UC-NRLF GIFT or Dr. H,I. Priestley Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/completecourseinOOswinrich r A COMPLKIE IK COURSE G E O G R A P H Y PHYSICAL, INDUSTRIAT,, AND POLITICAL WITH A SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY FOR EACH STATE BY WILLIAM SWINTON AUTHOR OF WORD-BOOK SERIES, LANGUAGE SERIES, OUTLINES OF HISTORY, BTC 1 • IVISON, BLAKEMAN AND COMPANY PUBLISHERS NEW YORK AND CHICAGO 1 f ^:^ J^^2^.dZ£L^ |ir»*-^>r>M nrcrr 1«55 eo' ,oc o?-f SWINTON'S GEOGRAPHIES. « ^a^ » Sw^Txton's GeoffrcupKiccd, Coizrse comprises trtvo IdooPcs : — l-ELEMENTARY COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY: Designed as a Class- Book for Primary and Intermediate Grades, and as a Complete Shorter Course for Ungraded Schools. 128 pages 8vo. 2. COMPLETE COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY: physical. Indus- trial, and Political ; with* a Special Geography for each State in the Union. Designed as a Class-Book for Intermediate and Grammar Grades. 136 pages 4to. %* These two text-books do not bear the usual relation of a Primary to a Gram- mar-School book ; that is, the Elementary is not a mere condensation of the Complete. Each is an independent book, individual in its plan and method, and constructed with philosophic reference to the mental capacity of youth. They may therefore be used either separately or together. COPYRIGHT. Ifrs- ly/SON, BLAKBMAN. TAYLOR. AND COMPANY. PREFACE. » »«» > 1"N preparing this Course in Geography the author's aim has -L been to produce a book which should be recognized by teachers as striking a just balance between conflicting theories, and as embodying what is best in the modern methods of geo- graphical teaching. That such a spirit of rational eclecticism is needed in the preparation of a class-book in geography becomes manifest when we consider the extreme one-sidedness of the presenta- tion of the subject in many text-books. To take a single illustration : — Some geographers have been so absorbed in showing how the earth was built up that they have forgotten that on its surface is the toiling race of man, and that it is on his account chiefly that the earth is an object of interest. This we may call the hobby of the physical geographers. The hobby of the purely political geographers is the opposite of this. They overlook the fact that man on the earth is subject to the physical conditions of the planet, and that in each region these conditions determine, to a great degree, the pursuits, character, and total life of the people inhabiting that region, — which fact overlooked, geography becomes a mass of meaningless details, without either cause or correlation, while its study degenerates into the baldest rote-work. It win sufficiently illustrate the comprehensive spirit of this manual to say that the author treats Physical and so-called " Political " geography as inseparable, as one subject, — so that the physical aspects and attributes of the globe, on the one hand, and man's doings on its surface, on the other, form, in place of isolated phenomena, a living, organic whole. With this statement respecting the general spirit of the book, the attention of teachers is earnestly invited to some of its more salient and novel features. Among these are : — I. The Oral Method adopted to introduce the topics coming under the general head of Definitions and Principles. These topics — as the shape, size, and motions of the earth; the man- ner in which its surface is represented by means of maps ; latitude and longitude ; the theory of climate, etc. — form the basis of geographical knowledge; and without a genuine under- standing of these fundamental principles no satisfactory progress can be made. These subjects are indeed the most abstract in geography; but there seems to be no good reason why they should therefore be presented, as they ordinarily are, in the most abstract manner. The author has here sought to bring these principles really home to the pupiL This is done in the Oral Outlines, which, beginning with the pupil's own experience (see Topic IV., Climate, p. 14; Topic V., Plant-Life, p. 15, etc.), proceed by induction, step by step, till a generalized statement is reached. These generalized statements form the Eecitation part of each topic; and both memorizing and reciting will in this way be easy and pleasant, since the pupil will have made his own definitions and reached the conclusions for himself II. The Special State Geography. The need of a much more minute and detailed study of local geography than is possible with existing text-books is becoming deeply felt. The dozen or the score of vague because generalized and colorless lines usually devoted to great States like New York or Pennsyl- vania, Ohio or lUiuois, are poorly fitted to furnish a pupil with such equipment of geographical knowledge as is necessary either for practical use or ordinary intelligence. But, how to combine any degree of fullness in the text on the individual States with the capacity of the pupil to learn such enlarged matter or the time of the teacher to hear it recited ? In the present book an effort is made to meet the desideratum of fullness on each State, and at the same time to avoid the danger of overtasking the pupil, by the device of a double text on the United States. There is in the case of each State : 1. A General text, which comes first and is printed in the larger tj'pe : this is to be studied by all classes. 2. A Special Geography of each State, which is designed for use only by classes in the State under review. In order further to facilitate the study of local State Geography, there is given (see p. 30) a Topical Outline, the filling up of which may profitably occupy the attention of classes for several weeks. It is hoped that the elastic arrangement of a general and a special text will meet all requirements. III. Attention to industrial and commercial geography. In the treatment both of the United States and the world at large considerable space has been devoted to the important but neglected subjects of indvMrial and commercial geography. It has seemed IV PEEFACK very manifest to the author that, as a preparation for practical life in a country like ours, it is of the highest importance to lodge in the minds of youth vivid and definite knowledge of how dif- ferent peoples make their living, of what they contribute to the commerce of the world, of why the productive industry of a nation takes one form rather than another. He doubts not that teachers wiU gladly suffer the absence of the conventional jejune descrip- tions of the Irishman, the Italian, the Esquimaux, and the Chinese, when they find the space occupied with matters of solid import- ance. IV. Teaching Featuees. Great care has been taken, in the construction of the work, to make it in the best sense a text-hook. A brief examination will reveal that it is not loosely thrown together, but has an organism of its own. Among the features which it is hoped teachers wiU notice with satisfaction are the following two : 1. The paragraphs are cast in a form convenient both for memorizing and recitation. By introducing each para- graph with bold type a suitable question spontaneously frames itself in the minds of pupil and teacher, thus obviating the old and inconvenient form of questions far removed frofli the text. 2. The method of study pursued by the best teachers being largely topical, ample provision has been made to further this plan, by numerous carefullv constructed topical synopses, reviews, tables, and questions. V. The Maps. An inspection of the maps will reveal certain novel features of the greatest practical value, — as (1) the system of dotting the lines of latitude and longitude in such a way that the exact degree may be at once determined on any part of the map; (2) the marking of time-longitude on all the maps, and (3), on the maps of the Grand Divisions, the noting the length of the longest day in each division of latitude. In regard to the maps of the United States, a device similar to the "double text" in the matter has been adopted, — that is to say, there are maps for general study and maps for particular reference to be used in connection with the State specialties. The general or section maps are obtained by an equal division of the United States into seven sections. These maps are, accordingly, on a uniform scale : their teaching, therefore, is true teaching, and not false teaching, as must be the case when, for example, the map of New England is made the same size as the map of the whole of the Great West. The maps for special reference in connection with State Geography show all the county lines, to- gether with the county seats, or shire towns. They will enable the pupil to make what most school maps do not permit — a study of the political geography of his State, while for reference these maps will be found of permanent value. VI. The Illustrations. The pictorial embellishments of the book speak for themselves. They were designed and cut expressly for this work by the most eminent artists and engravers. They are not only of great excellence as works of art, but, being original designs made with close reference to the text, they are of positive educational value. The preparation of this work, with the accompanying Elementary Geography, has occupied most of the author's time and his most earnest efforts for about five years. It is therefore not without anxiety that he awaits the verdict of those who alone are compe- tent to pass judgment upon it, — the teachers of our country. It affords him, however, a good hope of a favorable reception for the book that it is the fruit of a careful study of the best methods of geographical teaching as practiced in the leading cities of our country from Boston to San Francisco. CAMBRII.GE, July. 1875. WILLIAM SWINTOK NOTE TO REVISED EDITION (1876). In the preseut edition the maps have been newly engraved in relief process, and the author has taken the opportunity to make a consider- able reduction in the number of places formerly named on the section maps of the United States. An additional feature of great value will be found in the approved system of Map-Drawing by the Messrs. Apgar, now embodied in this series of geographies. In the suggestive table under "Wants of Man" (p. 18), the author takes great pleasure in acknowledging indebtedness to Superintendent Pickaed's able Re- port of the Chicago Schools for 1874. CONTENTS. I »>■ > PAO* SUBJECT DEFINED 1 Section I. MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY .... 1 Topic I. Shape and Size of the Earth .... I " II. Direction 2 " III. Axis AND Poles .... . . 3 " IV. Map-making 3 " v. Geographical Position 4 " VI. Map Representation 6 " VII. Motions op the Earth 6 " VIII. Zones of Cliuate 6 Topical Synopsis 8 Section II. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 8 Topic I. Land and Water 8 " II. Divisions of Land 8 " III. Divisions op Water 10 Topical Synopsis 11 Models for describing Divisions of Land and Water . 11 Topic IV. Climate 14 " V. Vegetation 16 " VI. Animal Lipb 16 Section III. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 17 Topic I. Races of Men • . 17 " II. Wants of Man 18 " III. Occupations op Man 19 " IV. States op Society 19 " V. Government 20 Review and Test Questions ....... 21 NORTH AMERICA 23 Physical Geography of North America .... 23 The United States 25 General Description 28 Topical Outline for the Study of the States . . 30 The Atlantic States 32 Topical Review of the Atlantic States .... 47 The South Central States 49 Topical Review of the South Central States . . 62 The North Central States 63 Topical Review op the North Central States . . 67 The Plains and Rocky Mountain Region .... 69 The Pacific States and Territories 75 Topical Review and Test Questions on the United States . 79 British America 81 Greenland and Iceuind 83 Mexico 84 Central America 84 The West Indies 84 SOUTH AMERICA 87 Physical Oeographt of South America .... 87 Brazil 89 Guiana 89 run Venezuela 89 States of the Andes 90 Paraguay and Uruguay 91 Topical Review of South America. 91 EUROPE 93 Physical Geography of Europe 93 Great Britain and Ireland 95 France 99 The German Empire 101 The Austrian Empire 102 Russia 102 Sweden and Norway 103 Denmark 103 Holland 104 Belgium 104 Switzerland 104 Spain 106 Portugal 105 Italy 106 Greece 107 Turkey in Europe 107 Topical Review of Europe 108 ASIA 109 Physical Geography op Asia 109 Chinese Empire 112 Japan 113 Indo-China 113 British Asia 113 Asiatic Russia 114 Turkey in Asia 115 Minor Asiatic Countries 116 The Indian Archipelago 116 AFRICA 119 Physical Geography of Africa 119 Egypt 120 The Barbary States 121 The Sahara 122 Soudan 122 West Africa 122 East Africa 122 South Africa 123 Topical Review op Africa 123 AUSTRALASIA 126 Australia • 126 POLYNESIA 126 GENERAL REVIEW OF THE WORLD 128 A SYSTEM OP MAP-DRAWING 18® STATISTICAL TABLES 1*8 PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 1^0 LIST OF MAPS 1. MAP OF THE HEMISPHERES 2. GLOBULAR MAP a NORTH AMERICA • 4. PHYSICAL MAP OF NORTH AxMERICA .... 6. PHYSICAL MAP OF THE UNITED STATES . 6. THE UNITED STATES 7. SECTION MAP OF THE ATLANTIC STATES 8. COUNTY MAP OF NEW ENGLAND 9. COUNTY MAP OF THE MIDDLE STATES . 10. SECTION MAP OF THE SOUTH CENTRAL OR GULF STATES 11. SECTION MAP OF THE NORTH CENTRAL OR LAKE STATES 12. COUNTY MAP OF OHIO, INDIANA, AND MICHIGAN . 13. COUNTY MAP OF MINNESOTA, IOWA, WISCONSIN, ILLINOIS, AND MISSOURI PAOE . 12 13 , 22 23 . 25 26,27 . 31 33 . 38 . 48 54 58 62,63 PAOI 14. SECTION MAP OF TEXAS AND THE PLAINS . . 68 15. SECTION MAP OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION . 71 16. SECTION MAP OF THE PACIFIC COAST .... 74 17. CANADA, MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND WEST INDIES 80 18. SOUTH AMERICA • 86 19. PHYSICAL MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA .... 87 20. EUROPE 92 21. PHYSICAL MAP OF EUROPE 93 22. BRITISH ISLES 97 23. CENTRAL EUROPE 100 24. PHYSICAL MAP OF ASIA . . . ■ ... 109 25. ASIA Ill 26. AFRICA 118 27. PHYSICAL MAP OF AFRICA 119 28. OCEANIA 124 GEOGRAPHY. ^-*- DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES. THE SUBJECT DEFINED. (EOGEAPHY is a description of the earth's surface, considered as the abode of man. 2. Its Divisions. — Its main divisions are Physical Geogra- phy and Political Geography. 3. Physical Geography relates to the earth's surface in its nat- ural state. 4 Political Geography relates to the earth's surface as the seat of nations. Physical Geography may be said to be the geography of nature; Political Geography, the geography of man. Topics 6. niustrations. — That Pennsylvania has rich deposits of coal and iron is a fact of Physical Geography ; that Pennsylvania is a State in the United States is a fact of Political Geography. That Russia is a great plain is a fact of Physical Geography; that Russia exports wheat, hemp, and leather, and is ruled by a mon- arch called the Czar, are facts of Political Geography. 6. Mathematical Geography is the term given to certain facts of astronomy and mathematics which are used in geography. The astronomical part treats of the earth as a planet of the solar sys- tem, — with its size, motions, etc. ; the mathematical part teaches us how to represent the earth's surface on maps and globes. 7. Utility of Geography. — The particular character of each country greatly iuHuences the pursuits and the condition of the people inhabiting it From this fact we may reason thus : — That which teaches us the relations between the earth and man must be the most useful of studies. Geography teaches us the relations between the earth and man. Therefore, Geography must be the most useful of studies. Physical Geography. FoUtical OeognpliT'. Land. Kaces. Water. Nations. • • . Climate. Animals. . Plants, etc. IVipiea . . ■« Industries. Governments. . Civilization, etc SECTION I.-MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. TO THE TEACHER. —An Oral Outline, diBtlnctly «o named, precedes the regiilar Reci- tation Lesson, wMch is in larger type. The use to be made of the Oral Outlines is left to the discretion of the teacher. They may be merely read over in the class or they may be made the basis of lively exposition by the instructor. The attention of faithful teachers, who wish to do more than mere rote-work, is earnestly invited to this feature of the book. TOPIC I. SHAPE AND SIZE OF THE EARTH. I. ORAL OUTLINE. 1. What appears to be the shape of the earth, — does it appear to be, in general, flat or round? 2. [The teacher should explain that for thousands of years people supposed the earth to be a great extended plain, but that about three hundred and fifty years ago a navigator named Magellan sailed around, or dreumnavigated, the world, thus proving that the earth is round. It will add interest to trace on the globe or the wall-map of the hemi- spheres the course of Magellan, viz. from Spain across the Atlantic and through the Strait of Magellan, then across the Pacific, touching at the Philippine Islands ; thence by the Indian Ocean and around the Cape of Good Hope to Spain again.] 3. Do we not now often hear of tourists making a trip around the world 1 Do you know what time the trip requires 1 4. You have said that the earth is round ; but a thing may be round like a penny, or round like a pillar, or round like a ball : in which of these three meanings is the earth round 1 [Let the teacher now state that an object of the form of a ball is called a tphere, or globe. It may be well also to put on the blackboard a diagram of a sphere, as in Fig. 1, page 2.] What is meant by " rotundity " t Roundness. 6, Is an orange exactly round 1 Which jjarts are flattened ? Correct j the stem and the part opposite are flattened. Our globe, the earth, is in like manner somewhat flattened at two opposite parts of its sur- face; still, the earth is so nearly sphere-like in form that we may think of it as exactly of that shape. 6. [Teacher pointing to the school globe, which should be introduced at the very outset as an indispensable aid to geographical study.] Here is a terrestrial globe, or globe of the earth : what is its shape I [EUcit from the pupils the term spherical.] The school globe is spherical IN SHAPE ; IT IS A CORRECT REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH's FORM. 7. The constant circumnavigation of the world proves that the earth is of what shape 1 There are other proofs that the earth is spherical. [Let the teacher give the proof from the appearance of ships at sea ; also from the fact that the shadow cast by the earth on the moon, during an echpse of the moon, is cireular. The teacher may illustrate the latter MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. fact by so placiag an apple or a ball that its shadow will fall upon the wall or upon a piece of white paper, and then contrasting it with the shadow of a cube or of a book : this will show that the shadow repre- sents the shape of the body that casts it.] 8. Suppose we wish to determine the size of a globe-shaped object, such as an orange, may we not do so by passing a knitting-needle through the center from some point on the surface to the opposite point ? [The teacher may give the term Diameter, and define it as measure through.'] Now, how may we measure around such a body ? [Give the term Circumference, and define it as measure around.] 9. Can we by any such means ascertain the size of an immense globe like the earth? [The teacher may state tliat learned men have by mathematical calculation ascertained that our globe is about 8,000 miles in diameter, and 25,000 miles in circumference.] 10. Is 25,000 miles a great distance ? If the earth were all dry land, and one were to attempt to walk around it, journeying at the rate of twenty-five miles a day, how many days would the journey require? In one thousand days there are how many years ? How many days would a railroad train, moving constantly night and day, at the rate of twenty miles an hour, take to go around the globe? What is the longest journey you ever made? This distance is what part of the "girdle round the earth " ? II. FOR RECITATION. L A sphere is a solid bounded by a curved surface every point of which is equally distant from a point within called the cen- ter. (See diagram.) 2. The circumference of a sphere is a line drawn around its sur- face so as to divide the surface into two equal parts. (See dia- gram.) Each half-sphere is called a Hemisphere. (See diagram.) DIAGRAM OF MATHCMAT1CAL FIQURES. 3. The diameter of a sphere is a straight line passing through the center, and terminating in the circumference. (See diagram.) 4. The shape of the earth is tliat of a sphere, or globe, slightly flattened at the Poles ; in exact language, an oblate spheroid. Note. — Spheroid means like a .s])hcre ; Mate means flattened at two opposite sides, and an oblate spheroid contrasts with a prolate spheroid, which means a sphere extended at two opposite sides. An orange is an example of an ohlate spheroid, and a lemon, of a prolate spheroid. 5. Proofs of Sphericity. — The sphericity of the earth is shown by many proofs, among which are tlie following : — I. The continual circumnavigation of the earth. This shows that the earth is round from east to west at least. II. The appearance presented by a ship, approaching or reced- ing, at sea or on any great lake. If the earth were flat we should first see the hull of the ship, that being largest ; but in fact we see first the tops of the masts and then the sails, etc., because the curve of the earth's surface hides the low, large huU of the dis- tant ship, while it shows the tops of the slender but tall masts. III. The form of the shadow of the earth seen in an eclipse of the moon. When the earth comes between the sun and the moon, the shadow cast by the earth on the moon is circular ; and only a spherical body can in all positions cast a circular shadow. 6. Size of the EartL — The circumference of the earth is nearly 25,000 miles, and its diameter nearly 8,000 miles. Note. — These are the dimensions in round numbers. The earth, being flattened at the Poles, has a longest and a shortest diameter. Longest diameter (equatorial) . . 7,925.65 miles. 1 „.„ ,„«,„ ., c, . . ,, , . ,, •, or.n 1-7 >> f Difference of 26.48 miles. Shortest ' (axial). . . . 7,899.17 J Greatest circumference 24,809 TOPIC II. DIRECTION ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE. I. ORAL OUTLINE. 1. When we wish to state where one place is with regard to another, we do so by stating in what direction the one place is from the other. What are the names of the four principal points of direction, or points of the compass ? 2. Who knows how to tell the points of the compass? There are two ways of doing this : — First Way. — Stand with your right shoulder toward the sunrise and extend your riglit hand ; that will be toward the east : the west will be at your left hand, the north before you, and the south behind you. Second Way. — Stand with your back toward the sun at noon, so that your shadow is exactly before you , tlien the head of your shadow will be toward the north, your back will be toward the south, the right hand toward the east, and the left hand toward tlie west. 3. Point to the east, — to the west, — to the north, — to the south. In which wall or walls of the school-room are windows ? Which walls have blackboards? Name some one in the room who is east from you, — south from you, etc. Point toward your home : in what direc- tion is it ? Let any pupil who lives north from here rise, — any who lives south, — east, — west. Does the street in which the school-house is located extend from north to south or from east to west? In what direction from here is the nearest city, town, or village 1 In what direc- tion from here is the capital of our State ? 4. [The teacher should now introduce the names of the intermediate, or semi-cardinal points, NE, SE, etc., as shown in this diagram representing the face of a compass.] Where is northeast? Midway between north and east. Northwest ? Southeast ? Southwest ? 5. Who knows what a compass is? What kind have you ever seen? d^T* The successful teacher will bj repeated reviews train the pnpU to a thorosgh practical knowledge of Direction. II. FOR RECITATION. 1. Direction on the earth's surface is indicated by means of cer- tain names of points called Points of the Compass. 2. Cardinal Points. — The Cardinal Points are North, South, East, and West. 3. How found. — North is toward the North Pole ; South, toward the South Pole. Looking toward the North Pole with the arms extended, East is to the right hand, West to the left. 4. The semi-cardinal points are four intermediate directions, called Northeast and Northwest, Southeast and Southwest. AXIS AND POLES. — MAP-MAKING. TOPIC III. AXIS AND POLES. I. ORAL OUTLINE. gr" The teacher m»y. In Uii» instoiioe, h»ve the paragraphB made the topics of a con- versational lesson. 1. If I twirl an orange on a knitting-needle, it turns, or rotates, on the knitting-needle. But suppose I could cause a body that floats in tlie air, such as a soap-bubble, to rotate, on what would it rotate 1 It would rotate on itself. Still, we may imagine a line or diameter on which it turns ; and this is called its Azis (a Latin word meaning axle- tree). 2. The earth rotates, or turns completely round, once every twenty- four hours, and it is said to turn on its axis. The rotation of the earth on its axis causes day and night, by bringing, in turn, different parts of the earth's surface toward or away from the sun. 3. When a ball or soap-bubble is set rotating, there are two points which do not whirl around in a cir- cle, but which remain stationary, or, rather, turn upon themselves as pivots. In like manner, at the ends of the axis of every rotating body there are two pivot-points. 4. It is the same with the earth. Now, in the case of tlie earth these points are called the Poles (from a Greek word meaning turning-points). 6. One pole is almost directly be- neath a famous star called the North Star, or Polar Star. This star may be seen in our country on any clear night, and may be found by atten- tion to what follows. 6. In the northern part of the heavens is a constellation called the "Great Bear," or, popularly, the Great Dipper, from the fancied re- semblance of seven of the stars to the outline of a dipper or ladle. The two stars forming the outer side of the bowl of the dipper, called pointers, point very nearly to a bright .star that forms the end of the handle of the " Little Dipper." This is tiie Polar Star. What pupils have ever seen the North Star? 7. The pole or end of the earth's axis under the North Star is called the North Pole. The opposite pole is called the South Pole ; it is the point on the earth farthest away from the North Star. 8. So far as is known, no human being has ever been at the North Pole, though many brave explorers have periled or lost their lives in the attempt to reach it. II. FOR RECITATION. L The earth's Axis is the imaginary line, or diameter, on which the earth rotates once every twen- ty-four hours. 2. The Poles of the earth are the two stationary points at the ends of the earth's axis. They are distinguished as the North Pole and the South Pole. 3. The North Pole is the pole nearest the North Star. The South Pole is the opposite ex- HPo'i-* tremity of the earth's axis; it is the point on the earth's surface farthest from the North Star. THE NORTH STAR. »»9.!^T.'j..!!9tc TOPIC IV. MAP-MAKING. PMrnms or a 1. What do you see in this picture of the interior of a school-room 1 "I see three walls." What else? etc., etc. 2. This picture represents the various objects in tlie school-room in the relative positions in which we should see them if we stood at the door and looked in. Such a representation is said to be in perspective. 3. If the roof could be lifted off the school-room, and we should then look down, what should we see? Should we not see what is on the floor, or ground} I or THK SCHOOL-ROOM. 4. [The teacher should now draw the plan on the blackboard, elicit- ing from the pupils how it is to be drawn. The pupils must then be required to copy the plan, first on their slates, then on paper.] The drawing which we have made does not much resemble the picture, for we have merely represented by certain signs the different objects seen on the floor, or ground. Such a representation is called a ground-plan. Exercise. — For additional practice, the pupils should be required to draw a ground-plan of their school-room. They should be shown that it is neces- sary to draw it to some definite scale. Thus, suppose that the room is shown to be 40 X 30 feet ; pupils will readily understand that it would be imprac- ticable to draw lines 30 or 40 feet in length. Let the scale be 1 inch to 5 feet ; then the line representing the longest side of the school-room will be 8 inches in length, and that representing its width 6 inches. 6. A map is constructed in somewhat the same manner as a ground- plan of a room or of a building. That is, wo use certain marks and signs to represent the various objects, locating them in the relative situa- tions in which we should see the objects themselves if we looked down from a great height. MATHEMATICAL GEOGEAPHY. LANDSCAPE rOR MAPPING. 6. Here is a picture of a landscape ; it is a view of a part of the earth's surface. We wish to make a map of it. How do we proceed? We indicate the various objects, as the mountains and hills, the rivers and the lake, the road and railroad, the village and school-house, by the marks shown in this map. School House MAP OF THE SAME LANDSCAPE. 7. What is a Map 1 A map is a representation, on a plane, of any part (or the whole) of the earths surface. ' The saccessful teacher will not be satisfied with a single exercise of tliis kind, but will fjive repeated exercises in drawing plans of the echool-house and grounds, surrounding buildings or fields, etc. To more advanced pupils, local maps of the city, town, or connly may profitably be given at this stage. TOPIC V. GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION. I. ORAL OUTLINE. 1. [Teacher placing on the desk a terrestrial c/lohe.] What is the shape of this globe 1 It represents the shape of what ? Put your finger on the North Pole, — on the South Pole. This globe can rotate : what else rotates ? On what does the earth rotate 1 What is the earth's axis 1 2. You see various lines [the teacher showing the parallels and me- ridians^ crossing the globe in different directions : do you suppose there are any such lines on tbe surface of our globe, the earth % 3. When we wish to tell the location of a building in a city, how do we do so ? Can we in any such way describe the position of a fly on an orange ? Why not 1 PARALLELS OF LATITUDE. 4. Now, it would be as difficult, without the help of these lines on globes and maps, to denote the position of a vessel on the pathless ocean as to tell the location of a fly on an orange or a smooth ball. 6. The first line that geographers use is the Equator. [The teacher will point it out on the ghhe.^ It represents the earth's surface as divided into two half-spheres, or liemispheres. 6. The half-sphere between the Equator and the North Pole [the teacher shoviing it\ is called the Northern Hemisphere, and that be- tween the Equator and the South Pole the Southern Hemisphere. 7. By means of the Equator we may describe a place as in the North- ern or in the Southern Hemisphere ; that is, as somewhere between the Equator and the North or the South Pole. But this is still very indefi- nite, between the Equator and either Pole being more than 6,000 miles. 8. Now, we may describe locality more definitely by subdividing this distance by a number of lines parallel to the Equator. These are called Parallels of Latitude. In the cut here given we have a figure of a globe with such parallels. 9. Counting from the Equator upward toward the North Pole, near the top of the cut, how many of these parallel lines or circles do we see ? Into how many belts do these eight circles divide the distance be- tween the Equator and the North Pole? (The same is the case with the distance between the Equator and the South Pole, but the figure does not allow of all these lines being marked.) By means of these parallels we can state the latitude of a place. How is this done? It is done by stating the number of degrees any place is distant from the Equator. [Let the teacher explain.] 10. It is not enough that we are able to speak of a place as north or south from the Equator : we must have the means of denoting its position east or west. For this purpose we draw a number of semi- circles from the North to the South Pole, called Meridians. With these we measure longitude, which is locality east or west. 11. But east or west from what f We must fix upon some meridian as the starting-point for reckoning. On many American maps the me- ridian of Washington, the capital of our country, is chosen ; but the meridian most used is that of Greenwich, near London, where there is a famous naval observa- tory. Calling the meridian of Greenwich zero, we count longitude eastward 180 degrees, that is, half- way round the globe, and also west- ward the same distance. 12. When we know the latitude and tbe longitude of a place or of a ship at sea, we can ascertain its exact position on the earth's surface, be- cause the latitude shows us how far it is from the Equator, and the longitude gives its situation east or west of some fixed point. Thus, if we should see it announced that a sailor had been cast away on an island in South latitude 33^ degrees and West longitude 79 degrees (Greenwich), we should know, by looking at the map, that this was the island called Juan Fernandez, or Robinson Crusoe's Island. II. FOR RECITATION. 1 The geographical position of places is determined by refer- ence to certain circles drawn on maps and globes. These are called circles of situation. MERIDIANS OF LONQITUDE. MAP REPKESKNTATION OF THE EARTH. 2. The circles of situation are: the Equator, the Parallels of Latitude, anil the Meridian circles. 3. The Equator is an imaginary circle around the earth, mid- way between the Poles. It divides the eaith into a Northern Hemisphere and a Southern Hemisphere. 4. Parallels of Latitude are circles around the earth parallel to the Equator. 5. The latitude of a place is its distance in degrees north or south of the Equator. Note. — A Degree (marked °) is the 860th part of any circle. The 60th part of a degree is called a Minute (marked '}, and the 60th jjart of a minute ia called a Seco.nd (marked "). 6. Latitude is reckoned thus : North Latitude, from the Equator, where the latitude is zero, to the North Pole, which is in 90° north latitude ; South Latitude, from the Equator to the South Pole, which is in 90° south latitude. TOPIC VI. MAP REPRESENTATION OP THE EARTH. tST" Thli topic tnay best be treated in a oonvenational leason. L We have learned in regard to the terrestrial globe, that it is the best representation of the earth's surface. It is a map of the earth drawn on a sphere. 2. But it is often necessary to represent the earth, and particularly parts of the earth, on a plane surface, like a sheet of paper. We shall see how the whole of the earth's surface may be represented on a plane surface. 3. [ The teacher turning toward the class first the Western and tJien the Eastern Hemisphere on the school globe.'\ The dry land on the surface of the earth is gathered together in two great masses, called continents. How shall we represent these two continents and the surrounding oceans on a flat surface 1 4. If we divide a globe (as we may divide an orange) into halves, and lay each half, or hemisphere, on its flat side, we shall be able — shall we not 1 — to see both halves, or hemispheres, at the same time. PARALLELS AND MERIDIANS. 7. Meridians (from a word signifying midday) are semicircles extending half round the globe, north and south, from Pole to Pole. 8. The longitude of a place is its distance in degrees east or west from a given meridian, called the Prime meridian. ONEINWIOH OBSKRVATORV. — THE TMAME8.- NoTE. —The meridian of the British Royal Observatory at Greenwich, near I-on- don, England, is the prime meridian generally used. The meridian of Washington also is used in our country. In this book the numbers at the top of the maps indi- cate longitude counted from the Greenwich meridian, and those at the bottom, longitude counted from the Washington meridian. 9. Longitude is reckoned from the prime meridian both east- ward and westward 180°, or half-way around the globe. 10, Length of a degree. — The length of every degree of latitude is 69J statute miles. The length of a degree of longitude is not uniform: it is 69 J statute miles at the Equator; but the degrees constantly lessen from the Equator to the Poles, where they cease to have any length, since all meridians meet there. HEMISPHERE PIOTURC 5. Here we have a sort of picture of the two hemispheres as we should see them if we could look down on the earth from a great height. This, however, is not a map. 6. But now, if we draw on paper two circles with a frame-work of parallels and meridians, Ave may represent in them the outline of the earth's surface, and show the relative position of the lands and waters. HEMISPHKRK MAP. 7. These are not exactly like the two hemispheres into which we im- agined the globe divided, because the globe hemispheres have a curved surface ; but they are as close a representation as can bo made on a flat surface. Notes. — 1. The jmrallcls do not seem to bo parallel with one another ; but they are drawn as they are in order to rcjiresent the rotundity of the earth. 2. The meridians are drawn from top to bottom in such a way as to show the globular form of the earth ; but they mu.st all be supposed to cross the Eijuator at right angles, and the direction of the meridiana indicalcs due north and south. 3. If the figures, or degrees, marked on the Equator to measure longitude increase from left to right, the longitude is east ; if from right to left, it is west. MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. TOPIC VII. MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. I. ORAL OUTLINE. 1. Does the earth seem to us to move 1 Do we feel it move ? Does the eartli move ] 2. Can you mention one of its movements? The earth turns, or rotates, on its axis once every twenty-four hours. [The teacher may state that it has been proved by observation of the stars that the earth rotates on its axis.] Has it always been known that the earth has this movement 1 3. From what heavenly body does daylight come? If we hold a globe up to a light, how much of its surface will receive light, or be illuminated, at the same time? [Let the teacher illustrate.] 4. What will be the condition of the other half as regards light? What may we do with the globe so that every part shall in succession be illuminated ? 6. As the earth turns on its axis the sun is always shining on one half of its surface. What is this period called ? What is the other period, when half the earth is in its own shadow, called ? 6. Does the earth appear to rotate 1 Does not the sun rather seem to move around the earth ? In what part of the horizon does the sun seem to rise, — to set ? 7. If we carry the light around the school globe, will not every part be in turn illuminated, just as if we make the globe rotate in front of the light ? Which of these two ways is the easier way of lighting in succession every part of the school globe ? 8. The sun is many thousand times larger than our globe, the earth : what conclusion, then, do you draw, — that the sun really wheels around the earth, as it appears to do, or that the earth rotates on its axis ? 9. Now you are to learn that the earth has another movement. Like all the heavenly bodies which we call planets, it revolves around the sun. The time it takes to perform this motion is called a year. How long is a year? You see, then, that the earth has two motions, and these two motions are going on all the time. [A good illustration is presented by a spinning top, which while spinning, tliat is, rotating on its axis, may also be moving around some point on the floor.] 10. The yearly revolution of the earth around the sun produces won- derful effects. It causes the change of seasons, and also the varying length of day and night in different parts of the earth. FOR RECITATION. L The motions of the earth are two : a daily, or diurnal, rotation on its axis ; and a yearly, or annual, revolution around the sun. 2. The effect of the rotation of the earth on its axis from west to east is the alternation of day and night; the rotation makes the sun seem to rise in the east and set in the west. 3. The effect of the revolution of the earth around the sun, com- bined with a peculiar inclination of the earth's axis and its un- changing direction, is the change of seasons. 4. Explanation. — In winter the Pole nearest us is turned from the suu, which therefore, even at midday, appears very low in the heavens, and its rays fall upon us in a slanting direction. In summer the Pole nearest us is turned toward the sun, which therefore appears high in the heavens, and its rays consequently fall more directly upon us. The more nearly overhead the sun is to us, the more do we feel its heat. When it is highest we have the heat of summer, and when it is lowest we have the cold of winter. Cause of the Seasons. — If it is thought advisable to enter into the difficult subject of the astronomy of the seasons, the teacher may make a fuller explanation, using the following facts and the accompanying diagram : — SEPTEMBER DECEMBER TO ILLUSTRATE THE SEASONS. The earth's orbit is its path around the sun. The jjlane of its orbit is the surface included within the orbit. 3. The earth's axis is inclined 23J° toward the plane of its orbit. 4. The earth's axis also preserves a parallel position in every part of the orbit, be- cause the North Pole continually points toward the North Star. 5. The diagram given above shows the position of the earth at four marked periods in the earth's journey. The change of seasons is produced hy the earth's revolution around the sun, coupled with Vie fact that the earth's axis is amstarUly inclined to the plane of its orbit, and always points in the same direction. TOPIC VIII. ZONES OP CLIMATE. I. ORAL OUTLINE. L In our own country which part of the day is the cooler, • — morning or noon, — noon or evening ? When is the sun highest, — at noon or in the morning or evening ? 2. We must understand why it is hotter at noon than in the morning or evening, because the knowledge of this will help us to understand why the earth is divided into belts, or zones, according to the tempera- ture, or amount of heat received in each throughout the year. 3. From what heavenly body do we receive our heat ? When do you think the rays of the sun fall most slantingly, in the morning or at noon ? Correct ; in the morning the rays of the sun fall in a slanting direction, and we receive comparatively few of the rays, because they are spread over a great surface. At noon, when the sun is more or less nearly overhead, the sun's rays fall more or less directlij upon us, and we receive more of them because they fall ujion a comparatively small space. 4. Eays falling from directly overhead are said to bo vertical ; those falling in a slanting direction are said to be oblique. [The following diagram put upon the blackboard will bring the matter home to the pupil's comprehension.] Note. — This figure represents what we may call three sMaJs of the sun's rays. The vertical sheaf of rays, strik- ing tlie earth at noon, falls upon the small surface between C and D. In the middle of the forenoon or afternoon the rays, falling obliquely, are spread over the greater surface D E. At sunrise or sunset no part of the sheaf touches the earth's surface except its lower side, and most of the rays are lost in tlie atmosphere beyond. VERTICAL AND OBLIQUE RAVS. 5. Now remember these two facts : 1 . The more nearly vertical the rays of the sun are at any place, the hotter, as a general rule, it is there ; 2. The more obliquehj the rays of the sim fall upon any part of the earth, the cooler, as a general rule, it is there. 6. In our part of the world, when is the sun the more nearly over- head, — in the summer or in the winter ? At which of these two seasons, then, are the sun's rays the more nearly vertical to us ? Which season, then, must be the colder, — summer or winter ? 7. In our part of the world is the sun ever directly overhead ? [The teacher should explain that in our country the sun is never directly ZONES OF CLIMATE overhead, and that his rays fall upon us in the most nearly vertical direc- tum on the longest summer day (from 14 J to 15 J hours long, in June). It will add interest if the teacher, by reference to an almanac, will state the exact length of the longest day for each locality.] 8. If we direct a stream of water through a pipe upon a large ball, which part of the ball will the stream strike with most force 1 Will it be that part directly opposite the pipe ] Is the earth of the same shape aa the ball 1 Which part of the earth's surface, then, will the sun's rays strike most directly 1 [The teacher should hero state that the sun always shines vertically, or nearly so, on the Equator and on a considera- ble belt beyond the Equator on each side of it. Give the name Tonid Zone, and point out the Tropics on the globe ; but there is no need, at thb point, to enter into any mathematical considerations involved in the situation of these circles.] In the Torrid Zone the climate is very hot all the year round. 9. On what parts of the earth's surface must the sun's rays fall most slantingly] Where, then, do you think the coldest parts of the earth are 1 [The teacher will give the name Frigid Zones, and show them on the globe; also the Arctic and Antarctic Circles.] 10. Since there is a region on each side of the Equator (where the sun's rays fall most directly) that is constantly hot, and a region around each of the Poles (where the sun's rays fall most slantingly) that is constantly cold, what may you conclude about the two belts between the very hot zone and each of the two Frigid Zones 1 [Teacher point- ing to the Temperate Zone* on tlie terrestrial glohe.'\ Do the sun's rays fall on Uiese belts as vertically as on the Torrid region 1 Do they fall as obliquely as on the Frigid regions 1 Can the regions in these middle belts be as constantly hot as in the Torrid Zone 1 Can they bo as con- stantly cold as in the Frigid Zones 1 [Let the teacher give the name Temperate Zones.] We live in the North Temperate Zone. ty A thorough glob»rogre8s in Zo&os. days and oak, walnut. iwar, rice, to- wolves, bean, wealth. Intel- nights varying che8tnut,etc.. bacco, cotton. etc. ligence, and more in length in the middle enterprise. than In Torrid region ; i)ine, l_ Zone. flr, in the cold region. rMarlced by a Exceedingly Neither grain White bear, Scanty in long and in- scanty, be- nor esculent reindeer, and numbers, and tensely cold ing almost fhiits can bo fur- bearing showings low winter, and by conSned to grown. type of civU- a short but mosses and the whale. Ization. comparatively lichens. walrus, seal. Frigid 1 Zones. 1 warm anmmer. andaea-birda. with days lengthening toward the . Poles, where day and night are each six months long. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. TOPICAIi STNOPSIS TOR REVIEW. C Geography Subject defined, i and ('Mathematical. L Its subdivisions J physical. I PoliticaL Seflnition of Terms. Shape and size of the Earth. Sphere and Hemisphere. Diameter. Circumference. {Degrees. Minutes. Seconds. ' General shape. f By appearance of ships. Proofs of rotundity J By shadow in eclipses. I By circumnavigation. Oblate spheroid | Longest diameter. *^ \Shortest Extent of circumference. " diameter. Axis defined. The Poles rNorth. \ South. Circles of Situ- ation. Their use. Their names . . Motions of the Earth. Climatic Circles and Zones. CEquator rNorthem Hemisphere. I Parallels. \Southem ^> Meridians. ("North Latitude, how reckoned. Latitude defined... J gg^jjj <« •< " V Length of degree. (Prime Meridian. East Longitude. West " Length of degree. f On what. Rotation J lu what time. I Result. ("Around what. Revolution J Jq ^jjat time. Uesult. (- „ . /Of Cancer. " \0f Capricorn. Climatic Circles... J , a ^ r.- i I Polar Circles (^^f\C"-=> , I I. Antarctic Circle. Torrid Zone Temperate Zones.. Frigid Zones Situation. Characteristics. Situation. Characteristics. Situation. Characteristics. f^" At this point the teacher should make the Topical Synopsis the basis of a series of review lessons. A week may profitably be spent in this work. The pupils should be re- quired to recite by topics and in their own language, instead of by piecemeal questioning. Model : Topic I. — Subject Defined. Mathematical, Physical, and Political Geography are the three subdivisions of the science of Geography. This science treats, in general, of the earth's surface, con- sidered as the abode of man. Mathematical Geography has to do with the shape, size, and motions of the earth, and with the mode of representing the surface of our planet on maps and globes. The two main divisions of Geography, however, are Physical Geography and Political Geography. Some of the topics treated of in Physical Geography are the land and water surface of the earth, the climate of its various regions, and the plants and animals that live upon it. Some of the topics treated of in Political Geography are the various races and nations of the earth, with their industries, governments, and civilization. Physical Geography is the geography of nature ; Political Geography, the geography of man. I^~ In connection with the review it is recommended that some of the more interesting topics be assigned as subjects for compositions. Section IL- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. TOPIC I. LAND AND WATER. I^" To classes but little advanced this topic should be introduced by an examination of the terrestrial globe. The teacher should have the pupils determine for themselves how much of the earth's surface is land and how much is water; then let the teacher show how the two great land-masses partially enclose the ocean-basins, and give the names of the two continents and five oceans. FOR RECITATION. 1. The earth's snrface consists of land and water, — a little over one quarter being land, and nearly three quarters water. QRAND DIVISIONS OF LAND AND WATER. 2. The land on the surface of the earth is in the form of Conti- nents and of Islands. The most striking difference between con- tinents and islands is in their size ; continents being merely very large islands, — so large as to contain many different countries. 3. The Continents are the two great bodies of dry land on the earth's surface. The continent in the Eastern Hemisphere, con- taining Europe, Asia, and Africa, is called the Eastern Continent ; that in the Western Hemisphere, containing North and South America, is called the Western Continent. 4. The Ocean is the great continuous body of salt water sur- rounding the globe and covering three fourths of its surface. 5. Its subdivisions. — An ocean is a certain part of this great body of water, distinguished by a particular name. The Ocean forms three great basins : the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean ; and two lesser basins : the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic Ocean — the former in the region of the North Pole, the latter in that of the South Pole. TOPIC II. DIVISIONS OP LAND. ORAL OUTLINE. 1. The edge of the land, where land and water meet, is called the shore, or sea-coa.st : did you ever see the sea-coast 1 Is it even and straight, or is it curved and jagged? 2. Three names are given to the land-part of the earth's surface, according to its form. If the land juts out, or projects, from the main body, so that the water almost surrounds it, it is called a Peninsula, — ■ a word meaning almost an island. If the land is a point projecting into tlie sea, it is called a Cape, — a word meaning a head (of land), or, as we say, a headland. If, again, a part of the land is shaped something like the neck in the human body, that is, if it is narrower than the two DIVISIONS OF LAND. parts of land it connects, it is called an Isthmus, — a Greek word which means neck. 3. "What peninsida have you ever seen 1 Do you know of any large cities in our country situated on small peninsulas % Did you ever see a cape, point, or headland 1 If so, into what water does it extend % Name all the capes you ever heard of. Do you know the name of any isthmus f 4. Is the land all on a level ? What do you call a flat and even stretch of country] What is a lofly plain called 1 [Teacher will give the word PLATEAU.) What is an elevation of the land called 1 What is a lofty elevation called 1 What is a depression between higher ground called 1 6. You may notice that in some parts the earth's surface is level, in others sunk, and in still others raised ; and so we have four divisions of the lanU surface with regard to height These are Plains, Vallevs, P'.^TKAu^ aud Mountains. •J. A« ii»ere any mountains in or near the place where you live? If so, what are they called? How high are theyl What is the name of the highest mountain-peak you ever heard of? Are there any hills in or near the place wliere you live? If so, tell their names. Can you tell the difference between a hill and a mountain? What valley have you ever seen 1 In what country is the great valley of the Mis- sissippi ? What is the difference between a valley and a mountain ? 7. We have learned that the parts of the land may be classed accord- ing to their /orwi and according to their height. Bj Form /Peninsulas. • -j Capes. Usthmuses. Br HelBht Plains Valleys Plateaus Mountains II. FOR RECITATION. L The Continents are the two great bodies of land on the earth's surface, and are called respectively the Eastern Continent, or Old World, and the Western Continent, or New World. 2. An island is a body of land smaller than a continent, and surrounded by water. Note. — The island of Australia is so large that it is often called a continent. 3. The coast, sea-coast, or seaboard of a continent or island is that part bordering on the sea. The irregular line in which the surfaces of land and water meet is called the Coast-link. 4. Land-forms are classified (1) according to their /arm (or shape as determined by the coast-line), and (2) according to their height above the level of the sea. The former is called the Contour of a body of land ; the latter is called its Kelief. 6. According to contour, bodies of land are classified as Penin- sulas, Capes, and Isthmuses. 6. A peninsula is a portion of land almost surrounded by water. 7. A cape is a point of land projecting into the sea. A promontory, or headland, is a high cape. 8. An isthmos is a narrow neck of land connecting two larger bodies of land. 9. According to relief, there are two main divisions of land, — Highlands and Lowlands. These are subdivided as follows : — Forms of Belief . . [■-"""^ {v^ l^ Highlands. J Plateaus. Mountains. 1(X A plain is a tract of generally level land, not raised much above the sea According to their characteristics, plains receive in different parts of the world distinctive names ; as prairies, llanos, telvas, pampas, steppes, deserts. Prairie (the French word for meadow) is the name given to one of the open, slightly undulating, grassy plains of the United States. Uanoa are the river plains of South America ; in the rainy season they are cov- ered with rank vegetation, and in the dry season they are deserts. Selvas (Latin silva, a wood) are higher tracts of the same region densely covered with forests. Pampas are treeless but grassy plains found in cei-tain parts of South America. Steppes are the plains of Northern Asia ; they are sometimes covered with rough herbage, and sometimes they are deserts. Deserts are dry plains. The rainless part of Africa, called "Sahara," is the greatest of deserts. Fertile spots in the desert, made by springs, are called Oases; here the wandering Bedouin finds shade and dates, and his camels obtain water. IL A valley is a depression in the land below the level of the surrounding country. The forms of valleys are exceedingly varied : in some cases the slopes are long and gentle ; in others they are abrupt and steep, so that the valley passes gradually into a ravirie or defile. 12. A platean, or table-lavd, is an extensive plain at a consider- able height (as a thousand feet, or more) above the level of the sea. 13. A mountain is an abrupt elevation of the earth's surface, rising to a height of two thousand feet or upward. Lower eleva- tions are called hills. Mountain-Terms. — The following terms denoting the various features of mountains should be observed : — 1. The base of a mountain is its foot, or the beginning of its ascent 2. The slopes of a mountain are its inclined sides. 3. The summit of a mountain is its top, or highest point. 4. The crest of a mountain ridge, or range, is the line along its top. 5. Passes are sudden depressions or breaks, affording the means of crossing mountain barriers. 14 A watershed (literally water-parting) is a ridge, or height of land which separates two streams that flow in opposite directions. The term watershed is used also to denote the slope down which a stream, or a system of streams, flows. A WATCRSHLU 16. A mountain-range, or mountain-chain, is a connected series of mountains extending in the same general direction. Most 10 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. mountains are in this form rather than in the form of single detached heights. 16. A mountain-system consists of several mountain-ranges near together and extending in the same general direction. 17. A volcano is a mountain that sends forth smoke, ashes, and melted matter, called lava, through an opening called its crater. 1& The basin of a river signifies the whole tract of country drained by the river and its tributaries. TOPIC III. DIVISIONS OF WATER. ORAL OUTLINE. Ca^SlHE Ocean, or Sea, is the great — * body of salt water thai surrounds the globe. It is immensely large, — so large that we may sail on it for days and weeks without seeing a sign of land. 2. The Ocean is really one body, yet different names are, for the sake of con- venience, given to different parts of it. [Let the teach- er review, by means of the school globe or the wall-map, the names of the five oceans.] 3. Do you live on the sea-coast or inland ? Did you ever see any part of the ocean 1 What is the name of it ? A number of the States in our country border on the Atlantic Ocean : does the State in which we live belong to this number t Does the State in which we live border on the Pacific Ocean 1 4. We have learned that in places the land shoots out into the ocean ; so the oceans must break into the land. These inbreakings, or arms of the sea, have different names. 5. If the ocean runs well up into the interior of the continent, so that a great sheet of water is almost surrounded by land, it is called a Sea ; but if the sheet of water is more open, it is called a Gulf, or Bay. There is another division of water called a Strait. The word " strait " means literally a narrow passage, and a strait is a narrow passage of water connecting two larger bodies of water. 6. \Teacher pointing to the Mediterranean Sea on the map.] Here is a great inbreaking of tlie Atlantic Ocean, called the Mediterranean Sea. Is this sheet of water nearly surrounded by land ? Here [pointing to the Strait of Gibraltar] is a narrow passage of water connecting tlie Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean. What is such a passage called 1 Here [pointing to the Gulf of Mexico] is another great inbreak- ing of the ocean ; it is as much enclosed by land as is the Caribbean Sea, yet it is not called a sea, but a gulf. 7. Now, there are bodies or sheets of water of such a kind that they are entirely enclosed by the land. We may call such a body of water an inland body of water. It is termed a Lake. 8. Did you ever see a lake f What is the lake nearest us ? Is it large or small 1 What lakes do you know of in this State ? [The teacher wiU do well to point out on the hemisphere map the Great Lakes of North America, and other important lakes.] 9. There is another sort of inland body of water which flows through the land. What is such a body called ] What river is near this place ? Is it large or small ] Where does it risel Into what does it flow ? 10. Pupils may now copy this table on their slates : — Seas- f I^ Gulfs, or Bays. WtaoUy Inland . • I p- I Straits. ^ Partly Inland I-/akes. Rivers. II. FOR RECITATION. 1. The waters of the earth's surface comprise two divisions, — the Ocean, and various inland bodies and streams. 2. The Ocean is the great continuous body of salt water sur- rounding the globe; it has five grand divisions. 3. A sea is a body of salt water smaller than an ocean, and more or less surrounded by land. Note. — A sea is, properly speaking, always a part of some ocean. 4. A gulf, or bay, is a body of water extending into the land. Alinor indentations are inlets, coves, fiords, havens, harbors, roadsteads. 5. A strait is a uari'ow passage of water connecting two larger bodies of water. A channel is a wide strait. A sound is a shallow strait. 6. The inland waters are rivers and lakes. 7. A river is a large stream of fresh water flowing into the ocean or some other body of water. The source of a river is where it rises : this is usually a spring. The waters of a spring make a brook, or creek, and many of these Itead-walers unite to form a river. The bed of a river is the channel formed by its watei-s. The banks are the portions of land bordering on each side of a river. A bank is called the rigid or the left according as it is on the right or left of a person looking down stream. The mouth of a river is where it flows into some other body of water. Tributaries are the branches of a larger stream ; and the place where two streams unite is called their confluerux. 8. A river-system is a great river with its tributaries, or a set of rivers flowing into the same body of water. 9. A lake is an inland body of water filling a depression in the land. Some salt-water lakes are called seas ; as the Caspian Sea. 10. An ocean-current is a stream of salt water flowing through the sea ; as the Gulf Stream, the Japan CuiTent. IL Correspondences. — The earth's surface is divided into land and water, and the parts of each correspond, thus : — Land and VTater. A carUinerU is. one of the grand land- masses of the earth. An island is land wholly surrounded by water. A cape is a portion of land jutting out into the sea. A peninsula is land almost sur- rounded by water. An isthmus is a neck of land join- ing two larger portions. A coast, or seaboard, is that part of a continent or of an island which ' lies next the water. Aji ocean is one of the grand di- visions of the Great Ocean. A lake is water wholly surrounded by land. A bay is a portion of water extend- ing into the land. A gulf or sea is water almost sur- rounded by land. A strait is a narrow passage of water joining two larger portions. That part of the sea which lies near the coast of a country is called the coast waters of that country. SYNOPSIS FOE KEVIEW. — MODELS FOR DESCRIPTION. 11 Lamii. DiTisions of the Earth's Surface.. . Water. TOPICAL SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. rEitent f Continents. \ Islands. {Peninsulas. Capes. Isthmuses. . Relief-forms . The Ocean. . . Inland Waters . Lowlands | Plains. \ Valleys. Highlands, r Atlantic I f Plateaus. Mountains. , r Seas. f'^!'^'^- «^^SL! Bays, or Gulfs. I Indian, etc. J I straits J Chains, or Ranges. I Systems. {Channels. Sounds. Rivers J Main Streams. Tributaries. Lakes {^"'^^ \Salt MODELS FOR DESCRIBING THE DIVISIONS OP LAND AND WATER. l.-A GRAND DIVISION. State what part of either continent it forms. Examples. — Worth America forms the northern part of the Western Continent. Europe forma the northwestern part of the Eastern Continent. ».— A COUNTRY. State in what part of what grand division it is, and bound it. Example. — The VnlteA state* is in the middle part of North America, and is bounded on the north by the Dominion of Canada, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Chilf of Mexico and Mexico, and on the vxst by the Pacific Ocean. S.-AN ISI^AND. State its direction ftom the nearest coast or larger island, and tell what body or bodies of water surround it. Examples. — Cuba is south of the United States, and is surrownded by the Atlan- tie Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, and the Oulf of Mexico. tTamatea is south of Cuba, and is surrounded by the Caribbean Sea. 4. -A pi:ninsci.a. State fi-om what part of what country it projects, and what waters nearly surround it. Example. — Florida projects from the southeastern part of the United States, and is nearly surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. S.-AN ISTHMUS. State what, countries it connects, and what bodies of water it lies between. Example. — The isthmus of Panama/ connects North and South America, and lies between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. 6.-A CAPE. State {1*001 what country or coast it projects, and into what body of water. Example. — Cape Halterat projects from the eastern coast of the United States into the Atlantic Ocean. 7. -A MOUNTAIN. State in what part of what country it is situated, and (if a range or system) state its direction. Examples. — Mount Popoeatapell' is in the southern part of Mexico. The Alleghany Mountains are in the eastern part of the United States, and extend from northeast to southwest. 8.-AN OCEAN. State its direction from the coasts it washes. Example. — Xlie Atlantic Ocean is east of North and South America, and west of Europe and Africa. 9.— A SEA, GITLF, OR BAY. State its direction from the nearest coast, and with what body of water it is connected, or of what water it forms an inbreaking. Examples. — The Mediterranean Sea is south of Europe, and is connected with the Atlantic Ocean, of which it is an inbreaking. The Oulf of Mexico is south of the United States, and is connected vjilh the Atlantic Ocean, of which it is an inbreak- ing. The Say of Biscay is west of France and north of Spain, and forms an inbreaking of the Atlantic Ocean. 10.— A STRAIT, CHANNEI., OR SOUND. State between what countries or islands it is, and what bodies of water it connects. Examples. — Tiie strait of Gibraltar is between Spain and Morocco, and con- nects the Mediterranean Sea with t/ie Atlantic Ocean. Mozambique' [beek] Channel is between Africa and the island of Madagascar, and connects different parts of the Indian, Ocean. 11. -A I.AKE. State in what part of what country it is situated, and give its outlet, if any is named. Example. — lafcc Ontario is in the northern part of the United States, and the St. Lawrence Kiver is its outlet. IS.-A BrVER. State where it rises, its direction, and into what body of water it flows. Example. — The MUsUHppi niver rises in lUu/ea Lake, in Minnesota, and flows in a southerly direction into the Chilf of Mexico. 18.-A cmr. State its location, and whether on the seaboard (or lake-shore) or in the interior. Examples. — JV«ti> Tork is a seaboard city in the southern part of New York. Chicago is in the northeastern part of Illinois, on the southern shore of Lake Michigan. 13 U := // STUDIES ON THE NoTK.— This nup U a representation of a terrestrial globe so turned as to show the greatest poasible amount of land at one view; — and in fact it places before the eye the whole of the land surface of the earth with the exception of Oceanica and the southern half uf South America. As a corrective of the confusion of ideas into which pupils tmacquaiuted with the principles of map-projection are likeljr to fall from the study of the ordinary hemisphere map, it will be found very valuable. The teacher should give the chiss repeated exercises, oral and written, on this map. I. — !• In what direction ia north on this map? Ans. Toward the North Pole. 2. What grand divisions of land are crossed by the Equator? 8. What grand divisions of land are crossed by the Tropic of Cancer ? — by the Tropic of Capri- corn ? 4. What part of Africa is crossed by the prime meridian (Greenwich), marked on the Equator? II.— 1. What grand divisions east of the Atlantic Ocean? S. What grand divisions enclose the Atlantic Ocean? 8. What ocean south of Asia? 4. What GLOBULAR MAP. lands enclose the Indian Ocean? 6. What ocean between Asia and America? 6. What name is given to the water around the North Tole? 7. What strait connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean? — Behring Sea with the North Polar Sea? 8. What lands enclose the North Polar Sea, or Arctic Ocean? Ill- — l- In what direction is North America from Europe? — Africa from South America ? 2. Is any large city on the Atlantic coast of North America as far north as London ? 8. The parallel of latitude which traverses Spain is near what great cities in our country ? 4. What large island of the West Indies is just south of the Tropic of Cancer? 8. What city in Hindostan is near this circle? rV. — Over what waters would a ship sail in going from New York to Aspin- wall ? — from Panama to San Francisco ? — from Boston to Bombay ? — from San Francisco to Yokohama! — from Liverpool ma Suez Canal to Hong Kong? —v. 14 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. TOPIC IV. CONDITIONS OF CLIMATE. I. ORAL OUTLINE. L Is it sometimes hot where we Hve? Is it sometimes ooldl Do you know of any part of the world where it is constantly quite hot? — any place where it is constantly quite cold ? 2. What pupils have seen a thermometer ] What degree of heat did it mark the last time you looked at it? 3. First important fact. — The amount of heat at a place is con- nected WITH THE CLIMATE OF THE PLACE. 4. In our part of the country is there much rain? During what season does it fall ? Does it rain during the winter months ? [The teacher should point on the hemisphere-map to the basin of the Amazon, and state that immense quantities of rain fall there ; to Cali- fornia, and state that rain falls there only during what, on the Atlantic coast, are called the winter months, — December to April ; to the Utah basin and the African Sahara, stating that no rain, or next to none, ever falls there.] 6. Second important fact. — The amount op rain ^t a place is CONNECTED WITH THE CLIMATE OF THE PLACE. 6. Have we cold winds in this place? Do you know from where they blow? Have we warm winds? 7. What causes people to resort to the sea-shore in summer? Do you know whether in winter it is warmer or colder at a place on the sea-coast than it is at an inland place in the same latitude? 8. The British Isles \the teacher pointing to them], which have a mild climate, are in nearly the same latitude as Labrador [the teacher pointing to it], which is very cold and barren. The cause of the mild weather of the British Isles is a warm wind carried there from an ocean-current called the Gulf Stream. 9. Third important fact. — The nature of the winds that pre- vail AT a PLACE IS connected WITH THE CLIMATE OP THE PLACE. 10. How many seasons have we in this locality ? On the Pacific coast of the United States there are but two seasons. Have you ever heard of any part of the earth where perpetual spring reigns ? Do you suppose there can be more than two seasons in the Arctic regions ? Which season do you think must be the longer, the summer or the winter ? 11. Fourth important fact. — The character of the seasons at a PLACE IS CONNECTED WITH THE CLIMATE OP THE PLACE. 12. What then is meant by the climate of a place ? The climate of a place means its weather-conditions, in regard to heat, moisture, winds, and seasons. II. ORAL OUTLINE, — CoiKtntKtl. 1. We have learned the names of the zones : what are they i What is the nature of the Torrid Zone as regards heat 1 — of the Frigid Zones ? — of the Temperate Zones? 2. The heat throughout the year is greatest at or near the Equator, and diminishes gradually toward the Poles. Thus we see that the climate of a place depends upon the latitude of the place. But now we must inquire if there are any exceptions to this general rule of climate. 3. Did you ever on a hot summer day climb to the top of a moun- tain? What change in the air did you find? 4. [The teacher pointing on the map to the mouth of the Amazon River.] Here is a part of the earth that is on the Equator. What zone, then, is it in ? What kind of climate would you expect to find there ? 5. Let us now sail up the Amazon for two or three thousand miles, till we come to the foot of this great mountain range, the Andes. [The teacher shoudng it.] We are still in the Torrid Zone, and still near the Equator. Will not the climate still be the same ? Now let us ascend from the base of the Andes. As we go up we iihall find the weather becoming less hot, just as we did when we went up into a mountain region in our own country on a hot summer day. As we proceed, the air becomes cool, cooler, cold, colder, till finally we find ourselves amid snows that last all the year round. 6. What do we gather from these facts ? We gather that the tem- perature of a place depends, not on its latitude alone, but on its height, or as it is called, its altitude. [Let the teacher call attention to any local facts that illustrate this.] 7. Do you think that winds blowing from the north must generally be cold winds or warm winds 1 — Blowing from the south ? Suppose a country is so situated that there is nothing to break the force of the icy winds coming from the Arctic region, should you expect that country to be cold, even if it was pretty far south? [The teacher pointing to Southern Siberia.] That is the case in Siberia. On the other hand, what would you expect to find in the case of a country exposed to cur- rents of air flowing from the Equatorial region ? 8. What do W3 gather from these facts ? We gather that the climate of a place depends, not on its latitude and its altitude alone, but on the character of the winds tlmt prevail there. 9. We have seen that Great Britain has a mild climate : why has it a mild climate ? Now, St. Petersburg in Russia [the teacher pointing to it on the map] is but little farther north than Great Britain, yet at St. Petersburg the weather is exceedingly cold during eight months of the year. Is Great Britain near the ocean ? Is St. Petersburg ? 10. What do we gather from this fact ? We gather that the climate of a place depends, not on its latitude, altitude, and prevailing winds alone, but on its nearness to or remoten,ess from the ocean. Note. — From all these facts we leam that the zones marked on maps and globes teach us the climate of places only in a very general way. The actual belts of climate are much more correctly shown in this diagram. Tlie lines crossing the map indicate that the places crossed by each line have the same average amount of heat in the course of a year. They are called isothermal lines, or isothermals (from two Greek words signifying egua! heat- lines). If the degree of heat at any given place depended simply on the latitude of the place, the Tropics and Polar Circles would correctly mark the boundaries of climate; but since it depends on other conditions as well. the lines marking the actual belts of climate vary in direction. III. FOR RECITATION. L The Climate of a country means its weather-conditions, in regard to heat, moisture, winds, and seasons. 2. General Law. — The heat is greatest near the Equator and diminishes gradually toward the Poles ; in other words, the climate of a place depends in general on its latitvde. But this general law is greatly modified by other conditions. 3. First Modification. — The altitude of a place affects its tem- perature. High mountains and plateaus, even in the Torrid Zone, have a cool or cold climate. Explanation. — The lower and denser strata of the atmosphere absorb the greatest amount of the sun's heat, and are necessarily the warmest. For every one hundred yards of perpendicular ascent there is a decrease of one degree in the tem- perature ; hence, even at the Equator, by ascending to the height of about 16,000 feet above the level of the sea we reach the snow-line, where winter is perpetual. 4. Second Modification. — The prevailing winds at a given place modify the climate of the place. Currents of air flowing from the Equatorial region are hot ; currents of air flowing from the Polar regions are cold. Hence, if we suppose that, of two places in the Northern Hemisphere and in the same latitude, the one is exposed to northerly winds and the other to southerly winds, the former win be cooler than the latter. PLANT-LIFE, OR VEGETATION. 15 6. Third Modification. — Sea-winds modify the climate of places, giving them cooler summers and warmer winters than inland places in the same latitude. EXPLANATIOK. — The heat absorbed into the land is not taken in to a great depth, and it is given off readily. The heat absorbed into the water is taken in to a great depth, and it is given off slowly. The ocean is thus a great storehouse of heat. In summer the air over the ocean is cooler than that over the land, because the ocean radiates its heat more .slowly tluui the land. In winter the air over the ocean is warmer than that over the land, because the laud has then lost its heat by rapid radiation while the ocean has preserved its heat. 6. Fourth Modification. — The climate of a place is modified by the length of the day. Explanation. — More heat is communicated in a long day than is carried off in the succeeding short night, so tliat heat continues to accumulate during the summer season. In the Polar regions, notwithstanding the obliquity of the sun's rays, the heat during the short summer is very considerable, for the reason that, the day being continuous for weeks or months, the heat accumulates. This accumulation accounts for the fact tliat the summer heat in New York, Chicago, and St. Louis is often more intense than in New Orleans or Havana, — places near the Equator, but with shorter days. TOPIC V. PLANT-LIFE, OR VEGETATION. I. ORAL OUTLINE. 1. What pupils have ever cultivated a garden ] You have all eaten oranges : does this fruit grow in our part of the country t [In most parts of the United States pupUs will reply in the negative.] 2. Do you know any way in which we ca7i grow oranges here 1 Did you ever see an orange-tree in a hot-house ? Do you know where most .of our oranges come from"! Is not the climate of Cuba and Florida somewhat like that of a hot-house 1 3. We cannot grow oranges in the open air because the amoimt of summer heat is not enough. Can we grow pine-apples ] — bananas 1 — sugar-cane 1 Why not 1 Name some other fruits or food-plants that we cannot grow. 4. What do we learn from this 1 We learn that to grow these fruits and food-plants a lavffe amount of summer heat is necessary. 6. There is great heat in the African desert, or Sahara ; but do we find much vegetation there 1 Why not ? Is there anything which the African desert lacks and which the luxuriant plains of South America have 1 What do we conclude ? That luxuriant vegetation requires not only heat, but moisture. Give some example of plants that cannot be produced except in lands having much heat and moisture. Coffee. Yes. What others can you name 1 The india-rubber tree, the various spices. What others? 6. The eastern half of the United States has an abundance of rain ; the western half, with few exceptions, has very little : what difference as regards plants may we expect to find in these two regions 1 7. In what zones is the least amount of heat 1 What may you ex- pect in regard to vegetation in the Frigid Zones 1 Do you suppose any of our grains or fruits grow there 1 Name almost the only trees that grow there. The willow, birch, and alder. To what is vegetation in the Polar regions confined] To mosses and lichens. 8. In what zone do we live 1 Is any part of North America in the Torrid Zonel Name all the kinds of grain that grow in the State in which you reside ; — all the kinds of vegetables. Name the kinds of fruit that grow in your part of the country ; — the wild berries. Name all the kinds of trees growing in your part of the country. Name five garden flowers; — five wild flowers. Name two kinds of grasses which the farmers raise. Do wo grow tolacco herel — rice? — the grape 1 — cotton 1 — sugar-cane 1 — sorghum ] — broom-corn 1 9. Do you suppose that the vegetation of the South Temperate Zone considerably resembles that of our own zone] Why does it do sol Name from the hemisphere-map three coimtries or parts of countries that are in the South Temperate Zone. 10. Have you ever noticed on climbing a lofty mountain that the trees, grass, etc., become stunted and scanty as you ascend? Taking into account the effect of altitude on the amount of heat, how may you explain this facti What do you conclude from this in regard to the character of the vegetation in very elevated regions'? Now remember this fact : if we go to the base of the Andes, on the Equator, and ascend 16,000 feet, we reach the line of eternal snow, and we pass through all the belts of vegetation from the Tropical to the Polar. Hence, in an ascent of three miles from the level of the sea we observe changes much like those that we should see in a journey of 6,000 miles, from the Equator to the North Pole. II. FOR RECITATION. L Vegetation signifies plant-life iu its manifold forms. Note. — The term flora is often employed to designate the plant-life of a region ; thus we speak of the flora of the United States, ot Australia, etc., meaning all the species of plants in these regions. 2. Conditions of Plant-Life. — Plants depend for their continu- ance on certain physical conditions. The conditions that regulate plant-life are heat (with light) and moisture. A little more heat or a little more cold, a little more moisture or a little more drought, and the plant flourishes or decays. Illustration : the palms of the Tropics would dwarf and die in the Temperate Zone. 8. Distribution. — The yearly supply of heat and moisture is greatest in the Equatorial region ; hence, vegetation is most luxuri- ant within the Tropics, and declines as we proceed toward either Pole. This is the law in its most general statement. 4. Zones. — Different regions of the earth present different con- ditions of climate ; climate controls plants ; hence, different regions have each their own distinct vegetation. We may mark four zones of plant-life, — the Tropical, Warm-Temperate, Cold-Tem- perate, and Arctic Zones. 6. The Tropical Zone corresponds nearly with the Torrid Zone as marked on maps and globes. It includes all countries where frost is never in the ground. 6. The Arctic Zone (confined to the Northern Hemisphere) in- cludes all known countries where frost is never out of the ground. Geographically it comprises the North Frigid Zone and parts of the North Temperate Zone. 7. Temperate Zones. — The middle belt which is between these two extremes, and which may be called the Temperate Zone of vegetation, is divided into two zones, — the Warm-Temperate Zone, which adjoins the Tropical, and the Cold-Temperate Zone, which adjoins the Arctic Zone. Note. — In a general way it may be said that the highest latitudes in which Indian com can be grown mark the dividing line between the two zones. A TtlUHIUAL SCENE. 8. Tropical Zone. — Characteristic plants of this zone are palms, bananas, bread-fruit, pine-apples, rice, coffee, the sugar-cane, spices, opium (from the poppy), indigo, and caoutchouc. The Equatorial 16 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. parts of this zone are further marked by canes, bamboos, large and showy flowers, and gigantic parasitic plants. 9. Warm-Temperate Zone. — This zone is the land of the vine and olive, the laurel and myrtle. It has numerous kinds of de- ciduous forest-trees (those which shed their leaves in autumn), as the oak, chestnut, ash, maple, cottonwood, etc. As products of cultivation, tea, cotton, and tobacco may be noted. The chief food-plants are maize, wheat, rice, and potatoes. The greater part of our own country is within this zone. 10. Cold-Temperate Zone. — The line of the cultivation of wheat includes the warmer parts of this zone ; but its characteristic food- plants are barley, rye, oats, buckwheat, and potatoes. Flax and hemp are grown. Among representative forest-trees are the pine, maple, beech, birch, spruce, and larch. 11. Arctic Zone. — This zone (which is confined to the Northern Hemisphere) is marked by the dwarf birch, alder, and willow. Its more temperate parts yield barley, turnips, and Iceland moss. The Polar region produces no food-plants, nor indeed any kind of vegetation except mosses, lichens, etc. 12. Effect of Altitude. — Temperature decreases as we ascend from the level of the sea into the higher regions of the atmos- phere; hence at the Equator the traveler who ascends a lofty mountain passes through belts of vegetation similar to those that mark the earth's surface from the Equator to the Poles. " Nature has permitted the native of the Torrid Zone to behold all the vegetable forms of the earth without q^uitting hia own clime." — Humboldt. SC£N£. lU THt AllCTlU litLiiu;.. TOPIC YT. ANIMAL LIFE. I. ORAL OUTLINE. \^^ The teacher ehonld, under this head, engage the pupils in a conversational lesson on the animals they have seen in menageries and pnhlic parks, eliciting whatever they know respecting the size, appearance, habits, locality, etc. of the several animals named. Model. [A pupil mentions that he has seen a camel in a menagerie.] The camel is a beast of burden. What other beasts of burden can you name 1 The horse, ox, elephant. What of the camel's head ? Its legs ? The camel is a ruminant. [Let the teacher explain this.] What adapts this animal to traversing deserts ? In what localities are camels found ? Would the horse or mule be as useful in such localities ? Why not 'i Would the camel be as useful in this country or in Europe as the horse or mide ■? Why not ? etc II. FOR RECITATION. 1. General Law. — Animals, like plants, are influenced by phys- ical conditions, and especially by climate and food. The animals of the Torrid Zone excel those of the Temperate Zones in number, size, strength, and beauty, while those of the Temperate Zones surpass the animals of the Arctic regions. We may mark the following three zones of animal life — the Tropical Zone, the Tem- perate Zones, and the Arctic Zone. ZONtL^ Of ANIMAL LIFE. 2. The Tropical Zone is the home of such animals as the lion, tiger, and panther; apes, monkeys, and gorillas; the giraffe and zebra ; the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus ; the crocodile and boa ; the flamingo, peacock, parrot, and bird of paradise. 3. The Temperate Zones are the home of the following, among other animals: 1. Domestic Animals: the horse, camel, llama,- ox, sheep, goat, hog, dog; the hen, turkey, goose, etc. 2. Wild Animals : the bear, buffalo, deer, kangaroo, wolf, fox, beaver ; the eagle, hawk, jay, etc. 4. The Arctic Zone numbers among its leading animals the white polar-bear, the walrus, seal, reindeer, dog, arctic fox, sable, ermine, marten, auk. 5. Belation of Animals and Plants. — There is a remarkable relation between animals and plants. While both breathe the air, they live on different elements of the air. Plants give out large quantities of oxygen, and this is the element of the air that keeps up the " flame of life " in animals. On the other hand, animals breathe out carbonic-acid gas, which is destructive to animal life, but necessary to the life of plants. 6. Animals and Plants as Food. — Man derives his food from both plants and animals ; but in the Torrid Zone his food is mainly vegetable, in the Frigid Zones mainly animal, and in the Temperate Zones both animal and vegetable. Note. — Animal foods, and especially the fats^ produce heat in the body. They are therefore the proper aliment for the peoples of the cold zones ; and accordingly we find that in these zones a large part of the food used con- sists of fish, sea-birds, the fat of the seal, and the oil of the wliale. On the other hand, in the tropical countries, a hlarul or cool diet is necessary for health. In such countries the starch and sugar producing substances, as rice, wheat-flour, Indian-corn, fruits, etc., are the fitting food. Rice, which is native to the Torrid Zone and is an excellent article of food in hot climates, is the cereal most extensively grown. It furnishes the principal sup- port of at least one third of the human family. In the Temperate Zones, which alternate between great heat and great cold, the best condition of physical health requires both animal and vegetable food ; — and in the countries in these zones the people generally use a mixed diet KACES OF MEN. 17 SECTION III. -POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. TOPIC I. RACES OP MEN. I. ORAL OUTLINE. L Have you ever seen an Indiiin? Can you always tell an Indian from a white man ? You can ; then it must be because the Indian has some natural marks that distinguish him from a white man. What is one of these marks? Red or copper complexion. Yes. Another 1 Long, straiglit black hair. Yes. Another? Another? These natural marks are called physical characterutics. 2. Have you ever seen a Chinaman? — a Japanese? What was his complexion? Hence we may call the Cliinese and Japanese the Yellow Race. They are also called Mongolians. Many peoples of Asia belong to this race. How do the eyes of a Mongolian dilfer from those of an American ? Do the Chinese wear beards ? Kow give a connected state- ment of the physical characteristics of the Mongolian race. [In like manner let the teacher draw from the pupils what they know about the other races.] II. FOR RECITATION. L The races are classified according to five types, — the Cau- casian, Mongolian, Negro or African, Malay, and Indian types. 2. The Caucasian Baces are repre- sented by the peoples of Europe and their descendants in America and else- where. To this type belong also the Arabs and Hindoos. The Caucasians have generally a fair complexion (though some repre- sentatives are swarthy), regidar features, soft flowing hair, and full beards. They are the leaders in the world's civilization. The Yellow Bace is spread over Central and Ea.stom Asia (exampUa : China, Japan, Tartary), and includes tlie sparse popu- lation of the Arctic regions on both continents. The Mongolians have an olive-yellow complexion, straight black hair, broad coun- tenance, high cheek-bones, and eyes set obliquely. In civilization they rank next to the Caucasians. 4 The Kegro Type is spread over most of Africa, wliere it is repre-sented by various tribes. These differ in many respects, but are all alike in having a dark or black complexion, short crisp woolly hair, broad flat nose, and thick lips. Most of the African tribes are in a savage or barbarous state. Several millions of colored people in the United States (descendants of native Afri- cans) have been Christianized and civilized. fW^< ' 5. The Malays are found in the Malayan Peninsula, and in many of the islands of the Pacific Ocean. They have a brown complexion and features considerably resembling those of the Chinese, but they have generally straight-set eyes. '.' ~ 6. The Indians are the representatives of the native races of America. They have a cupper-colored complexion, rather regular features, straight black hair, and scanty beard. They have always shown but little capacity for civilization. BEFEBENCE TABI^ OF RACEa Race. Physical Characterisiica. Caucasian . - Kongolian African.. ■alay. Indian. . . . . f* C'oLOB : white t" swartliy. Fea- TUREf) : regular. Hair ; waving or curling, Beauu : heavy. Color; olivo-yellow. Fkaturks: faoo broad and flat, with high chcek'lioncH, and Brnall, black, obliquely set eyes. nAtn; coarse aud BtifT. IlFARi) : scanty, CoLOB: brown to black. Pka- TURKS : flat nose, retreating fore- head, ]>roniinent Jaws, Hair : short and crisp. Brakd: scanty. Color : brown. Fkaturkh : much like MongolianH, but wiUi horl- lontolly set eyes. Color : red, or copper-hue. Fra- TUREa ; high cheek-bones, pniin- Inent now. and black eyes. Hair : straight and bUck. Beard: aoAnty. Bepnaentative Typea. I.iO millions. ISO ralUiona. SO miUtong. 10 mlllloDS. 18 POLITICAL GEOGEAPHY. TOPIC II. "WANTS OP MAN. I. ORAL OUTLINE. L What is necessary to keep us alive 1 [The teacher will draw out the thought that food is necessary to keep us alive.] How long could a person live without food or drink 1 Food is then one of the needs, or wants, of mankind. Is it a need of the body or of the soul 1 Being of the hody, we may call food a physical (natural) need. 2. What other physical need can you mention 1 [Let the teacher elicit the statement that clothing is another physical want.] Could not a person get along without clothing? Could not a person get along without clothing more readily in some parts of the world than in others ■? [State that in most parts of the world inhabited by civilized nations clothing cannot be dispensed with. " It is cold that kills."] 3. What other physical want can you think of? Houses to live inl Yes. Well, let us call this need the need of shelter. 4. We have ascertained that there are three great physical wants of mankind. What are they? 5. What kind of food can you name ? Beef. Yes. Another ? Bread. Another ? Another ? [As probably animal and vegetable foods wUl be given indiscriminately, the teacher should now place the list elicited from the pupils upon the blackboard, classing the articles as animal and vegetable foods. Natural substances, as wheat, should also be dis- tinguished from products of manufacture, as hread.'\ 6. Name some animals from which we derive food. The ox, deer, hog, hare. Yes ; but let us consider the ox and hog together and the deer and hare together. Is there not a difference between these two classes of animals ? [Draw out the names domestic and wild animals.] 7. How is the flesh of an animal prepared for use ? Yes ; but is there not something before cooking takes place ? Killing or slaughtering ? 8. What do you mean by meat ? What name is given to the flesh of the ox ? — of the hog ? — of the sheep ? — of the calf? [The fact that the names of the live animals are native English (Anglo-Saxon), while the names of the meats dressed for the table are Norman-French, recalls the fact that the Normans in the eleventh century made themselves lords of England, and treated the Saxons as inferior beings. See Walter Scott's novel of Ivanhoe for a fine statement of this fact.] 9. What is the difference between meat and gam^ i Are there any wild beasts hunted in this part of the country for game ? The flesh of what wild beasts have you ever eaten ? 10. One material for articles of clothing is derived from animals: name this article. Wool. From what animal is it obtained? [The teacher may name and briefly describe the processes gone through with before wool becomes cloth, as shearing, carding, spinning, weaving.] 11. Is fur much worn in this part of the country ? What is fur ? What are the favorite kinds of fur? What animals valuable for fur do you know of? The seal. Yes. Another? The mink. Another? Another? [Draw out from the pupils anything they know regarding where these animals are found, the mode of capture, etc.] 12. Every one of us has some article of clothing made of cotton. Does cotton gi-ow in this part of the country ? Where does it grow ? How is it obtained ? How is it prepared for market ? [Let the teacher describe briefly the processes of carding, spinning, and weaving.] 13. Do you know of any large building in process of erection in this place ? What is used in its construction ? Wood. What else ? Brick. What else ? etc. These are called building-material. 14. What is the building-material used in most of the houses in this place ? What kinds of trees furnish valuable building-material ? What is lumber ? How is it obtained ? Have you ever seen a saw-mUl ? 15. How are bricks made ? What is meant by quarrying stone ? — dressing stone ? Of what is glass made ? 16. Name some of the materials from which savages make their huts, tents, wigwams, etc. Did you ever read about the famous Ice Palace at St. Petersburg? II. FOR RECITATION. The physical needs of man are food, clothing, and shelter. The principal articles used in supplying these needs are presented in the following table. TEACHER'S NOTE. — To the teacher fertile in expedients the tables here given wUl be found exceedingly suggestive. The topics under each head and subhead should be made tlie basis of a series of questions, conversations, and written composition-exercises, calciUated to develop the thinking fitculty of the pupils. A few questions are appended. , _ f Domestic. Meats Deastsi IWUd Game.... (•Animal.. Food.. Birds [Domestic. . Poultry. Wild., .Game... Forest. Prairie. Forest. Prairie. {Lakes. Seas. Rivers. /-Roots.. Vegetable Stalks and Leaves . Grains. Fruits. Inoroanio.. Potatoes. Beets. . Onions, etc. Sugar. Tea. Lettuce. Cabbage, eta r Wheat. J Rye. [ Com, etc Apples. Peaches. Nuts. Melons, eta f Water. ■ I Salt. Clothing Animal f Wool, Fur, Leather. I Silk, Horns, Ivory. Vegetable. Mineral . Shelter. Cotton. Linen. Caoutchouc. Gutta-percha. ■ Iron. Brass (Copper and Zinc). Steel. r Wood. Vegetable J Cotton and Linen Cloths. I Caoutchouc and Gutta-percha. Mineral | Brick, Stone, Iron. I Lead, Glass, Paints. Animal Skins. Questions. — I. What are the three divisions of food 1 What three classes of animals furnish us with animal food ? How are beasts divided as regards supplying food? What is the food from domestic animals called ? — from wild animals ? Give the two divisions of birds, and name the foods supplied by them. What three kinds of waters are frequented by fishes ? Name three or more roo^ vegetables used as food. From the stalks or leaves of what plants do we derive articles of food ? What six kinds of grain can you name ? What six fruits ? II. From what three great divisions of natural objects is material for clothing obtained ? What six materials of clothing are obtained from animals ? What four from vegetables ? What three from minerals ? III. From what three great divisions of natural objects are materials used in building derived? What vegetable building-materials can you mention? What minerals or mineral products enter into the construc- tion of buildings ? [ The teacher will continue the questions at pleasure.] OCCUPATIONS OF MEN. — STATES OF SOCIETY. 19 TOPIC III. OCCUPATIONS OF MEN. I. ORAL OUTLINE. L Does our food come to us ready to hand, or have we to occupy ourselves in obtaining it 1 Is it the same ■with our clothing and shelter t 2. Are all persons occupied directly in raising food ] What business are many persons engaged inl What other business can you name? These various kinds of business are called occupations. 3. What is the occupation of those engaged in tilling the soil called t What other name for this occupation 1 4. Agriculture is one of the great primary occupations of mankind ; more persons are engaged in this occupation than in any other. Do we live in a farming section 1 What kind of country is best adapted to agriculture 1 6. There is another occupation closely connected with agriculture, namely, the raising of horses, cattle, and sheep : what is this occupation called ? What is meant by live-stock 1 What is the principal food of live-stock ? What kind of land is generally better adapted to grazing than to agriculture 1 6. In some parts of our country, in the neighborhood of the sea or of one of the Great Lakes, the people are largely engaged in fishing. Is this business carried on herel 7. Suppose a country is largely covered with forest, what occupation will the people be likely to engage in ? What is the process of convert- ing forest-trees into boards and other building-material 1 Is lumbering carried on in this part of our country ] 8. Name an article in this room made from some metal. Name five metals. Name a mineral largely u.sed for fuel. How are minerals ob- tained 1 The process of obtaining them is called mining. 9. Did you ever see a coal-mine 1 — an iron-mine 1 — a lead-mine ? — a copper-mine? — a stone-quarry? Is this a mining section? Where are there coal-mines? — gold-mines? — silver-mines? 10. Grain, cotton, wool, lumber, iron, and hundreds of other articles are used to supply our needs ; but what must be done with them before they are ready for use ? What do we make from grain ? — from cotton ? IL The process of making things is called manufacturing. Must not this be one of the leading occupations of men ? Why so ? 12. What is the difference between a manufacture and a manufactory ? What manufactures are carried on in this place ? 13. Have you ever seen any of the following manufactories : — a cotton factory, — a woolen-mill, — a flour-mill, — a tannery, — a shoe-shop, — a machine-shop, — a foundery, — - a furniture factory, — a glass-house ? 14. Manufacturing means literally making by hand ; but do we now make all articles by hand? Why not! What kinds oi iwwer Ma used in driving machinery? 16. In a part of the country well adapted to farming, what occupation will most of the people be engaged in ? In a part of the country con- taining a great supply of coal and iron, what occupation may we expect many of the people to be engaged in ? 16. The farmer probably raises more grain or cotton or wool or live-stock than he requires : what does he do with what he cannot use himself? Does the farmer need many things that the farm does not produce? How does he obtain these things? 17. We need coal for our winter fire ; but is it convenient for all persons to go to the mines and procure it there? 18. We thus see that between different countries and parts of the same country there must be an exchange of articles raised or produced. This exchange is called trade, or commerce. What merchants are there here? 19. The articles sent out from a country by way of trade are called its earporta (ex, out) ; those brought in, its tntports (t'wi, in). Name some exports of this place, — of this State ; — some imports. 20. What occupations have we now learned about? n. FOR RECITATION. L The leading industries, or occupations, by means of which, the physical wants of man are supplied are agriculture and grazing, seafaring, lumbering, mining, manufacturing, and conunerce. 2. Agriculture is the cultivation of the soil for the pxrrpose of procuring vegetable productions suitable for food and clothing. Grazing, or the raising of flocks and herds, is an industry closely connected with agriculture. 3. Seafaring includes fishing and navigation. 4. Lumbering is the occupation of those who cut down forest- trees and saw them into timber used for building, etc. 5. Uining is the occupation of those who obtain metals or minerals from within the earth. 6. Manufacturing is the occupation of those who work up natu- ral products, or raw material, into forms suitable for use. 7. Commerce is the occupation of those who exchange the products or manufactures of one country or section for those of another country or section. Domestic commerce signifies the inter- change of commodities between two sections of the same country ; foreign commerce, interchange between two countries. Transportation, or the carrying trade, is the occupation of those who are engaged in conveying from one section of the country to another, or from one country to anotlier, goods, merchandise, etc. (caWeA freight). The principal means of trans- j)ortation in modern times are the railroad on land, and steamers and sailing-vessels on the water, together with canal-hoats on canals. < ^M^ » TOPIC IV. STATES OP SOCIETY. I. ORAL OUTLINE. 1. [Let the teacher give a vivid description of a village in Central Africa, or of an Indian tribe, as presenting a state of society widely dif- ferent from our own.] We find tliat the African and Indian tribes have no written language, that they have only the rudest hand-arts, that they live almost wholly on the natural productions of the earth or on the flesh of animals killed in the chase, tliat they are sunk in miserable superstitions, and that their ideas of all that is highest and noblest are low and groveling. This is the savage, or barbarous state. 2. [Let the teacher now call attention to the features of a highly civilized society, such as we see in our own country.] Such a people have a written language, and a great body of books (literature), record- ing the grandest and most useful trutlis of all time ; they have discov- ered many of the laws that govern all objects and forces in nature (science), and have invented modes of applying this knowledge so as to increase their comforts to a wonderful extent {examples : the railroad and steamship, steam-power in factories and mills, the electric telegraph and sewing-machine, water and gas in cities, chlorofonn, etc.) ; they secure life and property by good laws ; they show kindness to the helpless by building and keeping up benevolent institutions ; they live according to a high standard of what is right and just ; and, finally, they are constantly improving their condition, thus holding Qut to the human race the prospect of unlimited progress. This is the civilized state. 3. [Let the teacher now give a description of the social state of a people like the Chinese.] We find in a community like this that the people live under a fixed government ; that they have a written language, with some literature, that they practice many of the mechanical arts, etc. ; but we also find that they are not a free, an educated, a pro- gressive people. This is the semi-civilized state. 4. The savage, semi-civilized, and civilized conditions are the three principal states of human society. 20 POLITICAL GEOGEAPHY. II. FOR RECITATION. !.'• Civilization signifies the condition of a race or nation in regard to its mode of living and its degree of progress. Note. All peoples possess more or less of the elements of civilisation. The nide Australian savage who has discovered how to make fire by rubbing two sticks together, the Indian who has succeeded in making a stone mortar in which to pound his com, the negro of Central Africa who has learned how to make an iron spear- head, have all taken the first steps in civilization. All the advanced nations have grown up from lower conditions of civilization. 2. Its Forms. — For the sake of convenience three stages of society, or states of civilization, are spoken of: these are the savage, or barbarous, the semi-civilized, and the civilized states. 3. The savage state is that in which men are not gathered into organized society : people in this condition subsist chiefly by hunt- ing and fishing, and on the spontaneous productions of the earth ; they are without written language, and their religion, consisting of the worship of idols (fetish worship), is of the lowest order. 4. The semi-civilized state is that of people who have so far risen above the savage condition as to have a written language, to culti- vate the soil, to carry on rude industries, and to live in settled communities. In religion the people in this condition are Bud- dhists or Mohammedans. 6. The civilized state is that of the great nations of the world : it is represented by those people whose governments are founded on written law, who possess all the valuable arts, and their practi- cal applications, who have made advances in science and literature, and who are progressive in all that gives greatness and dignity to mankind. Most civilized nations profess the Christian religion. TOPIC V. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS. I. ORAL OUTLINE. 1. Do you live in a city or in a country district 1 [If in a city] What is the name of this city t What makes it a city 1 The fact that it has a large collection of dwellings and inhabitants. Yes ; but is there nothing else required to constitute a city 1 [Let the teacher explain that cities are incorpoi-ated as such by act of the State Legislature, and that they have city charters.] 2. [If in a country district :] What is the name of this town (or township) 1 What villages does this town contain 1 3. In what county do we live ] What is a county ? [Let the teacher elicit from the pupils the notion of a political subdivision of a State.] Do you know of any other counties in this State? Do you know how many counties there are in this State ? 4. What is the name of our State ] What is a State, as understood in the United States t Is it the same as a nation 1 Can a nation make war and peace ? Can a State 1 Can a nation coin money % Can a State % Can a State make its own laws % Can a State make any laws contrary to the fundamental law of the United States'! In what instrument is this fundamental law expressed? [In this way let the teacher draw out the thought of the relation of the State to the general government.] 5. What is the body called that makes the laws for a State ? Is it composed of one branch (or house) or of two 1 What are the names of these branches ? How often does the Legislature meet in this State ? 6. What name is given to that branch of our State government that applies the laws to actual cases ? The Judicial branch ? Correct ; and the judicial functions are exercised by the courts. [The teacher must at this point give a brief oral exposition of the organization of the State courts.] What officer holds the executive power of the State? How often is the Governor elected in this State ? How old must he be ? Can you name any of his powers ? What does the Lieutenant-Governor do ? 7. Of what is the United States composed ? How many States are there ? Are the States united ? Has each State a great deal of power of its own ? When a government is Aade up of a number of States united it is called a Federal Government (Latin, foedus, a league). This is the case with Switzerland. It is also the case with the United States. [The teacher may here explain the subdivision of the powers of govern- ment into the Legislative, Judicial, and Executive branches.] 8. Have we any king to rule us in this country ? Who is the ruler in this country ? The President, do you say ? But do not the people make the President ? Then Congress ? But can any man go as a repre- sentative to Congress unless the people send him there ? 9. A government in which the people hold the supreme power, elect- ing the officers to make and administer the laws, is called a republic, or democracy/. What republics in Europe can you name? 10. Is England a republic ? Who is the present sovereign of Great Britain ? A country over which a sovereign (King or Queen) rides is called a monarchy. But here we must notice an important difference in monarchical governments. Can the Queen of England make any laws? What body makes the laws for England? Can the Emperor of Russia make any laws ? Is there anything to limit his power as there is in the case of the sovereign of England or Germany ? IL A monarchy in which the power of the sovereign is limited by law is called a limited monarchy. A monarchy in which the power of the sovereign is unlimited by law is called an absolute monarchy, or despotism. II. FOR RECITATION. 1. Government is the established form of law and rule ; that is, the supreme power, or sovereignty of a country. 2. A republican government (or a republic) is one in which su- preme power is exercised by the people, who elect representatives to make laws and certain officers to execute them. 3. A monarchy is a government in which the executive power is in the hands of a sovereign, called king (queen) or emperor. Note. — A limited or constitutional monarchy is a government in which the power of the sovereign is limited by law, and the laws are made by representatives of the people. An absolute monarchy, autocracy, or desjxitism is a government in which the sovereign has unlimited power to make as well as to execute the laws. 4. A State, in our country, means one of the divisions of the United States, in which division the people elect a legislature and a governor to make and execute laws. Note. — In its use outside of oiu- country, the term slate is synonymous with iiaiion, or country. 5. A Territory, in our country, means a region not organized as a State, and yet having a territorial government. 6. A county is a subdivision of a State, having its own local officers. The place where tiie county officers transact business is called the county-seat, or shire-town. 7. A township, or town, is a subdivision of a county, and has its local officers. 8. A city is a subdivision of a county, and has its own muni- cipal officers and laws. The highest officer is the Mayor. 9. A seaport, or seaboard city, is, as the name denotes, a city on the sea-coast. The name is used in contrast with inland city. 10. The metropolis of a State or country is its principal city. 11. The capital of a country is the seat of government. The capital of our country is Washington. 12. State Capital. — The capital of a State, in our country, means the city or town where the legislature meets to make laws. REVIEW AND TEST QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 21 REVIEW AND TEST QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. r INTRODUCTION. 1. What is the distinction between Physical and Political Geography ? 2. Write from memory the principal topics of Physical Geography ; — of Political Geography. 3. State a local fact in Physical Geography. 4. State a local fact in Political Geog- raphy. 5. What is Mathematical Geography ? 6. Which division of geography tells us about the latitude of s place ? 7. Which division tells us about the face of the country and the minerals in the earth ? 8. Which division tells us about the man- ners a:id customs of different peoples ? n. MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Topic I.) 1. What is the form of the HJirth ? 2. Who first circumnavigated the globe ? 3. Is it possible that the Earth might be circumnavigated without being spherical ? i. What fact of astronomy conclusively proves that the Earth is spherical ? 5. What is a sphere flattened at two opposite parts called ? 6. What is meant by circumference ? — by diameter ? 7. What is the circumference of the Earth in miles ? 8. What is the diameter of the Earth in round numbers ? 9. What is the exact length of that diameter on which the Earth rotates ? 10. How much shorter is tliat than the equatorial diameter 1 [Topics II.- IV.] 1. When you face the sun at noon you are looking in what direction ? 2. In what direction will your shadow extend ? 3. \VTiere is east then ? 4. Name the semi-cardinal points. 5. What is the meaning of the Latin word axis? 6. On what does a wheel revolve f 7. On what does a top spin ? 8. On what does tlie Earth rotate ? 9. What is the Earth's axis ? 10. What is an imaginary line ? 11. Where is the North Star? 12. Where is the North Pole ? 13. Which extrem- ity of the Earth's axis is the South Pole ? 14. What is the length in miles from the North to the South Pole 1 15. What is the distinction between a map and a per- spective view ? [Topics v.- VII.) 1. What is the use of latitude and longitude? 2. What is the E<[uator ? 3. Where is the Northern Hembphere ? — the Southern Hemisphere ? 4. What do you mean by the latitude of a place ? 5. What is the latitude of a place on the Equator ? 6. What is the latitude of the North Pole ? 7. How many de- grees of latitude between the two Poles ? 8. What is the latitude of a place just midway between the Equator and the North Pole ? 9. Why is it that while on the school-globe the parallels of latitude are really parallel circles, the lines drawn on the hemisphere map are not parallel ? 10. What is the length in miles of every degree of latitude ? 11. Perform on the blackboard the operation in multiplication for finding the distance in miles from the Equator to the North Pole. 12. Wfiat is meant by the longitude of a place ? 13. What is the Prime Meridian generally used ? 14. How many degrees of East Longitude are there ? — of West Longitude ? 15. If two persons setting out from the Meridian of Greenwich were to travel exactly the same distance, one due east and the other due west, on what meridian would they meet ? 16. In what direction docs the Earth turn on its axis ? 17. In what time does it make a complete rotation ? 18. If the Earth turns through 360° in 24 hours, through how many degrees does it turn in 1 hour 1 19. Do people at places west from here receive the sunlight earlier than we do or later ? 20. Will a man who has traveled from New York to San Francisco find his watch fast or slow ? 21. How much, and why ? 22. What is the length of a degree of longitude on the Equator ? — at the North Pole ? 23. What is the latitude of the place where you live ? 24. What is the length of a degree of longitude at this place ? [See table in Appendix.] [Topic VIII.J 1. What is meant by vertical rays of light ? — by oblique rays ? 2, Which are the hotter, and why ? 3. Why is it cooler in the morning than at noon ? 4. Why is it colder in winter than in summer ? 5. On what part of the Earth do the sun's rays always fall vertically or nearly so ? 6. What are the names of the two circles that mark the northern and southern limits of places that at some time of the year have the sun exactly vertical ? 7. Is the sun ever vertical in this part of the Earth ? 8. When is it most nearly vertical ? 9. What is the Torrid Zone ? 10. Between what circles is the North Temperate Zone ? — the South Tem- perate Zone ? 11. Where is the North Frigid Zone ? — the South Frigid Zone ? 12. What is the width in degrees of the Torrid Zone ?— of each Temperate Zone ? — of each Frigid Zone ? 13. Draw a diagram showing the circles of climate and the zones. in. FHTSICAI. GEOGRAPHY. [Topics I. -III.l 1. What are the proportions of land and water on the surface of the Earth ? 2. Name and state the locarion of the two continents, with the grand divisions of land in each. 3. Define coast-line. 4. Write on the blackboard the forms of land by contour ; — by relic/. 5. What is the distinction between a cape and a peninsula ? — between a plain and a plateau ? 6. Is a watei-shed a division of land or of water ? 7. Which is the greater division, a mountain-range or a mountain-system ? 8. Name a mountain-system in the United States. 9. What is meant by the Basin of the Mississippi ? 10. Name the five oceans. 11. Define a sea ; — a gulf ; — a bay. 12. What two bodies of water are wholly inland ? 13. What is a river-system ? 14. What body of land corresponds to a lake ? 15. What division of water corresponds to an isthmus? [Topic IV.l 1. What is meant by the climate of a country or place t 2. What is the general law of climate ? 3. If a place is in a high latitude what may you expect in regard to its degi'ee of heat ? 4. If a place is at a high altitude what may you expect in regard to its degree of heat ? 5. Are any parts of the Torrid Zone cov- ered with pei-petual snow ? — what parts ? 6. Which currents of air are hot ? 7. From what direction do cold winds blow ? 8. Why at the sea-shore is it cooler in summer and warmer in winter than on land ? 9. How do you account for the fact that it is often hotter in New York than in New Orleans ? [Topics v., VI.] 1. Since plant-life depends largely on heat, in what zone may we expect to find vegetation most luxuriant ? — in which most scanty I 2. Why do apple-trees in spring blossom earlier on a southern hill-slope than on a northern ? 3. What else besides heat is necessary to the growth of plants ? 4. Can you give any illustration, drawn from near home, of the dependence of vegetation on moisture ? 5. Name some characteristic i)lants of the Tropical Zone. 6. Name some fruits we cannot grow in tliis country, and state why. 7. By what conditions are animals in- fluenced ? 8. Wliat zone is most prolific in animals ? 9 . Write out on slates the names of the animals represented in the picture showing "Zones of Animal Life." 10. Why, if there were no plants on the surface of the earth, would it be impossible for man to live ? 11. Why do people in the Polar regions live mainly on animal food, and in the Tropical regions on vegetable food ? 12. Why do we live on both lands ? IV. POLITICAI. GEOGRAPHY. [Topic I.] 1. What are the five races, or tyjjes of mankind ? 2. To which type do we belong ? 3. How many millions of Caucasians are there ? 4. Name an Asiatic people belonging to this race. 5. Describe the physical characteristics of the Mongolians. 6. To wliat race do the Japanese belong ? 7. Where did the ancestors of the colored people in this country come from ? 8. How many negroes are there supposed to be in the world ? 9. How do Malays differ from Mongolians ? 10. De- scribe a North American Indian. [Topics II., III.] 1. What are the three physical wants of man ? 2. What three classes of foods do we use ? 8. State the class to which the following foods belong : beef, veal, pork, turkey, trout ; com, wheat, tea, sugar, apples ; salt, water. 4. Name three materials for clothing derived from animals ; — two from vegetables. 5. What are the principal building materials used in our country ? 6. Define agri- culture ; — mining ; — manufacturing. 7. What are those persons called who are engaged in exchanging the products of one region for those of another ? 8. What is the name given to the business of carrying things by way of trade from one region to another ? 9. Why do we speak of ourselves as a civilized people ? 10. What is meant by an absolute government ? 11. Do a republic and a constitutional mon- archy agree in having a body of men to make the laws ? 12. What, then, is the principal difference between these two forms of government ? » is fffiff^ /- i; m;dn iqht 1^ Lo cat ^0 Ti me 9 -P ■tf.'Voin ^8 IVas M naton 7" <*^ ■^K,^ ^i S". > ^OV*"'"". ■»» 0, » ^'%:i^5^'^tr$ ■V .^■ ^■^i--,z ^ ^ .^1 '■>. .o/ w.i't^'^V ;*) f«-'nf'stT»' fi ^<^(S^) ^ \^. Rv^^: V '*' '"^ilj %.4/ '^V» 4- ^>_^,e.^ ;8»- ;V\ H.^ T> \ / -ape FaIe^N^>' ./ St^ :«i^ ~cr«ci.5 - Cjf""^/ \ (v, Ot,FUh p- Vol »'«if s*,^/^^"'^ A/rt ■'ilrait :0^^ lu. cPo/ / ^ 'Tf B ^ 1^^ •• o^\0\^-< iVc^f^v '^*ii yty\^ \ °''4. LI £^\ ^^/c^ Iftl"- :.x. / '\ ^ ■>A San Traoo'v* /I WU^ ^ «f\ V'' ^^g-bort ficWjn' D»tV tS^ •% ,N^^t--''''' /•'''uioro >rorfoTt<' , *> .^A»' h-- "^Oi. C.Heiro' ,05°^ > l&i ig-». ^*3 ^'"'annaTj.- "Owe, '». O m, m C-Al noru \ lilfl y^ 4, — -, C.Cottie'^^' y^ ^^catecas •.•Q^uajaJuato "^ «eSiC0\ , ?C""''*W^;^1*' VVera Cmz Weston \ -c ■V^ Jji; £&^ ^<'' ^ S *■ ^ > 'ito"<»>f. i=iasaO>°^ 1 /^fr<5>'^20*'^t''°"o 1 SCALE OF MILES 100 500 \S XaUttiOe — lInch .Clipperton I, &"■ -s^f V^il'^^''*^ o^^^JSk .^*'*-;.»'*^r^" FS, ^ v,_,.e K^( '^ *i&vV, f ;^ .'- fi C>^ fO'™"- ^ — <'*'-*''^°5!S:^-h- ■•"" fP*' 43 Xon glturle In S pace/rom the 28 3fenaian o f IMishington dJ'ls Fes( TtwM Xoni/ituOe 10 »»o;f« 7;?/ Zorfi? Time 11 A. if. when noon ontlu Jtertainn of^'aiilangton i F. jr. NORTH AMERICA. 23 NORTH AMERICA. nCmOAL MAT OF HOBTH AVEXIOA. L North America is the northern grand division of the Westei-u Hemisphere, or New World. 2. Its extent, from the Arctic Ocean almost to the I']quator, is about 4,800 miles, and from the Atlantic to ihe Pacific Ocean, about 3,000 miles. North America is double the size of Europe, but only half the size of Asia. 3. In form this grand division is triangular. II. OUTLINE. Map Study. — 1. Which coast, the eastern or the western, is the more broken by gulfs and bays ? 2. Name the principal gulfs and liays of the eastern coast ; — of the western coast ; — of the southern coast. 3. Name the five principal peninsulas of North America. 4. Name four of the most prominent capes. 5. Describe the following: — Gulfs, Bays, Seas. Peninsulas. Baffin Bay. Hudson Bay. Gulf of St. La«Tence. Gulf of Mexico. / Nova Scotia. 1 Florida. Capes ■{ Farewell. Race. Cod. Hatteras. Caribbean Sea. Honduras [doo'ras] ] Gulf of California. Ber'ing Sea. Yucatan. Lower California. Sable. Mendocino. San Lucas. Point Barrow. 4 Its outline is irregular, the coast being deeply pene- trated by iiibreakings of the surrounding oceans. The Atlantic seaboard is much more indented by gulfs and bays than the Pacific coast ; and this is a commercial advantage, since the Atlantic seaboard lies nearest the great markets of the world. III. SURFACE. Map Study. — 1. Wliat mountain system extends parallel with the Atlantic coa.st V 2. What system traverses North America from north MAP STUDIES ON THE XJ^ to south in its western section? 3. Point to the Rocky Mountains on the Physical Map; — ix)int to the Appalachian Mountains. 4. Which To aasirer these qnestlons refer to the laixe Map on the next paKe ) slope of the Appalachian Mountains is the longer, the eastern or the western? ytH«. The western. Which, of the Rocky Mountains? Ans. Surface, f jjg eastern. 5. Looking at the Physical Map, what seems to be the Eastern gene™! character of the surface between these two mountain sy.stem8, States ? 2 mountainous or level? 6. What are the Pacific coast ranges called? 7. What name do the Rocky Mountains bear in Mexico ? Position and Extent 1. Which portion of North America is occupied by the United States ? 2. What country north ? 3. What country south 1 4. What natural boundaries on the east PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ly To draw the Map of North America, see section on Map-Drawing, page 138. I. POSITION, SIZE, AND SHAPE. Map Study. — 1. In which hemisphere is North America? 2. Wliich ^rand divi-nioii of the Western continent is it? 3. What three oceans surround it? 4. By what is it connected with South America? — scjuirated from A.sia ? 5. What is the most northern ca{)C (")ioint") in Ala.ska, and in what latitude is it? 6. In what latitude is the Isthmus of Panama ? 7. What is the longitude of Cape Race, Newfoundland? 8. What is the longitude of C'aiic Mendocino [»<;' no]? 9. Between what lines of latitude and longitude is North America included? Am. In general term-i, between the (nrallels of 10° and 70° north latitude and the meridians or55° and 165° west longitude (Greenwich). 10. What seems, from the Map, to be the general shape of North America ? 5. Chief Axis. —The Kocky Mountains are the chief axis of elevation — the backbone, as it were — of North America. The massive chains of tliis system rise from a plateau which has a gradual ascetit from the Arctic Ocean to between 4,000 and 8,000 feet in the United States and Mexico. This mountain plateau region is from 400 to 800 miles wide. Mount St. Elins, the loftiest peak of North America, is 19,283 feet above the level of the sea. 8. The Appalachian or Alleghany Mountains form the secondary highlands of North America. They are only about one fourtli the length of the Rocky Mountains, and in structure are far less massive than that system. They average about 3,000 feet in 24 NOKTH AMEEICA, height, — their highest peaks reaching an elevation of less than 7,000 feet. Note. —Black Mountain (N. C), 6,707 ft. ; Mt. Washington (N. H.), 6,288 ft. 7. Highlands and Plains. — Both the great mountain systems of North America have their general direction north and south. Since one system is near the eastern and the other near the west- em coast, the longer slope of both mountain systems is toward the interior, which, accordingly, is a great plain. 8. Physical Divisions. — These mountain systems divide North America into three Physical Eegions: 1. The Pacific Highland and Pacific Slope ; 2. The Atlantic Highland and Plain ; 3. The Central Plain. Pacific Highland and Slope. — The Pacific Highland comprises em half of North America, and extends from the Arctic Ocean to the of Panama. It consists of a vast plateau ridged by the numerous chains of the Rocky Mountain .system in its eastern and central part the Sierra Nevada [se-er'ra nay-vah'dd], Cascade, and Coast Ranges on em bonier. Between the Sierra Neviuia Mountains and the Pacific the Pacific Slope. Atlantic Highland and Plain. — This region, extending from of St. Lkiwrence nearly to the Gulf of Mexico, consists of (1) the lev ranges of the Appalachian Mountains ; (2) the western slope ; and (3) em slope, or plain. This is divided into the Middle Country and t av> water region. Central Plain. — The Central Plain lies between the two Highlan( and extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. This rej sists of two immense slopes, — the northern slope being the Arctic 1 southern slope the Mississippi Valley. The dividing ridge is a slig tion near the center, called the Height of Land. IV. RIVERS AND LAKES. Map Study. — 1. Where does the Mississippi proper rise 1 2. Whprfc;S*t» Missouri rise ? 3. Where do these two great rivers unite ? 4. What is t tributary of the Mississippi from the Appalachian Mountains ? 5. What ri the Great Lakes? 6. Wliat large river flows into Lake Win'nipeg? 7. V drains Lake Winnipeg into Hudson Bay? 8. What large river flows nortl the Arctic Ocean ? 9. Show on the Physical Map the locality of the Heigh dividing the rivers flowing southward into the Gulf of Mexico from those fl Hudson Bay and the Arctic Ocean. Describe the Yukon, — the Colum\, Colorado [rah' do]. 10. Looking at the Physical Map, do you say that flowing into the Atlantic Ocean are long or short ? 11. Why short ? An the short slope of the Appalachian Mountains is toward the Atlantic Ocea 9. The river-systems of Nortli America, with the regi( drain and the chief representatives of each system, are : V. CLIMATE. Map Study. — 1. In which zone is three fourths of North America ? 2. In which zone is the extreme southern part ? 3. Is any part of the United States in the Torrid Zone ? 4 In which zone is the whole of the United States except Alaska ? 5. Which part of North America is in the Arctic Zone ? 6. Which part of North America must be constantly hot? 7. Which part must be constantly cold ? 8. Considering what we have learned regarding the influence of climate on man, which part of North America do you think the best fitted to be the home of great nations ? Why so ? IL General Statement — North America has what is called a corUinental climate ; that is, a climate of extremes, being exceed- ingly hot in summer and exceedingly cold in winter. The reason of this is that the Central Plain is open to the cold winds from the Arctic Ocean, while it is cut off by the coast mountain ranges Syatem. 1. Arctic System 2. Qnlf System 3. St. Lawrence System 4. Atlantic System - ■ 6. Pacific System ■ Drainage. Arctic Plain, including the Basin of Hudson Bay. Inner slopes of both Highland Regions, and southern slope of the Central Plain. Basin of the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River. Eastern Slope of the Appala- chian Mountains. Western slope of the Pacific Highland. Rivers (chi( Mackenzie and 8as!'«, % with minor stream VV ^ Mississippi, Missouri ffon&e, ^-^ kan'sas, Rio Grand >C V'*^Wita St. Lawrence, and ^?*^|*" taries, most of whi< V ^^^^^-i " Height of Land. Connecticut, Hudson, Savannah, etc. Yukon, Columbia, Colorado. lOl Lakes. — The principal lakes, with the countries in which they are situated, are : — United States and Canada. ' Superior. Huron. Erie. , Ontario. ( Michigan. United States. J Champlain'. I Great Salt. Canada. Winnipeg. Athabas'ca. Great Slave. . Great Bear. Mexico and f Chapal'a. Central America. [ Nicaragua [rah'gua]. ' The pnpUs may locate each of these lakes. ■^ -^^ Bfvj for commerce and intercommunication. VII. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 1. Which is the largest ? Countries . . . Where are these citiesl a The smallest ? 3. The most northern ? 4 The most southern ? 5. Which one is nearest Asia ? 6. Nearest Europe ? 7. Which is the great middle division ? 8. Which are islands ? Ans. The West Indies. Washington. Baltimore. San Francisco. Ot'tawa. New York. Chicago. Mexico. Havana. Philadelphia. St. Louis. MontreaL Vera Cruz. Boston. New Orleans. Quebec'. New Guatemala. 18. The Political Divisions of North America are : I. Danish America. II. Dominion of Canada. III. The UNrrEo States. rV. Mexico. V. Centeax America. VI. The West Indies. THE UNITED STATES. 25 THE UNITED STATES MAP STUDIES ON THE mtriTED STATES. To aaiwer these qnestlons refer to the hu-Ke Map on the next pace jn connection with the Phyilcal Map grlren sbovSi Surface. I Position and Extent 1. Which portion of North America is occupied by tho United States ? 2. What country north f 3. What country south f 4. What natural boundaries on tho east luii ■WBirt.l &. ^Ynft-parfiHel forms tHe northern boundary Tn the western half? 6. Bound the United States. 7. What is tlio latitude of Cape Sable (Florida) ? 8. Regarding the parallel of 49' as the general northern boundary of the United States, between what degrees of latitude is our country situated ? Outline. I. Between Pas.samaquoddy Bay and Cape Coortant bays indent the coast between Cape Cod and Cape Hatteras ? 6. Name four capes sontli of Cape Hatteras. 7. Prom the southern point of Florida to the mouth of the Rio Grande what is the fonn of the coast ? 8. What is the name of the great southern inbreaking of the oci^an ? 9. Is the western coast much indented? 10. Where is Puget Sound ? 11. Wliat bay on the Pacific Coast in nearly the same latitude as the mouth <>f Chesni)Ciiko Bsiy t 12. Name three capes on the Pacific coast of the United Statt.'s? Eastern Hlfrhland. — 1. What mountains in the eastern part of the United StAt(;s.? 2[ What is tlieir general direction ? 3. They begin near tlie St. Lawrence ; in wliich State do tliey terminate? 4. Point out (on the Physical Map) the Appala- cliian Mountain System ? Western Highland. — 1. What is the general character of the surface in the western part of the United States ? 2. What great mountain system is found here t 3. What is the general direction of the Rocky Mountains t 4. What chains of mountains nearer the Pacific co«.st ? 5. Point out (on tlie Physical Map) the RocVy Mountains? — the Sierra Neva vhm Xoon on M< flw ta, VSfivas/.vJ UNITED STATES — SECTION I — 4TIiMVI0 STASIS FROM SCALE OF MILES 10 m 100 I'-i Latiluilt — 1 /ik:* rA d rTAM CoUin 3eii^^i'?>tsilain V Xi^*fi) >• Pi %E O Jf T A Ji ^t^Zr ^jlStJin ley / -'i«.T3 lt*=| j; p ^ •''•'/ Iloihe v' i;v.^ ^^i^' J*; IBs V^ \^llKW7^ cpK(COR52,^3t=ftP-r^, Shoals ALBAMWJ' SnisO wsgr ficaBtev "^ 'Phifi , "'1. Vl_H-*Wilr«injtOn>5 ^ ^^^.^.«.. O 40 iVf*( toufjUtnle 6 /rom WirtTtitigton 8 vlfamliu] si IP^ ■■^ ^i^ji^-? .-^ ^»^S! ^K?-^^R^ l^«L V llnTOlni. ^)>( fcapg Charle; . piabaiy j(oi^* Ro. ^^Atll ,ll|.^ Mew Beme^yA . S''^% „ Vilmjngton ''■'Csps F««r i^^4>/ -^ >BuU> I. Mk flay Editto I' > LIlQe 'Caldweirt^ i|. Irviiigtoo^ I? ■«. Union 1 SJ "■nonail ^;;-^ "%/ -< ***■-« Lohgttudt & yV'WX ^a ViMAfni^toa 2 Fm( tklHt Local TbH* n«> 'avnnn ••rf 7 II '•" »"''"i JVom on tht Meridian 12 New " B runsw ick , CITY OF -^ li^SilLU *5^|» ^ O lU HARBOR and VIOmrTY Scale 1 Inch-M Jfllti SattroittU in'tinttnl Mm4^-^^^^ <^ Bed Be 32 THE ATLANTIC STATES. THE ATLANTIC STATES, INTRODUCTION. L Situation. — The Atlantic States occupy the Atlantic High- land and Plain, and extend from Maine to Florida. 2. Size. — This section includes only about one fourteenth of the area of the United States, but in it is nearly one half of the population and wealth of our country. 3. PhysicalFeatures. — Certain physical features are common to most of the States of this section. There is, first, a level, sandy plain which extends from the seaboard a varying distance into the interior ; this is succeeded to the west by the " Middle Country," with a rolling or hilly surface ; and this foothill region, in turn, rises into the ridges of the Appalachian Mountain system. 4. Divisions. — Notwithstanding this similarity in geographical features, there are such marked diiferences between the several parts of the Atlantic seaboard that it is usual to divide the States occupying it into distinct groups. 5. I'irst Difference. — A great difference of latitude. Between the northern and the southern extremities of this section there is an interval of twenty-four degrees of latitude, or nearly 1,700 miles. 6. Second Difference. — Eesulting from the difference in latitude is a difference of climate. The northern part of this section belongs to the cool-temperate, the southern part to the warm-temperate zone. The ice so plentifully cut in Maine and Massachusetts finds a ready market in the winterless Carolinas and Florida. 7. Third Difference. — Eesulting from the difference in climate is a difference in productions. As illustrating this fact, cotton, rice, and oranges, which cannot be grown in the North Atlantic region, flourish finely in the South Atlantic States. 8. Fourth Difference. — Eesulting from the difference in produc- tions and in natural resources is a difference in the industries engaged in by the people. I. New England Industries. — The water-power and the forests of New England have made manufacturing, himbering, and ship-building the leading interests in that section. II. Southern Industries. — The warm climate and the wide extent of the coast plain in the South Atlantic States are favorable to agriculture ; and hence we find the raising of the staples, cotton, tobacco and rice, the principal industry in that section. III. Middle States Industries. — The coal and iron of the Middle States, the fine harbors on the seaboard, and the easy means of communication with the West, have rendered mining, manufacturing, and commerce the most im- portant occupations in that section. 9. Groups of states. — The Atlantic States are usually divided into three groups, — the New England States, the Middle Atlantic States, and the South Atlantic States. NEW ENGLAND STATES. Maine. New Hampshire. Vermont. Massachusetts. Rhode Island. Connecticut. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. New York. New Jersey. Pennsylvania, Maryland. Delaware. [Dist. of Columbia.] SOTTTH ATLANTIC STATES. Virginia. West Virginia. North Carolina. South Carolina. Georgia, l^ Florida. MAP STUDIES ON THE ATLANTIC STATES. These questions are designed as preliminary studies, wUcIi are to be extended at pleasure in connection witli the Special Geography of each State. NEW ENGLAND. Position and States. — 1. Bound New England. 2. Name and boimd each of the States of New England. 3. Give the abbi'eviation of the name of each of the States. Alls. Me., N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn. Sea-Coast — 1. What three bays on the coast of Me. ? 2. Wliat three on the coast of Mass. ? 3. What bay on the coast of R. I. ? 4. What sound south of Conn. ? 5. Which State has no sea-coast ? 6. Name the four largest islands. Surface. — 1. What is the longest mountain range in New England ? 2. What is it called south of Vt. ? 3. In what State are the White Mountains ? 4. Where is Wachu'sett Mt. ? — Mt. Washington? — Mt. Katah'din? Rivers and Lakes. — 1. What are the three longest rivers in Me. ? 2. What is the principal river of N. H. ? 3. What boundary river between N. H. and Vt. ? 4. What river flows into Narragansett Bay ? 5. What is the general direction of the rivers of New England ? 6. What streams are finally drained into the St. Lawrence River ? 7. Describe the following lakes : Moosehead, Winnepesau'kee, Champlain. Cities. — 1. State the location of each of these leading cities : Boston, — Provi- dence, — New Haven, — Worcester, — Lowell, — Cambridge, — Hartford, — Law- rence, — Portland, — Manchester, — Bangor, — Burlington. 2. Which of these are seaport cities ? 3. Which of these are south of Boston ? — north of Boston ? MIDDLE STATES. (Map of Atlantic States, previous page ; or Special Map, page 38.) Position and States. — 1. Whichare the Middle States? Ans. They are New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware. 2. Name and bound each. 3. Which two have a partial boundary on one or more of the Great Lakes. 4. Give the abbreviation of the name of each of these States. Ans. N. Y., N. J., Penn., Md., DeL Sea-Coast. — 1. What are the three principal inbreakings of the sea in this sec- tion ? 2. Name three capes. 3. What large island forms part of N. Y ? Ans. Long Island. 4. Which State has no ocean front ? Surface. — 1. In which of the Middle States are the ranges of the Appalachian sys- tem most numerous and continuous ? 2. Do any of these ranges extend into N. Y. ? — into N. J. ? 3. What detached mountain region in Northern N. Y. ? 4. Where are the Catskill Mountains ? 5. Is the larger part of N. Y. east or west of the moun- tains ? 6. Judging from the course of the rivers, in what direction does Western N. Y. slope ? 7. Which part of N. J. belongs to the Atlantic Plain ? 8. Toward what river does Western Penn. slope ? 9. Which part of Md. is mountainous ? Rivers. — 1. Describe the principal river of N. Y. ? 2. What branch of the Ohio has its source in N. Y. ? 3. Name three N. Y. rivers flowing into Lake Ontario. 4. What boundary river has N. J. ? 5. Describe the Susquehanna. 6. What two branches of the Ohio in Penn. ? 7. What boundaiy river has Md. ? Cities. — 1. State the location of each of the following leading cities : New York, — Philadelphia, — Brooklyn, — Baltimore, — Pittsburgh, — Buflalo, — Newark, — Jersey City, — Rochester, — Allegheny City, — Albany, — Wilmington, — Wash- ington (D. C). 2. Which of these are seaport cities ? 3. Which are State capitals ? 4. Which of these are north of Philadelphia ? — Which south ? 5. Which is the most northern ? — the most southern ? 6. Which is the national capital? SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES. (Map of Atlantic States, previous page ; for Georgia and Florida, Map, page 48.) Position and States. — 1. West Virginia is the mo.st northern and Florida the most southern of the South Atlantic States : what four States lie between these ? 2. Name and bound each State. 3. Give the abbreviation of the name of each State. Ans. Va., W. Va., N. C, S. C, Ga., Fla. Sea-Coast. — 1. What is the direction of the coast from Cape Hatteras to the mouth of the Savannah River ? 2. Where are capes Charles and Henry ? — Cape Hatteras ? 3. Name two sounds in N. C. 4. Where is Cape Fear ? 5. Name a bay in S. C. 6. What is the most southern cape in Florida ? 7. What natural division of land is Florida ? 8. Where is Apalach'ee Bay ? Surface. — 1. Wliich part of these States does the Appalachian system traverse ? 2. Which State is mainly west of it ? 3. Where is Mt. Mitchell ? 4. Ascertain by means of the scale of miles the breadth of the Atlantic Plain in these States. Rivers. — 1. What boundary river has Va. on the north ? 2. To what system of rivers do most of the streams in W. Va. belong ? 3. Describe the James River. 4. What river flows into Albemarle Sound ? 5. Describe the Great Pedee River. 6. Name the principal river of Ga. flowing into the Atlantic Ocean, — into the Gulf of Mexico. 7. Describe St. Johns River. 8. What large lake in Florida ? Cities. — 1. Locate each of these leading cities : Richmond, — Charleston, — Sa- vannah, — Atlanta, — Norfolk, — Wheeling, — Wilmington, — Columbia, — Jack- sonville. 2. Which of these are seaport cities ? 3. Which are State capitals ? THE ATLANTIC STATES, MAINE. L The physical features of this State are : the great forests of pine, spruce, and hemlock in the northern part ; the large number of its lakes and rivers ; its extensive rocky sea-coast, and its nu- merous good harbors. 2. Industries. — The vast forests give rise to an extensive lum- ber-trade and to ship-building ; the manufacturing interest is very important, owing to abundant available water-power; the sea- fisheries employ a large number of people. 3. Cities. — Portland, the chief seaport and largest city, has one of the best harbors on the Atlantic coast. It has extensive railroad communication, and is the main winter outlet for the St. Lawrence basin. Augusta is the capital. SPECIAL OEOaRAFHT FOR MAINE CLASSES. ty Maine classes should now make a full study of the geography of their State, following the Outline on page 30. Refer to the County map, page 33. Area, 33,040 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 648,936. Eztent. — Maine occupies more than half the surface of New England. Its greatest length is about 250 miles ; greatest breadth, 190 miles. Sea-coast. — The sea-coast is penetrated by numerous bays and inlets, many of which afford excellent harbors. The length of the coast in a straight line from Kit'tery Point to Eastport is about 230 miles, but the deep curves of the bays and estuaries give an actual shore-line of nearly 2,500 miles. Its fine beaches, breezy headlands, and picturesque islands are becoming attractive resorts for summer visitors from Canada and the States. Surface. — The surface is, in general, pleasantly varied by hills and valleys. There is no connected ridge of mountains, but in the central and northwestern parts of the State are numerous isolated mountain-summits, the loftiest of which is Mount Katah'din (5,385 feet in height). River System. — All parts of the State are abundantly supplied with streams, which for the most part rise in or flow through lakes. The PenoVscot is navigable for the largest vessels to Bangor (60 miles), and is greatly used for floating down logs from the northern forests. The Kennebec', Androscog'gin, and Saco [saw^ko] supply extensive water-power. Lakes. — The lakes, of which there are hundreds, form one of the charac- teristic features of the State. Many of them are noted for their picturesque scenery, while others afford channels of communication. Moosehead Lake, the largest, is 35 miles in length ; Ghesun'cook, about 20 miles ; Seba'go, 12. Forests. — One half of the State is still covered by almost unbroken forests of pine, hemlock, spruce, and oak ; hence lumbering is one of the principal in- dustries. The lumber crop is about one hundred million feet annually. The value of the sawed lumber is over 10 millions of dollars a year. Hemlock- bark, for tanning purposes, is an important article of export. Ship-building. — The State has long been the foremost in ship-building. This industry is favored by the great abundance of sliip-building material and by the many excellent seaports of " hundred-harbored Maine." Fisheries. — In the value of the products of its fisheries thi.? State ranks next to Massachusetts. Many hundreds of fishing-smacks and schooners are engaged in mackerel-catching, and in cod-fishing on the Grand Banks. Manufactures. — The manufacturing interests are large and increasing. Leading articles of manufacture are sawed lumber, cottons, woolens, tanned and curried leather, boots and shoes, lime, etc. Agriculttu'e. — The best fanning sections are in the valley of the St. John and between the Penobscot and the Kennebec rivers. The leading products are potatoes, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, com, orchard and dairy products. Bfliuerals. — Lime and granite are extensively distributed. Piscat'aquis County furnishes excellent iron, and abounds in superior slate. Education. — Maine has an excellent system of Common, High, and Nor- mal schools. The higher institutions of learning are Bowdoin [bo'dn] College at Brunswick, the State College of Agriculture at O'rono, near Bangor, Bates College at Lewiston, and Colby University at Waterville. Cities. — Besides Portland and Augusta the cities are : — Names. Bangor. lewiston. Auburn, Biddeford. Saco. Bath. Bockland. Calais. Belfast. Ellsworth. Gardiner. Hallowell. Advantages of Location. Head of navigation on the Penobscot Elver. Falls of the Androscoggin. Falls of the Saco. Near month of the Kennebec River. On Penobscot Bay. On St Croix [Aroi] Kiver. On Penobscot Bay. Proximity to the coast. On the Kennebec River. Head of navigation on the Kennebec River. Industries and Characteristics. Immense business in sawing and shipping lumber. Ship-building. Miscellaneous manufacturing. Manufacture of cotton and woolen goods, lumber, and machinery. Inland trade. Manufacture of cotton-goods and sawed lumber. Extensive ship-building. Ship-building. Lime-burning (IJ million casks a year). Manufacture of lumber. Ship-building. Ship-building. Manufacture of paper, shoes, clothing. Agricultural trade. Lumber trade and working in wood. Cod and mackerel fishing. Manufacture of paper, boards, woolen goods, springs and axles, furniture, etc. Extensive granite-quarries. Manufacture of cotton-goods, oil-carpet, wire, etc. ' For population see Table, page 139. NEW HAMPSHIRE AND VERMONT. 35 NEW HAMPSHIRE. L Physical Features. — The nortli- .em part is covered with granite mountains, clad in native forest. -"'■ The State is noted for the beauty of its lake and mountain scenery. 2. The leading industries are (1) manufacturing, fur which the abun- dant water-power of the State affords great advantages ; and (2) agriculture, pasturage, and dairying. 3. Cities. — Manchester, the chief city, is largely engaged in manufacturing cotton, woolen, and linen goods, machineiy, etc. CoNCOKD, the capital, is also a maniifactuiing point. 1H£ WHITI MOUNTAINS. SPECIAIi aX20aRAPH7 FOR NE'W HAMPSHIRE CLASSES. lar " N'ew Hampshire classes should now make a full study of the geography of their State, fol- lowing the Outline on page 30. Refer to the County map, page 33. Area, 9,305 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 346,901. Outline and Extent. — This State has the form of a triangle, the base rest- ing on Massachusetts. From north to south its length is 168 miles, and its width from east to west is from 90 to 20 miles. Surface. — The State belongs almost wholly to the Atlantic Highland re- gion, — the Atlantic Plain being represented only by a small portion in the southeast extending a distance of 20 or 30 miles from the sea. The White Mountains, a disconnected group of the Appalachian system, con- stitute the most prominent physical feature of the State. Mount Washing- ton (6,288 feet high) is one of the loftiest peaks of this entire system. Rivers. — The rivers of this State are of the highest importance on account of their water-power. The Connecticut and Piscatfaqua — the latter formed by the junction of the Salmon Falls and Co-che'co rivers — are boundary streams. The Merrimac with its branches, in its course through this State and Massa- cliusetts, moves the machinery of more mills than any other river in the world. Manufactures. — Manufacturing, the leading interest, includes cotton and woolen good.s, iron-ware and machinery, boots and shoes, and sawed lumber. Agriculture. — Except in the intervales along the Merrimac and the Con- necticut rivers the soil needs careful cultivation to produce large crops. The mountain pastures afford fine grazing, and the dairy-products are important Places. — Besides Manchester and Concord the principal places are : — KamM. 5athaa, Dover. Portimoath. Keene. Ezet«r. Hanover. Advantage* of Location. Jonction of the Naabaa with the Merrimac River. Lower falls of the Cocheco River. Fine harbor near the mouth of the Piacataqus River. On Ashnelot River. On Exeter River. On ConnecUcnt River. IndoBtries and Characteristics. Cotton manufactures, machine-shops, and •hoo-shope. Manufacture of cotton and woolen goods, and shoes. Manutteturea and commerce. Manufacture of Iron and wood work, woolen goods and carriage*. Manufactures. Seat of Phillip* Academy, founded In 1781. Beat of Dartmouth College, founded In 1709. VERMONT. L Physical Features. — Vermont is traversed throughout its whole extent from north to south by the Green Mountains. These are covered in many places with hard-wood forests, and enclose beautifid valleys. This State has no sea-coast 2. The leading industries are (1) agriculture, which is successfully carried on in the fertile mountain vaUeys and in the valley of the Connecticut ; (2) stock-raising, to which the mountain pastures are well adapted : the dairy-products are extensive and valuable. 3. Places. — Burlington, the largest place, has considerable lake- trade and lumber-trade; it is the seat of the University of Ver- mont. MoNTPEUEB [mont-peeHycr] is the capital SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY FOR VERMONT CI.ASSES. HT" Vermont classes should now nmke a full study of the geography of their State, following the Outline on page 30. Refer to the County map, [lage 33. Area, 9,565 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 332,286. Extent. — Its length from north to south is 157 miles, and its breadth from eu.st to west, from 40 to 92 miles ; its widest part is on the northern State-line. Surface. — • The Green Mountains, which form the most striking feature in this State, are a range of the Appalachian system, — the most contmuous range of that system in New England. In the center they divide into two branches : the western branch, continuing in a northerly direction, sinks gradually till it terminates near the northern boundary ; the eastern branch extends northeast, and passing into Canada is lost on the shores of the river St. Lawrence. Tlie highest elevations are Camel's Hiunp and Mount Mansfield. Rivers. — Though well watered, the State has no large streams with their courses entirely within its borders. The Connecticut flows along the entire eastern border. Its numerous trib- utaries, such as the Wells, White, etc., are mountain streams aflfording valuable mill-sites. Into Lake Champlain flow the Missis'quoi, Lamoille', and Winoos'ki, or Onion, and other creeks. Lakes. — Lake Chami>lain bounds the State on the west for 105 miles. It is a noble sheet of water, navigated by the largest steamers. Next in size is Lake Memphrema'gog (30 miles long) on the northern border. In the interior are various minor lakes. Agriculture. — Vermont is in the main an agricultural and a grazing State. The intervales have a rich fertile soil, as have also the uplands in many places. The principal crops are hay, oats, com, wheat, buckwheat, and potatoes. Stock-Raising and Dairying. — The mountain pastures are finely adapted to the feeding of cattle, sheep, and horses. The yearly wool-clip is large. Thousand of tons of butter and cheese are made every year. Other Lidustries. — Though not so exten.sively or exclusively engaged in manufacturing as the other New England States, Vermont devotes considerable attention to this branch of industry. Woolen goods, boots and shoes, steam- engines, carriages, and weighing-scales are among the many things turned out Several thousand tons of maple-sugar are made every year. Minerals. — Marbles of fine quality abound, and the quarries are worked at various points. Slate quarries are worked on the Connecticut. A con- siderable quantity of copperas is manufactured from iron-pyrites. Places. — In addition to the metropolis and the capital, the principal places are : — Karnes. Sntland. St. Albans. Brattleboro. St. Johnsbnry Brandon. Northfleld. Hiddlabnry. Woods took. Advantage* of location. On Otter Creek. Proximity to Lake Champlain. On the Connecticnt River. On the Passumpsic River. On Otter Cieek. Rich in minerals. On Vermont Central Railroad. Otter Creek Fall*. On Quechwe River. Indnstrie* and Characteristic*. Extensive quarries of white marble. Mar- ble trade. Manufacturing. Manufacture of cars. Trade In dairy-prod- ucts, etc. Manufacture of organs, fumltuie, ete Seat of the State Insane Asylum. Pairluinks's scales manufactory. Manufacture of woolen goods, leather, boots and shoes, etc. Manufactures and slate-quarriea Vermont Military Institute. Marble trade and various manufactures. Seat of Middlebury College, founded In 1800. Manufactures and local trade. 36 THE ATLANTIC STATES. MASSACHUSETTS. L Its Bank. — Massachusetts ranks as the foremost State of New England and as one of the leading manufacturing States in the Union. ■ In wealth and commerce it is second only to New York. 2. Physical Features. — The western part is mountainous, the centra.1 and northeastern parts are hilly, the southeastern part is generally low and sandy. a The leading industries are (1) manufacturing; (2) commerce; (3) the fisheries. Manufactures. — The principal articles of manufacture (named in the order of their unportance) are Loots and shoes, cotton and woolen goods, hardware, and paper. Commerce. — The commerce of the State is very large. It arises from the e.xchange of the manufactures and natural products of the State for raw material, as cotton, wool, iron, and for other articles of use and luxury. The many excellent harbors greatly facilitate commerce. Fiaheries. — The catching of cod and mackerel off the coast and on the Grand Banks is an important industry, and in this industry Massachusetts is the leading State. 4. Boston, the capital, ranks in foreign conunerce as the second city in the United States. It is the business and literary metropo- lis of New England. It is also distinguished for its great public libraries and its schools of science and art. HARVARD UNIVERSITY. SPECIAI. OEOGRAPH7 FOR MASSACHUSETTS CLASSES. Massachusetts classes should now make a full study of their State, following the OuUine on page 30. Refer to the County map, page 33. Area, 8,315 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 1,783,085. Extent. — This State has a general breadth of not more than 50 miles, with a length of about 160 miles ; but in the eastern part it widens abruptly to the breadth of 100 miles, and protrudes into the ocean a long, narrow tongue of sand that extends nearly 50 miles beyond the mainland. Coast — The sea-coast is much indented with bays. The peninsulas of Cape Ann and Cape Cod enclose a large gulf, of which the northern part is called Massachusetts Bay and the southern Cape Cod Bay. Another impor- tant inbreaking of the sea is Buzzard's Bay, in the south. Surface. — Although the surface is generally hilly and in some places ruggedj no part of it rises to an elevation of 4,000 feet ; the peak of Saddle Mountain, the loftiest summit, is 3,600 feet above the sea-level. In the western part the Green Mountains are prolonged from Vermont, form- ing the Hoosac and Taconic ridges, which lie nearly parallel to each other and extend southward into Connecticut. The Hoosac ridge divides the waters of the Connecticut from those of the Housatonic. The other principal mountains are the isolated peaks of Mount Tom, Mount Holyoke, and Wachusett Mountain, which are considered detached parts of the great White Mountain range. Hivers. — Every part of the State is well watered ; but in general the streams are more useful for their water-power than as channels of communication. The Connecticut, the largest, owing to its rapid descent, is navigable in this State only by the aid of canals and locks ; but it affords great water-power. The Merrimac, after entering this State from New Hampshire, has a course east and northeast, and is naWgable to Haverhill, 20 miles. Its principal tributaries are the Nashua and Concord rivers, which with the main stream turn a vast number of spindles and drive immense masses of machinery. The Housatonic Eiver, between the Hoosac and Taconic ranges, flows south- ward into Connecticut. The Quinebaug and Blackstone rivers also have their sources in this State. Charles Eiver, reaching the sea at Boston, and Taunton River, flowing into Narragansett Bay, are valuable mill-streams. Manufactures. — The manufactures of the State are of immense extent and variety. Their products for the year 1870 were valued at $550,000,000. In addition to those named in the text may be mentioned iron machinery, steam-engines, locomotives, cutlery, hardware, agricultural implements, wooden and glass ware, pianos, sewing-machines, watches, books, etc. Agriculture. • — Nature has not favored this State with a fertile soil ; and so compact is its population and so many people are engaged in nianufactimng, it does not raise food enough to supply its own inhabitants. Still, agriculture is pursued with great scientific skill, and many of its farms are cultivated with the care of gardens, and are very productive, yielding two or three open- air crops in a season. Industries of the Sea. — The State is celebrated for the number and excellence of its ships, and for the skill and enterprise of its seamen. At Gloucester and other fishing towns along the coast great fleets of smacks and schooners are every year fitted out for cod-fishing on the Grand Banks. The fish are salted and dried, and form a very important article of export. Commerce. — In addition to manufactured articles, the chief exports are granite, ice, and fish. Internal Improvements. — In proportion to its surface, no other State is so thoroughly supplied with railroads and other means of commmucation as Massachusetts. It has a total length of 2,500 miles of railroad. To fonn direct and economical connections no labor or expense is spared, even to the tunneling of mountains. The celebrated Hoosac tunnel, cut in order to form easy communication with the fertile States of the Great West, is a noted instance of its enterprise and lavish expenditure in opening direct lines of travel. Education. — The educational institutions of the State include, in addition to the public schools, attended by nearly half a million of pupils, five State normal schools, five colleges, and Harvard University. Cities. — In addition to Boston the cities of Ma.ssachusetts are : — Karnes. Worcester. Lowell. Cambridge. Lawrence. Lynn. Fall Siver. Springfield. Salem. New Bedford. Taunton. Gloucester. Haverhill. Fitolibarg. Somerville. Holyoke. Newton. Newburyport. Chelsea. Advantages of Location. Head of Blackstone Biver. Confluence of Concord and Merri- mac rivers. Proximity to Boston. On the Merrimac River. On Massachusetts Bay. Seaport at mouth of Taunton Biver. Confluence of Mill River with the Connecticut. Seaport On Buzzard's Bay. On Taunton River. On Capo Ann. On the Merrimac River. On a hranch of the Kashua River. Proximity to Boston. On the Connecticut River. On the Charles River. Mouth of the Merrimac River. Proximity to Boston. Industries and Cliaracteristics. Endless variety of manufactures in iron and wood. Agricultural implements, »fire, machinery, carpets, etc. Leading city in cotton manufacture. Iron and glass works, pork-packing, ice- cutting, printing-establishments, brick- yards, etc. Seat of Harvard University. Manufacture of cotton and woolen goods. Immense manufacture of ladies' shoes. Cotton-miUs, calico print-works, iron- works, etc. Manufacture of paper, envelopes, pai)er-col- lars, cars, fire-arms, etc. U. S. Arsenal. Manufacturing and some shipping. Manufacturing. Locomotive works, rolling-mills, and other iron and brass works, etc. Cod and mackerel fisheries. Manufacture of shoes, hats, carriages, paper-boxes, bricks, etc. Manufacture of iron machinery, edge-tools, chairs, paper, rattan, etc. Bleachery and glass-works. Manufacture of brass-tubing, etc. Business in Boston. Largest paper-mills in the United States. Varied manufactures. Manufacture of pajier and woolen goods. Varied manufactures. Ship-building, cod and mackerel fishing. Cotton-mills. Varied manufactures. Residential city, with manufactures. CONNECTICUT AND RHODE ISLAND. 37 CONNEOTIOUT. >^«:^\: L The physical features of tliis State are : the fertile valleys of the Connecticut and Housatonic rivers, the rolling hills which diversify the surface, and the numerous streams affording water- power. 2. The leading industries are (1) agriculture, for which the fertile soil is well adapted; aud (2) manufacturing, for which this State has fine facilities in its water-power and in its nearness to the iron and coal of Pennsylvania on the one hand, and to the great dis- tributing point. New York City, on the other. 3. Cities. — Hartford, the capital, has extensive trade and many manufacturing establishments. It is the seat of Trinity College. New Haven, the largest city, is an important manu- facturing point, and is the seat of Yale College. SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY FOR CONNECTICUT CLASSES. 1^^ Connecticut classes should now make a full study of the geography of their State, following the Outline on page 30. Refer to the County map, page 33. Area, 4,990 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 622,700. Position and Extent. — Connecticut lies between Massachusetts and Long Island Sound. Its boundary on Massachusetts is about 85 miles ; that on New York, 82 miles ; that on Rhode Island, 48 miles ; and its frontage on Long Island Sound, over 100 miles. ' Surface. — The surface presents a beautiful diversity of hill and valley. The hills are all continuations of the ranges in the States lying to the north. The Green Mountains of Vermont and the White Mountains of New Hamp- shire, prolonged through Massachusetts, traverse the State in hill-ranges, and end, the former in West Rock and the latter in East Rock, near New Haven. Rivers. — The principal rivers are the Connecticut, navigable to Hartford (50 miles) ; the Housatonic, navigable to Derby (12 miles); and the Thames, navigable to Norwich (16 miles). These rivers with their numerous tributaries furnish great wat«r-power. Manufactures. — Manufacturing forms the leading intere-st in this State, and it has been well said that Connecticut " is rapidly becoming a vast work- shop." The great stimulus given to manufacturing industries arises from two advantages, — that of fine water-power and that of cheap transportation of coal and iron from Pennsylvania. Leading ariicla of manufacture are cotton and woolen goods, tin-ware, brass- ware, hardware, and wooden ware, paper, clocks, carriages, sewing-machines, pins, buttons, silk, india-rubber goods, rifles and revolvers, and innumerable 4inall articles known under the name of " Yankee notions." Agrloaltnre. — The growth of manufactures has rendered agriculture, which for two centuries was the leading interest of the State, of secondary importance. Still, farming receives much attention : the soil is generally fertile, especially in the valleys of the Housatonic, the Connecticut, and the Quinebaug rivers. In the valley of the Connecticut River tobacco is largely grown. Commerce. — The towns on the Sound have an active coasting-trade, and there is considerable foreign commerce with the West Imlies. Education. — In addition to its public school system, including Common, High, and Normal Schools, the State has three colleges, — Yale at New Haven, Trinity at Hartford, and the Wesleyan University at Middletown. Connected with Yale are schools of Law, Medicine, and Divinity. The Berkeley Di- \inity School is at Middletown, and the Hartford Theological Seminary it Hartford. Cities. — In addition to Hartford and New Haven, the leading places in Connecticut are : — Names. Bridgeport. Korwich. Waterbnry. Kew London. Middletown. Advantages of Location. On Long Island Sound. Proximity to N. V. by railroad and water. Head of navigation on the Thames River. On the Naugatuck River. Mouth of Thames River. Right bank of Connecticut River. Industries and ChanuiterisUca. Manufacture of sewing-machines, carriages, paper, etc. Cotton and woolen mills. Manufacture of cotton and woolen goods, paper, etc. Is the center of the manufactures in cop- jier and brass. Special articles : pins, pens, hooks-and-eyes, buttons, buckles, percussion-caps, plated ware, brass ket- tles, etc. Local and coasting trade. Manufacture of hardware and cotton goods Additional Places. — In audition to the cities there are in the State many imiwrtant borougtis and villages engaged in manufacturing and trade. Among these are Korwalk, Stam- ford, and Greenwich, in the southwestern part, on Long Island Sound, engaged in manufacturing hardware, tin-ware, felt and straw hats, combs, dye-stuffs, etc. ; Meriden, engaged in making tin- ware Britannia-ware, and silver-plated ware, cutlery, fire-arms, etc. ; New Britain, which is the seat of the State Normal School, and is largely engaged in making hardware ; Derby, with splendid water-power, an important manufacturing center; Danbuy, also celebrated for its water-power and numul^tories ; Stonington, Litchfield, Willimantic, etc. RHODE ISLAND. 1. Its Bank. — Rhode Island, though the smallest, ranks as one of the most prosperous and thickly settled States in the Union. 2. The leading industry of this State is manufacturing ; and the chief manufactures are those of cotton and woolen goods. 3. Cities. — Providence ranks in population as the second city in New England. It is noted for its cotton-mills, woolen-nulls, iron-works, silver-plated ware, screw-factories, etc. Newport, on the island of Rhode Island, is a fashionable watering-place. These cities are both capitals of the State. SPECIAIi GEOORAPHT FOR RHODE ISI.AND CLASSES. 1^^ ~ Rhode Island classes should now make a full study of the geography of their State, following the Outline on page 30. Refer to the Cotmty map, page 33. Area, 1,250 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 276,531. Extent. — This State is in length about 42 miles, and in its greatest width 35 miles. It is divided by Narragansett Bay into two unequal parts, much the larger part being west of the Bay, while the Bay itself is studded with numer- ous fertile islands. Of these the largest is Rhode Island (length 15 miles), which gives its name to the State Surface. — The surface is broken and undulating, but the elevations are gentle. Mount Hope, the highest land, being only 300 feet above the sea- level. Rivers. — The Blackstone, entering the State from Massachusetts, flows southward into Providence River, at the city of Providence. Pawtuxet River, in the central part of the State, abounds with mill-sites. Pawcatuck River waters the southwestern part, and is a partial boundary between Rhotle Island and Connecticut. Industries. — The great employment is the manufacture of useful articles. In the fabrication of cotton and woolen goods and hardware Rhode Island exceeds all the other States in proportion to its area and population. Its other forms of manufacturing industry are very diversified. Education. — This State enjoys an excellent public-school system. The most important of the higher institutions of learning is Brown University. To^ns. — Providence and Newport are the only cities in the State. The places next in size are Woonsock'et and Pawtuck'et, engaged in manufactur- ing, and Bristol, a seaport. aSrisL ,. ,-, — , ;arem7<«v Cif,?"'are ,'2 , ooos,; _ . /n-. it ,jj^ --^XT^iT'^^^oiXc City 'V.9 TTarboT ^^m ^ iBrazton .' / < rv^:); .,._.., ,„.™ .„.,V, Hunlij 3 longitude from' 2 WasAtngton 1f^ 11" Local Time A. M. n" ^ c^>ti/j . 1 Its Bank. — New York is the foremost of the States in wealth, population, and commerce ; and hence is often called the " Empire State." It has more than one tenth of the population and one seventh of the wealth in the United States. 2. The physical features of the State are its highlands in the eastern and uurthem sections, the great valley formed by the Hudson River and lakes Champlain and George, and the fertile plains and nimierous lakes in the western section. 3. The natural advantagfes of the State consist in its fertile soil, the grciit exteut of its navigable waters, its central position between the Great Lakes and the Ocean, and the possession of the best har- bor on the Atlantic seaboard. 4. The leading industries are (1) agriculture ; (2) manufactur- ing ; and (3) commerce. {The fertile fanning section in the west produces large crops of com, wheat, potatoes, hay, and fruit ; the dairy- farms yield one fourth of the butter and cheese made in the Unitetl States, r In the extent and value of its manufactures it is unsur- Manufacturea ■• P^***^' "^^ leading articles are clothing, cotton and woolen ' I good.s, railroad-iron, machinery, furniture, flour, salt, and I spirits. (The State has a vast foreign and domestic commerce, which is favored by its central position, its fine harbor, and its extensive system of lake, river, canal, and railroad com- munication. 5. New York City is the business and moneyed emporium of the New World. In commercial importance it is second only to London. It has about one million of inhabitants ; and, including Brooklyn and other neighboring cities closely connected with it and forming one compact business center, it comprises a popu- lation of nearly two millions. ft The Capital — Albany, the capital, though in population a city of the second class, is an active commercial point advantage- ously situated near the head of navigation on the Hudson liiver and at the eastern terminus of the Erie CauaL SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY FOR NEW YORK CLASSES. ^^ New York classes should now make a full study of the geography of their State, following the Outline on page 30. Refer to the County map, page 38. Area, 49.170 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 6,082,871. Outline. — The outline of this State is that of an irregular triangle, — the southern angle resting on New York Bay, the northeastern on Lake Cham- plain, and the northwestern where Niagara River flows into Lake Ontario. Extent. — Its greatest length from east to west, exclusive of Long Island, is about .335 miles, and its greatest breadth, from north to south, about 308 miles. Its area is somewhat greater than that of Pennsylvania ; but of the Atlantic States it is exceeded in size by North Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. Surface. — The general surface of the State is uneven and somewhat elevated. The mountains are spurs and ridges of the Appalachian system, which enter the State from New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The most eastern range cros.'^es Orange, Rockland, Putnam, and Dutchess coun- ties into Western Ma-ssachusetts. It is broken through by the Hudson River, forming on the Jersey side the bold and picturesque bluffs of the Palisades. A second range, the Shawangunk [skon^gtim] Mountains, a northern exten- sion of the Blue or Kittatin'ny Mountains of Pennsylvania, extends northeast, culminating in the Catskill Moiuitains and sending off spurs to the northwest. 77k highest -mountain region is that of the Adirondack Mountains, in the northeastern part. The loftiest j)eak is Mount Marcy, 5,467 feet above the sea-levoL In the southwestern part of the State, between and to the north of the head-streams of the Alleghany and Su.s(iuehanna rivers, is a height of land which forms the watershed dividing the streams flowing southward into Pennsylvania from those that belong to the basin of the Great Lakes. The northwestern part of New York slopes toward the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes. Lakes. — Its lakes are a distinguishing feature of this State. Numbers of these lie wholly within its borders ; but the Great Lakes, properly so calletl, lie on its lx>rders, — Ontario and Erie on the north and west, and Champlain' on the northeast. Lake Erie is 268 miles in length, and from 30 to 54 miles in width. Of its southern shore an extent of about 60 miles lies within this State. Onta- rio is next in size, and is elliptical in form ; it is 190 miles in length and 66 nules in extreme breadth. Its entire southern shore east of Niagara River a within New York .State. Lake Champlain is a long narrow sheet of water famed for its beauty. In extreme length it is 134 miles, with a breadth of from ^ mile to 10 miles. Lake George discharges itself into Lake Cliamplain. In the northern mountain region are not fewer than two hundred small lakes. River System. — The St. Laicrenee River forms part of the boundary line on the north. The Hudton (length, 3(X) miles), the chief river belonging wholly 40 THE ATLANTIC STATES. Its main tribu- to New York, is navigable for steamboats to Troy, 151 miles, taiy is the Mohawk. The western slopes of the Adirondacks give rise to various small rivers. Among these are the Rackett, Grass, and Black rivers, the latter flowing into Lake Ontario, the other two into the river St. Lawrence. A secondary watershed is formed by a height of land between and to the north of the head-stream of the Susquehanna, which rises in Otsego Lake, and the head-stream of the Alleghany, which curves northward into New York. This height of land forms the "divide " between the streams flowing northward and westward into the Great Lakes, southward into Pennsylvania, and eastward into the Hudson River. Among those belonging to the basin of the Great Lakes are Tonawanda, Buff'alo, and Cattaraugus creeks, which flow into Lake Erie or Niagara River, and the Genesee and Oswego rivers, which flow into Lake Ontario. The latter is the outlet of a series of lakes in Central New York. Thus from these watersheds the streams of the State run into Hudson River, Chesapeake Bay, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Agriculture. — In the value of its farm productions and live-stock New York exceeds any other State. The most fertile farm-lands are in the val- leys of the Mohawk and the Genesee rivers. The chief agricultural products are hay, wheat, oats, corn, buckwheat, rye, tobacco, potatoes, orchard-fruits, and garden-products. Of hay, Irish potatoes, barley, and hops it produces more than any other State. In the value of its live-stock, and in the production of milk, butter, and cheese, it exceeds any other State ; and it ranks high in the production of pork, flax, and wool. Manufactures. — The total value of its manufactured articles is over J 800,000,(X)0 annually, being greater than that of any other State. New York ranks first in the following articles of manufacture : flouring and grist-mUl products, cast-iion articles, clothing, sewing-machines and musical instruments, tanned leather, cigars and tobacco, malt liquors, salt, furniture, and books. In the manufacture of boots and shoes it is second only to Massachusetts ; in agricultural implements, second only to Ohio. Commerce. — In foreign commerce New York greatly exceeds any other State : this arises from the fact that New York City ships the great bulk of the grain exported to foreign countries, and that most of the imports into the United States are received through the same port. The State has also a vast domestic trade, which is favored by its great works of internal improvement. Internal Improvements. — In addition to the natural highways of com- merce aflbrded by lakes Erie, Ontario, and Champlain, and by the Hudson River, — that wonderful natural channel through the barrier of the Appalachian ridges, — the State has a magnificent system of canals and railroads. The Erie Canal, the longest in the world (364 miles), connects Lake Erie with the head of navigation on the Hudson, thus forming a cheap and easy route for the products of the great West to the Atlantic seaboard. Other canals of great importance have been cut to overcome the obstacles in the principal navigable rivers. Of railroads a network extends over the State, and through-lines connect the seaboard with Chicago, St. Louis, and San Francisco, thus commanding the trade of the Mississippi Valley and the Pacific coast. Scenery. — New York is distinguished for its fine scenery. The High- lands in the lower course of the Hudson are exceedingly picturesque, while the mountain regions of the Catskills and the Adirondacks are wild and grand. Watkins' Glen, at the head of Seneca Lake, is a favorite resort. The lake scenery, especially that of Lake George and of the group of small lakes in the central part of the State, is very lovely. New York is noted for its numerous mineral-springs, among which are those of Saratoga, Ballston, Sharon, Avon, and others. The waterfalls are numerous, comprising Cohoes Falls on the Mohawk, Trenton Falls on West Canada Creek, the various falls of the Genesee, and Niagara Falls, the sublimest cataract on the globe. The Metropolis. — New York City has a magnificent harbor, which is visited by the ships of all nations. Two thirds of all the imports brought into our country enter here. Broadway, one of the grandest streets in the world, is many miles long, and is noted for its great hotels and splendid iron and marble buildings. The Central Park is one of the finest of pleasure- gardens. New York is the center of the great railroad companies, insurance companies, manufacturing companies, and banking institutions of our country. It is also distinguished for its literary, scientific, and benevolent institutions. Education. — New York has an excellent system of common, high, and normal schools. These are attended by more than a million of pupils. The higher education of both sexes is abundantly provided for. Among the best known institutions are : Columbia College, the University of New York, the Normal College, the College of the City of New York, College of St. Francis Xavier, Manhattan College, and Rutgers Female College, all in the city of New York ; Cornell University, at Ithaca ; Union College, at Sche- nectady ; Hamilton College, at Clinton ; Madison University, at Hamilton ; Hobart College, at Geneva ; Syracise University and the University of Roches- ter, situated respectively in these cities ; Alfred University, at Alfred ; Ingham University, at Le Roy ; Elmira Female College, at Elmira ; Vassar Female College, at Poughkeepsie. History. — The territory which is now the State of New York was dis- covered in 1609 by Heni-y Hudson (an Englishman in the employ of the Dutch East India Company), on the Hudson River side, and by Champlain, the French governor of Canada, on the Lake Champlain side. In 1613-14 a Dutch trading post called New Amsterdam (now New York) was established on Manhattan Island ; and another, called Fort Orange, where Albany now stands. The whole territory, including also New Jersey, was named New Netherlands, and was largely settled by Hollanders. In 1664 the English wrested this region from the Dutch, and it received the name of New York, from the Duke of York (subsequently Janies II.). Political Divisions. — New York is divided into 60 counties, with 930 towns and 24 cities. In addition to the metropolis (New York) and the capital (Albany), are the cities named in the subjoined table. Karnes. Brooklyn. Buffalo. Rochester, Troy. Syracuse. TTtioa. Kingston. Oswego. Poughkeepsie. Auburn. Newburgh. Elmira Cohoes. Bingham ton. Lockport. Advantages of Location. Opposite New York, from which it is separated by a strait called the East River, j of a mile wide. On Lake Erie, at western terminus of Erie Canal. Upper falls (100 feet) of Genesee Eiver, 7 uiilea from Lake Ontario. Left bank of Hudson Eiver, above Albany. On L.ake Onondaga, at junction of Erie and Oswego canals. On the Hohawk River. A railroad center. Canal facilities. Right bank of Hudson Eiver. Ter- minus of the Delaware and Hud son CanaL Mouth of Oswego River. Left bank of Hudson River. Near Owasco Lake. Water-power from its outlet. Right bank of Hudson Eiver. Near junction of Newtown Creek with Chemung Eiver. Fine farm- ing region. Eailroad center. Eight bank of the Mohawk Eiver. Immense water-power (dam, 1,443 feet long). Confluence of the Chenango and Susquehanna rivers. On the Erie Caniil. [The place takes its name from the system of locks \)y which the water in the Erie Canal is raised to the level of the mountain ridge over which the Niagara River falls.] Borne. On the Mohawk Eiver. Junction of Black Eiver and Erie canals. Schenectady. Eight bank of Mohawk Eiver. Ogdensbnrgh. Eight bank of the St Lawrence Eiver. Watertown. Left bank of Black River, at falls. Hudson. Yonkers. Left bank of Hudson River, below Albany. Left bank of Hudson River, 12 miles above New York. Long Island ) City. j On Long Island. Proximity to New York City. Industries and CharacterlBtics. Local trade. Manufactures. City of resi- dences for people doing business In New York City. Lake and canal trade. Manufoctures. Large manufacturing and milling inter- ests. Manufacture of clothing and boctts and slices. Most extensive fruit and ornamental tree nurseries in the world. Seat of Rochester University. Extensive iron and steel works, Raikoad- car shops, nail-works, etc. Immense salt-works. Varied manufac- tures ; hardware, glass, furniture, musi- cal instruments, coal market. Syracuse University. Manufacture of cotton and woolen goods, and boots and shoes. Great coiil-market. Center of an immense business in flagging and other varieties of blue stone. Manufacture of hydrau- lic cement and lime. A grain port. Flouring-mllls and corn- starch factories. Trade and manufacturing. Seat of Vassar Female College. Manufacture of agricultural implements and woolen goods. Seat of the Auburn Theological Seminary. Also of a State Prison. Manufacture of cotton goods and iron, Coal-trade. Large trade. Manufacture of iron and boots and shoes. Seat of a Female Col- lege. Cotton-weaving mills, knitting-mills, roll- ing-mills, ax and tool factories, etc Manufacture of boots and shoes, cigars, steam-engines, agricultural implements, etc. L-arge coal-trade. Seat of the State Inebriate Asylum. Flouring-niills, limestone-quarries, etc. Manufacture of machinery of the Holly water-works. Rolling-mills and paper-mills. Railroad- car manufactory. Locomotive-works. Broom manufacto- ries. Local trade. Seat of Union Col- lege. Extensive Lake and Canadian trada Varied manufactures, — woolen goods, pa- per, flour, farming implements, leather, etc. Iron fUmaces, and varied manufactures. River-trade. Place of suburban residence. Local trade. Place of residence for people employed in New York City. PENNSYLVANIA. 41 L Its Bank. — Pennsylvania is a great and prosperous State, ranking in population and manufactures next to New York. 2. Physical Features. — It embraces three physical regions : (1) the central mountain-region of the Appalachian system, with its numerous long and narrow mountain- valleys ; (2) a part of the Atlantic Plain in the east ; and (3) the Ohio VaUey slope. 3. Besonrces. — The natural advantages, or resources, of this State are very great. They comprise (1) rich iron-mines, vast coal-fields, and a great oil-producing region ; (2) abundant water- power ; (3) a fertile soil ; (4) extensive forests. 4 Industries. — The leading industrial occupations have arisen from these natiiral advantages. They are mining, manufacturing, agriculture, and commerce. 6. Mining. — The principal branches of this industry are the mining of coal and iron, carried on to an immense extent. The rich iron-mines and vast coal-beds supply a large part of the iron and coal used in the United States. Petroleum, also, is produced in great quantities. 6. Manufactures. — Pennsylvania combines all the advantages for being a great manufacturing State, — iron, coal, wood, water-power, and easy communication. The leading manufactures consist of wTought-iron and the articles made from it, of cast-iron and cast- iron articles, of pig-iron, and of cotton and woolen goods. 7. Agriculture. — The soil is productive, and great attention is given to tillage. The State ranks high in the production of grain and dairy-products and in the raising of live-stock. 8. Commercially Pennsylvania is the fourth State in the Union. 9. Philadelphia ranks next to New York City in population. It has a great domestic and coast trade, though in foreign com- merce it is the fifth city in the Union. In the value of its manu- factures it exceeds any other city in the United States. lOi Harrisburg, the capital, is a manufacturiag and conuuercial city. SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY FOR PENNSYLVANIA CLASSES. Peansylvania classes should now make a full study of the geography of their State, follow- ing the Outline on i)age 30. Refer to County map, page 38. Area, 45,215 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 4,282,801. Outline and Extent — In form this State is a parallelogram whose length is nearly twice its breadth. (Length, 310 miles ; width, 160 miles, except at the angle at Lake Erie, where it is 175 miles.) Its northern, western, and southern boundaries are straight lines. Surface. — The Appalachian system attains its greatest breadth in Pennsyl- vania. Its various parallel ridges (see map for the names) spread over about one fourth of the State, and occupy the southern, central, and eastern counties. These ridges seldom rise above 2,000 feet ; they are generally forest-clad, and are separated by valleys, some of which are quite narrow, while others have a width of from 15 to 20 miles. The southeastern part is a rolling country ; the western section consists of undulating table-lands, with a general slope toward the Ohio River basin. Rivers. — The principal rivers of the State are : — Karnes. Lengtli. Susqnehan'ua. UUet. 400 Jania'ta. 150 Delaware. 300 LeTiigh. 90 Sohaylkill. [■koollca] Ohio. HO Lrngthln 50 Alleghany. 800 Konongahola. 200 Source, Course, etc. BIst Branch in N. Y., West Branch in Penn. : flows in a winding course 8. into Chesapeake Bay. Rises in the Alleghanies, and flows E. into the Susquehanna. Rises in the Catskill Mts. ; flows S. into Delaware Bay. Rises in the anthracite coal-region ; flows S. E. and Joins the Delaware at Easton. Rises in the Bine Ridge, and flows S. E. into the Delaware at Fhila. Formed by the Alleghany and Monongahela; takes a N. W. sweep to the Ohio State border. Rises partly in Western N. T. and parUy in the Alleghanies within Penn. j flows 8. W. into the Ohio at Pittsburgh. Rises in the mountains of West ViTginU : flows N. Into the Ohio. Characteristics. In sise the principal river of the State, but too swift m ite current and too rapid in its fall to be of much advantage for navigation. Flows through the beautiftil Juniata val- ley. Forms the eastern boundary of Penn , and is navigable to Trenton, 78 miles. High way of transportation for coal and iron Channel of an immense trade in coal and iron. Important highway of comrannication, — furnishes the water for the city of Phil adelphia. The great highway between Pennsylvania and the Mississippi Valley. Northern and main eonatitnent of the Ohio.— navigable to Clean (N. T.), 260 miles. Bmnch of the Ohio,— navigable to Fair monnt, IM miles. 42 THE ATLANTIC STATES. Special Geography of Penn. continued.] Lakes. — Within Pennsylvania are no important lakes ; but Lake Erie, for about 50 miles, forms the northwestern boundary. Climate. — Pennsylvania has a climate intermediate between the extremes of the northern and southern sections of the country. The State, on the whole, is considered one of the most salubrious in the Union. Minerals. — In coal, the most useful mineral, and iron, the most useful metal, Pennsylvania is one of the richest regions in the world. The annual value of the products of the mines is nearly $ 100,000,000, or fully one half the total value of all the mining products in the United States, including gold and silver. THE ANTHRACITE COAL REQION OF PENNSYLVANIA. The coal is of two varieties, — anthracite and bituminous. The anthracite coal region is found chiefly in the east-central part of the State, east of the East Branch (Susquehanna), and west of the Lehigh River. It forms a long, irregular-shaped tract, 100 miles in length and 30 miles in width, divided into three fields, — the Southern, Middle, and Northern Fields. The principal towns that owe their growth to the anthracite coal interests are Pottsville, Tamaqua, Mauch [mouA:] Chunk, Wilkesbarre, Pittston, Scranton, and Carbondale. HAP. On the map of the Anthracite Coal Region, point to the Southern Held. In what county is it mainly? What are the principal places in it? Point to the Middle Field. In what three counties is it? What are the principal places in it? In what county is the Northern Field ? Name three important places in this Field. The bitvminous coal interest has its principal center at Pittsburgh, west of the Alleghany Eidge. In this part of the State the bituminous coal-field extends through 24 counties. Iron. — Almost every county in the State contains deposits of iron in one or other of its many forms. It exists in the greatest measure and in its most valuable ore in the bituminous coal region, especially in the neighborhood of Pittsburgh, where the mines have been worked to a vast extent for many years. Other Mining Products. — Petroleum, or coal-oil, is another of the valu- able products of the State. The Oil Region, in the northwestern section, sup- plies immense quantities of petroleum for export and for domestic use. Some of the towns engaged in the oil business are Titusville, Meadville, Oil City, Franklin, and Erie. Note. — Petroleum is an oil, dark colored, and thicker than common oils. The wells are sunk into the earth by drills in the same manner as artesian wells, and the oil rises to the surface. It now forms one of the important exports of the United States. Between 1860 and 1870 (inclu.sive) there were produced 36,000,000 barrels of petroleum, a large portion of which was sent abroad. Slate and marble are found in great abundance, and the working of the quar- ries is a very large and important business. Copper, zinc, plumbago, and lead are mined in considerable quantities. Salt-springs exist in several sections, and several million dollars' worth of salt are made annually. Medicinal springs, also, are numerous and valuable. Agriculture. — Agriculture is carried on with great skill. The best soils are in the limestone and river valleys. The staple farm products are wheat and corn ; but large quantities of buck- wheat, rye, hay, orchard fruits, and garden products are raised. In live-stock Pennsylvania ranks as the fourth State in the Union ; in the production of butter and cheese it ranks next to New York. Manufactures. — The various manufactures of Pennsylvania employ con- stantly from 300,000 to 400,000 hands. The value of articles yearly manufactured is over $ 700,000,000. Leading articles of manufacture are heavy iron machinery, railroad iron, sawed lumber, cotton and woolen goods, clothing, boots and shoes, paper, glass and glass-ware, carpets, perfumery, distilled spirits, etc. Commerce. — Though the State has no sea-coast, its noble river, the Dela- ware, gives it easy communication with the ocean, and aff'ords excellent harbors. The domestic commerce is very large, and for this it has great facilities in its shore "line on Lake Erie, in the Ohio River comiecting it with the Gulf of Mexico, and in an extensive system of internal improvements. Internal Improvements. — Pennsylvania, like New York, has an exten- sive system of railroads and canals. The Pennsylvania Central Railroad stretches across the State and has numerous branches and connections with all important points West, North, and South. A great number of railroads penetrate the coal and iron regions. The Delaware, Schuylkill, and Susquehanna rivers and their tributaries aff'ord water for an extensive system of canals which are used in transport- ing coal and iron, while in the western coal-field the Alleghany and Mononga- hela serve the same purpose. The State is traversed by about 4,000 miles of railroad and 1,000 miles of canal. Bducation. — William Penn, the illustrious founder of this State, said: " That which makes a good constitution must keep it, viz. men of wisdom and virtue, qualities which, because they descend not with worldly inheritances, must be carefully propagated by a virtuous education of youth." This wise injunction has resulted in a noble system of public schools, which are now attended by nearly a million of pupils. The higher education is cared for in a large number of colleges and univer- sities. Ten State normal schools are in operation, with an attendance of 3,000 students. There are also various theological, law, and medical schools. The State has provided homes, food, clothing, and instruction, at an ex- pense of $ 6,000,000 for 7,500 children orphaned and left destitute by the casualties of the late civil war. Political Divisions. — Pennsylvania is divided into 66 coimties, with many hundred cities, boroughs, and towns. In addition to the metropolis (Philadelphia) and the capital (Harrisburg), the most important places are : — Names. Pittsburgh. Advantages of Location. Situation at confluence of Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, forming the Ohio. Rich coal, iron, and oil region. Allegheny City. Proximity to Pittsburgh Scranton. Beading. Lancaster. Erie. Williamsport. Allentown. Pottsville. York. Easton, Altoona. Norristown. Wilkesbarre. Chester, On the Lackawan'na River, in the anthracite coal region. On the Schuylkill : center of a rich farming region. Center of a farming region S. E. of Harrisburg. On the southeast shore of Lake Erie, On the West Branch. On the Lehigh. In Southern anthracite coal-field. Railroad point south of Harrisburg. Confluence of Lehigh and Delaware rivers. East side of Alleghany Mts. (Is 1,200 feet above the sea-leveL) Proximity to Philadelphia. In the Northern coal-field. Near mouth of Delaware. Industries and Characteristics. Center of the bituminous coal interest. Most extensive iron-works, rolling- mills, founderies, machine-shops, and glass-works in the United States : these works, if arranged in a single row, would have a fh>ntage of 40 miles. Extensive iron, steel, brass, and glass works. Large coal-trade. Large coal and iron business. Iron-works. General trade. Manufacturing and agricultural trade. Lake trade. Varied manufactures. Manufacture and sale of lumber. Trade. Extensive iron-works, furnaces, foun- deries, rolling-mills, spike-works ; tanneries, woolen-mUls, etc. Coal-mining. Manufacture of cars, castings, and paper. Coal, iron, and lumber trade ; flouring- mills, iron-works, etc. Building of cars and locomotives. Manufacturing. Extensive coal-trade. Building of iron ships, cotton and woolen mills, print-works, and rolling-mills. NEW JERSEY AND DELAWAER 43 NEW JERSEY. THE QAROEN STATE. L Physical Features. — The southern half belongs to the Atlan- tic Plain ; the northern section is hilly or mountainous. The long line of sea-coast south of Sandy Hook is hemmed in by a chain of low sand-islands ; hence the State possesses few good harbors, but it has a water-front on New York Bay. 2. The leading industries are agriculture, market-gardening, and manufacturing, which are carried on with great skill and success. Mining is also an important industry. 3. Cities. — Newark, the largest city in the State, is extensively engaged in the manufacture of india-rubber and leather goods, clothing, jewelry, and many other articles. Trenton, the capital, at the head of steamboat navigation on the Delaware, has great iron-works, rolling-mills, porcelain-ldlns, etc. SPECIAL GEOORAFHT FOR NEW JISRSET CLASSES. ly New Jetsey classes should now make a full study of the geography of their State, following the Outline on page 30. Refer to tlie County map, page S8. Area, 7,815 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 1,131,116. Outline and Extent — The winding course of the Delaware, which forms the boundary of New Jersey on the west, and the inbreakings of the ocean on the east, give the State an irregukr outline. Its greatest length from north to south is about 167 miles ; its greatest width is 70 miles. Surface^. — The northwestern part of the State is traversed by the Blue Mountaiia, a ridge of the Appalachian system, which enter New Jersey from Peimsylvania. Other local ridges nearly parallel with the Blue Mountains extend through the northern part. Along the Hudson River for 20 miles is a precipitous and picturesque wall of rocks known as the Palisades. The southeastern half of the State belongs to the Atlantic Plain. Coast. — From the lev, projecting sand-bank called Sandy Hook, opposite the Narrows, to the similarly formed point of Cape May, the whole eastern coast consists of a long line of sandy beaches, here and there interrupted by inlets, and enclosing narrow, shallow lagoons, lichiud which extends for several miles inland a low, marshy tract. Good harbors are few ; still, Rar'itan Bay, south of Staten Island (N. Y.), affords ready communication from Perth Amboy to the ocean ; and Newark Bay, north of Staten Island, has navigable communications with New York Buy and Karitan Bay, through the narrow strait called the " Kills," and through Staten Island Sound. (See map of New York and Vicinity, page 31.) Rivers. — All the rivers of the State belong to the Atlantic system ; and, with the exception of the Hudson and Delaware, which are boundary rivers, most or the streams are, from the confonnation of the country, short. The most important rivers are the Passaic [pas-sa'ii] arid Hack'ensack, enter- ing into Newark Bay ; Raritan River, draining the northern and central parts, and flowing into the bay of the same name ; Maurice River in the south, discharging itself into Delaware Bay ; and Great Egg Harbor and Little Egg Harbor rivers, flowing into the Atlantic Ocean. Minerals. — The mineral resources of the State are very valuable. The most important minerals are marl, iron, and zinc. The marl is found in extensive beds in many parts of the State. Spread on the sandy soil it renders it exceedingly productive, and its use has workein-itini per year. The zinc-mines of Sussex are among the most valuable in the world. Agriculture. — New Jersey is known as the " Garden State," because it makes a marked sijecialty of growing fruits and vegetables. Skillful husbandry raises from the thousands of gardens and farms immense quantities of garden- vegetables, sweet- potatoes, melons, berries, jx^aches, etc., which are shipped by railroad to supply the great markets of New York City and Philmlelphia. Manufactures. — Lying lietween the coal-fields of Pennsylvania and the gieat city of New York, the State has easy access both to the power that drives its machinery and to the market where its manufactures are sold. In the manufacture of hardware this State ranks next to Pennsylvania and New York. Locomotives used in all parts of the country are largely made. Other manufactures are leather and india-rubber goods, cotton and woolen goo Fetersborg. Alexandria. Lynchburg. Staonton. Winchester. Danville. Manchester. Advantages of Location. Mouth of Elizabeth River. Head of tide-water on the Appo- mattox. On the Potomac, near Washington. On James River and James River and Kanawha CanaL Salubrious climate. In the Shenandoah Valley. In the Shenandoah Valley. On Dan River. Water-power. On the James, opposite Richmond. Industries and Characteristics. Largo export trade. Oyatering. United States Navy- Yard. Tobacco and cotton factories, manufacture of pai>er, flour, soap, iron, etc Trade by river, canal, and railroad. Great manufacture of alt kinds of prepared tobacco. Miscellaneous manufacturing. Fine educational facilities. Imiwrtant trading-point Seat of Lunatic Asylum and Institution for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind. Trading-point of a rich fanning region. Center of finest tobacco region in the world. Tobacco trade and manufacture. Manufacture of tobacco, cotton, paper, iron. WEST VIRGINIA. L History. — West Virginia formed a part of the State of Vir- ginia until 18G2, when it was organized as a separate State. 2. Physical Feattires, — In surface West Virginia is a mountain- ous State. The eastern part is crossed by several parallel ridges of the Alleghanies, and its western part is a hilly table-land with fer- tile river-bottoms, sloping toward the Ohio River. Scenery. — This State abounds with magnificent mountain scenery. Among the special points of uoto is Harper's Ferry, where the Potomac breaks through the Blue Ridge, forming .stupendous walls of rock on either hand. 3. Resources. — This State has rich deposits of coal and iron, and numerous oil-wells and salt-springs. The mountain pastures are admirably adapted to stock-raising, and the rich river-bottoms yield corn, tobacco, and garden products. 4. The leading industries are mining and agriculture. The com- merce of the State is largely by way of the Mississippi Valley. 5. Cities. — Whkeling, on the Ohio, is the chief business city ; it contains numerous iron-works ami manufactories. Charleston, the capital, on the Kiinawha, is noted for its salt-works. K^ West Virginia classes may make a detailed study of the geography of their State by following the Outline on page 30. HARPtn-a rumv. 46 THE ATLANTIC STATES. NORTH CAROLINA L Physical Features. — The ' greater part of North Carolina belongs to the Atlantic Plain. The State may be divided into three regions : (1) the low, sandy, or swampy coast region ; (2) the " Pine Barrens "; (3) the foot-hill and mountain region. 2. Industries. — Agriculture is the leading industry ; the chief products are sweet -potatoes, corn, cotton, and tobacco. In the production of tar, pitch, turpen- tine, and rosin this is the leading State. 3. Cities. — Wilmington is the chief port. Ealeigh is the capital. OFF HATTEHA8, — TURPENTINE PINES. SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY FOR NORTH CAROLINA CLASSES. 1^" North Carolina classes s^'C'iId now make a full study of the geography of their Stat«, follow- ing Li', Outline on page 30. See map, page 31. Area, 52,250 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 1,399,750. Outline and Extent. — In outline this State is irregular, having its great- est extent from east to west, and being broadest near the center. Its greatest length is 450 miles ; its greatest breadth 180 miles. Coast. — The coast is low and fringed by long sandy spits and islands, while sand-bars obstruct the mouths of the rivers, thus rendering navigation difficult. Two great inbreakings of the sea form Albemarle Sound and Pam- lico Sound. The most easterly cape is Hatteras, off which are great storms. Surface. — The ranges of the Appalachian system are so far to the west that the State may be said to belong to the Atlantic Plain ; but this pre- sents in its various parts very different characteristics. The marshy coast region extends about 60 mUes inland ; then come the " Pine Barrens," having a breadth of about 50 miles ; while westward to the base of the Blue Ridge is the upland district. The mountain region of the west is a wild and precipi- tous country crossed by the Blue Ridge, the Alleghany Mountains, and the Black Mountains (Mount Mitchell, 6,476 feet high). River System. — The principal watershed of this State is formed by the Blue Ridge, and the chief rivers are the Chowan, Roanoke, Tar, Neuse, Cape Fear, and Yadkin, a tributary of the Great Pedee, and the Catawba, the name given to the upper course of the Wateree. The various streams in the west- ern mountain section flow westward and form a part of the Mississippi system. Forest Products. — The products of the pine, namely, pitch, tar, turpen- tine, and ro.sin, are the characteristic exports. The annual value of these products is two and a half million dollars, — about three times the yield of these articles in all the rest of the United States. Farm Products. — The leading crops are those of tobacco, cotton, com, rice, sweet-potatoes, and peanuts. To'wns. — • In addition to Wilmington and Raleigh are the following cities : New Berne, with saw-mills and turpentine distilleries ; Fayetteville, a flour- ishing trading-point ; and Charlotte, the leading city of the southwestern part. The places next in size are Beaufort, Washington, Asheville, Tarboro, Edenton, Kinston, Plymouth, Goldsboro, Elizabeth City, Wilson, and Oxford. SOUTH CAROLINA. -7f:l{-yr. L The natural divisions of South Carolina, or the " Pal- metto State," are: the low- lands along the sea-coast; the pine region, or "Mid- dle Country," and westward of this the "Ridge," where the surface rises by a steep and sudden elevation. 2. The leading industry is agriculture. The chief exports are cotton and rice ; and in the production of the latter article South Carolina is the leading State. 3. Cities. — Charleston, the largest city, is engaged in manufac- turing and commerce. Columbia is the capital RICE PLANTATION. SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY FOR SOUTH CAROLINA CLASSES. f^' South Carolina classes should now make a full study of the geography of their State, follow- ing the Outline on page 30. See map, page 31. Area, 30,570 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 995,677. Outline and Extent. — In outline this State is irregularly triangular. Its breadth north and south on the meridian of Savannah is about 200 miles, and its greatest length about 300 miles. It has above 200 miles of seaboard. Coast and Harbors. — Its coast presents in a marked manner the features of the South Atlantic seaboard States ; namely, shoals and sand-bars, shallow sounds, low islands, cypress-swamps, and open marshes. River System. — All its rivers belong to the Atlantic system, and flow in a southerly direction into the Atlantic Ocean. Climate. — South Carolina is in the warm-temperate zone, and its semi- tropical character is shown in the growth of the palmetto and magnolia, the orange, lemon, and fig. Agriculture. — The chief agricultural products are cotton and rice. Cotton. — The two kinds of cotton grown in this State are the long, or Sea Island cotton, and the short, or upland cotton. The Sea Island cotton is of the finest quality, and is distinguished by its long, silky fiber. Rice. — Rice is more extensively produced here than in any other State. South Carolina was the first place on the American continent where this cereal was culti- vated. The seed was introduced from Madagascar. Inhabitants. — The last census gives 399,105 whites and 604,332 colored. To^ns. — In addition to Charleston and Columbia the following are the leading places : Greenville, a charming place of summer resort ; Graniteville, which has extensive cotton-mills ; Georgetown, which has saw-mills, turpentine- works, and local trade ; and Newberry, which has extensive granite-quarries. The places next in size are Beaufort, Pickensville, Winnsborough, Spartanbui^, Camden, Hamburg, Sumter, Anderson, Marion, Pendleton, and Cheraw. GEORGIA AND FLORIDA. — REVIEW. 47 GEORGIA. 1. Its Rank. — Georgia is the most enterprising and flourishing of the Southern States. 2. Physical Features. — The surface is low and level along the coast, hilly in the middle, and mountainous in the north. 3. The leading industries are (1) agriculture, the chief products being corn, rice, cotton, and sweet-potatoes ; and (2) manufacturing, for which Georgia has fine facilities, and in which it surpasses any other Southern State. 4. Cities. — Savannah is an important city and seaport ; it ships cotton, rice, and lumber. Atlanta, the capital, is an important railroad point, and has iron-works and machine-shops. BPECIAIi OEOORAPHT FOR GEORGIA CI.ASSES. 17* GeoigU classes should now make a full study of the geography of their State, foUowisg the Outline ou page 30. Area, 50,475 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 1,542,180. Outline and X!ztent. — Georgia is irregular in form. It has an extreme length north and south of 320 tnile.<(, and an extreme breadth east and west of 251 miles. Surface. — In Georgia, the Appalachian system begins to decline into broken ridges, forming in the northern part wild and picturestjue scenery. The character of the coast is similar to that of the Carolinas, but the coast-line is short compared with the extent of the State. Okeefino'kee Swamp is, next to the Everglades of Florida and the Dismal Swamp, the most extensive morass in the United States. River System. — The rivers of the State belong either to the Atlantic system or to the Gulf system. The principal rivers of the Atlantic system are the Savannah, the Ogee'chee, the Altamaha', with its branches, and the Saltil'la ; those of the Gulf system are the various branches of the Suwa'nee, the Ocloconee, the Chattahoo'chee and its tributary the Flint River, and the Et'owah and Oostanaula, forming the Coosl. Agriculture. — In the production of cotton Georgia ranks second only to Mississippi, the crop amounting to over 800,000 bales annually. In rice- growing it is second only to South Carolina, and in the production of sweet- potatoes is second only to North Carolina. The uplands produce wheat, rye, hay, and Irish potatoes. Minerals. — Gold, iron, coal, marble, and slate abound in the State. Manufactures. — The value of the manufactured articles, chiefly of cotton and iron, uf this State amoiuits to over $30,000,000 annually. Education. — AU the leading cities of Georgia have excellent public schools, and great interest in education is manifestetl throughout the State. History. — Georgia was settled by General James Oglethorpe, who came from England, and landed near Savannah. It was one of the original thirteen colonies. Cities. — In addition to Savannah and Atlanta there are six cities : Au- gusta, noted for its extensive cotton-trade and its cotton-mills ; Macon, noted for its cotton-trade and superior educational advantages ; Columbus, which has the finest cotton and woolen mills in the South ; Athens, the seat of the State University ; Milledgeville, the former capital ; and itome, noted for its founderies and fine water-works. FLORIDA. L Physical Features. — Florida is a long peninsula with a gen- erally level surface. The southern section is a continuous morass, and the everglades are extensive swamp-lands overgrown with cypress and water-oaks. The climate is semi-tropical. Note. — Florida is a coral formation covered with soil and vegetation. The Florida Keys are a number of low coral islands 0? the southern point of the pen- insula, noted for the great number of vessels wrecked there. 2. Eesources. — The hot, moist climate admirably adapts this State for the culture of cotton, sugar, and rice, as well as oranges, lemons, and other tropical fruits. Other valuable exports are cedar, live-oak, and sponge. 3. Places. — Key West and Jacksonville are the largest cities ; Tallahassee is the capital. The first named city, on the island of Key West, is strongly fortified, and is a United States naval station. Note. — Pensacola and Appalachicola are the chief ports on the Gulf ; Si. Augustine is a lavorite resort fur invalids. TOPICAL REVIEW OF THE ATLANTIC SEABOARD STATES. State*. Area. Population. Census of 1880. Capitals. Chief Citjr, and Fop. (in round numben)by Census of ISKO. Industrial Pnisuits. ' Maine. aq. miles. 88,040 648,986 Augusta. Portland (34,000). Lumbering, ship-building, manufacturing, fisheries. Kew Hampshire. 9,305 846,991 Concord. Manchester (32,700). Manufacturing, agriculture, dairying. Vermont. 9,665 832,286 Montpelier. Burlington (11,400). Dairying, agriculture, pasturage, marble-quarrying. NEW EN3IiAND.. J Massaoliasettt. 8,815 1,783,085 Boston. Boston (868,000). Manufacturing, fisheries, commerce, ship-building. Bhode Island. 1,250 276,581 /Providence. \ iNewport / Providence (106,000). Manufacturing, especially cottons and woolens. L Conneoticnt. 4,990 622,700 Hartford. New Haven (63,000). Varied manufacturing, agriculture. r Kew York. 49,170 6,082,871 Albany. New York (1,200,000). Agriculture, manufacturing, commerce. New Jersey. 7,815 1,131,116 Trenton. Newark (186,000). Manufacturing, agriculture, mining, horticidture. MIDDLB STATES.. J Pennsylvania. 45,215 4,282.891 Harrisburg. Philadelphia (847,000). Mining, manufacturing, agriculture, commerce. Delaware. 2,060 146,608 Dover. Wilmington (42,000). Manufacturing, horticulture. . Karyland. 12,210 934,943 Annapolis. Baltimore (882,000). Mining, agriculture, manufacturing, fisheries, coin- Diitriot of Colombia. 70 177,624 Washington. r Virginia. 42,450 1,612,666 Richmond. Richmond (64,000). Raising tobacco and grain, mining, fisheries West Virginia. 24,780 618,457 Charleston. Wheeling (81,000). Mining, pasturage, agriculture. SOUTU AlLAflTlU STATES Korth Carolina. 62,250 1,399,780 Raleigh. Wilmington (17,400). Agriculture, manufactures of pitch, tar, etc Boatb Carolina. 80,670 996,677 Columbia. Charleston (50,000). Agriculture, commerce. Georgia. 69,475 1,642,180 AtlanU. Atlanta (85,000). Raising cotton and rice, manufacturing, commerce. . Tloridm. 68,680 269,498 Tallahassee. Key West (10,000). Raising cotton and semi-tropical fruits. 48 93 i; iM'ui Time A.M. 6'" when Noon on the G- Zniiffitmle 89 }¥eiit from S7 GreeniDlch :^rf?-i'li'^X^\L, <;'-;dy ?^>'Sa»fc'„-"r---r>i T )H V- '^'(Batesyina < • ^ri \JJJ> j^ bW^^ (Grenada ''7"// 'r. ., . -^— ^— ——SA^ ""3J^aT ^ -.,1 1 '.ill,, rs,;n,. N — ^^""^ S!J_J — r^^r^K./ ar^on Houston •PikevUle ibus\| <- <:*lJTuSCftl008J 'ad8a>'>«f^ %f \>Wisliington\v X > _ 1_ r^nge "WeaWou* ^^x_JJaC0ll OpellKaiJ (Butler, \ ^^^^^ DublH mien " Cftm^en Br«i>ch»nle Charl^stoj) 'rooTtlaviu ]>, (^"mcJi^Bterl jn^;^^^ ork <■ iJefflSpSl Qj'r^tCabawljj elma Quloaau M D-fi^ Hay ifumbus uskegepjr Ogluionx! I [Dderion" JJaany" »J St.A ^J.Cl»ibo Jree^vjDe Sfroy/clayton?J^r7T„„. Vtbsny lj«Irwto»iu. borj M^biiV intoh »i. f£ I iT • rrrnii nil, ,1 1 , s nroj, 'J* \r^iS^ __^^- 1 » _;ii Mn '^ v>^\° -.S-- HaWki^iSno °*J Mt.-Vemon ^iHeiasvmo Savani X&atOa 'si.siMOM I. rfunlicegoiU t|S j8ckfo(iyiljj Ferniniina lolai/'lTAl/LAHASEEE /-^XivejOaT oTiswe Baldwin ^1 SOUTH CENTRAL STATES. 49 SOUTH CENTRAL STATES, m^^^ MMV HIS section consists mainly of the southern part of the Mississippi Valley and the low plains border- ing on the Gulf of Mexico, into which most of the rivers flow. 2. The States. — The South Central States are Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Note. — Florida, though it has a great extent of coast on the Gulf of Mexico, has been included among the Atlantic States. Texas, though in \ait a South Central State, is, for convenience of mapping, in- cluded among the "States of the Plains." 3. Surface. — The Appalachian Mountain system is continued intfl the northeastern part of this section, and the western part, in Arkansas, has various detached ridges, as Pea Ridge, Boston Mountains, etc. : with these exceptions the surface is generally level. 4. Coast — The coast on the Gulf of Mexico, like that of the South Atlantic States, is bordered by low sandy islands, between which and the mainland are inlets or lagoons. The river-mouths are mostly obstmcted by sand-bars, so that good harbors are few. 6. Elver System. — The drainage of this section is mainly through the mighty Mississippi. It is here a broad, slow-moving stream, and discharges itself into the Gulf by various channels. The alluvial deposits brought down by the Mississippi have formed the Delta, which occupies a large part of the State of Louisiana. The principal tributaries which the Mississippi here receives are the Yazoo and Big Black from the east, and the Wliite, Arkansas, and Red Rivers from the west. In Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana are a few streams forming a Gulf system, independent of the Mississippi system. > 6. Climate and Vegetation. — The northern part has a warm-tem- perate climate, and the States bordering the Gulf of Mexico have a semi-tropical climate. Abundant rains fall Magnolias and the cypress with pendent moss characterize the coast-belt ; farther in- land is the zone of the pine; this is succeeded by forests of oak and the deciduous trees. 7. Besources. — The soil is admirably adapted for the growth of cotton and the cereals, and in the southern part, of sugar and semi- tropical fruits. The forests supply ship-timber and naval stores. Goal and iron, copper and zinc, salt, marble, and gypsum, are among the mineral riches of this section. 8. Industries. — The fertile soil, abundant moisture, and warm temperature of this section give rise to its great industry, agricul- ture. The three leading staples grown are cotton, rice, and the sugar-cane. Mining and manufacturing, though secondary indus- tries, are being rapidly developed. The labor is largely carried on by the colored people, who number about three millions. 9. Commerce. — These States have a large domestic trade, while the Mississijjpi River and the railroad connections with the At- lantic seaboard are the channels of an extensive foreign commerce. The chief exports are cotton, rice, sugar, lumber, and naval stores. D£LTA OF TH£ MISSISSIPPI. MAP STUDIES ON THE SOUTH CENTRAL STATES. Position. — 1. rietween what parallels are the northern boundaries of Tennessee and Arkansas ? 2. What parallel at the mouth of the Mississippi ? 3. What States north of this section ? 4. What gulf south ? 6. What three States lie between this section and the Atlantic Ocean ? 6. What State and Territory on the west ? Surface. — 1. Into what States does the southern extremity of the Appalachian Mountain system extend ? 2. What mountains in Arkansas ? 3. Which part of Tennessee is mountainous ? 4. In which two States are there no mountains ? 5. Which State has numerous lakes ? 6. Where is Lake Pontchartrain ? Coast — 1. What three States of this section border on the Gulf of Mexico ? 2. What is the nature of the coast ? 3. Locate Chandeleur Islands. 4. What four principal bays on the Qulf of Mexico ? 6. What ocean current flows eastward through Florida Strait ? An». The Gulf Stream. Rivers. — 1. What great river in this section ? 2. What are the principal trib- utaries which the Mississippi receives from the east ? — from the west ? 3. Which four of the States in this section border on the Mississippi ? 4. What is the nature of the coast t 5. Describe the course of the Suwanee ; — the Chattahoochee ; — the Elscambia ; -- the Alabama ; — the Tombigby ; — the Pearl ; — the Sabine. Cities. — L What is the direction of New Orleans from Cincinnati ? 2. What is the direction of Mobile from Charleston ? 3. What two Qulf States have their capitals in the same latitude? 4. What large Atlantic city is in nearly the same latitude as Montgomery and Jackson ? 6. How would steamers laden with cotton go from Nashville to New Orleans ? — from Little Rock to New Orleans ? Thr Statks. — (To be taken in connection with the text on each State.) I. Alabama. — L What abbreviation is nsed I Ans. Ala. 2. Bound Alabama. 3. Which part is hilly ? 4. Into what body of water do most of its rivers flow? 5. What river traverses the northern part ? 6. What is the capital of Alabama ! 7. What is its principal seaport ? IL Mississippi. — 1. What abbreviation is used ? Ans. Miss. 2. Bound Mis- sissippi. 3. What great river on the west ? 4. What two States on the opposite bank of the- Mississippi ? 5. Name the two principal tributaries of the Mississippi in this State. 6. Wliat two rivers flow into Mississippi Sound ? 7. In what part of the State is the capital ? 8. Locate Natchez ; — Corinth ; — Vicksburg. in. IfOulsiana. — 1. What abbreviation is used ? Aits. La. 2. Bound Louisi- ana. 3. What great river fonns a partial eastern boundary ? 4. Which part of the State extends to the east of the Mississippi ? 5. Wliere is I^ake Pontchartrain ! — Grand Lake ? 6. Name the three principal jiasses at the mouth of the Missis- sippi. 7. AVhere is New Orleans ? 8. WTiat city on the upper course of the Red River ? 9. Locate Port Hudson ; — Baton Rouge ; — Alexandria. rV. Arkansas. — 1. What abbreviation is used ? Ans. Ark. 2. Bound Arkan- sas. 3. Which part of the State is mountainous ? 4. Name the three chief tribu- taries of the Mississippi in the State. 6. On what river is the capital I 6. Locate Helena ; — Arkansas Post. V. Tennessee. — 1. What abbreviation is used ? Ant. Tenn. 2. Bound Ten- nessee. 3. What great river forms its western boundary f 4. Describe the ooune of the Cumberland ; — of the Tennessee. 6. What two mountain-ranges in the eastern part? 6. They belong to what mountain system? 7. Where is Nash- ville, the capital ? 8. Locate Memphis ; — Chattanooga ; — Knoxville. 50 THE GULF STATES. ALABAMA. COTTON 8HIPPINQ. L Physical Features. — Alabama is generally level except in the northern part, which is broken or mountainous. 2. Industries. — Cotton is the great staple, and Alabama ranks as one of four leading cotton-growing States. The cotton manu- facture is carried on to a considerable extent. 3. Cities. — Mobile, the largest city, is one of the most impor- tant ports on the Gulf of Mexico. Montgomery, the capital, in the central part, is a flourishing commercial and railroad city. MISSISSIPPI, OOTTON PICKINQ. 1. Physical Features. — The surface of this State is generally level, and much of the south and west is low. Along the Missis- sippi and Yazoo rivers the bottom-lands are subject to overflow, and the rich cotton plantations are protected by levees. 2. Industries. • — ■ The leading industry is the culture of cotton, in which Mississippi ranks as the foremost State. Great quanti- ties of com and sweet-potatoes are also raised. 3. Cities. — Vicksburg and Natchez are the principal shipping points on the Mississippi River, and have a large trade in cotton. Jackson, the capital, is a small city on thfe Pearl River. SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY' FOR ALABAMA CLASSES. ^^■" Alabama classes should now make a full study of the geography of their State^ following the Outline on page 30. Area, 52,250 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 1,262,505. Divisions. — The State may be divided into five regions : (1) the timber region ; (2) the cotton region ; (3) the agricultural and manufacturing region ; (4) the mineral region ; (5) the stock and agricultural region. The timber region extends across the southern portion of the State, 40 miles north of the Florida line. This section is covered with forests of yellow-pine which yields excellent timber. Tar, pitch, and turpentine are largely made. The cotton region joins the timber region on the north ; it has a width of about 100 miles on the western line of the State, and 60 miles on the eastern. The agricultural and manufacturing region is north of the cotton region, and extends across the State with a width of about 35 miles. The streams here afford excellent water-power. The mineral region occupies the northeastern comer of the State, extending southwest about 160 miles with an average width of about 80 miles. This district abounds in coal, iron, plumbago, marble, limestone, granite, etc. The stock and agricultural region occupies the northwestern part. Industries. — Agriculture forms the principal occupation of the people. The chief productions are cotton and Indian com ; other grains and the sugar- cane, rice and tobacco, are also produced. The mining interest is attracting increased attention, and the large deposits of coal and iron must become a great source of wealth to the State. The Tiwst important manufactures are those of cotton and cotton goods, thread and yam, iron, leather, and lumber. Cities. — Selma has a large river and railroad trade. Himtsville is noted for its fine climate and educational facilities. Opel'ika is an important railroad point. Eufau'la is an active commercial city. Birmingham has extensive iron-works. Tuscaloosa is the seat of the State University, Auburn of the State Agricultural College, and Greensboro of the Southern University. El^~ Locate and tell something about the following places : — Marion. Tallade'ga. Tuskegee'. Greensboro. Florence. Wetnmp'ka. Greenville. Demop'oHs. Union Springs. Prattville. Tuscumbia. Grantville. La Fayette. Troy. Jacksonville. Deca'tur. Uniontown. SPECIAL OEOGRAPHT FOR MISSISSIPPI CLASSES. 53** Mississippi classes should now make a full study of the geography of their State, following the Outline on page 30. Area, 46,810 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 1,131,597. Outline. — In fonn Mississippi is oblong, having its length from north to south about twice its width. Like Alabama, it has a narrow strip of land souT:h of the main body of the State and extending to the Gulf of Mexico. Surface. — In its greater part the surface is level, though the central and northern portions are undulating and covered with occasional bluffs and ranges of hills. The valleys of the northern and central section are exceedingly fer- tile, and the region between the Mississippi and the Yazoo is the most produc- tive in the State. The southern part, generally for about 1(X) miles from the Gulf, is mostly a sandy, level country, covered with pine forest, interspersed with cypress-swamps, prairies, and marshes. River System. — The chief river, the Mississippi, washes the whole west- ern border of the State, for a distance, by its circuitous course, of 530 miles, but in a straight line of not half that distance. The chief tributaries of the great river in this State are tlie Yazoo, which flows into the Mississippi 12 miles above Vicksburg, and the Big Black (200 miles long), which is navi- gated by steamboats for 50 miles. The other rivers flow southward directly into the Gulf of Mexico. Products. — Mississippi is almost exclusively an agricultural State. The leading crop, cotton, amount.'! tu about a million of bales annually. Horses, mules, swine, and cattle are extensively raised. Commerce. — The natural outlets of the commercial products of this State are New Orleans and Mobile, with which it communicates by river and rail. Cities. — In addition to the cities mentioned in the main text the following are the largest places : — Columbus, the chief business of which is shipping cotton to Mobile ; Meridian, a railroad center ; Oxford, the seat of the State University ; Holly Springs, which is noted for its superior educational insti- tutions ; and East Pascagoula, which has a large trade in lumber. tSff^ Locate and tell something about the following towns : — Aberdeen. West Point. Pass Christian. Macon. Grena'da. Mississippi City. Corinth. Water Valley. Okolo'na. Pascagoula. LOUISIANA AND ARKANSAS. 51 LOUISIANA. L Its Bank. — Lou- is iaua ranks as one of the most important ... _ .:.IAT1QN, States, not only on ac- count of its staple products, but commercially, as holding the out- let of the Mississippi Valley. 2. Physical Features. — The surface is low, generally level, and in many places swampy ; along the banks of the Mississippi and Red rivers the plantations are protected from inundation by em- bankments, or levees. 3. The leading industries are agriculture and commerce. Agriculture. — The staple products are the sugar-cane, cotton, and rice. The State produces nine tenths of all the sugar raised in the United States, and great crops of cotton and rice. Commerce. — The commercial facilities of the State arise from its situa- tion at the lower extremity of the Mississippi Valley, on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. This gives it the control both of the foreign and the domestic trade of this rich section. 4. Cities. — New Orleans is the largest city and the greatest cotton-market in the Gulf States. Baton Eouge is the capital. SFECIAIi OEOORAFH7 FOR LOUISIANA CI.ASSES. 17* Loulniaua cksaes should DOW make a full study of the geography uf their State, following the Outline on page 30. Area, 48,720 sauare miles. Population (census of 1880), 039.046. Outline and Extent — Louisiana has an irregular outline. Its greatest length eiist and west is about 300 miles ; its greatest width north and south, 240 miles. Sea-coaat. — Louisiana has a coast-line of 1,256 miles on the Gulf. Surface. — The surface of Louisiana is low and generally level. The en- tire Delta of the Mississippi, comprising one fourth of the area of the State, is seldom elevated more than ten feet above the level of the sea, and is liable to frequent inundations from freshets in the rivers. A great part of the Delta is composed of sea-marsh, which is subject to overflow by high tides. North of the Delta are vast level prairies, which are slightly elevated above the marsh-lands. The western margin of the Lower Mississippi is also a low country, intersected by many small rivers and bayous, and liable to overflow. In the west and north is an extensive region comprising one half the State, which is somewhat broken, but which nowhere exceeds 200 feet in elevation. Levees. — Below Bato.. Rouge, on both banKs, and on the west bank throughout the State, the .vmtry requires to be protected by levees. Occasion- ally they give way, causing great damage by the overflow. An example of this occurreinj;, Kentucky is united with this group. The Upper Mississippi States are : Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri. 2. Situation. — This section lies in the same latitude as the New England and Middle States, its northern part in Minnesota (49th parallel) e.xtending somewhat farther north than Maine, and its most southern part (the southern boundary of Missouri and Kentucky) being on the same parallel as the southern boundary of Virginia. 3. Size. — The North Central States include about one seventh of the area and one third of the population of our country. 4. The surface as a whole is but little elevated above the sea, and is either level or undulating ; still, the section presents certain mountains, plateaus, and slopes. 5. Mountains. — The Cumberland Mountains, the most western range of the Appalachian Mountain system, form the boundary between Virginia and Kentucky. The Height of Zand, which forms the watershed between the Mississippi Basin and the northern slope of the Central Plain of North America, traverses Northern Minnesota. The highlands of Northern Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan are an extension of the Height of Land. The Ozark Mountains, consisting of groups and knobs of high- lands rather than mountains, occupy Southern Missouri 6. Plateaus and Slopes. — The western slope and foothill region of the Appalachian Mountain system form a plateau, or tsible-land, of moderate elevation, extending through Eastern Kentucky, nearly the whole of Ohio, and the southeastern part of Indiana. The general slope is toward the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. The plateau region of Northern Wisconsin and the Upper Pen- insula of Michigan has a slope toward the south and east. The States bordering the Mississippi slope toward that river, and have also a general slope toward the Gulf of Mexico. 7. Lakes. — Four of the five Great Lakes, namely, Erie, Huron, Michigan, and Superior, are situated in the northern part of this section. Note. — Lake Snperior is six hundred feet above the sea-level, and has an area of thirty-two thousand square miles, — a surface equal to that of the whole of the State of Maine or the island of Ireland. I,ake Michigan, about fifty feet lower than Ijike Superior, is three fourths as large. Lake Huron is two thirds as large as Lake Superior. Lake Erie is ono third as large as Lake Superior, and is very shallow, Lieing less than one hundred feet deep. 8. Rivers. — The principal rivers of this section belong to the Mississippi system. The Mississippi proper rises in Lake Itasca in Minnesota. This lake is 1,575 feet above the sea-level. The great river has uninterrupted navigation from the Falls of St. Anthony through this entire section, and southward to the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of 3,136 miles. Chief Tributaries. — Two of the tributaries of the Mississippi are of such length and volume as to deserve the name of constituents rather than tribu- taries. These are : 1. The Missouri, which receives numerous affluents, has a length of 3,000 miles, and is navigable to the base of the Rocky Mountains. 2. The Ohio, which is navigable to Pittsburgh, a distance of nearly 1,000 miles. Several rivers of this section belong to the basin of the St. Lawrence and Great Lakes. They are comparatively short, and are valuable rather for mill-uses than for navigation. 9. Resourcea — This favored region is rich in natural advan- tages. The chief of these are a generally fertile soil, great deposits of the most valuable minerals, extensive forests, and ready means of commercial communication. Soil. — The broad and fertile prairies, admirably adapted both for tillage and grazing, form the granary of our country. Minerals. — Coal is very widely distributed throughout this section, and is in inexhaustible quantities. Iron is extensively found, especially in Missouri and Michigan. The Lake Superior copper-mines are the richest in the world. Most of the lead produced in the United States is obtained from the lead- mines of Iowa, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Missouri. Forests. — This section is well timbered ; the northern States contain great forests of white-pine ; the hanl wooenslon bridges. Center of tlie "Blue Grass" re- gion. Confluence of the Tennessee with the Ohio. On the Ohio River. On the Ohio Blver. Iron-works. Hanubcture of cotton and hemp. Great pork and l>eef packing establishments. The most important inland city. Manufacture of bagging, rope, etc Chief mart for trade of the western section. Center of large local tradr Manufacture of bagging, rope, and agricultuAl implements. Manufacture of prepared tobacco, wagons, car- riages, cars, whiskey, etc. Large local trade. Kf Locate and state something about the following additional place* : - Owensboro. HopldiuvlUe. Paris. Franklin. Hanodsborg. BoonaaboroQgh. 56 THE NORTH CENTEAL STATES. OHIO. 1. Its Rank. — Ohio is one of the wealthiest and most progres- sive of the North Central States, and ranks in population as the third State in the Union. 2. Physical Features. — The State as a whole forms a part of the western slope of the AUeghanies, and hence has a surface more elevated than that of the prairie States to the west. It has direct water communication with the Atlantic Ocean by means of Lake Erie on its northern border, and with the Gulf of Mexico by the Ohio Eiver, which flows along the southeastern and southern border. 3. Resources. — The natural wealth of the State is very great, comprising vast deposits of coal and iron, extensive forests, a tile soil, and the finest means of commercial communication. fer- 4. The leading industries are (1) agriculture, comprising the culti- vation of the principal food-crops, with wool, flax, and tobacco, and also the raising of horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs ; (2) coal and iron mining, carried on in the eastern and southern parts, along the Ohio Eiver; and (3) manu- facturing, of which the most important products are agricul- tural implements, flour, furniture, sawed lumber, whiskey, leather, and iron-work. 5. Cities.- — Cincinnati, the me- tropolis, a great manufacturing and commercial point on the Ohio Eiver, is one of the most beauti- ful and prosperous interior cities in the Union. Columbus, the capital, is large- ly engaged in manufacturing, for which it has fine advantages owing to its nearness to the coal-fields. STREET SCENE IN CINCINNATI SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY FOR OHIO CLASSES. ^^ Ohio classes should now make a full study of the geography of their State, following the Outline on page 30. Refer to the County map, page 58. Area, 41,060 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 3,198,062. Outline and Extent. — In outline this State approaches a square, its de- parture from a regular square being due to the fact that it has the natural boundaries of Lake Erie on the north and the Ohio River on the southeast and south. Its greatest length is 220, and its greatest breadth 2(K) miles. Surface. — As a whole, the State is a table-land, which in its middle belt is about 1,000 feet, and on the northern and southern borders from 600 to 800 feet, above the sea-level. Though the surface is diversified, it nowhere presents any considerable ele- vations above the general level. A ridge of highlands north of the middle of the State forms the watershed that divides the short streams flowing north- ward into Lake Erie from the rivers flowing into the Ohio River. The general slope toward the Ohio River is interrupted by a subordinate ridge which crosses the State in the latitude of Zanesville and Columbus, and between which and the Ohio the surface is diversified with hill and dale. River System. — The Ohio River, entering the State from Pennsylvania near the middle of the eastern boundary, flows along the whole of the south- ea.stem and southern border, a distance of over 500 miles. Its principal tributaries are the Musking'um, Hocking, Scio'to, Little Mia'mi, and Miami, or Big Miami, rivers. Of the rivers of the northern slope flowing into Lake Erie the most important are the Maumee', the Sandusky, and the Cuyahog'a. Sdinerals. — Lying, as Eastern Ohio does, contiguous to the rich coal-fields and iron-mines of Western Pennsylvania, it shares this mineral wealth. The coal of Ohio is bituminous, and the product of its coal-mines is second only to that of Pennsylvania. In the value of its iron products (pig-iron, rolled and forged iron) it also ranks next to that State. The State contains numerous salt-springs and oil-weUs, and there are many quarries of fine building-stone. Poreat Products. — The extensive forests of hard- woods comprise maple, oak, ash, walnut, hickory, etc. They furnish great quantities of most valuable lumber used in the manufacture of furniture and agricultural implements. Agriculture. — The agricultural interest is very large. Great crops of wheat, com, oats, barley, hay, potatoes, and orchard and garden products are raised. The State produces large quantities of flax. In the culture of tobacco it ranks fourth. The grape is extensively cultivated along the Ohio River and on the shores and islands of Lake Erie. Live-Stock. — In live-stock it is one of the leading States, having fine breeds of horses, cattle, hogs, and sheep. It is the foremost State in sheep- raising, and produces more than 20,000,000 pounds of wool a year. Immense quantities of pork, hams, bacon, and lard are made for home use and export. Manufactures. — In the value of its manufactured articles it ranks as the fourth State in the Union and as the first of the Western States. The annual value of its manufactured products is about $ 300,000,000. The most important articles are flouring-mill products, agricultural imple- ments, clothing, packed pork, sawed lumber, distilled and malt liquors, wine, furniture, carriages and wagons, leather, boots and shoes, woolen goods, ma- chinery, and prepared tobacco. Commerce. — No interior State in the Union has finer commercial ad- vantages than Ohio. Lake Erie and the Ohio River furnish great natural highways, and these are supplemented by numerous canals and railroads. Cities. — Besides Cincinnati and Columbus the largest cities are : — Names. Advantages of Localitjr. Indnstries and Characteristica. Cleveland. Toledo. Dayton. Sandusky. Spring^eld. Hamilton. PoTtsmoutb. Zanesville. Akron. Chillicoth'e. On Lake Erie. On the Maumee River, three miles from the west end of Lake Erie. Pine water-power from Mad River. Canal and railroad facilities. Sandusky Bay, Lake Erie. Railroad center. On the Miami River, 25 miles from Cincinnati. On the Ohio River. Southern ter- minus of Ohio and Erie Canal. On the Muskingum River, in a rich mineral region. On the Ohio and Erie Canal, and Little Cuyahoga River. In the rich Scioto valley. Great lake trade. Extensive iron-works, oil- refineries, and manufactories of agricultural implements. Great com and grain mart. Extensive trade in pine and bhick-walnut lumber. Manu- facture of wagons, bent-work, furniture, agricultural implements, etc. Iron-mills, m.achine-shops, linseed-oil mills, car-factories, and manufactories of agricul- tural implements. Distributing point for lumber. Great fish- market of the State. Manufacture of wheels and tool-handles, hme, lumber, and gypsum. Manufacture of agricultural implements and water-wheels. Manufacture of woolen goods, paper, agricul- tural implements, machinery, and tools. Iron and coal in the vicinity. Iron-works. Canal and river trade. Manufacture of iron, steam-engines, stoves, agricultural implements, glass-ware, stone- ware, paper, etc. Iron-works. Manufacturing of agricultural implements. Agricultural trade. Additional Places. — The following additional places had each from 5,000 to 10,000 popu- lation by the census of 1S70 : — Stenbenville. Canton. Youngstown. Mansfield. Xenia Kewark. Piq'ua Pomeroy. Massillon. TifBn. CircleviUe. Marietta. Ironton. Wooster. Fremont. J^" Pupils may state the location of each ; also anything known regarding their industries. INDIANA. 67 INDIANA. INDIANA SCENES, 1 Physical Features. — Indiana, in the heart of the Great West, has a generally level surface, the southeastern part being undulat- ing, and the only elevations of any note the "river-hills" along the Ohio and other streams. 2. The natural advantages of the State consist in its fertile soil, its extensive deposits of coal and iron, and the facilities for com- munication afforded by its rivers. 3. Industries. — The prosperity of the Stat« is based on its agri- cultural, mining, and manufacturing interests. Immense crops of wheat, com, oats, potatoes, and fruit are produced, and cattle, sheep, and hogs are raised in great numbers. 4. The Capital — Ixdianap'olis, the capital and largest city, is the center of numerous railroads, and is an active manufacturing and commercial point. 8PECIAX. GEOGRAFHT FOR QiTDIAKA CLASSES. ^^ Indiana cUssei shoiild nov make a full etndy of the geography of their State, following the Outline on page 80. Refer to County map, page 58. Area, 36,350 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 1,078,301. Outline and Kztent — In form this State is an irregular oblong. Its length from north to south is nearly twice its breadth from east to west, its extreme length being 276 miles and its extreme breadth 176 miles. Buzface. — With the exception of river-hills and isolated knobs, the surface is a level or rolling plain. The absence of any marked watershed is a sin- gular physical feature ; still, the country has continuous slopes of great extent, and the difference in elevation between the highest land and the Ohio River at the falls is nearly 600 feet The river-hills inclose bottom-lands, which have a rich alluvial soil, and are generally well wooded. Behind these stretches a low table-land prasenting various forms of landscape, — here extensive groves and there broad prairies. River System. — The Ohio, the final reservoir of the principal watercourses of the State, flows along the whole southern boundary from the mouth of the Miami to that of the Wabash, a distance by the river's course of 380 miles. The IVabash^ forming a part of the western boundary of the State, is the chief tributary of the Ohio. Its principal branches are the Salamonie', Mis- sissin'ewa. Wildcat, Sugar (or Bock), Bacoon, White, and Pato'ka from the south and east ; and from the north and west the Little Wabash and Embar'- ras, in Illinois, the Vermilion in both States, and in Indiana the Tippecanoe', Eel, and Little rivers. The Whitewater joins the Miami six miles above its entrance into the Ohio. The rivers of the northern section are the St. Joseph and St Mary, forming the Maumee, another St. Joseph falling into Lake Michigan, and the Kan- kakee' and Iroquois, which are the principil branches of the Illinois River. Lakes. — This State has at the northwest a water-front on Lake Michigan. Niunerous small lakes are situated north of the Wabash River. Agrlculttire. — Indiana is a rich agricultural State. It holds a high rank in growing wheat and com, and it produces great quantities of oats, potatoes, and tobacco. Its fine pasturage supports immense numbers of cattle, sheep, and horses, and millions of hogs are fattened on the great corn-crops. rorest-Products. — Although a considerable part of the surface of this State is prairie-land, yet it is rich in forests of hard-woods, such as the oak, beech, ash, maple, hickory, walnut^ black-locust, etc., which furnish great quantities of valuable lumber. Minerals. — The most valuable mineral found in the State is bituminous coal, which exists in great abundance. The beds form port of the great coal- field which extends through Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky. The mineral interest is of great and increasing importance. Manufactures. — The manufacturing industries in this State are large and varied. The chief manufactured articles are flouring-mill products, sawed lum- ber, woolen goods, carriages and wagons, agricultural implements, iron-cast- ings, distilled liquor, and packed pork. The annual value of these jjroducts ia over $100,000,000. Commerce. — Indiana has no direct foreign commerce, but it has a vast domestic trade by means of its navigable waters and it^ grand system of rail- roads and canals. Its geographical position is such that the whole land- commerce between the manufacturing States of the east and the country west of the Mississippi must pass through its territory. Education. — This State has a flourishing common-school system, an ad- mirable State Normal School at Terre Haute [ter'ry-hiit], and numerous col- leges, academies, and private schools. The public schools are attended by nearly half a million of pupils. The State University, at Bloomington, and Purdue University are free in all departments to both sexes. History. — Previous to the French and Indian War this whole country formed a part of New France, and 200 years ago a considerable number of French settlers located here, leaving their memorials in such names as Vin- cennes, Terre Haute, etc. In 1800, when the State of Ohio was carved out of this Territory, the rest of the extensive region received the name of " In- diana Territory." In 1809 Indiana was reduced to its present limits, and in 1816 it was admitted as a State. Cities. — In addition to Indianapolis the most important cities are : — Names. Evanaville. Fort Wayne. Terre Haute. Hew Albany, Lafayette. liOgauiport. Hadison. Bichmond. JeffiBrsonville South Bend. La Forte. Vinoennes. Advantages of Locality. On the Ohio River, at terminus of Wabash and Erie Canal Confluence of St Uoiy and St Joseph rivers. Railroad center. On the Ohio Biver. On the Wabaah River. Jnnctlon of Eel River vltb the Wabash. On the Ohio River. Gaat-central part of the State. On Ohio River, Jnat above the hlhL On St. Joseph River. Proximity to Lake Michigan. On the Wabash River. Rich agri- cnltaral and coal regloa Industries and Characteristics. Large rirer trade. Manufacture of Hour, iron, beer, etc. Hanofacturea in baid-wood, machinery, agri- cultural implements, furniture, bncliets, etc. Manufacture of iron, hominy, whislcey, and beer. Great porli-marliet Seat of State Normal School. Extensive river-tnulo. Building of steam- boats. Manufacture of iron, engines, flour, glass, etc. Large grain-trade and pork-pocking. Manu- facture of flour, woolen goods, ornamental iron-ware, beer, etc Purdue University. Large grain-trade. Manufocture of lumber, cars, hubs and spokes, etc. Varied manufactures,— furniture, leather, wag- ons, wood-work, saddle-trees, starch, eta Manufacture of agricultural implements, car. riages, etc. Trading-point Carbuilding and ship-bulldlng. Trade and manufactures. [chines, eta Trade. Manufacture of wagons, sewing-ma- Manufacture of agricultural implements, flour, lumber, iron-castings, eta Ice-cutting. Agricultum Manufacturing. ^ State the location of the following additional cities, and any fitcta known respecting each:— Pern. Wabaah. Franklin. Rising Sun. OreencasUa Mount Vernon. ConnersviUs. Colambia City. Goshen. Lawrenoabari} SholbyviUe. Valparaisa Sejrmonr. KandaUviUa Flymonth. J 3IoomiuVtoii j I '__ ! J A C fx I Bftykville lolfor.1 ^^^^V°9" 'a IbJs O I ^jryQon ^-ftHSON |SW||ZEfl ^*Madisonvevdli£j p ! sfcoTT'r _ „ - (^-. 0ui$ville 3t. "«Vi Chillu .u, — , I-ogaW Iddlebt ui8. Center of cool-region of Sonth Illinois. On the Mississippi River. On Pekatonica River. Railroad center. On the Illinois River. Water- power. Coal-fleld. On the Dcs Plaines Biver. On the Sangamon River. On the Galena River near the Mississippi. Confluence of Ohio and Missis sippi rivers. On the Illinois River. On Fox River. Water-power. On the Illinois River and Canal. Coal region. Industries and Chaiscteristics. Large river trade. Manufacture of farming im- plements, cabinet- ware, stoves, machinery, tobacco, whiskey, and beer. Trade in lumber, grain, and pork. Distilleries. Extensive trade. Mills and factories. Educa- tional institutions. I.arge manufacturing interests: Extensive trade. Center of active business and manufacturing Active agricultural trade. Seat of Lombard Uni versity and Knox CollegeL Varied manufacturing. Seat of several State in- stitutions for the deaf and dumb, the blind, the imbecile. Also seat of several colleges. Active trade and varied manufactures. Exten- sive limestone-quarries. Coal-mining Hanubcture of Iron, flour, and beer. Agricultural trade. Manufacture of plows, wagons, carriages, glass, stoves, etc. Extensive jobbing businen. Varied manufactures. Seat of Freeport College. Great grain-mart. Varied manufactures, Includ ing those of starch and glass. Quarrying and shipping building-slone. Manu- facture of agricultural implements, steel and iron rails, stoves, and flour. Grain-mart Large local trade. Rolling-mills. Trade and manuCscturing. Center of the lead- mining interest River trade. Shipping of produce. Extensive manufacture of watches, woolen goods, wood-work, condensed milk, dairy-products. Large coal-trade. Manufacture of glass, sine, etc ^ State the location of the following additional cities : — MoUna. Starling. Olaar. ShelbTTllle. Monmouth. Litchfleld. ■aeomb. El Paw. Champaign. Pera KorrU Wataeka. Waokagan. Mendota. Oentimlla. Anna. Dixon. Amhoy. BuIiimU. Honnt CannaL 64 THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES. WISCONSIN. WISCONSIN SCENES. 1. Physical Features. — The surface of Wisconsin presents two features, — a prairie region in the south and an undulating plateau region in the north. 2. Advantages. — The extensive forests in the north, the rich de- posits of lead and iron, the fertile soil, together with great facilities for commerce, form the principal natural advantages of this State. 3. The leading industries are agriculture, mining, lumbering, and manufacturing. 4. Cities. — Milwau'kee is the commercial metropolis. It is a great wheat market, and one of the most beautiful and flourishiag cities of the Northwest. Madison, the capital, is the seat of the State University. SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY FOR "WISCONSIN CLASSES. 1^^ Wisconsin classes should now make a full study of the geography of their State, following the Outline on page 30. Refer to County map on the previous page. Area, 56,040 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 1,315,497. Outline and Extent. — In form Wisconsin is irregular, having a water-line boundary on the north, east, and west. Its extreme length from north to south is about 285 miles ; its greatest breadth from east to west, about 255 miles. Surface. — The State is in general an elevated, rolling prairie-plateau, from 6(K) to 1,200 feet above the sea-level. The general slope is toward the south- west and south. The highest part of this plateau is in the north ; it fonns the dividing ridge between the waters flowing southwest into the Mississippi River and those flowing north into Lake Superior. The general southerly slope is interrupted about the middle of the State by another ridge giving origin to a second slope drained by Eock River and its tributaries. In the southeastern part is a third ridge or elevation dividing the water- courses of Lake Michigan from those of Green Bay. Along the Mississippi and Wisconsin rivers are many of the peculiar eleva- tions called " bluffs." Lakes. — Besides the great lakes, Superior and Michigan, which form its northern and its eastern water-front, the State has nmnerous beautiful interior lakes, which afford excellent fish. The largest lake is Winnebago, southeast of the middle of the State ; it is about twenty-eight miles long and ten miles wide. Rivers. — The Mississippi, with the St. Croix, a tributary stream, forms the greater part of the western boundary. The rivers of the interior flow generally in a southwest direction, and dis- charge their waters into the Mississippi. The most important are Wisconsin River (which is navigable to Portage City, and there connects by canal with Fox River, thus extending navigation to Lake Michigan), and Black and Chip- pewa rivers, valuable for the flotage of lumber, etc. Fox River, which drains Lake Winnebago, has one of the most extensive and reliable water-powers in the United States. The rivers of the northern slope that empty into Lake Superior are, from the nature of the ground, necessarily short and rapid streams. Climate. — The climate, though severe, with long winters, is regular and free from those frequent changes that prevail farther south. The lakes, too, exert a mitigating influence, the temperature being about seven degrees higher on the lake side than on the Mississippi side. Alinerals. — Lead is largely mined in the southwest section of the State, which forms a part of the lead-bearing region extending into Illinois and Iowa. Of iron rich deposits are found in the central, eastern, and northern parts of the State. Zinc and beautiful varieties of marble also abound. Lumbering. — The great pine forests of the State furnish in abundance the most valuable timber. Lumber is now manufactured to the amount of fifteen millions of dollars a year, and is largely exported. Agriculture. — In the production of wheat this State ranks as one of the leading States. Oats, rye, barley, corn, potatoes, hay, and hops are exten- sively cultivated. Live-stock is lai^ly raised. In the production of wool and cheese it is among the leading States. Manufactures. — The manufacturing interest in this State is large and increasing. Important articles are : wood-work of all kinds, agricultural im- plements, machinery, cloth, boots and shoes, paper, etc. Commerce. — The Mississippi, with its tributaries, and Lakes Superior and Michigan, afi'ord great commercial facilities. The chief exports are wheat, flour, lumber, lead, wool, and live-stock. Education. — This State has an excellent public-school system. There are four State normal schools : these are richly endowed, and are .second to none in the country. The University of Wisconsin, the State institution for the higher education, is one of the most flourishing in the Northwest. There are also several other colleges and universities. History. — Wisconsin, called after the river of the same name, has been suc- cessively under French, English, and American control. Originally a part of the Northwest Territory, it was made a separate Territory in 1836, and admitted into the Union in 1848. The soil and climate of this State have proved partic- ularly attractive to natives of Northern Europe, and large numbers of Swedes and Norwegians have made their home here. Cities. — In addition to Milwaukee and Madison the most important places are : — Karnes. Fond du Lac. Oshkosh. Bacine. Janesyille. La Crosse. Watertown. Sheboygan. Green Bay. { Ft. Howard. ] Hanitowoc. Appleton. Beloit. Advantages of Location. Head of Winnebago Lake. Fine farming country. West shore of Winnebago Lake. On Lake Michigan. On Eock River. Water-power. On the Mississippi. On Rock River. Water-power. On Lake Michigan On opposite sides of Fox River. On Lake Michigan. On the Lower Fox River. On Bock River. Water-power. Industries and Characteristics. Great establishments for cutting and manufac- turing pine and hard-wood. Active grain- trade. Lumber manufactures and trade. Barge-build- ing. Seat of a State Normal SchooL Largest manufactory of tlireshlng-machines in the world. Manufacture of wagons, fanning- mills, fancy castings, etc. Seat of Racine College. Manufacture of agricultural implements, house- hold furniture, and flour. Agricultural trade. Manufacture of lumber and fanning machinery. Large river trade. Manufacture of agricultural implements, flour, etc. Local trade. Large trade in grain and lumber. Manufactui-e of lumber, shingles, staves, spokes, hubs, etc. Lake comm.-^rce. Ship-building. Varied manufactures, — lumber, wooden-ware, wood-pulp, furniture, iron, brick, floiu", etc. Varied manufactures, — building and roofing material, ]>aiier, paper barrels, machinery for p.aper-mills, water-wheels, iron and steel goods, windmills, agricultural implements, flour, etc. Seat of Beloit College. Additional Places, — Locate and state something about the following additional places : — Portage. Milton. Galosville. Beaver Dam. Kenosha. Eau Claire. Whitewater. Ozaukee. MISSOUIil. 65 MISSOURI. L Its Sank. — Missouri ranks in population aa the fifth State in the Union, and the most popu- lous west of the Mississippi In area it is nearly equal to the whole of New England. 2. Physical Features. — The State is divided into two regions, — the rolling or prairie region north of the Missouri and Osage rivers, and the highland region including the Ozark Mountains, south of these rivers. 3. Besources. — A fertile soil, an e.xhaustless store of iron, lead, and other minerals, great forests, vast water-power, and the means of communication afforded by the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, constitute the principal resources, or natural wealth of Missouri. SCENES. PERSON 4. Industries. — Very extensive iron-uiiuiug is carried on in the section south of St. Louis; the mining of lead and coal is an important industry. Agriculture is a leading occupition, and great crops of com, wheat, rye, tobacco, hemp, and grapes are raised in the prairie section. The mauu- facturing interest is large and increasing. 6. Cities. — St. Louis, the larg- est city west of the Mississippi River, occupies a commanding position for domestic and foreign commerce, and is largely engaged in iron-manufactures. A mag- nificent steel bridge crosses the Mississippi Eiver at this point The capital of the State, Jef- CiTY, is a well-built, prosperous place. uuM"' SFECIAIi OEOORAFH? FOR MISSOURI CLASSES. ly HUsouri classes shonld now nuke a fall study of the geography of their State, following the Outline on page 30. Refer to County map, page 02: Area, 60,415 square milea. Population (census of 1880), 2,168,380. OntUne and Extent. — Missouri has an irregular outline. Its length is about 318 miles ; its breadth, about 280 miles. It is one and a half times as large as New York, eight times the size of Massachusetts, and as large as England and Wales. Surface. — The section north of the Missouri Kiver is generally undu- lating prairie-land, with low level bottom-lands along the rivers ; the streams are generally belted with forest The section south of the Missouri Eiver presents a great variety of surface. The ridges forming the Ozark group of mountains extend in a direction northeast and southwest, separating the waters that flow into the Mississippi from those that flow into the Missouri. Beyond the Osage River commences a great expanse of prairie. In the southeastern part is an extensive swamp. Climate. — I^Ussouri, lying between the paraUels of 36J° and 40^° north latitude, enjoys a temperature intermediate between the cold of the northern States of the Mississippi Valley and the heat of the Gulf States. The salu- brity of its climate is proverbial. The summers are long and warm, the winters generally short and mild. On the parallel of St. Louis the fall of snow is seldom more than two or three inches deep, and rarely remains on the ground a week. Rivers. — This State enjoys the navigation of the two greatest rivers in the United States. By means of the Mi-ssissippi, which forms the entire eastern boundary, the State has communication with the most northern part of the Union ; by means of the Missouri River communication is extended to the Rocky Mountains. These two great channels are the final reservoirs of all the streams of the State. The chief tributaries of the Missouri in this State are the Grand, Chariton, Osage, and Gasconade. The chief tributaries of the Mississippi are the Salt and Maramec In the southern piart of the State rise tiie head-streams of the St. Francis and White rivers, flowing southward through the State of Arkansas into the Mississippi Minerals. — In the number, extent, and value of its mineral resources Mis- souri surpasses every other State. Iron holds the first place, and Missouri deserves the title of " the Iron State." This metal aVwunds in many parts, but the immense masses of almost solid ore found in Shepherd Mountain, Pilot Knob, and Iron Mountain — situated in St. Franfois, Iron, and Reynolds counties — greatly surpass the other deposits. LtaA. — In Missouri is one of the two great lead-bearing regions of the United States, — the other being in Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois. The yield is very large, though the mines are but imperfectly developed. The coal deposits are of vast extent, and are estimated by the State geologist to be capable of yielding 100,000 tons a day for three thousand years. Other valuable metals and minerals found in large quantities in the State are copper, tin, zinc, cobalt, nickel, kaoline, fire-clay, lithographic-stone, salt, and fine marble, granite, and other building-stone. Manufactures. — The manufacturing interests of the State are diversified, and are rapidly developing : it already ranks as the fifth State in manufactur- ing importance, and in 1870 the value of the products was over $200,000,000. Leading articles of manufacture are iron and iron- ware, wooden-ware, cotton fabrics, clothing, boots and shoes, and wine. Education. — Missouri has a fine system of public schools, and numerous colleges. It has normal .schools at Kirksville, Warrensburg, Cape Girardeau, and Jefiferson City. The University of Missouri and the Agricultural College are at Columbia ; the School of Mines is at Rolla. History. — Missouri takes its name from its chief river, signifying "muddy water." It was originally a part of the Louisiana purchase, and when the present State of Louisiana was admitted the remainder of the extensive domain was erected into the Territory of Missouri. The State was formed from a part, of this Territory and was admitted into the Union in 1820. Cities. — In addition to St. Louis and the capital the leading cities are : — Names. Advantages of Location. Indostriea and Characteristics. Kansas City. On the Missouri Biver. Great rail- Distributing-point for trade of the road center. Missouri Valley. Founderies, ma- chine-shops, etc. Immense beef- packing establishments. St. Joseph, On the Missouri River. Has various roanuCictures, and is the trading center for the northwestern part of the State. Hannibal. On the Mississippi River. Flouring-mills, car^hope, etc. Qreat lumber-mart St. Charles. On the Missouri River. Proximity to Center of a rich wheat and com region. St Louis. Quarries and coal-mines and some manufactories. Springfield. In a rich lead region in the southern part of the State. Center of trade. Lesd-mlning. Sedalia. Important railroad center. Extensive local tradei Lexington. On the Missouri River. Coal-fields. Trade. Manufkcture of lumbar, floor, rope, eto. Trading center. ChilUcothe. Railroad point Cape Girardeau. On the Mississippi River. Manufai-ture of flour, lime, barrels, etc. RIver-trada. Seat of a State Normal School Kezioo. Railrowi CacUities. Trade and varied manufactures. Seat of Hardin College. Colambia. Central part of the SUte. Beat of the SUte Unlvenity. ^ state the location of the following additional place* : — Independence. Palmyra. Canton. Pleasant Hill. Cartha(a. BoonvUle. Iron Mount. CarroUton. Liberty. Reimann. 66 THE NOETH CENTEAL STATES. IOWA. L Physical Features. — Iowa, lying between the Mississippi on the east and the Missouri on the west, is a prairie State. 2. Resources. — Its fertile soU, rich deposits of coal and lead, and fine natural means of communication, form the principal sources of the wealth of this State. 3. Industries. — Agriculture is a leading industry ; in raising wheat, corn, and stock, Iowa ranks with the leading States. Lead and coal mining are extensively followed. The manufactures are important. 4. Cities. — DUBUQUK [du-buke'] carries on extensive manufac- turing, and has a large trade by river and railroad. Des Moines is the capital and the largest city. BRIDGE OVER THE MISSOURI AT COUNCIL BLUFFS. SPECIAI. GEOGRAPHY FOR IOWA CLASSES. |^~ Iowa classes should now make a full study of the geography of their State, following the Outline on page 30. ^fer to County map, pages 62, 63. Area, 56,025 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 1,624,615. Position. — Iowa c^ecupies a central pcsition in North America : it is almost equidistant from the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and is nearly midway between the Arctic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. Outline and ^xtent. — The State is bounded on the north and on the Bouthjjy paralj^s of latitude. The eastern and western boundaries follow the crooked courses of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. The general fonn of the State is, therefore, rectangular. The greatest extent of the State from north to south is (leaving out the angle at the southeast comer) about 200 miles ; its greatest extent from east to west is a little over 300 miles. Surface. — The surface is a rolling prairie, with a general slope south- ward. There are also two minor drainage-slopes, one southeastward to the Mississippi ; the other southwestward to the ilissouri. There are no moun- tains in this State, though there are gently sloping hills of considerable elevation, and there are also bluffs along the river-courses. The dividing ridge that forms the great watershed separating the streams flowing into the Mississippi from those flowing into the Missouri traverses the counties of Dickinson, Clay, Buena Vista, Sac, Carroll, Audubon', Guthrie, and Adair ; thence trending southeastward it passes into Missouri. Rivers. — The rivers of the State are on a magnificent scale. The Missis- sippi winds along the eastern border for about 450 mUes. On the western border the Missouri, from the mouth of the Big Sioux, flows for 300 miles. The Iowa rivers proper flow into the Mississippi on the one hand, and into the Missouri on the other. The tributaries of the Mississippi are, from the length of the main slope, necessarily longer than those of the Missoiui. Lakes. — In the northern part df the State there are numerous small but beautiful lakes, which belong to a system of lakes extending northward into Minnesota. The largest, Lake Okcboji, or Spirit Lake, is 15 miles in length, with a greatest breadth of 2 mOes. Minerals. — The coal-field of Iowa embraces an area of several thousand square miles, and is practically inexhaustible. The coal is bituminous and of excellent quality. The mines of Fort Dodge, Moin'gona, Des Moines [de- ■moin'], and Oskaloosa are the most largely developed ; but many others are worked in different parts of the coal-field. The lead-mines in the Galena limestone have been worked for many years. The lead-bearing region reaches the Mississippi River at Dubuque, and lies along the valley of Turkey River toward the northwest, but only the mines near the Mississippi have been worked. From 4,000,000 to 6,000,000 lbs. of ore have been smelted annually at the Dubuque mines. Other minerals of considerable value are found in the State, — gypsum in very great quantities at and near Fort Dodge, building-stone of the best description, various clays, etc. Boil. — Iowa is famed for the fertility of its soil, and almost the whole sur- face of the State is tillable. The evenness of the surface is also of great advantage, in allowing the use of farm machinery. Agriculture. — In agriculture the State ranks high. According to the census of 1880 it produced more oats and Indian com than any other State except Illinois. The other principal crops are wheat, barley, rye, buckwheat, flax, hemp, and potatoes. In stock-raising it ranks among the leading States ; it is a particularly fine sheep country, and great quantities of wool are exported. Manufactures. — The article most extensively manufactured, and the annual value of which is greatest, is flour. Next come sawed lumber, woolen goods, boots and shoes, farm and mill machinery, linseed-oil, paper, leather, etc. Commerce. — Iowa has no direct foreign commerce, but its trade with the Atlantic and Gulf ports is extensive. The exports consist of the products of agriculture and the mines ; and the imports, of Eastern and foreign mantifac- tures, groceries, etc. Railroads. — In the development of its railroad system Iowa has made remarkable progress. In 1855 there were but 68 miles of railroad ; in 1874, the total length exceeded 4,000 miles. Education. — In addition to a well-oi^anized system of common and high schools, the State has about twenty colleges and universities. The State Uni- versity is at Iowa City ; the Agricultural College is at Ames, and the State Normal School is at Cedar Falls. History. — The name Iowa is taken from the river thus called. The State was originally a part of the vast territory included in Louisiana, bought by the United States from France in 1803. It was organized as a separate Territory in 1638, and admitted as a State in 1846. Cities. — In addition to Des Moines, the capital, and Dubuque, the most important places are : — Names. Davenport. Burlington. Keokuk. Counoil BIoSb. Clinton. Muscatine. Cedar Bapids. Iowa City. Ottumwa. Fort Madison. Lyons. Advantages of Location. On the Mississippi, opposite Kock Island. The Mississippi is bridged here. On the Mississippi, in southern part of State. The river is bridged here. On the Mississippi, at southern angle of State. On the Missouri River, opposite Omaha. The river is here spanned by a fine iron bridge. On the Mississippi, at the most eastern point of the State. The river is bridged here. On the Mississippi. On Cedar River. Water-power. On the Iowa River. On Des Moines River. Railroad center. On the Mississippi, between Bur- lington and Keokuk. On the Mississippi, 138 miles due west from Chicago. Industries and Characteristics. Large river and railroad trade in agricul- tural products. Manufacture of cotton and woolen goods, sawed lumber, etc. River and railroad trade. River and railroad trade. Pork-packing and manufacture of lumber, tobacco, etc, Center of trade for western section of State. Great railroad terminus. Largo trade. Lumber-mills, paper-mills, chair and wheelbarrow manufactories, etc. Railroad and river trade. Varied manxifacturing. Local trade. Former capital. Seat of the State Unt versity. Trade and manufactures. Railroad and river trade. Manufacture of lumber, agricultural implements, wine, etc. Seat of State Penitentiary. Manufacture of lumber, iron, paper, flour, farming implements, carriages, and wag- ons, etc. 1^* Pupils may state the location of each of the following additional places, and anything known regarding their industries : — Waterloo. Waverly. Sioux [soo] City. Marshall town. Cedar Falls. Fairfield. Fort Dodge. Independence. McGregor. Mk Pleasant Oskaloos'a. Winterset MINNESOTA. 67 MINNESOTA. FALLS or ST. ANTHONY, AND LUMBCRINQ BCCNi L Physical Peatores. — Minnesota occupies the central part of North America, and includes the " Height of Land " which divides the Arctic Plain from the Valley of the Mississippi 2. Besonrces. — The State has a fertile soil, great forest wealth, and abundant natural highways for trade and interconmiuni- cation. 3. The leading industries are (1) agriculture, the chief products being wheat and oats ; (2) lumbering ; and (3) manufacturing, the principal articles being sawed lumber and ilour. 4. Cities. — St. Paul, the capital, is one of the commercial centers of the State. SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY FOR IfllNNESOTA CLASSES. ly Minnesota classes should now make a full study of the geography of their Stat«, (olluwing the Outline on page 30. Rel^r to County map, page 58. Area, 83,365 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 780,807. Outline and Extent. — Minnesota is of irregular outline. Its length from north to south is about 380 miles, and its extreme width 300 miles. Stuface. — The States of Minnesota and Wi.sconsin, with the Upper Penin- sula of Michigan, form an extensive tindulating table-land, with an average height of about 1,000 feet In Northwestern Minnesota the surface reaches a height of 1,700 feet. This elevation is known as the " Height of Land," — the highest region between the Gulf of Mexico and Hudson Bay ; it forms a watershed which sends out streams to all points of the compass. Rivera and Lakes. — On the Height of Land the Mississippi takes its rise. Issuing from Lake Itasca as a slender rivulet, it receives the waters of lakes Cass, Winibigosh'ish, Leech, and many other smaller lakes, and is swelled by the two main tributaries, — the Minnesota and SL Croix [kroi\ It is navigable for steamboats below the Falls of St. Anthony. The Red River of the North, which forms a part of the western boundary, belongs to the Hudson Bay system of rivers. It rises in Lake Traverse, and receives the waters of several tributary lakes and rivers. Rainy River, the outlet of a long chain of lakes which form a part of the northern boundary, flows into the Lake of the Woods, which has its outlet in the Hudson Bay river-system. The Pigeon and the St. Louis rivers flow into Lake Superior, and belong to the St. Lawrence Basin. In addition to the lakes already named the State is dotted with numerous smaller bodies of fresh water. Climate. — The winters are long and cold, but dry and bracing, and the climate is famed for its salubrity. Scenery. — The Upper Mississippi is noted for its clear waters and pic- turesque scenery. St. Anthony and Minnehaha are well-known cataracts. Agrlcaltore. — The staple product is wheat, in the production of which Minnesota is one of the leading States. The other cereals are largely raised. Lumbering. — Great quantities of lumber are sawed in the State, and immense rafts of logs are floated down the Mississippi to be sawed in Iowa, Illinois, and other States in the Mississippi Valley. riah. — The lakes and rivers abound in white-fish and trout. Education. — Minnesota has a fine system of public schools, three State normal schools, and numerous higher institutions of learning. The State University is at Minneap'olis. History. — Minnesota was first explored by the Jesuit missionaries two hundred years ago, and was a part of the great Louisiana purchase. It was organized as a Territory in 1849, and became a State in 1858. Citiea. — In addition to St. Paul, the largest cities are : — Names. Minneapolis. Wino'na. Bed Wing. 1 Hastings. ) Stillwater. Bochester. Manka'to. Suluth'. Advantages of Location. Falls of St Anthony. Water power. On the Mississippi On the right bank of the Uissis- slppL On Lake St Croli. Southeast part of the Stale. On Minnesota River. On Lake Superior. Terminus of Northern Paclflo Railroad. Industries and Chatscterlstic*. Immense lumber manufacture. Seat of State University. Great lumber and wheat trade. Seat of First State Normal School. Largest primary wheat-markets in the world. Great lumber-mart Seat of State Peniten- tiary. Large wheat-trade. Seat of Second State Normal School Extensive lake trade. Iron manufkctorea. ' State the location of the following additional places: — St Cloud. Faribault St Peter. Rashfbrd. AnatiiL Owatonna. Shakopee City. St Cbarlea. TOPICAL REVIEW OF THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES. Kaaas. Am. Popnlatkm by Census of ■». Capitals. Cliiei C1C7 ana fopoiaLion (in round numbers) by Census of 1880. Industrial Fonoita. Kentacky. sq. miles. 40,400 1,648,690 Frankfort Louisville (124,000). Culture of tobacco and grain, stock-rai.sing, manufacturing. Ohio. 41,0«0 8,198,062 Columbus. Cincinnati (256,000). Agriculture and pasturage, coal and iron mining, manufacturing. Indiana. 86,360 1,978,801 Indianapolis. Indianapolis (76,000). Agriculture, coal-mining, manufacturing. Michigan. 58,915 1,638,937 Lansing. Detroit (116,000). Agriculture, mining, lumbering, fisheries. Illinoii. 56,860 8,077,871 Springfield. Chicago (603,000). Agriculture, coal and lead mining, manufacturing. Wisoontin. 66,040 1,316,497 Madison. MUwaukee (116,000). Agriculture, lead mining, lumbering, manufacturing. MiiioorL 69,416 2,168,880 Jeflerson City. St. Louis (860,000). Agriculture, iron-mining, manufacturing. Iowa. 66,026 1,624,616 Des Moines. Des Moines (23,600). Agriculture, coal and lead mining, manufacturing. Kinnetota. 88,866 780,778 St. Paul. Minneapolis (47,000). Agriculture, lumbering, manufacturing. 68 5 Lot'fU Time A.M. S^** wtun Koon on the 5-" Jferidian of 530 540 104 IDS Zongituae 101 west Jtom 99 Greenwich 97 *t» liCouncIl / I °"nison ' Sedgwick It^^IiSiJ ConoK irvina: f»V' '^7i __IJmLQlnj::nt: K2iii^y Saliim bi)eneMjurUut;aiB*i/ K P U B L I /C 'A V^., n!l4^^4C#*i^f'J -.1 rv — ^n 1*^.8 umner «£StB«AT(ON ..^'^'-''J. ,, ,^ .^^ /iChsnojJ ■^""'■''■^wjgsj'ri'c to Forfc oj' I AND t.StantXn p'ainosita^O't. J o BB-.T H t OS yPupeii Well Old E D I N ,; ^ J^.Vi, PERCtSjVj! 03AGE?\; -lA'injfe-'fSeiieca Mis!.ouK'A3;+VV '1 -1/ r^ S^ .V... \ii -l^SV^--^^^^^^ rk^^fOl/' 1 ^ Smith Harr -m.:li >v*„ cn Henr!»iita 4^*' vriV"."'"'' ciarlisv[nte— rsintduiaj^Jj -,-:d=>i , double:. \-^ -i.TacltsboTO^t^^^e^tar (^."Vt ) C'ami) Cooper yiiclknap Wgatbetl TeenviT -r— »— ■ ^ ■ •i J!, ^ — »<,V,'''*\ Granbuiy? \ WUia UHnisbolll ,lt.Tleasf"0 Canton \ 7--0-^vilarftli;''^ , t^ JendersonL .Rusic ^ _ Carson ;^CASTLE __..■ KS ■^o(0''arfo ,„. -„ T » "Ft-TtfcKavett, J C».Camp Lancaster _^ -'-^ k^MeWdian^ ogaooh Hamilton -*»*'V£„. UNITED STATES — SECTION 4 — S.NEBRASKA ,COLORADO. (SIMM Ti@^ri@air i^'j^aiuae—llnch SOAte OF MILCS 10 50 100 "%..s-- •San Vincente J. . ...«.,^,. ^.^^_^ ^ Jnii". ■•^^** y^ Maabn'""^"'^/sL - x,-.v,,,v Blanco ^ Burnet i? u :^''**' i 3andera rTj"^oerne,.^ Castrovi ' •UValde 5Oj^>jXavas0ti Glddlng-,,, I, , , ,^, „ ■" — ' W-iLHerop8t«W . JL^^_ ^_ BrenhSin?--^ 1/ JrU^BerlJ A ji^.^ .■MarcoBi Ba8trop~TL--Y*^ ^'"''"^" / LagrangeTv^ New ' ^ ^ SV' Antonio GonzaLeB , [elena=>\.l V*^?L- *GalvesWn iagleS J* ass ^ \^ Oari-izo Sprs. m^Efcell L A «V (;Bi-azoria^^»^eJis5(, ^'"ictijria [ oaiiVjti^^^^^'iY^^^:?*^'^'"''''' ^"^ IteXiikrVJo,!^ g^ i, K>.cki,ur>|/7'- O O S.Teresa Xoiigitude West 28 from Wnfiiilnfjton 26 23 24 23 10. Locat Time A.M. low .^jhen Noon on tht 10 » MerMian nf Waxhinaton 10* iBio Grande City '■'"«i,„*«4i*i7I«i^ o**' Q Brownsviifel -..»>»<>'" THE PLAINS AND KOCKY MOUNTAIN EEGION. 69 THE PLAINS AND ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION, INTRODUCTION. I. THE PLAINS. L States and Territoriei. — In the section of the Plains are in- cluded Texas, the Indian Terri- tory, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, and North Dakota. 2. Situation. — These form a tier of States extending from north to south through twenty-four degrees of latitude, and occupying the east- era slope of the Rocky Mountains. 3. Physical Features. — The sur- face consists of an undulating and generally treeless, grass-covered plain, which has a very gradual rise from the Mississippi toward the Kooky Mountains. With the exception of the Texan rivera, all the streams of this region belong to the Mississippi system. 4. Resources and Industries. — The rolling plains afford tine pas- turage for cattle, and the rich soil of the river-bottoms is well adapted for tillage. Hence agri- culture and stock-raising are the leading industries. II. THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. L States and Territories. — The Rocky Mountain section includes the States of Monta'na and Colora'do, and the Territories of New Mexico and Wyo'ming, which are crossed by the main ridge of the Rocky Mountains. 2. Situation. — This section is bounded on the north by the 49th parallel, which separates it from British America, and on the south it extends to 31^° north latitude, where it abuts on Mexico. The meridian of 103° of west longitude may be said to form the general eastern boundary, while on the west it adjoins the Pa- cific States and Territories. 3. Surface. — The grand natural feature of this region is the Rocky Mountain system, the main axis of which traverses it in a CAftON or THE COLORADO. general southeasterly direction. The Rocky Mountains, within this section, comprise several chains more or less parallel and connected by numerous cross ranges. They have an average elevation of 10,000 feet; but some of the peaks are more than 1 5,000 feet in height. 4. Climate. — This section has a cool climate, owing to its eleva- tion above the level of the sea. It is also noted for its dryness. This is due to its great distance from the ocean, the rain-clouds from which are deprived of their moist- ure by the intervening mountains. 5. Industries. — This section is rich in mines of gold, silver, cop- per, lead, and coal, and the vast grassy plains afford fine pasturage; hence mining and stock-raising form the leading industries of the inhabitants. & Scenery. — Some of the grand- est scenery in the world is found in the Rocky Mountains. Among the most remarkable localities are the mountain scenery and "parks" of Colorado, the Fire Hole Basin, and the Caiion of the Yellowstone. I. The Fire Hole Basin is in the valley of the Madison River, one of the head-streams of the Missouri. It contains many hundreds of boiling springs and spouting geysers, far exceeding those of Iceland in size and grandeur. The "Grand Geyser," the most magnificent in the world, throws a stream of hot water to a height of 300 feet II. The Cafion of the Yellowstone is a great mountain-rent, with perpendicular basaltic walls, from 1,000 to 2,000 feet high. For a distance of 25 miles along this mighty chasm the river rushes with fearful velocity, making in one place a leap of 450 feet, forming one of the grandest of waterfalls. The rocks in many places along the caiion are worn into fantastic shapes, resembling ruined castles with minarets and spires. 7. National Park. — A section of this magnificent mountain-re- gion, nearly the size of Connecticut, has l)een set apart by Congixjss as a great " National Park." Within its limits are several thousand boiling springs and geysers, and many grand waterfalls, deep caflons, beautiful lakes, and rugged mountain peaks. MAP STUDIES. Texas. — 1. What abbreviation is used ? Jns. Tex. 2. Bound this State. 3. Meas- ure by the scale of miles the extent of the Gulf coast 4. Which part of the State is mountainous ? 6. In what direction do most of the rivers flow ? 6. Name the prin- cipal rivers. 7. Where is the capital ? 8. Name three seaports. Indian Territory. — 1. What abbreviation is used ! Ana. Ind. Ter. 2. Bound the Indian Territory. 3. What is the nature of the aurface ? 4 Name the largest rivers. 5. Where is Tal'e<|uah ? Kanaaa. — 1. A^Tiat abbreviation is used t yins. Kaa. 2. Bound this State. 3. What meridian is the western boundary of Kansas ? 4. What parallel is the northern boundary of this State ? 5. Name and describe the principal rivers. 6. Where is Atchison ? — Leavenworth f — Topeka ? — I.i8Wrence ? — Fort Scott ? Nebraska. — (Afaji, p. 71.) 1. What abbreviation is used ? Jns. Neb. 2. Bound thU State. 3. What great river flows through Nebraska ? 4 How many degrees of latitude between the north and south boundaries ? 5. Where is Omaha ? 6. Where U Fremont 1 — Columbus ? 7. What is the capital T South Dakota. — {Map. p. 71) — 1. What abbreviation is used' Ana. S. Dak. 2. Bound it 3. What boundary rivers hais it ' 4. Wliat interior rivers t North Dakota. — 1. What abbreviation is used ' Ana. N. Dak. 2. What parallel forms the northern boundary ' 3. What great river crosses U»e State ? Colorado. — 1. Wliat abbreviation is used ' Ana Colo. 2. Bound this State. 3. Name the rivers that rise in Colorado. 4. Where is Denver ' — Central City ' New Mexico. —1. What abbreviation is used' Ana. N. Mex. 2. Bound tliis Territory. 3. What large river flows tlirough it ' 4. What part is most mountainous ' 5. Where is Santa Fc ' — Albuquerque [al-bu-kerk"\ ' Wyoming. — (AAap p. 71) — 1. What abbreviation is u.sed ' Ana. Wy. Ter. 2. Bound it. 3. What mounUvins are in it '> 4. What railroad passes through it ' 5. Near what part of Wyoming is tlie National Park ' 6. Where is Cheyenne >. Montana. — (.1/ap p 71.) — 1. What abbreviation is used' Ana. Mont 2. Bound it. 3. What mouuuvius are in Montana ' 4. What large rivers ' 5. Near what part of Montana is the National Park! 6. Wherein Virginia City?— Hel'ena^ "«=r 70 THE PLAINS AND EOCKY MOUNTAIN EEGION. TEXAS, SOEN£ IN TEXAS. L Physical Features. — Texas, the largest State in the Union, has the physical features both of the Gulf States and the Plains. Its surface consists of a succession of great terraces sloping grad- ually from the Eocky Mountains to the Gulf of Mexico. 2. Advantages. — Some of the natural advantages of this State are a fertile soil, vast grassy plains, an abundant supply of coal, iron, and salt, and excellent means of communication. 3. The leading industries are (1) stock-raising, in which Texas is the foremost State ; and (2) agriculture, the chief products being cotton and sugar, with corn and other cereals. 4. Cities. — Galveston, the largest city, has an extensive and increasing cotton trade, and is the port through which nearly all the exports and imports of the State pass. Houston is a flourishing city and important railroad center, with a large internal tra THE DAKOTAS AND INDIAN TERRITORY. SOUTH DAKOTA. 1. Description. — South Dakota is a large State, level or rolling in the eastern part and hilly and mountainous in the western. 2. Resources. — The State posseses a pleasant climate, very rich 8oil> and very productive mines of gold. 3. The leading industries are agriculture, in which most of the inhab- itants are engaged ; stock-raising and gold-mining. 4. Cities. — Sioux Falls, Yankton, Huron, Mitchell, Aberdeen, Chamberlain, and Pierre are the leading cities and towns. NORTH DAKOTA. 1. Description. — North Dakota borders on the Dominion of Canada. In surface it is similar to South Dakota. 2. Resources. — The State has vast plains of fertile lands, possessing the richest of soils. 3. The leading industry is agriculture, some of the farms being the most extensive in the country. 4. Cities. — The leading towns are Bismarck, the capital. Grand Forks, Fargo, Watertown, and Pembina. INDIAN TERRITORY. 1. The Indian Territory is a section of country set apart by the Govern- ment of the United States for the home of various peaceable tribes of Indians. It has no organized government. 2. The Indians living on the reservations in the Territoiy are partly civilized. Some of them till the soil, raise herds of horses and cattle, and have books printed in the Indian language. ^ 72 THE PLAINS AND ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. KANSAS. L Physical Features. — Kan- sas is a beautiful undulating plain, sloping from the eastern border of Colorado to the Mis- souri River and the State of Missouri. 2. Resources. — A fertile soU, abundant pasturage for stock, rich deposits of coal, and ready- means of communication, are the chief resources of this State. 3. The leading industries are (1) agriculture in the eastern section, and (2) stock-raising on the great grassy prairies to the west. 4. Cities. — Leavenwoeth, the largest city, is an important commercial and the seat of a State Normal School. SCENE ON THE MISSOURI RIVER. and manufacturing center, ToPEKA. is the capital. SFECIAI. GEOGRAPHir FOR KANSAS CLASSES. 53^ Kansas classes should now make a full study of the geography of their State, following the Outline on page 30. Area, 82.080 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 096,096. Outline and Extent. — Kansas is in form a parallelogram. Its length from east to west (400 miles) is about twice its width. Physical Features. — The broad, undulating surface is unbroken hy mountains, though the Flint Hills cross the center from north to south, and there is a gentle swell towards the western part. The eastern section is prairie-land proper, and of great fertility ; the western section partakes more of the characteristics of " the Plains." While there are no large forests, there are belts of different varieties of timber along the streams. The climate is dry and healthful and the winters are short and mild. River System. — The Missouri forms the northeastern boundary, and the Arkansas flows through the State for several hundred miles. The principal river belonging to this State is the Kansas or Kaw River, formed by the confluence of the Republican and Smoky Hill rivers near Junction City. The Smoky Hill receives the Saline and Solomons forks. The Kansas re- ceives on the north, at Manhattan, the Big Blue, and at Perryville, the Grass- hopper. On the south it receives, near Lawrence, the Wakarusa. Other important streams are the Marais des Cygnes River, or River of Swans, Spring River and Neosho, Cottonwood, Verdigris, Walnut, Whitewater, Little Arkansas, Pawnee Fork, Sha-kus'ka, Nin-ne'sah, or Good River, Cow-Skin, Cimarron, Medicine Lodge, and Nes-cu-tun'ga rivers. Agriculture and Grazing. — Nature has admirably adapted this State to agriculture and grazing, and these are the two leading industries. The chief farm-products of the eastern section are wheat, com, oats, rye, barley, sorghum, cheese, butter, turnips, potatoes, and fruits. The prairies are covered with a variety of nutritious grasses, which last all winter, drying into hay on the ground, and supporting vast herds of beef- cattle, which require no housing. IVIinerals. — Very beautiful limestone is quarried in the Flint Hills. There are large deposits of coal in the eastern, and of salt in the western part of the State. Education. — The State has established a good system of public schools. The educational institutions are located as follows : — the State University at Lawrence, the Agricultural College at Manhattan, and normal schools at Emporia, Leavenworth, and Concordia. History. — Kansas first came prominently into notice in 1854, when a law was passed organizing the Kansas-Nebraska Territory, and leaving to "popu- lar sovereignty " the question whether it should be a Free or a Slave State. The friends of both sides poured into this Territory, and for several years its NEBRASKA. L Physical Features. — Ne- braska, nke Kansas, is an undu- lating plain, sloping from the foothills of the Rocky Moun- tains to the Missouri River. The most striking physical feature is the broad and fertile valley of the Platte. 2. The leading industries are (1) agriculture, carried on in the rich bottom-lands of the rivers, and (2) stock-raising, for which the western section is admirably adapted. 3. Cities. — Omaha is the largest city and commercial center A fine iron railroad bridge, which spans the Missouri River at this point, connects it with Council Bluffs, Iowa. Lincoln is the capital. soil was the scene of lawlessness and bloodshed ; but the Antislavery party triumphed, and Kansas was admitted as a Free State, January 30, 1861. Cities. — In addition to Leavenworth and Topeka the principal cities are : Lawrence, a railroad and trading center on the Kansas River ; Atchison, a thriving city on the Missouri ; and Fort Scott, the center of a coal-mining and of an agricultural and grazing district. t^' state the location and anything known regarding the following places : — Wyandotte. Ottawa. Emporia. Manhattan. Baxter Springs. Burlingame. Hiawatha Grasshopper Falls. Paola. Oamett Junction City. Olathe. Oswego. Osage Mission. SPECIAIi GEOORAPH'Sr FOR NEBRASKA CLASSES. ^^ Nebraska classes should now make a full study of the geography of their State, following the Outline on page 30. Area, 76,855 square miles. Population (census of 1880), 452.402. Outline. — Nebraska is an irregular oblong, its length from east to west being about twice its width. Surface. — With the exception of the natural undvdations of the Plains the only elevations are the sand-hills in the northwestern part. The eastern sec- tion consists of fine farming lands ; the western, of grassy plains. River System. — The Missouri forms the northeastern and eastern boun- dary, and the Platte River with its numerous branches flows through the State from west to east, entering the Missouri near Plattsmouth. Industries. — The raising of com, wheat, and other cereals, and fruit-grow- ing are carried on with great success in the eastern section ; beef-cattle and other live-stock are raised in great numbers in the western grazing regions. The cheap and fertile lands, together with the ready means of communication, ofi'er great inducements for settlement to emigrants. Communications. — The Union Pacific Railroad traverses this State from east to west, thus bringing the inhabitants in easy communication both with the Eastern railroad system and with San Francisco. Education. — The advantages of public -school education are well under- stood in Nebraska, and the public schools are liberally provided for. The State University is at Lincoln, and the State Normal School at Peru. History. — Nebraska, originally a part of the Louisiana purchase, was, jointly with Kansas, organized into a Territory in 1854. When Kansas became a State in 1861, Nebraska remained for some years a Territory, but finally was admitted into the Union in 1867. The name is made up of two Indian words, meaning water-valley. Cities. — Nebraska City, on the Missouri River, is an important city; Plattsmouth ships grain and stock, and manufactures agricultural imple- ments ; Fremont, on the Union Pacific Railroad, is an important trading point, with several railroad connections. COLORADO AND THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. 73 COLORADO. L Physical Features. — Colo- rado, which became a State in 1876, is divided by the Rocky Mountains into the eastern section, which resembles Kan- sas, and the western section, which is a mountain-plateau region. 2. Advantages. — Colorado --has rich deposits of gold and silver, much good agricultural land, and a large amount of pasturage. 3. The leading industries are gold-mining, largely carried on in the mountains, and grazing and agriculture in the eastern section. 4. Denver is the capital and largest city : it is connected by rail- road with the Kansas Pacific and with the Union Pacific railroads, and is the center of trade for an extensive region of country. Cen- tral City ranks next in population. FOR COLORADO CLASSES. I. Arka, 103,925 square miles. The population by the census of 1880 was 194,327. Tlie .State forms nearly o parallelogram ; average length, east and west, 380 miles ; breadth, north and south, 280 miles. II. The State is intersected north and south near the center by the Rocky Moun- tains, which here attain their greatest elevation. From Mount Lincoln are visible 200 peaks nearly 13,000 feet high, and about 25 of 14,000 or over. The eastern range of the Rocky Mountains are called the Front or Colorado range ; si.x of its peaks are from 14,000 to 14,200 feet above the sea, viz. : Long's Peak, Mount Torrey, Gray's Peak, Mount Rosa, Mount Evans, and Pike's Peak. West of this range, and between it and Park range, are North, Middle, and South parks. These are extensive irregular plateaus or basins, shut in on each side by lofty mountain-ranges. The val- leys in the parks are clothed with luxuriant grasses and flowering-plants, and the soil is exceedingly fertile. III. The river system of Colorado embraces the principal tributaries of the Rio Colorado, Rio Grande, Arkansas, Platte, and the Smoky Hill and Republican forks of the Kansas. IV. Vast deposits of useful minerals of almost every kind occur in nearly every part of the State. The most important are gold and silver, which are found in large quantities in a belt about 50 miles wide, stretching north and south across the cen- tral portion of the State. From 1858 to 1872 the amount of gold produced was over $60,000,000. Coal, copper, and iron-pyrites abound. The State has many valuable salt, soda, and sulphur springs. V. About one third of the State is good agricultural land. In the plains and the parks the soil of the valleys is particularly fertile, and yields rich harvests of all the grains and fruits. As a grazing and dairy country Colorado excels, deriving peculiar advantages from its nutritious grasses, upon which cattle thrive the whole year. OT" state the location of the following cltiea and towns : — Leadville. Pueblo. Trinidad. Kit Canon. Canon City. Owrgetown. Oolden City. Oreeley. Boulder City. Colorado City. MONTANA. 3. Description. — Montana is divided into two sections, — the eastern sloiHi belonging to the Missouri valley, and the western part, which is a mountainous region traversed by the maui ridge of the Rocky Mountains, and their numerous spurs. 2. Resources. — The gold mines are extensively worked, and the mounUin pastures offer great advantages for stock-raising. 3. Towns. — Helena is the principal trading-town, and the capital INDIAN Lire IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN TERRITORIES. NEW MEXICO. 1. Description. — New Mexico is a Mountain-Plateau region, crossed by various parallel ranges of the Rocky Mountain system. The eastern half of the Territory belongs to the Texas slope, and is a continuation of the Llaiw Estaca'do. The great valley of the Rio Grande traverses the territory. The elevation of its surface gives New Mexico a temperate climate. 2. Agriculture. — The valley of the Rio Grande is the most fertile part, and the soil here is successfully tilled; but as very little rain falls, crops are raised wholly by irrigation. Mucli of the country is finely adapted to stock-raising, and this constitutes the chief occupation of the inhabitants. 3. Minerals — Gold, silver, and copper are abundant; but the mines have not been developed to any great extent. 4. Inhabitants. — Indians and Mexicans constitute the bulk of the population ; in addition, there are a few thousand settlers from different parts of the Union. 5. Towns. — Santa Fe, the capital city, is the central point in the wagon-train route from north to south. Albuquerque, Taos [tah'oce] andMESiL'LA in the valley of the Rio Grande are small settlements. WYOMING. 1. Description. — Wyoming is an elevated Plateau and Mountain region traversed by the main axis of the Rocky Mountains. 2 Resources. — Extensive coal-beds are found in the Green River region ; tliere are productive gold mines in the Sweetwater district, and the elevated plains afford fine pasturage for stock. 3. The leading Industries are stock-raising and mining for coal and gold. 4. Towns. — Cheyenne [s/tt-en'], the capital, is an important railroad center, and the distributing point for goods to all parts of the section north and south. Sherman Station (8,000 feet) is the highest point in the Rocky Mountains crossed by the Pacific Railroad. 74 viP^"'^ Zocat S"' IHmt A 3f. when i IToon on the 4'° Meridian Gf 4 " Greenwich 121 Zo'igiUtHe 11!) West from 117 nreenwirh 115 109 .ewiston Tillamoori^Zg "^ff'/'^^^V^ ,Mt. ^oodW \Pen(lletoTi •rlt r/ J;^"* & ii|lja Orande ' ■ 3'ancoV/ J' If Of^^tr - If ~rD"-V5w=-<>4 ,<^^ 'ummer—^ fvHle( O/ il -PMt ft. *-—••-« '>*, Petal, Pt.Reyesj ^i^^^>^^^Sils/i'^.2^^^^Bm.\.^e\[)^^ T-JP^» 3ev|llle»t^ Qui JBett^fO' Sant*' \ ^rontei N^%J?-^f OREGON, NEVADA W.WYOMING, S.rDAHO, S.MONTAUA, > S L A N Vix SCALE OF MILES 10. 50 100 l}^3 Latitude = 1 /ncA , UNITED STATES "^O^^^^^^ ''"'■' '^'''\j^^^'^^^^^W^^ " 4 SECTION? **''''* ^^"^^RA'Tn^i'w^l^^AJt^^^^S?^,^ P* p«8<»f* ( ti m { '-1 v^^-^iv > 1 1 „ ^ All!/ r f 46 Zongitude 44 West 43 ^nm 42 TVashinyton 40 9 Zoca/ Time A.M. when 9 JWoon on the Meridian 9» a. -I ii (3 Cababi Tecolate , loinbsto'"* 3C Tuba o '^*-. ty )rrts^oltit Near by. at Mate laUnd, Is a Unltml States Nary-Yaid. ly Pupils may state the location and anything known regarding the Industries of the follow- ing places : — KsrrsTille. San Dis'goi Napa. Santa Clara. OUroy Sono'ma. Petaln'ma Nevada. Yisslia. Santa Ross. CUoo. NEVADA. MNINQ SOCNS AND PVRAMlO LAKE. L Physical Features. — This State is an elevated plateau, with numerous short mountain-ranges. Tlie western part is in the dri- est belt of land in the United States. The few streams belonging whoUy to Nevada flow into salt lakes or sink into sandy deserts. Its alkaline plains are covered with a scattered growth of sage- brush, which grows to the height of from two to four feet 2. Resoiirces. — Nevada is noted for its silver-mines, which are the richest in the world. It has also a large amount of pasture- land that is excellent for stock-raising. 3. The leading industry is silver-mining. The mines of this State yield one third of all the silver produced in the United States. Stock-raising also is largely followed. 4. Cities. — Virginia City is the largest city and chief commer- cial center. It is situated more than 6.000 feet above the sea-leveL Carson City is the capital. FOR NEVADA CLASSES. I. Tlio area of this State is 110,700 stjuare miles, or more than one half larger than tlio wholo of New KngluuJ ; yet it has the smallest {wpiilatioii of any State in the Union, the lumihcr of inhabitants by the census of 1880 ixjiug but Ii2,2ti6. II. The plateau of Nevada has a mean height of alwiit 4,000 feet It is traversed by nearly parallel ranges of mountains, rising from 1,600 to 8,000 feet higher, having /■inerally a north and .south direction, and separated by valleys from 5 to 20 miles in width. Little rain fall.s and irrigation is generally neces.sary to ngricnlturo. Tlve reason of the dryness of the climate is Inxuiuso nearly all the moisture borne by the rain-eloiids blowing from the Pacific Ocean is condensed by tho lofty summits of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. III. Neviula wius jmrt (if the extensive territory which tho United States actinired from Mexico by tho treaty of niia«leloui>o Hidalgo in 1848. Wlieii tho boundaries of California were detcnnined, in 1849, Neviula formed a part of Utah Territory, and such it continued until 1861, when it was formed into a sejiamto Territory. In tho mean time, in 1859, immense do|K>8its of silver in tho Conistock vein were discov- ered, and so rapid was tho increase of tho population that in 1864 Nevada was ad- mittc-/' v/ VICTORIA TUBULAR MIOOC ACROSS THE : AT MOMTRCAL. DOMINION OF CANADA. L The Dominion of Canada occupies all the northern part of the American continent, except Alaska and a part of Labrador. Its area is nearly as great as that of the United States. The Dominion of Canada consists of the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Manitoba, and British Columbia, together with the District of Keewatin, the Northwest Territory, and the North- ca.st Territory. 2. Govermnent — " The Dominion," is a scmi-inJependent federa- tion of British provinces. The chief executive officer is the Gov- ernor-General, who is appointed by the sovereign of Great Britain. The Legislature, called the Parliament, consists of the House of Commons, the members of which are elected by the people ; and the Senate, whose members are appointed by the Governor-Gen- eral. Ottawa, in the Province of Ontario, is the capital of the Dominion. While tlio Dominion government regulates all federal matters (as is the case with the general government in our own country), eacli province has its own local govem- mt'Ut, consisting of a Legislature, elected by the people, and a lieutenant-governor, ap[)ointed by the Douiiuion government. 3. Commerce. — Canada carries on an extensive trade with the United States and England. With the exception of these nations, it has a lai-ger commercial marine than any other country. MAP STUDIES ON CANADA, MP^XICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST INDIES. The Hap StadiM to b« made in connection witli the text on each couutiy. CANADA. OeneraL — [Map of NmUi Ameriea, page SS.] 1. What ocean bounds Canada on the north ? — on the east ? 2. What ocean and Territory on the west ? 3. What country south ? 4. Which part of the southern boundary is a natural boundary ? 5. In what zone is most of Canada situated ? 6. What is the character of the northern region I 7. What great internal sea in Canada ? 8. What is the largest island on the east coast ? — on the west coast ? 9. Name four large interior lakes. 10. Describe the Mackenzie River ; — the Saskatchewan ; — the St. Lawrence. The Eastern Provincea. — [Hap on opposite paye.] 1. In what direction does the river St. Lawrence How ? 2. What lakes does it drain 1 3. Which is the most western of the Eastern Provinces ? 4. What river forms the boumlary between the Provinces of Ontario and Quelle ? 6. On which four of the Great I^kes does the fonner front ? 6. Ixicate Toronto, the largest city. 7. What lake city of New York and seaport of Maine are in nearly the same latitude as Toronto ? 8. Where is Hamilton 1^ Kingston ? — London ? 1. What is the northern boundary of the Province of Quebec ? 2. What States and what Provinces to the south ? 3. Is the greater part of this Province north or south of the St. Ijiwrencc ? 4. What three tributaries of the St. Lawrence in this Province T 6. What river drains I^kc Champlain into the St. Lawrence ? 6. What large island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence? 7. Where is Montreal ? — Quebec ? 8. Which city is the further south, Montreal or Quebec ? 9. Where is St. Johns f — Three Rivers ? 1. Bound New Brunswick. 2. What river forms a partfal boundary Iwtwecn New Brunswick and Maine ? 3. WhiTo is St. .John '! — Fredericton ? 4. Where is the natural and |K>litical division of Prince Edward Island ? 6. Name the capital. 1. What natural division of land is Nova Scotia > 2. Measure by the scale of miles its length. 3. Wh»t bay separates it from New Brunswick 1 4. What Lsland northeast forms part of the same Province ? 5. Where is Halifax ? 6. What gulf west of Newfoundland? 7. What strait north? 8. What cape in the south? 9. In what part is St. John ? MEXICO. [Afap rm opposite page] — 1. In what two zones is Mexico ? 2. What large river forms a partial boundiiry between Mexico and the United States ? 3. What country southea.st of Mexico ? 4. What peninsula on tlie west 1 5. What cape at the end of the longest iieninsula of Mexico ? 6. What mountain range traverses the country ? 7. Has Mexico any long rivers ? 8. What river flows into the Gulf of California ? 9. Describe the location of the city of Mexico ; of Puebla [puxb'la] ; of Matamo'ras j of Vera Cruz ; of Acapulco [pool'ko]. CENTBAIi AMERICA. 1. In what direction does Central America extend ? 2. With what country is it connected on the northwest ? 3. With what grand division is it connected by the Isthmus of Panama ? 4. Name the States (n4)ublics) in their order from north to south. 5. Name the States on the PaciHc coast 6. Name the States bordering upon the Caribbean Sea. 7. Wliich Slates border on both ? 8. In which State is Lake Nicaragua ? 9. Where is the city of New Guatemala ? — of San Salvador ? — of Managua ? 10. Where is Truxillo [tru-hecl'ijo] 1 11. Where is Belize [bel-ees^ ? THE 'WEST INDIES. 1. What three great West India Islands lie in a lino nearly east and west ? 2. What sea south of these islands ? 3. What island south of Culm ? 4. What is the capital of Culm ? 5. Where is Kingston ! 6. In what direction are the l^ihnmas from llayti ? 7. Where is Matan'zas ? 8. Name the strait sejwirating Florida from l\u'. West Indies. 9. Which of the groups of the West India Lslands extends north of the Tropic of Cancer ? 10. between what imrollels are the lesser Antilles included ? 82 CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND. The leading imports are cloths, cutlery, and other manufactured articles from Great Britain, and pork, tobacco, and various manu- factured articles from the United States. The exports are lumber, wheat, potash, fish, and furs, to England ; and lumber, barley, dairy- products, and live-stock, to the United States. 4. Civilization. — In civilization the Dominion ranks with the United States: the people are educated, prosperous, and pro- gressive. 6. Provinces. — A considerable diversity of natural features, productions, industries, etc., marks the several Provinces of the Dominion of Canada. Below is a desci'iption of each Province.* VIEW OF MONTREAL, BEI'EBENCrE TABLE OE CITIES. Names. Population. Characteristics. Montreal. Queliec. Toronto. St. John. Halifax. Hamilton. Charlotte- 1 town, i Victoria. 1*0,000 62,000 86,000 29,000 84,000 35,000 9,000 6,000 The largest city in the Dominion. Extensive trade and manufae- tures. A magnificent iron tubular bridge (tlie Victoria Bridge), two miles long, spans the St. Lawrence River here. The capital of tlie Province of Quebec, and the principal shipping point for the Lower St Lawrence. Large lumber-trade. A pic- turesque old town, with walls and strong fortifications. TIic capital of the Province of Ontario. A commercial and edu- cational center. The chief city and seaport of New Brunswick. The capital, chief city, and seaport of Nova Scotia ; also the prin- cipal naval station of Great Britain in North America. Carries on ship-building and coal-trade. The second trading and manufacturing city in Ontario. The capital of Prince Edw.ird Island. Has considerable commerce. Oil V.ancouver Island The chief city of British Columbia. Arctic Regions. — The Arctic Regions exteml fiom Davis Strait on the east to Behring Strait on the west, along the shores anil in the waters of the Arctic Ocean. They comjirise numerous ish-inils, peninsulas, gulfs, hays, sounds, and straits ; and are chiefly interesting as liaving heen the scene of numerous brave and deteimined attempts to find a northwest p.issage from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Northwest Passage. — That a passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean docs exist was definitely proved by Captain McClure (1850-51), who passed from the Pacific through Behring Strait to Baffin Bay and the Atlantic ; but the discovery is of no practical advantage to navigation, since the seas are sometimes icebound for years or else obstructed by enormous icebergs. Arctic Tnhabitanta. — The sole inhabitants of the dreary Arctic regions are a few wandering Esquimaux, who live on the flesh of the seal and on fish and sea-fowl. The flesh of the seal produces heat in the body, and is the only food that could keep the inhabitants alive during the long cold winters. Tlie Esquimaux travel about on sleds drawn by teams of dogs. Their clothes are made from the skins of the seiil. They live in huts built of blocks of snow, — the warmest and most comfortable houses that could be built there. Having no wood or coal, they use the fat of the seal and whale for warming their huts and for cooking their food. * PROVINCES OF THE DOMINION. Ontario, lying between the Ottawa River and Lake Superior, is the most important part of Canada. It fronts on the Upper St. Lawrence and on lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Superior. The climate resembles that of the Lake States. Between Montreal and Lake Ontario the St. Lawrence is obstructed by rocks and rapids ; but by the aid of locks and side-canals vessels are enabled to pass up to the lake. The Niagara River, which connects lakes Erie and Ontario, is of course not navigable, on account of the great Falls, but communication between the two lakes is effected by means of the Welland Canal. The southern part of this Province is thickly settled by a population mainly of British and American descent. Tlie northern and northwestern parts arc still covered with primeval forests. Agriculture and lumbering are the leading industries. Quebec is a large Province, occupying both sides of the River St Lawrence from the Ottawa River to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The climate is marked by a very cold winter and a dry, hot summer. The valley of the St. Lawrence is in general exceedingly fertile ; but the north bank east of the Saguenay, owing to the severity of the temperature, is almost incapable of cultivation. This Province derives its chief importance from its commercial position, its lumber-trade, and its fisheries. The St. Lawrence, navigable for large ships to Montreal, affords direct communication between the great West and the Atlantic. The river is closed by ice for five months of the year. During this season the ocean outlet for Canadian produce is by way of Portland, Me. The Province of Quebec is largely peopled by descendants of t1ie original French settlers. They are called hahitans ; and in the country parts many of them speak a corrupt French dialect, and have pecidiar manners and customs. The rest of the population are of British descent. Ne'w Bruns'wick in physical features resembles the State of Maine, which it adjoins. Most of its surface is covered with dense forests. The leading in- dustries are lumbering, ship-building, and the fisheries. The inhabitants are mainly of English and Irish descent. Nova Scotia comprises the peninsula of Nova Scotia and the adjoining Island of Cape Breton. Being within the influence of the Gulf Stream, it has a climate more equable than that t)f the inland Provinces. The mining of coal, iron, and gypsum is extensively carried on ; and the cod, mackerel, and salmon fisheries rank next to those of Newfoundland. The exports are lum- ber, dried fish, cojil, gypsum, and grindstones. Prince Ed'ward Island has a generally level surface and a fertile soil. Agriculture is the leading occupation, though ehip-building to some extent is carried on. Manitoba, formerly called the Red River Settlement, lies nearly in the center of North America. It is a prairie country, with a fertile soil well adapted to the growth of wheat and other grains ; but the lack of transportation to a market checks enterjirise. Of the whole population seven eighths are Indians and half-breeds. A large trade in furs and skins is carried on. Win- nipeg is the capital and chief town. British Columbia is a mountainous country, covered with forests. It has few white inhabitants, but is the home of several tribes of Indi.nns. Gold is foiand along the Frazer River. Extensive coal-mines are worked on Vancouver Island. New Westminster is the capital. The District of Ke-watin (formed from the Northwest Territory in 1867) extends from the western bountary of Ontario west to the Province of Manitoba and the eastern shore of Lake Winnipegosis, and north to Hudson's Bay. It is imder the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba. North-west Territory. — This extensive region was formerly in the pos- session of a great trading company, called the Hudson's Bay Company; but in 1870, by an Act of the British Parli.ament, all this immense territory was trans- ferred to the Dominion of Canada for purposes of colonization. The southern part is a fine grain and p.isture country. The forests abound with fur-bearing animals, of which the most valuable are the sable, ermine, mink, marten, and beaver. The Hudson's Bay Com- pany has upwards of fifty " forts," scattered over various parts of the country, for the purpose of collecting furs, which form the chief tiade. The popu- lation (of about 150,000) consists, for the most part, of half-breeds and Indians. GREENLAND AND ICELAND. 83 VIEW or Qutaio. NEWFOUNDLAND. L Description. — Tlie Island of Newfoundland forms a British Province separate from the Dominion of Canada. The government of Newfoundland includes also the coast of Labrador for 700 miles. 2. The climate is cold and severe, owing to the great quantity of ice which is always round the island, brought down by the winds and currents in enormous icebergs from the Arctic Ocean. Fogs also prevail, especially on the Banks, being caused by the cold cur- rents from the north meeting the Gulf Stream. 3. The fisheries form the sole wealth of the island. The cod- fisheries on the Banks of Newfoundland are the greatest and most important fisheries in the world. Tlie whale, salmon, and herring fisheries of Labrador are also important St. Johns (23,000), the capital, is the chief commercial station in the islands. The Banks, ns they are called, are elcvnted plateaus in this part of the ocean, rising far aliovo the stirrouniling bottom of the st-a. They form the favorite feeding- ground of the co Natural Growths. is the capital ? 6. Locate Guayaquil [gui-ah-ked'\ — Cuenca \twenikaK\. 1. Bound Peru. 2. Does the greater part belong to the Andes region or to the Central plain ? 3. What great river has its head-waters in the Peruvian Andes ? 4. What is the capital ? 5. Locate Arequipa, — Cuzco [koos'ko]. 1. Bound Bolivia. 2. Its small sea-coast is crossed by what circle ? 3. Of what two great rivers are its streams tributaries ? 4. Has it a greater or less proportion of plain country than Peru ? 5. What is the capital ? 6. Locate La Paz, — Cocha- bam'ba. 1. Bound Chili. 2. What islands off the coast ? 3. Between what parallels is Chili ? 4. Wliat is the longitude of part of the eastern boundary ? 5. Is it cast or west of the meridian of New York ? 1. Bound the Argentine Republic. 2. Name its largest rivers. 3. What two capes on the coast ? 4. Where is Buenos Ayres [Jow'ms ay'riz] ? 5. Where is Men- do'za ? 6. Cor'dova ? Minor Countries. — 1. Bound Uruguay, and name its capital. 2. Bound Para- guay, and name its capital. 3. In what zone is Patagonia ? 4. What does the Strait of Magellan separate ? BRAZIL, GUIANA, AND VENEZUELA. 89 VIEW ON THE fllVCR AMAZON. THE EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. L Extent — The Empire of Brazil is the largest and most im- pfjrtaut country of South America. Its area is nearly as great as that of the United States or of all Europe. Area, 3,230,000 square miles. 2. Physical Features. — This country consists of two sections nearly equal in extent. The northern part is a vast plain watered by the Amazon and its tributaries, and covered with extensive for- ests ; this is the region of the selvas. The southern part is a table- land traversed by low mountain-ranges that form the watershed between the Amazon and the Plata rivers. 3. Resources. — In the richness and variety of its vegetation Brazil surpasses all other countries. This natural wealth is the resiUt of ita tropical climate and copious rains. In its forests are found the cocoa, sago, and many other kinds of palms ; mahogany, rosewood, and dye-woods ; caoutchouc, cinchona, and cacao; while under cultivation flourish coffee, sugar, cotton, rice, manioc, bananas, and various other kinds of tropical plants. Its mines yield gold, silver, iron, and copper, with diamonds and other precious stones. Ita long line of sea-coast and numerous navigable rivers afford great commercial facilities. 4 Industries. — Agriculture and stock-raising are the chief occu- pations. 'The staple productions for export are coffee, of which it supplies three fourths of the whole quantity used in the world ; and sugar, in the production of which it is second only to Cuba. Large numbers of people are engaged in collecting and prepar- ing the various forest-producta and in working the rich gold and diamond mines. Another important occupation is that of herding cattle and horses on the great plains. 5. Trade with lu. — With the United States Brazil has a large trade, which consists in exchanging its producta for flour, leather, cotton cloth, and other kinds of manufactured articles. 6. Population, etc. — The population (10,000,000) is composed of whites of Portuguese descent, of large numbers of negroes for- merly slaves, and of Indian and mixed races. The government is a limited monarchy, under the rule of an Emperor. The religion is the Eoman Catholic. 7. Civilization. — In civilization Brazil is the most enlightened and progressive of the South American states. 8. Cities. — liio Jakeiro [/a-nay'ro], the capital (275,000), is the largest and most important city in South America. It stands on a magnificent bay which forms one of the finest harbors in the world. Bahu, Peknambu'co, and Paea' rank next in importance. I *■» > GUIANA. L Divisions. — Guia'na comprises three colonies, belonging re- spectively to Great Britain, Holland, and France. 2. Climate. — It has a hot climate, abundant rains, and a luxu- riant tropical vegetation. 3. Products. — In addition to the common tropical products of Brazil, it produces pepper, cloves, cinnamon, and nutmegs, with vanilla and the cacao-tree. 4. People. — The population is composed of blacks who work on the jJantations, native Indians, and a few thousand white traders and planters from Great Britain, France, and Holland. 5. Towns. — Georgetown (40,000) is the capital and chief seat of trade of British Guiana ; Paramar'ibo (25,000) is the capital of Dutch Guiana ; and Cayenne is the capital of French Guiana. VENEZUELA. 1 Physical Features. — Venezuela consists of vast grassy plains, or llanos, watered by the Orinoco and its nxmierous tributaries. In the south is a highland region. The climate is tropical, and sub- ject to great extremes of drought and moisture. The Orinoco overflows its banks annually. 'Sots. — Venezaela means liUU Venice, and the country was so called by the Spaniarda on seeing some Indian villages, which, being built on piles in Lake Mara- caylx), liiul somewhat the appearance of Venice. 2. Industries. — The llanos are the feeding-grounds of immense herds of cattle, horses, and sheep ; and stock-raising is the chief occupation of the people. In various parts of the country coffee, sugar, cotton, cacao, indigo, and tobacco are cultivated ; these form, with hides, horses, and tallow, the principal exports. 3. Population, etc. — Ita population (2,000,000) consists of whites of Spanish descent, Indians, and mixed races. The government is a republic, and the religion Roman Catholic. 4. Cities. — Carac'as (50,000) is the capital and oommercial center. Maracaybo also has an extensive trade. 90 SOUTH AMERICA. THE STATES OP THE ANDES. 1. Divisions. — The Andes region is occupied by six republics, — Colombia, Ecuadoi'', Peru, Bolivia, Chili, and the Argentine Kepublic. 2. Physical Features. — These countries are grouped together because they have in common certain marked physical features. The Andes chains intersect them north and south, so that these countries lie on both slopes, with the exception of Chili, which lies entirely on the western slope, and the Argentine Eepublic, which lies entirely on the eastern. The plateau and mountain section of the Andes is from 100 to 250 miles wide. The western slope and Pacific coast plain form a comparatively narrow strip, from 50 to 100 miles wide ; the east- ern slope has a long and gradual descent into the great Central Plain of South America. 3. Climate. — The climate of these countries is thus divided : (1.) The hot and unhealthy climnte of the lowlands on each side of the Andes. (2.) The tem- perate and spring-like climate of the mountain- valleys and table-lands, which have a moderate elevation of from 5,000 to 12,000 feet. (3.) The cold and wintry climate above 12,000 feet. The latter is found on the lofty peaks of the Andes, which shoot up into the region of eter- nal snow and ice. 4 Characteristics. — The Andes region presents three zones, each marked by its own characteristics of animal and vegetable life: (1.) The lowlands, which have the tropical products and the animals of Brazil. (2.) The table- lands and the mountain- valleys, where maize and potatoes are the food- products, where the forest-trees are the cinchona, the pine, and the oak, and where the few wild animals are almost limited to the llama among quadrupeds and the condor among birds. (3.) The cold, bleak, and elevated mountain region, where the vegetation is limited to shrubs and mosses. 5. The internal trade of all these states is much impeded by the want of roads. Goods are generally conveyed across the mountains upon the backs of mules and llamas. Note. — The llama, which belongs to the order of Rumirmntia, is confined to the declivities of the Andes, where it is used as a beast of burden, and supplies some of tlie purposes of the camel of the Old World, though very inferior to that animal in size, strength, and inteUigence. 6. People. — The population of all these countries consists of whites of Spanish descent, of native Indians, and of various mixed breeds. The mixed races and the Indians are generally unedu- cated and unprogressive. The governments are all republics, and the prevailing religion is Eoman Catholic. OROSSINQ THE ANDES. THE REPUBLICS IN DETAIL. 1, The United States of Colombia consists of nine States united in a confederation. The principal exports are tobacco, gold, coffee, dye-wood, hides, caoutchouc, and Peruvian bark. Bogota' (50,000) is the capital and largest city. Cartage'na is the chief seaport. 2. Ecuador exports cacao, cotton, straw hats, and Peruvian bark. Quito \ke'to\, the capital (80,000), is the chief commercial metrop- olis. Guayaquil' is the principal seaport. Note. — Ecuador (a name taken from the Spanish form of the word equator) lies along the Pacific coast for several degrees on each side of the Equator. Nearly under this line are the two great volcanoes of Cotopaxi and Chimborazo. The best- peopled district is the plateau of Quito, wliich is nearly two miles above the sea-level. The city of Quito is situated on this plateau, and is one of the highest cities of the globe ; it is nearly under the line of the Equator, and stands 9,520 feet above the level of the sea. Within sight of eleven summits of the Andes, which are covered with snow the year round, it enjoys a constant spring. The Galapagos Islands, on the line of the Equator, five hundred miles from the coast, belong to Ecuador. They are noted for their peculiar plants and ani- mals. 3. Peru exports guano, the most valuable item in Peruvian commerce; also saltpeter, copper, limited quantities of ore from its once immensely rich silver mines ; hides ; wool and hair from the Peruvian sheep; a few gums and drugs, and small amounts of borax and cotton. Lima (150,000) is the capital of Peru, and the largest city west of the Andes. Cal- LAO \kal-yii'6\ is its seaport. Note. — Peru is one of the most interesting countries of South America, being the earli- est part of South America con- quered by the Spaniards under Pizarro. At the time of the conquest it was inhabited by a partly civilized race. The ancient Peruvians had built many large cities and some great temples ; Cuzco, their capital, contained the great Temple of the Sun, which was built of immense blocks of stone, and richly covered with plates of gold and silver. They had also buUt costly roads in the mountains to all parts of the empire, and over these their great armies marched. The Spaniards made slaves of the Indians, whom they compelled to work in the mines. 4. BoUvia includes in its western part the highest plateaus and mountain-ridges of the Andes system ; the eastern slope spreads out into a plain belonging to the basins of the Amazon and the Plata. The lowlands yield the tropical products of Brazil, the mountain- forests produce the cinchona-tree, and the upper slopes are used as the pasture-grounds of sheep and llamas. La Pa2 (25,000) is the capital, largest city and commercial centre. Sucre [soo'kryl is the old capital 5. Chili is the most progressive of the Spanish American repub- lics. In climate it is the counterpart of California, only that the periods of the two seasons are reversed. PARAGUAY AND URUGUAY. 91 Its natural wealth con- sists in its copper-mines, valuable forests, produc- tive soil, and temperate climate. The principal exports are wheat, hides, and copper. Santugo (150,000) is the capital and largest ■ city. Valparaiso is the I chief seaport and com- ' mercial center. The Arauoaniana, a semi-civilized tribe of Indians, inhabit a large tract in Central and Southern Chili, and are prac- tically independent. & The Argentine Bepnblic occu- pies a great plain, ov pampas region, drained by the main streams which form the Plata ; on the west it rises into the Chilian Andes. Vast herds of cattle and horses constitute the wealth of this country. Its exports are horse and ox hides, horse-hair, horns, wool, tallow, dried beef, and furs. 8TRCET 8CENE IN VALPARArSO. lAWOINa OATTL( ON TH( PAHPAK BuKNOs Ayres (290,000), the capital, is the chief commercial city of this portion of South America, being the outport for the produce of the Plata basin. Patagonia, the southern portion of South America, is a comparatively barren country, inhabited mainly by native Indian tribes, which subsist by hunting wild cattle, the guanuco, and the emu. Patagonia is a j»Hrt of the Argentine Republic, except the narrow tract of country at the western base of the Patagonian Andes which belongs to ChilL PARAGUAY AND URUGUAY. 1. Paraguay is a fertile country admirably fitted to yield the products both of the tropical and temperate regions of South Amer- ica ; but it has been greatly injured by bad government. The most characteristic product of this country is yerhe mate, or mat^-slirub, the leaves of which are prepared as a tea that is largely used in South America. This forms the leading export. The capital and chief place of Paraguay is Asuncion. 2. Uruguay is a small republic south of Brazil, and bordering on the Atlantic. The people are mainly engaged in stock-raising. Its exports are hides, wool, and tallow. Montevid'eo is the capital and chief city. ISLANDS OF SOUTH AMERICA. Tierra del Fuego comprehends a number of islands lying to the south of Patagonia. They are under a stormy, sunles-s sky, and their mountainous sur- face is covered with gloomy fore.sts. The Fuegians who inhabit these islands are half-naked savages, very low in the scale of civilization. These islands belong in part to Chili and in part to the Ai^entine Republic. Cape Horn Island, or Cape Horn, as it is commonly called, ia a precipitous rock fonning the southernmost of the Tierra del Fuego Islands. Sailing ves- sels in circunmavigating the southern extremity of South America usually double Cape Horn. Steamei-s, however, often pass through the Strait of Ma- gellan, which divides the island of Tierra del Fuego from the mainland : it is a winding channel of nearly 400 miles in length, with a breadth varying from 20 to less than .5 miles. The Tierra del Fuego Islands belong to Chili. The Falkland Islands, which belong to Great Britain, yield Tussac grass, and support large numbers of wild pigs and rabbits. Whaling-ships and other vessels passing around Cape Horn occasionally visit Part Stanley. TOPICAL REVIEW OF SOUTH AMERICA. CoimtriM. Area. Population. Name of CapitaL Name of Largest City. Popalatlon of Largest City. Fonn of Ooveniment, eta Brazil. aq. miles. 3,219,000 12,000,000 Bio Janeiro. Kio Janeiro. 275,000 liimited monarchy under an emperor. British Ooiana. \ C Georgetown. 40,000 \ French Oniana. > 178,000 350,000 < Cayenne. 10,000 ( Colonial Dutch Oniana. ) ' Paramaribo. 25,000 ) Venezuela. 440,000 2,075,000 Caracas. Caracas. 50,000 Republic, like that of the United States. Colombia. 320,000 3,000,000 Bogota. Bogota. 50,000 Republic " " " " Ecuador. 260,000 950,000 Quita Quito. 80,000 Republic " " " " Peru. 425,000 3,000,000 Lima. Lima. 150,000 Republic " " " " Bolivia. 500,000 2,300,000 La Pas. La Paz. 25,000 Republic " " " " Chili. 210,000 2,225,000 Santiago. Santiago. 150,000 Republic " " " " Argentine Bepublic. 1,095,000 2,500,000 Buenos Ayres. Buenos Ayres. 290.000 Republic " " " " Paraguay. 90,000 800,000 Asuncion. Asuncion. 50,000 Republic " " " " Umguay. 70,000 440,000 Montevideo. Montevideo. 75,000 RepubUc PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPK 93 EUROPE. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. L Britisli Isles. — The British Isles consist of Great Britain and Ireland, together with numerous small adjacent islands. The island of Great Britain comprises England proper, Wales, and Scotland; and these countries, together with Ireland, constitute "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland." a British Empire. — The name British Empire is applied to the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and its niunerous colo- nies and possessions in varioxis parts of the world. One sixth of the entire human race, scattered over nearly one sixth of the globe, is under British rule. Note. — Area of the British Empire : about 8,623,000 square miles. Popula- ti on : about 200,000 ,000. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. i^^ To drair the Map of Enrope, see section on Map-Drawinff, P^tBO 133* I. POSITION, SIZE, AND SHAPE. Map Stndy. — 1. What ocean north of Europe ? 2. What ocean west ? 3. What seas and what mountain range in the south ? 4. What mountain range, river, and sea form the eastern boundary ? 6. What meridian near tlio western coast of the British Isles ? 6. With what meridian does the Ural Mountain range generally co- incinall uaf local Time when yoon at i 'Wanhlngton 98 GEEAT BKITAIN AND IRELAND. IV. IRELAND. 19. Extent — Ireland is a beautiful and fertile island, about the size of the State of Maine. Area, 32,500 square miles. 20. Physical Features. — The surface is mountainous or hilly along the sea-coast, while the interior is a level or undulating plain, with extensive peat-bogs. The climate is mild and pleasant, and on account of the abundance of rain and the freshness of the grass and foliage, Ireland is often called the " Emerald Isle." Note. — One of the most remarkable natural curiosities in Ireland is the Giant's Causeway, on the northern coast. It is comiK)sengUt» of Pruuia,Saxfmj,,Havar{a, h'urtembHro. HaiU'i.and the fnllotmtij ttinaiUr Statta.ih* pont%im» of which art ituiicatea by th« fiffurta annered. 1 K/jxiM Lolhrinffen 12 OUlenbiirg ft. If, ^Anhalf D. iSRetiMdrriz P. S ItruiiKwifie i), 14 " Schl^z P. 4Hrnnm F.C. IR Saxe AUfnhuTg D, bllamhurf} F.C. 16 " Cohurif-Gatftfi />. tn'-K"*- r>nrmstadt G.D. \1 " Mriniiufm D. t Lifyj*^ DetmnUi p. 18 " Weimar ff./>. The Hoi 8 Lippr SckaumhuTf/. . P. l^Schioarls Hudolttadt P- *^ A 9Luh^i F.r, 20 Srhmirfzhurff P. '^ lOHrcK-lmhurffSchwerinGD. SioTuierhawtm ^ 11 •• S^treHts G.D. 21 Wnhbvk P. y 22 Hohemollern belongs to the King of /'rusaia ^ Noon on the 1 Meridian of Greenwicli i'- from 16 Greenrrirli 18 20 Ym fcimiEAl] » LToiJiiini elsinnTifTg SCALE OF MILES 10 ^ 50 100 ^V\7 BORNHOLM^ ^w I -ytoVVP' I C! « 15 y\llau* niQsberg MOEN I. 'FALSTER 1. --1RUQEN I. MoSi. 10 CHWERIN 11 / I'NEwVjtELITijJ StarfWE^ 3^et$^ L MTS. '««< #5- "£«" Caoibrjj T*."-"' RESDEN />- 'ii'Vi 1%^. Tft/« ¥,i^' ,,-a#^ "^.^.i-^^.v-^ 'Chalons 4U^>^!SJnr^!^r"^^'^''"" L -^xv T )?.--V ^^V«-^*i>^ ' "ITS' $r/i«' * 'Mge, \ Be-\!o'\> »*W .' [ Sl'hJiffhaas/ j:^° PESTH "^. ks^mW"^ « ^^^i^^C^?"0::^ 5*A Vienne, >g(^pfe.6«Mi; S'Venice ^■v> Gfi nialoukaX S^ ({( 'vignon- 'Cell, OF e.x If- ^ Xegb< 63 -^ Xonffitude JBast 85 5" Zonfflluile In Time J'. M: ybon on the ^ o <$^ -^J fROME 91 from 03 ^'aHliingtnn Meridian ofirnsTiington ■^^ THE GERMAN EMPIRK 101 THE GERMAN EMPIRE. L Its Composition. — Politically the Geimau Empire (estab- lished in 1871) consists of twenty-six States. The chief of these are the Kingdom of Prussia — which embraces two thirds of the area of Germany and a majority of its population — and the three kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony, and Wiirtemberg. The other twenty-two States are small in extent, and are variously called grand duchies, duchies, principalities, etc. The King of Prussia has the title of German Emperor. Note. — Each State in the Empire has its own ruler (king, prince, etc.) and its own legislature, bnt in all general matters the imperial government has authority somewhat similar to that of the federal government in our own country. Each State sends representatives to the imperial parliament, called the Keichstag. 2. Extent — The area of Germany is nearly the same as that of Franc*; its population is about the same as that of the United States. Area, 212,000 square miles. Population, 45,250,000. 3. Physical Features. — The northern part of Germany belongs to the great European plain, the southern part rises into rugged mountains enclosing nimierous valleys. The country is remarka- bly well watered, having over fifty navigable rivers. It has a sea- coast bordering on the North and the Baltic seas. 4. Besonrces. — The natm'al wealth of Germany is found in (1) its productive soil in the plains and valleys; (2) its exten- sive forests in the mountain regions; and (3) its rich supply of iron, coal, copper, zinc, and other minerals. 6. The leading industries are agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and commerce. Map Study. — 1. Bound the German Empire. 2. What two seas on the north ? 3. How do France and Germany compare as regards sea-coast ? 4. Which part is mountainous 7 5. What is the cluuracter of the northern and eastern parts ? 6. Name the boundary mountains on the south. 7. What mountains west of the Rhine ? 8. In what direction do most of the rivers of Germany flow ? 9. Name three important rivers flowing into the North Sea. 10. Name two important rivers flowing into the Baltic. 11. What great river flowing eastward takes its rise in the southern part ? 12. Which part of Germany is occupied by Prussia ? 13. Where is Saxony? — BavariaY — Wttrtemberg T 14. What divisions of Germany border on the Rhine? 16. Where is Berlin ? 16. By what river has Hamburg an outlet into the North Sea ? 17. Name two seaports on the Baltic 18. In what State is Mu- nich » — Dresden ? — Stuttgart 1 19. On which bank of the Rhine is Cologne T — Dusseldorf ? 20. Name a city in Alsace. Agriculttire. — Tilling the soil forms the occupation of three fourths of the German people. The principal crops are rye (the grain most used by the people), wheat, oats, and potatoes ; the vine grows in the Rhine provinces, and tobacco, flax, hemp, and beet-root are cultivated in many districts. Manufactures. — In manufactures Germany is behind England and France ; but various branches of manufacturing industry, as the making of woolen, linen, and leather goods, of wine and beer, and of paper, glass-ware, etc., are very extensively carried on. Commerce. — Germany has considerable foreign commerce, largely with the United States and England. Wheat, wines, wool, and manufactures are the principal exports. The chief seaports are Hamburg and Bremen. 6. Edncation. — In education Germany is the foremost country in Europe. It has a fine system of public schools, and education is compulsory. The numerous universities are the largest and most complete in the world. 7. Cities. — Berlin (1,125,000), the largest city, is the political and literary capital of the German Empire. The cities next in importance are : — NameB. Population. CharacterUtics. 410,000 One of the " Free Cities," is the chief seaport and commercial metrojiolla of Germany ; numerous lines of steamers connect it " with New Yorlc Breilau. 272,000 Is the greatest wool market of Europe, and has extensive trade and manufactures. Dresden. 220,000 Is the capital of Saxony, and the center of the coal and iron interest of that iiingdom ; it has extensive glass and imrcelaln worlis, and is noted for its art-galleries. Munich. 230,000 Is the capital of Bavaria, and is noted for ita univeraity, its fine art-gallery, etc. Cologne, 145,000 Is tlie chief commercial city of the Rbine provinces, and lias manu- factories and distilleries. K9nig«l)erg. 140,000 Is the chief commercial city of Eastern Prussia, and carries on a large export trade in agricultural produce. Magdeburg. 137,000 Carries on extensive trade. Leipsio. 140,000 Is noted for its fair, its great boolc-trsde, and its university. Hanover. 122,000 Is the chief city of the Kingdom of Hanover, and was its capital until that Itingdom became a part of Prussia in 1806. Santzio. 106,000 Is, from its situation on the Baltic, a great grain port ; tt has also extensive manufactures. Trankfort- j. 149,000 i Is the center of the inland trade of Germany, and baa great annual on-the-Main. trading-fairs. Bremen. 112,000 Ranlis next to Hamburg in commerce. Stuttgart. 112,000 The capital of Wttrtemberg, is lieautifiilly situated, and is renowned for its art and culture. Strasburg. 104,000 Was wpn nrom France in the war of 1870-71 : it is famous (br Its cathedral. 102 EUEOPE. THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. 1. Its Composition. — The Austrian Empire, or Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (its olficial designation since 1868), consists of two main divisions, — Austria proper and the Kingdom of Hungary, together with a number of other states and provinces under the rule of the Emperor of Austria. The States. — The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy is made up of, — 1. The German States, in the west and northwest, including one third of the Kmpire. 2. The Hun- garian States, including Hungary, Transylvania, and some parts farther south, comprising nearly one-half of the Empire. 3. The Polish States to the north of the Carpathian Mountains, including about one sixth of the Empire. To these may be added Crotia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina, which have lately been put under the pro- tection of Austria by the results of the war between Russia and Turkey and the decision of the Berlin Conference. 2. Extent. — Its area is greater than that of Germany or France, and its population less. Area, 265,000 square miles. Population, 40,000,000. 3. Surface. — Three fourths of the Austrian Territory is moun- tainous. The three principal chains of mountains, each of them sending out many branches, are : — 1. The Alps (under various names), occupying nearly the entire southern belt of the German Provinces, as well as lUyria and Dalmatia. 2. The Carpathians, along the whole northern boundary of Hungary. 3. The Bohemian Forest, Ore Mountains {ErzgMrge), and Giant Mountains {Riesengebi/rge), enclosing the plain of Bohemia. The three principal plains are the great plain of Hungary, formed by the Danube, the plain of Bohemia, drained by the Elbe, and the plain of Gallicia, drained by the Dniester. 4 Besonrces. — The natural wealth of this country consists of its extensive fertile plains, favorable to agriculture and pasturage, its great forests, and its rich mining resources. 5. The leading industries are agriculture, mining, and manufac- turing. Agriculture. — Wheat, maize, and other cereals, together with the vine, flax, hemp, and tobacco, are largely grown. The plains east of the Danube support great herds of horses, cattle, and sheep. Mining. — Platina excepted, all metals abound in Austria, — gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, tin, lead, and iron. Coal-beds of vast extent are found. Of rock-salt there is a bed several hundred miles in length in Gallicia, of which only a small portion is worked at a gigantic mine named Wieliczka [yoe-litch'hi], near Cracow. Manufactures. — Austria has recently been making rapid advances in man- iifacturing. The principal manufactures are cotton, linen, and woolen goods, iron-ware, chemical preparations, and glass-ware. Hungary produces more wine than any other country except France. & Commerce. — As Austria has but little sea-coast her foreign trade is limited. The only important seaport is Trieste. The Danube is the great channel for internal trade. UAF STUDIES. Austria. — (Map of Central Europe, page 100.) 1. Bound Austria. 2. What are the principal mountain-ranges ? 3. How has Austria an outlet to the Atlantic Ocean ? 4. Describe the course of the Danube. 5. What are its chief tributaries ? 6. What is the principal river of Bohemia ? 7. In which State is Lake Ba'laton ? 8. Where is Hungary ? — Bohemia ? — Tyrol ? 9. Where is Vienna, the capital ? 10. Where is Szegedin [seg-ed-in''\ ? — Pesth ? — Prague ? — Trieste [trce-esV'\i. Russia in Europe. — {Map of Europe, page 92.) 1. Bound Russia. 2. Between what parallels and what meridians is it included ? 3. In which zone is the greater part ? 4. What mountain-range forms part of the eastern boundary ? 5. What is the name given to the chief heights in the interior? 6. What relation between the rivers of Russia and these hills ? 7. Name the principal rivers which enter the Black Sea, — the Caspian, — the Baltic, — the White Sea. 8. What and where is the capital of Russia ? 9. Where is Moscow ? 10. Name the princij>al ports on the Baltic, — on the Black Sea, — on the Caspian. 7. Fopnlation. — The people of the various parts of the Austrian Empire differ widely in race, language, ideas, manners, and religion. Note. — About one half of the population belong to the Slavonic race and one fifth to the Germanic ; one sixth are Magyars, and the rest are made up of Rouma- nians, Jews, Gypsies, Greeks, etc. The number of languages and dialects spoken in Austria exceeds twenty, but German and Hungarian are the official languages. More than three fourths of the population are Roman Catholics. 8. Cities. — Vienna (1,105,000), the capital of the monarchy, is an important manufacturing and commercial center, and the finest city of Central Europe. The cities next in importance are : — Names. Population. Festh. 360,000 (wilhBwda.) Prague. 162,000 Trieste. 144,000 Lemberg. 110,000 OrftU. 98,000 BrUnn. 85,000 Szegedin. 60,000 Cracow. 66,000 Charactorifltics. la the chief ComittGrcial city of Hungary ; it is connected by a sus- pension-bridge with Buda. Is the largest and most commercial city of Bohemia, of which, while an independent kingdom, it was the capital. Is a commercial and manufacturing city, and the only great seaport. Is the trading center of Gallicia. Has flourishing manufactures and an extensive trade. Is noted for its extensive woolen and other manufactures. Is, next to Pesth, the most important commercial city of Hungary. Is one of the famous old cities of independent Poland. THAVELINQ IN RUSSIA. RUSSIA IN EUROPE. L Its Bank. — Russia is the most extensive of empires, include ing one half of Europe and one third of Asia. It is about twice the size, and has nearly double the popu- lation, of the Unit- ed States. Note. — Area of the entire Empire, 8,200,000 square miles ; of European Russia, 2,180,000 square mUes. Population of the entire Empire, 86,000,000 ; of European Russia, 75,000,000. 2, Physical Features. — The surface of European Eussia is a vast plain, broken only by a slight central eleva- tion (the Valdai Hills), which forms the watershed of the Eussian river system. The rivers are the largest in Europe. Northern Eussia consists mainly of immense moss-covered plains, marshy in summer and frozen in winter, with extensive forests in its southern districts ; Central Eussia improves progressively to- ward the south, where there is much fertile land ; Southern Eussia consists of broad treeless plains, or steppes. The climate is marked by extremes of temperature, the summers being short and hot, while in the north the winter is eight months long and the cold most intense. 3. Besources. — The natural wealth of Eussia consists in her great extent of grain-growing soil, the advantages for cattle-raising presented by her grassy steppes, her vast forests, and her rich mines of iron, copper, platina, etc. 4. The leading industries are agriculture and commero«, which are of prime importance, and manufacturing, which is of secondary importance. Agriculture. — The grain most extensively used is rye, and the black bread made of it is the common food of the peasantry. SWEDEN AND NO I; WAY, AND DENMAEK. 103 The most fertile district is the Ukraine, in the basin of the Dnieper ; wheat is the great crop of this part. Hemp and flax are peculiarly adapted to the Russian soil and cUmate, and immense quantities of both are grown all over the coimtry. Over the southern plains range multitudes of cattle, sheep, and horsee. Commerce. — The commerce is large and increasing. The chief exports are wheat, wool, flax, tallow, hemp, timber, potash, hides, furs, iron. Russian commerce is chiefly with England and the United States, but with China there is also a great overland trade, the principal item in which is tea. The principal ports are St Petersburg and Riga [re'ga] on the Baltic, and Odea'sa on the Black Sea. The inland trade is carried on mainly at great annual ikirs ; that at Nijni Novgorod [nezh'ne nov-go-rod'] is the largest in the world. Manufactores. — The only articles in the manufacture of which Russia can successfully compete with other coim tries are leather, soap, sail-cloth, cordage, and tar. For all of these she has the raw material within herself. 6. Fopnlation, etc. — The Eussians belong to the Slavic race, one of the main branches of the Caucasian stock. The government is an absolute monarchy, under an emperor called the Czar (a cor- ruption of the word Caesar), who is head both of church and state. The established religion is that of the Greek Church. CSvUizatioBL — Russia, during the present century, has had a number of very able Czars ; and as the Czar is all-powerful, these rulers have been able to advance the country very much. At the present time numerous railroads are in process of building, education and Uterature are taking root, and there is a stir of real life and progress in Russia. 6. Cities. — St. Petebsburg (900,000), the capital, situated on a number of small islands in the Neva, is the metropolis and chief commercial city of the Empire. The other leading cities are : — Namei. PopoUtion. Chaiacteiistics. Koicow. Warsaw. OdMM. Kiehiser'. Bigra. SaratoT. WUna. Kasan'. Kiev. Cronstadt. 611,000 837,000 184,000 103,000 103,000 05,000 80,000 85,000 130,000 47,000 Is one of the oldest cities of Rossis, and formerly the capital ; a great manufacturing and trading center. Was the capital of Poland when that kingdom existed ; is now the metropolis of Polish Russia. Is the southern emporium of Russian commerce, and chief seaport on the Black Sea. Is an important entrepflt for the Black Sea trade. Has a fine harbor, and exports great quantities of grain, hemp, flax, and lumber. Is the principal point of transit trade for the Caspian Basin. Is inliabited mainly by Jews, and is the scene of a great annual fair. Is an important entrepot for transit trade with Asia. Is the scene of one of the great commercial fairs. Is the seaport of St. Petersburg, and the great naval station of Russia. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. L Sitnation. — Sweden and Norway, which are distinct though adjoining countries, form a single government, — the Kingdom of Sweden and Norway. Sweden occupies the eastern and Norway the western part of the large peninsula called Scandinavia. 2. Physical Features. — This peninsula is intersected throughout its whole length by the Scandinavian Mountains, which separate Norway and Sweden. The Atlantic coast is indented by innumer- able inlets called fiords. The winters are very cold, and the ground is covered with snow for about six months in the year ; the sum- mers are short and hot 3. Besonroes. — The most valuable among the natural produc- tions of Scandinavia are found in its mines, its forests, and its fisheries. 4. Mimng. — Iron and copper are abundant in both countries, and raining is a leading industry. NORTH CAPE, 1He MOST NORTHERN CAPE IN EUROPE. 5. Lumbering. — The extensive forests of pine and fir furnish an inexhaustible supply of timber, which is largely exported. 6. The Fisheries. — The seas, rivei-s, and lakes swarm with fish, and the fisheries of the Lofo'den Islands supply a laige part of the food of the peasantry, besides great quantities of fish that are salted and dried for export to Southern Europe. 7. Agriculture. — Only a small part of the soil either in Sweden or Norway is under cultivation ; still, in Sweden a surplus of grain is raised. Norway does not produce grain enough for her own use. 8. Cities. — Stockholm (175,000), the largest city in Sweden, is the capital of the united kingdoms. Goteburg is an important manufacturing and commercial point. Christiania, on the Skager- rack, is the capital of Norway. Lapps and Finns. — The Laplanders and Finns, who belong to the Mongol race, dwell in the extreme northern part of the Scan- dinavian peninsula. Their chief wealth is the reindeer, which supplies them with food, clothing, and many useful articles. DENMARK L Description. — Denmark consists of the peninsula of Jutland and of the adjacent islands at the entrance of the Baltic, the laigest being Zealand and Fiinen. 2. Industries, — Denmark is mainly an agricultural and grazing country, but many Danes are engaged in the fisheries or in a sea- faring life. 3. Population, etc. — The people of Denmark are of Teutonic origin, consisting of Danes, Germans, and Angles. The government is a limited monarchy, and the established religion is Lutheran. 4. Cities. — Copenhagen (235,000), on the island of Zealand, is the capital and chief commercial city. It is also noted for its great university and fine museum. CyDENSE, on the island of Fiinen, ranks second in importance. UAP STTTDIBS. Sweden and Norway. — (Central Europe, page 100.) 1. Bound the Scandi- navian peninsula. 2. Between what parallels is it included f 3. What is the most northern cape of Norway ? 4. Where is the body of water called the Skager-rack ? — Cattegat ? 5. What mountains between Norway and .Sweden ? 6. Which is the larger country, — Norway or Sweden ? 7. The drainage of Sweden is mainly into what bmlies of water ? 8. Why has Norway no large rivers ? 9. Name the capi- tals. 10. Where are the Ixifoden Islands ? Denmark.— (Map of Europe, page 9S.) 1. Of what natural division does most of Denmark consist ? 2. What bodies of water nearly surround it ? 3. What coun- tries south ? 4. Name the three principal islands. 5. What is the character of the surface, — mountainous or level ? 6. On which island is the capital ? 7. Where is Odense! 104 EUROPE. SCENE IN HOLLAND. NETHERLANDS, 1. Description. — The Kingdom of the Netherlands, formerly called Holland, occupies a region of low country along the shore of the North Sea. Much of the land which was for- merly over- flowed by the ocean at high tide has been re- claimed by building great embankments called dikes. The whole country is intersected by natural water-channels, and the land- scape presents a succession of green meadows, separated by water and dotted with windmills. 2. Industries. — Farming and dairying, the fisheries, manufac- turing and commerce, are the leading occupations of the thrifty Hollanders. Dairying. — Owing to the moistness of the climate, which keeps the gra.S8 fresh and sweet for grazing, the making of dairy products is a leading pur- suit, and great quantities of butter and cheese are exported. The fiaheiiea are still largely carried on, though this industry is less important than formerly. Manufactures. — The principal manufactures are linen, wooien goods, leather, gin, and cheese. Commerce. — Holland has fine commercial facilities, arising from its posi- tion at the mouth of the Rhine and its harbors on the North Sea. The internal trade is carried on mainly by means of canals, which run through the principal streets of the cities and extend in a network over the whole country. The foreign commerce is very large. 3. Population, etc. — The people of Holland belong to the Teutonic race, and the word Dutch, the name by which they are known, sig- nifies Teutonic. The government is a limited monarchy, and the religion Protestant. Education is universal. 4. Cities. — Amsterdam (325,000) is the chief commercial city of Holland. Eotterdam is the second city in population and trade. The Hague [haig] is the seat of government. Foreign Possessions. — The principal foreign possessions are : In the East Indies, Java and most of the Moluc'cas, with parts of Suma'tra, Borneo, and Cel'ebes ; in the West Indies, Cura^oa [eiire-ah-so'ah'] and St. Eustatius ; in South America, Dutch Guiana. These possessions, especially those in the East IndieS, have greatly promoted the commerce of Holland, which has a carrying trade inferior only to that of Great Britain. MAP STTJCIES. Holland. — {Central Europe, page 100.) 1. Bound Holland. 2. What is the nature of the surface ? 3. What inbreaking of the sea in the northern part ? 4. What great German river flows through Holland to the sea ? 5. What names does the Rhine here take ? 6. What name does the Meuse heie take ? 7. Locate Amsterdam, — Rotterdam, — The Hague. Belgium. — {Central Europe, page 100.) 1. Bound Belgium. 2. Where is its water-front ? 3. What two rivers traverse it ? 4. In which part of the kingdom is Brussels ? 5. Name a seaport. 6. On what river is Liege ? Switzerland. — (Map ofCerUral Europe, page 100.) 1. Bound Switzerland. 2. Has it any sea-coast ? 3. Is there any other nation in Europe that has no sea-coast ? 4. What is the character of the surface ? 5. What mountains occupy most of it ? 6. What range on the west ? 7. Name the two principal lakes. 8. What two great rivers have their source in Switzerland ? 9. Locate Geneva, — Berne, — Basle. BELGIUM. L Physical Features. — The western part of Belgium, watered by the Scheldt \skelt\ and its tributaries, is a continuation of the flats of Holland ; the inland half drained by the Meuse is hilly and well wooded. 2. Industries. — - Belgium has rich mines of coal and iron, which are extensively worked ; hence it is naturally a manufacturing country. The leading articles of manufacture are iron machinery, glass-ware, woolens, linens, laces, and carpets. Agriculture is in a high state of perfection : the chief staples are grain, flax, hops, and root-crops. 3. Population, etc. — The Belgians are in race, language, and character, as well as in position, intermediate between the Dutch and the French : they are of mixed Teutonic and Celtic blood. Note. — The French language is spoken by the higher classes ; Flemish, resem- bling Dutch, and the Walloon, a corrupt French, are the dialects of the common people. The government is a limited monarchy, and the religion Roman Catholic. 4 Cities. — The chief cities are Brussels (400,000), the capital, noted for its manufacture of laces, carpets, etc. ; Antwerp, the com- mercial metropolis; Ghent, a manufacturing city; Liege \leej'], which has extensive coal-mines and iron-works; and Bru'ges, an important manufacturing and commercial point. SWITZERLAND, PASS OF THE GREAT ST, BERNARD. L Surface. — The surface of Switzerland is more varied than that of any other country of Europe. The southern part is occu- pied by various ridges of the Alps, while on the western side are the Jura Moimtains, separated from the Alps by an elevated plain. Between the mountain-ranges are numerous deep and narrow valleys. 2. Scenery. — Switzerland is a country of majestic, snow-capped mountains, beautiful waterfalls, wonderful glaciers, and picturesque SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 105 landscapes and lakes, — forming altogether the subliniest scenery in Europe. Peaks and Passes. — The most famous peaks of the Alps ore Mount St Gothard, the Simploti, Moiit Cerriu (or the Matterhom), Mont Cenis, the Finster-Aarhorn, and the Jungfrau ; each is above two miles high. Mont Blanc, the monarch of the Alps (15,780 feet high), is not in Switzerland, but in Savoy, which belongs to France. The passes over the mountains lie in many cases at a great elevation. The most celebrated are the pass of the Great St Bernard, on the crest of which is a famous convent, or hospice ; the Simplon ; and the paa.. a Sitaatioa — It forms the main continental ma.ss of the East- em Continent, — Europe and Africa being merely great peninsulas. 3. Oatline. — The coast is deeply indented on every side, though not penetrated by seas, bays, and gulls to the same degree as Europe. 4. Surface. — In Asia are the loftiest mountain-chains ^:JJ^f'^'\ and the most elevated plateaus t''--J^-'^i^f\ on the globe. The great mass (jf Central Asia, comprising four fifths of the whole, con- sists of high plateaus, inter- sected and bounded by moun- \ tain-ranges, some of whose peaks rise to a height of five miles. Prom the central plateaus the country descends by a series of slopes to the vast plain of Siberia on the north, the plains of China on the ^Xb'^ east, and to the great penin- sulas on the south. 6. Mountain Systems. — The nucleus of the mountain sys- tems is to the west of China, on an elevated table-land called by the Orientals " the roof of the world." The prin- cipal mountain-chains radiat- ing from this center are di- vided into four groups : (1) the Altai system ; (2) the Hindoo Koosh; (3) the Himalayas; (4) the Armenian group. ft The Altai System separates the great northern plain of Siberia from the steppes of Mongolia and Mantchooria, 7. The Hindoo Koosh sep- arates the great desert of Gobi from China and Thibet, and divides the steppes of Turkestan from the table-land of Persia. ft The Himalayas, from the extreme western point, where the Indus cuts through it to the Brahmapo Holland, Denmark, and Italy. Portugal, France (south), ItalyA Wine and Oil ('YBNEsand Turkey (south). / Countries. Flotoing north into the Arc-] j^^j^ iorth), Great Britain, Holland,' tic Ocean. ] », Denmark, Switzerland, Ger- Lustria, Russia (south), and Tur- •th). [obi. rVANG-' Flowing east into the Pacific Ocean. Grain and Grazing Countries. HoANcan arrangement of the chief European f industries, agricultural, manufacturing. Ahoor Mowing south into arms of ^ the Indian Ocean. 'CAMBq, Germany, Austria, Italy, Spain, Holland, Irawa Belgium. BRAHUBritain, France, Belgium, and Switzerland. GANGEBritain, France, Russia, Holland, and Germany. Indus. TiGRisl-ATIONS. EupiiR sends mainly the great staples, cotton, 12. Climate, etc. — The clim^r with pork and bacon, gold and sUver. is subject to great extremes oM''^ ^^ ^^^^^^^ ^ S^"^^ ^^^'^^^ °f ^'^t"" is not modified to so great an l^'"'^^' '^^^ following table shows our of the ocean. Asia is divided into three Z^^' ^'''d^are, and various articles of use. southern or tropical, the midd, cold. The principal characte: following table : — les, ribbons, wines and brandies, and various Countries. /The Southern peninsulas. Southern Zone. J — Arabia, India, Fartlier V India, and part of China. Central Zone . ' 1. The vast plateaa region, including most of China. 2. Turkestan. 3. Afgha- nistan. 4. Persia. 5. Tur- ^ key. 1. The greater part of Si- beria. 2. Kamchatka. Climate. TropioaL Harked by the four seasons with regu- lar changes from one to the other. Marked by long cold winters and short Vegetation. Rice, cotton, sugar-cane, and tropical fruits ; the poppy (opium) and spices ; the palm and bamboo. Tea, wheat, oats, barley, rye, and the fhiita of the temperate zone. Forest trees: oak, pine, etc. Only scanty vegetation. Northern Zone, i Holland Linen, cheese, gin, and herrings. Belgium Lace, thread, carpets, and glass. Sv^itzerland... Watches, cheese, and wood carvings. Spain Olive oil, sherry wine, oranges, figs, raisins, and cork. Portugal Port wine, lemons, and cork. Italy Olive-oil, lemons, marble, cameos, rags, and coral. Greece Currants, figs, and olive-oiL Turkey Opium, tobacco, raisins, figs, sponge, and carpets. IV. RELIGION. The leading religions of Europe are : Catholicity, in its two forms, the Latin or Roman CathoUc Church and the Greek CathoUc Church ; and Protestantism in its various forms. The Roman Catholic Countries are France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Austria, Belgium, and Ireland. The Greek Catholic Countries are Russia, Greece, and the Turkish Provinces. The Protestant Countries are England and Scotland, Germany (greater part), Holland, Sweden and Norway, Denmark, Switzerland (greater part). V. POLITICAL SUMMARY. According to their importance the nations of Europe may be divided into three classes: (1) The "First-Rate" Powers; (2) the Second-Rate Powers ; (3) the Minor Powers. The Five " First-Rate " Powers are Great Britain, Germany, France, Russia, and Austria. The Four Second-Rate Powers are Italy, Spain, Sweden and Norway, and Turkey. All the other nations are classed politically as Minor Powers. The petty republics of Andorra and San Marino are of no political importance. Population. 35,250,000 37,500,000 45,200,000 39,000,000 75,000,000 6,500,000 4,000,000 5,350,000 2,000,000 2,850,000 16,250,000 . ^ 4,^500,000 4. w liat 13 tne name Situation and Extent — L Be 2. Between what two meridians ? Ar 180° east longitude (Greenwich). 3. M the east ? 5. What ocean on the sout] 7. How much of Europe lies to the noi Outline. — 1. What is the charact^ four great inbreakings of the ocean 3. What large peninsula west of Beri Okhotsk' Sea? 5. What group of 6. Where is the peninsula of Co-re'a great peninsulas in the south of A India ? 9. Where is the Arabian Se Mountains. — 1. Which part of A tains between India and Thibet ? 3| Mountains ; — the Altai chain, the Altai chain ? 5. What ranges partly traverse the desert of Gobi ? 6. What mountains in the peninsula of India ? 7. What two ranges form partial boundaries between Asia and Europe ? 8. Where is Mt. Ararat ? — Mt. Everest ? Lakes. — 1. What great lake, called a sea, north of Persia ? 2. Describe Aral Sea. 3. Where is Lake Balkhash ? 4. What large lake in Siberia ? Rivers. — 1. What three large rivers flow into the Arctic Ocean ? 2. Describe the course of the Amoor River. 3. What are the two principal rivers of China ? 4. What aiB the rivers of Indo-China ? 5. Where does the Ganges rise ? 6. What Capitals. London. Paris. Berlin. Vienna. St. Petersburg. Stockholm. The Hague. Brussels. Copenhagen. Berne. Madrid. Lisbon. ot tne eastern contmuatioh'oi Largest City and Population. London (4,765,000). Paris (2,225,000). Berlin (1,125,000). Vienna (1,105,000). St. Petersburg (900,000), Stockholm (175,000). Amsterdam (325,000). Brussels (400,000). Copenhagen (235,000). Zurich (76,000). Madrid (398,000). Lisbon (223^000), Form of Government, etc. Constitutional monarchy ; legislature called Parliament, — House of Lords, and House of Commons. Republic, under a president ; legislature called Corps Legislatif, — a Senate and Chamber of Deputies. Constitutional monarchy, under an emperor ; legislature called the Reichstag. Constitutional monarchy, under an emjjeror. Absolute monarchy, under an emperor called the Czar. Constitutional monarchy ; legislature called the Diet ; in Norway the Storthing. Constitutional monarchy ; legislature called the States-General. Constitutional monarchy, legislature of two Chambers. Constitutional monarchy, with provincial legislatures. Republic, under a president ; legislature consisting of a Senate and a National Council. Monarchy ; legislature called the Cortes. Constitutional monarchy ; legislature called the Cortes. > hat city in the Delta of the Ganges ? 5. On which coast is Bombay ? B. What city in Ceylon ? 1. What two countries between India and Persia ? 2. Where is Kelat ? — Cabool ? 3. What country north of Afghanistan' ? 4. Name two cities in this country. 1. Bound Persia. 2. Where is its capital ? 3. Bound Arabia ? 4. What two countries in the southern part of Arabia ? 5. Where is Mecca ? — Mocha ? — Muscat ? 1. Name the principal countries within the boundaries of Turkey in Asia. 2. What city on the lower course of the Euphrates ? 3. What ancient city in Syria ? 4. Name a seap«rt on the Black Sea. 5. Where is Smyrna ? 112 ASIA. THt GREAT WALL OF CHINESE EMPIRE. L Situation and Extent. — The Chinese Empire occupies the middle-eastern part of Asia, — an area larger than the whole of Europe. It has a population of over 400 millions, or about one third of the inhabitants of the globe. 2. Divisions. — This immense territory includes two parts : (1) China Proper, which, though con- stituting only about one third of the area, contains nearly all the population of the empire; (2) the subject countries, com- prising Chinese Tartary, Thibet, and Corea. 3. Inhabitants. — The inhabit tauts of the Chinese Empire all belong to the Mongolian racej though they present considerable difference of appearance in the several parts of the empire. I. CHINA PROPER. j 4. Physical Features. — China Proper presents a very varied sur- face, but, generally speaking, it consists of the broad plains or basins of the Hoang-ho {Yellow River) and the Yang-tse-Kiang {Son of the Ocean) rivers, together with an extensive highland and mountainous region in the southi and west. 5. Resources. ^ — The fertile soil, of the alluvial plains, the valuable mines of iron, copper, and coal, and the facilities for communication afforded by the great navigable rivers, form the principal natural advantages of this country. 6. The leading industries are {X) agriculture, comprising the pro- duction of rice and millet for fooid, and of tea and silk for domestic use and export ; (2) manufactures, which are mainly confined to silks, shawls, porcelain, and carved ivory. Tea. — The tea-plant is an evergreen shrub growing five or six feet high ; the leaves are gathered and dried in shallow pans placed over charcoal fires. Tea has been used in China as a drink from time immemorial. It was introduced into Europe about two hundred years ago, atid has become a universal beverage. Silk. — This is a great article of expoi t. The art of rearing silk -worms and of un- raveling the threads of cocoons was first practiced by the Chinese. From China the silk culture extended to Hindostan, thince to Greece, next to Italy, France, and Spain, and finally to California, comple ing the circuit of the land surface of the globe. Silk is a common article of drei s in China for men as well as for women. Chinese silk is all woven in hand-looms. 7. Commerce. — The internal rade is immense, and is carried on by means of the great rivers and long canals; the foreign com- merce is limited chiefly to exporting tea, silk, rice, nankeen, etc. 8. Civilization. — The civiUzation of China was already flourish- ing at a time when the Christian nations had no existence. "With the exception of the steam-engine and the electric telegraph there is scarcely any great invention of modem times which has not been in use among the Chinese for many centuries. Still, they cannot be regarded as a progressive people, and their conceit prevents their learning new ideas. It is but recently that China has been opened to the world. Customs. — The Chinese have many peculiar manners and customs. Their written language is the same all over the empire, but they speak a variety of dialects, and the people of one province cannot understand those of another. The men shave a part of the head instead of the face, and wear their hair in a long qiceue, orpig-tail. Theytakeoff thcirshoes instead of their hats when they enter a house. They eat with two small sticks instead of with knives and forks. In a Chinese book you begin at the last page and read backward to the first. In school Chinese scholars recite with their backs turned to the teacher, and they study by reading aloud at the top of their voices. They educate the boys, but not the girls. They use very little tobacco, but smoke opium and chew the betel-nut. The place of honor is on the left hand instead of the right. A Chinaman shakes his own hand instead of that of his friend. Chinese WaU. — The Great Wall of China, the most gigantic work of defense ever erected by man, was built before the Christian era, and was intended as a bul- wark against the invasions of the Tartars. It has a length of about 1,500 miles, and a height of from 15 to 30 feet. 9. Cities. — Peking (1,650,000), the capitalof the empire, is in the northern part of China. It is an unpaved and undrained city, with dirty, naiTow streets, and low, mean houses. The next most important places are : — Names. Soo-Chow. Canton. Kin-te-Chlng. Chang- Sha. Amoy. Foo-Chow. STankin. ITingpo. Shanghai. Hong-Kong. Population. 800,000 1,600,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 88,000 630,000 150,000 260,000 275,000 125,000 Characteristics. Is a beautiful interior city on the Yang-tse-Kiang; has large manufactures and extensive trade. Is the greatest commercial port of Eastern Asia, and is largely engaged in shipping tea, silli, and other products and manu- factures. Is largely engaged in the manufacture of porcelain-ware. Is the chief center of the silk manufacture. Is the port of Chang-Sha. Is the center of one of the tea districts. Has important manufactures and extensive commerce. Is a seaport engaged in exporting Cliinese products. Is the greatest mart for tea and silk. On a small island of the same name, belongs to Great Britain, and Is the chief seat of British commerce. II. SUBJECT COUNTRIES. 10. Chinese Tartary, consisting of Soougaria, Mongolia, and Mantchooria, occupies the great central table-land of Asia. It is thinly peopled by wandering tribes of Mongol Tartars, living under various chiefs and paying tribute to the Emperor of China. IL Thibet occupies a lofty plateau, the greater part of which is so cold as to be almost barren. In the lower valleys are grassy steppes on which vast herds of sheep and mountain-goats are raised. This country is the chief seat of the worship of Buddha, who is supposed to live in the person of the high-priest, called the Grand Lama. Lassa (60,000) is the capital. 12. Corea is a country of "which little is known, as its inhabi- tants are exceedingly jealous of intercourse with strangers. Along the coast it is fertile, and a considerable trade in rice, cotton, furs, and rock-salt is carried on with Japan. Corea has its own govern- ment, but pays tribute to China. Note. — The island of Formosa belongs to China. It is fertile, and yields great quantities of rice, sugar, camphor, and jute. Hainan Island also belongs to China. JAPAN, INDO-CHINA, AND BRITISH ASIA. 113 THE EMPIRE OF JAPAN. L The Empire of Japan consists of a group of islands situated eastward of Asia. Resemblance to Great Britain. — The Japanese Islands have the same rela- tion to Asia that the British Isles boar to Europe. They are in nearly the same latitude as the British Isles, have nearly the same area and population, and have a similar climate. 2. Physical Featnres. — The Japanese Islands are mountainous and contain numerous volcanoes. The mountains are covered with a luxuriant growth of forest trees, and the islands are characterized by the richness of their verdure. 3. Industries. — Agriculture and horticulture are skillfully carried on. Rice and tea are the chief crops. The fisheries are very important, fish being the principal food. Various mechanical arts are skillfully practiced. The chief exports are tea and silk, lacquered-ware, bronzes, and wood-carvings. 4. Civilization. — The Japanese are the most highly civilized and the most progressive of the Mongolian race. They are now rapidly introducing railroads, telegraphs, and improved machinery of all kinds, and have established public and scientific schools under the instruction of European and American teachers. 6. Cities. — Tokio (formerly called Yeddo) is the capital of the empire and the center of the inland and domestic trade of Japan. It has over a million of inhabitants. The next most important places are: — Kama*. PopQlation. OhuactwisUo*. ViAlco (or Kioto). 230,000 ti the litem; center of Jtixn ; tt has also exUnsIre manufactories. OiaOu. 200,000 la a seaport and commercial center ; it is open to foreign tnulo. Kageii'm*. Kagaiald. 150,000 "1 47,000 J Are Important aeaports in tiie iaiand of Kliula, the most aoutherly of the Japan Islands. Tokoha/nui. 07,000 A city of recent growth. Is the port of Teddo, and the chief seat of trade with the Japanese capital ; it is the principal residence of Um foreign marBbsots. ment studiously kept the common |K3oplo from any intercourse with foreigners. In 1854 the United States sent a large naval expedition, under command of Commodore Terry, who induced the Japanese government to make a treaty by which the porta of .Simoda and Hakodadi were opened for trade, and by which United States consuls were allowed to reside in Jai)au. A little later similar privileges were allowed to Eng- land, France, and Kussia. INDO-OHINA. Historical. — Japan, like China, kept itself aloof for ages from other nations. Some trade was allowed with China and with the Dutch in one port, but the govern- L Situation. — Indo-China, the Eastern Peninsula of Southern Asia, extends from the Bay of Bengal to the China Sea. 2. The Countries. — Within this region are comprehended three distinct countries, — the empire of Burmah, the kingdom of Siam, and the empire of Anam'. The population of the first is about three millions, of the second about five millions, and of the third about thirteen millions. In race and religion the people are closely related to the Chinese. Note. — In addition to these countries are British Burmah ; Lower Cochin China, a ilependency of France ; and Cambodia, a small native kingdom under French protec- tion. Yunan, which was formerly a province of China, is now independent. 3. Climate and Productions. — The climate is hot, moist, and often unhealthy in the low grounds. The vegetable productions are of great luxuriance and the highest value. 4. The industry is chiefly agricidtural. Eice, sugar, the mul- berry-tree, cotton, indigo, and tobacco are largely grown : rice is the principal article of food. These countries are rich in gold, tin, cop- per, lead, and zinc ; mining is carried on to a considerable extent. 5. Commerce. — The principal exports are rice, tobacco, sugar, and spices. French Possessions. — The southern part of Cochin China, including the town and province of Saigon [si-gon'], with the mouths of the great river Mekong, belongs to France, and considerable progress has been made by the French in developing the resources of this region. 6. Citiea — The principal cities of Indo-China are : — Names. Population. Chaiacteristica, Bankok. Saigon. Mandalay, Hn<. 500,000 100,000 90,000 50,000 Is the capital of Siam, and the hitgest city of Indo-China. Is the chief seat of French power In Indo-China. Is the capital of Burmah. Is tlie capital of Anam. BRITISH ASIA. L Divisions. — The British possessions in Asia include British India, the island of Ceylon, British Burmah, and the " Straits Set- tlements." Native States. — The parts of India that are not under British rule comprise various native states. These belong to two cla.sses : The Independent States, now reduced to three, namely Cashmere, Nepal', and Bootan' j and a considerable num- ber of " Protected States," which are under various forma of native sovereignty, the ruler bearing in most cases the title of Rtgah. I. BRITISH INDIA. 2. Situation. — India occupies the great central peninsula of tropical Asia and the r^on northward to the Himalaya Moun- tains, comprising an area nearly half as large as that of the United States. 3. Inhabitants. — It is inhabited by nearly two hundred millions of people, most of whom are Hindoos. About half of this region, comprising three fourths of the population, is under British rule. 114 ASIA. 4. Physical Features. — In the north is the great mouutain bar- rier of the Himalaya Mountains ; their highest elevation is Mount Everest, the loftiest summit on the globe. To the south of these are the extensive plains of the Ganges and the Indus ; still far- ther south is the table-land of the Deccan, bounded on the eastern and the western sides by the Ghauts. The climate of India, except in the elevated Himalaya regions, is strictly tropical, with two seasons, the wet and the diy. 5. Resources. — The principal natural advantages of this region are : (1) its moist tropical climate and the fertile soil of its great river- basins, which admirably adapt it to the growth of the most valuable vegetable produc- tions ; (2) its vast forests of teak, cocoa, bamboo, banyan, and vari- ous palms ; and (3) its extensive deposits of coal and iron, which are of far greater value than the gold and gems for which India is traditionally celebrated. 6. The leading industry is agriculture. The great staples are rice, which is the principal article of food, and cotton, jute, silk, opium, and indigo, which are raised for export. Cotton. — In cotton-raising India ranks next to the United States. Jute. — This is a fibrous plant, like hemp and flax ; it is used in making gunny- bags, and is also mixed with silk to make cheap satins. Silk. — Large quantities of raw sUk are sent to England to be spun and woven. Opium. — Vast quantities of this article are exported to China, where opium- smoking is the besetting vice of the people. Indigo. — Most of the indigo of commerce is exported from India. 7. Manufactures. — Fine silk and cotton fabrics, with shawls and various articles of ornamental attire, constitute the chief products of Indian manufacturing skill. 8. Commerca — The import of manufactured goods (principally from England) and the export of raw produce — chiefly cotton, opium, indigo, and rice — are the distinguishing features of Indian commerce. The recent introduction of railroads has greatly aided in devel- oping the inland trade. 9. Cities. — The chief cities of British India are : — MOUNT EVEREST. IN THE HIMALAYAS, Kames. Population. Characteristics. Bombay'. Calcutta. Kadrai'. Laoknow. Patna. Del-hi. Bena'res. 775,000 683,000 406,000 260,000 170,000 173,000 200,000 Is a great commercial city, and the chief seaport for the French and the English lines of steamers, by way of the Suez Canal. Ranks commercially as the chief city of India : it has extensive manufactures, and is the residence of the British govemor- generaL Is the chief city on the southeast coast. Is the capital of the province of Oude ; has large river trade. On the Ganges ; has an extensive trade in opium, rice, etc. Is the ancient capital of India. Is the sacred city of the Brahmins, and the old Hindoo capital. Population — The Hindoos, though of a brown complexion, belong to the Cau- casian race. The common people are poor, ignorant, and superstitious. Only the wealthier classes are educated, and women are not educated at all. The British maintain their jx)wer by a standing army made up mostly of natives, or Sepoys, commanded by English officers. Brahmin- ism is the prevailing religion, but there are many Buddhists and some Moham- medans and Parsees. The sacred books of the Brahminic religion, called the Vedas, were written at least 2,500 years before the Christian era. II. CEYLON. 10. Description. — This large and productive island is governed apart from India as a British col- ony. It has upwards of two million inhabitants. The most characteristic productions are the cinnamon-plant and the cocoa- palm. Coflee is largely grown. IL Cities.— Colom'bo (100,000) is the cajjital and chief commer- cial emporium of Ceylon. Point DE Galle is the principal seaport. III. BRITISH BURMAH. 12. Description. — British Bur- mab, the name given the British possessions in the Eastern Penin- sula, comprises the provinces of It is under the administration Aracan', Pegu', and Tenas'serim. of the general government of India. 13. Products. — In physical features and productions this coun- try resembles British India. 14. BaJigoon, on the Irawaddy, is the largest and most commer- cial city of British Burmah. IV. THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 15. Description. — The Straits Settlements comprise the three distinct territories of Penang' Island, Malacca, and Singapore', and form a separate British colony. The possession of these three stations gives Britain the complete command of the passage to China by the Strait of Malacca. 16. The chief exports are cloves, mace, sago, and gutta-percha 17. Singapore, on the island of that name, is a flourishing seat of trade, — one of the great marts of East Asiatic commerce. ASIATIC RUSSIA. L Divisions, — The Eussian possessions in Asia comprise the extensive country of Siberia, with Trans-Caucasia, and Soongaria. I. SIBERIA. 2. Physical Features. — This immense country, lai^er in area than Europe, occupies the whole of the great northern plain of Asia. It consists almost entirely of steppes and marshes, across which the Obi, Yenesei [i/en-e-say'e], and Lena rivers wind their ASIATIC KUSSIA AND TUIiKEY. 115 sluggish way to the Arctic Ocean. The climate is very cold, except in the southern jjart, and winter reigns more than half the year. 3. Besoorces. — Except in the valleys of the Upper Yeuesei and Lena and the Lower Amoor, the soil of Siberia does not admit of cultivation. This region, however, has nimierous animals whose furs are valuable, as the seal and the ermine ; its waters abound in fish ; and the rich mines yield gold, silver, copper, platina, and iroa Tliere is a large overland tea-trade with China. 4. People. — Of the population of about three millions three fourths consist of Mongolian tribes, savage and degraded, while Russian exiles and their descendants, together with Russian troops and officials, constitute the remainder. 5. Cities. — Toboi.sk', Tomsk, and Irkutsk are the chief places. Kjachta [ke-aUta] is the center of trade with China. II. TRANS CAUCASIA. 6. Description. — Trans-Caucasia is the name given to that part of the Russian Empire which lies south of the main ridge of the Caucasus range, — the dividing line between Asia and Europe. It is a mountain region. The Caucasus Mountain chain rises alx)ve the snow-line, and Elburz' is its highest summit. In the southern part, on the border of Persia and Turkey, is Mount Ararat, over 17,000 feet high. 7. Productions. — Agriculture is the chief branch of industry ; the principal productions are the vine, the mulberry, and the cot- ton-plant 8. Population. — The inhabitants (numbering about three mil- lions) comprise people of various races, — Georgians, Circassians, Armenians, etc. The majority belong to the Christian Church. TiFLis [ti/-leeif] is the chief city. III. RUSSIAN TURKESTAN. 9. Bussian Turkestan includes all the more recent additions to the rapidly growing dominion of Russia in Asia. This region lying between the Caspian Sea and the Chinese Em- pire, is politically and commercially important as commanding tlie grand route of the caravan-trade between China and Western Asia. SOURCE OF THE TIGRIS. TURKEY IN ASIA. L Sitoation. — Asiatic Turkey comprises the western part of Asia, and includes the seat of many ancient nations, among which are Phoenicia, the Holy Land, the States of Asia Minor, Assyria, Baby- lonia, and Chaldea. 2. Divisions. — Under modern Turkish rule, this region is divided into four provinces : Asia Minor, Syria, Armenia, and Mesoixjtamia (Al Jezi'reh). 3. Population. — The various races are separated from one another by language and religion. The majority are Mohammedans, — mainly Turks in Asia Minor, and Arabs in the provinces to the south ; tlie Clnistiuus are mostly Greeks and Armenians. i. Industries. — Though the soil is highly productive, agriculture is little practiced, except near large towns, owing to the country's being infested with bands of robbers. Wandering tribes, j)ossessing large flocks and herds, inhabit the central table-land of the Syrian desert. The manufactures of silk, cotton, and leather are of considerable importance, but, generally speaking, there is a great stagnation of industry and enterprise. The chief exports are opium, tobacco, attar-of-roses, figs, dates, silk, and leather. 6. The Political Divisions aie shown in the following table : — Provinces. Asia Minor. Syria. Armenia. Al Jezireh. Cities. 1 (150,000).~| (70,000). I I (28,000). J /Smynia (150,000). \ '\^Brusa (60,000). / {Damascus (150,000).^ licy'rout (7 Jerusalem I Erzcroum' (60,000). (•Basra (50,000). i MdsuI (10,000). l^ltogilad (40,000). Characteristics. Asia Uiuor is a mountain peninsula, vith fertile vaUers. Syria includes Palestine, or the Holy Land, and Phoenicia. Armenia, a pastoral country, consists chiefly of elevated table-lauds and mountaius. Mesopotamia (Al Jezireii) was the seat of the Assyrian and liibylonian empirus ; but rauch of the country is now a desert. MOUNT ARARAT. MINOR ASIATIC COUNTRIES. I. TURKESTAN. L Description. — Turkestan is an extensive country containing vast sandy wastes, and inhabited by a few millions of Tartar Mongols, who are either wandering tribes or divided into petty states, called k/ianats. 2. Divisions. — The three most important of the khanats are : ISokhara, whose capital city, Bokha'ra, is, from its caravan-trade, me of the most important points of Central Asia ; Khiva, capital Khiva; and Kokand', with Kokand as its chief trading-point The different khanats of this region are under Russian control and constitute a part of Russian Turkestan. 116 ASIA. il. KASHCARIA. 3. Eashgaria, or Eastern Turkestan, formerly an independent government, is now a province of China. It contains much fertile land, and the grain and fruits of the temperate zone are easily raised. Yarkand' and Kashgai-' are the chief commercial centers. III. AFGHANISTAN' AND BELOOCHISTAN'. 4. Description. — Both these countries occupy a high plateau, traversed by mountain-ridges. The fertile parts comprise several khanats, inhabited by a settled population ; but the majority of the people consists of fierce, wandering, and warlike tribes, who depend for subsistence mainly on their herds of horses, goats, asses, and camels. 5. Cities. — Herat', on the caravan route from Persia to India, is a large city of Afgliauistan, (Jabool' is the capital. Kelat is the capital of Beloochistan. IV. PERSIA. 6. Physical Features. — The greater part of Persia is a plateau, marked by sandy and salt deserts ; but along the Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea is a lowland region. 7. Industries. — Of its population of five millions, about one third are wandering shepherds ; the remainder are a tolerably civilized people, who are engaged in agriculture and manufactures. The chief exports are sUks, shawls, carpets, pearls, rose-water, and assafcetida. 8. Civilizatioa — Considerable progress has recently been made in civilization in Persia : railroads and telegraphs have been intro- duced, and efforts to promote education have been made. The government is a monarchy, under a ruler called the Shah, and is less despotic in its administration than the other Asiatic governments. 9. Cities.— Teheran' (200,000) is the capital Tabreez (120,000) is the commercial center. Bushire [boo-shee'/] is the chief seaport. V. ARABIA. 10. Physical Features. — The peninsula of Arabia is mostly a desert plateau, hemmed in from the seas by mountain-ranges all along its sea-front. The only fertile parts of Ara- bia are in the small oases and in the valleys of the hilly region lying between the sandy coast-belt and the dry plateau of the in- terior. IL Government — Ara- bia has no central govern- ment. It is divided into the pasture-ranges of numerous Bedouin tribes, each of which has its own petty sheikh, or chief. A strip along the coast of the Red Sea, including Mecca and Medina, belongs to Turkey. In the southern part are two organ- ized native states, called Oman and Yemen. AN ARAB SHEIKH. 12. Industries. — The industry of the Arabs is pastoral and com- mercial. The traffic which passes through the country is consid- erable, and is carried on by means of caravans, — that is, companies of persons who associate together for mutual protection in crossing the wilderness, consisting of merchants, guides, soldiers, and pil- grims. The camel is uniformly employed as a beast of burden. 13. Cities. — Muscat is the capital of Oman, Sana is the capital of Yem'en, and Mo'cha, famous for its coffee, is its chief seaport. Note. — The Arabs are devout believers in the Mohammedan religion. The founder of this widespread religion was Mohammed, the great religious teacher of the Arabs, who lived in the sixth century, and wrote his doctrines in the Koran, the sacred book of his followers. He was bom at Mecca, and all "true believers" are enjoined to visit the place at least once in their lives. Caravans of pilgrims from all parts of Arabia, from Eastern Asia, and from Northern Africa resort each year to Mecca for the purpose of combining trade with religion. « »«» » THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. L Situation. — Malaysia, or the East Indian Archipelago, includes all those islands which lie between Southeastern Asia and Aus- tralia. They are situated entirely within the tropics. 2. Islands and Groups. — These islands are grouped as follows : — 1. The Sunda Islands, comprising the southernmost string of islands, and including Sumatra, Java, Timor, and the adjacent isles eastward to the Arroo Islands. 2. The Philippine Islands, comprising the group in the northern part of the Archipelago, and including Luzon and Mindanao as the largest islands. 3. Borneo, Celebes, and the Moluccas are the three principal islands in a group between the Philippines and the Sunda Islands. 3. Physical Features. — These islands are all mountainous, abound- ing in active and extinct volcanoes, and are subject to frequent earthquakes. Great heat and moisture, the former tempered by the sea-breezes, are the characteristics of the climate, and conse- quently the vegetation is varied and luxuriant. 4. Divisions. — The Dutch claim the sovereignty over the greater portion of the Archipelago ; the whole of the Moluccas, Java, and Sumba'wa, with parts of Sumatra, Celebes, Borneo, and Timor, are in their possession. The Philippines belong to Spain, and a part of Timor to the Portuguese. The tribes occupying the interior of Borneo, Sumatra, and other of the large islands are independent. 5. Plants and Animals. — The forest trees yield a variety of valu- able woods, such as ebony, teak, sandalwood, etc., and of useful gums, of which india-rubber and gutta-percha are the most im- portant. Among food-plants are the cocoa and sago palms, and the banana, arum, yam, and mango. Among the wild animals are the elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, buifalo, orang-outang, monkeys, and birds of gorgeous plumage. 6. Exports. — Java exports great quantities of coffee and rice ; the Moluccas supply the world with nutmegs, cloves, and other spices ; Sumatra furnishes india-rubber and gutta-percha ; and the Philippines produce sugar, hemp, and tobacco. Diamonds are found in Borneo, and gold, tin, and copper are widely distributed. 7. People. — Numerous savage tribes, of whom little is known, occupy the interior of these islands, but Malays dwell in the towns and villages near the coast. The latter are of a brown color, with lank hair ; they wear little clothing, live chiefly on rice, fruits, and fish, and dwell in bamboo houses, perched on pillars to raise them above the water. All classes smoke tobacco and chew the betel- THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 117 nut. They delight in the water, their canoes and boats being to them what the camel is to the Arab or the dog to the Esquimaux. Many obtain a livelihood by piracy. Hiatorloal. — Early in tlie 17th century (1602) the Dutch East India Company was organizcti for tlie purpose of monopolizing the trade of the East India Islands. This company soon grew rich and powerful out of their enormous profits. The Dutch fitted out fleets of armed merchantmen that defied the Malay pirates, and contended successfully with the navy of Spain. The prosperity of Holland reached its highest point, and Amsterdam, Antwerp, the Hague, and other jmrts were thronged with the ships of all nations. The Dutch supplied the world with spices, cloves, nutmegs, camphor, sugar, ootfee, rice, indigo, cotton, dyes, drugs, and cabinet woods. Other European nations also engaged in profitable tratfic with this bountiful region of the earth, which to this day is a great center of Interest in the commerce of all nations. IMPORTANT ISLANDS. L Sumatra, which is one thousand miles long and two hundred miles broad, contains a number of independent native states. The greater portion of the coast region belongs to the Dutch. The Malay inhabitants are divided into numerous tribes that speak different dialects of one common tongue. 2. Java is the most populous and important island of the Archi- pelago, and is the chief seat of Dutch power in the East. It is celebrated for its immense production of coffee. Batavia (100,000), the capital, is the largest city in the Archipelago. Note. — No island exceeds Java in the abundance and variety of its eatable fruits and vegetables. It has one hundred varieties of rice, and flowers, shrubs, and orna- mental trees without number. Java is noted for the upas-tree which yields a deadly poison, for its huge, poisonous nettles, for its numerous tree-ferns, and for its singu- lar raffiesitis. The rafllesia is a parasitical plant, consisting of nothing but a flower, the bud of which is as large as a cabbage, and the full-blown red flower three feet in diameter. This magnificent flower has the smell of carrion. 3. Borneo, the largest island of the Indian Archipelago, ranks in size next to Australia, Greenland, and New Guinea. Both the Dutch and English have settlements on the coast. This island is covered with dense forests. Among the vegetable products are the inangosteen and the durian, the latter being one of the most deli- cious of fruits. Gutta-percha is one of the principal gum-products. The island is also rich in gold, antimony, and diamonds. 4 Celebes is composed of four peninsulas grouped around a small center, and in shape bears some resemblance to a star-fish. It is eight hundred miles from north to south, and has as great an extent of sea-coast as the United States. It has elevated, grassy table- lands, on which herds of wild horses and buffaloes are found graz- ing, as in America. Cacao and coffee are grown on this island, and sago is the chief article of food. The Dutch possess the settlement of Macassar. • Note. — Of the native peoples the most important are the Bugis. They are the most enterprising navigators of the Archipelago. Their chief center is near Lake Labaya, around which are hundreds of villages, and whose waters are covered with sailing-craft which descend the river into the open sea. 5, The Philippine Islands are the most northerly group of the Indian Archipelago, and are largely under the control of Spain. They comprise a vast number of small islands, all of which are specially adapted to the growth of sugar, tobacco, and hemp. Taken together they have an area about three times as great as the State of Pennsylvania, with a population of about four millions. Manila (130,000) is the capital of the Spanish possessions, and is a great seat of trade. ft The Molucca Group, or Spice Islands, comprise a great number of small islands, which together have an area somewhat larger than the State of Maine. They are famous for the production of cloves, nutmegs, and other spices. Most of these islands are subject to Dutch rule, and Amboyna is the chief station of the Dutch com- merce. TOPICAL REVIEW OF ASIA. Countries. Population. Name of Capital. Name of Largest City. Popnlation of Largest City. Form of Government, etc. Empire of China. 380,000,000 Peking. Peking. 1,650,000 Absolute monarchy under an emperor. Empire of Japan. 35,000,000 Tokio. Tokio. 1,140,000 Absolute monarchy. Emperor called the Mikado. ( Kingdom of Anam. Indo- „. ^ ■ Kingdom of Siam. China. V Empire of Burmah. 20,000,000 Hue. Hue. 50,000 Absolute monarchy. 5,000,000 Bangkok. Bangkok. 500,000 (t 11 4,000,000 Mandalay. Mandalay. 90,000 It , ToiKOttrt.fi \ ...coo*' ' Ki V- °^ '"VTargla /"^ ■ -./ •Gtolea -Zwxi7 10 7V?7)p ^1 . if. vlten 1] Noon tm the Merifli'in 12 n/ (,.■.,,,> u-h NORTHERN AFRICA ,>5> 5 Zatituae—1 IncK "" ^ A AlSIA MINOB ^ A N S E >"V '7> '. ^ TMPIO OF CinMBX,- ao XottgitiuU Went 15 /roiH Grteiiirich :z;aot /, CONST AN^^OPUE.^, SA R GOSSO"' _C.BJan£l C.VERDE IS. I , w G U Daldiel'.. , A T R . A L C „ « « ^ ^ ^ LoAngo Kabei Amltrlz' St.PauI du Loanda / >A_ y^t.l/el«n4 CAPE TOWl ^ett SOUTHERN J' ^"/A* AJ'RICA Jiaat J^vnffitucle ^T^ from 25 GrtcMci^ ^ TROPIC OF CAPRICORN 30 Berbera ■*> St.PhUli]j V \ t:^^ If a£»CHiu£ ■sf*i';Jt- iC.Oelgadol ficoiiono C.Amber^ ■> o / IS. „„, y\ ^ UAYOTTA l-U ,^;',.M;H (galas'. -»r..i.y , /pusi-S^ ^-* ■* >, — u — • fDeUigoa . y ' Uav "V O ARIVO f6.i^&, .aiiaiizari heunion i. FUJauphta 4»=!* fc^«.- Cape 0^ ^ * '% AND THE ADJACENT ISLANDS SCALE OF MILES 100 900 lOOO lO'^Zatitude = 1 Jnc?t j £ast ZcfRffitude 107 from 'Washvigton 122 Zocal Time P. M' uslien 6 Jfoon on the 3feriilian 7 of 'WiuMugton PHYSICAL (iEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA. 119 AFRICA. V rsmaAL tut of AnioA. The Nile valley is from two to ten miles wide ; the delta is about ninety miles in its greatest extent from south to north, and about eighty miles in breailth along the Mediterranean coast. Owing to the annual inundation of the Nile, ^__^ this is one of the most fertile re- -TvWPr^ -^^--^r^,^ ■^^»' VIEW or THE NILE AND THE PVRAMIDS. gions on the globe. Note. — The inundations of the Nile, which are occasioned by the i^riodical rains in the Abyssinian Mountains, begin about the middle of June, attain their greatest height in September, and subside about the end of October. Before its subsidence, the muddy river-water deposits a fertilizing sediment, lialf an inch thick, over all the land, and thus annually renews the productiveness of the soil. 4. Agriculture is the principal occupation : wheat, barley, maize, rice, and cotton form the chief crops ; tobacco, sugar, and indigo are also produced to a considerable extent. 5. The conmierce is considerable, for, in addition to the products of the country, large quantities of gold-dust, ivory, and ostrich- feathers are brought by caravan from the interior of Africa. The Suez ship-canal was completed in 1869, and has proved of great commercial importance. Note. — By the Suez Canal the Atlantic and Indian oceans are connected. The total length of the canal, from Port Said, the Mediterranean terminus, to Suez, on the Red Sea, is abont one hundred miles. Steamships between French and English porta and Bombay pass through this canal. 6. Population, etc — The population (about 5,000,000) is a great mixture of races, — Copts, Arabs, Turks, Greeks, etc. 7. Citiea. — CuRO (350,000), the capital, is a great center of trade and manufactures. Alexandria (175,000) is the chief seaport. HistorlcaL — Eg3T>t is a coimtry of vast antiquity, and the Egyptians are the oldest nation of which we have a recorded history. They were a highly civilized people at the time of Abraham, 2,200 years before Christ. The ancient kingdom of Egypt was overthrown by Alexander, and it remained under Greek rulers till it was subdued by the Romans. In the 7th century A. D. it fell under the dominion of the Saracens. The whole course of the Nile is dotted with remains of ancient monu- ments and works of art, such as pyramids, temples, obelisks, palaces, tombs, etc. The interiors of the tombs are frescoed in the most beautiful manner, and all the monu- ments are ci 7cred with picture-writing called hieroglyphics. dent states, inhabits people, numbering 1 tianity, but are iml 3. Industries. — i rinds, coffee, etc. ; n tery ; and sell to thi 4. Places. — GoN: leading state. Mas'suah, on th belongs to Egypt TE L Divisions. — T ranean countries of Algeria, Tunis, and Morocco and Tunii Algeria is a colonial Tripoli is a tributary 2. Physical Pea through Morocco, i to the Mediterraneq east to the Great that of Spain and PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. m^ To draw the Hap of An-lca, see section on Map- Drawing, pace 13'.). 1. Description. — Africa, surrounded on all sides by the ocean, except where it is united to Asia by the Isthmus of Suez, is naturally a great southern peninsula of the Eastern Continent ; but the art of man, by cutting a canal across the Isthmus of Suez, has ren- dered it an island-continent. 2. Position. — Africa is mainly in the equa- torial region ; it occupies the entire width of the Torrid Zone, — its northern section extending into the North Temperate Zone and its southern section into the South Tem- perate Zone. Note. — Africa extends between the parallels of 37° north and 85° south latitude. 3. Outline. — It has few projections of land or inbreakiugs of the sea, and is the most regular of aU the grand divisions. Its figure resembles that of an iiTegular triangle. 4. In size it ranks next to Asia : its area is three times as great as that of Europe. 6. General Surface. — The surface consists chiefly of a great plateau, with two mountain regions, the one in the northern, the other in the southern section. In the northern section the highlands extend east and west; in the southern section, north and soutL 6. The mountains of Africa are : (1) the Atlas range, in the northwest ; (2) the moun- tains of Abyssinia ; (3) the mountains of the Great Lake Region, aroimd the sources of the MAP STUDIES ON AFRICA Situation and Outline. — 1. What sea north ? — east t 2. Wliat ocean west ? — east ? 3. Where is the Isthmus of Suez ? 4. What port of Africa is crossed by the Equator ? 6. What is the latitude of Cape Bon t — of Cape Agulhas [a-^iyai] 1 6. What is the most eastern cape ? — the most western ? 7. Where is the Cajie of Good Hope I 8. What great inbreaking of the ocean on the west coast f 9. What groups of islands off the northwest coast ? 10. What large island off the southeast coast ? 11. Where is the island of Zanzibar ? Snifaofl. — L Where are the Atlas Mountains ? 2. Which coast is the more mountainous, the eastern or the western ? 3. Notice on the Physical Map the great highland region of the eastern shore. 4. In what mountains do the eastern branches of the Nile take their rise ? 5. Name two peaks in the range east of the great ei|ua- torial lakes. 6. What mountain-range in the region north of the Gulf of Ouinrji 7 7. Notice on the I'hysical Map the Kong Mountains. 8. What mountains in South Africa ? 9. Point out the Sahara, on the Physical Map. Lakes and Rivers. — 1. What great lakes are drained by the Nile T 2. Where is Lake Tanganyika [lan-gan-yt/ka\ f — Nyas'sa I^ke f — Lake Tchad [chad] ? 3. What branch of the Nile rises in the lake region t 4. What branches rise in the Abys- sinian Mountains ! 5. Through how many degrees of latitude does the Nile flow I 6. What great river flows into the Gulf of Guinea ? 7. What is the chief river of Southeastern Africa ? 8. Where is Orange River ? — the Senegal' f — the Gambia \ 9. Notice on the Physical Map the Nile, Niger, and Zambe'si rivers. Countries and Regiona. — 1. What four countries in the region of the Atlas Mountains ? 2. Locate the cities of Morocco, Algiers', Tu'nis, Trip'oU. 3. What divisions occupy the Nile Valley ? 4. Which is the principal seaport ? 5. Where is Cairo ? — Mas'suah ? 6. Where is Khartoom' f — Gon'dar ? 7. Where is the Oasis of Fczzan' ? 8. Name a city there. 9. Name a city in the Sahara. 10. What city near I .ake Tchad ? 11. What countries border on the Gulf of Guinea ? 12. In what country is Freetown? — Monrovia? 13. What country in Southern Africa! 14. Where is Cape Town ? 15. What small countries northeast ? 16. Where ia the city of iSanzibor' ! — Mozambiiiue' I 120 AFRICA. Nile, in which is Kilimanjaro' (20,000 feet high), the loftiest peak of Africa ; (4) the mountains of South Africa, terminating in Table Mountain, in Cape Colony ; (5) the Kong Mountains, along the Guinea coast. 7. Desert — The great feature of African geography is the im- mense Sahara, or desert, in the northern part ; it occupies about one fourth of the total surface. 8. Bivers. — The African rivers are few in number, though some of them are noted for their gi-eat length. The most important are the Nile, Niger, Congo, Zambesi, and Orange, i^-yi ^''^^'^""T' Names. irue. Niger. Congo. Zambesi, Orange. Length. 4,000 3,000 1,600 1,000 Description. Rises in the equatorial lake region, and flows nortli into the Mediterranean. Rises in the Kong Mountains in "Western Africa, and after flow- ing nortliward into an interior depression, tunis soutliward into the Gulf of Guinea. Rises in Equatori ' * principal lake of Central Africa. 10. Climate : Heat — Africa is the hottest of This is due to its stretch- ing through the entire width of the Torrid Zone, to its vast continuous ex- tent from east to west, and to its immense desert, from the arid surface of which the heat of the sixn's rays is reflected with intense power. IL Climate: Uoistare. — As regards moisture Africa comprises two regions, — the region of tropical rains and the region of scanty rains. The region of the tropi- cal rains nearly coincides PORT SAID. TERMINUS OF SUEZ CANAL. C.Delgado/ Q COMORO • cr /■- Notii. tutes Egypt proper ; but Egyp- tian rale has of late been estab- lished over an extensive region to the south, officially called Soiidan'. It comprises Lower Nubia, Sennaar', Dong'ola, Taka, Kordofan', the provinces of the White Nile and Khartoom, with the region southward to the Equator. 2. The government is a monarchy ; but is not quite independent, as the ruler, called the khedive (that is, viceroy), must pay tribute to the Sultan of Turkey. ABYSSINIA AND THE BAEBAEY STATES. 121 ' -T. «<','■ I. EGYPT PROPER. a Physical Feature*. — The river Nile is the most striking physical featrire in Egypt : with- out this beneficent stream the whole country would be a hot and arid desert. Neariy aR the pro- ductive and habitable parta an comprised in its valley and delta The Nile valley is from two to ten miles wide ; the delta is about ninety miles in its greatest extent from south to nort.h, and about eighty miles in breadth along the Mediterranean coast. Owing to the annual inundation of the Nile, this is one of the most fertile re- gions on the globa Note. — The inundations of the Nile, which are occasioned by the periodical rains in the Abyssinian Mountains, begin about the middle of June, attain their greatest height in September, and subside about tiie end of October. Before its subsidence, tlie muddy river-water deposits a fertilizing sediment, half an inch tliick, over all the land, and thus annually renews the productiveness of the soil. 4. Agriculture is the principal occupation : wheat, barley, maize, rice, and cotton form the chief crops ; tobacco, sugar, and indigo are also produced to a considerable extent. 5. The commerce is considerable, for, in addition to the products of the country, large quantities of gold-dust, ivory, and ostrich- feathers are brought by caravan from the interior of Africa. The Suez ship-canal was completed in 1869, and has proved of great commercial importance. Note. — By the Suez Canal the Atlantic and Indian oceans are connected. The total length of the canal, from Port Said, the Mediterranean terminus, to Suez, on the Red Sea, is about one hundred miles. Steamships between French and English ports and Bombay pass through this canal. & Population, etc. — The population (about 5,000,000) is a great mixture of races, — Copts, Arabs, Turks, Greeks, etc. 7. Cities — Cairo (350,000), the capital, is a great center of trade and manufactures. Alexandria (175,000) is the chief seaport. HistoiicaL — Egypt is a country of vast antiquity, and the Egyptians are the oldest nation of which we have a recorded history. They were a highly civilized people at the time of Abraham, 2,200 years before Christ. The ancient kingdom of Egypt was overthrown by Alexander, and it remained under Greek rulers till it was subdued by the Romans. In the 7th century A. D. it fell under the dominion of the Saracens. The whole course of the Nile is dotted with remains of ancient monu- ments and works of art, such as pyramids, temples, obelisks, palaces, tombs, etc. The interiors of the tombs are frescoed in the most beautiful manner, and all the monu- ments are ci /cred with picture-writing called hieroglyphics. II. NUBIA AND KORDOFAN. 8. Description. — Except ou the immediate margin of the Nile, the northern and middle parts of Nubia consist almost entirely of rocks and sand. Towards the south and in Kordofan' the soil is fertile and the vegetation luxuriant. 9. Industries. — The population (about 2,000,000) is chiefly en- gaged in the culture of dhourra, barley, tobacco, indigo, senna, and coffee, and in forwarding to !%ypt skins and hides, gum- arabic, and gold and sUver. 10. Oovemment, etc. — Nubia and Kordofan are subject to Egypt, and ruled by Egyptian governors. Kliartoom is the capital and center of trade of Nubia, and El Obeid [o-bai/eed] is the chief place of Kordofan. VIEW OF THE NILE AND THE PYRAMIDS. ABYSSINIA. L Physical Featurea — Abys- sinia is an elevated plateau, ridged by rugged mountains, between which are fertile valleys covered with luxuriant vegetation. The low coast along the Eed Sea is intensely hot, but the highlands are cooler. Abyssinia, unlike I^ypt, has abundant rains. The drainage of nearly the whole country be- longs to the Nile. 2. Political Divisioiis. — The coimtry, for a long time subject to a single ruler, is now divided between several petty indepen- dent states, inhabited by warlike and semi-barbarous tribes. The people, numbering about four millions, profess a sort of Chris- tianity, but are immoral and degraded. 3. Industries. — The people raise various grains, and dates, tama- rinds, cofiee, etc. ; manufacture coarse cloth, leather, and rude pot- tery ; and sell to the Egyptians coffee, ivory, and gums. 4. Places. — Gon'dar is the principal center of popidation in the leading state. Mas'suah, on the Eed Sea, the chief seaport of the country, belongs to Egypt THE BARBARY STATES. L Divisions. — The Barbaiy States include all the Mediter- ranean countries of Africa, except Egypt. They comprise Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli. Morocco and Tunis are independent monarchies. Algeria is a colonial possession of France. Tripoli is a tributary country of Turkey. It includes the oasis of Fezzan'. 2. Physical Features. — The Atlas Mountain range extends through Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis, sloping on the northwest to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, and on the south- east to the Great Desert. The climate of this region resembles that of Spain and Italy, though it is somewhat warmer and drier. 3. Productiona — The chief productions of Northern Africa are dates and olives, wheat, corn, millet, and barley. 4. Pursuits. — Agriculture fonns the leading occupation ; in the liill country tlie raising of sheep and goats is largely followed. The native manufactures include silk and woolen stuffs, shawls, carpets, fire-arms, and gunpowder. There is a considerable caravan trade with Central Africa across the Sahara. The traders obtain from the negro countries gold, gums, ostrich-plumes, elephant-tusks, and slaves, in exchange for cloths and other manufactured articles. 5. The population of the BarUiry States includes Berbers, or Kabyles, who live in the mountains, and are supposed to be the descendants of the aborigines ; Moors, wlio occupy the cities, and are engaged in trade and rude manufactures ; and Arabs, who 122 AFKICA. French colo- dwell in tents, and lead a wandering pastoral life, nists are numerous in Algeria. 6. Cities. — The leading cities are Morocco and Fez, the capi- tals of Morocco and its chief commercial centers ; Algiers, the capital of Algeria ; and Tunis and Tripoli, respectively the lead- ing cities of the states of the same names. < *■ ^ > THE SAHARA. CR0S81N0 THE QREAT DESERT, L Description. — The Sahara, or Great Desert, is a parched, sandy, and desolate waste, occupy- ing one fourth of the surface of Africa, or an area equal to about two thirds that of Europe. The only habitable parts are the oases : fertile spots covered with date-palms, which offer their grateful shade, refreshing water, and sweet fruit to the weary caravans. 2. The inhabitants probably do not number over 100,000 souls. They comprise several tribes, — Moors, Tuaregs, and Teboos, — wanderers who feed their flocks and herds on the scanty herbage as they pass from oasis to oasis, and who subsist on the milk of their camels, on dates from the oases, and on what they can plun- der from the caravans. 3. Commerce. — The only commercial products of this desolate region are ostrich-feathers, gums, and salt. 4. ■ Caravans. — Numerous caravans, sometimes consisting of thousands of camels, cross the desert by various routes from the Barbary States to Central Africa, occupying from thirty to ninety days in the journey. It would be utterly impossible for man to traverse the Sahara without the aid of the camel, which is the only animal that can eat the coarse herbage growing in the desert, and the only animal that, without water, can pass long periods of time on the burning sands. SOUDAN. L Extent — Soudan (i. e. Belad-es-Soodan, or Land of the Blacks) is the name applied to the vast, indefinite, and imperfectly explored region of Central Africa, extending between the Sahara on the north and the equatorial region on the south, — an area probably as great as that of the United States. 2. Physical Featsres. — This region consists of extensive plains, which, owing to the copious rains, is covered with luxuriant vege- tation. It includes the basin of Lake Tchad and the chief part of the river Niger. Its climate is tropical, but not unhealthfuL 3. The population of Central Africa numbers many millions, and is divided between the races of pure negro blood and the FeUatahs. 4. The Fellatahs are a mixed race, partly of negro and partly of Berber descent. They are Mohammedans in religion, and supe- rior to the negroes in the scale of civilization. 6. The negro tribes live in villages, and cultivate the soil in a rude manner; they make iron weapons and implements; they weave and dye cotton cloth, and manufacture mats and other arti- cles of household use. The women do most of the work, while fighting, hunting, and fishing are the principal occupations of the men. The negroes have no written language, no books, and no schools; hence they are ignorant and superstitious. 6. The commercial productions are gold-dust, ivory, and ostrich- feathers. The slave-trade is carried on ; the merchants engaged in it are principally Moors, who form caravans for the purpose of crossing the Desert. 7. Trading points of note in Soudan are : Yakoba (said to have a population of 150,000), Sokotoo, Kano, Timbuktoo, and Kuka. COUNTRIES OF THE WESTERN COAST. L Extent — "Western Africa extends along the coast of the At- lantic from the border of the Desert southward to the latitude of Cape Frio, — a range of between 3,000 and 4,000 miles. 2. Physical Features. — Inland from the belt of low sandy coast are found fertile alluvial bottoms, and to the east of these wooded or grassy table-lands. The greater part of the country is covered by immense forests with dense underwood, which afford shelter to innumerable wild animals, formidable reptiles, and myriads of destructive insects. The more remarkable trees are the baobab, gum-acacias, and oU- palms. The climate is tropical 3. People and Industry. • — The inhabitants are almost entirely negroes, resembling the natives of Central Africa. They live in villages composed of mud huts, cultivate the soil, plant gardens of fruit-trees, possess cows, sheep, goats, and poultry in con- siderable numbers, and manufacture cotton cloth, earthenware, leather, and metal goods. They are very ignorant, cruel, and superstitious, and frequently engage in wars for the purpose of making prisoners, who are sold as slaves. European vessels visit the coast, and supply the people with gunpowder, arms, cotton cloth, spirits, cutlery, beads, etc., receiving in exchange pabn-oil, wax, gums, feathers, ivory, etc. 4. Divisions. — Western Africa is divided, north of the Equator, into Senegambia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Guinea ; south of that line, into Loango, Congo, Angola, and Benguela. Senegambia is the region watered by the rivers Senegal and Gambia. England, France, and Portugal have trading stations along the coast. Sierra Leone is a settlement established by the British as a refuge for liberated slaves. Freetown is the chief place. EAST AND SOUTH AFRICA. 123 Uberia, originally founded for the free negroes and emancipated slaves of the United States (daring the time when slavery existed in our country), was made an indeiiendent negro republic in 1848. The capital is Monrovia. Ooinea extends along the shores of the Gulf of Guinea, and includes the native kingdom of Ashantee, chief town Cumasne ; Dahomey, chief town Abomey ; and Yorilia, chief town AlAeotinUa. Loango, Congo, Angola, and Bengtiela are extensive but little known coun- tries, iiilittbited by various negro tribes, more degraded than those north of the Equa- tor. The idave-trade still flourishes along the coast EAST AND SOUTH AFRICA. L East Africa comprises all the countries and regions on the eastern side of the continent from the Gulf of Aden to Delagoa Bay, and from the Indian Ocean to the Great Lake region. 2. Surface. — In general it forms a moderately elevated plateau, studded with several magnificent lakes, and Iwunded, coastwise, by mountain-ranges, the highest summit of which is Kilimanjaro. The longest rivers are the Zambezi and the head-stream of the Nile, which passes through lakes Victoria and Albert 3. Divisions. — This region is divided into three territories : the Somali territory, Zanquebar, and the Portuguese possessions. The Somali are tribes of native herdsmen. The chief place in their country is Bertera, on the Gulf of Aden. A great fair is held there annually, at which are assembled Egyptians, Nubians, Abyssinians, Arabs, Persians, all bringing the prod- ucts and merchandise of their respective countries, and exchanging them for ivory, gums, myrrh, and coffee. Zanzibar. — This region, stretching from the Equator southward to Cape Del- gado, forms a separate sovereignty under Arab rule. It exports considerable quan- tities of rice, sugar, molasses and AsIl Zanzibar (80,000) is the principal place. The Portuguese Possessions reach from Cape Delgado to Delagoa Bay, and include the territories of Mozambiiiue and Sofala. The native Blacks are in a wretched condition. The slave-trade, though condemned by the Portuguese gov- ernment, is vigorously carried on by its servants. The city of Mozambique is the center of Portngnrae power. 4. South Africa is the seat of three British colonies and of two small Dutch republics. 6. Prodneta. — Most of the products of Southern Europe can be PORT NATAL. grown in the valleys and along the coast, but raising cattle and sheep is the principal pursuit of the white settlers. 6. The political divisions of South Africa are: — Divixiona Characteristics. Cap« Colony. Katal. Orange Free State. ~1 Transvaal RepublicJ Oriqua-Land. Is the largest of the British possessions iu South AMca. Cape Town is the capital. The native inhabitants are Hottentots, Kaffirs, and Bushmen. Is the otiier British colony. Tlie native population arc called Zulus. These are Dutch settlements that rank as independent states. Is a small British colonial settlement, which includes the rich dia- mond-district of South Africa. ISLANDS. L Madagascar, the largest island of Africa, has great natural re- sources. The ruling people are of Malay stock. They have long practiced such arts as smelting, weaving, and rope-making ; they are skillful in the manufacture of jewelry, carpets, and cutlasses. 2. Maoritias, a small volcanic island east of Madagascar, belongs to Great Britain. Reunion Island belongs to France. 3. St Helena, twelve hundred miles distant from the African coast, is a small island, noted as the place of the banishment and death of Napoleon Bonaparte. TOPICAL REVIEW OF AFRICA. Names. Popolation. Capitals. Largest Cities and Popniatlon. Form of Oovenunent, etc. ^gJV^ 5,500,000 Cairo. Cairo (350,000). Monarchy, partly subject to Turkey. Ruler styled the Khedive of Egypt. Knbia. 2,000,000 Khartoom. Khartoom (50,000). Ruled by an Egyptian governor. Abyssinia. 3,000,000 Gondar (7,000). Various chiefs of tribes or petty kings. Korooco. 6,000,000 Morocco and Fez. Fez (100,000). Absolute monarchy. Ruler called Emperor. Algeria. 3,000,000 Algiers. Algiers (55,000). Colonial dependency of France. Govemor-GeneraL Tonii. 2,100,000 Tunis. Tunis (130,000). Monarchy. TripoU. 2,000,000 TriiK)li. Tripoli (30,000). Turkish tributary state. Ruled by a Pasha. The Sahara. 100,000 Agades (7,000). Tribal government, nnder Sheika. Sondan and Equatorial AMoa. 80,000,000 Yakoba (150,000). Tribal government, under Sheiks. Senegambia. Native tribes, and European trading-stations. Sierra Leone. Freetown. Freetown (20,000). Colonial dependency of England. Uberia. 800,000 Monrovia. Monrovia (3,000). Republic, under a President Guinea Coast. St Paul de Loanda (20,000^ Colonial dependency of Portugal, and negro kingdoms. Cape Colony and Natal. 500,000 Capetown. Cape Town (35,000). Colonial dependency of England. Governor-General. Orange Free State. 1 Transvaal Bepablic. 67,000 Kloemfontein. Bloemfontein (2,500). ^ 280,000 Pretoria. Pretoria (4,500). Small independent republics. Kadagasear. 2,500,000 Tananarive. Tananarive (80,000). Kingdom. Zanqnebar. 800,000 Zanzibar. Zanzibar 80,000). Sultanate. Chief ruler called Sultan. AUSTRALASIA. 125 AUSTRALASIA. Australasia comprises the continental island of Australia and the large islands of New Guinea, New Zealand, Tasmania (or Van Diemen Land), together with many small islands and groups of islands adjacent to Australia. AUSTRALIA. L Size. — Australia, the greatest of islands, is two thirds as large as the United States. Its extreme length is 2,500 miles, and its extreme width 1,900 miles. It has a coast-line but little indented by the ocean. 2. Surface. — The interior, which has been only imperfectly ex- plored, is a vast plain or slightly elevated plateau. Along the east- em shore extends a mountain system, with an elevation about the same as that of the Appalachian system in the United States. This constitutes the principal highland region. A secondary highland extends along the western coast 3. Rivers. — The only important river system is that of the Mur- ray. This stream with its affluents, the Lachlan and the Darling, drains the eastern or greater highland. 4. Climate. — The northern half is in the Torrid Zone, and has a tropical climate. The southern section has a climate similar to that of the Mediterranean countries of Europe. As Australia is situated in the southern hemisphere, the seasons are the opposite of ours: thus, it is hottest at Christmas and coldest in our midsum- mer ; the Australian farmer sows his seed when we are gathering our harvests, and the reverse. 5. Vegetation. — The forest vegetation is peculiar, the native trees being evergreens, and some shedding their bark instead of their leaves : acacias, gum-trees (the eucalypti), and gigantic tree-ferns are the chief forest-trees. 6. AniTnals. — The wild animals are quite as peculiar as the vegetation. The largest is the kangaroo, which is a pouched ani- mal. A very remarkable animal is the ornithorhynchus ; it ia a water animal, shaped like a beaver, has web feet, and a bill like that of a duck. 7. Natives. — The aborigines of Australia are of a distinct race from that inhabiting the Indian Archipelago or the islands of Poly- nesia, and are called Papuan-negroes. They are black, with curly hair, and are very low in the scale of civilization. They do not exceed 50,000 in number, and are fast dying out. Hlatory. — Australia was discovered by the Dutch in 1606, and was named Now Holland. In 1788 tlio English founded a convict settlement in New South Wales, but in 1 837 transportation to New South Wales was abolished. Gold was discovered in 1851, after which time the country was rapidly settled by emigrants from the British Isles and other jMrts of the world. 8. Divisions. — Australia is a British possession, and is divided MAP STUDIES ON AUSTRALASIA AND POLYNESIA. Australasia. — 1. In what hemisphere is Australia ? 2. What tropic crosses it near the middle ? 3. By what waters is it surrounded ? 4. What gulf in the north- em part ? 5. What great inbreaking of the sea in the southern part ? 6. Where is Cape York ? — Northwest Capo ? 7. What parts are mountainous ? 8. What are the principal branches of the Murray River ? 9. Is Australia well supplied with rivers ? 10. State the location of the following colonies : Victoria ; — New South Wales ; — South Australia. 11. Where is Melbourne ? — Sydney ? — Adelaide ? 1. What large island north of Aostralia T 2. What strait between the two ? 3. Measure by the scale of miles the length of New Guinea. 4. In what zone is it ! 5. What island soutli of Australia f 6. What is its principal city I 7. What two islands 1,200 miles east of Southern Australia ? 8. What is the name of the British colony occupying these two islands t 9. In what zone is it f 10. What is the capital ? 11. AVlicre are Solomon Islands ? — New Hebrides I 12. Where is New C^aledonia ? Polynesia.— 1. What group of islands near 160° W. Longitude? 2. What tropic north ? 3. Measure the distance from the Sandmch Islands to San Fran- cisco. 4. What is the capital ? 5. On what island is it ? 6. On what island is the volcano of Mauna Loa f 7. Where is the Man|uesas [mar-kaiymii] gi-oup ? 8. In what group is the island of Tahiti [ta-hi'ty] ? 9. What city on this isliuid ? 10. What two groui)8 east of the Feejee Islands ? 11. What group north of Friendly Islands ? 126 AUSTEALASIA AND POLYNESIA. into five provinces or colonies, namely : 1. Victoria. 2. New South Wales. 3. Queensland. 4. South Australia. 5. West Australia. 9. The government in each colony consists of a governor appointed in England, a legislative council, and a legislative assembly elected by the people. 10. Besources. — Its rich mines of gold, copper, iron, and coal, and its great extent of agricultural and grazing lands, constitute the natural wealth of Australia. IL The leading industries are mining, agriculture, and stock- raising. Mining. — Australia ranks as one of the greatest of gold-mining countries. Its copi)er deposits are tlie richest in the world. Stock-raising. — The vast plains of Australia make fine "sheep-ranges"; and sheep have multiplied so rapidly that Australia is now the greatest wool-producing country in the world. Immense herds of cattle also roam over the plains ; and liides, horns, tallow, and preserved beef are exported to England in great quantities. 12. Commerce. — Axistralia being a colony of Great Britain, its trade is mostly carried on with the mother-country. It exports wool, gold, copper, hides, tallow, and preserved meats, and receives in exchange the cotton and woolen goods, iron, and hardware of England. 13. Civilization. ■ — The colonies of Australia are among the most flourishing and prosperous of the British possessions, and in civili- zation rank with the foremost nations. Great attention is paid to education, and Sydney and Melbourne have universities. 14. Cities. — Melbourne (280,000), the capital of Victoria, is the great commercial and monetary center of Australia. Sydney, in New South Wales, is the second city in importance. Adelaide, the chief city of South Australia, is largely engaged in manufac- turing and trade. Brisbane is the chief city of Queensland. Perth is the chief city of West Australia. NEW GUINEA, TASMANIA, NEW ZEALAND, AND SMALLER ISLANDS. I. NEW GUINEA. L Size. — New Guinea, next to Australia the largest of the Australasian Islands, Is in area the second island on the globe, Borneo ranking as the third. 2. Vegetation. — The vegetation of this island resembles that of the East India Islands more than that of Australia. Many kinds of palm-trees grow luxuriantly, and the coasts are covered with a thick jungle of matted vegetation. 3. People. — There are a few white settlements on the coast, but the greater part of the inhabitants belong to the Papuan-negro race, and are chiefly engaged in fishing. II. TASMANIA. 4 Description. — Tasmania (or Van Diemen Land) lies south of Australia, which it resembles in its vegetation and animals. It is a British colony. 5. Population. — The first white inhabitants were convicts trans- ported from England, and a considerable part of the population are of convict descent. But this island has now ceased to be a penal settlement, greatly to the welfare of the colony. 6. Industries. — The people are engaged principally in agricul- ture, sheep-raising, and the whale-fishery. 7. The capital and chief place is Hobart Town. III. NEW ZEALAND. 8. Situation, etc. — New Zealand comprises two islands, situated 1,200 miles east of Australia. It is larger than Great Britain. 9. In government it is a separate British colony. 10. Characteristics. — These islands have a temperate climate, fer- tile soil, luxuriant vegetation, and great mineral wealth. 11. Occupations. — Agriculture, pasturage, mining, and commerce are actively carried on. 12. Inhabitants. — The native inhabitants of New Zealand belong to the Malay race and are known as Maories. They possess many qualities superior to those of savage nations in general. They are, however, rapidly declining before the white colonists, with whom tliey are at intervals engaged in fierce wars. The white popula- tion numbers over 400,000. 13. The capital and chief place is Wellington. IV. SMALLER ISLANDS. 14 Names. — Of the smaller Australasian islands or groups, the principal are the islands of New Britain and New Ireland, the groups of the Solomon, New Hebrides, and Loyalty Islands, and the island of New Caledonia. 15. Description. — These islands are in general highly productive, yielding in abundance tropical food-plants and valuable timber- trees. The native inhabitants of all these islands belong to the Papuan-negro race. POLYNESIA. GENERAL SKETCH. 1. Polynesia, meaning "many islands," is the name given to the numerous small islands and groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean not included in Australasia or Malaysia. Note. — For the botmdaries of Polynesia, see Map, page 124. The greater num- ber of the Polynesian isles are included within twelve groups, or clusters. Four of these clustei's — the Sandwich Islands, Marshall Islands, Caroline Islands, and Ladrones — lie north of the Equator. The eight lying south of the Equator are the Feejee, the Friendly, the Navigator, the Cook, the Austral, the Society Islands, with the Low Archipelago, and the Marquesas Islands. 2. Physical Formation. — The Polynesian Islands are naturally divided into two classes, — the mountainous islands, which are mostly of volcanic origin, and the coral islands. The Sandwich Islands, the Ladrones, the Society Islands, and the Marquesas, with some others, belong to the volcanic, moun- tainous class; the rest of the islands, very numerous but very small, belong to the class of coral islands. 3. The coral islands are generally of circular or semicircular form, consisting mostly of a low belt or reef which encloses a lagoon con- nected with the ocean by an opening : islands of this description are called atolls. Most of the volcanic islands are surrounded by AN ATOLL. POLYNESIA. 127 SOCNE IN POLYNESIA. coral reefs at some distance from the island, called harrier-reefs. These reefs render navigation difficult and dangerous. Note. — The coral reels are pnxluced by the lime secretions of myriads of little polyps, that cannot exist at a greater depth than two hundred feet, and that cannot live above the surface. The polyp belongs to the lowest order of animal life. It consists of a little oblong sack of jelly, closetl at one end, but open at the other, and surrounded by feelers or tentaides set like the rays of a star. Multitudes of these little sacks secrete lime which forms the strong skeleton called coral. The pores in a piece of coral were the homes of the living polyps, when they were in the ocean. Countless millions of these polyps, beginning at Xkko depth of one liuiidn'd or two hundred feet, on some sunken mountain or submarine plateau, gradually build up to the surface, and then widen out their limestone wall. Next the sea begins to throw np broken pieces of coral, shells, and drift-wood. A little soil accumulates, seeds are drifted upon it, and vegetation springs up. Binls and insects make it their home, and when the cocoa-nut grows on the narrow belt of soil that encircles the lagoon, man comes in his canoes and builds his huts upon it. 4. Products. — These islands combine the three things requisite for luxuriant vegetation, namely, heat, moisture, and a fertile soil. The principal indigenous food-plants are the bread-fruit, yam, sweet- potato, taro-root, arrow-root, banana, plantain, and cocoa-nut. Cof- fee, sugar, cotton, rice, and, in fact, most of the fruits and grains of the tropical and temperate zones of Asia, have been introduced into these islands. 6. Hative Races. — The native races by which the larger part of Polynesia is inhabited are altogether different from the Papuan negroes of Australia. They belong for the most part to the Malay (or brown) type of mankind. These South Sea Islanders, as they are called, are seafaring peo- ple, and display great skill and boldness in the management of their canoes. Their natural intelligence shows them to bo capable of a high degree of civilization ; but they have been rapidly dying out since they came in contact with the white race. The whole population of all the Polynesian Islands does not exceed haK a millioa t mmm > ISLAND GROUPS IN DETAIL. SANDWICH ISLANDS. L Sitntition. — The Sandwich Islands, the most important group, are situated just a little south of the Tropic of Cancer, between 150° and 160° west longitude. The largest island is Hawaii which is about the size of Connecticut. 2, Oorenuaent and People. — These islands form an independent nation governed by a king or queea The entire population of the kingdom does not exceed seventy thousand. Most of the Sandwich- Islanders profess Christianity, and are partly civilized. 3. The principal exports of the Sandwich Islands are sugar, molasses, rice, cocoa-nut oil, cocoa-nuts, and oranges. 4. HoNOLU'LU (12,000), the capital and principal seaport, is a famous resort for the whaling vessels of the North Pacifia Hawaii is noted for its great volcanic peak, Mauna Loa, thirteen thousand feet high. Kilau'ea, a lower lateral crater of Mauna Loa, half-way up tlie mountain-side, is nine miles in circumference, and is sometimes filled with a fiery lake of red-hot lava. After filling np to the brim, the lava frcijuently breaks out, and flows in a glowing river down the mountain slope to the ocean, a distance of forty miles. OTHER CROUPS. 5. The Caroline Group embraces a great number of small coral islets, situated near the Equator, in the Eastern Hemisphere, north of New Guinea. The natives of these islands make long voyages in their canoes, which they manage with great skill 6. The Ladrones, north of the Carolines, are a volcanic group. The larger islands are inhabited by Spanish colonists, who have exterminated the native islanders. 7. The Marquesas Islands are French possessions. They contain about 20,000 native inhabitants, who are tall and robust, but very savage, and who practice cannibalism. 8. The Society Islands contain a population of about 20,000, the majority of whom have been converted to Christianity. The island of Tahiti is under French rule. The various foreigners settled in these islands carry on some commerce, consisting chiefly in the export of pearl-shells, sugar, cocoa-nut oil, and arrow-root 9. The Friendly Islands, so named by Captain Cook on account of the hospitable reception given to him by their inhabitants, are peopled by from 20,000 to 30,000 natives, most of whom have been converted by the missionaries. The islands are occasionally visited for commercial purposes, chiefly for the sake of cocoa-nuts, which are particularly abundant 10. The Feejee Oroup comprises over 300 islands, of which about one half are inhabited. These islands are under British rule. The number of islanders is estimated at 200,000. The Feejeeans ai-e among the most warlike and most skillful of the Polynesians. All of them were formerly ferocioas cannibals, but through the influence of the missionaries many have now given up the practice of eating human flesL 128 GENERAL EEVIEW OF THE WOELD. GENERAL REVIEW OF THE WORLD. I. CONTINENTS. C Asia. Eastern II < Africa. I Europe. Western , COMPARISON OF CONTINENTS. Old World. 1. Has its greatest length from ^ east to west, or in the direction [ Difference. Similarity. Similarity. Similarity. of the parallels. 2. Has its greatest width aZong 1 the parallel of 50° N. J 3. Runs down to a great penin- sula (Africa), which ends in a cape (Cape of Good Hope). 4. The great southern peninsula ^ (Africa) is connected with the I main mass by an isthmus j (Isthmus of Suez). J 5. Nearly all the important pen- ~i insulas jut southerly into the \ Similarity. ocean. J 6. Grand mountain-chains ex- tend east and west. 7. Highest mountain-peaks rise near the Tropic of Cancer. Difference. . Difference. Ill GRAND DIVISIONS OF LAND. Names. Asia Africa North America South America Europe r North America. L South America. New World. . Has its greatest length from north to south, or in the direc- tion of the meridians. . Has its greatest width along the parallel of 50° N. . Runs down to a great penin- sula (South America), which ends in a cape (Cape Horn). . The great southern peninsula (South America) connected with the main mass by an isthmus (Isthmus of Panama). . Nearly all the important pen- insulas jut southerly into the ocean. , Grand mountain-chains ex- tend north and soTdh. . Highest mountain-peaks rise near the Tropic of Capricorn. Comparative size, Europe as unit of measure. *1 3 2 2 1 IV. THE OCEAN AND ITS BRANCHES. BasiiL Hortheni Basin, or Aiotio Ocean. Soathern Basin, or Antarotio Ocean. Western Basin, or Atlantic Ocean. Eastern Basin, or Pacific Ocean. Bolitheastem Basin, or Indian Ocean. Extent. Extends around the North Pole, and is boimded l>y the northern shores of America, Europe, and Asia, and by the Arctic Circle in the spaces be- tween the continents. Extends from the Antarctic Circle around the South Pole. Bounded on the west by America ; on the east by Europe and Africa; on the north by the Arctic, and the south by the Antarctic Circles ; and divided into north and south by the Equator Enclosed between America on the east ; Asia, the Sunda Islands, and Aus- tralia, on the west; tlie Arctic Circle on the north; the Antarctic on the south; and divided into north and south by the Equator. Bounded by Africa on the west ; the Sunda Islands and Australia on the east; by Southern Asia on the north ; and by the Antarctic Circle on the south. Area. 4,000,000 square miles. Little is known of this im- mense basin ; its naviga- tion is impeded by im- penetrable barriers of ice Sir James Ross, however, in 1841, penetrated to lat 78° 4', or within 840 miles ofthc South Pole. Including inland seas,about 30,000,000 square miles. About 60,000,000 square miles. Estimated at 23,000,000 square miles. Branches. Baffin Bay. White Sea. Gulf of Kara. GulfofObL Unknown. Baltic Sea, with its gulfs. North Sea. Mediterranean Sea. Black Sea. Hudson Bay. Gulf of Mexico. Caribbean Sea. Sea of China. Yellow Sea. Sea of Japan. Sea of Okhotsk. Sea of Kamchatka Behring Strait Gulf of California. Bay of Panama. Bed Sea. Arabian Sea- Persian Gulf. Bay of Bengal V. GREAT PHYSICAL W/iere is each ? Australia. FEATURES. Deaerihe each. Seven largest Islands . . . Papua, or New Guinra. Borneo. Madagascar. Sumatra. Japan Isles. . British Isles. In what mountain system ? Principal Moun- tain Ranges . . Himalaya. Rocky. Andes. Altai. Alps. Highest Mountain Peaks. In Asia, Everest. In South America, Sorata. In Africa, Kilimanjaro. In North America. Mt. St. Elias. . In Europe, Elbruz. Through what cotmtries does each flow t Rivers In order of Commercial Importance. Mississippi. Danube. ■ Yang-tse-Kiano. Plata. St. Lawrence. Describe each. Mississippi. Nile. Seven Amazon. longest . Yenisei. Rivers. YANG-TSE-KlANa Niger. Obi. Where is each? Caspian Sea (salt). Six largest I^alies. Superior. Michigan. Huron. Baikal. Victoria. VI. POPULATION. Asia, (round nomben) 800 m. Europe, 300 m. Africa, 190 m. North America, 60 m. South America, 30 m. Oceania, 20 m. Population by Grand Divisions. Population by Races. Caucasian, 600 m. Mongolian, 550 m. African, 180 m. Malay, 60 m. Indian, 10 m. Total, 1,400 m. Total, 1,400 m. Population by Religions. Buddhists, 450 m. Christians, 400 m. Mohammedans, 200 m. Brahmanists, 175 m. Pagans, 170 m. Jews, 5 ra. Total, 1,400 m. VII Six greatest In Territory. NATIONS. Russian Empire. British Empire. Chinese Empire. United States. Brazil. Turkey. six greatest in Population. Chinese Empire. British Empire. Russian Empire. German Empire. United States. France. six greatest In Political Power. VIII. CITIES. Six I.argest. < London Paris Peking Tokio, or Yeddo New York Constantinople Great Britain. United States. Germany. Russia. France. Austria. (Sim.)-) (2 m.) (If m.) (1 m.) a m.) (1 m.) Rach one million or over. Note. — Many of the populous but unimportant cities of Asia are omitted. Six greatest Se^rarts London. New York. Liverpool. Boston. Bombay. New Orleans. GENERAL REVIEW OF THE WORLD. 129 IX. LEADING COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS. C€>ttOII. MIk. Wool. WhemU UjflTZB StATKS. China. United States. United States. India. Japan. .Australia. Russia. China. Italy. Spain. France. Egypt. France. Austria. Blotw Tobacco. Bngmr. Coffee. China. United Statjsu. Louisiana. Brazil. India. Cuba. CUHA. Java. Japan. Turkey. South America. Arabia. Unitkd Statm. boa. OoaL Gold. SUver. United States. United States. United States. United States. Great Britain. Great Britain. Australia. Mexico. Beuiium. Beloium. KUSSIA. Austria. RC8SIA. AUSTRAUA. Peru. SwED. & Norway. QnlekaUTer. Copper. Tin. Salt. Spain. United States. Great Britain. United States. Austria. Great Britain. Spain. Austria. Caufornia. Chili. Island of Banoa. Spain. Peru. Austria. AUSTRAiJA. Australia. X. LEADING N. Bl« SO" " 49* ~ 4a« •• 41' " 40° " 39° •• 37" 30' " 36° " 38» •• 30° *• 86" " 83° 30" •' 19° " O CEqaator] 18° S. LaU 88° 36° " POINTS OF LATITUDE. Key-Points. Placei of same Latitnde. ilK NOBTB AJUOUCA THIS PAXU-LSL PASSES THKOCCn NosTHERN Lab- ■AOOK AHD SODTBEUI ALASKA. INOBTUEKN PAST or NKWroOXDLAllD. SOI'TUEBI) PABT Ot QCEEll CHAB- LOTTB ISLAXD. . Northern bounflary of ( p.„, WashlnKton Territory. I " . Boston { Chicago. I ROMB. . New York . ■ ( Madrid. Pittsbcbob. I COXSTAlCTUIOrLB. 8aLT LAKE CiTT. . FhlUdelphla ( CotoMBBs, O. ( rEKUIO. !8t. Lodis, Mo. LlSBOK. Mt. Akarat. . San Francisco i RJChhokd, Va. I Athens (Gbekcr), . Nashville Ybddo (Tuiuo). . Savannah ( M*»occo- G»..>uuu>u J JeBUSAIBH. „ , ( Caibo (Eotpt). . NewOrleans j nmoro. . Southern extremity of Floi^ Ida. • Havana Caktob. * City of Mexico Bohbat . Quito. . Callao Fkeetows. . Klo Janeiro . Buenos Ayres } ^apb or Good Hon. I Stdbbt. TEST QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXAMINATION. 1. What is the distance from the North Pole to the South Pole 1 2. What is the exact latitude and longitude of the place where you live I 3. What spot on the earth's surface has neither latitude nor longitude ! 4 Why is the length of the Equator greater than that of any meridian circle ? 6. What causes a difference in time at different points upon the same parallel of latitude ? 6. A and B are at opposite ends of a telegraph. A's time is 12 M. at Greenwich. ' t the same instant B's time is 4.30 P. M. Is B east or west from A, and how many 1? 7. A and B start from Philadelphia. A travels due north 10°, and B travels due west 1 0° : which of them travels the greater distance ! 8. How are differences of climate in the same latitude accounted for ? 9. Why do isothermal lines vary from lines of latitude ? 10. What is the latitude of the tropics and polar circles I 1. What ports of the Grand Divisions of land are croesed by the tropica 1 2. What is the area of the United States ? 3. What Grand Division has nearly the same area as the United States ! 4. What Grand Divisions lie upon the eastern shore of the Atlantic Ocean ? Upon the western ? 6. What Grand Divisions lie upon the eastern shore of the Pacific ! Upon the western ? 6. What three Grand Divisions form nearly a circle round the Arctic Ocean ? 7. What Grand Divisions are wholly in the Northern Hemisphere t & Which are partly in the Southern Hemisphere ? 9. Which has its greatest length from east to west, the New World or the Old World t 10. Which has its greatest length from north to south t m. 1. a 3. 4. 6. In what direction do the great mountain-systems of the New World extend ? In what direction do the great mountain-systems of the Old World extend ? What is the difference between a plain and a jilatean t How does North America compare in outline with South America t How does the outline of South America compare with that of Africa ? 6. Where do the Eastern and Western continents approach each other the most closely ? 7. Whether do the minority of riven flow Mstward or westward T 8. AVTiy does the Nile grow smaller as it approaches the sea, while the Missis- sippi grows larger ? 9. In what direction do most of the great peninsulas of the world project ? 10. A line drawn south from New York would traversa what part of South America ? IV. L What ocean receives the greater amount of drainage, the Atlantic or the Pacific? 2. Name all the countries around the Mediterranean, beginning at the northwest. 3. Is Russia a mountainous country ? Is Switzerland ? — Belgium ? — Spain ? 4. What ocean occupies more space than all the land on the earth's surface ! 5. What waters are connected by the following imi)ortant straits : Gibraltar? — Dover ? — Bosphorus ? — Skager Rack ? — Malacca t 6. Locate the following noted capes : Horn ; — Good Hope ; — St. Roi^ue ; — Verde ; Hatteras ; — Mendocino ; — Race ; — North ; — Cod ; — Sandy HooL 7. Name the three freest nations on the earth. 8. What is the only monarchy in South America ! 9. What two important republics in Europe f 10. What nation has possessions in so many parts of the world that it is said the sun never sets on her dominions ! V. 1. How do grain-ships from San Francisco reach Liverpool J 2. What countries supply the world with diamonds ? 3. What effect has the great production of petroleum had on the whale-fishery f 4. What countries supply india-rubber ! . 5. How does Africa, as a tropical continent, differ from South America f 6. What are the chief commercial centers of North America ? 7. Trace a water-route from Chicago to Yedda 8. What States in the Union have most coal t 9. What is the population of the United States t 10. What nations of Europe have nearly the same population as the United States t VI Name the principal countries in which the F.nglish language is spoken. What nation forms the most progressive representative of the Mongolian race ? In what part of the world is cannibalism still practiced ! Whore are the following wheat ports : Odessa > — Chicago ! — San Frandsco ? — Valparaiso ? 6. Under what dominion is the Holy Land at present ? 6. What nation has been semi-civilized but unprogreadve for four thousand years ? 1. 2. a 4. 130 A SYSTEM OF MAP-DEAWING. B^f E. A.. AIVr> A.. C. A.I?G^f%Lll. This system of Map-Drawing is substantially the same as that originally prepared by the authors and published in 1865. Such improvements have been introduced, however, as the pradlical workings of the system have shown to be important. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. THE study of geography consists principally in a study of the form and locality of the features of the earth's surface. Maps give a much better idea of the form and locahty of geographical features than can be obtained from descriptions only; hence, maps should be the principal objects of study in geography. The pupil commits his lesson in text to memory, and for a recitation, he repeats it to the teacher as given by the author. In studying maps the same rule should be observed; that is, the maps should be committed to memory, and for a recitation they should be reproduced as given in the book. That form is easiest remembered which the hand is taught to trace. The exercise of the mind, needed to teach the hand to trace a form, impresses that form upon the mind. As the study of maps is a study of form, the manner of studying them should be by map-drawing. In learning to draw maps, the pupil needs some rule or guide to assist him in drawing them correctly, and also to enable him to judge of their accuracy when drawn. This assistance is best afforded by the use of geometrical figures or diagrams. The diagram used in each case, in order to answer the purpose intended, should be so constructed as to coincide as nearly as possible in its outline with the boundaries of the map to be drawn. By the relative lengths of the lines of which it is composed, it should express the general laws of form of the map it is intended to accompany, and, by its angles and division marks, the position of prominent features should be deter- mined. However complex and irregular the map may be, the diagram should be so simple that it can be readily constructed and easily remembered by the pupils. In the construction of the diagrams used for drawing the Continents, the first line in each case serves as a measure for determining the lengths of the other lines. For the States no additional diagram is used, because the bounding lines are generally straight, and they themselves when taken together form a geometrical figure. In drawing the States, therefore, it is only necessary to select one of the straight lines forming the boundary for a measuring unit. The line selected should be a convenient measure or mul- tiple of the other lines. In conducting exercises in map-drawing, the class should be practiced,— ^rrf in drawing upon the black- board, under the immediate direction of the teacher; second, in drawing upon slates, their work to be sub- mitted to the teacher ; and third, in executing maps upon paper, to be presented for the criticism of both the teacher and the class. Either the teacher or one of the more skillful pupils should execute a well-finished and accurate map upon the blackboard. From this drawing — which is much to be preferred to any printed outline map— the class may recite their lesson, and upon it each of the new features, as they are learned from day to day, may be represented. It is well to accompany every lesson in map-drawing with more or less practice in rapid sketching. In order to excite emulation for quick work, the lesson may be drawn on the board, and the exercise timed by the teacher. Pupils, by practice, will soon be able to draw a diagram in half a minute, a State in from half a minute to two minutes, and a Continent in from three to five minutes. Concert recitation should frequently accompany rapid sketching. An exercise called talking and chalking will be found both interesting and valuable. The pupil, while he is drawing a map, briefly and in a lively manner, describes the features as he represents them ; his verbal explana- tions all the while keeping pace with his illustrations made with the chalk. All directions and exercises in map-drawing should be such as to prepare the pupil to draw rapidly, accurately, and without the copy. After the pupils have learned to draw a map with sufiicient accuracy, and are able to describe satisfactorily the features it contains, they may, with the use of colors and India ink, be taught to draw and embellish one for preservation. Not much time, however, should be spent in producing highly ornamented maps. A slate-pencil and slate, lead-pencil and paper, white crayon and blackboard, are all the materials usually needed in map-drawing exer- cises. Rapid work and much of it should be the motto. Special attention should be directed to the method employed for representing the population of cities and the heights of elevations. The symbols used will greatly assist the memory in retaining these facts. Special lessons may be given to teach their meaning. Their use should be required in all map-drawing exercises. In drawing a Continent, the pupils should be taught,— ^rj/, to construct the diagram accurately ; second, to draw the coast line, and to describe all the features formed by it, such as peninsulas, capes, bays, gulfs, &c. ; and third, to draw and describe the internal features, such as mountains, lakes, rivers and cities. It is all impor- tant that the pupils should be able to draw the oudine of a Continent readily and accurately, before they attempt to represent the internal features ; for upon an imperfect drawing of the outline, the details must necessarily be imperfect. In describing the features of a map, observe the following order and directions : — Diagram. — Explain in full the manner of its construction. Points of Coincidence. — Name in order the angles and division marks upon the diagram, and the featiu^s upon the map, the location of which they determine. Peninsulas.— State from what portion of the Continent they pro- ject, and by what waters they are embraced. Capes. — State from what portion of the Continent they project, and into what waters. Bays. — Give their location, and the names of the bodies of water to which they are tributary. Islands. — State where situated, and name the waters by which they are surrounded. Mountains. — Give their height, the general direction in which they extend, and the part of the Continent where they are located. Lakes. —State where located, and name the river which forms the outlet. Rivers. — State where they rise, in what direction they flow, and into what waters. Political Divisions. — Bound the country, and name, bound, and give the capital of each of the divisions. Cities. — Give location and population. EXPLANATION OP THE SIGNS USED TO BEPBESENr THE POPULATION OF THE CITIES AND TOWNS. PIEST CLASS. In the First Class only one Sign is used viz. a roond dot. • represents under 10.000 Inhabitants. SECOND CLASS. THIRD CLASS. Kach Lino of tho Soconrt Class The markings of the Thitd Class rcprcseuts a population of 10.000, havo a Dot in tho centre. Each Lino upon this Dot represents 100.000 population. Q 10,000 «■ JOO,O0O + 20,000 +- a»,ooo •rt 30,000 ""- 300,000 * 10,000 * ■"».«» fflL 60,000 *- 500,000 m JO.O09 * «o^«» ^ 70,000 *ft- ^'"o.ow p. 80,000 ift 800,000 ^ 90,000 ©- 9W.O0O FOURTH CLASS. The markings of the Fourth Class havo a Dot and Circle ( ® ) In tho centro. Each Line upon this Dot and Circle reproHcnts 1,000,000 inhabitants. ©. 1,000.000 ■^- -3,000,000 •^. 2,000^10 %. 4,000,000 EXPLANATION OF THE SIGNS USED TO REPRESENT THE ELEVATION OF TIIE MOUNTAIN'S. RANGES. nni and Monntain Ranges, Like the Cities, are divided into Four classes. TheFirstisrepiflBcntedby a series of Parallel Curves; the Se- cond by a series of Interlocking Curves; the Third by a Waved Line; and the FotirtU by a Zigzag Line ; as follows: .)J)))W))))))))))n) JVr.< Clou or2K«..-Uiider 2000 ft.Mgh. ,^^^^^^.^AA>^ Second Ctass,- Botweou 2000 t 8000 ft. Tligh, ' ^ ^^ 'S''«ii?^iii<'''ii " Between ^ and J ^^ miles higl. nira aoM,— Setween. 8000 1 16,000 ft. lUgll, or Between 1^ and 3 miles liigh. A A 4 A i JFourOi Clati, -Orel 16,000 Sett iug\ or over Smiles high. PEAKS. For Peaks nnder one mile high each Curve upon the right represents One-Fourth of a mile Elevation ; for those one mile high or more, each Line upon the right represents One Mile in Elevation and the Daah underneath One Haifa Mile. O >i of a mac Ugh. /T\ Jj .. .. A A 2>^ miles lugh. 3 r^ }i .. „ A m ,. .. A 1 „ .. A 4 „ .. A IX miles high. A iH n .. A 2 .. .. A s ., .. £i/s(e7n JUendsd October 16 Sk., ISee. Entered, according to Act qf Congress, in the year 7*73, by E A <5- /» C. APCAR, «"» the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. lil DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING NORTH AMERICA. Diagram. — !• Draw a quadrant, and divide it into four equal parts, as represented in the figure. Through the first division at i , and the right angle, draw the first line of the diagram the length desired for the map. 3. From the centre of this line, draw the line C D at tight angles with it, and one-half its length. Connect A D and B D. 3. Extend the line C D toward E, making the whole length D E, equal to 1 D or B D, and draw the lines A E and E B. 4. Divide the line A E into four equal parts, and from the upper division-point at 0, draw the line G H at right angles to A E, and equal to E C in length. Connect AandH. 6, Divide the line E B into two equal parts, and from its centre, and at right angles with it, draw the line I J one-half the length of E C, and connect E and J, and J and B. 6. Divide the lines C D and C B each into two equal parts, and the lines A D and D B each into six equal ports. 7> Sub-divide the lower division of the line D B into three equal parts, and from the division-point at L draw L M, and from ■ draw X 9, and from K draw N 0, — making the length of each line equal to two-thirds of the distance from B to K, or equal to the distance from I. to K. It will be observed that if the diagram is correctly drawn, the lines D A, D E and D B are equal in length, and the line A E is vertical. Position. — North America is situated North of the Equator, and is joined to South America by the Isthmus of Panama. Extent. — The length of the Continent, extending from Point Barrow, on the North, to the Port of Guatemala on the South, is 4,800 miles. General Form. — The general form of North America is triangular. It is wide toward the North, and narrow toward the South. The Arctic and Atlantic coast-lines are nearly straight in their general direction, while the Pacific coast-line is curved. Points of Coincidence. — The position of Point Bar- row is determined by the northern angle of the diagram; Cape Charles by the eastern angle; Port of Guatemala by the southern angle ; Bay of San Francisco by the western angle; and the western extremity of Alaska Peninsula by the north-western angle. 'Drawing tiie Map. — Arette coast. — Commence at Point Barrow. Make the mouth of the Mackenzie River opposite the first division ; Victoria Land on the second ; the mouth of Hudson Bay between the third and fourth, •nd Ungava Bay and Cape Chidley near the fifth division. The southern extremity of Hudson Bay touches the line C D near its centre. Mlantie Coast. — Make the Pena. of Nova Scotia oppo- site the first division ; Cape Cod north of the second, and Cape Fear at the third. The western shore of Florida crosses at the fourth division; the mouth of the Gulf of Mexi- co is between the fourth and fifth, and Yucatan Pena. ex- tends as far north as the fifth. The shore of the Gulf of Mexico crosses the line C B near its centre, and touches the line B B. The shore of Central America, and the Isthmus of Panama follows closely the zigzag line from K to 0. Faeiflo Coast. — California Peninsula extends nearly as tar south as the angle at J, and the eastern shore of the Golf of California crosses the line I i near its centre. Neta.— It wai be oburrcd that the lake of the Woodi b on the Uiie C •, midway between !u centre and c ; also, that Lake Erie is aiidm> between the eentia of the Una e D and B D. * In these directiont fer drawing, tome features are referred to which are not fotuul upoo the accompanying maps. In such cases k i* (spectMl that tha popQ will id*r 10 tha otbar maps is ih« book. DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING SOUTH AMERICA. Diagram. — I- Draw the vertical line A H the length desired for the map, and divide it into four equal parts. From the upper division-point, draw a horizontal line to the right, one-half the length of the first line, and divide it into three equal parts. Extend this horizontal line one-third of its length to the left. 2> Draw straight lines from C to F, from F to A, from A to E, and from E to B, and divide the lines F A, A E, and E B, each into three equal parts. General Form. — South America in its general form is wedge- shaped — being wide toward the north and narrow toward the south. Its coast-line is simple, and deviates but little from the lines of the dia- gram. The length of the Continent from north to south is 4,500 miles. Points of Coincidence.— The position of the Peninsula of Para- guana is determined by the northern angle of the figure ; Cape St. Roque by the eastern angle ; Cape Pillar by the southern, and Cape Farina by the western. Opposite the second division-point, on the line r A, is the Isthmus of Panama ; and opposite the second, on the line A B, is the mouth of the Amazon. Opposite the first division on the line ■ B is Cape Frio, and opposite the second is the mouth of the Rio de la Rata. DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING AFRICA. Diagram. — !• By means of a quadrant divided into six equal parts, as represented in the figure, draw the first line of the diagram the length desired for the map. 2. Divide this line into two equal parts at C, and the upper half in four equal parts. 3i With the points A and B as centres, and with a radius equal to three-fourths of the first line, draw two arcs to intersect D, and draw the lines A D and B D. In the same manner with the points A and C as centres, and with a radius equal to three-fourths of the line A C, deter- mine the point E; and draw A E and C E. 4. Divide the line A D into two equal parts, and draw the perpendicular F H equal to one-eighth of the first line. Divide the part F D into two equal parts, and draw the lines A H and H 0. Trisect each of the lines A H, D B, B C and C E. General Form. — Africa resembles both North America and South America in its general form, being wide at the north and narrow toward the south. Its coast is very regular, .like that of South America. Its length, from Cape Spartel to Cape Agulhas, is 5,000 miles. like South America, it is situated on both sides of the Equator. Points of Coincidence. — The position of Cape Spartel is deter- mined by the northern angle of the diagram ; the Isthmus of Suez by the north-eastern angle ; Cape Guardafui by the eastern angle; Cape AgtUhas by the southern, and Cape Roxo by the western. Outline.— Commence at Cape Spartel, and draw the northern and eastern coasts ; then, from the same point, draw the western coast. The coast from Cape Spartel to Cape Bon is without the line of the diagram ; then It crosses the line, and forms the Gulf of Sidra, oppo- site the second division-point. The western shore of the Red Sea follows the line B G, and makes an inward curve between 6 and D. The eastern shore first makes a small outward curve ; touches the line at the first division-point, and then makes a much larger bend without the fine, touching again at Cape Agulhas. From this point it deviates but litde from the diagram till it reaches Cape Lopez. Between this point and the first division on the line c K, there is a large inward bend forming the Gulf of Guinea. It then bends with- out the line tilt we reach Cape Roxo. From Cape Roxo to Capo Spartel the coast is wholly without the line. I Figure 1 represents a convenient Ruler for pupilit to use in drawfns maps upon the btackboard. It b twenty inches long, and dividea Into haJves, thirds, fourths and sixths. A similar one, six lochet loi^, may be used for drawing on slate or paper. ^jjr- a- Figure • represents an easy MacwKl £oK drawii^ a quadra nt. Figure 3 represenu an aay BMwod for trisecting a Una. <4ol6.— In the construction of diagrams, and in the Olvlslon of lines, the pupils should at first be allowed to use a ruler, such as the one represented in figure i. After some practice, however, the niler should be dispensed with, and the figures should be drawn by hand, guided only by the eye. In drawing a quadrant, a piece of crayon held between tne thumb and first finger may be made to describe the arc around the end of the fourth finger, as represented in figure a. A vertical and a hori- zontal line drawn from the centre to the arc will complete the quadrant. Instead of the hand, a short string with a piece of crayon tied to the end of it may be used; or, each pupil may be furnished with a quarter of a arde, cut out of a piece of writing paper, having the divisions of quarters and sixths marked upon it. In dividing a line into three equal parts, use the finger crone hand and a crayon in the other, and place them so that the three parts ap. pear equal, as represented in figure 3. In dividing a line into four or six parts, first bisect Tt, ana then bbcct or trisect each half. It will be observed that the different lines of the % agrams are drawn in the order they are lettered, and that the divisions are made in the order they are numbered. In drawing upon paper or slate, the diagram should be In very light lines. For blackboard work, the figure should be drawn with a slate-pencil. MODEL LESSON IN MAP-DRAWING. In Map^rawing Exercises, the pupils may either be required to describe their work in full, without the assistance of questions; or, the lessons may consist of a series of questions and answers similar to the following model :— North America. — After the diagram is made, the cnss is pre> pared to draw the map, — first, with the atlas in hand, and afterwards from memory. Every order given by the teacher should be executed by the class simultaneously, and with military promptness and pre- cision. The execution should commence immediately after the last word of the order is given. Each pupil is supposed to have his own diagram on the board upon which he draws his map. Outline: Teachtr. — ^What U the most northern point of North America? Scholars. — Point Barrow. 7*.— Show where Point Barrow is located. In what direction fitua it is Cape Charles f S. — South-east. T.— Point where Cape Charles is located. (Scholars point.) Now make a dot showing the location of each of the following places between these two Capes: — ist. For Cape Bathurst. (Scholar* made the dot with the crayon.) ad. For Victoria Land. 3d. For the northern extremity of Melville Pena. 4th. For Hudson Strait. What large bay between Melville Peninsula and Hudson Strait f S. — Hudson Bay. T. — 5th. For the southern extremity of Hudson Bay. (Dot.) 6di. For Cape Chidley. What bay south-west from Cape Chidley f aS". — Ungava Bay. T. — Draw the coast-line from Point Barrow to Cape Bathurst, (Scholars draw.) From Cape Bathurst to Victoria Land. From Victoria Land to Melville Peninsula. Draw Hudson Bay and James Bay. Draw the Une from Hudson Strait to Cape Charles. The teacher should now make a brief inspection of the work, don^ and point out and correct all the faults made. In this manner the oudine of North America should be completed. Mountains: 7*.— How far do the Rocky Mountains extendf S. — Through the entire length of North America. 7*.— What is their elevation T 5.— Between 8,000 and i6,cx» feet, except the northern portion, which is only between 3,000 and 8,000 feet 7*.— Draw the Rocky Mountains nearly parallel with, and at a pro- per disunce from the Pacific CoasL What range in the eastern part of the Continent? 5.— The Appalachian Mountains. 7.— What is the elevation of this range? 5.— About 2, 000 feet. 7.— Draw it. The teacher should now inspect the drawing of the mountains and correct mistakes. Lakes : 7.— What three lakes have their outlet through the Mac kenzie River? 5.— Great Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake, and Athabasca Lake. T'.—Point where the first is located ; the second ; the third. Draw the first ; the second ; the third. In this manner complete the drawing of the lakes. Rivers: 7.— Describe the Yukon River. S. -It rises near the Pacific Coast and west of the Great Slave Lake ; fiows, fint, in a north-westerly direction, then westerly through the country of Alaska, and empties into Behring Sea- 7*.— Draw it. Follow in the same manner with the Mackenzie; Nelson: Albany; St. Lawrence; Otuwa; Savannah, and Alabama. 7— Describe the Mississippi River. 5.— It rises tn a smalt take west of Lake Superior, ana south of the Lake of the Woods ; flows a southerly course through the United States, and empties into the Gulf of Mexico. 7. — Draw it. Draw the tributaries, and describe tnem. Complete the rivers in this way, and inspect the work. Cities : 7. — Locate the cities as I name them, talcing pains to show the population of each as it is done in the book. 132 DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING AUSTRALIA. Diagram. — l. Draw the horizontal line A B the length desired for the map, and bisect it at C. 2. Through the centre C draw the line D E at right angles to A B, making C D and C E each one-third the length of A B. 3> Draw D F at right angles to D E, and one-fourth the length of A B, and connect F and B. 4. Draw H at right angles to D E, making G E and E H, each equal to F B in length, and bisect the lines C E and E H. Points of Coincidence. — North-west Cape coincides with the angle at A; Sandy Cape, with the angle at B ; Cape Howe, with the angle at U ; and Cape Leeuwin, with the angle at G. Cape York is a little north of the angle at F. Map.— From fl the coast extends toward the centre of the line C E, and from this point it extends toward and crosses near the bisecting point of the line E H. The Gulf of Carpentaria is situated between D and P, and extends toward the south nearly half way to the line A B. Note.— If Australia is drawn without New Zealand, the first line A B should be inclined alxnit five degrees from the horizontal, the extremity A being farther north than the extremity B. isa DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING EUROPE. Diagram.— Draw the horizontal line A B the length desired for the map. This line connects tho mouth of the Douro River with Cape Ap- sheron, lu length is 3,000 miles. With Aand B as centres, and with a radius equal to three-fourths of A B, draws arcs to intersect at C, and connect A and C, and B and C. Divide A C into four, C B into six, ard A B into eight equal parts. From the first division to the right of G, and from the angle A draw vertical lines, as shown in the figure, each one-eighth the length of A B. Con- nect H and I, and divide the right-hand half of this line into four equal parts. From D draw a perpendicular line equal to two and one-half divisions on the line A B, and bisect it Connect and F, and E and B. From E draw a line in the direction of the centre of C B until it meets a vertical line drawn from the angle C. Map.— In drawing the map commence at c, on the coast of Norway, and draw, in order, the northern and eastern boundaries ; then commence again at C and draw the western and southern boundaries. The coast of Noi^ way follows the line C A, and extends south to a point about midway between C and K. The lines C L and h I wiU assist in drawing the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic Sea, and the north-western shores of Germany and France. Tho head of the Bay of Biscay is near the first division to the right of A, on the line A B. The Gulfs of Lions and Genoa ate on opposite sides of the second division, and the head ofthe Adriatic Sea embraces the third divisioiL The fifih division marks the western extremity of the Black Sea ; the Sea of Azov is north of the sixth division, and the eastern extremity of the Black Sea is near the seventh. Italy resembles in outline the shape of a boot. The southern extremity is between the first and second divisions to the right of J on the line H I. The Peninsula of Greece is situated between the second and third divisions, and extends south of this line equal to one division. The Sea of Marmora is a little north of L DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING ASIA.. Diagram. — Draw the vertical line A B a little more than one-half the length desired for the map, north and south. Divide it into three equal parts, and the upper third into two parts. From the point B draw the horizontal line B C one and oite- sixth times the length of A B. Bisect it, and con- nect A and C. Trisect A C, then bisect the middle division and trisect the upper. With the pointi A and C as centres, and with a radius equal to one and two-thirds times the first line, draw arcs to intersect at D, and connect A and D, and C and D. Trisect A B and bisect the middle division. Divide the line C D into four equal parts, and bisect both of the extreme divisions. Draw the lines E P and N L and bisect them ; also one from to K and trisect it From the lower trisecting point on the line K draw a line toward J till it meets the line R L. The distance measured by the line A C is 5,300 miles. Nap.— In drawing the map commence at East Cape ai>d draw in order the eastern, southern, and western boua- daries, including the Black Sea ; then commence again at East Cape and finish the oudine. The shore of Kam. chatki crosses at the first division on the Une DC; the soutl era shot 1 of tho Sea of Ochotsk is at ; the Yellow Sea is near the centre of the line at H ; the Gulf of Tonquin is at I ; and the Gulf of Siam Is near the last divition. If we suppose a .me drawn from this division-point parallel with the line A C, it will assist in determining the position of the Gulf of Siam and the Bay of Bengal. Cape Romania coincides with the angle at C, and Cape Como- rin with the lower division on the line O B. The head of the Persian Gulf is near the centre of the triangle A II L. The Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb is at I ; the Isthmus of Sues between A and H ; and the Strait of Bosphorus, at A. The Black Sea extends as far cast as the fint division on the line A C, and the Caspian Sea touches this line at the second division. The position of the Caspian Sea, the Ural River, and Ural Mounuins is determined by the line ■ 0. 184 Maine. — The first line from i to 2 is 75 miles long. Its ' inclination is found by trisecting a quadrant, as shown in the figure. The boundary from 2 to 3 is equal to the first line, and the point 3 is opposite the upper trisecting point of the first line. The distances from 3 to 4 and from 4 to 5 are each equal to the first line. The direction of the St. Croix River coincides closely with a line drawn from 2 through 4. The boundary from i to 6 is one and one-fourth times the first line and extends in nearly the same direc- tion. From 6 to 7 is one and one-half times the first line. Ihe boundary formed by the Piscataqua River is one-half the first line. Thus the whole distance from 6 to 8 is two times the first line. Points 5 and 8 are joined by the irregular Atlantic coast-line, slightly curved inward. New Hampshire. — The first line from 1 to 2 is 112 miles long, or one and one-half times the first line of Maine. From 2 to 3 is one-half the first line, and the point 3 is a little west of the first line extended. The boundary from 2 to 3 is formed by the Piscataqua River, the Atlantic coast-line and the irregular boundary extend- ing parallel with the Merrimac River. Point 4 is east of the first line extended and about equally distant from 2 and 3. From 3 to 5 is one-half of the first line. Points 1 and 5 are connected by the Connecticut River. Vermont. — The first line from i to 2 is 75 miles long. From I to 3 is two times the first line. Two-thirds of this boundary is formed by Lake Champlain. From 3 to 4 is one-half the first line. Points 2 and 4 are joined by the Connecticut River. Point 3 is a little west of point i. Massachusetts. — The first line from i to 2 is 100 miles long. From i to 3 is one-half of the first line. The eastern extremity of the southern boundary at 4 is di- rectly south of 2. The distances from 2 to 5, from 4 to 6, from 6 to 7, and from 6 to 8, are each one-third of the first line. The bay on which Boston is situated, is mid- way between points 4 and 5. Rhode Island. — The first line from i to 2 is 22 miles long. From i to 3 is two times the first line, and from 3 to 4 is one and one-half times the first line. Connecticut. — The first line from i to 2 is 88 miles long, or four-fifths the length of the southern straight boundary of Massachusetts. From 2 to 3 is one-half the first line. From i to 4 is about three-fourths of the first line. Points 3 and 4 are joined by the coast-line slightly curved inward. New York. -The first line of New York is Lake Champlain. Its length is 100 miles. From 2 to 3, from 3 to 4, and from 3 to 5 are each equal to the first line. The northern boundary of Massachusetts is midway be- tween 2 and 3. From 5 to 6 is two and one-fourth times the first line and is in line with the southern boundary of Massachusetts. From 6 to 7, and from 7 to 8 are each one-half of first line. Lake Ontario extends as far west as the State; its eastern shore is midway between Niagara River and the eastern boundary of the State, and the distance between the southern shore and the southern boundary of the State is three-fourths of the first line. The width of I^ake Ontario is one-half the first line. From g to I is three-fourths of the first line. New Jersey. — The first line from I to 2 is 50 miles long. The vertical line from i to 3 is three and one-half times the first line. This line is bisected at 4, which marks the position of an important bend in the Delaware River. The northern bend of the Delaware River is about one- half the length of the first line, west of the vertical line, and the southern bend is nearly twice as far west as the northern. Point 3 marks the position of Cape May. Points 2 and 3 are connected by the Hudson River and the Atlantic coast, slightly curved outward. Pennsylvania. — From i to 2 is the first line. Its length is 225 miles. This is trisected, and the distance from i to 5 is one-half the distance from i to 3. From i to 6 is one-half the distance from i to 5. From 5 to 7 is two- thirds of the first line, and the eastern extremity of the southern boundary at 8 is directly south of 2. The eastern boundary, formed by the Delaware River, is in the form of a W, turned thus ^ . Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and West Vir§inia. From 1 to 2 is 440 miles. It is divided into four equal parts. From 2 to 6 a vertical line is drawn one-half the length of the first line. From 6 to 7 is five-eights of the first line, or the point 7 is vertically over a point midway between 3 and 4. The line from 6 to 7 is divided into four equal parts. From 7 to 13 is equal to, and from 8 to 9 is one-half the distance from 7 to 8. From 6 to 10 is one-half the distance from 6 to 8 and from 10 to ii is one-third the distance from 6 to 10. From 11 to I a is equal to the distance from 6 to 10. 185 ARK AOf S5 A tf^i UTTLt nocK^ }Helena, Pa mi y^^J^S^C o C.laobmt tP ' Nattlwj ^ \1 ^ -I — r " i""':;t 5 ■^ OB-"-"*'' Selma* rV G I AVi I Charleitoa^ icols 10 •TALLAHASSEE O ;J^ JacMouviU ^ MAP OP THE SOrTHERN STATES. Br E. A. A A. C. Apgar. Sola of St«tate3Iilw. » »i I» im la no 178 W1 gs « DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING THE GROUP. Note. — ^Aftcr the pupils have learned to draw the above States singly, according to the directions given below, they should be taught to draw the group. In grouping, draw in the following order: i. North Caro- lina; 3, Tennessee; 3, Mississippi ; 4, Alabama; 5, Georgia; 6, South Carolina ; 7, Florida ; 8, Louisiana ; and 9, Arkansas. The northern boundary of Tennessee is one-third longer than the first line of North Carolina. The northern boundary of Mississippi is one-third of the southern boundary of Tennes- see, and the northern boundary of Alabama is two-thirds of the remaining portion of the southern boundary of Tennessee. The southern boundary of Mississippi, from 5 to 6, consti- tutes the first line for Louisiana. The northern boundary of Louisiana bisects the western boundary of Mississippi. The northern boundary of Ark, is in line with the northern boun- dary of Tenn. , and its length is equal to the width of the Sute. \ V \ % .a*X \ tokerrhh ia .C*f«f 123 Uilsi to u Ineh. DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING. North Carolina. — The first line from I to a is 330 miles long, or three-fourths of the southern boundary of Virginia. This line is trisected at 3 and 4. From 3 to 5, from 5 to 6, and from 3 to 7, are each one-third of first line, and the point 6 is south-east of the point 5. From 5 to the western extremity of the State, at 8, is live-sixths of first line, or two and one-half times the third of first line. South Carolina. — The first line from i to a is 200 miles long. It is trisected at 3 and 4. From 4, the right-hand trisecting point, to the southern extremity of the State, at 5, is nearly equal to first line, and from a to ■ 6 is one-half of first line in a south-east direction. Points 6 and 5 are connected by the coast, and l and 5 by the Savannah River. fieorgla. — The first line from i to a is 150 miles. The western boundary from i to 3, the Ixiundary formed by the Chattahoochee River from 3 to 4, and the southern boundary from 4 to s, are each equal to first line. The St. Mary's River, from 5 to 6, is one-third of first line, and the coast, from 6 to 7, i« two-thirds of first line. Points 3 and 7 are connected l>y the Savannah River. Alabama. — The first line frotn-i to 3 is 150 miles long. From a to 3 b equal to, and from 3 to 4 is nearly equal to first line. From 4 to 5 is equal to first line. From 5 to 6, and from 6 to 7 are each one-third of first line. The line from i to 7, which forms the western boundary, has a small angle at its lower trisecting point. Florida. — The first line is 150 miles long. From a to 3 is one-sixth of first line, and from 3 to 4 is equal to first line. The St. Mary's River, from 4 to 5, is one-third of first line. From the mouth of St. Mary's River a line is drawn towards the south, two and one-half times first line, which determines the southern limit of the State. From to 7 is equal to first line, and at 7 a horizontal line is drawn, equal to first line in length, and extending equal distances east and west of the vertical line. From a to 10 is two-thirds, and from I to 11 is one-third of the first line. MittiMippi. — The first line is 1 10 miles long. From a to 3 is three times first line ; from 3 to 4 is a little more than one-half of first line, and from 4 to 5 is one-half of first line. From 5 to 6 is equal to first line. The Mis- sissippi River forms small angles at its trisecting points, where it receives the waters of the Arkansas and Yazoo. Louisiana. — The first line from i to a is no miles, or the same in length as the first line of Mississippi. From I to 3 is one and one-fourth times first line, and the point 3 is one-fourth of first line east of the point z. From 3 to 4 is one and one-half times first line. From 4 to s is one-half of first line, and the Sabine River, from 5 to 6, is one and one-half times first line, — making the entire western boundary two limes first line. From a to 7, from I to 8, and from I to g, are each equal to first line. Arlcansas.— Tlie first line from i to a is 250 miles long. From a to 3 and from 3 to 4 are each equal to one-sixth of first line. Tlie width of the State, from I to S, is equal to first line. From 5 to 6 is two-thirds of first line. Tennessee. — The northern boimdary, or first line, is 440 miles long, or the same as the southern boundary of Virginia. The width of the State, from i to 3, is one- fourth of first line, and the southern boundary, from 3 to 4, is three-fourths of first line. Note. — It will be observed that the first lines of Georgia Ala- bama and Florida arc equ;il in length. The fint lines of Mississippi and L.ouisiana arc also equal. 136 ■ W^ ff . W »» W R W lW<1 i'ht Woodt ainyZaki lakt O > ^ ^ \ Ji rKeweenaw ^ I Toint MAP OF THE CENTRAL STATES. By JS. A. & A. C. Apgar. Scale of Statute Uiles. i& 50 75 100 jas lao 376 aoo a» aw I29tMil£8to an. inch. ^^ >^^ I ^ 3>ImneapoliB> ST. paul(; ^ ^ ! ^Hivtr of iv.* " 't ^ I I ! ^\ * DCS MOINES -fl A X 1\! ^ ^ "V Davanpo] * r T Tivnnnw'-'-lTlllwW'llitiMii'lTfil'lii'l'i'i"''''^' 'if [6 8nf8 I^St. Joseph ^Xansas City SPRINGFIELD JEFrERSON CITyI 6<- IP"* Osag" ^ ffi irrTrmrfirrfrwffOTri'ttii'rirrir'riifiMMrwBmrtw^^^^^ PeorU^^-" Bloomington. 7: \«'«,f-*'^ DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING. Michigan and Wisconsin.— The first line is the southern boundary of Wisconsin. It is 150 miles long. From b to c is one-third of the first line ; from c to d is equal to the first line, and from d to e is one-half of the first line. From a, b and d vertical lines are drawn. The middle one is three times, and each of the others two times the length of tlte first line. The distance from the right-hand vertical line to the St. Clair River is three-fourths of the first line, and to the eastern shore of Lake Htiron at p it is equal to the first line. To the right of f is Saginaw Bay, and at g is the projeetion of land between River St Marie and Mackinaw Strait. At h is Green Bay, at \ the southern shore of Lake Superior, and at k the northern shore. Keweenaw Point touches this vertical line. At m is Point Detour, and the distance from m to n is one-half of the first line. The junction of the St Croix with the Mississippi at O is west of 1 a distance equal to two-thirds of the first line. Illinois. — The first line from z to a is 150 miles long. From 2 to 3 is one-third of the first line, and from 3 to 4 is one and one-sixth times the first line The lines from i to 2 and from 3 to 4 are each bisected. The length of the StaCe^fromj to 6, is two and one-third times the first line, and the width, from 7 to 8, is one and one-third times the first line. Two-thirds of the boundary, from 4 to 6, is formed by the Wabash River, and the remaining third by the Ohio. Indiana. — The first line, from x to a, is 150 miles long, one-thir-l of which is formed by Lake Michigan. The eastern boundary, from 3 to 3, is one and one-third times the first line, and the western boundary, from I to 4, is one and one-sixth times the first line. The boundary formed by the Wabash River, from 4 to 5, is two-thirds of the first line. Points 3 and 5 are joined by the Ohio River. Ohio. — The first line, from i to 2, is 220 miles long. It is trisected at 3 and 4, and the right-hand division is bisected at 5. That por- tion of the northern boundary extending from 3 to 5 is formed by Lake Erie. The distance from 3 to 6 is one-half the distance from 3 to 5. From 3 to 7 is one-third of the first line, and the western boun- dary, from X to 8, is five-sixths of the first line, or equal to the dis- tance from X to 5, Point g is south of the right-hand trisecting point of the first line at 4, and the distance from 4 to g is equal to the first line. Points 7, g and 8 serve as guides for drawing the Ohio River. Kentucky. — The first line, from i to 3, is 330 miles long, or equal to the first line of North Carolina. This line is trisected at 3 and 4, and the right-hand division is bisected at 5. This first line ts now extended to 6, a distance equal to one-sixth of its own length. From 6 to 7 is one-third, from 5 to 8 is one-half, and from 3 to g is one- quarter of the first line. Points 7, 8, g and x serve as guides for draw, ing the Ohio River. Missouri.— The first line, from i to 3, is aSo miles long. From a to 3 and from 3 to 4 are each one-eighth of the first line. The width of the State is equal to the first line, and the eastern extremity of the northern boundary at 5 is a little east of the centre of the first line. The northern boundary, from 5 to 6, is three-fourths of the first line. The western boundary, from i to 7, is two-thirds of the width of the State. The bend of the Mississippi River, where it receives the waters of the Missouri, is midway between 3 and 5. Iowa. — The first line from i to 2 is 210 miles long, or three-fourths the length of the first line of Missouri. The width of the State is equal to the first line. The northern boundary, from 3 to 4, is one and one-third times the first line, and it extends the same distance east and west of the extremities of the southern boundary. One-third of the western boundary is formed by the Big Sioux River, and two-thirds by the Missouri. The great bend of the Mississippi River at 5 is midway between 3 and 4. Minnesota.— The first line from I to a is 380 miles long, or equal to the first line of Missouri. From x 103 isone-half of the first line, and the boundary formed by the Red River of the North is nearly equal to the first line. From 4 to 5 is one-third of the first line, and from 5 to 6 is equal to the distance from 3 to 4. Point 7 bisects the distance from 5 to 6^ and the distance from 7 to 8 is one-half of the first line. (138) GEOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL TABLES. A considerable part of the matter usually found in Statistical Tables has in this book been incorporated in the tert and in the various Topical Reviews. The following Tables are supplementary. TABLE I. Dimensions of the Eartn,. Polar Diameter 7,899.17 mUes. Equatorial Uiaineter 7,925.66 " Equatorial Circumference 24,899.00 " Superficial Area 196,861,755 aq. miles. TABLE II. Length of a Degree of Longitude on each parallel of Latitude from the Equator to the North Pole. Deu. of Lat. No. of Miles in one Deg. Deg. of Lat. No. of Miles in one Deg. Deg. of Lat. No. of Miles in one L)eg. of Long. of Long. of Long. Equa.0 69.16 80 69.96 60 34.67 1 69.15 81 59.33 61 33.62 2 69.12 32 58.71 62 82.66 3 69.07 33 68.07 63 31.48 4 69.00 34 67.40 64 30.40 6 68.90 35 56.71 66 29.81 6 68.79 36 56.02 66 28.21 7 68.05 37 55.31 67 27.10 8 68.50 38 54.57 68 25.99 9 68.32 39 53.82 69 24.86 10 68.12 40 5305 70 23.73 11 67.90 41 52.27 71 22.58 12 67.66 42 51.48 72 21.44 13 67.40 43 60.66 73 20.28 14 67.12 44 49.83 74 19.12 15 66.82 46 48.98 76 17.96 16 66.60 46 48.12 76 1678 17 66.16 47 47.25 77 16.61 18 65.80 48 4636 78 1443 19 65.42 49 45.46 79 13.24 20 65.01 60 4466 80 1206 21 64.59 61 43.61 81 10.86 22 64.16 52 42.97 82 9.66 23 63.70 53 41.71 83 8.46 24 63.22 64 40.74 84 7.25 25 02.72 65 39.76 88 6.05 26 62.20 66 38.77 86 4.84 27 61.67 57 37.76 87 3,63 28 61.11 68 36.74 88 2.42 29 60.64 59 36.71 89 90 1.21 0.00 TABLE m. Heights of Principal Mountains. North America. 1. Northern Coa^t Mountains. Feet. Mount St. Elias (Dall) 19,283 " (Maleapina) 17,854 (Eng. Hydrog. Charts) 14,970 " (La Perouse) 12,661 2. Sierra NevcuUi and Cascade Range. Mount Whitney 14,887 Mount Rainier 14,444 Mount Shasta 14,440 Mount Tyndall 14,386 Mount Dana 13,277 Mount Hood 11,225 3. RoiUcy Mountains. Uncohpahqre Peak 14,540 Mount Harvard 14,384 Gray's Peak 14,341 Mount Lincoln 14.297 Long's Peak 14,271 Pike's Peak 14,147 South America. Andes. •Illampu 24,812 *illimani 24,155 •Aconcaoda 23,421 tupanoati 22,015 Chimborazo 21,424 Nevada de Sorata 21,290 Nevada de Cayambe 19,535 * These are the results of offlcial surveys. Aconcagua is prob- ably the best determined point in South America. Antisana 19,187 Cotopaxi 18,875 Tdnouakagua 16,424 PiCHINCHA 16,924 Gnrope. Elbruz (highest of Caucasus Mountains) 18,626 Blanc (Alps) 16,784 Kosa(Alps) 15,223 Finstkraar-horn (Alps) 14,039 Highest op Pyrenees 11,200 Mount Etna Sicily (volcano) 10,874 Mount Olympus, Greece 8,200 Mount Vesuvius, Italy (volcano) 3,948 Africa. Killimandjaro, Central Africa. 20,000 Teneriffe, Canary Islands 12,182 Atlas Mountains (highest) 11,400 Mountains or Abyssinia (highest) 10,000 Kenia, Central Africa 18,000 Asia. Everest, Himalaya Mountains (highest in the world)29,100 KANCUiNoiNiiA Himalaya Moun-tains 28,156 Dhawalagiri, Himalaya Mountains 26,826 Hindoo Koosh Mountains (highest) 20,000 Ararat, Armenia 17,200 Fu3i Yama, Japan 14,000 Islands. Mauna Loa, Sandwich Islands 14,000 Ophir, Sumatra 13,842 Owen Stanley, Papua 13,205 Semero, Java 12,000 Eomont, New Zealand 8,840 Australian Alps (highest) 7,600 Kilauea, Sandwich Islands (crat«r) 6,000 TABLE IV. Area of the Basins and Length of the Principal Rivers of each Orand Division. Xame Area of Basin. Length. North America. sq* miles. 1,244,000 590,000 480,000 478,000 200.000 298,000 257,000 2,776,000 1,242,000 340,000 250,000 600,000 311,000 170,000 168,000 107,000 66,000 1,040,000 950,000 1,250,000 800,000 786,000 450,000 400,000 260,000 416,000 140,000 1,425,000 800,000 900,000 600,000 Eng. miles. 4,200 2,300 2,000 1,900 1,600 1,020 1,000 3,750 2,300 1,660 1,550 2,400 1,800 1,080 960 864 600 3,400 3,820 3,000 2,700 2,650 2,300 1,850 1,760 1.600 1,200 4,000 3,000 1,600 1,500 Mackenzie St. Lawrence Saskatchewan Yukon : Columbia Colorado South America. Amazon Plata Europe. Volga. Dnieper Don Rhine Asia. Yang-tae-kiang , Obi Lena Brahmapootra Euphrates Ganges.. Irawaddy Africa. Nile Niger Zambezi Australia. TABLE V. Area of the Principal Lakes of the World, and their Altitude and Depth. Name. Area. Altitude. Depth. Old World. sq. miles. Feet. Feel. Caspian Sea, Asia 132,000 -83 2,700 Victoria Nyanza, Africa 28,000 4,300 Aral, Asia 26,400 36 200 A Ibert Nyanza, Africa 26,000 2,700 Baikal, Asia 16,200 1,280 3,000 Tchad, Africa 16,000 800 Tanganyika, Africa 13,000 2,800 Nyaasa, Africa 8,000 1,300 Ladoga, Russia 6,900 50 Balkhash, Asia 6.400 600 60 Baiigweolo, Africa 5,000 4,000 Onega, Europe 4,900 237 Eyre, Australia 3,000 70 Gairdner, Australia 2,400 366 Wener, Europe 2,300 143 Urumiali, Asia 1,700 4,360 50 Wetter, Europe Dead Sea, Asia 800 289 400 500 -1,286 1,300 Geneva, Europe 240 1,2'36 980 Constance, Europe 190 1,263 1,027 New World. '^ Superior, N. America 31,400 600 1,200 Michigan, N. America 26,600 674 1,000 Huron, N. America ■ 23,800 674 1,000 Erie, N. America 10,000 665 80 Great Bear, N. America 9,300 230 Winnipeg, N. America 8,900 628 Ontario, N. America 7,300 235 600 Maracaybo, S. America 5,800 Nicaragua, Central America 8,500 128 Titicaca, 8. America 3,500 12,850 700 Great Salt Lake, N. America 3,200 4,200 Athabaaka, N. America 3,200 600 Nipigon, N. America 1,650 913 600 Chapahi, N. America 1,360 2,824 Tulare, N. America 700 500 Cham plain, N. America .667 93 280 St John, N. America 600 300 L. of the Woods. N. America 600 977 Moosehead, N. America 300 1,070 Tahoe, N. America 260 6,300 1,700 TABLE VL Altitude of the Highest Inhabited Places and Cities. Feat. Haule, Thibet 16,117 Pasco, Peru 14,0»8 Potosi, Bolivia 18,880 La Paz, Bolivia 12,228 Cuzco, Peru ..• 11,600 Quito, Ecuador ':..:.i., 9,620 Bogota, Columbia --»*. 8,666 Shennan, Wy Ter. 8,000 St. Bernard, Alps 7.965 Mexico. Mexico ; 7,473 Aurora, Nev. Ter. -7,446 Virginia City, Nevada • ••• 6,300 Truekee, California "i*** Salt Lake City, Utah Ter 4,200 TABLE Vn. Areas of the Oceans with their adjacent Seas, in Enqlish square Miles. Sq. Miles. Pacific Ocean e*,-6SO,000 Atlantic " "•■■• 34,780,000 Indian '■ '■ •.^•.•■■- 30,590,000 Arctic " ,-■• 6,930,000 Antarctic" ■■■■ 4.940,000 Total of the Ocean and its blanches. 142,570,000 (18»> REFERENCE TABLE OF POPULATION. CITIES, TOWNS, VILLAGES, BOROUGHS, ETC., HAVING A POPULATION OF OVER 10,000 BY THE CENSUS OF 1880. POPULATION. POPULATION. POPULATION. Akron, 16,512 Albany, N.Y 90,758 Alexandria, Va- iSi^SQ Allegheny, Penn 78,682 AUentown, Penn. 18,063 Altoona, Penn 19,710 Atchison, Kan i5>io; Atlanta, Ga. 37,409 Attleborough, Mass 1 1,1 11 Auburn, N.Y 21,924 Augusta, Ga. 21,891 Aurora, III 11,873 Austin, Tex. 10,960 Baltimore, Md. 332.313 Bangor, Me 10,856 Bay City, Mich. ..... 20,693 Belleville, 111 10,683 Biddeford, Me 12,651 Binghamton, N.Y. . . . 17,317 Bloomington, III 17,180 Boston, Mass 362,839 Bridgeport, Conn 27,643 Brockton, Mass. . ... 13,608 Brooklyn, N.Y 566,663 Buffalo, N.Y 155.134 Burlington, lo 19,450 Burlington, Vt. . ..... 11,364 Cambridge, Mass. .... 52,669 Camden, N.J 41.659 Canton, 12,258 Cedar Rapids, lo. 10,104 Charleston, S.C 49.984 Chattanooga, Tenn 12,892 Chelsea, Mass. 21,782 Chester, Penn 14,997 Chicago, III 503,185 Chicopee, Mass. 11.325 Chilicothe, 10,938 Cincinnati, 255,139 Cleveland, O. 160,146 Cohoes, N.Y 19,416 Columbia, S.C 10,036 Columbus, 51,647 Concord, N.H 13^43 Council Bluffs, lo 18,059 Covington, Ky 29,720 Cumberland, Md. 10,693 Dallas, Tex. 10,358 Danbury, Conn. 11,666 Davenport, lo 21,831 Dayton, 38,678 Denver, Col 35.629 Derby, Conn 11,650 Des Moines, lo 22,408 Detroit, Mich. 116,340 Dover, N.H 11,687 Dubuque, lo. 22,254 Easton, Penn. 11,924 East Saginaw, Mich 19,016 Eau Claire, Wis. 10,119 Elizabeth, N.J 28,229 Elmira, N.Y 20,541 Erie, Penn 27,737 Evansville, Ind 29,280 Fall River, Mass. 48,961 Fitchburg, Mass 12,429 Fond-du-Lac, Wis 13,094 Fort Wayne, Ind. 26,880 Galesburg, 111 1 1 437 Galveston, Tex. 22,248 Georgetown, D.C 12,578 Gloucester, Mass 19.329 Grand Rapids, Mich. . . . 32,016 Hamilton, 12,122 Hannibal, Mo 11,074 Harrisburgh, Penn 30,762 Hartford, Conn. . ... 42,015 Haverhill, Mass. 18,472 Hoboken, N.J 30,999 Holyoke, Mass 21,915 Houston, Tex. 16,513 Hyde Park, 111 15,716 Indianapolis, Ind 75,056 Jackson, Mich 16,105 Jacksonville, III 10,927 Jersey City, N.J 120,722 Joliet, III 16,145 Kalamazoo, Mich 11,937 Kansas City, Mo. 55.7^5 Keokuk, lo 12,117 Kingston, N.Y 18,344 La Crosse, Wis. 14,505 Lafayette, Ind 14,860 Lancaster, Penn 25,769 Lawrence, Mass 39,151 Lcadville, Col 14,820 Leavenworth, Kan 16,546 Lewiston, Me 19,083 Lexington, Ky 16,656 Lincoln, Neb 13.003 Lincoln, R.I 13.765 Little Rock, Ark 13.138 Lockport, N.Y 13,522 Logansport, Ind. 11,198 Long Island City, N.Y. . . . 17,129 Los Angeles, Cal 11.183 Louisville, Ky 123,758 Lowell, Mass 59.475 Lynchburg, Va. 15.959 Lynn, Mass. 38,274 Macon, Ga. 12,749 Madison, Wis 10,324 Maiden, Mass 12,017 Manchester, N.H 32,630 Marlborough, Mass 10,126 Memphis, TenrL 33.592 Meriden, Conn 15.540 Middletown, Conn 1 1.732 Milwaukee, Wis 115.587 Minneapolis, Minn. .... 46^87 Mobile, Ala. 29,132 Montgomery, Ala. .... 16,713 Muskegon, Mich. 11,262 Nashua, N.H. ...... 13,397 Nashville, Tenn 43.350 New Albany, Ind 16423 Newark, N.J 136,508 New Bedford, Mass 26,845 New Brighton, N.Y. .... 12,679 New Britain, Conn ii^oo New Brunswick, N.J. . . . 17,166 Newburgh, N.Y 18,049 Newburyport, Mass '3>538 New Haven, Conn 62,882 New London, Conn. .... 10,537 New Orleans, La. .... 216,090 Newport, Ky 20,433 Newport, R.I 15.693 Newton, Mass 16,995 New York, N.Y 1,206,299 Norfolk, Va 21,966 Norristown, Penn 13.063 North Adams, Mass. . . . 10,192 Northampton, Mass 12,172 Norwalk, Conn 13.956 Norwich, Conn. .... 15.112 Oakland, Cal 34.555 Ogdensburgh, N.Y 10,341 Omaha, Neb 30,518 Orange, N.J 13,207 Oshkosh, Wis 15,748 Oswego, N.Y 21,116 Paterson, N.J 51.031 Pawtucket, R.I 19,030 Peoria, III 29,259 Petersburgh, Va 21,656 Philadelphia, Pciin 847,170 Pittsburg, Penn 156,389 Pittsfield, Mass 13.367 Portland, Me 33,810 Portland, Ore 17,577 Portsmouth, 11,321 Portsmouth, Va. 11.390 Pottsville, Penn 13.253 Poughkeepsie, N.Y 20,207 Providence, R.1 104.857 Quincy, 111 27,268 Quincy, Mass. 10,529 Racine, Wis. 16,031 Reading, Penn. 43.278 Richmond, Ind. 12,742 Richmond, Va. 63,600 Rochester, N.Y 89,366 Rockford, III 13,129 Rock Island, 111 11.659 Rome, N.Y 12,194 Sacramento, Cal 21420 Saginaw, Mich. 10,525 Salem, Mass. 27,563 Salt Lake City, Utah . . . 20,768 San Antonio, Tex. .... 20,550 Sandusky, 15.838 San Francisco, Cal 233,959 Sanjos^, Cal 12,567 Savannah, Ga. ...... 30,709 Schenectady, N.Y 13.655 Scranton, Penn 45.850 Shenandoah, Penn 10,147 Somerville, Mass 24,933 South Bend, Ind 13,280 Springfield, III 19,743 Springfield, Mass. 33.340 Springfield, 20,730 Stamford, Conn 11,209 Steubenville, 12,093 St. Joseph, Mo. 32431 St. Louis, Mo. 350,518 St. Paul, Minn. 41,473 Stockton, Cal 10,282 Syracuse, N.Y 51.792 Taunton, Mass 21,213 Tcrre Haute, Ind 26,042 Toledo, O. 50,137 Topeka, Kan. 15.452 Trenton, N.J 29,910 Troy, N.Y 56,747 Utica, N.Y 33.914 Vicksburg, Miss. 11,814 Virginia City, Nev 10,917 Waltham, Mass 11,711 Warwick, R.I 12,163 Washington, D.C 147.293 Watcrbury, Conn. .... 17,806 Watertown, N.Y 10,697 Weymouth, Mass. .... 10,571 Wheeling, W. Va. .... 30,737 Wilkesbarre, Penn 23,339 Williamsport, Penn 18,934 Wilmington, Del 42478 Wilmington, N.C 17.350 Winona, Minn 10,208 Wobum, Mass 10,931 Woonsocket, R.I 16,053 Worcester, Mass. 58,291 Yonkers, N.Y 18,892 York, Penn 13,940 Youngstown, O '5435 Zancsville, 18,113 PRONUNCIATION OF DIFFICULT GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. J[^* All marks used to indicate pronunciation are the same as are employed in Webster's Dictionary, last edition. Explanation of Marks, —a, 6, T, o, u, y, long; &, t-, 6, less prolonged ; 5, C, I, o, H, y, short; care, far, laat, fgU, wh^it ; there, vfil, term ; pique, ftrm ; d(5ne, for, dn, wglf, foi>d, f(5bt ; furl, rjide, pysh ; e, V, o, silent ; S, sound of long a ; o, similar to c in her ; ii, like the French u ; ee, sound of i in spirit ; ^ oj s ; ph (W sh ; e, ch, as k ; g as j ; g as in get ; g as z ; ^ as gz ; u as tn liuger, liuk ; tii as in thine ; I, itite Ui in million ; u, like ni in minion ; 6, neoriy iiic z; D, similar to th in this j G, sourti/ o/" German ch j H, strongly aspirated ; K, sou?k/ o/ German ch ; M, French nasal sound; K, /lAe rr in terror. Aachen, H'Ken. Abaco, a'ba-ko. Abbitibe, ab-be-tib'bee. Abeokuta, a-be-o-kH'ta. Ato'er-deeu'. Abomey, ab'oma'. Abouklr, a-boo-keer'. Abrantes, a-briin^tes. Acapulco, ii-ka-pool'ko. Acarai, a-ca-rii'I. Ach-een'. Acoucagrua, a-kon-ka'gwii. Acre, a'ker, or a''ker. Aden, a'den ; Arab. pron. a'den, Adige,a'de-je ; /r.pron. ii'de-j& Ad'i-ron'dack. Adrianople, ad'r!-an-o'p!. Adri-at'lc. JGgean (Sea), e-jee'au. Afgltanistan, af-gan'is-tan'. Agades, iig'a-des'. Agra, a'gra. Aguilar, a-ge-laa'. Agullia.8, a-gool'yas. Aisne, an, or 6n. Alx-la-Cliapelle, iiks-la- shii'-pel'. Ajaccio, a-yiit'cho. Ak''ron. Alamo, a^'la-mo. Albans, H^'baug. Al'be-marle (Kug.). Arbe-marle'{U. S.). Albuquerque, al-boo-k6R'k&, or al'boo-kerk. Alcantara, al-kan^tii-ra. Alen^on, a-len'son ; Fr. pron. ^ii'loN'son'. A-lep'po. Aleutian, a-lu^tuhi-an. Algarve, al-gaR'T&. Al-gierg^ Alicante, a-le-kau^tu. Alleghany, ftl-le-ga/uT. Allegheny, 51-le-ga^nT. Allier, ill-le-a'. AUnaden, al-ma-nen'. Almeida, al-ma'e-da. Alsace, aI''B^8s'. Altai, Jil-ti'. Altamaha, awl^ta-ma-haw'. Alton, al'ton. Am-boy'. Am-boy'na. Amiens, am^I-enz ; Fr. pron. a'me'Ow'. Amite, a-meet'. Aui'os-k€ag'. A-nftm'. An' da-man'. Andorra, S-a-doa'aa. An'do-ver. An^'dros-cog'gln. Angleney , or Anglesea, ang' gl-se. An-go'la. Angostura, iin-gos-too'rii. AngoulSme, orc'goo'l&m^. An-ko'ber. Antigua, an-tc'ga. Antilles, an-teel^ or 5N'teel'. Apache, ii-pa'chS. Ap'en-niiie^. Ap'pa-la'chi-an. Ap'pa-lacli'l-co'Ia. Ap' po- ni at 't ox . Araguay, a-ril-gwl'. Ar'al. Archangel, ark-an'jfil. Arequipa, a-r&-kee'pa. Ardennes, ar-d6n'. Ar'gen-tine. Argyle, ar-gU'. Arlca, a-re'ka. Arispe, a-res'pa. Ar-kan'sas. Armagh, ar-ma'. A-roos'tot>k. Arpino, ar-pe'no. Ar'^ras. Artois, aa'twa'. A'Shan'tee, or ABh'an-tee^ Ash'ta-bu'la- Asia, a'shl-a, often improperly pronounced a'zhi-a. As'pin-^vall. As-sam'. As-sin'ni-boin'. Asuncion, a-s])n'se-0D. Atacama, a-ta-ca'ma. Atbara, at-ba'rii. Atchafalaya, atch-af-a-lVa. Aube, ob. Augg''burg. Augustine, St-, sent-aw'gus- teen'. Au Sable, o-sJl'bl. Auvergne, o-v6rn, or 5''vcRn''. Auxerre, o-ser'. Avignon, a'ven'yoN' Avon, a'von. Az'of. Azores, a-zorz', or a-zo'rez. B. BaVel-man'deb. Badajos, bad-a-hus'. Baden, ba'den, or bad'en. Bagd^id, bag-diid', or bag'dad. Ba-ha'maiij. Bahia, ba-e^a. Baikal, bl'kal'. Baireuth, bl'rjjth ; Ger. pron. bi'roit. Balaton, bH/law-tofi. Bal'e-&r'lc. Balize, b3.-leez^ Balkan, bal-kau^ Ban'g6r(U. S.). Bangkok'. Barbadoes, bar-bii'doz. Bar-ce-lo'na, or baR-th&-lo'na Barnaul, baR-nowl'. Bar'ne-gat'. Barn'sta-ble. Basle, bal. BHs'so-rah- Ba-tang^ Baton Rouge, bat'un roozh. Bayonne, ba'yoii'. Bayou la Fourche, bl'oo li fjjrsh. Beaufort (British Dominions), bo'furt. Beaufort (8. C), bu'lurt. Berinfi^, beer'ing. Bel-fast' ( I reland ). Bel'fa^t (Maine). Bellefontaine (France), bel' foN'tlln'. Bellefontaine (U. S.), bSl- fftn'tfin. Belle Isle, or Bellisle, bel-Tl'. Beloochistan, bel-oo'cliis- tan'. Benares, ben-'£L'rSs. Bengal, ben-gawP. Ben-gii'zi. Benguela, ben-ga'U. Benin, ben-een'. BSr'lin; G«r. pron. bgR-leen'. Ber-mu'daf. Bernard', Saint- Berwick, (Kiig.), bfir'rik. Ber'wick(U. S.). Besan^on, b"z-5>'s6N'. Bexar ; Sp. pron. bi-Haft' ; oft- en pron. by the Texans^ beh- har', or bar. Biafra, bT-5f/ra. Biloxi, be-loks'T. Binghamton, bing'um-tun. Birmingham, bTr'miug-um. Blanc (Mont), moN blON, or Mount Blayc. Blois, bloi, preferably blwa. Bogota, bo-go-t3'. Bois^, bwa-za'. Bokhara, bo-K^'ra. Bologna, bo-16n'ya. Bom- bay'. Bonin, bo-nen'. Bordeaux, boR'do'. Borgne, born. Bos'po- rus- Boulogne, boo-lon' ; Fr. pron. boo'lon. Bowdoiu, bo'den. Brah'ma-poot'ra. Bra-zil' ; Port. pron. hra-zeel '. Brazos, bra/zos, or bra'soss. Brem'en, or brS'men (Kurope). Breslau, bres'law, or br68'lou. Breton (Cape), brit'Qn. Brludisi, brin'de-^ee. Br^j'geg ; Fr. pron. briizh. Bu'eha-rest'. Bu'da ; Hung. pron. boo'dflh' . Buenos Ayres, bo'nus ft'riz ; 5;?. pron. Dwa'noss I'tfis. B^r'gos. Bur'gun-dy. Bushire, boo-sheer'. Butte, but. CaVes. Ca-bool'. Caen, kon. CagUari, kal'ya-re. Caicos, kl'kos. Cai'ro (Egypt). Cai'ro{U. S.). Calais, kJil'iss ; Fr. pron. kS'Ia' Calcasieu, kal'ka-sbu, or kUl' ka-sht}. Caldera, k^Ll-da'r^. Calloa, kal-la'o, or kal-ya'o. Calvi, kai've. Canandaigua, kajj'aa-da'- gwa. Can-ftv'e-ral. Can-ton' (China). Cape Girardeau, je-rar-do'. Ca-rac'as- Cardenas, kar'da'nas. Cftr'ib-be'an. Cftr'ib-bee' Carlsruhe, carls'roo. Ca-rftn'de-16t. Cartagena, kar'ta-je'na. cash -mere'. Cassiquiarl, ka-se-ke-a'ree. Castine, kaa-teen'. Ca-taw'ba. Catoche, ka-to'cha. Cat'ta-rau'grus. Cftt'te-gftt. Cau'ca-sus. Cayembe, ki-am'ba. Cayenne, ki-en'. Cayman, ki-man'. Cayuga, kS-yoo'ga. Celebes, sel'e-biz. ^en'is, or se'ne'. Cette, set. Cettigne, chet-t'i'5'&. Ceuta, su'ta. C^vennes, ?&-Ten'. Ceylon, see'lyn, or sl-lon'. Chagres, cha'grgs. Chaleur, sha-loor'. Ch^mouny, sha'moo'ne'. Chandeleur, shan-de-loor'. Chapala, sha-pa'la. Chaimltepec, cba-pool-tH- pek'. Char'i-ton. Chat'ta-hoo'che. CbHt-ta-noo'ga. Chaudiere, Bho-d5-fer'. Cliautauqua, Bba-taw'kwa. Chelsea, chel'se. Clienaiigo, she-n&ng'go. Chemnitz, Kem'nits. Chemung, she-mQng'. Che-ra^v'. Cherburg, sher'bui'g, or shGa'- booR'. Che- sun 'cook. Cheviot, chiv'e-ut. Cheyenne, shI-en'. Chicago, she-kaw'go. Chihuahua, cbe-wa'wa. Chill, chil'le; Sp. Chile, chee'- 1&. ChU'li-coth'e. Chimborazo, chim'bo-rS'zo. Chin'cha. Chowan, cho-wan'. Chuqiiisaca, chjj-kS-wl'ka. Cienfiiegos, se-6n'fwa'go8. Cimaron, se-mii-ron'. Cobija, ko-bee'Ha. Coblentz, kob'lents. Cochabamba, ko-chjl-bam'ba, Co'cliln Chl'na. Cohahuila, ko-U-wee'la. Cohoes, ko-hoz'. Co-im'br», or ko-eem'bra. Colima, ko-lee'ma. Cologne, ko-lon'. Colorado, kol'o-rah'do. Comayagua, ko-ml-a'gwa. Com'o-rin. Conecocheagrue, kon'e-ko- cheeg'. Conecuh, ko-nee'ka. Congo, eong'go, or LiTingstone Connaught, kon'nawt. Co'i>en-ha'gen. Copiapo, ko-pe-a-po'. Coquimbo, ko-kBm'bo. Cor'do-va. Corea, ko-re'a. Corrientes, koR-ae-en'tSs. Costa Rica, kos'tii re'ka. Cotopaxi, ko'to-paks'e. C6v'ing-tou. Cracow, kra'ko. Cri-me'a. Croix (St.), kroi. Cuenca, kwen'ka. Cumana, ku-ma-na'. Curapoa, ku'ra-so'. Cuyahoga, kl'a-ho'ga. Cuzco, koos'ko. Dahlonega, da-lOn'S-ga. Dahomey, dah-ho'm&'. Dai Nippon'. I>arfur, dar'foor'. Darien, da-re-en', De-ca'tur. Del'a-go'a. Delhi (Hindostan), del'leo. Delhi (U. S.), del'hi. Demerara, dem'e-ra'ra. Des Moines, de-moin'. Dieppe, dyep, or de-ep'. Dijoii, de'zhoN'. Dnieper, nee'per. Dniester, nees'ter. Duminica, dom'e-nee'ka. Dongola, doug'go-la. Dordogne, dOr-don'. Do'vre-fi-eld'. Drave. Drontheim, dront'im. Dubufiue, du-buk'. Duiuth, du-lHth'. Dumfries, dum-fpeess'. Dun -dee'. Du-ned'ln. Dung'frow. Kagegtma, k3.-ga-8^ma. K.al a-ina-zoo'. Kaiutchat'ka. Kanawha, ka-naw^wa. Kan (la-har^. Kankakee, kauk'a-kee'. Kano, ka-aJV. Karakorum, ka-ra-kd'rtLm. KarlHkroua, karls-krotyna. Ka tahdiu Kearney, kiir'ni. Kearnarge, kgr'sirj'. KeiiiK'hec, kCu-ne-bSk'. KenoHlia, kfia-tysha. Ke^>-kuk''. KerKuelen, kerg'e-letk Khiva, Kee^va. Klakhta, ke-iis'ta Kief, ke^f, or k1.«t'. Kiel, keel. Kiiimanjaru, kTl-e-miui- ji-nV. Klulen, kT'o-len. Kioto, ki-o'to. Kit ta tln'ny. Klamath, klam'at. Koliti. krvU-en^ KonlKHl>erKi keQ'igs-berg. Kordofan, kor-dof&n'. Kueiilun, kwea-l/ka. KurUe, kdb^rU. L. Lab'ra-d5r/ L.ad'o-Ka. La-dronef' ; Sp. pron. UD'TO' nfo*. Lafayette, laf-A^f. La Foiirche, )& foonh- LaK» MagKiore, Wgo-mM' La OuAym, U gwl'ri. Lancaater, Ung'kw-tor. LanKuedoc, Idn'Seh-dok'. I.aon, lil'on'. Laredo, li^ra'dd. La llochelle, U ^5•■h6I^ Latakia, la'U-kee'a. Lauwuu&e, Uysiia'. Leffnano, Ua-yiii'no. Leicester, les'ter. Lebuter, liu'ster. Leipsic, np'sik. Leith, Im-'th. L6um'iu 8ter (U. 8.). LeouiiuHter (£ag.}> lem'ster. Le'oni A>>. pron. li-On'. Ior. Leyden, UMen, or Ui'dea. Li«Be, leej ; Fr. pron. le-teh^ I4«ie, leel. Lima ( Fern), le^'mii. LimatU. S.) li'ma. Limoges, le^mosh'. Lipari, lli)'a-re, or l©e'pa-rt!«. Llanos, lya'ndfl. Lodi (Italy), lo'dee. Lodi(0. S.), lo'di. Lo-fo'den. Loire, Iw&a. Lomond (Loch), loK lo'mund. LoH Angeles, locu An'jH-^z. Loulsvliie, loo''is-viI. Lnc'ca ; It. pron. look^k&. Lupata, lu-pa^tl. Luzon, loo-zOn^ L2-cdm''ing. Ly'ons ; Fr. Lyon, le/ojf'. Maas, mSa. Macao, ma-ea'o, or ma-kow'. Machias, ma-chi^as. Mack''i-naw. Madeira, ma-dee^ra ; Port, pron. ma-dii'e-ra. Mad-ras'. Mad-rid^ Mad'rid(U. S.). Magdala, mSg'da-la. Magellan, ma-jel'lan. Makoqueta, ma-ko^ke-ta. Malabar'. Mal'a-ga, or m£'la-ga. Malta, mawl'^ta. Mandalay, man-dU'le. Manistee, ma-nte'tg. Manitoba, man-I-to-ba'. Manitoiiwoc, man^e-too-wok' Manzanillo, maa-sa-neel'yo. nf aracayl>o, marra-kt'bo. Maranliain, m&r'a-nam.'. Mar''mo-ra. Marquesas, mai^ka'sas. Marquette, mar-kef. Marseilles, mar-gftla/. Martinique, Ina^'tI-ueeK^ Mas sll-ldn. Ma-tan'zas. Mat'a-pan'. Mauch-Chonk, mawk ch(lnk^ Maz'atlan'. Mechlin, uiek^lin. Medina (Arabia), me-dee'na. Medina (U. S.), me-dVna. Me-her'rin. Melnlngen, mVning-en. Menai, men'I, or men'a (Strait). Mendocino, m6n-do-see'no. Mercede, mer-sad'. Mersey, mSr'ri. Merthyr TydTlI, mSr'tber tid'vil. Messina, m^s-sec'nii. Miami, ml-a^mi. Milan, mil^aa (Italy); ml-lftn' (U.S.). Mlquelon, mik-e-lon'- Miramachi, mlr'a-ma-shee'. Mod'e-na, or mod'&-na. Mohave, mo-hftv'. Mo-nad'nock. Mo-non'^a-hela- Mont ISlanc, mdN bl5li, or Mount Hlauc. Mont Cenls, mftK Mh-n&, or Mon'te-vld'e-o, or mon-t&* Tl'O'ilft-O. Hont-pe'li-er. Mo-re^a. Mos^cSmt \ &IUB. Hoftkwa, mosk-llrft'. Mozambique^ mo-sam-beek'. Munich, mu^uik. Muscatine, um8''ka-Ceeu'. Muskingum^ mtu-kiug^gam. Mysore, uil-Bor'. N. Nan-kin'. Nantes, uants; Fr.pron. nOst. Nan-tuck'^et. Natal, iia-taU. Natch'i-toch'es; sometimes pronounced nak-e-tUHb'. Neufchatel, uush'a'tel'. Ne'vis(Hfn). Newfoundland, nu'fund- laud^ New Or'le-ang. Ngami, 'Qg^^mee. Niagara, iiT-ag^a-ra ; sometimes pronounced nT-ag^a-ra. Nicaragua, uik^a-r^'gwa. Nice, nces. Niger, ni'jer. Nijue Novgorod, oMi'ue nOv'gft'nki. Nip'isslug^ Nismes, nucm. Norwich (Eng.), nor'rij. Norwich (U. S.J, nor^rich, or nor'wich. Nov'go-rod'. Nueces, nwu'sfia. Nyanza, u5^-an'za. Nyassa, u^-^a. Pierre (Saint), sOnt p«er. Piqua, pik'wa. Pisa, pec^Hji. Pis-cat' a-qua. Plaquemine, plak'mSn'. Plata [Uio de la), re^o dA la' pla'ta. Po^co-taPl-co. Pondicherry, pon'de-8li6r'- ree. Pont^ char- train'. Popayan, po-pi-an', or po-ptt- yin'. Po-po-cat'e-pCtl'. Port-au-Prince, pOrt (>• priiiss. Port Mahon, uta-bon'. Porto Kico, por'to rce/ko. Portsmouth, portA^muth. Potosi, poto-see', or po-to'see. Poughkeepsie, po-kip^sl. Prague, prag. Prairie du Chien, pra'rl du sheen. Presciue Isle, presk eel. Puebla, pwtib^la. Pyrenees; plr^e-uez. Queretaro, k&-ra/ta-ro. Quesada , k&-sa'i>&. Quiche, koe'cha, Quiloa, kee'lo-a, Quin'e-liaug'. Quito, kec'to. O. Oahn, wSh'hoo. Oaxaca, w^aa^kii. Obi. o'be. Ock^lo-ko'nee. O-co^nee. Odense, D'den-seh. Ogeechee, o-gee'chee. Oise, oiz ; Fr. pron. waz. Okeechobee, 5-ke-cho'bC. Okeflnokee, (5-ke-fln-o'^ke. Okhotsk, o-Kotsk'. Olean, o-le-an'. O16ron, o-li'roN'. Omaha, 6'ma-haw'. Oman, o-man'. 0-ne''ga. Oneida, o-nVda. Onondaga, on'un-daw'ga. Oii''tvay, raw'wu. Kaleigh, raw'll. Rangoon, rauggoon'. Rapid an'. Rarltan, rar'it-un. Reading, r6d''ing. Recife, ri-se^'fi. Regglo, rSd'jo. Rensselaer, ren'se-ler. Rey'kl-a-vik. Rheims, recmz ; Fr. pron. T&tiZ. RIad, ri-ad'. Riclielieu. re'she-loo'. Rideau, ru'diV. RIesengeblrge, ree'zen-ga- bLH-RC'eh. RVga, or ree'ga. Riobamba, ree-o-bam'ba. Rio Colorado, ree'o ko-lo-ra/- do. Rio del Norte, rVo del nort ; ^. pro7i. rt'e'o dSl noR'ta. Rio Grande (Texas), ri'o grand. Bio Grande (S. A.), rS'o-gran'- da. Rio Janeiro, pI'o ja-nee/ro, or ree'o ja-nfi/ro. RIvoli, riT'o-le, or ree'vo-le. Ro'a-noke'. Rouen, roo'en ; Fr.pron. rw6N. Riigen, nt'jfca. Russia, rQ.'lego, sftn de-a'go. Sangamon, sang'ga-moD. San Joatiuiu, ttau hwa-keen''. San JoHt;, tiau uu-tia'. SaiiJu'an; '!>^.;n'on. sin hoo- an'', or iiwAn. Santa Cruz, san'ta kroos. San'tik F6 ; Sp. pron. sln'tl (a. Santarem, Ban-t&>r4SM; almost san-ta-reng'. Santiago de Cuba, aan-t^a'- go do ku'ba, or da koo'ba. Sadne, sOn. Sas-katch'a-W)^'. Sault (St. Ma'ry), soo. SchaflTliausen, idial-how'zen. Scheldt, ttkelt. Schenectady, eke-nck'ta-dj^. Schoharie, sko-har'ree. Schuyler, aki'ler. SchuylkiU, skool'kil. Seine, mui. Senegal, sen'e-KawI'. Seuuaar, sen'oar. Seville, Mcv/jl, or bc-tU', Seychelles, sa'shel'. Shaiiieliai, «hang'hT'. Sliawangunk, shong'gum. She-boy'gan. Shen ando'ah. Sierra Madre, se-eK'Ea max>'- ra. Sierra Nevada, se-ea'aa na- va'Da. Slm^plon ; Fr. pron. saN'ploN'. Sinai, si/na, or Ri^na-I. Singapore, sing'ga-por'. Sioux, soo. SIsnl, ec-sal'. Skag'er Rack. Skaneateies, ^kan'e-at'les. Sofala, so-fa'ia, or so'fa-la. Soissons, swas's^N', Somuie, som. So-no^r^. Sorata, so-rl'tS. Stettin, stct^teen'. Steubenville, stu'ben-Tll. Stroniboli, strom''bo-lee. Sucre, 800/ kra. Suez, foo-ez'. Sumatra, soo-ma'trE. Surinam, soo-rl-uam'. Su-wa'nee. Swansea, swon'^e. Szegedin, seg'ed'iu'. T. Tahiti, tS-hi'te. Tahlequah, ta'le-kwft. Tama(|ua, ta-maw^kwa. Tamatave, tam'a-tave. Tainaulipas, txl-niou-lee'pas. Tampico, tani-pce^ko. Tananarivo, tii-na-na-re-voo'. Tanganyika, tan-gan-y'i'ka. Tangier, tan-jeer'. Taos, ta'os ; almost towss. Tapajos, ta-pa'zhos, or ta-pa'- hOs. Taunton (Eng.), tawn'ton. Taunton (Mass.), tan'ton. Teche, tCsh. Teheran, teh-h'ran. Tehuantepec, ta-wau-ta-pck' Ten-as' se r-im . TenerifTe, ten'er-if . Terre-Haute, ter'reh-hOt. Thames, tfimz. Thibodeaux, tib'o-dy. Thibet, tib'et, or tl-bef . Tierra del Fuego, te-£B'B& d61 fwft/go. Tiftis, tif-lees/. TIm-buc'too. Titlcaca, tit-e-kl'kfi. Tlvoll, tiv'o-le, or tee^To^lee. Tokautlns, to-kan-teens'. Toklo, to'ki-o. Tonquin, ton-keen'. To-pe'ka. Toulon, too'lOn'. Toulouse, too'looi' Tours, tooB. Traf'algar', or Trii-f&l'gar. Trieste, tre-^isf . Trin'I-dad'. TruxUlo, or Trujlllo, troo- aeel'yo. Tucson, tn-son'. Tulare, too-U'ree. Tu'rin, or tu-rin'. Tj^ol ; Ger. pron. to-tGL, U. Ucayall, oo-ki-a'lee. UJUl, Q-ji'ji. trim ; Ger. pron. dblm Um-ba'gog. IJpernavik, oo-p^E'na-rik. IJp'sal. Uruguay, u'roo-gwa', or oo- roo-gwl'. Utrecht, u'trSkt. Valdai, vai'dl. Val' la-do-lid'; S^. pron.ni- ya-Do-lecD'. Vallejo, vai-ya'HO. Valparaiso, vai-pa-ri'so. Varennes, va'ren'. Venezuela, ven'e-zwee'la. Vera Crtiz, Ta'ra-krooe. Verde, TSrd. Vergennes, TSr-jenz'. Versailles, TeR-salz' ; FY. pron. vgR'sai', or T6a-say". Vienna, ve-en'na. Vincennes, Tin-B6ni' ; Fr, pron. vaN'sea'. Vosges, TOzh. W. Wachusett, wg-chG'set. Wahsatch, wa-saoh'. Warwick (Kng.), wor'rik. Warwick (U. S.), wor'wik, ©r wor'rik. Washita, wdshl-taw. Wf^u-ke'gan. • Wener, *a'ner. We'ser ; Gfr. pron. ^a'aer, Wieliczka, <(e-litch'ka. Wllkesliarre, wUks'bar-ri. Willametje, wil-la'met. Win'ne-ba'go. Win-ne-pe saultee. Wis-c&s'set. Woolwich, wdbl'itch, or wdbl'ij. Worcester, wiJbs'tcr. Wurtemberg, wur/tcm-berg. Wy'an-dot'. Wy-o'mlng. Yakutsk, ya-kootsk'. Yang-tse-klang, yaog'tse-te- ang'. Tar'kand'. Ya-zoo/. Yem'en. Yenisei, yen'e-sa'e. Yezo, yS'zo. Yo-ko-hH'mft. Yo-sem'i-te. Youglilogheny,y{ib'ho-ga'nL Yp'si-l&n'tl. Y^'cft-tan', or yooOtft-tJui'. Zacateoas, xilk-a^t&'kafl. Zacualpan, sa-kwal-pan'. Zam-be'si, or sam-ba'se. Zanguebar, zang'gft-b&r'. Zan'te. Zan'zl-bar'. Zlirich, zu'rik. Zuyder, zi'der. 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED EDUCATION - PSYCHOLOer TTiis book is due onSA^apsJJbed below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. ncc 1962 ^Tllt^ LI i :c7a /\UG 4 SfcNtONiLL A!WAR 1 6 1997' R [ C'D0a2.6'^^ I C. BERKELEY SE^ilESTER LOAN ULG16J38L iio irpT TH nCPft ^e' C^ l^ s^ %1 \0^ 4S^ A"-^ -r^^ ^ ^ LD 21-50»»-6,'60 (B132lBlO)476 General Library University of California Berkeley YF 007C6 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UBRARY I-