r 
 
 REESE LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 ; i8t). 
 
 ^Accessions No. 
 
 L 
 

 * v ~r-r 
 
 V 
 
WORKS BY PROF. GEO. L. RAYMOND. 
 
 Poetry as a Representative Art. 8vo, cloth extra . $1.75 
 
 " I have read it with pleasure and a sense of instruction on many points." 
 Francis Turner Palgrave. Professor of Poetry, Oxford University, 
 
 " Dieses ganz vortreffliche Werk." Englische Studien, Universitdt Breslau, 
 
 "There are absolute and attainable standards of poetic excellence. . . , 
 Perhaps they have never been so well set forth as by Prof. Raymond." Boston 
 Traveller. 
 
 " Treats abroad and fertile subject with scholarly proficiency and earnestness, 
 and an amplitude and exactness of illustration, that make his work definitely and 
 clearly explicit." New Orleans Times-Democrat. 
 
 The Genesis of Art-Form. An Essay jn Comparative Esthetics. 
 Fully illustrated. 8vo . . . . . . . $2.25 
 
 " It is impossible to withhold one's admiration from a treatise which exhibits 
 in such a rare degree the qualities of philosophical criticism." Philadelphia 
 Press. 
 
 " A help and a delight. Every aspirant after culture in any of the liberal arts, 
 including music and poetry, will find something in this book to aid him." Boston 
 Times. 
 
 Art in Theory. An Introduction to the Study of Comparative 
 
 ^Esthetics. 8vo, cloth extra . . . . . . $1.75 
 
 " Scores an advance upon the many . . . art-criticisms extant. . . . 
 
 Twenty brilliant chapters . . . pregnant with suggestion. . . . An author 
 
 not bound by mental servitude." Popular Science Monthly. 
 " Every careful reader must be delighed at the handling of the subject, at once 
 
 so harmonious and symmetrical as well as natural ... it appears in a form 
 
 which one may almost call artistic in itself." The Dial, signedE. E. Hale, Jr. 
 
 Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and Music. Together with 
 Music as a Representative Art. Two Essays in Compara- 
 tive ^Esthetics. I2mo, cloth . . . . . . $1.75 
 
 Pictures in Verse. With 20 illustrations by MAUD STUMM. 
 Square Octavo, in ornamental cloth covers . . . .75 
 
 A Life in Song. i6mo, cloth extra^ $1.00 
 
 " Marked by a fertility and strength of imagination worthy of our first poets." 
 Boston Literary World. 
 
 Ballads of the Revolution, and Other Poems. i6mo, cloth 
 extra . .75 
 
 " The work of a genuine poet." The New York Evening Post. 
 
 "A very unusual success ... to which genuine poetic power has not 
 more contributed than wide reading." Cincinnati Times. 
 
 Sketches in Song. i6mo, cloth extra 75 
 
 "A work of true genius, brimful of imagination and sweet humanity." 
 London Fireside. 
 
 " Fine and strong, its thought original and suggestive, while its expression is 
 the very perfection of narrative style." New York Critic. 
 
 G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 
 
 NEW YORK LONDON 
 
 27 West Twenty-third Street 24 Bedford St., Strand 
 
RHYTHM AND HARMONY 
 
 IN 
 
 POETRY AND MUSIC 
 
 TOGETHER WITH 
 
 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART 
 
 TWO ESSAYS IN 
 
 COMPARATIVE ESTHETICS 
 
 GEORGE LANSING RAYMOND, L.H.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF AESTHETICS IN THE COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY AT PRINCETON ; AUTHOR 
 OF "ART IN THEORY," "POETRY AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART," 
 
 " THE GENESIS OF ART-FORM," ETC. 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 CALIFORNIA* 
 
 G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 
 
 NEW YORK LONDON 
 
 27 WEST TWENTY-THIRD STREET 24 BEDFORD STREET, STRAND 
 
 be flnieluibocktr |)ress 
 1895 
 
COPYRIGHT, 71894 
 
 BY 
 
 G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 
 Entered at Stationers' Hall, London 
 
 Electrotyped, Printed and Bound by 
 
 Ube Knickerbocker prese, flew L'ork 
 G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 
 
UNIVERSITY' 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 tendency is to systematize that which is beyond 
 the reach of systematic exposition," " to formulate 
 ideas and qualities not reducible ... to formulae," 
 " full of learning and suggestive as the book is ... one 
 is lost in its infinite wrinkles," " fills the mind . . . with 
 a tremendous lot of fancies " such are the comments 
 with which some are now cfuaftfylhg their acknowledg- 
 ments very late in many cases of the essential differ- 
 ences between the thought presented in this series of 
 essays, and in previous works upon the same subject. 
 Were there proof that a single writer of such comments 
 had made a sincere endeavor to follow the lines of thought 
 which in these essays have been developed in accordance 
 with the simplest principles of logic and common sense, 
 the opinions thus expressed might be entitled to grave 
 consideration. As it is, they are very apparent utterances 
 of superficial impressions, such as naturally occur to any 
 one who has not looked into a subject deeply enough to 
 be fully aware of its complexities, or of the essential im- 
 portance and possibility of analyzing them. 
 
 As applied to the essay on " Rhythm and Harmony in 
 Poetry and Music," the pre-judgments of every one of 
 these critics would agree with that of the first of two au- 
 thors conversing, a year or more ago, in language somewhat 
 as follows: " No one can explain the methods underlying 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 the subtle harmonies of Swinburne's lyrics." " Not the 
 first who attempts it, perhaps ; but do you think it intrin- 
 sically impossible?" " If he could explain the methods, 
 he could produce the effects ; and we can't have two 
 Swinburnes." " Are you sure of your inferences? I may 
 be able to explain exactly what it is in the shading or 
 coloring of a picture, in the pose or gesture of a figure, 
 which represents the meaning that attracts and charms 
 me. But, unless myself a painter, I can't make a figure 
 like it." " What object would your explanation gain 
 then ? " And this was the reply : 
 
 First, a philosophic object. The causes underlying the 
 effects of art are in themselves as interesting as any un- 
 derlying the effects of nature like the rising and falling 
 of the tides, the coming and going of the storms, the 
 sprouting of the leaves in spring, and their falling in the 
 autumn. And, second, a practical object. If a man be 
 a painter, to let him know precisely what it is that charms 
 us in a color or an outline may enable him by a few 
 touches to change an unsuccessful product into one fitted 
 to charm all those whose tastes agree with our own. 
 And so with a poet. Those who have ever attempted 
 verses know the constant danger of having the forms 
 metre, alliteration, assonance, rhyme to which their 
 thought is harnessed, run away with it and wreck it. Yet 
 without the aid of these, what could carry the thought a 
 single step in an artistic direction ? The poet must learn 
 to get along, not without them but with them ; yet in 
 such a way as to keep them in subjection, as exemplified 
 in what is done by the acknowledged masters. 
 
 And there is another practical object to be gained. 
 This is to enable critics and through them, and in connec- 
 tion with them, people in general to understand and hence 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 to appreciate and enjoy that in art which is excellent. 
 At present, it has to be acknowledged that to attain this 
 object seems wellnigh beyond hope. Owing to a lack of 
 breadth and balance characterizing the practical limitations 
 of American culture, a man here who tries to treat art 
 philosophically finds his way blocked at the very thresh- 
 old of his undertaking with two almost insurmountable 
 obstacles. One is that few of our philosophers have had 
 sufficient aesthetic training to be interested in that which 
 concerns art ; and the other is that few of our artists 
 including our art-critics, though there are noteworthy 
 exceptions have had sufficient philosophical training to 
 be interested in that which concerns philosophy. Ac- 
 cordingly, as a rule, the philosopher never looks at the 
 art-book at all ; and the art-critic on whom the public 
 relies for information concerning it, does so merely be- 
 cause he cannot dodge what is tossed directly at him as a 
 reviewer ; but the little that he sees of it he usually 
 misapprehends and very frequently misrepresents. 
 
 These statements are not uncharitable. They are essen- 
 tially the opposite. Otherwise, if articles published in 
 some of our foremost journals journals that would be 
 universally placed upon every list of the first half-score 
 critical authorities in our country could not be attributed 
 to a lack of intelligence, one would be obliged to attribute 
 them to a lack of integrity. For instance, it is a simple 
 logical process, before defining the exact limitations of a 
 subject, to show its relations to other subjects by separa- 
 ting it from its surroundings ; in other words, to advance 
 from the generic to the specific ; and nothing, to a well- 
 trained mind, could appear more unjust than to represent 
 the beginning of this process as if it were the end of it. 
 Yet a criticism upon " Art in Theory," published in " The 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 Independent " of New York, opens with this sentence : 
 " The definition of art that it is * nature made human ' 
 may do in a way for the literature of a certain broadly 
 naturalistic school, but will hardly answer for art in its 
 wider general relations." The reader would certainly 
 infer from this and nothing further is quoted as a text 
 for the wholly unwarranted " enlargement " that follows 
 that the phrase taken from the book was the final re- 
 sult of an endeavor to distinguish carefully the character- 
 istics of (Esthetic art ; and that the author who had formu- 
 lated the definition was not aware that it was too broad 
 for the purpose. The last thing that any one would 
 conceive would be that what is really said of this defini- 
 tion on page 6 of " Art in Theory " is the following : 
 "Nature made human, or nature remade by the human mind, 
 is, of course, a very broad definition of art one that 
 scarcely begins to suggest all that is needed for a full 
 understanding of the subject. But ... it will serve as 
 a starting-point for what is to follow " ; or that in the 
 very next sentence, at the opening of the next chapter, 
 is begun a distinction between art as thus defined and 
 aesthetic art. 
 
 Again, in the same book, the argument for the theory 
 of beauty that is presented is reinforced by showing the 
 substantial agreement with reference to the considera- 
 tions upon which it is based between all the prominent 
 writers on aesthetics, no matter how greatly they may differ 
 in their conclusions. The concise yet comprehensive state- 
 ment and classification of these views, for such a purpose, 
 would, alone, to a thinker, justify the preparation of the 
 entire volume. But a criticism in " The Nation * not only 
 fails to recognize the force of this concurrency of opinion ; 
 but even why it should be supposed to have any force. 
 
PREFA CE. Vll 
 
 "" The author's reading," the public are told, " on every- 
 thing even remotely connected with the subject, has been 
 immense, and quotations from every one under the heav- 
 ens are as plentiful as blackberries in his pages . . . 
 they over-load them," etc. Of course, a comment like 
 this could not be phrased in such language, except as an 
 expression of inability to apprehend the object of the 
 quotations, and not only this, but even the elementary 
 fact that it is desirable for an author, before contributing 
 to a subject, to take pains to inform himself with refer- 
 ence to what others have already contributed to it, and, 
 if possible, to avail himself of their contributions even to 
 the extent of beginning to develop his system where 
 theirs have ended. 
 
 Once more, in " Art in Theory," an endeavor is made to 
 find a simple and single conception of beauty fitted to meet 
 the requirements of those who attribute it to essentially 
 mental results like association, adaptability, and conform- 
 ity to ideals, and also, at the same time, of those who 
 attribute it to essentially physical results like quality or 
 complement in tone or color. The general conclusion 
 reached, which, if true, is of the utmost philosophic and 
 artistic importance, is summed up on page 162 in language 
 which it certainly ought not to be difficult to understand, 
 to wit : " The highest beauty, in all its different phases, 
 results, as is the case in other departments of excellence, 
 from harmony in effects. Analyzing the elements of these 
 effects, carries with it the additional conclusion that, so 
 far as beauty is physical, it results when sounds, shapes, 
 or colors harmonize together and in such ways that their 
 combinations harmonize with the natural requirements 
 of the physical senses the ears or eyes to which they 
 appeal ; that, so far as beauty is psychical, it results 
 
VI 11 PREFACE. 
 
 when the thoughts and feelings suggested or expressed 
 through forms harmonize together, and also with the 
 natural requirements of the minds that they address ; 
 and that, so far as it is both physical and psychical, it 
 results when all the elements entering into both physical 
 and psychical effects harmonize together, and also with 
 the combined requirements of both natures in the man 
 subjected to their influence. In this latter sense, it will 
 be observed that complete beauty necessitates something 
 more than that which is either formal or expressional. 
 It can be obtained in the degree only in which a form 
 beautiful in itself fits a beautiful ideal conjured in the 
 mind by the imagination as a result of a harmonious com- 
 bination of thoughts and feelings." Immediately following 
 these statements in the book, the ideas in them are ab- 
 breviated in a definition expressed in terms concise, and, 
 perhaps, for those who have not read the preceding pages, 
 unnecessarily technical. At least, this impression of it 
 seems to have been conveyed to no less than four 
 reviewers, who, ignoring the ample explanations of the 
 preceding paragraph, have flung the briefer statement 
 toward the public as a sort of specimen boulder to show 
 what a hard road would have to be travelled by one 
 attempting to drive his thoughts through the volume. 
 Even this definition alone, however, might seem clear and 
 acceptable enough if quoted accurately. But it has 
 been quoted inaccurately. Here, with the italicized 
 phrases omitted, is what it has been represented to 
 be: "Beauty is a characteristic of any complex form 
 of varied elements producing apprehensible unity (i. e., 
 harmony or likeness) of effects upon the motive organs of 
 sensation in the ear or eye, or upon the emotive sources of 
 imagination in the mind ; or upon both the one and the 
 other'' Moreover, from a text, thus prepared for his pur- 
 
pose by himself, through the omissidrf of words necessary 
 in order to render its meaning clear and exact, one critic 
 goes on to argue against its vagueness and " inexact- 
 ness." Besides this, too, he attempts to discredit the defi- 
 nition, upon the hypothesis that by a complex form's 
 producing " apprehensible unity of effects " " in the ear 
 and eye, or upon the emotive sources of imagination in 
 the mind," is meant the same as if it had been said 
 that beauty is owing to a mere intellectual apprehen- 
 sion of the fact that a form is not simple but complex 
 in its structure. 
 
 Such criticisms as these that have been quoted are, 
 of course, not worthy of attention in themselves. Nor 
 would it be in place here to draw the natural lesson 
 which they suggest with reference to the duty of a 
 reviewer to study a book sufficiently to let the public 
 know the facts about it, what distinguishes its views 
 from those of other books upon the same subject, what is 
 the purpose of the quotations made in it, and what is 
 the exact nature of its conclusions. But there are other 
 reasons directly connected with our subject, why com- 
 ments of the kind noticed need mention. One reason is 
 that the attitude of mind toward the philosophic aspects 
 of art, indeed toward all truth in general, which they 
 indicate, suggests a lack of the kind of intelligence and 
 insight which are essential in order to appreciate the prac- 
 tical results of art, whether in the past or present. The 
 other reason is, that these particular reviews were pub- 
 lished in periodicals supposed by many to represent high 
 critical authority in our country. For both reasons, the 
 question forces itself upon one Where is art-thought, 
 and art, and all that art is worth, likely to be led by such 
 an attitude of mind ? 
 
 This is not an idle question. It is one of grave import- 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 ance. In what sense it is so, may, perhaps, be best 
 revealed to the reader by retracing for him the considera- 
 tions which first revealed its import to the author. These 
 were gradually brought to his attention while examining 
 a series of criticisms concurrently made in different jour- 
 nals in an effort to discredit a fundamental proposition in 
 " Art in Theory/' namely, that, in all successful art, the 
 proper balance must be preserved between the require- 
 ments of significance in the form and the requirements of 
 form considered only in itself. The proposition, at first 
 thought, seems almost too apparent to need even to be 
 stated. But on second thought no one can fail to observe 
 that, if accepted as true, it will necessarily put an end 
 to the suppositions of those who consider art to be 
 merely a matter of technique. And it is undoubtedly 
 this threatened danger to their own conceptions that 
 accounts for the way in which a certain class of critics 
 have seen fit to deal with the views presented in " Art in 
 Theory." For this reason it will be interesting, and pos- 
 sibly instructive, to notice just how much intelligence and 
 insight have armed the weapons with which they have 
 attacked these views. The. examination of their criticisms 
 will be in place, too, in this preface, because it will ulti- 
 mately lead to a statement of the exact relations to the 
 general subject of art of those technical phases of it which 
 are treated in the present volume. The relevancy of the 
 first criticism to be quoted lies in the fact that it is a com- 
 ment on a brief historical review in " Art in Theory," in- 
 tended to show that the acknowledged errors of extreme 
 romanticism and classicism are traceable, respectively, to 
 the undue emphasizing, in the one, of significance, by 
 which, as repeatedly stated, is meant an " expression 
 of thought and feeling" ; and in the other, of form. In 
 
PREFACE. XI 
 
 approaching a refutation of this statement, a critic in 
 " The Independent " first refers to the " astounding mis- 
 apprehension " of this view, and then goes on to say : 
 
 " We cannot at all admit that ' the production 
 
 of something that imitates a previously existing form or 
 subject is now one of the recognized meanings of the 
 term classic.' " Why can he not admit this? Can it be 
 that he is unaware that, at the present day, which is what 
 is meant by the word now, men, when they speak of a 
 modern artist as producing a classic face, or temple, or 
 drama, or allusion in a drama, invariably suggest a like- 
 ness in it either to a Greek face, or temple, or drama, or 
 allusion containing Greek mythological references ? or 
 else, if not, at least a likeness ,to some form which, as a 
 form, is sufficiently old to have a recognized character? 
 And does he not know that the reason for this suggestion 
 is that " one of the recognized meanings " not the only 
 meaning mentioned in " Art in Theory," but one men- 
 tioned in its historic connections " of the term classic is 
 the production of something that imitates a previously 
 existing form or subject ? " One would think that every- 
 body ought to know this. " Les classique," says a French 
 criticism lying before me now, " le classique c'est-a-dire 
 ceux qui perptuent une manitre" But this reviewer does 
 not know it. 
 
 However, he probably fancies himself in good company 
 for America. An earlier critic in "The Nation," quoting 
 from " Art in Theory " the statement that " the germ of clas- 
 sicism ^is the conception that art should chiefly emphasize 
 the form," and of romanticism that " the ideas expressed 
 in the form should be chiefly emphasized," had exclaimed : 
 " Sound not sense was certainly never a motto of classical 
 literature." And who had said that it was ? Does the care- 
 
Xll PREFACE. 
 
 fully worded phrase " chiefly emphasize " mean " exclu- 
 sively emphasize?" Or does the term "sound " include 
 all that is meant by " form " ? When we speak of drama- 
 tic " form " do we often even suggest the idea of " sound " ? 
 What we mean then is the general method of unfolding 
 the plot as a whole. This attempted refutation reveals, 
 once more, that lack of philosophic discrimination to which 
 reference has been made. But connected with it, there is a 
 still greater lack of historic knowledge. Who has never 
 heard of the famous theatrical contest between the classi- 
 cists and romanticists in Paris, which once almost made a 
 Bedlam of the whole city, because Victor Hugo, the idol 
 of the latter, refused to model his dramas upon those of 
 his predecessors, which, in turn, were modelled upon those 
 of the Greeks ? What was Hugo contending for ? For the 
 right to emphasize chiefly the ideas behind the form to 
 speak out naturally upon a modern subject, with a style to 
 fit it, whether it assumed a conventional form, or one that 
 nobody before had ever attempted. But no, says one of 
 these critics : " Classicism and Romanticism are tempers 
 of mind." " They owe their origin," says the other, " to 
 a difference in mental constitutions." Of course, there is 
 a truth in this. By nature men are inclined toward the 
 one or the other. But one might say the same of almost 
 any different phases of mental action. He might say it 
 of the tendencies to intemperance or gambling. But 
 would his saying this explain what either of these is? 
 Certainly not ; for only when the tendencies come to the 
 surface and reveal themselves in a form of action, do 
 they exist in such a way that they can be differentiated. 
 The same is true of classicism and romanticism. They 
 cannot be differentiated till developed into a form of ex- 
 pression. The questions before us are, what is this form, 
 
PREFACE. Xiii 
 
 and what is there in it, as a form, that makes it what it is? 
 To speak of differences in " tempers of mind " or of " men- 
 tal constitution," is to mention something influential in 
 causing a difference to be. But it is no more influential 
 than is the spirit of the age, or the conditions of taste, or 
 environment, or education ; and it fails to suggest, as even 
 some of these latter do, why it is that, at one period, all 
 authors and artists incline to classicism, and at another all 
 of them incline to romanticism ; while, at some periods, the 
 same man seems almost equally inclined to both. Goethe's 
 " Leiden des jungen Werther's," for instance, and his 
 " Goetz von Berlichingen " are specimens of distinctively 
 romantic literature ; whereas his " Iphigenie auf Tauris " 
 is, perhaps, the most successful modern example of classic 
 literature. At what period between writing the first two 
 and the latter of these was his '* temper of mind," his 
 " mental constitution " changed ? Is it not a little more 
 rational to say that what was changed was his artistic 
 method ? possibly, his theory of this ? that in the first 
 two he " chiefly emphasized " the " significance," and in 
 the last, " the form," causing it to be what he did not 
 take pains to cause the others to be " something imita- 
 ting a previously existing " Greek " form " not only, but 
 in this case, a Greek " subject " also ? 
 
 On the contrary, says one of these critics, elaborating 
 his theory about " tempers of mind," " classicism is reason- 
 able, logical, and constructive, while romanticism is emo- 
 tional and sensuous " ; and the other echoes his sentiments 
 with something about " the eternal distinction between 
 the intellectual and the emotional." And so one is to 
 believe that the distinguishing feature of classic Greek 
 sculpture like a " Venus," a " Faun," or a " Group of the 
 Niobe," or of a classic Greek drama, like the " Antigone," 
 
XIV PREFACE. 
 
 is, that it is not sensuous or emotional ; and that the distin- 
 guishing feature of the plays of Shakespeare or Hugo, or of 
 a Gothic cathedral, is that they are not reasonable or log- 
 ical or constructive ! Of course, there is a cause underlying 
 the distinctions that these critics are trying to make. 
 It is suggested too in " Art in Theory." On page 25, the 
 statement is made that one characteristic of romantic art 
 is that in it the form is " determined solely by the exigen- 
 cies of expression/' and on page 17, at the beginning of 
 the chapter in which this statement occurs, as well as in 
 scores of other places in the book, it is explained that by 
 the term expression is meant a communication of thought 
 and feeling combined. Without this explanation indeed, 
 this meaning would be a necessary inference from the 
 fundamental conception of the book, which is that all art 
 is emotional in its sources, and that art-ideas are the 
 manifestations of emotion in consciousness (Chapters V., 
 XVIII., and XIX.). It follows from all these facts to- 
 gether that emotion but not without its accompanying 
 thought, which, sometimes, as with Browning, throws the 
 emotion entirely into the shade has a more unrestricted 
 expression in romantic art than in classic art. In the 
 latter the form is " chiefly emphasized," and therefore 
 there is a more conscious, as well as apparent exercise of 
 rational intelligence engaged in constructing a form for it, 
 and in confining the expression to the limits of this form. 
 But we must not confound the effects of this difference 
 with that which causes them. This is the method of the 
 artist when producing his art-work, a method influenced 
 by the relative attention which he gives, either consciously 
 or unconsciously, to the requirements of significance or of 
 form. It is important to recognize this fact, too, because, 
 otherwise, we should not recognize that he is the master of 
 
PREFACE. XV 
 
 his methods, and, if he choose, can produce in both styles, 
 though, of course, not with equal pleasure, because he 
 must have his preferences ; nor with equal facility, because 
 it is a matter of a lifetime to produce successfully in either. 
 To suppose that his methods master him, is to show a lack 
 of insight, with reference to the practice of art, still greater 
 than that just indicated with reference to the theory of it. 
 Goethe could write " Iphigenie auf Tauris " or the " Lei- 
 den des jungen Werther's." So, too, the same painter can 
 " chiefly emphasize " form in his figures by using the 
 distinct " classic " line, as it is termed ; or, if he have been 
 educated in another school, often merely if he choose, he 
 can suggest the form with the vague outlines of the roman- 
 tic impressionist ; and the same architect also can plan a 
 classic Girard college, or a romantic seaside cottage. To 
 imagine otherwise, is to parallel the notion of a schoolboy 
 that the poet tears his hair, rolls his eyes, raves in the lines 
 of a lyric rather than of a drama, and makes a general fool 
 of himself by a complete lack of self-control whenever he 
 is composing at all, simply because he is " born and not 
 made." 
 
 That this inference with reference to the error as to 
 artistic methods is justified, is proved by the inability of 
 critics of this class to recognize the necessity of making 
 any distinction whatever between significance in form 
 not outside of form and form as developed for its own 
 sake, concerning which the reader may notice what is said 
 in the Introduction to " Music as a Representative Art," 
 on page 235. 
 
 It might be supposed that the definition of art there 
 quoted, to the effect that it is " the application to any- 
 thing, in the spirit of pleasure and for play only, of the 
 principle of proportion," would be welcomed as a desira- 
 
XVI PREFACE. 
 
 ble reinforcement of the truth presented in two hundred 
 pages of an essay devoted entirely to the subject of 
 " Rhythm and Harmony." But, as shown in that Intro- 
 duction, there are reasons connected with the require- 
 ments of significance, that may be urged against this 
 view. Let us notice here certain other reasons of the 
 same tenor which are connected with the requirements 
 of form. 
 
 Go to critics of literature who believe that art is "the 
 application to anything " of the laws of art-form which, 
 for reasons given on page 235, is a strictly just way of 
 shortening what is meant by the exceedingly loose use of 
 the term proportion in the above definition and ask them 
 who is the first English poet of the age. They will 
 probably answer and few would differ from them 
 Swinburne. Now ask them what is the influence upon 
 life of the thought presented in his poetry, what is the 
 particular phase of inspiration to be derived from it ; and 
 they will probably answer that to them as critics this is 
 immaterial ; that not the thoughts of the poet, not his 
 subjects give him his rank, but his manner of presenting 
 them, his style, the rhythm of his verse, and its harmony 
 as produced by alliteration, assonance, or rhyme. Again, 
 ask a critic of painting of the same school to show you the 
 best picture in a gallery. He is as likely as not to point 
 you to the figure of a woman, too lightly clothed, posing 
 not too unconsciously near some water ; or, too heavily 
 clothed, sitting in front of a mirror. You ask him what 
 is the peculiar phase of thought expressed in this picture, 
 the particular inspiration for life to be derived from it ; 
 and he will look at you and laugh. Nothing to-day, in 
 our country, is supposed to show more ignorance about 
 art, than the conception that interest in a picture has any- 
 
PREFA CE. XV11 
 
 thing to do with a subject, or with its suggesting a story, 
 whether inspiring or otherwise. We must judge of it, we 
 are told, entirely by the form, the style, the use in it of 
 light and shade and color. 
 
 But, you say, there certainly was a time when theories 
 of art were different. Dante, Milton, Wordsworth, yes, 
 and Shakespeare, Goethe, and Schiller too, all these had 
 style or form, yet what one thinks of chiefly, when he 
 reads them, is not this, but the thought that is behind it. 
 Then there is Raphael. On a Sunday, one could sit for 
 an hour before the Sistine Madonna, and feel more bene- 
 fited than in most of the churches. But Raphael's is not 
 a name, you find, with which to charm the modern critic. 
 You are told that you are behind the age. This -state- 
 ment gives you a new suggestion, and you proceed to 
 apply it. You ask yourself if the same may be true with 
 reference to your vjews of literary art. You take up the 
 nearest periodical and read the poetry in it, and its criti- 
 cisms upon poetry. What are the new poets doing? 
 What is it in their work that excites praise ? The 
 thought ? its breadth of conception ? its completeness of 
 development ? its power of expressing truth fitted to 
 uplift spiritually? How often do we see, in an American 
 criticism, anything like an analysis of a new American 
 poem ? How often do we see an effort to bring to light the 
 subtle character of the philosophy of which it is the ex- 
 pression ? And there is the kindliest of reasons why these 
 are not seen. A suggestion of logical arrangement, as 
 in Dante or Milton, a hint of ethical maxims, though 
 set as brilliantly as in Shakespeare or Schiller, would 
 give a poet of our own day, were he commended for 
 these particularly, a hard tramp up the road to recog- 
 nition. What our people want is style, form. " Yes," 
 
XV111 PREFA CE. 
 
 say the critics, " but imaginative form. You can't object 
 to that." Certainly one can to imagination used for 
 mere form's sake. Imaginative form has value only when it 
 images a truth ; and this is that which our modern critics 
 have forgotten. Any comparison, however odious, will 
 do for them, if it be only a comparison, and almost any 
 style if it only ring, even if as hollow as some of the 
 French forms of verse that our magazines admire so 
 much. Not, of course, that the style must always be as 
 dainty as in these. Some of us prefer to take it as the 
 English do their cheese strong, with plenty of light and 
 shade, and if the former be leprous and the latter smutty, 
 so long as the effects are anything but weak, our critics, 
 especially of our religious journals, are apt to like it all 
 the better. The truth is that the moment that, through 
 an overbalancing regard for form, people come to think 
 that it alone has value, and that the ^subject in art is im- 
 material, they are in a fair way to become realists in that 
 very worst sense in which it means believers in the por- 
 trayal in art of any amount of ugliness or nastiness so 
 long as it be only that which they term " true to nature." 
 This is the belief which, at present, is uppermost in 
 France, brought about in that country by the predomi- 
 nating influence, through more than one century, of a 
 materialistic art-philosophy. It is the reason why, in def- 
 erence to the supposed interests of art, the thousands 
 there who dislike the practical results no less than we, do 
 not protest against unsavory plays or novels, like some of 
 those of Sardou or Zola, and can actually swallow their 
 dinners without turning to the wall some of the pictures 
 that confront them. It is the reason too and this is 
 usually overlooked why people foreign to France, while 
 willing to acknowledge that its artists in every department 
 
PREFACE. xix 
 
 outnumber many times those of any other nation, have 
 never generally admitted a single French poet, musician, 
 painter, or sculptor, into that highest rank where, estimat- 
 ing worth according to a standard of significance as well 
 as of style, they have all agreed to place Shakespeare, 
 Goethe, Beethoven, Rubens, Raphael, and Angelo. 
 And this French attitude of mind toward art, art which 
 some believe to be the handmaid of civilization and reli- 
 gion, and the most powerfully elevating of any purely 
 human influence ; this attitude of mind and this direction 
 toward high achievement in art, is that to which almost all 
 those potent in criticism in our country, to-day, are doing 
 their utmost to point our own people. 
 
 In this preface, however, that which concerns us chiefly, 
 is the influence of theories of this kind upon artistic form. 
 Do those who hold that the subject of art can be " any- 
 thing," continue to hold on to their belief in the necessity 
 of a strictly artistic treatment of this ? or do their fol- 
 lowers ? It may be a new suggestion, but the plain truth 
 is that usually they do not, and this because they cannot. 
 If it be a law, as is maintained in " Art in Theory," that' 
 an artist, to be successful in his work, must always keep 
 his thought upon two things, form in itself, and signifi- 
 cance in the form, then he cannot think of only one of 
 these without doing injury to both. He is like a man in 
 a circus, riding two horses. The moment that he neglects 
 one of them, it shies off from him ; and, when he leans 
 to recover his control of this, he finds himself balanced 
 away from the other. Very soon, unless he wish to 
 keep up a jumping exhibition, for which his audience have 
 not paid, he will either ride no horse at all, or only one, 
 and this is as likely as otherwise to be the very one that 
 he at first neglected. So in art:, unless a man preserve the 
 
 f " OF THE ^ ^l 
 
 (UNIVERSITY) 
 
 ^ ^U 
 
XX PREFACE. 
 
 equilibrium between the requirements of form and of 
 significance, no one can tell which of the two will finally 
 appeal to him most strongly. Significance of some sort, 
 for instance, to apply this to the case before us, is eternally 
 present in art, no matter what one's theory may be con- 
 cerning it. For this reason, when men have begun to 
 think that the subject of art may be " anything," so long 
 as the form is artistic, some of them, as just noticed, will 
 soon begin to think that it may be " anything but what it 
 should be." Before long, too, they will come to suppose 
 just as people come to admire most the disagreeable 
 eccentricities of those whom they accept as leaders that 
 the art is all the better for having as a subject " anything 
 but what it should be." Does this result appear improba- 
 ble ? Recall the almost universal comment of the art- 
 editors in our country upon the rejection of the nude male 
 figure prepared for the medal of the Columbian exhibition. 
 The comment probably true enough in itself was that 
 the authorities at Washington did not " understand " or 
 "appreciate art." But think of any one's imagining that 
 this fact was proved by this particular action ? as if the 
 statues of our statesmen in the old Hall of Representatives 
 in the Capitol could not be specimens of art unless all their 
 pantaloons were chiselled off! as if appropriateness of 
 subject and of treatment had nothing to do with art in 
 them or in this medal ! as if by reproducing, however 
 successfully, a form representative of Greek life, we could 
 atone, in a distinctively American medal, for misrepre- 
 senting American life ! as if, in short, there were not a 
 large number of other considerations far more important 
 as proving the possession of aesthetic appreciation than 
 the acceptance of a subject which, when exhibited in an 
 advertisement, would inevitably be deemed by hundreds 
 
PREFACE. XXI 
 
 of thousands of our countrymen " anything but what it 
 should be ! " How long would it take a condition of art- 
 appreciation, of which such a criterion were the test, to 
 fill our public parks with imitated Venuses and Apollos, 
 meaningless to our people except as reminders of the 
 reigning beauties of else forgotten " living pictures " ? 
 What would be the effect upon our growing youth, were 
 the thoughts excited by such productions to be substi- 
 tuted for the nobler and purer inspiration of works like 
 St. Gaudens' " Farragut," or McMonnies' recently erected 
 " Nathan Hale." 
 
 The influence upon sculpture of this supposition that a 
 subject of art may be " anything," has not yet, fortunately, 
 in our country, been fully revealed. But the same can- 
 not be said with reference to poetry. There are plenty 
 of people among us, neither vicious nor morbid in their 
 tastes, who, nevertheless, are inclined to fancy that, con- 
 sidered aesthetically, a shady theme is not only excusa- 
 ble but desirable, when furnishing a background from 
 which to project into relief a brilliancy of treatment. 
 Therefore, for his brilliancy, they accepted Swinburne 
 when he first appeared; and to-day, though far less brilliant, 
 they have taken up with Ibsen. How would it be, ac- 
 customed as they are now to these morbid themes, were 
 another Ibsen to appear, an Ibsen so far as concerned his 
 subjects, but without the present Ibsen's excellence of 
 style ? Would he, too, though destitute of the elements 
 of form which once their school considered the essential 
 test of art, would he, too, be accepted as a foremost poet 
 or dramatist ? Strange as it may seem, he certainly would. 
 Most of the service of praise to Whitman in the Madison 
 Square Theatre in New York, some ten years ago, was 
 piped by our little metropolitan singers, whose highest 
 
XX 11 PREFACE. 
 
 ideal of a poet had been Swinburne, and whose most 
 vehement artistic energy had hitherto expended itself 
 almost entirely upon dainty turns of melody in rondeaus 
 and villanelles. The result merely verified an old well- 
 known principle. Extremes meet. The apotheosis of 
 form, when the smoke of the incense clears away, reveals, 
 enthroned on high, a Whitman ; and not in any of Whit- 
 man's works is there even a suggestion of that kind of 
 excellence in form, which once his worshippers supposed 
 to be the only standard of poetic merit. 
 
 Precisely the same principle is exemplified in painting, 
 too. When an artist starts out with an idea that the sub- 
 ject of art may be " anything," of course he begins to 
 develop the form for its own sake. He has nothing else 
 to do. But form may mean many different things. With 
 some, it means the imitatiori*of natural outlines or colors. 
 With some, it hardly means imitation at all. It means 
 the development of color according to the laws of har- 
 mony. Even where the subject of art is a person, eVen 
 in portraiture, there are critics who tell us that the result 
 should not be judged by its likeness to the person depicted. 
 It is not a photograph, forsooth. It is a painting, to be 
 judged by the paint, they say, and mean, apparently, by 
 the color, irrespective of its appearance in the face por- 
 trayed. Of course, this supposition will be deemed by 
 some unwarranted. Few would second it, made thus 
 baldly. But we must judge of beliefs by practices ; and 
 scarcely an art-exhibition in New York fails to show some 
 portraits on the walls nor the ones least praised in 
 which those slight variations of hue which every careful 
 observer recognizes to be essential to the effects of life in 
 the human countenance, are so exaggerated for the sake 
 of mere effects of color, that faces in robust health are 
 
PREFACE. xxiii 
 
 made to look exactly as if breaking out with the measles ; 
 or, not infrequently, as if the victim had had the disease, 
 and died of it. Thus in painting as in poetry, and the same 
 fact might be exemplified in all the arts, exclusive atten- 
 tion to form, the conception that art is the application 
 of its laws to " anything" may lead in the end, and very 
 swiftly too, to the destruction not only of all in art that 
 is inspiring to the soul, but even of that which is pleasing 
 to the senses. A law of art-form is worth nothing except 
 as it is applied to forms that have worth ; and that which 
 gives them worth is not by any means synonymous with 
 that which makes them " anything." 
 
 Contrast the conception that it is, with that underlying 
 proposition of Lessing in his great criticism upon the 
 Laocoon, namely that " the Greek artist represented noth- 
 ing that was not beautiful. . . . The perfection of the 
 subject must charm in his work." In this contrast is 
 represented a difference between the American and the 
 Greek ideal of art which may well cause serious reflection. 
 And when we recall not only the literary works of Goethe 
 and Schiller, but the marvellous advances in all the arts 
 that are universally traced to the acceptance in Germany 
 of the principles developed by Lessing, we can surmise 
 just how much the acceptance of like principles might 
 do for our own country, as well as how far we yet are 
 from a position in which we may even begin to entertain 
 a hope that they may ultimately obtain supremacy. 
 
 The author is under obligations to Messrs. Houghton, 
 Mifflin & Co., Charles Scribner's Sons, and others, for 
 their kind permission to insert in this work poems of 
 which they hold the copyrights. 
 
 PRINCETON, N. J., September, 1894. 
 
I VARSITY) 
 OP Jr 
 
 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CORRESPONDENCES BETWEEN ELEMENTS OF FORM IN 
 
 THE ARTS OF SOUND AND OF SIGHT . . 1-7 
 
 Introduction Object of the Present Volume The Arts as Sepa- 
 rated by the Differences between Sound and Sight Forms a's 
 Separated by Silences or Pauses among Sounds, and by Lines or 
 Outlines among Sights Chart of the Methods of Art-Composition 
 Separate Effects of Sound Differ in Duration, Force, Quality, 
 and Pitch ; and of Sights in Extension, in Light and Shade, and in 
 Quality and Pitch of Color Respective Correspondences between 
 Effects in Sound and in Sight Combined Influences of these 
 Effects as Manifested in Rhythm and in Proportion, and also in 
 Harmony of Sound and of Color. 
 
 II. 
 
 RHYTHM IN NATURE, MIND, AND SPEECH : How DE- 
 VELOPED BY METHODS OF ART-COMPOSITION . 8-24 
 Rhythm as a Form of Human Expression As Manifested in Exter- 
 nal Nature In the Action of the Nervous System, and in that of 
 the Mind Results of Experiments Proving Mental Rhythmical 
 Action ; Groups Formed from Series of Uniform Sounds Of 
 Sounds Regularly Differing in Accent or in Duration Inferences 
 from these Experiments Speech as Necessitating Accent and 
 Groups of Syllables Larger Groups also Inhalation as Necessi- 
 tating Pauses, and Causing Composite Groups Adaptation of 
 these Conditions to Secure Rhythmic Effects of Unity and Variety, 
 through Order Complexity, Confusion, Counteraction, Compari- 
 son, Contrast, and Complement Principality and Subordination 
 
XXVI CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Congruity, Incongruity, and Comprehensiveness The Number of 
 Syllables not the Basis of the Measure- Units Nor Quantity But 
 Accent Influence of Central-Point, Setting, Parallelism, Organic 
 Form, Symmetry Measures Constructed According to Accent 
 Others Primitive Method of Verse-Rhythm Greek and Latin 
 Verse-Rhythm English and its Advantages. 
 
 III. 
 
 ART-METHODS AS DEVELOPING MEASURE AND VERSE 25-37 
 
 The Art-Methods, especially Repetition, as Causing Groups of 
 Syllables in Measures Double and Triple Measures Initial, Ter- 
 minal, Median, Compound, and Double Initial and Terminal 
 Significance of Each Measure Art-Methods as Causing Groups of 
 Measures in Lines Hebrew Parallelism, and Greek The Couplet 
 The Caesura Lines of One, Two, Three, Four, Five, Six, and 
 More Measures Examples of them The Iambic Tetrameter 
 The Iambic Pentameter, Heroic Measure, Blank Verse The 
 Classic Hexameter English Hexameter Children of the Lord's 
 Supper Another Example A Translation from the Iliad The 
 Alexandrine. 
 
 IV. 
 
 ART-METHODS AS DEVELOPING VARIETY IN MEASURE 
 
 AND LiattT 38-52 
 
 Natural Conditions Necessitating Variety Two Ways of Intro- 
 ducing this into Measures By Changing the Number of Syllables 
 in the Measures and Lines Examples By Omitting Syllables 
 Necessary to a Complete Foot Necessity of Reading Poetry in 
 a Way Analogous to Rendering Words in Music Unused Possi- 
 bility in English Blank Verse Suggestions of it An Example of 
 it and a Criticism Omitting Syllables at the Ends of Lines Add- 
 ing them in Rhymed Lines In Blank Verse Feminine and Double 
 Endings of Lines Examples of Regularly Metrical Lines with 
 Syllables Omitted and Added Changing the Numbers or the 
 Places of Accents in the Lines In Rhyming Verses In Blank 
 Verse Example of Greater Regularity Accent and its Absence 
 in the Final Foot : End-stopped Lines Run-on Lines : Weak and 
 
CONTENTS. xxvii 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Light Endings Forms of Broken Blank Verse Shakespeare's Use 
 of Run-on Lines. 
 
 V. 
 
 ART-METHODS AS DEVELOPING STANZAS AND TYPI- 
 
 CAL VERSE-FORMS ...... 53-89 
 
 Rhythm as so far Explained Necessity in Each Poem of a Stand- 
 ard Measure or Line Illustrating the Art-Methods of Principality, 
 Massing, Interspersion, Complication Examples Tendency to 
 Make Long Lines just Double the Length of Short lines The 
 Couplet, through Complication and Continuity, Passes into the 
 Stanza Rhythni_as Related to the Tunes of Verse, and Causing 
 Correspondences between Lines of Verse land. Lines of Vision 
 Rhythm as Involving Consonance, Dissonance, Interchange, and 
 Gradation Abruptness, Transition, and Progress Slow and Fast 
 Progress as Represented in Poetic Rhythm Rhythmic Possibilities 
 of Stanzas of Different Forms Stanzas of Three Lines Four 
 Five Six Seven Shorter Chaucerian Eight Nine, the Spen- 
 serian Longer Chaucerian The Sonnet First Type of Second 
 Third French Forms of Verse Triolet Rondel Rondeau 
 Kyrielle Rondeau Redouble Ballade Pantoum Villanelle 
 Chain Verse Sestina Sicilian Octave Virelai Chant Royal 
 Ode Comic Effects Incongruity between Thought and Form In 
 the Form only In Endings of Lines In Rhymes In Pauses. 
 
 VI. 
 
 ART-METHODS AS DEVELOPING RHYTHM IN Music . 90-106 
 
 Rhythm an End aside from its Connection with Words Music 
 as Developed from Song Point of Separation between Speech 
 and Song : Poetry and Music Musical Measures more Compli- 
 cated than Poetic Ways of Indicating Musical Notes and Rests 
 Measures Longer Divisions Corresponding to Poetic Lines De- 
 veloped as in Poetry from the Art-Methods, Parallelism, etc. The 
 Motive Its Expressional Importance The Phrase, Section, and 
 Period Changes in the Period Unity of Effect as Developed from 
 these Rhythmic Arrangements Why Higher Works Find Few to 
 Appreciate them Musical Measures, Like Poetic, Double and 
 Triple Accent in Musical Measures Why Poetic Measures Need 
 
XXV111 CONTENTS. 
 
 to be Distinguished in Other Ways than as Double and Triple 
 Three or Six Notes as Used in the Time usually Allotted to Two 
 or Four Changes of the Places of Accent in the Measures Possi- 
 bility of Representing Different Effects of Movement Typical 
 Forms of Rhythm General Effect of Musical Rhythm Depends 
 on that of Whole Phrases, Sections, and Periods Effects of 
 Rhythm very Different from those of Harmony But the Develop- 
 ment of the One has Accompanied that of the Other. 
 
 VII. 
 
 ART-METHODS OF UNITY, ORDER, COMPARISON, PRIN- ^ 
 CIPALITY, ETC., AS DEVELOPING POETIC HAR- 
 MONY Ioy-120 
 
 The Terms Tone and Color are Used in both the Arts of Sound and 
 of Sight Harmony a Complex Effect but a Unity The Mind Con- 
 scious of the Divisions of Time Represented in Rhythm ; Not 
 Conscious of those of Vibrations Represented in Harmony In the 
 Recognition of which, the Ear and Eye Act Similarly The Scien- 
 tific Knowledge of the Origin of Tone and Color did not Precede 
 the Artistic Use of them Analogies between Poetry and Paint- 
 ing or Sculpture Also between Architecture and Music Poetic 
 Effects Dependent on Laws of Sound Examples of Verse Con- 
 taining too Much Variety of Tone Necessity for Unity of Tone- 
 Effects Dependent upon the Order of the Syllables Euphony 
 Vowel- and Consonant-Sounds Easy to Pronounce Examples 
 of Euphonious Words and Poems If Difficult to Pronounce, Illus- 
 trate Artistic Confusion Euphony Leading to Use of Like Sounds 
 According to Art-Method of Comparison Accent as Necessitating 
 Art-Methods of Counteraction, Contrast, Complement Further 
 Exemplification Consecutive Tones should not be as Different 
 as Possible But should not be Alike on both Accented and Un- 
 accented Syllables Accented Tones can be Repeated According 
 to Art-Methods of Principality, but, in such cases, Subordination 
 and Balance Require Different Unaccented Tones. 
 
 VIII. 
 ALLITERATION, ASSONANCE, AND RHYME . . 121-135 
 
 Like Effects in the Sounds of Syllables Alliteration In Hebrew 
 Poetry In Greek, Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, German In 
 
CONTENTS. xxix 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Anglo-Saxon As Used by Milton, Shakespeare, and Modern Eng- 
 lish Poets Assonance Examples, Greek, Latin, French, Italian, 
 Spanish, German, Anglo-Saxon, English Two Examples from 
 Tennyson Assonance Used for Rhyme Rhyme, Place of Its 
 History Greek, Latin, Early English Reason for it Rules of, 
 First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth A Correlated Chinese Style 
 of Composition. 
 
 IX. 
 
 COMPARISON BY WAY OF CONGRUITY, CENTRAL-POINT, 
 PARALLELISM, ETC., AS DETERMINING THE USE 
 OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS .... 136-146 
 
 Inartistic Effects of an Excessive Use of Alliteration, Assonance, 
 and Rhyme Objections urged against Rhyme These Forms 
 should not be Discarded, but Used in Accordance with the Art- 
 Methods : Unity, Variety, Comparison, Contrast Congruity in 
 Thought as Represented in Sound-Effects Applied to Alliteration 
 and Assonance Influence of these upon Association and Memory 
 Illustration Influence of Incongruity Of the Art-Method of 
 Comprehensiveness Methods of Principality, Central-Point, Sub- 
 ordination, Setting, as Exemplified in Sound-Arrangements Cor- 
 respondence in this Regard between Effects of Poetic and Musical 
 Harmony Similar Actions of the Mind in both Arts Parallelism 
 as Emphasized by Rhyme. 
 
 X. 
 
 REPETITION, ALTERNATION, CONSONANCE, INTER- 
 CHANGE, ETC., AS DETERMINING THE USE OF 
 LIKE POETIC SOUNDS .... 147-161 
 
 Repetition and Alternation as Influencing the Use of Alliteration, 
 Assonance, and Rhyme Of Alternation as Developed from Paral- 
 lelism and Balance Balancing Series of Sounds In Whole Words 
 that are Alike How these Exemplify Alternation Balancing 
 Series of Sounds Alike by Alliteration or Assonance From the 
 Greek, Latin, Spanish, French, German, English Excess in this 
 to be Avoided Massing as a Corrective of Excessive Balance or 
 
XXX CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Alternation And Interspersion as Corrective of Excessive Massing 
 Also Complication and Continuity Poetic Examples of these 
 Methods Consonance as Applied to Sounds ; Phonetic-Syzygy 
 Examples of the Use of Allied Consonant-Sounds Of Allied 
 Vowel-Sounds Dissonance and Interchange in Music In Poetic 
 Sounds Illustrations. 
 
 XI. 
 
 GRADATION, ABRUPTNESS, CONTINUITY, AND PROGRESS 
 AS DETERMINING THE USE OF LIKE POETIC 
 SOUNDS 162-167 
 
 Importance, in All the Arts as an Element of Harmony, of Grada- 
 tion Logical Connection between it and the Use of Allied Sounds : 
 All Possible Syllable-Sounds can be Graded and Arranged in a 
 Series So can Words, though Containing both Consonants and 
 Vowels Degrees of Phonetic Gradation Determined by the Manner 
 of Utterance and Kinds of their Gradation by the Direction of the 
 Changes in Utterance : Analogies between Gradation in Words and 
 in the Musical Scale inustraHonTTff^rattaTfolTln V erse Espe- 
 cially in the Accented Syllables Analogy between One Effect of 
 it and the Discord of the Seventh in Music Variety in Verse Har- 
 mony as Produced by the Combination of all the Methods here 
 Considered Abruptness in Verse Harmony Transition and Pro- 
 gress Examples. 
 
 XII. 
 
 ANALOGIES BETWEEN THE USE OF QUALITY AND PITCH 
 
 IN POETRY AND Music .... 168-177 
 
 Each of these Arts Developed Independently, yet Sounds as Used 
 in Both are Connected Every Vowel Has a Quality of its Own 
 Also a Pitch Not Essential for our Purpose to Know what this 
 Pitch is Only the Fact In Passing from One Word to Another 
 we Pass to a Different Pitch, and in Using Different Vowel- and 
 Consonant-Sounds together in One Word we Produce Effects Allied 
 to Chords These Effects Augmented by Upward and Downward 
 Inflections Used in Reading, Causing Analogies to Musical Melody 
 and Harmony Different Kinds of Verse-Melody Produced by 
 Different Arrangements of Sounds and Accents Tunes of Verse as 
 Determined by the Rhythm Illustrations Melody and Harmony, 
 
CONTENTS. xxxi 
 
 PACK 
 
 though Existing in both Poetry and Music, are Different in Each 
 Art Every Possible Pitch of the Voice can be Used in Poetry ; 
 Only Notes of Some Selected Pitch in Music The Cause of this 
 Difference to be Found in the Difference between the Expressional 
 Possibilities of Articulated and Inarticulated Sounds Early Musi- 
 cians did not Know All their Reasons for Constructing Musical 
 Scales But, Judging by Effects, were Led, as is now Known, in 
 All Cases to Put together Like Partial Effects of Unlike Complex 
 Wholes. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 MUSICAL MELODY AND HARMONY, AS DEVELOPED HIS- 
 TORICALLY ACCORDING TO THE METHODS OF 
 ART-COMPOSITION ..... 178-191 
 
 The Best Results of Quality, as Exemplified in the Human Voice 
 and Instruments, Produced by a Blending of Like Effects In 
 Pitch, the Same is True But to Understand the Subject Thor- 
 oughly, we should Know the Causes of Quality and Pitch The 
 Note and Half-NoteWritten Music : the Staff Treble Clef 
 Bass Clef C Clef Sharps and Flats Music amonpr the Greeks 
 
 How Developed by Effects of Comparison, First by Way of 
 Congruity The Gregorian Chant an Endeavor to Imitate the 
 Speaking Voice Intonation is Based on Comparison by Way of 
 Repetition Melody, Developed from this, is Based on Compari- 
 son by Way of Consonance : Pythagoras and the Origin of Musical 
 Scales Variety, Introducing Contrast, Incongruity, Alteration, 
 and Dissonance, Necessitates, for Unity of Effect, Complement, 
 Balance, Alternation, and Interchange Octaves, as Sung together 
 by the Greeks, a Form of Parallelism Polyphonic Music, as De- 
 veloped from this, and from Methods of Alternation, Complication, 
 and Interchange Harmonic Music Developed by a Renewed 
 Application of the Methods of Order, Principality, etc. Causes 
 of the Rise of Harmonic Music. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 MUSICAL SCALES AS DEVELOPED BY THE ART-METHOD 
 OF GROUPING LIKE PARTIAL EFFECTS OF UN- 
 LIKE COMPLEX WHOLES .... 192-206 
 
 As Harmony is Developed from Melody, to Understand Music, 
 we must First Learn why Certain Notes are Fitted to Follow One 
 
 i 
 
XXX11 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Another Scales Constructed from the Sense of Hearing, and All 
 Scales Similar, therefore the Same Law Underlies them Sounds 
 Differ in Quality Musical Sounds Result from Regularly Periodic 
 Vibrations Differences in Loudness from the Different Amplitude 
 of Vibrations, and in Pitch from the Different Time of Vibrations 
 Differences in Quality from the Different Combinations of Vibra- 
 tions Vibrations Compounded, and Each of the Compounds Intro- 
 duces into the Tone a Pitch or Partial Tone of its Own Law of 
 Sequence of the Upper Partial Tones of Musical Notes Exam- 
 ple in Music Correspondence of the Earliest Greek Scale with 
 the Chief . Partial Tones of its Keynote And of our Own Major 
 Scale A Possible Scale of Ten Notes Our Minor Scale These 
 Scales All Constructed on the Principle of Grouping Like Partial 
 Effects of Unlike Complex Wholes The Method in which the 
 Greeks, Ignorant of Partial Tones, were Guided to these Results 
 by their Sense of Hearing How they Constructed, by Measuring 
 the Length of Strings, the Lyre of Orpheus Similar Results 
 Reached by the Moderns through Counting Vibrations, and the 
 Resulting Ratios The Ratios of the Chinese Scale of Six Notes 
 as Developed by the Ancients The Ratios of the Greek Scale 
 of Seven Notes Other Greek Scales Deficiencies of the Greek 
 Scale and the Development of the Modern Scales Comparison 
 between the Ratios of these and of the Pythagorean Scale The 
 Keys of the Piano and the Scales Played from the Different Key- 
 notes The Temperate Scale of the Present, and its Ratios as 
 Compared with the Pythagorean, the Major, and the Minor. 
 
 XV. 
 
 MUSICAL HARMONY AS DEVELOPED BY THE ART- 
 METHOD OF GROUPING LIKE PARTIAL EFFECTS 
 OF UNLIKE COMPLEX WHOLES . . . 207-220 
 
 Historical Developments from Counteraction, etc., as Involved in 
 Polyphonic Music Connection between the Concords and the 
 ,owest or Chief Partial Tones of a Compound Note Harmony 
 Emphasizes the Fact that Like Partial Effects are Put with Like 
 Visible Proof of this All the Notes of a Scale Harmonized by 
 Using Chords Based on the Tonic, Dominant, and Subdominant 
 Different Possible Arrangements of the Same Chord The Ca- 
 dence and the Dissonance of the Seventh The Principal Key 
 
 PC 
 L< 
 
CONTENTS. XXX111 
 
 PACK 
 
 Application of Subordination, Balance, Central-Point, Parallelism, 
 Symmetry, Alternation, Massing, Complication, Continuity, etc. 
 And Other of the Methods of Art-Composition Interchange as 
 an Element of Modulation And Gradation, Abruptness, Transi- 
 tion, and Progress Interchange and Gradation in Sounding the 
 Same Note in Successive Chords In Passing from One Key to 
 Another, by Making the Tonic or Subdominant of One Key the 
 Dominant of Another By Passing from Major to Minor, or Vice 
 Versa Further Exemplified and Explained Relations of Differ- 
 ent Chords to One Another Abruptness in Transitions The 
 Chords Considered Separately The Major Triad The Chord 
 of the Seventh The Minor Triad The Ratios of the Notes of 
 these Chords when in the Same Octaves Summary of the Ratios 
 of Notes Causing Musical Concords. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 PSYCHICAL AND PHYSICAL REASONS FOR THE EFFECTS 
 
 OF MUSICAL FORM ..... 221-228 
 
 Relations of the Ratios Underlying Effects in Music to those in the 
 Other Arts Why is it Necessary that Notes should Chord ? Psy- 
 chological Reason Correspondence of it to the Reason Given for \ 
 Effects of Rhythm Physiological Confirmation of this Reason + 
 Beats Resulting from Discordant Notes New Resulting Notes 
 Formed by these Beats In the Major Triad, the Resulting Note 
 is itself the Tonic Beats Disagreeable, because Interruptions of 
 the Regularity of Periodic Vibrations Cause Noise, not Music 
 Blending of Psychological and Physiological Reasons for Effects 
 of Musical Form : Mind and Ear must Recognize that Like is Put 
 with Like. 
 
 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 231-238 
 
 I. 
 
 REPRESENTATION IN SONG AS CONTRASTED WITH L- 
 
 THAT IN SPEECH 239-249 
 
 The Sustained Sounds of Singing and the Unsustained of Talk- / 
 ing The Former as Developed in Music and the Latter in Poetry 
 
 + 
 
XXXI V CONTENTS. 
 
 Differences between these Two Methods of Vocal Representation 
 Music as Necessitating Sustained Sounds The Germs of its Rep- 
 resentations are mainly in Inarticulate Utterance, Instinctive and 
 Associative, rather than Imitative and Comparative The Repre- 
 sentation of Speech, also Dependent partly upon Inarticulate 
 Intonations How these are Related to the Various Developments 
 of Music Representation in Music not Distinct and Definite, as 
 in Words Darwin's Theory of the Origin of Music Gurney's 
 Comment on this Further Comments Why Music is not Made 
 Definitely Intelligible or Imitative How it Represents both 
 Mental Processes and Natural Surroundings The Mind of the 
 Composer not Necessarily in the Mood Naturally Represented by 
 his Music His Relation to this Mood that of a Painter to the 
 Mood Represented in his Model's Pose. 
 
 II. 
 
 REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL DURATION AND 
 
 FORCE : RHYTHM ..... 250-263 
 
 Similarity of Poetic and Musical Representation Representative 
 Intonations of Elocution Through Duration, Force, Pitch, and 
 Quality Discoursive or Associative and Dramatic or Comparative 
 Elocution Each Representative According to the Principle of Cor- 
 respondence Musical Duration as Representative Musical Dura- 
 tion as Representative of both Mental Moods and Natural Effects 
 Illustrations Musical Force as Representative of both Mental 
 Moods and Natural Effects Rhythm as a Combination of Effects 
 of Duration and Force Significance of Rhythm As Representing 
 tfoods of Buoyancy and Exhilaration Confidence, Triumph 
 >elf-Poise, Dignity The Gliding, Yielding, Graceful Hesitation, 
 Doubt Disturbance, Turmoil, Confusion Imitative Effects 
 Forging Flight Downward Upward Snakes Water Flowing 
 Ease Giants' Tread. 
 
 III. 
 
 REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL PITCH, HIGH 
 
 AND Low, UPWARD AND DOWNWARD . 264-273 
 
 Correspondences in the External World to High and Low Pitch 
 And to Upward and Downward Directions of it Further Explana- 
 tions As Illustrated in Elocutionary Intonations Gregorian / 
 
CONTENTS. XXXV 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chants as Developed from Elocutionary Laws Upward Movements 
 in Musical Questions In Anticipative Expectancy Downward 
 Movements in Effects that are Conclusive Affirmative and Positive 
 Combined Upward and Downward Movements in Effects both 
 Anticipative and Conclusive The Same Rendered Emphatic 
 Imitative Effects : Upward as in Rising Downward as in Sink- 
 ing In Both Directions. 
 
 IV. 
 
 REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL PITCH : COM- 
 BINED WAVE-MOVEMENTS .... 274-279 
 
 The Meaning of the Elocutionary Circumflex or Wave-Movements - 
 Further Explanations How these Conditions are Paralleled in 
 Music Illustrations of Inconclusive Uncertainty Ending with 
 Positive and Decisive Effects Of Anticipation Ending with 
 Finality Of the Indecisive Ending with the Decisive Of Hope, 
 Ending with Doubt Of Irony, Mockery Other Illustrations. 
 
 V. 
 
 REPRESENTATION THROUGH BLENDING OF PITCH AS IN 
 
 MUSICAL HARMONY ..... 280-290 
 
 Elocutionary Use of Pitch, when Indicative of Suspense Blending 
 of Harmonic and Inharmonic Intervals of Pitch, as Analogous to 
 Effects of Quality Meanings in Speech of the Major and the 
 Minor Interval Their Meanings in Music Further Explanations 
 The Subdominant, Dominant, and Tonic Complete and In- 
 complete Cadence Explanations of their Effects Meanings of 
 Upward and Downward Elocutionary Harmonic Cadences Illus- 
 trations of the Satisfying Effects of Upward Musical Major Ca- 
 dences Unsatisfying Effects of Upward Minor Musical Cadences 
 Satisfying Effects of Downward Major Cadences Unsatisfying 
 Effects of Downward Minor Cadences Wagner's Use of Upward 
 Anticipative Movement Followed by Downward Minor Cadences. 
 
XXXvi CONTENTS. 
 
 VI. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL QUALITY . 291-300 
 
 How Musical Quality is Determined How Determined in the 
 Human Voice What Different Qualities of the Voice Represent 
 Their Correspondences in Nature Analogies between Quality as 
 Used in Elocution and in Music Representation by Way of As- 
 sociation through the Use of Different Musical Instruments The 
 Same Continued Representation through these by Way of Imita- 
 tion Other Examples. 
 
 VII. 
 
 MUSICAL REPRESENTATION IN SERIES OF PASSAGES WHEN 
 
 NOT IMITATIVE ...... 301-313 
 
 Series of Passages as Representative By Way of Association as in 
 Discoursive Elocution As Illustrated by Haweis ByJ. D. Rogers 
 Schumann's "In der Nacht" Brahme's German Requiem B. 
 ' I. Oilman's Experiment Explanation Recorded Result Deduc- 
 tion to be Drawn from these Quotations : In what Sense they In- 
 dicate that Music is Representative Quotation from J. S. Dwight 
 Interpreting the most Important of the Forms of Musical Composi- 
 tion Program Music Its Appropriate Use. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 MUSICAL REPRESENTATION IN SERIES OF PASSAGES WHEN 
 
 IMITATIVE, WITH REMARKS ABOUT WAGNER . 314-323 
 
 Influence upon Representation of Slight Imitative Effects Exam- 
 ples : Barking of a Dog Braying of an Ass Nightingale's Song 
 Cackling of a Hen Cluck of Same Human Sounds Laugh- 
 ter Yawning Sneezing Coughing Quarrelling Sobbing 
 Scolding Moaning Fondling Playing Frightening Others 
 Paganini's Testimony The General Character of Wagner's Mo- 
 tives His Peculiar Method of Using them Result of this, Es- 
 pecially upon those not Previously Appreciating Music His Ten- 
 dency toward a Language of Music Will Others Develop this 
 Two Methods in which it may be Done with Safety Conclusion. 
 
 INDEX 325 
 
fcSE 
 or THE 
 [VERSITY 
 
 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN 
 POETRY AND MUSIC 
 
RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY 
 AND MUSIC. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 CORRESPONDENCES BETWEEN ELEMENTS OF FORM IN 
 THE ARTS OF SOUND AND OF SIGHT. 
 
 Introduction Object of the Present Volume The Arts as Separated by 
 the Differences between Sound and Sight Forms as Separated by 
 Silences or Pauses among Sounds, and by Lines or Outlines among 
 Sights Chart of the Methods of Art-Composition Separate Effects 
 of Sound Differ in Duration, Force, Quality, and Pitch ; and of Sights 
 in Extension, in Light and Shade and in Quality and Pitch of Color 
 Respective Correspondences between Effects in Sound and in Sight 
 Combined Influences of these Effects as Manifested in Rhythm and in 
 Proportion, and also in Harmony of Sound and of Color. 
 
 T N the volume entitled " The Genesis of Art-Form/' the 
 prominent methods of composition in art were traced 
 from their origin in elementary conditions of mind or 
 of matter up to the period in which they were said to result 
 in rhythm , as applied to duration in time ; in proportion, 
 as applied to extension in space ; and in harmony, as ap- 
 plied to quality and pitch, whether of note or color. A 
 chart representing these methods, as treated in that vol- 
 ume, as well as their order of development and their inter- 
 dependence, is inserted on page 3. It should be known, 
 
2 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 too, that in the first volume of this series of essays, en- 
 titled " Art in Theory," Chapter XIV., the results attained 
 by these methods were shown to be necessary to the 
 effects not merely of art-composition, but also and this 
 explains their use in art to those of all beauty, whether 
 perceived in art or in nature. 
 
 The present volume is intended to take up the discus- 
 sion of our general subject at the point where it was 
 dropped in " The Genesis of Art-Form," and to study 
 the developments in poetry and music of rhythm and 
 harmony. In order to perceive exactly the nature of the 
 task which this intention involves, as well as the corres- 
 pondences between the phases of sound that are to be 
 treated and analogous phases in the arts of sight, let us 
 begin by recalling a few of the more prominent facts 
 with reference to the effects of the arts in general. 
 
 As we do this, a first fact suggested is that pp^try~and 
 music are composed of elements of sound appealing to 
 the ear in the order of time, and that painting, sculpture, 
 and architecture are composed of elements of sight appeal- 
 ing to the eye in the order of space. 
 
 A second fact suggested is that, as a condition for con- 
 .structing a form whether appealing to the ear or eye,, 
 one must be able to apprehend and use more than one 
 sound or one object of sight. A sound single in the sense 
 of manifesting neither alteration nor cessation, would soon 
 come to convey no more intelligence to the ear than ab- 
 sence of sound ; and a single hue of the same shade from 
 nadir to zenith would soon convey no more intelligence 
 to the eye than absence of hue. In order to be under- 
 stood and used by a man who cannot conceive of time 
 or space except as it is divided into parts, that which is 
 heard must be interrupted by periods of silence and 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 RHYTHM 
 
 U AND 
 
 PROPORTION 
 
 
 / 
 
 f HARMONY 
 
 V IN NOTE AND 
 COLOR. 
 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 DURATION ^ 
 
 IN TIME. 
 
 EXTENSION 
 
 IN SPACE. 
 
 1 
 
 ACCENT 
 
 IN STRESS AND 
 LINE. J 
 
 QUALITY 
 
 AND 
 
 > PITCH 
 
 IN NOTE AND 
 COLOR. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 T-COMPOSITION. 
 
 Requirements of the Min 
 
 Mind and Matter. 
 
 
 GROUPING. 
 
 ? Requirements of Matter 
 
 \ ORGANIC 
 T FORM. 
 
 Product. 
 
 *-~ 
 
 C/3 
 O) 
 
 ^ SYMMETRY. 
 
 ?-* 
 
 > CONTINUITY. 
 
 I PROGRESS. 
 
 & 
 
 -r* 
 
 j 
 
 ^ -* 
 
 _X- 
 
 ^^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 METHODS OF i 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 e 
 
 Mind and Matter. 
 
 COMPLEXITY* 
 
 COUNTERACTION. 
 
 nly Conditioned upon 
 
 COMPLEMENT. 
 
 W 
 
 
 * the Requirements of t 
 
 TY. COMPREHENSIV 
 
 PARALLELISM. 
 
 N. ALTERNATION. 
 
 COMPLICATION. 
 
 E. INTERCHANGE. 
 TRANSITION. 
 
 
 1 
 
 Matter. 
 
 VARIETY. 
 
 CONFUSION. 
 
 1 
 
 CONTRAST. 
 
 SUBORDINATIOl 
 
 Conditioned u^o. 
 
 INCONGRUI 
 
 SETTING. 
 
 ALTERATIO 
 
 INTERSPERSION. 
 
 DISSONANC] 
 ABRUPTNESS. 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 UNITY. 
 
 Q 
 i 
 
 
 COMPARISON. 
 
 PRINCIPALITY. 
 
 \j 
 
 I 
 
 CONGRUITY. 
 
 CENTRAL POINT. 
 
 REPETITION. 
 
 MASSING. 
 
 CONSONANCE. 
 
 GRADATION. 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 l|, 
 
 | 
 
 jj 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 jf " 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 ^ 
 
4 R YHTHM AND HARMONY IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 that which is seen must be separated from other 
 things by outlines. This is the same as to say and 
 here we may refer to the chart on page 3 that what 
 we hear must have a certain limit of duration indicated 
 by pauses in the sound ; and that what we see must have 
 a certain limit of extension indicated by lines. How shall 
 the artist determine what these limits shall be ? Fortu- 
 nately, in the more important regards, nature herself has 
 determined them. As for poetry and music, they are both 
 developed, primarily, from methods of using the human 
 voice, in the one case in speech, in the other in song ; 
 and, secondarily, from methods in which sounds external 
 to man are produced. But whenever the human voice is 
 used, pauses are used, both at comparatively short inter- 
 vals, after separate words and notes, and also at longer 
 intervals where it is necessary for the lungs to draw in air ; 
 and whenever sounds that are not produced by the human 
 voice are heard, they too are separated by intervals of 
 silence. Painting, sculpture, and architecture, again, are 
 (developed from the methods in which men use or perceive 
 objects in the external world. All of these have outlines 
 not only separating them from other objects, but gener- 
 ally also separating their own constituent parts from one 
 another. What more natural than that the artist should 
 accept such arrangements of things heard or seen in na- 
 ture, and should let them determine, according to meth- 
 ods of imitation, the relative duration or extension that 
 shall be manifested in his works ? As a fact, we know 
 that this is exactly what he does do. 
 
 Duration and extension, however, are not the only 
 conditions that the artist must consider. As shown in 
 " Poetry as a Representative Art," Chapter III., sounds 
 may differ not merely in duration or the quantity of time 
 
CORRESPONDENCES IN ARTS OF SOUND AND SIGHT. 5 
 
 that they fill ; but also in force, or the stress with which y 
 they are produced, making them loud or soft, abrupt or 
 smooth, etc. ; in quality, making them sharp or round, full 
 or thin, aspirate or pure, etc. ; and in pitch, making them 
 high or low, or rising or falling in the musical scale. Sights, 
 too, may differ in analogous ways, i. e., not merely in 
 extension or the quantity of space that they fill, which is 
 the same thing as size ; but also in contour, which is the ^ 
 same thing as shape, and is shown by the appearance of 
 forcible or weak lines of light and shade ; in quality of 
 color, which has to do with their tints and shades and 
 mixtures ; and in pitch of color, which is determined by 
 the hue. 
 
 In addition to merely stating these facts, it may be 
 well to enlarge upon one or two of them. Notice, for in- 
 stance, how true it is that force which gives emphasis to 
 sounds, rendering them more distinct from one another 
 than would be the case without it, corresponds to light 
 and shade, which emphasize and render more distinct the 
 contour through which one portion of space having a cer- 
 tain shape is clearly separated from another. Notice, 
 also, that accented and unaccented syllables or notes, as 
 they alternate in time, perform exactly analogous func- 
 tions to those of light and shade, as they alternate in space. 
 The impression of form, for instance, which, so far as it re- 
 sults from metre, is conveyed by varying force and lack of 
 force in connection with divisions made in time, is the 
 exact equivalent of that impression of form, which, so far 
 as this results from shape, is conveyed by varying light 
 and shade in connection with divisions made in space. 
 Notice, again, that quality and pitch are terms almost 
 as much used in painting as in music. They will 
 be fully explained in another volume. At present it is 
 
6 RH Y THM AND HARMON Y IN POE TRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 enough to say that the first depends, exactly as in music, 
 on the proportions of the combinations entering into the 
 general effect ; and that the second depends on the prop- 
 erties of the elements that are combined. Undoubtedly, 
 too, it is owing partly to a subtle recognition of the corre- 
 spondences just indicated that to certain effects in the arts 
 both of sound and of sight the more general terms, tone 
 and color j have come to be applied interchangeably. 
 
 Later on, in connection with the various divisions and 
 subdivisions under which will be treated the different 
 phases of form to be considered, it will be shown in what 
 way each is influenced by the different methods which, 
 in the chart, are represented as factors from which it is 
 developed. Here it is sufficient to say that duration, 
 limited by pauses in connection with force, as applied 
 to the accents of syllables or notes, gives rise to rhythm ; 
 that extension, limited by outlines in connection with 
 light and shade, as applied to contour or shape, gives 
 rise to proportion ; that quality and pitch of tone taken 
 together furnish the possibility of developing the laws of 
 the harmony of sound ; and that quality and pitch of 
 color furnish the same possibility with reference to the 
 laws of the harmony of color. It is important to notice, 
 too, that force or accent, while having to do mainly with 
 rhythm, has a certain influence also upon tune, especially 
 in poetry upon the tunes of verse, and in music especially 
 where it is necessary to make the tune expressive of senti- 
 ment ; also that, in the same way, light and shade, while 
 having to do mainly with proportion, have a certain in- 
 fluence also upon color, especially in order to inter- 
 pret the meaning which a colored surface is intended to 
 convey, as, for instance, whether it is to represent what is 
 flat or round. Correspondingly also it is important to 
 
CORRESPONDENCES IN ARTS OF SOUND AND SIGHT. / 
 
 notice that quality and pitch of sound are often necessary 
 for the full effects of force as applied to rhythm ; and 
 that the same elements of color are often necessary for 
 the full effects of light and shade as applied to pro- 
 portion. In fact, when used in the same arts, the effects 
 that are now to be considered are none of them produced 
 exclusively according to one method or to one combina- 
 tion of methods, but more or less according to all of them 
 when operating conjointly. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 RHYTHM IN NATURE, MIND, AND SPEECH : HOW DEVEL- 
 OPED BY METHODS OF ART-COMPOSITION. 
 
 Rhythm as a Form of Human Expression As Manifested in External 
 Nature In the Action of the Nervous System, and in that of the Mind 
 Results of Experiments Proving Mental Rhythmical Action ; Groups 
 Formed from Series of Uniform Sounds Of Sounds Regularly Differing 
 in Accent or in Duration Inferences from these Experiments Speech 
 as Necessitating Accent and Groups of Syllables Larger Groups also- 
 Inhalation as Necessitating Pauses, and Causing Composite Groups 
 Adaptation of these Conditions to Secure Rhythmic Effects of Unity 
 and Variety, through Order : Complexity, Confusion, Counteraction, 
 Comparison, Contrast, and Complement Principality and Subordina- 
 tion Congruity, Incongruity, and Comprehensiveness The Number 
 of Syllables not the Basis of the Measure-Units Nor Quantity But 
 Accent '-Influence of Central-Point, Setting, Parallelism, Organic Form, 
 Symmetry Measures Constructed According to Accent Others 
 Primitive Method of Verse-Rhythm Greek and Latin Verse-Rhythm 
 English and its Advantages. 
 
 A RT did not originate rhythm nor the satisfaction de- 
 rivable from it. Long before the time of the first ar- 
 tists, men had had practical experience of its pleasures. 
 Long before the age of poetry, or music, or dancing, or 
 even of fences or schoolboys, the primitive man had sat 
 upon a log and kicked with his heels, producing a rhythm 
 as perfect, in its way, as that of his posterity of the pres- 
 ent who in Africa take delight in stamping their feet and 
 clapping their hands, and in America in playing upon 
 
RHYTHM IN NATURE, MIND, AND SPEECH. 9 
 
 drums and tambourines, in order to keep time to the 
 movements of dancers and the tunes of singers. 
 
 When we come to ask why rhythm should be produced 
 thus, either by itself or in connection with poetry or 
 music, in short, why it should be, as seems to be the 
 case, a natural mode of expression, we cannot avoid 
 having it suggested, at once, that it corresponds to a 
 method characterizing all natural movement whatever, 
 whether appealing to the eye or ear, or whether produced 
 by a human being or perceived in external nature. There 
 is rhythm in the beating of our pulses, in the alternate 
 lifting and falling of our chests while breathing, in our 
 accenting and leaving unaccented the syllables of our 
 speech, in our pausing for breath between consecutive 
 phrases, and in our balancing from side to side and pushing 
 forward one leg or one arm and then another, while 
 walking. There is rhythm in the manifestations of all 
 the life about us, in the flapping of the wings of the bird, 
 in the changing phases of its song, even in the minutest 
 trills that make up its melody, and in the throbbings of 
 its throat to utter them ; in the rising and falling of the 
 sounds of the wind too, and in the swaying to and fro 
 of the trees to produce these ; as well as in the flow and 
 ebb of the surf on the seashore and in the jarring of the 
 thunder and the zigzag course of the lightning. In fact, 
 rhythm seems to be almost as intimately associated with 
 everything that a man can see or hear, as is the beating 
 of his own heart with his own life. Even the stars, like 
 the rockets that we send toward them, speed onward in 
 paths that return upon themselves, and the phrase, 
 " music of the spheres " is a logical as well as a poetical 
 result of an endeavor to classify the grandest of all move- 
 ments in accordance with a method which is conceived to 
 
10 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 be universal. No wonder then that men should feel the 
 use of rhythm to be appropriate in art-products modelled 
 upon natural products. No wonder that, connected as it 
 is with natural movement and life and the enjoyment 
 inseparably associated with life, it should seem to the 
 civilized to be what certainly it seems to the uncivil- 
 ized an artistic end in itself. 
 
 Nor is this view of it suggested as a result merely of 
 superficial observation. It is substantiated by the more 
 searching experiments of the scientists. There have been 
 discovered, for instance, in addition to the regular beat of 
 the heart, and independent of it, rhythmical contractions 
 and expansions of the walls of the arteries, increasing and 
 decreasing at regular intervals the supply of blood. 
 Such processes, which, according to Foster in his " Physi- 
 ology/' P a S e 37> ma y be observed in the arteries of a 
 frog's foot or a rabbit's ear, may be checked by cutting 
 the nerves connecting it and the vaso-motor system ; and 
 this fact is taken to indicate that there is a rhythmic 
 form of activity in the nerve-centres themselves. Regular 
 periodic contractions have been observed, too, in the 
 hearts of certain animals after being removed from the 
 body ; and this fact has been attributed to the presence 
 in them of nerve-ganglia, acting according to some char- 
 acteristic method. Movements of the same kind are 
 mentioned, also, by Isaac Ott in his " Observations upon 
 the Physiology of the Spinal Cord," in " Studies from the 
 Biological Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University," No. 
 II., as taking place in certain parts of the bodies of dogs, 
 cats, and rabbits after the severing of the spinal cord ; the 
 centres for which movements he found to be in this cord, 
 about the level of the sixth and seventh lumbar vertebrae 
 in rabbits, and of the fifth lumbar vertebra in dogs. 
 
RHYTHM IN NATURE, MIND, AND SPEECH. II 
 
 Such facts with reference to the rhythmical character of 
 nerve-action seem to indicate a possibility of the same in 
 mental action. Acting upon this suggestion, Dr. Thaddeus 
 L. Bolton, Demonstrator and Fellow in Clark University, 
 conducted a year or two ago a series of very interesting 
 experiments, which are described by him in a thesis on 
 " Rhythm " 1 published in " The American Journal of 
 Psychology," Vol. VI., No. 2. " The first and most im- 
 portant object " of these experiments are said to have 
 been to determine "what the mind did with a series of 
 simple auditory impressions, in which there was absolutely 
 no change of intensity, pitch, quality, or time-interval," 
 each separate impression being " indistinguishable from 
 any or all the others." 
 
 After an account of the apparatus producing the clicks, 
 and also of the individual experiences of the persons 
 listening to them, Dr. Bolton reaches the following con- 
 clusions. Of fifty subjects, only two failed to divide the 
 clicks into groups. Of twenty-one, whose experiences are 
 tabulated, sixteen, when the clicks were separated by an 
 average interval of .795, calculated in thousands of seconds, 
 formed groups of twos. When the average intervals were 
 .526, six formed groups of twos with a tendency to form 
 groups of fours. When it was .542, five formed groups of 
 fours with a tendency to divide them into groups of twos. 
 When it was .307, all twenty-one formed groups of fours. 
 When it was .188, twelve formed groups of fours tending 
 to groups of eights. When it was .134, seven formed 
 groups of eights, tending to divide into two groups of 
 
 1 The author wishes to express his indebtedness to President G. Stanley 
 Hall, Ph.D., LL.D., for calling his attention to the results of these experi- 
 ments, and for sending him the thesis in the form in which it was printed in 
 accordance with the requirements for the university degree of Doctor of 
 Philosophy. 
 
1 2 RHYTHM AND HARMON Y IN POETRY A ND MUSIC. 
 
 fours. When it was .145, six formed groups of eights. 
 When it was .125, three formed groups of eights tending 
 to double this number. When it was .490, seven formed 
 groups of threes. When it was .149, six formed groups of 
 threes, tending to groups of sixes. When it was .161, two 
 formed groups of sixes, tending to divide into two groups 
 of threes. When it was .169, seven formed groups of sixes. 
 When it was. 137, three formed groups of sixes tending to 
 double that number. When it was .127, six noticed no 
 grouping, but periodic intensive changes in the general 
 effect, and when it was .156, two formed no groups. 
 
 Again, in a case in which the first of groups of sixes was 
 accented, when the average interval was .323, one out of 
 three subjects grouped by fours in spite of the accent. 
 When it was .263, another had a tendency to do the same, 
 and this accent did not convey a pleasant impression to 
 any of them until the average intervals was .167 or .137. 
 At the former rate the six clicks were divided by one 
 listener into two groups of threes, and at the latter rate 
 by both the other listeners into three groups of twos. 
 
 In a case in which the first of groups of eights was 
 accented, none formed groups of threes or sixes ; but three 
 out of five formed groups of fours, when the average in- 
 terval was .268 ; and when it was .1 16, all formed groups 
 of eights, and found them pleasant, though with one 
 listener there was a tendency to divide this into sub-groups 
 of fours. In all cases " the five-group," i. e., groups of 
 fives, " was very difficult to suggest and maintain." As a 
 rule, however, it was found that " any regular recurrent 
 impression which is different from the rest " either by 
 way of accent or of duration " subordinates the other 
 impressions to it in such a way that they fall together into 
 groups. If the recurrent difference is one of intensity 
 
RHYTHM IN NATURE, MIND, AND SPEECH. 13 
 
 (i. e., of accent), the strongest impression comes first in the 
 grouping and the weaker ones after. If the recurrent 
 difference is one of duration, the longer impression comes 
 last," an inference drawn from the fact that " all the 
 subjects found great difficulty in not making a pause after 
 the long sound which compelled them to begin the group 
 with the short sound." These two results taken together 
 show that when accent is made the basis of poetical or 
 metrical rhythm, then the first syllable or note of a series 
 i. e., of a foot or measure seems the most prominent, 
 and that when duration or quantity is made the basis, 
 then the last syllable or note seems so. In this latter case, 
 as Dr. Bolton says, " the most natural foot must be either 
 iambic or anapaestic" (see Chapter III.). Or, to make a 
 different application of the principle, the most natural 
 ending of a line of verse, which ending the voice almost 
 instinctively prolongs, is the one which is most common 
 in both our rhymed and blank verse, namely, a single 
 accented syllable. 
 
 Without, at present, considering any further the results 
 of these experiments, let us notice that we should have a 
 right to infer that series of sounds, in case of slow mover 
 ment, would be grouped by twos or threes ; but in case 
 of more rapid movement, that they would be grouped by 
 fours or sixes or eights or more ; yet always with a ten- 
 dency to divide the fours into twos, the sixes into twos or 
 threes, the eights into twos or fours, etc. ; and that this 
 tendency would become a certainty in case every second 
 or third sound were either accented or prolonged more 
 than were the others. 
 
 With such facts in mind, let us turn to speech. This 
 we find composed of syllables each uttered with an in- 
 dividual stress, which separates it from other syllables; 
 
1 4 RH YTHM A ND HA RMON Y IN POE TR Y AND M USIC. 
 
 but, more than this, we find that every second or third 
 syllable is invariably accented, and, largely because this 
 is so, that it is prolonged more than are the other sylla- 
 bles. The reason for the accent is physiological. The 
 vocalized breath flows through the throat as water 
 through the neck of a bottle with what may be termed 
 alternate active and passive movements. The former of 
 these movements is that .which in every second, third, 
 fourth, or fifth syllable, produces the accent. In our 
 language all words of more than one syllable have come 
 to have an accent that is fixed as distinguished from 
 variable, which may be affirmed of words in the French ; 
 and all our monosyllabic articles, prepositions, and con- 
 junctions are unaccented, unless the sense very clearly 
 demands a different treatment. These two facts enable 
 one to arrange any number of our words so that the fixed 
 accents shall fall, as natural utterance demands that it 
 should, on every second, third, fourth or fifth syllable. 
 
 Words, however, are not uttered slowly but rapidly. 
 It follows, therefore, that while, because of the physiologi- 
 cal necessity of accent, there must be these small groups 
 of two or three syllables, the movement is rapid enough 
 for other groups of four, six, eight, and even more syl- 
 lables, of which these smaller groups of twos or threes 
 can form subdivisions. 
 
 Now, with this fact also in mind, let us turn to speech 
 again. Here we find that certain smaller groups composed 
 of combined accented and unaccented syllables are them- 
 selves combined into larger groups, which are separated 
 from other larger groups of the same composite character 
 by the necessity experienced of pausing at certain inter- 
 vals in order to draw in the breath. In the thesis upon 
 " Rhythm " that has been mentioned, a correspondence 
 
RHYTHM IN NATURE, MIND, AND SPEECH. 1$ 
 
 is suggested, though not indisputably proved, between 
 the time occupied by these larger groups in a rate of 
 movement declared by the listeners to be pleasing, 
 and the length of their respirations. But whatever may 
 be true when listening to sounds, there is no doubt 
 about the influence of respiration when uttering them. 
 Whenever it is necessary to pause, in order to breathe, 
 one series of groups must necessarily be separated from 
 another. 
 
 Nature, therefore, furnishes speech with two character- 
 istics, accents after every two, three, four, or five sylla- 
 bles, and pauses after every four, six, eight, nine, ten, 
 twelve, or more syllables. Those who have read the 
 former volumes of this series are now asked to recall what 
 was said in " The Genesis of Art-Form," and is represented 
 in the chart on page 3, with reference to the necessity 
 universally experienced by the mind of conceiving of 
 effects, if it is to have a clear apprehension of them, as a 
 unity ; also with reference to the fact that the first result 
 of an effort to organize into a unity the disorganized con- 
 ditions of nature as we find it, is in the direction of order. 
 Upon recalling these statements, it will be recognized how 
 entirely they are confirmed by the results of the experi- 
 ments that we have just been considering. What is the 
 mind trying to do in putting the clicks together in twos, 
 threes, fours, etc., but trying to make a unity of several of 
 them ? And when it invariably puts one that is prolonged 
 or accented after or before another that is not, what is it 
 doing but securing an effect of unity through making use 
 of a certain order of recurrence. 
 
 Moreover, it was shown in " The Genesis of Art-Form " 
 that while the mind experiences a necessity of conceiving 
 of effects as a unity, the materials actually presented to 
 
1 6 RHYTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 it in nature, out of which it must form this unity, invari- 
 ably manifest more or less variety, and that their possession 
 of characteristics some of which, being alike, tend to unity, 
 and some of which, being unlike, do not, causes the com- 
 bined result to have an effect of complexity. It is not 
 necessary to point out how much greater than in the case 
 of clicks is the extent in which both variety and complexity 
 characterize the syllables with which the mind must deal 
 when trying to reduce to unity the elements entering into 
 poetic rhythm. Nor to apply to the development of 
 rhythm the art-methods in the order in which they are given 
 on page 3 is it necessary to show how much more care 
 must be expended upon the methods of securing order in 
 them, in view of the tendency to confusion invariably atten- 
 dant upon the fact that some are long and some short, 
 some accented and some unaccented ; nor does it need to 
 be argued that this tendency can be counteracted only by a 
 method of grouping the syllables, making long ones, for 
 instance, invariably precede short ones, or accented ones 
 precede unaccented ones ; nor that the grouping to be 
 effective in securing a general result of unity, must be 
 made in accordance with the principle of comparison, i. e., 
 of putting like with like, a principle which in science, as 
 shown in " The Genesis of Art-Form," leads to classifica- 
 tion, and in art to the analogous results of composition. 
 In putting like with like, in this case, moreover, notice 
 that each of the like groups, contains, as a rule, 
 two opposing kinds of factors long syllables and short 
 syllables, or else accented syllables and unaccented. 
 Each group therefore furnishes an example of contrast as 
 well as of comparison, and because the two contrasting feat- 
 ures in it make up a single group, these may be said also 
 to complement each other (see page 3). 
 
RHYTHM IN NATURE, MIND, AND SPEECH. 17 
 
 Now, in order to unfold our subject logically, let us go 
 back for a little, and ask what the mind, when it first 
 attempts to make rhythm out of speech, will most naturally 
 select as the basis of comparison in the groups? Will it 
 be the number of syllables composing them ? or the length 
 of these syllables ? or the accents, and the intervals of 
 time between them? Evidently for successful grouping 
 one of these elements must be given what on page 3 is 
 termed principality , and the others must be given sub- 
 ordination. 
 
 It seems evident that, starting with speech as it is, and 
 trying to make it rhythmical, the first tendency will not 
 be to make the numbers of syllables composing groups the 
 basis of comparison. It was shown in Chapter VIII. of 
 " The Genesis of Art-Form " that comparison is practi- 
 cally applied to results, first, by way of congruity, and after- 
 wards by way of repetition and consonance ; moreover, that 
 congruity causes objects whether sounds or sight to be 
 grouped because they are representative of like sentiments. 
 As applied to language, for instance, weighty, grave, and 
 dignified conceptions, as shown in Chapter IV. of " Poetry 
 as a Representative Art," would require slow movement, 
 whereas light, gay, and trifling conceptions would require 
 rapid movement. But merely to fulfil such requirements 
 would, evidently, necessitate no great uniformity in the 
 numbers of syllables in the groups. As in ordinary prose, 
 groups of one, two, or three syllables would continue 
 equally to be representative of the same general senti- 
 ment ; or else, if they did not, in case the sentiment 
 should change, as it frequently does, congruity itself would 
 lead to a change in these numbers. This is a somewhat 
 scientific way of saying that, when we are using words 
 with main reference to the thought to be expressed, as is 
 
1 8 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 always the case when we begin to use rhythm, we do not 
 put them into measures containing absolutely or approxi- 
 mately the same numbers of syllables. In rhythmical 
 prose, for instance, the general effect is congruous-, but 
 the measures are usually so lacking in uniformity that to- 
 a poetic purist they seem to exemplify incongruity of form, 
 and, taken together, to manifest what on page 3 is termed 
 comprehensiveness of form. 
 
 For the same reason that, when we begin to construct 
 rhythm out of ordinary speech-, we do not make the 
 numbers of syllables in the groups the basis of rhythm, 
 we do not make the quantity of syllables its basis. To- 
 arrange speech in measures uniformly containing long or 
 short syllables necessitates as late an artistic development 
 as to arrange it in measures uniformly containing few or 
 many. 
 
 Only one feature now remains unconsidered to which 
 early attempts to render speech rhythmical can give what 
 has been termed principality. This feature is accent. 
 But notice that accent thus used has a tendency to form 
 the larger rhythmic groups, such as are developed into 
 poetic lines, before it forms the smaller ones, such as are 
 developed into measures. The effect of each accent is 
 that of one click, and, no matter whether one or many 
 unaccented syllables come between the accented ones, a 
 certain number of the latter, so long as all are separated 
 by like intervals of time, constitute one group such as 
 forms one line of verse. Later, however, but only later, 
 it is perceived that the effect of each syllable too is that 
 of one click, and that, by attaching a certain fixed num- 
 ber of unaccented syllables to each accented one, smaller 
 groups can be formed, such as constitute poetic measures. 
 That this is the natural order of development of the ten- 
 
RHYTHM IN NA TURE, MIND AND SPEECH. 19 
 
 dencies that lead to lines and measures, can be confirmed 
 by the slightest observation of ordinary talking and recit- 
 ing. In these we always find an inclination to introduce 
 the accented syllables with approximate regularity. This 
 Inclination needs only a little artistic development, and 
 they can be introduced with absolute regularity. When 
 this has been done, the form seems made up of equal 
 parts determined by the emphasized syllables. Notice that 
 the only requirement necessary for a rhythmical reading of 
 the verses on page 20, is to separate the accented syllables 
 by like intervals of time. The one syllable " Break," for 
 instance, must be read in the same time as " On thy cold " ; 
 and the three syllables " Break, break, break/' in the same 
 time as the seven syllables in the line following them. In 
 other words, to describe this method of reading according 
 to the phraseology used in the chart on page 3, it is neces- 
 sary to give principality to the accented syllable, and 
 through it to the element of like intervals of time, and to 
 give subordination to the intervening unaccented syllables. 
 When this is done, moreover, notice that it is necessarily 
 done in such a way that the accented and unaccented 
 syllables seem to balance each other. 
 
 Notice also that the giving of principality to accent con- 
 centrates attention upon this as the important considera- 
 tion, in accordance with the method termed in the chart 
 central point ; also that the unaccented syllables, many or 
 few, following the accented appear to be only a setting 
 accompanying them ; and, in addition to this, that the 
 accented and unaccented syllables of each group as well 
 as of the whole lines compared each to each, sustain rela- 
 tions that can be described as those of parallelism. Read- 
 ing the verses as indicated, we shall perceive also that, as 
 a whole, they produce, as related more particularly to 
 
20 RHYTHM A ND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 comparison, the effect of organic form and as related to 
 congruity, the effect of symmetry, concerning all which 
 methods, consult " The Genesis of Art-Form," Chapters 
 X and XL 
 
 It is worth while to observe, too, that any purist, ancient 
 or modern, insisting upon the necessity in poetry of having 
 a certain number of syllables in either a measure or a line, 
 or upon having an accent upon a certain one or another 
 of these syllables, would have great difficulty in proving in 
 what sense his law could be carried out in this kind of verse. 
 Notice, however, that the explanations of all these apparent 
 departures from rules are simple enough, when we get 
 under the rules to the principles which they exemplify. 
 
 Break, break, break, 
 On thy cold gray stones, oh sea. 
 And oh, that my tongue could titter 
 The thoughts that arise in me. 
 
 Break, Break, Break Tennyson. 
 
 Similar principles are evidently carried out in the fol- 
 lowing, every alternate line of which contains, as a rule, 
 the same number of accents. 
 
 Tour accents Day after day, day after day, 
 
 Three " We struck, nor breath nor motion, 
 
 Four " As idle as a painted ship 
 
 Three " Upon a painted ocean. 
 
 Four " Water, water, everywhere, 
 
 Three " And all the boards did shrink ; 
 
 Four " Water, water, everywhere, 
 
 Three " Nor any drop to drink. 
 
 Four ' ' I closed my eyelids and kept them close, 
 
 Three " Till the balls like pulses beat ; 
 
 Four " For the sky and the sea and the sea and the sky 
 
 Four " Lay like a load on my weary eye, 
 
 Three " And the dead were at my feet. 
 
 The Ancient Mariner : Coleridge. 
 
RHYTHM IN NATURE, MIND, AND SPEECH. 21 
 
 The kind of versification used here is sometimes spoken 
 of as if it were originated by Coleridge. As a fact, how- 
 ever, when adopted by him it was not new even to 
 English poetry, as may be recognized by comparing -with 
 it the quotation from Milton, on page 39. Nor was it 
 new in any sense. It was merely a return to one of the 
 oldest of forms such, for instance, as is exemplified in 
 Hebrew poetry affording thus one more of many proofs 
 that frequently a result is artistic, for the sole reason that 
 it fulfils exactly a primary and instinctive requirement of 
 nature. 
 
 But it may be asked, have we not derived our system 
 of versification from that of the classic languages, and was 
 this not based upon quantity rather than upon accent ? 
 Certainly ; but, while observing these facts let us observe 
 also that the classic system was not an elementary but a 
 late development of rhythm. In our first chapter it was 
 pointed out that in rhythm the influences of force and of 
 duration are practically inseparable. Poetic measures, as 
 we have now found, result, primarily, from force given to 
 syllables at regular intervals of duration. But careful ob- 
 servation will reveal that, as a rule, the application of this 
 force necessarily involves also an increase in the duration 
 of the accented syllable. This increase is made in speech 
 unconsciously ; in music it is made consciously ; and this 
 was the case in the classic metres, furnishing one proof, 
 which is confirmed by others, that they were results of an 
 effort to intone verses L e., to make music of them. But 
 besides this let us notice another fact. As accent is 
 necessarily accompanied by an increase in quantity, it is 
 impossible that our own metres also, though determined 
 by accent, should not manifest some traces of the influ- 
 ence of quantity. See what is said on page 34 of the 
 necessity of considering this in the construction of even 
 
22 RHYTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 English hexameters. But if our metres show some in- 
 fluence of quantity, the converse must be true. The 
 Greek metres must show some influence of accent. Do 
 they ? " It is easy to see," says Dr. Schmidt, in his 
 " Rhythmic and Metric of the Classic Languages," " that 
 a Greek verse can and must be pronounced throughout 
 with the prose accents, and that this can be done without 
 any conflict arising between the prose accents and the 
 quantity of syllables and their ictus in poetry. The fol- 
 lowing verse, therefore, may be read thus : 
 
 __J__JS J , j" J J* I'jj-JVJ* J J J* J ^ J* J ' J ' 
 
 *Av - dqa jwot I* - r - at, Mov-aa, no - Iv- rqo-nov, de fj.ce- la aoJL - iek. 
 
 " Here, as it happens, the high tone and the ictus coin- 
 cide in the first measures, but not in the fifth and sixth. 
 But in English, as before remarked, the high tone is 
 almost always joined to the ictus. . . . The following 
 verse is accented in reading as follows : 
 
 J J J , J J J , j_ J J [ J J . 
 
 " Hail to the chief who in tri - umph ad - van - ces. 
 
 It is true that in constructing verse the Greeks and 
 omans subordinated accent to quantity. Unlike our- 
 selves, if in composing they came to a word in which long 
 quantity and the ordinary accent did not go together, 
 they seem always to have been at liberty to disregard 
 the accent, and occasionally, too, they could change the 
 quantity. In fact, they could change both quantity and ac- 
 cent in order to produce a rhythmic effect when chanting, 
 analogous to that which we produce when reading. In 
 
RHYTHM IN NATURE, MIND, AND SPEECH. 23 
 
 serious poetry, it was lawful for them to produce results 
 not wholly unlike that in the third rhyme of the follow- 
 ing, the classic quality of which some of us hitherto may 
 not have recognized : 
 
 For he might have been a 
 
 A French, or Turk, or Proosianff 
 
 Or perhaps I-tal-i-an. 
 But in spite of all temptations 
 To belong to other nations, 
 
 He remains an Englishman. 
 
 Pinafore : Gilbert. 
 
 Our poets, on the contrary, have gone back to the 
 primitive methods, antedating those of Greece, and base 
 the rhythms of their verse on the accents of speech. 
 The result, as compared with the language of our prose, 
 is more natural than that reached by the other method ; 
 .and in its way is fully as artistic. Nor, in other regards, 
 is English inferior to the classic tongues in its capabilities 
 for artistic treatment. Owing to an extensive use of ter- 
 minations in nouns, articles, pronouns, adjectives, and 
 verbs, in order to indicate different grammatical relation- 
 ships, the Greeks and Romans could change the order of 
 words in a sentence without changing its meaning. In 
 their language, " The dog ate the wolf," with slightly 
 varied terminations, could read, " The wolf ate the dog." 
 For this reason, they could alter their phraseology, in 
 order to accommodate it to the requirements of metre, as 
 is not possible for us ; and so far they had an advantage 
 over us. Nevertheless, for some reason, when they came 
 to put their words into verse, as every schoolboy who 
 tries to scan knows, they produced a language which, 
 like the present French poetic diction, sounded unlike 
 
24 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 that of conversation. Even supposing, with some schol- 
 ars, that in reading they did not scan their verses as we 
 do now, nor even chant them invariably, as some infer 
 was the case, their poetic language was not the same as 
 their spoken language. Aristotle tells us, when mention- 
 ing things which it is legitimate for the poet to do, that 
 he can invent new words, that he can expand old ones,, 
 either by lengthening vowels or by adding syllables, that 
 he can contract them by shortening vowels or omitting 
 syllables, and that he can alter them in various other 
 ways. Spenser and others since him have applied similar 
 methods to English poetic diction ; but, at present, such 
 changes, except in rare instances, are not considered ad- 
 missible, and this because they are recognized to be un- 
 necessary. The fact that they are not admissible in our 
 language, and were admissible in the classic languages, 
 proves that, in one regard at least, our language is superior 
 to them as a medium of metre. The following is a typical 
 English stanza. In it there are no changes from ordinary 
 prose in the arrangement, spelling, or punctuation of any 
 of the words : 
 
 He will hold thee, when his passion shall have spent its novel force, 
 Something better than his dog, a little dearer than his horse. 
 
 Locks ley Hall : Tennyson. 
 
 In this chapter we have been considering rhythm as 
 related to certain general underlying principles, an 
 acquaintance with which, as has been intimated, is all 
 that is absolutely necessary for either reading or writing 
 poetry. But, for a full understanding of the subject, the 
 formal systems of metre and versification into which, in 
 our language as in others, these principles have been 
 developed, ought also to be examined. This will be 
 done in the chapters following. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 ART-METHODS AS DEVELOPING MEASURE AND VERSE. 
 
 The Art Methods, especially Repetition, as Causing Groups of Syllables in 
 Measures Double and Triple Measures Initial, Terminal, Median, 
 Compound, and Double Initial and Terminal Significance of Each 
 Measure Art-Methods as Causing Groups of Measures in Lines He- 
 brew Parallelism, and Greek The Couplet The Caesura Lines of 
 One, Two, Three, Four, Five, Six, and More Measures Examples of 
 Them The Iambic Tetrameter The Iambic Pentameter, Heroic 
 Measure, Blank Verse The Classic Hexameter English Hexameter 
 Children of the Lord's Supper Another Example A Translation 
 from the Iliad The Alexandrine. 
 
 F T will be noticed that, according to the chart on page 
 3, the methods already mentioned are all those that 
 are absolutely necessary for the production of rhythm^ 
 the methods further developed from these being more 
 particularly connected with harmony. At the same time, 
 even these latter methods are only more subtle manifesta- 
 tions of the former, and certain traces of them are appa- 
 rent even in rhythm. This is especially true of repetition, 
 and the methods immediately connected with it. The 
 artistic tendency to comparison needs only to be intensi- 
 fied, as applied to the form, and it will cause accented 
 syllables in all cases to be separated by exactly the same 
 number of unaccented syllables ; and will also cause ex- 
 actly the same number of both accents and syllables to 
 be placed in each line. When this has been done, even 
 before it has been done as we have noticed in the poetry 
 
26 ' RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 already quoted each accented syllable, together with 
 one or more unaccented, seems to constitute one group ; 
 and a certain number of these groups to constitute one 
 line. As a result, the line can be regularly measured by 
 the number of the groups into which it is divided. For 
 this reason they are termed measures, and, owing to a sup- 
 posed correspondence of movement between the use of 
 one measure after another, and that of the feet in walk- 
 ing, they are also termed feet. 
 
 In general, we may divide all possible measures into 
 two classes, namely, those that are double and those that 
 are triple. The first are made up of feet of two syllables, 
 every other of which is accented, e. g. : 
 
 When the | hours of | day are | numbered. 
 
 It also includes feet of four syllables, only one of which 
 receives a strong accent ; though the second from it may 
 receive a subordinate accent. The general effect, there- 
 fore, of this measure, which is sometimes termed quadru- 
 ple, is that of a doubled double measure, e. g. : 
 
 Roses are in | blossom and the | rills are filled with | water-cresses. 
 
 Triple measures contain three syllables, e. g. : 
 
 Cannon to | right of them, | cannon to | left of them. 
 
 But besides being distinguished from one another by 
 the number of syllables composing them, measures differ 
 according to the syllable in them whether the first, 
 second, third, or fourth that receives the accent. This 
 method of difference in connection with the other just 
 noticed leads us to find six, or, in case we consider the 
 quadruple measures other than modifications of the 
 
DEVELOPING MEASURE AND VERSE. 2/ 
 
 double, eight kinds of measures (see page 103). Here 
 they are with names indicative of the methods of forming 
 them, in connection with which are given also the terms 
 of Greek origin ordinarily assigned to them. But as these 
 terms apply to arrangements of quantity rather than of 
 accent, they frequently fail to describe accurately the 
 English measures. Hence the use here of the new 
 terms. 
 
 Initial or initial double measure is accented on the first 
 syllable, and corresponds, if composed of one long syllable 
 followed by one short, to the Greek trochee or choree ; if. 
 of two long, to the Greek spondee. 
 
 When the | hours of | day are | numbered. 
 
 Terminal or terminal double measure is accented on 
 the second syllable, and corresponds, if composed of one 
 short followed by one long syllable, to the Greek 
 iambus. 
 
 Among | thy fan | cies, tell | me this. 
 
 Initial triple measure, if composed of one long followed 
 by two short syllables, is the same as the Greek dactyl. 
 
 Out of the | cities and | into the | villages. 
 
 Median or medial triple measure, i. e., triple measure with 
 the accent on the middle syllable, if composed of one 
 short, one long, and one short syllable, is the same as the 
 Greek amphibrach. 
 
 There came to | the shore a | poor exile | of ferin. 
 
 Terminal triple measure, if composed of two short sylla- 
 bles followed by a long one, is the same as the Greek 
 anapaest. 
 
 If our land | lord supply | us with beef | and with fish. 
 
28 RH YTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 Compound or compound triple measure is accented on 
 the first and third syllables, and, if composed of one long, 
 one short, and one long syllable, is the same as the Greek 
 amphimacrus. 
 
 Nearer my | G6d to thee | E'en tho' It | be a cr6ss. 
 
 Initial quadruple, double initial, or di-initial measure is a 
 form, as already said, of double measure, and is usually 
 the same as the Greek ditrochee, e. g. : 
 
 R6ses are in | blossom and the | rills are filled with | water-cresses. 
 
 Terminal quadruple, double terminal or di-terminal meas- 
 ure is another form of double measure, and is usually the 
 same as the Greek diiambus, e. g. : 
 
 The king has come | to marshal us. 
 
 In " Poetry as a Representative Art," Chap. VI., the 
 sentiments which each of these measures is fitted to repre- 
 sent are pointed out by showing the analogy between it 
 and a corresponding elocutionary method of expression. 
 There is no necessity of repeating here what is fully ex- 
 pressed there. Nor is it necessarily connected with those 
 questions concerning form which we are now considering. 
 
 We have found that rhythm, besides being determined 
 by the difference between accented and unaccented 
 syllables, necessitated by the flow of the breath through 
 the larynx, is also determined by the difference between 
 exhaling and inhaling the breath ; and that, as the first 
 requirement leads to the grouping of syllables in meas- 
 ures, the second leads to the grouping of measures, or 
 rather, primarily, of the accents determining the measures, 
 into lines. Of course, no one supposes that those who 
 originated lines had any conception of their having any 
 
DEVELOPING MEASURE AND VERSE. 2Q 
 
 connection with the necessity of stopping in order to 
 breathe. Art is a development of natural tendencies, of 
 which we are not always conscious. As a rule, it is only 
 after science has brought these to light that they are recog- 
 nized as sustaining the relationship, which they do, to the 
 forms in which they have developed. There is no doubt, 
 however, about the relationship in this case. Indeed, 
 Aristotle, in his " Rhetoric," hints at the same cause as 
 underlying our modern divisions in prose, for he says that 
 the period must be divided into clauses, easily pronounced 
 at a breath, ei dvanvzvGTO?. 
 
 It is evident that to even an unconscious application of 
 a principle such as this, we need only add the artistic 
 tendency toward comparison, as manifested in putting like 
 with like, and it will lead to that which is now acknowl- 
 edged to be the earliest known form resembling versifica- 
 tion, namely, the parallelism used by the Hebrews. This 
 is so called because it contained two like or parallel state- 
 ments of like or approximate length, as in the following: 
 
 The heavens declare the glory of God, 
 And the firmament showeth his handiwork. 
 
 Day unto day uttereth speech, 
 
 And night unto night showeth knowledge. 
 
 Their line is gone out unto all the earth, 
 And their words to the end of the world. 
 
 Ps. xix., i, 2, 4. 
 
 We find the same method of arrangement in the early 
 Greek recitative poetry also, " which," says Schmidt, in his 
 " Rhythmic and Metric of the Classic Languages," " con- 
 sists of two sentences which either have equal lengths, or 
 the second of which is catalectic or falling," i. e., shorter by 
 a single syllable, " or is even shorter by an entire measure." 
 
30 RHYTHM A ND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 The connection between this form of parallelism and 
 the artistic method of the same name in the chart on page 
 3, will be immediately recognized. Equally so, will be 
 the fact that, from the use of expressions of approximate 
 length, the tendency to repetition will lead, as in the case 
 of measures, to expressions of exactly the same length. 
 In connection with this, it is evident that the allied ten- 
 dencies, already mentioned, toward counteraction, comple- 
 ment, balance, and parallelism have a legitimate outlet in 
 that wellnigh universal development from these original 
 parallelisms which is found in the couplet. In this, two 
 lines of exactly the same length end, as if for the purpose 
 of emphasizing this fact, with the same sound. Notice 
 most of the quotations on pages 31 and 32. 
 
 Of course poets, having begun to construct couplets of 
 one length, would naturally, for various reasons to satisfy 
 a desire to manifest ingenuity, or, better, to express certain 
 sentiments, come to construct them of many different 
 lengths. The length of some, too, would be too great to be 
 pronounced in a single exhalation. In such cases a reader 
 would have .to stop and breathe near the middle of the 
 line. This fact has led to the use, in verses containing 
 three or more measures of the pause which is termed the 
 caesura, from a Latin word meaning division. Here are 
 lines with the caesura indicated by a bar : 
 
 Brought from the wood | the honeysuckle twines 
 Around the porch | and seems in that trim place 
 A plant no longer wild ; | the cultured rose 
 There blossoms, strong in health, | and will be soon 
 Roof high ; | the wild pink crowns the garden wall, 
 And with the flowers | are intermingled stones 
 Sparry and bright, | rough scatterings of the hills. 
 
 Excursion, 6 : Wordsworth. 
 
DE V ELOPING ME A SURE A ND VERSE. 3 1 
 
 Exactly where the caesura pause should be, depends 
 largely upon the sense. It need not necessarily come in 
 the middle of the line, e. g. : 
 
 Death his dart 
 Shook, | but delayed to strike, though oft invoked. 
 
 Paradise Lost, n : Milton. 
 
 Have found him guilty of high treason. | Much 
 He spoke and learnedly. 
 
 Henry VIII., ii. ; I : Shakespeare. 
 
 To indicate the number of the measures placed in a 
 single line, the Greeks used the terms manometer, meaning 
 a line containing one measure, and dimeter, trimeter, tetra- 
 meter, hexameter, etc., meaning, respectively, a line of two, 
 three, four, and six measures. Here are lines of each 
 kind, in which all the measures are full or regular. For 
 lines of the same kind shortened or lengthened by a half 
 measure, see page 46. The first example under each head 
 below is in initial measure, and the second in terminal. 
 Some of the measures are double, and some triple, but, of 
 course, could be either : 
 
 Monometer : 
 
 Trochaic, Ringing, 
 Swinging. 
 
 Beautiful Snow: J. W. Watson. 
 
 Anapce.stic, How it swells, 
 How it dwells. 
 
 The Bells: Poe. 
 
 Dimeter 
 
 Dactyl and trochee, Melodies thrilling 
 Tenderly filling 
 Thee with their thrilling. 
 
 Thread and Song : J. W. Palmer. 
 
3 2 RH Y THM A ND HA RMON Y IN POE TRY A ND MUSIC. 
 
 Iambic At thy first sound 
 
 True hearts will bound. 
 
 The Great Bell Roland : R. S. Bowker. 
 
 Trimeter : 
 
 Trochaic, Go where glory waits thee, 
 But when fame elates thee. 
 
 Go Where Glory Waits Thee. T.Moore. 
 
 Iambic, Bell never yet was hung 
 
 Between whose lips there swung 
 So brave and true a tongue. 
 
 The Great Bell Roland : R. S. Bowker. 
 
 Tetrameter : 
 
 Trochaic, Day of wrath, that day of burning, 
 All shall melt to ashes turning, 
 All foretold by seers discerning. 
 
 Dies Irae : tr. by A. Coles. 
 
 Iambic, I hate to learn the ebb of time 
 
 From yon dull steeple's drowsy chime. 
 
 Lay of the Imprisoned Huntsman : Sir W. Scott. 
 
 Pentameter : 
 
 Trochaic, Dead and gone the days we had together. 
 
 Past Days : Swinburne. 
 
 Iambic, The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 
 The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 
 
 Elegy in a Country Churchyard : Gray. 
 
 Hexameter : 
 Dactyls and Spondees, Simply and solemnly now proceeded the Christian 
 
 service, 
 
 Singing and prayer and at last an ardent discourse 
 from the old man. 
 
 Children of the Last Supper : Longfellow. 
 
DEVELOPING MEASURE AND VERSE. 33 
 
 Iambic, Flies o'er the bending corn, and skims along the plain. 
 
 Essay on Criticism : Pope. 
 
 Heptameter : 
 
 Trochaic, Ours the lightning was that cleared the north and lit the 
 nations. 
 
 Athens, an Ode : Swinburne. 
 
 Jambic, The stranger hath thy bridle-rein, thy master hath 
 
 his gold, 
 
 Fleet-limbed and beautiful, farewell ; thou 'rt sold, my 
 steed, thou 'rt sold. 
 
 The Arab to His Favorite Steed : C. E. Norton. 
 
 Octometer : 
 Trochaic, They are dying, they are dying, where the golden corn 
 
 is growing ; 
 
 They are dying, they are dying, where the crowded 
 herds are lowing. 
 
 Ireland : D. F. MacCarthy. 
 
 The line of four terminal measures, or the iambic tetra- 
 meter, is supposed to be the easiest of English measures 
 in which to write, and the use of it is very general, as, for 
 instance, in Byron's " Mazeppa," and in Scott's " Mar- 
 mion " and " Lady of the Lake." 
 
 The line of five terminal measures, or the iambic pen- 
 tameter, is sometimes called the heroic measure, partly 
 because of the supposed dignity and gravity of its effect, 
 and partly because poets have become accustomed to 
 use it in long compositions, as, for instance, in Dryden's 
 and Pope's translations from Homer. In these poems 
 it includes rhymes, but in a majority of such cases it 
 does not. It is the only form of English verse, too, of 
 which this can be affirmed, for which reason when we 
 
34 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 speak of English blank verse we usually mean, unless 
 the phrase is further qualified, pentameter blank verse. 
 Among the Greeks and Romans the effects produced 
 by our blank pentameter verse were produced by an 
 hexameter invariably containing two different kinds of 
 measures one the spondee composed of two syllables 
 long in quantity ; and the other the dactyl, composed 
 of one long syllable followed by two short ones. As 
 stated in " Poetry as a Representative Art," most of 
 the English imitators of this metre fail to reproduce its 
 easy flow of movement. One reason for this is that 
 our language, largely because it lacks the grammatical 
 terminations of the classic tongues, contains fewer short 
 syllables then they ; and, in the place of the only foot of 
 three syllables allowed in their hexameter the dactyl, 
 containing one long and two short syllables our poets 
 often used more than one long syllable. Another reason 
 is that notwithstanding the poverty of our language in 
 short syllables, many seem to think that the hexameter 
 necessarily requires a large number of dactyls. But Greek 
 and Latin lines are frequent, containing few of them, e.g. : 
 
 rjv rs ifjvxfjr ycal vo6rov iraipcov. Homer. 
 
 -I- -I- -I --(--, |- 
 Illi inter sese magna vi brachia tollunt Virgil. 
 
 Both the causes mentioned serve to make our English 
 hexameters slow and heavy. Besides this, most of those 
 who write them, misled by the notion that they must 
 crowd as many syllables as possible into their lines, are 
 tempted to use too many words, and thus to violate 
 another principle not of poetry only, but of rhetoric. 
 
DEVELOPING MEASURE AND VERSE. 35 
 
 Take the following, for instance, from Longfellow's 
 "Children of the Lord's Supper": 
 
 Weeping he spake in these words : and now at the beck of the old man, 
 Knee against knee, they knitted a wreath round the altar's enclosure. 
 Kneeling he read them the prayers of the consecration, and softly, 
 With him the children read ; at the close, with tremulous accents, 
 Asked he the peace of heaven, a benediction upon them. 
 
 An English verse representing accurately what is all 
 that is worth representing the movement of the classic 
 hexameter, would read more like this, which, itself, too^ 
 would read better, did it contain fewer dactyls ; but to 
 show the possibilities of our verse these have been inten- 
 tionally crowded into it : 
 
 Weeping he told them this, and they, at the villager's bidding, 
 
 Knitting with knee to knee a wreath at the altar's railing, 
 
 Knelt as he softly led in the prayer of the consecration. 
 
 In it the children joined, until in a tremulous accent 
 
 Closing the prayer he had asked for the Lord's benediction upon them. 
 
 This passage from Longfellow is a typical specimen of 
 what is called English hexameter. Here is another (not 
 so good), from Frothingham's translation in many re- 
 spects an admirable one of Goethe's " Hermann and 
 Dorothea." 
 
 Thitherward up the new street as I hasted, a stout-timbered wagon 
 Drawn by two oxen I saw, of that region the largest and strongest, 
 While with vigorous step a maiden was walking beside them ; 
 And, a long staff in her hand, the two powerful creatures was guiding, 
 Urging them now, now holding them back, with skill did she drive them. 
 
 Not until such lines have been reduced to a form more 
 like the following, can we be prepared to debate whether 
 or not the effects of the classic hexameter can be repro- 
 
36 RH YTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND M USIC. 
 
 duced in English. Those, too, who choose to compare 
 these lines with the original, will find this translation more 
 literal than the last. 
 
 Now my eyes, as I made my way along the new street there, 
 Happened to light on a wagon, built of the heaviest cedar, 
 Drawn by a pair of steers of the stoutest stock and largest, 
 By their side a maid with vigorous step was walking. 
 Holding a long staff up and guiding the strong pair onward, 
 Starting them now, then stopping them, deftly did she drive them. 
 
 In these last lines, there are more spondaic verses 
 verses, that is, in which the fifth foot contains two sylla- 
 bles than were often used in the classic hexameters. 
 But this fact does not change the general effect of the 
 movement. Matthew Arnold says of the following, that, 
 " it is the one version of any part of the Iliad which in 
 some degree reproduces for me the original effect of 
 Homer." It is a translation from the third book made 
 by Dr. Hawtrey of Eton College : 
 
 Clearly the rest I beheld of the dark-eyed sons of Achaia, 
 
 Known to me well are the faces of all ; their names I remember. 
 
 Two, two only remain, whom I see not among the commanders, 
 
 Castor fleet in the car, Polydeukes brave with the cestus, 
 
 Own dear brethren of mine, one parent loved us as infants. 
 
 Are they not here in the host, from the shores of loved Lacedaemon ? 
 
 Or though they came with the rest in ships that bound through the waters, 
 
 Dare they not enter the fight, or stand in the council of heroes, 
 
 All for fear of the shame, and the taunts my crime has awakened ? 
 
 The line of six terminal measures, or the iambic hex- 
 termeter, is called the Alexandrine from a poem on 
 Alexander the Great in which it is said to have been used. 
 As a rule, it is only employed in odes in alternation with 
 two lines which are trimeters (see page 56) and at the 
 ends of the Spenserian stanzas (see page 69), but in 
 
DEVELOPING MEASURE AND VERSE. 37 
 
 order to impart additional importance or dignity, it is 
 occasionally introduced into other poems, most of the 
 lines of which, like those of the Spenserian stanza are 
 iambic pentameters, e. g. : 
 
 Their fury falls ; he skims the liquid plains, 
 High on his chariot, and with loosened reins, 
 Majestic moves along, and awful peace maintains. 
 
 Translation of the ^Eneid : Dryden. 
 
 In this chapter we have noticed how the general prin- 
 ciples underlying rhythm develop into formal systems of 
 metre and versification, into measures containing just so 
 many syllables, and into lines containing just so many 
 measures. In the remaining chapters devoted to this 
 subject, we shall find nature and the variety characteriz- 
 ing it gradually asserting themselves, more and more, 
 until these formal systems are made, through artistic 
 methods, to produce effects corresponding to those which 
 were shown in Chapter II. to be due to merely natural 
 methods of applying the underlying rhythmic principles. 
 In other words, we shall find here a noteworthy illustration 
 of the fact, often exemplified, that the last result reached 
 through artistic methods is not essentially different from 
 that which in certain circums^M^^^^^any study 
 of art whatever 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ART-METHODS AS DEVELOPING VARIETY IN MEASURE 
 AND LINE. 
 
 Natural Conditions Necessitating Variety Two Ways of Introducing this 
 into Measures By Changing the Number of Syllables in the Measures 
 and Lines Examples By Omitting Syllables Necessary to a Com- 
 plete Foot-f-Necessity of Reading Poetry in a Way Analogous to Ren- 
 dering Words in Music Unused Possibility in English Blank Verse 
 "Suggestions of it An Example of it and a Criticism Omitting Syl- 
 lables at the Ends of Lines Adding them in Rhymed Lin.es In Blank 
 Verse Feminine and Double. Endings of Lines Examples of Regu- 
 larly Metrical Lines with Syllables Omitted and Added Changing the 
 Numbers or the Places of Accents in the Lines In Rhyming Verses 
 In Blank Verse Example^of Greater Regularity Accent and its Ab- 
 sence in the Final Foot : End-stopped Lines Run-on Lines : Weak 
 and Light Endings Forms of Broken Blank Verse Shakespeare's Use 
 of Run-on Lines. 
 
 HP HE conditions of natural speech are such that it is 
 not possible, even if desirable, to arrange words so 
 as to produce effects of unity without those of variety ; 
 or of comparison by the way of exact repetition (see page 3) 
 without those of alteration, and even of more alteration 
 than is needed to secure that form of counteraction, com- 
 plement, and balance which we find, as has been intimated, 
 in the alternation between the accented and unaccented 
 syllables of the measure, or between lines of different 
 lengths, or rhymes, as in the following, e. g. : 
 
 38 
 
DE VEL OPING VA RIE TY IN ME A S URE A ND LINE. 39 
 
 Two barks met on the deep mid-sea, 
 
 When calms had stilled the tide ; 
 A few bright days of summer glee, 
 
 There found them side by side. 
 
 The Meeting of the Ships : Felicia Hemans 
 
 Of introducing variety into the measures there are two 
 principal ways : first, by changing the number of unac- 
 cented syllables or the kinds of feet in the line ; and 
 second, by changing the number of accents or the places 
 of the accents in the line. In both cases, the line is uttered 
 in the same relative time ; and this fact constitutes the 
 basis of unity. In addition to this, in the first case, each 
 foot is uttered in the same time ; and, in the second case, 
 each line usually contains the same number of syllables. 
 
 The first method secures through a slightly different 
 process the same result which we have already noticed as 
 a development of tendencies preceding the conscious 
 formation of any measures whatever. Notice how the 
 few lines in the two quotations following contain alter- 
 ations sufficient to introduce almost every one of the 
 different measures that were mentioned on pages 27 and 
 28. The names of measures printed opposite each line, 
 refer to only the main measures in it, or to some one 
 measure especially worthy of attention. 
 
 Initial Dreams that made her moan and weep, 
 
 Terminal As on her bed she lay in sleep. 
 
 Terminal Triple There is not wind enough in the air 
 Terminal To move away the ringlet curl 
 
 Terminal Triple From the lovely lady's cheek. 
 
 There is not wind enough to twirl 
 Terminal Triple The one red leaf, the last of its clan, 
 Median Triple That dances as often as dance it can ; 
 Initial Triple Hanging so light, and hanging so high, 
 Terminal Triple On the topmost twig that looks up to the sky. 
 
 Cr is label : Coleridge 
 
40 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 The poets contemporaneous with Coleridge, and imme- 
 diately preceding him, were too much in bondage to the 
 supposed requirements of the classic metres to venture 
 upon such deviations from them as are in this quotation. 
 But long before his time, older poets had composed In 
 the same way. Look at this : 
 
 Terminal And let some strange mysterious dream 
 
 Initial Triple Wave at his wings in airy stream 
 
 Terminal Of lively portraiture displayed 
 
 Initial Softly on my eyelids laid. 
 
 Initial Triple And as I wake sweet music breathe 
 
 Terminal Above, about or underneath, 
 
 Initial Triple Sent by some spirit to mortals good, 
 
 Terminal Triple Or the unseen genius of the wood. 
 
 / Penseroso : Milton. 
 
 Still greater variety is sometimes produced, as in the 
 " Break, break, break " of Tennyson (see page 20), by 
 omitting some of the syllables in a line that apparently 
 are necessary in order to render even the shortest foot 
 complete. The reason why they can be omitted is because 
 if the sense be such that a word must be uttered slowly, 
 then, even though it contain but a single syllable, it may 
 be given the same time as a foot containing two or three 
 syllables. To illustrate what is meant, let us use musical 
 notation. Most of us know that three quarter notes f|*p 
 receive the same time as one half note followed by a quar- 
 ter note, thus, j^f", or by a dot, thus f 5 *' ; or by a quarter 
 rest, thus, p , and that two eighth notes receive the 
 same time as one quarter note, |*. Now suppose that^. 
 adopting the method of music, we say that the metre of 
 the following is composed in three-quarter time ; in other 
 words, that there are three quarter notes in each measure. 
 Then the durations of the syllables we are not now 
 dealing with their accents may be indicated thus : 
 
VARIETY IN MEASURE AND LINE. 
 
 r r r r r r 
 
 My or - na - ments are arras, 
 
 r r r i r r r 
 
 My pas - time is in war 
 
 r r r r i r r r r 
 
 My bed is cold up - on the wolds, 
 
 r r j r i r 
 
 My lamp 
 
 yon 
 
 The Wandering Knighfs Song : Lockhart. 
 
 r r : t r r r c : r 
 
 The world 
 
 may go round, 
 
 The world 
 
 may stand still, 
 
 r r r r r c r 
 
 But I can milk and mar ry, 
 
 i r i r 
 
 Fill pail, 
 
 ir ir r r : r 
 
 I | can milk and mar - ry. 
 
 The Milkmaid's Song : Sidney Dob ell 
 
 Even when all the syllables needed in order to consti- 
 tute a conventional poetic foot are present, a poem, if its 
 sense is to be brought out, requires to be read in a way 
 analogous to that in which the words would be rendered 
 if set to music. In the following, notice the difference in 
 effect between emphasizing or prolonging every alternate 
 syllable as the metre requires, and slighting or giving less 
 time to such syllables as follow the musical rests. 
 
 At | midnight, | *f- in his | guarded | tent, *f- | 7* 
 
 The | Turk ^ | *j- was | dreaming | ^ of the | hour, Sf- \ J- 
 
 When | Greece, ^ | ^ her | knee in | suppliance | bent, *f- \ *f- 
 Should | tremble | ^- at his | power ; 7^ | 7^ 
 
42 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POE TRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 In | dreams, if- | if- through | camp and | court, he | bore if- | if- 
 The | trophies | if- of a | conque | ror. if- | if- 
 
 In | dreams, his | song of | triumph | heard ; ^ | 7^ 
 Then j if- if- | wore his | monarch's | signet | ring, | if- | if- 
 Then | if- if- [ press'd that | monarch's | throne, if- | if- a | King ; if- | ^ 
 As | wild his | thoughts, if- | ^f- and | gay of | wing, if- | if- 
 
 As | Eden's | garden | bird. ^ | if- 
 At | midnight, | if- in the | forest- | shades, if- \ if- 
 
 Boz- | zaris | ranged his | Suliote | band, ^ | if- 
 True | ? as the | steel J- \ if- of | their if- \ tried if- | blades, ^ | t 
 
 Heroes | ^ in | heart ^ | if- and | hand ; if- \ if- 
 There | if- had the | Persian's | thousands | stood, if- \ *f- 
 There | if. had the | glad % \ earth if- | drunk their | blood if- \ if- 
 
 On | old Pla- | tsea's | day : if- \ if- 
 
 And | now if- \ if- there | breathed that | haunted | air if- \ if- 
 The | sons if- \ if- of | sires who | conquered | there, if- \ if- 
 With | arm to | strike if- \ if- and | soul to | dare, if- \ if- 
 
 As | quick if- \ if- as | far if- \ if- as | they, if- 
 
 Marco Bozzaris : Byron. 
 
 All the examples of changes in metre given in the para- 
 graphs preceding the last, were taken from rhyming verse. 
 Occasionally in pentameter blank verse, too, we find an 
 extra unaccented syllable added to a terminal or iambic 
 foot, as in the following : 
 
 And chiefly thou oh Spirit that dost prefer 
 Before all temples the upright heart and pure. 
 
 Par. Lost, I : Milton. 
 
 Of rebel angels, by whose aid aspiring 
 To set himself in glory above his peers. 
 
 Idem. 
 
 Our English writers of blank verse, however, have rec- 
 ognized to only a slight extent the possibilities of metre 
 constructed according to the principles exemplified in the 
 above quotations from Coleridge, Milton, Lockhart, and 
 
VA RIE TY IN ME A S URE A ND LINE. 43 
 
 Dobell. Yet this form would seem to be particularly 
 adapted to the requirements of the drama, especially of 
 the melodrama and comedy. Notice the general effect 
 of the following, when arranged in lines each containing 
 three accents. 
 
 Or ever 
 
 The silver cord be loosed, 
 Or the golden goblet broken ; 
 Or the pitcher be broken at the fountain, 
 Or the wheel broken at the cistern. 
 
 Ecclesiastes, xii. ; 6. 
 
 Here, converted from some of Shakespeare's prose in 
 " Henry V.," iii. ; 6, are lines containing four accents : 
 
 Bid him therefore consider of his ransom ; 
 
 Which must proportion the losses we have borne ; 
 
 The subjects we have lost, the disgrace we have digested ; 
 
 Which in weight to re-answer his pettiness would bow under. 
 
 And here, from the prose of Sir Walter Scott's " Kenil- 
 worth," Part II., Chapter XIV., is a consecutive conversa- 
 tion containing lines of three accents : 
 
 Countess of Leicester. Good friend, I pray thee begone 
 And leave me. 
 
 Mike Lambourne. And so I will, pretty one, 
 
 When we are tired of each other's 
 Company not a jot sooner. 
 Nay, scream away if you like it. 
 I have heard the sea at the loudest, 
 And I mind a squalling woman 
 No more than a miauling kitten 
 Damn me, I have heard fifty 
 Or a hundred screaming at once 
 When there was a town stormed. 
 
44 RHYTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 Blank verse of this kind, not suggested by the author 
 for the first time in this volume, seems to have recom- 
 mended itself to Robert Bridges also, who has carried out 
 the idea practically in what he describes as " a line of six 
 stresses, written according to the rules of English rhythm," 
 in which " a natural emphasizing of the sense gives the 
 rhythm " : 
 
 At last, Chremes, it came to this : This poor young fellow, 
 Continually hearing the same thing put so strongly to him, 
 Gave in ; he thought my age and due regard for his welfare 
 Were likely to show him a wiser and a more prudent course. 
 
 The Feast of Bacchus : A'. Bridges. 
 
 This passage would have been more successful, per- 
 haps, had both the measures and the lines been shorter. 
 When as many as four syllables come between those that 
 are accented an arrangement which is never allowable 
 in ordinary verse the ear loses the sense of form. More- 
 over, for reasons brought out in Chapters IV. and X. of 
 " Poetry as a Representative Art," a long line, especially 
 if containing long measures, usually suggests slowness of 
 movement, which is not in congruity with the subject 
 here presented. 
 
 The changing of the number of the syllables in the feet 
 is very common at the ends of lines that rhyme, in which 
 case, as will be noticed, it involves also a change in the 
 length of the line. In the following lines, all but the 
 accented syllable is omitted from the final measure. As 
 a result, one line ends with an accent, and the next line 
 begins with one. In reading, therefore, as much time is 
 given to each single rhyming syllable as to any other two 
 syllables. Of course, this fact serves to emphasize the 
 rhyme, and, by doing so, to increase the effect of the verse- 
 grouping, e. g. : 
 
VARIETY IN MEASURE AND LINE. 45 
 
 Hope that blessed me ; bliss that crowned 
 Love that left me with a wound, 
 Life itself, that turned around. 
 
 Bertha in the Lane : E. B. Browning. 
 
 The same effect occurs at the end of the second line of 
 the following : 
 
 Lives of great men all remind us 
 
 We can make our lives sublime, 
 And departing, leave behind us 
 
 Footprints on the sands of time. 
 
 Psalm of Life : Longfellow. 
 
 When the lines do not begin with accents, an unac- 
 cented final syllable, also, in the place of an accented one, 
 has the effect of emphasizing the rhyme and the verse- 
 form. This is because of the evident change in rhythm 
 which the reading necessitates. In these cases, we might 
 say that the change was produced by adding a syllable 
 instead of omitting it, e. g. : 
 
 So strength found first a way. 
 
 Then beauty flowed, then wisdom, honor, pleasure ; 
 When almost all was out, God made a stay, 
 Perceiving that alone of all his treasure, 
 
 Rest in the bottom lay. 
 
 The Gifts, of God : Geo. Herbert. 
 
 Altho' I enter not, 
 
 Yet round about the spot 
 
 Ofttimes I hover : 
 And near the sacred gate 
 With longing eyes await 
 
 Expectant of her. 
 
 At the Church Gate : Thackeray. 
 
 As a rule, pentameter blank verse ends with an ac- 
 cented syllable, but almost every long quotation from 
 
46 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 verse of this character will reveal one or more lines like 
 the following : 
 
 I trouble thee too much, but thou art willing. 
 
 Julius Ccesar, iv., 3 : Shakespeare. 
 
 And here is a line ending with three syllables : 
 
 Not to relent is beastly, savage, devilish. 
 
 Richard III., i., 4 : Idem. 
 
 In blank verse, endings like the above, in which the 
 extra syllables belong to the same word as the syllable on 
 which .the accent falls, are termed feminine. If the same 
 effect be produced by adding a new word to the line, the 
 ending is termed double. Notice the last line of the fol- 
 lowing. The first two endings are termed masculine. 
 
 Such harmony is in immortal souls : 
 But while this muddy vesture of decay 
 Doth grossly close us in we cannot hear it. 
 
 Merchant of Venice, v., I : Idem. 
 
 We have already, on page 3 1 , noticed the regular forms 
 of monometers, dimeters, trimeters, etc. Let us now 
 notice the forms that they assume as influenced by 
 changes in the number of syllables in their final feet. 
 
 Monometer, less one unaccented syllable : 
 
 Bells. 
 
 Monometer, with added unaccented syllables : 
 
 The Bells : Poe. 
 
 Adversity . . 
 With misery. 
 The Deceived Lover : Sir Thomas Wyatt. 
 
VARIETY IN MEASURE AND LINE. 47 
 
 Dimeter, less unaccented syllables : 
 
 Drawing my breath, 
 Looking for death. 
 
 The Deceived Lover : Sir T. Wyatt. 
 
 Dimeter, with one added unaccented syllable : 
 
 A baby was sleeping, 
 Its mother was weeping. 
 
 The Angel's Whisper : Samuel Lover. 
 
 Trimeter, less unaccented syllables : 
 
 Go to thy rest, fair child. 
 Go to thy dreamless bed. 
 
 Go to Thy Rest : Anon. 
 
 Trimeter, with one added unaccented syllable : 
 
 Between the dark and the daylight 
 When night is beginning to lower. 
 
 The Children's Hour : Longfellow. 
 
 Tetrameter, less one unaccented syllable : 
 
 None that I have named as yet 
 Are as good as Margaret. 
 
 Choosing a Name : Mary Lamb. 
 
 Tetrameter, with one added unaccented syllable : 
 
 A little in the doorway sitting 
 
 The mother plied her busy knitting. 
 
 A Mother's Love : T. Burbidge. 
 
 Pentameter, less one unaccented syllable : 
 
 Lord of light, whose shrine no hands destroy. 
 
 Nine Years Old : Swinburne. 
 
 Pentameter, with one added unaccented syllable : 
 
 Say one soft word, and let us part forgiven. 
 
 The Princess : Tennyson. 
 
48 RHYTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 Hexameter, less one unaccented syllable : 
 
 High beyond the granite portal arched across. 
 
 A Ballad of Sark : Swinburne. 
 
 Hexameter, with an added unaccented syllable : 
 
 Shall the wages of righteous-doing be less than the promise given ? 
 Hell and Heaven : Sir Edwin Arnold. 
 
 Heptameter, less one unaccented syllable : 
 
 Far and wide the waste and ravin of their rule proclaim 
 Change alone the changeless lord of things, alone the same. 
 
 The Mill Garden : Swinburne. 
 
 Heptameter, with one added unaccented syllable : 
 
 We wake with a sense of a sunrise that is not a gift of the sundawn's 
 
 giving, 
 And a voice that salutes us is sweeter than all sounds else in the world 
 
 of the living. 
 
 Sunrise : Swinburne. 
 
 Octometer, less one unaccented syllable : 
 
 Comrades, leave me here a little while, as yet 't is early morn, 
 Leave me here, and when you want me sound upon the bugle horn. 
 
 Locks ley Hall : Tennyson. 
 
 The second way of introducing variety into the rhythm 
 is by changing the accents, either their numbers in the 
 lines, or their places, while preserving as a basis of unity the 
 same relative time in which the lines are uttered, or the 
 same number of syllables of which they are composed. 
 Sometimes, though not often, this method is used in 
 rhymed lines, as in the following. Notice also how the 
 effect of variety in the rhythm here is increased by the 
 pauses in the reading necessitated by the sense : 
 
VARIETY IN MEASURE AND LINE. 49 
 
 The sky is changed and such a change. O night 
 And storm and darkness, ye are wondrous strong, 
 Yet lovely in your strength, as is the light 
 Of a dark eye in woman ! Far along 
 From peak to peak the rattling crags among 
 Leaps the live thunder. Not from one lone cloud 
 But every mountain now hath found a tongue, 
 And Jura answers, through her misty shroud, 
 Back to the joyous Alps who call to her aloud. 
 
 Childe Harold : Byron. 
 
 It is chiefly, however, in blank verse that we find this 
 method of securing variety. Where, as in this next quo- 
 tation, as also in the sixth line of the last, these variations 
 are determined by the thought, and the rhythm is accom- 
 modated to the requirements of sense as well as of sound, 
 we have, for this reason, an additional excellence. See 
 "" Poetry as a Representative Art," Chap. IV. 
 
 Nine times the space which measures day and night 
 To mortal men, he with his horrid crew 
 Lay vanquished, rolling in the fiery gulf, 
 Confounded, though immortal : but his doom 
 Reserved him to more wrath : for now the thought 
 Both of lost happiness and lasting pain 
 Torments him : round he throws his baleful eyes 
 That witnessed huge affliction and dismay, 
 Mixed with obdurate pride and steadfast hate ; 
 At once as far as angels' ken he views 
 The dismal situation waste and wild ; 
 A dungeon horrible on all sides round, 
 As one great furnace, flamed ; yet from those flames 
 No light, but rather darkness visible 
 Served only to discover sights of woe, 
 Regions of sorrow, doleful shades where peace 
 And rest can never dwell. 
 
 Paradise Lost, I / Milton. 
 
 Modern poets, as a rule, do not indulge in as much 
 metrical variety of this sort as did Milton. Some, indeed, 
 
50 RHYTHM AND HARMON Y IN FOE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 cause the accents to fall on every other syllable with 
 absolute regularity, depending for variety upon only the 
 pauses that must necessarily be made in order to bring 
 out the sense. It cannot be denied that there is a charm 
 of its own produced by such a style, and that for young 
 poets there is safety in it. Only a great master of rhythm 
 like Milton could violate so many lesser laws and yet 
 fulfil the greater ones. As a good example of a more 
 regular style, notice the following : 
 
 Above the garden's glowing blossom-belts, 
 
 A columned entry shone and marble stairs, 
 
 And great bronze valves, embossed with Tomyris 
 
 And what she did to Cyrus after fight, 
 
 But not fast barred : so here upon the flat 
 
 All that long morn the lists were hammered up, 
 
 And all that morn the heralds, to and fro, 
 
 With message and defiance went and came. 
 
 The Princess : Tennyson. 
 
 There is another way of changing the number of the 
 accents or the places of the accents in the line. It is 
 found chiefly among dramatic writings. In all the quota- 
 tions in blank verse that have been made, there has been 
 an accent, as well as a pause required by the sense, on the 
 final foot, as in this : 
 
 The primal duties shine aloft like stars. 
 
 Excursion : Wordsworth. 
 
 A line ending thus is called technically an end-stopped line. 
 A line, on the contrary, in which there is no accent on 
 the final foot, and no pause required there by the sense, 
 is termed a run-on line. Notice the first and second lines 
 of this : 
 
VARIETY IN MEASURE AND LINE. 51 
 
 Since what I am to say must be but that 
 
 V *" ^ - * * ^ 
 
 Which contradicts my accusation, and 
 
 The testimony on my part no other 
 
 But what comes from myself, it shall scarce boot me. 
 
 Winter's Tale : iii., 2 : Shakespeare. 
 
 Run-on lines closing with conjunctive words, like and, as, 
 if, nor, with, are also termed weak-ending ; and those 
 closing with words like since, while, though, and with 
 pronouns like who, which, what, and with auxiliaries like 
 am, has, is, would, are termed light-ending. 
 
 In Shakespeare there are a large number of run-on 
 lines, especially in his later works. It seems as if, instead 
 of being regarded as forms of our ordinary pentameter 
 blank verse, they should be regarded as forms of broken 
 blank verse, such as we find in Goethe's " Faust." This, 
 in reality, is what they are, though, in the English, they 
 are not divided into lines and printed so as to show the 
 fact. Sidney Lanier, in his " Science of English Verse," 
 divides and prints the following lines so as to reveal their 
 rhythm. As one object of all division of poetry into 
 lines is to reveal rhythm, it might seem desirable always 
 to print such verses in this way. It is to be argued 
 against this course, however, that, were it done, the prin- 
 ciple of putting like effects with like would not be carried 
 out as applied to the lengths of lines. 
 
 Since what I am to say 
 
 Must be but that which contradicts my accusation, 
 
 And the testimony on my part 
 
 No other but what comes from myself 
 
 It shall scarce boot me. 
 
 Here is another set of run-on lines : 
 
52 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 Thou shalt not lack 
 
 The flower that 's like thy face, pale primrose, nor 
 The azured harebell like thy veins, no, nor 
 The leaf of eglantine. 
 
 Cimbeline, iv., 2: Idem. 
 
 This, too, might be arranged thus : 
 
 Thou shalt not lack 
 
 The flower that 's like thy face, pale primrose, 
 Nor the azured harebell like thy veins, 
 No, nor the leaf of eglantine. 
 
 Shakespeare's later works, as contrasted with his earlier 
 ones, show more maturity of thought, and in places more 
 grandeur of style. But as he grew older he did not rewrite 
 them, line by line, as carefully as he did at first. Had he 
 done so, it is possible that he would have removed many of 
 these run-on lines. In themselves, they are a violation of 
 the law of the form of verse in which he was writing ; 
 and there is page after page of his poetry proving that he 
 could have produced every desirable effect in rhythm 
 without resorting to them. 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ART-METHODS AS DEVELOPING STANZAS AND TYPICAL 
 VERSE-FORMS. 
 
 Rhythm as so far Explained Necessity in Each Poem of a Standard Meas- 
 ure or Line Illustrating the Art-Methods of Principality, Massing, 
 Interspersion, Complication Examples Tendency to Make Long Lines 
 just Double the Length of Short lines The Couplet, through Compli- 
 cation and Continuity, Passes into the Stanza Rhythm as Related to 
 the Tunes of Verse, and Causing Correspondences between Lines of 
 Verse and Lines of Vision Rhythm as Involving Consonance, Disso- 
 nance, Interchange, and Gradation Abruptness, Transition, and 
 Progress Slow and Fast Progress as Represented in Poetic Rhythm 
 Rhythmic Possibilities of Stanzas of Different Forms Stanzas of Three 
 Lines Four Five Six Seven Shorter Chaucerian Eight Nine, 
 the Spenserian Longer Chaucerian The Sonnet First Type of Sec- 
 ond Third French Forms of Verse Triolet Rondel Rondeau 
 Kyrielle Rondeau Redouble Ballade Pantoum Villanelle Chain 
 Verse Sestina Sicilian Octave Virelai Chant Royal Ode Comic 
 Effects Incongruity between Thought and Form In the Form only 
 In Endings of Lines In Rhymes In Pauses. 
 
 what has been said thus far, it will be perceived 
 that rhythm is an effect produced by a consecutive 
 series of sounds, or multiples of sounds, which, in them- 
 selves, may be varied and complex; but each series of 
 which is of like duration. In other words, it is a result, 
 as is everything that is artistic, of grouping according to 
 some one principle to that of time in this case the like 
 partial effects of unlike complex wholes. In poetry, as we 
 have found, like divisions of time are measured off into 
 
 53 
 
54 RHYTHM AND HARMON Y IN FOE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 feet by accents upon certain syllables, which are usually 
 accompanied in the same group by other syllables, and 
 into lines by the same or approximate numbers of ac- 
 cents. As for the feet, the essential matter is that, in 
 each group, the syllables, whether one or many, be given 
 exactly the same amount of time. So, as a rule, with 
 lines. To read rhythmically verses like those on page 20, 
 the voice needs to pause a little longer after the shorter 
 lines ; doing which, it will make them appear of the same 
 length as the longer ones. It is a method of reading, too, 
 that any person with an ear for rhythm will adopt instinc- 
 tively and unconsciously. 
 
 Notice now that, in case measures or lines be varied in 
 character, they cannot well be read in accordance with the 
 requirements of rhythm, unless measures and lines of 
 some one character predominate to a sufficient extent to 
 establish a standard by which to gauge the method of 
 reading the whole. If, for instance, a line be intended for 
 the time appropriate for double measures, whose two 
 syllables are naturally uttered in a shorter time than the 
 three of triple measures, it must convey a suggestion of 
 this fact by being chiefly composed of double measures. 
 Poe, in his essay on " The Rationale of Verse," says with 
 reference to all alterations in the general structure of the 
 verse : " The rhythm, designed, should be commenced and 
 continued without variation, until the ear has had full 
 time to comprehend what is the rhythm " a statement 
 which he illustrates by quoting the opening of a poem 
 by C. P. Cranch, viz. : 
 
 Many are the thoughts that come to me 
 
 In my lonely musing, 
 And they drift so strange and swift 
 
 There 's no time for choosing. 
 
STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. 55 
 
 In this, many is treated as one syllable, and are and the 
 are treated as second and third syllables in a triple meas- 
 ure, a method of treatment that would answer after the 
 prevailing rhythm had been suggested, but not before this. 
 Evidently in Poe's opinion the first line should read 
 somewhat as follows 
 
 Many thoughts, they come to me. 
 
 The general truth thus indicated reveals the necessity, 
 in connection with repetition and alteration, for that de- 
 velopment of principality which will be found, in the chart 
 on page 3, under the name of massing. By this is meant 
 the bringing together of many features of a single kind so 
 as, through the accumulation of them, to create a single 
 general impression. A subordinate departure from the 
 regular movement, characterizing series of measures or 
 lines, evidently involves the method of interspersion (see 
 page 3), and, in case there be much departure of this kind, 
 it is evident that unity can only be preserved by causing 
 the features manifesting it to complement or balance the 
 principal features by way of complication. As applied to 
 measures, the quotations from Coleridge and Milton on 
 pages 39 and 40 will sufficiently illustrate this method. 
 As applied to lines, inasmuch as the very word complica- 
 tion means, primarily, a folding together of visible lines, 
 its appropriateness by way of analogy to audible verses of 
 different structure or length will be at once recognized. 
 Here are triple measures in one line, and, in the next 
 line, alternating with it are only double measures : 
 
 Come from my first, ay come. 
 
 The battle dawn is nigh : 
 And the screaming trump and the thundering drum 
 
 Are calling thee to die. 
 
 The Camp Bell: W. M. Praed. 
 
5 6 RH YTHM A ND HA RMON Y IN POETRY A ND M USIC. 
 
 Here are alternating lines of different lengths, but with 
 the same measures : 
 
 Stop, mortal. Here my brother lies, 
 
 The poet of the poor. 
 His books were rivers, woods, and skies, 
 
 The meadow and the moor. 
 
 A Poefs Epitaph : Ebenezer Elliott. 
 
 And here the endings of different alternate or consecutive 
 lines give them different general effects : 
 
 Hail to the chief who in triumph advances ! 
 
 Honored and blest be the evergreen Pine ! 
 Long may the tree in his banner that glances, 
 Flourish the shelter and grace of our line ! 
 Heaven send it happy dew, 
 Earth lend it sap anew, 
 Gayly to bourgeon, and broadly to grow, 
 While every highland glen 
 Sends our shout back again, 
 Roderigh Vich Alpine, dhu, ho ! ieroe ! 
 
 Song of Clan-Alpine : Sir W. Scott. 
 
 Notice, however, wherever lines of different lengths are 
 thus used together, the almost invariable tendency that 
 there is to make the shorter lines exactly one half the 
 length of the longer lines. This is, evidently, only an- 
 other manifestation of that which, according to the experi- 
 ments in rhythm mentioned in Chapter II., led to the 
 dividing of groups of eight clicks into groups of fours, 
 and groups of fours into groups of twos. As illustrating 
 this form of varying the lengths of lines, notice, besides 
 the last two quotations, the following : 
 
 Yet the ear distinctly tells, 
 In the jangling 
 And the wrangling, 
 How the danger sinks and swells, 
 By the sinking or the swelling in the anger of the bells. 
 
 The Bells: Poe. 
 
STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. $? 
 
 When the grenadiers were lunging 
 And like hail fell the plunging 
 Cannon shot ; 
 When the files 
 Of the isles 
 
 From the smoky night encampment bore the banner of the rampant 
 Unicorn. 
 
 The Old Continentals : G. H. McMaster. 
 
 Thus, notwithstanding apparent obstacles, does the ar- 
 tistic tendency to put like effects with like or with exact 
 multiples of like still assert itself. 
 
 We have already noticed that the couplet is developed 
 from parallelism. The stanza is manifestly a result of em- 
 ploying, in addition to parallelism, the methods that have 
 just been mentioned, a result, that is, of massing forms of 
 lines and couplets according, sometimes, to complicated 
 methods ; and always in such ways as to give them cer- 
 tain definite limits of continuity (see page 3), different 
 stanzas dividing whole poems into large groups, just as 
 different lines divide the stanzas and different feet divide 
 the lines. The canto, a larger division composed of sev- 
 eral stanzas, is merely a result of convenience, or of logical 
 requirement in the arrangement, and has nothing to do 
 with its effects considered rhythmically. 
 
 As will be shown in Chapter XII., and therefore need 
 not be anticipated here, the arrangement of words in 
 measures and lines, according as these are long or short, 
 has much to do with causing those upward and down- 
 ward movements of the voice at long or short intervals, 
 which determine the character of the tunes of verse. 
 It is this inseparable blending of the effects of metre, 
 verse, and tune that makes it appropriate to compare, as 
 some are fond of doing, the movements of lines of differ- 
 ent rhythm, in connection with their accompanying tunes, 
 
5 8 RHYTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 to different kinds of lines in the arts of sight. Double 
 measures, for instance, in which the unaccented syllable 
 is long, especially if this be a single monosyllabic word, 
 which itself, might, if rightly situated, receive an accent, 
 may be said to cause a monotonous movement, resem- 
 bling that of a straightly drawn or only slightly waving 
 line. Notice this effect in the first quotation on page 60. 
 Double measures, however, in which the unaccented sylla- 
 ble is short, may be said to cause a direct upward and 
 downward movement resembling that of a sharply drawn 
 angular and zigzag line. Notice the second quotation 
 on page 60. Triple measures, on the other hand, in 
 which the voice on the first syllable following the accented 
 one is neither so high as on the accent, nor so low as on 
 the second syllable following the accent, may be said to 
 cause a gradation of movement, resembling that of a 
 line curving. Notice the third quotation on page 60. 
 As applied to groupings larger than those of measures, 
 lines of verse, in the degree in which they are long and 
 are also of uniform length, may be said to increase the 
 generally monotonous and straight effect of double 
 measures of long quantity. Notice again the first quo- 
 tation on page 60. On the contrary, shortness of lines 
 and irregularity in their length may be said to increase 
 the angularity of effect. Notice the last two quotations 
 on page 56, and the one on page 57. Once more, 
 length of lines and uniformity in length may be said 
 to increase the rounded, rolling effect of triple measures 
 (notice on page 64 the hymns in the metres termed 
 Elevens and Twelves); while shortness of lines, owing 
 to the pauses at the ends of them, and especially 
 if accompanied by occasional double measures, may be 
 said to increase the angularity of these rounded 
 
STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. 59 
 
 effects. Notice the second quotation on page 56, and 
 the second on page 61. 
 
 These correspondences between effects in lines of verse 
 and in lines of vision have, of course, a theoretical rather 
 than a practical interest. More important to the logical 
 unfolding of our subject is the fact that the necessary 
 connection between effects of rhythm and of harmony 
 indicated at the opening of the last paragraph involves 
 in rhythm, for the same reasons as in harmony, a ful- 
 filment of the methods of consonance, dissonance, and in- 
 terchange (see page 3). Still more clearly, perhaps, does 
 it involve gradation. This fact, as applied to changes 
 of pitch in triple measures, was mentioned in the last 
 paragraph. With reference to its application in all kinds 
 of measures to changes in force, it may be said that certain 
 experiments in the thesis on " Rhythm " mentioned in 
 Chapter II. showed that where three clicks, all equally 
 loud, formed a group, the first of the three appeared to 
 be the louder ; the second, less loud ; and the last the 
 least loud of all. In the same way, of course, poetic 
 measures not only of two but of three syllables must 
 involve apparent if not real gradations in intensity. 
 
 Notice also gradations in regularity, as revealed in the 
 effects of lines in the quotation from Christabel on page 
 39. These lines start with double measures, then intro- 
 duce more and more triple measures till, finally, all the 
 measures become triple. More sudden changes of metre, 
 whether in the middles of lines, or at the ends, as illus- 
 trated on page 45 involve, of course, the method of abrupt- 
 ness ; while the comparative length of both measures and 
 lines is intimately connected with the general methods of 
 transition and progress. It is the character of the rhythm, 
 for instance, that causes an effect of slow progress in the 
 following : 
 
60 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 Roll on, ye stars ; exult in youthful prime ;. 
 Mark with bright curves the printless steps of time ; 
 Near and more near your beamy cars approach, 
 And lessening orbs on lessening orbs encroach. 
 
 Pleasures of Hope : Campbell. 
 
 And of rapid progress in this : 
 
 Singing through the forest ; 
 
 Rattling over ridges ; 
 Shooting under arches ; 
 
 Rumbling over bridges ; 
 
 Railroad Rhymes : J. G. Saxe. 
 
 There is always a tendency to slow movement in meas- 
 ures containing vowels of long quantity, as well as in long 
 lines made up of these measures. With any kind of quan- 
 tity, however, the tendency in the direction of rapid 
 movement is increased in the degree in which the ve/ses 
 contain rhymes either at the ends of lines or of half lines. 
 As stated in " Poetry as a Representative Art," it is a 
 characteristic of rhyming words to emphasize strongly the 
 ideas expressed through them. They convey the impres- 
 sion, therefore, that something important has been said ; 
 and if they occur frequently, they suggest that many im- 
 portant things have been said, and said in a short time, 
 or what is equivalent to this that the thought in the 
 poem is moving on rapidly, an effect that could not be 
 produced by the same thoughts differently worded. Of 
 course, it follows that the nearer together the rhymes are, 
 the more rapid seems to be the movement. Compare 
 these two stanzas, and notice the quickening of the move- 
 ment in the second of them : 
 
 The baron returned in three days' space, 
 
 And his looks were sad and sour, 
 And weary was his courser's pace, 
 
 As he reached his rocky tower. 
 
STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. 6l 
 
 My lady each night sought the lonely light 
 
 That burns on the wild Watchfold, 
 For from height to height the beacons bright 
 
 Of the English foemen told. 
 
 Eve of St. John : Scott. 
 
 The rhythmic possibilities of different forms of stanzas, 
 as determined by the number and length of their lines 
 and of the feet composing these, can be best brought out 
 by bringing together some of those in most common use, 
 and allowing the reader to compare them. It needs to be 
 pointed out, however, that the exact length of the stanza 
 does not determine the character of the rhythm as much 
 as does the general or the comparative length of the 
 different lines composing it. This will be recognized 
 upon reading the poetry on pages 173 and 174. Here are 
 triplets stanzas composed of three lines. In both ex- 
 amples, we have terminal or iambic measures : 
 
 Whoe'er she be 
 
 That not impossible she 
 
 That shall command my heart and me. 
 
 Wishes for the Supposed Mistress : R. Crashaw. 
 
 Who rowing hard against the stream 
 Saw distant gates of Eden gleam, 
 And did not dream it was a dream. 
 
 Two Voices : Tennyson. 
 
 The quatrain, or stanza of four lines, is the most com- 
 mon of any. Let us notice different examples of this, as 
 used in our hymns ; and first, Short metre, as it is termed : 
 A terminal (or iambic) trimeter, with the third line a 
 tetrameter : 
 
 Give me, O Lord, a place 
 
 Within thy blest abode, 
 Among the children of thy grace, 
 
 The servants of my God. 
 
 Stennett. 
 
62 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 Common metre : A terminal (or iambic) tetrameter fol- 
 lowed by a trimeter. This is the same as our ordinary 
 ballad measure : 
 
 Thanks to my God for every gift 
 
 His bounteous hands bestow ; 
 And thanks eternal for that love 
 
 Whence all those comforts now. 
 
 Heginbotham . 
 
 Long metre : A terminal (or iambic) tetrameter : 
 
 From all that dwell below the skies 
 Let the Creator's praise arise : 
 Let the Redeemer's name be sung, 
 Through every land, by every tongue. 
 
 Watts. 
 
 Notice how different is the movement of the same meas- 
 ure when the rhymes are differently arranged : 
 
 Strong Son of God, immortal Love 
 
 Whom we, that have not seen thy face, 
 By faith and faith alone embrace, 
 
 Believing where we cannot prove. 
 
 In Memoriam : Tennyson. 
 
 Sevens : So named from the number of syllables in the 
 line ; an initial (or trochaic) tetrameter less one unac- 
 cented syllable : 
 
 Whom have I on earth below ? 
 Thee, and only Thee, I know : 
 Whom have I in heaven but thee ? 
 Thou art all in all to me. 
 
 C. Wesley. 
 
 Eights : A triple terminal (or anapaestic) trimeter : 
 
STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. 63 
 
 Oh ! drive these dark clouds from the sky, 
 
 Thy soul-cheering presence restore ; 
 Or bid me soar upward on high, 
 
 Where winter and storms are no more. 
 
 Newton. 
 
 Tens : A terminal (or iambic) pentameter : 
 
 Abide with me ! Fast falls the eventide, 
 The darkness deepens Lord, with me abide ! 
 When other helpers fail, and comforts flee, 
 Help of the helpless, oh, abide with me ! 
 
 H. T. Lyte. 
 
 Tens : A terminal triple and double (or anapaestic and 
 iambic) tetrameter : 
 
 Who who would live alway, away from his God ; 
 Away from yon heaven, that blissful abode, 
 Where the rivers of pleasure flow o'er the bright plains, 
 And the noontide of glory eternally reigns ? 
 
 Muhlenberg . 
 
 Elevens and tens : An initial double and triple (or dac- 
 tylic and trochaic) tetrameter : 
 
 Hail to the brightness of Zion's glad morning, 
 Long by the prophets of Israel foretold ; 
 Hail to the millions from bondage returning, 
 Gentiles and Jews the blest vision behold. 
 
 Hastings. 
 
 Tens and elevens : A terminal triple and double (or 
 anapaestic and iambic) tetrameter : 
 
 Oh, worship the King all-glorious above, 
 And gratefully sing his wonderful love ; 
 Our Shield and Defender, the Ancient of days, 
 Pavilioned in splendor, and girded with praise. 
 
 Grant. 
 
64 RHYTHM A ND HA KMON Y IN POE TR Y AND M USIC. 
 
 Elevens : A terminal triple and double (or anapaestic 
 and iambic) tetrameter : 
 
 The Lord is my shepherd, no want shall I know, 
 
 I feed in green pastures, safe-folded I rest ; 
 Pie leadeth my soul where the still waters flow, 
 
 Restores me when wandering, redeems when oppressed. 
 
 Montgomery. 
 
 Twelves : A terminal triple or double (anapaestic or iam- 
 bic) tetrameter, with one added unaccented syllable : 
 
 Thou art gone to the grave ! but we will not deplore thee, 
 Though sorrow and darkness encompass the tomb ; 
 The Saviour hath passed through its portals before thee, 
 And the lamp of his love is thy guide through the gloom. 
 
 Heber. 
 
 Here are stanzas of five lines of unequal length and char- 
 acter ; the first with initial measures. 
 
 Hail to thee, blithe spirit, 
 
 Bird thou never wert, 
 That from heaven or near it, 
 
 Pourest thy full heart 
 In profuse strains of unpremeditated art. 
 
 To the Skylark : Shelley. 
 
 These others have terminal measures : 
 
 O World ! O Life ! O Time, 
 On whose last steps I climb, 
 
 Trembling at that where I have stood before ; 
 When will return the glory of your prime ? 
 
 No more, O nevermore ! 
 
 A Lament : Shelley* 
 
 O what a damp and shade 
 
 Doth me invade ! 
 
 No stormy night 
 
 Could so afflict or so affright, 
 
 As thy eclipsed light. 
 
 A Parodie : Geo. Herbert. 
 
STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. 65 
 
 How sweet the answer Echo makes 
 
 To music at night, 
 
 When roused by lute or horn, she wakes, 
 And far away o'er lawns and lakes * 
 
 Goes answering light. 
 
 Echoes : T. Moore. 
 
 The day is cold and dark and dreary ; 
 
 It rains and the wind is never weary ; 
 
 The vine still clings to the mouldering wall, 
 But at every gust the dead leaves fall, 
 
 And the day is dark and dreary. 
 
 The Rainy Day : Longfellow. 
 
 Among stanzas of six lines we find many of our hymns 
 -again, e. g. y Eighths, sevens and fours, containing lines 
 with four or else two initial (or trochaic) measures : 
 
 Yea, Amen ! let all adore thee, 
 
 High on thine eternal throne ! 
 Saviour, take the power and glory ; 
 Make thy righteous sentence known ! 
 
 Oh, come quickly, 
 Claim the kingdom for thine own ! 
 
 Brydges. 
 
 Hallelujah metre, containing lines with three terminal (or 
 iambic) measures and four in the last couplet : 
 
 Awake, ye saints, awake ! 
 
 And hail this sacred day ; 
 In loftiest songs of praise 
 
 Your joyful homage pay : 
 Come bless the day that God hath blest, 
 The type of heaven's eternal rest. 
 
 Cotter ill. 
 
 Short hallelujah metre, containing lines with three terminal 
 {or iambic) measures, but containing four in the third, 
 fifth, and sixth : 
 
66 RHYTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 Thus star by star declines, 
 
 Till all are passed away, 
 As morning high and higher shines, 
 
 To pure and perfect day ; 
 Nor sink those stars in empty night 
 They hide themselves in heaven's own light. 
 
 Mon tgomery. 
 
 Long common metre, containing terminal (or iambic) tet- 
 rameters and trimeters : 
 
 Oh, could I speak the matchless worth, 
 Oh, could I sound the glories forth, 
 
 Which in my Saviour shine ! 
 I 'd soar, and touch the heavenly strings, 
 And vie with Gabriel, while he sings 
 
 In notes almost divine. 
 
 Mtdky. 
 
 To these let us add a few others : 
 
 Spring is cheery, 
 
 Winter is dreary, 
 Green leaves hang, but the brown must fly ; 
 
 When he 's forsaken 
 
 Withered and shaken, 
 What can an old man do but die ? 
 
 Spring, It is Cheery : T. Hood* 
 
 Then when the gale is sighing, 
 And when the leaves are dying, 
 
 And when the song is o'er, 
 Oh, let us think of those 
 Whose lives are lost in woes, 
 
 Whose cup of grief runs o'er. 
 
 Moan, Moan, Ye Dying Gales : H. Neele. 
 
 Even as the sun with purple-color'd face 
 
 Had ta'en his last leave of the weeping morn, 
 Rose-cheek'd Adonis hied him to the chase ; 
 
 Hunting he loved, but love he laughed to scorn : 
 Sick-thoughted Venus makes amain unto him, 
 And like a bold-faced suitor 'gins to woo him. 
 
 Venus and Adonis : Shakespeare. 
 
STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. 6? 
 
 Now let us notice stanzas of seven lines. The first has 
 initial measures : 
 
 Jesus, victim, comprehending 
 
 Love 's divine self-abnegation, 
 Cleanse my love in its self-spending, 
 
 And absorb the poor libation ! 
 Wind my thread of life up higher, 
 Up through angels' hands of fire ! 
 I aspire while I expire ! 
 
 Bertha in the Lane : Mrs. Browning. 
 
 The second, a hymn in the metre called Sixes and fours, 
 has terminal measures : 
 
 Our father's God ! to thee, 
 Author of liberty, 
 
 To thee we sing : 
 Long may our land be bright 
 With freedom's holy light ; 
 Protect us by thy might, 
 
 Great God, our King 
 
 5. F. Smith. 
 
 There are certain stanzas of a definite type that ought 
 to be noticed here. The following is one. It is called 
 the royal rhythm, or the shorter Chaucerian. By repre- 
 senting each different rhyme, as is customary with writers 
 on these subjects, by a different letter of the alphabet, 
 the rhyme-order may be indicated thus : a b a b b c c. 
 
 Alias ! distance ! thou hast no champiSn 
 Ne fyghte canstow nought, so weylawey 
 But he, that starf for our redempciSn, 
 And bond Sathan (and yit lyth ther he lay) 
 So be thy stronge champioun this day 
 For, but if crist open miracle kythe, 
 Withouten gilt thou shalt be slayn as swythe. 
 
 The Tale of the Man of Law : Chaucer. 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
68 RH Y THM A ND HA RMON Y IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 Stanzas containing eight lines are very common. Of 
 those that are not merely a result of doubling stanzas of 
 four lines, the more frequently used are as follows ; of 
 hymns, those in the metres called Sevens and sixes : 
 
 Rivers to the ocean run, 
 
 Nor stay in all their course ; 
 Fire ascending seeks the sun, 
 
 Both speed them to their source ; 
 So a soul that 's born of God, 
 
 Pants to view his glorious face, 
 Upward tends to his abode, 
 
 To rest in his embrace. 
 
 Sevens, sixes, and eights : 
 
 Saviour, Prince, enthroned above, 
 
 Repentance to impart, 
 Give me, through thy dying love, 
 
 The humble, contrite heart : 
 Give what I have long implored, 
 
 A portion of thy grief unknown ; 
 Turn, and look upon me, Lord ! 
 
 And break my heart of stone. 
 
 Eights and sevens : 
 
 Let our mutual love be fervent : 
 
 Make us prevalent in prayers ; 
 Let each one esteemed thy servant 
 
 Shun the world's bewitching snares. 
 Break the tempter's fatal power, 
 
 Turn the stony heart to flesh, 
 And begin from this good hour 
 
 To revive thy work afresh. 
 
 Seagravc. 
 
 Anon. 
 
 Newton. 
 
 Here is another stanza used by Chaucer, the rhyme- 
 order of which \sababbcbc: 
 
STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. 69 
 
 I wol biwaille, in manere of tragedie 
 The harm of hem that stoode in heigh degree, 
 And fillen so that ther has no remedie 
 To brynge hem out of hir adversitee ; 
 For certein, whan that fortune list to flee, 
 Ther may no man the cours of hire withholde, 
 Lat no man truste on blind prosperitee ; 
 Be war by thise ensamples trewe and olde. 
 
 The Monk's Tale : Chaucer. 
 
 Of stanzas containing nine lines, the Spenserian, so 
 called because adopted from the Italian by Spenser, and 
 first used in English in his *' Fairie Queene " is exactly 
 like the above, with the exception of an addition at its 
 end of a single Alexandrine line of six measures. See 
 page 37. The rhyme-order here is a b a b b c b c c. 
 
 From thence into the sacred Church he broke, 
 
 And rob'd the Chancell, and the deskes downe threw, 
 
 And Altars fouled, and blasphemy spoke, 
 
 And th' Images, for all their goodly hew, 
 
 Did cast to ground, whilest none was them to rew ; 
 
 So all confounded and disordered there : 
 
 But, seeing Calidore, away he flew, 
 
 Knowing his fatall hand by former feare ; 
 
 But he him fast pursuing soone approached neare. 
 
 Fairie Queene : Spenser. 
 
 Owing to the number of like rhymes necessitated by 
 this stanza, it is difficult to write with success. But it has 
 been used by many modern poets, noticeably by Burns, 
 in his " Cotter's Saturday Night," by Keats, in his " St. 
 Agnes Eve," and by Byron, in his " Childe Harold," e.g. : 
 
 To sit en rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell, 
 To slowly trace the forest's shady scene, 
 Where things that own not man's dominion dwell, 
 And mortal foot hath ne'er or rarely been ; 
 
70 RHYTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 To climb the trackless mountain all unseen, 
 With the wild flock, that never needs a fold ; 
 Alone, o'er steeps and foaming falls to lean ; 
 This is not solitude ; 't is but to hold 
 
 Converse with Nature's charms, and view her stores unrolled. 
 
 Childe Harold : Byron. 
 
 The longer Chaucerian stanza also contains nine lines. 
 It differs from the shorter Chaucerian by the addition of 
 the second. and fifth lines, making the rhyme-order a a b a 
 a b b c c, e.g. 
 
 The ordre of compleynt requireth skyfully, 
 
 That yf a wight shal pleyne pitously 
 
 Ther mot be cause wherfore that men pleyn, 
 
 Other, men may deme he pleyneth folely, 
 
 And causeles ; alas, that am not I ! 
 
 Wherefore the grounde and cause of al my peyn, 
 
 So as my troubled witte may hit ateyn, 
 
 I wol reherse, not for to have redresse, 
 
 But to declare my grounde of hevynesse. 
 
 The Complaint of Mars : Chaucer. 
 
 There are no other typical stanzas that need to be con- 
 sidered here, aside from the typical forms of poems of 
 which they constitute parts. The most important of these 
 poems is not divided into stanzas at all, though it is some- 
 times described as a poem of one stanza. This is the son- 
 net. It is always made up of fourteen lines, of which, 
 when it is constructed according to rule, it may be said 
 that the first four introduce the subject or theme ; that 
 the second four develop this through introducing new ma- 
 terial, either by way of specification, explanation, elabo- 
 ration, or illustration, and that the last six make a specific 
 or general application of the whole, with the point of all, 
 if possible, expressed in the final line. In his " System of 
 English Versification," Everett says of this form : 
 
STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. J\ 
 
 "The Sonnet, like the Spenserian stanza, was borrowed from the Italians. 
 Petrarch is reckoned the father of it. It is still more difficult of construction 
 than the Spenserian stanza ; for, besides requiring a great number of 
 rhymes, it demands a terseness of construction, and a point in the thought, 
 which that does not. In the Sonnet, no line should be admitted merely for 
 ornament, and the versification should be faultless. Sonnets, like Spenserian 
 stanzas, are somewhat affected ; and this is to be attributed to the age in 
 which they were introduced, when far-fetched thoughts and ingenious ideas 
 were more in vogue than simple and natural expression." 
 
 Besides Petrarch, the foremost writers of sonnets among 
 the Italians are Dante, Michael Angelo, Tasso, Ariosto, 
 and Vittoria Colonna ; and among the English, Spen- 
 ser, Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth, Keats, and Mrs. 
 Browning. Three types are indicated in Tomlinson's 
 " Sonnet : Its Origin, Structure, and Place in Poetry/* in 
 accordance with which the most of the Italian sonnets 
 were composed. 
 
 The rhyme-order of the first was a b',b a ]a b b a c de c de. 
 Here is an English example of this : 
 
 Cyriack, whose grandsire on the royal bench 
 Of British Themis, with no mean applause, 
 Pronounced, and in his volumes taught, our laws, 
 Which others at their bar so often wrench ; 
 To-day deep thoughts resolve with me to drench 
 In mirth that, after, no repenting draws ; 
 Let Euclid rest, and Archimedes pause, 
 And what the Swede intend, and what the French. 
 To measure life learn thou betimes, and know 
 Toward solid good what leads the nearest way ; 
 For other things mild heaven a time ordains, 
 And disapproves that care, though wise in show, 
 That with superfluous burden loads the day, 
 And, when God sends a cheerful hour, refrains. 
 
 To Cyriack Skinner : Milton. 
 
 The rhyme-order of the second type was a b b a ab b a 
 c d c d c d ; e. g. : 
 
72 RH YTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC* 
 
 A flock of sheep that leisurely pass by, 
 One after one ; the sound of rain, and bees 
 Murmuring ; the fall of rivers, winds and seas 
 Smooth fields, white sheets of water, and pure sky ; 
 By turns have all been thought of ; yet I lie 
 Sleepless, and soon the small birds' melodies 
 Must hear, first uttered from my orchard trees ; 
 And the first cuckoo's melancholy cry. 
 Even thus last night, and two nights more, I lay, 
 And could not win thee, sleep ! by any stealth : 
 So do not let me wear to-night away : 
 Without thee what is all the morning's wealth ? 
 Come, blessed barrier betwixt day and day, 
 Dear mother of fresh thoughts .and joyous health. 
 
 To Sleep : Wordsworth. 
 
 The rhyme-order of the third type was abbaabba 
 c d e d c e ; e. g. : 
 
 Good Kosciusko ! thy great name alone 
 
 Is a full harvest whence to reap high feeling ; 
 
 It comes upon us like the glorious pealing 
 
 Of the wide spheres an everlasting tone. 
 
 And now it tells me that in worlds unknown, 
 
 The names of heroes, burst from clouds concealing, 
 
 Are changed to harmonies forever stealing 
 
 Through cloudless blue, and round each silver throne. 
 
 It tells me too that on a happy day, 
 
 When some good spirit walks upon the earth, 
 
 Thy name with Alfred's and the great of yore, 
 
 Gently commingling gives tremendous birth 
 
 To a loud hymn that sounds far far away 
 
 To where the great God lives forevermore. 
 
 To Kosciusko : Keats, 
 
 There are, however, many sonnets written in our lan- 
 guage which resemble the Italian only in the general length 
 and number of their lines. Neither the thought nor the 
 rhymes are arranged as in the original. This does not 
 prevent their being sometimes very beautiful ; but it does 
 
STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. 73 
 
 prevent their having the exact effect of that which they 
 are supposed to reproduce. Here is an example of one 
 of these : 
 
 When Letty had scarce passed her third glad year, 
 And her young artless words began to flow, 
 One day we gave the child a colored sphere 
 Of the wide earth that she might mark and know 
 By tint and outline all its sea and land. 
 She patted all the world ; old Empires peeped 
 Between her baby fingers ; her soft hand 
 Was welcome at all frontiers ; how she leaped 
 And laughed and pratted, in her pride of bliss. 
 But when we turned her sweet unlearned eye 
 On our own isle, she raised a joyous cry, 
 " Oh yes, I see it ; Letty's home is there." 
 And while she hid all England with a kiss, 
 Bright over Europe fell her golden hair. 
 
 Letty's Globe : Charles Tennyson Turner. 
 
 Perhaps it is in place here to introduce specimens of some 
 of the French Forms of Verse as they are called not be- 
 cause all were originated by that people 1 ; but because 
 they are used by them. Though presenting, in the main, 
 thought that is lighter than that in the sonnet, they are all, 
 like it, constructed according to certain prescribed rules. 
 These do not apply, however, to the length of the lines, 
 which in all of them seems to be a matter of indifference. 
 On pages 55, 56, 63, 107, and 196 of the " Genesis of Art- 
 Form," comments will be found with reference to the 
 arrangements both of the thought in them and of the 
 peculiar forms of repetition characteristic of their lines 
 
 1 Most of these forms seem to have been used by the predecessors of 
 Gower and Chaucer, if not, as some assert, by these poets themselves. 
 John Shirley, about 1440, made a collection of Ballades, Roundels, Virelais, 
 etc. See Gleeson White's Introduction to " Ballades and Rondeaus." 
 
74 RH YTHM AND HA RMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 and rhymes. Here it will suffice merely to ask the reader 
 to note carefully their rhythmic effects. Owing to the 
 difficulty of finding, in all cases, examples exactly fulfill- 
 ing the requirements of these forms, two of the following 
 poems are the same as those quoted in that book. 
 
 The Triolet has eight lines, the first, fourth, and seventh, 
 and the second and last of which are the same. The 
 rhyme order \sabaaabab; e. g. : 
 
 Easy is the Triolet 
 
 If you really learn to make it. 
 Once a neat refrain you get, 
 Easy is the Triolet. 
 As you see. I pay my debt 
 
 With another rhyme. Deuce take it. 
 Easy is the Triolet, 
 
 If you really learn to make it. 
 
 Triolet: W. F. Henley. 
 
 The Rondel, a term used to distinguish the earliest form 
 of the modifications of the same in the more modern ron- 
 deau and roundel, contains fourteen lines in three stanzas, 
 the first, seventh, and thirteenth lines, and the second, 
 eighth, and fourteenth of which are the same. The rhyme 
 order marking the refrain by capital letters is usually 
 A B a b b a A B a b a b A B ; but sometimes it is 
 A B b a a b A B a b b a A. The following, as will be 
 perceived, blends both forms. 
 
 I love you dearly, O my sweet ! 
 
 Although you pass me lightly by, 
 
 Although you weave my life awry. 
 And tread my heart beneath your feet. 
 
 I tremble at your touch, I sigh 
 To see you passing down the street ; 
 I love you dearly, O my sweet ! 
 
 Although you pass me lightly by. 
 
STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. f$ 
 
 You say in scorn that love's a cheat, 
 
 Passion a blunder, youth a lie. 
 I know not. Only when we meet 
 
 I long to kiss your hand and cry, 
 " I love you dearly, O my sweet ! 
 
 Although you pass me lightly by." 
 
 Rondel: J. H. McCarthy. 
 
 The Rondeau contains thirteen lines in three stanzas, 
 with an unrhymed refrain at the end of the second and 
 third stanzas, which refrain is the same as the clause with 
 which the poem opens. The rhyme order is a a b b a 
 a a b, refrain a abba, refrain ; e. g. : 
 
 The summer 's gone how did it go ? 
 And where has gone the dogwood's show ? 
 
 The air is sharp upon the hill, 
 
 And with a tinkle sharp and chill 
 The icy little brooklets flow. 
 
 What is it in the season, though, 
 Brings back the days of old, and so 
 Sets memory recalling still 
 The summer 's gone ? 
 
 Why are my days so dark ? for lo, 
 The maples with fresh glory glow, 
 Fair shimmering mists the valleys fill, 
 The keen air sets the blood a-thrill 
 Ah, now that you are gone, I know 
 The summer 's gone. 
 September ; Airs from Arcady : H. C. Bunner. 
 
 The Roundel is a modern modification of the Rondel, 
 and contains nine lines in three stanzas, with a refrain at 
 the end of the first and third of these. The rhyme order 
 is a b c refrain b a b a b c refrain ; e.g. : 
 
76 RH YTHM AftD HA KM ON Y IN POETRY A ND MUSIC. 
 
 We know not yet what life shall be, 
 
 What shore beyond earth's shore be set ; 
 What grief awaits us, or what glee, 
 We know not yet. 
 
 Still, somewhere in sweet converse met, 
 
 Old friends, we say, beyond death's sea 
 Shall meet and greet us, nor forget 
 
 Those days of yore, those years when we 
 
 Were loved and true, but will death let 
 Our eyes the longed-for vision see ? 
 
 We know not yet. 
 Mors et Vita : Roundel by Samuel Waddington. 
 
 The Rondeau Redouble, by no means a double Ron- 
 deau, though so called, contains six stanzas, each of four 
 lines. The four lines of the first stanza are used respec- 
 tively for the last lines of stanzas two, three, four and 
 five ; while the last line of the sixth stanza is new, but has 
 added to it, as a refrain, the first half of the poem's open- 
 ing line. The rhyme order is a b a b b a b a a b a b 
 b a b a a b a b b aba refrain, e. g. : 
 
 My day and night are in my lady's hand ; 
 I have no other sunrise than her sight ; 
 
 For me her favor glorifies the land ; 
 Her anger darkens all the cheerful light?, 
 
 Her face is fairer than the hawthorn white, 
 When all a-flower in May the hedge-rows stand ; 
 
 While she is kind, I know of no affright ; 
 My day and night are in my lady's hand. 
 
 All heaven in her glorious eyes is spanned ; 
 Her smile is softer than the summer's night, 
 
 Gladder than daybreak on the Faery strand ; 
 I have no other sunrise than her sight. 
 
STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. 77 
 
 Her silver speech is like the singing flight 
 Of runnels rippling o'er the jewelled sand ; 
 
 Her kiss a dream of delicate delight ; 
 For me her favor glorifies the land. 
 
 What if the Winter chase the Summer bland ! 
 The gold sun in her hair burns ever bright. 
 
 If she be sad, straightway all joy is banned ; 
 Her anger darkens all the cheerful light. 
 
 Come weal or woe, I am my lady's knight, 
 And in her service every ill withstand ; 
 
 Love is my lord in all the world despite, 
 And holdeth in the hollow of his hand 
 
 My day and night. 
 Rondeau Redouble : John Payne. 
 
 The Villanelle is made up of five stanzas of three lines 
 and one of four lines. The first line of the first stanza 
 concludes the second and fifth stanzas, and is the third 
 line of the sixth stanza ; while the third line of the first 
 stanza concludes the third, fifth, and last stanzas, e. g. : 
 
 Across the world I speak to thee ; 
 
 Where'er thou art (I know not where), 
 Send thou a messenger to me. 
 
 I here remain who would be free, 
 
 To seek thee out through foul or fair, 
 Across the world I speak to thee. 
 
 Whether beneath the tropic tree, 
 
 The cooling night-wind fans thy hair, 
 Send thou a messenger to me ! 
 
 Whether upon the rushing sea, 
 
 A foamy track thy keel doth wear, 
 Across the world I speak to thee. 
 
78 RH YTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND M C7S/C. 
 
 Whether in yonder star thou be,' 
 A spirit loosed in purple air, 
 Send thou a messenger to me ! 
 
 Hath heaven not left thee memory 
 
 Of what was well in mortal's share ? 
 Across the world I speak to thee ; 
 Send thou a messenger to me ! 
 Across the World I Speak to Thee : Edith M. Thomas. 
 
 The Kyrielle is made up of stanzas of four lines, each 
 of eight syllables, the last line of each stanza being the 
 same. The rhyme order is a a b b c c b b e ebb, etc. ; 
 e.g.'. 
 
 A little pain, a little pleasure, 
 A little heaping up of treasure ; 
 Then no more gazing upon the sun. 
 All things must end that have begun. 
 
 Where is the time for hope or doubt ? 
 A puff of the wind, and life is out ; 
 A turn of the wheel, and rest is won. 
 All things must end that have begun. 
 
 Golden morning and purple night, 
 Life that fails with the failing light ; 
 Death is the only deathless one. 
 All things must end that have begun. 
 
 From a Kyrielle by John Payne. 
 
 The Pantoum is made up of stanzas of four lines, the 
 second and fourth of each stanza forming the first and 
 third of the stanza following ; while the second and fourth 
 of the final stanza are the first and third of the first 
 stanza. The rhyme order is a b a b b c b c y etc. ; e. g. : 
 
STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. 79 
 
 Toiling in town now is horrid 
 
 (There is that woman again !) 
 June in the zenith is torrid, 
 
 Thought gets dry in the brain. 
 
 There is that woman again ; 
 
 ' ' Strawberries ! f ourpence a pottle ! " 
 Thoughts get dry in the brain ; 
 
 Ink gets dry in the bottle. 
 
 " Strawberries ! f ourpence a pottle ! " 
 
 Oh for the green of a lane ! 
 Ink gets dry in the bottle ; 
 
 " Buzz " goes a fly in the pane ! 
 From a Pantoum, In Town, by Austin Dobson* 
 
 The wind brings up the hawthorn's breath, 
 
 The sweet airs ripple up the lake, 
 My soul, my soul is sick to death, 
 
 My heart, my heart is like to break. 
 
 The sweet airs ripple up the lake, 
 
 I hear the thin woods' fluttering : 
 My heart, my heart is like to break : 
 
 What part have I, alas ! in spring? 
 
 I hear the thin woods' fluttering ; 
 
 The brake is brimmed with linnet-song : 
 What part have I, alas ! in spring? 
 
 For me heart's winter is life-long. 
 From a Pantoum : Song in the Malay manner by John Payne. 
 
 Here is a form of French chain verse taken from the 
 excellent manual on " English Versification " of J. C. 
 Parsons. 
 
 Nerve thy soul with doctrines noble, 
 
 Noble in the walks of time, 
 Time that leads to an eternal, 
 
 An eternal life sublime : 
 
SO RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 Life sublime in moral beauty, 
 
 Beauty that shall ever be ; 
 Ever be to lure thee onward, 
 
 Onward to the fountain free. 
 
 Anon. 
 
 Here is a like poem, published in 1773. 
 
 My spirit longeth for thee 
 Within my troubled breast, 
 
 Although I be unworthy 
 Of so divine a guest. 
 
 Of so divine a guest, 
 Unworthy though I be, 
 
 Yet has my heart no rest, 
 Unless it comes from thee. 
 
 Unless it comes from thee, 
 In vain I look around ; 
 
 In all that I can see 
 No rest is to be found. 
 
 No rest is to be found 
 But in thy blessed love 
 
 Oh, let my wish be crowned, 
 And send it from above. 
 
 John Byrom. 
 
 The Ballade contains either three stanzas of eight lines 
 with an Envoy of four lines, or three stanzas of ten lines 
 with an Envoy of five lines. The rhymes must be the 
 same, and occur in the same order in each stanza, the same 
 rhyming syllable must not be used twice in the same 
 poem, and the sense in each stanza must form one un- 
 broken and connected whole. The rhyme order of the 
 first form \sababbcbc and in the Envoy b c b c ; in the 
 second form it is a b a b b c c d c d, and in the Envoy c c 
 d c d. Here is an example of the first form : 
 
STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. 8l 
 
 She 's had a Vassar education, 
 
 And points with pride to her degrees ; 
 She 's studied household decoration ; 
 
 She knows a dado from a frieze, 
 
 And tells of Corots from Boldonis ; 
 A Jacquemart etching, or a Haden, 
 
 A Whistler, too, perchance, might please 
 A frank and free young Yankee maiden. 
 
 She does not care for meditation ; 
 
 Within her bonnet are no bees ; 
 She has a gentle animation, 
 
 She joins in singing simple glees. 
 
 She tries no trills, no rivalries 
 With Lucca (now Baronin Raden), 
 
 With Nilsson or with Gerster ; she 's 
 A frank and free young Yankee maiden. 
 
 I 'm blest above the whole creation, 
 
 Far, far above all other he's ; 
 I ask you for congratulation 
 
 On this, the best of jubilees : 
 
 I go with her across the seas 
 Unto what Poe would call an Aiden, 
 
 I hope no serpent 's there to tease 
 A frank and free young Yankee maiden. 
 
 Envoy, 
 
 Princes, to you the western breeze 
 
 Bears many a ship, and heavy laden, 
 What is the best we send in these ? 
 
 A frank and free young Yankee maiden. 
 
 An American Girl : Brander Matthews. 
 
 Here are the first stanza and the Envoy of a Ballade 
 in the other form. The thought in this, as often in the 
 ballade, is of a more serious character. Notice, at the be- 
 ginning of the Envoy, as also of the last, the address to the 
 Prince, in imitation of the methods of the old balladists. 
 
82 RH YTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC* 
 
 My days for singing and loving are over 
 
 And stark I lie in my narrow bed, 
 I care not at all if roses cover 
 
 Or if above me the snow is spread ; 
 
 I am weary of dreaming of my sweet dead 
 Vera and Lilly and Annie and May, 
 And my soul is set on the present fray, 
 
 Its piercing kisses and subtle snares : 
 So gallants are conquered, ah wellaway, 
 
 My love was stronger and fiercer than theirs. 
 
 Envoy. 
 
 Prince was I ever of festival gay, 
 
 And time never silvered my locks with gray ; 
 
 The love of your lovers is a hope that despairs, 
 So think of me sometimes, dear ladies, I pray, 
 
 My love was stronger and fiercer than theirs. 
 
 The Ballade of Lovelace : George Moore. 
 
 The Sestina has six stanzas of six lines and a concluding- 
 stanza of three lines. The rhyme-order of the first stanza 
 isabcdef\ of the second, fa e b dc\ of the third, 
 c f d a b e ; of the fourth, e c b f a d ; of the fifth, d a e c 
 fb\ and of the sixth, b d f e c a. In the concluding 
 three lines, all six rhymes are used, three at the middles 
 of the lines, and three at their ends, and in this order: 
 first line a b, second line c d, third line e f. The form,, 
 like several of those already noted, is exceedingly arti- 
 ficial ; and, as most of the rhymes are so far apart as to 
 have none of their ordinary effects, there is nothing pe- 
 culiar to the rhythm that deserves notice. Here are the 
 concluding stanzas of a poem in this form : 
 
 And into every mortal life and heart 
 There come some time in cloudy days or fair, 
 It matters not, to bless and light his fate 
 For one short space the perfume of the rose ; 
 And though the after years may bring but tears, 
 That moment's pleasure is of Paradise. 
 
STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. 83 
 
 O wondrous rose of love most passing fair, 
 
 Whate'er our fate in earthly Paradise, 
 
 Grant that our tears be dewdrops in thy heart. 
 
 Sestina : Florence M. Byrne. 
 
 The Sicilian Octave is a single stanza of eight lines, the 
 rhyme-order of which is a b a b a b a b. Its general rhyth- 
 mic effect is like that of thousands of others with which 
 we are familiar. 
 
 The Virelai is composed of nine stanzas, each con- 
 taining nine lines. In each stanza there are two different 
 rhymes, one used six times, and the other three. The 
 one that is used three times is used six times in the fol- 
 lowing stanza : and the rhyme used six times in the first 
 stanza is used three more times in the last stanza. Every 
 rhyme, therefore, is used exactly nine times. Here are 
 the first and second stanzas of a Virelai : 
 
 As I sat sorrowing, 
 
 Love came and bade me sing 
 
 A joyous song and meet, 
 For see (said he) each thing 
 Is merry for the Spring, 
 
 And every bird doth greet 
 The break of blossoming, 
 That all the woodlands ring 
 
 Unto the young hours' feet. 
 
 Wherefore put off defeat 
 And rouse thee to repeat 
 
 The chimes of merles that go, 
 With flutings shrill and sweet, 
 In every green retreat, 
 
 The tune of streams that flow, 
 And mark the fair hours' beat, 
 With running ripples fleet 
 
 And breezes soft and low. 
 
 Spring Sadness : John Payne. 
 
84 RH YTHM AND HA RMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 The Chant Royal, said to be so called because those 
 excelling in it were deemed worthy to be crowned with 
 garlands like conquering kings, consists of five stanzas, 
 each containing eleven lines. In the whole chant only 
 five rhymes are used, which rhymes, not words, in every 
 stanza are the same, and follow in the same order. This 
 order in the stanza is ababccddede, and, in the En- 
 voy, it is d d e d e, the final line being the same in each of 
 the stanzas, and also in the Envoy. Owing to the fewness 
 of its rhymes, this chant is exceedingly difficult to construct, 
 and owing to its general effect, it was formerly reserved, 
 says Prof. Gosse, from whom the following final stanza 
 and concluding Envoy are quoted, " for the celebration of 
 divine mysteries, or for the exploits of some heroic race." 
 
 But oh, within the heart of this great flight, 
 What ivory arms hold up the golden lyre ? 
 What form is this of more than mortal height ? 
 What matchless beauty ! What inspired ire ! 
 The brindled panthers know the prize they bear, 
 And harmonize their steps with stately care ; 
 Bent to the morning like a living rose, 
 The immortal splendor of his face he shows, 
 And where he glances, leaf and flower and wing 
 Tremble with rapture, stirred in their repose, 
 And deathless praises to the vine-god sing. 
 
 Envoy. 
 
 Prince of the flute and ivy, all thy foes 
 Record the bounty that thy grace bestows 
 But we, thy servants, to thy glory cling ; 
 And with no frigid lips our songs compose, 
 And deathless praises to the vine-god sing. 
 
 The Praise of Dionysius : E. W. Gosse. 
 
 Most of the types of stanzas that we have considered so 
 far are regular in form. In the Ode, as constructed by 
 
STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. 8$ 
 
 Pindar, there were nine stanzas of different forms com- 
 posed in iambics. The first, fourth, and seventh stanzas 
 were alike ; also the second, fifth, and eighth ; and the 
 third, sixth, and ninth. Gray's " Progress of Poetry " is con- 
 structed on this plan ; but rigid adherence to the Pindaric 
 type is not, in our odes, considered essential. On the 
 contrary, the form is chiefly valued on account of the 
 great variety of rhythm whether manifested in lines or 
 stanzas that is allowable in it. It is usually employed 
 in the enthusiastic expression of dignified thought as in 
 the following : 
 
 The winds come to me from the fields of sleep, 
 And all the earth is gay ; 
 Land and sea 
 
 Give themselves up to jollity 
 And with the heart of May 
 
 Doth every beast keep holiday ; 
 Thou child of joy, 
 
 Shout round me, let me hear thy shouts, thou happy Shepherd boy. 
 Ode on Intimations of Immortality : Wordsworth. 
 
 Comic effects are sometimes attributed to the rhythm ; 
 but in many such cases *hey are owing less to the char- 
 acter of the measures, whether double or triple, initial or 
 terminal ; or to the lines, whether long or short, regular 
 or irregular, than to the character of the words that are 
 put into them. For instance, in the following we find the 
 terminal tetrameters and trimeters of the Common Metre 
 of so many of our hymns. It will be observed, however, 
 that the words that are used in them are exceedingly easy 
 to pronounce, and therefore, when combined with others, 
 can be made to sound light, flippant, and rattling : 
 
 Her face was bad, her figure worse, 
 He could n't bear to eat ; 
 
86 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 For she was anything but like 
 A Grace before his meat. 
 
 Tim Turpin : T. Hood. 
 
 And this is the same as our Long Metre : 
 
 Well, well, the chaplain I will seek, 
 We '11 all be married this day week 
 At yonder church upon the hill ; 
 It is my duty, and I will. 
 
 Captain Reece : W. S. Gilbert. 
 
 When we have a combination of double and triple 
 measures, the latter, because pronounced in the same 
 relative time as the former, are necessarily uttered with 
 a certain degree of rapidity. For this reason, these rat- 
 tling effects are at their best where triple measures are 
 occasionally introduced : 
 
 His eyes they were odd 
 
 Like the eyes of a cod, 
 And gave him the look of a watery god. 
 
 His nose was a snub, 
 
 Under which, for his grub, 
 Was a round open mouth like that of a chub. 
 
 A Flying Visit : T. Hood. 
 
 In cases in which comic effects are really produced by 
 the rhythm aside from the language, it seems to be a 
 legitimate development of that incongruity which in other 
 departments is recognized to be their most prominent 
 component. Sometimes this incongruity is between the 
 thought and the form, as in the following : 
 
 Strike the concertina's melancholy string ! 
 Blow the spirit-stirring harp like anything ! 
 
 Let the piano's martial blast 
 
 Rouse the echoes of the past, 
 For of Agib, Prince of Tartary, I sing. 
 
 The Story of Prince Agib : W. S. Gilbert. 
 
- 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. 8/ 
 
 " This to thy weazand Christian pest ! " 
 
 Aloud the Turk in frenzy yelled it, 
 And drove right through the Doctor's chest 
 
 The sabre and the hand that held it. 
 
 The blow was a decisive one, 
 
 And Doctor Brown grew deadly pasty 
 
 " Now see the mischief you have done 
 You Turks are so extremely hasty ! " 
 
 Ben Allah Achmet : W. S. Gilbert. 
 
 In other cases, however, the incongruity is distinctly in 
 the form. Notice in the following not only the short, 
 flippant, and rattling nature of the syllables, but the effect 
 of a triple measure at the end of each line in a place 
 where a congruous arrangement, such as would charac- 
 terize a serious composition, would give us a double 
 measure, followed by a firmly sustained final accent : 
 
 So I whispered, " Dear Elvira, say, what can the matter be with you? 
 Does anything you 've eaten, darling posy, disagree with you ? 
 
 Ferdinand and Elvira : W. S. Gilbert. 
 
 Notice the same lack of sustained force, and therefore 
 of dignity, in the final measures of several of the lines in 
 this: 
 
 To trace the Kilmansegg pedigree 
 To the very root of the family tree, 
 
 Were a task as rash as ridiculous ; 
 Through antediluvian mists as thick 
 As London fog such a line to pick 
 Were enough in truth to puzzle old Nick, 
 
 Not to name Sir Harry Nicholas. 
 Miss Kilmansegg and her Precious Leg : T. Hood. 
 
 In the italicized words of the following also we expect 
 a firmly sustained accented final measure. It is the en- 
 
88 RH YTHM AND HARMONY IN POE TRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 deavor to give it where it does not by nature belong that 
 makes the effect ludicrous. Sidney Lanier, in his " Sci- 
 ence of English Verse/' attributes a comic suggestiveness 
 to the rhythm of the lines in the first quotation below, 
 aside from the way in which they end. So far as he is 
 justified in doing this, it is probably owing to the blend- 
 ing in them of double measures with triple measures not 
 only, but also with quadruple. Notice again what is said 
 at the middle of page 86. 
 
 Stick close to your desks, and never go to sea, 
 And you all may be rulers of the queen's navee. 
 
 Pinafore : W. S. Gilbert. 
 
 I du believe in prayer an' praise 
 
 To him that hez the grantin' 
 <y jobs ; in every thin' thet pays ; 
 
 But most of all in cantin' ; 
 This doth my cup with marcies fill, 
 
 That lays all thought o* sin to rest ; 
 I don't believe in princerple, 
 
 But, oh ! I du in interest. 
 
 Biglow Papers : Lowell. 
 
 Notice, too, all the rhymes in this : 
 
 A fig for their nonsense and chatter ! suffice it, her 
 Charms will excuse one for casting sheep's eyes at her. 
 
 When a man has decided 
 
 As Captain M'Bride did, 
 
 And once fully made up his mind on the matter, he 
 Can't be too prompt in unmasking his battery. 
 
 Ingoldsby Legends : R. H. Bar ham. 
 
 As well as the peculiarly snappish and unexpected 
 ending of the first, second, and fifth lines of the follow- 
 ing, and also the incongruous rhyme of the last line : 
 
 There was a young woman named Hannah 
 Who slipped on a piece of banana ; 
 
STANZAS AND TYPICAL VERSE-FORMS. 89 
 
 She cried out "Omy !" 
 And more stars did she spy 
 Than are seen in the star-spangled banner. 
 
 Nonsense Rhymes. 
 
 The fun in this, too, is in the incongruity of employing 
 for a rhyme-ending what, in a properly written line, 
 would be merely a caesura-pause : 
 
 Whene'er with haggard eyes I view 
 This dungeon that I 'm rotting in, 
 I think of those companions true, 
 Who studied with me at the U- 
 niversity of Gottingen, 
 niversity of Gottingen. 
 The University of Gottingen : Geo. Canning* 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ART-METHODS AS DEVELOPING RHYTHM IN MUSIC. 
 
 Rhythm an End aside , from its Connection with Words Music as Devel- 
 oped from Song Point of Separation between Speech and Song: 
 Poetry and Music Musical Measures more Complicated than Poetic 
 Ways of indicating Musical Notes and Rests Measures Longer Divi- 
 sions Corresponding to Poetic Lines Developed as in Poetry from the 
 Art-Methods, Parallelism, etc. The Motive Its Expressional Import- 
 ance The Phrase, Section, and Period Changes in the Period Unity 
 of Effect as Developed from these Rhythmic Arrangements Why 
 Higher Works Find Few to Appreciate them Musical Measures, Like 
 Poetic, Double and Triple Accent in Musical Measures Why Poetic 
 Measures Need to be Distinguished in Other Ways than as Double and 
 Triple Three or Six Notes as used in the Time usually Allotted to 
 Two or Four Changes of the Places of Accent in the Measures Pos- 
 sibility of Representing Different Effects of Movement Typical Forms 
 of Rhythm General Effect of Musical Rhythm Depends on that of 
 Whole Phrases, Sections, and Periods Effects of Rhythm very Differ- 
 ent from those of Harmony But the Development of the One has 
 Accompanied that of the Other. 
 
 *\ 7"ERY slight consideration of rhythm, even as used by 
 the poets, will cause us to recognize that it possesses 
 a charm wholly aside from that of the intelligible words 
 arranged in accordance with its requirements. What else 
 than the effects of the rhythm of mere sound could cause 
 the senseless phrases of so many of " Mother Goose's 
 Melodies " to be so popular with the children ? What 
 else than the rhythm of mere sound the recurrence of 
 like beats at like intervals of time could cause the satis- 
 
 90 
 
ART-METHODS AS DEVELOPING RHYTHM IN MUSIC. 91 
 
 faction which those of different nations seem to derive 
 from the noises of gongs, drums, castanets, and cymbals ? 
 What but this makes the negroes of the South and the 
 settlers of the far West clap their hands and feet in uni- 
 son, and seem to enjoy doing this, in order to provide 
 what takes the place of music for their dancers ? In the 
 very rudest beginnings of this art therefore, even before 
 it has passed into a form in which it can properly be 
 termed music, it is characterized by rhythm. 
 
 In order to recognize how natural it is that the same 
 should continue to characterize the art after it has been 
 fully developed, let us begin by recalling a few of its 
 fundamental conditions. In Chapters II. and VI. of 
 " Art and Theory," attention was directed to the fact 
 that it is through the use of their own voices and hands 
 that men begin to gain personal experience in that initial 
 act of all the arts, which consists in putting together the 
 sights or sounds of nature. Probably no one disputes 
 this fact as applied to music. " We are justified in assum- 
 ing," says Helmholtz, in his exhaustive work on " The 
 Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the 
 Theory of Music," " that historically all music was devel- 
 oped from song. Afterwards the power of producing 
 similar melodic effects was attained by means of other 
 instruments which had a quality of tone compounded in 
 a manner resembling that of the human voice." 
 
 As music starts with song, it starts with the elements 
 of natural speech. This, as we have found, is composed 
 of syllables differing from one another in duration, force, 
 quality, and pitch. The moment these possible differ- 
 ences begin to be made for their own sakes without refer- 
 ence, or primary reference, to the meanings which they 
 have in words, we are in the realm of music, which art, as 
 
92 RH Y THM A ND HA RMON Y IN POETRY A ND M USIC. 
 
 it deals with sounds rather than with their linguistic sig- 
 nificance, tends to a far more elaborate development of 
 them than is found in poetry. In the latter art, measures 
 have been shown to be a result of grouping about certain 
 syllables, in pronouncing which there is a physiological 
 necessity of using an accent, certain other syllables that 
 need not be accented. As a result of this fact, as also of 
 the fact that each syllable of speech has a definite mean- 
 ing, and, therefore, must be uttered with sufficient slow- 
 ness to be definitely heard not only but interpreted to 
 understanding, poetic measures never contain more than 
 two, three, or four separate sounds. But musical notes, 
 even if in song, are produced by a sustained action of the 
 larynx, which does not necessitate anything even resem- 
 bling the alternating accented and unaccented utterances 
 of speech ; and, of course, the absence of the same alter- 
 nation is still more marked in sounds produced upon 
 musical instruments. Besides this, the meanings of 
 musical sounds are not dependent, as words are, upon 
 their individual formation, but upon their order of 
 sequence, and, therefore, they can be produced with any 
 amount of rapidity consistent with giving a general im- 
 pression of the fact that they are present. 
 
 For all the reasons just given, very many more separate 
 sounds can be used in a musical measure than in a poetic; 
 and the manner, too, of using and arranging them can be 
 correspondingly more complicated. Poetic rhythm, in fact, 
 is only a very elementary form of the elaborate develop- 
 ments of it which, when sounds are freed from the limita- 
 tions of accent and etymology, we find in music. As, 
 however, the underlying principles in both arts are the 
 same, it is not necessary here to trace again the sources 
 of rhythm to the artistic tendencies toward unity, order,. 
 
AR T-ME THODS AS DE VELOPING RHYTHM IN M USIC. 93 
 
 comparison, and principality, as modified by variety, con- 
 fusion, contrast, and subordination, and manifested in the 
 other methods of composition connected with these as 
 arranged in the chart on page 3. As musical rhythm is a 
 development of poetic, it will be sufficient for our pur- 
 pose, with only an occasional reference to particular 
 methods, to confine our attention to observing the differ- 
 ences in the factors of the two arts which determine the 
 differences in their rhythmical manifestations. 
 
 In order to accomplish our end, let us begin by recall- 
 ing of course in the interest of those only who are igno- 
 rant of music a few familiar facts with reference to 
 musical notation. It may be as well to say too, in pass- 
 ing, that a study of the methods underlying musical 
 rhythm is important in its bearings upon the subject of 
 proportion, as well as in itself. But with reference to 
 music : Its single sounds are called notes. In writing it, 
 these are represented by characters that indicate the 
 length of time in which they are to be sounded. The notes 
 used at present, beginning with the longest, are the whole 
 note & sounded, as a rule, in the same time as two half 
 notes J as four quarter notes \, as eight eight notes , as 
 sixteen sixteenth notes and as thirty-two thirty-second 
 notes ^. A dot placed after a note lengthens it by just 
 one half. For instance, a whole note dotted (&- ) is 
 sounded for the same time as three half notes (f f f 5 ). 
 Corresponding to these notes in the length of time given 
 to them, are characters called rests, indicating that the 
 sound should cease where they are placed. These, be- 
 ginning with the longest, are the whole rest indicating, 
 as a rule, a pause of the same length as two half rests- 
 as four quarter rests jfc, as eight eight rests i, as sixteen 
 sixteenth rests q, and as thirty-two thirty-second rests ^. 
 
94 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 These notes and rests correspond, as will be recognized, 
 to the syllables and undesignated slight pauses after them 
 sometimes used in poetry, as illustrated on page 41. 
 
 The measures in which the notation is arranged are 
 separated by vertical lines termed bars, for which reason 
 the measures themselves are often termed the same. 
 Placed on the ordinary musical staff of five parallel 
 lines indicative of pitch, the bars look thus : 
 
 I I I I ^^ I I I 
 
 The combinations of notes and rests in each successive 
 measure are allotted the same amount of time, thus : 
 
 I r i ME 
 
 But besides these smaller divisions of time corre- 
 sponding to poetic feet, we have in music larger divisions 
 corresponding to poetic lines. Just as in poetry too, the 
 lines are caused primarily by the groupings of sounds into 
 series that can be uttered in a single exhalation, so too in 
 music. In singing there will always be a tendency to 
 pause just as in reading ; and in singing verses, a tendency 
 to pause in the same places as in reading them. To show 
 this, we have only to recall any of our common hymns or 
 songs. Notice the music printed near the beginning of 
 Chapter XII. of this volume. The only difference be- 
 tween the pauses in reading this and in singing it, is that, 
 in the latter, they are relatively longer. It is natural that 
 such should be the case, because more breath is expended 
 in producing the singing tones than the reading ones, and 
 
ART-METHODS AS DEVELOPING RHYTHM IN MUSIC. 95 
 
 more time is needed in order to inhale a sufficient quan- 
 tity of it. 
 
 Divisions of the kind caused by pausing to breathe 
 when singing, are found in every form of music ; but 
 they all probably originated in a desire to make the tunes 
 and the words of songs coincide, i. e. y in the same tend- 
 ency that causes poetical verses consisting of clauses or 
 sentences of like length to be placed between the neces- 
 sary breathing places. Subsequently, after the custom 
 had been established of using musical series of similar 
 length, these continued to be factors of the form irre- 
 spective of other considerations. In modern music, pauses 
 followed by transitions to new groups of sounds are by 
 no means always determined by pauses in the sense and 
 transitions to new clauses. There are absurd examples 
 of an opposite method. Look at the following : 
 
 First. Second. 
 
 Just like a poor pol-, Just like a poor pol-, Just like a poor pol - lut - ed worm. 
 
 In poetry we have found the tendency first manifested 
 in measures and lines developing through parallelism into 
 the couplet, and through massing, inter spersion, complica- 
 tion, and continuity into the stanza. There are corre- 
 sponding developments in music. Beginning with the 
 smallest of these, first of all after the measure, we have 
 what is termed a motive. This is usually contained in two 
 measures, but its chief function is not to divide up the 
 time but to express or represent a phase of feeling which 
 is a germ for future musical unfoldment. It bears the 
 same relation to a musical composition as is borne to a 
 poetic by a refrain in its body or chorus. This refrain 
 
96 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 is usually short, as in the " Philip, my king," of the fol- 
 lowing, yet it might be longer, e. g. : 
 
 Look at me with thy large brown eyes, 
 
 Philip, my king. 
 
 For round thee the purple shadow lies 
 Of babyhood's royal dignities. 
 Lay on my neck thy tiny hand 
 
 With love's invisible sceptre laden ; 
 I am thine Esther, to command, 
 
 Till thou shalt find thy queen-handmaiden, 
 Philip, my king. 
 
 Philip My King: D. M. Mulock. 
 
 11 The essential value of a motive," says W. S. B. 
 Mathews, in his " Primer of Musical Forms," " lies in its 
 rhythm and its general melodic figure, chiefly in the for- 
 mer." To illustrate this, he takes a motive from Schu- 
 mann's Novellette, and shows that the melody of it can 
 
 From Schumann's Novellette, Op. 99- 
 
 be transformed in a variety of ways, changing it to a dif- 
 ferent pitch in the same key or in another key, but 
 that " so long as the rhythm is preserved intact all the 
 transformations impress the ear as more or less modified 
 repetitions of the original idea," e.g. : 
 
ART-METHODS AS DE VELOPING RHYTHM IN MUSIC. 97 
 
 So, too, he shows that the motive can be modified with 
 an analogous effect, by " imitation in contrary motion," 
 thus : 
 
 Motive from Beethoven's Sonata in D min. Op. 31, with 
 imitation in contrary motion : 
 
 Motive from Schumann's Humoreske, Op. 20, with imita- 
 tion by inversion : 
 
 tr 
 
 It seems hardly necessary to point out the very great 
 importance, as thus interpreted, of motives as factors of 
 musical form, not only because they constitute the bases 
 from which are developed the most elaborate composi- 
 tions, but also, as fully shown in " Poetry as a Representa- 
 tive Art," Chapter II., because they furnish the clews to 
 their meanings. It is well known that every tune of the 
 speaking voice, i. e., every spoken expression, has its own 
 peculiar elocutionary meaning. See " Poetry as a Repre- 
 sentative Art," Chapters VIII. to X., also the whole of 
 " Music as a Representative Art," at the end of this 
 volume, and the " Orator's Manual," pages 47 to 74. 
 When the tune of an expression is transferred to music, 
 as it often can be, it does not lose its meaning, and there 
 is a sense in which to develop it musically is to develop 
 its meaning musically. It is the motive, therefore, pri- 
 marily, which renders it possible for musical form, even 
 when at the greatest distance apparently from the region 
 of definite ideas, to represent movements of thought or 
 of mental feeling. 
 
98 RH YTHM AND HARMONY IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 As two measures usually constitute a motive, though 
 this term may be given to both a shorter and a longer 
 passage, two motives or four measures usually constitute 
 a phrase, two phrases a section, and two sections, one of 
 which is antecedent and the other consequent, constitute 
 \a period. These all are shown together, as well as the 
 process of their development from the motive, in the fol- 
 lowing music adapted to our present purpose from Mr. 
 Mathews' " Primer of Musical Forms." The first line be- 
 low represents a motive and a modification of it, and the 
 next two lines represent an entire period, as developed 
 from the motive : 
 
 First appearance, leading to the 
 dominant. 
 
 Second appearance, leading to 
 tonic. 
 
 Antecedent. Free imitation. 
 Antecedent section. 
 
 AllO. 
 
 Phrase. 
 
 i r 
 
 Phrase. 
 
 Motive i. 
 
 M. 2. M. i. 
 
 Consequent section. 
 
 M. 3 . 
 
 Phrase. 
 
 Phrase. 
 
 
 
 
 *f ' ! ! 
 
 
 
 M. i. 
 
 M. z. 
 
 M. i. * M. *. 
 
 Op 31 in G : Beethoven. 
 
 The period itself may be further developed by being 
 shortened, lengthened, rendered complex, or joined with 
 others into period-groups. Notice the following periods 
 from the same work : 
 
ART-METHODS AS DE VELOPING RHYTHM IN MUSIC. 99 
 
 ist Phrase. 
 
 ^~\ I 1^ I J . l^T 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 JL Antecedent 
 
 in Ak. 
 
 ~j 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 ' 
 
 J " fr vy <g 
 
 
 
 & ' 
 
 
 
 zd Phrase. 
 
 
 
 
 - f -+- 
 
 7 
 
 Antecedent repeat 
 
 A'! ^1. 
 
 ed in F minor. 
 
 
 
 T ^ ' 
 
 =pi 1 
 
 1 .. 
 
 
 Cad ence prolo 
 
 nged. 
 
 Op. 10, No. i, Beethoven. 
 
 
 Sonata in C, Op. 2, Beethoven. 
 
 This grouping of consecutive musical sounds into 
 measures, motives, phrases, sections, and periods, evi- 
 
IOO RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 dently corresponds exactly to the grouping of consecu- 
 tive poetic syllables into feet, lines, couplets, and stanzas ; 
 and it is evident too that, in the degree in which the 
 groups or associated groups are of like lengths, movements, 
 or general character of any sort, the mind will perceive 
 that they compare and together form a unity. Very lit- 
 tle attention to the movements of any of our popular 
 melodies will confirm this statement. Notice the music 
 on page 172. It may be said, too, that with most people 
 melodies, or harmonies, for that matter, are popular to 
 almost the exact extent in which likeness thus produced 
 is apparent. All the world is probably pleased to hear 
 well sung a melody like " The Last Rose of Summer." 
 Many, but not so many, like to hear series of instrumental 
 variations upon the same melody, provided this is clearly 
 recognizable through them. But a much smaller number 
 care to listen to an entire symphony developed from 
 this melody as a theme, in the same way in which so 
 much of Beethoven's Symphony in C minor is developed 
 from these four notes : 
 
 The reason why the higher work of music finds fewer 
 to appreciate it, is because (see " The Genesis of Art 
 Form," Chapters I., II.,) no art can satisfy one to whom 
 it appeals, except so far as his mind can compare its parts 
 together and perceive in them how unlike complex wholes 
 are grouped on the principle of putting together their like 
 partial effects. It takes a man of education and ex- 
 perience in logical methods to recognize the unity of a 
 philosophic system. In the same way it takes a man of 
 education and experience in musical methods to recognize 
 
ART-METHODS AS DEVELOPING RHYTHM IN MUSIC. IOI 
 
 in what manner the subtile conditions of musical unity 
 are fulfilled in the symphony. 
 
 But, to return to a more practical analysis of rhythmic 
 effects, we have to notice, first, the influence of the smaller 
 divisions of time in the musical measures. And here, as 
 in poetry, we find that there are only two elementary 
 forms, namely, double and triple, but each of these may 
 be made up of many different kinds of notes. For the 
 sake of those unacquainted with musical notation, it may 
 be as well to explain also that, in order to indicate the kinds 
 of notes or of corresponding rests of which a measure is 
 composed, and the number of them, figures are placed at 
 the beginnings of a composition, signifying as follows : 
 
 Double measures. 
 
 In each measure 
 two half notes 
 
 two quarter notes 
 two eighth notes 
 
 Triple measures. 
 
 In each measure 
 three half notes 
 
 three quarter notes 
 
 three eighth notes 
 
 Besides these we may have measures indicated also by 
 the fractions, f f -f +/- etc. The measure f is some- 
 times represented thus ^ or thus 2 ; and |- thus g, meaning 
 common. 
 
 We have found that in poetry, an accent, when used 
 with one of the syllables in each foot, gives character 
 to it, and through it to the rhythm produced when 
 the feet are sounded in succession. The same is true in 
 music. As a rule, the first note of a measure is percept- 
 ably accented. In order to secure this result, the first 
 
IO2 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 full measure beginning a musical composition is made to 
 begin with the first accented note ; and the notes preced- 
 ing this are placed at the end of an incomplete measure 
 with which the composition opens. For instance, the fol- 
 lowing lines, if used at the beginning of a song, would be 
 arranged in music thus : 
 
 
 
 
 
 f? : 
 
 * r ' r 
 
 That dauc - 
 
 c c ' r = 
 
 es as oft - en as 
 
 r r H^ 
 
 dance it can 
 
 F 
 
 Hang - ing 
 
 so light and hang 
 
 _ p ii 1 
 
 - ing so high, 
 
 s 
 
 ? g g 1 f i 
 On the top 
 
 f i r c E i 
 
 - most twig that looks 
 
 r g Mr J 
 
 up from the sky. 
 
 It might simplify the subject of poetical rhythm if the 
 foot in it were treated in the same way as the musical 
 measure, i. e., always supposed to be begun with the ac- 
 cented syllable. In this case we should have only two kinds 
 of feet, double and triple, of which all other kinds would 
 be clearly recognized to be modifications. But there are 
 objections to this method of treatment. The significance 
 of the metres, as shown in the eighth and ninth chapters 
 of " Poetry as a Representative Art," is determined 
 mainly by the way in which whether with an accented 
 or an unaccented syllable a line ends. Hence, irrespec- 
 tive of the way in which the line begins, an initial meas- 
 ure at its end means something entirely different from a 
 terminal measure. It seems better, therefore, to preserve 
 the distinction between the two, and not to say, as other- 
 wise we should be forced to do, that, with exception of 
 the syllables with which they start the line, both measures 
 
ART-METHODS AS DEVELOPING RHYTHM IN MUSIC. 103 
 
 are the same. Analysis is always wise when it distin- 
 guishes between factors which for the sake of clearness of 
 thought need to be distinguished. As shown in Chapter 
 VI. of " Poetry as a Representative Art," the eight 
 metres described in Chapter III. of this essay all have 
 different effects upon the mind. For this reason it is well 
 not to confound them. 
 
 In arranging notes in measures, it is sometimes con- 
 venient, and always allowable, to use three in the time' 
 allotted, as a rule, to two. For instance, in f time we may 
 fill the measure with three instead of two fourth notes or 
 with six instead of four eighth notes. In such cases, the 
 departure from the rule is indicated by the use of a brace, 
 with which is placed a figure 3, if these notes be used for 
 two, or a 6 if they be used for four. It must be remem- 
 bered, however, that in these cases the general time does 
 not change. The three notes are sounded in precisely 
 the same time usually given to two, e. g. : 
 
 3 333 6 
 
 J 
 
 For the sake of variety, as fulfilled in the methods of 
 alteration and inter spersion, musical like poetical accent is 
 sometimes omitted or shifted from the first note of the 
 measure. Sometimes, too, when the measures are long 
 and the movement is rapid, there is more than one accent 
 in them, as in the following where a less emphatic accent 
 is given to the first of each of the three short notes under 
 the braces: 
 
 3 ^3 3 3 
 
 It is evident from what has been said that the oppor- 
 tunities for changing the general effect of the movement 
 
104 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 through changing the rhythm, are in music as in poetry 
 practically unlimited. Certain kinds of rhythm, like the 
 following taken from Mr. Mathew's " Primer of Musical 
 Forms," have been used so often that they have become 
 typical of large classes, but there is nothing in the nature 
 of rhythm itself to prevent these classes from being almost 
 infinitely multiplied. 
 
 Polonaise 
 
 poma i rm i 
 
 March 
 
 j ju JU Jij j 
 
 u j JU j ji 
 
 (Moderate, 1 J~] Jl Jl I J J J I 
 J JU JU Jlj Jl 
 U J JU. 
 
 n J j j j J I J. 
 
 or 
 Also sometimes the same as the Polonaise given above. 
 
 Presto. 
 Tarantella 
 
 .run JTD 
 
 " Pieces bearing these names are usually either in the applied song-form 
 somewhat modified, or in a rondo form. The march, galop, and polka are 
 almost always song-forms with trio. Waltzes sometimes come in this form. 
 
AR T-ME THODS AS DE V ELOPING RHYTHM IN MUSIC. 10$ 
 
 especially what are called ' Salon Valses* or drawing-room waltzes. 
 Dancing waltzes are commonly in suites. They are potpourris, consisting 
 of from five to seven waltzes of two periods each. The work is commonly 
 preceded by an introduction, and concluded with a final in which the prom- 
 inent motives already used are somewhat elaborated, or at least recapitu- 
 lated. Polonaises and Tarantelles are generally song-forms with trio. 
 Sometimes, however, the form is much less regular." 
 
 Beside the shorter divisions of time, as in measures, 
 motives, and phrases, we have noticed that the rhythm of 
 music, as of poetry, depends upon longer divisions as in 
 phrases, sections, and periods. In accordance with this, 
 observe the close resemblance between the typical rhythm 
 produced by the four lines of a poetic stanza and by the 
 following, which is taken from Weber's " Theory of Musi- 
 cal Education." 
 
 ircrr^irrr^ircrrcrirr^ircrrcrirrr^ircrrrir- 
 
 It hardly needs to be added now that these effects as 
 thus produced are very different from those of musical 
 melody or harmony. Savages and young children with 
 no musical training, and their elders who have no ability 
 to appreciate changes in quality or pitch, all show appre- 
 ciation of rhythm. Nothing could be more perfect than 
 that in the poetry of Pope, Scott, or Byron. Yet it is 
 said that neither of these was able to distinguish one 
 tune from another. So with many dancers. One need 
 not be able to follow a tune as a tune, in order to keep 
 time to its rhythm. 
 
 It is not strange, therefore, to find rhythm, as shown both 
 by historical records and by existing conditions of savage 
 nations, antedating all other musical developments. But 
 a decided advance in its possibilities and in the methods 
 
IO6 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 of maintaining them amid complicated movements has 
 been necessitated by every advance in the use of har- 
 mony. Especially was this true at the time of the rise 
 of the polyphonic music of the middle ages (see pages 
 189-191), in which two or three separate melodies were 
 sung at one and the same time. In many places in 
 this music a long note of one melody had to be given the 
 same time as many short notes of another melody. To 
 provide for effects of this kind required more elabor- 
 ate measurements of notes and determinations of the 
 relations between them than had previously existed ; and 
 still another advance was necessitated when the poly- 
 phonic music gave way to the elaborate systems of 
 harmony of more recent times. The requirements of 
 these, however, have long been met, and probably there 
 will never be any practical demands which our present 
 methods cannot satisfy. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ART-METHODS OF UNITY, ORDER, COMPARISON, PRINCI- 
 PALITY, ETC., AS DEVELOPING POETIC HARMONY. 
 
 The Terms Tone and Color are Used in both the Arts of Sound and of Sight 
 Harmony a Complex Effect but a Unity The Mind Conscious of the Divi- 
 sions of Time Represented in Rhythm ; Not Conscious of those of Vibra- 
 tions Represented in Harmony In the Recognition of which, the Ear 
 and Eye Act Similarly The Scientific Knowledge of the Origin of Tone 
 and Color did not Precede the Artistic Use of Them Analogies Be- 
 tween Poetry and Painting or Sculpture Also Between Architecture 
 and Music Poetic Effects Dependent on Laws of Sound Examples 
 of Verse Containing too Much Variety of Tone Necessity for Unity 
 of Tone-EffectsDependent Upon the Order of the Syllables Eu- 
 phony Vowel and Consonant-Sounds Easy to Pronounce Examples 
 of Euphonious Words and Poems If Difficult to Pronounce, Illustrate 
 Artistic Confusion Euphony Leading to Use of Like Sounds Accord- 
 ing to Art-Method of Comparison Accent as Necessitating Art- 
 Methods of Counteraction, Contrast, Complement Further Exemplifi- 
 cation Consecutive T6*nes should not be as Different as Possible 
 But should not be Alike on Both Accented and Unaccented Syllables 
 Accented Tones can be Repeated According to Art-Methods of 
 Principality, but Subordination and Balance Require Different Un- 
 accented Tones. 
 
 A S primarily used, the term tone is applied to only cer- 
 ^^ tain effects of sound, and the term color to only 
 certain effects of sight. But in a secondary, and, at the 
 beginning, a metaphysical sense, the term tone is applied 
 also, though in a restricted way, to certain effects of color, 
 and the term color to certain effects of tone. This inter- 
 change of terms shows that men in general recognize, 
 
 107 
 
108 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 though often in only a vague way, the existence of those 
 analogies between effects appealing to the ear and to the 
 eye, which have been brought out in other volumes of this 
 series, especially in " The Genesis of Art-Form." The same 
 fact is also shown by the use in both classes of art of 
 terms like pitch, key, and harmony. What these terms 
 mean, will be unfolded as we go on. 
 
 In explaining rhythm, it was found necessary to con- 
 sider under this one head the combined results of duration 
 and force. In a future volume, also, in explaining pro- 
 portion, it will be found necessary to consider similarly 
 the combined results of extension and light and shade. In 
 an analogous way, under the one head of tone or color, 
 one must consider the combined results of force, quality -, 
 and pitch, in the arts of sound, and of light and shade, 
 and the different kinds and degrees of hue in the arts of 
 sight. Harmony, as produced either by tone or color, is 
 a complex effect which, however, is in itself a unity, and, 
 therefore, can be best interpreted by treating it as a unity, 
 without analyzing it into its elements, except so far as 
 may be necessary in order to render the combined whole 
 more intelligible. 
 
 That which separates the phenomena of rhythm and, as 
 will be shown in another place, of proportion from those 
 of harmony is the fact that, of the divisions of time or of 
 space respectively causing the effects of the two former, 
 the mind is directly conscious ; whereas of the divisions 
 causing the effects of the latter, the mind is not conscious, 
 and has come to know of them only indirectly, as a result 
 of the investigations of science. These investigations 
 have discovered that, back of the outer ear which is 
 shaped so as to collect the sound, and back of the drum 
 too, is an inner ear filled with a pellucid fluid in which 
 
AR T-ME THODS ASDE V ELOPING POE TIC HARMON Y. 1 09 
 
 float the extremities of the acoustic nerve. Under the 
 influence of impulses of sound from without, the drum is 
 made to vibrate. Its vibrations are communicated to the 
 fluid behind it, and, through this, they set into motion one 
 or more of the delicate organs of sensation called from 
 the name of their discoverer, Corti's rods with which 
 the acoustic nerve terminates, each of these organs being 
 supposed to be especially affected by a vibration of a 
 certain rate. It is only when the vibrations are very fre- 
 quent, at least eight in a second of time, that the ear 
 derives from them the impression of a continuous sound. 
 As they increase in frequency, and, at the same time, 
 lessen in size, the sound becomes higher in pitch, its 
 mere loudness depending not on the relative rate of 
 vibrations, but upon the violence of the stroke produc- 
 ing them. When at last, the vibrations become too fre- 
 quent for the ear to distinguish them as when there are 
 more than twenty-four hundred of them in a second of 
 time the effect upon the ear is the same as if there were 
 no vibrations at all, and the sensation of sound is conveyed 
 no longer. 
 
 Very similar to the operations that take place in the 
 ear, when recognizing pitch, are those that take place in 
 the eye when recognizing color. Passing through the 
 pupil of the outer eye and the transparent crystalline lens 
 behind it, rays from objects of sight reach the vitreous 
 humor which extends to the retina, an expansion of the 
 optic nerve. The effect of color in this is considered to 
 be a result but exactly how produced scientists are not 
 as yet agreed of certain vibrations of this humor. As 
 in the case of sound, too, less frequent vibrations cause 
 one hue and more frequent vibrations cause another. 
 
 The discovery of these facts, however, with the unfold- 
 
I IO RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 ing from them of important inferences, which will be 
 considered hereafter, did not precede the artistic develop- 
 ments of the possibilities of sound or of sight. Judging 
 only by effects, in spite of ignorance of the causes under- 
 lying them, the artists had already worked for centuries 
 in both departments, before any physiological scientist 
 was able even to suggest why their methods were in 
 the main correct. Let us follow the same order here. 
 Let us start, as our ancestors did, with the effects them- 
 selves, and notice how, in spite of many limitations, these 
 ancient artists, with only their sensations to guide them, 
 constructed those harmonic systems of tone and of color, 
 of which modern science alone has discovered the causes. 
 These causes, as will be shown presently, are the same as 
 those that underlie all the developments of form in art, 
 being all traceable to the satisfaction which, for reasons 
 unfolded in " The Genesis of Art-Form," the mind derives 
 from being able, amid the variety and complexity of nature, 
 to form a conception of unity, and, through the general 
 method of comparison, to embody this conception in a 
 product (see the chart on page 3). 
 
 Poetry bears the same relation to the arts of sound that 
 painting and sculpture bear to those of sight. All three 
 are largely imitative. Poetry reproduces in an artistic 
 guise what might be heard in nature, if a man were telling 
 a story, or if several men were conversing. Painting and 
 sculpture reproduce in an artistic guise what might be seen 
 in nature. For this reason it is possible to be interested, 
 though not artistically interested, in the products of each 
 of these arts, on account merely of that which they portray, 
 irrespective of the style or form in which they portray it. 
 But the converse is true with reference to music and archi- 
 tecture. These arts are only slightly imitative, and if 
 
ETY 
 C^UFORN]^ 
 
 AR T-ME THODS AS DE V ELOPING POE TIC HARMON Y. I 1 1 
 
 we be interested in them at all, it is owing almost entirely 
 
 But we must not make the mis- 
 
 take of inferring from this fact that style or form is unim- 
 portant in the former arts ; in other words, that the laws 
 of tone as tone must not be fulfilled in poetry, or of color 
 as color in painting. 
 
 It is chiefly with reference to poetry that this mistake 
 is likely to be made. Admirers of Whitman might possi- 
 bly were they logical, which, fortunately, they are not 
 be ready to deny that the laws of sound apply to poetry 
 in the same sense as to music. And yet they are as im- 
 perative in the one art as in the other, though, of course, 
 in a different degree and way. 
 
 In order to recognize this, let us read over a few pas- 
 sages in which apparently no attempt has been made to 
 arrange the successions of sounds. There is no necessity 
 of arguing that in the verses following there is a lack of 
 effects which in certain other compositions cause one 
 sound to flow into another in such a way that whole 
 series of sounds seem to be united, or to form a unity. 
 In other words, these verses manifest too great phonetic 
 variety of a kind which, while not objectionable in prose, 
 we feel to be inconsistent with those results of taste and 
 care and skill, which are demanded by the artistic 
 character of poetry : 
 
 And they thought of Alexander 
 He, who o'er the world once triumphed, 
 And then wept because another 
 Was not found for him to conquer, 
 Came and summoned its surrender, 
 And how it without a struggle 
 Opened quick its gates unto him. 
 O how true 't is that transgressors 
 Find the ways of sin oppressive 
 
1 1 2 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 To themselves and to their children ! 
 Where was once proud Sidon's city, 
 Full of wealth and full of beauty, 
 With its teeming population 
 And its harbors full of shipping, 
 Now, alas, are wretched hovels 
 Built of mud and ancient ruins. 
 
 Sketches of Palestine : E. P. Hammond. 
 
 A strange belief that leaned its idiot back 
 
 On folly's topmost twig belief that God 
 
 Most wise, had made a world, had creatures made 
 
 Beneath His care to govern and protect, 
 
 Devoured its thousands. Reason, not the true 
 
 Learned, deep, sober, comprehensive, sound, 
 
 But bigoted, one-eyed, short-sighted Reason, 
 
 Most zealous, and, sometimes no doubt sincere, 
 
 Devoured its thousands. Vanity to be 
 
 Renowned for creed excentrical, devoured 
 
 Its thousands : but a lazy, corpulent 
 
 And over-credulous faith, that leaned on all 
 
 It met, nor asked if 't was a reed or oak, 
 
 Stepped on : but never earnestly inquired 
 
 Whether to Heaven or Hell the journey led. 
 
 The Course of Time, ii. : Pollock. 
 
 Tho' I have lost 
 
 Much lustre of my native brightness, lost 
 To be beloved of God, I have not lost 
 To love, at least contemplate and admire 
 What I see excellent in good, or fair, 
 Or virtuous : I should so have lost all sense. 
 
 Paradise Regained : Milton. 
 
 This outward-sainted deputy 
 Whose settled visage and deliberate word 
 Nips youth i' the head and follies doth enmew 
 As falcon doth the fowl, is yet a devil. 
 
 Measure for Measure, iii., I : Shakespeare. 
 
AR T-ME THODS AS DE V ELOPING POE TIC HA RMON Y. 113 
 
 Not all, but some of these quotations show us that 
 poetic effect is not dependent wholly upon the presence 
 or absence of poetic thought. On the contrary, that 
 which in verse charms the ear, fixes attention, remains in 
 memory, and passes into a precept or proverb, is some- 
 times dependent for its popularity almost entirely upon 
 consecutive effects of sound, so arranged as to flow into 
 one another and together form a unity. Certainly, in 
 many cases, the same thought, expressed in sounds less 
 satisfactorily arranged, would not be remembered or 
 repeated. Would not this be true of the following? 
 
 Breathes there a man with soul so dead 
 Who never to himself hath said 
 This is my own, my native land. 
 
 Lay of the Last Minstrel, vi. : Scott. 
 
 Safe bind, safe find. 
 Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry : Tusser. 
 
 The streak of silver sea (i. e., the English Channel). 
 
 Edinburgh Review : Gladstone. 
 
 As true as steel. 
 
 Romeo and Juliet, ii. , 4 : Shakespeare. 
 
 The forest primeval. 
 
 Evangeline : Longfellow. 
 
 From grave to gay, from lively to severe. 
 
 Essay on Man, iv. : Pope. 
 
 And storied windows, richly dight, 
 Casting a dim, religious light. 
 
 II Penseroso : Milton. 
 
 I have thee on the hip. 
 
 Merchant of Venice, iv., i : Shakespeare. 
 
 Othello's occupation 's gone. 
 
 Othello, iii., 3 : Idem. 
 
1 14 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 Who would quote any of the four latter had they been 
 worded thus ? : 
 
 From serious to joyful, from animated to stern. 
 Casting a dim, sacred light. 
 I have you on the shoulder. 
 Othello's work 's gone. 
 
 It is not true, therefore, that, in arranging words, all 
 that is necessary is to put them together grammat- 
 ically, and in such a way as to indicate their sense. To 
 produce satisfactory poetic effects either upon the mind 
 or ear, they must be arranged so that their sounds shall 
 occur in a certain order (see page 3). To say no more, 
 some successions of vowels and consonants are difficult 
 to pronounce, e. g., tl Thou shouldst stand still," 
 " Heaven's thought-forged forms," " Condensed to match 
 children's comprehension." As a rule, men like to avoid 
 difficulties. For this reason, when nothing in the sense 
 calls for a different treatment, one prefers to have words 
 so arranged that they can be uttered easily and rapidly. 
 That is to say, he prefers the effect which is technically 
 termed euphony.* In fact, without being clearly aware 
 why he prefers this, his utterances often tend toward it 
 
 * The rhetorical fault Euphuism is named after the hero of Lyly's 
 " Euphues," which was written in an alliterative and assonant style. Here 
 is an extract from it : 
 
 " There is no privilege that needeth a /ardon, neither is there any remis- 
 sion to be asked, where a commission is granted. I speake this, gentlemen, 
 not to excuse the offence which was taken, but to offer a defence where I was 
 mistaken. A rleare conscience is a sure fard ; truth hath the prerogative to 
 speake with /lainnesse, and the modesty to heare with /atience. The 
 Writer : G. L. Raymond and G. P. Wheeler. 
 
AR T-ME THODS AS DE V ELOPING POE TIC HARMON K. 1 1 5 
 
 instinctively and unconsciously. How many of the news- 
 boys in our streets know why, almost invariably, all of 
 them call out the names of the newspapers in the same 
 order? Yet they do this, and the order is the one in 
 which the names can be the most easily and rapidly 
 pronounced. 
 
 With reference to this subject it may be said that, as a 
 rule, the vowels a, e, i, o, u, and the semi-vowels, y, w, I, 
 and the nasals (m, n,) and most of the sonant consonants 
 (v, z,j, d, b), when combined with other consonants, are 
 easy to pronounce ; whereas the consonants, /*, s, f t k, t, 
 p, ch, sh, th, especially when combined with one another 
 or with other consonants, are difficult to pronounce. No- 
 tice. the euphony of the words Albion, Erin, Caledonia, 
 Columbia, demeanor, bridal, wonderful, ^Eolian, merrily^ 
 lovely, silvery, Clarabel, jollity. 
 
 Also of those in this " Nonsense Rhyme " : 
 
 How evanescent and marine 
 Are thy chaotic uplands seen, 
 
 Oh, ever sublapsarian moon ; 
 A thousand viaducts of light 
 Were not so spherically bright, 
 
 Or ventilated half so soon. 
 
 And in the following, in which the words are selected, 
 almost as evidently as in the last, on account of their 
 sounds : 
 
 From Archosia, from Candaor east, 
 From Margiana, to the Hyrcanian cliffs 
 Of Caucasus, and dark Iberian dales ; 
 From Atropatia, and the neighboring plains 
 Of Adiabene, Media, and the south 
 Of Susiana, to Belsara's haven. 
 
 Paradise Regained, 3 : Milton. 
 
1 1 6 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 Notice also the lack of euphony in these : barefaced- 
 ness, inextricable, soothedst, stretched, pledged, adjudged, 
 struggled, strengthened, disrespect. 
 
 It is important, however, in this connection, to bear in 
 mind that behind these effects of sound there may be 
 reasons in the sense. As Alexander Bain says in his 
 " Rhetoric " : " What is hard to pronounce is not only 
 disagreeable in the act of pronunciation, but also disa- 
 greeable to hear; for in listening to speech we cannot 
 help having present to our mind the way that the words 
 would affect our organs, if we had to utter them our- 
 selves. Even in reading without utterance aloud, we 
 have a sense of the articulate flow of the voice and to the 
 ear." This truth applies, of course, not only to that 
 which is euphonious, but to that which is not so. Ac- 
 cordingly, when for appropriate representation, the 
 thought demands a suggestion of difficulty, nothing can 
 be more expressive than phrases like the following, in 
 which, therefore, we have illustrations of an artistic use 
 of phonetic variety in the sense of confusion as distin- 
 guished from order (see page 3). 
 
 And strains from hard bound brains ten lines a year. 
 
 Epistle to Ar but knot : Pope. 
 
 Staring full ghastly like a strangled man ; 
 
 His hair upreared, his nostrils stretched with struggling ; 
 
 His hand abroad displayed, as one that grasp'd 
 
 And tugg'd for life, and was by strength subdued. 
 
 Look ! on the sheets his hair, you see, is sticking ; 
 
 His well-proportioned beard made rough and rugged. 
 
 2 Henry VI. , iii. , 2 : Shakespeare. 
 
 With staring countenance stern, as one astown'd, 
 And staggering steps, to weet what sudden stour 
 Had wrought that horror strange. 
 
 Faerie Queene, i., 8, 5 : Spenser. 
 
AR T-ME THODS ASDE VE LOPING POE TIC HARMON Y. 1 1 7 
 
 With complicated monsters, head and tail, 
 Scorpion and asp, and amphisbaena dire, 
 Cerastes, horn'd hydrus, and ellops drear, 
 And dipsas ; not so thick swarmed once the soil 
 Bedropped with blood of Gorgon, or the isle 
 Ophiusa. 
 
 Paradise Lost, 10 : Milton. 
 
 Now let us start with this fact that all acknowledge 
 with reference to ease and difficulty in the utterance of. 
 words, and trace its development. It is a principle readily 
 recognized that if we have placed the organs of speech 
 into position for the purpose of uttering one sound, it 
 requires less expenditure of effort to repeat this sound 
 than to put them into another position for the purpose 
 of uttering another sound. To go no further, this princi- 
 ple applied to practice would seem to lead, in accordance 
 with the method of comparison, to the use in succession of 
 like sounds. But is it true that this use of sounds is 
 invariably euphonious ? Are series of words like the fol- 
 lowing easy to pronounce ? " Best station," " high-arched 
 church." Even in the case of syllables that, considered 
 separately, are easy to pronounce, are they so when we 
 have a series of them, as in " We met in an enormous 
 car"? 
 
 These illustrations of themselves are enough to show 
 us that we cannot, without some important modification, 
 frame any rule to the effect that the uttering in succes- 
 sion of like sounds is invariably euphonious. But should 
 we, therefore, draw the inference, as some do, that the 
 opposite is true ; in other words, that in poetry the repe- 
 tition of similar sounds is not euphonious, and that here 
 is a case in which the principle of putting like effects with 
 like does not apply ? Before drawing this conclusion, let 
 us, at least, look farther into the subject. What is the 
 
1 1 8 RHYTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 real explanation of the difficulty of pronouncing in suc- 
 cession the syllables in the phrases just quoted ? It is the 
 fact that they are used on an accented and also on an 
 unaccented syllable immediately following it. This 
 causes difficulty, because the vocal organs are so formed 
 that their positions and actions in an accented and in an 
 unaccented utterance are different. In other words, these 
 two forms of utterance naturally counteract each other 
 (see page 3). Moreover, the nature of the organs is such 
 that ease of utterance requires that both forms should be 
 present, and used in alternation. One cannot apply to 
 consecutive syllables without restriction, therefore, this 
 principle of comparison. Unaccented syllables must con- 
 trast with the accented ones, and in such a way too as to 
 complement them (see page 3). But if this requirement be 
 regarded, like sounds repeated only on accented or only 
 on unaccented syllables, except in the sense in which all 
 forms of repetition may become monotonous and tire- 
 some, are not open to the objection urged. They do not 
 render utterance more difficult, as suggested above, but, 
 on the contrary, decidedly more easy ; e. g., " When in any 
 den of many men of many minds." "All they thought 
 of all the order or the thought of all the hall was all 
 appalling." "Jumping, jarring, running, gunning, falling, 
 crawling, lying, flying." 
 
 Intentional, and, as all admit, artistic, repetitions of 
 the sounds of accented syllables in succeeding unaccented 
 ones, are best explained in accordance with this principle. 
 Take the following : 
 
 The league-long roller thundering on the reef. 
 
 Enoch Arden : Tennyson. 
 
 When this is properly read (see page 41), as much 
 
AR T-ME THODS AS DE VELOPING POE TIC HA RMON Y. 119 
 
 time is given to league and also to long as to a whole foot 
 of two syllables. In other words, the voice after both 
 league and long pauses a sufficient time for the pronuncia- 
 tion of an unaccented syllable. This is the artistic justi- 
 fication for the two consecutive syllables, each beginning 
 with an /. The poet wishes to represent something that 
 moves slowly, and to do this he uses words that cannot 
 well be read in succession except by uttering them slowly, 
 the general effect being that of accented syllables followed 
 by pauses representative of unaccented syllables, thus : 
 
 The league (followed by an unaccented syllable) long (followed by an 
 unaccented syllable) roller thundering on the reef. 
 
 What has been said will reveal the reason of the mis- 
 take sometimes made, when, owing to the recognized 
 difficulty of pronouncing the same sound in both an 
 accented and in a following unaccented syllable, the in- 
 ference is drawn that the remedy for the difficulty lies 
 in making all consecutive sounds, whatever their nature, 
 as different as possible. This latter inference, applied 
 to practice, would lead to the effects noticed in the first 
 quotation on page 112, and, as will presently be shown, 
 would violate the fundamental principle of comparison 
 which underlies all poetic harmony. 
 
 The mistake can be obviated by recalling that, when we 
 speak of the repetition of sounds in poetry, we mean the 
 repetition of poetic sounds; and that the least factor of a 
 sound distinctively poetic indeed of any absolutely com- 
 pleted form of sound distinctively conversational even 
 includes the complexity involved in the counteraction of 
 the complementary methods that we have in accented and 
 unaccented syllables. These together are needed, though 
 the latter may sometimes be represented by a pause 
 
I2O RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 rather than by an audible syllable, in order to make one 
 poetic foot or measure. 
 
 With this understanding of what is meant, we can go 
 back now to the statement on page 117, and say that if we 
 have placed the organs of speech into position for the 
 purpose of uttering an accented sound or an unaccented 
 sound, it requires less expenditure of effort to repeat this 
 accented or this unaccented sound than to put them into 
 another position for the purpose of uttering a different 
 sound. This principle, when applied, leads, of course, 
 to the use in succession of merely like accented or else 
 like unaccented sounds. As a fact, it is only of the like- 
 ness in the former, i. e., in accented sounds, of which in 
 this art there is any extensive use. This is as we should 
 expect. It is the accented sounds that seem to have 
 principality, and to make these alike, naturally conveys 
 the impression as, according to the chart on page 3, should 
 be the case, that comparison has principality, and that the 
 contrast afforded in the unaccented syllables is given sub- 
 ordination. Notice, too, that, as heard consecutively, the 
 accented and unaccented syllables not only complement 
 but, in a way, balance each other, and, through the agency 
 of tone, augment the effects of organic form, which we 
 have already found to be primarily produced through the 
 agency of rhythm. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ALLITERATION, ASSONANCE, AND RHYME. 
 
 Like Effects in the Sounds of Syllables Alliteration In Hebrew Poetry 
 In Greek, Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, German In Anglo-Saxon 
 As Used by Milton, Shakespeare, and Modern English Poets Asso- 
 nance Examples, Greek, Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, German, 
 Anglo-Saxon, English Two Examples from Tennyson Assonance 
 Used for Rhyme Rhyme, Place of Its History Greek, Latin, Early 
 English Reason for It Rules of, First, Second, Third, Fourth, 
 .Fifth A Correlated Chinese Style of Composition. 
 
 "DEFORE considering the relations of our subject to 
 any more of the methods mentioned in the chart 
 on page 3, let us notice, in order to perceive clearly ex- 
 actly that with which we have to deal, the different ways 
 in which like partial effects can be produced in connection 
 with unlike complex syllables. As the factors of sylla- 
 bles are consonants and vowels, of course this must be 
 done either by the use of consonant-sounds or of vowel- 
 sounds, or of a combination of both. The first of these 
 ways, and as formerly used in Anglo-Saxon poetry, the 
 last of them also, gives rise to alliteration, the second to 
 assonance, and the third, under conditions to be explained 
 hereafter, to rhyme. 
 
 Alliteration, as now interpreted, is an effect produced 
 when series of syllables, otherwise different, contain, usu- 
 ally at their beginning rather than end, consonants repre- 
 senting the same sounds. Thus, in " keep calling " the k 
 
 121 
 
122 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 alliterates with c. But in " him we honor " the sounded h 
 cannot alliterate with the silent h. To prove that the 
 mind naturally takes satisfaction in alliteration, and is 
 attracted by it, we have only to read the ordinary head- 
 ings of our newspapers, like " The Stalwart Struggle," 
 " Boston Buds with Big Blossoms," " The Meaning of the 
 Message," or to recall how many of our popular proverbs, 
 like " Fair fowls have fine feathers " exemplify it. 
 
 Alliteration seems to have been used very early in the 
 construction of poetry. To instance no other examples, 
 in the original Hebrew of the iigth Psalm and in the 
 third chapter of the book of Lamentations, we find poems 
 divided into twenty-two stanzas, each of which is named 
 after one of the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alpha- 
 bet. More than this, each verse in each of the stanzas 
 begins with the letter after which the stanza is named. 
 Here is a similarity of sound at the beginnings of lines as 
 great as we find in our day in the rhymes at the ends 
 of them. 
 
 In Greek and Latin poetry alliteration was used very 
 much as it is with us. In the very first line of the " Iliad," 
 lambda followed by eta is repeated twice, and eta three 
 times, and all of these repetitions, as we should expect 
 from what was said on page 120, are on accented syllables. 
 
 Mijviv aeids, Sect 
 
 Iliad, i., i : Homer. 
 
 Notice, too, the following : 
 
 Iladar, oit666ov eitetixs itvpoZ juevoS' avrdp 
 
 Idem, xxiv., 792. 
 
 Kal (pEvystv 6vv vr/vdi Ttokvukrji6i 
 6' a.\ko%EY aAJlo? kprfrvstv 
 
 Idem, ii., 74, 75. 
 
ALLITERATION, ASSONANCE AND RHYME. 123 
 Also these from the Latin of Virgil : 
 
 Ducite ab urbe domum, mea carmina, ducite Daphnim. 
 
 Buc. Ed., viii., 68. 
 
 Si qua fata sinant, jam turn tenditque fovetque. 
 
 j&ndd, i., 18. 
 
 Bis rejecti armis respectant terga tegentes. 
 
 Idem, xi., 630. 
 
 Ergo concilium magnum, primosque Suorem. 
 
 Idem, 234. 
 
 Here are similar arrangements from the early French : 
 
 Quant cil le surent en Ely, 
 Si se sunt mis en sa merci. 
 
 L'Estorie des Engks : Geoffrei Gaimar. 
 
 Hoc voleient sujurner 
 E leisser 1'iver trespasser, 
 Mais quant Willame 50 entent, 
 Si's aturnat tut altrement. 
 
 Idem. 
 
 Brabant, Bourgongne et Boullenois, 
 Hayau, Holande, et Namurois. 
 Song on the downfall and death of the Earl of Warwick : Anon. 
 
 And here from modern French : 
 
 Ah ! laissez-les couler, elles me sont bien cheres 
 Ces larmes que souleve un coeur encor blesse ! 
 
 Souvenir : Alfred de Musset. 
 
 J'en parle par hasard pour 1'avoir entrevu ; 
 Quelqu'un peut en pleurer pour 1'avoir mieux connu. 
 
 Le /j Juillet. Idem. 
 
 Vous verrez pres de vous, dans ces chceurs d'innocence, 
 Charlotte autre Judith, qui vous vengea d'avance. 
 
 Les Vierges de Verdun : Victor Hugo. 
 
124 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 Here from the Spanish : 
 
 Mas noble, a mis manos muere, 
 Antes que a morir a manos 
 De infames verdugos llegues. 
 
 El Mdgico Prodigioso, i. : Calderon. 
 
 Mas no pude ; porque al punto 
 Las voces se desvanecen. 
 
 Idem. 
 
 Arias. Ocasion debio de dalle. 
 Pedro. Dice que no se la dio. 
 
 La Estrella de Sevilla, iii. : Lope de Vega. 
 
 Here from the Italian : 
 
 Morti li morti, e i vivi pareau vivi. 
 Non vide me' di me chi vide il vero, 
 Quant' io calcai fin che chinato givi. 
 
 Purg. xii., 67 : Dante. 
 
 And here from the German : 
 
 Frankreich erfullt die Freundespflicht ; mir wird 
 Verstattet sein, als Konigin zu handeln. 
 
 Marie Stuart, ii., 2 : Schiller. 
 
 And here is a combination in the same syllable of allitera- 
 tion and assonance such as the next quotation will show 
 us in Anglo-Saxon poetry : 
 
 Die Bergeshoh'n warum so schwarz ? 
 Woher die Wolkenwoge ? 
 
 Charon : Goethe. 
 
 Alliteration, often accompanied, as has just been said, 
 by assonance, was carried to excess by the Anglo-Saxons. 
 The ears of their descendants became so accustomed to 
 hear it in poetry that, in the twelfth century, as Barry 
 
ALLITERATION, ASSONANCE, AND RHYME. 125 
 
 tells us in his " Description of Wales," they considered no 
 composition elegant, but rude and barbarous, if it were 
 not full of it. Notice the following: 
 
 Quhat wikkitness, quhat wanthryft now in warld walkis 
 Bale has banist blythnes boist grere brag blawis 
 Prattis are repute policy and perrulus paukis 
 Dygnite is laide doun, derth to the dur drawis, etc. 
 
 Douglas' Translation of Virgil's dLneid. 
 
 In a somer seson * whan soft was the sohne, 
 I shope me in shroudes ' as I a shepe were, 
 In habite as an hermemite ' vnholy of workes, 
 Went wyde in this world ' wondres to here. 
 
 Vision of Piers Plowman : Langland. 
 
 It needs to be observed, in accordance with what was 
 said on page 120, that few among the Anglo-Saxon 
 poets applied this method to unaccented syllables. Their 
 alliterations were usually confined to consecutive ac- 
 cented syllables. Some of their poets, also, recognizing 
 the lack of art in excessive uniformity, were satisfied in 
 case they began with the same sounds, two syllables in 
 one line and one syllable in the next. When they con- 
 fined themselves to the latter course, they did no more, as 
 Dr. Longmuir has shown in his Preface to " Walker's 
 Rhyming Dictionary," than Milton often did, notwith- 
 standing his expressed contempt for those who put the 
 jingling of like sounds at the beginning instead of at the 
 end of words. For instance, " Paradise Lost " begins 
 thus: 
 
 Of man's first disobedience and the fruit 
 Of that forbidden tree ; 
 
 And it ends with: 
 
 They hand in hand with wandering steps and slow 
 Through Eden took their solitary way. 
 
126 RH YTHM AND HA RMON Y IN POETRY A ND M U SIC, 
 
 Notice, also, these lines, in which both w and r are 
 repeated : 
 
 War wearied hath performed what war can do, 
 And to disordered rage let loose the reins. 
 
 Paradise Lost, vi. 
 
 Considering that f is merely the aspirated form of v, 
 here is a very marked instance of this effect : 
 
 Of fiery darts in flaming volleys flew, 
 And flying, vaulted either host with fire. 
 
 Idem. 
 
 Spenser, too, is full of alliteration : 
 
 Who him disarmed, dissolute, dismayed, 
 Unwares surprised and with mighty mall 
 The monster merciless him made to fall, 
 Whose fall did never foe before behold, 
 And now in darksome dungeon, wretched thrall, 
 Remediless, for aie he doth him hold. 
 
 Faerie Queene i., 7. 
 
 We find it in Shakespeare also : 
 
 The loyalty well held to fools, does make 
 Our faith mere folly. 
 
 Antony and Cleopatra , iii., 2 : Shakespeare* 
 
 Wise men ne'er wail their present woes, 
 But presently prevent the ways to wail. 
 
 Richard II. , iii., 2 : Idem. 
 
 They say, best men are moulded out of faults, 
 And for the most, become much more the better 
 For being a little bad. 
 
 Measure for Measure ', v.. i : Idem. 
 
ALLITERATION, ASSONANCE, AND RHYME. 12 7 
 
 And in all our modern poets, e. g. : 
 
 Foiled, bleeding, breathless, furious to the last, 
 Full in the centre stands the bull at bay. 
 
 Childe Harold, i. : Byron. 
 
 No doubt that were mankind inert and numb, 
 Its core had never crimsoned all the same, 
 
 Nor missing ours, its music fallen dumb ? 
 O dread succession to a dizzy past, 
 
 Sad sway of sceptre whose mere touch appals ! 
 
 Epilogue : R. Browning. 
 
 Current among men, 
 Like coin, the tinsel clink of compliment. 
 
 The Princess : Tennyson. 
 
 Ah, Maud, you milk-white fawn, you are all unmeet for a wife ; 
 Your mother is mute in her grave, as her image in marble shows. 
 
 Maud : Idem. 
 
 Ye floods 
 
 And windy ways of woods ; 
 Ye valleys and wild vineyards, ye lit lakes 
 And happier hill-side brakes 
 Untrampled by the cursed foot that trod 
 Fields golden from their god, 
 Fields of their god forsaken. 
 
 A Song of Italy : Swinburne. 
 
 Assonance is due to the use of like vowel-sounds, like 
 vowel-sounds, notice, as in her and burr, not like vowels, 
 as in her and error. As vowels are generally more pro- 
 longed in pronunciation than are consonants, they are 
 more effective in producing similarity of sound, while at 
 the same time they obtrude themselves less upon the 
 observation either of the ear or eye. We do not always 
 notice assonances, unless we search for them. We notice 
 
 0F THE ^ 
 
 CVERSITY) 
 OF 
 
1 2 8 RH Y THM A ND HA RMON Y IN POETRY AND M USIC. 
 
 alliteration at once. For these reasons, poets who wish 
 to avoid an appearance of too great a regard for form, are 
 much more ready, of the two, to employ assonance. Its 
 use is common in all poetry. 
 Notice the following : 
 
 Et de HE jj.rj dooGotfiv I^GO 8e HEV avro$ 
 "*H TEOV rf AiavrcS tear yspaS, rj ^OdvtiijoS 
 '6 de HEV XEXohootfETat, ov HEY 
 
 Iliad, i., 137-9: Homer. 
 
 Idem, xxiv., 796. 
 
 And in this next we have both alliteration and assonance. 
 
 Idem, i., 438. 
 
 Bis reject! armis respectant terga tegentes. 
 
 ^Eneid, xi., 630: Virgil. 
 
 Adventusque virum, fremitusque ordescit equorum. 
 
 Idem., 607. 
 
 Supplicia ! et scopulos lachrymosis vocibus implent. 
 Haec adeo ex illo mihi jam speranda fuerunt. 
 
 Idem, 274, 275. 
 
 E el est bone e el est bele ; 
 Si est truvee en la gravele 
 De Libe, de cele cuntree. 
 
 Early French Translation : Lapidaire de Marbode. 
 
 Et nous nous souvenous que nous marchions ensemble, 
 Que 1'ame est immortelle, et qu'hier c'est demain. 
 
 Sonnet on Victor Hugo : Alfred de Musset. 
 
 II refoit, sans faiblir, cette Couronne ou pese 
 La gloir da soixante rois. 
 
 Le Sacre de Charles X. : Victor Hugo. 
 
ALLITERATION, ASSONANCE, AND RHYME. 1 29 
 
 Debio importar la batalla 
 Al que la perdio, perderla, 
 Que al que la gano, el ganarla. 
 Cipr. Concede ; pero debiera, etc. 
 
 El Mdgico Prodigioso, i. : Calderon. 
 
 Mirad que es hombre en efecto ; 
 Esto os digo y os respeto 
 Porque os fingisteis el rey. 
 
 La Estrella de Sevilla, ii. : Lope de Vega. 
 
 Ed ecco a poco a poco un fummo farsi 
 
 Verso di noi, come la notte oscuro, 
 
 Ne da quello era loco da cansarsi. 
 Questo ne tolse gli occhi e 1' ae'r puro. 
 
 Purgatorio, xv., 142-145 : Dante. 
 
 Weil sie sich nur befliss ein Weib zu sein, 
 Und um sie buhlt die Jugend und das Alter. 
 
 Maria Stuart, ii., g: Schiller. 
 
 Diese Richtung ist gewiss, 
 Immer schreite, schreite, 
 Finsterniss und Hinderniss 
 Drangt mich nicht zur Seite. 
 
 Neugriechische Liebe-Skolien : Goethe. 
 
 It abounds too in poetry of our own tongue : 
 
 Alle tha theines 
 
 Alle tha sweines 
 
 Feire is crudde 
 
 Helde geond felde 
 
 Summe heo gunnen aeruen, 
 
 Summe heo gunnen urnen, etc. 
 
 Layamon's trans, of Wace's Le Brut d' Angleterre. 
 
 Full swetely herde he confessioun. 
 
 Canterbury Tales, Prologue : Chaucer. 
 
 So muchel of daliaunce and fair langage 
 He hadde maad ful many a manage. 
 
 Idem. 
 
1 30 RHYTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 So well they sped that they be come at length 
 Unto the place whereas the Paynim lay. 
 
 Faerie Queene, i., 5 : Spenser. 
 
 Blind fear that seeing reason lead finds safer footing than blind reason 
 stumbling, without fear ; to fear the worst oft cures the worst. 
 
 Troilus and Cressida, iii., 3 : Shakespeare. 
 
 For then and not till then he felt himself 
 And found the blessedness of being little. 
 
 Henry VIII. , ii., 2 : Idem. 
 
 Her fruit trees all unpruned, her hedges ruined, 
 Her knots disordered and her wholesome herbs 
 Swarming with caterpillers. Richard II. , iii. , 4 : Idem. 
 
 Dwelt from eternity, dwelt then in thee, 
 Bright effluence of bright essence increate. 
 
 Paradise Lost, iii. : Milton. 
 
 Of their great potentate ; for great indeed 
 His name, and high was his degree in heaven. 
 
 Paradise Lost, v. : Idem. 
 
 Lofty and over-arched, with open space 
 Beneath the trees, clear-footing many a mile, 
 A solemn region. 
 
 The Prelude : Wordsworth. 
 
 And the bay was white with silent light 
 Till rising from the same. 
 
 Ancient Mariner : Coleridge. 
 
 Mortal warp and mortal woof 
 Cannot brook this charmed roof ; 
 All that mortal art has wrought 
 In our cell returns to nought. 
 
 From the Monastery : Scott. 
 
 In the following notice the repetitions of the same 
 vowel-sounds in the words its, lips, in, with, ribUd, drip, 
 
ALLITERATION, ASSONANCE, AND RHYME. 131 
 
 and with, also in red, red, and ledges, as well as in field 
 and heath : 
 
 Its lips in the field above are dabbled with blood-red heath, 
 The red-ribbed ledges drip with a silent horror of blood. 
 
 Maud : Tennyson. 
 
 Some of the poets of Spain, especially the dramatists, 
 (see page 129) have made a point of employing assonance 
 as we do rhyme at the ends of lines. In English poetry 
 it is hardly admissible, except at places where rhymes are 
 not always expected or made prominent, but there have 
 been times when it was common, e.g. : 
 
 When morning beams began to peep 
 
 Among the branches green 
 The lovers rose, and part to meet 
 
 And tell their love again. 
 
 Ballad of the Hireman Chiel. 
 
 And Cloudesly lay ready there in a cart, 
 
 Fast bound, both foot and hand ; 
 And a strong rope about his neck, 
 
 All ready for a hang. 
 
 Old Ballad of William of Cloudesly. 
 
 Notice this also : 
 
 Maiden, crowned with glossy blackness, 
 
 Lithe as panther forest-roaming, 
 Long-armed naiad, when she dances, 
 
 On a stream of ether floating. 
 
 Spanish Gypsy : Geo. Eliot. 
 
 Rhyme results from putting like syllables at the ends of 
 different lines of verses or of half lines, or, sometimes, of 
 phrases. In the following, for instance, they are at the 
 ends of half lines : 
 
132 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers 
 
 From the sea and the streams ; 
 I bear light shade for the sea when laid 
 
 In their noon-day dreams. 
 
 The Cloud: Shelley. 
 
 And in this, they are at the ends of phrases : 
 
 And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain, 
 Thrilled me, filled me with fantastic terrors never felt before. 
 
 The Raven : E. A. Poe. 
 
 Here for a comic effect three in succession are at the 
 end of each line : 
 
 Even is come and from the dark park, hark, 
 The signal of the setting sun, one gun, 
 And six is sounding from the chime, prime time 
 To go and see the Drury Lane dane slain, 
 Or hear Othello's jealous doubt spout out, 
 Or Macbeth raving at that shade-made blade. 
 
 Nocturnal Sketch : T. Hood. 
 
 And here a peculiar effect not otherwise different from 
 that of ordinary verse is produced by dropping one letter 
 from the beginning of each successive rhyming syllable : 
 
 I bless thee Lord because I GROW 
 Among the trees which in a ROW, 
 To thee both fruit and order ow. 
 
 What open force or hidden CHARM 
 Can blast my fruit or bring me HARM, 
 While the inclusure is thine ARM ? 
 
 Paradise : Geo. Herbert. 
 
 As has been said before, alliteration and assonance 
 were used by the Hebrews at the beginnings of lines. 
 Rhyme they did not use, though it is employed to excess 
 among the present nations of the Orient, many of whose 
 
ALLITERATION, ASSONANCE, AND RHYME. 133 
 
 so-called poems are made up of series of lines all of which 
 end with a similar syllable. Largely for this reason, per- 
 haps, some suppose that rhyming originated in the East ; 
 but the statement is made on good authority that it cannot 
 be traced farther back than the rymours of Normandy, 
 the troubadours of Provence, and the minnesingers of 
 Germany. It never occurred to the Greeks and Romans 
 to use rhymes as we do ; but, now and then, they seem 
 to have stumbled upon them ; or, possibly, recognizing 
 their effects, they intentionally introduced them into 
 their blank verse as Shakespeare sometimes does. In the 
 following we have not only assonance but rhyme : 
 
 daepaov r) ya\.oGov 9 77 Etrarepoov 
 
 Iliad, xxiv., 769 : Homer. 
 
 T^6iv d* 9 Avdpofj.ax^ &evKG)A.ero$ rjpxe yomo, 
 "EnropoS dvdp<q>droio ndprj (JLETOL izptilv e^ov6a. 
 
 Idem, 723, 724. 
 
 And here is alliteration, and what in English would be 
 an " allowable " rhyme : 
 
 Si causam clamat, crimenque, caputque malorum : 
 Multaque per moestrum demens effata furorem. 
 
 Aeneid xii. , 600-601 : Virgil. 
 
 And we find other expressions like this, in which both 
 the er and the us suggest a recognition of rhyme-effects. 
 
 Terque quaterque manu pectus percussit honestum. 
 
 Idem, 135. 
 
 Rhymes are not found in England earlier than the 
 twelfth century, when Layamon used them in a transla- 
 tion of Wace's " Le Brut d'Angleterre," which was 
 rhymed in the original. About the time of Chaucer 
 they became common, and have continued so ever since. 
 
 Nor without good reason. Placed, as they are, at the 
 
134 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 ends of lines, they serve to separate these, one from the 
 other, and to emphasize the element of form in their com- 
 position (see page 44). They do this, moreover, by 
 satisfying the distinctively artistic tendency of the mind 
 to compare and classify effects that are alike, indicating 
 clearly the length of each line, and which lines are meant 
 to correspond. 
 
 According to the principles now in vogue, there are five 
 conditions necessary to render the rhymes perfect. First : 
 In the rhyming syllables, the vowel-sounds (not neces- 
 sarily the vowel-letters) and whatever sounds (not letters) 
 follow them must be the same, e.g., burn, fern, earn ; foal, 
 roll, dole. This same principle applies to double rhymes 
 of two syllables, like glory and hoary ; also to triple 
 rhymes like readily and steadily. In double and triple 
 rhymes the last syllables are unaccented. 
 
 Second : Rhyming syllables must always be accented ; 
 sea does not rhyme with duty, nor wing with going. Only 
 in a parody of poetry could one sing, 
 
 New volumes came across the sea 
 For Mister Mudie's library. 
 
 Captain Reece : Gilbert. 
 
 Third : In rhyming syllables the consonant-sounds 
 before the rhyming vowels must differ; e. g., meet and 
 meat do not rhyme, but they both rhyme with sweet 
 or greet ; neither do light and delight rhyme, but they 
 both rhyme with might or bright. Indewd in the follow- 
 ing is a faulty rhyme : 
 
 Him shall he make his fatal instrument 
 T'afflict the other Saxons unsubdewd ; 
 He marching forth with fury insolent 
 
 Against the good king Oswald, who, indewd 
 With heavenly power, etc. 
 
 Faerie Queene, iii., 3 : Spenser. 
 
ALLITERATION, ASSONANCE, AND RHYME. 135 
 
 Fourth : Rhymes, if used at all, should be perfect, 
 although the results of careless workmanship like the fol- 
 lowing are termed " allowable " : 
 
 A barbarous phrase no reader can approve 
 Nor bombast, noise, or affectation love. 
 
 The Art of Poetry, after Boileau : Dry den. 
 
 Fifth : Rhymes should not be too far apart. It is one 
 of the simplest principles of art that effects should appear 
 to be what they are intended to be. Therefore rhyming 
 lines should not be so separated by intervening lines that 
 the ear will fail to detect that they are meant to go to- 
 gether. 
 
 Before leaving this subject, mention ought to be made 
 of a style of composition common among the Chinese, 
 and said to be required by some of their canons of 
 criticism. It is relative here, because it is evidently only 
 a different application of the same principle that with us 
 is exemplified in alliteration, assonance, and rhyme. In 
 accordance with this method, the same root-germ is 
 repeated in many or all of the principal words of the 
 same line. The resulting effect may be represented in 
 English as follows : 
 
 The physical physiognomy of the physician. 
 The philosophic Philadelphian philanthropist. 
 Servants that serve them with subservient servility. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 COMPARISON BY WAY OF CONGRUITY, CENTRAL POINT, 
 
 PARALLELISM, ETC., AS DETERMINING THE 
 
 USE OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS. 
 
 Inartistic Effects of an Excessive Use of Alliteration, Assonance, and 
 Rhyme Objections urged against Rhyme These Forms should not be 
 Discarded, but Used in Accordance with the Art-Methods : Unity, 
 Variety, Comparison, Contrast Congruity in Thought as Represented 
 in Sound-Effects Applied to Alliteration and Assonance Influence 
 of these upon Association and Memory Illustration Influence of 
 Incongruity Of the Art-Method of Comprehensiveness Methods of 
 Principality, Central-Point, Subordination, Setting, as Exemplified in 
 Sound- Arrangements Correspondence in this Regard between Effects 
 of Poetic and Musical Harmony Similar Actions of the Mind in both 
 Arts Parallelism as Emphasized by Rhyme. 
 
 HPHE peculiarity of poetry, as was shown in "Poetry 
 as a Representative Art," consists in the fact that 
 its medium is composed of words, which words, in turn, 
 are forms of thought. If, therefore, attention be directed 
 too exclusively to the form as form, the thoughts, which 
 alone give it real value, will not produce their legitimate 
 effects. For this reason, there is always an inartistic 
 tendency in any excessive use of alliteration, assonance, 
 or rhyme. Moreover, as explained in Chapters I. and 
 VI. of " Art in Theory," there is a sense in which all art- 
 products are artistic in the degree in which they are 
 natural. They appear most natural, of course, when 
 
 136 
 
DETERMINING THE USE OF LIKE SOUNDS. 137 
 
 they appear most spontaneous. But too great attention 
 expended upon the mere selection of letter-sounds inter- 
 feres with spontaneity of effect. Excessive alliteration, 
 assonance, and rhyme suggest calculation, contrivance, 
 effort, and this of a character not very choice in quality. 
 They are all in themselves comparatively easy to pro- 
 duce ; and, unless entering into the formation of a word 
 exactly fitted to convey the meaning that is intended, 
 they suggest an unwarranted sacrifice of sense to the 
 mere jingling of sounds, and, therefore, a cheap form of 
 ornamentation. See " Poetry as a Representative Art," 
 Chapters XIII. and XIV. Accordingly, there is the best 
 of justification for a parody such as this : 
 
 Holof ernes : I will something affect the letter, for it argues facility. 
 
 The praiseful princess pierced and prick'd a pretty pleasing 
 
 pricket ; 
 
 Some say a sore ; but not a sore, till now made sore with 
 shooting. 
 
 Love's Labor's Lost, iv., 2 : Shakespeare, 
 
 For somewhat similar reasons rhyme, too, has been 
 attacked. Ben Jonson, for instance, speaks of it as 
 
 Wresting words from their true calling, 
 Propping verse for fear of falling 
 
 To the ground ; 
 
 Jointing syllables, drowning letters, 
 Fastening vowels as with fetters 
 They were bound. 
 
 Underwoods, xlviii. : A Fit of Rhyme against 
 [ Rhyme : B. Jonson. 
 
 Milton also, in his note at the opening of " Paradise 
 Lost," has his criticism to make about the "jingling of 
 words " ; and Dryden thus speaks against what he him- 
 self used constantly : 
 
138 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 Till barbarous nations and more barbarous times 
 Debased the majesty of verse to rhymes ; 
 Those rude at first : a kind of tinkling prose 
 That limped along and tinkled at the close. 
 
 Epistle the Fifth : Dryden. 
 
 At the same time, we should err did we draw the infer- 
 ence that alliteration, assonance, and rhyme were to be 
 excluded from verse. They abound through all the range 
 of our poetry, and the mere fact that they are sometimes 
 misused is no reason why they should not be used at all. 
 Instead of saying, therefore, with Sidney Lanier, when 
 referring to the first two of them in his " Science of Eng- 
 lish Verse," that " perhaps no person who has never been 
 a practical craftsman in verse would be aware how care- 
 fully the technic of the word-artist unconsciously leads him 
 away from these recurrences," we had better accept the 
 truth, which is, as will be abundantly proved by the quo- 
 tations that are to follow, that these recurrences, because 
 used in accordance with the principle of grouping like 
 partial effects in unlike complex wholes, constitute of 
 themselves the very substance of verse-harmony. This 
 being so, to find out the methods necessary to an artistic 
 use of them, is to find out the secret so far as mere 
 knowledge is concerned of the poet's art. Nor can the 
 end of our endeavors here be obtained by a mere negative 
 statement of what should not be done. The only sure 
 way of learning how to avoid inartistic effects, is to learn 
 positively how to produce artistic ones. But how can we 
 do this? How better, in the case before us, than by 
 noticing the special applications to our particular subject 
 of the general principles unfolded in " The Genesis of Art- 
 Form," and represented on page 3 of the present book? 
 As fundamental to these principles, it was shown that the 
 
ix. 
 
 " \ 
 
 CTNIVERSITT 
 
 THE USE OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS. 139 
 
 main object of art is to accommodate the mind's desire 
 for unity to nature's fact of variety, and that this desire 
 is carried into execution by efforts at comparison con- 
 stantly modified by different tendencies in the direction 
 of contrast. 
 
 Of the methods described in " The Genesis of Art- 
 Form " as entering into the general effects of unity, com- 
 parison, moreover, when considered as conditioned upon 
 the requirements of the product, was shown to be mani- 
 fested by way either of likeness in the thought expressed in 
 forms, or congruity ; of likeness in the forms themselves, or 
 repetition ; or of likeness in the elements underlying both 
 congruity and repetition, which causes them to be allied 
 as in consonance. Let us now take up in succession each 
 of these methods congruity, repetition, and consonance 
 and notice the influence of each upon the use of alliter- 
 ation, assonance, and rhyme. 
 
 Likeness in the thought expressed, or likeness by way 
 of congruity, had evidently little to do with the origin of 
 any effects such as we are now considering. These are 
 almost entirely developed from the requirements of sound 
 as sound. Nevertheless, it must not be supposed that 
 here, any more than elsewhere in art, the requirements of 
 thought are wholly without influence. To begin with a 
 general principle capable of application to all that can be 
 said in this connection, notice that successive utterances, 
 in the degree in which they are alike, require less effort 
 not only of the physical powers but of the mental by 
 which the physical are controlled and interpreted. When 
 a man is called upon to articulate, or to hear a series of 
 sounds that are alike or allied, there is less to tax or 
 perplex his mind, than if they were unlike. As a result, 
 therefore, the ease of utterance obtained through a repe- 
 
140 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 tition of sounds has a tendency to cause the mind to 
 think that what is being said is of the same general 
 character as that which has been said ; in other words, 
 to cause the mind to group and to classify that which 
 is being uttered with that which has been uttered. That 
 this is so, may be brought out more clearly, perhaps, by 
 referring to an opposite fact. This fact is, that, in case 
 one wishes to convey the impression that what is being 
 said is not of the same general character as that which 
 has been said, but distinctly and importantly different 
 from it, he indicates this by giving to a word or phrase 
 in elocution, say, in which art the fact is most apparent 
 what is termed an emphasis. But how is elocutionary 
 emphasis of any kind imparted, except through applying 
 time, force, pitch, or quality in a method which contrasts, 
 in some way, with the method used with other accom- 
 panying words or phrases ? 
 
 Of course, for the very reason just mentioned, it follows 
 that these repeated sounds, if used to excess, become 
 wearisome not only to the ear, but also to the mind, which 
 does not relish the suggestion that no new idea is being 
 brought to its consideration. Nevertheless, here is a prin- 
 ciple in accordance with which congruous or like ideas, if 
 expressed in congruous or like sounds, have a tendency 
 to suggest such conceptions as those of association, con- 
 nection, or continuity. As Dr. Longmuir says in his pref- 
 ace to Walker's " Rhyming Dictionary," in language that 
 may be applied not only to alliteration but to assonance: 
 
 "When a subject is proposed for discussion or description it is surely 
 somewhat remarkable that so many of the words, appropriate to the subject, 
 should begin with the same letter. It is this consideration that probably would 
 lead down to the roots of our language and might discover the cause, why it 
 is so difficult altogether to eradicate alliteration from our speech. Thus were 
 
THE USE OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS. 14! 
 
 we to take gold for an illustration, we should find that, under some aspects, 
 it glows, and in others gleams ; all grasp for it and many groan under it ; it 
 gilds the saloon, it glitters on the brow of beauty, and excites the gaze of the 
 multitude ; it has been used as a gag to the loquacious, a goad to the indo- 
 lent, a guerdon to the poet, and, rarely, a gift to the meritorious. This sub- 
 ject, however, belongs rather to the profound philologist than to the mere 
 describer of the externals of our English poetry." 
 
 Notice, too, in this connection what is said on page 135 
 of Chinese poetry. Its repetitious use of the root-germ is, 
 evidently only a natural development of such a thought 
 as is suggested in this quotation from Dr. Longmuir. 
 
 Aside, too, from any connection or fancied connection 
 between sound and sense of the kind just indicated, there 
 is no doubt that the grouping of like effects of sounds, 
 giving, as it does, a like tone or color to different words, 
 causes them not only to be associated in mind, but, because 
 so, to be retained in memory, as otherwise would not be 
 the case. Notice how true this is in expressions like the 
 following : 
 
 " Money makes the mare go." " All is not gold that 
 glitters." " Penny wise, pound foolish." " Cleanliness 
 is next to godliness." " Chronic diseases must have 
 chronic cures." " The right man in the right place." 
 
 Of course, it follows that rhymes too have a similar 
 effect, e.g.: 
 
 Light gladdens, darkness saddens. 
 
 All are but parts of one stupendous whole 
 Whose body nature is, and God the soul. 
 
 Essay on Man : Pope. 
 
 All nature is but art unknown to thee ; 
 
 All chance, direction which thou canst not see ; 
 
 All discord, harmony not understood ; 
 
 All partial evil, universal good ; 
 
 And spite of pride in erring reason's spite, 
 
 One truth is clear, Whatever is, is right. 
 
 Idem. 
 
I4 2 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 There is, therefore, such a thing as having congruity of 
 thought manifested by congruity of sound. This is the 
 fact which excuses an occasional use of lines like the fol- 
 lowing, in the first of which the continual whistling of the 
 wind is represented in the w ; and in the second of which 
 the continual check put upon free vitality of movement 
 is represented in the d. 
 
 O wind, O wingless wind that walkst the sea, 
 Weak wind, wing-broken, wearier wind than we. 
 
 On the Cliffs : Swinburne. 
 
 And dulled to death with deep dense funeral chime 
 Of their reiterate rhyme. 
 
 Idem. 
 
 The converse too is true, of course, namely, that incon- 
 gruity of thought may be manifested by incongruity of 
 sound ; as here, by way of emphasis, to indicate general 
 mental incongruity : 
 
 What ? keep a week away ? seven days and nights ? 
 Eightscore eight hours, and lover's absent hours, 
 More tedious than the dial eightscore times ? 
 
 Othello ', iii., 4 : Shakespeare. 
 
 And here, by way of description, to indicate a special 
 incongruity connected with the conception of the thing 
 described : 
 
 Ay, in the catalogue ye go for men ; 
 As hounds and greyhounds, mongrels, spaniels, curs, 
 Shoughs, water-rugs, and demi-wolves are clep'd 
 All by the name of dogs. 
 
 Macbeth^ iii., i : Shakespeare. 
 
 Of course, too, so far as what is termed comprehensive, 
 ness, (see page 3 and " The Genesis of Art-Form," Chap- 
 
THE USE OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS. 143 
 
 terlX.), can be represented in form as distinguished from 
 thought, this also would be indicated by a series of con- 
 gruous sounds, as in the first two lines of the following, 
 accompanied by a series of incongruous sounds, as in the 
 last lines. 
 
 And the muttering grew to a grumbling ; 
 And the grumbling grew to a mighty rumbling ; 
 And out of the house the rats came tumbling. 
 Great rats, small rats, lean rats, brawny rats, 
 Brown rats, black rats, gray rats, tawny rats, 
 Grave old plodders, gay young friskers, 
 
 Fathers, mothers, uncles, cousins, 
 Cocking tails and pricking whiskers ; 
 
 Families by tens and dozens. 
 
 The Pied Piper of Hamelin : R. Browning. 
 
 In " The Genesis of Art-Form " it was pointed out that 
 the recognition of likeness in thought was greatly facili- 
 tated by the like arrangement of unlike forms about a 
 central-point, itself occupied by the feature of principal 
 interest. It was shown that the concentration of the 
 lines or light upon this feature naturally concentrates 
 upon it the attention of the mind. The central-point is 
 thus a nucleus or focus of the grouping, and furnishes a 
 clew or key to interpret that to which the other features 
 of a composition are related, though only in thought. On 
 page 170 of the same volume, the corespondence between 
 this principle and the recurrence of the key-note in music 
 was pointed out. Occasionally we find poets, uncon- 
 sciously as it seems, producing a similar effect in the ar- 
 rangement of poetic sounds. By emphasizing through 
 arrangement one series of alliterations or assonances they 
 make this the principal or central series, to which all other 
 series in the passage are made subordinate, or are merely 
 
144 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 used as a setting (see page 3). In the following, for in- 
 stance, the / which is used in the principal words, is the 
 principal alliteration, which only the majority of people 
 would notice. It occurs thirteen times, five times at the 
 beginning of a syllable, and six times at its end, and nine 
 times on accented syllables. Notice also though this 
 anticipates what is to be observed hereafter how the at- 
 tention is emphatically drawn away from the /-sounds, 
 first, by the assonant ^-sounds and ^-sounds in the second 
 line, next by the assonant /-sounds in the third and fourth 
 lines, and lastly by the assonant ^-sounds, in beams, sea, 
 and year. As a result of all these arrangements, the pas- 
 sage as a whole has a general sound-effect of great unity, 
 but secured in so artistic a manner as not to give the 
 slightest suggestion of the unnatural or artificial. 
 
 Ah, when sha// a// men's good 
 B<? <?ach man's rw/e, and wniversa/ p<?ace 
 Zze /zke a shaft of //ght across the /and, 
 And /zke a /ane of b^ams athwart the s^a, 
 Through a// the circ/es of the Go/den Y^ar 7 
 
 The Golden Year : Tennyson. 
 
 According to another arrangement securing this unity 
 of effect, like sounds used on particularly emphatic 
 words are introduced near the beginning, and also some- 
 where in the middle and finally at the end of a sentence. 
 This too is identical with an arrangement recognized to 
 be satisfactory in music, where often the key-note of a 
 melody is sounded at these places. Each sentence in the 
 following is constructed on this principle. In the first, 
 notice the em followed by the our, powers, and how, and 
 then by en, en, en. In the second, notice repair, calamity, 
 and despair-, also in the intervening clauses, the own, over, 
 
THE USE OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS. 145 
 
 force, and hope, which last sound, too, as arranged, might 
 end a climax, with the re and we as the intervening 
 assonance. 
 
 And reassembling our afflicted powers 
 Consult how we may henceforth most offend 
 Our enemy. Our own loss how repair ; 
 How overcome this dire calamity ; 
 What reinforcement we may gain from hope ; 
 If not, what resolution from despair. 
 
 Paradise Lost, i. : Milton. 
 
 In this, notice the long a (including ei) with the interven- 
 ing assonances of short a, and of or : 
 
 So were created, nor can justly accuse 
 Their maker or thezr making or thez'r fate. 
 
 Paradise Lost, iii. : Milton. 
 
 These connections between characteristics of harmony 
 as produced in music and in poetry are mainly interesting 
 as showing what will be brought out more clearly here- 
 after how analogously the mind works when securing, 
 though unconscious of its method, either musical or poetic 
 unity of effect. No one can fail to detect in both arts 
 the operation of the same general principle. In both the 
 emphatic sounds after starting at one point, circle off, as 
 we may say, bringing in other emphatic sounds, and then 
 after returning at intervals, at last return finally to the 
 point from which they started. On page 105 a typical 
 rhythm is shown to be representative of either a poetic 
 or a musical movement ; and here the same may be said 
 to be shown of a typical series of tones. 
 
 The chief effect, in this connection, of rhyme or of as- 
 sonance, when used, as indicated on page 131, instead of 
 
146 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 rhyme, is to emphasize the parallelism (see page 3), which, 
 as indicated on page 29 is exemplified in all versifica- 
 tion. To perceive parallelism in unrhymed blank verses, 
 it is often necessary to see them printed ; but in succes- 
 sive lines ended with the same sounds, the ear recognizes 
 it at once. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 REPETITION, ALTERNATION, CONSONANCE, INTER- 
 CHANGE, ETC., AS DETERMINING THE 
 USE OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS. 
 
 Repetition and Alternation as Influencing the Use of Alliteration, Asson- 
 ance, and Rhyme Of Alternation as Developed from Parallelism and 
 Balance Balancing Series of Sounds In Whole Words that are Alike 
 How these Exemplify Alternation Balancing Series of Sounds alike 
 by Alliteration or Assonance From the Greek, Latin, Spanish, 
 French, German, English Excess in this to be Avoided Massing as 
 a Corrective of Excessive Balance or Alternation And Interspersion 
 as Corrective of Excessive Massing Also Complication and Continuity 
 Poetic Examples of these Methods Consonance as Applied to 
 Sounds ; Phonetic-Syzygy Examples of the Use of Allied Consonant- 
 Sounds Of Allied Vowel-Sounds Dissonance and Interchange in 
 Music In Poetic Sounds Illustrations. 
 
 A S has been said before, and it may as well be recalled 
 here for the encouragement of those who may 
 possibly have found what they consider an unnecessary 
 amount of subtlety in the statements of the last chapter, 
 likeness in thought by way of congruity is exemplified to 
 only a limited extent by the use of alliteration, assonance, 
 and rhyme. What is usually exemplified, is likeness in 
 form by way of repetition (see page 3). What repetition 
 is in itself needs no explanation. We need to consider 
 only the ways in which it is modified by the natural ten- 
 dencies always influencing it when nature is allowed to 
 assert herself. These are in the direction of contrast as 
 
 147 
 
148 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 shown in alteration and of complement as shown in alter- 
 nation. Alliteration, assonance, and rhyme can evidently 
 be varied by altering the letter-sounds with which, in suc- 
 cessive syllables, they are combined. This introduces, 
 and sometimes very effectively, the element of contrast. 
 Notice, in the following, how the repetition of syllables 
 in which, as usually in Anglo-Saxon, vowels and con- 
 sonants are both alike, serves to accentuate the effect of 
 likeness, and increase whatever impression of a lack of 
 spontaneity or of naturalness they may convey. 
 
 All the wandering waves of sea with all their warring waters 
 Roll the record on forever of the sea-fight there. 
 
 Athens : Swinburne. 
 
 But lightning still and darkling downward, lo 
 The light and darkness of it, 
 The leaping of the lamping levin afar 
 Between the full moon and the sunset star. 
 
 The Garden of Cymodoce : Idem. 
 
 Notice also what was said of rhymes under the 
 on page 134. 
 
 Mere alteration, however, is not all that is necessary in 
 order to remedy the effects of excessive alliteration or as- 
 sonance. Let us pass on to the modifications of these 
 that are suggested by the methods in the column on page 
 3, in which we find complement, balance, parallelism, and 
 alternation. Notice, first, that in order that there should 
 be any effect of alliteration, assonance, or rhyme, two like 
 sounds are necessary. But even these two sounds would 
 not always emphasize the effect so that the ear would 
 necessarily, though possibly unconsciously, experience its 
 artistic influence, unless it were followed by other like 
 sounds. If followed by sounds exactly like the first two, 
 we should have simple repetition. But we are consider- 
 
THE USE OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS. 149 
 
 ing now modifications of this. Evidently, the earliest 
 suggested modification of it would be to have a series of 
 two like sounds followed by another different series of two 
 like sounds. In this case we should have two separate 
 instances of comparison ; or comparison as a principal 
 method together with variety. If now, recalling that va- 
 riety is artistic in the degree in which it really conforms 
 to the principle of unity, the poet chooses, for his second 
 series, sounds decidedly different from those in his first 
 series, he will produce the effect of contrast. But, as ele- 
 ments of a single unity, comparison and contrast together, 
 even if there were not two series of sounds, would neces- 
 sitate complement ; and this, as shown in the list of 
 methods on page 3, is that from which are developed 
 balance, comprehensiveness, parallelism, and the alternation 
 for which we are here in search. 
 
 We are able now to give a good reason, and one appa- 
 rently little understood, why poets so often when they 
 use like sounds use two that balance each other ; and, not 
 only so, but often use different series of these balancing 
 sounds, taking care, also, to have the sounds of the one 
 series such as will naturally contrast with those of another 
 series, as, for instance, / contrasts with h, or b with s, or u 
 with a, or o with e. 
 
 Sometimes this method fulfills the principle of balance 
 in its most technical sense, in that both factors of a series 
 are alike in all regards, e. g. : 
 
 Dowered with the hate of hate, the scorn of scorn, 
 The love of love. 
 
 The Poet : Tennyson. 
 
 With ruin upon ruin, rout on rout 
 Confusion worse confounded. 
 
 Pardise Lost, ii. : Milton. 
 
150 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 Bright bank over bank 
 
 Making glorious the gloom, 
 Soft rank upon rank, 
 
 Strange bloom upon bloom, 
 
 They kindle the liquid low twilight and dusk of the dim sea's womb. 
 
 Off Shore : Swinburne. 
 
 Notice also several different ways in which the above 
 may be said to exemplify the principle of alternation: 
 first, in the regular succession of accented followed by 
 unaccented syllables ; second, in the succession of at least 
 two similar accented syllables, though separated by unlike 
 accented syllables ; third, in the series of two measures, 
 both having a similar accented syllable followed by 
 another series of two measures, both having a similar ac- 
 cented syllable, which, however, contrasts with the ac- 
 cented syllables in the first series, and fourth, in the 
 arrangement of the lines, only every other one of which 
 has a like rhyme. 
 
 More frequently, however, as influenced by the tenden- 
 cies inclining to counteraction, complement, and parallelism, 
 the balancing factors differ somewhat, fulfilling the 
 method not only of repetition, but also of alternation. 
 Notice in this the sounds of ocv and rf : 
 
 Iliad, iv., 132 : Homer. 
 
 In this the sounds of u and c\ 
 
 Corripuere, ruuntque effusi carcere currus. 
 
 Georgica, iii., 104 : Virgil. 
 
 Here are instances of balance in almost every line, 
 some cases, too, of whole words. 
 
 n 
 
THE USE OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS. !$! 
 
 Dios, a quien ninguno iguala, 
 Un principle sin principio, 
 Una esencia una sustancia, 
 Un poder y un querer solo ; 
 Y cuando como este haya 
 Una, dos 6 mas personas, 
 Una deidad soberana, 
 Ha de ser sola en esencia, 
 Causa de todas las causas. 
 
 El Mdgico Prodigioso, \. , Calderon 
 
 In this notice the sounds of j, /, and several of ou : 
 
 Muse, sois done sans crainte ; au souffle qui t'inspire 
 Nous pouvons sans peril tous deux nous confier. 
 II est doux de pleurer, il est doux de sourire 
 Au souvenir des maux qu'on pourrait oublier. 
 
 La Nuit d'Octobre : Alfred de Musset. 
 
 In this, the sounds of 0, #, ^, and a : 
 
 La dov' io piu sicuro esser credea : 
 
 Quel da Esti il fe'far, che m'avea in ira, etc. 
 
 Purg., v., 76,77 : Dante. 
 
 In this, the sounds of *, u, i and ei, with balancing 
 phrases in the third line : 
 
 Bin ich nicht immer noch voll Muth und Lust ? 
 Und Lust und Liebe sind die Fittige 
 Zu grossen Thaten. 
 
 Grosse Thaten ? Ja, 
 Ich weiss die Zeit. 
 
 Iphigenie auf Tauris t ii., I . Goethe. 
 
 In this, the sounds of s,f, w, u, and c\ 
 
 Snatcheth his sword and fircely to him flies 
 Who well it wards, and quiteth cuff with cuff. 
 
 Faerie Queene, i., 3 : Spenser. 
 
152 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC* 
 
 In this, the sounds of o, wa, s, and e : 
 
 Tho' those the waters warp, 
 Thy sting is not so sharp, 
 
 As friend remembered not. 
 
 As You Like It, ii., 7 : Shakespeare. 
 
 In this, the sounds of a, y y or t, w y and o : 
 
 I am misanthropes and hate mankind ; 
 For thy part I do wish thou wert a dog 
 That I might love thee something. 
 
 Timon of Athens, iv., 3 : Idem. 
 
 In these, the sounds of h, fl, st, 00, w, p, r, a, a, not to 
 speak of t and d\ 
 
 As head and heels upon the floor 
 
 They floundered all together, 
 There strode a stranger to the door, 
 
 And it was windy weather. 
 ***** 
 The wild wind rang from park and plain 
 
 And round the attics rumbled, 
 Till all the tables danced again, 
 
 And half the chimney tumbled. 
 
 The Goose : Tennyson* 
 
 And many examples of balance in these : 
 
 Be with my spirit of song as wings to bear, 
 As fire to feel and breathe and brighten ; be 
 A spirit of sense more deep of deity, 
 A light of love, if love may be, more strong 
 In me than very song. 
 
 The Garden of Cymodoce : Swinburne* 
 
 Sharp and soft in many a curve and line 
 Gleam and glow the sea-colored marsh-mosses, 
 
 Salt and splendid from the circling brine 
 Streak on streak of glimmering sunshine crosses 
 
 All the land sea-saturate as with wine. 
 
 By the North Sea : Idem. 
 
THE USE OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS. 153 
 
 The last quotations show us that this balancing of com- 
 plementary sounds, if continued with too great regularity, 
 may itself become as monotonous as a succession of like 
 tones that are not balanced. Where alliteration and 
 assonance are both used, as in the last quotation from 
 Shakespeare, there is less of this tendency, but even there 
 it may be present. 
 
 Let us go on, therefore, to notice in what other ways 
 inartistic effects may be avoided. Of course, the first 
 suggested of these ways, if repetition be used at all, is to 
 increase the number of the collective instances of it ; and 
 the first result of this would be the effect termed massing 
 (see page 3). As explained in " The Genesis of Art- 
 Form," the influence of this effect upon the mind is to 
 call attention to the thought represented in the sounds 
 by a reiteration of them ; and, when there is justification 
 for this, massing is allowable. Notice the whispering of 
 the conspirators as represented in the continued repetition 
 of the s in the following : 
 
 Who rather had, 
 
 Though they themselves did suffer by it, behold 
 Dissentious numbers pestering streets, than see 
 Our tradesmen singing in their shops and going 
 About their functions friendly. 
 
 Coriolanus, iv., 6 : Shakespeare. 
 
 Also the accumulation of the effects of horror in the con- 
 tinued use of the assonant o in this : 
 
 All these and thousand thousands many more, 
 And more deformed monsters thousand-fold, 
 With dreadful noise and hollow rombling roar, 
 Came rushing. 
 
 Faerie Queene, 2, 12, 25 : Spenser. 
 
154 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 There is always in this method, however, a tendency to 
 the unnatural and artificial, e.g. : 
 
 No foote to foe ; the flashing fier flies 
 As from a forge. 
 
 Faerie Queene, i, 2, 17 : Spenser. 
 
 This tendency can be prevented by the method con- 
 trasting with it, which is termed on page 2 inter spersion. 
 This means merely the use of like forms not massed 
 together but separated in some way. Evidently it will 
 lead to results not greatly superior to those illustrated on 
 page in unless it be very artistically developed. The 
 artistic development of it, as of all the methods in the 
 same column with it on page 3, is found in considering its 
 connection with that phase of counteraction, complement, 
 balance, parallelism, and alternation which we have in 
 complication. As said in Chapter XIV. of " The Genesis 
 of Art-Form," this word, like parallelism, continuity, 
 and many others used in art, is borrowed from one indi- 
 cating relationships of lines. It means a folding or blend- 
 ing together primarily of these, but, secondarily, of any 
 forms, which, as Charles Blanc says in his " Art in Orna- 
 ment and Dress," " penetrate, intersect, balance, and cor- 
 respond to each other, approach to retreat, and touch 
 one moment to depart the next, and dissolve themselves 
 in a labyrinth without outlet and without end. The 
 Arabs have thus realized the strange phenomenon which 
 consists in producing an apparent disorder by means of 
 the most rigid order." 
 
 What characterizes this method, is the appearance of 
 one form followed by its disappearance, and the appear- 
 ance of a second form, or series of forms ; then the dis- 
 
THE USE OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS. 15$ 
 
 appearance of this second form or series of forms, fol- 
 lowed by the reappearance of the first form, and so on. 
 Especially does this reappearance characterize the effects 
 of complication when they are blended with those of 
 continuity, as should be the case in poetry an art the 
 medium of which is always a form of movement. It is 
 not necessary to explain in what way complication, as 
 thus employed, involves a blending of the effects of 
 balance and alternation. In it, instead of having two like 
 sounds of one series followed by two like sounds of 
 another different series, we hear one sound followed by 
 a different one ; then a repetition of the same contrast in 
 the same order. If, besides this, the phrases containing 
 the unlike sounds differ in length, especially if their differ- 
 ence cause the sounds to be further apart in one phrase 
 than in the other, then this additional inequality evidently 
 counteracts still further the tendency to monotony. No- 
 tice, in the following, the how and then the hounds, fol- 
 lowed by horn in the one phrase, and the rouse followed 
 by morn in the next phrase : 
 
 Oft listening how the founds and \u>rn 
 Cheerily rouse the slumbering morn. 
 
 V Allegro : Milton. 
 
 Notice in this the lo and the e, and the contrasts in the 
 a and / and the o and / in mackerel and oyster : 
 
 The herring /<?ves the merry moon/ight, 
 
 The mackerel /0ves the wind, 
 The oyster /0ves the dredging sang, 
 
 For they o?me of a gentle kind. 
 
 From " The Antiquary" ; Scott. 
 
 In this the show and some, and 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
15 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 A day in April never came so sweet 
 
 To sh0w how costly summer was at hand 
 
 As this f0re-sp#rrer c0mes. 
 
 Merchant of Venice, ii. , 9 : Shakespeare. 
 
 And the m and u in both phrases in this : 
 
 For men, like butterflies, 
 Show not their mealy wings bt to the summer. 
 
 Troilus and Cressida, iii., 3 : Idem. 
 
 We now come to consonance. This affords a way of 
 using sounds in accordance with the methods on page 3, 
 which in many cases enables an artist, while fulfilling all 
 the requirements of his art, nevertheless absolutely to 
 conceal it. 
 
 As explained in Chapter VIII. of " The Genesis of Art 
 Form," consonance is caused by likeness of effects as pro- 
 duced partly upon the mind and partly upon the senses. 
 In poetic form, it would lead to the use together of sounds 
 allied rather than alike. For instance, b and / may be 
 said to be allied, in the sense, too, of being consonant. 
 They differ in that b has a preliminary sound, and/ has 
 none. But they are so nearly alike that the mind often 
 confounds them, as is proved in the history of deriva- 
 tions ; and so too does the ear, as is proved by the 
 endeavor of a foreigner to imitate the pronunciation of a 
 native word containing one of them. For the same rea- 
 sons v and f also are allied and consonant ; and so, though 
 less clearly, are all four of these consonants b t p, v, and/1 
 The same thing may be affirmed of d and /, of th (hard), 
 and th (soft), and of all four ; also of k (c hard or q) and 
 g hard ; of j (g soft) and ch soft ; of m and n, of / and r, 
 of z and s, of zk and sh, of the consonants^ and/, also of 
 y and long u. A succession of sounds thus allied is 
 
THE USE OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS. 157 
 
 termed by Professor Sylvester, in his " Laws of Verse," 
 phonetic syzygy. 
 
 To confirm what has been said, notice that, in the fol- 
 lowing, /, b, v, and f have almost the same effects as 
 alliteration, but without any suggestion of artificial mech- 
 anism such as might result were these letters identical : 
 
 Not to us is given to share 
 
 The boon bestowed on Adam's race. 
 
 With patience bide, 
 
 Heaven will provide 
 The fitting time, the fitting guide. 
 
 From " The Monastery " : Scoff. 
 
 Round thee blow, self-pleached deep, 
 Bramble roses faint and pale. 
 
 A Dirge : Tennyson. 
 
 I '11 frown and be perverse, and say thee nay 
 So thou wilt woo, but else not for the world. 
 
 Romeo and Juliet, iii. , 2 : Shakespeare. 
 
 His love was an eternal plant 
 
 Whereof the root was fixed in virtue's ground, 
 
 The leaves and fruit maintained with beauty's sun. 
 
 Henry VI, pt. ill, iii., 13 : Idem. 
 
 Feed not thy sovereign's foe, my gentle earth, 
 Nor with thy sweets comfort his ravenous sense. 
 
 Richard //., iii., 2 : Idem. 
 
 So, in the following, notice each d and / : 
 
 Touch it and take it, 't will dearly be bought. 
 
 From ' ' The Monastery " : Scoff. 
 
 Thy friends suspect for traitors while thou livest 
 And take deep traitors for thy dearest friends ! 
 
 Richard III., i., 3 : Shakespeare. 
 
158 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 If ever he have child, abortive may he be 
 Prodigious arid untimely brought to light. 
 
 Richard III., i., 2 : Idem. 
 
 These show a resemblance between / and r : 
 
 Have I not heard great ord'nance in the field 
 And heaven's artillery thunder in the skies ? 
 Have I not in pitched battles heard 
 Loud 'larums, neighing steeds, and trumpets' clang ? 
 
 Taming of the Shrew, i. , 2 : Idem. 
 
 The following, between g, c, ck, and th : 
 
 With some fine color that may please the eye 
 Of fickle changelings and poor discontents 
 Which gape and rub the elbows at the news 
 Of hurly-burly innovation. 
 
 Henry IV., pt. i, v., i : Idem. 
 
 For in revenge of my contempt of love 
 
 Love hath chased sleep from my enthralled eyes. 
 
 Two Gentlemen of Verona, ii., 4 : Idem. 
 
 The following, between m and n : 
 
 O let me not be mad, not mad, sweet heaven, 
 Keep me in temper. I would not be mad. 
 
 King Lear, i., 5 : Idem. 
 
 And these will illustrate sufficiently what was said of the 
 remaining letters : 
 
 Assure yourself after our ship did split, 
 
 When you and that poor number saved with you, 
 
 Hung on our driving boat, I saw your brother. 
 
 Twelfth Night, i., 2 : Idem. 
 
 And slow and sure comes up the golden year. 
 
 The Golden Year : Tennyson. 
 
THE USE OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS. 1 59 
 
 There are also allied vowel sounds, like those in quill 
 and quell, not and what, fat and fair, fan and fine, their 
 and there, hall and whole, but and put, full and fool, pull 
 and pure, lawn and loin, pool and power, pair and peer, etc. 
 Notice, besides the assonances in the following, the re- 
 semblances between the sounds of all and down, darling 
 and life, and tomb and sounding. 
 
 And so all the night-tide I lie down by the side 
 Of my darling, my darling, my life and my bride, 
 
 In her sepulchre there by the sea, 
 
 In her tomb by the sounding sea. 
 
 Annabel Lee : Poe. 
 
 Notice in this the allied sounds of o, ou, oo, and u, as well 
 as how appropriate all of them are to represent the cloud 
 from which the lightnings are shot : 
 
 With iron-worded proof, hating to hark 
 
 The humming of the drowsy pulpit-drone, 
 
 Half God's good Sabbath, while the worn-out clerk 
 
 Brow-beats his desk below. Those from a throne, 
 
 Mounted in heaven wilt shoot into the dark 
 
 Arrows of lightnings. I will stand and mark. 
 
 Sonnet to J. M. K. : Tennyson. 
 
 The method opposed to consonance which is caused by 
 the conditions of nature is dissonance an effect that may 
 be illustrated, so far as it is inartistic, by the passages on 
 pages ill and 112, and so far as it is artistic, because rep- 
 resentative of the sense, by those on pages 142 and 143. 
 Its artistic accommodation to consonance, viewed as a 
 form of sound, is found in analogy to what is true of all 
 the methods occupying corresponding places in the 
 columns above it in the chart on page 3 in that phase of 
 counteraction, complement, and balance, which, in this case, 
 
l6o RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 is termed interchange. The function of this method as 
 interpreted by its use in music, an art in which the effects 
 of consonance are particularly prominent, is pointed out 
 in Chapter XV. of " The Genesis of Art-Form," as well as 
 in Chapter XV. of the present essay. In these places 
 it is shown that, in passing from one chord to another, 
 the ear, in order to preserve the unity of effect, requires 
 the presence in both chords of the same note ; and that, 
 when, through the second chord, the music enters a differ- 
 ent key, it requires what sometimes is, in a sense, an arbi- 
 trary introduction into the first chord of a note legitimate 
 only to the second chord. 
 
 With this understanding of the function of interchange 
 in music, notice in the following how, in every case, before 
 one series of like tones is ended, another series is begun. 
 The effect resembles indeed it often includes that de- 
 scribed as complication ; but it differs because containing 
 nothing necessarily to suggest a regularity of balance, 
 there being no order of sounds in one series which is fol- 
 lowed exactly by an order of sounds in a succeeding 
 series. In this passage from Milton, notice how the like 
 sounds of/, , s, or w, and of the / as allied to the b are 
 thus introduced into other series coming before or after 
 them, and introduced in such a way as to separate them 
 from the series to which, as like sounds, they belong. 
 Notice, also, that, as a result, the sounds of the whole pas- 
 sage are so blended together as to produce a general effect 
 of unity, in exact analogy with that which is done by 
 methods of modulation, as the term is understood, in music. 
 
 The air 
 
 .Floats as they /ass, /armed with wnn#mbered/l#mes. 
 From branch to branch the smaller ^irds with Jong 
 Solaced the woods and .spread th^'r/az'nted wings." 
 
 Paradise Lost : Milton. 
 
THE USE OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS. l6l 
 
 In the following, one principal series beginning with 
 further ends at fluttered ; another beginning at farther 
 ends with mattered ; another beginning with the first th^n 
 passes on through friends to the last th^n ; and still 
 another, starting with m0re ends at nevermore. 
 
 Nothing further then he uttered ; nor a feather then he fluttered, 
 Till I scarcely more than muttered " Other friends have flown before." 
 Then the bird said " Nevermore." 
 
 The Raven : Poe. 
 
 Notice the quotation from Tennyson on page 144, as 
 well as the following. Indeed, were it necessary, illustra- 
 tions of this method could be gathered in abundance 
 from writers of every nation. 
 
 Zwei Blumen, rief er, hort es, Menschenkinder. 
 Zwei Blumen bliihen fur den weisen Finder, 
 Sie heissen Hoffnung und Genuss. 
 
 Resignation : Schiller. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 GRADATION, ABRUPTNESS, CONTINUITY, AND PROGRESS 
 AS DETERMINING THE USE OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS. 
 
 Importance, in all the Arts as an Element of Harmony, of Gradation Logi- 
 cal Connection between it and the Use of Allied Sounds : All Possible 
 Syllable-Sounds can be Graded and Arranged in a Series So can 
 Words, though Containing both Consonants and Vowels Degrees of 
 Phonetic Gradation Determined by the Manner of Utterance and Kinds 
 of their Gradation by the Direction of the Changes in Utterance : Analo- 
 gies between Gradation in Words and in the Musical Scale Illustra- 
 tions of Gradation in Verse Especially in the Accented Syllables 
 Analogy between One Effect of it and the Discord of the Seventh in 
 Music Variety in Verse Harmony as Produced by the Combination of 
 all the Methods here Considered Abruptness in Verse Harmony 
 Transition and Progress Examples. 
 
 TV/TORE subtle methods of securing verse-harmony 
 still remain to be considered. In the list of 
 these on page 3 under and after consonance, we shall 
 find gradation, abruptness, transition, and progress all 
 of which, as will be shown presently, fulfill very im- 
 portant artistic functions, not only in connection with 
 music, but also with poetry. There is a kind of harmony 
 resulting from mere consonance ; but this would give no 
 more than the notes of the common chords for a gamut 
 of music, colors as widely separated as the primary, or 
 the secondary, or the complimentary, for a gamut of pig- 
 ments, and only like or allied alliterations, assonances, or 
 rhymes for a gamut of verse. But in all three arts, 
 
 162 
 
TflE USE OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS. 163 
 
 gamuts are constructed upon the principle of gradation. 
 The result is melody in music, tone in painting, and 
 a corresponding effect in poetry, that is now to be 
 explained. 
 
 The reason in nature for using gradation was stated on 
 page 268 of "The Genesis of Art-Form." The reason 
 for developing its possibilities in either of the arts of 
 sound follows logically from what has been said of allied 
 sounds. If one sound be allied in one way to a second 
 sound that differs from it slightly, why cannot this second 
 be allied in an analogous way to a third, and the third to 
 a fourth? The moment that we ask this question an 
 affirmative answer is suggested, and we find that we can 
 arrange the sounds of the consonants and also of the 
 vowels in a graded scale in which they all differ from one 
 another in approximately similar degrees, each produced 
 by a movement of the vocal organs a little further in the 
 same direction as that in which they were moving when 
 pronouncing the sound next before it. For instance, 
 starting the articulation as far back in the mouth as pos- 
 sible, we can get a series represented approximately, in 
 a case where it is mainly necessary to consider the effect 
 upon the ear in the sounds of the initial letters of the fol- 
 lowing : hay, keep, jar, chaise, shall, you, roll, lune, dole, 
 toll, zone, (a)zure, soon, noon, this, thin, moon, bat, pop, 
 van, fan, way, whey. The same order of utterance ap- 
 plied to the vowel-sounds, irrespective of their associated 
 consonants, will give us a series like long u, o, i, a, e. To 
 extend this including short-vowels and diphthongs, will 
 give us a series something like the sounds in mute, moot, 
 foot, bone, bound, boil, dawn, fall, file, far, fair, but, bat, 
 bail, met, it, eat. 
 
 Of course, in actual words, consonants and vowels are 
 
164 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 usually joined, and, in the same syllable, the vocal organs 
 in passing from one to another consonant-sound, may 
 move in one direction ; and in passing from one to an- 
 other vowel-sound, they may move in another direction. 
 But this fact, while it complicates the application of the 
 principle, does not make it impossible ; and frequently, 
 by suggesting likeness through the sound of one letter 
 and unlikeness through the sound of another, introduces 
 complementary effects of the most artistic character. 
 Words as words, sometimes on account of their conso- 
 nants, sometimes on account of their vowels, sometimes 
 on account of the blendings of both, can be arranged so 
 that the order of the articulation of tones from the back 
 to the front of the mouth, or the reverse, shall continue 
 to be the same. 
 
 What has been said implies that there are two applica- 
 tions of this method of phonetic gradation. The first 
 causes each of a series of sounds to differ from the one 
 nearest it in a like degree. The second causes it to differ 
 by a movement of the organs in a like direction. Of the 
 two, the second is the more important ; and it is worthy 
 of notice that the same is true of these methods as 
 applied to the use of musical scales. Gradation performs 
 a more important office in guiding the general direction 
 of the voice upward or downward, than in leading it up- 
 ward or downward by regular degrees. 
 
 If we examine our popular poetry we shall be surprised 
 to find how full it is of this phonetic gradation, to which, 
 as it has never been an acknowledged poetic effect, we 
 can only suppose that delicate taste and a desire to pro- 
 vide for ease of utterance have led the poets uncon- 
 sciously. Look at these verses. The music and charm 
 of them everybody recognizes. Now notice how largely 
 
THE USE OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS. 165 
 
 the effect is produced by the gradation of the sounds. 
 This is perfect in the accented vowels of the first and of 
 the second lines, in the accented consonants preceding 
 the vowels of the third line, and in both vowels and con- 
 sonants in each of the two halves of the fourth line. 
 
 Tell me not in mournful numbers 
 
 Life is but an empty dream, 
 For the soul is dead that slumbers, 
 
 And things are not what they seem. 
 
 The Psalm of Life : Longfellow. 
 
 Notice the gradation in the accented syllables of each 
 of these lines : 
 
 Till death have broken 
 Sweet life's love token, 
 Till all be spoken 
 
 That shall be said, 
 What dost thou praying, 
 O soul ! and playing 
 With song and saying 
 
 Things flown and fled ? 
 
 Anima Anceps : Swinburne. 
 
 Who rowing hard against the stream 
 Saw distant gates of Eden gleam ! 
 And did not dream it was a dream. 
 
 Two Voices : Tennyson. 
 
 The was in this last line prepares for the closing of the 
 series of gradations in very much the same way as the dis- 
 cord of the seventh that precedes the last note of a mu- 
 sical melody. Notice, too, how the sounds move forward 
 or backward in each of the phrases of the following : 
 
 O such a deed 
 
 As from the body of contraction plucks 
 The very soul ; and sweet religion makes 
 A rhapsody of words. 
 
 Hamlet, Hi., 4 : Shakespeare. 
 1 Between d and g, each used twice. 
 
1 66 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 Finally, notice in this, a combination of gradation and 
 of balance, through effects in succession of long #, broad 
 a or <?z, and ou\ 
 
 And Twmult and Confwsion all imbiwled 
 And Discard with a th^wsand various mouths. 
 
 Paradise Lost, ii. : Milton. 
 
 Abruptness, as distinguished from gradation, needs no 
 further illustration than is given in the quotation on page 
 112. The following might be termed an artistic use of it 
 intended to represent the sense : 
 
 Though the yesty waves 
 Confound and swallow navigation up ; 
 Though bladed corn be lodg'd, and trees blown down ; 
 Though castles topple on their warders' heads ; 
 Though palaces and pyramids do slope 
 Their heads to their foundations ; though the treasure 
 Of nature's germins tumble altogether, 
 Ev'n till destruction sicken, answer me 
 To what I ask you. 
 
 Macbeth, iv., I : Shakespeare. 
 
 Transition is the result when, through methods of in- 
 terchange, described on page 160, series of what we may 
 term principal sounds are made to pass into one another 
 in such ways as to continue, notwithstanding abruptness, 
 the effect of unity as in gradation and yet secure that 
 also of artistic progress. In the following notice how 
 a principal long /-sound, through a subordinate short 
 0-sound interchanged with it and the short ^-sound, passes 
 into a principal long 0-sound, then into a principal long 
 ^-sound, then into a principal long 0-sound, and then into 
 a principal short ^-sound : 
 
THE USE OF LIKE POETIC SOUNDS. l6/ 
 
 In the science of the m'ght 
 How we shiver with affnght 
 At the melancholy menace of their tone ! 
 For ^very sound that floats 
 From the rust within their threats 
 
 Is a groan. 
 
 And the people oh, the people 
 They that dwell up in the steeple 
 
 All alone, 
 And who, tolling, tolling, tolling, 
 
 In that muffled wonotone, 
 F^el a glory in so rolling 
 
 On the hrnnan heart a stone, 
 They are nether man nor woman, 
 They are nether brute nor hwman, 
 
 They are Ghowls. 
 
 The Bells : Poe. 
 
 Notice similar methods of transition in the following, 
 and how much more subtle and, because the method is 
 concealed, how much more artistic and satisfactory is its 
 music than that which is produced according to the more 
 common and apparent methods represented on pages 122 
 to 130: 
 
 Follow'd with acclamation, and the sound 
 Symphonious of /en thousand harps that /uned 
 Angelic harmonies ; the ^arth, the air, 
 Resounded. 
 
 Paradise Lost, vii : Milton. 
 
 For the moon never b^ams without bringing me dreams 
 
 Of the beautiful Annabel L^e, 
 And the stars never rise but I feel the brzght ^yes 
 
 Of the beautiful Annabel L<?e. 
 And so all the m'ght-tzde / \ie down by the side 
 Of my darling, my darling, my h'fe and my brz'de, 
 
 In her .sepulchre th^re by the s<?a, 
 
 In her tomb by the jownding sea. 
 
 Annabel Lee : Poe. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ANALOGIES BETWEEN THE USE OF QUALITY AND PITCH 
 IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 Each of these Arts Developed Independently, yet Sounds as Used in Both 
 are Connected Every Vowel Has a Quality of its Own Also a Pitch 
 Not Essential for our Purpose to Know what this Pitch Is Only the 
 Fact In Passing from One Word to Another we Pass to a Different 
 Pitch, and in Using Different Vowel and Consonant Sounds Together 
 in One Word we Produce Effects Allied to Chords These Effects 
 Augmented by Upward and Downward Inflections Used in Reading, 
 Causing Analogies to Musical Melody and Harmony Different Kinds, 
 of Verse-Melody Produced by Different Arrangements of Sounds and 
 Accents Tunes of Verse as Determined by the Rhythm Illustrations 
 Melody and Harmony, though Existing in Both Poetry and Music, 
 Are Different in Each Art Every Possible Pitch of the Voice can be 
 Used in Poetry ; Only Notes of Some Selected Pitch in Music The 
 Cause of this Difference to be Found in the Difference between the 
 Expressional Possibilities of Articulated and Inarticulated Sounds 
 Early Musicians did Not Know all their Reasons for Constructing Musi- 
 cal Scales But, Judging by Effects, were Led, as is Now Known, in All 
 Cases to Put together Like Partial Effects of Unlike Complex Wholes. 
 
 TT is natural to suppose that the laws of sound work 
 analogously in poetry and in music, but as, histori- 
 cally, each of these arts is developed in accordance with 
 independent tendencies of its own, it has been thought 
 best up to this point to treat poetry precisely as would 
 have been done, had music never existed. But one object 
 of this series of essays is to show the correspondences be- 
 tween the arts ; and on this account not only, but because 
 
 168 
 
QUALITY AND PITCH IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 169 
 
 of the way in which the known facts of music confirm 
 many of the statements already made here, it seems im- 
 portant to add a few words showing in what sense quality 
 and pitch, and the melody and harmony resulting from 
 them, exist in both arts and are subject to the same laws, 
 though these are manifested in each of them, because 
 designed for a different purpose, in a different way. 
 
 As stated in Chapter VIII. of " Poetry as a Represen- 
 tative Art," where the fact was mentioned in order to 
 show the significance of the sounds of speech, instruments 
 have been constructed by means of which sounds can be 
 analyzed and their component tones distinctly and defi- 
 nitely noted. As a consequence, it has been found that 
 every vowel has a quality of its own different from that 
 of any other vowel. But quality, as will be shown in 
 Chapter XIII., is determined by the pitch of different 
 partial tones which are blended with the prime or princi- 
 pal tone, and which enter into it as component parts. 
 
 If, therefore, every vowel has a quality of its own, does 
 it not follow that it must also have a pitch of its own ? 
 This question was answered in the affirmative some years 
 ago by Bonders, who discovered that the cavity of the 
 mouth, when whispering each of the different vowels, is 
 tuned to a different pitch. Accordingly, the voice, when 
 pronouncing vowel-sounds, at whatever key in the musi- 
 cal scale it may start them, has a tendency to suggest if 
 not through its main, or what is termed its prime tone, 
 at least through associated, or what are termed its 
 partial tones that pitch which is peculiar to the vowel 
 uttered. 
 
 Exactly what this pitch is, in the case of each vowel, it 
 is not important for us to know here. In fact, it has not 
 yet been definitely determined. Helmholtz, in his " Sen- 
 
RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 sations of Tone," says, for instance, that the series, which 
 may be represented in English by a in father, a in man, e 
 in there, and i in machine, forms an ascending minor chord 
 of G" thus: d'"g" f b' fr flatd""', and the following 
 represents the results of Merkel's experiments with the 
 German vowels given in his " Physiologic der Menschli- 
 chen Sprache " : 
 
 U O O* A OU-AE I 
 
 All that concerns us at present is the fact that there is 
 a pitch peculiar to these vowels. By consequence, when 
 different vowel-sounds are heard, sounds of different pitch 
 are heard, or at least suggested. But besides this, the 
 consonants, especially the sonants, m, n, I, y, r, b, v, d, 
 Ji g> w > th, z, all necessitate some pitch when they are 
 pronounced, and it is not likely to be the same as that 
 suggested by their accompanying vowel. 
 
 From these facts two inferences follow ['First, that when- 
 ever two syllables, whether containing sounds of different 
 vowels or consonants or of both, are uttered in succession, 
 we have a succession of tones that differ in pitch. This is 
 the same as to say that whenever we use consecutively 
 words that are not pronounced exactly alike, we produce, 
 in just as true a sense as when singing a melody, an effect 
 of passing from one pitch to another. Q.The second infer- 
 ence is that whenever sounds of two different vowels or 
 of vowels and consonants that constitute a syllable are 
 uttered simultaneously, they produce a blending of tones 
 that differ in pitch, or, in other words, an effect corre- 
 sponding to that which is heard in musical harmony. In- 
 deed, the music of the speaking voice, as distinguished 
 from the singing, is characterized mainly by the harmony 
 
Q UALITY AND PITCH IN POE TRY AND MUSIC. 1 7 1 
 
 that results from this blending of the consonant-sounds 
 with the vowel-sounds, the latter being often in singing 
 the only sounds that are heard, and always the only sounds 
 that are made prominent. Of course, too, there is a sense 
 in which the utterance of the component parts of any 
 single syllable, especially when these are the two vowels 
 of a diphthong, resembles more an effect of quality than of 
 harmony. But sometimes, as in the case of an inflection 
 which begins at one pitch and ends at another, it is more 
 like that of harmony. Moreover, it is to be noted that at 
 all times, as will be shown in Chapter XV., the effects of 
 quality and of harmony are in their sources identical. 
 
 The facts just mentioned are somewhat subtle in their 
 nature, and the reader may find it difficult to recognize 
 their application to our present subject. We now pass 
 on to other facts, so apparent that they are generally 
 recognized. They are connected with the emphasis that 
 every man, in talking or reading, gives to his utterances. 
 By means of this, he causes his words to slide upward or 
 downward in pitch, or he keeps them at the same pitch. 
 This kind of emphasis, as pointed out in Chapters II. and 
 VIII. of " Poetry as a Representative Art," is so closely 
 analogous to the effects of musical melody that it is 
 generally considered to be the cause of them. See the 
 music on page 172. In the same chapters, as also in 
 Chapters III. and IV. of " Music as a representative Art," 
 the particular phase of thought represented through each 
 of the different movements is also explained. This part 
 of the subject is not relevant to our present discussion. 
 But a consideration of the movements themselves is re- 
 levant. For however dull the inexperienced ear may be 
 in recognizing the elements of melody and harmony that 
 have already been pointed out, none can fail to perceive 
 in the emphatic elocutionary rising and falling of the voice, 
 
1 72 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 that which resembles a melody, nor in the long inflection 
 on a single syllable, like an perhaps, beginning with a 
 vowel and ending with a consonant, that which suggests 
 at least the blending of tones in harmony. 
 
 The bearing of what has been said is that the arrange- 
 ment of words and of their accents so as to produce 
 certain definite kinds of versification and metre, while 
 doing this, gives to the verse at the same time certain 
 definite effects of melody and harmony. In Chapter 
 IX. of " Poetry as a Representative Art," attention was 
 directed to the fact that the pitch of the voice is usually 
 highest on its accented syllable. The first syllable of 
 cdnjure, for instance, is higher than the second. The 
 second of conjtire is higher than the first. Accordingly, 
 
 Lines ended with like effects of pitch in the melody both of the music 
 
 and verse. 
 Falling or feminine endings. Rising or masculine endings. 
 
 I Wi __j , i v 
 
 % ' 
 
 J Zi on stands with hills surrounded, 
 1 All her foes shall be con-found-ed, 
 
 Zi - on, kept with power 
 Though the world in arms 
 
 di - 
 
 vine ; ) 
 - bine ; ) 
 
 Hap - py Zi - on, What a fav-ored lot is thine j 
 
 Hap - py Zi - on, What a fav-ored lot is thine. 
 
QUALITY AND PITCH IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 unless there be some reason in the sense for changing this 
 rule, the voice, in reading verse consecutively, makes a 
 downward movement when the last syllable of a line is 
 unaccented, and an upward movement when it is accented. 
 Notice the music and words on page 172, which are taken 
 from page 106 of " Poetry as a Representative Art " : 
 
 A corresponding principle applies to the accents or lack 
 of accents at the beginnings of lines. Accordingly, a' 
 different way of closing or opening a line, or the lengthen- 
 ing or shortening of it, necessitates a decided difference 
 in the tune of the verse ; and when we consider how 
 possible it is, even in the same poem, to change a metre 
 from double to triple and quadruple, and from initial to 
 terminal, median, and compound, as well as to alter the 
 relative number of feet in the lines, it is evident that the 
 opportunities for varying these tunes are practically in- 
 finite. Observe how dissimilar they are in the following: 
 
 Three years she grew in sun and shower 
 Then Nature said : " A lovelier flower 
 
 On earth was never known ; 
 This child I to myself will take ; 
 She shall be mine, and I will make 
 
 A lady of my own. 
 The Education of Nature : Wordsworth. 
 
 Memory's finger, 
 
 Quick as thine, 
 Loving to linger 
 
 On the line, 
 Writes of another 
 Dearer than brother : 
 
 Would that the name were mine. 
 
 Thread and Song: J. W. Palmer. 
 
 Ah, sad and strange as in dark summer dawns 
 The earliest pipe of half-awakened birds 
 
1/4 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 To dying ears, when unto dying eyes 
 
 The casement slowly grows a glimmering square : 
 
 So sad, so strange, the days that are no more. 
 
 The Princess : Tennyson. 
 
 Thy sidelong pillowed meekness ; 
 
 Thy thanks to all that aid ; 
 Thy heart in pain and weakness 
 
 Of fancied faults afraid ; 
 The little trembling hand 
 
 That wipes thy quiet tears, 
 These, these are things that may demand 
 
 Dread memories for years. 
 
 To a Child during Sickness : Leigh Hunt. 
 
 Come in the evening or come in the morning ; 
 Come when you 're looked for or come without warning ; 
 Kisses and welcome you'll find here before you, 
 And the oftener you come here, the more I '11 adore you. 
 The Welcome : Thomas Davis. 
 
 O whistle and I '11 come to you, my lad, 
 O whistle and I '11 come to you, my lad ; 
 Tho' father and mother and a' should gae mad, 
 O whistle and I '11 come to you, my lad. 
 
 Whistle and I '// Come to You : Burns* 
 
 Scots wha hae wi' Wallace bled, 
 Scots wham Bruce has often led, 
 Welcome to your gory bed, 
 Or to glorious victory. 
 
 Bannockburn : Idem* 
 
 'T is for this they are dying where the golden corn is growing, 
 'T is for this they are dying where the crowded herds are lowing, 
 'T is for this they are dying where the streams of life are flowing, 
 And they perish of the plague where the breeze of health is blowing. 
 
 Ireland ': D. F. Mac Car thy-. 
 
 Notice also this same fact as brought out by the illustra- 
 tions of different kinds of rhythm given on pages 61 to 89* 
 
QUALITY AND PITCH IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 1/5 
 
 Thus far, we have found that poetry and music are alike 
 in that both contain melody and harmony. But when 
 we attempt to go beyond this, and to inquire in what 
 ways melody and harmony are manifested in each, we 
 find great differences. This discovery is important, not 
 only on its own account, but, as we shall find in another 
 place, on account of the light that it throws on the corre- 
 spondences which we should expect to exist between har- 
 mony of sound and of color. That which connects the arts 
 is the unity of method underlying them. In each of them 
 this method is applied to a different germ. By keeping 
 this fact in mind we shall be able to recognize, as would 
 otherwise be impossible, in what sense the effects of har- 
 mony in all the arts are secured in ways essentially the 
 same. 
 
 The elements causing poetic harmony differ from those 
 causing musical harmony in this that while any possible 
 tones can be used in verse, only certain selected tones can 
 be used in music, i. e. t in the art of music as we now know 
 it. Science has ascertained that all tones whatever re- 
 sult from vibrations. Authorities differ, but, according to 
 Helmholtz, thirty-two of these vibrations in a second are 
 necessary in order to render audible the lowest possible 
 musical tone, and 3960 to render audible the highest. 
 Between these two extremes it is conceivable that there 
 should be 3928 distinct degrees of pitch. Of these de- 
 grees music uses only about eighty-four, twelve degrees, 
 including whole and half notes, being employed in each 
 of about seven octaves. As for the speaking voice, its 
 range extends neither so low nor so high as that of 
 instrumental music ; nevertheless it can use a very much 
 larger number of notes. Suppose that we limit its range 
 
 to two octaves, and take for the lowest note the bass C 
 
 Z LIB**/. 
 
 CF THE 
 
RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 of the male voice, 1 representing 132 vibrations a second, 
 and for the highest note the C two octaves above this, 
 representing 528 vibrations a second. This leaves, be- 
 tween the two notes, 396 distinct degrees of pitch, and 
 the reading voice is at liberty to use all of these. But 
 the singing voice within the same range can use only 
 twenty-four of them. 
 
 What is the cause of this difference? Why, within 
 these limits, are the possibilities of pitch in poetry prac- 
 tically unrestricted, and in music restricted so greatly? 
 Undoubtedly it is connected with the fact that, in the 
 one, words are used, and in the other, at least in instru- 
 mental music, sounds without words. It would be pos- 
 sible, of course, in all cases to add music to verse, that is, 
 to chant all poetry, as well also as to add words to 
 melody, and to articulate all music. But this is not done, 
 evidently because artists think it unnecessary. Poetry is 
 felt to be one art and music another. In the first art 
 words are used ; and these, owing to their articulation, 
 are easily distinguished, and, if similar, easily compared. 
 Alliteration, assonance, rhyme, phonetic gradation in con- 
 nection with accent, metre, and versification, furnish as 
 many opportunities for grouping the like partial effects 
 produced by unlike complex wholes as this art needs. 
 But when, as in music, especially in that which is instru- 
 mental, the artist is compelled to use sounds that are not 
 distinguishable by articulation, he is obliged, if his effects 
 are to be above the level of the rhythm produced by the 
 taps of a drum, to make more of quality and pitch. In 
 poetry these latter, although, as we have found, necessarily 
 involved in articulation, are accidental and secondary. 
 
 1 This is merely a supposititious case. Most voices, whether male or 
 female, have their lowest note on an E, F, G, or A, rather than on C. 
 
Q UALITY AND PITCH IN POE TR Y AND M USIC. 
 
 In music, they are essential and primary. It may be 
 said that, if it were not for them, there could be no music 
 at all, as we know it ; and this for the very sufficient 
 reason that, without them, like or allied elements could 
 not be grouped together in sufficient numbers to consti- 
 tute an art-form. 
 
 Of course, the early musicians could not have explained 
 exactly why they selected certain notes and put them 
 into a musical scale, and from these began to develop 
 that which has now come to be our elaborated system of 
 melody and harmony. Those artists followed merely the 
 instincts of their aesthetic nature. This prompted them, 
 in constructing forms, to select sounds that would natu- 
 rally go together; and to use these and these only. 
 
 But what connection is there, it maybe asked, between 
 sounds that naturally go together, and those that go to- 
 gether because certain of their effects are alike? None, 
 perhaps, so far as the first musicians were aware. They 
 judged merely by the results that they heard, and had 
 only a limited knowledge of the causes of these. Never- 
 theless, as will be shown presently from an examination 
 of the discoveries of modern science, their ears guided 
 them aright. All the notes of the scale, and all the 
 methods of musical harmony owe their origin to a literal 
 fulfilment of the art-principle declared in " The Genesis 
 of Art-Form " to be of universal applicability. This prin- 
 ciple is that in order to convey an impression of unity, 
 the mind groups complex wholes by putting those together 
 that produce like partial effects. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 MUSICAL MELODY AND HARMONY, AS DEVELOPED HIS- 
 TORICALLY ACCORDING TO THE METHODS 
 OF ART-COMPOSITION. 
 
 The Best Results of Quality, as Exemplified in the Human Voice and 
 Instruments, Produced by a Blending of Like Effects In Pitch, the 
 Same is True But to Understand the Subject Thoroughly, we should 
 Know the Causes of Quality and Pitch The Note and Half-Note 
 Written Music : the Staff Treble Clef Bass Clef C Clef Sharps 
 and Flats Music among the Greeks How Developed by Effects of 
 Comparison, First by Way of Congruity The Gregorian Chant an En- 
 deavor to Imitate the Speaking Voice Intonation is Based on Com- 
 parison by way of Repetition Melody, Developed from this, is Based 
 on Comparison by way of Consonance : Pythagoras and the Origin of 
 Musical Scales Variety, Introducing Contrast, Incongruity Alteration, 
 and Dissonance, Necessitates, for Unity of Effect, Complement, Balance, 
 Alternation, and Interchange Octaves as Sung Together by the Greeks, 
 a Form of Parallelism Polyphonic Music, as Developed from this, and 
 from Methods of Alternation, Complication, and Interchange Harmo- 
 nic Music Developed by a Renewed Application of the Methods of 
 Order, Principality, etc. Causes of the Rise of Harmonic Music. 
 
 TV/T USICAL tones may be divided according to their 
 quality into those produced by the human voice 
 and by manufactured instruments. The latter may be 
 either instruments of percussion like drums and cymbals, 
 stringed instruments like pianofortes and violins, or wind 
 instruments, which latter may either have flue-pipes, like 
 flutes and organs, as a rule, or reed pipes, like clarionets, 
 and oboes. There is no need of stopping here to describe 
 
 178 
 
MUSICAL MELODY AND HARMONY. 1/9 
 
 these different instruments. It is enough to say that 
 where consecutive single notes are used, we are best satis- 
 fied if all or a large number of those that are essential to 
 the same melody are produced by an instrument of the 
 same kind, thus fulfilling the principle of putting like 
 elements of sound together. For instance, even were it 
 possible, we should hardly take pleasure in hearing a first 
 note of a melody sounded on a violin, a second on a flute, 
 a third on a pianoforte, etc., and this because the effect 
 would lack congruity, which, as shown on page 3, is the 
 first condition enabling the mind to compare the qualities 
 of successive tones, and thus perceive unity in them. If, 
 however, instead of consecutive single notes, we hear 
 consecutive chords, then, provided the same part be 
 played in consecutive chords by the same instrument, 
 the more numerous the kinds of instruments used, the 
 more pleasure, as a rule, do we receive. A chorus, accom- 
 panied by an orchestra, is usually more enjoyable than a 
 single voice accompanied by a piano, and the latter is more 
 enjoyable than a voice unaccompanied by any instrument. 
 The reason is (see "Art in Theory," Chapter XIII., page 
 160) that in the chord of the orchestra the ear recognizes, 
 and is able to compare, a much larger number of like or 
 allied effects. Moreover, as all these instruments are 
 sounded in successive chords, their music continues to 
 preserve from note to note the same general compound 
 quality, notwithstanding the variety caused by differences 
 of pitch in the notes of each chord and of successive 
 chords. It is because the effect of unity, together with 
 that of the greatest possible variety, is attained in this 
 complex form of music as in no other, that the orchestra 
 and chorus combined is generally supposed to exemplify 
 the highest possibilities of the art. (See page 3.) 
 
ISO RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 This fact, so apparent with reference to quality, is 
 equally apparent with reference to pitch. Of the hun- 
 dreds of possible degrees of it between the A of one clef 
 and, say, the A, two octaves above this, which is the ordi- 
 nary range of a soprano voice, and, therefore, usually the 
 range of the notes of a melody also, only twenty-four can 
 be used ; and of these, as a rule, only fifteen represent 
 the regular notes of the scale as actually used. Of the 
 fifteen, moreover, few melodies use all, the most of them 
 being confined to only four or five notes in addition to 
 those contained in a single octave. But if a melody be 
 confined to ten or a dozen notes, every one of these must 
 be repeated often ; in other words, the form of the melody 
 must reveal a very large number of like or allied factors. 
 An analogous statement, too, for analogous reasons, may 
 be made of the harmony accompanying such a melody. 
 
 These are facts which all recognize. But their bearing 
 upon the laws underlying the development of melody and 
 harmony cannot be understood, unless we begin at the 
 bottom of our subject, and explain, as far as possible, 
 what it is that causes the differences observable in the 
 quality, or, as usually called, the timbre of sounds, what 
 it is, for instance, that makes the human voice sound 
 unlike a flute, and a flute unlike a violin or a pianoforte. 
 But such explanations in their turn would be unintel- 
 ligible to one who did not understand something about 
 musical pitch and notation as well as a little about the 
 history of music. Let us turn aside, then, for a while, 
 even at the risk of repeating what is well known to all but 
 the unmusical, in order to consider these. 
 
 As for pitch, we all know that, when one is singing, his 
 voice usually goes higher and lower than when he is talk- 
 ing. We know too that musical instruments are made to 
 
MUSICAL MELODY AND HARMONY. l8l 
 
 sound higher and lower than the speaking voice. Pitch, 
 therefore, is a very important factor in music. Because 
 it is so, and in order to indicate clearly any changes that 
 may be made in it, there has come to be a canon in musi- 
 cal art that a note shall glide into another at a different 
 pitch not by imperceptible degrees, as is the case in speech, 
 but aside from occasional violin-effects perceptibly and 
 by degrees which all musicians have agreed in using. These 
 degrees are separated from one another by intervals, as 
 they are termed, of a whole note or a half note. Seven of 
 these degrees, all except two of which are separated by 
 intervals of whole notes, constitute what is known as the 
 musical scale (from the Latin scala, a ladder). Certain 
 definite degrees of pitch, which musicians represent by 
 the letters CDEFGABC, correspond exactly to the 
 notes of this scale. Between C and D, D and E, F and 
 G, G and A, and A and B, there are also half-notes that 
 are sometimes used, making twelve sounds in all between 
 C and C. The lowest of this series of sounds is the high- 
 est C in a scale below it, each note of which lower scale 
 is just an octave, as it is called, lower in pitch than the 
 note represented by the same letter in the higher scale. 
 In instrumental music, about four scales or octaves are 
 used below the middle C, the approximate pitch of 
 which is established by mutual agreement ; and about 
 three scales are used above it. 
 
 In writing music, a line was formerly used to represent 
 a certain pitch, and notes of a higher pitch were indicated 
 in spaces or on broken lines above this, and notes of a 
 lower pitch below it, e.g. : 
 
 J - ^ 
 
1 82 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 At present, five parallel lines, termed a staff, are used, 
 with broken lines, if necessary, above or below the staff. 
 Notice the staves on this page. 
 
 The figure |||EE indicates the treble-clef, as it is called ; 
 7 
 
 or the sol-clef, by which is meant that the line encircled by 
 the main curve of the figure represents the pitch of the 
 note sol in that scale the do of which is at middle C. It is 
 also called the G clef, because the line encircled represents 
 the pitch of the lower G used by a soprano voice in sing- 
 ing. Calculating from this G, it is easy to determine the 
 pitch represented by the other lines and spaces, e. g. : 
 
 The figure indicates the bass clef, as it is 
 
 called, or the fa-clef, because the main curve of the 
 figure is made about the line representing the note fa 
 in that scale the do of which is at the lowest C ordinarily 
 used by the male voice. It is also called the F clef because 
 this curve is made about the line representing the middle 
 F used by the bass voice. The notes above and below 
 this are then as follows : 
 
 The G clef and the F clef together enable us to write 
 out all ordinary music, e. g. : 
 
MUSICAL MELODY AND HARMONY. 183 
 
 xst octave. ad, 3d. 4th. 
 
 rcVD^TF 
 
 Besides these, a </<?-clef or C clef is sometimes placed 
 on either the first, third, or fourth line of the staff; 
 and indicates that the note C is on the line which it 
 incloses. When on the first line the clef is also called 
 the soprano ; when on the third line, the alto ; and when 
 on the fourth line, the tenor. 
 
 First, 
 Third, 
 
 To this it may be well to add that, whenever it is de- 
 sired to use the half tones between C and D, D and E, 
 and so on, one of two different courses is adopted. Either 
 a sharp, represented thus j, is placed on a line or space, 
 indicating that the note to which it is attached is to be 
 sounded half a tonfe above where it is written ; or a flat, 
 represented thus b, is placed on a line or space, indicating 
 that the note is to be sounded half a tone below where it 
 is written. In printed music, the two following arrange- 
 ments represent the same notes, the one moving up the 
 scale, the other down. 
 
184 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 These sharps or flats, when used uniformly throughout a 
 composition, are placed at the beginning of the staff and 
 not before each note, as in the example just given ; e. g. .- 
 
 When a sharp or flat has been used on a line or space, 
 and a following note is not intended to be made sharp 
 or flat, a character termed a natural is used to indicate 
 this fact ; e.g.: 
 
 This brief explanation of musical notation will prepare 
 us to go back as far as is possible, to the beginnings of 
 music, and notice certain different stages in its history 
 which will enable us to understand why it has developed 
 as it has. The Greeks chanted or sang their poetry. The 
 accents (from ad and cano, to sing to) used with their 
 words indicated, as do elocutionary marks with us, the 
 movements of their voices in doing this. "We must re- 
 member," says A. J. Ellis, in one of the notes to his 
 translation of Helmholtz's work on " The Sensations of 
 Tone/' page 366, " that the Greek and Latin so-called 
 accents consisted solely in alternations of pitch, and hence 
 to a certain extent determined a melody. See Dionysus, 
 of Halicarnassus Ttspl ffvvBsaeoo^ ovo^iaroDv^ Chapter XL" 
 But if the written accents in Greek and the accents as de- 
 termined by the rules of grammarians in Latin are care- 
 fully examined, it will be found that every line in a Greek 
 
MUSICAL MELODY AND HARMONY. 1 8$ 
 
 or Latin poem had its own distinct melody, the art of the 
 poet being shown by the great variations in pitch which 
 he was able to combine with a certain quantity or rhythm* 
 " It would not be difficult,'* Helmholtz goes on to say, 
 " for any one with a little musical skill and the help of a 
 common Greek lyre, to extemporize (i.e. in reciting an 
 ordinary Greek stanza written with accents) an effective 
 recitative, especially if the rising and falling intervals were 
 varied." Undoubtedly in the early forms of music, inas- 
 much as the voice was required to harmonize with only 
 certain simple and single notes sounded on the lyre, each 
 singer could lengthen and shorten his inflections at will, 
 and thus vary his melodies in ways not allowable in 
 modern music. 
 
 Here we find indicated, as nearly as can be, the condi- 
 tions of things when music as an art began. Notice how 
 they accord with what was unfolded in " The Genesis of 
 Art-Form." There it was shown that the mental desire of 
 the mind for unity first manifests itself in the direction of 
 comparison, resulting in an endeavor, so far as possible, to 
 put like effects with like. It was also shown that com- 
 parison first manifests itself byway of congruity, resulting 
 from grouping forms together because representative of 
 like significance. Would it not be strictly in accordance 
 with this fact that the beginnings of artistic unity in these 
 early Greek melodies would be determined by the fitness 
 of certain like tones in them to express certain like senti- 
 ments, such as those of joy or sadness, triumph or de- 
 spondency? But were they, as a fact, determined thus? 
 It certainly seems that they were, because they grew out 
 of the requirements of recitation, and these would neces- 
 sarily cause the movements of the tones to resemble the 
 intonations natural to the voice in speaking the words 
 
1 86 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 used. And what is true of the Greek melodies is true, so 
 far as can be ascertained, of all primitive and original 
 forms of melody. The Gregorian chants contain rules 
 like the following : 
 
 Sic can - ta com ma, sic du - o punc - ta : sic ve - to punc-tum. 
 Thus sing the com - ma, and thus the co - Ion: and thus the full stop. 
 
 Sic sig - num in - ter - ro - ga - ti o nis? 
 
 Thus sing the mark of in -- ter - ro - ga - tion ? 
 
 Whether Pope Gregory (A.D. 590 to 604), originated 
 these methods, or derived them from Pope Sylvester 
 (A.D. 314 to 335), as is sometimes said, or from St. Am- 
 brose (A.D. 341 to 395), or whether all of these derived 
 them from the ancient Romans or Greeks, in any case, 
 that desire to imitate the natural intonations of the speak- 
 ing voice, to which they owe their origin, is very apparent. 
 A similar desire has evidently actuated composers 
 wherever there has been a fresh development of the pos- 
 sibilities of melody, as is exemplified not only in the reci- 
 tativos of Giacomo Peri of the sixteenth century, but in 
 the operas of Wagner of our own time. 
 
 While this is the case, however, melody, when once 
 originated or started in a new direction, soon gets beyond 
 imitating the intonations of speech. Variations of pitch, 
 when made to differ at all from those used in talking, 
 soon come to differ from them, if not entirely, at least 
 greatly, and this for the sake of the tune. Now what is 
 the earliest form of tune ? As stated in " Art in Theory " 
 Chapter XX., the fundamental difference between song and 
 speech is the same as between sustained tones and unsus- 
 tained. The earliest form of tune is that of the recitative, 
 
MUSICAL MELODY AND HARMONY. l8/ 
 
 in which the voice begins to chant the words and pro- 
 long them, as in what we term intonation. What is 
 the chief characteristic of intonation ? Look back at 
 the Gregorian chant. Listen to the service in ritualistic 
 churches. Its chief characteristic is repetition. The same 
 artistic tendency that leads the voice to dwell on the 
 tone, leads it to dwell on like tones. Comparison by way 
 of congruity passes thus, as we should expect, first of all 
 into comparison by way of repetition. See page 3. 
 
 After a time, however, but much later, intonation is 
 developed into the completed artistic form of melody. 
 The basis of this is comparison by way of consonance, in- 
 cluding, however, much both of congruity and repetition. 
 Quite early in the history of Greek music we find Pythag- 
 oras (B.C. 540 to 510) asking the reason of the laws of 
 musical consonance, showing that, even in his time, interest 
 was taken in the relations of pitch irrespective of congru- 
 ity or the sentiment represented by them, or of the repe- 
 titions of intonation. Pythagoras had learned, as well 
 probably from the Egyptians as from his own experi- 
 ments, that strings of different lengths but of the same 
 substance, when subjected to the same strain, would give 
 perfect consonances if their respective lengths were in 
 the ratio of I : 2, 2 : 3, or 3 : 4. Later physicists have ex- 
 tended this law to apply to the ratios 4 : 5 and 5 : 6, but, 
 with what he knew, Pythagoras constructed a musical 
 scale containing four of the notes used in our scale of to- 
 day. Subsequently (see page 203), he extended his scale 
 until it contained seven notes differing somewhat, yet not 
 greatly, from the seven represented by our own C D E F 
 G A B C. To the notes of the scale, Guido of Arezzo, a 
 Benedictine monk of the eleventh century, gave the 
 names ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, and ut, taking the first six 
 
1 88 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 of the names from the initial syllables of six successive 
 lines of a hymn to St. John, which lines happened to be- 
 gin on the six successive notes of the scale, now named 
 after them. These are the lines : 
 
 Ut queant laxis 
 Re-son a re fibris 
 Mi-ra gestorum 
 Fa-muli tuorum 
 Sol-ve polluti 
 La-bii reatum, etc. 
 
 To these syllables Guido added si, and subsequently ut 
 was changed to do. This was the origin of the solfeggio, 
 as it was called, and which still exists in our do, re, mi, fa, 
 sol, la, si, do. 
 
 So much for the names used in the scale. But we have 
 not yet explained why its notes are pitched as they are. 
 To do this, necessitates our tracing further the influence 
 in this art of the methods underlying composition. The 
 chart on page 3 will show that, as affected by the variety 
 in nature, comparison, congruity, repetition, and consonance 
 are, respectively, opposed by contrast, incongruity, altera- 
 tion, and dissonance. Undoubtedly, to avoid these latter 
 effects is the unconscious reason underlying the very great 
 likeness of tone that characterizes intonation. For what 
 is intonation, as mainly employed in our own day, but an 
 expression of formalism carried to its extreme ? What is 
 it but the result of a desire to secure almost absolute 
 unity of impression in the church services? But when 
 there is a departure from absolute unity by the admission 
 into the form of contrast and methods allied to it, there is, 
 as we have found, no longer in any of the arts any possibil- 
 ity of unity of effect, aside from the use of the methods 
 in the third column in the list on page 3, namely, counter- 
 
M USICA L MEL ODY A ND HA RMON Y. 1 89 
 
 action, complement, balance, parallelism, alternation, and 
 interchange, which last in connection with consonance, 
 develops into completed harmony. 
 
 The beginnings of the latter condition among the Greeks 
 are indicated as follows. Aristotle asks (Problems xix., 
 1 8) : " Why is the consonance of only the octave sung? " 
 and again (Prob. xix., 39) : " This singing occurs when 
 young boys and men sing together, and their tones differ 
 as the highest from the lowest of the scale." Owing 
 to passages like these, scholars have held that the Greek 
 music was what is generally termed homophonic ; or, in 
 other words, that it had no harmonics in the broad sense 
 in which the word is now used only such consonances as 
 can be produced by the use of the octave. Their men 
 could sing at the same time as their boys and women, but 
 all had to sing the same part, though separated by an oc- 
 tave furnishing thus, as will be recognized, a perfect 
 exemplification of musical parallelism, and their accom- 
 panying instruments, also, whether higher or lower than 
 the singing voices, had to sound the same part. It is 
 difficult, however, to reconcile this conception of the com- 
 pleted results of Greek music with the formation of their 
 instruments. Certainly the strings of their lyres would 
 sometimes be sounded together, if only by accident. This 
 would produce a chord, and it is wellnigh impossible to 
 imagine that those who had once heard a chord accident- 
 ally, should not after that have repeated it intentionally. 
 
 Music much like what has been described, however, in 
 which there was, at most, only a slight development of 
 harmony, continued until the middle ages, when the fifth 
 and fourth notes below the main note of the melody came 
 to be used just as the octave had been used previously. In 
 the eleventh century, musicians in France and Flanders be- 
 
IQO RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 gan to try experiments in what has since been termed 
 polyphonic music. This was produced by causing two or 
 more separate melodies to be sung or played at the same 
 time. It is not necessary to argue that this form of music 
 was developed in fulfilment of the methods arranged on 
 page 3, in the column in which are complement, balance, 
 parallelism, complication, and interchange. Orlando Lasso, 
 the last and chief composer in this form, is said to have 
 combined thus as many as five melodies. 
 
 Such music, however, gradually and almost necessarily, 
 led to the harmonic music of the present. In this there 
 is usually one melody with which all the other notes of the 
 composition are made to chord in other words, in this 
 form of music, the methods on page 3 in the same column 
 as order and principality, assert themselves to overcome 
 the polyphonic tendencies toward confusion and keep 
 them in artistic subordination. Could any historic facts 
 confirm more satisfactorily the theories of this book with 
 reference to the general methods in accordance with which 
 musical art develops ? 
 
 One main impetus to the development of harmony was 
 the Protestant Reformation, and the demand that arose, 
 in consequence of it, for a form of choral that could be 
 sung by congregations in unison with an organ accom- 
 paniment. Another was the great abuse of polyphonic 
 music that after a time crept into the Catholic services, in 
 that the words of church music, because they could never 
 be understood as sung in the different melodies combined, 
 came often to be those of popular songs. A third reason 
 was the desire aroused everywhere about that period to 
 imitate any method supposed to be Hellenic. The first 
 great master of the new method was Palestrina, a pupil of 
 the Huguenot Claude Goudimel, who was slain in the 
 
MUSICAL MELODY AND HARMONY. 19! 
 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew. Palestrina's harmonies, how- 
 ever, are very elementary, passing from one key to another 
 with little or no attempt to carry out any of those princi- 
 ples with reference to sequence in sound, which must be 
 followed in order to render a composition satisfactory to a 
 modern ear. Here is the opening of his " Stabat 
 Mater " : 
 
 
 _ | ,._J- 
 
 j-pj ,j b . ^^ 
 
 fc/f^- 
 
 Sta - 
 
 'U:-^ 
 
 
 bat ma - ter 
 
 do lo - ro - sa, etc. 
 
 r^pr r -^=^= 
 
 
 
 From such crude beginnings, however, all the elaborate 
 system of modern harmony has been developed. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 MUSICAL SCALES AS DEVELOPED BY THE ART-METHOD 
 OF GROUPING LIKE PARTIAL EFFECTS OF 
 
 UNLIKE COMPLEX WHOLES. 
 
 ' 
 
 As Harmony is Developed from Melody, to Understand Music, we must 
 First Learn why Certain Notes are Fitted to Follow One Another 
 Scales Constructed from the Sense of Hearing, and All Scales Similar, 
 Therefore the Same Law Underlies them Sounds Differ in Quality 
 Musical Sounds Result from Regularly Periodic Vibrations Differ- 
 ences in Loudness from the Different Amplitude of Vibrations, and in 
 Pitch, from the Different Time of Vibrations Differences in Quality 
 from the Different Combinations of Vibrations Vibrations Com- 
 pounded, and Each of the Compounds Introduces into the Tone a Pitch 
 or Partial Tone of its Own Law of Sequence of the Upper Partial 
 Tones of Musical Notes Example in Music Correspondence of the 
 Earliest Greek Scale with the Chief Partial Tones of its Keynote 
 And of our Own Major Scale A Possible Scale of Ten Notes Our 
 Minor Scale These Scales All Constructed on the Principle of Group- 
 ing Like Partial Effects of Unlike Complex Wholes The Method in 
 which the Greeks, Ignorant of Partial Tones, were Guided to these Re- 
 sults by their Sense of Hearing How they Constructed, by Measuring 
 the Length of Strings, the Lyre of Orpheus Similar Results Reached 
 by the Moderns through Counting Vibrations, and the Resulting 
 Ratios The Ratios of the Chinese Scale of Six Notes as Developed 
 by the Ancients The Ratios of the Greek Scale of Seven Notes 
 Other Greek Scales Deficiencies of the Greek Scale and the Develop- 
 ment of the Modern Scales Comparison between the Ratios of these 
 and of the Pythagorean Scale The Keys of the Piano and the Scales 
 Played from the Different Keynotes The Temperate Scale of the 
 Present, and its Ratios as Compared with the Pythagorean, the Major, 
 and the Minor. 
 
 pERHAPS the most significant facts for us to observe 
 in the history of music, as briefly sketched in the last 
 chapter, are, first, that harmony was developed from 
 melody, not melody from harmony ; and, second, that 
 harmony was developed for the purpose of giving greater 
 
 192 
 
MUSICAL SCALES. 1 93 
 
 prominence and intelligibility to the words used in con- 
 nection with the music. The first of these facts is the 
 one that has the most bearing upon our present consid- 
 eration of the subject. We learn from it that when the 
 Greeks found that consonances are made by strings, the 
 lengths of which are in the ratios of one to two, two to 
 three, and three to four ; and when they formed that mus- 
 ical scale which is still to a great extent our own ; they did 
 so to meet the requirements of melody, of notes following 
 one another, not of notes sounded simultaneously in 
 chords. Accordingly, if we wish to discover the reason 
 why they formed the scale as they did, we must discover 
 why the notes of that scale are fitted to follow one 
 another. 
 
 Of course the Greeks, in constructing their scale, were 
 guided by the sense of hearing, just as modern musicians 
 have been guided by it in constructing their systems of 
 harmony. But why did the sense of hearing guide the 
 Greeks in the particular way in which it did, and why, 
 as will be shown to be the case, do the Chinese and other 
 people, whose music has developed independently, as 
 well as we ourselves to-day, use what is essentially a 
 similar scale ? What is the acoustic law that necessi- 
 tates sequences of sounds of the kind found in this scale? 
 It is only in very recent times, owing mainly to the 
 researches of the great German physicist Helmholtz, that 
 it has been possible to give any satisfactory answer to 
 such a question. It seems now, however, as if it could 
 be done. Let us, at least, make an attempt to do so. 
 
 All must have noticed that the sounds of instruments, 
 of flutes, violins, and pianofortes, as well as those of the 
 human voice, differ in what, for the present, in a vague 
 
 way, we may term quality. One reason for this difference 
 13 
 
IQ4 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 undoubtedly is the fact that, in connection with the 
 sound of the flute, we hear the escaping of the breath ; 
 with that of the violin, the scrapings of the bow ; with 
 that of the piano, the strokes of the hammers. Yet if we 
 stand so far away from these instruments that the noises 
 made by the breath, bow, and hammers are inaudible, we 
 are still able to distinguish the tone not only of each 
 different kind of instrument, but sometimes of each dif- 
 erent instrument of the same kind. It is certainly so in 
 the case of human voices. Now what is it that causes 
 this difference in quality ? 
 
 To answer this question we must understand first what 
 a musical sound is, what is the difference between it and 
 a noise. " A noise," says Helmholtz (" The Sensations 
 of Tone," page 12) " is accompanied by a rapid alterna- 
 tion of different kinds of sensations of sound. Think, for 
 example, of the rattling of a carriage over granite paving- 
 stones, the splashing or seething of a waterfall, or of the 
 waves of the sea, or the rustling of leaves in a wood. In 
 all of these cases we have rapid irregular, but distinctly 
 perceptible alternations of various kinds of sound, which 
 crop up fitfully. When the wind howls, the alternation 
 is slow, the sound slowly and gradually rises, and then 
 falls again. . . . On the other hand, a musical tone 
 strikes the ear as a perfectly undisturbed uniform sound 
 which remains unaltered as long as it exists, and it pre- 
 sents no alterations of various kinds of constituents. To 
 this, then, corresponds a simple regular kind of sensation, 
 whereas in a noise many various sensations of musical 
 tone are irregularly mixed up and, as it were, tumbled 
 about in confusion. . . . The normal and usual means 
 of excitement for the human ear is atmospheric vibration. 
 The irregularly alternating sensations of the ear in the 
 
MUSICAL SCALES. 195 
 
 case of music leads us to conclude that for these the 
 vibrations of the air must also change irregularly. For 
 musical tones, on the other hand, we anticipate a regular 
 motion of the air, continuing uniformly and in its turn 
 excited by an equally regular motion of the sonorous 
 body whose impulses were conducted to the ear by the 
 air. Those regular motions which produce musical sound 
 have been exactly investigated by physicists. They are 
 oscillations, vibrations, or swings, that is up-and-down or 
 to-and-fro motions of sonorous bodies, and it is necessary 
 that these oscillations should be regularly periodic. By a 
 periodic motion we mean one which constantly returns 
 to the same condition after exactly equal intervals of 
 time. . . . The kind of motion of the moving 
 body during one period is perfectly indifferent 
 but . . . the sensation of a musical tone is due to 
 a rapid periodic motion of the sonorous body, the sensa- 
 tion of a noise to non-periodic motions." 
 
 That musical sounds are caused, or, at least, accom- 
 panied, by vibrations has been known for centuries. 
 These vibrations may be recognized by the eye in large 
 strings, and by the touch in large reeds and pipes ; and 
 the experiments of physicists have placed the fact as ap- 
 plied to all sounds beyond a doubt. It has long been 
 known, too, that differences in the degrees of force in 
 sounds, i. e. t in loudness and softness, are due to the size, 
 or amplitude of these vibrations ; a cord struck with more 
 force than another producing a louder sound because it 
 vibrates, and causes the air to vibrate, farther from side to 
 side. It has long been known also that differences in 
 pitch are caused by differences in the time in which peri- 
 odic vibrations are made. This has been unmistakably 
 proved, among other ways, by the use of Cagnard de la 
 
196 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 Tour's siren. In this, air is forced from a cylinder 
 through holes occurring at regular intervals in a revolving 
 disc, connected with which there is a clock-like arrange- 
 ment registering the number of interruptions made in the 
 current of air. When the disc is revolving rapidly a con- 
 tinuous musical sound is produced. In such cases, the 
 number of interruptions represents, of course, the number 
 of separate vibrations composing the sound at the pitch 
 that is heard. To apply this principle to the effects of a 
 cord ; its whole length sounds a note, as ascertained by 
 Pythagoras, just an octave below its half length, because, 
 in the former case, it vibrates exactly twice as slowly as 
 in the latter. 
 
 After physicists had proved that degrees of loudness in 
 sound are determined by the amplitude of vibrations, and 
 degrees of pitch by the time of vibrations, they felt that 
 nothing was left to determine the quality of sounds ex- 
 cept the form of vibrations. It was easy, too, for them 
 to imagine that these should differ in form. For instance, 
 when a bow is drawn across the strings of a violin, it may 
 fall upon them, giving them an up-and-down motion ; it 
 may move over them, giving them a motion from side to 
 side ; it may turn them, giving them a twisting motion ; 
 it may bound over them, giving them a jarring motion ; 
 or it may do all these together ; besides which, wherever 
 it touches the strings it may check the movements caused 
 by vibrations of their entire length, and cause smaller 
 waves between the points where they are played upon by 
 the bow and where they are attached to the violin. Ac- 
 cording to a similar mode of reasoning, it was natural to 
 suppose that the waves of sound produced by a w T ind in- 
 strument, like a trumpet, or human throat, for instance, 
 deviated as they are from a straight course by a number 
 
MUSICAL SCALES. 
 
 I 9 7 
 
 of curves and angles, must necessarily be more or less com- 
 pound as they emerge from the instruments ; and, being 
 so, must differ in form for different kinds of instruments. 
 Considerations of this sort caused investigations to be 
 made into the nature of vibrations ; and by means of very 
 ingenious expedients, by magnifying, for example, the 
 vibrations of a cord or pipe, and making them visible, 
 through using an intense ray of light to throw an image 
 of them upon a canvas in a darkened room, the forms 
 assumed by the vibrations caused by many of the ordi- 
 nary musical instruments have been accurately ascer- 
 tained. These forms have been resolved, according to 
 well-known mathematical principles, into their constituent 
 elements. For instance, if the form of vibration be as in 
 the first of these examples, it may be resolved into the 
 forms that are in the second. 
 
 In short, investigations of this character have shown 
 that musical sounds may result, and usually do result, not 
 from simple, but from compound forms of vibrations ; that 
 is to say, in connection with the main waves there are 
 other waves. All of these are not invariably present, but 
 when present they are related to the main one i. e., in 
 tones that make music as distinguished from noise as 
 2 : 1 , 3:1, 4:1, 5:1,6:1, 7:1,8:1,9:1, and even in 
 some cases as 10 : I. In other words, these smaller 
 
198 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 accompanying waves vibrate twice, thrice, and four times, 
 and so on up to ten times, while the main wave is vibrat- 
 ing once. But this is not all. The sounds of these com- 
 pound vibrations have been analyzed. By means of 
 instruments like Helmholtz's resonators, which are small 
 glass tubes so constructed as to collect to the ear tones 
 of a single pitch, it has been found that each form of 
 vibration represented in a note produces a separate pitch 
 of its own. When, therefore, a tone is sounded on a 
 violin, we hear in it not only the pitch caused by the 
 vibrations of the whole length of the string, but also in 
 connection with it a number of other partial tones, as all 
 the constituents of any one note are called, each of which 
 has its own pitch, produced by vibrations of one half, 
 one third, one fourth, etc., of the length of the string. 
 
 The difference in the number, the combination, and the 
 relative loudness of these partial tones in a musical sound 
 is what determines its quality or timbre. In instruments 
 like kettle-drums, cymbals, or bells, one side is almost 
 invariably thicker than the other. For this reason, the 
 main vibrations are not uniforn, and, of course, the partial 
 tones cannot be so. Such instruments, accordingly^ are 
 less musical than noisy, and are used on only exceptional 
 occasions. But in ordinary musical sounds the partial 
 tones, if present at all they differ as produced by differ- 
 ent instruments are indicated in the notation below. 
 Notice that the first partial tone is the same as the prime 
 tone ; also that the second, fourth, and eighth partials are 
 the same as the prime tone with exception of being in 
 higher octaves. 
 
 The notes that are used ( & \* f )> in the degree in 
 which they are long, indicate tones which the reader needs 
 most to notice ; and the marks after the letters indicate 
 
MUSICAL SCALES. 
 
 I 99 
 
 the relative distance of a tone from the octave of the 
 tone which is the standard of pitch. C', F', or G', for 
 instance, are one octave below C, F, or G, and these are 
 one octave below c, f, or g, and two octaves below c', 
 f , or g'. 
 
 Partial tones 
 of the pitch 
 of C 
 
 Of F, of which C is Of G, which itself is 
 the third and near- the third and nearest 
 est partial partial of C 
 
 Of Afe, of which C 
 is the fifth partial. 
 
 afe b'fe c 
 
 Of E, which itself is the 
 fifth partial of C. 
 
 Now, glancing at the above, suppose that we were to 
 sound the note C, and then to sound after it notes whose 
 partial tones connected them most closely with C. What 
 should we do ? We should sound F, should we not ? 
 of which C is the third partial, and G, which itself is the 
 third partial of C ? This, inasmuch as every C, F, or G 
 of whatever octave has virtually the same sound, would 
 give us the following : 
 
200 RH YTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 But these are the very tones accredited to the " lyre of 
 Orpheus," which represented the earliest of the Greek 
 scales. 
 
 Now let us add to these notes those whose partial tones 
 are the next nearly connected with C, F, or G. They are 
 D the third partial of G, E the fifth partial of C, A the 
 fifth of F, and B the fifth of G. This gives us 
 
 C D E F G A B C, 
 
 which is our own major scale, the main one that we use 
 to-day ; and is similar to that used by the Greeks after 
 theirs had been expanded to seven notes. 
 
 If now we include in the scale the lower partial tones 
 of Ab, of which C is the fifth partial, and of E, which is the 
 fifth partial of C, and add Bb, which is the seventh partial of 
 C, as well as the ninth of At, we get the following result : 
 C-D-Eb (the same in pitch as Ds )-E-F-G-Ab (the same 
 in pitch as Gtf )-A-Bb-B-C. 
 
 There might be a scale of this length, as there is no 
 reason in nature why its notes should be confined to 
 seven. But as Eb, Ab, and Bb are very near to E, A, and 
 B, the latter are omitted wherever the former are used. 
 By substituting these flattened notes for the natural ones, 
 we get our minor scale in its two forms ; first the 
 ascending, 
 
 C D Eb F G A B C, 
 and second, the descending, 
 
 C Bb Ab G F Eb D C. 
 
 All these scales are derived, as will be perceived, accord- 
 ing to the simple artistic principle of putting together like 
 partial effects of unlike complex tone-wholes, precisely as 
 alliteration, assonance, or rhyme, as used in poetry is a 
 
MUSICAL SCALES. 2OI 
 
 result of putting together like partial letter-effects of 
 unlike complex syllable-wholes. When we hear C sounded, 
 we hear with it G as its third partial, and therefore, recog- 
 nizing in G something that is like what we have heard 
 before, we are prepared to pass from the C to that note. 
 In the same way we can pass from C to F, for in the F as 
 its third partial, we continue to hear the C ; and so on 
 through the scale. 
 
 Of course these facts with reference to the partial tones 
 were not known by the Greeks to whom we must trace 
 the origin of our scale ; but their ignorance renders it all 
 the more significant that their ears should have been 
 guided to results for which modern science alone is able 
 to give a satisfactory reason. The facts with reference to 
 the subject which they had ascertained are supposed to 
 be as follows. They had found that the voice in recitation 
 was in the habit of rising, to give the interrogative inde- 
 cisive inflection, to the fifth note above the main pitch, and 
 of falling, to give the affirmative decisive inflection, to 
 the fifth note below this pitch. (See Helmholtz's " Sensa- 
 tions of Tone," pages 368 to 370.) This led them with C 
 to use G, the fifth above it, and F, the fifth below it. 
 
 In connection with these facts they had learned that a 
 string of a given length, represented by the unit I, would 
 produce a sound, say C, forming a perfect consonance with 
 sounds produced by the same kind of a string shortened 
 either to one half of its length, as when sounding, above 
 the first C, the C represented by % ; or to two thirds of its 
 length, as when sounding, above the first C, the G repre- 
 sented by | ; or to three fourths of its length, as when 
 sounding, above the first C, the F represented by f. In 
 other words they had learned that sounds produced by 
 strings related to one another as I to 2, 2 to 3, or 3 to 4, 
 
202 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 would form consonances. Accordingly, for this reason, as 
 well as for the purpose of having an instrument conformed 
 to the requirements of recitation, they seem to have in- 
 vented or adopted the " lyre of Orpheus," containing these 
 
 strings 
 
 C F G C 
 
 iff! 
 
 Modern musicians, however, do not determine the nu- 
 merical ratios of sounds of different pitch by the relative 
 lengths of strings, but of the vibrations caused by such 
 strings. This is an improvement ; because, if strings be 
 not exactly alike, consonances will not be produced by 
 shortening their lengths by , ^, J, etc. Besides this, many 
 sounds are not produced by strings at all. That which 
 really determines pitch is the time of the vibrations, 
 however caused. Accordingly to-day, if C be represented 
 by I, the octave above is represented by 2, because it is 
 produced by two vibrations made in the same time as the 
 lower one. While this lower one is made, the sound pro- 
 ducing G makes i vibrations, and the sound producing 
 F makes i^ vibrations. 
 
 In other words c F G and C are now represented 
 by i f I " 2 which, it will be no- 
 
 ticed, express) ! f f i obtained by adifferent 
 the same as ) 
 method of computing the numerical ratio. 
 
 Instead of going on to develop their scale in accordance 
 with the ideas suggested by these simple ratios, the older 
 musicians seem to have been governed by what they con- 
 sidered to be the requirements of recitation. They en- 
 larged their scale by continuing to introduce into it fifths 
 others than those represented in G and F, the reasons for 
 first using which were given on page 201. The fifth above 
 
MUSICAL SCALES. 20$ 
 
 G, which, considering C to be I, is represented by (f), is 
 D, which, considering G to be (f), is represented by f 
 of { = . This, if lowered an octave, gives the musical 
 ratio |. The fifth below F (|) is B b (|) ; | of $ = ^, giving 
 us the musical ratio - 1 /. Adding these to our former scale 
 we get 
 
 C D F G Bb C 
 
 I t f I 2 
 
 This is the Chinese scale, also the ancient Scotch scale, 
 in which numbers of the popular songs of Scotland and 
 Ireland were composed. 
 
 The Greeks did not use the note Bfe. Terpander intro- 
 duced A, the fifth of D, and E, the fifth of A. Finally, 
 Pythagoras added B as the fifth of E, thus making a scale 
 of seven notes, which number continues to this day. The 
 ratios of the notes used by him when brought into the 
 same octave are 
 
 CDEFGABC 
 
 i t ti i f -it m 2 
 
 Besides this, the Greeks had other scales formed by the 
 simple process of beginning them with other notes, thus 
 
 EFGABCDE 
 ABCDEFGA 
 
 The notes themselves, however, represented the same 
 sounds as those of the scale beginning with C. Not 
 many of these scales are known to have been used, and 
 these very likely were not used extensively. 
 
 The Greek scale was defective, in that its members, 
 with the exception of F and G were not derived from 
 their connection with C, the fundamental note ; and for 
 
2O4 RHYTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 this reason, it could scarcely have met the requirements of 
 modern harmony. In fact, it was felt to be unsatisfac- 
 tory by the Greeks themselves. They tried to correct its 
 deficiencies; but not until the sixteenth century were any 
 important changes made in it. Then, in order to pro- 
 vide for the necessities of harmony, the existing scales 
 began gradually to be transformed into our two modern 
 ones, the major and the minor. In these, the object in 
 view has been to make the ratios of the notes to the 
 fundamental note and to each other as simple as possible. 
 For this purpose the following figures were first chosen : 
 
 I* -I* I* I* ^ 
 
 I I I * a 
 
 G F A E C 
 
 To these were added D, the fifth of G, shown on page 
 203, to be properly represented by | ; and B, the third 
 (f-) of G (f)., i. e. of | properly represented by- 1 /. Ac- 
 cording to these methods of calculating the ratios, 
 methods which it is not necessary to describe further, the 
 following results have been obtained : 
 
 C I) E F G A B C 
 
 For the major scale I f f f f f -V 5 - 2 
 
 For its intervals f Y It I V' I it 
 
 For the Pythagorean scale I f |J f \\ fif 2 
 
 For its intervals I 1 Iff I I I W 
 
 For the first form of the 
 
 minor scale i f f f f f \ 5 - 2 
 
 For its intervals | if - 1 / f ^ f if 
 
 For the second form of 
 
 the minor scale i f f | | f | 2 
 
 For its intervals -f if - 1 / t {I I 
 
 The keys used on the piano and the organ are as follows : 
 
MUSICAL SCALES. 2O5 
 
 1234 567 8 9 10 ii 12 13 
 
 white black white black white white black white black white black white white 
 
 ~rcn n 'iDfi v i.r*fr,*iG!i i A* 
 
 D 
 
 Efe | * | r | Gfe | | Afe | A | B'7 
 
 B 
 
 It is possible to begin the scale, i. e., to sound the do of 
 the do re mi fa sol la si do on any one of these keys, 
 which in that case is termed the keynote, and, by using 
 half intervals at the right places in other words between 
 the 3d and 4th and between the 7th and 8th notes to 
 produce a scale containing approximately the same order 
 of sounds. Instead of a scale we may start a melody on 
 any one of these different keys ; and the ear will recognize 
 that, though its general pitch is higher or lower, neverthe- 
 less its notes continue to sustain, each to each, relations 
 that keep the melody very nearly the same. But they do not 
 keep it exactly the same. Observe the numbers for inter- 
 
 ii r* ^0 re mi fa sol la si do 
 
 valsm the keyof C: c 9 D .10 E i j F 9 G _y> A j B i e c 
 and in the key of G : G - 1 / A f- B f C f D -y E f F \% G 
 Besides this it must be evident that if all sharps are at 
 equal distances above their naturals and all flats at equal 
 distances below them, there must be something out of the 
 way either about the note | * representing half of the 
 interval -- between C and D ; or else about the note | J| 
 representing half of the interval - between D and E. 
 Such facts prove that, in order to represent each scale 
 with absolute accuracy, there should be separate notes or 
 keys for all possible sharps and flats, as well as for the 
 notes that are termed natural. As such arrangements 
 would render a musical instrument exceedingly compli- 
 cated, and the execution of music on it v correspondingly 
 difficult, what is called the temperate scale came into use 
 during the last century, mainly through the efforts of 
 Sebastian Bach. This scale represents ratios approximat- 
 
2O6 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 ing those of the mathematical, but not the same ; and its 
 value consists in the large use that it enables us to make 
 of pianos and organs, in which the same key can always 
 be struck for the sharp of one note and for the flat of the 
 note above it. The difference between the temperate and 
 the mathematical scales may be illustrated thus : If we 
 suppose the fundamental note C to make 240 vibrations 
 in a second of time, the different notes of the following 
 scales will make these vibrations : 
 
 C DEFGABC 
 The mathematical 
 
 major scale 240 270 300 320 360 400 450 480 
 The mathematical 
 
 minor 240 270 288 320 360 384 432 480 
 
 The temperate 240 269! 3 2 t 3 2O I 359 43f 453 4 8 
 
 The Pythagorean 240 270 303! 320 360 405 455! 480 
 
 Accordingly, we see that the scale used to-day is not by 
 any means as different as might be expected from that of 
 Pythagoras. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 MUSICAL HARMONY AS DEVELOPED BY THE ART-METHOD 
 
 OF GROUPING LIKE PARTIAL EFFECTS OF UNLIKE 
 
 COMPLEX WHOLES. 
 
 Historical Developments from Counteraction, etc., as Involved in Polyphonic 
 Music Connection between the Concords and the Lowest or Chief Par- 
 tial Tones of a Compound Note Harmony Emphasizes the Fact that 
 Like Partial Effects are Put with Like Visible Proof of this All the 
 Notes of a Scale Harmonized by Using Chords Based on the Tonic, 
 Dominant, and Subdominant Different Possible Arrangements of the 
 Same Chord The Cadence and the Dissonance of the Seventh The 
 Principal Key Application of Subordination, Balance, Central-Point, 
 Parallelism, Symmetry, Alternation, Massing, Complication, Conti- 
 nuity, etc. And Other of theMethods of Art-Composition Interchange 
 as an Element of Modulation And Gradation, Abruptness, Transition, 
 and Progress Interchange and Gradation in Sounding the Same Note 
 in Successive Chords In Passing from One Key to Another, by Mak- 
 ing the Tonic or Subdominant of One Key the Dominant of Another 
 By Passing from Major to Minor, or Vice Versa Further Exempli- 
 fied and Explained Relations of Different Chords to One Another 
 Abruptness in Transitions The Chords Considered Separately The 
 Major Triad The Chord of the Seventh The Minor Triad The 
 Ratios of the Notes of these Chords when in the Same Octaves Sum- 
 mary of the Ratios of Notes Causing Musical Concords. 
 
 AXTE come now to harmony proper. This was devel- 
 oped, as we have noticed, from melody ; but not 
 until the world had been accustomed to melody for 
 many centuries. Historically, the laws of harmony were 
 discovered as a result of experiments made in composing 
 polyphonic music ; in other words, as a result of that 
 
 207 
 
2O8 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 making of order out of confusion which, on page 3, is 
 shown to be counteraction. In trying to put together 
 two, three, or four melodies men found that certain notes 
 when combined sounded agreeably and others disagree- 
 ably. Of course they soon learned to use the former 
 combinations, and to avoid the latter. For many years, 
 as exemplified in the opening strain of Palestrina's 
 "Stabat Mater" (see page 191) there were no acknowl- 
 edged laws of harmony. Now, however, it is different. 
 As a rule, for instance, the notes of the ordinary major 
 scale are harmonized thus : 
 
 CGCFCFGC 
 
 Let us take these concords now and compare them 
 with the scheme of the upper partial tones of C, F, and G, 
 from which, as we found on pages 199 and 200, the major 
 scale of C is derived. We at once notice that C, F, and G 
 are the three bass notes used in harmonizing this scale ; 
 also that the nearest and most universally present partial 
 tones of C, F, and G are those used in the successive 
 chords. Let us try to arrange the scheme of the partial 
 tones and the chords harmonizing the different notes of 
 the scale so as to show this fact in the clearest way. 
 
 PARTIAL TONES. 
 
 a' b' 
 
MUSICAL HARMONY. 
 HARMONIC CHORDS. 
 
 209 
 
 In the first of the above chords, G is an octave below 
 where it belongs as the third partial, and E is two octaves 
 below where it belongs as the fifth ; in the second, third, 
 and fourth chords E is one octave below where it be- 
 longs as the fifth partial. In the seventh chord B is one 
 octave below where it belongs as the fifth partial ; and in 
 the eighth chord F is one octave below where it belongs 
 as the seventh partial. 
 
 A comparison of the notes on these two staves will 
 show that harmony does little more, than to repeat in 
 such a way as to reinforce, the partial tones already in 
 the sounds that it accompanies. In other words, it em- 
 phasizes the fact that in the successive notes of the scale 
 like or allied partial effects are put together. " When, 
 for example," says Helmholtz, " I ascend from C to its 
 sixth A, I recognize their mutual relationship in an 
 accompanying melody, by the fact that e' the fifth partial 
 of C, which is already very weak, is identical with the 
 third of A. But if I accompany the A with the chord 
 F-a-c, I hear the former c of the chord continue to 
 sound powerfully ; and know by immediate sensation 
 that A and C are consonants, and both of them constitu- 
 ents of the compound tone F." 
 
 A visible proof of the fact that in the scale like partial 
 effects of unlike complex wholes are put together, may be 
 afforded by a glance at the chords on page 208 harmoniz- 
 
210 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 ing in succession do re mi fa sol la si and do. It will be 
 noticed that the chords accompanying do re mi and si 
 
 all contain PS I , that those accompanying do mi fa sol 
 and la contain \(L_ \ , and that those accompanying fa 
 
 la and si contain fcfo J 
 
 As shown by these chords, moreover, all the notes of 
 the scale, and therefore any melody composed entirely in 
 notes of this scale, can be harmonized throughout by 
 using the chords based upon the notes of the octave 
 below its do (C), of the octave below its sol(G), and of the 
 octave below its fa (F). The do, which in this case is C, 
 is termed the keynote or the tonic. The sol, which is G, 
 is termed the dominant. This is so because it is the bass 
 of the chord harmonizing re and si y which notes, when the 
 tones of the scale are sounded in order downward or up- 
 ward, precede do and prepare the ear to hear it. The/tf, 
 which is F, is termed the subdominant, because it stands 
 in the scale just below the dominant sol. 
 
 Except at the end of a musical cadence any note in a 
 chord may be used in its bass or treble as its lowest or 
 highest note. All these, for example are different arrange- 
 ments of the same chord. 
 
 ppl 
 
 . 
 
 In order to emphasize a cadence, however, and, of 
 course, at the end of a composition, the ear seems to 
 require the use in succession of the basses and chords of 
 
MUSICAL HARMONY. 
 
 211 
 
 the subdominant, dominant, and tonic. Of these, the sub- 
 dominant can sometimes be omitted, but the dominant 
 and tonic never. The chord of the dominant seems to be 
 necessary because it harmonizes with re and si, and, 
 when the scale is sounded downward or upward accord- 
 ing to the order of its notes, the ear expects to hear one 
 of these two before the do. With the chord of the dom- 
 inant in such cases it has become customary to bring in 
 also the seventh partial tone. This is slightly dissonant, 
 suggesting an effect of unrest which in musical language 
 indicates that the chord is used for the purpose of prepar- 
 ing the ear for another. As it has become a rule in music 
 not, however, without exceptions to sound the chord of 
 the tonic after this chord of the seventh, the ear has no 
 difficulty in recognizing the tonic when it is reached. 
 With reference to this whole subject, see " Music as a 
 Representative Art," Chapter V. Here are the sub- 
 dominant, dominant, and tonic of the key of C : 
 
 Subd. Dom. Tonic. Tonic, Dom. Tonic. 
 
 \w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 -^ 
 la 
 
 
 s 
 
 i dc 
 
 1 
 
 
 -s 
 mi 
 
 
 & 
 re 
 
 d 
 
 a 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In composing modern music, a certain key is chosen as 
 the principal one, to the keynote or tonic of which all the 
 sounds used, however intricately developed, constantly 
 return. This fact is an important element in producing 
 an effect of unity in the organic form, especially in an 
 extended composition. 
 
 In the constant tendency to return to the keynote and 
 its harmony, we find a literal exemplification of the 
 method of principality, involving, as is evident without 
 explanation, subordination, as well also as balance between 
 
212 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 this tendency and its opposite. These effects are brought 
 about, moreover, by what are termed, in the chart on 
 page 3, central-point and setting, the first constantly draw- 
 ing the lines of the movement back to their starting- 
 place, the second assigning limits to the impulse to 
 wander from it. If then the methods of movement, in 
 returning to the key and in departing from it, be at all 
 representative of moods, as they should be, we may find 
 in the principal and subordinate themes fulfilments of 
 the methods of congruity, incongruity, and comprehensive- 
 ness. The similarity of the movements, too, both rhyth- 
 mic and harmonic, as the chords pass from phrase to 
 phrase and key to key, necessarily involves more or less 
 of symmetry, and of that development of complement and 
 balance, which we call parallelism. Of repetition and 
 alternation in thesis and anti-thesis, of massing, as ex- 
 emplified in the grouping of soft or forcible passages, 
 especially in the reiterated strains of the cadence ; of 
 interspersion and complication in the fugue, and other 
 movements resembling it, and of continuity in the logical 
 unfolding of the theme or themes, no mention need be 
 made here beyond what has been already pointed out in 
 "The Genesis of Art-Form." 
 
 Dissonance, interchange, gradation, abruptness, transi- 
 tion, and progress, however, as developments of con- 
 sonance, which of all the methods is the one most closely 
 connected with the harmony of sounds, need to be 
 considered at more length. 
 
 To begin with, it is noteworthy that the very first prin- 
 ciple of modulation, by which is meant the method of 
 passing from chord to chord, necessitates an application 
 of what has been termed interchange. This, as pointed 
 out in Chapter XV. of " The Genesis of Art-Form," and 
 as will be illustrated presently, is a musical method in 
 
MUSICAL HARMONY. 21$ 
 
 accordance with which, in passing from one chord to 
 another, unity of effect is maintained by sounding in 
 both chords one note that is the same. To such an ex- 
 tent is the application of this method supposed to be 
 necessary that, often, when, through the second chord, 
 the music enters a different key, a note legitimate only 
 to this second chord and key is arbitrarily introduced into 
 the first chord. (See " Genesis of Art-Form," Chapter 
 XV.) This method and the necessity of a special use 
 for it are thus mentioned by Gardiner in his " Music of 
 Nature." " When we modulate upon an organ or piano- 
 forte, in passing from one chord to another, it may be laid 
 down as a general rule that one of the fingers should 
 remain upon that key which is to form a part of the 
 succeeding chord. This gives a smoothness to the 
 transitions readily perceived by the ear. For bold and 
 sudden effects, these connecting links of harmony are 
 dispensed with." 
 
 It is hardly necessary to point out that the second 
 sentence of this passage enjoins the use not only of 
 interchange, but also of gradation, and that the last sen- 
 tence describes the exceptional use of the method of 
 abruptness. These methods, taken together too, evi- 
 dently determine the character of each transition, and all 
 of them combined that of the progress. (See page 3.) 
 
 It is, of course, the desire to emphasize the fact of the 
 likeness between consecutive chords that underlies the 
 use of interchange and gradation. The former of these, as 
 indicated on page 3, is a development of balance ; and it 
 accounts, in part at least, for that law of musicians in ac- 
 cordance with which, in passing from chord to chord, 
 consecutive octaves and consecutive fifths should be 
 avoided. Where they are not avoided, it is frequently 
 the case that there is no interchange, because there is no 
 
214 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 note in one chord that is sounded in a following one. 
 Here is an arrangement of harmony bringing in consecu- 
 tive octaves for the chords harmonizing with fa and sol, 
 and with si and do ; and consecutive fifths for those har- 
 monizing with do and re. Upon comparing this arrange- 
 ment with the chords made to harmonize with the same 
 notes on page 208, the superior unity of effect through 
 the interchange in the former arrangement will, at once, 
 be apparent. 
 
 Octaves. 
 
 Fifths. 
 
 -9- 
 fa sol 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 The importance of interchange and gradation as ele- 
 ments of harmony is still more evident when considered 
 in connection with the methods of passing from one key 
 to another. Mention has been made already of the fact 
 that in entering a new key the ear, to be assured that the 
 transition has been made, needs to hear in succession the 
 chords of the dominant and of the tonic. It follows from 
 this that, as the tonic of any key in which the music hap- 
 pens to be moving may always be the dominant of some 
 other key, it is possible to pass at once from the one into 
 the other. The following is a common way of making 
 the circuit of all the major keys, and is accomplished 
 by using each tonic as a dominant. Notice how the 
 methods of interchange and gradation are fulfilled 
 throughout. Every chord, including of course the bass 
 note, contains at least one note that is sounded in the 
 chord following. 
 
MUSICAL HARMONY. 
 
 \ ! 1 ,. f . I ,. 1 , 
 
 215 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 (Ufc , 
 
 fr 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 G 
 
 
 C 
 
 1- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Besides this it is possible to pass from one key to 
 another by means of the relations that exist between the 
 major and minor keys. The scale of C major, for instance, 
 is related to C minor, because both have the same sub- 
 dominant, dominant, and tonic. But in making these tran- 
 sitions again we have the same evidence of interchange 
 and gradation. 
 
 C Major. C Minor. 
 
 ,,-f- 
 
 I ! i 
 
 i j j 4^=n 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 Subd. Dom. Tonic. Subd. Dom. Tonic. 
 
 The former of these keys is related still more closely to 
 A minor than to C minor, because, while in C minor E, 
 A, and B sometimes are flat, in A minor all are natural, 
 in fact all the notes, except at times G, are the same as 
 those used in C major, e. g. 
 
 A Minor. 
 
 
 
 Do 
 
 
 re mi fa sol la si 
 
 do. 
 
 J=t 
 
2 1 6 RHYTHM AND HA RMON Y IN POE TRY A ND MUSIC* 
 
 A Minor again. 
 
 I 
 
 C Major. 
 
 1 
 
 f. 
 
 d 1 
 
 ' J ' i 
 
 -j 
 
 p- 
 
 p=tfc=^ 
 
 -- 
 
 -f-f- 
 
 i 1 
 
 r r 
 
 f 
 
 -J 
 
 In the same way as the key of A minor is related to C 
 major, D minor is related to F major, G minor to BJJ major, 
 C minor to E|> major, F minor to Ab major, B minor to D 
 major, E minor to G major, Cj minor to E major, Fj minor 
 to A major, Bfe minor to D(j major, and Efe minor to G(y 
 major. We have noticed how closely related the key of 
 C is to those of G, its dominant, and of F, its subdominant. 
 Observe now that each of these three, the key of C, of 
 G, and of F, has a related minor key, C that of A minor, 
 G that of E minor, and F that of D minor. These facts 
 make it possible to pass directly from the key of C into 
 all of these six other keys. But notice how in strict ful- 
 filment of the requirements of interchange &i\& gradation, 
 each chord, when these transitions are made according to 
 
 
 23 1 5- r ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ?=%= 
 
 8-^ 
 
 ty 
 
 z 
 
 HfcM ^ 1 g= 
 
 A Minor. C 
 
 G Major. 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 ] 
 
 ^ Minor. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n j 
 
 F c 
 
 F Major. C D 
 
 Minor. 
 
 E? = 1 ^ 
 
 SEE 1 .-= i- 
 
 
MUSICAL HARMONY. 21 / 
 
 rule, contains, at least, one note that is repeated in the 
 chord immediately following it. 
 
 It is not necessary to explain here in what ways it is 
 possible to pass from C major into other keys more 
 remotely related to it. Enough has been said to illustrate 
 that for which these examples have been used, namely, 
 to show the influence of interchange and gradation upon 
 the accepted methods of making transitions from one key 
 to another. An experienced musician, of course, will find 
 various and often original ways in which to apply these 
 methods ; and occasionally too will make abrupt transitions 
 with no apparent interchange. But in these cases his 
 methods form exceptions to the rule ; and they are allow- 
 able only for the reasons that ellipses are allowable in 
 rhetoric because the effects, which are not expressed, 
 are understood, the ear being so accustomed to the recog- 
 nized order of the succession of the chords that the drop- 
 ping of one link in the chain does not interfere with a 
 perception of the unity of the series. If abruptness were 
 carried so far that the ear could not perceive the possibil- 
 ity, notwithstanding it, of connecting the sounds in some 
 melodic or harmonic way so as to fulfil the principle of 
 putting together like partial effects of unlike complex 
 wholes, no aesthetic impression of artistic unity could be 
 conveyed by the method of the transition. 
 
 So far an endeavor has been made to explain the rela- 
 tions of consecutive chords. Let us now examine the 
 chords separately, and notice the different degrees of 
 pitch of the tones of which they are composed. We have 
 found on page 209 that these tones are the same as the lower 
 and, by consequence, more prominent partial tones com- 
 pounded with theprimetoneof their fundamental bass note. 
 By bringing the nearer partial tones into a single octave, 
 we get the ordinary major chord or triad, as it is called, e.g.: 
 
2 1 8 RHYTHM A ND HARMON Y IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 CFG 
 
 To this triad a fourth note is sometimes added. Inas- 
 much as the second, fourth, and eighth partials respect- 
 ively are exactly one octave above one another, and also 
 the third and sixth, it will be recognized that, in case 
 another partial be introduced into the same octave with the 
 second, third, and fifth, which constitute the major triad, 
 it must be the seventh partial. This gives the chord of 
 the seventh as follows : 
 
 The minor triad differs from the major in the flattening 
 of the note corresponding to the fifth partial, or, as the 
 notes are usually arranged in the chord, of that note which 
 is the first above the bass. It is developed from the require- 
 ments of the minor scale (see page 200), which itself is 
 developed from relations to the fundamental note of the 
 bass slightly more remote than are the relations of the 
 notes of the major scale. Notice on page 199 the efe as 
 the seventh partial of F, of which C is the third partial, 
 and also the Eb as the third partial of Ab, of which C is 
 the third partial. Here is the minor triad: 
 
MUSICAL HARMONY. 
 
 2I 9 
 
 Of course, it is understood that whenever, as is usual 
 in forming chords, in order to bring all their notes into a 
 single octave, a partial note is sounded an octave below 
 where, as a partial, it belongs, the number of vibrations 
 causing it is lessened by one half. This accounts for the 
 fact that, while the ratios of the prime tone to the different 
 partial tones are as I : 2, I : 3, I : 4, I : 5, I : 6, I : 7, I : 8, 
 etc., the ratios of the fundamental bass note to the actual 
 notes used in the common chords are as I : 2, 2 : 3, 3 : 4, 
 4:5, 5:6, etc. Bearing this in mind, let us notice the 
 ratios representing the relations of the fundamental bass 
 note of the chord to each of the notes that in different 
 combinations enter into it. For an explanation of the ways 
 in which these ratios are calculated see pages 201 to 204. 
 Beginning, for convenience, with the note that is nearest 
 the bass, here are these relations expressed in musical 
 notation both in the bass and the treble clefs. The last 
 measure contains also the relations of the chord of the 
 ninth, a partial discord very seldom used, but still not 
 wholly discarded. 
 
 Min. 3d. Maj. ad. 4th. sth. Min. 6th. Maj. 6th. 7th. 8th. gth. 
 
 *& 
 
 
 A comparison of these notes with what is said of the 
 partial tones on page 199, as also with what, on pages 201 
 to 204, is said of the methods of calculating the ratios of 
 the notes used in the musical scale, will enable us to 
 recognize that 
 
 JBR^T 
 
 crTHE a > 
 
 UNIVERSITY) 
 
 w ^ 
 
220 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 according to the 
 
 the notes repre- -j 
 sented by 
 
 C and Eh 
 Cand E 
 CandF 
 CandG 
 C and Ah 
 CandG 
 C and Ely 
 C andC 
 Cand D 
 
 and accord. 
 
 Minor third 
 Major third 
 Fourth 
 Fifth 
 
 Minor sixth 
 Major sixth 
 Seventh 
 Eight or octave 
 Ninth 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that the ratios which determine 
 the harmonies of music are either these, I : 2, 2 : 3, 3 : 4, 
 4 : 5 (8 5), 5 : 6, 4 : 7, 4 : 9 ; or else, in case a note used be 
 in a lower octave, one of these ratios with one of its fac- 
 tors divided by 2 ; or, in case a note used be in a higher 
 octave, one of these ratios with one of its factors multi- 
 plied by 2. This would give such additional ratios as 
 I : 3, 2 : 7, 2 : 9, 5 : 12, 8 : 7, 8 : 9, 10 : 12, 16 : 7, and 16 : 9. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 PSYCHICAL AND PHYSICAL REASONS FOR THE EFFECTS 
 OF MUSICAL FORM. 
 
 Relations of the Ratios Underlying Effects in Music to those in the Other 
 Arts Why is it Necessary that Notes should Chord ? Psychological 
 Reason Correspondence of it to the Reason Given for Effects of 
 Rhythm Physiological Confirmation of this Reason Beats Resulting 
 from Discordant Notes New Resulting Notes Formed by these Beats 
 In the Major Triad, the Resulting Note is itself the Tonic Beats 
 Disagreeable, because Interruptions of the Regularity of Periodic 
 Vibrations Cause Noise, not Music Blending of Psychological and 
 Physiological Reasons for Effects of Musical Form : Mind and Ear 
 must Recognize that Like is Put with Like. 
 
 A S those who are at all versed in aesthetics will under- 
 *^ stand, there are important bearings upon the other 
 arts of the use of the simple ratios, mentioned at the 
 end of the last chapter. At present, however, it concerns 
 us only to find out, if we can, why it is that chords repre- 
 senting them are the only ones that in music produce 
 satisfactory effects. 
 
 We have already found one reason for this in the fact 
 that these ratios represent the only tones that are natu- 
 rally compounded with, and therefore that can chord with, 
 the partial tones of the fundamental bass note. But what 
 of that? Why is it necessary that tones should chord? 
 Why does the mind or the ear demand concordance in 
 the sounds used in music? 
 
 In answer to this we might begin by inferring a psycho- 
 
 221 
 
222 RHYTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 logical reason. Sounds result from vibrations that cause 
 oscillations in the air, and through it in the liquid within 
 the inner labyrinth of the ear, and finally in the fibrous 
 terminations of the auditory nerve that float in this liquid. 
 There is a sense in which it may be said that the mind is 
 conscious of these vibrations, for when it hears a certain 
 number of them, per second, it invariably hears a sound 
 of a certain pitch. Now if the vibrations causing two 
 notes start together every second, third, fourth, fifth, or 
 sixth time that they are made, as they do in the notes 
 composing the musical concords, it is easy for the mind 
 on the supposition, of course, that in some subtle way it 
 takes cognizance of vibrations to perceive a unity in the 
 result, because it can analyze the vibrations and perceive 
 that they all form exact subdivisions of certain definite 
 wholes. But if the vibrations causing the tones start 
 together at only long and irregular intervals, then any 
 analysis or classification of the different constituent effects 
 is impossible. Of course such a result cannot be else than 
 confusing and unsatisfactory. 
 
 This explanation, which is the one given by Euler, has 
 much to recommend it. We know how it is in the case of 
 musical rhythm. Certain measures, to all of which an equal 
 time is given, are filled with notes and rests that represent 
 exact subdivisions of this time the whole of it or a half, 
 a quarter, an eighth, or more, as the case may be. When 
 the musician composes or sings in rhythm, he beats time, 
 mentally if not physically, and puts into each measure 
 just the number of notes that will fill it. Why are we not 
 justified in surmising that the principle which the mind 
 applies consciously when it counts the beats that deter- 
 mine the relations of a note to rhythm, it applies uncon- 
 sciously when it counts the beats or vibrations that 
 
PSYCHICAL AND PHYSICAL REASONS. 22$ 
 
 determine the relations of tone to pitch ? The fundamen- 
 tal bass note of the chord represents a certain number of 
 vibrations per second. These constitute, so to speak, the 
 chord-measure, and only those notes can be used in the 
 chord which represent the partial tones produced by exact 
 subdivisions of this measure. In fact, there is ground 
 enough for holding the theory that music is no more than 
 an artistic adaptation of the laws of rhythm, of a part of 
 which, as related to duration, the mind is conscious; but 
 of another part of which, as related to pitch i. e., to the 
 rhythm resulting from tone-vibrations, it is unconscious. 
 
 But it has not yet been shown here that the mind 
 actually does count or compare vibrations. It may do 
 this, but is there any proof of it? We may best begin an 
 answer to this question by going back of the action of the 
 mind to that of the ear that occasions it, and ask, is there 
 any proof of a physical requirement in the ear underlying 
 an operation analogous to comparison as made in the 
 realm of consciousness ? 
 
 There is proof of such a requirement. If we sound at 
 the same time two very low notes of an organ separated 
 from each other on the scale by only half a tone, C and 
 O* for instance, we shall hear, not a consecutive tone, 
 but a succession of throbs or beats. Knowing that all 
 sounds are caused by vibrations, and that a difference in 
 pitch is caused by a difference in the time of vibrations, it 
 is easy to understand how these beats are produced. 
 Suppose that one of the notes is a result of fifty vibra- 
 tions in a second, and the other of fifty-one. At the end 
 of the twenty-fifth vibration in the first of the tones, 
 there will have been, in the second, twenty-five and one 
 half vibrations. But as each vibration necessitates a 
 movement in one direction half the time, and in a con- 
 
224 RH YTHM AND HARMON Y IN POE TR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 trary direction the other half the time, the vibrations in 
 the first tone will move from the twenty-fifth to the fiftieth 
 in an opposite direction from those in the second tone. 
 For this reason the vibrations causing the two tones will 
 tend to suppress and to still one another, just as is the 
 case where two waves of nearly equal size but contrary 
 motions come together at the mouth of a river. How- 
 ever, at the fiftieth vibration in the first tone, and at the 
 fifty-first in the second, the vibrations in the two will 
 again move in the same direction, and tend to reinforce 
 one another. A difference between two notes, therefore, 
 corresponding to one vibration in a second, will cause one 
 suppressed period and one reinforced period of sound, 
 or one beat in a second ; a difference of two vibrations, 
 two beats in a second, and so on. In a difference of this 
 kind between low notes caused by a limited number of 
 vibrations in a second, these beats are perceptible, as has 
 been said, and are easily counted ; but this is not the case 
 when they are produced by high notes. Then one of two 
 results follows. They either become so numerous as to 
 form vibrations causing an entirely new tone, or else they 
 continue to exist as beats which the ear cannot distinguish, 
 but feels to be disagreeable. 
 
 They form a new tone whenever thirty-three or more of 
 them occur in a second this being the number needed 
 to produce the lowest audible sound. It has been found 
 that whenever the vibrations of two combined tones 
 differ, even if they are consonant, this new resultant note 
 is produced, and the number of vibrations in a second 
 causing this resultant note, is always equal to the differ- 
 ence between the numbers of vibrations per second in the 
 tones that are combined. For instance, if the ratio of 
 
 combined notes be that of four to five, or as that between 
 
 15 
 
PSYCHICAL AND PHYSICAL REASONS. 
 
 225 
 
 two hundred and two hundred and fifty, the resultant 
 note will be represented by I, i. e., it will be caused by 
 fifty vibrations. The ratios of the notes used in the ordi- 
 nary chords (see page 220) give these as resultant notes. 
 Do and major third, 4 : 5, difference I, which represents 
 
 the second octave below 4, i. e., do. 
 Do and the fifth, 2 : 3, difference I, which represents the 
 
 first octave below 2, i. e., do. 
 Do and the second or upper do, I : 2, difference i, which 
 
 represents the note of the lower octave, i. e., do. 
 Do and minor third, 5 : 6, difference I, which represents 
 
 the second octave below the fifth of 6, i. e., la. 
 Do and the fourth, 3 : 4, difference I, which represents the 
 
 second octave below 4, i. e.,fa. 
 Do and major sixth, 3:5, difference 2, which represents 
 
 the fifth below the fundamental 3, i. e.,fa. 
 Do and minor sixth, 5 : 8, difference 3, which represents 
 
 the major sixth below the fundamental 5, i. e., 
 
 minor me. 
 
 In the following, the chords themselves are placed in 
 the treble clef, and the resultant notes in the bass clef. 
 
 Notes in the major triad : Less perfect consonances. 
 
 Maj. 3 d. sth. 8th. Min. sd. 4th Maj. 6th. M in. 6th. 
 
 
 =d= 
 
 -^- 
 
 H^= 
 
 G 
 
 
 -^- 
 
 -&- 
 
 F 
 
 bfJ 
 
 =^= 
 
 The first three measures above will show us a new reason 
 why the notes of the major triad form the most simple 
 chord, and the one most closely related to the tonic. This 
 is because the resultant note of all of the tones composing 
 
226 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETR Y AND MUSIC. 
 
 the triad is itself the tonic, or do, of the scale in which they 
 are used. It will be evident, too, from what has been 
 said, that often the resultant notes will not harmonize with 
 every note used in the combined sound producing them. 
 When they do not, they themselves, in connection with 
 the tone with which they do not harmonize, give rise to 
 beats. Beats, therefore, in one form or another, are in- 
 evitable characteristics of discords. 
 
 Why does the ear find these beats disagreeable? For 
 this reason. They are interruptions in the continuity or 
 regularity of the vibrations. On page 194 attention was 
 directed to the fact that a musical sound, and therefore 
 all the pleasure derivable from it as such, is due to the 
 rapid periodic, or what means the same the regularly 
 recurring motion of the sonorous body ; and a noise to its 
 non-periodic, or irregularly recurring motion. 
 
 When beats occur in connection with harmony, there- 
 fore, there is noise instead of music. But noise in music 
 not only violates the artistic principle which requires that 
 like amid varied effects be put with like, but it com- 
 municates to the auditory nerves a series of shocks, con- 
 veying an intermittent, irregular, disordered excitation ; 
 whereas it is natural to suppose that, in all agreeable excita- 
 tions of the nerves, the thrill and glow that are pleasurable 
 are characterized by the elasticity and freedom accom- 
 panying non-interference. We may infer this from the 
 fact that in nature all movements are regular and rhyth- 
 mical. The leaves and limbs of a twig, for instance, vi- 
 brate, when struck by a blow, as regularly as does a 
 pendulum. The same must be true of the oscillations in 
 Corti's fibres, as they are called, in the cochlea or audito- 
 rium of the ear. At any rate, we know that only regularly 
 recurring vibrations can produce the sensations in the 
 
PSYCHICAL AND PHYSICAL REASONS. 22/ 
 
 auditory nerves which render music enjoyable. Helm- 
 holtz says : 
 
 " Consonance is a continuous; dissonance, an interrupted sensation of 
 tone. Two consonant tones flow on quietly side by side in an intermittent, 
 undisturbed stream ; dissonant tones cut one another up into separate pulses 
 of tone. This description of the distinction at which we have arrived 
 agrees precisely with Euclid's old definition, ' Consonance is the blending of 
 a higher with a lower tone. Dissonance is incapacity to mix, when two 
 tunes cannot blend, but appear rough to the ear." 
 
 In conclusion, we may blend the physiological and 
 psychological reasons for the effects of music, thus : The 
 ear has become habituated through long experience to 
 search for unity of effect in sounds. When it hears musi- 
 cal chords, it recognizes, after a few vibrations, that all 
 the sounds are exact subdivisions of some one note, in 
 other words, that what is heard results from a succession 
 of like amid varied effects. At other times, when the mind 
 cannot recognize that this is the case, it is natural to sup- 
 pose that there is an endeavor to recognize the fact, and, 
 owing to this endeavor, that there is a positive effort on 
 the part of the organs of sensation in the ear to adjust 
 themselves to the new conditions and to discover ele- 
 ments of unity and likeness that do not exist. That the 
 ear is sometimes successful in doing this, is proved by its 
 acceptance of the slight variations from true harmony that 
 are found in the temperate scale. In decided discords, 
 however, nothing can make the sounds seem to compare, 
 and the nerves and muscles are wearied by the effort of 
 trying to do it, just as they would be, were they listening 
 intently for sounds or footsteps which they failed to hear. 
 Of course, the nerves of hearing, strained, and on the alert, 
 but without success, give the ear pain, not pleasure. Pleas- 
 ure in connection with sound, aesthetic satisfaction in con- 
 
228 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 nection with tone, is experienced by mind or ear in the 
 degree only in which the result is perceived to be a unity 
 obtained front the apparent variety of unlike complex 
 wholes by putting together those that have like partial 
 effects. 
 
MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 229 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 A SYSTEMATIC arrangement of this series of essays 
 would place " Music as a Representative Art " in 
 the same volume as " Poetry as a Representative Art." 
 But it has been thought best to depart from this arrange- 
 ment on account, partly, of the length of the latter of 
 these essays, partly, of the brevity of the two that are in 
 this volume, and partly of the desirability of bringing 
 together under one cover material naturally fitted to ap- 
 peal to those especially interested in music. 
 
 For another reason, too, this course may be found ad- 
 vantageous. It was shown in the first of these series of 
 essays, "Art in Theory," that the higher arts, sometimes 
 called for this reason, the humanities, are all developed 
 from forms in which a man expresses thought or mental 
 feeling, which forms, because thought and feeling are in- 
 audible and invisible, are always adaptations by him, for 
 representative purposes, of sights or sounds furnished by 
 the physical phenomena of external nature, including 
 the physical utterances or movements which are natural 
 to the human beings about him as possessors of bodies 
 as well as of minds. 
 
 It was shown, moreover, that the representation of 
 mind, or the expression of thought and feeling, and the 
 representation of nature, or the use of forms unchanged 
 in appearance from the way in which they are presented 
 in the world about one, necessarily go together. " An 
 artificially shaped machine or implement," it was pointed 
 
 231 
 
232 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 out, " at once suggests the question, ' what can it do ? " 
 But a drawing or carving never suggests this question, 
 but rather ' what did the man who drew the object think 
 about it or of it, that he should have reproduced it ? ' ' 
 
 A further consideration suggested by the fact that the 
 art-form is an expression of thought and mental feeling, 
 and also a reproduction of an appearance of nature, was 
 that the efforts of the artist must constantly be turned in 
 two apparently different directions, one tending to de- 
 velop the form on account of its effects upon the mind ; 
 the other, on account of its effects upon the ear or eye. 
 It was said, too, that the first tendency leads him to de- 
 velop the possibilities of significance in the form ; the sec- 
 ond tendency, to develop the possibilities of style in it, 
 and, therefore, of such characteristics as rhythm and har- 
 mony, which, as exemplified in poetry and music, have 
 been considered in the preceding essay. 
 
 The essay which follows has to do with form as expres- 
 sive of significance ; and it will serve to counteract any 
 erroneous impressions, if such have been produced, with 
 reference to the exclusiveness of the claims of form con- 
 sidered merely as form. It will serve to do this all the 
 more effectively inasmuch as music is one of the two arts 
 architecture being the other concerning the necessity 
 of significance in which there is the most need of argu- 
 ment. For years, certain writers have supposed it to be 
 an indication of critical discrimination to divide the arts 
 into those which they term the representative and the 
 presentative. Reasons why this distinction is detrimental 
 to the true theory of art, and to true methods of pro- 
 duction in it, are suggested in the Preface, as well as in 
 Chapters IV. to VIII. of " Art in Theory," and, as applied 
 to poetry, are clearly indicated in chapter XIX. of 
 
INTRODUCTION. 233 
 
 " Poetry as a Representative Art." But, notwithstand- 
 ing what is said in those places, critics of this school have 
 strenuously insisted, as in the quotation on page 235, that 
 the theory that all art is representative is certain to 
 " break down " when applied in detail to music. How 
 far this prophecy has been justified the reader of this 
 essay will have an opportunity of judging. 
 
 As will be unfolded in the pages that follow, sig- 
 nificance in music is derived partly from its use of 
 instinctive methods of intonation (aside from articula- 
 tion as in words), through which men convey to one 
 another intelligence of particular phases of feeling ; and 
 partly from its use of methods of sound coming from 
 sources other than human. The use of the first of these 
 methods causes music to represent the mind ; the use of 
 the second, causes it to represent nature ; but it is well to 
 notice that the second method merely carries further, as 
 will be exemplified, a process which the mind, according 
 to the principle of correspondence, is constantly employing, 
 and that only in cases in which sounds of nature are used, 
 such as the mind has not previously employed for purposes 
 of expression, can music be said to be, in a strict sense 
 imitative. 
 
 On page 97 of the essay on " Rhythm and Harmony in 
 Poetry and Music " it was said and the statement needs 
 to be repeated here that significance in music is deter- 
 mined by the character of that which is there described as 
 the motive. This motive, itself representative, continues to 
 be representative when developed ; but, nevertheless, it is 
 developed almost entirely in accordance with the require- 
 ments of form irrespective of significance. In this regard 
 there is a close correspondence between music and archi- 
 tecture. The musician constructs a symphony from a 
 
234 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 significant series of tones ; and precisely in the same way 
 an architect constructs a building from a significant series 
 of outlines, as in a rounded or pointed arch. In both arts, 
 however, there is an occasional return to nature for the 
 purpose of incorporating, if not imitating, in the product 
 some new expression of significance. But as both arts are 
 developed, as will be shown in the first chapter following, 
 from a sustained and subjective method of giving expres- 
 sion to a first suggestion, a return to nature is much less 
 frequent in them than in the other arts. Poetry, being 
 developed from the unsustained and responsive methods 
 of expression underlying language, manifests a constant 
 tendency to talk back and, therefore, to mention and 
 describe what has interrupted the flow of thought and 
 presented new thought. Painting and sculpture, being 
 developed from the same methods of expression, when 
 underlying vision, manifest a constant tendency to look 
 back and, therefore, to imitate and depict what has inter- 
 rupted the contemplation of one object of sight and pre- 
 sented another. 
 
 This fact, that certain characteristics of art are wellnigh 
 entirely dependent upon form considered as significant, 
 while certain others are equally dependent on form con- 
 sidered merely in itself, makes the tasks both of the art- 
 producer and of the art-critic peculiarly difficult. To 
 neglect the .requirements of significance is to disregard 
 the soul of art, that which is the very substance of its 
 life; and to neglect the requirements of form is to dis- 
 regard its body, that which is essential to its artistic effec- 
 tiveness. 
 
 One might suppose that fundamental truths like these, 
 however artists and critics might differ in their applica- 
 tions of them, would be accepted as self-evident. But this 
 
UNI VERSITY) 
 iZ*^ 
 
 IN TROD UCTION. 235 
 
 is not the case. A writer in " The Nation," in criticising 
 the author's " Art in Theory," informs his readers that 
 " the true theory of the nature of art," the " develop- 
 ment " of which theory he " commends to students of 
 aesthetics," is that art is " the application to anything" 
 the italics are his own " in the spirit of play and for 
 pleasure only, of the principle of proportion. The arts," 
 he goes on to say, " deal with a great variety of matter, and 
 by no means all of them with representation. Music deals 
 with pure sound," etc. ; and again, as if there were no 
 necessity for poetic harmony as explained in the last essay, 
 " Rhyme and rhythm added to the expression of thought 
 make poetry ; sound " and the contrast indicated here, 
 as well as the whole surrounding context shows that he 
 means sound irrespective of its expressional possibilities 
 " sound submitted to the laws of harmony and melody 
 becomes music." Notice the following, too, from " The 
 Independent": "The author "of "Art in Theory" 
 " has apparently found a dim clue in the antagonisms 
 which figure for so much in the evolution of scientific 
 theories, and allowed it " i. e., the distinction between 
 significance and form, " to beguile him into the belief 
 that it might be worked into a theory of art. . . . The 
 distinction exists for critical purposes " and if so, why 
 should it not be used in a critical essay? "but has 
 little importance in reality. Art is simply, wholly and 
 entirely a matter of form . . . the best critical opinion 
 nowadays assumes the identity of the art-form with the 
 art-meaning." Yes, nowadays ; but there have been times 
 when the best critical opinion was represented by men 
 like the poet Schiller; and he did not think it superfluous 
 but essential to point out, in his " Letters on a Man's 
 ^Esthetic Education," that, in art, " form without subject- 
 
236 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 matter is the shadow of a possession, and the utmost 
 dexterity of art in expression is useless to him who has 
 nothing to express." 
 
 Goethe once said that his poetry had been a continual 
 confession. Suppose that it had been merely a confession. 
 Would this alone have made him the greatest poet of his 
 time ? To become such, did he not need, besides thinking 
 of the significance of that which he was to say, to think 
 also of the form in which he was to say it ? And was not 
 the significance one thing, and the form the versification 
 another thing? And might he not have paid attention 
 to the one, and not to the other? Most certainly he 
 might. But more than this is true. If his attention had 
 been directed chiefly to the significance, he might have 
 ranked with Wordsworth ; if to the form, with Swinburne. 
 But just because it was directed exclusively to neither ; 
 just because he had a "dim clue" through which he was 
 "beguiled" in a matter of "little importance," he was 
 careful to pay due regard to both, and, by maintaining the 
 proper balance between them, to rank where he does: 
 with Dante and Shakespeare. So in painting and sculpture. 
 The figures of Benjamin West and Julius Schnorr are 
 arranged more effectively than many a most spectacu- 
 larly significant climax in a drama; those of Balthasar 
 Denner and Florent Willems manifest the most scrupu- 
 lous regard for the requirements of line and color. Yet 
 because exclusive attention to either significance or form 
 led all of them to neglect one of the two, they never can 
 rank with artists of which this was not true Raphael, 
 Titian, and Rubens. 
 
 The same is true with reference to architecture. Fif- 
 teen years ago everybody in Boston was talking about 
 " sincerity " in art. As applied to building a house, this 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 meant that every respective bath-room, or closet, or stair- 
 case should be indicated on the exterior by a significantly 
 constructed window, or blank space, or protuberance, a 
 thoroughly sound principle so far as it was applicable. 
 But with the narrowness and the lack, in a distinctive 
 sense, of comprehension characterizing the artistic no- 
 tions of our country, the principle was applied to every- 
 thing to every exterior effect, for instance, without any 
 regard to any requirements of proportion or harmony. 
 The result was those developments of the " Queen 
 Anne " style, which even the unbalanced conceptions of 
 American criticism had sense enough to nickname 
 " Bloody Mary " and " Crazy Jane." Probably, however, 
 even these were an advance upon the method pursued in 
 the construction of the old Douglas Park University of 
 Chicago, a huge Gothic building, the exterior of which 
 is said to have been actually completed before any at- 
 tempt had been made to decide upon the rooms or halls 
 to be placed in the interior. Why should this not have 
 been the case ? In those days, when they wanted a meat 
 market or a prison, they put up indiscriminately what was 
 supposed to resemble either a Gothic cathedral or a 
 Greek temple. There is no necessity of stopping to argue 
 how far all buildings manifesting so partial a regard for 
 the requirements of art rank below one in which the 
 claims of both significance and form have been given due 
 weight, whether it be a private house or a public hall, a 
 villa on the Rhine, or a cathedral at Cologne. 
 
 And so with music. The difference between a melody 
 of Offenbach and the least successful recitative-work of 
 Wagner is the difference between treating musical form as 
 if it were wholly a matter of form, and as if it were wholly 
 a matter of significance. The difference between both and 
 
238 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the best music of Wagner, and of Mozart, Beethoven, and 
 Sullivan, too, is that in this latter the equilibrium between 
 the two tendencies in art is maintained. The essays on 
 " The Genesis of Art-Form " and " Rhythm and Har- 
 mony in Poetry and Music " have shown what is neces- 
 sary in order to develop musical form considered as form. 
 The following essay is intended to show what is neces- 
 sary in order to choose as the germ of such development, 
 a form that is significant of a particular phase of feeling. 
 
MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 REPRESENTATION IN SONG AS CONTRASTED WITH THAT 
 IN SPEECH. 
 
 The Sustained Sounds of Singing and the Uusustained of Talking The 
 Former as Developed in Music and the Latter in Poetry Differences 
 between these Two Methods of Vocal Representation Music as Neces- 
 sitating Sustained Sounds The Germs of its Representations are Mainly 
 in Inarticulate Utterance, Instinctive and Associative, rather than Imi- 
 tative and Comparative The Representation of Speech, also Depen- 
 dent partly upon Inarticulate Intonations How these are Related to 
 the Various Developments of Music Representation in Music not 
 Distinct and Definite, as in Words Darwin's Theory of the Origin of 
 Music Gurney's Comment on this Further Comments Why Music 
 is not Made Definitely Intelligible or Imitative How it Represents 
 both Mental Processes and Natural Surroundings The Mind of the 
 Composer not Necessarily in the Mood Naturally Represented by his 
 Music His Relation to this Mood that of a Painter to the Mood 
 Represented in his Model's Pose. 
 
 a man, or any living" creature, gives vocal ex- 
 pression to that which actuates him, there are two 
 distinct forms which this may assume, both of which, 
 however, all creatures cannot always produce. The 
 sounds may be either sustained or unsustained. A dog, 
 for instance, howls, and also barks ; a cat purrs and also 
 mews ; a bird warbles and also chirps ; a man sings and 
 
 239 
 
240 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 also talks. If these forms be at all representative, the sus- 
 tained sounds must represent something sustained, and 
 the others something not sustained. As a rule, an inter- 
 nal mental process is continued or sustained because it is 
 not interrupted. As a rule, too, that which interrupts is 
 external to the thoughts and feelings which constitute 
 the factors of this process. Interrupt the creature pro- 
 ducing the sustained sounds, go out at night and speak to 
 your howling dog, take the milk from a purring cat, the 
 nest from a warbling bird, or the plaything from a singing 
 child, and at once you will hear sounds of the other form, 
 barking, mewing, chirping, or scolding in words. We 
 may say, therefore, that the sustained form is mainly sub- 
 jective, or spontaneous, and that the unsustained form is 
 mainly relative or responsive. Birds and men instinctively 
 sing to meet demands that come from within ; they in- 
 stinctively chirp or talk to meet those that come from 
 without. The singing sounds continue as long as their 
 producer wishes to have them ; the chirping and talking 
 sounds are checked as soon as they have accomplished 
 their outside purpose, and are continued only by way of 
 reiteration or else of change, in order to suit the changing 
 effects that they are perceived to have upon the creatures 
 or persons toward whom they are directed. It is not 
 essential that the sustained, singing sounds should convey 
 any definite intelligence to another, because there is no 
 intrinsic necessity that he should understand them. But 
 the unsustained sounds must convey definite intelligence, 
 because this is their object. 
 
 These two conditions respectively correspond, as will be 
 observed, to those that underlie effects in music and in 
 poetry. It is to be shown, in the discussion which follows, 
 that there is a sense in which the former art as well as 
 
REPRESENTATION IN SONG. 241 
 
 the latter is representative ; but it is important to notice 
 that the two arts are not representative of the same con- 
 ditions. Therefore they do not represent in the same 
 way nor to the same degree either mind or nature. Music 
 gives expression to certain classes of sustained and sub- 
 jective moods, joyous or sad, concerning which there is 
 no outside or objective reason for imparting any specific 
 or definite information. The moment intelligence of a 
 particular mood needs to be communicated thus, as in 
 cases of outside emergency of an ordinary character, or of 
 those exciting one to extraordinary petulance or rage, then 
 the dog barks, the bird chirps, and the man, in order to 
 make himself distinctly understood, uses his throat, tongue, 
 and lips in the various ways that cause the distinct articu- 
 lation which characterizes words. 
 
 It is important to notice, too, that this difference dis- 
 tinguishable between the lowest and most elementary forms 
 of these two methods of vocal representation is the only one 
 that is fundamental. All the other distinctions that can 
 be made between sounds characterize alike those of song ^ 
 and of speech. As will be shown in the next chapter, 
 sounds differ in time, force, pitch, and quality. Accord- 
 ing to the first, one sound may have more duration than 
 another. Artistically developed, in connection with force, 
 this difference leads to rhythm. But there is rhythm in 
 poetry as well as in music. According to the second, one 
 sound may be louder than another. But this kind of em- 
 phasis is as common in conversation as in chanting. 
 According to the third, one sound may be higher in the 
 musical scale than another. Artistically developed, this 
 leads to tune. But the voice rises and falls in speaking as 
 well as in singing. According to the fourth, one sound may 
 be more sweet and resonant than another. But the differ- 
 
 16 
 
242 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 ences between pure, orotund, guttural, pectoral, and aspi- 
 rated tones, are as decided as are those between the tones 
 in different parts in singing and between the characters 
 of the sounds produced by different musical instruments. 
 
 When we come to use the word sustained, however, we 
 can say that in music a tone is sustained in time, with a 
 degree of force, at one pitch, and with one kind of quality, 
 in a sense that is not true as applied to speaking. We 
 may use articulated words in a song, yet there is a radical 
 difference between singing them and talking them ; and, 
 so far as concerns merely musical effects, these can be 
 produced, as is often the case not only in instrumental but 
 even in vocal music, without any of those produced by 
 articulation. 
 
 It is possible to separate even more clearly the original 
 germ of musical representation from that of poetry. As 
 shown in Chapter XX. of " Art in Theory," the ele- 
 mentary tendency mainly developed in the former, is 
 found in those instinctive and always inarticulate ejacula- 
 tions or more prolonged utterances, as of fright or of 
 pleasure, which are natural to a man, and these, when, 
 intentionally or artistically repeated for purposes of ex- 
 pression, come to mean what they do in fulfilment of the 
 principle of association. The elementary tendency mainly 
 developed in poetry is found in those forms of articula- 
 tion used after expression ceases to be wholly instinctive 
 and becomes reflective ; and in these forms of articulation, 
 as shown in Chapter I. of " Poetry as a Representative 
 Art," a man begins to imitate what he hears and to make 
 his utterances mean what they do in fulfilment of the 
 principle of comparison. At the same time, as pointed out 
 in the same place, association and comparison are closely 
 allied ; and, even when they are most different, expression 
 
REPRESENTA TION IN SONG. 243 
 
 is developed with completeness in the degree only in 
 which it manifests some traces of both. 
 
 Even speech, for instance, while meaning what it does 
 on account mainly of articulation is, in part, also dependent, 
 precisely as is music, upon that which is not articulation 
 but what we term intonation. A babe too young to 
 talk, a foreigner using a language unknown to us, or a 
 friend talking at such a distance that his words are indis- 
 tinguishable, can each, notwithstanding this disadvantage, 
 reveal to us something of his meaning. We can tell from 
 his tones, aside from his words, whether he be excited or 
 calm, elated or depressed, pleased or angered, earnest or 
 indifferent. The effects thus produced spring, evidently, 
 from a natural tendency which causes the movements or 
 directions what we might term the general methods of 
 the voice to correspond to those of the motives that 
 actuate one. 
 
 On account of this expressional tendency to fulfil, either 
 by way of association or of comparison, what may be termed 
 the principle of correspondence, the intonations of speech may 
 be said to be, in a true sense, representative. All of us 
 must be aware that an acquaintance can be recognized in 
 the dark largely because his conversation is characterized 
 by similar ways, at certain definite intervals, of moving, and 
 checking and pitching his utterances ; in other words, be- 
 cause he has a certain rhythm and tune of his own. Make 
 one a public speaker or a reciter of stories, like the min- 
 strel of former ages, and these movements of the voice 
 will be made by him with more art and more regularity. 
 Hence the origin of rhythm, as well as of chanting, among 
 those story-tellers who were the first poets. Make the 
 rhythm a little more marked and regular and arranged in 
 clauses of the same length, on the principle of putting 
 
244 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 like with like, and we have verse. Make the rhythm still 
 more marked, by the use of similar sounds at regular in- 
 tervals, and we have rhyme. Vary the rhythm to express 
 different ideas or classes of ideas, and we have the various 
 kinds of metre. Vary the rhythm still more, as well as 
 the upward and downward movements of the voice con- 
 stituting the tune or chant, and, in connection with this, 
 pass from unsustained to sustained tones, and we have a 
 musical melody. " We are justified in assuming," says 
 Helmholtz, in his exhaustive work on the " Sensations of 
 Tone," " that, historically, all music was developed from 
 song. Afterward the power of producing similar melodic 
 effects was attained by means of other instruments, which 
 had a quality of tone compounded in a manner resembling 
 that of the human voice." Of course, in connection with 
 the development of melody and the invention of musical 
 instruments came the arrangement of notes in musical 
 scales and the beginning of harmony ; but these have to 
 do not with representation in music, but with the methods 
 of elaborating the form of representation. At present, it 
 is sufficient to notice that, when once we have a melody 
 sung in the notes of a scale, we have but to combine cer- 
 tain of these notes, that is, to sound do, mi, sol, not succes- 
 sively but simultaneously, and we have harmony. If, 
 now, we produce both melody and harmony on different 
 musical instruments, and, in connection with these, sing 
 without articulating words, as, in fact, most singers do, 
 we can yet produce intelligible music ; or we can cease to 
 use our voices at all, and still do the same. 
 
 Evidently, there is nothing to prevent the sounds as 
 thus developed from continuing to be representative. At 
 the same time, as has been intimated, there is no reason 
 why they should be representative in a way as unmistak- 
 
REPRESENTA TION IN SONG. 24$ 
 
 ably distinct and definite as we find in language ; and they 
 are not so. Berlioz, we are told, used to amuse himself 
 by singing tunes with Italian words, and waiting till his 
 hearers had demonstrated how successfully the character 
 of the Italian verse had inspired the composer, when he 
 would inform them that the music was from a symphony 
 of Beethoven. We must all have noticed, too, how scores 
 of different sets of words, describing or expressing by no 
 means the same experiences or conceptions, may often, 
 with equal appropriateness, be sung to the same melody. 
 But, while this is so, it is worthy of note that in certain 
 general features, especially in expressing certain phases of 
 feeling, all these verses must be alike. They must all, for 
 instance, be either joyous or sad, or represent either 
 elation or depression. With this general and mainly 
 emotive method of representation, music must be con- 
 tent. 
 
 It may not prove uninteresting in this connection to 
 refer to a theory advanced by Darwin in his " Descent of 
 Man," Part II., Chapter XIX. He first notices the fact 
 that most of the sounds corresponding to those of singing 
 are made by the birds and lower animals frogs, toads, 
 tortoises, alligators, etc., during the season of breeding, 
 and mainly by the males ; also, that a certain kind of 
 music is found among the most barbarous people, and 
 that not only among them, but among civilized people 
 also, it has power to excite emotions of tenderness, love, 
 triumph, and ardor for war. The sensations and ideas 
 excited in us by music, he says, appear " from their vague- 
 ness yet depth, like mental reversions to the emotions 
 and thoughts of a long past age." He adds : 
 
 " All these facts . . . become, to a certain extent, intelligible if we 
 may assume that musical tone and rhythm were used by the half-human 
 
246 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 progenitors of man during the season of courtship. ... In this case, 
 from the deeply-laid principle of inherited associations, musical tones would 
 be likely to excite in us in a vague and indefinite manner the strong emo- 
 tions of a long past age. . . . The suspicion does not appear improba- 
 ble that the progenitors of man, either the males or the females, or both 
 sexes, before they had acquired the power of expressing their mutual love in 
 articulate language, endeavored to charm each other with musical notes and 
 rhythm. The impassioned orator, bard, or musician, when, with his varied 
 tones and cadences, he excites the strongest emotions in his hearers, little 
 suspects that he uses the same means by which, at an extremely remote 
 period, his half-human ancestors aroused each other's ardent passions during 
 their mutual courtship and rivalry." 
 
 In commenting on this passage, Gurney, in his " Power 
 of Sound," says : 
 
 " Whether or not the theory commends itself on its own merits, there is 
 no reason why it should seem derogatory to the art whose effects it would in 
 some measure explain ; for, at any rate, the differentiation in question is so 
 complete that transcendentalists can easily afford to ignore the early steps of 
 it. ... Those who believe in the expression of spirit through matter 
 need find no difficulty in the sublimation of a spiritual language out of un- 
 spiritual associations. . . . What was primarily a simple -ultimate 
 pleasure which the organism was adapted to receive, might well become, in 
 time, capable of opening the floodgates to mighty emotions . . . and 
 so to tell us of things we have not seen and shall not see." 
 
 These views are of interest here chiefly on account of 
 the confirmation that they afford of the antiquity of the 
 musical element. In attributing a conscious and non- 
 subjective design to these sounds, however, if in nothing 
 else, Mr. Darwin seems to have lost sight of a very im- 
 portant fact with reference to all expressions of this 
 character. A man sings or hums during courtship, not 
 to show himself off to his sweetheart, but to give vent to 
 his joy in having a sweetheart. She may be charmed by 
 the result, but his first object is less to do something for 
 her than for himself ; and if this be the case with a design- 
 
REPRESENTA TION IN SONG. 247 
 
 ing creature like man, how much more likely is it to be so 
 with birds and other creatures governed mainly by in- 
 stinct ! Nor must it be supposed that what Darwin 
 suggests, though it may be the main motive, is the only 
 one underlying singing in these lower orders of life. The 
 solitary canary in his cage will sing just as sweetly when 
 the morning's light arouses him as the lark looking down 
 upon his mate in the nest below him. 
 
 In short, there seems to be no way of getting a true 
 conception of the nature of musical form, except by recog- 
 nizing, as all will readily do, that in natural music, with 
 which, as distinguished from artistic music, we are now 
 dealing, sustained sounds, as distinguished from the un- 
 sustained sounds that we hear in speech, represent sus- 
 tained emotive processes. The fact that they are sustained 
 leads us to infer that the mind is in a subjective state, 
 and influenced only slightly by external considerations. 
 The slightness of this influence, moreover, sufficiently 
 explains both why the forms of music are not made 
 definitely intelligible to a listener, and also why they 
 contain so little of the imitative element. A man in the 
 subjective, absent-minded condition in which he takes to 
 humming, is usually equally unconscious of the presence 
 either of surrounding persons or of sounds. He is not in 
 a mood, therefore, either to address the one distinctly, or 
 to repeat the other accurately. 
 
 While this is true, however, s it is also true that the 
 sounds produced by him will necessarily, not in a specific 
 but in a general way, represent both his own mental 
 processes and his surroundings. Take any uncultivated 
 person, for instance, who has not learned to conceal and 
 so, to a certain extent, to misrepresent his moods. We 
 shall find that the intonations of the tune hummed by 
 
248 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 him, like his gait, will inform us at once of the general 
 tenor of the motive impelling him ; whether, for instance, 
 it be hopeful or desponding. This accords with what has 
 been said already. But besides this, if he have ever heard, 
 especially if he have heard frequently, sounds like the 
 humming of bees, the whistling of winds or of railway 
 locomotives, or the notes of squirrels, quails, whippoor- 
 wills, robins, catbirds, or of songs sung by men and 
 women about him, in nine cases out of ten, his own tones, 
 at times unconsciously to himself, but nevertheless actu- 
 ally, will imitate some of these sounds, all of which, being- 
 external to himself, are, so far as he is concerned, those of 
 external nature. Natural music, therefore, is representa- 
 tive both of man and of nature. 
 
 The art of music begins when a man becomes interested 
 in natural music to such an extent as to be led to develop 
 its forms for their own sakes (see " Art in Theory," Chap- 
 ter VIII.). For instance, one in an absent-minded way 
 may be singing, or listening to others who are singing. 
 Suddenly some feature of the sounds attracts his atten- 
 tion, and he starts to experiment with them ; and soon, 
 as a result not of absent-mindedness now, but of present- 
 minded design, he produces a melody. This process needs 
 only to be carried on by different men for a few centuries, 
 and it will lead necessarily to elaborate works of art, he 
 development of a system in accordance with which they 
 may be composed, and the invention of all sorts of musical 
 instruments on which to execute them. 
 
 Notice particularly that the composer of this artistic 
 music need not himself always be in the mood naturally 
 represented by it. " Critics," says Schumann, in one of 
 his letters, " always wish to know what the composer him- 
 self cannot tell them. . . Good heavens ! will the 
 
REPRESENTA TION IN SONG. 249 
 
 day ever come when people will cease to ask us what we 
 mean by our divine compositions? . . . Where a 
 youth of eighteen hears a world-famous occurrence in a 
 musical work, a man only perceives some rustic event, 
 while the musician probably never thought of either, but 
 simply gave the best music that he happened to feel 
 within him just then." And Mendelssohn says: " If you 
 asked me what I thought on the occasion in question, I 
 say the song itself, precisely as it stands." 
 
 It is evident that the relation of the composer to the 
 mood naturally represented by his music is analogous to 
 that of a painter to the mood naturally represented by the 
 pose of his model. All that the musician needs to do, is 
 to take some musical movement resulting from a particular 
 mood, and develop his composition in a manner analogous 
 to this movement, or consistent with it. But in order to 
 do this successfully as a result of art, it is evidently im- 
 perative that he should first make himself thoroughly 
 familiar with the motives and methods of music as an 
 expression of nature. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL DURATION AND 
 FORCE: RHYTHM. 
 
 Similarity of Poetic and Musical Representation Representative Intona- 
 tions of Elocution Through Duration, Force, Pitch, and Quality Dis- 
 coursive or Associative and Dramatic or Comparative Elocution Each 
 Representative according to the Principle of Correspondence Musical 
 Duration as Representative Musical Duration as Representative of 
 both Mental Moods and Natural Effects Illustrations Musical Force 
 as Representative of both Mental Moods and Natural Effects Rhythm 
 as a Combination of Effects of Duration and Force Significance of 
 Rhythm As Representing Moods of Buoyancy and Exhilaration Con- 
 fidence, Triumph Self-Poise, Dignity The Gliding, Yielding, Grace- 
 fulHesitation, Doubt Disturbance, Turmoil, Confusion Imitative 
 Effects Forging Flight Downward Upward Snakes Water 
 Flowing Ease Giants' Tread. 
 
 TV/T USIC has been said to represent sustained mental 
 "*" processes, and yet to do this in only an indefinite 
 
 and general way. The most general way of doing it, how- 
 ever, involves differences in the methods of giving ex- 
 pression to different phases of these processes. It would 
 be in order, therefore, at this place, to enter into a full 
 discussion of these different methods. But the effects of 
 music are subject, in the main, to the same laws of sound 
 as are those of poetry ; and, as presented in book form, 
 poetic effects are much the more easy of the two to illus- 
 trate. For this reason, as well as because what the author 
 had to say of poetry in this connection was first prepared 
 for publication, an extended treatment of many of these 
 
 250 
 
REPRESENTA TION THROUGH MUSICAL DURA TION. 2$ I 
 
 methods, with the exact significance represented by the 
 different phases of each of them, has already been given 
 in the volume entitled " Poetry as a Representative Art," 
 Chapters IV. to XII. inclusive. Of course, much that 
 was said there, it would be superfluous to repeat here. 
 But enough will be recalled to render the general subject 
 intelligible to the reader, and enough added to show its 
 bearing upon the special art now to be considered. 
 
 An endeavor to ascertain the elements of representation 
 in sound suggests, at once, a reference to the art of elocu- 
 tion. This art has the power of producing through the 
 intonation of words, irrespective of their articulation, an 
 almost endless variety of effects ; and the argument is 
 logically irresistible that these effects are the same in kind 
 as those of music. What, then, are the elements of elocu-K 
 tionary effects ? * A moment's consideration will cause 
 us to recognize that there are four of these. They can 
 all be perceived by emphasizing strongly the first syllables 
 of barbarous, murmuring, tartarize, Singsing, or papa ; or 
 by emphasizing a word like go in the sentence " I will go 
 if so." In giving the emphasis it will be noticed that the 
 emphatic syllables and the word^tf are made to differ from 
 that which accompanies them, first, in duration : they 
 are sounded in longer time ; second, in force : they are 
 sounded with more energy ; third, in pitch : they are 
 
 1 The signification of the methods of elocutionary representation to which, 
 in this essay, those of music are correlated, may be found detailed in full 
 in the author's " Orator's Manual." This book, first issued in 1879, 
 has had an increasing sale as seems to be the case with " Poetry as a 
 Representative Art " every year since the date of its publication, and it is 
 not too much to say that, since that time, no other treatise of acknowledged 
 merit upon the subject has been produced in which, however much devel- 
 oped, the explanations then made for the first time have not been adopted 
 without virtual alteration. 
 
MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 sounded on a key which, if used in music, would be rela- 
 tively higher or lower in the musical scale ; fourth, in 
 quality : they are sounded with more fulness or thinness 
 of tone. Simply by increasing the degree in which any of 
 these elements enter into ordinary accentuation, we can 
 increase the degree of emphasis represented by them. 
 
 With reference to these four elements, it may be well to 
 notice, further, that duration is merely an external effect 
 of sound, while force, pitch, and quality are all essential to 
 the very formation of it ; different degrees of force, as we 
 learn from science, being determined by the relative size 
 of the vibrations causing the tone ; of pitch, by their rela- 
 tive rapidity ; and of quality by the relative size and 
 rapidity of those compounded together in order to pro- 
 duce any apparently single tone almost every tone, as 
 science has ascertained, being a compound. 
 
 Now let us consider the significance of these elements. 1 
 In elocution as in music they all represent emotive effects ; 
 but, at the same time, each represents a certain phase of 
 these effects. Moreover, in elocution each of these phases 
 is manifested in two ways, one of which may be termed 
 discoursive and the other dramatic. Discoursive elocu- 
 tion, generally termed that of emphasis, is developed from 
 instinctive methods of expression, and corresponds, in this 
 regard, to words formed from ejaculations. It is used 
 mainly in oratory. Dramatic elocution, generally termed 
 that of personation, is developed by the reflective powers 
 as a result of impressions received from without. Mimicry, 
 in some form, underlies all its effects ; for which reason, 
 it will be seen at once to correspond to words formed as a 
 result of imitation, and to be the phase of delivery used 
 mainly in dramatic acting. 
 
 1 See note p. 251. 
 
REPRESENTA TION THROUGH MUSICAL DURA TION. 253 
 
 Effects in this latter kind of elocution, of course, inter- 
 pret themselves. In discoursive elocution they need 
 further explanation. As used in this, however, it may be 
 said in general that they are based, in just as true a sense 
 as if they were more clearly imitative, upon the principle 
 of correspondence, in accordance with which it seems to be 
 instinctively felt, even when not consciously thought, that 
 different phases and movements of invisible and inaudible 
 mental moods have their analogues in different forms 
 and operations in the visible and audible world. In ful- 
 filment of this principle, it is recognized in ways that \ 
 will be explained presently that the element of duration 
 measures the utterance, indicating, in the degree in which 
 it is short or long, whether it is conceived to be of slight 
 or of great importance. This interpretation of the mean- 
 ing of duration, by the way, shows how appropriate the 
 art-term metre or measure is as applied not only to form 
 but to thought, in all cases in which the form accurately 
 embodies the thought. Again it may be said, for reasons v 
 that will be given hereafter, that force, in giving greater \ 
 or less loudness to utterance, energizes it ; that pitch, by 
 interpreting the motive, aims it ; and that quality, by J 
 manifesting the kind of feeling, tempers it. Besides this, 
 it is well to notice that duration and force together are) 
 essential to the effects of rhythm, and pitch and quality 
 together to those of tune ; rhythm resulting from the\ 
 measuring of time or movement by regularly recurring im- / 
 pulses perceptible in the physical world, and tune from a 
 similar cause, detected only by scientific analysis, operat- 
 ing through vibrations upon our inner nervous and men- 
 tal organism. 
 
 These statements, however, are only preliminary. Let 
 us pass on to see how the principle of correspondence as 
 
254 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 fulfilled, both in associative or discoursive, and in imita- 
 tive or dramatic, elocution can be made to apply to music ; 
 and first to the elements entering into rhythm, namely, 
 duration and force. Considering duration for a little 
 without reference to force, it is evident that, from noticing 
 the absolute or relative time of movements in what we 
 hear and see in nature, we can learn that of which, both 
 in words and deeds, a fast pace and a slow pace are in- 
 dicative ; and that we can infer from this that of which 
 rapid sounds and slow sounds are indicative. Through 
 the aid of this test, we find that rapidity is indicative, by 
 way of association, of moods that zxz joyous or mirthful; 
 or, as applied to special thoughts or feelings, of such as 
 seem deserving of only brief consideration, because they 
 are light and trifling ; and, as applied to natural effects in- 
 fluencing such moods, that it is indicative, by way of com- 
 parison or imitation, of those actually exhibiting quick 
 motion. Slowness, on the contrary, is indicative of grave 
 and serious moods ; of thoughts and feelings worthy of 
 long consideration, therefore, of dignity and importance ; 
 and of natural effects that exhibit a retarded motion. 
 
 What has been said hardly needs illustration. Every- 
 one can recall the general difference in rapidity between 
 ordinary dance-music as it is termed, and church music ; 
 or between a hornpipe and a hymn ; and he knows, too, 
 that this difference is determined by the fact that the for- 
 mer represent by way of association, joyous, mirthful, 
 light, trifling moods and that the latter represent the op- 
 posite. The same fact will be recognized almost as readily 
 to be true of movements designed to be representative 
 not so much of moods, i. e., of thoughts and feelings, as, 
 by way of comparison or imitation, of outward material 
 effects. To prove this, take some of the motives, as they 
 
REPRESENTA TION THROUGH MUSICAL DURA TION. 255 
 
 are termed, of the operas of Wagner, from whom, as not 
 only the most modern but the most prominent of repre- 
 sentative composers, it is appropriate that the most of our 
 illustrations with reference to this subject should be drawn. 
 Fortunately, too, these motives have been put into such 
 forms of notation and given such titles that no one need 
 hesitate in a treatise like this to point to them as authori- 
 tative. Without further acknowledgment, it is enough to 
 say that those that are to be used in the pages following, 
 are to be found, in the form in which they are presented 
 and with the titles assigned to them, either in the " Guide 
 through the Music of Richard Wagner's Ring of the 
 Nibelung " of Hans Von Wolzogen, or else in the " Wag- 
 ner's Tristan und Isolde " of Gustav Kobbe. Here, to\ 
 begin with, is (i) the " Motive of Loge," the spirit of flame, > 
 taken from " The Rhinegold." Notice the appropriate- 
 
 No, i. 
 
 on HE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
256 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 ness, not so much now of the alternating upward and 
 downward directions of pitch, to which reference will be 
 made hereafter, as of the rapid motion through which the 
 flickering and fluttering of the flame is represented. 
 
 Notice the equal appropriateness of the slow time given 
 to the " Motive of the Love of Death," in " Tristan und 
 Isolde " : (2.). 
 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Passing on now to force, there is no difficulty in finding 
 what it too, represents, through observing the manifesta- 
 tions of it in nature. Great force, involving loudness of 
 tone, indicates, of course, great energy, either of body or of 
 mind ; as in expressions of earnestness, strength, self-as- 
 sertion, vehemence. Notice the music on page 272 in 
 Chapter III., numbered 28 and 29. For an analogous 
 reason, slight force involving softness of tone, indicates 
 the opposite, i. e., little energy, as in expressions of indif- 
 ference, weakness, gentleness, mildness. Notice the music 
 numbered 9 and 81. In addition to this, it follows, as a 
 matter of course, that great force represents that which 
 has a loud sound, or is so vast in size that its sound would 
 be loud if it produced any ; and that slight force represents 
 that which has a soft sound, or is so small that it would 
 have this if it produced any. Notice the music numbered 
 14 and 16. 
 
 The most important use of force in music, however, and 
 the same is true of duration, is in cases in which both of 
 these elements combine in order to produce effects of 
 rhythm ; in cases, that is, in which neither duration nor 
 
REPRESENTA TION THROUGH MUSICAL DURA TION. 
 
 force is general or absolute but special or relative, differ- 
 ent notes that follow one another being distinguished by 
 different degrees of length and loudness. It is in rhythm, 
 too, that the representative features of both elements 
 become most apparent. 
 
 A full discussion of the different kinds of rhythm, or of 
 the significance of each kind of it, is not needed here. The 
 former subject is discussed in Chapters I. to VI. of 
 " Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and Music," and the 
 latter subject in Chapters IV. to VIII. of " Poetry as a 
 Representative Art." In this place, it suffices to say that 
 rhythm is produced by accenting sometimes through 
 duration alone, sometimes through force alone, but usually 
 through both in combination certain tones separated 
 from one another by exactly the same intervals of time. 
 In music these accented tones, as a rule, begin measures. 
 They are the tones immediately following the perpendicu- 
 lar lines termed bars in the music below. In poetry, the 
 accents are sometimes at the ends, and sometimes in the 
 middles of the measures. 
 
 With reference to the significance of rhythm, it may 
 be said that when it is regular and strongly accented, like 
 the steady pace and tread of a vigorous man or of a file of 
 soldiers, it indicates conceptions like those of buoyancy 
 and exhilaration, as in the galop (3) : 
 
 
 
 r-r-f 
 =*=* 
 
 W3. 
 
 * -c- 
 
 T T 
 
 Ah! Ah! 
 
 Ah! 
 
 -- - 
 
 T 
 
 u 
 
2$8 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 Tout a la Joie : Phil. Fahrbach. 
 
 Of confidence and triumph, as in the Marseillaise Hymn, 
 (see music No. 28) or in the ordinary march (4) : 
 
 p^f 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 Among Comrades March : Carl Faust. 
 
 Also of self-poise and dignity, as in the minuet (5) : 
 Andante. -., 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 Minuet de la Cour : C. Coote. 
 
REPRESENTA TION THROUGH MUSICAL DURA TION. 
 
 When the rhythm is regular, but with the accent given at 
 somewhat unusual relative length or at unusual places, we 
 have the gliding, yielding, graceful effects exemplified in 
 the music in numbers 6, 7, and 8 : 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 Bella Bocca Polka : Emile Waldteufel. 
 
 No. 7. 
 
 Glide or Polacca Quadrilles : William Coleman. 
 
 Orazioso. 
 
 ^ffi 
 
260 
 
 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 No. 8. 
 -Tresjolie Waltz : Emile Waldteufel. 
 
 When the rhythm is not strongly marked, and is 
 greatly varied, it indicates conceptions like those of hesi- 
 tation and doubt, as in this passage (9) from Beetho- 
 ven's pianoforte " Sonata in E Minor," op. 90, which, 
 according to Gurney, in his " Power of Sound," " is said 
 to have been humorously connected with the indecision 
 in the mind of a certain noble lover whose passion for an 
 actress had been expressed in a preceding theme." 
 
 e 
 
 g=^r 
 
 dim. 
 
 i=i 
 
 No. 9. 
 
REPRESENTA TION THROUGH MUSICAL DURA TION. 261 
 
 Greater and more abrupt changes of the same kind, 
 either in duration, or force, or in both, represent, of 
 course, greater degrees of similar emotions, until, when 
 carried to extremes, they suggest, like explosive sounds 
 in nature, the highest possibilities of disturbance, tur- 
 moil, and convulsion. 
 
 Rhythm that fulfils the principle of correspondence 
 in that it produces not merely associative, but also com- 
 parative and so distinctively imitative effects, are also not 
 uncommon. Notice the suggestion of hammering in the 
 " Forging Motive " of Wagner's " Rhinegold " (10) : 
 
 No. 10. 
 
 Also, in the same opera, the "Motive of the Flight" 
 which accompanies the descent to the earth of Freia, the 
 goddess of light and love (n) : 
 
 No. ii. 
 
 Which reminds us of the " Walkiiren Motive 
 
 or 
 
 Ride 
 
 Motive " in Wagner's " Walkure," which also represents 
 flying, but in this case flying upward (12) : 
 
 No. 12. 
 
262 
 
 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 In the " Rhinegold," again, we have the " Snake Motive " 
 represented both in the rhythm and in the movements of 
 pitch (i 3): 
 
 
 No. 13. 
 
 Also the " Motive of the Primeval Element," represent- 
 ing the gentle rippling of water as in a river (14) : 
 
 No. 14. 
 
 " In Venice," says Gardiner, in his " Music of Nature," 
 "where the people are constantly moving upon the 
 water, the motion of the boat suggests the flowing ease 
 of triple time, in which all their celebrated airs and 
 barcarolles are written. A beautiful illustration of this 
 movement is to be found in Mr. Moore's words and 
 music : 
 
 " * Row, brothers, row ; the stream runs fast ; 
 The rapids are near and the daylight past.' " 
 
 The first line of which is as follows : 
 
REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL DURATION. 263 
 
 & 
 
 Faint - ly as tolls the eve - ning chime, Our 
 
 N. 
 
 voi - ces keep tune and our oars 
 
 keep time. 
 
 No. 15. 
 
 Canadian oat- Song : T. Moore. 
 
 Notice, finally, as distinctly representing both force and 
 movement, the " Motive of the Giants," from Wagner's 
 " Rhinegold," in which we are supposed to hear the tread 
 of their feet (16): 
 
 JTT 
 
 j. 
 
 ^ | 
 
 No. 16. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL PITCH, HIGH ANI> 
 LOW, UPWARD AND DOWNWARD. 
 
 Correspondences in the External World to High and Low Pitch And to Up- 
 ward and Downward Directions of it Further Explanations As 
 Illustrated in Elocutionary Intonations Gregorian Chants as Devel- 
 oped from Elocutionary Laws Upward Movements in Musical Ques- 
 tions In Anticipative Expectancy Downward Movements in Effects 
 that are Conclusive Affirmative and Positive Combined Upward and 
 Downward Movements in Effects both Anticipative and Conclusive 
 The Same Rendered Emphatic Imitative Effects : Upward as in 
 Rising Downward as in Sinking In Both Directions. 
 
 T N accordance with the principle of correspondence the 
 conditions of pitch, high or low, or its movements in 
 directions upward or downward in the musical scale, seem 
 to be in exact analogy with correlated conditions and 
 directions with which we are all familiar in the external 
 world of space about us ; and, like them, to indicate the 
 mental aim or motive. When, for instance, one is elated, 
 he holds his head high, and his movements are varied like 
 those of a buoyant schoolboy. When one is depressed, 
 his head bends downward and his movements are few. It 
 is the same with the utterances. A soaring bird sings in 
 a high and changing key, a crouching man threatens or a 
 dog growls in a low and monotonous key. High and 
 varied tones, therefore, seem to represent elation of spirit, 
 or that which is felt to be elevating in its influence ; and 
 low and uniform tones represent depression of spirit, or 
 
 264 
 
REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL PITCH. 26$ 
 
 that which is felt to be impressive. These statements 
 will be found sufficiently illustrated by comparing the ex- 
 hilarating music numbered 21, 22, 28, 29, 33, 40, 43, 45, 
 46, 66, with that of an opposite character numbered 2, 10, 
 16, 17, 24, 30, 34, 51, 52, 56, and 63. 
 
 The same is true with reference to movements in the 
 directions of pitch. Its tendency, when two or more 
 tones are heard in succession, may be upward or down- 
 ward. When taking either direction, pitch follows laws 
 applicable to all movement. Men lift their bodies, limbs, 
 feet, when they start to do something. They let their 
 hands fall at their sides and sit down or lie down when 
 they get through with what they have to do. The lungs 
 rise in inspiration and fall in expiration. So with voices 
 in speaking. Their sounds rise when a man feels inspired 
 to be,gin to say something, e.g., " If s6, I will go." They 
 fall when the inspiration is over, because he is through 
 saying it, e.g., " If so, I will go." In other words, to quote 
 from page 47 of " The Orator's Manual," written many 
 years ago, where ample illustrations of all the following 
 statements will be found : " Upward and downward move- 
 ments of pitch represent the mental motive. The voice 
 rises when one is moved to open, and falls when moved 
 to close, the expression of an idea. It must be borne in 
 mind, however, that these directions of pitch depend upon 
 the relations of utterance to the sense, and not merely to 
 the sentence. If the sense does not close or open where 
 the sentence does, the tones may fall before its close and 
 rise at its end, e.g., ' I will g6, if s6/ * Will you g(5 ? ' 
 ' N6, I wdnt, if he 's th6re.' " 
 
 We may extend, and, at the same time, explain this by 
 saying that the voice rises for the purpose of opening or 
 broaching an idea ; that is to say, for the purpose of 
 
266 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 pointing away from the thought immediately expressed, 
 e.g., when one is inclined to consider the words uttered as 
 merely anticipative or indecisive, in the sense of being in 
 themselves subordinate, insignificant, trite, negative, or 
 questionable, as contrasted with something that is ex- 
 pected to be, or that has been, expressed by the falling 
 inflection. On the contrary, the voice falls for the pur- 
 pose of closing or completing an idea ; that is to say, for 
 the purpose of pointing to the thought immediately ex- 
 pressed, e.g., when one is inclined to consider the words 
 uttered as final or decisive, in the sense of being in them- 
 selves interesting, important, noteworthy, affirmative, or 
 positive. It falls whenever it gives its sentence in the 
 sense either of having completed the expression of a sen- 
 timent or of having uttered something sententiously. 
 
 In order to recognize the degree in which, even in 
 speech, intelligence of the motives that are directing the 
 thoughts or feelings may be conveyed by methods other 
 than by the mere articulations which cause the sounds to 
 be words, notice, in the following examples, how the same 
 phraseology may be made to convey entirely different 
 meanings. Here the upward inflections, as given on the 
 opening clauses, indicate anticipation, or the fact that 
 what is expressed in them is subordinate and insignifi- 
 cant, as compared to what is expressed in the concluding 
 clauses : 
 
 The gay will laugh 
 
 When them art gone ; the solemn brood of care 
 Plod on, and each one as before will chase 
 His favorite phantom ; yet all these shall leave 
 Their mirth and their employments, and shall come 
 And make their bed with thee. 
 
 But here the downward inflections, as given on precisely 
 
REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL PITCH. 267 
 
 the same opening clauses, indicate conclusiveness, or the 
 fact that what is expressed in them is interesting, impor- 
 tant, and noteworthy, entirely aside from that which is 
 expressed in the concluding clauses. 
 
 The gay will laugh 
 
 When thou art gone ; the solemn brood of care 
 Plod on, and each one as before will chase 
 His favorite phantom ; yet all these shall leave 
 Their mirth and their employments, and shall come, 
 And make their bed with thee. 
 
 Notice also the following : " We all know his w6rd is a 
 little uncertain," indicates the trite, the well known. 
 " We all know his w6rd is a little uncertain," indicates 
 the noteworthy, the important. " There is a path through 
 the wdods hre," indicates indecision in view of the doubt- 
 ful. " There is a path through the woods here," indicates 
 decision in view of what is not considered doubtful. " It 
 must be so," indicates the questionable ; " It must be so," 
 indicates positive assurance. " He declaims very well," 
 gives questionable praise to the mediocre ; " He declaims 
 very well," positively commends the excellent. " John 
 has returned h6me," questions the action, and produces 
 the effect of disapprobation ; " John has returned h6me," 
 expresses decisive approbation. 
 
 That similar principles apply to the movements of pitch 
 in the melody of music, we might infer as a result of con- 
 sidering the subject theoretically. But we can not only 
 infer it but perceive it as a result of a practical study of 
 facts. Notice the following text, (i 7) which was connected 
 with the notation of the Gregorian chants, written in the 
 sixth century. Whether Pope Gregory (A.D. 590-604) 
 originated these methods, or derived them from Pope Syl- 
 
268 
 
 KJr 
 
 MUSIC AS 
 
 A REPRESENTATIVE 
 
 ^^r. 
 
 H 
 
 f f f f |- 
 
 - r r r r r ? 
 
 
 Sic can - ta com-ma, sic du - o punc-ta: sic ve - ro punctum. 
 Thus sing the com-ma, and thus the co - Ion : and thus the full stop. 
 
 yr m p 
 
 p 
 
 P p 
 
 P r 
 
 m 
 
 - f 
 
 
 Sic signum in - ter - ro - ga - ti - o - nis. 
 Thus sing the mark of in - ter - ro - ga-tion. 
 
 No. 17. 
 
 vaster (A.D. 314-335), as is sometimes said, or from St. 
 Ambrose (A.D. 341-395), or whether all of these derived 
 them from the ancient Romans or the Greeks, it is now 
 acknowledged that, historically, all our modern European 
 systems of melody, and, through them, of harmony have 
 grown out of these chants, or at least have come down to 
 us through them. Could a stronger proof be afforded 
 that music is a development of that which in its incipiency 
 is representative? These chants to which, or through 
 which, all modern music is traceable, were deliberately 
 composed in order to be this, and nothing else. 
 
 The representative character of the movements of musi- 
 cal pitch is wellnigh equally manifested in modern melodies. 
 Except where the significance of these depends upon their 
 connection with harmony, which, as will be shown pres- 
 ently, introduces another principle, it will be found that 
 almost always in the degree in which they commend 
 themselves to general taste to such an extent as to con- 
 tinue to preserve their popularity, in that degree they 
 parallel the movements natural to the speaking utter- 
 ance of the sentiments to which they give expression. 
 Notice, for example, how distinctly the theme of the fol- 
 lowing asks a question : 
 

 
 
 REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL PITCH. 269 
 
 -i / p y 
 
 &-\r-^r 
 
 ?=?- 
 
 |~ tf i ^ J ^ n ^ 
 
 b ^ ' ' ' *s^' V ' J == 
 
 bo-dy meet a bo-dy, Coin-in' thro' the rye, 
 
 If a bo-dy kiss a bo-dy, Need a bo-dy cry ? 
 
 No. 18. 
 
 Comiri thro' the Rye : Scotch Melody. 
 
 So, too, how both melody and harmony unite in order to 
 produce this same effect in the " Motive of the Question 
 to Fate," in Wagner's " Walkure " (19) : 
 
 /T\ 
 
 iS 
 
 No. 19. 
 
 Notice, again, how distinctly the motive in Wagner's 
 " Gotterdammerung," termed the " Wedding Call," ex- 
 presses anticipation, and, in this case, in the absence of 
 any minor tendency, joyous anticipation (20) : 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 No. 20. 
 
 Again, notice how both harmony and melody join to 
 emphasize anticipation carried to a pass of exuberant ex- 
 pectancy in the cry of Brunkilde, in the same opera, as 
 waking from her sleep of ages she greets the world once 
 more (21) : 
 
270 
 
 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 
 -t H 
 
 ff 
 
 No. 21. 
 
 In the " Walkiire " precisely the same feeling is conveyed 
 by the " Motive of Siegfried the Walsung," himself the 
 representative of anticipative, buoyant, hopeful, enthusi- 
 astic youth (22). 
 
 * f 
 
 ' 
 
 -' 
 
 No. 22. 
 
 In contrast to these, notice the conclusive effect of the 
 downward movement in what is called the " Slumber 
 Motive," suggesting rest from labor, in the " Walkiire " 
 
 (23): 
 
 No. 23. 
 
 Also, in the same opera, the more affirmatively and posi 
 tively conclusive effects of the " Motive of Renunciation " 
 
REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL PITCH. 2? I 
 
 m 
 
 No. 24. 
 And of " Godly Wrath " (25) : 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 No. 25. 
 
 In most music, as in most speech, we have both antici- 
 pate upward movements and also conclusive downward 
 ones. Here are both in a comparatively mild form : 
 
 
 t 
 
 'Mid pleasures and pal - ac - es, Tho' oft we may roam, 
 
 
 m 
 
 Be it ev - er so hum - ble, There's no place like home. 
 
 No. 26. 
 
 Home, Sweet Home : J. H. Payne. 
 
 I I H 1 : 
 
 Tho Freedom now so seldom wakes ; The on-ly throb she gives 
 
 -H 
 
 Is when some heart indignant breaks To show that still she lives. 
 
 No. 27. 
 The Harp that once through Tara's Halls : T. Moore. 
 
272 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 Here are both in a very emphatic form : 
 
 
 
 To arms! to arms lye brave! The pa -triot sword unsheath; 
 
 ry #r , i 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 
 
 X 
 
 March on, march on, all hearts resolved On lib - er-ty or death. 
 No. 28. 
 Marseillaise Hymn : Rouget de Lille. 
 
 And in the peculiar combination in the following of both 
 upward and downward movements, anticipation seems to 
 be represented as certain of positive realization ; the Eng- 
 lish translation of the words set to the first line being, 
 " Look how the rays of the sun streaming bright shed its 
 radiance around, let 's be up and doing." 
 
 No. 29. 
 ^z/z7 Chorus, II Trovalore : Verdi. 
 
 As illustrations of upward and downward directions of 
 pitch, representative, in the sense of fulfilling the princi- 
 ple of correspondence in such a way as to be distinctly 
 imitative of outward natural effects,, notice in Wagner's 
 
REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL PITCH. 2?$ 
 
 " Rhinegold," the " Motive of the Rising Treasure," the title 
 of which should sufficiently explain its significance (30) : 
 
 Also, in the same opera, in the " Motive of the Nornes," 
 the representation of Erda, the mother of earth, as, with 
 her daughters, the Nornes, she comes up from below(3i) : 
 
 * 
 
 No. 31. 
 
 and then the " Motive of the Gotterdammerung," which 
 represents her as she sinks downward again (32) : 
 
 s 
 
 k 1 
 No. 32. 
 
 
 Notice, also, further on in the same opera, the upward and 
 downward representation in the " Rainbow Motive " (33) : 
 
 18 
 
 No. 33. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL PITCH : COMBINED 
 WAVE-MOVEMENTS. 
 
 The Meaning of the Elocutionary Circumflex or Wave-Movements Further 
 Explanations How these Conditions are Paralleled in Music Illustra- 
 tions of Inconclusive Uncertainty Ending with Positive and Decisive 
 Effects Of Anticipation Ending with Finality Of the Indecisive 
 ending with the Decisive Of Hope, ending with Doubt Of Irony > 
 Mockery Other Illustrations. 
 
 "DESIDES the simple upward and downward directions 
 of pitch, there are cases in elocution in which, on a 
 single emphatic word, the tones are made to move in both 
 directions. The result gives us what is termed the cir- 
 cumflex inflection, or wave. Its representative effect, of 
 course, is to indicate a combination of the motives natu- 
 rally expressed by a movement in each of these directions. 
 In other words, it points both away from an idea or feel- 
 ing expressed as important on account of its relation to 
 something else, and it also points to the same idea or feel- 
 ing as important in itself. We find this inflection, some- 
 times, in consecutive discourse, as in the following, where 
 the speaker, in uttering the word independence, is thinking 
 of its results, and of pointing away to them, as well as of 
 itself and of pointing to it : 
 
 Set before them the glorious object of entire independence, and it will 
 breathe into them anew the breath of life. 
 
 For a similar reason, to indicate that a word is used 
 
 274 
 
REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL PITCH. 275 
 
 largely on account of its suggestions of other things, we 
 find the same inflection in cases of comparison, as in "He 
 is the Gladstone of America " ; and also in cases of 
 contrast, as in " I did not speak of feeling, but of will/' 
 Once more, we find it used very strongly in cases of double 
 entendre or equivocacy, involving innuendo, sarcasm, 
 satire, mockery, irony, in which it is necessary to point 
 away from the whole phraseology to a meaning that is not 
 in it, but can be put into it by the intonations, as e.g., in 
 " Oh, he is an honest man, he *s ! " 
 
 To understand the whole influence of this circumflex 
 inflection, it needs to be added also that the direction, 
 whether upward or downward, which is most strongly 
 emphasized in it which, in speech, is the direction with 
 which it concludes is that which indicates the predomi- 
 nating motive. If the conclusion be in the upward direc- 
 tion, the predominating motive is that which suggests 
 the anticipative, indecisive, subordinate, insignificant, 
 trite, negative, or questionable ; and if it be in the down- 
 ward direction it suggests the conclusive, decisive, or in 
 itself interesting, important, noteworthy, positive, or 
 affirmative. Both statements may be illustrated suf- 
 ficiently in the sentence, " I did not speak of fueling, but 
 of will." 
 
 Now notice how exactly these conditions are paralleled 
 in music. First of all, glancing back at that numbered 
 29, it will be observed that in connection with the down- 
 ward directions in the first four bars, the general move- 
 ment, as emphasized in each of the longer notes, is 
 upward. In this case, recalling that the downward 
 movements are positive and decisive while the upward are 
 anticipative and indecisive, we shall perceive why it is that 
 in the predominance of the latter, the movement, as a 
 
2 7 6 
 
 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 whole, has the effect of positive and decisive anticipation. 
 So, too, in the " Motive of Loge," No. i, we can perceive 
 why it is that in connection with the alternating down- 
 ward and upward directions, the predominance of the 
 latter should represent not only the positive and decisive 
 nature of the flame, but also, on the whole, its generally 
 anticipative and therefore inasmuch as, in itself, it is 
 evil threatening character. Here, again, in the " Motive 
 of Growing Twilight," in Wagner's " Rhinegold " (34), we 
 have these alternating directions, concluding with the 
 downward movement ; indicating, therefore, the incon- 
 clusive uncertainty of the change, ending, nevertheless, 
 with conclusive certainty. 
 
 E i Hri J . I s i_ 
 iraHr' i^H^g 
 
 F 
 
 F 
 
 etc. 
 
 r 
 
 f: ^_ :+_ 
 T^r 
 
 No. 34. 
 
 So, too, in the " Motive of the God's Trouble," in the 
 " Walkiire," we can perceive the influence of the two ten- 
 dencies ending, as only, perhaps, would be possible in the 
 experience of a god, with that which makes the positive 
 and decisive predominate (35). 
 
 No. 35. 
 
REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL PITCH. 
 
 In the same opera we have, too, " The Motive of Pursuit," 
 which, beginning with alternating movements that have 
 more of anticipation than of finality in them, mounts up- 
 ward, and then ends with more in them of finality (36) : 
 
 ^m 
 
 No. 36. 
 
 In Fricka's coaxing song in Wagner's " Rhinegold," 
 called the " Motive of Love's Fascination," which might 
 better be called " of Coquetry," we can perceive the same 
 alternation of the anticipative and indecisive with the 
 conclusive and decisive, but, at the same time, with much 
 more evidence of the predominance of the latter (37) : 
 
 No. 37 
 
 The same can be affirmed of the alternating hope and 
 doubt expressed in the " Motive of the Love of Life " in 
 the same author's " Siegfried " (38) : 
 
 It has been said that the circumflex inflection or wave, 
 pointing to and also away from a word, indicates not 
 only a double reference, as in the case of an expression 
 
MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 No. 38. 
 
 embodying a comparison or a contrast, but also sarcasm, 
 innuendo, irony, in that it clearly insinuates a meaning 
 not at all indicated by the words aside from the in- 
 tonations. Observe now how exactly the intonations 
 appropriate for these suggestions are reproduced in 
 Wagner's " Gotterdammerung " in what are called the 
 " Motive of the Shout of the Fairies," No. 39, and of the 
 " Fairies' Mockery," No. 40 : 
 
 No. 40. 
 
REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL PITCH. 279 
 
 Distinctively imitative methods based upon these 
 arrangements of pitch can be recognized sufficiently by 
 noticing again the upward and downward flickerings of 
 the flame in the " Loge Motive," No. I, the indecision 
 indicated in the passage from Beethoven, No. 9, the 
 "Snake Motive," No. 13, and the "Water Motive," No. 
 14 ; as also by the phrases imitating the utterances of 
 birds, hens, dogs, asses, and of men, when yawning, sneez- 
 ing, and coughing, as illustrated in Chapter VIII. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 REPRESENTATION THROUGH BLENDING OF PITCH AS IN 
 MUSICAL HARMONY. 
 
 Elocutionary Use of Pitch, when Indicative of Suspense Blending of 
 Harmonic and Inharmonic Intervals of Pitch, as Analogous to Effects 
 of Quality Meanings in Speech of the Major and the Minor Interval 
 Their Meanings in Music Further Explanations The Subdomi- 
 nant, Dominant, and Tonic Complete and Incomplete Cadence 
 Explanations of their Effects Meanings of Upward and Downward 
 Elocutionary Harmonic Cadences Illustrations of the Satisfying Effects 
 of Upward Musical Major Cadences Unsatisfying Effects of Upward 
 Minor Musical Cadences Satisfying Effects of Downward Major 
 Cadences Unsatisfactory Effects of Downward Minor Cadences Wag- 
 ner's Use of Upward Anticipative Movement Followed by Downward 
 Minor Cadences. 
 
 HHERE is still another form of elocutionary emphasis 
 imparted by pitch, of which no mention was made 
 in the last chapter. The voice may not only rise, fall, 
 and do both, but it may also do neither. It is seldom, 
 when there is emphasis, that there is absolutely no 
 change in pitch. Where a word contains two syllables, 
 one of them accented, it is impossible that there should be 
 none. But the change in pitch may be so slight as to 
 suggest unmistakably neither that which is upward nor 
 that which is downward. When this is so, the effect is 
 evidently one of mere suspense, as in uttering the words : 
 
 ** To die to sleep to sleep ! Perchance to dream." 
 
 Hamlet, III., i : Shakespeare. 
 
 280 
 
REPRESENTA TION THROUGH BLENDING OF PITCH. 28 1 
 
 The applications and developments of this form of in- 
 flection, both in elocution and in music, but especially in 
 the latter, are very important. So far as the tone is not 
 absolutely upon one pitch, which, as we said, is seldom 
 the case, that which is representative in the expression, 
 aside from the fact of its moving upward or downward, 
 is determined by the intervals of pitch separating the be- 
 ginning and the end of the inflection. In uttering the 
 final words of the sentences, " I will go " or " I am going," 
 the voice, on the single syllable " go " or on the two syl- 
 lables " going," glides from one tone to another so rapidly 
 that the two tones have the same general effect that they 
 would have, were they uttered simultaneously. If, there- 
 fore, the two tones be separated by what is recognized to 
 be an harmonic interval of the musical scale, they together 
 produce harmony ; if not, they produce discord. 
 
 Harmony and discord, as thus produced by the blend- 
 ing together of two tones, have an effect analogous to 
 that of quality in a single tone, which also is produced by 
 the blending together of certain partial tones of which it 
 is composed. (See Chapter XIV. of " Rhythm and Har- 
 mony in Poetry and Music.") For this reason, the harmony 
 or the discord caused by the relative intervals of pitch 
 separating the beginning and the end of an inflection, do 
 not express, as pitch does, the motive or aim of the utter- 
 ance, but rather, as quality does, the emotive nature of 
 the mood behind the utterance. (See page 171.) 
 
 As represented in sound, it may be said that every 
 mood that is absolutely normal, because healthful, strong, 
 buoyant, joyous, or unimpeded, or, to state this in a gen- 
 eral way, every mood in which the conditions appear to 
 the mind to be satisfactory, naturally tends to harmonic 
 expression. On the contrary, every abnormal, unhealthy, 
 
282 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 because weak, depressed, sad, or impeded mood, or every 
 mood in which the conditions appear to the mind to be 
 unsatisfactory, because leaving conceptions in a state of 
 suspense, naturally tends to inharmonic expression. This 
 latter is what we hear, therefore, in the moaning and 
 crying of weakness, in the fretting and complaining of 
 hopelessness and misery, and in any habits of tone, like 
 the so-called " ministerial," which are produced by dwel- 
 ling upon the more pathetic aspects of subjects. The im- 
 pression conveyed, in all these cases, is that thought and 
 feeling are waiting for a desired consummation that delays 
 coming. 
 
 As represented in music, this inharmonic effect is 
 expressed in what is termed the minor interval (see 
 " Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and Music," page 
 225), which, while itself not absolutely inharmonic if it 
 were so it could not be used as a factor of musical har- 
 mony, is, nevertheless, suggestive of a lack of harmony ; 
 and it is this fact that accounts for the associations that 
 all have with this interval. It is the musical adapta- 
 tion of that which, in speech, represents suspense, and, 
 therefore, the depressed and pathetic. There are other 
 conditions, too, that distinguish the minor cadence as 
 used in speech and in music. In the latter, it is not 
 always determined by the pitch-relations to one another of 
 two or more final notes of a melodic phrase, but, instead 
 of this, by the harmonic relations to one another of the 
 chords into the effects of which, according to the laws of 
 the key in which the melody is arranged, the last two or 
 more notes of a melodic phrase enter. Even where the 
 harmony does not actually accompany the melody, the 
 ear, owing largely to association, seems to recognize the 
 relationship to these chords of the tones of the melody. 
 
REPRESENTA TION THROUGH BLENDING OF PITCH. 283 
 
 With reference to what this relationship is, so far as it 
 can be explained without going into a discussion of the 
 origin of musical scales and chords (see " Rhythm and 
 Harmony in Poetry and Music," Chapters XIV. and 
 XV.), it may be said that in music the satisfying effects 
 corresponding to those of the harmonic cadence are con- 
 veyed by series of chords that resolve, as is said, into the 
 major chord of that which, for the time being, is the 
 keynote. 
 
 This statement may be made more clear to those not 
 musicians by saying that in any given scale represented by 
 the syllables do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, and do, the do is the 
 keynote, and that the notes represented by do, mi, and 
 sol are those comprising the major or principal chord of 
 the keynote. In hearing the scale sung, we become 
 accustomed to expect it to end after, in ascending it, 
 we have heard si, and after, in descending it, we have 
 heard re. Any chord, therefore, that brings in si or re, 
 especially if either be made prominent, has a tendency to 
 suggest that the phrase composed of the series of chords 
 being sounded is about to be brought to a close. It so 
 happens that both si and re are in the major or principal 
 chord based upon sol. For this reason, in order to produce 
 a thoroughly satisfying closing effect in harmony, this 
 major chord based upon sol, which is called that of the 
 dominant, must precede the chord based upon do, which 
 is called the chord of the tonic. Moveover, when pro- 
 ducing a complete harmonic musical cadence, a fourth 
 note, in addition to the three notes constituting the major 
 chord of the dominant, is often used, making the whole 
 chord naming the notes according to those in the scale 
 of the keynote sol, si, re, and fa. This forms the chord 
 of the seventh, as explained on page 218 of "Rhythm 
 
284 
 
 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 
 and Harmony in Poetry and Music." The reason for 
 introducing this fourth note is because it is not in the 
 highest sense, or perfectly, harmonious with the rest of the 
 same chord i. e., with the combination made up of sol, si, 
 and re. Its effect, therefore, is to cause the chord as a whole 
 to seem slightly discordant. But that for which, when 
 listening to a series of chords, the musical ear is in search, 
 is harmony. Whenever, therefore, it does not hear this, 
 it i$ forced, by a law of nature, to desire to have the move- 
 ments of the chords continue till the perfectly harmonious 
 is reached. For this reason, the chord of the seventh 
 augments the feeling of unrest and dissatisfaction, and 
 prepares the mind, by way of contrast, for the restful, 
 satisfying closing effect of the major chord of the key- 
 note when, at the next sound, the phrase is brought to a 
 conclusion. 
 
 Still more to augment the same series of effects, the 
 series of chords used in the harmonic cadence, when it 
 is absolutely complete, starts with the chord of the sub- 
 dominant, as it is called i. e., the major chord of the note 
 represented by fa in the scale of the keynote. This 
 chord sounds fa, la, and do. It is followed by the chord 
 of the dominant or the seventh, sol, si, re, fa, and this, in 
 turn, by the chord of the tonic, do, mi, sol. In the key 
 of C major, these chords in succession would be repre- 
 sented thus : 
 
 hJf - 27 
 
 
 
 i* g~v 
 
 
 -!$?- ^ 
 
 j^, ^ 
 
 F G 
 
 C 
 
 Do Re 
 
 Mi Fa Sol La Si Do 
 
 ^^ ? ~ 
 
 
 Sub-dominant. Dominant. Tonic. 
 
 Appropriate Bass Do Sol Do Fa Do Fa Sol Do 
 
 No. 41. 
 
REPRESENTA TION THROUGH BLENDING OF PITCH. 285 
 
 Notice, now, that the three chords together sound 
 every note of the scale. They are comprehensive, there- 
 fore, of all the effects possible to it ; and, whenever thus 
 sounded in succession, they not only comprehend these 
 effects, but, in a peculiar way, blend and summarize them 
 so as to produce a cumulative climax. 
 
 On the contrary, in the degree in which these three 
 chords, in the order indicated, are lacking, in that degree 
 is the cadence incomplete. Of course, it is most incom- 
 plete, or rather it is most distant from being, in any sense, 
 a climax, when the concluding chord itself is that of the 
 seventh, or one that suggests the combinations entering 
 into this. Nothing, except the still more discordant 
 chord of the ninth, which is used occasionally, can pos- 
 sibly be so representative of that which leaves the mind 
 unsatisfied, because in complete suspense. Even when, 
 in other respects, the whole 
 cadence is complete, but the 
 final chord is minor instead of 
 
 major, the effect is still of a \ F G 
 
 nature fitted to convey this 
 impression. Notice 42. 
 
 The Scientific reason for this Sub-dominant. Dominant. Tonic. 
 
 effect is undoubtedly the fact, No - 2 - 
 
 which will be found explained in Chapter XV. of 
 " Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and Music," that the 
 notes of the major chord are the same as the most 
 prominent partial tones which can be detected by reso- 
 nators as actually entering into the composition of its 
 fundamental bass note ; whereas, the note that changes 
 this chord to a minor is only a partial tone of one partial 
 tone of this bass. The major, therefore, is the only chord 
 expressive of absolute unity or, what is the same thing, 
 of absolute harmony as applied to musical relations. 
 
 ~ 
 
286 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 In elocution, the harmonic cadence in connection with 
 the upward in flection represents hopeful and joyous, be- 
 cause absolutely satisfactory anticipation, or, as the case 
 may be, indecision, subordination, insignificance, trite- 
 ness, negation, or questionableness ; and, on the other 
 hand, the inharmonic upward cadence represents antici- 
 pation in suspence, insolvable indecision, despairing sub- 
 ordination or insignificance, negation with no prospect of 
 affirmation, questioning with no expectation of response. 
 According to the same analogy, the harmonic downward 
 cadence represents conclusiveness, decision, interest, im- 
 portance, affirmation, positiveness of the most satisfactory 
 character possible ; and the inharmonic cadence represents 
 the same, but of a character the most unsatisfactory. 
 
 The same principles will be found to apply to the com- 
 plete cadence in musical harmony. Notice the suggestion 
 of satisfaction in the upward melody of what is called the 
 " Motive of the Rhine- 
 gold," in Wagner's opera 
 of that name (43) : And 
 the same suggestion, joined No. 43. 
 
 with a slight hint of something more to come, because not 
 ending on the keynote, in the " Sword Motive " (44) : 
 
 Also in the rich succes- 
 sion of chords, no one 
 of which needs to be re- 
 
 No. 44. solved, in the " Motive 
 
 of Walhall," in the same opera (45) : 
 
 As well as in 
 the motive of 
 "Alberich's Tri- 
 umphal Cry," re- 
 No ' 45 ' solving itself into 
 
 the F major in the following (46) : 
 
REPRESENTA TION THROUGH BLENDING OF PITCH. 28? 
 
 No. 46. 
 
 On the contrary, notice now the unsatisfactory effect, 
 because of the future danger 
 suggested in what is called . n 
 the "Motive of Menace (47) ^-3 
 as uttered by Alberich in the ^ 
 same opera. Even the " Mo- 
 
 No. 47. 
 
 tive of the Sword's Guardian " (48), in the " Walkiire," is 
 not wholly satisfactory, in the sense that it suggests more 
 
 to come : 
 
 And the same 
 
 is true of the 
 
 blended effect in 
 " Siegfried," of 
 this and the 
 
 No. 48. 
 Walhall Motive " (49) : 
 
 3 
 
 fei 
 
 No. 49. 
 
 With the effect of the complete harmonic cadence in con- 
 nection with the downward 
 movement we are so fa- 
 miliar that it hardly needs 
 illustrating. Here is an in- 
 stance of it as applied to 
 both melody and harmony 
 
 (50): 
 
 Here is one of Wagner's 
 
 No. 50. 
 
288 
 
 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 downward melodies, suggesting a wholly unsatisfactory 
 conclusion. It is the " Motive of the Right of Expia- 
 tion," in the " Gotterdammerung " (51) : 
 
 
 Bricht ein Bru - der den Bund, triigt den Treu - en der Freund. 
 
 No. 51. 
 
 And here is the same effect 
 in harmony in the " Motive ^ f* .V- 
 of the Vindictive League," ;* "^ ^~ 
 
 in the same opera (52) : L.^" ~gT 
 
 Also in the melody of the '^ 
 " Motive of Murder " (53) : No - * 2 - 
 
 Another similar 
 effect is apparent 
 in the " Motive 
 of Thoughtful- 
 ness," represent- 
 
 \ K - 
 
 ^" 8 
 
 No- 53 
 
 ing the crafty and anxious 
 thought of Alberich in the 
 Rhinegold " (54) : 
 And in this " Motive of Sieg- No - 54- 
 
 fried, the Guardian of the World's Welfare" (55), the 
 end is suggestively unsatisfactory in the sense of indicating 
 more that needs to be achieved : 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 No. 55. 
 
JIEPRESENTA TION THROUGH BLENDING OF PITCH. 289 
 
 Wagner seems to be exceedingly fond of ending an up- 
 ward movement that is expressive, as all such movements 
 are, of anticipation, indecision, or questioning, with a 
 downward movement, containing a minor cadence, or, as 
 often, an unresolved seventh. This downward move- 
 ment, inasmuch as it is supposed to contain the conclu- 
 sion or answer to the upward movement (see music 
 numbered 26, 27, 28, 29, on pages 271-2), suggests, in such 
 cases, that there is no satisfactory conclusion, decision, 
 or answer to the feeling em- 
 bodied in the preceding up- [J3 fl^ ^f^* T TTL I J 
 ward movement. Hence, the IvT) flL~ffl p Mr M ' f ^ 
 arrangement of tones repre- !/ 
 
 sents the extreme of disap- 
 pointment. Here is an instance of this effect in the 
 " Motive of Tristan " in "Tristan und Isolde " (56). And 
 here is the expression of Sieglinde's compassionate yearn- 
 ing for Siegfried in the " Walkure " (57). 
 
 
 No - 
 
 No. 57. 
 
 This is what, in the same opera, is a symbol of the " Wai- 
 sungen Family in its Love and Pain " (58) : 
 
 -I r 
 
 
 
 
 
 : az . L_I_| i_j_ 
 
 No. 58. 
 
 And this of the heroism of the same family in suffer- 
 ing (59) : 
 
290 
 
 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 No. 59. 
 
 And here is the " Phrase of Nothung," in the " Gotter- 
 dammerung " (60) : 
 
 Notimng! frT~ Neidlichesschwertf 
 
 No. 60. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL QUALITY. 
 
 How Musical Quality is Determined How Determined in the Human 
 Voice What Different Qualities of the Voice Represent Their Cor- 
 respondences in Nature Analogies between Quality as Used in Elocu- 
 tion and in Music Representation by Way of Association through the 
 Use of Different Musical Instruments The Same Continued Repre- 
 sentation through these by Way of Imitation Other Examples. 
 
 /^VITALITY, timbre, or, as it is sometimes called on 
 ;*w account of that to which it corresponds in painting, 
 tone-color, is determined by the elements of which a tone 
 is compounded. This is not the place in which to detail 
 the various experiments through which this fact has been 
 ascertained. It will suffice to say that, among other 
 methods, through the use of resonators so constructed as 
 to enable one to detect the presence in a tone of any par- 
 ticular pitch, it has been fully proved that when a string 
 like that of a bass viol is struck, it produces a note say 
 that of the bass C representing a sound-wave caused by 
 the whole length of the string. This C is the main, or as 
 it is termed, the prime tone that we hear. But, at the 
 same time, this same string usually divides at the middle, 
 producing what is called a partial tone of the C above the 
 bass, caused by a wave one half the length of the string. 
 It often produces, too, partial tones of the G above this, 
 of the C above this, and of the E above this, caused re- 
 spectively by sound-waves of one third, one fourth, and 
 
 291 
 
2 9 2 
 
 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 one fifth of the length of the string. The tones of this 
 character which, in different instruments, have been de- 
 tected as entering into the composition of C, F, and G, 
 are as follows, those nearest the bass being heard, of course, 
 much the more prominently and commonly. This music 
 is taken from page 248 of " The Genesis of Art-Form." 
 
 c' e' 
 
 fes rf" 
 
 m 
 
 f 
 
 a' c' e[^' f"^^. 
 
 c ^ 
 
 ^ r 
 
 
 f __ 
 
 rn Ul 
 
 C 
 
 Partial tones of C. 
 
 i 
 
 O/* 7 .. 
 
 
 Id 
 
 G 
 
 Of G. 
 
 It is the presence of 
 partial tones of such pitch 
 as to form harmonics with 
 the prime tone, that causes 
 a sound to be musical; 
 and it is the prominence 
 of different partial tones 
 in notes differently pro- 
 duced that causes these 
 
 No. 61. 
 
 notes to differ in quality. 
 
 In human utterance, the possible varieties of quality are 
 determined by the relative proportions in which noise 
 and music sometimes, as we might say, breath and vocal- 
 ization are combined as a result of natural or assumed 
 shapes or actions of the vocal organs and passages. What 
 different kinds of quality thus produced are fitted to 
 represent, it needs but little observation to discover. It 
 
REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL QUALITY. 293 
 
 certainly is not, as in the case of force, physical energy. 
 When Patti passes from a loud to a soft, or from an 
 abrupt to a smooth tone, she changes greatly the kind of 
 energy, but her voice still retains the same Patti-quality. 
 Nor does quality represent mere intellectuality. A man, 
 without changing in the least an habitual nasal or wheez- 
 ing quality, may give every inflection needed in order to 
 represent the merely mental phases of the motive that 
 actuates him. But if we frighten him severely, we may 
 make it impossible for him to use any other sound than 
 a whisper ; if, in connection with this, we anger him, he 
 will hiss ; or, if at length he recover his voice, he will use 
 the harsh, jarring, interrupted hard-^ quality of tone, 
 termed the guttural ; or, if that which he would repel be 
 too great to make anger appropriate, it may widen and 
 stiffen his throat so as to produce the hollow, almost in- 
 articulate indication of awe and horror given by what is 
 termed the pectoral quality. Release him now from the 
 influence of fright, anger, or horror, and put him into a 
 gently satisfied mood, and he will use his nearest approach 
 to pure quality. Stir him then to profound emotion, 
 inspired by what is deeply satisfying, and all his vocal 
 passages will expand again, and he will produce his 
 nearest approach to the full, round, resonant quality 
 termed orotund. 
 
 For these reasons, it seems indisputable that, as applied 
 to vocal expression, quality represents feeling, temper, 
 the spiritual condition of the higher emotive nature. This 
 feeling, on its physical side and with its most physical 
 coloring, gives us, first, the serpent-like hissing aspirate ; 
 next, with an intellectual coloring, the guttural quality ; 
 and last, with an emotional coloring, the pectoral. On its 
 intellectual side, it gives us, first, with a physical coloring, 
 
2Q4 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 the soft whispering aspirate; next, with an intellectual 
 coloring, the pure quality ; and last, with an emotional 
 coloring, the orotund. Of these six forms of quality, the 
 first four are classed in a general way as impure, because 
 there is in them more breath or noise than vocal tone or 
 music ; and the last two are classed as pure. The first 
 three again refer to what one wishes to repel ; the hissing 
 aspirate indicating feelings like affright, amazement, in- 
 dignation and contempt ; the guttural, as has been said, 
 hostility ; the pectoral, awe or horror. The last three 
 refer to what, if not wholly satisfactory, at least, excites 
 in one no movement aimed against it. The soft whisper 
 indicates feelings like surprise, interest, or solicitude ; the 
 tone termed distinctively the pure, represents gentle con- 
 templation of what may be either joyous or sad ; and the 
 orotund, deep delight, admiration, courage, or deter- 
 mination, as inspired by contemplation of the noble or 
 grand. 
 
 As in the cases of duration, force, and pitch, so all these 
 forms of quality, too, have their correspondences in effects 
 of nature as manifested in other departments. Applied 
 to effects of water, for instance, a rushing stream would 
 represent the harsh aspirate, a rocky stream the guttural, 
 a roiled stream the pectoral, a rippling stream the gentle 
 aspirate, a clear stream the pure, and a full, deep stream 
 the orotund. 
 
 That analogies exist between quality as used in elocu- 
 tion and in music, scarcely needs to be argued. As 
 produced by the human voice, there can be no radical 
 differences between possibilities in speaking and in sing- 
 ing ; and, as produced by constructed musical instruments, 
 it is inevitable that the mind should associate with each 
 certain representative features, and should determine them 
 
:' REPRESENTATION THROUGH 
 
 by the resemblance, or supposed resemblance, of their 
 artificial tones to the quality of some tone natural to the 
 human voice, or else produced in some other way in nature. 
 In determining these resemblances, too, one would be 
 influenced, of course, by the uses which as a rule, are 
 made of the particular instruments which he is hearing. 
 It is undoubtedly owing to associations of this kind that 
 we read of the stirring tones of the fife and drum, the 
 solemn tones of the organ, the purity and softness of the 
 flute, the gayety and triumph of the trumpet, the woe and 
 complaint of the bassoon, the pathos and humaneness of 
 the violin. 
 
 These differences between the representative qualities 
 of different musical instruments depend partly upon what 
 their sounds are in themselves, and partly upon the way 
 in which they are produced a violin, for instance, being 
 played sometimes with a bow and sometimes with the 
 finger. But that the differences exist, and that they are 
 representative, is almost universally recognized by both 
 composers and audiences. When, for instance, in listen- 
 ing to an opera, we hear predominantly the clash of the 
 cymbals or rattle of the kettle-drums, associated, as these 
 usually are, with the sharper tones of the metallic instru- 
 ments, we know that the sounds, as in the last act of 
 Mozart's " Don Juan," where hell is supposed to await 
 the hero, represent, according to the degrees of their in- 
 tensity, not only the startling, but the hostile and mena- 
 cing effects which, in the human voice, we associate with 
 guttural quality. If any action of the play is to follow 
 what we hear, we expect to see some violent conflict full 
 of malignity and peril. When the predominating sounds 
 are those of the bass drums and the lower, more hollow 
 tones of either the wind or the stringed instruments, we 
 
2 9 6 
 
 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 know that, as in the orchestration which in Wagner's 
 " Siegfried " accompanies the hero's encounter with the 
 dragon, they represent the presence of that which inspires 
 to awe and horror such as, in the human voice, we asso- 
 ciate with the pectoral quality. The resemblance to this 
 tone in its milder forms is undoubtedly that which imparts 
 a solemn effect to the music of the church organ. When, 
 again, the predominating sounds are those of the wood 
 instruments the clarinet, the flute, even, to some extent, 
 the organ we feel that these represent the gently satis- 
 fied mood, the peaceful contemplation, which, in elocution, 
 is indicated by pure quality. We can confirm this by 
 recalling the effects of the Shepherd music in Rossini's 
 " William Tell," or in Wagner's " Tristan und Isolde," 
 e.g.'. 
 
 No. 62. 
 
 When, instead of the wooden wind instruments, we hear 
 the metallic, either as in the organ or in trumpets and 
 instruments of similar character, we feel that these repre- 
 sent the more profound emotions, the admiration, enthu- 
 siasm, courage, determination, that we are accustomed to 
 associate with elocutionary orotund quality. To such 
 music we expect to see troops march on to the stage, as 
 in the Soldiers' Chorus in Gounod's " Faust," giving vent 
 to their confidence in anticipation of victory, or to their 
 
REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL QUALITY. 297 
 
 joy in view of its accomplishment. Once more, when we 
 hear the stringed instruments we recognize that it is their 
 peculiar function to impart intensity of feeling, just as is 
 true of the elocutionary aspirated quality. Hence, the 
 reason for the use of the violins in that scene in Wagner's 
 " Meistersinger " which takes place in the house of Hans 
 Sachs ; or in the Venus music of his " Tannhaiiser " ; or 
 in the waltz music of Gounod's " Faust." Just as in the 
 case of the elocutionary aspirate, too, so here the effects of 
 these stringed instruments may partake of those of any of 
 the other instruments. Not only when associated, as in 
 orchestral music, with the instruments that have been 
 mentioned, but even when not associated with these, the 
 sharper tones of the strings suggest the aspirated guttural, 
 their lower hollow tones the aspirated pectoral, their 
 struck tones, as in the piano, the guitar, and the harp, the 
 aspirated pure, and their tones as produced by the bow, 
 the aspirated orotund. 
 
 After what has been said, it is scarcely necessary to add 
 that, as in the cases of duration, force, and pitch, all of 
 these suggestions of quality may be produced not only in- 
 directly by way of association, but directly also, by way of 
 comparison, or, in other words, through effects purely imi- 
 tative. All of us have heard representations of battles and 
 thunder-storms made such through using drums and cym- 
 bals, of birds through using flutes, and of sleigh-rides 
 through the tinkling of bells and the cracking of whips. 
 But, possibly, we do not all realize that such forms of 
 imitation are not confined, as is sometimes supposed, to 
 works of a low order of merit. For instance, in Wagner's 
 " Walkure," to quote from Hans von Wolzogen : " The 
 wind blows, the thunder rolls, lightning flashes in the 
 rising and falling sway of the orchestra and the stroke 
 
298 
 
 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 of the weather-god's hammer in the * Motive of the 
 Storm ' " (63). 
 
 No. 63. 
 
 Notice, too, the following from " O ruddier than a 
 cherry," in Handel's " Galatea," as given in Gurney's 
 " Power of Sound " (64) : 
 
 
 fc=^ 
 
 Yet hard to tame as raging flame, And fierce as storms that bluster. 
 No. 64. 
 
 Also, as given in the same, this distinctively pectoral 
 effect from Handel's " Envy, eldest born of hell " (65) : 
 
 -J U 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 >- * 
 
 Hide thee in the black - - - - est night! Vir - tue 
 
 
 ^ I ^y 
 
 sick - ens at thy sight, Vir - tue sick-ens at thy sight. 
 
 -I 
 
 No. 65. 
 
REPRESENTATION THROUGH MUSICAL QUALITY. 299 
 
 So, too, in the works of Hadyn, there are many pas- 
 sages evidently intended to be imitative in quality, 
 noticeably in the accompaniments of his oratorios, as, for 
 instance, in the representation, through the use of the 
 bassoons, of the tread of the elephant accompanying, in 
 "The Creation/* the words, " By heavy beasts the ground 
 is trod " ; and of thunder through the use of drums ac- 
 companying those in " Judah," " The rolling thunder He 
 cast on all " ; and also the roaring of a storm in the chorus 
 in the same oratorio, " The Lord devoureth them all." 
 Recall, too, the use of pure quality in the representation 
 of the song of the bird in Wagner's " Siegfried " (66) : 
 
 (a) 
 
 No. 66, 
 
 There is no doubt, too, that the effects produced by 
 the violins in the forest music preceding this song of the 
 bird, as well as in the pastoral symphonies of Handel and 
 of Beethoven, are intended to imitate, as heard in the 
 warmth of a summer's day and stirred by a gentle breeze, 
 the rustling of leaves and the buzz and soft hum of in- 
 sects ; in fact, the same as is imitated in another art by 
 Tennyson, when in " The Princess," he speaks of 
 
3OO MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 " The moan of doves in immemorial elms, 
 And murmuring of innumerable bees." 
 
 So, also, the distinctive qualities of the human voice 
 are sometimes imitated. What could illustrate this fact 
 better than the Wailing Chorus, or the song about 
 "Troubled Sleep " in Sullivan's " lolanthe " ? 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MUSICAL REPRESENTATION IN SERIES OF PASSAGES 
 WHEN NOT IMITATIVE. 
 
 Series of Passages as Representative By Way of Association as in Dis- 
 coursive Elocution As Illustrated by Haweis By J. D. Rogers 
 Schumann's "In der Nacht" Brahme's German Requiem B. I. 
 Gilman's Experiment Explanation Recorded Result Deduction to 
 be Drawn from these Quotations : In what Sense they Indicate that 
 Music is Representative Quotation from J. S. Dwight Interpreting the 
 most Important of the Forms of Musical Composition Program Music 
 Its Appropriate Use. 
 
 A S suggested by many of the examples of music con- 
 ^^ tained in the last chapter, as well as by others pre- 
 ceding them, it cannot fail to be observed that almost 
 all forms of musical representation, whether associative or 
 imitative, involve the use not of one element alone, be it 
 duration, force, pitch, or quality, but of a combination of all 
 four. Indeed, even when single phrases are representative 
 in only a single element, it is impossible to blend them 
 with others preceding or following them without suggest- 
 ing representation in all the elements. This fact renders 
 it necessary, before our discussion is complete, to consider 
 the representative character of music as manifested not 
 only in single phrases but in series of them. 
 
 Following the same order of thought that has been 
 pursued hitherto, let us consider the development of 
 series of phrases in accordance, first, with the methods 
 analogous to those giving instinctive and ejaculatory ex- 
 
 301 
 
302 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 pression to internal moods by way of association, in 
 what was termed in Chapter II. discoursive elocution, and 
 second, with the methods analogous to those giving re- 
 flective and imitative reproductions of audible effects of 
 nature, in what was termed dramatic elocution. 
 
 Perhaps there could be no better way of illustrating 
 how series of representative phrases can be made to repre- 
 sent series of consecutive emotions, in accordance with 
 the analogies of discoursive elocution, as these have been 
 explained under each head of duration, force, pitch, and 
 quality, than by introducing here a quotation from the 
 "Music and Morals'* of H, R. Haweis. It will be 
 noticed that each of these elements is mentioned by him, 
 though in a different order from that in which they have 
 been treated here. The quotation is all the more apt, 
 too, inasmuch as, in the place in which it is found, it is 
 not directly intended to sustain the principles now under 
 consideration. 
 
 ' ' (i) Elation and Depression. When a man is suffering intense thirst 
 in a sandy desert, the emotional font within him is at a low ebb [this is 
 represented by low pitch] ; but on catching sight of a pool of water not far 
 off, he instantly becomes highly elated, and forgetting his fatigue, he hastens 
 forward upon a new plane of feeling [high pitch]. On arriving at the water 
 he finds it too salt to drink, and his emotion, from the highest elation, sinks 
 at once to the deepest depression [very low pitch], (2) Velocity " what has 
 here been termed time . ' ' At this crisis our traveller sees a man with a water- 
 skin coming toward him, and his hopes instantly rise [high pitch], and run- 
 ning up to him he relates how his hopes have been suddenly raised and as 
 suddenly cast down [high and low pitch again] ; but long before he 
 has expressed or even begun to express his meaning, he has, in a 
 moment of time, in fact, spontaneously, with the utmost mental velocity, 
 repassed through the emotions of elation and depression which may at first 
 have lasted some time, but are now traversed in one sudden flash of reflex 
 consciousness. (3) Intensity " what has here been termed force . " As he 
 drinks the sparkling water, we may safely affirm that his emotion increases in 
 intensity up to the point where his thirst becomes quenched, and that every 
 
REPRESENTATION WHEN ASSOCIATIVE. 303 
 
 drop that he takes after that is accompanied by less and less pungent or intense 
 feeling. (4) Variety " including also what has here been termed quality. 
 " Up to this time, his emotion has been comparatively simple ; but a suffering 
 companion now arrives, and as he hands to him the grateful cup his emotion 
 becomes complex, that is to say, he experiences a variety of emotions simul- 
 taneously. First, the emotion of contentment at having quenched his own 
 thirst ; second, gratitude to the man who supplied him with water ; . . . 
 third, joy at seeing his friend participating in his own relief. (5) Form. If 
 the reader will now glance over this simple narrative ... he will see 
 that both the simple and the complex emotions above described have what, 
 for want of a better term, we may call form ; i. e. , they succeed each other 
 in one order rather than in another, and are at length combined with a 
 definite purpose in certain fixed proportions." 
 
 A similar conception with reference to the general 
 analogy of series of musical effects to series of events, as 
 we are accustomed to see them unfold not in one but in 
 many different departments of nature, is brought out in 
 the Appendix II. of Bernard Bosanquet's " History of 
 ^Esthetic." The author says : 
 
 14 The following notes have been furnished me by Mr. J. D. Rogers. 
 . . . They appear admirably to illustrate the conception of music, as the 
 spirit of actions and events, suggested by Plato and Aristotle, and in modern 
 times popularized by Schopenhauer : 
 
 " i. Schumann's ' In der Nacht ' used to summon up before my imagina- 
 tion the picture of the moon struggling through the clouds on a windy night 
 emerging and disappearing by turns ; then for a while reigning ' apparent 
 queen ' amid white fleecy clouds, which are not sufficient to intercept its 
 light. During two moments even this silken veil is withdrawn, only to be 
 succeeded by a bank of black clouds, for a long time impenetrable, at last 
 penetrated at intervals a little more irregular and with a brightness a little 
 wilder and more meteoric than before ; finally the light is put out and 
 quenched by the storm. 
 
 *' I learnt some years afterward that Schumann also associated this piece 
 with a picture, the idea of which occurred to him after he had written the 
 entire set of * Fantasiestucke ' to which it belongs. It was a picture por- 
 traying the story of Hero and Leander ; his picture is not incompatible with 
 mine. In his, the clouds correspond to the waves, the moon to a swimmer, 
 buried and stifled in their troughs or flashing and calling out from their 
 
304 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 crests. Where the moon triumphs in my story, in his there is a love scene 
 on the shore, accompanied by the distant rippling of waves ; it seems almost 
 as though 
 
 ' ' ' The billows of cloud that around thee roll 
 Shall sleep in the light of a wondrous day.' 
 
 ' ' But no ; there comes the plunge back into waves blacker than before 
 tossings to and fro cries from the swimmer and from the shore and, 
 finally, 'night wraps up everything.' The music can be rendered after 
 the manner of Max M tiller, either into a Lunar myth or into a Greek 
 legend. What the moon does, and what the Greek hero did in the 
 story, are to a great extent the same ; and music interprets that impor- 
 tant element or attribute which is common to. both. 
 
 4< 2. If music seizes hold of the spirit or soul of any event or series 
 of events, has, it may be asked, any composer attempted to represent 
 God God in the sense in which the word is used in the common phrase, 
 * God in history,' or in which God is described in Tennyson's ' Higher 
 Pantheism,' or Wordsworth's ' Tintern Abbey'? I reply by an instance, 
 Brahms's German requiem has often been praised for the rich elabora- 
 tion of its detail, its blending of the antique and modern, its contra- 
 puntal devices fused in the crucible of romanticism. But it has yet finer 
 and deeper merits. The solemn opening, ' Blessed are they that mourn,' is 
 set to the same music as the solemn close, ' Blessed are the dead.' In 
 the middle of the piece the name of God is introduced for the first, and al- 
 most the last time, to the words, ' The souls of the righteous are in God's 
 hand.' That name is translated into music by the pedal note, which is held 
 down from beginning to end of the fugue in which these words are set. The 
 pedal note persists, makes its presence felt throughout, is all-enduring, all- 
 pervading ; the fugue starts from it, and finally, after many intricate wander- 
 ings, returns to it ; it is the fundamental note the foundation of the first 
 and last chords, and, although many different, and apparently incompatible, 
 harmonies are found in the course of the fugue, these harmonies are all 
 finally resolved into the initial harmony, of which that pedal note is at once 
 the characteristic note and the epitome. Everything proceeds from it and 
 returns to it ; it alone is permanent, and steadily, continuously, irresistibly 
 self-asserting. Neither poetry nor painting nor architecture can express 
 mysteries such as these with such searching force and directness." 
 
 A still more important contribution to this subject, 
 justifying, according to a scientific method, these views 
 of the representative character of the effects of music, is 
 
REPRESENTATION WHEN ASSOCIATIVE. 305 
 
 made by Mr. Benjamin Ives Gilman, in an article upon 
 " Musical Expressiveness," published in the " American 
 Journal of Psychology," and also in " Werner's Maga- 
 zine " for May, 1893. Mr. Gilman states that, in answer 
 to an invitation extended by him, about thirty persons 
 assembled in a parlor at Cambridge, Mass., their object 
 being to test by experiment " the power of music to 
 awaken definite ideas and emotions in the listener." 
 What follows is given in his own language. 
 
 " The instruments used were a grand piano and the violin. The inter- 
 pretation of the program was intrusted to three well-known musicians, Mr. 
 Charles L. Capen, Miss E. M. Yerrington, piano, and Mr. A. Van Raalte, 
 violin. The whole company, performers and audience, began the evening 
 in a very skeptical frame of mind regarding not only the value of any data 
 which might be obtained, but even the possibility of carrying out such a test. 
 The result belied our forebodings. The method of inquiry proved a prac- 
 ticable one, and there was, I think, a general feeling of surprise among the 
 listeners at the amount of booty rewarding their determined efforts to cap- 
 ture the suggestions of the music played. It was expected that several 
 musicians by profession would be among their number, but as it turned out 
 the audience consisted entirely of amateurs. A large minority, if not a 
 majority of these were without special skill on any instrument ; a few were 
 distinctly non-musical in the sense of having no marked endowment of 
 musical ear or memory ; but there were none present, I think, who were not 
 capable, at least at times, of enjoying and feeling music deeply. The work 
 of the evening consisted in obtaining answers to fourteen questions based 
 upon thirteen selections of music, one being the subject of two questions. 
 Nearly all of the pieces were played more than once, some of them several 
 times, and although they succeeded each other almost without intermission, 
 except for putting the questions, and making necessary explanations, the 
 experiment lasted without any relaxation in the interest of the participants 
 from eight o'clock until midnight. Twenty-eight note-books were the 
 result, sixteen contributed by gentlemen and twelve by ladies." 
 
 The reader will get a general conception of the result 
 of these experiments from two questions, together with 
 the answers to them, which, on account of their import- 
 ance, will be given in full. The gentlemen's answers from 
 
306 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 A. to P. are given first ; the ladies from A. to L. follow 
 these. 
 
 QUESTION I. 
 
 Give any image that is strikingly suggested to your mind by the course of 
 the following piece. Beethoven, " Piano-forte Prelude in F. Minor." It 
 bears no opus number, but in the Brietkopf & Haertel edition of Beethoven's 
 works is No. 195 in Series 18, " Kleinere Stucke fur das Piano- forte.'* 
 Piano solo. 
 
 To the writer its character is that of an unending contest with an opposi- 
 tion that bars every advance. It is an attempt to hew a way through ada- 
 mant. We could fancy ourselves listening to the tireless dialectic of a mediae- 
 val schoolman on some transcendental thesis, or even admitted to the mind 
 of a melancholiac eternally resenting miseries eternally visited upon him 
 afresh. Dry and gloomy energy doing doughty deeds to no purpose is to 
 me the burden of the piece. 
 
 Answers to I. 
 
 A. The swaying of the treetops in a moderate wind ; weird songs are 
 sung beneath the trees. 
 
 B. A country church appeared to me ; the music formed the chimes : 
 the surrounding scenes were grave or gay as the music became slow and 
 soft or fast and loud. As it died away a funeral train seemed passing. 
 
 C. No image. Technique (not of performance but of composition) 
 entirely covers up the aesthetic effect. I cannot help being lost in the 
 sequence of the strain, especially on an instrument of percussion like the 
 piano. 
 
 D. At first, organist seated at an organ in church, then a change at end 
 to twilight ; a large hall ; a man who has felt sorrow, yet feels the grandeur 
 of life above all, improvises ; a love sadness. 
 
 E. Plunge of a torrent in the woods ; then children's feet dancing as 
 the key changes ; sunburst. Thenceforward the piece gets more dramatic, 
 forming a sort of tumultuous dialogue or inward dilemma of affirmation and 
 negation. It rolls on to some practical moral decision, and with moments 
 of peace or weary diversion it ends in a sort of forgetting calm without par- 
 ticular triumph. 
 
 F. A hymn of thankfulness. 
 
 H. Persistent struggle with rather mild difficulty, e. g., walking through 
 a wood with thick underbrush. 
 
 I. Chime of church bells ; bright, sunny morning ; gathering to church 
 in church ; entry of minister ; hushed ; minister rises ; ready for service ; last 
 stroke of chimes. 
 
REPRESENTATION WHEN ASSOCIATIVE. 307 
 
 J. The rolling up of breaker after breaker on the beach with the sound 
 of more distant rollers in the lulls ; or the dying away of a storm. 
 
 K. This is a fugue. Fugues always suggest to me the beauty of organ- 
 ism, the universal not being built out of an accretion of particulars but re- 
 vealing itself in subtle relations among them ; the complexity of law ; the 
 essentialness of sadness to happiness. 
 
 L. A great strife against something ; a final conquering of this some- 
 thing, and then rest. This strife seems to return at times and is then 
 quieted ; finally, near the end a burst of it, and then the quiet closing 
 bars. 
 
 M. Suggests a life toiling on through disappointment and struggle, 
 until at last peace comes, a peace of which there had been moments of an- 
 ticipation. Not a brilliant idea nor a prominent life. 
 
 N. The resolute self-possession of the process that, going on, suggests 
 at once something very much alive, very free a nature-force in full posses- 
 sion of its own world : " Sie entlasst sick frei, ihrer selbst ganz sicker" says 
 Hegel of the Idee, when it passes over into Natur. I have a sense that a 
 water-process would be the scene most naturally suggested. Scene, how- 
 ever, not complete, but waves on water most probable. 
 
 O. A rather distinct idea of a workman making something by strokes, as 
 a smith. There is also a feeling that he is in a lazy mood, as if the afternoon 
 sun was streaming in. The work is pleasant. 
 
 P. Church ; opening voluntary. Religious cheerfulness. A religious 
 dance ; measured movement of hands. Or, somewhat, a brook tumbling 
 along over a stony bed. The suggestion of a yearning. 
 
 A. (Bach). A ship approaching end of voyage : all tension : haven. 
 
 C. It (the piece) seemed to me to embody the progress of a mountain 
 stream on its course from the hills to the plain, flowing among rocks over 
 many obstacles, under the forest trees, with the quiet and deep repose of the 
 wild wood pervading all. This was the only image that occurred to me. 
 The intensity of the stillness of the wood was most prominent. 
 
 D. Persistent effort, resulting in serene progress. 
 
 E. A perpetually struggling bird, flying up and beaten back by the 
 wind. 
 
 F. : Beating of the waves upon the rocks in the receding tide. 
 
 G. Storm wind ; agitated sea ; dashing on rocks or through pines ; in- 
 creasing, then gradually subsiding. A rock-bound coast with weather- 
 beaten woods, mostly pines. 
 
 Spiritual vision ; strong emotion ; unrest ; gradual peace, though not 
 joy. 
 
308 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 H. The last part makes upon me the impression of a scene of farewell, 
 and I seem to see the departing friend disappear beyond a hill. 
 
 /. Dark clouds ; storm. An old German church with suggestion at 
 the close of a funeral sermon over some great and heroic character. A 
 feeling throughout as of a strong resounding sea against a frowning coast. 
 
 y. A controversy or argument between a man and a woman, ending 
 with great peace. 
 
 K. The incoming tide dashing on the rocks, with intervals of quiet 
 ebb. 
 
 L. Church music ; offertoire ; also organ playing while waiting for a 
 wedding party ; cheerful, and not too joyful ; serene ; also the suggestion 
 of hearing the organ playing inside, while outside, in the summer. (Bach.) 
 
 QUESTION V. 
 
 How would you describe the general mood which the following music is 
 fitted to incite, or the atmosphere which seems to pervade it ? Beethoven, 
 " Piano-forte Sonata in E," op. 109. Andante molto cantabile. Thetheme 
 alone without the variations. Piano solo. 
 
 It suggests to me a mood of devotional meditation (Andacht). 
 
 Answers to V. 
 
 A. I am still too much under the influence of No. IV. to be affected by 
 this number. 
 
 B. Doubt ; hesitation. 
 
 C. Resignation. 
 
 D. Peaceful, but sadness in it. 
 
 E. Pensive, not passionate, and grave ; not regretful. Nothing more 
 determined. 
 
 F. Prayer. 
 
 G. Proceeds from a placid mood in the presence of the sublime. 
 H. Religious. 
 
 I. Devotional scene ; not very religious, but dignified. 
 J. Seriousness, solemnity, thoughtfulness, religious feeling. 
 K. Reverent, joyful worship. 
 
 Strasburg Cathedral ; a procession passing along the nave ; a choir-boy 
 swinging a censer turns his face and looks at the spectator. 
 
 L. Somewhat religious, though it has a shade of vague unrest in it. 
 
 M. Religious, suggests some German church music. 
 
 N. No impression worth noting beyond a general atmosphere as of a 
 
REPRESENTATION WHEN ASSOCIATIVE. 309 
 
 calm introduction to a dignified ceremony (?). This interpretation seems 
 doubtful. 
 
 0. Not sure thought still about the former piece. Is it religious peace 
 and resignation ? 
 
 P. Tender seriousness. 
 
 A. Religious expansion ; grateful worship of a full, free heart. 
 
 B. Seriousness of life. 
 
 C. Tender religious melancholy tinged with a sense of pathetic 
 pleasure. 
 
 D. Placid retrospect. 
 
 E. Known. A mood of comfort and endurance born from sorrow. 
 
 F. Retrospection. 
 
 G. Devotional ; religious. 
 
 H. Longing after a higher life. 
 
 1. Hoch, heilig und hehr. 
 
 J. A generous and complete nature. 
 
 K. Self-control and the quiet, happy feeling that follows success. 
 L. A restless person waiting for some tardy arrival, trying to forget 
 himself in writing out some serious music." 
 
 It is evident that music may be representative in the 
 ways indicated in each of the quotations from these three 
 writers without being in any distinctive sense imitative. 
 All that is necessary is that its successive phases should 
 follow a general order similar to that to which we have 
 become accustomed in certain series of sounds or sights 
 in nature. We have noticed, perhaps, a quiet rill devel- 
 oped into a cataract, and this again into a quiet pool ; or 
 a clear sky developed into a storm and this again into a 
 clear sky ; or peace developed into war and this again into 
 peace ; and one or the other of these series of phenomena 
 is suggested to us when we hear a series of musical effects 
 developed in what appears to be a similar order. The 
 reason why these or any other phenomena are suggested 
 is because of the principle of correspondence, which, as 
 has been said, underlies all methods of expression, espe- 
 cially those exemplified in discoursive elocution. Accord- 
 
3IO MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 ing to this principle, it is instinctively felt, even when not 
 consciously thought, that different phases of invisible and 
 inaudible moods follow one another in analogy to phases 
 of a visible or an audible character. 
 
 With this general understanding of the nature of mu- 
 sical representation when not imitative, we shall be pre- 
 pared to recognize the essential truth of the following 
 description and interpretation of the most prominent of 
 the forms of musical composition. The passage is taken 
 from an article entitled, "The Intellectual Influence of 
 Music," contributed by J. S. Dwight, formerly editor of the 
 " Journal of Music " to " The Atlantic Monthly " for 1870. 
 
 " Look at the Symphony, or what is technically called the Sonata form, 
 common to sonatas, symphonies, trios, stringed quartettes, classical con- 
 certos, etc. This form, too, we say, is not mere accident . . . the reason 
 of it is to be sought in the nature of the human soul and in the corresponding 
 nature of music. 
 
 " How is it with us when a matter interests us and excites us to that pitch 
 of feeling in which music steps in as the natural language? Our whole 
 nature is engaged in it. The head, or thinking principle ; the heart, or 
 feeling, loving principle ; the will, or active principle ; and more or less 
 (amid these earnest powers) the lively, recreative play of fancy, all take 
 part in it, all in turn are principally addressed by it. Reason, passion, 
 frolic, humor, will ; these seek each its type and representative in the forms 
 of an art so perfectly human and so pliant to the motions of the human soul 
 as music. If a matter taxes our reasoning, truth-seeking faculties for one 
 spell, it is a law of our nature that we then quit thinking and only feel about 
 it for another spell. We modulate out of the dialectic into the religious and 
 accepting mood. It was an argument, an emulous labor of the brain ; it 
 has become a lyric of the heart, a prayer, a hymn, a softly rising incense and 
 aroma of the faith and love and longing in us. And then, the more we have 
 been in earnest, the more naturally comes the reaction of frolic fantasy, and 
 humor, the more lively the suggestions and ' heat-lightnings ' of a quick, 
 surcharged, midsummer fancy, the scherzo humors that so often flash from 
 characters of deepest pathos. But the circle of moods is not yet complete. 
 Thought, feeling, fancy, are but phases of the living stream that yet must 
 ultimate itself in action, must rush into deed, and so pour its life into the 
 
REPRESENTATION WHEN ASSOCIATIVE. 311 
 
 great ocean whence all proceed and to which all tend. That is the finale. 
 Now for the musical correspondence. 
 
 " The first, or allegro movement of a symphony, takes up a theme, or 
 themes, and proceeds to their discussion and elaboration. It begins with a 
 principal theme or subject ; presently, with the natural modulation into the 
 dominant or relative key, comes in a counter theme ; these two are developed 
 and contrasted a little way, when the whole passage is literally repeated to 
 fix them firmly in the mind. Then begins a sort of analytic canvassing of 
 all that they contain ; fragments, phrases of the one are blended with or 
 off-set against the other ; the two propositions (often making up a number 
 of accessory subjects by the way) are subjected to a sort of exhaustive mu- 
 sical logic, till what is in them is brought fully out and verified. By a sort 
 of refining, differentiating, intellectual argumentation, these themes are held 
 up in various lights, are developed singly and in contrast, and are worked 
 through various keys, abridgments, augmentations, episodes, digressions, 
 into a most various and complex whole, in which the same original threads 
 or themes continually reappear, yet with perpetual sense of novelty. The 
 intellectual principle delights in analysis, in the detection of differences and 
 distinctions. So the symphonic allegro betrays a tendency to continual 
 divergence and escape from the first starting-point. There is an art-type of 
 discussion, whose whole aim and tendency is unity and truth. What a type 
 of catholicity in thought ! Discussion, no denial ; music is incapable of 
 that ; Mephistopheles in music must make sad work or forget his nature. 
 
 " Then comes the adagio, larghetto, andante, some slow movement, 
 which has more calm, still feeling and unquestioning religion in it. This 
 is the central sanctuary in this musical abridgment of man's life, which every 
 good symphony appears to be. This the heart ; that the head. 
 
 " The serious andante passes, sometimes directly, sometimes through the 
 frolic scherzo, and the minuet and trio, into the rondo finale, which is 
 rapid and full of the spirit and preparation for action, full of resolve and 
 fire. The sentiment which has passed through the crucible of the judgment 
 in the allegro, and sought its divine repose at the religious altar of feeling in 
 the adagio, having traversed its intellectual and its effective phases, now 
 puts on its armor and moves on with alacrity for action. (Though, in many 
 lighter symphonies, it is more like a school-boy pulling on his hat and rush- 
 ing out of doors in pure animal spirits.) It seems to act itself out with 
 buoyant confidence ; sometimes with sublime triumph, as in the march con- 
 cluding the C Minor Symphony." 
 
 Before closing this chapter, a few words may be in 
 place with reference to what is termed program music. 
 
 S^& . y-^ 
 
 VCTNIVERSITY) 
 
3 I 2 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTA TIVE AR T. 
 
 By this is meant a symphony or shorter composition in 
 connection with the performance of which there is dis- 
 tributed among the audience a printed explanation of the 
 scenes or events, or series of them, to which the move- 
 ments of the music are supposed to be analogous. Many 
 claim that this form of effect is not legitimate. But from 
 what has been said, it is evident that such analogies not 
 only may be, but probably are, conceived by the composer 
 when engaged in his work ; and it is only natural to sup- 
 pose, as Liszt did, that to let one's audiences know what 
 these were, will add to the interest of the music, just as a 
 printed description may add to the interest, for instance, 
 of an historical painting. We may even go so far, too, as 
 to suppose that such a description may add to the dis- 
 tinctively aesthetic interest. According to the theory 
 advanced in Chapters X. to XV. of "Art in Theory/* 
 especially on page 160, the degree of beauty is often in- 
 creased in the degree in which the number of effects enter- 
 ing into its generally complex nature is increased. This 
 is true even though some of these effects, as in the case of 
 forms conjured before the imagination by a verbal descrip- 
 tion, may come from a source which, considered in itself, 
 is not aesthetic. It must not be overlooked, however, that 
 all beauty whatever is a characteristic of form ; and that 
 intellectual effects, like these explanations, to have an 
 aesthetic influence, must always be presented to apprehen- 
 sion in connection with an external form with which they 
 can be clearly associated. For this reason, though they 
 may add to the aesthetic interest, where it already exists, 
 they cannot, of themselves, make up for a lack of it. To 
 a work of art an explanation is much what canes are to 
 walking. Well used, they may increase the gracefulness 
 of impression conveyed by a man's gait. But this cannot 
 
REPRESENTATION WHEN ASSOCIATIVE. 313 
 
 be graceful at all, unless he is able to walk without them. 
 So a picture cannot be all that a work of art should be, 
 unless, without one's knowing what the explanation is 
 designed to impart, the drawing and coloring can, in 
 some degree, at least, attract and satisfy aesthetic interest. 
 Neither can a musical composition, unless it too, without 
 the aid of explanations, through the mere unfolding of 
 musical motives in a distinctively musical way, can afford, 
 at least, some degree of aesthetic delight. 
 
 So far as an explanation is intended to be used as 
 a crutch instead of a cane, the opponents of program 
 music are justified. But, on the other hand, so long as a 
 composer refrains from conditioning upon his printed 
 description such effects as are not legitimate to it, there 
 seems to be no good reason why he should not share his 
 confidences with his audiences, and let them know what 
 visible phenomena seemed represented by his product 
 when he was preparing it. In pursuing this course, why 
 is he not acting as strictly in accordance with the princi- 
 ples of his art, as is the composer of an opera when he 
 indicates to his stage managers how to represent the 
 movements of his music through still more visible scenery 
 and action ? 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MUSICAL REPRESENTATION IN SERIES OF PASSAGES 
 WHEN IMITATIVE, WITH REMARKS ABOUT WAGNER. 
 
 Influence upon Representation of Slight Imitative Effects Examples : Bark- 
 ing of a Dog Braying of an Ass Nightingale's Song Cackling of a 
 Hen Cluck of Same Human Sounds Laughter Yawning Sneez- 
 ing Coughing Quarrelling Sobbing Scolding Moaning Fond- 
 ling Playing Frightening Others Paganini's Testimony The 
 General Character of Wagner's Motives His Peculiar Method of Using 
 them Result of this, Especially upon those not Previously Appreciat- 
 ing Music His Tendency toward a Language of Music Will Others 
 Develop this Two Methods in which it may be Done with Safety 
 Conclusion. 
 
 TT is evident that the analogies indicated in the last 
 chapter between the general order of series of sounds 
 and the order of particular phases of nature that they are 
 intended to suggest, can be rendered much more distinctly 
 apprehensible by adding to what is only generally repre- 
 sentative by way of analogy that which is specifically so 
 by way of imitation. It would need but a few imitative 
 strokes of a drum, for instance, to make that which might 
 suggest either a storm or a battle, suggest one of these 
 rather than the other. In this regard, musical forms cor- 
 respond exactly to poetic forms. Some words are repre- 
 sentative because they suggest a similarity in underlying 
 causes like the word expressive, derived as it is, from 
 analogies between pressing one material substance out of 
 another material substance, and doing something similar 
 
 314 
 
REPRESENTATION WHEN ASSOCIATIVE. 
 
 315 
 
 with a purely mental substance. Other words are repre- 
 sentative because they suggest a similarity in apparent 
 effects like the imitative words "buzz" or "crackle." 
 The same is true, too, of phrases and sentences. Some 
 are artistic because they recall an analagous series of rela- 
 tionships, and some because they also recall an analagous 
 series of sounds. 
 
 We have noticed already, as applied to music, how not 
 only associative but imitative effects may be produced by 
 a main use of each of the different elements of duration, 
 force, pitch, and quality. Here are a few more examples 
 produced by a combination of these. It is not necessary 
 to say that they have the same general relation to musical 
 effects that descriptive passages have to those of poetry. 
 The following imitations are noticed by Gardiner in his 
 " Music of Nature." Here is a representation of the bark- 
 ing of a dog by Haydn in his " Thirty-eighth Quartet": 
 
 No. 67. 
 
 Here one of the bray of the ass by the same composer in 
 his " Seventy-sixth Quartet " : 
 
 No. 68 "B." 
 
316 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 In this he represents the song of the nightingale ; 
 
 
 
 Sweet bird that shunn'st the noise of fol - ly, 
 Most mu - sic-al, most mel - an-chol - y! 
 
 No. 69. 
 
 And in this, from the Finale of his " Twentieth Quar- 
 tet," the cackling of a hen : 
 
 gttepSaF " ^ 
 
 -*-l 
 
 
 
 - v i/, ^^3 1 
 
 L-J. J....J J J J ^ 
 
 ^SH 
 
 ^ - 
 
 -j-j- 
 
 No. 70. 
 
 The cluck of the hen (imitated also by Mozart and 
 Rossini) is thus given by Beethoven in his "Third 
 Symphony " : 
 
 *4- 
 
 P 
 
 ^-^Kt- 
 
 ^^=^" 
 
 J- -* 
 
 -H 
 
 No. 71. 
 
 Imitation in music, however, is confined largely to 
 representing tones natural to the human voice. The 
 authority last quoted notices the following : 
 Of laughter, by Handel, 
 
 jeu |? ' - f- 
 
 - ^ i - h 
 
 
 e_ ,__ 
 
 
 fe^ ? b V V tzt' 
 
 No. 72. 
 
 
 ==yJ 
 
 pi 
 
REPRESENTATION WHEN IMITATIVE. 317 
 
 by Weber, 
 
 
 No. 73- 
 
 Of yawning, by Haydn in his " Fifty-seventh Quartet " : 
 
 2- /TS ^L /T\ 
 
 
 i= 
 
 No. 74. 
 
 Of sneezing, 
 
 No. 75. 
 
 his " Eighth 
 Symphony." 
 
 Of a 
 the same. 
 
 No. 76. 
 
 r 
 
 No. 77. 
 
 . 
 
 sons in a passion, 
 by Beethoven in 
 his "Third Trio." 
 
 Of the sobbing of a child, by Rossini in a duet in " Gazza 
 Ladra " : 
 
 
 No. 78. 
 
318 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 Of the scolding of a woman in the overture by Mozart to 
 the " Magic Flute " : 
 
 
 
 No. 79. 
 
 Of the moan of sorrow and pain, by Beethoven in his 
 " Third Trio " : 
 
 
 No. 80. 
 
 Of the tone of a mother fondling her child in Haydn's 
 " Fifty-eighth Quartet " : 
 
 
 No. 81. 
 
 Of the sounds of children at play in Mozart's " Fifth 
 Quintet " : 
 
 t=q 
 
 No. 82. 
 
REPRESENTATION WHEN IMITATIVE. 319 
 
 Of children frightening one another, in the opening of 
 Beethoven's " Symphony in C Minor." Concerning this 
 strain, Beethoven is said to have remarked, " It is thus 
 that fate knocks at the gate " : 
 
 f* /* 
 
 SEE* 
 
 Woo, woo, woo, woo, woo, woo, woo, woo. 
 
 No. 83. 
 
 Very likely some of the above appearances of imitation 
 are merely coincidences. Others, perhaps, are strains that 
 had been heard by the composer and retained in memory, 
 and were afterward used without any definite notion of 
 the source from which they were derived. Yet there can 
 be no doubt that many of them furnish illustrations of 
 conscious imitation. Notice what Paganini says about one 
 of his performances. His words are quoted as given by 
 Gardiner in his " Music of Nature " : 
 
 " I accordingly gave notice at court that I should bring forward a musical 
 novelty under the title of a Love Scene . . I . . . previously 
 robbed it [his violin] of the two middle strings, so that none but the F and 
 G remained ; the first string being designed to play the maiden's part and 
 the lowest the youth's. I began with a series of dialogue in which I at- 
 tempted to introduce movements analogous to transient bickerings and 
 reconciliations between the lovers. Now the strings growled and then 
 sighed, and anon lisped, hesitated, joked, and joyed, till at last they sported 
 with merry jubilee. Shortly, both souls joined once more in harmony, and 
 the appeased lovers quarreled to a pas de deaux which terminated in a 
 brilliant Coda." 
 
 Wagner's themes, or motives, as they are termed, and 
 his uses of them were so unique in character as to de- 
 serve special mention. As indicated by the selections from 
 
320 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 his works inserted in previous chapters, many of these 
 themes were based upon the principle of imitation. But 
 many more, as has been shown, were based upon that of 
 expression according to the methods of discoursive rather 
 than dramatic elocution. Whether he himself was 
 thoroughly conscious to what an extent this was true is 
 uncertain, though it is hardly conceivable that one who 
 had made so exhaustive a study of the effects of sound, 
 should not have had some definite theories with reference 
 to their significance. Most musicians, however, though 
 quick to detect the appropriateness of different move- 
 ments for different sentiments, have difficulty in explain- 
 ing the reasons for their preferences ; and it may have 
 been the same with him. But if so, it is a remarkable 
 proof of the accuracy of his musical instincts that, without 
 guidance of the reason, he should have made so few mis- 
 takes, as judged from even the point of view of the 
 elocutionist. 
 
 While there is this to commend his motives, however, 
 it is not these in themselves so much as the way in which 
 he introduced and combined them, that distinguishes his 
 musical effects from those of other composers. His 
 method was first to associate a motive with some person, 
 object, action, or event ; and afterward, whenever that with 
 which it was associated appeared upon the stage or was 
 suggested by the language, thought, feelings, or situations, 
 the motive itself was introduced into either the melody of 
 the voice or the harmony of the instrumentation. Not 
 only so, but a certain correspondence was musically indi- 
 cated between the way in which this was introduced and 
 the relations of the person, object, action, or event to the 
 circumstances attendant upon its introduction. 
 
 This method, to those who have familiarized them- 
 
REPRESENTATION WHEN IMITATIVE. $21 
 
 selves with the motives, causes an opera of Wagner to have 
 a double effect : first, the ordinary musical effect which is 
 due to the development of the melodies and harmonies 
 for their own sakes ; and, second, the intellectual effect 
 which is due to connecting each of these motives with 
 that which it suggests, and noticing the way in which it 
 blends with other motives or opposes them. This action 
 on an extended scale, of motive upon motive, is what 
 Wagner meant by dramatic music, and it is in the develop- 
 ment of this that he chiefly manifested his originality. It 
 is owing to it, too, that he has obtained such a hold upon 
 his admirers. His method of adapting music to the re- 
 quirements of intellect necesssarily adds to it an intellec- 
 tual interest. In fact, after making all due allowance for 
 those who applaud and apparently enjoy his music for the 
 same reason that they applaud and apparently enjoy any- 
 thing which is understood to be fashionable, there are cer- 
 tainly many people formerly unable to appreciate products 
 of this art, who have learned to perceive in his works 
 that which they can appreciate, and who, by first coming 
 to take delight in it as developed by him, have come 
 to take an otherwise, for them, impossible interest in all its 
 legitimate forms. Through effects thus exerted Wagner 
 greatly dignified the art to which he devoted himself, 
 as well as extended the sphere of its influence. 
 
 But notice that the circumstance which enabled him to 
 olo this was the fact that with him series of notes are 
 brought together in exact analogy to the way in which 
 the much briefer series of syllables or words are brought 
 together in speech. To a certain extent, it might be said, 
 therefore, that what Wagner did was to construct a lan- 
 guage of which the factors were not words but motives. 
 It is conceivable, of course, that other musical composers 
 
322 MUSIC AS A REPRESENTATIVE ART. 
 
 in the future will accept the meanings assigned by him to 
 these motives, and use them, and add to them, and so 
 go on and develop from them a language of music, which 
 can be understood universally. But probably this will 
 never be done. Probably, too, it would be found to be 
 undesirable. It would be almost certain to lead to an 
 amount of imitation that would cause the art to decline. 
 
 There are, however, two methods open to composers, 
 from the applications of which less danger of this kind 
 could be apprehended. One is to originate their own 
 motives, and then to use them in their own compositions,, 
 according to the repetitious methods of Wagner. The 
 other, and, in case of complete success, a better method 
 but only a genius of the very highest order could develop 
 it would be, according to the principles underlying rep- 
 resentation in duration, force, pitch, and quality that have 
 here been mentioned, to form a musical alphabet of the 
 emotions, each factor of which should not be a whole 
 motive but could be used as a part of a motive. Thus 
 used, it is possible to conceive that such an alphabet might 
 leave abundant scope for originality, and yet render the 
 motive, whenever heard, at least comparatively intelli- 
 gible. There is a natural, inarticulated language of the 
 emotions employed by all of us. What reason is there in 
 nature to suppose otherwise than that all its elements 
 might be comprehended and tabulated with sufficient 
 defmiteness in a few score of carefully related forms of 
 sound ? As it is, even now, every really great composer 
 recognizes the existence of this language and uncon- 
 sciously applies its principles. Why should they not be 
 formulated so that all men could know them ? Why 
 should not the psychological correspondences of music be 
 unfolded with as much definiteness as those of elocution 
 
REPRESENTATION WHEN IMITATIVE. 323 
 
 to which in their elements they are analogous ? Or, if the 
 formulation of the principles involved would necessitate, 
 as it might, artistic difficulties and dangers impossible to 
 overcome, why, at least, might there not be developed 
 among men such a concurrency of opinion with reference 
 to the principles themselves that the composer would feel 
 constrained, more often than at present, to regard them ? 
 And then, in the degree in which they were carried out 
 persistently and accurately, would not the musical world 
 be made familiar with them, and even the unmusical be 
 made, at any rate, to recognize their existence ? 
 
 Were this done we should have no more writers upon 
 aesthetics with outer and inner senses ears and minds 
 so dull of perception as to declare that music does not 
 appeal, as do the other arts, to intelligence, or that it is 
 presentative and not representative. It has been abun- 
 dantly shown here that this view is erroneous ; but it 
 would be an advantage to have the recognized conditions 
 of the art clearly reveal the fact. It would be an advan- 
 tage to have music seen by all in its true position, standing 
 side by side with poetry, painting, sculpture and archi- 
 tecture, and representing, in just as legitimate a sense as 
 they, its own appropriate phase of the influence which 
 nature exerts not merely upon the auditory nerves 
 which alone would not account for its spiritual effects 
 but also upon the mind. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abruptness, art-method, 3 ; in ef- 
 fects of harmony, poetic, 162, 
 166 ; musical, 212, 213, 217 ; of 
 metre, 59. 
 
 Accent, 6, 12, 15 ; as the basis 
 of rhythm and metre, 17-24 ; 
 changes in musical, 103 ; changing 
 number of, in poetic lines, 48-52 ; 
 Greek, 22 ; in musical measures, 
 101-103, 257 ; marks for, Greek, 
 184 ; musically representative, 
 when at unusual places, 259, or 
 not strongly marked, 260 ; physi- 
 cal cause of, 14, 28. 
 
 Accented clicks, and their effect on 
 rhythm, 12 ; syllables, 5 ; should 
 not contain same sounds as un- 
 accented, 118-120. 
 
 Accomplishment, as represented in 
 music, 297. 
 
 Across the World I Speak to Thee, 
 78. 
 
 Admiration, as represented in music, 
 294, 296. 
 
 JEneid, 37, 122, 125, 128, 133. 
 
 ^Esthetic, History of, 303. 
 
 Affirmation, as represented in music, 
 266, 270, 275, 286. 
 
 A Flying Visit, 86. 
 
 Alberich's Cry, 286. 
 
 Alexandrine Line, 36, 69. 
 
 Allied syllable sounds, consonance 
 and gradation in, 156-167 ; con- 
 sonant sounds, 156-158 ; leading 
 to gradation, 162, 163 ; vowel- 
 sounds, 159. 
 
 Alliteration, art-method of, 121-127, 
 135, 136, 148, 162, 176 ; Anglo- 
 Saxon, 124, 125, 148 ; how varied, 
 148 ; inartistic, how prevented, 
 
 136-167 ; influenced by likeness 
 
 in thought, 139-143 ; legitimate 
 
 effects of, 117-120, 138. 
 Alphabet, musical, 321. 
 Alternation, art-method, 3 ; in har- 
 mony, 3, 148, 149, 212 ; in rhythm, 
 
 3, 118, 119 ; in scales, 189; in 
 
 verse, 150, 154, 155. 
 Amazement, as represented in music, 
 
 294. 
 
 Ambrose, St., 186, 268. 
 American Girl, An, 81. 
 American Journal of Psychology, 
 
 II, 305. 
 
 Among Comrades March, 258. 
 Analogies between series of events 
 
 and musical order, 310, 314. 
 Anapaest measure, 27, 31, 62-64. 
 Ancient Mariner, The, 20, 39, 130. 
 Angelo, xix, 71. 
 Angel Whisper, The, 47. 
 Anger, or passion, as represented in 
 
 music, 317. 
 Anglo-Saxon alliteration, 124, 125, 
 
 148. 
 
 Anima Anceps, 165. 
 Annabel Lee, 167. 
 Antecedent section in music, 98, 99. 
 Anticipation, as represented in 
 
 music, 266, 269-272, 275-277, 
 
 286-289, 296. 
 Antigone, xiii. 
 Antiquary, From the, 155. 
 Antony and Cleopatra, 126. 
 A Poet's Epitaph, 56. 
 Approbation, as represented in 
 
 music, 267. 
 Arab to his Favorite Steed, The, 
 
 33- 
 Arbuthnot, Epistle to, 46. 
 
 325 
 
326 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 Architecture, correspondences to 
 other arts, 4-7 ; representation in, 
 232-234 ; necessity of regarding 
 both form and significance in, 
 236, 237. 
 
 Ariosto, 71. 
 
 Aristotle, 24, 29, 189, 303. 
 
 Arnold, M., 36; Sir E., 48. 
 
 Arrangement of sounds, as related to 
 ease of utterance, 113-117 ; effect 
 on mind and memory, 113, 114 ; 
 to sense, 116 ; showing likeness of 
 thought in harmony, 143. 
 
 Art of Music as distinguished from 
 Natural Music, 248. 
 
 Art of Poetry, The, 135. 
 
 Art in Ornament and Dress, 154. 
 
 Art in Theory, v-vii, x, xi, xiv, xix, 
 2, 91, 136, 186, 231, 232, 235, 
 242, 248. 
 
 Art, need of philosophic study of, 
 iv, ix. 
 
 Artistic, The, fulfils requirements 
 of nature, 21, 37. 
 
 Artist, master of his methods, xiv, 
 xv. 
 
 Artists, their use of effects precedes 
 scientists' knowledge of causes, 
 110, 177. 
 
 Aspirate quality, 293, 294, 297. 
 
 Asses, as represented in music, 279, 
 316. 
 
 Association, as influencing musical 
 representation, 242, 254, 301-313. 
 
 Assonance, 127-131, 162, 176 ; em- 
 ployed in place of rhyme, 131 ; 
 how varied, 148 ; inartistic, how 
 prevented, 136-167 ; influenced 
 by likeness in thought, 139-143 ; 
 legitimate effects of, 117-120, 
 138. 
 
 Assurance, as represented in music, 
 267. 
 
 As You Like It, 152. 
 
 Athens, an ode, 33. 
 
 Atlantic Monthly, 310. 
 
 At the Church Gate, 45. 
 
 Awe, as represented in music, 294, 
 296. 
 
 Bain, Alexander, 116. 
 
 Balance, art-method, 3 ; as used in 
 harmony, 148-155, 159, 160, 211- 
 213 ; in rhythm, 19, 30, 38, 55, 
 1 20 ; in polyphonic music, 190 ; in 
 scales, 189 ; excess of, 153. 
 
 Ballade, 80-82. 
 
 Ballade of Lovelace, 82. 
 
 Ballad of Sark, A, 48. 
 
 Bannockburn, 174. 
 
 Barry, 124. 
 
 Bass in music, 94. 
 
 Bassoon, 295, 299. 
 
 Battles, as represented in music, 297. 
 
 Beasts, tread of, as represented in 
 music, 299. 
 
 Beats in music, 224-226. 
 
 Beauty, 2 ; definition of, vii-ix. 
 
 Beautiful Snow, 31. 
 
 Beethoven, xix, 97-100 ; 237, 245, 
 260, 279, 306, 308, 316, 318, 319. 
 
 Bells, The, 31, 46, 56, 167. 
 
 Ben Allah Achmet, 87. 
 
 Berlioz, 245. 
 
 Bertha in the Lane, 45, 67. 
 
 Biglow Papers, 88. 
 
 Bird Motive, 299. 
 
 Birds, as represented in music, 279, 
 297, 299, 314. 
 
 Blanc, C., 154. 
 
 Blank Verse, 37, 42, 44, 49, 50 ; 
 irregular. 42-44 ; broken, 51. 
 
 Bloody Mary Architecture, 237. 
 
 Bolero, 104. 
 
 Bolton, T. L., II, 13. 
 
 Bosenquet, 303. 
 
 Bowker, R. S., 32. 
 
 Brahm, 304. 
 
 Break, break, break, 20, 40. 
 
 Breathing, influence on poetic lines, 
 14, 15, 28, 30; on divisions in 
 music, 94, 95. 
 
 Bridges, R., 44. 
 
 Browning, Mrs., 45, 67, 71 ; R., 
 xiv., 127, 143. 
 
 Brut d'Angleterre, 129, 133. 
 
 Brydges, 25. 
 
 Bucolics, 123. 
 
 Bunner, H. C., 75. 
 
 Buoyancy, as represented in music, 
 257, 270, 281. 
 
 Burbridge, T., 47. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 327 
 
 Burns, 69, 174. 
 
 Buzz of insects, as represented in 
 
 music, 299. 
 Byrne, F. M., 83. 
 Byron, 33, 42, 49, 69, 105, 127. 
 By the North Sea, 152. 
 
 Cadence, musical, 210 ; representa- 
 tive, either as major or minor, 
 282-290 ; when complete, 286 ; 
 minor as representative, 289. 
 
 Caesura, 30, 31. 
 
 Calderon, 124, 129, 151. 
 
 Camp Bell, The, 55. 
 
 Canadian Boat Song, The, 263. 
 
 Canning, Geo., 89. 
 
 Canterbury, Tales, Prologue, 129. 
 
 Canto, 57. 
 
 Capen, C. L., 305. 
 
 Captain Reece, 86, 134. 
 
 Catholic Church and development of 
 harmony, 190. 
 
 Central-Point, art-method of, 3 ; in 
 harmony, 143, 212 ; in rhythm, 19. 
 
 Certainty, as represented in music, 
 276. 
 
 Chain Verse, French, 79, 80 
 
 Changes, of Accent in Verse-Lines, 
 48-52 ; of Syllables, 39-48. 
 
 Chant Royal, 84. 
 
 Charon, 124. 
 
 Chart of Methods of Art Composi- 
 tion, 3. 
 
 Chaucer, 67-70, 129, 133. 
 
 Chaucerian Stanza, 68 ; Shorter, 67 ; 
 Longer, 70. 
 
 Child during Sickness, To a, 174. 
 
 Childe, Harold, 49, 69, 70, 127. 
 
 Children of the Lord's Supper, 32, 
 
 35- 
 
 Children's Hour, 47. 
 
 Chinese music, 193 ; poetry, 135, 
 141 ; scale, 203. 
 
 Choosing a Name, 47. 
 
 Chords, 160, 162 ; compounded of 
 partial tones, 217-220; congruity 
 in effect of, 179 ; dominant, sub- 
 dominant, tonic, 210, 211, 214, 
 215 ; effects similar to those of 
 rhythm, 222, 223 ; harmonizing 
 major scale, 208, 210 ; ratios of 
 
 notes in, 219, 220; representation 
 in, 228, 282-290 ; seventh, 211, 
 21 8 ; seventh as representative, 
 283-290 ; transitions in ; 212-217 
 from major to minor, 215-217 ; 
 why enjoyable, 179 ; why neces- 
 sary to music, 221-228. 
 
 Chorus, more enjoyable than single 
 voice, 179. 
 
 Cimbeline, 52. 
 
 Clarinet, as representative, 296. 
 
 Classicism versus Romanticism, 
 
 X XV. 
 
 Classic Verse and Metre, 21-23. 
 
 Clef, alto, 183 ; bass, 182 ; C. 183 ; 
 Fa., F. 182 ; G., 182 ; Sol., 182 ; 
 soprano, tenor, 183 ; treble, 182. 
 
 Climax, musical, 285. 
 
 Cloud, The, 132. 
 
 C Minor symphony, 100, 311,319. 
 
 Coleridge, 2O, 21, 39, 40, 42, 55, 
 130. 
 
 Coles, A., 32. 
 
 Colonna, V, 71. 
 
 Color, as tone, 6, 107, 108 ; gamut 
 of, 162. 
 
 Columbian Medal, xv. 
 
 Comic effects of rhythm, 85-89 ; of 
 rhyme, 87-89. 
 
 Common metre, 62, 85. 
 
 Comparison, art-method, 3 ; in har- 
 mony of music, 185 ; of poetry, 
 
 117, 120, 139, 149; in melody, 
 187 ; of rhythm, 16, 20, 38, 92 ; 
 of the scale, 188 ; underlying 
 musical representation, 242, 254. 
 
 Comparison, the act of, represented 
 by inflections, 275. 
 
 Complaining, as represented in 
 music, 282. 
 
 Complaint of Mars, 70. 
 
 Complement, art-method, 3 ; effects 
 in syllable-sounds, 164 ; in har- 
 mony of music, 212 ; of poetry, 
 
 118, 120, 139, 147-154, 159; in 
 rhythm, 16, 30, 38, 55 ; in scales, 
 189 ; polyphonic music, 190 ; too 
 much of, 153. 
 
 Complementary colors, 162. 
 Completing a musical idea, represen- 
 tation of, 266. 
 
328 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 Complex wholes united in art, when 
 they have like partial effects, 53, 
 100, 117, 121, 138, 176, 177, 200, 
 209, 217, 228. 
 
 Complexity, art-method, 3 ; in mu- 
 sical harmony, 179 ; in rhythm, 16, 
 in verse-harmony, 108, no, 119. 
 
 Complication, art-method, 3 ; in 
 harmony, 154-156, 190-212 ; in 
 rhythm, 55, 57, 95. 
 
 Composition, table of methods of 
 art, 3. 
 
 Compound metre 28. 
 
 Comprehensiveness, art-method, 3 ; 
 in harmony, poetic, 142, 143, 149 ; 
 musical, 212 ; in rhythm, 18. 
 
 Conclusiveness, as represented in 
 music, 267, 270, 271, 275-277, 286 
 -289. 
 
 Concord. See Chord. 
 
 Confidence, as represented in music, 
 258. 
 
 Confusion, art-method, 3 ; in har- 
 mony, poetic, 116; musical, 190, 
 208 ; in rhythm, 16, 92. 
 
 Congruity, art-method, 3 ; in har- 
 mony, poetic, 139 ; musical, 185, 
 212 ; in melody, 187 ; rhythm, 17, 
 18, 20 ; scale, 188 ; tones, 179. 
 
 Consequent section in musical period, 
 98, 99. 
 
 Consonance, art-method, 3 ; in har- 
 mony, musical, 223-227 ; poetical, 
 no, 139, 156-162 ; in melody, 
 187 ; in rhythm, 17, 18, 59 ; in 
 scale, 1 88, 189 ; why necessary, 
 221-228. 
 
 Contempt, as represented in music, 
 294. 
 
 Contentment, as represented in 
 music, 393. 
 
 Continuity, art-method, 3 ; in har- 
 mony of poetry, 154, 1551 of 
 music, 212 ; of rhythm, 57, 95. 
 
 Contour, 5. 
 
 Contrast, art-method, 3 ; between 
 accented and unaccented syllables, 
 
 118, 119 ; element of emphasis, 
 140; in harmony of poetry, 117 
 
 119, 139, 147, 148 ; of music in 
 melody, 188 ; in rhythm, 16, 92. 
 
 Contrast, the act of, represented by 
 inflections, 275. 
 
 Convulsion, as represented in music, 
 261. 
 
 Coote, C., 258. 
 
 Coriolanus, 153. 
 
 Correspondence, principle of, in 
 musical representation, 233, 243, 
 309, 310, 314 ; in conditions and 
 directions of pitch, 264-267, 272 ; 
 in quality, 294 ; in rhythm, 253, 
 261. 
 
 Correspondences, between arts of 
 sound and sight, 1-7, 107, 108 ; 
 between instruments and human 
 voices, 91, 295 ; poetical and 
 musical divisions of time, 94-100 ; 
 and measures, 101, 102 ; and har- 
 mony, 145 ; between couplets and 
 musical sections, 98-100 ; pitch 
 and quality in poetry and music,. 
 168-177. 
 
 Corti's Rods, 109. 
 
 Cotterill, 65. 
 
 Cotter's Saturday Night, 69. 
 
 Coughing, as represented in music, 
 
 279. 317. 
 
 Counteraction, art-method, 3 ; in 
 harmony, musical, 188, 208, 212; 
 poetic, 118, 119, 150, 154, 155, 
 159; in rhythm, 16, 30, 38, 118 ; 
 in scale, 188. 
 
 Couplet, 30, 57, 95 ; like musical 
 sections, 98-100. 
 
 Courage as represented in music, 
 294, 296. 
 
 Course of Time, 112. 
 
 Cranch, C. P. 54. 
 
 Crashaw, R. 61. 
 
 Crazy Jane Architecture, 237. 
 
 Cristabel, 39. 
 
 Criticism, American, iv-ix ; impor- 
 tance of philosophic, ix ; its ob- 
 ject, iv., v, 
 
 Crying, as represented in music, 282. 
 
 Cymbals, 297. 
 
 Dactyl measure, 27, 31, 32, 34, 35, 
 
 63. 
 
 Danger, as represented in music, 287. 
 Dante, xvii, 71, 124, 129, 151, 236. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 329 
 
 Darwin, 245, 246. 
 
 Davis, T., 174. 
 
 Deceived Lover, The, 46, 47. 
 
 Decision, as represented in music, 
 
 266, 275-277, 286. 
 Delight, as represented in music, 
 
 294, 296. 
 Denner, B., 236. 
 Depression, as represented in music, 
 
 282, 302. 
 
 Descent of Man, 245. 
 Description of Wales, 125. 
 Despair, as represented in music, 286. 
 Determination, as represented in 
 
 music, 294, 296. 
 Development of musical motive, 
 
 95-99- 
 
 Dies Irx, 32. 
 
 Dignity, as represented in music, 
 254, 258. 
 
 Dimeter, 31, 47. 
 
 Dionysius, 184 ; praise of, 84. 
 
 Disappointment, as represented in 
 music, 289. 
 
 Disapprobation, as represented in 
 music, 267. 
 
 Discoursive elocution, 252, 253 ; 
 music, 254, 302. 
 
 Dissonance, art-method, 3 ; in har- 
 mony, 159, 212 ; in rhythm, 59 ; in 
 scale, 188 ; in seventh chord, 211. 
 
 Distinct intelligence, why not con- 
 veyed by music, 240, 241, 247. 
 
 Disturbance, as represented in music, 
 261. 
 
 Divisions in poetry and music cor- 
 respond, 94-100. 
 
 Dobell, S., 41, 43. 
 
 Dobson, A., 79. 
 
 Dog, as represented in music, 215, 
 279. 
 
 Dominant chord, 210, 211, 214, 215. 
 
 Donders, 189. 
 
 Don Juan, 295. 
 
 Dots in music, 93. 
 
 Double entendre, as represented in 
 music, 275. 
 
 Double measure, in poetry, 26-28 ; 
 with long quantity, effects like 
 straight line, 58 ; with short, like 
 angles, 58 ; in music, 101. 
 
 Doubt, as represented in music, 260, 
 267, 277, 308. 
 
 Douglas, 125. 
 
 Downward movements in accent, 
 57, 264-267 ; in music, 267-273, 
 2 75 2 77. 278, 286-290 ; on un- 
 accented syllables, 172, 173. 
 
 Dramatic elocution, 252, 253; music, 
 254, 302, 321. 
 
 Drum, 295, 297. 
 
 Dryden, 33, 37, 135, 138. 
 
 Duration, art-method of, 3 ; effects 
 upon chicks in rhythmic grouping, 
 12, 13 ; upon poetic and musical 
 rhythm, I, 6, 91, 108 ; upon rep- 
 resentation in elocution, 251-254 ; 
 in music, 254-263. 
 
 Dwight, J. S., 310. 
 
 Earnestness, as represented in music, 
 
 256. 
 Ease of utterance, underlying poetic 
 
 sound-arrangements, 114-117. 
 Ecclesiastes, 43. 
 Echoes, 65. 
 
 Edinburgh Review, 113. 
 Education of Nature, The, Words- 
 worth, 173. 
 Effects, harmony of, as the test of 
 
 beauty, vii, viii. 
 Egyptian music, 187. 
 Eights, metre of, 62 ; and sevens, 
 
 68 ; and sevens and fours, 64. 
 Ejaculatory expression, 252, 301. 
 Elation, as represented in music, 302. 
 Elegy in a Country Churchyard, 
 
 Gray, 32. 
 Elephant's tread, as represented in 
 
 music, 299. 
 
 Elevens, metre of, 64 ; and tens, 63. 
 Eliot, George, 131. 
 Elliott, E., 56. 
 Ellis, A. J., 184. 
 El Magico Prodigioso, Calderon, 
 
 124, 129, 151. 
 Elocutionary effects, as correlated in 
 
 music, 251-254, 264-267, 274, 275, 
 
 280-282, 286, 291-295, 322. 
 Elwell, xxi. 
 Emphasis, elocutionary, produced by 
 
 contrast, 140. 
 
33 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 Endings, of lines of verse, double, 
 
 46 ; end-stopped, 50-52 ; changes 
 
 in syllables, 44-46 ; feminine, 46 ; 
 
 light, 51 ; masculine, 46 ; run-on, 
 
 50-52 ; weak, 51. 
 
 Energy, as represented in music, 256. 
 English, as a medium of versification, 
 
 23, 24 ; its verse-methods, 21-24. 
 English Versification, 79. 
 Enoch Arden, 118. 
 Enthusiasm, as represented in music, 
 
 270, 296. 
 
 Envoy to Ballades, etc., 81, 82, 84. 
 Envy, Eldest Born of Hell, 298. 
 Epilogue, 127. 
 Epistle the Fifth, 138 ; to Arbuth- 
 
 not, 116. 
 Equivocacy, as represented in music, 
 
 275- 
 Essay, on Criticism, 33 ; on Man, 
 
 113, 114- 
 Euphonious, 117. 
 Euphony, 114, 115 ; as related to 
 
 the sense, 116. 
 Euphuism, 114. 
 Evangeline, 113. 
 Everett, 70. 
 Excursion, The, 50. 
 Exhalation. See Breathing. 
 Exhilaration, as represented in music, 
 
 257 
 Expression, in music, dependent 
 
 on the motive, 97, 233. 
 Extension, art-method, I, 3, 6, 108. 
 Exuberance, as represented in music, 
 
 269. 
 
 Fahrbach, P., 258. 
 
 Fairie Queene, The, 69, 116, 126, 
 
 130, 134, 151, 153, 154. 
 Farragut, Statue of, xxi. 
 Faun, Statue, xiii. 
 Faust, C., 258. 
 Faust, poem, 51, 296, 297. 
 Feast of Bacchus, The, 44. 
 Feeling, as represented in Art of 
 
 Music, 231, 241. 
 Feet, poetic, kinds of, 26-28, 54, 
 
 101, 102 ; compared to musical 
 
 measures, 94-100. See Measures. 
 Ferdinand and Elvira, 87. 
 
 Fife, 295. 
 
 Fifths, consecutive, 214. 
 
 Finality, as represented in music, 
 266. See Conclusiveness. 
 
 Fit of Rhyme against Rhyme, 137. 
 
 Five Hundred Points of Good Hus- 
 bandry, 113. 
 
 Flats, signs of, in music, 183, 184; 
 keys for, 205. 
 
 Flight, Motive of, Wagner, 261. 
 
 Flute, 295. 
 
 Flying-up, as represented in music, 
 261 ; flying-down, 261. 
 
 Force, in poetic and musical rhyth- 
 mic expression, 5-7, 91, 108, 241; 
 as representative in elocution, 251, 
 252, 254 ; in music, 256-263, 
 302. 
 
 Forging Motive, Wagner, 261. 
 
 Form, as indicated by metrical ar- 
 rangement, 5 ; as influencing in 
 poetry mind and memory, 113, 
 114 ; as influenced by the require- 
 ments of significance, xvi-xxiii ; 
 importance of, in poetry, m- 
 117 ; versus significance in all the 
 arts, 232-237. 
 
 Forms of Verse, French, 73-84. 
 
 French, accent on words, 14; allitera- 
 tion, 123 ; art, xix ; assonance, 
 128 ; early, translation from, 128 ; 
 poetic diction, 23, 
 
 Fretting, as represented in music, 
 282. 
 
 Fright, as represented in music, 294. 
 
 Frothingham, 35. 
 
 Gabrielli, G., 190. 
 
 Gaimar, G., 123. 
 
 Galatea, 296. 
 
 Galop, 104, 257. 
 
 Gamut, 162-164. See Scales. 
 
 Garden of Cymodoce, The, 148, 152. 
 
 Gardiner, 262, 315, 319. 
 
 Gazza, Ladra, 317. 
 
 Genesis of Art-Form, The, I, 2, 15- 
 17, 20, 73, 100, 108, no, 138, 
 139, 142, 143, 153, 154, 156, 160, 
 J 63, 177, 185, 208, 212, 213, 292. 
 
 Gentle Contemplation, as repre- 
 sented in music, 294. 
 
OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Gentleness, as represented in music, 
 
 256. 
 
 Georgica, 150. 
 German, alliteration, 124; assonance, 
 
 129 ; harmony of poetic sounds, 
 
 151, 161. 
 
 German Requiem, 304. 
 Giants, motion of, Wagner, 263. 
 Gifts of God, The, 45. 
 Gilbert, W. T., 23, 86-88, 134. 
 Gilman, B. I., 305. 
 Gladstone, 113. 
 Gliding effect, as represented in 
 
 music, 259. 
 
 God, as represented in music, 304. 
 God's Trouble, The, Motive of, 
 
 Wagner, 276. 
 Goethe, xiii, xvii, xix, xxiii, 35, 51, 
 
 124, 129, 151, 235. 
 Goetz von Berlichingen, xiii. 
 Golden Year, The, 144, 158. 
 Goose, The, 152. 
 Gosse, E. W., 84. 
 Gothic, xiv ; cathedral, 297. 
 Gotterdammerung, Motive of, Wag- 
 ner, 273 ; opera of, 278, 288, 290. 
 Go to thy Rest, 47. 
 Gounod, 296, 297. 
 Go Where Glory Waits Thee, 32. 
 Gracefulness, as represented in 
 
 music, 259. 
 Gradation, art-method, 3 ; in poetic 
 
 harmony, 162-167 ; in musical, 
 
 212-217 ; in rhythm and metre, 
 
 59- 
 Grand, The, as represented in music, 
 
 294. 
 
 Grant, 63. 
 Gratitude, as represented in music, 
 
 303, 
 Grave, The, as represented in music, 
 
 254- 
 
 Gray, 32, 85. 
 
 Greece, 23. 
 
 Greek, accent, how used, 22, 184 ; 
 alliteration, 122; assonance, 128; 
 ideal of art, xxiii ; intonation of 
 poetry, 184, 185 ; lyre, 185 ; reci- 
 tative poetry, 29 ; melodies, 184- 
 186 ; musical harmony, 189, 193 ; 
 musical scales, 199-201, 203, 204, 
 
 206 ; poetic harmony, 150 ; rhyme, 
 I 33f singing, 189; stanzas, 185, 
 versification, 22, 23, 34. 
 
 Greeks, xi, xii, xiii, 268. 
 
 Gregorian chants, derived from 
 methods of speech, 186, 187, 267, 
 268. 
 
 Gregory, Pope, 186, 267. 
 
 Grouping, art-method, 3, 16, 53 ; v 
 correspondence between musical 
 and poetical, 94-100 ; in poetic 
 harmony about central-point, 143; 
 of clicks of twos, threes, etc., in 
 rhythmic experiments, 11-15, 56; 
 of like partial effects in unlike 
 complex wholes, 53, 100, 117, 
 121, 138, 176, 200, 209, 217, 228 ; 
 of syllables, in measures and lines, 
 14-21. 
 
 Growing Twilight, Motive of, Wag- 
 ner, 276. 
 
 Guido of Arezzo, 187, 188. 
 
 Guitar, 297. 
 
 Gurney, 246, 298. 
 
 Hallelujah metre, 65. 
 
 Hall, J. S., ii. 
 
 Hamlet, 165. 
 
 Hammering, Motive of, Wagner, 
 261. 
 
 Hammond, E. P., 1 12. 
 
 Handel, 298, 316. 
 
 Harmonic intervals, 215-220, 225 ; 
 ratios of, 219, 220. 
 
 Harmony, art-method, 1,3; and a 
 lack of it as musically representa- 
 tive, 282-290 ; as distinguished 
 from rhythm and proportion, 108 ; 
 developed from melody, 190-192, 
 244 ; from methods of composi- 
 tion, 107-120, 207-220 ; from 
 partial tones, 208-210 ; of color 
 and sound corresponding, 6, 108, 
 109 ; of Greeks, 189 ; of major 
 scale, 208 ; of music, 185-191 ; of 
 poetry, 107-177 ; of speech, 170- 
 177 ; modern, developed from 
 polyphonic, 289-291 ; physical 
 and psychical reasons for, 221 
 227 ; similarly produced in music 
 and poetry, 145, 146. 
 
33 2 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 Harp, as representative, 297. 
 Hastings, 03. 
 Haweis, H. R., 302. 
 Hawtrey, Dr., 36. 
 Haydn, 299, 315, 318. 
 Healthfulness, as represented in 
 
 music, 281. 
 Heber, 64. 
 
 Hebrew alliteration, 122 ; asso- 
 nance, 132 ; parallelism, 29. 
 Heginbotham, 62. 
 Hell and Heaven, 48. 
 Helmholtz, 91, 169, 175, 184, 185, 
 
 193, 194, 198, 201, 209, 244. 
 Hemans, 139. 
 Hen, as represented in music, 279, 
 
 316. 
 Henry, IV., 158 ; V., 43 ; VI., 116, 
 
 157; VIII., 31, 130. 
 Heptameter, 33, 48. 
 Herbert, Geo., 45, 64, 132. 
 Hermann und Dorothea, 35. 
 Heroism, as represented in music, 
 
 289. 
 Hesitation, as represented in music, 
 
 260, 308. 
 Hexameter, 31, 32, 48 ; English 
 
 and classic, 34-36. 
 Higher Pantheism, The, 304. 
 Hireman Chiel, Ballad of, 131. 
 Homer, 33, 34, 36, 122, 128, 133, 
 
 150. 
 
 Home, Sweet Home, 271. 
 Hood, T., 66, 86, 87, 132. 
 Hopefulness, as represented in music, 
 
 270, 277, 286, 302. 
 Hopelessness, as represented in 
 
 music, 282. 
 Horror, as represented in music, 
 
 294, 296. 
 Hostility, as represented in music, 
 
 294, 295. 
 Hugo, Y., xii, xiv, 123, 128 ; sonnet 
 
 on, 128. 
 Humoreske, 97, 
 Hunt, L., 174. 
 Hymns, different forms of metre of, 
 
 61-68. 
 
 Iambic measure, 32, 33, 37, 61-66. 
 Iambus, 27. 
 
 Ibsen, xxi. 
 
 Iliad, The, 36, 122, 128, 133, 150. 
 
 II Penseroso, 40, 113. 
 
 Imitation, in elocution, 252, 253 ; in 
 music, 254 ; in pitch, 272, 273, 
 279 ; in quality, 297-300 ; in 
 rhythm, 261-263 ; in series of 
 movements, 314-317. See Repre- 
 sentation, under head of Imitative. 
 
 Imitative, 253, 302. 
 
 Impeded, The, as represented in 
 music, 282. 
 
 Important, The, as represented in 
 musical rhythm, 254 ; pitch, 266, 
 267, 275, 286. 
 
 Inartistic effects, of alliteration, as- 
 sonance, rhyme, how prevented, 
 136-167 ; of rhythm, how pre- 
 vented, 38-52. 
 
 Incongruity, art-method, 3 ; in comic 
 effects of rhythm, 86-89 ; of sound 
 indicating that of sense, 142 ; in 
 harmony, 212. See Congruity. 
 
 Indecision, as represented in music, 
 266, 267, 275, 277, 286, 289. 
 
 Independent, The, v, ix, 235. 
 
 Indifference, as represented in music, 
 256. 
 
 Indignation, as represented in music, 
 294. 
 
 Inflections, meanings of downward 
 and upward, 265-67 ; of neither 
 direction, 280-282 ; of wave or 
 circumflex, 274, 275. 
 
 Ingoldsby Legends, 88. 
 
 Initial Measure, 27, 28, 39, 40, 62- 
 
 67- 
 
 In Memoriam, 62. 
 Innuendo, as represented in music, 
 
 270, 278. 
 Insignificant, The, as represented in 
 
 music, 266, 275, 286. 
 Insolvable, The, as represented in. 
 
 music, 286. 
 Instructive methods of expression, 
 
 252, 301-313- 
 Instruments, representation in music 
 
 by, 91, 295.. 
 Intellectual Influence of Music, The 
 
 3io, 323- 
 Interchange, art-method, 3 ; in musi- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 333 
 
 cal harmony, 190, 212-217 ; in 
 poetic, 159-161 ; in rhythm, 59 ; 
 in scales, 189. 
 
 Interesting, The, as represented in 
 music, 266, 267, 275, 286, 294. 
 
 Interspersion, art-method, 3 ; in 
 musical harmony, 153 ; in poetic, 
 212 ; in rhythm, 55, 95, 103. 
 
 Intonation, 184-189, 233, 251 ; as 
 conveying meaning, 243. 
 
 lolante, 300. 
 
 Iphigenie auf Taurus, xiii, xv, 151. 
 
 Ireland, 33, 174. 
 
 Irony, as represented in music, 275, 
 278. 
 
 Italian, alliteration, 124 ; assonance, 
 129 ; verse-harmony, 151 ; son- 
 neteers, 71 ; sonnets, 72. 
 
 Jonson, B., 137. 
 
 Journal of Psychology, American, 
 
 ii, 305. 
 
 Joy, as represented in music, 254, 
 269, 281, 286, 297, 303. 
 
 Keats, 69, 71, 72. 
 
 Kenilworth, 43. 
 
 Key, 96, 108, 143, 211, 283 ; mean- 
 ing of musical, 205 ; transitions 
 from one musical, to another, 160, 
 214-217 ; from major to minor, 
 216, 218. 
 
 Keynote, 205, 211, 283 ; analogies to 
 musical, in poetic harmony, 143- 
 
 145- 
 
 King Lear, 158. 
 Kobbe, G., 255. 
 Kosciusko, To, 72. 
 Kyrielle, 78. 
 
 La Estrella de Sevilla, 124, 129. 
 
 L' Allegro, 155. 
 
 Lamb, Mary, 47. 
 
 Lament, A, 64. 
 
 Lamentations, 122. 
 
 Langland, 125. 
 
 Language of Music, 321. 
 
 Lanier, S., 51, 138. 
 
 La Nuit d'Octobre, 151. 
 
 Last Rose of Summer, The, 100. 
 
 Latin, 34 ; alliteration, 123 ; asso- 
 
 nance, 128 ; harmony of poetic 
 sounds, 150. See Roman. 
 
 Laughter, as represented in music, 
 316. 
 
 Layamon, 129, 133. 
 
 Lay of the Imprisoned Huntsman, 
 The, 32. 
 
 Lay of the Last Minstrel, The, 113. 
 
 Leiden des jungen Werther's, xiii, 
 xv. 
 
 Le Sacre de Charles X., 128. . 
 
 L'Estorie des Engles, 123. 
 
 Lessing, xxiii. 
 
 Le Julliet, 13, 123. 
 
 Les Vierges de Vordun, 123. 
 
 Letty's Globe, 73. 
 
 Light and Shade, 5, 7, 108. 
 
 Lightness of Mood, as represented 
 by music, 254. 
 
 Like, effects necessary to congruity 
 in quality and pitch, 179, 180 ; 
 effects of sound as indicating like 
 thoughts, 139-143, 153 ; partial 
 effects of unlike complex wholes 
 are at the basis of all art-unity, 
 and grouping, 53, 100, 117, 121, 
 138, 176, 177, 200, 209, 217, 228; 
 sounds follow in syllables only 
 when both are accented, 118-120. 
 
 Lille, R. de, 272. 
 
 Lines of Verse, corresponding to 
 musical phrases, 94, 95, 100 ; end- 
 stopped, and run-on, 50-52 ; in- 
 fluence of their length on tunes of 
 verse, 61, 173, 174; length of, 
 determined by time of exhalations, 
 14, 15, 28, 30 ; massing of, in 
 stanzas, 57-88 ; representation of 
 slowness and rapidity in, 60, 61 ; 
 variety as introduced into, 38-52, 
 61-88. 
 
 Liszt, 312. 
 
 Literature, as influenced by low con- 
 ceptions of the importance of 
 significance, xvii, xviii, xxi-xxiii. 
 
 Lockhart, 41, 42. 
 
 Locksley Hall, 24, 48. 
 
 Loge, Motive of, Wagner, 255, 276, 
 279. 
 
 Long common metre, 66. 
 
 Longfellow, 32, 35, 45, 47, 65, 165. 
 
334 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 Long metre, 62, 86. 
 
 Longmuir, Dr., 125, 140, 141. 
 
 Loudness determined by amplitude 
 of vibrations, 196. 
 
 Lovelace, Ballad of, 82. 
 
 Love of Death, Motive of, Wagner, 
 256. 
 
 Love of Life, Motive of, Wagner, 
 277. 
 
 Lover, S., 47. 
 
 Love's Fascination, Motive of, Wag- 
 ner, 277, 
 
 Lowell, 88. 
 
 Lyre of Greek, or Orpheus, 200, 202. 
 
 Lyte, H. T., 63. 
 
 Macbeth, 142, 166. . 
 
 MacCarthy, D. F., 33, 174. 
 
 Magic Flute, The, 318. 
 
 Major, cadence, 282, 285 ; chord, 
 215-220, 225; representative effect 
 of its cadence, 282, 283, 286-290 ; 
 scale, 200, 204, 206. 
 
 Malignity, as represented in music, 
 295- 
 
 Marbode, L. de, 128. 
 
 March music, 104. 
 
 Marco Bozzaris, 42. 
 
 Marie Stuart, poem, 124, 129. 
 
 Marmion, poem, 33. 
 
 Marseillaise Hymn, 258, 272. 
 
 Massing, art-method, 3, in harmony, 
 musical, 212 ; poetic, 153 ; in 
 rhythm, musical, 95 ; poetic, 55. 
 
 Mathews, W. S. B., 96, 98, 104. 
 
 Matthews, B., 81. 
 
 Maud, poem, 127, 131. 
 
 Mazeppa, poem, 33. 
 
 McCarthy, J. H., 75. 
 
 McMaster, G. H., 57. 
 
 McMonnies, xxi. 
 
 Measure for Measure, drama, 112, 
 126. 
 
 Measures, correspondence of effects 
 to those of shape, 57-59 ; differ- 
 ence between musical and poetical, 
 92-95 ; influence of, on tunes of 
 verse, 61, 172-174 ; kinds of, in 
 music, 101, 102, in poetry, 26-28, 
 60-89 ; representation in, 28, 57- 
 61 ; variety, as introduced in, 38- 
 
 52, 61-88 ; why eight kinds 
 needed in poetry, 102, 103. 
 
 Median Measure, 27. 
 
 Medley, 66. 
 
 Meeting of the Ships, The, 39. 
 
 Meistersinger, 297. 
 
 Melody, developed before harmony, 
 184-188, 190-192, 244 ; Greek, 
 184-186 ; in speech, 170-177 ; 
 music and poetic, similar, 100, 172. 
 
 Memory, as helped by alliteration 
 and assonance, 141 ; by euphony, 
 H3. 
 
 Menace, as represented in music, 
 295 ; Motive of, Wagner, 287. 
 
 Mendelssohn, 249. 
 
 Merchant of Venice, 113, 150. 
 
 Merkel, 170. 
 
 Metre, origin of, 244. See Meas- 
 ures. 
 
 Mildness, as represented in music, 
 256. 
 
 Milkmaid's Song, The, 41. 
 
 Mill Garden, The, 48. 
 
 Milton xvii, 21, 31, 40, 42, 49, 50, 
 55, 7i, H2, 113, H5, H7, 125, 
 149, 155, 160, 166, 167. 
 
 Mind, as represented in art, 231- 
 
 233- 
 Ministerial Tone, as representative, 
 
 282. 
 
 Minnesingers of Germany, 133. 
 Minor, cadence, 282, 285, 286 ; 
 
 chord, 215, 216, 218, 219, 222, 
 
 225 ; representative effect of its 
 
 cadence, 282, 285, 286-290; scale, 
 
 200, 204, 206. 
 Minuet, 258. 
 Mirthfulness, as represented in 
 
 music, 254. 
 Misery, as represented in music, 
 
 282. 
 Miss Kilmansegg and Her Precious 
 
 Leg, 87. 
 Moaning, as represented in music, 
 
 282. 
 
 Moan, Moan, Ye Dying Gales, 66. 
 Mockery, as represented in music, 
 
 275, 278 ; Motive of, Wagner, 
 
 278. 
 Modulation in harmony, 212-217. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 335 
 
 Monastery, from the novel, 130, 
 157. 
 
 Monk's Tale, The, 69. 
 
 Monometer, 31, 46. 
 
 Montgomery, 64, 66. 
 
 Moore, G., 82; T., 32, 65, 262, 263, 
 271. 
 
 Mors et Vita, 76. 
 
 Mother Goose's Melodies, 90. 
 
 Mother's Love, A., 47. 
 
 Motive in music, 94-99, 233, 243 ; 
 development of, 96-99 ; its chief 
 factor rhythm, 96, 97 ; its repre- 
 sentative and expressional in- 
 fluence, 97, 266 ; Wagner's 
 employment of, 319-321 ; that 
 termed the motive of Alberich's 
 Cry, 286 ; Bird, 299 ; Flight, 261 ; 
 Giants, 263 ; God's Trouble, 276 ; 
 Gb'tterdammerung, 273 ; Growing 
 Twilight, 276 ; Hammering, 261 ; 
 Loge, 255, 276, 279 ; Love of 
 Life, 277 ; Love of Death, 256 ; 
 Love's Fascination, 277 ; Menace, 
 287 ; Mockery, 278 ; Murder, 288 ; 
 Nornes, 273 ; Phrase of Nothung, 
 290 ; Pursuit, 277 ; Question of 
 Fate, 269 ; Rainbow, 273 ; Resig- 
 nation, 308 ; Rhinegold, 286 ; 
 Right of Expiation, 288 ; Rising 
 Treasure, 273 ; Siegfried, 288 ; 
 Sieglinde, 289 ; Shout of Fairies, 
 278 ; Snake, 262 ; Storm, 298 ; 
 Sword, 286 ; Sword's Guardian, 
 287 ; Thoughtfulness, 288 ; Tris- 
 tan, 289 ; Vindictive League, 
 288, Walhall, 286, 287 ; Walkure, 
 261 ; Walsungen Family, 289. 
 
 Movement, similarity of, in music 
 and poetry, 100, 172. 
 
 Mozart, 237, 295, 316, 318. 
 
 Muhlenberg, 63. 
 
 Mttller, M., 304. 
 
 Mulock, D. M., 96. 
 
 Murder, Motive of, Wagner, 288. 
 
 Music, alphabet of, 322 ; cadence 
 in, 210, 211, 282-286 ; correspond- 
 ence of, to other arts, 4-7 ; de- 
 veloped from song and speech, 
 91 ; distinguished from poetry, 
 91-96 ; from speech, 91, 175-177, 
 
 241,242; Greek, 184, 185, 189; 
 history of, 184-190 ; language of 
 321, 322 ; of middle ages, 189- 
 191 ; measures in, 92-95 ; notation, 
 93-95, 181-184 ; notes, as dis- 
 tinguished from words, 92, 171- 
 175 ; 241, 242 ; measures in, 
 92-95, 101-103 J polyphonic, 189, 
 190; program, 312, 313; repre^ 
 sentation of mind and nature in, 
 232, 233, 235, 241-243, 247, 248 ; 
 rhythm in, 90-106 ; what it repre- 
 sents, 241, 243, 247, 248 see 
 Representation ; why it does not 
 convey definite intelligence, 240, 
 241, 244, 245, 247, 248. 
 
 Musical expressiveness, 305 ; nota- 
 tion applied to poetry, 40-42. See 
 Music. 
 
 Music and Morals, Haweis, 302. 
 
 Music as a Representative Art, xv> 
 97, 171, 231-323. 
 
 Music of Nature, The, 262, 315, 
 
 3i9- 
 Musset, A. de, 123, 128, 151. 
 
 Nathan Hale, statue of, xxii. 
 Nation, The, vi, xi, 235. 
 Natural, sign of note, 184. 
 Nature, as represented in art, 231- 
 
 233 ; in music, 232, 235, 241-243, 
 
 247, 248. 
 Neele, H.,66. 
 Negation, as represented in music, 
 
 266, 275, 286. 
 
 Neugriechische Liebe-Skelien, 129. 
 Newton, 63. 
 Nibelung, Ring of, 255. 
 Nightingale, 316. 
 Nine Years Old, poem, 47. 
 Niobe, Groups of, xiii. 
 Noble, The, as represented in music, 
 
 294. 
 
 Nocturnal Sketch, 132. 
 Noise, as distinguished from music, 
 
 194, 195, 198, 226. 
 Nonsense Rhymes, 88, 115. 
 Nornes, Motive of, Wagner, 273. 
 Norton, C. E., 33. 
 Notation. See Music. 
 Notes. See Music. 
 
RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 Noteworthy, The, as represented in 
 
 music, 266, 267, 275. 
 Novellette, 96. 
 
 Observations in Physiology of Spinal 
 
 Cord, 10. 
 Octave, 181, 196, 198, 199, 202, 
 
 214. 
 
 Octaves, consecutive, 214. 
 Octometer, 33, 48. 
 Ode, The, 84, 85. 
 Ode on Imitations of Immortality, 
 
 85- 
 
 Old Continentals, The, 57. 
 On the Cliffs, 142. 
 Oratorios, 299. 
 
 Orator's Manual, 97, 251, 265. 
 Orchestral, why adds to enjoyment 
 
 of vocal music, 179. 
 Order, art-onethod, 3 ; in harmony, 
 
 musical, 189-208; poetic, 114, 
 
 116 ; in rhythm, 15, 92. 
 Organ, 295, 296 ; keys on, 204-206. 
 Organic form, art-method, 3 ; in 
 
 harmony, musical, 211 ; poetic, 
 
 1 20 ; in rhythm, 20. 
 Orpheus, lyre of, 200, 202. 
 Orotund quality, 293, 294, 296, 297. 
 O ruddier than a cherry, 298. 
 Othello, 113, 142. 
 Ott, Isaac, 10. 
 Outlines, 4. 
 
 Paganini, 319. 
 
 Painting, correlated to other arts, 4- 
 7 ; compared to poetry, no ; in- 
 jured by a low conception of 
 significance in art, xviii, xix, xxii, 
 xxiii ; representation in, 234 ; 
 significance and form both need 
 considering, 236. 
 
 Palmer, J. W., 31, 173. 
 
 Palestrina, 190, 191. 
 
 Pantoum, 78, 79. 
 
 Paradise Lost, 31, 42, 49, 117, 125, 
 126, 130, 145, 149, 160, 166, 167. 
 
 Paradise Regained, 112, 115, 
 
 Parallelism, art-method, 3 ; Greek, 
 29 ; Hebrew, 29 ; in the couplet, 
 57, 95 ; in harmony, musical, 189, 
 190, 191, 210, 211 ; poetic, 146, 
 
 148, 149, 150, 154 ; in rhymes, 
 146 ; in rhythm, 30, 57, 95. 
 
 Parodie, A., 64. 
 
 Parsons, J. C., 79. 
 
 Partial, effects in art like, in complex 
 wholes, go with like, 53, 100, 117, 
 121, 138, 176, 177, 200, 209, 217, 
 228 ; tones, as developed in har- 
 mony, 208-210 ; as related to har- 
 monics, major and minor, 217- 
 219, 285 ; to poetic sounds, 169 ; 
 what they are, 198, 199. 
 
 Passion, as represented in music, 317. 
 
 Pastoral Symphonies, 299. 
 
 Pathetic, as represented in music, 
 282. 
 
 Pauses to breathe and rhythm, 46 ; 
 between poetic lines, 14, 15, 28 ; 
 musical phrases, 94, 95. 
 
 Payne, J. H., 271 ; J., 77, 76, 79, 
 83. 
 
 Peaceful Contemplation, as repre- 
 sented in music, 208, 296. 
 
 Pectoral Quality of Voice, 293, 294, 
 298, 296. 
 
 Pensive, The, as represented in mu- 
 sic, 308. 
 
 Pentameter, 31-33, 37, 42 ; of blank 
 verse, 42, 45, 63. 
 
 Peri, G., 186. 
 
 Peril, as represented in music, 295. 
 
 Period, musical, 98, no ; corre- 
 sponding to poetic stanza, 98-100, 
 105. 
 
 Petrarch, 71. 
 
 Philip, my king, 96. 
 
 Philosophic study of art, necessity 
 of, iv, v, ix. 
 
 Phonetic Gradation in Vowels, 163, 
 164; syzygy, 157. 
 
 Phrase, musical, 98, 99, 105 ; corre- 
 sponding to poetic line, 100. 
 
 Phrase of Nothung, Motive of, Wag- 
 ner, 290. 
 
 Physiological effects of musical 
 rhythm, 10, n ; of harmony, 
 221-228. 
 
 Physiologie der Menschlichen 
 Sprache, 170. 
 
 Pianoforte, keys and note, 204- 
 206, 297. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 337 
 
 Pied Piper of Hamelin, The, 143. 
 
 Pinafore, 23, 88. 
 
 Pindar, 85. 
 
 Pindaric ode, 85. 
 
 Pitch, i, 5, 7, 57, 58, 91, 108 ; anal- 
 ogy between its use in music and 
 poetry, 168, 175-177, 180, 241 ; 
 as used differently in each, 180 ; 
 causes of different degrees of, 109 ; 
 elocutionary use of it, 251-253, 
 264-267, 274, 275, 280, 281 ; like 
 effects of, necessary in melody 
 and harmony, 176-220 ; produced 
 by vibrations, 109, 195-198; repre- 
 sentative, 251-254, 264-290; use 
 of word in arts of sound, 5,6; 
 vowel-pitch, 69, 170. 
 
 Plato, 303. 
 
 Poe, 31, 46, 54, 56, 132, 160, 167. 
 
 Poet, The, 149. 
 
 Poetic Measures, distinguished from 
 musical, 91-96. 
 
 Poetry as a Representative Art, 4, 
 17, 28, 34, 44, 97, 102, 103, 136, 
 137, 169, 242, 251, 257. 
 
 Poetry, compared to painting, sculp- 
 ture, and other arts, 4-7, no ; 
 classic, 21-23 > distinguished from 
 music, 91-96 ; English as a lan- 
 guage for, 23, 24 ; form important 
 in, 11-17; Greeks intoned, 184; 
 grew out of, intonation, 243, 244 ; 
 harmony in, 107-177 ; necessity 
 of regarding both form and sig- 
 nificance in, xvii.-xix, xxi-xxiii, 
 236 ; representation in, 234 ; 
 rhythm in, 8-89, 102. 
 
 Pointing, as represented in music, 
 by use of pitch, away, 266, 274, 
 275 I to, 266, 274, 275. 
 
 Polka, 104, 259. 
 
 Pollock, 112. 
 
 Polocca, 259. 
 
 Polonaise, 104, 105. 
 
 Polyphonic Music, 189, 190. 
 
 Pope, 33, 105, 113, 116, 141. 
 
 Positive, The, as represented in mu- 
 sic, 266, 267, 270, 272, 275, 276, 
 286. 
 
 Potpourris, 105. 
 
 Power of Song, The, 246, 260, 298. 
 
 Practical, as connected with philo- 
 sophic study of art, iv, v, ix. 
 
 Praed, W. M., 55. 
 
 Praise of Dionysius, 84. 
 
 Prelude, The, 130. 
 
 Presentative Arts, 232. 
 
 Prime tones, 169, 198. 
 
 Principality, art-method, 3 ; in har- 
 mony, musical, 190, 211 ; poetic, 
 1 20 ; in rhythm, 17-19, 54, 55, 
 92 ; in series of alliterations and 
 assonances, 143. 
 
 Primer of Musical Terms, 96, 98, 
 104. 
 
 Princess, The, 299. 
 
 Progress, art-method, 3 ; in har- 
 mony, musical, 212-217 ; poetic, 
 162, 1 66 ; in rhythm, 59-61 ; slow 
 and fast, as indicated by, 59-61. 
 
 Progress of Poetry, The, 85. 
 
 Proportion, I, 6, 7 ; as distinguished 
 from harmony, 108 ; and analo- 
 gous to rhythm, 108. 
 
 Protestant Church and the Rise of 
 Harmony, 190. 
 
 Psalm of Life, The, 45, 165. 
 
 Psychological Reasons for effects of 
 musical harmony, 221228. 
 
 Psychology, American Journal of, 
 ii, 305. 
 
 Pure Quality of Voice, 169, 293, 294, 
 296, 297. 
 
 Purgatorio, 124, 129, 151. 
 
 Pursuit, Motive of, Wagner, 277. 
 
 Pythagoras, his scale, 187, 196, 203, 
 206. 
 
 Quadruple Measure, 28 ; with 
 double, for comic effects, 88. 
 
 Quality, I, 3, 5, 6, 7, 91, 108 ; elo- 
 cutionary, representing what, 252, 
 291-294 ; emotive effects repre- 
 sented by, 281, 292-294; causes 
 of difference in tone, 180,181, 193- 
 198 ; like effects of, necessary in 
 chords and orchestras, 179 ; 
 termed, as used in arts of sight 
 and sound, 5, 6 ; uses in music 
 and poetry, 168-197, 241. 
 
 Quantity, as the basis of rhythm, 18 ; 
 of versification, 21-23 ; in Greek 
 
33 8 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 and English poetry, 21-24. See 
 Duration. 
 
 Queen Anne Style of Architecture, 
 237 : 
 
 Questionable, The, as represented in 
 music, 266, 267, 269, 275, 286, 
 289. 
 
 Question of Fate, Motive of, Wag- 
 ner, 269. 
 
 Rainbow, Motive of, Wagner, 273. 
 
 Rainy Day, The, 65. 
 
 Raphael, xvii, xix, 236. 
 
 Rapidity of movement, how repre- 
 sented, in music, 254-263 ; in 
 verse, 59-61, 
 
 Rationale of Verse, The, 54. 
 
 Ratios in consonance, 187 ; in major 
 and minor chords, 131-135, 219, 
 220 ; in musical scales, 201-266 ; 
 in partial tones, 197. 
 
 Raven, The, 131, 161. 
 
 Realization, as represented in music, 
 272. 
 
 Recitative, 185, 186. 
 
 Recitatives, 237. 
 
 Recitativos, 186. 
 
 Reflective method of expression, 
 252, 302. 
 
 Reformation, Protestant, its influ- 
 ence on rise of harmony, 190. 
 
 Refrain, The, in music and poetry, 
 
 95, 96. 
 
 Regularity, of accent as representa- 
 tive in music, 259, 260 ; of metre in 
 verse, 49, 50 ; of rhythm in music, 
 257, 258. 
 
 Religious, The, as represented in 
 music, 308. 
 
 Repetition, art-method, 3 ; in har- 
 mony, musical, 188,212; poetical, 
 139, 147, 148, 150 ; in rhythm, 17, 
 25, 38, 55 ; in intonation and tone, 
 187 ; in scale, 188 ; producing an 
 effect of likeness in thought, 139- 
 
 143, 153- 
 
 Representation, associative and imi- 
 tative, 242-244, 251-254, 301-320; 
 by analogy in poetry and music, 
 309, 310 ; of mind and nature go 
 together, 231, 232 ; of mind and 
 
 nature by music, 232, 241, 243, 
 247, 248 ; of series of emotions 
 by musical series, 303-317 ; of 
 thought and feeling, 231 ; of 
 thought and feeling by the har- 
 monic and inharmonic interval 
 and cadence, 281-286 ; of thought 
 by euphonious and non-euphonious 
 words, 116 ; melodic, historically 
 shown, 268 ; modern melodies as 
 manifesting, 268, 269 ; through 
 elocutionary elements, 243, 244, 
 250-254 ; through elocutionary 
 duration, 254 ; through elocution- 
 ary force, 256 ; through elocution- 
 ary pitch, 264-267, 274 ; through 
 elocutionary quality, 291-294 ; 
 through elocutionary rhythm, 243, 
 244, 256, 257 ; through music, 
 237-322 ; through musical pitch, 
 264-290 ; through musical quality, 
 291-297 ; through musical rhythm, 
 including duration and pitch, 254 
 263 ; when associative, musically 
 indicating accomplishment, 297 ; 
 . admiration, 294, 296 ; affirmation, 
 
 266, 270, 275, 286 ; amazement, 
 294 ; anticipation, 266, 269-272, 
 275-277 ; 286, 289, 296 ; appro- 
 bation, 267 ; awe, 294 ; buoyancy, 
 257, 270, 281 ; certainty, 276: 
 complaining, 282 ; collusiveness, 
 
 267, 270, 271, 275-277, 286, 289; 
 confidence, 258 ; contempt, 294 ; 
 courage, 294, 296 ; crying, 282 ; 
 danger, 287 ; decision, 266, 275- 
 277, 286 ; depression, 282, 302 ; 
 despair, 286 ; determination, 294, 
 296 ; dignity, 254-258 ; disap- 
 pointment, 289 ; disapprobation, 
 267 ; disturbance, 261 ; double- 
 entendre, 275 ; doubt, 260-267, 
 277, 308; earnestness, 256; elation, 
 302 ; energy, 256 ; enthusiasm, 270, 
 296 ; equivocacy, 275 ; exhilaration, 
 '257 ; exuberance, 269 ; finality, 
 266 ; fretting, 282 ; fright, 294 ; 
 gentle contemplation, 256, 294 ; 
 God, 304 ; gratitude, 303 ; gravity, 
 254 ; healthfulness, 281 ; heroism, 
 289 ; hesitation, 260, 308 ; hope- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 339 
 
 fulness, 270, 277, 286, 302 ; hope- 
 lessness, 282 ; horror, 294, 296 ; 
 hostility, 294, 295 ; indecision, 
 266, 267, 275, 277, 286, 289 ; 
 indifference, 256 ; indignation, 
 294 ; innuendo, 270278 ; insig- 
 nificant, 266, 275, 286 ; insolvable, 
 286 ; interesting, 266, 267, 275,. 
 286, 294 ; joy, 254, 269, 281, 286, 
 2 97 33 > lightness of mood, 254 ; 
 mildness, 256 ; mirthfulness, 254 ; 
 misery, 282 ; moaning, 282 ; mur- 
 der, 288 ; noteworthy, 266, 267, 
 275 ; passion, 317 ; peaceful con- 
 templation, 208, 296 ; peril, 295 ; 
 questionable, 266, 267, 269, 275, 
 286 , 289 ; rapidity, 254-263 ; re- 
 alization, 272 ; rest, 270 ; sar- 
 casm, 275, 278, 286 ; sadness, 282 ; 
 satire, 275, 278 ; satisfaction, 281- 
 290 ; scenes in nature, clouds, 
 moons, waves, woods, etc., 303- 
 309 ; self-assurance, 256 ; self- 
 control, 308 ; self-poise, 258 ; 
 seriousness, 254-308 ; size, 256 ; 
 solemnity, 296-308 ; solicitude, 
 294 ; strength, 256 ; sublimity, 
 308 ; subordination, 266, 275, 286 ; 
 surprise, 280, 282, 286, 294 ; 
 triumph, 258 ; turmoil, 261 ; un- 
 certainty, 276 ; unimpeded, the, 
 
 281 ; unsatisfactory, 282-290 ; ve- 
 hemence, 256 ; victory, 296 ; 
 weakness, 256, 281, 282 ; worship, 
 308 ; yielding, 259 ; when imita- 
 tive, musically indicating battles, 
 297 ; beasts' tread, 299 ; birds, 
 279, 297, 299, 307 ; buzz of in- 
 sects, 299 ; complaining, 282 ; 
 crying, 282 ; coughing, 279, 317 ; 
 controversy, 303-309 ; dog, 279 ; 
 elephant, 299 ; gracefulness, 259 ; 
 gliding, 259 ; hammering, 261 ; 
 hen, 279, 316 ; hesitation, 260, 
 308 ; laughter, 316 ; moaning, 
 
 282 ; rapidity, 254-263 ; rising, 
 273 ; rustling of leaves, 299 ; 
 sinking, 273 ; storm, 261, 297, 
 
 299 ; sleigh-ride, 297 ; slowness, 
 254263 ; turmoil, 261 ; wailing, 
 
 300 ; whips, 297 ; whistles, 297 ; 
 
 wind, 297 ; yawning, 279, 289. 
 See Quality of musical instruments, 
 294-300. 
 
 Representative influence, of musical 
 motive, 97 ; of poetic measures, 
 28, 102. 
 
 Resignation, poem, 161 ; Motive of, 
 Wagner, 308. 
 
 Responsive methods of expression, 
 as in poetry, painting, and sculp- 
 ture, 234. 
 
 Rest, as represented in music, 270. 
 
 Rests, musical, 92-94. 
 
 Resultant notes formed by beats in 
 music, 224-226. 
 
 Reverence, as represented in music, 
 308. 
 
 Rhetoric, Aristotle's, 29 ; Bain's, 
 116. 
 
 Rhinegold, Motive of, Wagner, 286 ; 
 opera of, 255, 261-263, 273, 276, 
 277, 286, 288. 
 
 Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and 
 Music, 1-228,281, 285. 
 
 Rhythm, art-method, 13, 6, 7 ; an 
 artistic end in itself, 10, 90, 91 ; 
 basis in measures, not quantity or 
 numbers of syllables, but accent, 
 17, 1 8 ; connection between, and 
 tune in music, 253, 254 ; also in 
 poetry, 61, 172-174 ; defined, 53 ; 
 effects distinguished from those of 
 harmony, and likened to those of 
 proportion, 108 ; effects likened 
 to those of tone, 222, 223 ; ex- 
 periments to prove mental effects 
 of, 11-13 ; forming groups of 
 clicks, 11-13; including duration 
 and force, 6, 21, 253, 257 ; in 
 music, 90-106 ; in nature, 9, 10 ; 
 in nervous action, 10 ; in poetry, 
 1-89 ; in poetry as distinguished 
 from music, 91-96 ; in poetry, 
 caused by accent, 20 ; in prose, 
 20; main factor of musical motives, 
 96, 97 ; methods of indicating, suf- 
 ficient for our music, 106 ; musical 
 ear not necessary for appreciation 
 of, 105, 106 ; origin of, 8, 248 ; 
 primitive, 8 ; representation in, 
 256-263 ; when regular and 
 
340 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 strongly accented, 257, 258 ; when 
 unusually accented, 259 ; when 
 varied and slightly accented, 260. 
 
 Rhythmic and Metric of the Classic 
 Languages, The, 22, 29. 
 
 Rhythmic possibilities of different 
 forms of verse, 60-89. 
 
 Rhyme, 121, 131-135, 145, 148, 
 162, 176 ; effects of, 133-135 ; 
 emphasized by change in the num- 
 ber of syllables regularly ending 
 lines, 45 ; first use in English, 
 133 ; laws of, 133-135 ; near to- 
 gether give an effect of rapidity, 
 60 ; objections to use of it, 136, 
 137; parallelism of effect increased 
 by, 146 ; Roman and Greek use 
 of, accidental, 133 ; when origi- 
 nated, 133. 
 
 Richard II., 130, 157; III., 126, 
 .157, 1.58. 
 
 Right of Expiation, Motive of, Wag- 
 ner, 288. 
 
 Ring of the Nibelung, 255. 
 
 Rising up, as represented in music, 
 273. 
 
 Rising Treasure, 273. 
 
 Rogers, J. D., 303. 
 
 Romans, 186, 268. 
 
 Romanticism and classicism, x xv. 
 
 Roman Versification, 22-24. 
 
 Romeo and Juliet, 113, 157. 
 
 Rondeau, 75. 
 
 Rondeau Redouble, 76, 77. 
 
 Rondel, 74, 75. 
 
 Rossini, 296. 
 
 Roundel, 75, 76. 
 
 Rubens, xix, 236. 
 
 Rustling of leaves, as represented 
 in music, 299. 
 
 Rymours of Normandy, 133. 
 
 Sachs, H., 297. 
 
 Sadness, as represented in music, 282 
 
 Sarcasm, as represented in music, 
 
 275, 278, 286. 
 Satire, as represented in music, 275, 
 
 278. 
 Satisfaction, as represented in music, 
 
 281-290. 
 Scale, the musical, 181-187 ; and 
 
 phonetic gradation, 164 ; Chinese, 
 203 ; formation of Greek, 185- 
 188, 193, 199-201, 203, 204, 206 ; 
 major, 200, 206, 208 ; minor, 200, 
 206, names of notes of, 187, 188 ; 
 Pythagorean, 187, 203, 206 ; tem- 
 perate, 205, 206 ; why the notes 
 are pitched as they are, 199-206. 
 Schiller, xvii, xxiii, 124, 129, 161, 
 
 235- 
 
 Schmidt, 22, 29. 
 
 Schnoor, J., 236. 
 
 Schopenhauer, 303. 
 
 Schumann, 96, 97, 248, 303. 
 
 Science of English verse, 51. 
 
 Scott, Sir W., 32, 33, 43, 56, 105, 
 113, 130, 155, 157. 
 
 Scribe, xvii. 
 
 Sculpture, as influenced by disre- 
 gard of significance, xix-xxii ; 
 correlated to other arts, 4-7 ; 
 compared to poetry, no. 
 
 Section, musical, 98, 100 ; corre- 
 sponding to poetic couplet, 98- 
 100. 
 
 Self-assurance, as represented in 
 music, 256. 
 
 Self-control, as represented in music, 
 308. 
 
 Self-poise, as represented in music, 
 258. 
 
 Sensations of tone, as a physiological 
 basis for the theory of music, 91, 
 170, 185, 194, 201, 244. 
 
 Sense, as represented by sound, 116, 
 
 153- 
 
 September, 75. 
 
 Series of emotions, as represented in 
 music, 303-315. 
 
 Seriousness, as represented in music, 
 254, 308. 
 
 Sestina, 82, 83. 
 
 Setting, art-method, 3 ; in harmony, 
 musical, 212 ; poetic, 114 ; in 
 rhythm, 19. 
 
 Sevens and sixes metre, 68. 
 
 Sevens metre, 62. 
 
 Sevens, sixes, and eights metre, 68. 
 
 Seventh, chord of, 21 1, 218 ; repre- 
 sentative effects of, 283-290. 
 
 Shakespeare, 31, 43, 51, 52, 2, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 341 
 
 113, 116, 126, 130, 133, 137, 152, 
 153, 156-158, 165, 166 ; his use 
 of run-on lines, 51, 52. 
 
 Sharp, musical sign of, 183, 184 ; 
 notes for, 205. 
 
 Shelley, 64, 132. 
 
 Short metre, 61 ; hallelujah, 65. 
 
 Shout of Fairies, Motive of, Wagner, 
 278. 
 
 Sicilian Octave, 83. 
 
 Siegfried, opera of, 277, 287, 296, 
 299 ; Motive of, Wagner, 288. 
 
 Sieglinde, Motive of, Wagner, 289. 
 
 Significance in art, importance of, 
 xv-xxiii, 232-237. 
 
 Sincerity in art, 236. 
 
 Singing, contrasted with speech, 239- 
 244 ; the Greek, 184, 185, 189. 
 
 Sinking, as represented in music, 273. 
 
 Siren of C. de la Tour, 196. 
 
 Sistine Madonna, xvii. 
 
 Sixes and fours metre, 67. 
 
 Size, as represented in music, 256. 
 
 Sketches of Palestine, in. 
 
 Skylark, To the, 64. 
 
 Sleep, To, 72. 
 
 Sleigh-ride, as represented in music, 
 277. 
 
 Slowness of movement, as repre- 
 sented in elocution, 254 ; in music, 
 253-263 ; in verse, 44, 59, 60. 
 
 Smith, S. T., 67. 
 
 Snake, Motive of, Wagner, 262. 
 
 Sneezing, as represented in music, 
 
 313, 379- 
 
 Soldiers' Chorus, 296. 
 Solemnity, as represented in music, 
 
 296, 308. 
 
 Solfeggio, 188-206. 
 Solicitude, as represented in music, 
 
 294. 
 Sonata in C, 99 ; in D minor, 97 ; in 
 
 E minor, 260. 
 Song. See Singing. 
 Song of Clan- Alpine, 56. 
 Song of Italy, A, 127. 
 Song on Downfall and Death of 
 
 Earl of Warwick, 123. 
 Songs from Arcady, 75. 
 Sonnet, 70-73 ; its Origin, Structure, 
 
 and Place in Poetry, 71. 
 
 Souvenir, 123. 
 
 Sounds, musical, distinguished from 
 noise, 194, 195 ; congruity of, in- 
 dicating that of sense, 139-143. 
 
 Spain, alliteration in poetry of, 124 ; 
 also assonance, 129, 131; the latter 
 as used for rhyme, 131. 
 
 Spanish Gypsy, 131. 
 
 Speech, difference between it and 
 singing, 239-244 ; difference be- 
 tween its tones and those of music, 
 195-197, 237-244 ; methods of, as 
 influencing song and music, 91, 
 92, 97, 239-244 ; pitch in, 169- 
 
 177- 
 Spenser, 24, 69, 71, 116, 126, 130, 
 
 134, 151, 153, 154. 
 Spenserian, Stanza, 36, 37, 69, 71. 
 Spondaic, 36. 
 Spondee, 27. 
 Spontaneous methods of expression 
 
 in music and architecture, 234, 
 
 240. 
 
 Spring, it is cheery, 66. 
 Spring sadness, 83. 
 Stabat Mater, 191. 
 Staff, musical, 94, 182, 183. 
 St. Agnes Eve, 69. 
 Stanza, 57 ; corresponding to musi- 
 cal periods, 97-100 ; definite types 
 
 of, 67-70 ; different forms of, 61- 
 
 89. 
 
 Stennet, 61. 
 St. Gaudens, xxi. 
 St. John, Hymn to, 188. 
 Storm, as represented in music, 261, 
 
 297, 299 ; Motive of, Wagner, 298. 
 Strength, as represented in music, 
 
 256. 
 Studies from Biological Laboratory 
 
 of Johns Hopkins University, 10. 
 Style, relative importance in music 
 
 and architecture, as contrasted 
 
 with other arts, no. 
 Subdominant, chord of, 210, 211 
 
 214, 215. 
 Sublime, The, as represented in 
 
 music, 308. 
 Subject, in Painting and sculpture 
 
 may interest aside from style, no. 
 
 See Significance. 
 
34 2 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 Subjective method of expression in 
 song and music, 240, 241, 247, 248. 
 
 Subordination, art-method, 3 ; in 
 harmony, musical, 190, 21 1 ; 
 poetic, 120, 143 ; in rhythm, 19, 
 
 55, 9 2 - 
 Subordination, as represented by 
 
 music, 266, 275, 286. 
 Sullivan, 237, 300. 
 Sunrise, 48. 
 Surprise, as represented in music, 
 
 280, 282, 286, 294. 
 Sustained methods of expression in 
 
 music and architecture, 234, 239- 
 
 242. 
 Syllables, accented, 5, 18, 20-24 1 
 
 changes in the numbers of, in lines, 
 
 39, 48 ; changes in, at the ends of 
 
 lines, 44-48 ; unaccented, 18, 20- 
 
 24. 
 
 Sylvester, Pope, 186, 267 ; Prof., 157. 
 Symmetry, art-method, 3, 20, 212. 
 Symphony, description of the plan 
 
 of a, 310, 311 ; in C minor, 311. 
 System of English Versification, 70. 
 Swinburne, iv, xvi, xxi, xxii, 32, 33, 
 
 47, 48, 127, 142, 148, 150, 152, 
 
 165, 236. 
 
 Sword, Motive of, Wagner, 286. 
 Sword's Guardian, Motive of, Wag- 
 ner, 287. 
 
 Tale of the Man of Law, 67. 
 
 Tannhauser, 297. 
 
 Taming of the Shrew, 158. 
 
 Tarantella, 104, 105. 
 
 Tasso, 6, 71, 190. 
 
 Tell, Wm., 296. 
 
 Tennyson, 20, 40, 47, 48, 50, 61, 62, 
 
 118, 127, 131, 144, 149, 152, 157- 
 
 159, 165, 174, 299, 304. 
 Tens metre, 63. 
 Tens and elevens metre, 63. 
 Terminal Measure, 27, 28, 39, 40, 
 
 61-67. 
 
 Terpander, 203. 
 
 Tetrameter, 31-33, 47, 62-64, 66. 
 Thackeray, 45. 
 The Great Bell Roland, 32. 
 The Harp that once through Tara's 
 
 Halls, 271. 
 
 Theory of musical education, 105. 
 
 The Story of Prince Agib, 86. 
 
 Thomas E. M., 78. 
 
 Thought, as represented in art, 231. 
 
 Thoughtfulness, as represented in 
 music, 308 ; Motive of, Wagner, 
 288. 
 
 Thread and Song, 31, 193. 
 
 Threatening, as represented in 
 music, 276, 287. 
 
 Thunder, as represented by music, 
 297, 299. 
 
 Timbre, 180. See Quality. 
 
 Time. See Duration. 
 
 Timon, of Athens, 152. 
 
 Tintern Abbey, 304. 
 
 Titian, 236. 
 
 To Cyriack Skinner, 71. 
 
 Tomlinson, 71. 
 
 Tone, difference between poetic and 
 musical, 175-177; color-effects so 
 termed, 6, 107. See Quality. 
 
 Tones, prime and partial, 169, 170, 
 198-200, 208-210, 217-219, 285. 
 
 Tonic, chord of, 210, 211, 214, 215. 
 
 Tout a la Joie, 258. 
 
 Transition, art-method, 3 ; in har- 
 mony, musical, 212-217 ! poetic, 
 162, 166, 167 ; in rhythm and 
 metre, 59 ; to one key from 
 another, 214-217. 
 
 Triad, major, 217-220, 225 ; minor, 
 218-220, 225. 
 
 Trifling, as represented in music, 
 
 254. 
 
 Trimeter, 31, 32, 47, 62. 
 
 Triple measure, 26-28, 39, 40 ; com- 
 bined with double, for comic 
 effects, 86 ; corresponding to ef- 
 fects of curves, 58 ; musical, 101. 
 
 Tristan, Motive of, Wagner, 289. 
 
 Tristan und Isolde 254, 256, 289, 
 296. 
 
 Trite, The, as represented in music, 
 266, 267, 286. 
 
 Triumph, as represented in music, 
 258. 
 
 Trochaic measure, 31, 33, 62-67. 
 
 Trochee, 27, 31. 
 
 Troilus and Cressida, 130. 
 
 Troubadours of Provence, 133. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 343 
 
 Troubled Sleep, as represented in 
 music, 300 ; chorus of, from 
 lolanthe, 300. 
 
 Trumpet, 295, 296. 
 
 Tunes of melody, developed from 
 intonation, 186 ; of poetry and 
 music, 6, 241 ; including pitch of 
 verse, 57~59. 170-177- 
 
 Turmoil, as represented in music, 
 261. 
 
 Turner, C. T., 73. 
 
 Twelfth Night, 158. 
 
 Twelves metre, 64. 
 
 Two Gentlemen of Verona, 158. 
 
 Two Voices, 61, 165. 
 
 Unaccented syllables, 18, 20-24, 39. 
 
 48 ; must differ in sound from 
 
 accented, 118-120, 172, 173. 
 Uncertainty, as represented in 
 
 music, 276. 
 Underwoods, 137. 
 Unimpeded, The, as represented in 
 
 music, 281. 
 Unity, art-method, 3 ; in harmony, 
 
 musical, 179, 185, 211 ; poetic, 
 
 139, 144 ; in rhythm, 15, 38, 92, 
 
 no, in, 113. 
 Unsatisfactory effects, as represented 
 
 in music, 282-290. 
 Unsustained expression as in poetry, 
 
 painting, and sculpture, 234, 239, 
 
 240. 
 Upward and downward movement 
 
 of pitch on words owing to 
 
 accent, 57, 58, 172, 173. 
 Utterances of speech and song, 239- 
 
 248. 
 
 Van Raalte, A., 305. 
 
 Variety, art- method, 3, in harmony, 
 musical, 179, poetical, 137-161 ; in 
 rhythm, 16, 38, 39 ; in versifica- 
 tion, of measure and line, 38-92 ; 
 musical, 103. 
 
 Vega, Lope de, 124, 129. 
 
 Vehemence, as represented in music, 
 256. 
 
 Venice, 262. 
 
 Venus and Adonis, 66. 
 
 Venus music in Tannhauser, 297. 
 
 Verse, blank, 37, 42-44; Chinese, 
 79, 80 ; French forms of, 72-84 ; 
 irregular blank verse, 42-44. 
 
 Versification, caused by accent or 
 quality, 21-24 J English, compared 
 with classic methods of, 21-24. 
 
 Vibrations, as causing harmony of 
 sound and color, 108, 109; causing 
 musical pitch, 194-198 ; forms of, v 
 as causing quality, 196, 197 ; 
 psychological and physical reasons 
 for their musical effects, 221-228 ; 
 regularly recurring, causing musi- 
 cal sounds, 194, 195. 
 
 Victory, as represented in music, 
 296. 
 
 Villanelle, 77, 78. 
 
 Vindictive League, motive of, 
 Wagner, 288. 
 
 Violin, what it represents, 295, 297, 
 299. 
 
 Virelai, 83. 
 
 Virgil, 34, 123, 128, 133, 150. 
 
 Vision of Piers Plowman, 125. 
 
 Wace, 129, 133. 
 Waddington, S., 96. 
 Wagner, 186, 237, 254, 261, 263, 
 269, 276-278, 286-289, 296, 297, 
 
 321-323- 
 Wailing, as represented in music, 
 
 300 ; chorus from lolanthe, 300. 
 Waldteufel, E., 259, 260. 
 Walhall, Motive of, Wagner, 286, 
 
 287. 
 Walker's Rhyming Dictionary, 125, 
 
 140, 
 Walkure, Motive of, Wagner, 261 ; 
 
 opera, 261, 270, 276, 287, 289, 
 
 297. 
 Walsungen family, Motive of, 
 
 Wagner, 289. 
 Waltz, 104, 260. 
 
 Wandering Knight's Song, The, 41. 
 Water, Motive of, Wagner, 262. 
 Watts, 62. 
 Watson, J. W., 31. 
 Wave, or circumflex inflection, rep- 
 resentation of, 274, 275. 
 Weakness, as represented in music 
 
 256, 281, 282. 
 
344 RHYTHM AND HARMONY IN POETRY AND MUSIC. 
 
 Weber, 105, 316. 
 
 Welcome, The, 174. 
 
 Werner's Magazine, 305. 
 
 Wesley, C., 62. 
 
 West, B., 236. 
 
 Wheeler, G. P., 114. 
 
 Whips, as represented in music, 297. 
 
 W T histle, and I '11 come to you, 174. 
 
 Whistles, as represented in music, 
 
 297. 
 
 Whitman, W., xxi, xxii, in. 
 Willems, F., 236. 
 
 William of Cloudsley, Ballad of, 131. 
 Wind, as represented in music, 297. 
 Winter's Tale, The, 51. 
 Wishes for the Supposed Mistress, 61. 
 
 Wolzogen, H. von, 255, 297. 
 Wordsworth, xvii, 50, 71, 72, 85, 
 
 130. I 73, 304- 
 Worship, as represented in music, 
 
 308. 
 
 Writer, The, 114. 
 Wyatt, T., 46, 47. 
 
 Yawning, as represented in music, 
 
 279, 289, 317. 
 Yerrington, E. M., 305. 
 Yielding effect, as represented in 
 
 music, 259. 
 
 Zola, xviii. 
 
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