A proof of the everlasting qualities of brass is a beam-head 
 taken from a sunken Roman ship in Lake Nemi, after 
 having been immersed in water for 2000 years, and now on 
 display as a specimen of bronze-preservation in the Roman 
 National Museum. The figure is the head of a lioness, 
 with moveable ring behind the "locked" incisors. 
 


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r ">HE reason for brass pipe is corrosion. If it were 
 
 | not for corrosion there would be no brass pipe. 
 
 JL Iron and steel, though intrinsically cheaper 
 
 than brass, are more expensive in installations where 
 
 the corrosion factor plays an important part. 
 
 Brass pipe will invariably be chosen for hot and 
 cold water service installations if the two following 
 factors are properly considered. 
 
 a. Money value of the service that will be 
 rendered during the life of the pipe. 
 
 b. Design of the installations to provide the 
 required facilities with the least amount of 
 material. 
 
 While our desire, admittedly, is to encourage the 
 use of brass pipe, it is likewise our purpose to present 
 useful information that will assist architects, engineers, 
 builders, plumbers, owners and others in obtaining the 
 maximum value for a given expenditure for brass pipe 
 under existing conditions; therefore, any criticisms 
 or suggestions for improvement will be appreciatively 
 considered. 
 
 BRIDGEPORT BRASS COMPANY 
 
 MM 
 
 493319 
 
rass 
 
 ron and teel 
 
 All Pipes Corrode All pipe, 
 
 whether 
 
 steel, wrought iron, cast iron or brass 
 will fail some day by corrosion. It is 
 simply a matter of time, and when 
 permanent construction is involved the 
 best pipe is the one that will last the 
 longest. Difference in first cost will 
 not justify any other conclusion. 
 
 Steel, wrought^ iron, cast iron and 
 brass pipe each has its proper field of 
 usefulness. No experienced builder will 
 seriously question the following: 
 
 Brass for salt water piping, for hot 
 water supply piping, and for cold 
 water supply piping at least where 
 the lines are concealed. 
 
 Steel or wrought iron for heating 
 systems. 
 
 Cast iron for soil pipes, vents and 
 underground service. 
 
 Brass for Minimum Corrosion 
 
 Leading iron and steel pipe manu- 
 facturers admit the superiority of brass 
 in water supply systems where corrosion 
 is encountered. Exhaustive studies fur- 
 nish all the data necessary to prove the 
 marked susceptibility of both iron and 
 steel to destruction by corrosion, and 
 the comparative immunity of brass. 
 
 The evidence against the use of iron 
 in water supply systems is amply sup- 
 ported by published data. 
 
 Iron and Steel in 
 Hot Water Service 
 
 G a 1 v a - 
 nizing the 
 
 inner sur- 
 
 f a c e of 
 
 iron and steel pipe is employed to pro- 
 long its life, and has been found to 
 possess some advantages. Sufficiently 
 satisfactory results, however, are not 
 assured to warrant the expectation of 
 materially increased life in service. 
 Such galvanizing prevents rusting when 
 the pipe is new and during the period 
 between its manufacture and its in- 
 stallation. 
 
 Some years ago an investigation was 
 made in St. Louis by Professor Earle 
 B. Phelps, of the Massachusetts Insti- 
 tute of Technology, which showed that 
 corrosion troubles in St. Louis were 
 generally confined to galvanized instal- 
 lations. These pipes, although they 
 had been in service only a few years, 
 were often completely choked with a 
 "yellowish white substance," which ad- 
 hered so firmly to the surface that it 
 brought away with it flakes of the zinc 
 coating when it was removed. Brass 
 pipe installations revealed no deposits 
 and no signs of corrosion. The interior 
 
surface of the specimens examined was 
 apparently as good as new. 
 
 One reason why galvanizing some- 
 times increases the susceptibility of 
 iron pipe to corrosion is the fact that 
 water, from which organic matter has 
 been removed, and which has been 
 chemically treated, often dissolves zinc 
 more readily. Once the zinc coating 
 is perforated, corrosion proceeds with 
 greater rapidity because of concen- 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 GRAND AVERAGE OF FOUR CORROSION 
 TESTS ON IRON AND STEEL PIPE* 
 
 
 Steel Pipe 
 (13 Samples) 
 
 Wrought 
 Iron 
 (7 Samples) 
 
 In. 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent 
 of 
 Wall 
 
 In. 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent 
 of 
 Wall 
 
 Depth of deepest pit 
 Depth of first five 
 deepest pits 
 
 0.059 
 0.052 
 0.042 
 0.051 
 
 38 
 
 33^ 
 27 
 35 
 
 0.077 
 0.069 
 0.057 
 0.067 
 
 49^ 
 
 44^ 
 37 
 43 
 
 Depth of second five 
 deepest pits 
 
 Depth of three above 
 classes . . 
 
 NOTE: The average thickness of wall of 2-inch 
 standard pipe is 0.155 inches, the average depth of 
 thread is 0.07 inches. Pipes which pit through at the 
 thread have an average pit depth of 0.085 inches. 
 
 * National Bulletin No. 2D, 5th Edition, September, 
 1920, page 19, National Tube Company. 
 
 trated action on small areas. Galvan- 
 ized pipe is also apt to give trouble 
 where a considerable amount of carbon 
 dioxide is contained in the water. 
 
 Hydrogen sulphide, sometimes pre- 
 sent in artesian water, dissolves zinc, 
 producing zinc sulphide, and when 
 constantly present, often causes sick- 
 ness the symptoms of which are 
 cramps, fainting spells and nausea. 
 
 In New York City, to compare 
 wrought iron pipe with steel pipe, tests 
 were made in lines supplying public 
 shower baths. The period of observa- 
 tion varied from two years and five 
 months to two years and nine and 
 one-half months. The average results 
 from four separate tests published by 
 one of the pipe manufacturers are 
 entered in Table 1. 
 
 Another test reported in the same 
 publication covers samples of wrought 
 iron, black steel, copper-alloy steel, 
 galvanized steel and galvanized copper- 
 alloy steel. 
 
 These tests were made in a hot 
 water line with the various samples 
 connected in series. The period was 
 eleven months, although for about 
 three and one-half months during the 
 summer season almost no water was 
 
 Figure 2. Piece of galvanized steel pipe used for 1^ years for hot water supply to a garage. It was enclosed 
 in concrete; thus encased it was used until completely destroyed. 
 
taken through the pipes. At the end 
 of the tests the pipes were practically 
 filled with rust. This deposit was re- 
 moved and the inside surface brushed 
 with a wire brush. The corrosion was 
 then measured by means of a depth 
 gage. The average depths of the first 
 40 pits were as given in Table II. 
 
 TABLE II 
 CORROSION TESTS * 
 
 
 In. 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent 
 
 Wrought Iron 
 
 0.0674 
 0.0544 
 . 0639 
 0.0547 
 0.0938 
 
 43.5 
 35.1 
 41.2 
 35.3 
 60.5 
 
 Steel 
 
 Copper- Alloy Steel 
 
 Galvanized. Steel 
 
 Galvanized Copper- Alloy Steel 
 
 * National Bulletin No. 2D, 5th Edition, September 
 1920, page 20, National Tube Company. 
 
 Brass vs. Iron and Steel One 
 
 of the 
 
 in Hot Water Service 
 
 manu- 
 f a c - 
 
 turers of iron pipe made a comprehen- 
 sive investigation some years ago of 
 piping installations in Pittsburgh. * The 
 
 Figure 3. Galvanized iron fittings with brass 
 nipples. Brass untouched, iron fittings filled with rust 
 and at one point completely perforated. 
 
 * Byers' Pipe Bulletin No. 30, 3d Edition, October 
 1913. A. M. Byers Company. 
 
 published reports of the observations 
 indicate that the life of wrought iron 
 pipe under these particular conditions 
 is approximately twice that of steel 
 pipe. Among the buildings examined, 
 there were 34 equipped with brass 
 pipe. These installations ranged in 
 age from six to eighteen years and 
 yet none had failed. The fact that 
 not one of the brass pipe installations 
 had failed makes it impossible to give 
 the brass full credit because no one 
 knows how long these brass installa- 
 tions may continue in service without 
 failure. Of the 28 steel installations 
 which range in age from five to eleven 
 years, 85 per cent had failed, and of 
 the 67 wrought iron installations rang- 
 ing in age from six to nineteen years, 
 92 per cent had failed. For easy com- 
 parison Table III was compiled from 
 the detailed data tabulated in the 
 original report. 
 
 TABLE III 
 
 RESULTS IN ACTUAL PIPING INSTALLA- 
 TIONS IN THE PITTSBURGH 
 DISTRICT 
 
 
 Brass 
 
 Steel 
 
 Wrought 
 Iron 
 
 Number of installations 
 
 34 
 
 28 
 
 67 
 
 Number of failures .... 
 
 None 
 
 24 
 
 62 
 
 Number of renewals . . . 
 
 None 
 
 19 
 
 49 
 
 Maximum age of time 
 
 
 
 
 of inspection, years. . 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 18* 
 
 Average age at time of 
 
 
 
 
 inspection, years .... 
 
 n% 
 
 7% 
 
 14 
 
 Average time to first re- 
 
 
 
 
 placement, years. . . . 
 
 ** 
 
 5% 
 
 wy 2 
 
 Minimum time to first 
 
 
 
 
 replacement, years . . 
 
 ** 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 * Repaired. 
 
 ** No replacements. 
 
Rust Accumulation in Cor ro- 
 ll ~~Z ~T~^r. sion in 
 
 Iron and Steel ripes i ron or 
 
 steel 
 
 pipe produces "rust." Sometimes this 
 rust clings to the surface of the pipe 
 with great tenacity; at other times it 
 is loosened by the flow of the water 
 and carried along. Iron converted into 
 rust occupies 10 times its volume as a 
 metal, therefore tremendous quantities 
 of rust are produced as corrosion 
 proceeds. 
 
 Rusty water stains porcelain fixtures 
 and textile fabrics. A leak in an iron 
 or steel pipe will inevitably carry rusty 
 water, which will stain floors, ceilings, 
 walls or whatever articles of furniture 
 or furnishings it may encounter. 
 
 When rust clings to the surface it 
 does not take long to plug the pipe. 
 When it is considered that I /27th of 
 an inch corroded from the interior sur- 
 face of a 1^-inch pipe will fill it solid 
 with rust, it is evident that only a 
 short time is required to choke the line 
 and make it useless, unless the rust 
 is flushed away by the action of the 
 water. The smaller the pipe the more 
 
 Figure 4. Galvanized iron fitting clogged with rust 
 from the hot water piping. 
 
 serious this action: in a 1-inch pipe it 
 requires only i/4tL o f an inch re- 
 moved by corrosion to fill it with 
 rust. 
 
 The plugging of pipes usually occurs 
 more rapidly than the time required to 
 produce the rust in any one section, 
 because at restricted points, as in 
 elbows or at the bottom of a riser, 
 rust from considerable lengths of pipe 
 will naturally collect. Plugged pipes 
 especially in hot water service are 
 common occurrences. An actual ex- 
 ample is shown in Figure 4. 
 
 A distinct advantage of brass pipe 
 is the absence of any process of cor- 
 rosion to discolor the water and plug 
 the pipes. Engineers employ smaller 
 sizes of brass pipe for a given service 
 than of either iron or steel, because the 
 full carrying capacity of the brass can 
 be counted upon throughout its life. 
 
 Lead Pipe Lead has been used 
 for the manufacture of 
 pipe for hundreds of years. In some 
 parts of Europe large water mains of 
 lead are still in existence. In cold water 
 service it is fairly satisfactory, but in 
 hot water service it is apt to give 
 trouble. Lead pipe should not be used 
 in systems supplying drinking water 
 because of the danger of lead poison- 
 ing. Massachusetts State Board of 
 Health condemns water which con- 
 tains 0.1 grain of lead per gallon. The 
 serious thing about this poisoning 
 is its cumulative character, for no 
 matter how small the dose, a definite 
 effect is produced, and each additional 
 dose adds to that effect until serious 
 illness and possibly death results. 
 
Lead Lined Pipe A certain 
 
 amount of 
 
 steel pipe lined with lead has been 
 placed on the market but has never 
 come into extensive use because of the 
 following factors : 
 
 1. Difficulty of producing a pipe 
 free from faults in the lining. 
 A slight burr on the pipe pro- 
 jecting through the lead lining 
 will set up electrolytic action 
 and cause failure. 
 
 2. Difficulty of making joints with- 
 out exposing the steel behind 
 the lead, and setting up serious 
 electrolytic corrosion. 
 
 3. Cost approaching that of 
 brass with actual life not mate- 
 rially better than steel. 
 
 Installations of this kind have been 
 known to fail completely in about five 
 years, probably due to intense electro- 
 lytic action at points where the lead 
 lining was damaged from one cause or 
 another. 
 
 Bridgeport Plum- 
 rite Brass Pipe 
 
 The Bridge- 
 port Brass 
 Company de- 
 notes as 
 
 "Bridgeport Plumrite" that brass mix- 
 ture which is best suited to the manu- 
 facture of brass pipe for fresh water 
 service, and for carrying certain liquids 
 used in chemical processes. The action 
 
 of hot salt water and certain other 
 liquids is particularly severe and for 
 such purposes brass of special composi- 
 tion is recommended.* 
 
 Figure 5. Pieces of rust (full size) taken from the 
 interior surface of a genuine wrought-iron pipe after 
 seven years in hot water service. 
 
 This pipe has been manufactured by 
 the Bridgeport Brass Company for 
 more than forty years. In the early 
 days some changes were made in com- 
 position, but for many years the only 
 changes have been in the nature of 
 refinements in the processes of manu- 
 facture for the purpose of increasing 
 uniformity and maintaining the stan- 
 dard of quality. 
 
 Although Plumrite brass pipe has 
 been employed all these years we know 
 of no instance of its removal because 
 of corrosion. It is conservative to 
 state that the life of this pipe is at 
 least that of the building itself. 
 
 * The Bridgeport Brass Company's Research Department is equipped to study special problems, and is 
 prepared to recommend the proper metal for each particular set of conditions which may be in any way 
 extraordinary. 
 
 10 
 
NL 
 
 While there is no absolute unity of 
 opinion on the theory of corrosion, 
 perhaps a comparison with a simple 
 battery will best serve to explain the 
 generally accepted opinion that electro- 
 lytic action, due to a difference in 
 potential between one part and an- 
 other of the pipe, is the cause of 
 corrosion. 
 
 A simple primary battery made by 
 inserting a carbon and a zinc rod into 
 a jar containing salt water will, when 
 a voltmeter is connected with one 
 side to the carbon rod and the other 
 side to the zinc rod, indicate an elec- 
 trical potential difference which is de- 
 noted as an electromotive force (e.m.f.). 
 It will also be found that to cause a 
 deflection in the right direction, the 
 
 Figure 6. Simple electrolytic cell, demonstrating 
 the various elements that enter into electrolytic cor- 
 rosion. Anode (electropositive area) = Zinc; Cathode 
 (electronegative area) = Carbon; electrolyte (water) = 
 salt solution. These three elements are necessary for 
 corrosion. 
 
 positive terminal of the voltmeter 
 must be connected to the carbon rod, 
 indicating the carbon to be the positive 
 pole of the battery, and the zinc the 
 negative pole. 
 
 Referring to Figure 6, if a connec- 
 tion is made from the positive to the 
 negative pole of the battery, electricity 
 will flow in the circuit thus formed: 
 that is, electricity will flow from the 
 positive pole to the negative pole 
 through the circuit, but inside of the 
 battery it will flow from the zinc to 
 the carbon, as shown by the arrow. 
 
 Where electricity leaves a metal and 
 enters a liquid, as is here the case, the 
 metal is dissolved and goes into 
 solution, but where electricity leaves 
 the solution and goes into a metal 
 there is no dissolution of the metal. 
 
 The battery shown in Figure 6 
 illustrates electrolytic action. The 
 zinc is the anode or the place from 
 which the electricity flows into the 
 solution. The carbon is the cathode 
 or the place where the electricity leaves 
 the solution. The salt solution is the 
 electrolyte which carries the electricity 
 from the anode to the cathode. In 
 order to have electrolytic action or 
 corrosion, it is necessary to have an 
 anode, cathode and an electrolyte. 
 
 The anode is always the area of 
 metal which is corroded. The electro- 
 lyte is the water carried by the pipe, 
 and the cathode which completes the 
 electrolytic system is either an im- 
 purity in the chemical composition of 
 the metal, an ingredient in the alloy 
 
 11 
 
of the metal, or an area that is physi- 
 cally different from the anode area. 
 
 The actual process of corrosion takes 
 place in a series of energy transforma- 
 tions. It would serve no purpose to 
 discuss these in detail in the present 
 instance, but the fundamental princi- 
 ple perhaps can be stated to advan- 
 tage. If it is assumed that an iron 
 pipe containing water is allowed to 
 stand, a certain amount of iron will be 
 dissolved from the electro-positive 
 areas. If oxygen is present the iron 
 will be oxidized and form rust, which 
 will be deposited on the electronegative 
 area; sometimes this rust is of such a 
 nature as to cling to the surface and 
 gradually fill up the pipe- other 
 times it is so loosely attached that 
 the flow of the water carries it away. 
 
 Initial conditions may be such as to 
 produce electrolytic action, and said 
 action may so alter the conditions that 
 it checks itself. This explains instances 
 where corrosion is rapid for a time and 
 then slows down to a much lower rate. 
 Sometimes this result is accomplished 
 by a chemical change on the surface 
 of the pipe other times it is caused by 
 the concentration of hydrogen at the 
 negative areas. The building up 
 of this opposition is called Polariza- 
 tion. For example, in the case of a 
 pipe filled with water but free from 
 oxygen, electrolytic action results in 
 dissolving iron by the water and re- 
 leasing hydrogen which migrates to the 
 negative areas of the pipe, causing 
 polarization and thus stopping the cor- 
 rosive action. Even pure water will 
 dissolve iron and this action is entirely 
 independent of the presence of air or 
 oxygen. The quantity of iron dis- 
 
 solved depends upon the character of 
 the water. Small amounts of acid 
 greatly increase the quantity of iron 
 which goes into solution. 
 
 If corrosion is to continue, oxygen 
 must be supplied to take up the hydro- 
 gen and oxidize the iron out of the 
 solution, by forming iron hydroxides 
 so that it can absorb more. In heating 
 systems, where no new water is 
 introduced, the oxygen is soon used up, 
 and the water dissolves all the iron it 
 has oxygen to satisfy when corrosion 
 practically ceases. Thus is explained 
 the utility of iron and steel pipe in hot 
 water heating and sprinkler systems. 
 
 In iron or steel service pipes carry- 
 ing large quantities of water, oxygen is 
 plentiful and corrosion proceeds rap- 
 idly. Heating the water increases the 
 rate of corrosion, so that hot- water 
 pipe usually lasts only one-third to 
 one-fifth as long as the same pipe in 
 cold water service. 
 
 To sum up, the conditions producing 
 rapid corrosion of a given metal are: 
 
 1. Electro-negative substances. 
 
 2. Electrolyte. 
 
 3. Oxygen. 
 
 Electro-Negative 
 Substances 
 
 Iron and steel 
 are composite 
 
 structures al- 
 ways contain- 
 ing impurities. They are never per- 
 fectly homogenous and never free from 
 segregations, furnishing electro-nega- 
 tive areas to start corrosion. 
 
 Modern high-speed production 
 methods in the iron and steel industry 
 aggravate characteristics which aid 
 corrosion. Brass, on the other hand, 
 can be made of pure metal, thoroughly 
 
 12 
 
mixed and cast without segregation, 
 and it can be worked and annealed so 
 as to leave no internal strains. This 
 means that electro-negative areas can 
 be uniformly distributed and that pit- 
 ting is practically impossible. When 
 properly made it is almost corrosion- 
 proof as far as water is concerned. 
 
 Electrolyte I* 1 service pipes the 
 electrolyte is water . 
 This water is never quite pure, so that 
 its ability to dissolve iron may vary 
 over a considerable range. Pure dis- 
 tilled water will dissolve iron and act 
 as an electrolyte. Impurities simply 
 increase the activity of water in the 
 corrosion process. 
 
 Oxygen The oxygen necessary for 
 continued corrosion is sup- 
 plied by the water. Therefore, the 
 more water carried by the pipe the 
 greater the corrosion. Furthermore, 
 the activity of the oxygen is greatly 
 increased by heat. 
 
 Corrosion of Brass Someone 
 
 has visual- 
 ized corrosion by calling it nature's 
 method of returning metals to the 
 natural state in which they are found 
 in the earth. Iron being found as an 
 oxide, attempts at every opportunity 
 to break away from the metallic state 
 and return to the oxide state. Copper, 
 which is the major constituent of brass, 
 on the other hand is found in nature 
 in a pure metallic state. Therefore, 
 it has no tendency similar to iron to 
 change its condition from the pure 
 metal to an oxide. Zinc, on the other 
 hand, which is the second principal 
 constituent of brass, is not found in 
 
 pure metallic form in nature. There- 
 fore, when corrosion does take place 
 it is most often the zinc which is trans- 
 formed. 
 
 Electrolytes in Brass properly 
 
 7^~~ ~~T~ e r made will not 
 
 Corrosion of Brass dissolve in or _ 
 
 dinary drink- 
 ing water, and corrosion cannot take 
 place unless metal goes into solution. 
 Plumrite brass is made for pipes carry- 
 ing ordinary fresh water, hot or cold, 
 such as is used for drinking and bath- 
 ing. Where salt water is concerned, a 
 special mixture is used which contains 
 a higher percentage of copper, and be- 
 sides zinc, contains certain other in- 
 gredients. Water carrying ammonia, 
 nitrates or nitrites, will corrode brass. 
 Decaying vegetable matter produces 
 nitrogen compounds. However, expe- 
 rience demonstrates that vent pipes 
 which carry sewer gases in which there 
 are fumes from decaying vegetable mat- 
 ter, can be made of brass pipe to ad- 
 vantage, because such gases produce 
 a rapid and uniform corrosion which 
 coats the pipe with a hard, dark- 
 colored layer of material that effec- 
 tively protects it from the nitrogen 
 compounds. 
 
 Oxygen in the Since Plum- 
 
 ~ ; ~ rite Brass 
 
 Corrosion of Brass does not dis . 
 
 solve in or- 
 dinary fresh water, whether hot or 
 cold, it is not affected by oxygen in 
 the water. Oxygen in drinking water 
 is healthful and palatable. Large 
 water-works systems go to a consider- 
 able expense to aer-ate water, charging 
 it with as much air as it will carry. 
 
 13 
 
Figure 7. Pieces of pipe here shown were installed in a feed water line operating at 200 F. All the pipes 
 except the brass and the lead lined have been in service for eight years, the latter have been in service seven 
 years. It is interesting to note that the amount of corrosion is practically the same in steel and genuine wrought 
 iron, whether used black or galvanized. All four specimens appear to be equally corroded. 
 
 A Sample lengths of 
 pipe taken from this sys- 
 tem. Beginning at the 
 left the pipes are: Black 
 wrought iron, black steel, 
 iron dipped in lead, Plum- 
 rite brass, galvanized 
 genuine wrought iron and 
 galvanized steel. 
 
 B Close view of three 
 of the pipes showing the 
 character of the corrosion. 
 Beginning at the left 
 they are: Black genuine 
 wrought iron, black steel 
 and iron dipped in lead. 
 These specimens have not 
 been scraped or disturbed 
 in any way. 
 
 C Close-up of three 
 specimens showing the 
 corroded surfaces undis- 
 turbed. Beginning at the 
 left they are: Plumrite 
 brass, galvanized genuine 
 wrought iron and galvan- 
 ized steel. There is abso- 
 lutely no sign of corrosion 
 in the Plumrite which is 
 smooth and clean inside. 
 All the other pipes are 
 lined with large masses 
 of rust. Both the iron 
 and the steel pipe exhibit 
 rust of similar character 
 and quantity. 
 
 14 
 
D 
 
 D Black steel. The 
 rust has been scraped 
 away with a dull tool 
 to determine the depth 
 of the corrosion. The 
 rust was very hard 
 and if it had been 
 scraped with a sharper 
 instrument it would 
 have revealed deeper 
 pitting than is here 
 shown. Careful exam- 
 ination will reveal that 
 there is practically no 
 pipe left at the threads. 
 
 E Galvanized steel 
 which has been scraped 
 to reveal pitting. Wall 
 of pipe at threads 
 practically eaten 
 through. 
 
 F Genuine wrougrit 
 iron which has been 
 scraped to reveal pit- 
 ting. Wall of the pipe 
 is very nearly con- 
 sumed at threads. 
 
 G Galvanized genu- 
 ine wrought iron which 
 has been scraped to 
 reveal pits. Corrosion 
 is even worse than in 
 the black metal and 
 the wall of pipe is 
 actually punctured at 
 the threads. 
 
 H Lead dipped iron 
 pipe. The corroded 
 lead is clearly visible as 
 is also the corrosion of 
 the iron under the lead 
 lining. The rust was 
 picked out from behind 
 the lead with a sharp 
 instrument revealing 
 the cavities which ex- 
 tended practically 
 through the wall of 
 the iron at the threads. 
 
 I^Plumrite Brass 
 Pipe. It will be noted 
 that there is absolutely 
 no sign of corrosion. 
 The original wall thick- 
 ness of the pipe is 
 plainly visible at the 
 end. The life of this 
 pipe would certainly 
 exceed that of the 
 boiler to which it 
 supplies feed water. 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 15 
 
Corrosion of Iron and Steel en t there are two methods in use: 
 
 It was shown in the preceding chapter 
 that electro-negative areas are largely 
 responsible for corrosion, and since in 
 the manufacture of iron and steel it is 
 impossible to eliminate these, corrosion 
 must be attacked by seeking to control 
 the water in the pipe. 
 
 By removing the air or oxygen from 
 water before it enters iron or steel 
 pipe, corrosion can be reduced, pro- 
 longing the life of the pipe. At pres- 
 
 1. Deactivation A system 
 
 through 
 
 which the service water passes, ex- 
 posed to large surfaces of iron for a 
 sufficient time to give up its oxygen 
 by corroding the iron before the 
 oxygen has an opportunity to attack 
 the pipe. 
 
 2. Deaeration A system de- 
 
 signed to boil 
 all the air out of the water at either 
 
 Figure 8. The water supplied to New York City is purified at the start by charging with air before being con- 
 ducted underground ninety miles to the city. 
 
 16 
 
atmospheric pressure or in a 
 vacuum. 
 
 Both of these systems have served 
 to prolong the life of iron and steel- 
 pipe installations, and even though in- 
 troducing another element, are in some 
 cases preferable to repiping, which in 
 our modern buildings represents a very 
 great expense. These are, however, at 
 best only a check, and unless the in- 
 stallation is extremely large, designed 
 to take care of maximum requirements, 
 they cannot perform satisfactorily when 
 most needed. 
 
 New Construction The installa- 
 tion of brass 
 
 pipe in new construction precludes the 
 ultimate need of considering a sec- 
 ondary installation for prolonging pipe 
 life. Furthermore, the reduction or 
 even elimination of air or oxygen in 
 water does not wholly prevent corro- 
 sion of iron or steel service piping, since 
 without the presence of these agencies 
 water still has ability to dissolve a cer- 
 tain amount of iron. Also, no system 
 of treating the water flowing through 
 the pipe can possibly affect the outside 
 corrosion, often an important factor in 
 iron and steel piping, especially when 
 exposed to a damp atmosphere. 
 
 Principles of 
 Deactivation 
 
 In judging a deac- 
 tivating plant it 
 must be remem- 
 bered that deacti- 
 vation can only take place where water 
 is left in contact with iron long enough 
 to permit the process of corrosion to 
 extract all the oxygen. Therefore, it is 
 of first importance in selecting an out- 
 fit to be sure that the maximum de- 
 
 mand for hot water can be supplied 
 and still give time for the deactivation 
 process to take place. 
 
 In most installations the rate of using 
 hot water throughout the 24 hours 
 varies enormously. Not only is this 
 true of the 24-hour periods, but it is 
 also true of the weekly periods. There- 
 fore, a guarantee on the part of the 
 company furnishing the deactivator 
 should not be accepted on the basis of 
 average flow, but rather on the basis of 
 maximum flow. 
 
 The question of temperature must 
 also be considered. For instance, for 
 the purposes of comparison it may be 
 stated, that with a given installation it 
 required 24 hours at room temperature 
 to deactivate the water. At 180 F. 
 it required only half an hour, and at 
 212 it required only a few minutes. 
 This characteristic adds one other ob- 
 stacle to the successful operation of a 
 deactivator, because when water is 
 being drawn at the maximum rate, it 
 usually drops in temperature. Con- 
 sequently, the deactivation is enor- 
 mously retarded at the very time when 
 it should be increased. 
 
 It can be said in favor of the deacti- 
 vator that most of iron that is rusted 
 in the deactivator has saved a corre- 
 sponding amount of rust from the pip- 
 ing system, but it cannot be claimed, 
 and is not claimed, that a deactivator 
 can be made of such proportions that 
 it will eliminate all corrosion in the 
 piping system of a modern building. 
 
 In addition to the difficulties result- 
 ing from large fluctuations in flow and 
 temperature, deactivators also usually 
 suffer from lack of proper circulation 
 
 17 
 
in such a way that water passing 
 through rapidly is apt to take a shorter 
 course than water that passes through 
 slowly. In many cases proper circula- 
 tion cannot be employed, because of 
 the difficulties of settling out the rust 
 which under present methods is col- 
 lected at the bottom of the tank. 
 Where rust is filtered out a positive 
 circulation path might be employed 
 to advantage. 
 
 Deaerating The boiling methods 
 are usually referred to 
 as deaerating processes. In general 
 there are two methods employed: 
 
 1. Heating the water and expos- 
 ing it in a separating chamber 
 which will carry off the air. 
 
 2. Application of vacuum to the 
 water which will allow the air 
 to boil out at low temperature. 
 
 The first method is applicable wher- 
 ever steam heat is always available and 
 the deaerating takes place by raising 
 the temperature of the water to a point 
 just below the boiling point in a special 
 steam heater equipped with automatic 
 devices for regulating the level of the 
 water, the temperature of the water 
 and the flow of the steam. 
 
 The vacuum system, which involves 
 machinery such as vacuum pumps, is 
 only used in power plants or in places 
 where it is necessary to remove oxygen 
 from cold water. The deactivating 
 process is too slow for cold water. It 
 would require a deactivating tank too 
 large to be practicable. 
 
 The boiling system is more effective 
 in removing oxygen than the deacti- 
 vating system, because it takes up less 
 
 space and it passes all the water 
 through the same process. Conse- 
 quently it is less upset by variations in 
 demand for water. The disadvantage 
 of the system is that it requires either 
 steam or the operation of vacuum 
 pumps, and therefore must be given 
 attention at regular intervals. 
 
 The deactivating system is an appar- 
 atus with few refinements and requires 
 attention only at prolonged intervals, 
 but a deaerating system requires prac- 
 tically continuous attendance. In a 
 power plant or in a large building 
 where steam is always available, the 
 matter of attendance is not serious. 
 
 A properly designed and properly 
 operated system for removing oxygen 
 will lengthen the life of hot water pip- 
 ing. Therefore, a building which is 
 already equipped with iron pipe may 
 find it profitable to postpone tempo- 
 rarily the renewal of the whole system. 
 
 It is a fact that corrosion in an iron 
 or steel piping system cannot be totally 
 eliminated by deaerating or deactivat- 
 ing, even with a perfect system, be- 
 cause of the dissolving power of the 
 water itself, the impracticability of re- 
 moving oxygen from cold water, and 
 the impossibility of stopping corrosion 
 where leaks occur. The only answer 
 at the present time to all these diffi- 
 culties is a complete installation of 
 brass pipe. 
 
 Consequently the architect or engi- 
 neer specifying for new construction 
 will find brass pipe to be the proper 
 answer to his corrosion problem, be- 
 cause it is practically corrosion proof 
 and equally suitable for cold and hot 
 water service. 
 
 18 
 
Brass Pipe for Fresh 
 Water Service 
 
 Pr op er - 
 ly made 
 brass pipe 
 will last 
 
 indefinitely in hot or cold fresh water 
 service. Examples, prove that, after 
 twenty years or more of active service, 
 there is no noticeable sign of corrosion. 
 While no corrosion failure has been 
 recorded, there have been brass pipe 
 failures due to improper manufacture 
 of the pipe, or to the use of inferior 
 fittings, or to installation by incompe- 
 tent persons. With brass pipe all 
 thought of having to repipe in a com- 
 paratively short time or compromise 
 by installing a temporary check to cor- 
 rosion may be eliminated. It does 
 seem more like common sense to fore- 
 see and avoid the trouble in the first 
 place than to depend upon introducing 
 
 some costly corrective measures when 
 trouble comes. 
 
 Bridgeport Experience In the 
 
 early 
 
 days the brass was melted in cruci- 
 bles, cast into shells and drawn into 
 pipes of the proper size. When the 
 master caster conducting all the opera- 
 tions of mixing, melting, stirring and 
 pouring of the brass felt fit, and did his 
 work well, and when all the fabricating 
 operations were made in accordance 
 with the best knowledge of the state 
 of the art, and the annealing tempera- 
 tures and time of annealing were just 
 right, the result left nothing to be 
 desired. Naturally, the quality of the 
 product under such conditions de- 
 pended upon a number of personal 
 factors. 
 
 Today the Bridgeport Brass Com- 
 pany mixes the ingredients from syste- 
 matically analyzed stocks in carefully 
 checked proportions, and melts them 
 in electric furnaces which automatically 
 stir the mixture more thoroughly than 
 can the most expert operator. 
 
 Figure 9. Test demonstrating the ductility 
 Bridgeport Plumrite Brass Pipe. 
 
 of 
 
 Figure 10. Bridgeport Plumrite Brass Pipe may be 
 bent or hammered cold without cracking. 
 
 19 
 
The melting takes place in a con- 
 trolled atmosphere free from contami- 
 nation by gases of combustion, and the 
 pouring is accomplished by a simple 
 mechanism which provides accurate 
 control even in the hands of an un- 
 skilled man. 
 
 From the raw materials to the 
 finished product every step is carried 
 out with an astonishing degree of uni- 
 formity, controlled at every point by 
 accurate observations. Annealing takes 
 place at a definite temperature and for 
 a definite time. The various drafts are 
 made in accordance with predeter- 
 mined schedules based on extended re- 
 search and many years of experience. 
 
 The only difference between Plum- 
 rite brass pipe today and that made in 
 the early days is that formerly the 
 pipe was Plumrite most of the time, 
 while today it is Plumrite all the time. 
 
 Desirable Character- The 
 istics of Brass Pipe 
 
 son 
 
 rea- 
 f or 
 
 using 
 
 brass 
 
 pipe in fresh water supply systems is 
 to provide installations which will last 
 as long as the buildings of which they 
 are a part. To be wholly satisfactory 
 the brass pipe must therefore meet this 
 
 Figure 11. A piece of Plumrite Brass Pipe ham- 
 mered flat without cracking, demonstrating ductility 
 and softness. 
 
 requirement. The main factors which 
 determine the success of brass pipe 
 installation are: 
 
 1. Uniform composition to prevent con- 
 centrated electrolytic action and to dis- 
 tribute whatever corrosion may take place. 
 
 2. Freedom from internal stresses due to 
 careless or improper fabricating methods, 
 such stresses sooner or later causing 
 cracks known as "season cracks." 
 
 3. Proper temper to facilitate bending. 
 
 4. Proper composition to facilitate threading. 
 
 5. Threads cut with sharp tools and joints 
 made up without the use of excessive 
 quantities of "dope." 
 
 6. High-grade fittings with properly cut 
 threads and free from mechanical flaws. 
 
 7. Provision for expansion and relief of the 
 joints from excessive tension. 
 
 Plumrite is manufactured to meet 
 the above requirements, and to this 
 point the manufacturer can control his 
 product. It is especially important, 
 however, that pipe installations be 
 made by competent plumbers or under 
 the supervision of able technical ad- 
 visers. 
 
 TENSILE STRENGTH 59400 IB. PER SQ. IN. 
 
 Figure 12. A piece of Plumrite Brass Pipe cut into 
 four equal parts each treated as shown above, demon- 
 strating ductility and strength. Elongation is 45% in 
 one inch and 38% in two inches. 
 
 rt 
 
 20 
 
"fc // '"/' '"'. "f T T "'/""< "'/'. //'"', f/"S"~' -/ '/ "/":, -/""I. /""'. ','". 
 
 f\/f ju f*-.j , j M /A f f H? H* C } H 
 
 ^. '/ /i. / ^>. X *~,y VMM/ ^ A. .'*,. '':/' A. ':./ A. '.. )/, .,/? h 
 
 ?'-.'.'; 
 
 /'''""\ T T T T' /r <'?'"" "', t"'/'' ""'"> //'"','""'; "'/""> '"/' <""'. /'"' /'"'/"", ''/ "/"*: "/"" 
 
 C >-/ j i j x/j ' <* I ^ Cx, -"> K ; /A >""> ;S C M ^"^ F* 
 
 ^, AnU ''^x^ ,/r. ^ /x. //.. '.....; /,. ,',, '' j,.,,/ .'/ '-....I. j 'S,. '/../ '/:/' /,. Jk /,. A,,,/, 
 
 Since the quality of brass pipe is so 
 largely dependent upon the processes 
 of manufacture and the accuracy and 
 effectiveness of the control of such 
 processes, it may be of interest to those 
 upon whom fall the responsibility of 
 specifying brass pipe to know the pro- 
 cedure adopted by the Bridgeport 
 Brass Company. 
 
 Composition The proportions of 
 
 the elements in brass 
 
 influence to a marked degree the phys- 
 
 ical characteristics of the brass pipe, 
 especially in its workability and its 
 immunity from season cracking. Great 
 precautions are taken to control the 
 relative amounts of the various in- 
 gredients. Each ingredient is weighed 
 by a separate operator and the total 
 charge is then checked in a final opera- 
 tion, in which the combined weight is 
 compared with the sum of the com- 
 ponent weights. A line-up of weighing 
 machines is shown in Figure 13. 
 
 To maintain the purity of the metal, 
 
 Figure 13. A line of weighing machines handling the ingredients of Bridgeport Plumrite Brass Pipe. Each 
 man has charge of only one ingredient and has to remember only one weight. In the background are seen bins 
 which contain raw materials classified by careful analyses. It is scientific organization of this end of the casting 
 shop that insures an extraordinarily high degree of uniformity in the composition of Bridgeport Plumrite Brass. 
 
 21 
 
the operation of melting must preclude 
 the possibility of contamination. The 
 special electric furnaces used by the 
 Bridgeport Brass Company insure 
 against contamination during the proc- 
 ess of melting, because melting takes 
 place in an enclosed chamber wherein 
 the atmosphere is controlled. 
 
 Mixing It is not sufficient to have 
 pure ingredients in the 
 proper proportions, but the mixture 
 itself must be intimate and uniform 
 throughout. In other words, no mat- 
 ter how small a piece of brass is taken 
 out, it must have exactly the right pro- 
 portions of the ingredients, otherwise 
 when fabricated into pipe it will have 
 hard and soft spots resulting in electro- 
 positive areas. Good threading and 
 bending qualities and freedom from 
 season cracking and corrosion demand 
 proper mixing. 
 
 tinuously, thus insuring a uniform and 
 intimate mixture. In fact, it is quite 
 impossible to make a more perfect 
 mixture than is produced in these 
 furnaces. 
 
 Lead furnishes an excellent means 
 of checking the perfection of the mix- 
 ture because, when mixed with copper 
 and zinc by crucible methods to form 
 brass, it is present in particles of vari- 
 able size, non-uniformly distributed, 
 and tends to settle to the bottom. 
 There is only a small amount of lead 
 in Plumrite Brass, and the mixture is 
 so thorough that it is not easily dis- 
 tinguished in a photo-micrograph. Con- 
 sequently, to demonstrate the thor- 
 oughness of the mixing abilities of 
 Bridgeport furnaces, a sample of 
 Ledrite Brass,* high-lead brass, is 
 enlarged by the photo-micrograph 
 shown in Fig. 14. The little black 
 dots are the lead. 
 
 Bridgeport furnaces are designed to Plumrite brass is shown by the photo- 
 stir the metal automatically and con- micrograph in Figure 15. Its lead con- 
 
 Figure 14. Photo-micrograph of Bridgeport Led- 
 rite Brass. The black dots indicate the fine subdivision 
 and the uniform distribution of the lead and in this way 
 prove the superior mixing qualities of the Bridgeport 
 electric furnace. 
 
 Figure 15. Photo-micrograph of Bridgeport Plum- 
 rite Brass made from a piece of pipe and snowing the 
 grain in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the pipe. 
 Enlargement 75 diameters. 
 
 
 22 
 
Figure 16. Pouring billets for 
 Plumrite Brass Pipe. 
 
 Figure 17. Removing Plumrite 
 brass billets from molds. 
 
 23 
 
Figure 18. The Bridgeport Brass Company was the pioneer in the successful utilization of the electric furnace 
 for the commercial melting of brass. One of the basic reasons for the high degree of uniformitv maintained in 
 Bridgeport Plumnte Brass Pipe is due to the superior results obtained with properly designed electric furnaces 
 
 Figure 19. Taking a cut off Plumrite billets to assure flawless surface in finished pipe; finished billets at left 
 
 rough billets at right. 
 
 Company 
 
 24 
 
Figure 20. Plumrite billets entering the heating furnace on the way to the piercing machine. 
 
 Figure 21. A hot Plumrite billet has just left the heating furnace shown in Figure 20 and is about to enter 
 the piercing machine, where it will be subjected to the cross-rolling action of three rolls placed at an angle to the 
 axis of the billet and in such a way that the point of contact describes a spiral drawing the billet forward. Just 
 as the billet leaves the rolls it encounters a hardened point over which it is forced to travel, the function of which 
 is to open up the billet and form it into a tube. 
 
 
 25 
 
Figure 22. The pierced Plumrite tube is seen emerging from the rolls and passing over the rod which carries 
 the piercing point. One of the points which has been removed for repair is shown lying on a bench in the left 
 foreground. Finished tubes ready to go to the tube drawbenches are shown in the right foreground. 
 
 tent is only 0.35 per cent. Care must 
 be exercised in maintaining the proper 
 amount of lead because too little lead 
 impairs the free-cutting qualities of the 
 pipe in the threading operation, and 
 too much lead will cause season 
 cracking. 
 
 Sampling To insure correctness 
 and uniformity of mix- 
 ture, samples are taken of every heat 
 and tested before the heat is started 
 on the cycle of fabricating operations. 
 
 Pouring The melted brass, when it 
 
 has reached the proper 
 
 temperature is poured into special 
 
 * Ledrite Brass is a Bridgeport product developed 
 especially for rod used in automatic screw machines. 
 By systematic testing of every heat it is kept true to 
 mixture. 
 
 molds held in definite position with 
 relation to the spout of the furnace. 
 The various mechanical arrangements 
 are such that a man can control the 
 operation of pouring perfectly and pro- 
 duce uniform results day in and day 
 out. The various factors entering into 
 the manipulation of the pouring stream 
 in relation to the mold have an im- 
 portant bearing on the quality of the 
 casting. If the casting is not free from 
 mechanical imperfections trouble will 
 follow in the subsequent operations. 
 
 Piercing The brass is cast into solid 
 billets, from which cylin- 
 drical shells are made by piercing a 
 hole along the axis of the billet. In 
 order to insure a surface on the finished 
 
 
 26 
 
pipe free from mechanical defects, the 
 surface of the billet must be prepared 
 before the piercing operation is begun. 
 Two processes are employed by the 
 Bridgeport Brass Company. 
 
 1. Heating the billet to the plastic tem- 
 perature and forcing it through the die 
 of an extrusion machine. 
 
 2. Placing the billet in a lathe and remov- 
 ing the surface with a cutting tool. 
 
 The two methods are equally good 
 when properly performed. 
 
 The piercing operation is both inter- 
 esting and rather spectacular. Billets 
 are heated to the plastic temperature 
 in a furnace, as shown in Figure 20. 
 They then pass to the piercing ma- 
 chine. The working parts of this very 
 interesting machine consist of two 
 power-driven rolls mounted at an angle 
 to one another, their surfaces having 
 the form of the frustrums of two cones. 
 Just below and between these two rolls 
 is a small idler roll. The billet passes 
 
 between the three and is drawn in by 
 the helical action of the three rolls 
 which gives it a powerful forward mo- 
 tion, forcing it against a projectile-like 
 steel point carried on the end of a long 
 rod which rotates at the same time. 
 Figure 21 shows a billet entering 
 the machine, while Figure 22 shows 
 the tube issuing from the other end of 
 it. Pierced billets may be seen in the 
 foreground at the right. 
 
 Drawing From the piercing mill, 
 and after pickling, the 
 tubes go to the draw benches. Before 
 a tube can be drawn, one end must be 
 made slightly smaller in diameter so 
 that it can be inserted through the die 
 of the draw bench and gripped on the 
 other side. This end reduction is 
 called " pointing" and is illustrated in 
 Figure 23. The pointed tube is 
 then inserted through a suitable die 
 and a plug placed inside of it, as shown 
 
 Figure 23. Pointing Plumrite Brass Pipe by hammering one end to reduce its diameter so that it can be 
 
 inserted into the die of the draw bench. 
 
 27 
 
Figure 24. Drawing pipe. At the right a pipe is seen partially through the die. The inside dimensions and 
 the shape of the pipe are maintained by a tapered plug held in the mouth of the die by the rod seen extending 
 from the end of the pipe. It is supported near the end of the pipe by a bushing. The power for drawing is supplied 
 by a long piston working in a cylinder. As soon as a batch of pipe has been passed through the draw bench, it is 
 picked up by a crane and deposited in the annealing department. 
 
 Figure 25. A batch of Plumrite pipes issuing from a continuous annealing furnace. The method by which 
 the conveying rolls are driven is plainly shown in the machine just back of the one in the foreground. The Plumrite 
 pipes here shown are just about to be dumped into the pickle which is accomplished by the operator in the back- 
 ground. The temperature of the furnace and the speed of travel through them is so chosen, that the mechanical 
 strains from the drawing operation are equalized without detriment to the physical properties of the pipe. 
 
 28 
 

 Figure 26. A batch of Plumrite pipe being removed from the pickle to be returned to the drawbenches for 
 
 the next draw. 
 
 Figure 27. An hydraulic test of 1,000 pounds per square inch is applied to each piece of Plumrite Pipe. 
 
 B(BHHBBMBBHHBHS8& JjEJCQ^Pi^Jfi ^ iMr*;ii r* *,-' . ^j:. tioo fj 
 
 29 
 
in Figure 24. The grip of the draw 
 bench, which may be operated either 
 by hydraulic, electric or mechanical 
 power, draws the tube through the 
 die and over the plug, reducing its 
 diameter and its wall thickness by 
 a certain specified amount and at a 
 definite rate. One of the important 
 elements in this process is the 
 use of special lubricating means 
 and specially designed dies, both of 
 which factors affect the amount of 
 stress to which the metal is subjected, 
 which in turn affects the properties of 
 the finished pipe. This entire opera- 
 tion is performed cold. 
 
 The Bridgeport Brass Company 
 maintains a large research department 
 and control laboratory, one of the 
 functions of which is to develop and 
 control the quality of these lubricants, 
 also the quality and accuracy of the 
 dies, so as to maintain uniform results 
 at all times. 
 
 Annealing and After each draft 
 ^~. ' T~I the tubes are de- 
 
 FlCKling ii ver ed to continu- 
 ous annealing fur- 
 naces held at constant temperature, 
 the tubes traveling through the fur- 
 naces at a definite speed. In Figure 
 25 a set of tubes on the conveyor 
 has just emerged from the furnace and is 
 ready for pickling. Figure 26 shows 
 a bundle of tubes being lifted from the 
 pickle to be carried to the draw 
 benches for the next operation. This 
 operation of annealing is of the great- 
 est importance, since it has a marked 
 effect on the distribution of stresses in 
 the walls of the tube and is the pre- 
 ventive of what is known as "season 
 cracking." 
 
 The importance of proper annealing 
 
 350 C 
 
 450 
 
 550 
 
 TEMPERATURE 
 
 650 
 
 750 
 
 Figure 28. Diagram showing effect of annealing 
 temperature upon physical properties for brass for a 
 given composition. 
 
 Figure 29. A recording pyrometer which auto- 
 matically records the temperature of a group of anneal- 
 ing furnaces. By means of this instrument, an accurate 
 record is kept of each batch of metal so that the control 
 laboratory can always trace the history of samples 
 taken for the purpose of controlling mill operations. 
 
 30 
 
cannot be over-estimated. Bridgeport 
 Brass Company has studied the an- 
 nealing operations with respect to tem- 
 perature, rate of heating and cooling, 
 and as a result of these studies has 
 formulated exact specifications cover- 
 ing both these factors. In Figure 
 28 the result of experiments on a 
 certain alloy are shown graphically. 
 From this diagram it is seen that the 
 annealing temperatures affect vitally 
 all the physical properties of the metal, 
 and when properly controlled certain 
 desired properties can be obtained. 
 
 The temperature of the annealing 
 furnaces is measured by electric pyro- 
 meters, the indicating instruments 
 being used by the operators for making 
 heat adjustments, while the recording 
 instruments serve to provide an exact 
 history and permanent record of any 
 given batch. In Figure 29 is shown 
 one of the recording instruments. 
 
 Testing After straightening, the 
 ends of each pipe are sawed 
 off, resulting in a variety of pipe lengths. 
 This is an advantage as well as an 
 economy because there is less waste 
 of labor and material in cutting up 
 and threading pipe on one job. While 
 users often specify given lengths of 
 pipe it is recommended that "random" 
 lengths within reasonable limits be 
 accepted, since it enables the selection 
 of pieces without the attendant waste 
 of time and material so frequently 
 resulting from carrying out an instal- 
 lation with only one specified length of 
 pipe available. 
 
 Every piece is next subjected to an 
 hydraulic pressure test of 1000 Ib. per 
 sq. in., as shown in Figure 27. In 
 addition to the pressure test each 
 piece of pipe, just before delivery to the 
 shipping department, is examined by an 
 expert and checked for general quality. 
 
 Figure 30. Bridgeport Plumrite Brass Pipe is always in stock in a great variety of sizes. 
 
 31 
 
/""' 
 ' 
 
 /"*'< (''{""'* "'7\ /""' ''/,/'' "V "'/: T /'"'< 
 
 Occasionally brass pipe has been 
 known to fail after installation due to 
 the occurrence of spontaneous longi- 
 tudinal cracks which extend clear 
 through the wall of the pipe, causing 
 it to leak. This action is due to the 
 existence of internal stresses set up 
 within the wall of the tube during the 
 process of manufacture. The cause 
 and nature of these stresses has only 
 recently been determined. 
 
 Unsuitable materials and unskilful 
 methods of manufacture are the pri- 
 mary causes of this trouble. Specifica- 
 tions which are sufficiently complete 
 to insure brass pipe that can be guar- 
 anteed against season cracking cannot 
 be written except by men having spe- 
 
 cial training in brass manufacture, and 
 data such as is required is not available 
 to those outside of the industry. 
 Therefore, engineers and architects 
 buying brass pipe should go to manu- 
 facturers who know the brass pipe 
 business and who will guarantee their 
 product against season cracking. 
 
 Fortunately, it is possible to test 
 brass pipe after its manufacture is 
 completed, and determine whether or 
 not internal stresses sufficient to pro- 
 duce season cracking are present. While 
 Bridgeport methods are such as prac- 
 tically to preclude the existence of in- 
 ternal strains, all Bridgeport pipe is 
 actually tested for season cracking 
 stresses before shipment. 
 
 Figure 31. Specimen of hard brass pipe that season-cracked in service. 
 
 Figure 32. Less than 15 minutes immersion in mercurous nitrate solution caused this hard pipe to season crack. 
 
 32 
 
To give rules for designing hot and 
 cold water distribution systems, or even 
 to discuss the relative merits of different 
 methods of distribution is beyond the 
 scope of the present treatise. There 
 are, however, certain details of water 
 service piping that merit special atten- 
 tion wherever brass pipe is to be used 
 or considered. 
 
 Pipe Size Th e determination of 
 pipe sizes for water ser- 
 vice mains, risers and branches is more 
 often a matter of experience than of 
 scientific calculation of friction and 
 flow. Each plumbing engineer has 
 his own methods of arriving at the 
 result, and almost without exception 
 the practice is based upon experience 
 with iron and steel pipe. 
 
 The first step in pipe size determina- 
 tion is to estimate the water con- 
 sumption of the building, allotting the 
 proper quota to each fixture. Naturally 
 it is impossible to assign a definite 
 consumption to each fixture of a bath- 
 room or kitchen that will correctly 
 represent the actual requirements, un- 
 less the choice is tempered with good 
 judgment based upon local conditions 
 of use. 
 
 One of the leading plumbing design- 
 ers in New York City uses the figures 
 shown in Table IV for his first estimate 
 of water requirements and then, to 
 allow for the fact that all fixtures are 
 not used simultaneously, divides by 
 three to get the actual flow carried by 
 the service pipes in public buildings 
 and hotels; in private residences the 
 same figures are divided by four. 
 
 TABLE IV 
 
 WATER CONSUMPTION OF SUPPLY 
 
 FIXTURES 
 
 Fixture 
 
 Service 
 
 Consump- 
 tion Gal. 
 Per Hr. 
 
 Maxi- 
 mum Flow 
 Gal. Per 
 
 Min.* 
 
 Basin 
 
 Hot and Cold 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 Bathtub 
 
 K 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 Shower 
 
 11 n a 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 
 Toilet 
 
 Cold 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 Flushometer 
 
 " 
 
 7 
 
 60 
 
 Urinal 
 
 * * 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 Sink 
 
 Hot and Cold 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 Washtub 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 Slop-sink 
 
 n it 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 * This column taken from article by T. N. Thomson, 
 "Plumber's Trade Journal, "June 15, 1922, Page 949. 
 
 Allowance for 
 Corrosion 
 
 On account of cor- 
 rosion which clogs 
 iron and steel pipes 
 and reduces the 
 
 flow even to the point of plugging the 
 pipe entirely, sizes smaller than % inch 
 are never used. Therefore, in iron and 
 steel pipe installations }^-inch pipe is 
 used for connection for practically all 
 fixtures except bathtubs, slop-sinks 
 and flushometers. 
 
 When it comes to the branches that 
 supply a number of fixtures, practice 
 again seldom permits the use of pipe 
 smaller than % inch. In fact, if there 
 are more than three fixtures on the 
 branch there should be 1-inch pipe or 
 larger. 
 
 Brass pipe has the great advantage 
 of not requiring any allowance for 
 reduction of area by corrosion. The 
 pipe can be chosen wholly on the basis 
 of carrying capacity, because it will 
 retain its initial capacity throughout 
 its life. 
 
 33 
 
Brass Pipe Size Few plumbing 
 
 engineers have 
 
 ever taken full advantage of the sus- 
 tained carrying capacity of brass pipe, 
 but some leading engineers have a 
 rough rule by which they design for 
 steel and then use the next size smaller 
 for brass. 
 
 One of the largest life insurance 
 companies maintains an engineering 
 department to study, criticise and pass 
 on specifications for buildings for the 
 construction of which it makes loans. 
 This company requires brass for hot 
 water and all concealed work except in 
 unusual cases. If iron or steel are 
 used the pipe must be one size larger 
 than brass. Brass pipe as small as 
 ^3 inch is permitted for fixture con- 
 nections and branches where its carry- 
 ing capacity is sufficient; but no iron 
 pipe smaller than J^ inch is permitted. 
 
 In choosing the size for mains and 
 risers in large buildings, the friction 
 loss should be taken into account. At 
 no point in the system should the 
 pressure be less than 8 Ib. per square 
 inch. For flushometers it should not 
 be less than 10 Ib. per square inch and 
 preferably not less than 15 Ib. per 
 square inch. The loss in feet of static 
 head for different sizes of clean iron 
 pipe and different discharge rates is 
 given in Figure 34. These figures 
 can be translated into pressure by 
 using the conversion factor 4.33 Ib. 
 per square inch = 10 ft. head. 
 
 The size of riser may be easily 
 determined for the first approximation 
 by making a rough diagram as in 
 Figure 33, showing the floors and 
 entering the average quantity of water 
 in gallons per minute at each branch. 
 
 10th 
 
 Consider a 10-story building with a 
 branch at each floor and each branch 
 above the first floor requiring a flow of 
 15 gallons per minute. The flow at 
 each branch, beginning at the top, is 
 entered as shown in the diagram and 
 the sum of the flows in the branches is 
 shown in the riser at each floor. 
 
 Assuming a city water pressure of 
 70 Ib. per square inch in the basement 
 and a height of 115 feet to the highest 
 fixture, 115 feet represents a static head 
 of 0.433 times 115 = 50 Ib. per square 
 inch. Therefore, only 20 Ib. per square 
 inch is available at the top floor, and if 
 a pressure of at least 15 Ib. per square 
 inch is required, not more 
 than 5 Ib. per square 
 inch or 11.5 feet in friction 
 can be lost; that is, not 
 more than 10 feet per 100 
 ft. of riser. 
 
 Referring to Figure 33 
 it is found that 185 
 gallons per minute with 
 a loss of 10 feet corres- 
 ponds to 3-inch pipe. 
 Therefore, the riser starts 
 at 3 inch. Following the 
 10-foot friction line verti- 
 cally, it crosses the 23/2- 
 inch pipe size at 115 
 gallons per minute. There 
 fore, 3 -inch pipe continues 
 to the third floor where it 
 is changed to 2^/2 inch. 
 In the same way the 10-foot 
 
 4th 
 
 3rd 
 
 Figure 33. Schematic layout for 
 determining riser pipe sizes. The flow 
 in gallons per minute at each floor is 
 entered and the gallons per minute 
 in the riser is summed up just below 
 each floor branch. With this dia- 
 gram and the charts shown in figure 
 32 the pipe sizes can be written 
 in with little trouble. 
 
 2nd 
 
 M35 
 
 1st 
 
 1 
 
 34 
 
friction line is followed from one pipe 
 size to the next, the change being 
 made at that point in the riser where 
 the flow is less than that indicated by 
 the diagram. 
 
 The sizes determined from the fric- 
 tion-flow diagram are ample for 
 brass but with iron some allowance 
 should be made for reduction of area, 
 and increase in friction due to corro- 
 sion. Good practice would allow a 
 full size larger all along the line, 
 namely: 3^ inch for 3, 3 inch for 
 for 2 and \]/ 2 for 
 
 for frictional resistance. The following 
 sizes are worked out by this rule. 
 
 Elbows When water is forced to 
 make a sharp turn, such as 
 in an elbow or T> there is a friction 
 loss that may be expressed as an 
 additional length of pipe. A rule given 
 by Walter S. Timmis in the Journal of 
 American Society of Heating and Ven- 
 tilating Engineers, May 1922, page 
 402, multiplies the diameter in inches 
 by 40 and divides by 12 to get 
 the equivalent feet of straight pipe 
 which can be figured in the usual way 
 
 Pipe sizes 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 1& 
 
 VA 
 
 2 
 
 VA 
 
 8.3 
 
 3 
 
 3^ 
 
 4 
 
 Equivalent 
 length, straight 
 pipe in feet 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.3 
 
 4.1 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 11.7 
 
 13.3 
 
 Joints If a pip m g installation is to 
 give good service, not only 
 must the best materials be chosen, but 
 the system must be correctly designed 
 and properly installed. This is even 
 more true of brass than of steel, 
 because the permanent character of 
 brass makes it possible to eliminate the 
 repairs altogether by careful work at 
 the start. 
 
 Couplings between floors should be 
 avoided wherever possible, all joints 
 being made at the branch connections. 
 Brass installations should be thorough- 
 ly tested for defective fittings before 
 the pipe is closed in. It is good prac- 
 tice to carry excess pressure on the 
 system as the work progresses. 
 
 FRICTION HEAD IN FEET IN CLEAN PIPES 
 10 20 30 40 
 
 FRICTION HEAD IN FEET IN CLEAN PIPES 
 10 20 30 40 
 
 20 30 
 
 LENGTH 100 FT. 
 
 30 
 100 FT. 
 
 400 
 
 Figure 34. Friction-head curves for use in calculating the carrying capacity of pipes. The head lost is given 
 by the horizontal scale in feet per hundred feet. The velocity of the water in the pipe is given by the V-curves, 
 V=10' means velocity 10 feet per second. Example: 20 gallon per minute through 1-inch pipe gives a loss of 32 
 feet per 100 feet; in IJ^-inch pipe 11 feet per 100 feet. The velocity in 1-inch pipe is about 8.1 feet per second 
 and in IJ^-inch pipe about 5.2 feet per second (Chart from Coffin, Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems). 
 
 35 
 
Expansion To avoid troubles due 
 to leaky fittings and 
 joints, great care must be exercised to 
 provide for expansion and contraction, 
 especially in hot- water systems. Plum- 
 rite brass pipe expands 0.0133 inch 
 per 100 feet for every degree Fahren- 
 heit change of temperature. In hot- 
 water systems it is well to allow for 
 expansion 2J4 inches for every 100 feet 
 of pipe, and in cold water piping 
 approximately % mcn P er 100 feet- 
 
 Expansion in risers is absorbed by 
 using loops in the pipe. For hot water 
 about every fourth floor should be 
 provided with a loop as shown in 
 Figure 35. Such loops are preferably 
 made by bending the pipe itself to form 
 
 16th_FLO_OR 
 SUPPORT 
 
 IR _J_ 6 l h _[.y!P R 
 
 
 12th FLOOR 
 
 ' SUPPORT 
 12th FLOOR 
 
 
 SUPPORT J 
 Oth FLOOR 
 
 : SUPPORT 
 8th FLOOR 
 
 
 4th FLOOR 
 
 SUPPORT 
 4th FLOOR 
 
 
 "*} SUPPORT 
 
 5 
 
 f 
 
 Figure 35. Brass pipe risers should be provided 
 with expansion members at intervals depending upon 
 the temperature changes; for hot water pipe every 
 fourth floor will be found adequate. The loops indicated 
 are from 3 to 5 feet long. The method of support 
 where possible should be in the horizontal leg of the 
 loop and supports should be located on alternate 
 sides of a loop so as to confine the expansion between 
 supports and prevent its accumulating along the line. 
 Where it is necessary to employ supports on the 
 vertical run, a support should be applied between 
 every pair of loops. 
 
 a U from 3 to 5 feet deep with a radius 
 of 9^2 inches. The supports are alter- 
 nately one side and then the other of 
 the loop, so as to confine the expansion 
 between any two successive points of 
 support, and thus prevent accumula- 
 tion of expansion along the line. 
 Another method is to support the pipe 
 between loops by means of wrought 
 iron clamps. 
 
 Where branches are taken off, pro- 
 vision must be made for free move- 
 ment of riser and branch. This is 
 best done by a three-plane bend as 
 shown in Figure 36. Such a bend can 
 absorb expansion from any direction 
 without setting up any serious strains 
 in the fittings. 
 
 Where branches are taken off in a 
 trough, expansion and contraction are 
 prevented from causing damage by 
 making connections so as to start the 
 branch clear of the bottom of the 
 trough, allowing it to sag into contact 
 with the bottom at some distance from 
 the connection. Then when the riser 
 sinks it can do so without meeting the 
 resistance of the branch pressing against 
 the bottom of the trough . See Figure 37 . 
 
 Figure 36. Details of expansion loops. Expansion 
 of the riser itself is taken up in loops as described in 
 figure 35. Branches taken off from risers in hot water 
 systems should also provide for expansion in such a 
 way as to relieve all strains on joints and fittings. 
 Branches taken off with a three-plane bend, made by 
 bending a single piece of pipe, or with elbows and 
 nipples, are free to move in any direction without 
 strain. 
 
 36 
 
Figure 37. Where extra precautions should be 
 taken to guard against damage from leaks, branches 
 may be installed as here shown. The trough and well 
 are lined with lead and provided with a drain and drip ; 
 the drip pipe leading to the basement and terminating 
 in a sink as shown. Water is prevented from crawling 
 along the pipe by the umbrella which is attached to the pipe and the sleeve through which the pipe enters the 
 well makes a watertight joint with the trough so that no leak can occur at that point. The branch is taken 
 off at a point somewhat above the bottom of the trough, allowing the branch to sag by its own weight into 
 contact with the trough, then it is free to go and come with riser without setting up any strains. Drain pipes 
 lead to a sink in the basement, where each drip is provided with a water seal and a drip check as shown in the 
 detail, A. By means of these drips the engineer can tell at a glance just where any leaky valve or fitting is located. 
 
 II RISERS 
 
 DRIPS FROM RISERS 
 
 CONNECTED TO 
 EMPTYING MANIFOLD 
 
 -4 HEADER 
 
 ECCENTRIC BUSHING 
 
 EMPTYING VALVE 
 
 CONNECTED WITH 
 
 EMPTYING MANIFOLD 
 
 DRIP FROM RETURN 
 CONNECTED TO MANIFOLD 1 
 
 DRIPS FROM RETURNS 
 CONNECTED TO MANIFOLD 
 
 Figure 38. Heater connections to avoid expansion trouble and provide for maintenance of the system with 
 least interruption. It will be noted that expansion in the header between the boiler connections is perfectly 
 swivelled at the elbows, one underneath the header and one on top of the boiler. The risers may lead from the 
 header, either vertically as shown or horizontally where headroom will not permit the vertical arrangement. 
 The valves are so arranged that the heater may be disconnected entirely from the system without interfering 
 with the operation of other heaters connected with the same header. Also each riser may be disconnected and 
 drained without affecting any other part of the system. All drips from risers and returns are led to a drip 
 manifold at some point convenient to inspection by the operating engineer. 
 
 37 
 
Many people handle brass pipe in 
 the same way as they do iron and steel. 
 However, since brass pipe properly 
 installed will last as long as the build- 
 ing of which it forms a part, it is very 
 desirable to have the installation not 
 limited in its usefulness by improper 
 handling. On general principles, brass 
 pipe should be handled more carefully 
 than iron and steel, because its high 
 quality shows plainly in its appearance, 
 especially when clean pipe, such as 
 Bridgeport Plumrite, is used. Such a 
 pipe inspires a pride in workmanship 
 and is bound to receive more careful 
 handling than a piece of pipe that is 
 dirty and smeared over with paint and 
 grease. 
 
 Gutting Threads One of the most 
 
 important oper- 
 ations in handling any pipe is the 
 cutting of the threads. This is espe- 
 cially true in brass pipe because the 
 joints must be of the best if full value 
 is to be obtained from the use of brass 
 pipe. The threads must be clean and 
 accurate so as to make a perfect joint 
 from the start. Slight leaks will not 
 close up by rusting as they do in iron 
 and steel pipe. 
 
 Brass pipe used in concealed work 
 may be clamped in sharp steel jaws. 
 Where exposed work or nickel plated 
 pipe is concerned, the pipe vise 
 should be equipped with lead or wood 
 cheeks which will hold the pipe with- 
 out scratching it. 
 
 The cutting tools should be sharp, 
 and should be used only for brass pipe. 
 
 It is bad practice to use the same tools 
 on brass and iron interchangeably. 
 
 In some places it is required to cut a 
 thread sufficiently long to leave one or 
 more completed turns outside the con- 
 nection, so that it is always possible to 
 tighten it up in case of trouble. In 
 other cases it is required that the 
 thread be entirely concealed by the 
 connection. The latter practice is to 
 be recommended except in cases where 
 there is inadequate superintendence or 
 where the good faith of the workman is 
 in question, because it is possible to 
 cut too few threads on a pipe and when 
 the joint is made up, there is no way of 
 determining whether there are enough 
 threads unless several turns are visible 
 from the outside. 
 
 Cutting Pipe Brass pipe is easy 
 to cut with a metal 
 saw and the saw cut leaves a clean 
 edge. Pipe cutters roll the edge of the 
 pipe inward and restrict its area. 
 Therefore, the saw is preferable to the 
 cutter unless the burr is reamed out 
 after the cut is made. 
 
 Making Up Joints Joints in brass 
 
 pipe or in any 
 
 pipe for that matter should be avoided 
 wherever possible, especially is this 
 true of joints which employ plain 
 couplings. 
 
 Wherever it is necessary to make 
 joints, the fit should be as perfect as 
 possible. 
 
 In order to seal completely a 
 connection between threaded parts, 
 
 38 
 
some plumbers employ a mixture of 
 red and white lead. Sometimes this 
 lead mixture is put onto the pipe and 
 sometimes it is put onto the coupling or 
 female end of the connection. Putting 
 the lead onto the pipe permits a thor- 
 ough application and easy inspection, 
 but has the disadvantage of forcing the 
 excess to the outside where it mars the 
 appearance of the pipe. The applica- 
 tion of the lead mixture to the fitting, 
 however, is not to be recommended. 
 First, because it is apt to be less thor- 
 ough, and secondly the excess material 
 
 HOT FOR KITCHEN 
 & LAUNDRY SERVICE 
 
 HOT FOR 
 BATH SERVICE 
 
 COLO SUPPLY TO BOILER 
 
 Figure 39. Connections for hot water boiler with 
 gas and range waterback heaters. It will be noted that 
 the water inlet is from the bottom of the boiler only. 
 Where the inlet is carried in from the top cold water 
 sprays from the anti-siphon hole into the hot water 
 every time water is drawn from the boiler. In above 
 arrangement the chilling effect of incoming water is 
 entirely eliminated by connecting to the bottom, where 
 it enters directly into the heater and into the boiler, 
 depending upon where the demand exists. 
 
 It will also be noted that hot-water pipes from the 
 heaters lead to the top of the boiler. It would be pre- 
 ferable to connect these pipes directly to the boiler; 
 however such a boiler would be special. In any case the 
 friction through the heater is so much greater than di- 
 rectly from the boiler that there is no danger of drawing 
 cold water through the heater, when there is hot 
 water in the boiler. By this method of connection 
 hoc water is available in the shortest possible time after 
 heat has been applied. It also gives the most economi- 
 cal method of producing and storing hot water. 
 
 is forced inside where it hardens and 
 restricts the area of the pipe. 
 
 It is preferable to make joints with- 
 out any sealing material, such as lead 
 or cement. One method which has 
 been used with success on many im- 
 portant jobs employs a single strand of 
 wicking, lubricated with tallow or a 
 similar material. Such wicking is 
 wound around the pipe three or more 
 times, beginning one or two threads 
 
 HOT TO KITCHEN 
 & LAUNDRY SERVICE 
 
 STANDARD 
 COPPER BOILER 
 
 Figure 40. Here are shown methods of connecting 
 a hot water boiler with two heating elements, one on the 
 same floor with the boiler and the other on the floor be- 
 low. The same arrangement of piping would apply if 
 a waterback in the house-heating boiler were also con- 
 nected with the same boiler. We would merely insert 
 the waterback in series with the other two heaters. 
 
 The same principle obtains as set forth in Figure 39. 
 Cold water enters the bottom and hot water at the top 
 of the boiler. In this way hot water is obtained in mini- 
 mum time and cold water is applied at the coldest 
 point in the system so that it does not chill water that 
 has already been heated. 
 
 ' ftritU, 
 
 39 
 
from the end. A joint made in this 
 way will remain tight indefinitely. 
 Another method that is used in some 
 of the best work is to tin the threads 
 and solder the joint. 
 
 Bends Properly made brass pipe 
 may be bent on the job to 
 make elbows, expansion loops and for 
 other special uses. The following 
 method has been used successfully for 
 a number of years. The pipe to be 
 bent is warmed slightly and filled with 
 sharp sand which also has been heated. 
 It is then closed on both ends and may 
 be bent, without further heating, in a 
 pipe bending machine, or by hand 
 around a suitable form. The sand 
 will prevent the pipe from collapsing 
 and keep the opening uniform through- 
 out. 
 
 Figure 41 . The St. Regis Hotel, New York, has perhaps 
 the finest plumbing installation ever made in a public 
 building. Bridgeport Plumrite Brass Pipe was used 
 throughout for hot and cold water service. There has 
 never been a leak in the system since the hotel opened 
 in 1901. The piece of pipe here shown was taken out 
 when an alteration was made in 1922. The surface has not been touched in any way. Examination will reveal 
 full thickness of the wall, perfection of the threads and the softness of the pipe is evident from the crushing effect 
 of the pipe tongs which were applied to it when it was removed. The rough appearance of the interior surface 
 is due to a deposit and not to corrosion. 
 
'/ 
 
 ' 
 
 America is just learning the lesson of 
 economic building. Up to quite re- 
 cently most building in this country 
 was done on the principle of lowest 
 first cost, or else it was done on the 
 basis of "the best of everything" 
 without regard to cost. Neither one 
 of these systems is economically sound. 
 The best of everything without regard 
 to cost is sometimes extravagant, and 
 any structure that is built on the basis 
 of lowest first cost is bound to give a 
 temporary service and result in extra- 
 ordinarily high maintenance and repair 
 cost. 
 
 The only economically sound prin- 
 ciple for the choice of materials and 
 methods in building construction is 
 that of lowest ultimate cost, including 
 maintenance, depreciation and repairs. 
 
 Theoretically the "One Horse Shay" 
 was built along the proper lines because 
 all its structural elements were chosen 
 to give exactly the same amount of 
 service. In practice, of course, we can 
 never hope to attain the perfection of 
 the famous "One Horse Shay." We 
 can, however, avoid limiting the useful- 
 ness of the main structure by the 
 installation of inferior details. 
 
 One of the common mistakes made 
 in many high-class buildings is the use 
 of perishable materials, such as iron 
 and steel in the water service piping 
 systems, where brass at a slight extra 
 first cost would eliminate upkeep and 
 damage due to leaks to say nothing 
 of the tremendous expense of renewal 
 which is sure to take place whenever an 
 
 iron or steel-pipe installation is made 
 in a building, otherwise permanent in 
 character. 
 
 Items of Cost In designing a pip- 
 ing system for hot 
 and cold .water service on the basis of 
 lowest ultimate cost or maximum re- 
 turn on investment, the following fac- 
 tors must be considered. 
 
 1. First cost of pipe and fittings. 
 
 2. Installation of pipe and fittings. 
 
 3. Depreciation and repairs. 
 
 4. Cost of renewals. 
 
 In addition to these four elements, 
 consideration must be given to the 
 possibility of damage to the building 
 and its furnishings as the result of 
 rusty water, leaks or complete failures. 
 
 First Cost First cost of pipe and 
 fittings is determined by 
 cost of materials and the quantity 
 required. The relative cost of iron 
 and brass pipe varies with the market 
 conditions. 
 
 As was explained on page 34 brass 
 pipe, not suffering any loss of carrying 
 capacity due to corrosion, can be used 
 in smaller sizes than either iron or steel. 
 If in figuring an installation, credit is 
 given for the difference of size of pipe, 
 a substantial saving in first cost will 
 be accomplished. The best way to 
 visualize the difference in first cost 
 between various kinds of pipe is to 
 figure an actual installation, because 
 each installation will give a somewhat 
 
 41 
 
Figure 42. The Sherry Hotel, one of the famous 
 places in latter-day New York, was built in 1896 
 and equipped with Bridgeport Brass Pipe. In 1919 
 it was remodelled by Guaranty Trust Company into 
 a commercial building which involved considerable 
 alteration in the plumbing arrangements. The 
 brass pipe removed in the course of these altera- 
 tions was found to be in such perfect condition that 
 it was actually re-installed in the new construction. 
 The sample of pipe illustrated shows the perfect 
 condition inside and outside. This sample is repro- 
 duced exactly as it came from the job after 23 
 years of service. 
 
 Architects, 
 
 McKim, 
 
 Mead& 
 
 White. 
 
 Engineer, 
 
 Mortimer 
 
 Foster of 
 
 McKim, 
 
 Mead & 
 
 White. 
 
 Architects, Cross & Cross 
 Engineer, Clyde R. Place 
 
 42 
 
different result depending upon the 
 design and the character of the service 
 required. 
 
 For purposes of illustration, a 14- 
 story bank and office building designed 
 for lower New York and costing ap- 
 proximately $850,000 has been chosen. 
 The plumbing system is of the gravity 
 type which employs house tanks and 
 pumps. It comprises 142 toilets and 
 corresponding number of other fixtures, 
 and the piping represents a total 
 investment of approximately $3,200, 
 while the same system of piping 
 equipped with brass pipe and making 
 allowance for the superior carrying 
 capacity of brass pipe by using a size 
 smaller throughout will cost approxi- 
 mately $4,300. 
 
 The brass pipe in this case costs 
 $1,100 or approximately 35 per cent, 
 more than the galvanized iron or steel. 
 The water service is the most impor- 
 tant element in the successful operation 
 of the building. To get a leak-proof 
 permanent job for an expenditure of a 
 little more than one-tenth of 1 per cent, 
 of the cost of the building seems like an 
 excellent investment. 
 
 Installation Cost Theoretically 
 
 there should be 
 
 a difference in installation cost of iron, 
 steel and brass in favor of the cheaper 
 pipe. Brass pipe should cost a little 
 more to install than iron or steel, 
 because its superior quality and ap- 
 pearance should inspire better work- 
 manship on the part of the plumber. 
 Then too, knowing that the installa- 
 tion is put in for the life of the building, 
 extraordinary care should be exercised 
 
 to make perfect joints. The question 
 of installation costs has been can- 
 vassed among various prominent 
 plumbing contractors and not one was 
 found who made any allowance for 
 extra labor to install brass. 
 
 Depreciation Depreciation and re- 
 
 ~~T~ ' pairs cannot be fig- 
 
 and Repairs ured accurately. 
 
 However, it is safe to 
 say that if the water does not contain 
 ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, etc., such 
 as come from decaying vegetable mat- 
 ter, that properly installed brass pipe 
 will never require repairs and will last 
 as long as the building itself. 
 
 In 1901, Bridgeport Plumrite Brass 
 Pipe was installed in the St. Regis 
 Hotel, see Figure 41. Recently the in- 
 stallation was inspected and found in 
 perfect order. Mr. Hahn, the President, 
 gave the Bridgeport Brass Company a 
 letter stating that not one cent had been 
 spent in repairs, and that no leaks had 
 developed during the 21 years which 
 the pipe had been installed. Another 
 example of the durability of brass pipe 
 is evidenced by experience in the Sherry 
 Hotel see Figure 42. Bridgeport Brass 
 Pipe was installed in this hotel in 1896. 
 In 1919 the hotel was remodeled into a 
 commercial building for the Guaranty 
 Trust Company. In the process of 
 remodeling much of the piping was 
 removed to conform with new layouts. 
 The Bridgeport pipe was found to be 
 in such excellent condition that it was 
 re-installed in the new work. As far 
 as could be determined, this pipe was 
 in just as good condition as when first 
 installed more than 23 years before. 
 
 43 
 
As far as iron and steel are concerned, 
 the deterioration varies considerably 
 with the character of the water, the 
 flow, the temperature and the pressure. 
 Where very hot water is used in large 
 quantities, such pipe has been known 
 to fail in New York City in the short 
 space of 3 years. Under more favor- 
 able conditions of use, hot water pipe 
 will last 10 or 12 years, using the same 
 water. Repairs on iron and steel pipes 
 are apt to begin in less than 2 years. 
 
 In order to take some definite account 
 of depreciation and repairs, figures 
 should be assembled on the actual per- 
 formance in the locality where the 
 installation is to be made. Ordinarily 
 from 7 to 10 years for galvanized steel 
 pipe, and from 7 to 12 years for gal- 
 vanized wrought iron pipe may be 
 assumed as average. Figures have 
 been given which allow shorter life and 
 longer life than here set forth, but it is 
 believed that these figures will be 
 found extremely conservative and fair 
 in ordinary cases. Where pipe will not 
 last longer than 7 years, it certainly 
 should not be used under any condi- 
 tions, except for temporary work. 
 
 Some are installing deactivation 
 plants with the idea of eliminating 
 depreciation and repairs. Until such 
 systems have been in use for 12 or more 
 years, it will be impossible to tell how 
 successful they are in practice. How- 
 ever, the upkeep of the plant itself after 
 the first year will probably cost from 
 $60 a year up for the smallest size 
 plant and more for larger ones. In the 
 meantime, the repairs and depreciation 
 of the pipe system should be carried 
 at some figure, even though it is 
 
 considerably less than the ordinary 
 figure until the exact benefits of deac- 
 tivation have been proven in actual 
 practice. 
 
 Renewal Cost Renewing piping 
 is an extremely ex- 
 pensive proposition, because in modern 
 buildings it involves the tearing out of 
 permanent construction work, as well 
 as the disturbance of other pipes, 
 conduits, etc. Ordinarily the tearing 
 out and building in of a new piping 
 system in a modern building will cost 
 several times as much as the original 
 installation, and as an installation it 
 can never be as satisfactory as the 
 original. An actual example is Gold- 
 man Sachs Building in New York. 
 Galvanized iron pipe was removed 
 from this building and replaced by 
 Bridgeport Plumrite in 1922 at a cost 
 of $12,000. 
 
 This hot and cold water piping sys- 
 tem cost the building operators a great 
 deal of money for repairs which finally 
 culminated in its entire replacement. 
 All this expense could have been avoid- 
 ed by using the proper pipe in the 
 beginning. The actual difference in 
 cost between wrought iron pipe and 
 Bridgeport Plumrite Brass Pipe was 
 only $647 ; a small price to pay for im- 
 munity from circulation and corrosion 
 troubles. 
 
 The cost of rebuilding the piping 
 system in this instance does not include 
 damage done to the building, its fur- 
 nishings and fixtures. After the in- 
 stallation was completed, it was neces- 
 sary for masons, carpenters and decor- 
 
 44 
 
ators to contribute toward repairing 
 the damages incident to the work of 
 renewal. 
 
 While it is desirable to take advan- 
 tage of every factor that will reduce 
 
 the first cost of an installation without 
 impairing its usefulness, the fact re- 
 mains that a brass pipe installation is 
 worth in actual economic performance 
 several times its cost over iron or steel. 
 
 Figure 43. Typical basin installation in Goldman-Sachs Building where Bridgeport Plumrite Brass Pipe 
 replaced galvanized iron. The figures given in the text do not include the cost of reinstalling the walls, floors 
 and ceilings of the building after the plumbing work was completed. 
 
 45 
 
Figure 45. Cornell University Medical School 
 
 Architects, McKim, Mead & White 
 Engineer, Mortimer Foster of McKim, Mead & White 
 
 Figure 44. Old Yale Club, New York, now occupied 
 by the Delta Kappa Epsilon Society 
 
 Architects, Tracy & Swartwout 
 
 46 
 
Architects, Trowbridge & Livingstone 
 
 Architect, Charles A. Pratt 
 
 Figure 46. In the Knickerbocker Hotel, the principal distribution to hot and cold water risers was made 
 above the ceiling of the main floor where a leak would have resulted in most serious damage. The danger of 
 accident was eliminated by the proper installation of Bridgeport Plumrite Brass Pipe. When the Knickerbocker 
 Hotel was converted into a commercial building, the brass pipe was found to be in perfect condition. 
 
 Figure 47, Speyer Building, 
 New York. 
 
 Architects, De Lemas and Cordes 
 Engineer, A. R. Wolff 
 
Lillibridge 96-2201 
 

 
 General Library . 
 University of Calif orma 
 
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 PAT. JAN 21, 1908 
 
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