Carnsore Point. On the East Coast there are : — Green ore Point, Cahore Point, Mizen Head, Wicklow Head, Howth Head, Clogher Head, Down Head, and Garron Point. Bays and Haebours. — These are numerous and im- portant, the chief being on : — The North Coast: — Ballycastle Bay, Lough Foyle (see Lakes), Lough S willy. Sheep Haven, and Innishbofin Bay. The West Coast : — Trawenagh Bay, Loughros More Bay, Donegal Bay, Sligo Bay, Killala Bay, Broad Haven, Black- sod Bay, Clew Bay, Galway Bay, Mai Bay, Mouth of the Shannon, Tralee Bay, Dingle Bay, Kenmare River, Ban try Bay, with many other smaller ones. The South Coast. — Ross Bay, Courtmacsherry Bay, Kinsale Harbour, Cork Harbour, Youghal Harbour, Dun- garvan Harbour, Waterford Harbour, and Barrow Bay. The East Coast. — Wexford Harbour, Dublin Bay, Drog- heda Bay, Dundalk Bay, Carlingford Bay, Dundrum Bay, Strangford Lough, Belfast Lough, Lough Larne. N.B. — The old Celtic word ''Lough'' is used in Ireland to represent either an inland lake, or a large opening on the coast. Straits. — The North Channel, separating Ireland from Scotland at its north-eastern point, is about 21 miles in breadth. p 226 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Islands. — Numerous small islands stud the Northern and Western shores of Ireland. These are really detached portions of the mainland which have been separated from it by the violence of the Atlantic waves which beat upon these shores. The total area of these islands is 270 square miles, or about equal in size to Anglesea in North Wales. The chief islands on the North Coast are Rathlin, Innishtrahull, and Tory ; on the West Coast there are North Arran, Achill, Clare, Innishturk, Innishbofin, Innishshark, Arran Group, Bear, and Valentia, which forms the last telegraph station on land on the submarine cable route to America. On the South Coast the only three islands of note are Cape Clear Island, Spike, and Saltee ; and on the East Coast there are Lambay Island, Ireland's Eye, and Dalkey. Several of these islands are uninhabited, but they form lighthouse and fishing stations, and are invaluable both to the coast inhabitants and to navigators. The following detailed description of the six principal islands and groups will suffice to show their nature and use to the Empire, as well as to the inhabitants, who pick up but a scanty subsistence from fishing, or fi'om collecting the wrack, or sea-weed, for medicinal purposes, and the making of kelp, or calcined ashes, used in the manufacture of glass. Rathlin Island, situated off the North Coast of Antrim, is a small island some four miles from the shore. The surface is rocky, affording a rough herbage for sheep, which are the only animals on the island. The inhabitants are a poor, uneducated race, chiefly employed in fishing. It is a coast- guard station, and contains a lighthouse. Church Bay is the only village of importance on it. It is mentioned in history as being the hiding-place of King Robert Bruce of Scotland during his exile. Achill, or Eagle Island, is situated on the Western Coast IRELAND. 227 of Mayo County. It is separated from the mainland by a narrow passage of about a mile in breadth. This is the largest of the islands of Ireland, being about 16 miles broad, and 7 miles long, with a circumference of 80 miles. Its surface is unequally divided into mountain and bog land. The inhabitants are either fishermen or shepherds ; they are rude in their manners, and extremely simple in their ways of living. At KeeJ, the coastguard station, there is a church surrounded by small dwelling-houses. A small island called Achillbeg is included with Achill. These islands are named from a small species of eagle found there. Arran Islands. — Area, 11,300 acres. Three small islands lying at the entrance of Gal way Bay. Arranmore is the largest of this group. The people are engaged in the coast fisheries, or work in the marble quarries, of which there are several on the islands. Flocks of puffins, a curious kind of sea-bird, inhabit the rocks on the coasts. A lighthouse, 500 feet high, was built on Arranmore in 1817. In olden times these islands were a favourite resort for hermits and others who wished to lead a retired life. Valentia Island, situated to the south of Dingle Bay in Kerry, is an exceedingly fertile and well-cultivated tract, and it is the most thickly-populated island in the country. Length, 6 miles ; breadth, 2 miles. The town of Valentia is the most western port of the British Isles. It is the last British station of the Atlantic Submarine Telegraph Company, and from it the cable is laid between England and America. A great number of its inhabitants work in the stone quarries. They are a much more intelligent and cultivated race than the inhabitants of the other islands. Corn, flax, and vegetables are produced here. Clear Island, or Cape Clear, is the most southern point of Ireland. The surface is rocky and barren, only a small 228 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. ^ part being under cultivation. The inhabitants, called Capers, are employed in fishing and working in the stone quarries ; they were originally great smugglers. Vast flocks of sea-birds make their homes here. Physical Features. — The whole country resembles a slightly depressed plain in the centre, surrounded on all sides by coast mountains and highlands. This plain is most fertile, being well watered by numerous rivers and lakes which have given rise to the title of Emerald Isle, and justly so, because the natural verdure of the surface is seldom so universally met with in any other country. Like Scotland, there are elevated highlands, vast lakes, and lovely streams in Ireland ; but unlike Scotland, its mountains are clothed with verdure, and its lakes and rivers are generally surrounded by extremely fertile dis- tricts instead of wild moorlands. The bogs, which com- prise about one-tenth of the whole area, are the most remarkable natural feature of the country. Many tourists visit Ireland each year. Mountains and Hills. — The mountain system of Ire- land is most irregular, for there are but few continuous chains. Roughly speaking, there are four groups or mountain districts, known by the suggestive titles of Northern, Eastern, Southern, and Western Highlands. The Northern Highlands consist of the Donegal range with Mount Errigal, 2,460 feet, and the Mountains of Antrim, which are about 2,400 feet high ; also a smaller range in Londonderry, the Carntogher Mountains. The Eastern Highlands include the Mourne Mountains in the North-East, with Lugnaquilla, 2,039 feet high ; the Wicklow Hills with Slieve-Donard, 2,796 feet. The Southern Highlands are made up of several detached ranges, of which the principal are Knockmeledown Moun- tains, 2,609 feet; the Galtee Mountains, 3,015 feet; the IMPERIAL BRITAIN. MAP XT. 10 Hei|bit8 Coast line to _ 2SO feet p ZSO to 500 ff L 500 to IBOO .. L isootfzsoo.. m Jiaye, ZSOO ,. M Isotinemui . Jany . Ju2y Depfhfl Coatt lint/ to ZSO fioet ZSOtoSOOff SCO to 1500 ^ 1500to2500„ ZSOOtoSOOO.. Beio^ 5000 „ JiMxrd.^ W.i- A..K:.Jolm:non,IHmb»i-gK fc .ioua_oa. iTb^ '^N,,,- 1',i Of 5ftNlA IRELAND. 229 Silvermines, 2,278 feet; and Slieve Bloom, 1,733 feet. The Western Highlands are more numerous and lofty than those of other parts. Here are situated the Kerry Ranges, including the Macgillicuddy Reeks, with Car- rantual, 3,414 feet, the highest point in Ireland. The Mountains of Connaught, with Nephin Beg, 2,060 feet, and Croagh Patrick, 2,510 feet, in the County of Mayo ; the Connemara Ranges, which also comprise the Twelve Pins Group and the Galway Mountains. Plains. — There is, generally speaking, but one large central plain in Ireland. The natural arrangement of the mountains around the coasts gives to the country a saucer- like appearance, so that this plain extends from Galway Bay in the West to Dublin and Dundalk Bays in the East ; and from Lough Neagh in the North as far as the Slieve Bloom Range in the South. Several of the river-basins or plains are of a fair size. Rivers. — Ireland possesses an excellent river system, but they are generally slow in motion, and small in size, as the central parts of the country are so fiat. The principal rivers are : — A. The Shannon is the largest river in the British Isles, although it is 14 miles shorter than the Severn, and it occupies a similar position to the Severn in England and Wales. It rises in the Fermanagh Hills to the north of Lough Allen, and flows in a curved south-westerly direc- tion for a course of 224 miles, until it enters the Atlantic by means of a grand estuary. Its fall is not more than one foot to the mile, so that its waters are extremely sluggish. During its course its banks widen out to form several loughs or lakes, the chief being Loughs Allen, Ree, and Derg. Its tributaries on the right bank are the Suck, and Fergus ; and on the left bank the Inny, Brosna, 230 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Magne, and Deel. The towns of importance standing on its banks are Leitrim, Carrick, Athlone, Killaloe, and Limerick, which is situated at the head of the estuary, where it immediately widens out before entering the sea. This river is navigable for more than 200 miles of its course. B. The Barrow is the second largest river of Ireland. It rises in the Slieve Bloom Mountains, and flows in a southerly direction for 114 miles, finally entering the sea in Waterford Harbour. It possesses onl}^ two tributaries of importance — the Suir and the Nore on the right bank. This river is navigable as far as Athy, some 60 miles from the sea. The other towns on its banks are Carlow and New Ross. C. The Suir, which, though properly named a tributary of the Barrow, is sometimes considered as a separate river. It is 100 miles long, and flows in a south-easterly direction from the Slieve Bloom Mountains into the River Barrow, just before the latter enters Waterford Harbour. The towns on its banks are Thurles, Holycross, Calni, Olonmel, Carrick, and Waterford. D. The Blackwater rises near the Lakes of Killarney in Cork County, and flows first eastwards and then south- wards, a distance of 105 miles, until it falls into Youghal Bay. Its chief tributary is the Bride on the right bank. The towns situated on its course are Mallow, Fermoy, Lismore, and Youghal. E. The Liffey is but 75 miles in length. It rises in the Wicklow Hills, near the East Coast, and by a circuitous course flows into the Irish Sea, through Dublin Bay. At its mouth stands Dublin, the metropolis of Ireland, which alone gives it importance, as no other large towns stand upon its banks. F. The Bann, on the North Coast, drains Lough Neagh, IRELAND 231 and after a course of 100 miles enters the sea through Lough Foyle. Other smaller rivers are the Foyle on the North Coast ; the liagan, 40 miles, flowing into Belfast Lough ; the Boyne, 80 miles ; and the Slaney, 70 miles, on the East Coast, flowing into Wexford Harbour. The Boyne was noted for the famous battle of 1690, when William III. defeated James II. near Drogheda. On the South Coast, the Lee, 60 miles, the mouth of which river forms the famous Cork Harbour ; and the Bandon, 40 miles, flow- ing into Kinsale Harbour. On the West Coast, the rivers, with the exception of the Shannon, are small and unim- portant. Only two need be mentioned here — the Moy, which enters Killala Bay ; and the Erne, which partakes of the double nature of both lake and river, which flows into Donegal Ba}'. Lakes. — Ireland has been sometimes called the " Land of Lakes." The number and size of these large tracts of water may be accounted for by — 1. The heavy rainfall of the country. 2. The flatness of the interior. 3. The natural formation of the higher lands, moun- tains,and high rocks, which surround the coast-line. In this way a large portion of the water of Ireland is prevented from immediately making its way to the sea, so that it naturally collects in the depressed districts, and forms inland lakes. The united area of the Irish lakes is estimated at 712 square miles. 1. Lough Neagh is the largest lake in the British Isles. Its area is 154 square miles in extent, being about 20 miles long, and nearly 10 miles broad, and its waters possess strange petrifying properties. Compared with the Lakes of Scotland and England, it is three times as large as Loch Lomond, and nearly fifteen times as large as Windermere. 232 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. The banks of this lake are low, and although a number of small streams flow into it, yet there is only one outlet, the Bann ; so that after the rainy months, a very large additional area is flooded, and the lake appears to be nearly twice its natural size. 2. Lough Erne is 150 square miles in area. It is really two lakes — the Upper and the Lower Erne — connected by the River Erne. A pleasant feature of these lakes are the numerous islands. The fishing is of the highest im- portance. 3. The Highland Lake Group consists of Loughs Conn, Corrib, and Mask in Connaught. Lough Corrib is mysteri- ously connected with Lough Mask, the waters running through an underground channel. The irregular shape and picturesque wild scenery to be found in the neigh- bourhood of these lakes make them popular with tourists. 4. The Shannon Lakes are Loughs Allen, Eee, and Derg. They are merely extensions of the river banks over de- pressed areas. 5. The Lakes of Killarney are the Queen of Irish Lakes. This lovely group is situated in Kerry County. The three principal are called by the names of Upper, Middle, and Lower Lakes. Their united area equals 10 square miles. Here may be seen the finest scenery in Ireland, and, perhaps, by reason of its varied nature and freshness, the most beautiful in the British Islands. The Lakes of Killarney have been thus described by the Rev. C. S. Ward, M.A., joint-editor of The Thorough Guide Series, " Ireland," Part II., pp. Ill, 112 : — " Nowhere else in these islands are woodland, lake, and mountain scenery, all of the utmost beauty, so exquisitely combined. It is, moreover, natural scenery almost un- touched, certainly quite unimpaired, by man's handiwork ; and the few ruins that there are around the lakes are IRELAND. 233 picturesque adjuncts rather than noteworthy historical monuments. The one thing wanting in Killarney is verdant valley scenery, such as, by contrast, gives to the English Lake District its unique charm. What will pro- bably most impress the visitor with a sense of beauty is the marvellous colouring, due, we imagine, to the sunshine passing through an atmosphere which, in ordinary seasons, is constantly being purified by passing showers." Other smaller lakes are Loughs Arrow and Gill, in Sligo ; Derravaragh, Owel, and Ennel, in West Meath ; Oughter and Sheelin, in Cavan. Climate. — The Evergreen Island has received its title by reason of the salubrity and freshness of its climate, which is certainly both mild and temperate in the extreme. The summers are cooler and the winters warmer and more equable in temperature than in England, but the average rainfall is three days out of four, and this perpetual moisture produces the beautiful verdure of the fields and plants. The bogs are most extensive, occupying an area of no less than five millions of acres, or about one-tenth of the whole country. These, in no small degree, add to the humidity and mildness of the climate. Soil and Agriculture. — Generally speaking, the land is fertile and productive. Of course there are barren and poor districts, but potatoes, corn, flax, and nearly all root crops flourish beyond the average, where care and labour are expended upon their production. Unfortunately, political troubles have for many years past hindered the full progress of agriculture ; yet statistics show a marked improvement in many parts, and as a large proportion of the inhabitants are dependent upon the land crops, or the rearing of sheep and cattle, this is an all-important matter, and the general prosperity of the country is influenced largely by it. 234 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. For many years the proper cultivation of the land was neglected, and in consequence the people suffered greatly from poverty. Much has been done to improve matters by the introduction of machinery and the opening up of fresh tracts of waste land for agricultural purposes, as well as by the encouragement of markets and centres for the sale of cultivated products. In certain districts the old customs of " Conacre " and " Tenant-right " still exist, and aid to maintain the high standard of agriculture. Yet, on the whole, the smaller holdings are among the drawbacks to Ireland's prosperity as a nation. Natural Productions. — These naturally range them- selves under the three heads of — L, Animal ; II., Vege- table ; III, Mineral. I. — Animal Productions. A. Wild Animals. — In ancient times Ireland was much more thickly wooded than it is now. Dense forests stretched away far and wide over its surface, and these were inhabited by many obsolete wild animals, of which only the fossil remains, in the bogs or river-beds, are left to tell of their past existence. The bones of an enormous species of elk, together with the mammoth elephant, the sea-falcon, and several kinds of carnivorous animals now extinct, are occa- sionally to be met with. The native fauna now consists of the fox, badger, otter, hare, rabbit, squirrel, weasel, rat, and mouse, as in England. The birds are similar to those in Britain, with a few additional sea-birds, such as eagles and puffins, which are found on the Western Coast. Neither moles, nor venomous reptiles, are to be found in Ireland. An old legend ascribes their banishment from the island to the work of St. Patrick. B. Domestic Animals. — These are the same as in England. The Irish cow.s, of various breeds, yield large quantities of excellent, rich milk, which is made into butter for home IRELAND. 235 use and exportation to England. The pig probably ranks as the chief domestic animal. It is not an uncommon sight to meet with this animal in the country districts sharing the fireside of the cotter and his family. Geese, poultry, ducks, are to be met with everywhere. Enormous quanti- ties of Irish eggs are for sale in the English markets. C. The Fisheries. — The coast fisheries are not so ably worked as they might be. There is a marked want of enterprise and spirit in carrying out this important work, which is far from being so remunerative as it ought to be. The coasts literally teem with fish of the most valuable kinds. Most of the inland lakes also contain large quanti- ties of excellent fish, and the numerous rivers produce excellent sport for the angler. II. Vegetable Pkoductions. — The native flora of Ire- land comprises many rare and interesting species of plants beyond the well-known trees, shrubs, and flowers commonly met with in Great Britain. Some of the most striking and curious kinds are the Irish rose, the arbutus, which was introduced by the monks of Spain in the Middle Ages, and is now grown in full luxuriance in the neighbourhood of Killarney. This remarkable plant bears blossoms with green and ripe fruit at one and the same time, in a similar way to the orange plant. Other uncommon plants are the Irish furze, the yew, strawberry tree, numerous heaths, and sea-weed of all kinds on the coasts. The forests of Ireland are now of minor importance, but the country is generally well wooded. The chief forest trees include the beech, oak, elm, chestnut, firs of all kinds, and maple. Trunks of enormous trees have been dug out of the bogs at a depth varying from 10 to 30 feet. Among cultivated products, corn, especially barley, stands first for perfection of growth, while flax, hemp, rye, etc., thrive almost as well as in Russia. Root crops are rich 236 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. and abundant. Tobacco, beetroot, and wheat are grown for exportation ; but fruit does not ripen either so well, or so readily, as in England. III. Mineral Productions. 1. Geology. — The geological strata of Ireland may be divided into : — A. Rocks of primary formation found in the moun- tainous districts and highlands. These are greatly broken by igneous rocks of a volcanic nature. B. Other mixed formations are found in the interior, the most common being limestone, chalk, and old red sandstone. The bogs appear to have a foun- dation of clay and gravel intermixed with lime- stone. The bogs are composed of peat, or soft turf, partly decomposed. No unhealthiness is produced by these damp vegetable formations, as they contain a great deal of tannic acid, which is the life principle of all vegetable astringents and is naturally conducive to health. 2. Minerals. — A. Coal is found in many parts, but it is of an inferior quality to that obtained in Britain. The largest coal centres are in the North-eastern, the Midland, and the South-western districts, but the produce is small in amount, so that coal is imported to the larger centres of trade and population from England. The chief coalfields are in Leinster at Wicklow, Kilkenny, Carlow, and Queen's County ; other coalfields are Tyrone and Antrim in the north of Ulster ; Cork, Kerry, Limerick, and Clare in Munster. Peat is the universal fuel of the country districts ; and as this is plentiful, the scarcity of coal is not so much felt as otherwise it would be. B. The iron mines are rich and productive in Cork, Down, Wicklow, and Carlow, where both copper and lead, IRELAND. 237 with a little silver, are found. Marble, granite, building and other stone, limestone, fuller's earth, and manganese are widely diffused throughout the country. 3. Mineral Springs. — There are chalybeate springs at Golden Bridge near Dublin, Castle Connel near Limerick, Mallow in Cork, and Ballynahinch in Down. 4. Natural Curiosities. — A. By far the greatest natural curiosity in Ireland is the Giant's Causeway, situated on the North Coast. It consists of a regular succession of columns, pentagonal, hexagonal, and octagonal in shape, and fitting closely and compactly together. This formation is so complete and regular in structure, that it presents the appearance of having been constructed by hand. This line of columns stretches out for 3,000 feet into the sea ; and a singular feature about it is that the same formation is met with on the opposite coast of Scotland. Probably the old legend that the Irish giants of ancient times constructed this pathway through the sea, for the purpose of travelling over it to subdue the natives of Scotland, originally gave to it the name of " The Giant's Causeway." One part of it, near Bengore Head, is called*' The Organ," from its peculiar resemblance to that instrument. B. The petrifying nature of the waters of Lough Neagh is so great as to change wood and other soft substances into stone. C. The marble rocks of Lough Lene. These beautiful rocks are islands standing out of the lake, and to add to the charm of the natural scenery, the surface of these islands is clothed with luxuriant vegetation. D. The Cascades of Bantry in Cork County, and Powers- court in Wicklow, are remarkably tine ones. 238 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. E. "The Devil's Punchbowl is a deeply-set mountain tarn, about 600 yards long, and the scarped sides rise more or less abruptly from the water's edge, though not to such an extent as to make a rough scramble along the margin impossible." (Ward's " Ireland," Thorough Guide Series, p. 120.) Race and Language. — The old inhabitants appear to have belonged to the Celtic race. In the Northern Province of Ulster, they are the same race as the English and the Scotch. The people of Connaught are also of Celtic origin, and they still speak the Erse, or Gaelic, language. In Leinster and Munster they are of Celtic and Saxon descent, and generally speak the English language. The Irish people are warm-hearted and kind by nature, but they possess a hasty, excitable temper, and as they are easily led by fanaticism into open rebellion, they have been considered fickle in purpose. Undoubtedly England has been much to blame in the past in not helping forward the trade and manufactures of the country. Ireland possesses but little national wealth, and English land- owners and manufacturers have too often been content to draw wealth from the country, without encouraging the welfare and prosperity of the people in propor- tion. Population. — The population of Ireland in 1891 was 4,704,750. These figures show a decrease in the last ten years since 1881 of 91 per cent., probably owing to the large number of persons who have left their native country for America, Australia, South Africa, and other of our foreign possessions. Political Facts— Counties. — Ireland is divided into IRELAND. 239 four large provinces, which are again sub-divided into 32 counties, as follows : — A. Maritime, 17. B. Inland, 15. I. Ulster^ in the North, contains 9 counties — A. 4 Mari- time ; B. 5 Inland. A. Antrim, Down, Londonderry, and Donegal. B. Armagh, Tyrone, Fermanagh, Monaghan, and Cavan. II. Leinster, in the East, contains 12 counties — A. 5 Maritime ; B. 7 Inland. A. Dublin, Wicklow, Wexford, Meath, and Loutb. B. Kilkenny, Carlow, Kildare, Queen's County, King's County, West Meath, and Longford. III. Munster, in the Soutb, contains 6 counties — A. 4 Maritime ; B. 2 Inland. A. Waterford, Cork, Kerry, and Clare. B. Limerick and Tipperary. IV. Connaught^ in the West, contains 5 counties — A. 4 Maritime ; B. 1 Inland. A. Leitrim, Sligo, Mayo, and Galway. B. Roscommon. The largest county is Cork ; the smallest is Louth. The most densely-populated county is Antrim ; the least populated is Carlow. 240 IMPERIAL BRITAIN TABLE- POLITICAL FACTS, IRELAND. ULSTER- Nine Counties. County. Area. Square Miles. Population, 1891. Capital and other Towns. Antrim, 1,190 427,698 Belfast, Antrim, Carrickfergus, Lame, Lis- burn, and Ballymena. Down, ■ 957 266,893 Bownpatrick, Newry, Newtownards, Warren Point, and Donaghadee. Londonderry, 816 151,666 Londonderry, Coleraine. Donegal, 1,870 185,211 Donegal, Lifford, Ballyshannon, Moville. Armagh, 513 143,056 Armagh, Lurgan, Portadown, Newry. Tyrone, - 1,260 171,278 Omagh, Strabane, Dungannon, Clogher. Fermanagh, - 714 74,037 Enniskillen, Newtown Butler. Monaghan, - 500 86,089 Monaghan, Clones, Carrickmacross. Cavan, - 746 111,697 Cavaii, Cootehill, Belturbet. I .EINSTER- Twelve Counties. Dublin, - 354 4^,111 Dublin, Kingstown, Balbriggan. Wicklow, - - 781 61,934 Wicklow, Bray, Arklow. Wexford, - 901 111,534 Wexford, New Ross, Enniscorthy. Meath, - - - 906 76,616 Trim, Kells, Navan, Dunboyne. Louth, - 315 70,852 Dundalk, Drogheda, Carlingford. Kilkenny, 796 87,154 Kilkeniiy, Callan, Thomastown. Carlow, - 346 40,899 Carlow, Tullow, Bagenalstown. Kildare,- 654 69,988 Athy, Kildare, Maynooth, Naas. Queen's County, - 664 64,639 Maryborough, Mountmellick, Portarlington. King's County, 772 65,408 Tullamore, Philipstown, Parsonstown. West Meath, 708 65,028 MuUingar, Athlone. Longford, 421 52,553 Longford, Ballymahon. MUNSTEI L— Six Counties. Waterford, - 721 93,130 Waterford, Lismore, Dungarvan. Cork, - - - 2,890 436,641 Cork, Queenstown, Youghal, Kinsale, Bantry, Ban don. Kerry, - - - 1,850 178,919 Tralee, Listowel, Dingle, Kenmare, Killarney. Clare, - 1,294 123,859 Ennis, Kilrush, Killaloe. Limerick, 1,064 158,563 Limerick, Newmarket, Rathkeale. Tipperary, - 1,659 172,882 Clonmel, Carrick-on-Suir, Cashel, Thurles. ( )ONNAUGH T— Five Counties. Leitrim, 613 78,379 Carrick-on-Shannon, Leitrim. Sligo, - 721 93,338 Sligo, CoUooney, Dromore. Mayo, - 2,126 218,406 Castlebar, Ballina, Killala, Westport. Galway, 2,452 214,256 Galway, Ballinasloe, Tuam, Loughrea. Roscommon, 949 114,194 Roscommon, Castlereagh, Elphin. IRELAND. Trade and Manufactures: — 241 Trade. Chief Towns and Cejjtrbs of Manupactukbs. Linen Goods . . . Belfast, Drogheda, Lisburn, Lurgan, Newry, Ballymena, Ooleraine. Cotton Goods . . . Belfast, Dublin, Tullamore, and neighbourhood. Coarse Woollen Goods Dublin, Wicklow, Belfast, Kilkenny district. Broad Cloth ... Dublin and neighbourhood. Ironfounding ... Carrickfergus, Cork, Belfast district. Shipbuilding ... Cork, Waterford, Dublin, Belfast, Londonderry. Ale and Porter... Dublin, Belfast, Castlebellingham. Spirits (Whiskey) Cork, Dublin, Belfast, Clonmel, Roscommon, Limerick, Bushmills. General Wares... Dublin, Cork, Bandon, Londonderry, Belfast, Drogheda, Newry. Mixed Goods ... Waterford, Limerick. Gloves and Lace Limerick, Dublin, Cork, Belfast. Industries. — In addition to the above, the chief industry of the Irish people in the country districts is the rearinor of cattle, pigs, sheep, horses, and poultry. The farm produce includes potatoes, oats, rye, and root crops. The ordinary English cereals do not abundantly flourish, as agriculture is at a low ebb. The bog land is also a drawback to farming in many districts. Seaports : — North Coast : — Londonderry. West Coast : — Dingle, Tralee, Limerick, Galway, West- port, Sligo, Ballyshannon. South Coast: — Castletown, Skibbereen, Kinsale, Cork, Queenstown, Youghal, Dungarvan, Waterford, New Ross. East Coast: — Wexford, Kingstown, DuVjlin, Drogheda, Dundalk, Strangford, Belfast, Carrickfergus. Naval Ports. — Queenstown, in Cork Harbour, is an im- portant naval station. Vessels belonging to the British squadron are stationed at intervals along the coasts for pro- tection and defence, Q 242 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Military Stations. — These are located at Belfast, Cork, Curragh, Dublin, etc. ^ Towns : — 1. Dublin. — The Metropolis of Ireland stands on both IRELAND. 243 banks of the River LlfFey. It contains two Universities ; two Cathedrals (Christ Church and St. Patrick's) ; the Govern- ment Buildings and Vice-Regal Lodge, or residence of the Lord-Lieutenant, as the Queen's representative is called; 244 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. the National Bank and post-office ; many fine churches, and other public buildings, including barracks, clubs, law- courts, theatres, etc. The bridges, quays, and docks are of the finest architecture, and the streets — of which Sack- ville Street is the principal — are well paved and lighted. IRELAND. 245 246 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Its public walks and drives are indeed beautiful. One drive which completely encircles the town is nine miles in length. Phoenix Park is about 1,300 acres ; and other public places are St. Stephen's Green; the Botanical Gardens; and Glasnevin Cemetery. The port of Dublin is Kingstown on Dublin Bay. An extensive passenger traffic and general trade is conducted from Kingstown, as it is the principal station and port for the mail steamers to and from Holy- head and Liverpool. Its manufactures and trade comprise stout and porter breweries, cabinetmaking, whiskey, poplin^ cotton and linen goods, and fancy wares. The city, com- pared with other towns in the British Isles, takes an eighth place, being next in size to Sheffield, being less in popu- lation than Liverpool, Manchester, Glasgow, Birmingham, Leeds, and Sheffield. The population of Dublin and the suburbs in 1891 was 311,209 ; and the port of Kingstown contains an additional 17,322 persons. 2. Belfast. — This important seaport is the second town in Ireland, and the chief commercial and manufacturing centre of the country. The town is situated on Belfast Lough, at the mouth of the River Lagan. It contains ex- cellent streets, squares, and costly buildings. The foreign trade is considerable, and the landing quays are crowded with the produce from all parts of the world. Tlie chief trade and manufactures consist of shipbuilding, linen and cotton goods, glass, chemicals, calico printing, distilling and brewing, ropes and sail-cloth, hats and tobacco, etc. The population in 1891 was 255,950. 3. Cork is the third town of importance in the whole country, and the chief seaport in the South of Ireland. It stands on a commodious harbour called the *' Cove of Cork.'* The streets and buildings are among the finest in the country. Its trade is extensive — comprising shipbuilding, IRELAND. 247 the export of grain, provisions, cattle, linen and cotton goods ; and its manufactures include cutlery, mixed goods, gloves, whiskey, etc. The population in 1891 was 75,345. 248 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. 4. Limerick stands upon the opening of the Shannon estuary. The inland trade is of considerable importance. The town, which is well arranged, paved, and lighted, is divided into three parts by the river, viz.^ English Town; Irish Town; and New Town; which are connected by several fine bridges. The chief objects of interest are the cathedral, the court-house or gaol, the custom-house, the commercial buildings, several banks, breweries, and various manufac- tories. Its trade is shipbuilding, tanning, distilling, iron- founding, and the manufacture of lace, gloves, fancy goods, paper, etc. The population in 1891 was 37,155. 5. Londondeny, or Derry, as it was originally called, is situated on the North Coast of Ulster, upon an arm of Lough Foyle. The city stood a remarkable siege in 1689. The hill upon which it stands is called Derry Island, and it is surrounded by massive walls, nearly 24 feet high. Several fine buildings ornament the streets. There are extensive flax mills, distilleries, breweries, flour and paper mills, which provide employment for a great number of people. The population in 1891 was 33,200. 6. Waterford stands upon the Suir, about 12 miles from the sea. The town was founded by the Danes in 850, and soon grew into importance. The Quay, and the Mall, are the principal streets. The public buildings include the two cathedrals, several churches, the town-hall, court-houses, hospitals, etc. This seaport is the chief town of the export trade with Bristol. The population in 1891 was 20,802. Government. — The Government is semi-independent under the Crown of Great Britain, which appoints a Governor, called the Lord-Lieutenant, who holds office only during each successive Ministry, yet his power and his IRELAND. 249 Court are almost Regal during his term of government. Ireland returns 103 members to the English House of Com- mons, and 32 out of 188 Irish Peers have seats in the House of Lords. 250 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Religion. — Seventy-five per cent, of the people are Roman Catholics ; the remainder are Protestants. Besides the Church of Ireland, nearly every religious sect is tolerated, but Dissenters are not nearly so numerous as in Great Britain. {See " British Isles," p. 77.) A. The Roman Catholic Church in Ireland is pre- sided over by 4 Archbishops, 24 Bishops, and 3,429 Clergy. B. The State Church, or Church of Ireland, was dis- established in January, 1871, by Act of Parlia- ment. It is governed by 2 Archbishops, 10 Bishops, and about 1,500 Clergy. Education. — There are three Universities in Ireland, two belonging to the Church of Ireland and one to the Roman Catholic Church. Queen's Colleges have been established at Belfast, Cork, and Gal way ; and at Maynooth, in Kil- dare County, there is a large Roman Catholic Theological College. The national system of education was in a backward state before 1860, when every possible means was employed to raise the standard. Commissioners, elected by the Government, took over the management and control of the schools and teachers, so that the national school system is now both extensive and complete in its machinery and arrangements to provide a good education for the children of the poorer classes. Revenue. — Ireland contributes about £6,895,807 to the National Exchequer of Great Britain. Internal Communication. — Railways and Canals, etc. {See '' British Isles," p. 60.) Commerce. — Below that of either England or Scotland, yet considerable. Tlie foreign trade of Belfast, Cork, Waterford, and Limerick is annually increasing. It is carried on with North America, the Mediterranean, the IRELAND. 251 West Indies, etc., in addition to the extensive home trade with Great Britain. Imports. — These are similar to Great Britain, consisting chiefly of raw produce, wool, cotton, silk, and flax, colonial goods and food supplies, coal, machinery, timber, salt^ clothing, and manufactured goods, wine and brandy, also bark for tanning. Exports. — Food supplies, chiefly dairy and poultry pro- duce, cattle, pigs, sheep, horses, poultry, oats, whiskey, stout, flax, ropes and cordage, leather, etc. History. — The early history of Ireland is clouded in obscurity by the prevalence of ancient traditions having been transmitted from generation to generation, each of which probably contributed some additional superstition relating to both religion and national customs. The great Celtic Saint, Patricius, or St. Patrick, was Britain's first great missionary, and his sphere of work was Ireland, although it is often stated that he was preceded by Pal- ladius, another missionary sent from Rome. St. Patrick was born in Britain towards the end of the fourth century. At an early age he was taken prisoner by some Irish pirates to their own land, and sold as a slave to Miliuc, an Irish chief, who treated him well. After seven years, he escaped to Britain, but some twenty years later, he returned as the apostle, or missionary, to the Emerald Isle, where he met with marked success, and converted hosts of all classes to Christianity ; hence he was selected as the Patron Saint of that country. To return to history, the conquest of Ireland commenced in 1170, and Henry II. of England claimed the subjuga- tion of the Irish chiefs five years later. Yet this conquest was not completed until the fall of Limerick in 1691, when William, Prince of Orange, defeated the Irish, who had taken up the cause of James II. after his abdication of the 252 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. English throne. Order was finally restored for some years, after the Battle of the Boyne. Another rebellion was sup- pressed in 1798, and in 1801 the Kingdom and Crown of Ireland was incorporated with the Crown of Great Britain, and an Act was then passed uniting the two kingdoms under one Government. Battlefields. — Drogheda, in Louth, 1649; London- derry Siege, 1688 ; Newtown Butler, in Fermanagh, 1689 ; Aughrim, in Galway, 1690 ; Battle of the Boyne, 1690 ; Limerick, 1691 ; Vinegar Hill, in Wexford, 1798. PART VI. BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN EUROPE. 1. Isle of Man, in the Irish Sea. 2. Channel Islands, off the Coast of France. 3. Gibraltar, at the Entrance to the Mediterranean Sea. 4. Malta, with Gozo and Oomino Islands, in the Mediterranean Sea. 5. Cyprus Island, in the Mediterranean Sea. IMPERIAL BRITAIN. MAP XII. I R H SEA JvrbyTomt "TabielcuLdPP BeaA ^^^'^smia. LigUSo. •chi6ken,m ISLE OF MAN En^sh Mfles o 6 PtstantSO Miles West of Cumherlaxvcb Cocusb. BMxLwajys thubs 'i°4o' Lan^tuAB "West of Greenwitih. W.S,- A.K.Joiii.-non,'i;.Hmbiii-|h & Lonaon. PART VI. BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN EUROPE. ISLE OF MAN, OR MONA. Position. — The Isle of Man occupies a central position in the Irish Sea, being nearly equi-distant from England, Scotland, and Ireland. It is situated between the parallels of latitude 54° 3', and 54° 25' north of the Equator ; longi- tude 4° 18'', and 4° 47" west of Greenwich. Area and Shape. — This lovely island, which has been compared by Mr. Hall Caine to a " Manxman's Carrane " (pointed-toed shoe), is 34 miles long — north-east to south- west — from the Point of Ayre to Chicken Rock Light- house, and from 10 to 12 miles broad. In other words, it is an irregularly-shaped parallelogram. The total area is 230 square miles. Physical Features. — Those who have not visited Manxland have certainly missed one of the brightest spots in the British Isles. Mr. Hall Caine in his pamphlet, " The Little Man Island," says : " All islands are beautiful, when looked upon from the sea ; but I know of nothing so lovely as the Isle of Man when you approach it from the English side towards the fall of night. The sun is then going down behind it, and from point to point the land lies grey on the blue line of the horizon, breaking it like the dim ghost of a snowstorm on a summer's evening. Coming nearer, the grey strengthens, the blue deepens, and the 255 256 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. island sits on the water like a sea-gull in the late sunshine. As jT-ou get closer, and the sun dips behind the land, the mountains become purple, and a haze lies at your feet over a multitude of little peaks which you know to be the spires and towers of a town. Closer still, the spires and towers are thrown up into the luminous air, and the vast glass domes of Douglas catch the dying glory of the sky." So it is that this island comprehends all the physical beauties of the British Isles with the exception of lakes. " It has a high, rockbound coast, rivalling in height and in grandeur of form the highest and wildest parts of the Western Coasts of Scotland or Ireland, against which the restless, changeful sea frets and foams ; with rugged cliffs and huge promontories, whose weather-blackened crags are hollowed by the waves into far-reaching caves, and narrow winding passages, and upon whose shelving ledges are perched myriads of sea-birds of various form and plumage. Above this Cyclopean sea-wall, the land slopes upwards into the mountainous interior ; the lower parts rich with cultivation, and thickly dotted with villa, farm, and cottage ; the higher parts green with perennial pasture ; the uplands a blaze of yellow gorse, or dark with purple heath, and weather-stained rock ; and above all, the long series of mountain peaks soaring high into the bright sunny air." 1 This rugged coast-line is broken at intervals with sylvan glens of rare beauty through which sparkling streams find their way to the ocean. Far away in the mountains there are other fairylike glens and valleys ; such as Glen Rushen in the West ; Ravensdale, or Sulby Glen, or Glen Auldyn in the North ; or Balline, or Cornah, or Laxey Glen in the J From " Manxland as a HoUday Resort," published by the Official Board of Advertising', Isle of Man. ISLE OF MAN, OR MONA. 257 East; or the Baldwin Glens, or Glen Moar, and the Rhenass Valley, or Glen Helen in the centre. The sides of these glens are mountain slopes, varying in height from 1,000 to 2,000 feet, and covered with heath, gorse, or trees, Bradda Head, Isle of Man. with here and there waterfalls and streamlets, flowing from above to perfect the ever-varying scenery. Mountains and Hills. — From this description, it will be seen that the surface of the Isle of Man presents rich and varying features of mountain, hill, valley, and wooded 258 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. glen. The chief heights are Snaefell, 2,034 feet; and other peaks are Injebreck, Mount Murray, Pen-y-phot, Cronk-ny-Indy Thaa, North and South Barrules, and the Greeba Hills. The famous Tynwald Hill, between Peel and Douglas, is the scene of the ancient open-air Parliament held each year on old Midsummer Day, July 5th, when nearly the whole of the inhabitants assemble to hear the Governor, the Bishop, and the Senior Deemster proclaim the laws in English, and in Manx, after a short religious service has been held in St. John's Church near by. The day is concluded as a general midsummer fair or holiday, in which officials, visitors, and people, all enter into the amusements provided for this annual gathering. Rivers.— These are small in size, but exceedingly pic- turesque, and they afford excellent fishing; trout and other small fish being most plentiful. Unfortunately, the Glen- faba, or Santon Burn, one of the most beautiful streamlets, has of late been poisoned by the washings from the Foxdale lead mines ; but the Silver Burn which flows from South Barrule Hills ; the Neb passing through Glen Helen ; the Sulby River, which enters the Irish Sea at Ramsey; the Laxey from Snaefell; and the Glass, which forms Douglas Harbour, still remain in their primitive beauty and freshness. Climate. — In spite of the old legend that, in olden days, Mannanin, the famous magician, lived alone on the island by concealing it under a cloud of mist, the climate is in these days simply perfect. The air is dry, clear, and brac- ing, and there is almost perpetual sunshine. Its winter temperature is higher than that of Ventnor, in the Isle of Wight, and the island is remarkably free from sudden storms, or changes of a severe nature. Soil and Agriculture. — The soil is not only produc- tive in the valleys and lowlands, but the inhabitants are ISLE OF MAN, OR MONA. 259 most industrious, so that they make the most of their ad- vantages. Corn, flax, pulse, potatoes, and vegetables are the chief productions. The influence of the climate on vegetation here has been ably set forth by the President of the Natural History and Antiquarian Society, Dr. Tellet, F.E.G.S., who -states : — "Exotic trees and plants . . . which have to be kept under glass — at anyrate during the winter months — grow and South Stack Lightf Holyhead. flourish in the open air in the Isle of Man. I might instance the veronica, escallonia, macrantha, and the fuchsia, which thrives in almost any situation. The cordyline, Australis, Ti, or cabbage tree, introduced from New Zealand, grows to the height of twenty feet. The chanthus and geranium may be seen growing against walls, while the palm will grow in sheltered situations; the 26o IMPERIAL BRITAIN. camellia, too, is quite hardy, and quite recently was in full bloom in February." Animals. — All the domestic animals of England are found here. Black cattle, sheep, horses, and goats are numerous. The elk and wild goat were once the undis- puted rangers of the many hills, but civilisation has long since caused them to become extinct. Political Divisions. — The island is divided into six " sheadings " or counties, each of which is placed under the superintendence of a coroner, or civil oflBcer. The three Northern sheadings are Ayre, GarfF, and Kirk Michael ; the three Southern sheadings are Middle, Rushen, and Glenfaba. Towns. — The four towns are : — Douglas^ the capital and largest town, now the seat of Government, on the East Coast ; Ramsey^ a quaint and pretty port on the North- East Coast ; Peel, on St. Patrick's Isle, with its grand old ruins of the Castle and ancient Cathedral of St. Germain, on the West Coast ; and Castletown, the ancient capital, also on the Coast, to the extreme South of the island. Of late years these interesting towns have been connected with a railway. Other rising places are Laxey, Port Erin, and Port S. Mary. People. — The Manx are a Celtic people, hardy, honest, and industrious. They are as much at home in their herring-boats as tilling their soil, so that they combine the sturdy hardihood of the mariner with the contented nature of the landsman ; and, above all things, they love their island home and its primitive life and customs. Language. — This is a dialect of Erse, or Gaelic, mixed with Norwegian. It is called Manx. {See p. 87.) Government. — The island is governed by a Lieutenant- Governor, who holds office under the Crown of Great Britain. He is ably assisted by a court of officials, forming one House of Parliament : and besides there is a House of ISLE OF MAN, OR MONA. 261 Keys, or Parliament of the People. These together form the Tynwald or Open-air Parliament, which is one of the most ancient legislative customs of the civilised world. All bills, after passing both Houses, receive the Royal assent, but do not become law until delivered in both the English and Manx languages on the Tynwald Hill. Revenue. — The public revenue, according to Whitaker, in 1896-7, was £77,287; and the public expenditure was £69,778 ; while the public debt amounted to £284,352. Religion. — The island forms a diocese of the English Church under the title of Sodor and Man. Commerce. — The trade of the island chiefly consists in exporting the productions, viz., excellent lead, zinc, and slate, building stone, cattle, wool, hides, and herrings. The imports are the same as Great Britain. History. — Few countries can boast of a more romantic past than this island, which has come down to us with its ancient constitution, legislature, and language, which was once the national tongue of Great Britain ; its quaint folk lore ; its antiquities ; its Celtic Ogham inscriptions and Scandinavian runes, carrying us back to the earlier ages of Christian worship, and even to the heathen habits of a wild and uncivilised earlier period. By strange links the early history is connected with that of the Hebrides, and the kingdoms of Scotland, and Scandinavia. The old Nor- wegian pirates formed a settlement in the Western Isles of Scotland, and the Isle of Man, whose kings reigned supreme at Rush en Castle, and became most prosperous, until in 1263 the Scotch king, Alexander III., defeated their great chief, Haco, at Largs. Henry IV. of England seized the Isle of Man, and gave it to his favourite, Stanley, the ancestor of the present Earl of Derby. From them it passed to the AthoU family, until, in 1765, the English Parliament purchased the island for £70,000. THE CHANNEL ISLANDS. Names. — The Channel Islands are the only remaining portion of the ancient Duchy of Normandy still retained by the Crown of Great Britain. These beautiful islands are not colonies. They belong to the Queen of England as the representative of the ancient Dukes of Normandy. Hence they are governed by their own laws, and the British Parlia- ment rarely interferes with the internal affairs of Govern- ment. They are directly under the control of the Lieutenant Governor, who represents the Crown of Britain ; and all business matters are transacted directly through the Home Office, and not through the Secretary of State for the Colonies. Professor Freeman describes this state of things thus : — " Practically, the islands have, during all changes, remained attached to the English Crown ; but they have never been incorporated with the kingdom." (" Historical Geography of Europe," chap, xiii.) The chief islands are Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, Sark, Herm, Jethou, Little Sark, the Caskets, with smaller ones. Area. — The area of the whole group is 73 square miles. Population. — In 1891, 92,272, which gives the remark- ably high average per square mile of 1,264 persons. Position. — Alderney, the nearest island of the group, is situated 60 miles south of Portland Bill, and 7 miles west from Cape La Hague on the French Coast. Climate. — Very mild, and remarkably free from ex- tremes of heat and cold. Snow seldom falls ; there is an abundant rain supply, and strong sea-breezes make them 262 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. MAP XI J I. CHAT^^NEL ISLANDS [Mile* Querns^ dtstant 70 mUes Saudv ■frvnv 33L of TariLaivd/, Doraeb . Jtajihv^Guy.s thus -»**•*-**» Submarine^ Tde^p'ocph Txnes, thus Sab.Tal or 3.T L«JDA. ^cst 2' of Greeawr. /tl., /^^<1« ^0,^_ ^ ^^^^demey 1 islv Mill s 2 3 ♦ 5 s^-gfe-.^ W. & AJC. Joluiatoii, Edinburgh fc LondiJn THE CHANNEL ISLANDS. 263 healthy. Hence they are attractive to visitors, and in- valids resort here when other places are unsuitable. People and Language. — The inhabitants certainly re- semble the French, more than the English, in language and manners. A large number of English people have settled in the islands, but these have unconsciously become a part of the older inhabitants, so far as habits and customs go. The native language is a broken Norman patois. The principal, or official, tongue is French; but English is understood in all parts. Religion. — The State Religion is the Church of England. These islands are included in the Diocese of Winchester. Trade and Commerce. — These are so important that the local taxation has been reduced considerably, and the islands are in a high state of prosperity by reason of the zeal and industry of the inhabitants. The passenger and goods traffic from England alone requires two daily steamboat services from Southampton (L. & S.W.R.) and Weymouth (G.W.R.) ; besides occasionally others during the summer months from London, Plymouth, etc. Government. — In civil matters the Governor is assisted by the local legislature called " The States," the Crown Officer of which is called " The Bailiff," who presides over the fifty members, clerical and lay, constituting the Government. The Royal Court consists of twelve jurats elected by the inhabitants, and these form the judicial court. History. — These islands were added to Normandy by the old sea-pirates, or Northmen, as early as the ninth century. By the Norman Conquest of England they be- came the home possessions of the Conqueror Dukes. Since 1066, they have remained a possession of the English Crown ; although the French have repeatedly tried to re- gain them. In 1120, The White Ship, with Prince William and his sister, the children of Henry I., and more 264 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. than a hundred young nobles, perished on the treacherous Casket Rocks ; and upon the same spot in 1744, the Victory^ with 110 guns and 1,100 men, went down. Jersey proved a refuge for the Earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., in his flight after the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471 ; and at a later date Charles II. visited this island during his exile. In 1781, St. Heliers, the capital of Jersey, was taken by the French, who held it for a short period, when it was retaken by the English. William IV. landed in Guernsey in 1831 ; and in August, 1846, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visited the island, when the Victoria Tower was erected to commemorate the event. JERSEY. This is the largest and chief island of the group, being about 45 square miles in area. It is situated about 15 miles from the French Coast. In shape it is quadrangular. Tiie greatest length, from East to West, being 12 miles, and the breadth from North to South is about 7 miles. Coast-line. — The coast-line is much indented, and there are several good harbours. Its length is 47 miles. The rocks on the coast are broken and generally precipitous ; on the north side they rise to some 200 feet above the sea level. The approach to the island is extremely dangerous owing to the great number of small islands and hidden rocks which surround the coasts. The Surface. — The interior is undulating and well diversified by woodland and streamlets, which, added to the rugged coast scenery, makes the island both picturesque and beautiful. Agriculture and Productions. — A rich and productive soil well cultivated gives the whole island the appearance of one vast garden plot, in which fruit, flowers, vegetables THE CHANNEL ISLANDS. 265 266 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. and corn flourish. An active trade is maintained with England in vegetables, fruits, and flowers of nearly every kind. The domestic animals are excellent, including the famous Alderney and Jersey cows, small horses, pigs, sheep, and goats, and other English and French pets. The fisheries of Jersey are of great value. Lobster, cod, and oysters are abundant. Political Divisions.— The island is divided into parishes: the chief being St. Heliers, St. Owen, St. Lawrence, St. Clement, St. John, St. Brelade, St. Mary, St. Martin, St. Saviour, St. Peter, Trinity and Grouville, so named respec- tively after the churches standing in them. Towns. — The chief towns are St. Heliers — the capital, which is a busy seaport, as well as a fashionable watering- place — St. Aubyn ranking next in importance, and there are numerous smaller places. Commerce. — This is extensive, and increasing each year. Cattle, potatoes, oysters, cider, fruit, fish, and dairy pro- duce are exported ; while the inhabitants import woollen and cotton goods, machinery, glass and china, English manufactures, and hardware ; wine and spirits from France, also colonial produce. The population in 1891 was 54,518. GUERNSEY. The ancient Roman Sarmia is the " Green Isle " or Queen of the Group for both climate and coast scenery. It is about 9 miles long, 4 miles broad, with a circumference of about 27 miles, and an area of 24 square miles. The shape is an irregular triangle, with its longest side point- ing from N.E. to S.W., and it possesses a similar coast-line to Jersey, only that the steep and dangerous rocks lie upon the southern side. THE CHANNEL ISLANDS. 267 Agriculture. — This is similar to Jersey. The chief feature which strikes a stranger is the division of the land into small holdings or farms, which elsewhere might hinder the prosperity of the inhabitants, but here by their energy and industry it is made both productive and profitable. Political Divisions. — Here the same arrangement of parishes, or districts, as in Jersey is met with, the principal being St. Peter Port, St. Saviour, St. Sampson, St. Peter in the Wood, St. Martin, St. Andrew, The Vale, The Forest, Catel, and Torteval. Towns. — St. Pierre, or St. Peter Port is the capital. It stands upon an excellent harbour, in a sheltered position upon the Eastern, or French Coast, side of the island. Other places are Torteval, Catel, etc. The people, language, commerce, and trade are similar to Jersey. The population in 1891, with Herm and Jethou Islands, was 35,339. ALDEKNEY ranks the third island in size of the Channel group. The French call it Aiirigny ; but its ancient Roman name was Arinia. It is only 4 square miles in area, being but 4 miles long, and 1^ miles broad, with a coast-line of nearly 12 miles. The Channel, separating Alderney from the French Coast, is about 7 miles wide. It is called the Race of Alderney. The surface of this island is much elevated. The rocks on the coast are high and dangerous, and the whole island is surrounded with sunken rocks and small islands, of which the well-known group called The Casquets are the most formidable. The chief towns are St. Anne's and Brayd The population in 1891 was 1,857. 268 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. SARK. The beautiful island of Sark, also called Serk or Ser^j is another of the Channel Islands lying 6J miles eastward of Guernsey. It consists of Great and Little Sark, which are united by a narrow neck or rock nearly 200 feet in height, and called " The Coupee" The scenery here is simply mag- nificent. On either side the sea stretches out far and wide, while the numerous rocks which skirt the coast and make it dangerous to vessels, cause the waves to lash with fury upon the narrow belt of land as though they were threaten- ing its immediate destruction. This island is strangely weird and beautiful in its aspect, whether we view it from the land or from the sea. It consists only of one parish, and the inhabitants are fisher- men, although they are largely employed in the cultivation of corn, vegetables, and fruit at such times as they are not en- gaged upon the water. The population in 1891 was 570. IMPERIAL BRITAIN. "W-XTA-tCJohnsTn-n. E _^ _. ^ Kya-ofaAL, Pert Hacirjju_ Raj alSahefi 1 1 Strcbdxti ReoZc Z Portoy ReaU. 3 Governor's Pal,'^ 4. S^JcQ7n.9 Couth}- 6 ,9. VcujIs Ch, ti Acbniraity i Pojrt OfHoe S Opera. 9 S^MelenA loAraeruxL n Somerset^ i). a. Spjincens HonTf- "W. «cA.K.Johiiiiton. EdlnbTiTgh &: London. THE MALTESE ISLANDS. Name and Position. — This small group of islands occupy a central position in the Mediterranean Sea, lying midway between Europe and Africa, at a distance of 60 miles from the Island of Sicily, and 180 miles from the Northern Coast of Africa. This splendid position places Malta upon the direct trade route with India and the East of Asia. More than 6,000 vessels call here each year, and, in addition, the excellent harbour of Valetta forms the central station of the British Fleet in the Mediterranean. Valetta Harbour, Malta. The chief island is Malta, the ancient Melita, where St. Paul suffered shipwreck on his last journey to Rome as a prisoner (Acts xxvii.) ; and the group includes, besides Gozo and Comino Islands, with two smaller ones, Cominotto, or Little Comino, an islet off the West Coast of Comino, and the Rocks of Filfola and St. Maria lying off the South Coast of Malta. Area and Extent. — The combined area of the Maltese Group is about 117 square miles, Malta aloi;e being 95 275 2^6 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. square miles ; Gozo 20 square miles ; and Comino, Comin- otto, and Filfola from 2 to 2^ square miles. Authori- ties differ as to the length and breadth of Malta. The Government chart makes it about 18 J miles long, by 8^ miles wide ; but the extreme width is about 9^ miles in one part. General Features. — The islands are chiefly composed of limestone rock, late Eocene or Miocene period, and undoubtedly at a comparatively recent geological period they were joined to the mainland of both Europe and Africa. Malta is of an irregular oval shape, and its uneven, rugged surface from the coast to the interior may be described as more hilly than mountainous. The calcareous rocks of the coast, in many parts, present a somewhat wild and sterile appearance as they are approached from the sea. In some places on the South Coast these limestone rocks reach to a height of from 300 to 400 feet ; and here there are but few harbours. On the contrary, the North and East Coasts are low, and indented with bays or harbours as follows : — On the North Coast the bays are Mellilia, St. Paul, St. George, St. Julian, with Grand (Valetta) Harbour and Quarantine Harbour. On the East Coast the chief harbour is Marsa Scirocco or South-East Harbour. Although the surface of the interior is so hilly, it is a strange feature that neither rivers nor streams are to be met with. The highest point of Malta is 730 feet above the sea-level, near to the village of Dingli. Lying off the North- West Coast of Malta is the small island of Comino, which is still more barren in appearance, inasmuch as it is composed largely of rocks ; and still beyond this island lies Gozo, presenting a similar landscape in general features to Malta, with the exception that the THE MALTESE ISLANDS. 277 coast-line is steep and rocky throughout. Cominotto, or Little Comino, and Filfola are other rocky islets of this ^roup. The narrow straits dividing the islands are called the North and the South Channels. 278 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Climate. — Snow and frost are practically unknown in these islands. The lowest winter temperature registers about 40°-42°. During the summer and autumn there are hot winds, but not of sufficient power to destroy the vegetation, as is generally supposed ; so that on the whole they may be considered warm and healthy, resembling more the climate of Northern Africa than Southern Europe. Of late years much has been done to perfect sanitation, and to improve the water supply of the islands, which is naturally limited ; the only sources being the natural springs and the artificial collecting rain-tanks, arranged for storage in many parts. The rainy season comes in late autumn, and the change it produces over the whole island is marvellous ; for vegetation, which remains dormant during the dry season, as with us in winter, starts again into vigorous and sudden growth. Soil and Agriculture. — It is generally supposed that the soil of Malta was in the past imported from Sicily or Italy, and, so strong has the fiction become, that many text-books assert this as the truth. What has been, and still is, imported is a volcanic product, called " puzzolana," a reddish earth, which is used by the natives for several purposes. The soil of the island is natural to the island. All that has been done has been to collect it from the clefts and depressions where it was not required, and to spread it out in a thick layer in suitable places to form new fields and gardens, or to increase in size those already in ex- istence. The fields of Malta are all small in size, and they are formed by constructing terraces upon the sloping hill sides, being divided by stone walls very similar in ap- pearance to those met with in Ireland. Although the conditions of agriculture are somewhat difficult in opera- tion, the great industry and enterprise of the inhabitants, coupled with the delightful climate following the rainy THE MALTESE ISLANDS. 279 season, quite make up for all drawbacks, so that it may bo considered very good indeed. Productions.— The products of Malta include all the fruits of Italy and Southern Europe, such as oranges, lemons, grapes, figs, olives, early potatoes, com, and numerous vegetables. The once famous Maltese dog is now virtually extinct as a breed in Malta ; most of the present dogs are mongrels. There are many kinds of migratory birds, the chief being the quail ; but of resident birds there are not many species. Asses and goats are numerous (in 1893, there were 23,932 goats in the islands) ; and wild bees still frequent all parts. People.— The population in 1896 was about 176,000, excluding the garrison, which numbers about 10,000 more English and Maltese, who are employed by the Govern- ment. The average population is well over 1,500 per square mile, which places Malta in the front rank as to density of population among the countries of Europe. Four-fifths of the inhabitants are Maltese, who claim to be descendants of the Phoenicians. Through the knights of St. John of Malta, no doubt they can claim '' relationship " with all the nations of Europe, and more especially with the Spanish race. They are remarkable for their frugal and industrious habits, being both courageous and active, and possessing a natural love for the sea, which they re- gard as their home, second to their beloved island, which they proudly call " Fior del Mondo," or the " Flower of the World." As a race, the Maltese are short in stature, with dark complexions. Their chief employment consists of the cultivation of the island, and they are generally good as cabinetmakers, boat-builders, etc. Lace is still largely made by the women and girls ; filigi ee jewellery is also produced in large quantities. A good number of 280 / IMPERIAL BRITAIN. men and boys are engaged as sailors, while Maltese porters and attendants are to be met with in all the principal IMediterranean ports. Towns. — The chief town is Valetta, situated upon the Grand Harbour, which opens out to the north-east side of the island. It is the chief naval station of the British Fleet in the Mediterranean, besides being a highly important commercial and coaling station, where a large transit trade is carried on with the Mediterranean ports, both on the European and the African shores. Besides the town of Valetta, there is an arsenal and dockyard, with strong fortifications. The Iwade and commerce are considerable. There is a railway from this port to the ancient capital, Citta Vecchia, situated in the interior of the island. The mails are sent from London via Brindisi. Exports and Imports. — Malta exports early potatoes, onions, oranges, lemons, lace, jewellery, and fancy articles. Cotton is no longer exported from the island. The im- ports consist of English and foreign manufactured goods ; wood from Austria ; charcoal from Italy and Sicily ; food supplies, coal, cutlery, bicycles, and machinery of all sorts from Great Britain. Government. — This is in great measure representative. The Governor, who is ex-officio President of the Malta Council, called the Council of Government, is appointed by the Crown. He is assisted by a council of twenty members, of whom six are official, and fourteen elected. There is also an Executive Council, which deals with all matters relating to the laws and government of the island. Religion. — The Maltese are Roman Catholics, and they are under the supervision of the Roman Catholic Bishop of Malta. Owing to the large number of British residents on the islands, this group forms a part of the English Church Diocese of Gibraltar; but the Bishop only visits THE MALTESE ISLANDS. 28 1 Malta from time to time for his official duties, when occa- sionally he is the guest of the Governor. History. — These islands were first colonised by the Phoenicians ; but they have passed in succession from them to the Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans, and Saracens. The latter were driven out by the Normans, who retained pos- session of them for a considerable period. Charles V. ceded them to the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem in 1530. In 1565, the Turks besieged Malta for four months without success. The Knights of St. John gave up pos- session to Napoleon I (Buonaparte) in 1798. They were surrendered by the French to Great Britain in 1800, and by the Treaty of Paris, 1814, they finally became a British possession. CYPRUS. Position and Extent. — The Island of Cyprus lies in the North-Eastern angle of the Mediterranean Sea^ with the coast-line of Asia Minor, some 60 miles distant, on its Northern side, and Syria, 41 miles distant, upon its Eastern end. In shape, it has been described as an irregular parallelo- gram, with its North-Eastern corner much elongated ; but it really more resembles, roughly, a lizard than a regular figure. The area of the island is 3,584 square miles; the greatest length is 140 miles; and the extreme breadth is nearly 60 miles. The port of Larnaka, on the Southern Coast, is 258 miles from Port Said; and 1,117 miles from Malta. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean. General Features. — Cyprus is certainly a mountainous island. There are two distinct mountain ranges running parallel to each other. The one which extends along the Northern shore, called the Carpas, or Kyrenia Mountains, reaches from the North-Eastern point. Cape St. Andrea, to Cape Kormakiti. The highest point is Mount BufFaventa. This range presents a bold and rugged appearance from the sea, so that this coast contains but few bays or inlets. The second range, in the Southern part of the island, has numerous spurs running at right angles to the main chain upon the Southern side, between which small streamlets — for rivers there are none of importance — rush downward to the sea. Between these two mountain ranges extends the fertile plain of Mesaoria, through which flows the Pedias, and the Potamos streams, the largest in the island. The highest peaks are in this Southern range, e.g., Mount 282 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. MAP XV J. CYPRUS. 283 284 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Troodos, 6,406 feet (the ancient Olympus) ; Mount Paputsa, Mount Makhaeras, and Mount Stavrovuni. The coast is naturally bold, and there are fine bays, the chief beinor Morphou Bay, Famagusta Bay, Larnaka Bay, Akrotiri Bay, with the Gulfs of Episkopi and Khrysokhu. The Capes are St. Andrea, Grseco, Gatto, Levgari, Arnauti, and Konnakiti. Climate. — The range of temperature taken in the shade at Nicosia, 509 feet above the sea, is from 110° to 30°, giving a mean temperature of about 70°. The average rainfall is 17 inches, occurring chiefly in the winter months ; but the island suffers severely from drought during the hot weather. On the whole, the climate may be considered both genial and healthy, if we consider the latitude — and this is in great part owing to the sea-breezes — and the altitude of a large portion of the surface. Soil and Agriculture. — In ancient times there were important copper mines, but these have been discontinued for hundreds of years, and the present inhabitants know nothing of the valuable yield of other days. The chief pro- ducts are now agricultural: wheat, barley, olives, grapes, and carobs or locust beans, are largely cultivated, and the latter are exported to England. Madder, cotton, aniseed, sesame, and silk are produced in smaller quantities. The principal drawbacks to agriculture in Cyprus are — the scarcity of water by reason of the deficient rainfall, and the occasional visits of swarms of locusts, which devour everything before them. To help the former, a new system of irrigation has been established, and every precaution is taken to destroy the young locusts, so that a more hopeful future is looked for, as the soil is rich and fertile. The chief animals of Cyprus are horses, mules, donkej^s, cattle, sheep, and goats, and about 1,200 camels are used as beasts of burden. The value of the sponge fisheries on the coast are estimated at CYPRUS. 285 £20,000 per annum. The only wild animals are hares and rabbits, but reptiles and snakes are numerous. People. — The population of Cyprus in 1891 was 209,286. About three-fourths of the inhabitants belong to the 286 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. Greek Church, and there are a considerable number of Mahommedans. The Cypriots, as the natives are called, are now in the minority. Both the Greeks, and the Turks, take the pre- cedence in all matters of trade and the administration of government and law. Towns. — The island is divided into six districts — Nicosia, Larnaka, Limasol, Famagusta, Papho, and Kyrenia — for ad- ministrative and legal purposes. " Each possesses a commis- sioner ; a court of law, presided over by an English barrister, who is assisted by two native judges, one being Christian and the other Mahommedan. There is also a supreme court for the whole island, consisting of two English ^ud^es"— (From " Whitaker's Almanack," 1897.) The capital is Nicosia (Lefkosia), in the centre of the island, with a population of 12,515. Excellent leather is manufactured here. Larnaka, 7,593, on the South Coast, is the chief port of the island. Limasol, 7,388, also on the South Coast, is chiefly noted for its trade in wine; and Famagusta, now a ruined city, was in earlier times the chief commercial port of the island. There are neither railways nor canals in Cyprus. Commerce. — The chief trade is carried on with. England, Turkey, Egypt, Austria, France, Russia, and Italy; and the principal exports are cattle and other animals, cheese, silk, sponges, wines, carobs or locust beans, fruit, wool, and cotton ; while the imports are food supplies, manufactured goods, tobacco, colonial produce, timber, and machinery. Government. — The island is governed as a Crown Colony of Great Britain. It is under the protection and administration of the British arms. " Still it forms part of the Ottoman Empire, but by virtue of a treaty made between England and the Porte, dated 4th of June, 1878, CYPRUS. 287 the government is administered by England for so long a time as Batoum and Kars may be kept by Russia." (" Whitaker's Almanack," 1897.) The High Commissioner, or Colonial Governor, is assisted by an executive council of officials. The Legislature consists of the Governor, G ex- officio members, and 12 elected members, viz., 3 Mahom- medans and 9 Christians. Religion. — Both the Orthodox Greek Church and Mahommedanism are well represented, and the English Church people are under the care of the Bishop of Gibraltar. In 1892, 226 Christian and 108 Mahommedan primary schools were in working order. These were aided by Government grants, and attended, the former by 10,555, and the latter by 3,771, scholars. History. — The earliest mention of Cyprus was in the 17th century B.C., when Thotmes III., King of Egypt, con- quered the island. It next passed to the Phoenicians, the Assyrians, the Persians, and again to the Egyptians, who held it for 240 years, until in 57 B.C. it became a Roman province. In 45 A.D., St. Paul and St. Barnabas visited the island, when Sergius Paulus, the pro-consul, was converted, and Elymas, the sorcerer, was punished with blindness. The Saracens were the possessors for a long period. Richard I. of England defeated the Catapan and took pos- session of the island for insulting his bride-elect, Berengaria of Navarre, and they were afterwards married at Limasol. The Knights Templar purchased it from Richard I., but being too weak to govern the island, they restored it again to him, whereupon he gave it to Guy de Lusignan, a French crusader. The Lusignan dynasty ruled for nearly 300 years, when the Republic of Venice became mastera of the island. In 1571, the Turks captured and became the rulers until the treaty in 1878, when for a second time it passed under the Crown of Great Britain. £5,000 a year are paid out 288 IMPERIAL BRITAIN. of the revenue to the Sultan of Turkey, this being the sum supposed to represent the excess of revenue over expendi- ture in the island. Under the present Convention Treaty of 1878, by which England holds possession of Cyprus, at any time she may be called upon to evacuate and restore it to the Porte, as it is held conditionally to the claims of Russia upon Kars and Batoum in Armenia, by reason of conquest in the late war. THE END. Printed by Cowan &' Co., Limited^ Perth. INDEX. — ooJO^c Aberdeenshire, 208 — Town, 220 Abbotsford, 214 Achill or Eagle Island, 226 Advantages and Uses of Colonies, 10 Agate, Scotch, 198 Agents-General in London, 8 Agricultural Returns, 92, 93 — Depression, 135 Agriculture, Government aid to, 135 — Great Britain and Ireland, 135, 197, 233 Alderney, 267 — Race of, 267 Alum and Jet, 131 American Independence War, 27 Anglesea, 107, 145 Angus, Dr. , on English Tongue, 47 Animals, Wild, England and Wales, 136 Domestic, 137 — Scotland, Wild, 198 Domestic, 234 — Ireland, Wild, 234 Domestic, 199 Antimony and Manganese, 130 Archipelago, British, 48 Arctic Explorers, 25 Argyleshire, 210 Army, British, 57 — Board, 57 — Stations, 58 Arran Island, 185, 227 Ascension Island, Admiralty Posses- sion, 7 Aubyns, St. (Jersey), 226 Ayrshire, 211 Bann, River, Ireland, 230 Barrow, River, Ireland, 230 Battlefields, England and Wales, 175 — Scotland, 221 — Ireland, 252 Battles, Naval, since 1066, 84 Bays and Inlets, England and Wales, 97-100 — Scotland, 179 — Ireland, 225 Bedfordshire, 159 Belfast, 246 Berkshire, 159 Berwickshire or Merse, 212 Birds, British, 136 Birmingham, 170 Blackdown Hills, 115 Blackwater, River, 230 Board of Trade Established, 26 Boundaries, England and Wales, 95 British Possessions, how Acquired, 4 — Flag Planting, 1 Broads, Norfolk, 124-126, 136 Brotherhood of Saint Thomas a Becket, 19 Bubble Bursting, South Sea, 27 Buckinghamshire, 159 Bullers, The, 201 Buteshire, 211 Bute, 185 Balmoral, 193, 208 Banff, 208 Cabinet, Gladstone's Definition of, 54 Cabot, John and Sebastian, Dis- covered New World, 22 Caithness, 205 Caledonian Canal, 190 Cambridgeshire, 158 Cambrian System, 113 Canals, 69 289 T 290 INDEX. Capes and Headlands, England and Wales, 97-100 Scotland, 178 Ireland, 224 Cape Clear Island, 227 Castletown, Isle of Man, 260 Casquets, The, 267 Census Statistics, British Isles, 52 Central Hills, 114 Cereals and Roots, England and Wales, 134 Scotland, 200 Ireland, 237 Channel Islands, Names and Area, 108, 262 Population and Position, 262 Climate, 262 People and Language, 263 Trade and Commerce, 263 Government, 263 History, 263 Cheshire, 153 Cheviot Hills, 110 Chiltern Hills, 115 Church of England, 77 Scotland, 78 Ireland, 80, 250 Cinque Ports, 109 Clackmannan, 209 \ Clay for China, 132 Climate, British Isles, 49, 126 Clyde Falls, 201 Coal-Fields, England and Wales, 129 Scotland, 198 Ireland, 236 Coastline, England and Wales, 95 — Scotland, 178 — Ireland, 223 Coast Defence, British Isles, 108 — Safeguards, 108 Colonial Institute, 9 Colonies, Representative Govern- ment, 6 — Responsible Government, 6 — Crown, 6 Colony, Definition of, 5 Columbus, Christopher, and Dis- coverer of New World, 22 Comino Island, 275 Cominotto Island, 275 Commerce, 71, 203 Communication, Internal, 60, 200 — External, 70 Comparison, Army and Navy, with Foreign Powers, 56 Conacre or Tenant Right, 234 Constitution, British Empire, 6 Continent, Connexion with, 49 Coolie Labour, 3 Copper and Tin, 130 Cork, 246 Cornwall, 152 Cotswold Hills, 115 Coup<5e, The (Sark), 268 Counties, England, 143-146 — Scotland, 204 — Wales, 172 — Ireland, 239 County Council, 161 — Names, Derivation of, 147 Cromarty and Ross, 206 Cumberland, 155 Cumbrae, Great and Little, 185 Cumbrian Group, 112 Curiosities, Natural, England and Wales, 132 Scotland, 200 Ireland, 237 Cyprus Island, Position and Extent, 282 General Features, 282 Coast, 284 Climate, 284 Soil and Agriculture, 284 People, 285 Commerce, 286 ■ Government, 286 Religion, 287 History, 287 Treaty, Turkey and England, 287, 288 Dates Table, British Possessions, 30-33 Dependency, Definition of, 5 Derbyshire, 155 Devil's Punch Bowl (Ireland), 238 Devonian Range, 114 Devonshire, 151 Distance Table, Ports, British Empire, 42 Dorsetshire, 151 Douglas, Isle of Man, 260 Downs, The, 115 Dublin, 242 Dumbartonshire, 210 Dumfriesshire, 214 Dundee, 220 Durham, 149 INDEX. 291 E East Anglian Heights, 115 p]ast India Company's Charter, 24 PJdge Hills, 115 Edinburgh or Mid-Lothian, 212 Edinburgh City, 216 Education Acts, 81 — Elementary, 80, 202, 250 — Secondary, 85, 202, 250 — University, 80, 202, 250 — Grants, 81 — Inspector's Statistics, 81 Elements of British People, 43 Elgin, 206 Elizabethan Discoverers, 24 Ellen's Isle, 195 Emigration, 2 English Garden, 134 English Language, Origin of, 46 Essex, 150 Ethnology, Great Britain, 43, 138 Expenditure, National, 52 — Annual, of British Colonies, 3 Exports and Imports, 72, 139, 140, 141, 213, 251 Extent, British Isles, 50, 95 G Geikie's, Professor, Island Theory, 110 Geology, 236 German Merchants of the Steel- yard, 19 Giant's Causeway, 237 Gibraltar, Name, Position, Extent, 269 — General Description, 271 — Garrison, 271 — Climate, 272 — Population, Inhabitants, 274 — Government, 274 — History, 274 Glasgow, 218 Gloucestershire, 153 Gog and Magog, 115 Government and Administration, British Empire, 5, 52, 202 Gozo Island, 275, 276 Granite, 131, 197 Great Harry I. (Henry V.), 21 Guernsey, 266 — Agriculture, 267 — Political Divisions, 267 — Population, 267 Famagusta, Cyprus, 286 Father of English Commerce, (Edward IIL), 20 Features, Natural, British Isles, 94 Federation, Imperial (John G. Colmer, Esq., C.M.G.), 15 Fifeshire, 208 Filfola Island, 275, 276, 277 Fingal's Cave, 200 Fior-del-Mondo (Malta), 279 First Merchant Ship to India, 23 Fish Markets, 74 Fisheries, Home, 75, 137, 199, 235 Fishermen, Our (H.R.H. Duke of Edinburgh), 75 Fleet, British, 58 Flemings' Early Settlement, Wor- sted, 19 Foreign Possessions, Great Britain, 3 Forests, 133, 200, 235 Forest Trees, 133, 200, 235 Forfarshire or Angus, 208 Foyers Fall, 201 Franklin, Sir John, 28 Free Trade, 136 Measure Island, 28 Fuller's Earth, 132 Haddington or Esist Lothian, 212 Hampshire, 151 Hanseatic League, 20-24 Hartington, Lord : Description of British Empire, 7 Headlands and Capes, England and Wales, 97-100 Scotland, 178 Ireland, 224 Hebrides, The, 180-183 Heliers, St. (Jersey), 266 Herefordshire, 157 Hertfordshire, 159 Highlands, Farewell to (Sir W. Scott), 186 Hills, England and Wales, 114 — Scotland, 187 — Ireland, 228 Historical Events, Great Britain. 87-89 History of British Commerce, 19 Holy rood Palace, 216 Home Control, 8 House of Commons, 54 — of Lords, 54 Hudson Bay Company, 25 Huntingdonshire, 158 292 INDEX. Immigration, British Isles, 3 Imperial Institute, 9 Imports and Exports, British Isles, 72, 139, 140, 141, 203, 251 India Conquest — Olive, Hastings, Wellesley, 27 — Overland Route to, 13, 28, 29 Inhabitants, British Empire, 1 Insects, 137 Inverness, 206, 220 Ireland, 223 — Name, Shape, Area, Extent, Posi- tion, Coastline, 223 — Physical Features, 228 — Climate, Soil, and Agriculture, 233 — Natural Productions, 234 — Population, 238 — Industries, 241 — Government, 248 — Revenue and Commerce, 250 — History, 251 Iron, 130, 198 Islands, of the World, Comparison, 48 — Smaller Coast, England and Wales, 51, 102 — Scotland, 180 — Ireland, 226 Italian and Flemish Merchants, 19 Jersey Island, 264 — Area, Coastline, Surface, 264 — Agricultural Products, 264 — Political Division, Commerce, 266 — Population, 266 Jet and Alum, 131 Kent, 150 Keys, House of, 261 Kincardine, 208 Kinross, 209 Kirkcudbright, 214 Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, 281 Lakes, England and Wales, 124 — Scotland, 190, 194, 196 — Ireland, 231, 232 Lanarkshire, 210 Lancashire, 154 Languages, British Isles, 87, 238 Larnaka, Cyprus, 286 Law, General, British Empire, 7 Lead and Zinc, 130 Leeds, 172 Leicestershire, 156 Leith, 218 Leven, Loch, 196 Lifeboat Institution, 108 Lififey, River, Ireland, 230 Limasol, Cyprus, 286 Limerick, 248 Lincolnshire, 150 Linlithgow, 210 Literature, Victorian, 76 Liverpool, 168, 172 Liverpool Channel, 124 Llanberis, Lake, 125 London, City of, 162-8 — County of, 164 Londonderry, 248 Longman, Professor — Commerce, (Edward IIL), 21 M Magna Charta, Commerce, 19 Mail Intelligence, British Posses- sions, 34-7 Maltese Islands, Name, 275 Position, Area, Extent, 275 General Features, 276 Climate, 278 Productions, 279 People, Population, 279 Towns, 280 Exports and Imports, 280 Government and Religion, 280 History, 281 Man, Isle of, Position, 108, 255 Area and Shape, 255 Physical Features, 255 Mr. Hall Caine's Description, 255 Mountains, 257 Rivers and Glens, 258 Climate, 258 Soil and Agriculture, 258 — — Dr. Tellet's Report, 259 Animals, 260 People and Language, 260 Commerce, 261 History, 261 Manchester, 170 — Ship Canal, 69, 143 Manganese and Antimony, 130 INDEX. 293 Mannanin, Magician, 258 Manufactures and Trade, 141, 142, 148, 174-6, 241 Manufactured Articles — Forbidden Importation, 22 Mariners' Compass Invented, 21 Meiklejohn, Prof., on Submarine Plateau, 49 Melrose Abbey, 214 Mercator Navigation Chart, 24 Merchant Adventurers, 20 Merchants of the Staple, 20 Middlesex, 161 Minerals, England and Wales, 132 — Scotland, 197 — Ireland, 236 xMineral Springs, 132, 200, 237 Mistress of Sea, Britain, 25, 56 Mixed Haces, British Empire, 2 Monmouthshire, 153 Moors, 115 Mountain Systems, England and Wales, 110 Scotland, 187 Ireland. 228 N Nairn, 206 National Debt, 52 — Symbols, 84 Nation of Shopkeepers, 127 Natural Products, England and Wales, 127-132 Scotland, 197 Ireland, 234 Naval Stations, 59, 242 — Yards and Depots, 60 — Prisons, 60 — Training Institutions, 60 Navigable Rivers, 69 Navigation Act I., 21 — Chart, England and Wales, 102 Navy Estimates, 59 — Strength of, 58 Neutral Ground (Gibraltar), 269 Newspaper Press, 76 Nicosia (Cyprus), 286 Norfolk, 150 Northamptonshire, 158 Northumberland, 149 Nottinghamshire, 155 Orkney Islands, 180-182 Oxfordshire, 160 Paper Tax Withdrawal, 76 Paris, Treaty of, 27, 281 Passenger Steamship Lines, 38-41 Patron Saints (British Isles), 84 Paul, St., Visit to Cyprus, 287 Shipwreck, Malta, 275 Peebles, 212 Peel, Isle of Man, 260 Penal Settlements, 5 Pennine Range, 110 Penny Postage Rates, 68 Perthshire, 209 Peter Port, St., Guernsey, 267 Pilgrim Fathers, 25 Plains, England and Wales, 116 — Scotland, 190 — Ireland, 229 Plumbago, 130 Population, British Empire, 2 — British Isles, 51, 138 — Largest Centres, 138 — in Towns, 162 Position, British Empire, 1 — British Isles, 50, 95 Post and Cable Rates, British Pos- sessions, 34-37 Postal Service, 67 Prophecy, Prof. Seeley's, 12 Q Queen Anne, British Commerce, 26 — Berengaria of Navarre, 287 — Catherine of Braganza, 5 — Elizabeth, Rise of Colonial Em- pire, 4, 24 — Mary, British Commerce, 24 — Mary of Scots, 196 — Victoria's Accession, 82-89 British Commerce, 28 Empress of India, 89 Family, 82 Jubilee and Diamond Jubilee, 89 Reign of Literature, 76 Visits Channel Islands, 264 Race, British Isles, 2, 43 — Ireland, 238 — of Alderney, 267 Railways, England and Wales, 60 — Scotland, 66 294 INDEX. Railways, Ireland, 67 — Light, 61 — From Metropolis, 61 — Not touching Metropolis, 66 — Electric, 66 Rainfall, British Isles, 50 Ramsay, Isle of Man, 260 Rathlin Island, 226 Registrar-General's List, 79 Religion, National, British Isles, 77 Religious Bodies, 79 Renfrew, 210 Reptiles, 137 Restrictions of Foreign Money (Henry IV.), 21 Goods, 21 Revenue, British Empire, 52 Review, Commercial Progress, 29 Rivers, England and Wales, 118 — Scotland, 191 — Ireland, 229 Roads, British Isles, 70, 204 Roadsteads, England and Wales, 101 Roots and Cereals, 134 Ross and Cromarty, 206 . Roxburghshire, 213 Royal Exchange, 24 — Family, 82 — Other Persons, 84 — Palaces, 84 Rutlandshire, 158 S Salt, Common, 130 — Rock, 130 Sark, Description, 268 — Population, 268 Scilly Islands, 105, 152 Scotland, Physical Features, 177 — Climate, 196 — Agriculture, 197 — Political Divisions, 204 — Trade and Manufactures, 221 — History, 222 Seaports, England and Wales, 143 — Scotland, 202 — Ireland, 241 Selkirkshire, 213 Seven Years' War, 27 Shannon, River, 229 Sheadings (Isle of Man), 260 Sheffield, 172 Shetland Islands, 180 Shipping Register, Lloyd's, 72 Shires and Counties, 143 Shropshire, 156 Skye, Caverns of, 201 Slate, 138, 198 Somersetshire, 153 Spanish Succession, War of, 26 Sponge Fisheries, 284 Staffordshire, 155 State Officers and Stipends, 55 Stirlingshire, 210 Stone, 131 Stratified Rocks, 128 Straits, England and Wales, 100 — Scotland, 179 — Ireland, 225 Suff-olk, 150 Suir, River, 230 Sun Never Sets on British Empire, 1 Surface Features, England and Wales, 109 Scotland, 185 Ireland, 228 Surrey, 160 Sussex, 151 Sutherland, 206 Telegraph Service, 68 Temperature, Mean, 127 Tonnage, Ships passing Suez Canal, 10 Trade Notes — Statistics, 90 — and Manufactures, 141, 241 Trinity House Founded, 23 Trossachs, 188, 196 Tunnage and Poundage, 20 Tynwald Hill Parliament, 258, 261 U Utrecht, Treaty of, 26 Valentia Island, 227 Valetta (Malta), 276 Vale of Clyde, 190 Valleys, England and Wales, 117 — Scotland, 190 — Ireland, 229 Vasco de Gama, 23 Vegetation, England and Wales, 134 — Scotland, 199 — Ireland, 235 Venetian Republic, Trade with, 20 Victorian Ministries, 54 INDEX. 295 W Wales, Counties, 174 — Area, 174 — Mining Interests, 174 — Manufactures, 174 Wars, British, 86 Warwickshire, 156 Waterford, 248 West African Coast Trade, 24 Westmoreland, 155 Whale Fisheries Established, 24 Wight, Isle of, 104, 151 Wigtonshire, 214 William the Conqueror, 46 Wiltshire, 160 Wolds, Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, 115 Woolwich Dockyard Established, 23 Worcestershire, 157 World's Workshop, The, 138 Yorkshire, 149 Z Zinc and Lead, 130 r Tinted by Cowan 6^ Co., Limited, Perth, The Imperial Press, LIMITED. 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Vol. I. DEDICATED, by Permission, to FIELDMARSHAL LORD WOLSELEY. BRITISH WEST AFRICA. With Nine Coloured Maps and Numerous other Illustrations. Price 12/6. The first volume contains a complete description— geographical and historical — of the British possessions in West Africa, with a detailed account of all important events that have occurred from the earliest times to the present day. No pains have been spared to make this volume not only interesting to the general reader, but also valuable as a work of reference to the student of the several African problems. In it will be found discussed at length such matters as Slavery, the Liquor Traffic, Mission Work, Commerce, the Claims of European Rivals, and the Manners and Customs of the Numerous Tribes. Contents .—Chapter I. Introductory— II. Gambia— III. Sierra Leone— IV. The Gold Coast— V. Ashanti- VI. The Two Ashanti Expeditions— VII. Lagos— VIII. The Niger ard its Early Explorers— IX. Further Explorations of the Niger— X. The Travels of Barth and Baikie— XI. The Commencement of Trade on the Niger — XII. Nigeria — XIII. The Fulah Empire- XIV. The Fulah Empire (continued)— XV. The Royal Niger Company, Chartered and Limited- -XVI. The Niger Coast Protectorate— XVII. Native Tribes and Customs— XVIII. Samory and Rabeh— XIX. Slavery and the Slave Trade— XX. Religion and Missionaries— XXI. France and Germany in West Africa— XXII. vN est African Products— XXIII. Folk Lore-XXIV. Conclusion. N.B. - Subscribers to the Three Volumes of "Imperial Africa" will obtain them for 30s., post free, if prepaid and ordered at once direct from the Publishers, but if ordered singly the price will be 12s. 6d. each as published. (Now Ready.) IN ONE VOLUME. Price 7/6. BIRDS OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. FULLY ILLUSTRATED. By dr. W. T. GREENE, F.Z.S. Author of "The Song Birds of Great Britain," " Favourite Foreign Birds," " The Birds of my Garden," " Parrots in Captivity," " The Amateur's Aviary of Foreign Birds," " Feathered Friends : Old and New," " The Grey Parrot," etc. " The book is an Education in itself and a welcome addition to ' The Imperial Library." European Mail. London : THE IMPERIAL PRESS, Limited, 21 Surrey Street, Victoria Embankment, W.C. Imperial Britain, A Comprehendve Description of the Geography, History, Commerce, Trade, Government, and Religion of the British Empire. In 2 Volumes, price 7/6 each. With Maps and other Illustrations. NOW READY. Vol. I. THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN EUROPE. Vol. II. (In preparation.) THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN ASIA, AFRICA, AMERICA, AND AUSTRALIA. BY THE REV. THEODORE JOHNSON, M.A., Late Chief Diocesan Inspector of Schools for Rochester Diocese, and Author of '* A Geography and Atlas of the British Empire," " A Handbook of English History," " The Parish Guide," etc., etc. THE FEDERAL DEMOCRACY, BY DR. JETHRO BROWN, Principal of the Tasmanian University, and The Honourable ANDREW INGLIS CLARK, Attorney-General for Tasmania, A New (Illustrated) Edition of MY GARDEN WILD. By FRANCIS GEORGE HEATH. Will be ready shortly. Price 5/- A Nevsr Edition is also in preparation of TREE GOSSIP. By FRANCIS GEORGE HEATH. London : THE IMPERIAL PRESS, Limited, 21 Surrey Street, Victoria Embankment, W.C. XI WORKS BY FRANCIS GEORGE HEATH. (NOW READY, price 7/6, Coloured Plates Entirely Redrawn.) THE FERN WORLD BY FRANCIS GEORGE HEATH, Editor of the New Edition of " Gilpin's Forest Scenery." Author of " Our Woodland Trees," " The Fern Paradise," " Sylvan Spring," "Autumnal Leaves," " The Fern Portfolio," "Where to find Ferns," "My Garden Wild," " Trees and Ferns," "Tree Gossip," "Burnham Beeches," "The English Peasantry," " Peasant Life in the West of England," etc., etc. New and cheaper Edition (being the eighth), price 7s. 6d., containing 12 Coloured Plates and numerous Wood Engravings. *** "THE FERN WORLD" has been sold in every English- speaking country in the world. CONTENTS. Part I.— THE FERN WORLD.— Introduction— The Germs of Fern Life— Conditions of Growth— Structure — Classification— Distribu- tion — Uses — The Folk-lore of Ferns. Part IL— FERN CULTURE.— Introduction— Soil and Aspect- General Treatment— Propagation— A Fern Valley — Subterranean Fern Culture — A Fern Garden — Fern Rockery — A Fern House — Pot Culture of Ferns — Ferns at Home. Part HI. —FERN HUNTING.— Introduction— Fern Holidays- Fern Collecting — Frond Gathering. Part IV.— SOME RAMBLES THROUGH FERNL AND.— Intro- duction — Down a Combe to the Sea — The Valleys of the Lyn — The Valley of the Rocks— Clovelly— Sea and Sky and Waving Green— Torbay — The South-east Coast of Devon — The Home of the Sea Fern. Part V.— BRITISH FERNS: Their Description, Distribution, and Culture. London : THE IMPERIAL PRESS, Limited, 21 Surrey Street, Victoria Embankment, W.C. Xll SOME PRESS OPINIONS OF THE FERN WORLD. THE SATURDAY REVIEW:— "The work may be said to comprise the whole grammar and dictionary of the fern world— a delightful addition to the naturalist's library." THE ATHBN^UM :— " The book contains good, well-written descriptions of our native ferns, with indications of their habitats, the conditions under which they grow naturally, and under which they may be cultivated." THE BRITISH QUARTERLY REVIEW :-*' The book is beautifully illustrated. The ferns are photographed and coloured with an excellency we have never seen surpassed. The volume is a very charming one, and is as fascinating for the general reader as it is useful for the amateur cultivator. Vivid and felicitous descriptions of natural scenery, ouches of poetry, accounts of rambles, a pervading glow of enthusiasm, and an easy, sparkling style combine with the useful information to make the volume one that even those most insensible to the charms of nature will be glad to possess." THE "WORLD : — " It is equally charming and useful. No work of the kind could advance a more substantial claim to popularity of the best kind." THE STANDARD :— " The execution of the work is in erery way worthy of the past fame and the present aims of the author." THE MORNING POST :—" The illustrations in the * Fern World ' are simply perfection," THE SPECTATOR :—" Many lovers of the quieter aspects of nature will thank us for directing their attention to Mr. Heatli's ' Fern World.'" THE DAILY TELEGRAPH :— " The name of its author is a guarantee for the practical value of * The Fern World,' whilst its elegant appearance and copious illustrations furnish their own recom- mendation." JOHN BULL :— *" The Fern World ' is one of the most charming books upon a charming subject which it has ever been our lot to meet with." LIGHT : — " We should infinitely prefer to spend the summer or autumn holidays with Mr. Heath's charmingly-written apotheosis of ferns than with any work of current fiction that we know of. . . . Even for the reader who cares little or nothing for ferns there is much to captivate and hold the interest and imagination in this book." THE ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS :-'" The Fern World ' is both instructive and delightful in the highest degree, combining exact botanical description with the most inviting and enchanting accounts of many a ramble in the sweetest rural haunts. . . , But in this delightful book the study of botanical, generic and specific varieties has obtained a fascinating and most helpful method of representation. This is done by means of twelve of the finest plates, from photographs of fronds, collected and grouped by the author, which are unquestionably the most beautiful, vivid and faithful pictures of plant life that have ever yet appeared in any work of this class. They have all the freshness of the living hues of nature." THE QUEEN :— '" The Fern World' is a beautiful, instructive and bewitching book." London : THE IMPERIAL PRESS, Limited, 21 Surrey Street, W.C. Xlll IN PREPARATION. Autumnal Leaves By FRANCIS GEORGE HEATH. New and Cheaper Edition, priae 7s. 6d., containing twelve coloured plates of autumn-tinted leaves and numerous wood engravings. SOME PRESS OPINIONS OF "AUTUMNAL LEAVES." Spectator : — " This charmingly-illustrated volume will delight many eyes." Saturday Review: — "The present charming volume is in every way attractive." Harper's Magazine :— ** Perhaps the most novel and pleasing of all the numerous books Mr. Francis George Heath has written." Queen :— " Mr. Heath's writings on the poetry of forest and field are fascinating in the highest degree. * Autumnal Leaves ' stands unrivalled." Pall Mall Gazette :— " The coloured representations of various autumn leaves have been produced with immense care and marvellous accuracy. . . . The result is a facsimile — as perfect, perhaps, as imitative art could make it — of every detail in the original foliage. . . Mr. Heath is above all things a master of word painting, who can make minute and deft description do duty instead of palette and colour-box in a way that is quite surprising for its vivid and graphic efifect. " Tablet :— * ' Mr. Heath has now passed from the tender blooms of spring to the sunset-dyed glories of autumn ; but we recognise in the book before us the mind of long ago. There is the same tender regard for all that in nature lives ; the same keen insight for revealing wonders unseen by the casual passer-by ; the same power of holding his readers' deepest attention ; and the same gift of adorning each subject to which he sets his hand." London : THE IMPERIAL PRESS, Limited, 21 Surrey Street, Victoria Embankment, W.C. IN PREPARATION. Burnham Beeches. By FRANCIS GEORGE HEATH. NEW EDITION. Contexts. — 1. Kemnants of the Sylvan Past — 2. Burnham Forest — 3. The Beeches — 4. Burnham and its Common — 5. A Ramble to Burnham— 6. The Railway— 7. The Walk— 8. The Woods. " BURNHAM BEECHES " is illustrated by eight beautifully- executed wood engravings, and a Map of Burnham Beech-woods and Common. The late Lord Beaconsfield, in a letter to the author written from Hughenden Manor, December 28th, 1880, says : *' Your life is occupied with two subjects which always deeply interest me : the condition of our peasantry and trees. . . With regard to trees, I passed part of my youth in the shade of Burnham Beeches, and have now the happiness of living amid my own * green retreats.' I am not surprised that the ancients worshipped trees. Lakes and Mountains, however glorious for a time, in time weary — sylvan scenery never palls." SOME PRESS OPINIONS OF "BURNHAM BEECHES." lUustrated London News : — *' The Burnham Beeches were saved by the liberality of the London City Corporation, prompted thereto by an accomplished writer of pleasant books about trees and ferns and rural delights, Mr. Francis George Heath, who addressed the public authorities with earnest letters of remonstrance. . . A charming little volume." Globe: — "Writing with even more than his usual brilliancy, Mr. Heath here gives the public an interesting monograph of the splendid old trees. . . . This charming little work." GrUardian : — "A charming little volume, illustrated by some choice engravings of woodland scenery, besides four faithful transcripts of the Beeches in their spring, summer, autumn, and winter dress." Daily News : — ' ' We have here a pretty description of the Beeches and surrounding neighbourhood, with its associations, picturesque, topo- graphical, and biographical." Spectator : — "A most readable account of the Beeches. . . There are some very pretty illustrations. Let our readers enjoy Mr. Heath's book now, and go to see the Beeches themselves in the summer." Record : — " The charm of style and perfection of illustration." London : THE IMPERIAL PRESS, Limited, 21 Suerey Street, Victoria Embankment, W.C. XV THE IMPERIAL MAGAZINE (REGISTERED) WILL BE ONE OF THE FORTHCOMING PUBLICATIONS OF THE IMPERIAL PRESS, LIIIIIIED, and will be commenced as soon as arrangements can be made for it. " THE IMPERIAL MAGAZINE " is to be a beautifully and profusely illustrated Shilling Monthly. Besides Fiction — which will be a powerfully-attractive feature — it will deal with Biographical and Descriptive subjects, covering the fields of Recreation, Literature, Science, and Art in so comprehensive a manner as to possess interest for English readers everywhere. To %>romote the unity of the British Empire^ to open up to British readers at home the heautiful scenery and the magnifi- cent natural resources of our Colonies will be especial aims of the conductors of the Magazine^ and to endeavour to bring about a federation of English-speaking people in all parts of the world is also an object that will be kept steadily in view. On the next page will be found a reduced facsimile of the proposed design for the cover of **THE IMPERIAL MAGAZINE." London : THE IMPERIAL PRESS, Limited, 21 Surrey Street, Victoria Embankment, W.C. XVI Reduced Design for Front Cover. THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. IIO\^ ^1934 LD 21-100m-7,'33 102204