THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES COLONIAL FURNITURE IN AMERICA BLOCK-FRONT HIGH CHEST OF DRAWERS, FIRST HALF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. (Handles Missing.) COLONIAL FURNITUI^ IN AMERICA BY LUKE VINCENT LOCKWOOD NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNEKS SONS MDCCCCI M Copyright, 1901, by Charlks Scrii'.nkr's Sons Pttblished Dcci-mbcr, iqoi College Library LS PREFACE THE object of the present volume is to furnish the collector, and other persons interested in the subject of American colonial furniture, with a trustworthy handbook on the subject, having especially in mind the natural development of the various styles, and arranging them in such a way as to enable any one at a glance to determine under what general style and date a piece of furniture falls. The sources of information from which this book has been derived are: examination of inventories and contem- porary records, all available newspapers, works on the sub- jects of furniture, architecture, and interior woodwork by English, French, German, Italian, and American writers, general and commercial histories, books on manners and customs, ancient dictionaries, cabinet-makers' books of design ancient and modern, and examination of specimens of furni- ture, both colonial and foreign. The last of these sources is the most important, and New England is particularly rich in examples of the earliest as well as the later furniture, -while t\\e South is wofully lacking in any pieces prior to the mahogany period, although c 1157655 PREFACE the inventories show that such pieces existed more abun- dantly there even than in the North. New England jjossesses many fine collections, both pub- lic and private, and as these collections contain examples from both North and South, we have in many cases used them in illustrating instead of taking specimens still in the South. In the last few years many pieces of the seventeenth- century furniture have come to light which fully carry out the idea of development insisted on in this volume, but often it has been impossible to obtain pictures of these pieces, the owners fearing the reproducer. As to the in\'entories, it must be borne in mind that they are misleading. The dates will always be late for a style, as there is no way of telling how long a piece, when mentioned in the inventories, had been in the possession of the deceased before the inventory was taken, and we believe the tendency has heretofore been to date too late rather than too early. A fairly safe guide to follow is to deduct ten years from the inventory date. Then as to valuations. The inventory \aluations arc, of course, very low, usually about three fifths to one half of the true \alue, and if before 1710 account must be taken of the fact that the purchasing power of money was then about fi\e times \\ hat it is at present. Thus if a chest is valued at ^1 in an inventory of 1680, its true \alue at that time was from ^i 13s. 4d. to £^2, and the sum corresponding to this at the present time would be from ^8 6s. 8d. to /lo. The method followed in dating the specimens of furni- PREFACE ture here shown has been to suggest the time when the style represented was in common use, and no attempt has been made to place the date of any specimen exactly, for only under special circumstances could that be done. The writer wishes to express his thanks to the various collectors and persons having family pieces, for their universal kindness in allowing him to examine and photograph their furniture, and for the interest they have taken in this work. Brooklyn, November, 1901. CONTENTS Chapter I . . Introduction . . Page i Chapter II . Chests . . . Page 13 Chapter III . Chests of Drawers . . Page 36 Chapter IV Cupboards and Sideboards . Page 81 Chapter V . . . Chairs . . . Page 123 Chapter VI Settles, Couches, and Sofas . Page 196 Chapter VII . . . Tables . . . Page 216 Chapter VIII . Desks and Scrutoirs . Page 247 Chapter IX . . Mirrors . . . Page 284 Chapter X . . Bedsteads . , Page 300 Chapter XI . . . Clocks . . . Page 321 Index ... . . . Page 347 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ARTOTYPES Block-front High Chest of Drawers, first half eighteenth century. (Handles missing.) (Fig, 31.) ; Frontispiece FACING PAGE Dutch Marquetry Chest, 1616. (Fig. 4.) 18 Dutch Marquetry High Chest of Drawers, last quarter seven- teenth century. (Fig. 21.) 44 High Chest of Drawers, latter half eighteenth century. (Fig. 39.) . 68 Panelled Oak Press Cupboard, 1660-80. (Fig. 58.) 88 Panelled Oak Press Cupboard with Three Drawers, latter half seventeenth century. (Fig. 62.) 92 Chippendale Chair. (Fig. 145.) . 182 Chippendale Double Chair. (Fig. 172.) 202 Marquetry Top of Slate Table shown in Figure 194. (Fig. 195.) 226 Block-front Cabinet-top Scrutoir, 1770-80. (Fig. 233.) . . . 272 Mantel and Mirror, 1783. (Fig. 254.) 296 Carved Oak Bedstead, 1593. (Fig. 262.) 302 HALF-TONE CUTS FIGURE PAGE 1 Pine Ship-chest, first quarter seventeenth century 14 2 English Oak Chest, about 1650 16 3 Carved Oak Chest, about 1660 17 5 Carved Oak Chest with One Drawer, about 1660 19 6 Panelled Chest with One Drawer, 1650-60 20 7 Panelled Oak Chest with Two Small Drawers, 1660-70 21 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGfRE PAGE 8 Panelled Chest with Two Drawers, last quarter seventeenth century 22 9 Carved Oak Chest with Two Drawers, 1660-75 24 10 Carved ami Panelled Chest with Two Drawers, last quarter seven- teenth century 25 1 1 Carved Oak Chest with Two Drawers, last quarter seventeenth century 26 12 Carved and Stained Oak Chest with One Drawer, 1690-17 10 . . 27 13 Carved and Stained Chest with Two Drawers, 1690-17 10 .... 28 14 Carved and Stained Chest with Three Drawers, 1690-17 10 ... 29 15 Carved Oak Chest with One Drawer, last quarter seventeenth century 3' 16 Painted Chest with One Drawer, about 1700 32 17 Carved Oak Chest of Drawers, latter half seventeenth century . . 37 18 Panelled Chest of Drawers, last quarter seventeenth century ... 38 19 Panelled and Carved Chest of Drawers, last quarter seventeenth century 39 20 Panelled Chest of Drawers, last quarter seventeenth century ... 41 22 High Chest of Drawers, last quarter seventeenth centurj' .... 45 23 Walnut Dressing-table (not restored), about 1700 46 24 High Chest of Drawers, 1710-20. (Stretchers new and incorrect.) 47 25 Walnut Dressing-table, about 17 10 50 26 High Chest of Drawers, 1710-20 51 27 Handles and Escutcheons, First and Second Periods, 1 675-1 720 54 28 Cabriole-legged High Chest of Drawers, 1710-20 55 29 Walnut and Inlay Cabriole-legged Dressing-table, 1720-30 ... 56 30 Cabriole-legged High Chest of Drawers with Steps for China, about 1730 57 32 Scroll-top High Chest of Drawers, 1730-40 61 ^^ Dutch Cupboard, 1730-40 62 34 Dressing-table, 1730-40 63 35 Dressing-table, 1760-70 64 36 Japanned Dressing-box, 1760-80 6y 37 Double Chest of Drawers, about 1740 65 58 Double Chest of Drawers, 1 760-80. (Handles probably added later.) 68 40 Handles, Third and Fourth Periods, dating 1710—60 69 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 41 Mahogany Low Chest of Drawers, 1760-80 70 42 Low Chest of Drawers, about 1770-80 71 43 Block-front Low Chest of Drawers, about 1780 72 44 Block-front Low Chest of Drawers, about 1780 72 45 Swell-front Low Chest of Drawers, 1780-1800 Tl 46 Mahogany and Satinwood Low Chest of Drawers, 1780-90. (Brasses new.) 74 47 Sheraton Low Chest of Drawers, about 1790 75 48 Late Sheraton Low Chest of Drawers, about iSoo ^6 49 Empire Bureau, 1800-10. (Handles new.) "jj 50 Empire Bureau, 1810-20 78 51 Handles, 1 770-1 800 79 52 Handles, 1800-20 79 53 Wash-stand, Hepplewhite, 1780-90 80 54 Wash-stand, Sheraton, about 1790 80 55 Dining-hall, Christ Church College, Oxford. (Showing cupboard beneath window.) 83 56 Press Cupboard, about 1650 86 57 Panelled Cupboard, last quarter seventeenth century 87 59 Panelled and Inlaid Press Cupboard, last quarter seventeenth century 89 60 Carved Oak Press Cupboard, last quarter seventeenth century . . 91 61 Carved Oak Press Cupboard, last quarter seventeenth century . . 92 63 Cupboard of Drawers, last quarter seventeenth century 94 64 Dutch Cabinet, first quarter seventeenth century 97 65 Painted Kas, latter half seventeenth century 98 66 Carved Walnut Kas, about middle of seventeenth century .... 99 67 Carved Spoon -rack, about 1675 10 1 68 Panelled Cupboard, 1740-50 102 69 Chest of Drawers with Cupboard Top, about 1780 103 70 " Beaufatt " and Wall Panelling, about 1740 105 71 Corner " Beaufatt," about 1740 107 72 Cupboard with Glass Door, 1738 109 •J I Hepplewhite Sideboard, 1790-1800 113 74 Hepplewhite Sideboard, 1790-1800. (Handles new.) 114 xiii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 75 Hepplewhite Sideboard, 1799 uS ■}6 Sheraton Sideboard, about 1800 116 ■j-j Knife- and Spoon-box, last quarter eighteentii century 117 78 Sheraton Sideboard, about 1800 118 79 Empire Sideboard, 1810-20 119 80 Empire Sideboard, 1810-20 120 81 Empire Sideboard, 1810-30 121 82 Late Empire Sideboard, 1830 122 83 Dining-hall, Christ Church, Oxford 125 84 Turned Chair, sixteenth century 127 85 Turned Chair, 1575-1620 128 86 Turned Chair, 1 575-1620 128 87 Turned Chair, first quarter seventeenth century 130 88 Wainscot Chair, about 1600 131 89 Wainscot Chair, 1614 132 90 Wainscot Chair, 1600-20 133 91 Wainscot Cliair, first half seventeenth century 134 92 Chair-table, 1660-80 134 93 Leather Chair, about 1640 135 94 Flemish Chair, last quarter seventeenth century 141 95 Flemish Chair, about 1690 143 96 Chair showing English Adaptation of Flemish, 1680-90 143 97 Chair showing English Adaptation of Flemish, 1 680- 1 700. (Feet missing.) 144 98 Italian Chair, 1680- 1700 145 • 99 Spanish Chair, latter half seventeenth century 147 100 Chair in Spanish Style, 1680-1700 149 lOi Chair showing Flemish and Spanish Styles, 1680-1700 149 102 Late Spanish, 1700-10 150 103 Late Spanish, 1700-10 150 104 Late Spanish, showing Dutch Influence, 1700-15 151 105 Queen Anne Chair, showing Spanish Feet, 1710-20 151 106 Slat-back, about 1730 153 107 Slat-back, about 1740-50 154 108 Slat-back, about 1750 154 XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 09 Slat-back, about 1760-70 155 10 Banister-back, 1710-20 155 11 Banister-back, 1730-40 156 12 Banister-back, 1740-50 156 13 Roundabout Chair, sliowing Spanish Foot, about 1720-30 .... 157 14 Dutch Chairs with Underbrace, 1710-30 158 15 Dutch Chairs, about 1730 159 16 Dutch Roundabout Chair, Extension Top, about 1730-40 .... 160 17 Dutch Chairs with Rush Seats, about 1740 161 18 Simple Dutch Chairs, common throughout eighteenth century . . 161 19-21 Dutch Chairs, dating about 1740 162 22 Dutch Chair, about 1740 163 23 Cabriole-legged Cosey-chair, 1730-40 164 24 Windsor Rocking-chair, latter half eighteenth century 166 25 Windsor Arm- and Side-chairs, latter half eighteenth century . . 166 26 Fan-back Windsor Chairs, latter half eighteenth century .... 167 27 Windsor Writing-chair, 1760-80 168 28 Windsor Chair, showing Carved Arms, last quarter eighteenth century 169 29 Chair-backs in Queen Anne, Chippendale, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton Designs 172 30 Chinese Chair, about 1800 174 31 Chippendale Chair I7S 32 Chippendale Chair '75 33 Chippendale Chair 176 34 Chippendale Chair 176 35 Chippendale Chair 177 36 Chippendale Chair 177 l"] Chippendale Roundabout Chair 178 38 Chippendale Roundabout Chair, Extension Top 178 39-41 Chairs in Chippendale Style 179 42 Chippendale Chair 181 43 Chippendale Chair 182 44 Chippendale Chair 182 46-48 Chippendale Slat-back Chairs 183 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 149 Chippendale; Chair 184 150 Chippendale Chair 184 151 Chippendale Chair 185 152 Chippendale Chair 185 153 Hepplewhitc Chair 186 154 Hepplewhite Chair 186 155 Hepplewhite Chair 187 156 Hepplewhite Chair 187 157 Hepplewhite Cosey-chair 188 158 Sheraton Chairs 189 159 Sheraton Chairs 189 160 Sheraton Chair 191 161 Sheraton Chair 191 162 Sheraton Chair 192 163 Painted Sheraton Chair 192 164 Painted Sheraton Chairs 193 165 Phyfe Chair 194 166 Empire Chair 194 167 Empire Chairs 194 168 Carved Oak Settle, latter half seventeenth century 197 169 Pine Settle, first half eighteenth century 198 170 Turned Settee with Turkey- work Upholstery, about 1660 .... 199 171 Dutch Double Chair, 1740-50 201 173 Upholstered Settee, latter half eighteenth century 203 174 Sheraton Double Chair, 1 780-1 800 205 175 American Sheraton Settee, 1800-20 206 176 Flemish Couch, latter half seventeenth century. (Seat and back ori^ inches. The carving indicates that this is an early example of a two-drawer chest. About the last quarter of the seventeenth century chests were made in large numbers in New England, and some originality was shown in the carved designs. Figure lo. Carved and Panelled Chest with Two Drawers, last quarter seventeenth century. A two-drawer chest owned by the Connecticut Historical Society is shown in Figure 10. It is of light-colored American oak, tht; top, bottom, and back being of pine. About fifty chests of this design have been found in Connecticut, some witli no drawer, others with one and two. The design, while not wholly new, is a combination of old pat- 25 COLONIAL FURNITURE terns forming one somewhat orioinal, and is now known as the Con- necticut or sunflower pattern. Some of the turned ornaments and mouldings are missing, but enough remain to give a good idea of the appearance of the chest when new. Figure 1 1. Carved Oak Chest with Two Drawers, last quarter seventeenth century. The Connecticut Historical Society also owns the chest illustrated in Figure ii, a very nice example of the all-over carving. The stiles and rails show the familiar tulip border, and the panels and drawers the Connecticut sunflower design somewhat conventionalized. This chest has the top, drawers, and back all of oak, somewhat imusual in New-Englantl-made pieces, but that it was made in New England is very surely indicated by its design and the grain and color of the oak. The wooden knob handles arc missing. The last two chests de- scribed date in the last quarter of the seventeenth century. Figure 12 is a chest found at Hadley, Massachusetts, and now in the Erving collection, known to collectors as the " Hadley" chest, for 26 CHESTS many of this design have been found at Hadley or In that neighbor- hood. The vine pattern in which this chest is carved seems to have been one not used in England, but was undoubtedly an adaptation of the tulip pattern long in use. Its dimensions are as follows: length, 1 ;' ::^r§z i -fim : ■■•*A'. Jj^4^^ '>:4: ^cT^^^^':' Figure 12. Carved and Stained Oak Chest with One Drawer, 1690-17 10. 42 inches; height, 32^^ inches; width, 19 inches. Hadley chests are found with one, two, and three drawers, and, the writer has reason to think, were always stained. The chest here shown has never been tampered with, and is stained with the three colors — red, nuil- berry or purplish brown, and black, as follows : the to[) front rail, black; centre rail, brown; bottom rail, black; two end front jianels, red; centre panel, lirown ; drawer-front, very light brown; stiles on front, black; on ends, lorown. The ends are panelled but not carved; the rails are stained brown, panels black, and the short stile sepa- rating the two upper panels, red. 27 COLONIAL F U R NM T U R E A two-drawer Hadley chest, also in the Ervinsf collection, is shown in I'igure 13. Its dimensions are as follows: height, 44 inches; length, 40 '4 inches; width, 18 inches. When found this chest was covered with red paint, but this being removed, the original staining could be plainly seen. Another chest of this kind formerly owned by Mr. Erving, besides several of which he has Figure 13. Carved and Stained Chest witli Two Drawers, 1690-1 7 10. known, a one-drawer chest which has not been disturbed, owned by Miss Esther Bidwell, of Wethersfield, Connecticut, and the three- drawer chest shown in Figure 14, all show the staining. This seems evidence enough to warrant one in concluding that the Hadley chests were always finished in this way. As to their date. Miss Bidwell's chest bears the initials M. S., for Martha Sheldon, of Hadley, who married Dr. Ezekiel Porter, of Wethersfield, at just what date is not known, but her daughter, into whose hands it came, was born in 1707. Figure 14. Carved and Stained Chest with Three Drawers, 1690-1710. CHESTS The chest contained Martha Sheldon's wedding outfit, and dates some- where near i too. Mr. Ervintr's chest marked R. D. beloneed to Rebecca Dickenson, of Hadley, who was married in 1724; but it is very likely that the chest was in process of filling with her bridal linen some years previous to this. It seems probable that the Hadley chests date anywhere from 1690 to 1720. Figure 14 shows a three-drawer Hadley chest, preserved at the Deerfield Museum, which stands 46 inches high and, except for its size and the number of its drawers, is identical with Figures 12 and 13. Three-drawer chests are rare, but the writer knows of one other in the Hadley pattern owned in Boston, and two of other designs. Hadley chests, as far as the writer knows, always have pine tops, and the back and the bottom of the chests, as well as the drawer- frames, are also of pine. The ends are panelled but not carved, and the centre front panel almost invarialily has initials. « 1 ■wjl^ Figure 15. Carved Oak Chest with One Drawer, last quarter seventeenth century. A chest found at Belchertown, Massachusetts, and now owned b\- the writer, is shown in Figure 15. A scrutiny of the design used COLONIAL F U R N n' U R E on this chest shows it to be the Hadley pattern, a httle more care- fully executed than usual. The escutcheon which covers the much- worn keyhole is new^ and partly hides the initials AI. E. The arrangement of the panels is reversed, the centre panel showiny the design used for the outside panels in the ordinary Hadley chests. The custom of painting the design on chests and cupboards seems to have prevailed quite extensively late in the seventeenth and early in the eighteenth centuries, perhaps because the decorative effect was more easily and cheaply obtained than with carving or inlay. Figure i6. Painted Chest with One Drawer, about 1700. A very interesting example of a chest, in the Erving collection, in which the decorative effect is obtained by painting, is shown in Figure 16. This decoration is just as it appeared originally, as the chest has not been restored or tampered with in any way. The fine lacelike pattern suggests inlay rather than carving. This chest was found in Maine. A two-drawer chest similar to this, belonging to Mr. Walter Hosmer, of Wethersfield, has the panels painted in a design evidently in imitation of carving. 32 CHESTS After much study of the inventories the writer is convinced that it is impossible to [jlace the date of a chest in any exact year, for the records covering the century between 1633 and 1733 vary only slightly in the descriptions and valuations given. Practically the only way to determine the date is by the character of the decoration used. The examples here illustrated represent the better quality of chests in use during the seventeenth centur)-, because, as is natural, only the best of the chests would have been considered worth pre- serving. Their values, as given in the inventories, vary from one shilling to seventy shillings, the purchasing power of money being at that time about five times what it is to-day. At Plymouth, in 1634, "a great oak chest with lock and key 8s"; Salem, 1644, "4 chests £1," 1673, "a wainscott chest Ss " ; Plymouth, 1682, "a wainscot chest /,^i"; Philadelphia, 1709, "a wainscot chest ^,1," in the same year, "a black Avalnut chest £2 5s"; Providence, 1680, "a great chest with a drawer is"; New York, 1697, " i black nutt chest with two black feet ^2 10s"; at Yorktown, \'irginia, 1674, "2 chests £1 2s," 1^75' "3 chests 8s"; and the highest price noted, at New York, 1682, " I chest with drawers ^'3 los." Very man)- chests both North and South inventoried simply as chests are valued at from one to ten shillings. There is also mention in the inventories of iron- bound chests, one at .Salem in 1684 valued at five shillings. The writer knows of two such chests, both of Norwegian pine, in trunk shape with rounded tops; one is bound with wrought-iron bands about ft)ur inches wide in the tulip pattern on the stiles of the chest shown in Figure 11, and has initials and the date 1707, also in wrought-iron; the other has finely wrought bands in a Spanish design. Cedar chests are noted occasionally, valued at about thirty shillings; they were probably plain, as no description whatever is given of them. It may be well to review briefly the facts which we have ob- served in connection with the examples of chests here described. COLONIAL FURNITURE First, as to the wood. Most of the English chests are entirely of oak ; most of the American -made ones \ym\ the top, the back, and the bot- toms of both chest and drawers made of pine. No unfailing rule can, however, be given, for the writer has seen chests undoubtedly made abroad which have pine used in their construction, and, on the other hand, American pieces made throughout of American oak. The chests appear to have been mainly of three kinds : those made with all-over carving ; those with carved panels, further deco- rated with the turned pieces ; and the panelled ones. There is every reason to think that the all-over carving is the oldest, but chests of this style continued to be made long after the fashion of adding the turned ornaments became general. The carving on American-made chests is, as a rule, very shallow — what is known as peasant-carving. The English carving is generally more in relief and not so crude in execution. The fine relief-carving such as is seen on Continental furniture of the si.xteenth and seventeenth centuries was entirely beyond the powers of the American makers. The size of chests varied from i8 inches in height when without drawers to 48 inches when with three drawers. The length varies from about 30 to 60 inches. They were almost always furnished with a small compartment, or till, at one end near the top. All the oak chests were made in the most substantial manner; the oak form- ing the frame and the sides of the drawers is about one and a quarter inches in thickness. A point to remember, in examining pieces for purchase, is that the runners of the drawers were made on the side during the seven- teenth century, and not on the bottom, as was the rule later. The side of the drawer was hollowed out in a line nearly in the centre, and a heavy nmner afifixed to the side of the chest. There has been much discussion by those interested in the sub- ject as to whether most of the chests were imported or made in this country. This must be decided mainly by an examination of the 34 CHESTS woods. The English oak used is of two varieties, live-oak and swamp-oak — the former of a rich brown color and fine-grained ; the swamp-oak with a long grain much like the American ash, and tend- ing to flake with the grain, as does the ash. The American white- oak is a rich golden brown with a coarser grain, which in the quarter is so highly figured as to distinguish it at once from the English live- oak. It keeps its rich golden color with age, while the English grows darker without the golden tinge. American oak, however, when exposed to the weather loses much of its golden color, and it is by no means easy to distinguish it from English oak which has been subjected to the same conditions. Chests continued to be mentioned in the inventories until the last of the eighteenth century; after 1710 they are frequently referred to as "old." They probably ceased to be made to any extent after 1730. 35 1 1 I CHESTS OF DRAWERS A FEW chests of drawers are mentioned in the earhest New England records: one at Plymouth in 1642 valued at ^i ; I one in 1643 valued at £2 10s.; one at Salem in 1666 valued at £2 I OS.; one at New York in 1669 valued at £1 6s. ; and at Phila- delphia in 1685 "a chest drawers oake ^,"1 " — which are very high \aluations when compared with the other articles in the same in- ventories. The York County, Virginia, records between the jears 16^3 and 1693 mention only a very small number of chests of drawers, and most of these valued at l)ut eight to ten shillings ; but the expression " cupboard of drawers " is used perhaps to describe the same thing, and these are valued higher. In 1674 "a cupboard of drawers £\ los" is mentioned at Yorktown, Mrginia. These chests of drawers were similar in appearance and work- manship to the chests of this same time. They were generally made of oak trimmed with other woods, carved, panelled, and ornamented with turned pieces. The handles are sometimes wooden knobs and sometimes iron or brass tear-drop handles ; variously shaped plates of the metal were fastened to the drawer, and through this passed the hea\)- wire, which held the drop by being bent at right angles against the inside of the drawers. How early brasses were used it is impos- sible to say, but there is an item in a New York inventory taken in 1692 of the estate of a storekeeper which mentions " 12 doz. wrought escutcheons, 5 >_> doz. filed and brasse handles." We believe 36 CHESTS OF DRAWERS them to have been in use as early as 1675, for the high chests of drawers dating as early as this had the brass drop handles. i Figure 17. Carved Oak Chest of Drawers, latter half seventeenth centur) . Figure 17 shows a fine example of a carved chest of drawers in the Erving collection. It is made throughout of American oak, the back being panelled and framed. The carving will be recognized as the scroll design used so extensively on chests. The turned orna- ments beloncrinsf in the centre of the first and fourth drawers are missing, the piece never having been restored. There is also indica- tion of a bracket-shaped piece having been originally added at the centre of the bottom rail, which perhaps bore a date. The back- COLONIAL F U R N I T U R E ground of the carving on the face of the drawers and the incised moulding at the top show plainly traces of having been painted black. The turned ornaments and feet are also black. The moulding which appears to divide the piece between the second and third drawers does not really do so, although this is often the case in chests of drawers which have four drawers. The dimensions of this piece are as follows : height, 49 inches ; width of front, 42 inches ; width of end, 21 >^ inches ; size of top, which overhangs, 44 >i inches by 2 2>^ inches. Figure 18. Panelled Chest of Drawers, last quarter seventeenth century. Figure 18 shows a panelled chest of drawers having the out- standing moulding and ball feet. The form of the chest with drawers is suggested by the width of the second drawer. The drawer-fronts are walnut, the main frame oak. Such a piece as this was perhaps described at New York in 1696 as "a chest of draws with balls at the feet ^i i6s." Figure 19 shows a panelled chest of drawers in which the mould- ings are of cedar. The feet are simpl)- the continuation of the stiies, but having a foot like that in Figure 17 split and applied. 38 CHESTS OF D R A W' E R S A panelled chest of drawers owned b) the Massachusetts His- torical Society is shown in Figure 20. The reader will recognize its marked similarity to the panelled cupboard shown in Figure 62. The Figure 19. Panelled and Carved Chest of Drawers, last quarter seventeenth century. straight square feet are recent additions, for the outstanding moulding which finishes the front and ends at the bottom indicates the ball foot, and if the piece had originally had straight feet they would have been of the same width as the stiles and a continuation ot them. The nK)uldings on the third drawer have not been properly restored, as the V shape shown at the centre should have been reproduced on the outer edges. The handles are also new ; such pieces usually had wooden knob handles. We now^ come to the consideration of the high chests of draw^ers commonly known as high-boys, though this name is never used in the records, and probably w-as given in derision after their appearance had become grotesque to eyes trained to other fashions. The introduction of these chests of drawers on high legs or frames marks the time when the character of construction was changed, and from that period the use of oak was gradually dis- 39 C O L O N I A L ¥ U R N I T I' R E continued, and the massive style seen in the chests and early chests of drawers was no longer followed. Just when the high chests of drawers came into fashion cannot be determined exactly. The only records which could show this are the inventories, and they cannot be depended upon for placing the date when a new style came into use, for an article may have been in use for a number of years before it was spoken of in a will or inven- tory. Ten years may safely be deducted from the hrst inventory mention to obtain the date when the fashion changed. Such a radi- cal change as that from the low oaken chest of drawers to chests of drawers on high frames would seem to call for special mention in recording them, but this is seldom the case. There are, however, two new expressions used in connection with the chests of drawers which indicate that a change had taken place. The first of these is "a chest of drawers on a frame," first met with in New York in 1689, the cost price being given as /,"4 16s. The second expression referred to is "chest of drawers and table." As both chests of drawers and tables had very frequently been mentioned separately up to the last quarter of the seventeenth century, the very common use of the expression "chest of drawers and table" as one item denotes that they bore some relation to each other, which had not previously been the case. There can be no doubt that a " chest oi drawers and table " were a high chest of drawers and dressing-table, or, in other words, a high-boy and a low-boy. In the New York records the expression " chest of drawers and table " does not occur as one item, but during the last quarter of the seventeenth century man)- of the chests of draw- ers inventoried are immediately preceded or followed by a table, and when the wood of which the chest is made is mentioned, the table is invariably the same wood. The first mention of this kind is in the inventory of Dom Nicolas Van Rensselaer, January 16, 1678, in which a chest of drawers of nutwood, followed by a table of the same wood, are valued at 60 guilders (about /,'5 in English money). 40 Figure 20. Panelled Chest of Urawt-rs, last quarter seventeenth century. 4' CHESTS O I- DRAWERS Another entr)- in i6S6 is "a wallnut table ^"i, 15s, a chest of drawers walhiut ^3." The facts here shown and the high valuations indi- cate that these items refer to hitrh chests of drawers and dressine- tables. The first mention of the chest of drawers and table is at Phila- delphia in 16S4: "chest of drawers and table ^8." Both of these values are much above those of any chests of drawers previously men- tioned, and this fact further indicates the change of style. In view of these facts we have no hesitation in naming the year 1675 as the date when the high chests of drawers were known in the colonies. The frames upon which these chests of drawers were raised are of two varieties. The first has six turned legs, four in front and two in back, joined b)' heavy stretchers near the floor. The second has four cabriole or bandy legs without stretchers or bracing. There has been some question as to which style was the older, but the one fact that the first variety has the heavy bracing characteristic of all seventeenth-century furniture points very forcibly to the conclu- sion that this heavy frame appeared before the lighter one. The six- legfofed frames of the chests of drawers, and the four-lesfSed frames with the bracings crossing at the centre of the accompanying dressing- tables, are Italian in style, for there are many examples of Italian cabinets, tables, and chairs of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries which show this bracing. The cabriole leg .seems to have originated in Holland. The relation of the chest of drawers on a frame to the chest with drawers of the period preceding is very interesting to note. That one was developed from the other there are many reasons for believ- ing, though the frame was an entirely new feature, so far as we know, never suggested in any chest. The three-drawer chest in the Bolles collection, which is described on page 23, probably represents the latest development of the chest with drawers. A comparison of this with a chest of drawers on a frame, also in the Bolles collection, shows 43 C O L O NM A L I- I' R X I T L' R E them to have many points in common. This chest of drawers on a frame has five drawers on side runners in the upper part, each sur- rounded with the wide moulding, as are the drawers in the chest ; the ends are panelled with a long panel also like the chest, and the handles are the brass drops also on that chest. The frame is quite low, and the chest of drawers sets into it, and is supported by a heavy outstanding moulding. The frame contains two narrow drawers which have one runner on the side and one on the bottom. These small drawers are surrounded with a moulding like that of the small drawers in the chest shown in Figure 7. The legs, six in number, are turned after the ofeneral fashion of those shown in Figures 21 and 22, and the stretchers are also similar. This chest of drawers, when found, showed the pres- ence of black and red paint on drawer-fronts and mouldings, another point of resemblance to the chests. The writer is convinced that this is the link between the chest of drawers and the chest of drawers on a frame which superseded it. As the high chest of drawers developed it gradually lost its points of resemblance to the chest. The mouldings, while retaining the general form, were made narrower, the drawers did not run on side runners, and the ends were not panelled. The transition piece above described is the only one of its kind which is known to the writer, and practically the oldest form of high chests of drawers is shown in Figure 21, an exceedingly interesting specimen from the Erving collection of a chest of drawers decorated with fine Dutch marquetr)-, which was found at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The framework of this piece is oak, except the legs and stretchers, which are maple ; and this, coupled with the fact that the marquetry is of a very high order, makes sure its Holland origin, Holland during the last half of the seventeenth century ha\ing been specially noted for fine marquetry of this kind. The beautifiilly executed designs of binls and flowers in colors extend not only around the sides but on the top. The moulding about the drawers is what we shall designate as single- 44 •raAJ .?.JI37/A^a ho T23H0 HOIH YHT-dUQUAU HDTUa .YHUTVI3D HTviasTviavaa aSTHAUp DUTCH MARQUETRY HIGH CHEST OF DRAWERS, LAST QUARTER SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. (^Figure zj.) CHESTS OF DRAWERS arch moulding, which, as has been said, is hl^ inches; lower part, 29)^ inches; width of upper part, 36)4^ inches; lower part, 39 inches ; depth, 2 i inches. Figure 23. Walnut Dressing-table (not restored), about 1700. A dressing-table or low-boy having the single-arch moulding and the legs of an early pattern is shown in Figure 23. The arches between the legs show the double ogee curve instead of the single arch. Dressing-tables of this kind are almost always of walnut ve- neered on white wood or pine, and are exceedingly well made. The top is veneered in four rectangular sections, fitted to show the grain to the best advantage, bordered with a strip two inches in width 46 Figure 24. High Chest of Drawers, 1710-20. (Stretchers new ami incorrect.) 47 C H E S T S () ¥ D R A W E R S showing the straight grain ; between this border and the inside is a strip an inch wide in feathering or herring-bone, formed b\- joining two half-inch strips, the grain running at right angles. The fronts of the drawers are also finished with the feathering. The legs and stretchers are often made of maple or heech. This dressing-table has not been restored, as will readily be seen, and the drops below the arches and the little turned ornament at the centre of the bracing where the stretchers cross are missing. The narrow bead-moulding which borders the arches of the frame is always found on the chests of drawers and dressing-tables of the turned-legged variety. Figure 24 shows a chest of drawers of white wood l)elonging to Mr. William Meeffat, of W'ethersfield, Connecticut, of somewhat later date than Figures 21 and 22. This is indicated in several ways. First, the single-arch moulding is divided, thus forming a double arch, which for convenience we shall speak of as a double moulding. The cornice at the top is wider, and a moulding containing a drawer has been added below it. The table part has three drawers, and the sim- ple arch between the legs has become the double ogee in form. The drop handles are replaced by an early form of bail handle, the plates of which, if compared with the plates on Figure 22, will show them to have been developed from brasses of that kind. These bail handles are fastened, like the drops, with wires, which pass through the plate and are bent against the inside of the drawer. The stretchers are new and should conform to the curves of the frame. A dressing-table belonging to the writer, differing from Figure 23 only in tliat it has the double moulding, is shown in Figure 25. This still retains the drop handles, and denotes the fact that the drop was used with the double moulding. Figure 26 shows a chest of tlrawers in the author's possession which does not differ materially from that shown in Figure 24, the principal difference being that the table part is considerably deeper and contains five instead of three drawers. The dimensions are as 49 COLONIAL FURNITURE follows: total height, 69 ^l inches; upper part, 32 inches; lower part, S7/4 inches; width of upper part, 36 inches; width of lower part, 38 >^ inches. The stretcher across the back, which is new, should be straight. Figure 25. Walnut Dressing-table, about 17 10. The chests ot drawers with turned legs were made of many vari- eties of wood, most often of walnut and white wood; they were also japanned, that is, finished with several coats of specially prepared varnish, overlaid with figures of flowers and animals in bright colors, silver, and gold. One finished in this way belongs to Mr. Walter Hosmer. The frames of both the chests of drawers and dressing- tables sometimes had five instead of six legs, thus bringing one in the centre of the front. Dressing-tables are also occasionally found with a fifth foot where the stretchers cross. The dressing-tables sometimes 50 Figure 26. High Chest of Drawers, 1710-20. CHESTS OF D R A W E R S luul stone or slate tops; five of these are mentioned at Boston between the years 1693 and 1719, vahied at about ^1. They are now very scarce, only two being known to the writer, one belonging to the BoUes collection, the other to Mr. William G. Boardman, of Hartford, Con- necticut. The slate top in the one belonging to Mr. Boardman is set into a border of marquetry about five inches in width. Except for the top, this dressing-table is very similar to Figure 25. The handles are the hollow drops, and these, as well as the outlines of the drawers, appear also on the back. Some of the inventory items which probably refer to the styles so far considered are as follows: Philadelphia, 1684, "a chest of draw- ers and table ^8"; New York, 1685, " a chest of drawers black walnut £2," ; 1705, "a fine chest of drawers of walnut and olive wood ^15" ; Boston, 1709, "a chest of drawers and table £^" \ 171 1, "chest of drawers and table ^8"; 171 5, "a black Japanned chest of drawers, table and dressing boxes ^'3 15s"; Philadelphia, 1720, "a pair chest of drawers and table walnut £6," " a cedar chest of drawers and table £g los," "chest of drawers and slate table ^5." The Virginia records before 1700 do not indicate in an)' definite way that the high chests of drawers were in use there ; but the writer knows of two of the turned-legged dressing-tables which were found in the South, and the accompanying high chests of drawers were probably known to some extent. The first inventory entry which seems to point with any certainty to such pieces is at Yorktown in 1711 : "One chest of draws and a small table with a draw, ot I'rench walnut ^,3." The types of handles which were used on the chests of drawers with turned legs are shown in I'igure 27. The first, known as drop handles, had the drops both solid and hollow, the latter ha\ing the appearance of being cut in two. The plates and escutcheons are in many shapes, some being round, with the edges pierced, others shield shape. These drop brasses we will call handles of the b'irst Period. The second style has a bail handle fastened with bent wires, and the plates 53 COLONIAL FURNITURE are generally the shape of those shown, but not always engraved. The drop handle is the older, and is sometimes found on chests in both iron and brass. These brasses with bail handles held by bent wire we will call handles of the Second Period. Figure 27. Handles and Escutcheons, First and Second Periods, 1675-1720. The earliest specimens of the cabriole-legged high chests of drawers have many points in common with the six-legged variety. The arrangement of drawers in both the upper and lower part is sometimes like that in Mgure 24. The writer has, however, never heard of a piece which had but a single drawer in the table part. The double- arch moulding and the etched brass handles, like the second variety shown in Figure 27, are sometimes used, and the curves at the bot- tom of the frame are finished with a fine bead-moulding. The wood, also, is quite often walnut, and sometimes veneered, as in the dressing- tables described above. There was, however, as far as the writer can ascertain, no bandy-legged high-boy having the single-arch moulding and the drop brasses, which were survivals of the period preced- ing that which developed the high chests of drawers ; and this fact, together with that already alluded to as to the construction of the frame, make it appear more than likel)- that the six-legged chests of drawers somewhat preceded the cabriole ones. Figure 28 shows a maple chest of drawers foiuid in Connecticut and belonging to the writer, which is literall)- a chest of drawers on frame, there being no drawers in the table i)art. It has marks of an early 54 C H E S T S O I^^ D R A W E R S date in that the cornice at the top is narrow and has two short draw- ers below it ; the handles are similar to those on Figure 26, and are fastened with wires; the drawers, however, instead of havine the Figure 28. Cabriole-legged High Chest of Drawers, 1710-20. double mouldings about them, are overlapping, which was the style next following the heavy mouldings, and the double moulding, appar- ently without reason, appears on the top of the sides of the drawers. There is no way of determining how early a piece of this kind was made, but that it could have been made as early as i 710 is certain. 55 COLONIAL 1- U R N I T U R E A dressing-table of walnut veneered on white wood in much the same way as that shown in Figure 25, is shown in figure 29. The moulding is of a kind which occurs on both the turned-legged and the cabriole-legged chests of drawers, and is formed by bordering an applied Figure 29. Walnut and Inlay Cabriole-legged Dressing-table, 1720-30. Strip about half an inch wide with a bead-moulding. This is some- times known as a canal-moulding. The opinion is held by many that it is this moulding which was used on the mahogany block-front pieces ; but a careful examination of the latter shows that while the effect obtained is much the same, the fact is that the extra strip is applied to the frame when the canal-moulding is used, and no such strip is used on the block-front pieces. On the block-front pieces the narrow rail running between the drawers when bordered with the bead-moulding gives much this same effect, but at the ends ot the drawers, where the beading appears only single, the difference is plainly shown. The handles belonging to this dressing-table are small, of the willow pattern, etched and fastened with screw-bolts. This beautiful little piece was found in Vermont, and belongs to Mr. Meggat. The common form of the flat-topped bandy-legged high-boy is 56 Figure 30. Cabriole-legged High Chest of Drawers with Steps for China, about 1730. 57 CHESTS OF DRAWERS made of cherry, maple, or walnut, and is taller by six or eight inches than the chests of drawers hitherto shown. The upper and lower parts are made separate, the upper fitting into the lower and held firm by a moulding. The chest of drawers proper has usually four drawers, graduating in size from seven to four inches in width ; the section above the fourth drawer is divided commonly into five drawers, a deep one ornamented with the rising sun, with the space each side of this equally divided into two small drawers. The table part has a drawer running all the way across the top, and under this three deep drawers, the centre one also having the rising sun. The handles are medium-sized willow pattern fastened with screw-bolts. The large majority of low -boys offered for sale are the lower or table part of high-boys, and can be distinguished from the dressing-table proper by their height and the much more substantial make of the leg. The genuine low-boy seldom measures over 34 inches in height ; the high-boy tables average about 38 inches. The little low-boys are very light and graceful in appearance, and to the trained eye easily distinguished from the pieces made by supplying a top to the high- boy table. It may also be added that when they are thus separated the chest of drawers is often finished with feet and offered for sale as a colonial bureau. Figure 30 shows a conventional flat-top high-boy. The steps, such as are shown on top of this piece, were often used to display china when the chest of drawers was used in the dining- or living- room. A Boston inventory of 1713 mentions earthenware on top of the chest of drawers. A high chest of drawers of walnut which combines to a very un- usual degree the characteristics of different periods is shown in Figure 3 I (frontispiece). The features which point to its early date are the double-arch moulding, the cornice drawer, and the two short drawers just beneath, while the blocking of the drawers, the fluting at the corners, and the ball-and-claw feet are features which would make it COLONIAL ¥ V R X I T U R E appear to be of a much later date. The wooden handles are, of course, recent additions, and the brass binding' about the keyholes was probably added at the same time. The loss of the orijjinal handles removes one of the most valuable indications of its date. One escutcheon, however, remains. It is a small plain plate, and the original bolt-holes show the handles to have been about two inches in width. It is quite possible that such a piece as this could have been made very late to satisfy the taste of some individual without regard to the combination of early and late characteristics, but the burden of evidence seems to be thrown on the side of an earlier date than has ever been associated with block-front pieces, and our opinion is that this very interesting chest of drawers, which is in the collection of Mr. C. L. Pendleton, of Providence, was made before the year 1750. Somewhere between the years 17 10 and 1730 the flat top was superseded b\- the swan-neck or broken-arch cornice. This does not mean that after this time no flat tops were made ; being much more simple to make, they probably continued to be made for years. We name these dates because the broken arch is never found with either of the early forms of moulding or with handles fastened with wires, both of which were probably used as late as 1710 and 1730, because at this time the broken arch was freely used in architectural designs in England and the colonies, although previous to this time it had been plainly suggested on some of the wainscot pieces. (See Figures 91 and 167.) There is at Wethersfield, Connecticut, a house which belonged to Dr. Ezekiel Porter, which was furnished about the year 1 730 ; the sleeping-rooms were each supplied with a chest of drawers and a dressing-table, and all of the five chests of drawers have the broken -arch cornice. One of these chests of drawers, which now belongs to Miss Esther Bidwell, is shown in P""igure 32. The wood is cherry, and the construction e.xactly like its flat-top predecessor, except that the 60 CHESTS OF DRAWERS curved moulding leaves space for l)ut one narrow drawer each side of tlie square drawer at the top. The torch ornaments are characteristic of this finish. The wooden drops, whicli were probably the survival Figure 32. Scroll-top High Chest of Drawers, 1 730-40. of the two inside legs on the six-legged form of the- high chests of drawers, and wliich appear on the flat-top pieces, are done away. The brass handles, similar in form to those on Figure 30, are some- what larger, and this increase in the size t)f the handles is an indica- 61 C O L O N I A L F U R N I T U R E tion of a later date. The willow brasses of the earliest patterns are very small, measuring about two inches in length by one and a quarter inches in width, while those used on pieces made after i 760 are often as large as five inches in length by three inches in width. Figure 33. Dutch Cupboard, 1730-40. Figure ^^ shows a Dutch cupboard, also owned by Miss Bidwell, having the chest of drawers replaced by a cupboard which is furnished with shelves. One small drawer may be seen in the cornice just below the centre ornament. These cupboard-top pieces are not at all common. 62 CHESTS OF DRAWERS Figure 34 is a dressing-table belonging to one of the high chests owned by Miss Bidwell. It shows almost the lines of the cup- board just spoken of and may have belonged with it. The early dressing-tables had but three drawers, as the high curve at the Figure 34. Dressing-table, 1 730-40. centre only admitted of one narrow drawer above it. The common form of dressing-table made after about i 730 is shown in this illus- tration. The high curve at the centre is omitted and a long drawer added across the top. The centre drawer was not always square or oblong, but sometimes rounded at the top and sometimes arched at both top and bottom. As the centur)- advanced the elaborateness with which the chests of drawers and dressing-tables were made increased. The legs were carved with a shell at the knee, and a ball-and-claw or web foot was used. The centre drawer dropped the rising sun ami was carved in various ways, and the corners were often ornamented with a tinted half-column. The wooden drops, as we have seen, were not used to any extent after the scroll top was added, and the simple bracket 63 COLONIAL FUR N I T U R E curve which distinguished the early styles was replaced by many ingenious patterns. Figure 35 shows one of these more elaborate dressing-tables, with fluted columns and shell carvinsj, belonoin*'- to Mr. INIeeeat. 1 Figure 35. Dressing-table, 1760-70. The rail just below the top in the most ornate dressing-tables was carved in rococo or Chinese styles. The dressing-tables were usually furnished with dressing-boxes havini,^ a mirror attached. One is mentioned in Boston in 1715, in connection with a dressing-table, as "black japanned table and dressing-box ^'i 5s." It is a strange fact that although these are mentioned so frecjuently as to lead us to suppose that they must ha\e been very common, only a \ery few of those belonging to pieces previous to i 7S0 can now be found. One of these dressing-boxes, beautitull\- japanned, is shown in Figure 36. It dates from 1760 to 1780. Figure ;^y shows a double chest ot drawers, sometimes called a chest on chest, which belongs to Mr. Meggat. The cornice is almost 64 I'lijuic 37. Double Chest of Drawers, about 1740. 65 CHESTS OF DRAWERS identical with that of the high-boy shown in Figure 32. The wood is cherry and the drawers overlap. The ball-and-claw feet and the handles are new, the feet originally having been ogee bracket feet. The cornice with which this piece is finished indicates a rather early Figure 36. Japanned Dressing-box, 1760-80. date, for this feature, like most details of feet, handles, etc., was grad- ually elaborated, and few arch cornices of a later date than 1750 are found which are not finished where they break more or less elabo- rately with a carved rosette or similar design. In 1768 at New York a mahogany fluted double chest of drawers was advertised, and in 1 769 chests on chests were offered. Figure 38 shows a double chest of later date than the preceding, as shown by the beading about the drawers, the serpentine form of the lower portion, the fluted corner columns, the carving on the square drawer, and the hnish of the cornice. The rosette handles 67 COLONIAL FURNITURE seem too late a style to go with this piece, but are undoubtedly the only handles it has ever had, as it has never been restored, and there is no mark whatever of other handles ; but as chests of drawers were S[ J \ o * Q ) ' . .., 1 ^ - — — ■' ■■■'■! c. ligure 3S. Double Chest of Drawers, 1760-So. (Handles probably atlded later.) made and used for years without handles, it may be that this chest did not have the handles added for some years after it was made. The fact that they are not put on perfectly evenly may indicate that they were not put on by the maker. The centre ornament at the top is missing". 6R HIGH CHEST OF DRAWERS, LATTER HALF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. (^Figure 3g.) x^ CHESTS O I^^ D R A W E R S A very elaborate chest of drawers, which probably represents the extreme to which this style was developed, is shown in Figure 39. Every detail is elaborated, though the form and arrangement of the simpler high-boy is followed. The carving is the best and the chest the very finest of its kind. Chests of drawers of this pattern are found almost altogether in the South, in X'irginia and Pennsylvania especially, and are almost invariably made of walnut with overlapping drawers. There are five of these elaborate chests of drawers in the Pendleton collection at Providence, Rhode Island, differing very slightly in design and detail. In the same collection are also dressing-tables carved in like manner. This chest of drawers belongs to ]\Ir. Meggat. ^H^^ ^^ Figure 40. Handles, Third and Fourth Periods, dating 1710-60. The handles shown in Figure 40 represent the principal styles used on high chests of drawers after 1710. They were fastened with small screw-bolts. The first two appear usually before 1720, the last two from that time until the latest form of willow brasses, shown in Figure 39. BUREAUS As such pieces as these about to be described have so commonly been called bureaus, we will, for convenience, use that name here. There is some indication that the low chests of drawers, or bureaus, existed to some extent while the high chests of drawers were still in general use. W'hetlicr they were at that time called bureaus is a mooted question, and the reader is referred to the chapter on Desks 69 COLONIAL FURNITURE for discussion of the origin and early use of the word. Examples of low chests of drawers which could date previous to 1750 are now exceedingly rare ; the writer has heard of but two which would answer the requirements of such an early date. These were both of walnut with plain bracket feet, overlap drawers, and engraved brasses Mahogany Low Chest of Drawers, 1760-80. of an early willow pattern ; but the bureaus which have survived to any extent are largely of mahogany, and certainly date in the latter half of the eighteenth century. Those with swell or serpentine fronts were adopted from the French, who called them commodes. Chip- pendale published designs for them, and probably introduced them to England. Hepplewhite and Shearer published numerous designs in 1 788-89 for serpentine-front chests of drawers, and called them dressing-chests and French commode dressing-chests. The characteristics of the earlier form of chests of drawers have CHESTS OF DRAW'ERS been fully discussed previously, and it only remains to give illustrations of some of the varieties of bureaus which are now commonly found. Figure 41 shows a mahogany serpentine bureau with ball-and- claw feet and a late form of willow handles. The frame about the drawers has the narrow bead- moulding common to such pieces. Figure 42. Low Chest of Drawers, about 1770-80. Figure 42 shows a serpentine bureau with ogee bracket feet, and with corners finished with a fluted column. The drawers are finished in the same way as the above. The date of this piece cannot safely be placed earlier than 1770. Figure 43 shows a block-front bureau belonging to Mr. W. S. Schutz, of Hartford, in which the drawers are finished with a narrow bead-moulding, and the handles, which arc the original, show that the piece cannot date earlier than 1770-80. The feet, it will be noticed, have a somewhat unusually deep curve. COLONIAL FURNITURE Figure 43. Block-front Low Chest of Drawers, about 1780. Figure 44. Block-front Low Chest of Drawers, about 1780. CHESTS OF D R A W^ E R S Figure 44 shows a block-front bureau with the shell carving, belonging to Mr. Meggat. The frame about the drawers is finished with the usual fine beading which, as we have seen before, many mis- take for the canal-moulding. The three drawers are rarely met with, such bureaus generally having four drawers. The feet are particu- larly slender and graceful, and, with the heavy upper moulding, bring the height of the piece about up to that of the four-drawer bureau. The remains of the original brasses will be seen on the drawers. Figure 45. Swell-front Low Chest of Drawers, 1780-1800. b igure 45 shows a swell-front bureau with the foot used on the French commodes and usually known as the F"rench foot. Each drawer is inlaid about an inch and a half from the edge with a narrow band of holly, and the edge of the top and the frame at the bottom have a border about three quarters of an inch wide of fi\nc\' inlay. Bureaus of this kind were very common in this country, both plain and inlaid, and almost invariably have the oval brasses. They date from i 780-1800. 73 COLONIAL FURNITURE Figure 46 shows an elaborate swell-front bureau of mahogany with square and oval panels of satinwood, each outlined with a fine border of inlay of holly, rosewood, and ebony. This represents the Kigure 46. Mahogany and Satinwood Low Chest of Drawers, 1780-90. (Brasses new.) handsomest and best-made bureau of its time — 1780-90. The handles are not original. This piece belongs to Mrs. Alexander Forman, of Brooklyn. Figure 47 shows a mahogany bureau in the Sheraton style, as shown b)- the fluted columns and feet. The wide drawer at the top has the appearance of being a " bureau drawer " fitted with a spring and quadrant for writing purposes ; this is not, however, the case, but this bureau was probably modelled after one having such a drawer. The handles are original, and the date of the bureau is about 1790. Figure 48 shows a bureau of late Sheraton or early Empire design. It is made of mahogany with a little inlay in holl)-. 74 CHESTS OF DRAWERS Figure 49 shows an Empire bureau found in \'irginia, having the three lower drawers swelled and the short drawers at the top straight. This form of bureau was largely used in the South, and similar ones Figure 47. Sheraton Low Cliest of Drawers, about 1750. are sometimes found with turned feet. The handles, though old, are not the original for this piece, which should have had rosette handles of some sort. It dates about 1 800-10. Figure 50 shows the conventional tall Empire bureau with the proper rosette and ring handles. The columns show the acanthus- leaf and pineapple so generally used on all Empire furniture. All these bureaus were of fine mahogany, usually veneered. As bureaus are so commonly associated with mahogany, it will perhaps be well to say something of the history of the use ot that wood for furniture in general. The traditicMi of ils introduction into 75 COLONIAL F U R N I T L' R E England by Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1595, is quite generally accepted, and at the same time it is as generally believed that it was not used there to any extent until about 1720. It is not likely that the century which divides its discovery from its po])ular use was absolutely igno- Figure 4S. Late Sheraton Low Chest of Drawers, about 1800. rant of it, and some pieces are now known to have been made of mahogany in England previous to 1700. As far as this countr)- is concerned, there is no indication whatever that it was known or used previous to 1700; none of the furniture, such as chairs, tables, or chests of drawers, which were made at this time, were made of mahog- any, and there is no mention in the inventories or contemporary documents of anv kind that the writer has been able to find of ma- I CHESTS OF D R A W E R S hogany previous to 1700. At Philadelphia, in 1694, the inventory of a cabinet-maker named John Fellows contained the following list of material in a shop: " pyne loggs, walnutt loggs, pyne boards, wal- nutt planks, walnutt scantling, oak boards and cedar boards, one Figure 49. Empire Bureau, 1800-10. (Handles new.) case of drawers, partlie made, stuff for a side table partlie made, stuff partlie wrought for a hall table, a parcel of brass work for drawers, four sutes of locks for chests of drawers, three dressing box locks"; but in 1720 Joseph Waite, also of Philadelphia, had in his shop "a chest of mahogany drawers unfinished." Previous to this there is mention of a " broaken mahogany skreen " in the inventory of John Jones, in 1708, at Philadcli)hia, valued at two C O L O X I A L V U R N I T U R E shillings. If \ve conclude, then, that the use of mahogany for furniture in this country was contemporaneous with the opening of the eighteenth century, we shall certainly place it early enough, and we are equally safe in concluding that it was not in general use earlier Figure 50. Empire Bureau, 1810-20. than 1720-30. The Boston "Evening Post" throughout the year I 74 1 advertises mahogany boards in large quantities, and after this time the newspapers and inventories frequently mention mahogany tables, chairs, and desks. It may be well, while on this subject, to speak here of the differ- ence between the old mahogany and the new. There are in the market to-day in commonest use two kinds of mahogany. One, from Mexico, is quite a soft wood, and light in color, which does not darken with age, and consequently must be stained. It weighs but CHESTS OF DRAWERS about two and a half pounds to a square foot an inch in thickness, while West Indian mahogany weighs about six pounds. The other kind of mahogany is from Honduras, and is even softer than the Mexican, with a much coarser grain. It is therefore often possible to tell by the weight of a piece of furniture whether it is old or new, and this is particularly true in respect to chairs. The best mahogany to-day, as well as in former days, comes from the West Indies, and is sometimes called Spanish mahogany. Figure 51. Handles, 17 70- 1800. There is also a very beautiful grained mahogany now in the market coming from Africa. The types of handles met with on chests of drawers and bureaus dating after 1760 are shown in Figure 51. i^:M^ !^^H^^ f "^p^J" — ' Figure 52. Handles, 1800-20. The first is a form of willow found on ball-and-claw-foot pieces and the late high chests of drawers; the second is a litde screw han- dle, which had no plate, and was most often found on dressing-boxes ; 79 C O L O N I A L V U R N I T U R E the third is the oval handle found on the majority of the swell-front bureaus and Hepplewhite sideboards ; and the fourth is a rather elabo- rate oval, with a ring handle, found on Sheraton pieces. Figure 52 shows three forms of handles belonging to the Empire period, to which should also be added the brass rosette shown in Fig- ure 38, and the glass rosette, which was quite commonly used on the late Empire bureau. Figure 53. Wash-Stand, Hepplewhite, 1780-90. Figure 54. Wash-stand, Sheraton, about 1790. Two little corner wash-stands which were in fashion with the swell- and serpentine-front bureaus are shown in Figures 53 and 54. Figure 53 is Hepplewhite in style, and belongs to Mr. INIeggat. Figure 54 is Sheraton, of mahogany, with drawer-fronts of bird's-eye maple, and belongs to Mrs. W. \V. Andrews. They date i 780-1 800. 80 I V CUPBOARDS AND SIDEBOARDS AT the time when the American colonies were settled cupboards / \ had been in common use for generations. As the name im- / % plies, they were originally "bordes" on which to set drink- ing-cups. The earhest of these cupboards now known are con- structed with shelves arranged like steps, and having often a "tremor" or canopy of wood ; they are Gothic in style, and are spoken of some- times as ambries or almeries, the names long- used in the churches for a niche or cupboard near the altar, built to contain the utensils requisite for conducting worship. The frequent mention of cupboards of all kinds throughout our probate records shows them to have been in very common use in all the colonies, and the spelling of the word is various enough to suit all tastes : cubboard, cubberd, cubbord, cubbert, cupbard, and cubart are some of the spellings employed. Court, wainscot, livery, standing, hanging, press, joined, plain, great, and painted are the de- scriptions most often met with. Court and livery, the words most often used in connection with the cupboards of New England and the South, seem to have lost their original meanings sometime before their use in this covmtry. It is fair to suppose that they must have had .some definite descriptive meanings when first applied, and these seem to have been derived from the French words court and livrer, court meaning low or short, and pointing to the conclusion that this mu,st • COLONIAL FURNITURE have been a low piece of furniture, much Hke a modern serving-table. Livrer has been variously translated to mean service and delivery, perhaps referring to a custom in vogue during the fifteenth and six- teenth centuries of delivering to the household the rations required during the day and night. An old English dictionary defines livery as " something given out in stated quantities at stated times." For a note on the word cupboard in the " Promptuarium Parvulorum Cleri- corum," published by Wynkyn de Worde in 1510, and republished by the Camden Society in 1865, reads as follovi^s : "The livery cupboard often mentioned in accounts and ordinances of the household was open and furnished with shelves whereon the ration called a livery allowed to each member of the household was placed." The English inventory records throughout the sixteenth century, published by the Surtees and Camden societies, make frequent mention of court and livery cupboards, but their values, even in the estates of persons of consequence, are so exceedingly low as to indicate that they must have been very simple in style and workmanship, hardly more than shelves supported by a frame. The picture of the dining-hall at Christ Church College, Oxford (Figure 55), shows a court cupboard beneath the window, which must have been far finer than the bulk of those of the time to which it be- longs (sixteenth century). The upper shelf will be seen to be sup- ported by well-carved dragons, the lower b\- pilasters carved after the manner of Elizabethan pieces, and the centre shelf ornamented with deeply carved reedings. This cupboard doubtless represents very fairly the style in which cupboards were built during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Toward the close of the sixteenth century the English records show the court and livery cupboards to have increased in value, and this undoubtedly means that these pieces had been elab- orated in some way, probably by the addition of enclosures in the form of cupboards and drawers, and also by the addition of ornaments in the form of carving and inlav. This we know to be true, for a to y o Si u u Q J3 o 83 CUPBOARDS AND SIDEBOARDS number of cupboards dating early in the seventeenth century are preserved in the collections of English museums which have enclo- sures and drawers and are carved and inlaid. A very few specimens of cupboards with on!)- the upper portion enclosed remain in this country, and the conclusion that the court cupboard has evolved from open shelves to the fully enclosed cup- boards, of which comparatively large numbers remain, is well attested. The upper portion, as we have seen, was first enclosed, the lower remaining an open shelf; then a drawer was added below the middle shelf and, finally, the lower portion was entirely enclosed, first with cupboards and then with drawers. Properly speaking, then, the terms court and livery do not apply to the cupboards which are to be found in this country, which are, technically speaking, press cup- boards, that is, enclosed with doors ; but there is every reason to think that these press cupboards were referred to as court and livery, for there is express mention of court cupboards with drawers and livery cupboards with drawers, which are not qualifications of real court or livery cupboards. As far as this country is concerned, court and livery are used quite interchangeably, if one may judge from values given, for the prices of both are equally small or large, as the case may be : a court cupboard at Salem in 1647, 14s.; a livery cupboard at the same place in 1656, i8s.; a livery cupboard and cloth in 1674, ;^i 5s.; a court cupboard and cloth at Boston in 1700, ^i ; a court cupboard with a drawer at Boston in 1658, i6s.; a livery cupboard with drawers, 1666, I OS. The cloth was mentioned quite as often with court as with livery, and suggests that their make-up must have been much the same. There is no mention of either court or livery cupboards in the early New York records, and the /casscs or cupboards in use among the Dutch will be spoken of separately. The Southern records contain quite frequent nxMition of both 85 COLONIAL FURNITURE court and livery cupboards, but, as far as the writer has been able to determine, these pieces have utterly disappeared, and it may be assumed that they were in character and material the same class of furniture as those remaininLf in New England, as the source of supply for North and South was the same. The wood is usually oak, with pine freely used for the cupboard tops, bottoms, and backs, and for the bottoms of the drawers when drawers are used. In the panelled cupboards the mouldings are occasionally found of cedar, but are more often of pine, beech, or maple painted, and the turned ornaments, drops, nail-heads, turtle- backs, and triglyphs are of the same woods, also painted. The pre- dominance of American oak in the construction of these cupboards Figure 56. Press Cupboard, about 1650. denotes, of course, their manufacture here, and as they are such bulky, difficult pieces to transport, it would seem likely that comparatively few of them were brought over. 86 CUPBOARDS AND SIDEBOARDS Figure 56 shows a cupboard constructed in the way most com- monly employed. The upper portion is splayed at the corners, and the overhanging cornice is supported by heavy turned posts ; the lower portion is somewhat plainer than usual, the doors and ends being panelled in as simple a manner as possible. It may here be observed that if but one portion of a cupboard or chest is ornamented it is almost without exception the upper portion. The arched pan- elling and the scroll carving are both indications of an early date, and it may safely be placed in the neighborhood of 1650. This cupboard Figure 57. Panelled Cupboard, last quarter seventeenth century. is now in the Bolles collection, having formerly belonged to Mr. Hulbert, of Middletown, Connecticut. Figure 57 is a wainscot or joined cupboard in the collection of Mr. Henry W. Erving, of Hartford, which is made throughout of oak, »7 COLONIAL FURNITURE no pine whatever appearing in its construction, a fact quite note- worthy, as the wood is American oak, and most American pieces show pine, while the majority of English pieces are much more sparing in the use of it. The cupboard is divided at the centre, and a long drawer runs across the bottom, the mouldings on this drawer being worked on, not applied as is usual. The stiles may have originally had turned ornaments, but the piece shows no evidence of having been painted. Its date is about 1675-1700. Cupboards of this variety, with panelling in various geometrical designs, are very often constructed with the receding portions of the panel in pine and painted black, and with the mouldings painted red. Cupboards intended for clothes are found made in this way, some of them ver)- large, from seven to eight feet in height and from si.\ to eicrht feet in leneth, the large doors dividing at the centre, and show- ing no shelves, but instead large wooden pegs on which the clothes were hung. The hinges of iron are sometimes large and fancifully shaped, and applied on the outside as ornaments. Such pieces as these, with their fine panelling and brilliant colors, are exceedingly effective. Figure 58 shows a very fine example of the panelled cupboard, dating about 1660-80, the drawer-fronts and centre of the panels being inlaid in block design with light and dark woods. This inlay is quite often met with in the fine cupboards abroad, but it is not very common in this country. This cupboard was found neglected in a stable some years ago, and carefully restored; but the feet, which are new, should have been of the ball variety illustrated in Figure 61, for, almost without exception, chests and cupboards having the wide outstandiuL'' mouldinor at the bottom have these ball feet, while the straight feet are merely the continuation of the stiles and uninter rupted b)' any moulding in most cases. The feet of chests and cupboards being often missing, it may be of service to collectors to know that if the place where the feet were 88 PANELLED OAK PRESS CUPBOARD, 1660-80. h S^af^ f C U I' B O A R D S AND SIDEBOARDS applied originally can be examined, the presence of an auger-hole with rounded end denotes the use of a very old style of instrument, for the modern auger leaves a straight surface where it finishes a hole. The ball feet were furnished with dowel-pins which fitted into the holes. Figure 59. Panelled and Inlaid Press Cupboard, last quarter seventeenth century. The cupboard from Mr. Erving's collection, shown in Eigure 59, has come to be quite generally known among collectors as the Con- necticut cupboard, for a number of them have been found in Connec S9 COLONIAL rURNITURE ticut, and the writer has been unable to trace any that have been found elsewhere. The panels of the lower portion will be seen to be almost identi- cal with the chest shown in Figure lo. This cupboard differs some- what from those previously shown, in that the upper section is not splayed, but presents a straight surface, leaving a narrow shelf run- ning across the front. The wide drawer between the upper and lower section is not divided into two, as it appears to be. These cupboards date about 1680. Cupboards are occasionally met with in which both upper and lower sections are recessed, the lower cup- board finished in the same manner as the upper, and also having the turned posts at the corners. A drawer sometimes is added at the bottom. A cupboard of this description is in the Waters collection at Salem, Massachusetts. Figure 60 shows a fine carved cupboard in the Bulkeley collec- tion, and is a particularly interesting piece, as it has so many of the carved desifjns in common use in Entfland durincr the late si.xteenth and early seventeenth centuries. The drawer and upper cornice have the very familiar scroll design ; the stiles are in the rose design ; and the lower rail has the half-circle border seen on so many of the chests. The blocking with which the top is finished is not usually found except on well-made pieces. This cupboard probably dates about 1675-80. Another carved cupboard, belonging to Mr. Walter Hosmer, of Wethersfield, Connecticut, is shown in Figure 61, which also shows a large number of carved designs that are familiar to one acquainted with the chests. The main decoration consists of the scroll, while the stiles show the herring-bone or feather pattern to advantage ; the rose also appears on the recessed portion of the upper cupboard. The reader will observe the wide outstanding moulding and the ball feet. A feature of the cupboard not observable from the illus- tration is the fact that the turned posts are of oak and have evi- 90 CUPBOARDS AND SIDEBOARDS dently never been painted ; the Ionic capitals and dentilled cornice add to the well-made appearance ; and though all the carved designs are early ones, the general aspect which the cupboard presents of a fully developed style points to a date late in the seventeenth century. It Figure 60. Carved Oak Press Cupboard, last quarter seventeenth century. was undoubtedly made in this country, as the wood is American white- oak. This cupboard is of unusual size, being 5 feet i }i inches high. the lower section being 3 feet in height, 4 feet wide, anc I 1 nch es deep, the upper part 2 feet i >< inches high and 18 '4 inches deep. 9' COLONIAL FURNITURE Such examples of carving as those last shown make it appear rather remarkable that the New England inventories do not mention carving in connection with cupboards, and only very occasionall)- in the description of chests ; it would seem that the original cost of such Figure 6i. Carved Oak Press Cupboard, last (juarter seventeenth centur)'. work as these cupboards show would necessarily be high; but on looking through a long list of cupboard values taken at Pljmouth, Salem, Boston, Philadelphia, and York town, the values vary, as a rule, from 5s. to /^i 5s., and valuations above these figures are very rare. 92 PANELLED OAK PRESS CUPBOARD WITH THREE DRAWERS, LATTER HALF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. (Figure 6b. ) C U P B O A R 1 ) S AND SID E B () A R D S An entry of a "court cubbert " at Boston, 1681, places the value at ^4, and at Yorktown a court cupboard with drawers, in 1657, is valued at ;^5 ; at Salem, in 1733, we find " one best cupboard ^'3," and the " next best, £2 "; but the currency inflation suffered at this time in Mas- sachusetts may bring the actual value of the last-named down to the average. The inside arrangement of these cupboards does not vary much. The upper cupboard is usually open, — that is, without shelves, — but sometimes has a shelf in the centre ; and when the cornice at the top is not a drawer it often has a shelf concealed which is reached through the cupboard. The lower cupboard has from one to three long shelves. These cupboards, as well as the joined oak hu-niture in gen- eral, are fastened together mortise and tenon fashion with wooden pegs throughout ; no nails whatever were used in them. A very fine cupboard with drawers, known as the " Putnam cup- board," which was presented to the Esse.x Institute, Salem, by Miss Harriet Putnam Fowler, of Dan vers, Massachusetts, a descendant of John Putnam, who settled in .Salem about the year 1634, is shown in Figure 62. It differs from all the preceding in having the lower section entirely of drawers, a development which we may regard as the extreme to which these cupboards came, although a court cup- board with three drawers is mentioned in a Boston inventory as early as 1677. The panelling on the drawers is especially fine, all the mouldings being of cedar. The arch shape of the recessed panels of the cupboard portion would make it appear that this cupboard ma)- be an early example of its kind. It probabl)- dates, however, after the middle of the seventeenth century. The wood is English oak throughout, indicating its origin. The piece is made in two parts, the cupboard proper and the drawer section separate. There is a cupboard with three drawers in the Holies collection, dated 1699, showing that cupboards were being made in this way as late as that date. Figure 63 shows a very beautiful and rare piece belonging to 93 C O L O X I A L !• L' R X I T U R E Mr. Walter Hosmer, of Wethersfield, Connecticut, which may, perhaps, be such a piece as was referred to in several Yorktown (Virginia) inventories before 1700 — "a cupboard of drawers." It is 53 inches high, 43 inches wide, and 30 inches deep, and is made in two sections, as were the high chests of drawers and the cupboard last shown. Figure 6j. Cupboard of Drawers, last iiuarter seventeenth century. The upper section consists of two drawers, one about 4^2 inches wide, extending entirely across the front just beneath the moulding, and a larger drawer io>^ inches wide. The lower section is in appearance a cupboard, the doors enclosing three long drawers. The wood is English oak, and the face of the centre panels and the entire front of the narrow drawer, as well as the face of the applied ornaments of the upper section, are veneered with snakewood, an extreinely hard wood 94 CUPBOARDS AND SIDEBOARDS growing in Brazil. The mouldings are cedar, and there is no paint on the piece, except on the turned ornaments, which are painted black. The knob handles are of bone, and the drop handles on the enclosed drawers are of iron. This piece was found in Connecticut, but is undoubtedly of English origin. Cupboard cloths and cushions are mentioned frequently in all the records, and often inventoried separately as articles of considerable value, sometimes higher than the cupboard itself. We know that the cupboard tops were used for the display of china, pewter, and glass, for this is often included in the appraised value of the cupboard ; therefore the cupboard cloths or carpets are easily accounted for, as covers made of various materials (linen, tapestry, and needlework are some of the kinds mentioned) would very natu- rally have been in use. But what a cupboard cushion could be does not at first appear, as there seems to have been no cupboard that could possibly have been used as a seat, and cushions meant cushions in those days as now, and are almost invariably mentioned with joined chairs and settles. The only solution for the riddle of the cushion on the cupboard seems to be that the cushion was probably a very thin one, placed over or under the cloth as a protection to the china and glass against striking a hard surface with force enough to break or injure it. The cupboards discussed so far in this chapter represent the kind of furniture with which the homes of the seventeenth century in this country were furnished, and to the average American are absolutely unknown. The consensus of opinion among students of the subject is that the design for the wainscot cupboards came from Germany, and Herr von Falke, in his lectures on "Art in the House," shows a few designs for German Renaissance sideboards, mostly from the designs of Hans Vriedeman de Vries (painter, designer, and architect, born at Leeu- warden, in Friesland, 1527, died at Antwerp some time after 1604), which may easily have been the models for the heavily panelled cup- 95 COLONIAL FURNITURE boards so common here. The taste for the brilliant colors with which the cupboards were sometimes stained and painted probably also came from the Germans, for Dr. von Falke remarks that the mag- nificent inlay in colored woods, metals, and precious stones achieved by the great artists of Italy and Spain created a desire for these same color effects without the same expense and skill, thus giving rise to the use of paint or stain among the German cabinet-makers of the seventeenth century. Practically all the American cupboards show traces of having their mouldings and turned ornaments painted, and the carved pieces, many of them, show the presence of a black stain or paint used as a background to set off the carving more effec- tively. A cupboard is occasionally found where judicious scraping will show the original ornament to have been principally a design in paint, simulating carving or panelling. These painted cupboards are not, however, very common; a unique one is in the Bolles collection. It has been previously remarked that the words court and livery do not appear in the inventory records at New York, and likewise the words oak and wainscot are almost entirely lacking. The word kas, sometimes spelled kasse, appears very often, and this was the Dutch name for cupboard. The records speak of plain cupboards, great cupboards, walnut cupboards, great presses, Holland cupboards, cedar cupboards, and Dutch painted cupboards, and a search among the treasures of Dutch families in the vicinity of New York has not revealed a single oak piece or a cupboard in any way resembling the court and livery cupboards of New England. The cabinet or cupboard shown in Figure 64 was made in Hol- land in the first quarter of the seventeenth centur)-, and has recently been brought to this country. The carving is of a very high order, and the plain overhanging moulding and the curious ball feet are the only resemblance it bears to any Dutch pieces to be found in this country to-day. A Dutch painted cupboard now preserved at the Van Cortlandt 96 CUPBOARDS AND SIDEBOARDS Mansion at Van Cortlandt Park is shown in Figure 65. The quaint designs in fruit and flowers are in shades of gray, and seem never to have been tampered with. There is a long drawer across the bottom Figure 64. Dutch Cabinet, first quarter seventeenth .century. on side runners, and the cupboard doors when open disclose wide shelves. Kasses of this kind are made to separate in three parts; the heavy cornice lifts off, and the frame and drawer are separate from the cupboard proper. 97 C O L O \ I A L ¥ U R X I 1~ U R E The writer knows of three cupboards exactly like this in con- struction, belonging to Dutch families in the neighborhood of New York, which are made of pine, cherry, and maple respectively, and instead of being painted are panelled, the doors plainly, the drawers in geometric designs; and the drawers in each case have Figure 65. Painted Kas, latter half seventeenth century. side runners. The inside arrangement is the same as that in Fig- ure 65, except that a shallow drawer runs beneath the middle shelf A Dutch painted cupboard valued at £i is mentioned at New York in 1702. Figure 66 shows a kas in the possession of Mrs. Henry R. Beek- man, of New York City. The wood is walnut throughout, and the carving, which is well executed, is applied, and appears to be original; and the fact that several kasses of this kind of which the writer '^ Figure 66. Carved Walnut Kas, about middle of seventeenth century. 99 CUPBOARDS AND SIDEBOARDS knows are decorated in this same way, and in very similar patterns, would indicate that this method of applying the carving was the one generally employed. Its dimensions are 7 feet 3 inches in height, and 6 feet 2 >j inches in width; the cornice overhang measures 8 inches, and the ball feet measure 9 inches in diameter. The wide drawer at the bottom is on side runners, and the inside shelves, three in number, are each furnished with a three-inch drawer, also on side runners. A rather curious fact is that although all these kasses have ball feet, no two sets have been found to be made just alike. The front feet only are the ball shape, the rear ones straight and slender. This kas very probably represents the finest of the cupboards in use among the Dutch, and the tradition in the Beekman family is that it came to New York with the first Beekman in Governor Stuyvesant's ship in the year 1647. The piece is certainly of Holland origin, and could date as early as the tra- dition states. The records of New York speak of " sfreat black walnut kosses," referrine to such cupboards as this. As far as the writer can ascertain, these kasses were the only style of large cupboard known or used by the Dutch, and their character is certainly quite different from that of similar pieces in the New England colonies. An interesting little piece of Dutch carving found at Coxsackie, New York, which now belongs to the writer, is shown in Figure 67. The wood is beech, and the design is not at all common in this coun- ■ !.'( •\'* >'} >'S 'J '.' N< ' -m'-i>:^(^ .if r ^ ( Figure 67. Carved Spoon-rack, about 1675. COLONIAL I< L R N I 'I- I' R E try. The three narrow shelves are each pierced with five oval open- ings designed to hold spoons. The wood of the shelves around these openings is much worn l)y long years of use. These spoon- racks are mentioned in some of the early Dutch records, called by their Dutch name, Icpcl-hortics. The Dutch with their housewifely tastes loved to have their walls adorned with bright pewter and china, and devised shelves of various kinds for the holding of these valued Figure 68. , Panelled Cii[)board, 1740-50. articles. " A painted wooden rack to sett china ware in " is mentioned at New York in 1696. A simple panelled cupboard of maple, which was probably made CUPBOARDS AND SIDEBOARDS before i 750, as is indicated by the style of the panels and the simple bracket foot, is shown in Figure 68. This perhaps represents the latest style of standing cupboards that were used to any extent, and though they were quite common, very few have been preserved. The hinges and handles are new ; the hinges were iron, and the handles a simple willow pattern. It is now in the possession of Mr. Luke A. Lockwood, of Riverside, Connecticut. higure 69. Chest of Drawers with Cupboard Top, about 1780. Chests of drawers with cupboard tops were much used during the latter halt of the eighteenth century. The cupboards were fur- nished with three or four shelves, and were decorated with both carv- ing and inlay, while the chest of drawers portion followed various fashions of feet and handles, the earliest having ball-and-claw feet COLONIAL FURNITURE and no inlay. One of these cupboards is shown in Figure 69, which is made of French walnut, and beautifully inlaid in borders and medallions with colored woods. These chests of drawers with cup- board tops are sometimes called kasses, erroneously, for they are not of Dutch origin, but are distinctly English, and do not date earlier than 1740. Chippendale gives several designs for them in his "Gen- tleman's and Cabinet-Maker's Director." Something should perhaps be said of the length of time that cup- boards remained in fashion — much longer, no doubt, in the villages than in the towns, where a change of fashion was followed more closely. At Boston the records begin to speak of chests of drawers on frames about 1680, and we may date the decline of cupboards from this time, though in some parts of New England they continued to be made for some twenty years or more. A will dated at New York in i 708 speci- fies that the wife of the testator shall be allowed to take " a new cubbard that is now amaking by Mr. Shaveltie" ; and Mrs. Vanderbilt's " Social History of Flatbush " mentions a Dutch cupboard which sold for £4. in 1790. At Philadelphia, which was not settled until 1682, the records make very little mention of cupboards. From 1683 until 1720 only six are found, all valued very low, and described as old or old- fashioned. On the other hand, chests of drawers and tables are freely mentioned, showing that the cupboards were superseded by the high chests of drawers which came into use in the last quarter of the seven- teenth century. About the years 1725-30 houses with panelled walls and with cupboards built in to match the panelling were quite generally the style throughout the colonies. The majority of these cupboards were fastened into side walls, and were not, therefore, movable ; but some, especially in the South, were fine pieces of workmanship with scroll tops and detached. The dining-room often had a corner cupboard or buffet, while the house throughout was supplied liberally with cup- boards skilfully placed in various ways in the panelling of the walls. 104 Figure 70. "Beaufatt" and Wall Panelling, about 1740. 105 CUPBOARDS AND SIDEBOARDS Corner cupboards appear in the inventories earlier than buffets, and are evidently not the same thing, as their values are much lower ; two at Boston, one in i 720 and the other in 1725, are valued, respectively, at 7s. and 3s., two at Philadelphia as late as 1750 are valued at los. and I 2s., while buffets are almost invariably valued at more than a pound, and often at two or three pounds and higher. Thus at Yorktown, ^^■I^^IIH m ■ -.; ; 41 iii \ * ^^^i ^^^H Figure 71. Corner " Beaufatt," about 1740. Virginia, are mentioned in 1745, " i beaufet ^i los," 1753, " i un- finished beaufet ^'5 los," and one in 1763 valued at /^7 los. The buffets were usually corner pieces, but sometimes recessed into the side walls. They were furnished with a door or doors, the upper portion of 107 C O L O X I A 1. !• I' R N I T I' R K which was glass, and the lower panelled to match the room. The shelves of the upper cupboard are cut in graceful curves, and the top at the back is often finished with a shell, sometimes cut from a solid, very thick piece of wood. Figure 70 shows a buffet which was built into the side wall of a house in Connecticut, and this, with the panelling for the whole side of the room, is owned by Mr. Meggat. The cupboard, as well as the other woodwork of the room, was never painted, and the pine has acquired a soft yellowish color with age. A corner buffet, now the property of Mr. Albert H. Pitkin, of Hartford, which also came from a house in Connecticut, is shown in Figure 71. The cupboard portion is made separate from the outer portion, to which the doors, panelled like it, are attached, leaving a space of about four inches between the two. These buffets were com- monly called "beaufatts," "beaufets," or "beaufats," and a village in the vicinity of Northampton, Massachusetts, has acquired the name Beaufat from the fact that one of these cupboards, which was considered quite remarkable, was built into a house there. A fine example of the woodwork of this period is shown in Figure 72, a cupboard presented to the old Philadelphia Library Building by John Penn in 1738. The broken-arch cornice with the urn, which was very fashionable for interior woodwork at this time, is well illus- trated in this piece. SIDEBOARDS Sideboards as we know them are comparatively recent inven- tions belonging to the latter half of the eighteenth century. The court and livery cupboards were extensively used in the dining-rooms, or "parlours," as they were generally called, their drawers and com- partments making a convenient storing-place for linen and china, and their flat tops were commonly utilized for exhibiting the china, silver, and pewter. When the oak cupboards were no longer in 108 Figure 72. Cupboard with Glass Door, 1738. 109 CUPBOARDS AND SIDEBOARDS favor, the corner cupboards or buffets replaced them and served the same purposes. During this time, however, when cupboards were in general use, there is occasionally mention of side tables and side- board tables. At New York, in 1689, mention is made of "a side- board table 15s"; in the same year "i side table with a drawer" cost i8s. ; and in 1677 " four sideboard cloths" are mentioned; and there is record at Boston, in 1707, of "a sideboard table 6s." What these sideboard tables were it is very difficult to say, as a thorough search and inquiry among collectors have failed to discover any table which would properly answer this description. There are, however, specimens of English sideboards extant which are the same style of furniture as the panelled chests and cupboards so common here. One of these may be seen at the South Kensington Museum, which is a long, narrow oak table with three drawers in a row, pan- elled after the fashion of the drawers in the cupboard (Figure 62). This stands on five legs, the three in front being turned and the two rear ones plain and straight; a heavy stretcher or brace runs around the front and sides about six inches from the floor. There are two tables or sideboards very similar to this in the Bolles collection which have recently been brought from England, and it was probably such pieces as these that were referred to in the above inventories. About 1 740 marble tables began to be mentioned as part of the dining-room furniture: Boston, 1741, "in ye parlour i marble slab and table " ; in 1748, "in the parlour i marble table with mahogony frame"; in 1759, "in the dining room i marble table " ; in 1767, "i marble sideboard and frame"; and the Boston "Evening Post" for July, 1751, advertises "a variety of fashionable furniture including stone tables." Chippendale's designs, published in 1 754, show no sideboards with drawers or cupboards, but sideboard tables having marble tops and elaborately carved mahogany frames. The fashion of making the sideboard tops of marble was certainly a practical one, far better adapted for serving purposes than the polished wood tops COLONIAL I' V R N I T U R E so sensitive to heat and moisture. As the Enghsh fashions were so closely followed here, the entries quoted above we believe to have reference to such marble-topped serving-tables as Chippendale made use of. For some reason these too seem to have disappeared, per- haps because the weight of the marble tops strained the frames to an extent which made them particularly likely to become broken, and so they were discarded. The first style of sideboard which is now found in this country is the slender-legged inlaid mahogany one commonly credited to Chippendale. It is, however, not in any sense Chippendale either in design or workmanship. The statement is repeatedly met with, and usually supported by traditions as to date of importation or purchase, that sideboards of this kind date before i 750. This seems practi- cally impossible, as there is no trace of any furniture made with a straight, tapering leg, and decorated with inlay, as these sideboards invariably were, as early as 1750. The fact seems to be that this fashion originated with an English designer named Thomas Shearer, a member of the London Society of Cabinet-makers, whose book of prices was published in 1788. Mr. \V. K. Clouston, in his book on "The Chippendale Period in English Furniture," gives the credit of the designs therein shown for serpentine inlaid sideboards to Shearer, whose name they bear, though Hepplewhite was also a member of this society, and at this time seems to have been working with Shearer. In his own book of designs, published a little later, Hepplewhite adopts this same fashion in his sideboards, and as his reputation seems to have much outlasted Shearer's, they generally bear his name. The book of prices gives this interesting list of woods which were principally employed by these makers for marquetry and inlay: "satin wood, either solid or veneered, manilla, safisco, havannah, king, tulip, rose, purple, snake, alexandria, panella, yew and maple," the principal wood being, of course, always mahogany. Great num- bers of sideboards made after these designs are still to be seen in this CUPBOARDS AND SIDEBOARDS countrv, which were undoubtedly made here, judging from the fact tiiat the veneering is on pine, and the insides of tlie drawers and back arc of the same wood. The outlines of the fronts and sides are varied in many ways, as is also the arrangement of drawers and cupboards. The inlay also is sometimes but an outline of holly and satinwood around the top, drawer-fronts, and legs, and sometimes quite elabo- rate marquetry designs in many-colored woods are used. The handles are almost invariably the brass ones with oval plates. Figure 73. Hepplewhite Sideboard, 1 790-1800. A Shearer or Hepplewhite sideboard of very graceful design, belonging to Mr. L. A. Lockwood, is shown in Figure 'J2>- The front is serpentine in shape, an e.xtra curve being added below its two centre drawers ; the drawer-fronts and top are veneered in very finely grained mahogany on whitewood. This is usually the case, a sideboard of this kind beinof seldom met with where the drawer-fronts are solid. The fan inlay in the corners of drawers and cupboard doors, as well as the wreath design on the legs, is characteristic. At least one drawer is usually arranged in sections to hold bottles. 113 C O L O \M A L 1^- V R N I I' U R E Figure 74, the effect of which is very iiuich marred by the cheap modern handles, is also a fine example of Hepplewhite sideboard, belonging to Mr. Ethridge, of Salem, Massachusetts. Each drawer has a panel in light mahogany bordered with fine lines of inlay Figure 74. Hepplewhite Sideboard, i 790-1800. (Handles new.) in white holly and ebony; the edge of the drawer outside of the panel is in dark mahogany, thus giving a very fine effect. The small oval panels set into the stiles above the legs are in satinwood. The narrow drawers each side of the centre cupboards are in this piece the bottle drawers. The knife- or spoon-boxes shown on the 114 CUPBOARDS AND SIDEBOARDS top of this sideboard were very generally made to accompany them, and are usually fine pieces of cabinet wood beautifully inlaid ; the inside is arranged with a wooden section set on a slant pierced in proper shapes for the holding of knives and spoons, and often each little hole is surrounded with a fine band of inlay. The handles and escutcheons are sometimes silver. m r sn W "^1 Figure 75. Hepplewhite Sideboard, i 799. A sideboard which was part of the wedding outfit of Mr. John Williams, of Wethersfield, Connecticut, in 1799, and now owned by his granddaughter, Mrs. W. W. Andrews, is shown in Figure 75. The flip-glasses, tea-caddy, and silver shown with it belonged also to Mr. Williams. The large square drawers are bottle drawers, and still contain the silver crescent-shaped markers which hung over the n5 COLONIAL F U R X I T I' R E necks of the bottles. The inlay in this piece is but a fine line follow- ing the outlines of the top, drawers, and frame ; the legs have the little wreath which is almost never omitted. The brass handles are the original ones, and have stamped on them a basket with a pineapple projecting from it. Sideboards of which the three above shown are types remained in favor for a considerable period. They probably were known and used here at about the same date as in England, and if we deduct ten Figure 76. Sheraton Sideboard, about 1800. years from the date of the published design, on a reasonable supposi- tion that they may have been already executed before the designs were published, 1778 would be as early a date as we should obtain for the introduction of this style. That they were made as late as 1804 is certain, for the writer has seen a bill for a sideboard very similar to Figure 75 dated in that year. CUPBOARDS AND SIDEBOARDS These sideboards average about six feet in length and twenty- four inches in width, though they were made in many shapes and sizes, sometimes in miniature, and occasionally one is seen which is made to fit the corner of a room, the top being triangular. In 1 791 Thomas Sheraton, of London, published a book containing a number of designs for sideboards. He professes great dislike for Hepplewhite's work, but nevertheless his designs show the influence of that maker. He made great use of the slender fluted leg in place of the square tapering one, and used inlay both in wood and metal. Some of his extravagant pieces are elaborately painted and trimmed with brass. The majority of sideboards in this country which are modelled after his designs are comparatively plain, most of them having no inlay. A sideboard that may be properly called American Sheraton, which belongs to Mr. Meggat, is shown in Figure 76. The knife- boxes are attached to the top, and furnished with sliding scroll covers. Two small drawers pull out from the ends of these, as shown in the illustration. Many sideboards similar to this in general style are found which have, instead of the attached knife-boxes, the end sections raised about four inches above the centre, probably designed to hold knife-boxes in urn shape, one of which is shown in Figure ']•]. The top of these urn-shaped boxes is not on a hinge, but is supported by a rod of wood running through the centre, which, when the top is raised sufficiently, releases a spring, thus holding the top in that position. This box belongs to Mr. Meggat. The fashion of making the knife-boxes in urn shape is not original with Shera- ton, as it had been extensively used by other English cabinet-makers before this time. They are very fine specimens of cabinet work, the fitting of the graduated sections requiring a skilful workman. Fiyure 77. Knife- and Spoon-box, last quarter eighteenth ccntiirv. "7 C O L O X I A L F I' R X I T U R E A sideboard very much like one of tlie designs in Sheraton's book, except that it is much simpHfied, is shown in Figure 78. The drawers are decorated witli a narrow inlay strip, and the handles are Figure 78. Sheraton Sideboard, about 1800. the rosette and ring, which in many styles and sizes were much used by Sheraton on furniture of all kinds. The distinguishing characteristic of Sheraton sideboards in this country is the slender fluted legs. Whenever this is met with it shows his influence. The two sideboards here shown represent fairly well the general character of American Sheraton, though, of course, endless variations in shape, size, and arrangement are to be tound. The wood is always mahogany. With the decline in favor of early Sheraton designs, about the year 1800, the character of construction for furniture in general is radically changed. The graceful effects obtained by the use of the slender, square, and fluted legs were entirely lost by the substitution of the massive round or rope-carved pillars, extending nearly to the floor, and finished with the bear- or lion's-claw foot. This massive design was adopted from the French Empire style, but the Amer- iiS CUPBOARDS AND SIDEBOARDS ican makers omitted the elaborate trimmings in brass and ormolu and depended for effect upon the grain of the wood and the heavy carving. In the vocabulary of the dealer of to-day, the term colonial is applied to this plain and massive style — a misapplied name, for the fashion was not known until some time after the Figure 79. Empire Sideboard, 1810-20. American colonies had become states. The sideboards in Empire style are almost always furnished with three drawers beneath the top, the fronts of which are sometimes made on a curve ; the handles are rosette and ring, lion-head and ring, and the brass or glass rosette. The doors of the cupboards which filled the lower portion are nearly always panelled, often in oval or Gothic form, as is 119 C O L O \' I A L I- L' R N I T U R l- also the board which finishes the back of the top. Veneering is used extensively to obtain elaborate grain eiTects, and the mahogany used is very fine. Trimmings in brass are occasionally employed, but the majority make use of panelling and carving for decorative purposes. Figure 79 shows an Empire sideboard of conventional design having the rope-carved column extending to the floor, forming the feet. The backboard makes use of a style of broken arch which was quite often used with the Empire designs, although it is a survival of a much earlier style. Fisrure So. Empire Sideboard, iSio-^o. Figure 80 illustrates very well the circular pillars and bear-claw feet which are most characteristic of American Empire furniture in general. Sideboards constructed after the fashion of this one are commonly without the raised drawers at the end, and are often fur- nished with a serving-board which pulls out from beneath the top at V CHAIRS IT is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to give the exact date when a particular style of chair appeared or disappeared ; still, the subject divides itself rather naturally into periods correspond- ing with certain political events at the beginning of which the influ- ence was first felt, and the end represents the time when the style began to be called old-fashioned. The dates will, however, be some- what arbitrary, and it may happen that in a few sporadic cases the style appeared slightly earlier or lasted slightly later; but in the main it will be found accurate, and a convenient method of fixing styles with date. The First Period will be from 1620 to 1660, the date of the acces- sion of Charles 11. The Second Period, 1660 to 1702, the date ot the accession of Anne. The Third Period, 1702 to 1750, when the influence of Chippen- dale began to be felt in this country. The Fourth Period, 1750 to 1840, the period of cabinet-makers. Between the Second and Third Periods will be added a Tran- sition Period which overlaps both. No single rule, of course, can be laid down that will enable one to tell the age of a given chair, as there are many elements which enter to determine it; but a fairly safe guide to follow is that the 123 C O L O N I A L F U R N I T V R E heavier the underbracing the greater the age. Strength was, we may presume, the maker's end in view, for a glance at the soHd backs and seats or the heavy bracing, and an attempt to lift one of the wainscot chairs, will convince one that so far as lasting qualities were concerned they left little to be desired. FIRST PERIOD— 1620-60 We find chairs mentioned sparsely in the earliest inventories of New England and the South, for they were not yet in common use in England, and the idea of the chair being a seat of honor was still general. "The Gate of Language Unlocked" (sixth edition, printed at London in 1643) s:ates the following: "The chair belongeth to the teacher, the lower seats (fourms & benches) to the learner." Forms were for many years used almost exclusively in the place of chairs, and we constantly find mention of "short form" and "long form and table " in tlie inventories. These forms were popular in England, and were probably similar to those still found in the dining- halls of some of the English colleges and schools, benches heavily supported, as shown in Figure S3, which is the dining-hall at Christ Church College, Oxford. The short form was a short bench, sometimes called in the inven- tories joined stool, for the ends of the tables, and the long forms were used on the long sides, those shown in Figure 83 all being long forms. Thus we find at New York, in 1680, "a long table and 2 long formes," one apparently for each side of the table; at Providence, in 17 12, occurs the following entry of furniture in the parlor: "a great table, 3 formes, a great chair and 2 cushions," a form for each side and one end, and the chair for the head of the house, with one cushion for the seat of the chair and the other for a footstool. In nearly all of the early inventories we find stools and joined stools commonly mentioned; thus, at Plymouth, in 1641, "2 joined 124 o 00 U u 125 CHAIRS stools," and in the same inventory "4 joyned stools and 2 joined chairs," which recalls a definition in Watts's " Logick, ' written early in the eighteenth century: "if a chair be defined a seat, for a single person, with a back belonging to it, then a stool is a seat for a single person, without a back." We also find the expression joint or "joynt ' stools, which old dictionaries define as folding three-legged stools. Thus at New York, in 1677, we find "the table in the parlor Figure 84. Turned Chair, sixteenth century. and the five joynt stools"; at Yorktown, in 1658, "3 joint stools"; at Philadelphia, in 1694, "3 old 3 legged stools." A description of such stools is given by Cowper in "The Task": " Joint stools were then created ; on three legs Upborne tliey stood ; three legs upholding firm A massy slab." COLONIAL I- I' R N I T li R E Stools continued to be used all through the seventeenth century, and although they are abundantly mentioned in the inventories, they are to-day extremely rare, and few are to be found in this country, although many are still to be seen in England. There seem to have been at least three styles of chairs in the period under consideration. First, the turned chair, usu- ally made of ash, although some are found with maple posts and hickory spindles. They are made Figure 86. Turned Chair, i 575-1620. Figure 85. Turned Chair, i 575-1620. 1 entirely of turned pieces, and differed in degree of beauty according as the spindles were elaborated. Figure 84 is probably one of the oldest chairs in this country. It be- longs to the Connecticut Historical Society, and by the best authorities has been assigned to the early six- teenth century. Figures 85 and 86 are Elder 128 CHAIRS Brewster's and Governor Carver's chairs respectively, and were, ac- cording to tradition, brought over in the Mayflower. They are at Pilgrim Hall, Plymouth, and probably date the latter part of the sixteenth or early seventeenth century. Elder Brewster's chair is particularly handsome, originally having had on the sides a double row of spindles about the legs between the braces similar to the back. Both pieces originally had flag or rush seats. Chairs in the fashion of Figure 86 are commonly known as " Carver chairs," and are more frequently met with than any other pat- tern of the turned chair. They are found in at least two sizes, Figure 86 representing the larger, and such chairs vary from about 43 to 47 inches in height; the seat is usually 18 inches from the floor, the width of the seat in front is from 20 to 22 inches, while the posts in the largest place measure from 6>^ to 8 inches in circumference. It is generally believed that the greater the circumference of the post, the older the chair. The smaller size, shown in Figure 87, is 43 inches high from the floor to the top of the back post; the seat in front is 18 inches wide, and the circumference of the post at the largest place is 6 inches. As the legs of this chair had been cut off, it is impossible to know exactly what its original height was; it probably stood about an inch higher, making the seat about 18 or 19 inches from the floor. This chair was found at Guilford, Connecticut, and belongs to the author. The small size appears to be less common than the larger, and is occa- sionally found as a side chair. These chairs are referred to in the inventories as follows: at Plymouth, 1643, " 2 flag bottomed chairs & I frame for a chair "; Salem, 1673, "3 turned chairs " ; Boston, 1698, "5 straw bottomed chairs"; 1699, " i great turned chair"; New York, 1685, "9 Mat bottomed chairs"; 1680, "a high Matted chair & an elbow matted chair"; 1692, "12 chairs latticed with reeds"; Philadelphia, 1709, " 2 turned chairs, one armed"; and at Yorktown, Virginia, 1667, "5 old bulrush chairs." 129 COLONIAL FURNITURE These turned chairs are also found with slats across the back in- stead of turned spindles ; but as the large majority of the slat-back pieces belong to a later date, we will postpone the discussion of them. Chairs with large turned posts were also made with but one leg in the back and two in front, having triangu- lar seats. They were not very com- mon, however, in this country ; but a very fine specimen is the well-known " Harvard College Chair." Mention of such chairs probably appears in a Salem inventory in 1673, — "3 bufet chairs 12s," — for in the " Promptua- rium Parvulorum " of Galfridus, pub- lished in the sixteenth century, is the following definition : " Bofet, thre fotyd stole." The question is often asked whether the turned chairs came origi- nally from England or Holland. We are inclined to believe that they are Enelish, for we know of two, much like the Carver chair, which have been handed down in an English family of the working class, and we are told that there are more among that class there; and, further, in 1645 Mrs. Margaret Lake, sister-in-law to Governor Winthrop, sent to England for " 2 armed cheares with fine rushe bottums," and turned chairs are the only variety in use at that time that could have had rush seats. The second style, the wainscot chair, was made of oak, as the name implies, and was usually more or less carved, having heavy bracing near the floor. The seats, of hard oak slabs, were often made more comfortable with cushions, which are frequently men- Figure 87. Turned Chair, first quarter seventeenth century. CHAIRS tioned in the inventories in connection with the chairs, as in Salem, in 1644, "2 cheares & two cushans " ; also the following entries refer to these chairs: Plymouth, 1634, "a joyned chair"; 1682, "a chair Figure 88. Wainscot Chair, about 1600. and cushion"; at New York, 1691, " 7 chairs and four old cushions " ; at Philadelphia, 1694, "4 framed oak chairs and cushions"; 1695, "large oak arm chair and cushion"; at Providence, 171 2, "a great chair and 2 cushions"; 1727, "2 cushons for grate chear " ; 1730, "a greate cheiar and quoshen " ; at Yorktown, Virginia, 1658, "2 131 COLONIAL FUR NM TURK 3 wainscoate chairs. They are also wainscoate chairs"; 1659, frequently referred to as wooden chairs. There is mention of the wainscot chairs in the English inven- tories in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and they were prob- ably more generally used there than here, comparatively few being mentioned in the New England inventories, although a fairly large number are mentioned in those of the South. They are valued from two to three times as much as the turned chairs, which undoubtedly accounts for this fact. The chairs, when carved, show the same de- signs as the chests and cupboards of the period. Figure 88 is now in Essex Institute, Salem, and according to tradition is Elizabethan ; the carving would seem to bear this tradi- tion out. It is an unusually hand- some piece, the carving being both elaborate and well executed, and it is evident that the chair must have belonged to a family of some consequence. Figure 89 was made at Cheap- side, London, in 1614, and was used by Governor Winslow, in 1633, in his council-chamber. The piece is a good example of the simpler form of this chair. Figure 90 was brought to this country in 1660, but belongs to an earlier date. The carved panel is in the same design found in many of the cupboards and chests, and is similar to that shown in Figure 5. Both of these chairs are at Pilgrim Hall, Plymouth. A very beautiful wainscot chair, in the Bulkeley collection, is Figure 8g. Wainscot Chair, 1614. CHAIRS shown in Figure 91, which came originally from Massachusetts. The carving is of the earliest patterns, reeding, half-circles, and geometri- cal designs. The top very clearly suggests the broken arch. It dates in the first half of the seventeenth century. Figure 90. Wainscot Chair, 1600-20. Figure 92 is an example of another chair of this period which was commonly called a chair-table. A glance at the arms and under- bracing shows that it belongs to the wainscot type. As the name implies, when the back is turned down it becomes a table. We find mentioned, in a Salem inventory of 1673, "a chair table 7s 6d," and again in 1690, and at Yorktown, Virginia, 1666, " i table chair," and in 1675, "one new chair table 8s." This chair is prac- tically the same as the famous Theodore Hook chair, although it is not carved. 133 COLONIAL FURNITURE The third style, which may be called a modification of the wain- scot, is the leather chair, which dates a litde later, and by some is called Cromwellian, although it ap- pears in the inventories in this country a little earlier than his time. It was really of Italian design, com- ing to England through Holland dur- ing the Commonwealth, and very Figure 92. Chair-table, 1660-80. Figure 91. Wainscot Chair, first half seventeenth century. likely reached the Pilgrims, who had come from Holland, earlier than it did England, for we find these chairs first mentioned at Plymouth as early as 1643 : "3 leather chairs, 3 small leather chairs £1 los." We continue to find them mentioned freely until the close of the seventeenth century, as in the inventory of the famous Captain Kidd, at New York, 1692, "two dozen single nailed leather chairs, £\ i6s"; and in New York, 1703, "8 leather cheares very old," undoubtedly refer- 134 CHAIRS ring to chairs similar to that shown in Figure 93, or to those with turned frames. In general style the leather chair was like the wainscot chair, the square back and seat being covered with leather, the edges often Figure 93. Leather Chair, about 1640. Studded with brass nails. The underbracing, at first heavy and plain, was a little later turned. Figure 93, belonging to Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut, is a good example of a leather chair. It has a carved leather back and plain leather seat. The underbrace suggests the Italian style, and for that reason we place its date not later than 1640. This chair 135 COLONIAL FURNITURE originally stood somewhat higher from the floor, but the legs are worn away. Wainscot and leather chairs in general stood much higher from the floor than either the turned ones or those appearing later ; in fact, the seats are often as high as twenty or twenty-two inches. They were apparently intended to be used with footstools, as were the benches, for wc find the following description in "The Gate of Lanofuaore Unlocked," before referred to: "When the table is spread with the table cloth, dishes are set upon it and trenchers ' whether they be round or square ' and also a salt sellar. " Out of the bread basket, loaves (shives) of bread are set on the table, or pieces ' morsels'; and then messes of meat. "The ghests that are bidden are brought (led) in by the feast- maker into the dining room (parlour) and when they have washed over a bason out of a ewer and have wiped with a towell ; they sit down upon benches or stools set in order with cushions having foot stools set under them." These leather chairs must not be confounded with the Spanish leather chairs, which are of later date and totally different stjle : Boston, 1653, "8 red leather backe chairs and 2 low leather backe stools"; Salem, 1647, "3 red leather chairs"; Boston, 1700, "6 russia leather chairs " ; Philadelphia, 1683, "14 russia leather chairs"; 1686, "6 calfe leather chairs"; New York, 1691, "3 doz. russia leather chairs"; and Yorktown, 1668, "6 turkey leather chairs." These are references, no doubt, to the style of chair shown in Fig- ure 93. The York County (Virginia) records after 1660 show that a large number of these chairs were in use, one hundred and three of them being mentioned between the years 1657 and 1670; as many as twenty-eight in one inventory in 1667 are spoken of as old. Their values vary from one to ten shillings each. 136 CHAIRS SECOND PERIOD — 1660-1702 The accession of Charles II is marked, both in Eneland and the colonies, by an increase in luxuries of every kind, for his long resi- dence in France had accustomed him to far more elegance than England at that time afforded. In the colonies the struofSfle for existence was well in the background, and the inventories show a marked increase in the amount of furniture of all kinds, especially chairs. One of the new styles was similar to the leather chair last mentioned ; but instead of having the straight bracing and uprights, the lines were softened throughout by the substitution of a spiral- turned frame which gave the appearance of lightness without sacrifice of strength. (See Figure i 70.) Chairs of this style were often covered with "Turkey work," or an embroidery in imitation of it, such as appears on the settee in the figure last mentioned. This covering became very popular during the latter half of the seventeenth century, both for chair-coverings and also for table and cupboard cloths. It was an Oriental fabric woven by hand in the manner of the Turkey rugs, and was imported in great quantities in sizes suitable for chair seats, backs, etc. We find Turkey-work chairs mentioned in English inventories as early as 1589, the English having received permission, in 1579, from Amurath III to trade with Turkey. In New York we find, in 1677, " 12 old Turkey chairs /^i 4s"; Boston, 1669, " 12 turkey work chairs £1 7s 4d " ; at Yorktown, Virginia, 1 674, "6 Turkey worked chairs £2 2s " ; at Salem, 1684, "9 turkey work chairs without backs ^2 4s"; "4 turkey work chairs with backs £1 12s"; at Philadelphia, 1687, " 12 small turkie carpett chairs 2 of them broken ^6 "; and " 6 turkie work chairs i of them broken /^i i6s." Turkey work and leather were very evidently not the only cov- erings used for these square-framed chairs, as the following inventory '37 COLONIAL FURNITURE entries will show : Salem, 1698, "6 old serge chairs" ; New York, 1680, "6 old red cloth chairs " ; 1698, "6 chairs with red plush and 6 with green plush " ; Philadelphia, 1687, " 6 camlett silk fringe low chairs " ; 1668, at Yorktown, "6 wrought chairs"; and, as upholstery was not in use for the turned or wainscot chairs, these entries must refer to the square-framed chairs just described. Very few of these Turkey-work or leather chairs have survived, although through a period of some thirty years they are frequently mentioned in the inventories both in the North and South, and it is not at all uncommon to find a large number, from one to three dozen, in a single inventory. The probable reason is that when the leather or Turkey work was worn out the frames were of little use and were broken up or thrown away. The most notable change in this period was the introduction of cane furniture from Holland. This change in the character of the chairs is so radical that it seems contrary to the general rule of devel- opment, for the graceful, beautiful examples of the carved frame and fine cane chairs which now became fashionable are of another nature entirely from the turned or wainscot pieces generally in use. The carved frame cane chairs are called by many Jacobean, and this apparently upon no definite authority that we have been able to find. The chapter on Jacobean furniture in Mr. Frederick Litchfield's " History of Furniture " has for its initial illustration an elaborate cane chair, and this fact has been quoted as authority for the cane chairs being Jacobean. We have consulted Mr. Litchfield on this subject, and his explanation of the presence of the illustration referred to under Jacobean furniture is that in that chapter the furniture of the time of Charles II is included, though not, properly speaking, Jacobean. The chair, he states, in his opinion, is not earlier than the time of Charles II. After a somewhat prolonged study of the mat- ter, we have come to the conclusion that no such chairs were at all CHAIRS common in England during the Jacobean period, which, properly speaking, could not be said to extend beyond the reigns of James I and Charles I, 1603-49. The chairs which were at all common at that time were either the turned, wainscot, or leather chairs before described ; the cane chair did not put in its appearance in England before the reign of Charles II, and it was not until the last twenty years of the seven- teenth century that they became very plentiful. A circumstance which bears this statement out is that when Anne, who afterward became queen, was on a visit to England in 1680, a suit of furniture was made for her special use at Forde Abbey in this style, and it is fair to assume that it would have been made in the latest fashion. There appear to have been two distinct types of the cane chair which found their way to Holland in the first half of the seventeenth century, and, after receiving some characteristic Dutch additions, were finally exported to England, and became there what is commonly known as the Jacobean cane chair. One was the scroll-foot chair, which appears to have come from Italy or France in the reign of Louis XIII (1610), which we shall call Flemish, and the other was the leather chair which came from Spain or Portugal, which we shall call Spanish. The fact that furniture should be exported from Holland was not strange, for Antwerp seems to have been a great centre for that trade from about 1560 down, and Anderson, in his " History of Commerce," says that in that city were Germans, Danes, Italians, English, and Portuguese, and the commerce included exchanges with all the civil- ized countries of Europe. Antwerp was exporting household furni- ture to Genoa, England, and Spain as early as 1560, and, in fact, was one of the most important places in the commercial world. So far as this country is concerned, these chairs appear in the inventories not earlier than the last quarter of the seventeenth cen- tury. We find at Yorktown, 1687, "2 old cained chairs i6s," and in 139 COLONIAL FURNITURE New York, in 1691, " 13 cane chairs broken and out of order," which would indicate at least that at that date the style was not new. At Philadelphia, 1686, "8 cane chairs "; 1687, " 8 cane chairs" ; Boston, 1 71 2, " I doz. cane chairs with black frames in the dining room"; Boston, 1 71 2, " 6 cane chairs with carved Oak frames"; Boston, 1732, " I doz. cane chairs"; Salem, 1734, "6 cane chairs." The style remained in fashion until after 1719, for in that year in the Boston "News Letter "is mention of " fine cane chairs just im- ported from London." We will take up now these two styles of cane chairs separately, showing their various developments. The first or Flemish style is fairly well represented in Figure 94. The feet are characteristic of the style, and it will be noticed that the scroll foot turns outward, as it should in the pure Flemish style. The top of the back is slightly carved, and the back is of unusually graceful shape. The seat, of course, originally was of cane, as is the back ; the carved front brace is common to both the Flemish and Spanish styles, and usually follows the outline of the top of the back. This chair belongs to Mr. Robert T. Smith, of Hartford, Connecticut. Figure 95 is another example of the Flemish style. The seat, which now shows the remains of rush, was originally cane. The scroll feet on this chair are not the pure pattern shown in the last figure, but turn backward, and the legs throughout show the influence of the Spanish style in being turned and not carved. The frame of the top is slightly more carved than that in the preceding figure. This is one of the chairs of Richard Lord, whose will was probated at Hartford in 171 2, and the chair is now at the Connecticut Historical Society's rooms. Figure 96 shows still another variation. The back is unusually well carved, the top in the design of an eagle. The uprights sup- porting the back end in carved heads. This pattern of chair, with its 140 Figure 94. Flemish Chair, last quarter seventeenth century. 141 CHAIRS rather square efifect in the back and in the front brace, we beh'eve to be an English adaptation of the Flemish style. The feet are of the same order as those shown in the last illustration. Figure 95. Flemish Chair, about 1690. Figure 96. Chair showing English Adapta- tion of Flemish, 1680-90. Figure 97 illustrates another chair of this general style; although the feet have been cut off, the turning of the legs indicates that the foot was a plain knob such as appeared in the wainscot chairs. The arms will also be observed to be very much the same as those on the wainscot chair shown in Figure 89. The back, however, proclaims it as belonging in general to the Flemish style, and the carving is 143 COLONIAL FURNITURE better than is usually found on these pieces. It is probably an English adaptation, as is shown in the last figure. The back and seat were originally cane. This chair is at the Van Cortlandt Manor, Croton, New York. Figure 97. Chair showing Enghsh Adaptation of Flemish. 1680-1700. (Feet missing.) The backs of chairs which we have designated as being Flemish in general design distinctly suggest the splat, separate from the upright posts, this distinction being developed later as a distinct splat in the Dutch cabriole-legged chairs. The feet are finished with the scroll, turning either forward or backward, the latter being more com- 144 CHAIRS monly the case in this country. The wood of both the Flemish and the Spanish chair was either walnut, maple, beech, or occasionally oak. Before describing the Spanish style we will describe the style of chair shown in Figure 98, belonging to Miss Augusta Manning, Figure i Italian Chair, 1680-1700. which, so far as the upper part is concerned, is after the Flemish style; but the legs are of a very different type, being distinctly Italian, and much like those found on the dressing-tables belonging to the six- legged chests of drawers. ''See Figure 25.) Chairs in this Italian 14s COLONIAL FURNITURE style were usually upholstered, and this chair probably never had cane. The chair is made of oak, and dates in the last quarter of the seventeenth century. The second style of cane chair was developed directly from the "Spanish chair," of which Figure 99 is a splendid specimen. It will be seen that it differs from the Flemish style in that the back, which is covered with the world-famous Spanish carved leather, is solid, there being no suggestion of a splat ; the legs are turned, and the foot is not a scroll, but a distinct style which has very generally received the name of Spanish foot. The carved front brace is the same, and the general effect is so similar to the preceding that it is natural they should have affected each other. The legs and feet in the Spanish style are much more often found in this country than the Flemish, but the Spanish back is rare. This chair is at Memorial Hall, Philadelphia. There is mention at New York, in 1693, of " 6 Spanish leather chairs ^i, 6s," and in 1703, "2 large elboe leather chairs £"/" ; the high value placed on the last mentioned leads us to think they were of the fine Spanish leather. Figure 100 is an exceedingly fine example of the English adapta- tion of the Spanish chair. Instead of the leather, the back is cane of an unusually fine quality, and the framework of the back, although not carved, is relieved of bareness by its beautiful curves. The wood is English walnut. The front legs and supports for the arms have lost some small parts which complete their graceful shape, and the feet, though greatly worn, are recognizable as Spanish. The carved front brace follows in general outline the curves of the back. It will again be noted that this differs from the Flemish style in that the back has no separate splat or carving at the top, and the feet are Spanish instead of scroll. This chair was once owned by the Wyllys family of Charter Oak fame, and is now in the collection of the Con- necticut Historical Society. 146 Figure 99. Spanish Chair, latter lialf seventeenth century. '47 CHAIRS Figure loi illustrates a chair found at Coxsackie, New York, now in the writer's possession, combining both the Flemish and Spanish styles, the back being in Flemish and the legs ending in an almost perfect Spanish foot. Figure :oo. Chair in Spanish Style, 1680-1700. Figure loi. Chair showing Flemish and Spanish Styles, 1680-1700. TRANSITION PERIOD We now come to what will be called the Transition Period, where we shall find Flemish, Spanish, and Dutch styles combined in one way or another, and showing very clearly various steps in the change from the cane chairs to the cabriole-legged Dutch chairs. 149 COLONIAL FURNITURE Figures 102, 103, 104, and 105 bring us to what we may sup- pose were the last surviving forms of the Spanish and Flemish styles. The legs and bracing are still the same in outline, but greatly simplified. In Figure 102 no carving remains except a few lines above the back, and the seat was originally cane. The outlines of the back and Figure 102. Late Spanish, 1700-10. Figure 103. L^te Spanish, 1700-10. feet suggest the Spanish style, while the separate splat suggests the Flemish. It is in the collection of the Connecticut Historical Society. Figure 103, which belongs to Mr. William Meggat, shows no carving whatever ; and, instead of having had cane back and seat, it 150 CHAIRS was covered with leather, and the feet are splendid examples of an American adaptation of the Spanish feet. It is practically the same chair as that shown in the preceding figure, except for the leather covermg. Figure 104, in the possession of Miss Augusta Manning, shows an outline back in the Spanish style clearly suggesting the Wyllys Figure 104 Late Spanish, showing Dutch Influence, 1700-15. Figure 105. Queen Anne Chair, showing Spanish Feet, 1710-20. chair shown in Figure loo ; but it has the Dutch wooden splat instead of the cane, and the front brace is again of the large turned variety, and the feet, again, are Spanish. Figure 105 is practically the same chair as that shown in Figure 103, with the Spanish feet, but has the Dutch back and splat, which now for a half-century and more is the pattern elaborated and adapted through the almost countless variations of the Chippendale period. I5« COLONIAL FURNITURE These last two illustrations show the change from the style of the Second Period to that of the Third. We have seen also in England even a more marked harmonizing of the two styles in a chair with the back of the carved or embossed leather and brass nails of the Spanish pieces, having the Dutch cab- riole legs with shell ornamentation and underbracing, showing clearly that so far as chairs are concerned the "missing link" is not missing. THIRD PERIOD— 1702-50 Although in point of years this period is as long as those pre- ceding it, the number of styles developed is surprisingly small. Peo- ple were not so fastidious, and there were not the rapid changes in fashion which we find to-day. Styles were few, and well adapted to their needs, so there was little call for change, and they contented themselves with simple variations of the form then in use. After a careful examination of the chairs of this period we conclude that there were but two new styles to be found. Sometimes, no doubt, it will be difficult at first glance to detect the truth of this statement, as often a single piece may show the influ- ence of more than one style, or may be a variation of an earlier one. We are convinced that no distinctive style is indigenous to this coun- try, although one will find variations here of the prevailing English and Dutch ones which may in a sense be called original. The two new styles of chairs were the Dutch cabriole leg and the Windsor. Before taking up these new styles we will examine the variations of former ones which continued into this period. The cane chair was still in general use, for in almost every inventory we find it men- tioned. There is mention of cane chairs in the inventories of Salem, Boston, and Philadelphia as late as 1734. They were probably simi- lar to Figure 95. 152 CHAIRS A common chair of this period was the so-called slat-back, an example of which, belonging to Mr. Luke A. Lockwood, of Riverside, Connecticut, will be seen in Figure io6. As we have already shown. Figure io6. Slat-back, about 1730. some of these chairs with large turned posts date well back into the seventeenth century; but such specimens are extremely rare, and far the larger portion of them date from 1700-50. This chair is the sur- vivor of the turned chair of the First Period, the difference being that the latter was made of turned pieces only, while the slat-back chair has substituted the slats for the spindles. These chairs were ■53 COLONIAL FURNITURE commonly designated by the number of their slats thus, " three back," " four back," and " five back " — the one just shown being a four-back. Figure 107 is a five-back chair in the pattern most often found in New England, dating early in the eighteenth century ; and as Figure 107. Slat-back, about 1740-50. Figure loS. Slat-back, about 1750. such chairs are somewhat hard to find, they are more highly prized than those with a smaller number of slats. It belongs to Mr. Meggat. Figure io8 shows a five-back belonging to Mr. Frank C. Gilling- ham, of Germantown, Pennsylvania, which represents the Southern type of this chair. The arms are high and cut much like those of the wainscot chairs, and the chair is original throughout. Figure 109 is still another slat-back, belonging to Mr. C. J. Bur- nell, of Hartford, Connecticut, which has cut instead of turned up- rights, and belongs to a later date. The hollow cut in the top slat accommodates the head and relieves the very upright position re- IS4 CHAIRS quired by the straightness of the back. The brass terminals are new. Such chairs as these may have been referred to in a Yorktown inventory of 1745: "6 Ribed back chairs ^,1." Figure 109. Slat-back, about 1760-70. Another form of chair which had survived from an earHer period was the banister-back chair; a very early example of one, belong- ing to the Connecticut Historical Society, is shown in Figure i lo. It will be seen at a glance that it is a modification of the cane chairs, combining both the Flemish and Spanish styles in the back, while the under part is decidedly Spanish. The four spindles, curved on the front side and flat on the back, take IS5 Figure 110. Banister-back, 1710-20. COLONIAL FURNITURE the place of the cane or leather back, and the carved underbrace of the cane chairs is supplanted by a simple turned one. Figure 1 1 i, belonging to Mr. L. A. Lockwood, shows the same general outline as the preceding, but there is no carving on the top rail of the back, and the posts are turned in a simple design. il y /^ V % ^ % 1 i 1 1 t , ^ Ha g| Figure i ii. Banister-back, 1730-40. Figure 112. Banister-back, 1740-50. Figure 1 1 2 shows a splendid example of an armed banister-back chair of a little later date, belonging to Mr. Albert H. Pitkin, of Hart- ford. These banister-back chairs, as well as the slat-backs above shown, are usually found painted a dull black and have rush seats. Another chair was the " roundabout " or "corner chair." This cannot be called a different style, for it is found in almost all the styles 156 CHAIRS with which it is contemporaneous, from the turned chair down through the Chippendale period, and differed only in the arrangement of the seat and legs, which were so placed that a leg came in the middle of the front and back. Fixture 1 1 3. Roundabout Chair, showing Spanish Foot, about 1720-30. Figure 113 is an early example of this style, showing a modifi- cation of the Spanish foot in front. It is in the possession of Mrs. W. W. Andrews, of Wethersfield, Connecticut. We now come to the first of the two styles which are distinctly new with this period. The most characteristic chair, and the one which marked the beginning of a change of style almost as radical as had been the Flemish, and which was destined eventually to supersede it and, after playing an important part in this period, to serve as the outline for many of the most beautiful chairs of the Chippendale period, was the Dutch cabriole- or bandy-legged chair. So far as we can find, although the leg had become popular in the high and low chests of drawers a 157 COLONIAL FURNITURE little earlier, it does not seem to have affected, to any great extent, the form of chairs until the early part of the eighteenth century, and by many the chair is called Queen Anne. Its distinguishing features Figure 114. Dutch Chairs with Underbrace, 1710-30. were the bandy leg, often with the shell ornament at the knee, the solid splat, and the broad seat. An example of the earliest form is found in Figure 114, which probably dates between 1710 and 1730. It is in the possession of Mrs. W. \V. Andrews, of Wethersfield, Connecticut. It will be noted that it still retains the underbracing so common in the preceding period. Figure 115 is a radical departure from the laws of construction hitherto observed in that the underbracing is entirely missing, although otherwise the chair is identical with Figure 114. These belonged to Dr. Ezekiel Porter, dating about 1 730, and are now in the possession of his descendant, Miss Bidwell. 158 CHAIRS Figure 1 16 is a very fine specimen of a roundabout chair in this style, belonging to Mr. Albert H. Pitkin. The extended top is not at all common, by far the larger number of roundabout chairs being without it. Figure 115. Dutch Chairs, about 1730. Figure 1 1 7 shows a rather unusual variation of these chairs, which, it will be observed, are pardy turned ; but the outlines are regular, except that the legs are straight instead of bandied, although they end in the proper Dutch foot. Such chairs are more commonly found in the Dutch settlements than elsewhere. These chairs belong to the writer, having been found at Flatbush, Long Island. Figure 118 is the plain and very common chair of the period, of which probably no family was without an example. These chairs could date almost anywhere in this period. As the century advanced the Queen Anne chair became more ornate ; the splat now was often pieced or slighdy carved, the shell appeared on the knee, centre of front and back, and the foot ended 159 COLONIAL FURNITURE in the ball-and-claw, clearly preparing the way for the still more elaborate designs of Chippendale. The ball-and-claw foot began to appear in the inventories about 1737; at that date, at Boston, "6 crow foot chairs" are mentioned, and, in 1750, " 7 chairs with eagle feet and shells on the knee," and Figure Ii6. Dutch Roundabout Chair, Extension Top, about 1730-40. at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1745, "claw foot " furniture of various kinds is mentioned ; but ten years can safely be deducted from that date to determine when the style appeared. There is a set of side- chairs and a double chair in the Pendleton collection, undoubtedly made by Grinling Gibbons, which have a most elaborate ball-and- lion-claw foot, while the general style follows the lines of the Queen Anne chairs; and as Gibbons died in 1720, ball-and-claw is of an earlier date than that. Dr. Lyon shows that the ball-and-claw was 160 CHAIRS Figure 1 17. Dutch Chairs with Rush Seats, about 1 740. Figure 1 18. Simple Dutch Chairs, common throughout eighteenth century. an adaptation of the Cliinese design of the dragon grasping the pearl ; l)ut the ball-and-claw seems to have been made in two styles, 161 COLONIAL F L' R N I T U R E the lion-claw on the ball, such as appears on the sofa shown in Figure i8o, and the eagle or other bird's claw on a ball — the latter, of course, being the one which suggests the dragon and pearl. The former style, with the lion-foot, is much more common in England than here, and appears on English pieces of this period, as well as in many of the finer Chippendale chairs. Figure luj. Figure 120. Figure 121. Dutch Chairs, dating about 1740. Figure 119 is made of \'irginia walnut, and shows a splat slightl)- elaborated, while the feet have traces of carving suggesting the ball-and-claw foot. Figure 120 has a veneer of walnut, and is an example of a .slightly pieced splat, while Figure 121 is quite elaborate, made of mahogany, with carved shell and ball-and-claw feet. Figures 119 and 121 belong to Mr. William Meggat, and Figure 120 belongs to Mr. Walter Hosmer. Figure 122 illustrates an elaborate form of this chair, which, though without carving, has a fineness of design not found in the earlier pieces. We begin early in this period to find mention of easy-chairs, and as they are inventoried much higher than the other chairs we con- 162 CHAIRS elude that they were rather scarce, and belonged only to persons of means. They, too, cannot be called a new style, for we find them in Flemish, Dutch, Chippendale, and Hepplewhite designs, covering a period of a hundred years. They appear in the inventories among Figure 122. Dutch Chair, about 1740. the chamber furniture: in New York, 1708, "an easy chair lined with red £2 los"; in Boston, 1712, "an easy chair £\" \ and in 1713 another for ^4; at Philadelphia, in 1720, "an easie chair £,'] los." The earlier form of this chair had the Flemish feet and bracing, one of which we have found in England ; but the earliest we have found in this country appears in Figure 123, dating about 1740. which is doubtless like many of this period, with ball-and-claw feet and underbracing. It has descended to Miss Bidwell, of Wethersfield, Connecticut, from Dr. Ezekiel Porter. 163 COLONIAL FURNITURE The wood of which the earHer chairs of this period were made are maple, Virginia and black walnut, and cherry ; but it was during this time that mahogany came into general use. It had, apparently, been occasionally used for furniture in the South from the beginning of the Figure 123. Cabriole-legged Cosey-chair, 1730-40. century, but does not seem to have reached the North until some years later. P>om 1748 on it appears in the Boston inventories, and through those of 1755 and 1756 it appears to have been in common use, there being hardly an inventory which does not contain some piece made of that wood. We now come to the second style new in this period. The Windsor chair, which tradition says received its name Irom having 164 CHAIRS been found by one of the Georges in a peasant's hut near that place, at any rate so far as this country is concerned seems, contrary to current belief, to have come from the South. Philadelphia has the earliest records of Windsor chairs, and they were in use there about 1725, and as the records farther south and north do not mention them until many years later, it is fair to assume that they were first used there. The following advertisement at New York, in 1763, also seems to indicate their origin: " Philadelphia-made Windsor chairs." Prom the time of their introduction well into the nineteenth cen- tury they appear to have been the most common and popular of all styles of chairs, and we find them advertised for sale in New York as late as 1800, and frequently mentioned in inventories even of later date ; in fact, they still hold their place, having- survived as the piazza and kitchen chairs of to-day. They were comparatively easy and inexpensive to make, and were more useful than the heavier Queen Anne piece with which they were contemporaneous, and more comfortable than the other common form shown in P^igure 118. They were, in fact, the every- day chair of the period. These chairs were made of a variety of woods, sometimes several kinds in one piece, but they were commonly made of hickory and ash. The English Windsor chairs differ from those found in this coun- try in that they usually have a solid or pieced splat in the centre of the back, with the spindles on either side. American Windsor chairs are found in several forms, one having straight spindles across the back, with a projection to act as a head- rest, as in the rocking-chair shown in Figure i 24, but often this addi- tional piece was missing. The additional piece at the top gives this chair the name of comb-back. Another more beautiful form is shown in Pigure 123, where the curve of the back is bent into the arms, and the back is supported by two spindle braces fastened into an extension of the seat. 165 COLONIAL FURNITURE Figure 124. Windsor Rocking-chair, latter half eighteenth century. Figure 125. Windsor Arm- and Side-chairs, latter half eighteenth century. 166 CHAIRS A third form, called the fan-back, is shown in Figure 126. It doubtless derives its name from the graceful curve of the back. The chairs shown in the last two figures are in the possession of the Hon. John R. Buck, of Hartford. The rarest form of this chair is shown in Figure 127. Figure 126. Fan-back Windsor Chairs, latter half eighteenth century. This writing-chair carries out the general lines of Figure 125, and in addition has the larsfe desk-arm. There is a drawer under the arm, and a slide in front for the candle, and another drawer under the seat. It is made of a variety of woods, the bent pieces being oi hickory, the spindles of ash, the front of the drawers of mahogany, and the desk-arm and seat of birch. This piece is in the author's possession, and at one time belonged to the first Congregational minister of Chesterfield, Massachusetts, and was not new in 1790. Such a piece is doubtless referred to in a Boston inventory ot 1760, "a writing chair 2s Sd." One can hardly realize from the illustration how comfortable and convenient it is both for reading and writing, 167 COLONIAL FURNITURE Figure 127. Windsor Writing-chair, 1760-80. 16S CHAIRS and much of the present vohime was written on its arm, while the drawers provided a convenient place for the note-books. The arms of Windsor chairs were sometimes carved at the ends, either to represent a closed or an open hand. Pieces of this descrip- tion are not very common, and are highly prized. Figure 128 Windsor Chair showing Carved Arms, last quarter eighteenth century. Figure 128 is a good example of the latter sort, and all four fingers and thumb can be plainly seen. It belongs to Mr. Albert H. Pitkin, of Hartford. We do not find a single reference to rocking-chairs in any of the inventories. Yet it is generally supposed that they have existed from the middle of the eighteenth century, if not longer, and, in fact, it is difficult to understand why the chair is not a great deal older than that date, for the idea of rockers on cradles was well known to the colonists from the first. We are, however, of the opinion that they are of a comparatively modern date, and we have never seen one which 169 COLONIAL FURNITURE could, with any degree of certainty, be placed earlier than Revolu- tionary times; for, in our experience, without exception, the pieces of the earlier designs having rockers have, when it is possible to trace them back, had rockers added within the last hundred years, and this expe- rience seems to be that of all the collectors approached on the subject. The rocking-chair is probably indigenous to this country, and even to this day it is recognized as an American idiosyncrasy. It is often difficult to determine whether a piece was originally a rocker or not, and the writer knows of no infallible rule for the pro- tection of the public; we believe that they can usually be distinguished from the firm chairs by the fact that they have a single underbrace high up the leg instead of a double brace, but thi^ rule could only apply, of course, to the double-braced style of chair. We have never found a genuine rocking-chair in a style earlier than the slat-back and the common variations of the Dutch, although there is a Flemish chair with rockers at the Connecticut Historical Society's rooms, and another at the Museum at Concord ; but these clearly have been cut down and had rockers added at a later date. Rocking-chairs had no distinctive style of their own, but were merely adaptations from the prevailing ones, the commonest by far being in the Windsor style. FOURTH PERIOD— 1750-1840 The period now under consideration is marked by an extrava- gance of taste and fluctuation of fashions never before attained, which were primarily due to the great and sudden increase of wealth in the colonies and in England. The furniture was drawn exclusiveh- from English models down to the introduction of the Empire style, and in their eagerness for something new, the people, following the English fashions, rushed from the plain, stately pieces of the Queen Anne period to the rococo French designs of Chippendale ; then, tiring of that, CHAIRS back to the classic for a brief time under Adam ; then, in a revolt against the heavy pieces of Chippendale, to the over-light and perish- able pieces of Hepplewhite and Shearer; then on to the gaudily painted pieces of Sheraton, who, under the stress of public taste, at last succumbed to the Empire style and sank into a mere copyist of the French school. Such is, in brief, the history of the chairs of this period. This fickleness was, of course, felt more in the cities than in the country, where we often find two and even three of these styles exist- ing side by side, equally popular. Chippendale's designs remained popular longer than any of the others, and from the following coincidence we are able to determine fairly closely when the change took place. In Wethersfield, Connecticut, were two men in good circum- stances, one married in 1791, the other in 1799, and each furnished his house in the prevailing fashion. The furniture bought in 1791 is Chippendale in character entirely, while that bought in 1799 had not a single example of that style, but was entirely Sheraton. This would seem to indicate that the Chippendale style gave way to the Sheraton somewhere between those two dates, although, of course, we find at a much earlier date Sheraton pieces, as in the Nichols house at Salem, built and furnished in i 783 almost entirely in Sheraton style, with but litde of the Chippendale ; and the furniture used by General W'ash- ington when President in 17S9, and now preserved in the City Hall, New York, is pure Sheraton in style. It is of the greatest service, in placing the date of a chair, to be able to tell with a degree of accuracy under the style of which cabinet-maker it falls, and we are of the opinion that the safest guide to follow is the general outline of the backs. There are, of course, a few instances where a piece will combine two styles, or perhaps be such that no single rule will enable one to deter- mine ; hut these are the rare exception, and the following will be COLONIAL FURNITl'RE found to be the almost universally true characteristics of the various styles. Figure 1 29 shows the backs of the four different styles. A shows the Dutch back. It will be noted that the top curves down to the upright pieces forming the back, so that they appear to Figure 129. be one piece. This will universally be found true in the Dutch chairs, either in this form or in its modification shown in Figure 117. B is Chippendale in its simplest form. It will be seen that it dif- fers from the Dutch in that the top rail is bow shape, and the ends of the top curve up instead of down, and the centre is a rising curve. This form has infinite variations, and occasionally the ends drop, but never to form an unbroken line with the sides, and there is usually a centre rise. C is Hepplewhite. These chairs are very easily distinguished, as the back is always either heart, shield, or oval in shape, and there are but few variations. D is Sheraton, the general characteristic of the backs being that they are rectangular in shape, the upper edge often being raised in the centre, and sometimes curved instead of straight. They never have a simple splat to form the back, which never joins the seat, but is supported by a cross-rail. By bearing these figures in mind, and allowing for the variations, one can readily tell at a glance under which of these influences a given piece falls. 172 CHAIRS Chippendale, for the most part, copied the French, not so closely, however, but that he could adapt the Dutch bandy leg, splat, broad seat, and shell ornamentation of the Queen Anne period; and this he did so successfully that he made a style which was English and distinctly his own. As to when Chippendale's influence first began to be felt, it is, of course, difficult to determine, for his name is not mentioned, so far as we have been able to find, until the time his published designs ap- peared in 1753; but judging from the spirit in which the "Director" was written, and the extremely well-made copper-plates with which it was illustrated, and the price at which it sold, it must be that he had before that time established his reputation. The people in the South, at that time wealth)-, and importing as they did from the London market, probably had examples of his handicraft about the same time that they did in London, which may have been as early as 1735. On the whole, however, we think the conservative date of 1750 is the safest, at which time his influence must have become somewhat gen- eral. In 1755, at Yorktown, record was made of "2 carved mahog- any chairs, 40s"; and in 1760, at Boston, we find mention in the inventories of " 6 mahogany chairs ^"4 los," and in i 774 of " 8 carved mahogany chairs ^16 6s," which were undoubtedly in Chippendale designs. Chippendale's published designs for chairs show no ball-and-claw feet, but instead the French foot, which he made every effort to popu- larize. There are, however, chairs made with ball-and-claw feet which reliable tradition ascribes to him, and the explanation doubtless is that he made what was desired to order. English Chippendale chairs, as a rule, are larger than the Ameri- can-made chairs, and excel them in every way. There were no chairs made here which approach, either in design or workmanship, the ex- amples of Chippendale chairs in the collections of Mr. George S. Palmer, of Norwich, and Mr. C. L. Pendleton, of Providence. The COLONIAL FURNITURE great fault of the American makers was disregard of a fineness of detail, which makes a vast difference in the finished product. The backs are often handsomely carved, but the legs' are so plain and the rails so wide as to give a board effect to the lower portion of the chair, which entirely ruins the fine effect obtained in the back. Figure 130. Cliinese Chair, about 1 800. Just as, a half-century before, the Dutch, then the controllers of the Eastern trade, had borrowed the ball-and-claw foot from the Chinese, so now Chippendale borrowed extensively from othec Chi- nese designs for English use. The cabinet-makers of his day seem to have doubted the practicality of many of Chippendale's designs, especially those in the Gothic and Chinese styles, for in his preface Chippendale, referring to these designs as "fit for eating parlours," says: "Upon the whole I have given no design but what may be executed with advantage by the hands of a skilful workman, though 174 CHAIRS some of the profession have been diligent enough to represent them (especially those after the Gothick. and Chinese manner) as so many specious drawings, impossible to be worked off by any mechanick whatsoever. I will not scruple to attribute this to malice, ignorance and inability ; and I am confident I can convince all noblemen, gen- tlemen, or others, who will honour me with their commands, that Chippendale Chair. Figure 132. Chippendale Chair. every design in the book can be improved, both as to beaut)- and enrichment in the execution of it, by their most obedient servant Thomas Chippendale." Quite a number of chairs in the Gothic and Chinese style found their way to this country, especially about the seaports of New England, and the late Professor Marsh had a very good example of a chair in Chinese design in his collection. They also seem to have been made in this country, for John 17s COLONIAL FURNITURE Briner, a cabinet-maker at New York in 1762, advertises to make " Gothic and Chinese chairs." Figure 130 is an example of a Chinese chair brought from China by a sea-captain about a hundred years ago, and is a good example Figure 133. Cliippendale Chair. Figure 134. Chippendale Chair. of the style of chair from which Chippendale took his pattern. It belongs to the writer. The earlier chairs made here from his designs seem to have had plain splats and ball-and-claw feet, probably a transition from the Dutch chairs of the last period, and it was not until considerably later that the straight-leg chair came into general use. This is con- trary to current belief, but extensive observation of pieces whose dates are well authenticated shows that the straight leg in any other design than Gothic or Chinese came some years later than the cabriole-legged Chippendale piece. 176 CHAIRS Figure 131 shows a web-foot chair with splat unpierced, belong- ing to Mr. Meggat. Figures 132 and 133, with ball-and-claw feet and shell carving, show, in the former a simple pierced splat, and in the latter one of more elaborate design. All three resemble the Dutch chairs, except that the top bars at the back show the Chippen- dale characteristics. Figure 134 shows one with a slightly more elaborate back, but with plain bandy legs, and this pattern is well known both in Dutch and straight-legged Chippendale styles as well. Figure 132 belongs to Mr. Meggat, Figure 133 to the Hon. John R. Buck, and Figure 134 to Mr. F. O. Pierce, of Brooklyn. Figure 135. Chippendale Chair. Figure 136. Chippendale Chair. F"igures 135 and 136 show still more elaborate splats. Figure 135 has an underbrace, which is unusual in a Chippendale ball-and- claw-foot chair. It belon^js to Mr. Mecfs^at. Chairs resembling F"igure 136 are sometimes still further carved, and the little projec- tions at the top on either side of the splat are carved to represent "77 C O L O KM A L FURNITURE tassels, thus carrying out the drapery effect which is suggested in this piece. A set of such chairs is in the Bulkeley collection. Figures 137 and 138 are examples of two Chippendale roundabout chairs ; the splats of both follow well-known Chippendale designs, Figure 137 following the design shown in Figure 134, and F"igure 138 suggests that shown in Figure 152. Figure 137. Chippendale Roundabout Chair. Figure 139, belonging to Mr. MeCTorat, would seem to be an ex- ception to the rules above laid down, but the splat is unmistakably Chip- pendale, and the upper rail of the back is a whim of the maker. Figure 140 is an unusual design in the writer's possession, made of Virginia ironwood, and its proportions are particularly ifood. At the bend of the knee the wood is 2y> inches thick. Figure 141 illustrates an arm-chair in almost faultless propor tions as to height, breadth, and the curve of the arms, and the pat 17S Figure 138. Chippendale Roundabout Chair, Extension Top. Figure 139. Figure 140. Figure 14 Chairs in Chippendale Style. 179 CHAIRS tern of the back is not common, the only criticism being that the front rail is perhaps too broad. Figure 142 shows an arm-chair more elaborate than any of those preceding it in that its beauty is not dependent solely upon the out- Figure 142. Chippendale Chair. lines, but the flat surfaces of the back, arms, and legs are broken by relief-carving. This carving is found on all of the best- made Chip- pendale chairs, and is employed on nearly all of the chairs given in "The Gentleman's and Cabinet-Maker's Director,." although much the larger proportion of chairs following Chippendale's outlines in this country are without it. This chair belongs to Miss Augusta Manning, of Hartford. It will be seen that the design is an elabora- tion of that shown in Figure 134, and is almost identical with that shown in Figure 150. This chair and that shown in Figure 150 well iSi COLONIAL r' I' R X I T U R E illustrate how an elaborate design was simplified from lack of skill or to meet the requirements of economy. Figures 143 and 144 show two chairs of a hieher order and better finish than is usual in American-made chairs. The legs of both, though straight, suggest Chinese patterns so much used by Chippendale, and the chairs date probably as early as the bandy - legged Figure 143. Chippendale Chair. ones. Figure 144 is especially beautiful. The design is rather unusual, and the flat surfaces, in- cluding the top of the arms, are carved in well-executed relief- Figure 144. Chippendale Chair. Figure 145 is probably one of the most elaborate Chippendale chairs which has been found in this country dating from colonial times, and compares very favorably with some of the designs shown 182 CHIPPENDALE CHAIR. {Figure 14^. ) CHAIRS in his "Gentleman's and Cabinet-Maker's Director." The rococo effect very strongly suggests the French school, and the legs and the carved lower edge of the seat are characteristic of the finer Chippendale models. It is in the Bulkeley collection. Figure 146. Figure 147. Chippendale Slat-back Chairs. Figure 148. We come now to a very different pattern of chair, whicli pos- sibly was modeled from the old slat-back, and, like it, has the cross- slats instead ot the up-and-down splat ; but from the fact that the top rail follows the Chippendale lines we are led to place it under that general head. Figures 146, 147, and 148 show its development from the plain- est to one of its most beautiful patterns. We have found no example of this style with ball-and-claw foot or other than the straight foot, and are therefore inclined to place them after 1770. The question of upholstery for Chippendale chairs is often of some moment, and it may be instructive to quote what he thought on the suljject. He said : " The seats look best when stuffed over the rails, and ha\e a brass border neatly chased ; but are most commonly 183 COLONIAL I^^ U R N I T U R E done with brass nails, in one or two rows ; and sometimes the nails are done to imitate fret-work. They are usually covered with tlie same stuff as the window curtains. The height of the back seldom exceeds twenty-two inches above the seats." And referring to his "ribband back" chairs he remarks that several sets have been made which have sfiven entire satisfaction and that " if the seats are covered with red morocco, they will have a fine effect." Figure 149. Chippendale Chair. Figure 150. Chippendale Chair. It is worthy of note, in passing, that in the publications of all the cabinet-makers of this period the designs almost invariably show chairs without any underbracing; but, for all their endeavor to set such a fashion, the designs actually made, except the bandy leg, even including the delicate Hepplewhite pieces, for the most part had the underbracing, probably for the reason that the additional strength thus secured proved to be a necessity. Figure 149 is an example of the plainest of the straight-legged arm-chairs. It is in the writer's possession, dating about 1790, and 184 CHAIRS was bought from a descendant of the maker. It is of rather unusual proportions, being 46}^ inches high, and 24 inches wide at the front of the seat. Figure 150 was new in 1791, being part of a wedding outfit at Wethersfield, Connecticut, and is now in the possession of a descen- Figure 151. Chippendale Chair. Figure 152. Chippendale Chair. / dant, Miss Esther Bidwell of that place. It will be seen that the chair shown in Figure 1 50 is practically the same in design as that shown in Figure 142. Figure 1 5 1 shows a chair which appears to have been of a style particularly pleasing to the cabinet-makers about Hartford, for many were made there during the last quarter of the eighteenth century, and in a table of prices published by the joiners at Hartford, in 1792, they advertised to make a "chair with urn'd banisters" for ^i 9s., which undoubtedly refers to this design of chair. Figure 152 shows a chair in the writer's possession in a design very popular throughout the Chippendale period. This chair was found in Vermont. 185 COLONIAL FURNITURE From these few designs it is not intended to portray all of the designs of the Chippendale period, for their name is legion, and a large volume could be compiled upon this subject alone, without then exhausting it. These illustrations have, however, been selected from a large number, with a \iew of showing the most important of the patterns rather than the most unusual. We now come to the second of the sreat cabinet-desisfners, Hepplewhite. His influence, though very marked in other articles of furniture in this country, was not so important as either Chippendale or Sheraton as retrards chairs, one reason doubtless beingf that his chairs lacked the enduring qualities which those of the others possessed. Figure 153. Hepplewhite Chair. Figure 154. Hepplewhite Chair. It would be almost impossible to mistake his designs, for they all possess his hall-marks, either heart-, oval-, or shield-shaped backs, and his desigrns all have the effect of licrhtness and trrace which made his work so famous. 186 CHAIRS While Chippendale made use of carving only, Hepplewhite often employed inlay of various woods and occasionally painting. His designs do not seem to have remained in fashion for any great length of time, and although some handsome chairs are to be found in this country which undoubtedly date from colonial times, yet for the most part the pieces found are of rather recent Figure 155 Hepplewhite Chair. importation from England, where his influence was much more widely felt. Figures 153 and 154 are two of this style belonging to Mr. Meggat. They are both well proportioned and graceful, and typical examples of the Hepple- white chairs most often found in Figure 156. Hepplewhite Chair. this country. Figure 155 is a very good example of an American Hepplewhite chair. It is interesting to observe that this chair, though apparently built with great strength, yet, because of its faulty construction, has been broken at every point where special strain has come. 187 COLONIAL F U R X I T I' R E Figure 156 shows a very beautiful Hepplewhite chair belonging to Mrs. Otto, of Germantown. The beauty of its lines and the well- executed carving lead us to believe it was made in England, and pos- silily by the great designer himself '^Ik ^ ^- •^.l^'W- '•' v' 'ti te •*4fW5^K»^ ^" "•J*^ 'A- y- .r -^a?*" -r Figure 157. Hepplewhite Cosey-chair. Figure 157 is a splendid example of a Hepplewhite cosey-chair, with the arms extending inside of the tall ears. The upholstery covers the frame of the chair so completely that it must be explained that the legs and bracing are like those given in Hepplewhite's de- signs for cosey-chairs. This chair belongs to Miss Brown, of Salem, a descendant of the original owner. 188 Figure 158. Sheraton Chairs. Figure 159. Sheraton Chairs. 189 CHAIRS The last of the English cabinet-makers, Thomas Sheraton, had great influence on the designs in this country, not only in chairs, but also in all other kinds of furniture. The characteristic of his chairs, as we have seen, was that the general effect of the backs was square or rectangular, with the top bar often raised in the centre with a carved piece, or broken into several sections, and in the plainer pieces the top was perfectly straight. Figures 158 and 159 are examples of Sheraton at his best. Fig- ure 158 has the characteristic back, while Figure 159 shows a slight Figure 1 60. Sheraton Chair. Figure 161. Sheraton Chair. modification. These are very handsome specimens, the carving being of an exceptionally high order, and the proportions perfect. A full set of each belongs to the Nichols family in .Salem, Massachu- setts, where they have been since they were imported from London to furnish the new house in 1783. This early date seems to indicate. 191 COLONIAL 1^' U R N I T U R E that some of Sheraton's best work had been done before the publica- tion of his book in 17QI. which was undoubtedly true of all the cabi- net-makers. P'igures 160 and 161 are two excellent examples of Sheraton designs, Figure 160 being particularly graceful, with the fan-like back. Figure 162. Sheraton Chair. Figure 163. Painted Sheraton Chair. This design appears to be one of the commonest of the better Shera- ton chairs, for the writer has found many of them, especially in the South. The applied moulding on the rail about the seat is not original. They both belong to Mr. Meggat. Figure 162 is a plainer adaptation of this style, and Figure 163 is a painted chair, such as became very popular about the beginning of the nineteenth centur\-. Figure 1 64 is another example of chairs in Sheraton style. We believe this modification is distinctly American. They were origi- nally painted with a black background over which flowers in brilliant 192 CHAIRS colors and gilt were painted. The two here illustrated form a part of a dining-room set which was bought early in the nineteenth century. About the year 1800 the style commonly called Empire began to make itself felt in England, and Sheraton adopted it in his designs, Figure 164. Painted Sheraton Chairs. making chairs with lion's and bear's claws and with rolling backs suggested by some of the Egyptian bronze chairs. In this country the Empire influence was early felt, undoubtedly both because of the very friendly feeling then existing between France and the United States, and the equally hostile feeling toward the English which culminated in the War of 1812. We therefore find a great abundance of this style of furniture in this country, which remained in fashion down to the time of machine- made furniture. Figure 165, with its carved legs and feet, was made by a cabi- net-maker named Phyfe, who had a shop at 35 Partition Street, now Fulton Street, New York, and advertised his furniture in the papers 193 COLONIAL FURNITURE from 1802 to 1810. It clearly shows the influence of the Empire style both in shape and in the brass inlayin^' on the rail at the top of the Figure 165. Plivfe Chair. Figure 166. Empire Chair. Figure 167. Empire Chairs. back and on the cross-slat. The feet are dainty and well carved. It is in the possession of Mr. Meggat. 194 CHAIRS Figure i66 shows the early Empire style as it became modified in this country, and shows the Sheraton influence in the painted lyre on the back, which was one of the hall-marks of Sheraton's later designs. The slat is also painted in fruit designs. Figure 167 shows two styles of the parlor chairs ot our grand- mothers' da)', which remained in st)le up to, and indeed later than, 1840. The one to the right has the back and legs made of the same piece, while the other shows a construction where the legs are made separate from the back. The former method of construction makes a stronger and more desirable chair. They clearly have the Empire pieces as their model, and it is amusing to see how the " antique dealers" are to-day advertising such pieces as colonial, when most of them were new within the memory of some of the readers. «95 VI SETTLES, COUCHES, AND SOFAS SETTLES THE settle seems to have been a direct evolution from the chest. W. H. Pollen, in his book on furniture, says: "As the tops of coffers served for seats, they began in the thir- teenth century to be furnished with panelled backs and arms." At any rate, we find beautiful examples of carved settles in England, datine throucjh the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. A glance at Figure i68 will clearly show how close the settle resembles a chest. The lower part of this piece has all the character- istics of a chest, including the lifting top, and the three panels are carved in the same manner and design as are found in chests. The two end stiles are extended to support the arms, and the seat is pan- elled. The back is divided into three panels, as is the lower part, and the centre panel closely resembles that found below. The top of the back is finished in the fashion of the wainscot chairs, as are also the arms. Many familiar patterns are found in the carving on this settle, most of them of the early period, as, for instance, the two centre panels, and especially the two inside stiles on both top and bottom. The panelled seat suggests that the settle must have been used with a cushion. The piece seems to be made of American oak, and was found at Great Barrington, Massachusetts, where it had been used in 196 SETTLES, COUCHES, AND SOFAS a stable to hold salt for cattle. It dates in the latter half of the seven- teenth century, and is now in the Bulkeley collection. Settles are mentioned in the inventories of this country from the very first. We find one mentioned in Boston, in 1643, and at York- Figure 16S. Carved Oak Settle, latter half seventeenth century. town, in 1647, " i long wainscott settle"; at Philadelphia, in 1706, " i settle 17s"; and again in 1720, "i long settle 14s"; and at Provi- dence, in 1 71 2, "I settle 9s." Such handsome settles as that shown in the last figure were extremely rare in this countr)-, the setde commonly in use being simi- lar to the one shown in Figure 169. It is made of pine, with high back, and the front extends nearly to the floor, thus forming an eftec- tive screen against the cold winter winds ; for it was the custom to draw these settles up close to the large open fire, usually in the kitchen, thus making a sort of little inner warm room. This settle is ■97 COLONMAL FURNITURE owned by Mrs. W. W. Andrews, in whose family it has always been. These settles are sometimes furnished with a small shelf fastened in the centre of the back to hold a candle. Figure 169. Pine Settle, first half eighteenth century. Settles of this type were in use in this country for a long period, from the very earliest times down to about 1760, and were, many of them, more carefully made than Figure 169, being of oak and often panelled. When the wainscot chair went out of fashion, and the square- back chair with turned feet and bracing took its place, the settle, which in its more pretentious form could perhaps be called a double chair or settee of the wainscot type, was superseded, except for kitchen 198 Figure 170. Turned Settee with Turkey-work Upholstery, about i66o. 199 SETTLES, COUCHES, AND SOFAS use, by the upholstered settee in the fashion of the Turkey-work chairs so commonl)- in use in the latter half of the seventeenth century. Figure i 70 shows a settee now in the possession of the Essex Institute, Salem, in the exact style of the chair of the period dating about 1660. It is upholstered, as were the chairs, in Turkey- work. Figure 171. Dutch Double Chair, 1740-50. Again, when the turned chair was followed by the finely carved cane chair, this fashion was followed in settees; and though we have never seen one in this country, they may have been here, and there is in England a suit of furniture in this Flemish style, made for the Princess Anne in 1680, which has a settee constructed like a double chair, the legs and bracing of which are very similar to the couch shown in Figure i 76. COLONIAL FURNITURE Figure 171 is an example of a Queen Anne double chair in the possession of Dr. J. Sherman Wight, Jr., of Brooklyn. It elates about 1740—50. It is in reality two chairs, with a carved brace between the two backs to tfive additional strensth and finish. It is made of cherry, and is an excellent example of the double chair of that day. This method of making seats for more than one was used also during the latter half of the eighteenth century, and such pieces are to be found following the designs of Chippendale, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton. A double chair in Chippendale design, which is owned by the American Antiquarian Society of Worcester, Massachusetts, is shown in Figure 172. These chairs are not at all common in this country, and most of them found here were imported, and have come from the South, although a few plain straight-legged ones are to be found in New England. This double chair is a particularly fine specimen, and was, with- out doubt, made in England. The feature to note especially is the lion's-claw-and-ball foot, which is rarely, if ever, found on American-made pieces, although it had been a favorite design in Ensfland for the finer chairs from the time of Grinling Gibbons, early in the eighteenth century, down through that of Chippendale. The knees are finished with grotesque faces of men, a design which Chippendale seldom used, although it had been used in some of the Queen Anne pieces. The arms end in a dragon's or snake's head. This double chair is supposed to have been owned by John Hancock. Another piece which once belonged to John Hancock, and which is now at Pilgrim Hall, Plymouth, is shown in P'igure 173, and is an example of an upholstered settee of the same general character. It is made of walnut, and follows very closely the outlines of some of the upholstered chairs given in Chippendale's " Director," although the underbracing would seem earlier. The feet are decidedly on the f- ^^W^' CHIPPENDALE DOUBLE CHAIR. {Figure J J 2.) 'S o -a ;3 203 SETTLES, COUCHES, AND SOFAS order of the Louis XY style, which Chippendale often copied. It is extremely long, being practically four large chairs placed side by side, but is saved from being awkward by its graceful lines. Figure 174. Sheraton Double Chair, 1 780-1 800. There is a Hepplewhite settee made to fit a circular hall at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. His designs, however, being so frail, were not well adapted to support the necessary strain, and conse- quently few Hepplewhite settees are to be found in this country. Figure 174 shows a double chair belonging to Mr. Luke A. Lockwood, following a very popular Sheraton design found in both arm- and side-chairs. Figure 175 shows a triple chair, in the writer's possession, in what we call American Sheraton design, and is much like the chairs shown in Figure 164. It is painted black, and the sinndlcs and frame are enlivened with flowers in gilt, a few of which may still be seen in the illustration. Such pieces date early in the nineteenth century. 205 COLONIAL FURNITURE Figure 175. American Sheraton Settee, 1800-20. COUCHES As the settles and double chairs were pieces on which to sit, so couches were intended to lie upon, and as they are to be iound in almost all the designs for chairs, from the turned variety through the Empire style, they very evidently formed parts of sets with their cor- responding chairs. To substantiate this the inventories show: at Boston, 1702, "7 cane chairs, i couch & squab"; in the same year, " I Doz. cane chairs with black frames i couch ditto " ; at Philadel- phia, 1686, " I cane couch & 8 cane chairs." As might be expected from the character of the settlements, and from the fact that the couches were placed at high valuations, they appear first and more frequently in the South — in fact, they were very common throughout the South, as many as twenty-two being men- tioned in the inventories at Yorktown between 1645 and 1670. At Yorktown, in 1647, "i old turned couch" is mentioned, which would indicate that the piece was of considerably earlier date than the entry, and another is mentioned in an inventory of 1645. We do not find 206 SETTLES, COUCHES, AND SOFAS couches inventoried among the more sturdy New-Englanders earlier than the inventory of John Cotton, of Boston, in 1652. After that date we hnd them occasionally mentioned in the North and frequently in the South, but the descriptions give little aid in determining their character. At Yorktown, in 1658, mention is made of "a skin couch"; in 1659, "a wainscoate couch"; in 1667, "i couch cubbard." At New York, in 1691, we find "3 couches /"3 " ; at Yorktown, in 1692, " i couch Tur- key worked los"; at Boston, in 169S, "an old couch," in 1700, "a red couch," and in 1709, "one couch covered"; at Philadelphia, in 1686, "i cane couch £1," and in 1706, " i good cane couch £2 " ; at Providence, in 1732, "an old couch £2." Figure 176. Flemish Couch, latter half seventeenth century. (Seat and back originally cane.) These early couches were really long chairs ; that is, they were without backs on the long side, while on one end there was a back similar to a chair-back of the period to which it belongs, with three pairs of front feet, making an elongated chair. Figure 176 shows an example of what was referred to in the inventories as a cane couch. It will be observed that it is pure 207 COLONIAL FURNITURE Flemish in style, with the scroll feet and carved underbrace, and originally the seat and the centre of the back were cane, and the head- piece was movable, held at any angle desired by chains, as in the next figure. Such pieces are still occasionally found here, but the end piece is rarely so high, and many which we have seen do not have the carved brace at the end, although it appears on the sides. Another point to note is that the scroll feet turn outward instead of inward in this pure Flemish style, which is more fully discussed in the chap- ter on Chairs. This very handsome piece is in the possession of Mr. F. O. Pierce, of Brookl\n, in whose family it has always been, having been brought to this countrv direct from Holland bv an ancestor named Lynde in the latter half of the seventeenth century. It is one of the best pieces of this general character we have found in this country. There are a number of specimens of couches in the Dutch st)le, with six bandy legs and plain feet, extant, one of which, dating about 1740—50, is in the collection of l\Ir. Henry W. Erving. Figure 177. Rush-bottom Couch, 1730-40. Figure 177 is an example of a couch after the fashion of the every-day chair of the Queen Anne period, dating about 1730-40, which belongs to Mr. Meggat ; such a piece may have been referred to in an inventory at Philadelphia, in 1 750 : " a rush bottom couch 20S SETTLES, COUCHES, AND SOFAS los." It will be noted that the head-rest is arranged with a chain to raise or lower to the proper height for the comfort of the user ; and the seat is of rush, although such pieces are occasionally found covered with leather. Figure 1 78 is a very beautiful example of a Chippendale couch or long chair in the possession of Mr. Walter Hosmer. The back will be recognized as being in one of the characteristic Chippendale designs, and the six ball-and-claw feet are in splendid proportion. The seat is of canvas, laced over wooden knobs fastened to the side rail after the fashion of many bedsteads Figure 178. Chippendale Couch, 1760-70. of the period, and it is intended, of course, for a thin mattress. We should date it about i 760-70. Such couches are more often found with the plain straight legs than with the cabriole legs and ball-and-claw feet. Figure 179 is a French chaise-longue which belonged originally to Mr. Joseph Bonaparte and came from his house at Bordentown, New Jersey. It is now in the writer's possession. It is made of beautifully selected mahogany, and the carved bear's or lion's feet are unusually w^ell executed. The arms are of brass, and the side rails 209 COLONIAL F L R N I T U R E are enriched with diamoml-shaped panels, marked off by a raised beading of ebony, and in the centre of each panel, graduating in size as the panel becomes smaller at the rolling ends, is a rosette of ebony. A large rosette of ebony finishes the four ends, and four ebony lions' heads finish where the legs join the frame. The design found on the rails as here described appears in some of both Hepplewhite and Figure 179. Chaise-longue, about 1800. Sheraton designs. The seat is of cane covered with a thin layer of hair. This piece, when found, was in a very dilapidated condition; but, fortunately, at least one rosette of each size was preserved, as w-ell as the brass arms, and the piece has consequently been restored to look as it originally did. It dates probably early in the nineteenth century. SOFAS We now come to a kind of furniture which differs from the settle and double chair in that it is not suggestive, nor does it follow the designs of any kind of chair. It is of rather recent invention, at least so far as England and this country are concerned, not having o oo I o o Z ^ a tx O SETTLES, COUCHES, AND SOFAS appeared until Chippendale's time, and not being at all common until Sheraton's time, for Covvper, in "The Task," written in i 781, speaks of sofas as novelties. Chippendale gives several designs for such pieces, calling them French sofas, and the next cabinet-maker to use them to any extent was Sheraton ; but by far the largest number of sofas extant are in the familiar Empire designs. Figure 180 shows a very beautiful sofa preserved at Independence Hall, Philadelphia, and at one time the property of George Washing- ton. It will at once be seen to have the lion's-claw-and-ball feet such as are seen in the double chair numbered 172. In general shape it is like the designs given for sofas in Chippendale's " Director," and the rococo carving on the bends of the legs places it beyond question Figure i8i. Sheraton Sofa, about 1800. in that style. The rear legs are slightly cabriole in shape, which is a feature of English pieces, and characteristic of the better chairs of both Chippendale and the period preceding him. The sofa is now covered with haircloth, probably not the original covering. 213 COLONIAL FURNITURE Figure i8i is a Sheraton sofa which was purchased in 1799 and is now in the possession of Mrs. W. W. Andrews. The slender fluted legs are characteristic. Many sofas of this kind were owned in this country, some being elaborately inlaid in the fashion of the Sheraton desks and sideboards. After 1800, sofas, together with furniture of all kinds, followed the Empire style. Figure 182 is a sofa, dating about 1810-20, Figure 1S2. Empire Cornucopia Sofa, 1810-20. commonly called a cornucopia sofa, so named from the shape and carving of the arms. The round pillows shown at the ends of this sofa, and commonly provided with the long Empire sofas, are a revival of a very old fashion. The cane couches, which were in use from 1680 to 1730, were provided with just such pillows, which are termed in the inventories " squabs." The finer Empire sofas had the rails carved, and occasionally the back was finished in a broken arch. Fio-ure 183 is an example of another sofa of about the same date, without the cornucopia ends, the feet having very handsomely carved wino-s and claws. It belon^rs to the Misses Brown, of Salem. Fio-ure 184 shows another example of an Empire sofa very com- mon in the South, one end being arranged to sit at, and the other end forming a pillow or squab on which to recline, thus making a 214 SETTLES, COUCHES, AND SOFAS piece of furniture more comfortable and serviceable than the two sofas last illustrated. Figure 183. Empire Sofa, 1810-20. Such pieces as the three last mentioned were extremely popular in America during the first years of the nineteenth century, and con- Figure 184. Empire Sofa, 1810-20. tinned in favor as late as 1850. Many of them were originally cov- ered with haircloth which was bordered with brass nails. M V I I TAB L E S ANY of the facts regarding chairs already noted are appli- cable also to tables, as almost every form of chair had its corresponding table. Durin^'" Saxon times England did not know or use the word table, but designated what the Normans called tables as "hordes," and that with reason, for their tables were long, narrow "hordes" to be placed on trestles or frames when in use, and it was not until about the year 1600 that "standing tables" and "dormant tables" are freely mentioned. There is no doubt that the table-boards and frames found their way to this countr)-, for the mention of them appears frequently in the inventories until the end of the seventeenth century; " i table board and joyned frame," at Plymouth, in 1638; " i long table board and frame," at .Salem, in 1647; "a great table board and frame," at New York, in 1677; and "a table board," at Philadelphia, in 1687, are some of the items regarding them. The boards or table-tops were sometimes supplied with hinges so that they could be folded into as small a space as possible when out of use. The frames were built in X or tresde shape, or with heavy stretchers close to the floor, the legs being sometimes slighdy ornamented with carving or turning. Figure 83, which shows the long tables in Christ Church College dining-hall, 0.\ford, doubtless 216 TABLES represents very well the way the table-board and frame appeared when in use. Tables referred to as long tables, great tables, and standing tables were probably not made with the frame separate. They are usually accompanied in the inventories with long and short forms, just such benches and tables, no doubt, as those shown in Figure 83, above referred to. At Plymouth, in 1638, there is mention of " i table and joyned form," and in 1639, "a framed table"; at New York, in 1669, " i longe table"; at Salem, in 1673, "a longe table and formes"; at Boston, in 1669,"! long cedar table"; at York- town, in 1647, " I long framed table"; in 1657, "i table, 7 feet"; in 1660, " I long table" — showing that early in the history of the colo- nies standing tables were also in use. After the table became settled as a distinct piece of furniture, the devices for making it adjustable in size for various occasions came into beine- The first of these devices seems to have been the draw- ing-table, so called because the table was furnished with leaves at the ends which drew out. These leaves were arranged to fold back on to or under the main table when not in use, and when drawn out were supported by wooden braces which drew out from the frame and held the ends firmly on a level with the table. This, however, was not always the method employed, for English drawing-tables are to be seen where, by a clever arrangement, the table is made to sink to a level with the leaves. The frames of drawing-tables were made after the fashion pre- vailing in the long tables — square and plain, slightly turned, or with a huge ball or acorn forming the centre portion of the legs. They are mentioned as follows in the inventories : at Boston, in 1653, "In the parlour, a drawing table ^2 " ; in 1669, "A drawing table and carpett £2 los"; and at New York, in 1697, "an oak drawing table." Figure 1S5 shows a drawing-table preserved at the rooms of the 217 COLONIAL FURNITURE Connecticut Historical Society, whicli is made of English oak; and although the leaves are missing, the place they occupied shows them to have been 2 feet 6% inches in length, while the top is 6 feet i inch in length and 2 feet 1 1 fi inches in width. The table, therefore, when opened to its full length, would have been a little over 1 1 feet long. Figure 1S5. Oak Drawing-table, early seventeenth century. Drawing-tables were never common in the colonies, if we may judge from the inventories, for they are comparatively seldom men- tioned. Long tables and joined tables continue to be mentioned as late as 1775. They were, it is perhaps needless to say, the dining-tables of their day, and smaller tables made after the same fashion are occasionally found. Carpets are frequently mentioned with the long tables, and were what we should speak of as table-covers or spreads. "A table with a table carpet," in 1690, "a long table and carpett," at Boston, in 1652, are characteristic entries. 21S TABLES An oak table 42 inches in length and 38 inches in width, owned by the Historical Society of Old Newbury, is shown in Figure 186. The curves into which the frame is cut, with the quaint little drop ornaments, suggest quite forcibly the Yorkshire chairs, well known Figure iS6. Oak Table, first half seventeenth century. to collectors, and plentiful in England during the seventeenth cen- tury. The heavy stretchers about the table near the floor are similar to those found on the wainscot chairs. Figure 187 shows an oak table, belonging to Mr. Meggat, which represents fairly well the common tables of the seventeenth century. It was j^robably such tables as this that were referred to at Salem, in 1 684, as a table with a drawer ; at Philadelphia, in 1686, as" i table with a drawer 6s"; at Boston, in 1709, as "a square table 2s"; in fact, there was hardly an inventory which did not contain an entry of at least one table of small valuation called "small," "square," or "short." 219 COLONIAL FURNITURE Figure i88 shows a table of the same order, belonging to the Bulkeley collection, which clearly shows the change from the heavily Figure 187. Oak Table, about 1700. Figure 188. Oak Table, last quarter seventeenth century. underbraced tables to those in which a more graceful effect is ob- tained by making the stretchers turned instead of plain, and substi- TABLES tilting a single brace through the centre. This same development we have noted in chairs. Chair-tables, if treated as tables, belong to this general class, but of necessity the drawer is under the seat instead of under the Figure 189. Chair-table, 1660-80. table-board, as in the preceding figure. Figure 189 shows one of these chair-tables as a table, the same piece appearing as a chair in Figure 92. The joined or wainscot tables so far considered represent the oldest style of table to be found in this country. The ne.xt kind of table which we shall consider is shown in Figure 190, a large walnut table with leaves, now at Pilgrim Hall, Plymouth. This table, there is every reason to believe, was used by Governor Edward Winslow in the council-chamber in the year 1633. Tables of this kind sometimes had leaves both at ends and sides, supported by one or more legs which swung out from the main frame. This construction has brought about the familiar designation of " thousand-legged table." It will be seen from the illustration that 00 COLONIAL FURNITURE the drawer which should be at the near end of the table is missine. Nearly all of these tables, when of large size, had such a drawer on the side runners so characteristic of the seventeenth-century drawers. Figure 191 shows a maple thousand-legged table which has been fully restored, though the parts are all original. At Boston, in 1669, "an ovall table £2, los"; at Philadelphia, in 1688, "a walnut table £2 los"; at Yorktown, in 1667, " i ovall table Figure 190. "Thousand-legged Table," first half seventeenth century. with bolts & catches ^3 "; at Salem, in 1690, "a round black walnut table £2 5s " ; at Boston, in 1 699, " a walnut oval table £2 " ; at Phila- delphia, in 1705, "a large oval table £2"; at Providence, 1727, "an ovell table £2 5s," are items which doubtless refer to tables of the thousand-legged variety. They are always valued rather high, very seldom under two pounds. These large round and oval tables super- seded the long tables, and were very generally the dining-tables of their day. Their curved edges must have required the use of chairs rather than the forms used with the long tables. The inventories wherein they appear are those of the well-to-do, and they may be regarded as the fashionable dining-table of the seventeenth century. The dining-table used by the Van Cortlandt family at the manor- house, Croton-on-Hudson, New York, since early in the seventeenth century, is one very like that shown in P^igure 190. TABLES Many small tables were made with similar turned frame and bracing, and with tops both round and oval, but without leaves : at Salem, in 1647, "a little round table 7s"; at Philadelphia, in 1688, "a Figure 191. "Thousand-legged Table," latter half seventeenth century. round oak table"; at New York, in 1691, "a small round table with turned feet 6s"; and at Yorktown, in 1661, " i small round table," are references perhaps to such as these. Folding tables are also often mentioned, and were so constructed that one half of the turned frame folded against the other, and the top fastened by hinges to the frame dropped at the side. The table, when so folded, could not, of course, stand. At Philadelphia, in 1686, a folding table is valued at six shillings, and, in 1709, "a black walnut folding table" at £1 5s. The "ovall table" at Yorktown in 1667, "with bolts & catches," above referred to, may have been a folding table. COLONIAL FURNITURE The frames of the largest of the oval and round tables were made narrow so that, when the leaves were dropped, the tables occupied a comparatively small space. There seems to have been an attempt made by this and other means to provide against the table when not in use taking up more floor-room than necessary. The feet of tables with the turned legs and stretchers of the thousand-legged variety were' finished with the round or flattened ball, or with the Spanish foot shown in the chair in Figure 99. Figure 192. "Butterfly Table," about 1700. A style of oval table of which there are many specimens in Con- necticut, but which appear to be scarce elsewhere, is shown in Figure 192. The leaves are supported by the curious-shaped wings which swing either way. The shape of these supports has given it the name "butterfly table" — needless to say, a modern name. The feet on this specimen are worn away, reducing the original lieight of the table slightly. Tables of this kind are commonly of maple or cherry, but the writer knows of several oak ones, probably the earliest of this style. It is, of course, impossible to say just how long the tables of the 224 TABLES styles thus far considered remained in fashion; for convenience' sake, it may be assumed, without danger of serious error, that they remained in favor until the middle of what we shall call the Queen Anne period — i 700-40. This means not that they were not in use many years after this date, but that they were after this time considered old-fashioned. Figure 193. X-Braced Table, last quarter seventeenth century. When the tall chests of drawers, with the frame having six turned legs, came into use at the close of the seventeenth century, the form of the frame on which these chests were placed was reproduced in tables, or rather it would be more correct to say that the dressing- tables (see Figure 25) which accompanied the chests of drawers were copied in tables. Figure 193 shows such a table in the Erving collection. It will be observed that the legs suggest more the turned ones shown in Figures 190 and 191, but the feet and stretchers arc clearly on the C O L O NM A L ¥ V R X 1 1" U R E order of the dressing-tables. The wood is maple, and the table originally had a drawer, which is missing, and for that reason the back of the table was photographed. The drawer ran on the bot- tom and not on the sides. There is no trace of there ever havinfr Figure 194. Slate-top Table, last quarter seventeenth century. been an ornament where the stretchers cross. Such tables as these are e.xtremely rare, the writer knowing of but one other, and that in the Bolles collection. There is also in the Bolles collection a table similar to this having three legs in front, but of course in this case the stretchers run between the legs, as in the six-legged chests of drawers. Tables with frames like the above-mentioned were, like the dressing-tables made with stone or slate tops. At Boston, in 1693, 226 MARQUETRY TOP OF SLATE TABLE SHOWN LX FIGURE 194. {^Figure igj.) TABLES are mentioned "in the lower room a slate table ^'i los"; in 1699, "in the hall a slate table ^i los"; and in 1703, "a table with a stone in the middle ^i." A slate or stone table with turned frame, the legs of which are much like those in the preceding figure, having the stretchers of the older turning instead of the Italian X shape, is shown in Figure 194. The drawer has the single-arch moulding and the drop handle of the oldest chests of drawers. Figure 195 shows the top of this table, now much worn and dis- fieured, but the fine inlaid border is still discernible, and must have been a very excellent piece of work, certainly not done in the colo- nies. The slate, except for a section in the centre, is missing. It belongs to the American Antiquarian Society of Worcester. The question has often been raised as to whether the slate tops were intended for use, or were a mere Ireak ot fashion. The reader will observe in Figure 194 the worn condition of the stretcher on the drawer side of the table, which certainly indicates that the feet of per- sons sitting at the table as though in a writing position had worn it. It may be well to pause here at the end of the seventeenth cen- tury, which, as we have seen, marks the end of the oak period, to consider a number of kinds of tables mentioned in the inventories that we are unable to place among any of those already mentioned : at New York, in 1677, "4 Spanish tables los"; at Boston, in 1698, "a Jappan table," of what shape and style it is impossible to tell ; at New- York, in 1686, "2 speck tables"; in 1689, "adansick table /,'i, "meaning a table from that place, undoubtedly; at Philadelphia, in 1687, "i inlaid table with a drawer and two stands damnified ^i. ' which ma\- ha\e been a stone table with marquetry border ; at New York, in i 702, " I French table with balls thereunto belonging ^3," probably refer- ring to a billiard-table, for they had been invented as early as 137 1 by a French artist, and may for that reason have been called French tables; also, in 1702, "a billyard table ^3." 227 COLONIAL FURNITURE Figure 196 shows a table belonging to Mr. IMeggat, followino- the general design of the cabriole-legged dressing-table, just as Figure 193 follows the design of the turned-legged dressing-table, likewise having a single drawer with a ver)- narrow single-arch moulding about Figure 196. Dutch Table, 1720-30. it on the frame. The handles are the etched brasses with screw-bolt fastenincrs of the Third Period. The lesfs have a finish seen on some of the early cabriole-legged chests of drawers. A quaint little Dutch table, which is owned by Miss Esther Bidwell, of Wethersfield, Connecticut, and was bought about the year 1730, is shown in Figure 197. The wood is cherry, and the curves with which the frame is finished correspond to the bandy-legged dress- ing-table, belonging also to Miss Bidwell, shown in Figure 34. This table, together with one a little larger, and the tea-table shown in Figure 200, belong to the same set of furniture. The top extends about eight inches beyond the frame, and is scalloped to match. It would seem as though tables of this style, which accord so well with 228 TABLES Figure 197. Dutch Table, about 1730. the prevailing furniture of all kinds, must have been fairly common, but these two are the only ones of which the writer knows. A common form of Dutch table with a round top, in the possession of the writer, is shown in Figure 198. The frame is narrow, and the semi- circular leaves, when dropped, make the table small enough to be easily disposed ol. The feet on this piece are worn, so that the shape is somewhat impaired. Tables of this kind were made in larsfe sizes and used as dininsf-tables after the " thou- sand-leijgred " table went out of fashion. A familiar-shaped table of mahogany, with ball-and-claw feet of somewhat later date than the preceding, is shown in Figure 199. The oeee curves at the ends of the frame indicate that it is an early one of its kind. Tea-tables begin to be mentioned about this time — one at New York in i 705 (the first mention we have found), one at Philadelphia in 1720, and one at Boston in 1732. The Pennsylvania " Ga- zette " for July 7, 1737, ad- Figure 19S. Dutch Table with Two Leaves, 1720-40. vertises tea-table bolts, show- ing that the tea-tables with adjustable tops, arranged with bolts to hold the table-top in place, must have been well known at this time. 22y COLONIAL FURNITURE A small tea-table of cherry, belonging to Miss Bidwell, is shown in Figure 200. It dates about t 730, and is in its original state, except for a portion of the raised moulding, which is missing. The mouldings, which project above the table about an inch, were intended to prevent the china from being knoclced off This style of table has Figure 199. Mahogany Drop-leaf Table, 1750. received the name of "Martha Washington tea-table" from the fact that she owned one, still to be seen at Mount Vernon. iMgure 201 shows another tea-table of the same general style but later date, belonging to Mr. Meggat. The edge will be seen to be cut from the solid wood and not applied as a moulding. The brass handles are somewhat imusual, but are quite in accord with the drapery effect much used in decoration during the Queen Anne period. It dates about 1750. A candle-stand, or possibly a small tea-table, as the top is made to fall to one side, is shown in Figure 202. Stands of this kind were 230 TABLES Figure 200. Tea-table, about 1730. Figure 201. Tea-table, 1 740-50. C O L O N I A L F U R N I T U R E very plentiful throughout the colonies, and were evidently made for many years. Three stands are mentioned at Boston as early as 1676 ; "2 olive wood candle stands," at Philadelphia, in 1683. The china shown on this piece is from a Lowestoft tea-ser\ice purchased in 1799. This stand and china belong to Mrs. W. \V. Andrews. Figure 202. Tripod Candle-stand, 1720-40. Tripod candle-stands, about four feet high, and with very small tops, were made, apparendy designed to hold a candle beside a high bedstead. Chippendale gives designs for such stands, and remarks that they should be made from 3 feet 6 inches to 4 feet 6 inches high. The handsomest of the Dutch tea-tables were what are popu- larly known as "pie-crust tables." One which came from Pennsyl- vania, and belongs to Mr. Meggat, is shown, both open and closed, in Figures 203 and 204. The scalloped moulding is carved from the solid wood, and the pedestals and knees of these tables are often beautifully carved. The feet are almost invarial^ly finished with the ball-and-claw. Not many of the pie-crust tables are found in New TABLES 233 COLONIAL FURNITURE England — the South, especially V'^irginia and Pennsylvania, furnishing the majority of the best work in carved mahogany. Tea-tables with tripod stands, both with plain and ball-and-claw feet, are found in many sizes. The tops are usually round, but a square or octagonal top is occasionally seen. They are made to re- volve on a pivot as well as to drop to one side. Figure 205. Tea-tray Table, 1750-75. A little tea-table belonging to the writer, and dating about the middle of the eighteenth century, is shown in Figure 205. The top is practically a tray with handles, but is securely fastened to the frame. The whole table is so light, however, as to be readily moved as occa- sion requires. It is the only one of just this kind with which the writer has met in this country, and the style was probably not common. An e.xample of a fine mahogany table, belonging to Mrs. E. W. Jenkins, of New Haven, Connecticut, which probably was made in New England, is shown in Figure 206. It is finished with equal care on both front and back, and the carving is exceedingly well done. This table approaches quite nearly the Chippendale fashion, and, had the rail been carved, could, without question, be called Chippendale. It is at least American Chippendale. Card-tables begin to appear in the inventories about i 730 : " a walnut card table " is mentioned at Boston in 1732. 234 TABLES Two mahogan)- card-tables, which came /rom the South and belong to Mr. Meggat, are shown in Figures 207 and 208. They are constructed in the usual way, with the two top sections hinged at the centre so that one half rests on the other or leans against the Figure 206. Chippendale Table, 1760-80. wall when not in use ; when opened for use the leaf is supported by one of the legs, which swings out for that purpose. Figure 207 has a drawer, which is somewhat unusual. In general design it is like the table shown in Figure 206, although not so well executed. Fig- ure 208 belongs to the block-front variet\-, but the plainness of the rails gives it a somewhat unfinished appearance. Card-tables similar to this are found which have both rear legs arranged extension fashion, which, pulling out from the frame, support the leaf Tables of walnut chcrrj-, and mahogany, with more or less COLONIAL F U R N I T U R E carving, and cabriole legs with and without ball-and-claw feet, remained in fashion from about 1720 until 1 780, when the Hepple- white designs became very generally used. The tables just consid- ered, covering the period between 1740 and 1780, correspond in date with the Chippendale j^eriod in England, and it may be correctly said n^ Figure 207. Chippendale Card-table, i 760-80. that they are in general Chippentlale, as the wood is commonly mahogany, except in Pennsylvania and \ irginia, where walnut con- tinued to be extensively used for the tmer pieces throughout this period, and the decoration, carving, and the outlines are those that he elaborated and perfected. Not many pieces of furniture which follow his designs, except in a very general way, are to be found in this country, though an occasional table with the rail carved in fret and the legs handsomely carved is found which may be called real Chippendale. Erom the time the large " thousand-legged " table went out of fashion until the extension-table was invented, in the year 1800, by Robert Gillow, tables of various kinds served the purpose 2.36 TABLES of dining-tables ; the Dutch tables with round tops, such as Figure 198, were made large enough for that purpose, and were quite o-enerally used. At Boston, in 1 760, appears the following entry : " 2 square mahogany tables £t " ; and in i 770, " two mahogany ends for tables £6 " ; these were undoubtedly the tables made in twos and threes to be placed together and in that way obtain the desired size. They w^ere made sometimes with each table in half-circle form, thus obtaining a circular table. Sometimes the half-tables are Figure 208. Chippendale Card-table, 1760-80. oval, with a wide square leaf, so that when two of these are placed together they form a long table with round ends. Again, the tables will be in sets of three, the centre one oblong and the two end ones oval or square. Such tables as these were made with the plain straight leg, with or without inlay, and with the fluted leg in Sheraton style, and also in the pillar-and-claw style of the American Empire. They date probably from about 1760 to 1820. After the adoption of the Hepplewhite and Sheraton styles, between the years 1 780 and 1 800, the cabriole leg was dropped and the straight square leg or the slender fluted leg took its place on furniture of every kind, and carving was superseded by inlay or marquetry. The wood continued to be principally mahogany. 237 COLONIAL FURNITURE Figure 209 shows an oval table in French walnut of character- istic Hepplewhite design. The top is inlaid about an inch from the edge with a narrow line of ebony outlined with white holly, the front and legs with the same woods, and the little wreath which decorates the legs will be seen to be the same as that shown in the Hepplewhite Figure 209. Hepplewliite Table, 17S0-90. sideboard in Figure 73. This table was found in Virginia, and belongs to the writer. A table which may be said to be Sheraton, though it suggests Adam very strongly in the classic decoration employed, is shown in Figure 210. The decoration on the legs consists of stripes a quarter of an inch in width at the top, tapering to an eighth at the bottom, of rosewood inlaid in satinwood. The top is satinwood bordered with rosewood, and the frame of the table and the drawer are made of oak, which indicates that this table was not made in this country. The brass rosette and ring handles and urn escutch- eon are very characteristic of Sheraton. During the last quarter of the eighteenth century card-tables were very common, and large numbers of them survive in Hepple- 238 TABLES white and Sheraton style, and show very well the straight and fluted leg used by those designers. Figure 21 i, a Hepplewhite table belonging to Mrs. W. W. An- drews, of Wethersfield, Connecticut, is of walnut inlaid with rose- Figure 210. Sheraton Table, 1780-90. wood and white holly. The top is hinged at the centre, and when open is supported by a leg which swings toward the back. Tables of this design are frequently referred to as Chippendale. This is a misnomer, as the use of inlay and the square tapering leg at once proclaim. A Sheraton card-table, belonging to Miss Manning, is shown in Figure 212. The wood is mahogany with inlay of varicolored woods. Its method of construction is the same as the preceding, and its date also probably the same, for there is no doubt that the Hepplewhite and Sheraton styles were largely used in this country with equal favor during the last ten years of the eighteenth century. 239 COLONIAL FURNITURE Delicate little sewing-tables are to be seen in both these fash- ions, the tops of which are sometimes arranged to lift, disclosing a cabinet with compartments designed to fit sewing utensils of all kinds. Another familiar arrangement has a drawer with the com- partments, and just beneath a frame to which is attached a silk or velvet bag ; the frame draws out like a drawer, and the bag is thus held open, making a very convenient repository for needlework of all kinds. With Sheraton's late designs, about the year 1800, the fine out- lines that distinguished the cabinet work of the eighteenth century passed out of style, and in their place came the rather uncouth and heavy designs known as Empire. As almost all the genuine old furniture now to be found for sale in this countr)- follows this fashion, it will be well to consider it somewhat. After the F"rench Revolution there was a reaction against everything that had formerly been in favor in art as well as in social realms, and there was an effort to bring in a completely new fashion in furniture. The design of Empire furniture is largely a revival of the classic, particularly of the Egyp- tian classic, brought about by the Napoleonic e.xpeditions. The use of the sphinx head, with the bear's and lion's feet, the column mounted in brass or gilt, the classic tripod for the frames of tables, are all dis- tinguishing features of this style. American Empire followed, to some extent, a fashion of its own, and adopted from the French what best suited the maker. The use of bronze was not extensive here, but brass was used to some extent for the feet of the tables, chairs, etc., and for pillar mountings ; the handles were very generally the lion's head with the ring. The lyre, one of Sheraton's favorite de- signs, was much liked for table supports, and for decorating the backs of chairs. It may be said with truth that no finer mahogany was ever used than that employed in the Empire sideboards and tables. The carving often is very good, but coarse, and the veneering the very best of its kind. 240 o J ri U o o 00 a « U 241 TABLES The Empire card-table shown in Eigure 213 was probably made by Duncan Phyfe, a prominent cabinet-maker of New York early in the nineteenth century. The table shows the use of the brass foot and lyre support. The top in tables of this kind turns Figure 213. Empire Card-table, about 1810. around on the frame, and is supported by bringing the seam across the frame. This table belongs to Mr. Meggat. A work-table having the brass trimmings and feet is shown in Figure 214. The pillar and base with which this table is made are of a design used in tables of all sorts. About 1820-30 the strictl)' classical ornaments and the fash- ion of trimming with metal was largely superseded in this country by the extensive use of heavy carving. 243 COL C) N I A L F U R NM T V R E Figure 215 was a card-table made in Salem, Massachusetts, by Nathaniel Appleton, about the year 1820, and now in the possession of his o-randdauehters, the Misses Brown. The rope-carvin<'- and the Figure 214. Empire Work-table, 1S20-30. acanthus-leaf capital are designs used to a large extent on the posts of Empire bedsteads. The table shown in Mgure 216, which belongs to Mrs. Alexan- der Forman, of Brookhn, is known as a pillar-and-claw table. This is one of a pair designed to be fitted together to form a dining-table. Pillar-and-claw tables were sometimes made in |)airs, having the tops folding like card-tables, and on being opened and fitted toorether formed a table \onir enough to seat twelve or fourteen people. A form of table sometimes called a sofa-table, both sides of which are finished alike, which combines the use of the l\re in wood with the heavy carving which came later, is shown in Figure 217. The rope-carved edge was extensively used about 1840, the date of this table. 244 TABLES Figure 215. Empire Card-table, iSio-ao. Figure 216. Emjiire Pillar-and-claw Table, 1810-20. 24s TABLES The last of the liand-made tables were made with a heavy centre pillar, which was sometimes octagonal, but more often square fin- ished with a square base, at each corner of which was a small ball- shaped foot or a clumsy scroll. Figure 217. Sofa-table, i Si 0-20. 246 \M I I DESKS AND SCRUTOIRS DESKS, in one form or another, have been known from the I eighth centur\-. In his " Natural History " Bacon makes the following- remark : " Some trees are best for planchers, as deal; some for tables, cupboards and desks, as walnut"; showing that at the beginning of the seventeenth century desks were appar- ently in common use in England. The word desk in the early inventories in England and this country had a different meaning from that now given to it. It meant a bo.x which held the writing materials, the lid of which was some- times used as a smooth surface upon which to write. These early desks were inventoried at very low figures, anywhere from is. to ^i. The highest prices we have found are: at Salem, in 1647, "His deske ^i"; one at 30s. at New York, in 1691 ; a walnut desk at Philadelphia, in 1705, 30s.; and at the same place, in 1706, "a walnut tree deske inlaid £6," which is so far above the highest valu- ations elsewhere found that if it were not for the early date, and the fact that a distinction was made all through these years between desks and scrutoirs, we should believe it to have been a scrutoir ami not a desk-bo.x. Most of the desk-boxes were undoubtedly perfectly plain deal, maple, oak, or walnut boxes, and it is safe to assume that they have been lost because not considered worthy of care. Consequently, ^47 COLONIAL FURNITURE nearly all that are now to be found are carved more or less, and some so beautiful])- that it is difficult to reconcile the low inventory valua- tion with the pieces. These boxes or desks were apparently used for two purposes : one as a place in which to keep books, more especially the Bible, and the other for valuable papers and writing materials. In the early days when the Bible was a treasure possessed by but few, it was kept under lock and key in a box oi this kind, often beautifully carved, to be taken out and read at a gathering of the neighbors. By some these boxes are called " Bible-boxes " to this day. Thus at Philadelphia, in 1726, we find " Escritore, small table, deske Holy Bible ^5 los," the desk very likely being on the table, and the Bible either in or on the desk. Again, in the same place, the same year, " a book desk 26s." Some of these boxes were carved on the front, sides, and top ; sometimes the top was flat and sometimes slanted. We are inclined to believe that the boxes with carved or steeply slanted tops were, as a rule, I)ible-boxes, the slanting top being of a convenient slope to hold the book while it was being read, while the flat-top or slightly slanted ones, uncarved on top, were for desks. The boxes vary in size from i 7 to 30 inches in length, and the inside, especially in those intended for desks, often contained the small till or compartment so frequently found in the chests, which was doubtless intended to hold the writinof materials, and sometimes they contained pigeonholes, and sometimes a shelf running the long way of the box. This style of box is sometimes spoken of in the inventories as a "paper-box," as recorded at New York, in 1691, "a small black walnutt paper box," and in 1702, " In the writing closett I old desk for papers." The first mention in the inventories of anything to do with writing is at Plymouth in 1633, which is the earliest )ear for which inventories are given in this country: "A writing table of glass 4d." This word 248 DESKS AND SCRUTOIRS here probably means tablet, and it was, we believe, a plate of glass, perhaps framed, which was laid on the lap or table to obtain a per- fectly smooth surface, in much the same way as is sometimes done to-da)- ; and in Philadelphia, in 1687, appears "A writing slab & frame 8d," clearly indicating such a piece. Probably the first mention of a desk in this country is that at Plymouth, in 1644, " i little desk is," which modest price would lead us to suppose it was but a pine box. Asrain, at Boston, o m 1676, "2 cedar desks i^"; and in New York, in 1689, "one desk i6s"; and in 1691, "one desk or box 30s." Mgure 21S is a good ex- ample of a Bible-box in the Figure 21.S. possession of the Connecticut Bible-box, 1649. Historical Society. It is made of Enidish oak throuohout, and is, therefore, doubtless of Encrlish make. It bears the inscription " M. S. 1649" on its front panel. The carving is of a very early pattern, and the circles on the side and top suggest a design popular in Holland early in the century, while that on the front suggests an English design first appearing in James I's reign. Figure 219 shows a slant-top writing-desk belonging to the Long Island Historical Society. It is made throughout of English oak, and, in addition to the band of carving which appears in the illus- tration, there is a faint tracery about the edge of the lid. It was brought from England by William Wells, who landed at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1639, and in 1640 removed to Southold, Long Island. An interesting feature to note about this desk is that the slant top was apparently used to write upon, as it shows decided wear. At the back of the desk, on the inside, are five pigeonholes and one 249 COLONIAL F U R N I T U R E drawer, which is an unusual arrangement, and clearly indicates that the piece was a writing-box. It is considerably larger than usual, its dimensions being 28 inches in length, 22, '< inches in width, 11 I'igure 219. Desk-box, first half seventeenth century. inches high in the back, 6^4 inches high in front. The pigeonholes are y ^4. inches long and 4.}^ inches deep. Figure 220 shows a flat-top desk-box in the characteristic pattern of the Hadley chests (see Figure 12), including initials. It is made Figure 220. Desk-box in "Hadley" Pattern, 1690-1710. of American oak, and has only the front panel carved, as is usual in the American-made boxes. It dates, probably, about the same as the Hadley chests, 1690-1710. It is impossible from its present condition to determine whether it was stained, as were the Hadley chests, or not. 250 DESKS AND SCRUTOIRS Figure 221 shows another desk-box, in an unusual conventional desien, which we have not before seen. This, too, is made of Ameri- can oak, and is carved only on the front. The initial N stands for Nott, the name of the family who formerly owned it. Both these two last-mentioned boxes are in the Erving collection. This desk is 23^ inches long, 7>j inches high, and 16 inches deep. Figure 221. Desk-box, latter half seventeenth century. Figure 222 illustrates an extremely rare piece of furniture which may be called a desk on a frame. This is in the Erving collection. The piece is still in the condition in which it Mas found ; consequently onl\- a general idea of such a piece can be obtained from the illustra- tion. It stands 32, '< inches high, and is 24 inches wide and 16 inches deep, and consists of a desk or box part opening from the top in the usual way, with a drawer below. An unusual feature of this piece is the shelf at the bottom. Only one applied ornament remains on the front, and one turtle-back on the side, but the piece originally had a double row of turned ornaments on the stiles, and a moulding finished the edge of the shelf part below. The only carving is that which appears on tht: drawer, which is the early half-circle pattern often found on tht; upper rails of chests. The piece dates about 1675. V'ery few of these desks on frames have come to light. We know of two with carved panels and drawers, but without the lower shelf and also two panelled ones, which stand much lower, on short, 251 COLO N I A L F U R NM 1 LM^l E turned legs, also without the shelf. It is believed by some that these boxes may have been used for linen, but we can see no reason for their being put to such use when the linen could have been better stored in the larger chests. Such a piece as this, we believe, is referred to in a Boston inventor)- of 1672, " 1 desk and frame los," Figure 222. Desk on Frame, about 1675. and again in 1683,"! standing desk, standish and box /,i 5s," and the expression appears occasionally throughout the inventories at New York, Boston, and other places up to about 1690. It seems beyond question that such pieces as Figure 222 were used as desks, for, throughout the inventories, whenever the words "and frame" are used they refer to a piece raised from the floor, as distinguished from those resting on feet or directly on the floor. 252 DESKS AND S C R U T O I R S This, as is shown in the chapter on Chests of Drawers, was the way the change from low chests of drawers to those commonly called high-boys was first designated in the inventories, and as it was during this very time that this distinction was first noted with respect to chests of drawers, we conclude that the same distinction was intended wherever this expression is used. Furthermore, in none of the inven- tories does any expression appear but this which could possibly refer to such pieces, nor are any other pieces extant to which the expres- sion desk and frame could apply. From about the year 1660, or possibly a little earlier, a new style of furniture for writing purposes seems to have come into use called "scrutore," or " scriptoire," as some of the inventories call them. It may be assumed that the influence of Charles I and II, with their French ideas and fancies, had something to do with the change. One is instantly impressed, on reading the early inventories, with the fact that up to the end of the first quarter of the eighteenth century scrutoirs are inventoried at much higher figures than desks, it being very seldom that they are placed at a lower valuation than £1, while the average is easily from £6 to ^7. A good illustration of the above appears in a Boston inventory of 1709: "a desk 3s," " i scrip- tore £6." Among the various inventories we find the following : at Boston, 1669, "scritoire and desk /,"io"; in 1683, "a scriptore £2." "a small scriptore los"; in 1704, "a l)lack walnut scrutoire " ; in 1717, "a scriptore /"8 " ; and in i 723 one for ^12; at Salem, in 1684, "a large scriptoire ^5"; at New York, in 1691, "a scrutore without a lock 20s"; and in 1704, "2 schrutoors £\j," the last a spelling which none but a Dutchman could have executed ; at Philadelphia, in 16S7, "I screwtor £1"; in 1705, "a scrutor & large Bible £2 5s"; and in 1720, " i black pine screwtor ^4." What these earliest scrutoirs were it is difficult to determine. It is generally believed that they were of the ball-foot, slant-top type ; but, although this was undoubtedly the style during the last years of COLONIAL F U R X I T U R E the seventeenth century, we hardly think it was the first style which is spoken of in the earlier inventories. An earlier form of which we know is built much on the order of the six-legged chest of drawers, with a little drawer under the moulding at the top, the front of the upper part opening downward much like the Empire desks, making a place upon which to write, and disclosing a cabinet with drawers and pigeonholes. The lower part is a chest of drawers, and the brasses are of the drop variety. The feet are of the ball-foot type. Several pieces on this order are to be seen in England, but we know of only one having been found in this country. From its general construction, and from the fact that it more nearly follows the line of the furniture at that time in vogue, we are led to place it as an early style of scrutoir. Such a piece may have been referred to in a Salem inventory of 1666, " a cabinet desk ami two chairs ^i 5s," tor such pieces are called in England cabinets; and at the same place, in 16S4, "one large scritore ^5"; also in the inventory of a storekeeper in New York in 1692 appears "4 \)V. scrutore chains with two dozen bolts" ; these chains must have been used to hold the front which lets down to write upon, and as all the slant-top desks are supplied with two frames which pull out to hold the front, such chains were proba- bly intended for pieces as above described. There are two other styles in the slant-top scrutoirs of which we know that may have been earlier than the ball- foot variety. One has a slant top which lets down and rests on frames which pull out ; this has one drawer below the scrutoir part, and the whole rests on turned legs with bracing. The other style has a small slant top which lifts like a desk-box, while the front, which is perpendicular, falls outward, being held in a position for writing by two pulls. It has one drawer below the scrutoir part, and the whole upper part just described rests on the lower part inside a heavy moulding, as in the six-legged chests of drawers. The legs are turned and six in number, and are fastened to this moulding-, and there are three 254 Figure 223. Ball-foot Scrutoir, about 1700. 255 DESKS AND SCRUTOIRS narrow drawers, one between each pair of front legs. The bracings between these legs are turned. Both of the specimens above de- scribed are made of pine, and seem originally to have been painted red and black. Neither piece, however, has the characteristic mouldings about the drawers. They are both in the Bolles collection. Either of these pieces would have been properly described in a Salem inventory in 1684, "one scritoire and frame ^"i los," although the valuation would have been high. Both of these scrutoirs are per- fectly plain, and, except for the legs, have none of the ear-marks of seventeenth-century pieces, and may have been made by some joiner to special order at a much later date ; but we are convinced, from a study of seventeenth-century pieces and the various inventories of that period, that pieces like these two just described could, and very probably did, e.xist, because the fashion of the legs in each of these pieces was used on all other kinds of furniture which required legs at the time when they were in style, and we see no reason why a scru- toir should have been an exception, especially as, in the next period, when the bandy leg was in style, scrutoirs are found following that fashion. We therefore describe these pieces here, although unable fully to determine whether they are seventeenth-century pieces or not. However, for all practical purposes, the scrutoir represented by Figure 223 is as early a type as a collector is likely to find in this country. It will be noticed that the two small drawers are the top ones, and the space between them and the bottom of the scrutoir proper is taken up by a well which is reached through the slide which can be seen beneath the three little centre drawers on the inside. The characteristics of such scrutoirs as this are this well, the two small drawers, the drop brasses, the turned ball feet, and the moulding about the bottom. The well, however, is not confined to such pieces, for it is occasionally found in scrutoirs of about a cen- tiu'v later. These scrutoirs are found made of maple, walnut, and 257 COLONIAL F U R i\M T U R E whitewood, and sometimes with handsome veneered panels of bird's- eye maple or walnut on the face of the slant top and drawers. The single-arch moulding about the drawers would indicate that it is one of the earlier pieces. It dates probably between i6go and 1710. Figure 224. Cabriole-legged Scrutoir, 1720-40. (Handles and hinges new.) Such pieces are also found with the double moulding about the drawers. A style of scrutoir following directly after this omits the well and slide, bringing the two short drawers directly beneath the scrutoir proper, and adding an extra long drawer at the bottom. The drawers are surrounded with the canal-moulding shown in Pigure 29, or are made overlapping. The feet are the simple bracket ones used next after the ball foot, and the handles are the engraved ones fastened with screw-bolts, or an early form of willow brasses. The next style of desk, and perhaps contemporaneous with the one last described, adopted the Dutch bandy leg so popular throughout 258 DESKS AND SCRUTOIRS the first half of the eighteenth century. It was in effect a low-boy. with a slant-top scrutoir set into the frame in much the same way as was the top part of the so-called high-boy. The earliest variety was plain and of simple lines, the inside being arranged with a few pigeonholes and drawers, and was most often made of maple and cherry. They are not so scarce as the ball- foot desks, but they are nevertheless considered a very good find by collectors. One of the plainest varieties is shown in Figure 224. It has but a single drawer, and the hip pieces, which should form a continuous curve from the leg to the lower edge of the scrutoir, are missing, marring- the otherwise somewhat grraceful effect, and the lower lines, being perfectly straight, make the piece seem even more severe. The scrutoir does not seem to have any slides to support the flap lid when let down, but has a slide, such as is used in other pieces for a candle- stand, directly in the centre above the drawer, which may have been intended to hold the top on a downward slant, as we can see no rea- son for a candle-slide in such a place. The inside is perfecdy plain, in keeping with the exterior, and the brass hinges are, of course, new, having been placed on the outside when those on the inside were broken. The brasses are not original. As Figure 224 shows this style of scrutoir in its simplest form, so Figure 225 illustrates one of the finest and most graceful pieces that has come under our observation. It has three drawers in the low-boy part, with the rising sun carved in the centre drawer, and the lower line is practically the same as appeared in the cupboard high- boy shown in Figure ^3' ^^"^ because of the elaborate interior we would date it somewhat later — between i 740 and 1 750. The legs are in good proportion, with well-defined shoes at the bottom, and there is a little column finishing each corner. In the lower part of the scrutoir proper are two small square drawers for pens, etc., which on drawing out hold the slant top for writing purposes. The interior 259 C O L O i\ I A L I- U R N I T U R E contains eighteen drawers set into a frame made of a series of grace- ful curves, while the upper centre drawer has the carving to corre- spond with the lower part. This piece is in almost faultless proportions, and has a grace and charm which it would be difficult to improve. It belongs to Mr. Walter Hosmer. Figure 225. Cabriole-legged Scrutoir, 1740-50. Mr. Henry \V. Erving, of Hartford, has a very beautiful example of one of these scrutoirs with a bookcase top, having a broken-arch cornice carved in Chippendale fashion. A litde later style than the preceding, and one which represents a type seen also in chests of drawers, is illustrated in Figure 226, belonging to Mr. Meggat. This scrutoir, like the preceding one, is set into a frame, but in this case the frame is very low, containing no drawers, and, except for this frame, to which the legs are fastened, it is like the ordinary 260 DESKS AND SCRUTOIRS variety of slant-top desks. It is of unusual size, being Init T/J^i inches high, 27)^ inches wide, and 16 inches deep, and its diminu- tive proportions make it extremely graceful and attractive. The use of this low frame with bandy legs seems to have been confined to Connecticut. After the first twenty years of the eighteenth century the marked distinction before noted in the prices given for desks and Figure 226. Slant-top Scrutoir, 1740-50. scrutoirs disappears, and thereafter the inventories almost indis- criminately use the terms to denote the same kind of pieces at the same prices. Thus at Salem, in 1734, we find "one desk ^5 los," the high valuation showing that the old distinction was no longer made, and later still the word scrutoir seems to disaj^pear entirely, and writing-pieces of every sort are called desks. 261 COLONIAL FURNITURE It was also about this time that the word bureau first came into use. The word is of French origin. Some assert that it comes from a word denoting a writing-piece of any kind, while others claim that the name was derived from the word luirrcl, or bureau, a coarse russet cloth of medieval times with which such pieces were covered. This latter derivation is probably the correct one, the first being a second- ary meaning, for in Cotgrave's French and English dictionary, pub- lished in 1611, the following appears: "Bureau, a thick and course cloth of a browne russett or dark mingles colour ; also the table thats within a Court of audit or of audience (belike, because tis usually covered with a carpet of that cloth)." The word is used by Swift in its modern spelling with its early meaning in the following much-quoted stanza: " For not a desk with silver nails Nor bureau of expense Nor standish well Japann'd avails To writing of good sense." This word is compounded in two ways in the inventories, bureau- desk and bureau-table or -chamber-table. Dr. Lyon, in his splendid work on Colonial Furniture, thinks the former referred to a scrutoir, while the latter referred to a low chest of drawers, or bureau in the modern sense, and cites such entries as: at Boston, in 1721, "a burow desk £2, 10s"; in 1725, "i buroe £s" \ in 1/39. "i ^"ro table"; and in 1749, " In the front chamber i buro table with drawers ^15 " — all of these valuations, of course, being in inflated currency. This distinction hardly seems to us probable, because a low chest of drawers could have been properly described by calling it by that name, as had been the custom in the inventories of the oak period, and as was still occasionally done in this ; and, furthermore, the word table could hardlj- be applied to such a piece. It is undoubtedly true that when the expression first appeared 262 DESKS AND SCRUTOIRS it referred to some new style in furniture, and we believe, from a study of old dictionaries, as well as the inventories and the pieces still extant belonging to those times, that the word was always used in connection with writing in some way. The word bureau appears to have had two meanings, either ,a piece on which to write, or a chest of drawers of some sort. In the expression "bureau-desk" the word seems to have been used in its second meaning, otherwise it would not be a qualifying word and would be redundant. The furniture best answering this description would be the slant-top desks with the chest of drawers below, which was a new style. The other expression, " bureau-table" or " bureau- chamber-table," would seem to use the word in its first sense. The expressions "table" and "chamber-table," as used in the inventories we have seen, refer to what are commonly called low-boys ; so if the word bureau was there used to denote a piece to write upon, we would have a low-boy plus a desk, such pieces as are shown in Fig- ures 224 and 225 ; and as such pieces came into existence at about the time this expression first appears in the inventories, we believe them to have been there described. The word bureau does not seem to have been used to any ex- tent in its modern meaning until the last quarter of the eighteenth century, and we believe it was then so called because of the desk appearing in the upper drawer of such pieces ; the desk-drawer later was dropped, but the name remained. Chippendale shows designs for ladies' secretaries, which he calls bureaus; and he, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton call chests of drawers commodes, so it is hardly likely that the word bureau could at that time have been very commonly used to denote a simple chest of drawers. The word secretaire is the same word as secretarj', a corruption of escritoir. It will therefore be seen that after about the first twenty years of the eighteenth century there were four words used interchangeably to 263 COLONIr\L FURNITURE denote a piece of furniture for writing purposes, viz.: desk, scrutoir, escritoir, and bureau. Scrutoirs, with bookcase or cabinet tops, became popular early in the eighteentli century. They were usually with panelled wood doors, although occasionally throughout the inventories they are men- tioned with glass doors, and sometimes with looking-glass doors. The tops of the earliest pieces were square ; later, as the broken arch came into fashion, that style was almost exclusively used. Figure 227 illustrates the oldest scrutoir with a top which we have found. It will be seen that the lower part has all the character- istics of the ball-foot low scrutoir shown in Figure 223: the well above the two short drawers, the slide inside, and the mouldinsf about the drawers, which in this piece is of the double variety. The turned feet are different from those usually found, but we are unable to dis- cover that they are new. At any rate, the overhanging moulding at the bottom shows that it must have had ball feet of some kind. It originally had brass drop handles, and an unusual feature is the moulding extending around the front and sides as in the low-boy scrutoirs, the effect of which is to separate the chest of drawers from the scrutoir. It was with great difficulty that we could be persuaded that the top was not a later addition ; but after a careful examination we are convinced that it is genuine, because it is perfectly consistent. The scrutoir is finished throughout in walnut. The large drawers have walnut fronts, with sides, backs, and bottoms of English oak, and the small drawers are entirely of English oak, as are the pigeonhole compartments. The moulding about the centre pigeonholes is of the double variety, as in the lower part, and the upper part sets into a wide moulding, which shows no sign of ever having been tampered with. The cornice is characteristic also of the early high-top pieces ; candle-slides may be seen just beneath the doors. This scrutoir is at the Philadelphia Library, and is said to have 264 o Figure 227. Cabinet-top Ball-foot Scrutoir, about 1 700. 265 DESKS AND S C R U T O I R S belonged to William Penn, and it is of a style which lends color to the tradition, for it could date as early as 1700. It is undoubtedly of English manufacture, which may help to settle a much-disputed point as to whether scrutoirs of the ball-foot style were known in England. Figure 228. Cabinet-top Scrutoir, 1740-50. This illustration shows the piece in its original condition before it had been incorrectly restored by adding a broken arch at the top and modern copies of the etched brasses of the Second Period. It is alto- gether an extremely interesting piece, and if our conclusion be true 267 COLONIAL I- U R X I T U R E as to its genuineness, it places the high-top scrutoirs earlier than it has been customary to place them. Fieure 228 shows a scrutoir with wooden doors, which is at the Essex House, Salem, and is said to have been made in i 744. The eagle at the centre of the top we would assign to a later date. It will be noted that just above the scrutoir part are two slides for holding Figure 229. Slant-top Scrutoir, about 1750. candlesticks, and the upper part of the piece is divided into pigeonholes, with three narrow drawers at the bottom. The feet are of the Dutch bandy-legged type, but are fastened to the scrutoir, and not to the frame, as in Figure 226. The handles are not original, the piece doubtless originally having had willow brasses. The mouldings about the drawers are unusual, much like those which were on the oak- panelled pieces. It is probable that the doors of the bookcase tops were those 268 DESKS AND SCRUTOIRS finished with glass, while the solid wood doors were intended to hide pigeonholes. We find at Boston, in 1756, "a* mahogany desk and book case /^26 13s"; and in an advertisement of an auction in the Boston "Evening Post," in July, 1751, "a very handsome mahogany desk and bookcase with looking glass doors." Figure 229 is an e.xample of the style of desk common in the second quarter of the eighteenth century, having the ogee bracket Figure 230. Slant-top Scrutoir, 17C0-80. feet, with a fan-carving on the middle of the lower front and on three of the little drawers inside. In nearly all of the scrutoirs the maker exercised great ingenuity in contriving all sorts of secret drawers and receptacles in which deeds, wills, and other valuable papers could be safely kept. These secret places were sometimes arranged back of the centre compart- ment. The whole centre would draw out on being released by pres- sure on a hidden spring, which was sometimes concealed above a little drawer at the top, which must first be removed ; sometimes the spring would be concealed at the bottom or on a side, always ingeni- 269 COLONIAL FURNITURE ously hidden from die uninitiated. This centre being drawn out dis- closed either a series of small shallow drawers, a shelf, or two narrow upright drawers on either side of the centre. This is the commonest Slant-top Scrutoir, 1760-80. place to find secret compartments, but if they are not there, a narrow shelf may be found between the long top drawer and the bottom of the scrutoir part to which an entrance can be obtained by means of a sliding panel in the bottom of the scrutoir part, sometimes securely fastened by a spring hidden in various ways. Again, there is occa- sionally a hollow place at the back of the slides which holds the lid. The writer knows of a scrutoir with a secret place thus arranged, in which a will was found by accident, securely hidden. DESKS AND SCRUTOIRS Figure 230 illustrates a scrutoir with an unusually beautiful interior built on a series of curves, and decorated in designs appar- ently burned into the wood. It was found in central Pennsylvania. On opening the door in the centre a set of drawers appears, and Figure 232. Block-front Cabinet-top Scrutoir, 1760-80. under the bottom of these drawers is a spring which, on being pressed, releases the wdiole centre and discloses a secret compartment back of the two carved columns. A type of scrutoir of which there are many e.xamples, differing slightly in size and shape of drawers, interior arrangement, style of foot and handles, is shown in Figure 231. Mahogany, maple, and cherry are the common woods, all three sometimes being used in one piece. They date anywhere from 1750 to 1780. Figure 232 is a block-front high-top scrutoir, made of mahog- any throughout, having the ogee bracket feet. The arrangement COLONIAL FURNITURE of the interior is worth noting- as being particularly handsome. The brass handles are missing, but they were undoubtedly on the order of the willow brasses appearing in the next illustration. The casters Figure 235. Block-front Slant-top Scrutoir, 1770-So. we should at once pronounce to be recent additions, although a set of casters is mentioned in a New York inventory in 1710. A cabinet-top block-front scrutoir, which represents the finest work of the period to which it belongs, appears, both open and closed, in Figures 233 and 234. It will be observed that the blocking ex- tends not only on the lower part, but also on the slant lid and top section, and is finished in a carved shell, the centre ones depressed and the outer ones raised ; the feet are well-proportioned ogee feet, also showing the blocking. The doors of the cabinet part open in three sections, as will be seen from Figure 234, and the pigeonholes I yi^i\j^iii BLOCK-FRONT CABINET-TOP SCRUTOIR, 1-70-S0. Figure 234. Block-front Cabinet-top Scrutoir, 1770-80. DESKS AND SCRUTOIRS now showing were originally fitted with narrow shelves for filing papers. The broken-arch cornice and the pillar finish along the edo-es of the upper portion show the scrutoir to date in the last quarter of the eighteenth century. Figure 236. Serpentine-front Slant-top Scrutoir, 1760-80. A peculiarity not often seen on block-front pieces is that the drawers are overlapping instead of being finished with the narrow moulding about the drawers, as is usual. (See Figure 235.) The top part is made to lift from the scrutoir part, and brass handles are fastened on each end to facilitate moving. The piece is, of course, made of mahogany. This scrutoir, with three others, was made, presumably by a cabinet-maker at Newport, for four brothers, John, Joseph, Nicholas, and Moses Brown, and is now owned b)' the banking firm of Rrown & Ives, of Providence, who are successors in business to the original owners. 275 COLONIAL FURNITURE Figure 235 illustrates a very good example of a low block-front scrutoir, belonging to Mr. Albert H. Pitkin, of Hartford. The brasses are the original, and the four ball-and-claw feet are in good proportion. Such pieces as these last described represent the most Figure 237. Fire-screen Scrutoir, 1780-90. expensive style of scrutoir that was made, the block-front being cut from a solid piece of wood necessarily of great thickness. The mouldings on these pieces are usually carved out of the frame and not on the drawers. They date in the last quarter of the eighteenth century. Figure 236 shows a serpentine-front scrutoir with ball-and-claw feet, belonsfincr to Mr. Mecrorat. The curve is cut from a solid block of wood, as it is in the block-front pieces. Another style of scrutoir found occasionally in this country, but 276 DESKS AND SCRUTOIRS more often in England, is a fire-screen scrutoir, an example of which appears in Figure 237, which is at the Van Cortlandt Manor, at Croton, New York. The front drops, disclosing a set of shallow pigeonholes. Such pieces were made by Shearer and Hepplewhite in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, and this piece is almost identical with one of the illustrations among Shearer's designs, and is undoubtedly of English make. Figure 238. Sheraton Writing-table, about 1789. We now come to a very different type of desk from those hitherto described. Figure 238 is a desk used by General Washington when President of the United States in 1789, and is now in the Governor's Room in the City Hall, New York. The wood is mahogany, and the fluted legs and rosette trimmings are of the Sheraton style. The brass handles are found on both sides and ends, and there arc seven drawers on each side, while the brasses at either end, and the mould- ing about imaginary drawers, convey the impression that the ends are also furnished with drawers. At each end of the top are shelves for papers. 277 COLONIAL FURNITURE Figure 239 is a Sheraton scrutoir beautifully inlaid in satin- wood, ebony, and box. The writing-board is hinged at the centre and folds back upon itself. The upper portion contains pigeonholes and drawers concealed by sliding panels. The brasses are new, but are Figure 239. Sheraton Scrutoir, 181 o. of the proper design. This piece was purchased in 1810, and is now owned by Mrs. G. L. Bulkley, of Hartford. There are many pieces of this general style to be found in this country, all of which are well made, and most of which are extremely graceful. Figure 240 is a scrutoir with bookcase top, dating late in the 27S Figure 240. Scrutoir with Bookcase Top, about 1800. 279 DESKS AND SCRUTOIRS eighteenth century. The face of the wide upper drawer falls out- ward by means of a spring and quadrant, disclosing pigeonholes and drawers. There is in the Pendleton collection at Providence a very beautiful low-boy of late design which contains a drawer arranged Figure 241. Empire Desk, about 1820. in this way, and throughout the period from 1800 to 1S40 this desk-drawer is commonly met with both in scrutoirs and chests of drawers. A curious combination of styles appears in the scrutoir shown in Figure 241. The broken-arch cornice and the narrow moulding on the drawers are oddly associated with Empire-carved columns and glass rosette handles, which place its date not earlier than 1820. 2S1 ( COLONIAL FURNITURE There are no pigeonholes, and the writing-board is arranged to fold back on itself. Figure 242 is an example of a very handsome scrutoir in Empire style, owned by Mr. Casper Sommerlad, of Brooklyn. Al- Figure 242. Manjuetry Empire Scrutoir. though the piece is in very bad condition, yet it may be seen from the illustration that the marquetry is of a high order, and is not only on the front but the sides, and also on the inside of the desk part. There is a raised brass beading about the drawers, and a quarter-inch from the edge of the drawers is an inlaid strip of brass. The heads 282 DESKS AND SCRUTOIRS and feet at the two front corners are of ormolu. The handles are missing. The body of the scrutoir is of oak. Pieces of this general style, usually of plain, well-grained mahogany, sometimes with pillars at the corners, are fairly often found in this country, and date about 1800-20. 283 I X MIRRORS THE date of mirrors has proved very puzzling to determine, for they seem to have followed a fashion of their own, and this so independently that though the furniture of a given period may have an unmistakable style, the mirrors ot the same period do not follow it to a degree that makes them easily identified with it. The records from the first have frequent mention of looking-glasses and mirrors, but, except for an occasional very brief hint, do not materially assist in placing them. Families owning mirrors which have been in their possession perhaps for generations have been found to know nothing of their date or history, for family documents do not often mention them, and even tradition seems not to have attached itself to them as to furni- ture of other kinds. The mirrors in use previous to 1 500 were of highly polished metals, and not until the early years of the sixteenth centur)- was glass used for this purpose. At this time Venetian workmen received state protection for the manufacture of glass mirrors, and for more than a century Venice supplied practically the whole world. In England, the first glass plates for mirrors were made in the year 1673, at Lambeth, and from this time were in general use. The records throughout the colonies for the first few years mention look- ing-glasses valued at from two to five shillings. As these must 284 M I R R O R S have been Venetian ones previous to 1673, and consequently expen- sive, the inference is that at that low estimate of value they must have been mere hand-glasses. After 1680, however, the records show them to have been of considerable value, very much above most of the furniture. Other records are: at Salem, in 16S4, "a large looking glass and brasses" is valued at £2, 5s.; at New York, in 1689, "a large looking glass 36s," and in 1696, one at ^5; at Boston, in 1698, "a large looking glass," £2, 15s.; at Philadel- phia, in 1686, "a square looking glass with diamonds," and in 1687, "an olive wood diamond cut looking glass"; at New York, in 1696, "a looking glass with a gilded frame and one with an ebony frame," and in 1697, "one large looking glass with a walnut tree frame." The descriptions above enumerated cover practically all the hints that the records give of the character of the mirrors previous to I 700. As this was the period when the carved oak furniture was in fashion, mirrors with oak frames, ornamented in the prevailing fashion, would naturally be looked for. That they were thus made in England is undoubtedly true, for specimens of them with frames carved and inlaid with square blocks in light and dark woods, as were the cupboards and other furniture of the time, are not very rare. The olive-wood and ebony mirror-frames were very common here, and must, as a rule, have been small and plain, for they were seldom valued above seven shillings. English looking-glasses of the seventeenth century were, some of them, made with frames entirely of glass ; several of these may still be seen at Hampton Court Palace. The " square looking glass with diamonds " referred to at Philadelphia may have been an all-glass mirror. An olive-wood mirror preserved at Whipple House, Ipswich, Massachusetts, which probably dates before 1 700 and is one of a very few which have survived, is shown in Figure 243. The frame is 285 COLONIAL FURNITURE inlaid in scroll design with light and dark woods, and the glass is the original hand-bevelled one. At Boston, in 1703, a looking-glass and frame with flowers and a pair of sconces are mentioned, and the Boston " News Letter" for [■ iguru 24J. Inlaid Olive-wood Mirror, seventeenth century. August 10, 1 719, advertises "looking glasses of divers sorts and sizes, lately imported from London, to be sold at the glass shop, Queen Street." At Philadelphia, in 1720, a black-framed looking- glass is valued at £1 5s., and a large looking-glass at Salem, in 1 734, is placed at ^,'6 — the latter in the paper currency of that time, which was worth in silver about one third its face value. Figure 244 shows a mirror dating between i 720 and i 740. The eeneral outline of the frame of this mirror is almost identical with designs for mantelpieces published by two English architects, William Jones and James Gibbs — Gibbs in 1728, and Jones in 1739. The broken-arch cornice, we have seen, was very popular by 1730, and was extensively used on mirrors of the Queen Anne period. The 286 MIRROR S urn which finishes the pediment in this mirror is of great assistance in placing the date, for it is one of the styles of urns used between 1 700 and 1 740, and quite different from that used by Chippendale and his contemporaries. The cover to this urn IS missmg. This distinction between the urns of differ- ent periods is important, not only in determin- ing the date of mirrors, but also the date of any piece of furniture on which the urn is used. Figure 245 shows a drawing of two urns. The first is taken from the face of the clock shown in Figure 274, which was made by Loundes, and dates prior to 1 720. This and the urn shown on the mirror in Figure 244 are typical of the Queen Anne period. The second urn shown in Figure 245 is Chippendale. This egg-shaped urn is the only one used by Chip- pendale, and as it is of unusual design is easily recognizable. The urns on Figures 250 and 252 are those popular in the time of Shearer and Hepplewhite, 1775-90, and differ quite materially from the Queen Anne urns. There is no drapery, and the urns are usually either laterally or longitudinally elongated. Figure 246 shows another mirror of similar style and date, but, very unfortunately, the centre ornament is missing. The frame is walnut, and the gilded leaves and flowers which ornament the sides are carved from the wood, another indication of an early date, for later mirrors in much the same style were made which have the 2S7 Figure 244. Walnut and Gilt Mirror, 1720-40. Figure 245. Queen Anne and Chippendale Urns. COLONIAL FURNITURE Avreath made of wire and plaster. Both of the above mirrors have the old hand-bevelled glass which was used for all mirrors at the time these were made. Figure 244 belongs to Mrs. John R. Matthews, of Croton, and Figure 246 is at the \"an Cortlandt manor-house, Croton-on- Hudson. Figure 246. Walnut and Gilt Mirror, 1720-40. (Centre ornament missing.) Figure 247. Wood and Gilt Mirror, about 1730. (Some parts missing.) Figure 247 shows a mirror which belongs to Miss Esther Bid- well, some parts of which are missing, the pierced woodwork which should finish the top at the sides having been lost. This mirror was purchased about i 730, and has always hung in the same house. The glass is bevelled, and the leaf ornament and a narrow carved border just inside the moulding are gilded. Mirrors similar 2SS MIRRORS to this, having a square glass and an eagle at the top, will be spoken of later. A mirror similar to the three already described, and also dating before 1750, is shown in Figure 248. This is beautifully carved and elided all over. The glass is new, and the shape of the moulding into which it is set, as in the mirrors just mentioned, is charac- teristic of the Queen Anne mirrors, as is also the glass in two parts, joined by simply lap- ping the sections without the moulding, which was used later. Some English mir- rors were made with a narrow band of metal or elass to finish this seam. The chief characteristics therefore to be noted in mirrors dating between 1700 and 1750 are the mirror in two sections joined by simply lapping the glass, the waiving outline of the mirror in the upper section, the ornaments of wood instead of plaster and wire, and the style of urn. All of these characteristics do not of course appear in every specimen, but so far as we have been able to observe, the waiving outline of the mirror in the upper section is always present. Figure 244 combines all of these characteristics. The middle of the century brings us to a time when the design- ing of mirror-frames was given a prominent place by English archi- tects. H. Copeland published a series of plates for them in 1746. Lock's " New Book of pier and frames, ovals, girandoles and tables" was published in 1752, and Chippendale's "Director" contains de- signs for mirror-frames. All of these designs are, in general, French rococo (a word made up of two French words, rocaillc and coquilk, 2S9 Figure 248. Carved and Gilt Mirror, 1730-5°- (Glass new.) COLONIAL FURNITURE rock and shell) in style. The frames were in shape wide and nar- row ovals, square and oblony, and carved in lacelike and airy designs not calculated to make them very lasting. Figure 249. Carved and Gilt Mirror, 1750-60. Figure 250. Filigree Gilt Mirror, 1770-80. A very fine mirror in decided classical design, which belongs to Miss E. A. Brown, of Salem, is shown in Figure 249. It is carved, and without wire or plaster. Its date is about i 750-60. A mirror in the possession of Mr. Albert H. Pitkin is shown in 290 M I R R O R S Figure 250, which is a good example of the handsome mirror fashion- able from I 770 to I 780, and even later. The wreath at the sides will be Figure 251. Mahogany Inlaid and Gilt Filigree Mirror, 1770-80. seen to be practically the same as that used in the following illustra- tion, and, like that, is reinforced with wire. 2yl COLONIAL FURNITURE A mirror belonging to Mr. Meggat is shown in F'igure 251, which at first sight would be at once pronounced Queen Anne, and dated before 1750; but, in spite of the general effect, there are points about it which must make it later. The glass is square, the wreath at the sides and the flowers at the top are reinforced with wire, and there is a narrow band of inla\- in white holly about the opening, and an urn inlaid in colored woods at the top — features Avhich make it pretty certain that it dates in the neighbor- hood of I 775. I""rom I 780 to the end of the century Hepplewhite mirrors, with his favorite shield- and oval-shaped openings, were very popular. They seem to have been made mostly in small sizes, and being very fragile, are seldom to be found with all their orisfinal ornaments. Figure 252 illustrates one of these mir- rors, which might have been made by Hep- plewhite himself but which shows that other makers used his designs, for it has the following neatl)- printed and pasted on the back: "Looking glasses and all sorts of frames with carviny and orildino- bv George Cooper real manufacturer 82 Lombard Street London." The narrowest parts of this frame are reinforced with wire, as it would be impossible to carve wood in so slender a design. This mirror belongs to Mrs. E. B. Watkinson, of Hartford. Mirrors of this kind were usually in pairs, and the mate to this one is still pre- served. The Boston "Gazette" in 1780 advertises "Pairs of looking glasses"; and the New York "Gazette and Mercury" in the same 292 Figure 252. Hepplewhite Mirror, 1780-90. Figure 253. Carved and Gilt Girandole, about 1780. 293 MIRRORS The bold year contains the following advertisement of Duncan Barclay & Co., 516 Hanover Square: "Large pier and looking glasses oval sconces and .girandoles." A girandole belonging to a very fine pair owned by Mrs. Charles Clarence Torr, of Philadelphia, is shown in Figure 253 carving suggests Chippendale, but the row of balls around the frame places it after his time and as late as i 780. A great many very fine girandoles were owned both in the North and South, particularly after the Revolution ; one variety, which is fre- quently seen, has the round frame, sur- mounted by an eagle with wide-spread wings. A mirror of quite different style from any of the preceding is shown in Figure 254. This was imported for the Nichols house at Salem when it was built in 1 ■jS^. The architect for this house was the fa- mous Maclntire, and some of the beautiful woodwork of the mantelpiece is shown in the illustration. The earliest mirrors with straight tops, and bordered or divided with pillars, have the pillars narrow and fluted, decorated with wreaths ; the upper sections are not painted, but have carved designs applied on the glass, which appears to be enamelled, usually white. It is generally supposed that mirrors in the style of the above were not used until about the year 1800, but there is no doubt that this one was made for this place at the date above given. A small mirror in this style, owned l:)y the Hon. John R. Buck, of Hartford, is shown in Figure 255. The upper section of this is painted, which shows it to date somewhat later than the preceding mirror. 29s Figure 255. Gilt and Painted Mirror, about 1800. COLONIAL FURNITURE After the Revolution, and about the time the eagle was adopted as a national emblem, this device appeared in decoration of all kinds. Large numbers of mirrors similar to Figure 256, in all sizes, were iguic Mahogany and Gilt Constitution Mirror, 1780-90. Figure 257. Constitution Mirror, 1810-15. made and sold throughout the country, and bore the name of Con- stitution mirrors ; most of them had the eagle in gold at the top, either in plaster or carved from the wood. The handsomest form ot Constitution mirror is shown in Figure 256, which belongs to the Hon. John R. Buck, of Hartford. The glass rosettes shown with this mirror were popular about 1820-30, while the mirror dates about 1780-90. Another form of Constitution mirror, which was made in all sizes, and continued to be made after 1800, is shown in Figure 257, which bears the advertisement of its maker, Bartholomew Plain, Chatham Street, New York, whose name first appears in the directory at that 296 MANTEL AND MIRROR, 1783. (Figure 2J4. ) I MIRRORS address in 1805, and who continued to work there as late as 1816. The small gold eagle which was originally at the centre of the top is missing, and is only suggested by the shape into which the wood is cut. The eagle, in mirrors of this kind, was made of plaster and applied. It is a curious coincidence that the lines of the Queen Anne mir- rors, shown at the beginning of this chapter, should have been so closely reproduced in the neighborhood of the year 1800, when furni- ture of other kinds did not at all follow the Queen Anne patterns ; but the fact remains that the mirrors of i 730 and of 1 800 were, e.xcept for characteristics previously pointed out, very similar, and are often mis- taken for each other. B)- far the largest number of mirrors bearing the title of antique are those in the Empire style, made between the years 18 10 and 1840. The rope-carved pillars, the acanthus-leaf carving, and the lyre carved and applied, that we have seen to be characteristic of Empire turniture in general, are consistently reproduced in the mirrors of that time, making them very easily identified. They were made in many sizes, both in mahogany and gilt, and with and without the drop or acorn ornaments pendent from the cornice. The latest of these have the part above the dividing moulding painted in land- scapes, scenes from the War of 181 2 quite frequentl)-, or other designs, and the frame also was sometimes of soft wood, painted. The rosettes which ornament the corners were sometimes wood and sometimes brass. Figure 258 shows an Empire mirror of mahogany, with the lyre carved in a light wood and applied ; the mirror throughout is well proportioned and the work good. The little mirror shown beside it is as old as the larger one, and was made, probably, for a toy. It is complete, even to the litde drops, and measures only 10 inches in height by 5 s^ inches in width. Furniture of almost every variety was made in miniature, the writer having seen genuine e.xamples of chests, chairs, tables, high-boys, desks with bookcase tops, bureaus, 297 COLONIAL FURNITURE and sideboards, all made with every proper detail, probably for chil- dren's toys, for we find toy furniture advertised for sale in New York between i 760 and 1770. Figure 259 shows a gilt mirror of a very common pattern, although the details in rosettes and the turning of the columns are Figure 25S. Figure 259. Carved Mahogany Empire Mirrors, 1810-20. Gilt Empire Mirror, 1810-20. often varied. The rosettes belongfing at the two lower corners are missinof. The last three mirrors belong to the writer, and date about 1820. A very handsome mantel mirror, belonging to Mr. Albert H. Pitkin, of Hartford, is shown in Figure 260. The turning of the columns is very much the same as that in the preceding figure, and its date is about the same. It was the custom all through the eighteenth century to support 298 MIRRORS the mirrors on a pair of small rosettes, thus making the mirror tilt forward. These rosettes were of various kinds, usually of brass, and are frequently mentioned with the mirror in the inventories. I'igui'u 260. Gilt Mantel Mirror, Empire Style, 1810-20. Eight examples of these rosettes are shown in Figure 261. The first six are enamel bound in brass, and date about Revolution- ary times. The seventh is of brass with an urn in openwork, and Figure 26 1. Enamel and Brass Mirror Rosettes. the last is a brass bust of George III, which must date prior to the Revolution. In the Empire period many of these rosettes were made, both in this small size for mirrors and in a lartrer size for window- curtams. 299 X BEDSTEADS THERE is, perhaps, no branch of the subject of furniture more difficult to approach than that of bedsteads, and this not because they were by any means scarce, but because the bedsteads of the seventeenth century in this country have utterly disappeared, and the inventories give such meagre descriptions that almost the only clews are the valuations there given, and a study of the English bedstead of the same period. There is, of course, a distinction between a bed and a bedstead, more marked a century ago than to-day — the bedstead being the frame or furniture part, while the bed referred to the mattress. In England, before the Norman Conquest (1066), and even in the period immediately following, bedsteads were scarce, reserved for the master of the house or ladies, there often being but one to a house, while the other members of the household lay on mattresses of straw laid on the floor or on tables, chests, or benches. The bedsteads were sometimes built into the walls like bunks, but more often had four massive posts, with top and sometimes sides of wood, and heavy curtains, making a sort of sleeping-chamber in itself and, it is asserted, were sometimes placed out of doors. How- ever this may be, in some of the old manuscripts and tapestries we find bedsteads represented with tiled roofs, which would indicate that they were exposed to the weather. At any rate, when we consider BEDSTEADS that the castles and homes of that early day were without glass or other protection for the windows, we can readil)* understand why that particular style should have originated. ♦ The style, having been brought into existence by necessity, de- veloped along the same line toward a more graceful and delicate design, first losing the sides of wood but retaining the high head- board ; then in the early Jacobean period the high headboard gave way to a lower one with curtains at the back, and with smaller posts; later the solid wood top was superseded by a frame designated merely to hold a canopy of various kinds of cloth. The bedsteads in use in England at the time this country was settled were made of oak, often elaborately carved in designs such as are found on the oak furniture here. They were large and cum- bersome, and therefore difficult of transportation, and, except to the South, where English life had been transported bodily, we doubt very much whether in the first fifty )ears very many found their way to this country. .Some, however, must have found their way to New England, for Miss Helen E. Smith, in " Colonial Days and Ways," gives a portion of a letter sent to a correspondent in England, in 1647, by Mrs. Margaret Lake, a sister-in-law of Governor Winthrop, in which she asks to have sent her, among other things, " a bedsteede of carven oake (ye one in wch I sleept in my fathers house) with ye valances and curtayns and tapistry coverlid belongyngs." Fiofure 262 shows the famous Countess of Devon's bedstead which is preserved at the South Kensington Museum. This illustra- tion is given, not because we believe such beautiful bedsteads were in use in this country, but because it is a splendid example of the general type of carved oak bedsteads which must have been here, such as was mentioned by Mrs. Lake, and also because it combines to an unusual degree the patterns of carving found on many of the chests and other carved oak pieces in this countr)-, thus tending to prove the statement heretofore made that practically all the early carving 3"' COLONIAL FURNITURE on oak furniture in this country was taken from English models. Man)- of the designs shown on this bedstead are to be seen on the chests shown in Figures 2, 3, and 5, and on the cupboard shown in Figure 61. The carving is, however, of a much higher order, and the grotesque figures seen on the bedstead we have never found on American pieces. This bedstead, with its heavy oak tester and head- board, also illustrates the development of the bedstead from an enclosed chamber. It dates in the last years of the sixteenth century. This bedstead represents ver)' well the carved oak bedsteads of the better class in use in England during the early seventeenth cen- tury, and there is no reason to doubt that some of the bedsteads inventoried at higfh figures in the colonial records were much like this one though far less elaborate. Thus at Yorktown, Virginia, in the estate of a Dr. McKenzie, who died in 1755, are mentioned " i oak Marlbrough bedstead /8," and another of the same sort valued at ^6, both of which are far above the usual valuation of bedsteads. In New England records we find, from the first, in nearly every inventory mention of feather-beds, valued at from £2 to £;;,, a very high valuation, often equal to that of all the rest of the furniture put together. The probable reason is that all the early feather-beds were brought here by the settlers, for it could be hardly possible that such a quantit)- of feathers as these beds would require could have been taken so early from domestic chickens and geese. At Plymouth, in 1633, is mentioned " i flock bed and old bolster £\ 3s" — flock-beds being made of chopped rags; at .Salem, in 1647, "a straw bed," and in 1673, "a canvas bed filled with cattails," and "a silk grass bed"; in 1654, "a hair bed"; and at New York, in 1676, " a chaff bed "; all of which items are repeatedly met with throughout the inventories both North and South, showing that almost any soft substance was utilized for the beds when feathers were not obtainable. In many instances these beds were probably placed on the floor, for in many inventories they are mentioned without any bedsteads whatever. 302 CARVED OAK BEDSTEAD, 1593. (figure 262.) BEDSTEADS Many of the earliest bedsteads of which the records speak were doubtless merely frames on which to place the mattresses or beds; judging from the valuations, such frames may be referred to at Plymouth, in 1633, "i old bedstead and form 2s"; at Yorktown, in' 1667, "2 bedsteads, 2s " ; one at 5s., and "one bedstead & buckrum teaster 6s"; at New York, in 1669, "2 bedsteads i6s"; at Phila- delphia, in 16S2, " I bed bolster and bedstead ^i "; at Providence, in 1670, "two bedsteads £\"\ and in the inventory of John Sharp, taken at New York, in 16S0, the following somewhat minute descriptions of the furnishings of the sleeping-rooms occur: " In the small room, a bedstead with a feather bed, bolster, a couple of blanketts, a rugg and an old pair of curtains and valins ^5 3s"; in the middle room, " a bedstead with a feather bed and bolster, a rugg, a blankett, a lit- tle square table and a form ^5 5s"; in the great room, "a bedstead with a feather bed, a bolster, 2 pillows, a blankett, a rugg, old hang- ings about the bed and old green hangings about the room and a carpett £(i," while "a feather bed, bolster, blankett and coverlid" are inventoried separately as worth ^3 los., thus intimating that rather a small part of the total values can belong to the bedstead. We may also conclude that these simple bedsteads, whatever they were, were furnished with curtains and valances, which are mentioned with them almost without exception. In fact, throughout the inven- tories, with the exception of those of a few of the wealthier settlers, the values of bedsteads when given by themselves are surprisingly low. Again, we find throughout the Philadelphia records the ex- pression " ordinary bedsteads," and these placed at valuations not exceeding 15s., and more often below los.; and, further, the bed- steads, in a large majority of inventories both North and South, are included with the beds and furnishings, usually mentioned last as of least importance. On the other hand, we find occasional mention in wills of bed- steads in particular rooms left specifically, as property having special 303 C C) L O N I A L F U R X I T U R E value, and, as in the case of Mrs. Lake before-mentioned, some at least of the finer sort must have reached this country. At Plymouth, in 1639, "A framed bedstead" is spoken of and at Salem, in 1647, " A joyned bedstead." As " framed " and "joyned" are terms used to describe the wainscot chests and chairs, the bed- steads described in this way were probably something' more than sim- ply frames for drapery. Their valuations in these cases, however, 14s. and 1 6s., respectiveh', do not allow us to think that they were carved or ornamented in an\- pretentious way. In 1643 a bedstead with tester, and in the same year a half- headed bedstead, are among the items. The word tester is derived from the old French word fcsticir. a kind of head-piece or helmet, and came to mean in English the frame for holding the canopy about a high-post bedstead. A tester or headed bedstead would therefore imply a high one, while a half-headed bedstead doubtless was one without the tester or head-piece and with low posts. That some of the bedsteads w'ere built bunk fashion into the walls is implied by the use of the term " standing bedstead," as though to distinguish them from those built in this way. " Close bedsteads," "cupboard bedsteads," and "presse bedsteads" are also mentioned, and must have been arranged so that when not in use they could be folded into a cupboard in the wall, and probably hidden by doors. These are valued somewhat higher than the kinds already mentioned, averaging about 30s. A "presse bed" we find defined in Johnson's dictionary as "a bed so constructed that it may be folded and shut up in a case." In the South the bedsteads during this period are more highly valued, as might be expected, for nearly all the furniture of Virginia and Mar\-land was imported from England, and was doubtless of the carved wainscot variety then prevalent in that country. At York- tt)wn, in 1647, is a record of " 2 old bedsteads," which would indicate that they were imported, and, in 1657, another of "i bedstead ^3," 304 BEDSTEADS Although many of the bedsteads of the South were imported, yet we occasionally find in the inventories some which were made here, as, for instance, in 1659, "a Virginia-made bedstead" is mentioned. After about 1660 the values of the bedsteads and furnishings are much higher, and those in the North and South became more nearly alike. At Boston, in 1660, one is valued at ^24; at Richmond, Virginia, in 1678, one is valued at ^^24 5s. ; at Plymouth, in 1682, the " best bedstead and furnishings " was ^,"9 ; at New York, in 1691, " bed and furniture in the great room ^24"; "one in the dinning room ;^i8"; "one in the lodging room ^15"; and "four others ^36"; at Boston, in 1696, two very handsome bedsteads and furnishings were valued at £jo and ^100 respectively; but, of course, it is impossible to tell what was the value of the bedstead and what that of the furnishings, which were often extremely valuable. Such bedsteads as these might easily have been of the handsome carved oak kind shown in Figure 262, for when we consider the fact that the prevailing style for all other kinds of furniture during this time was the wainscot carved or the panelled style, and that the bedsteads in England during this time were of that same type, there is every reason to believe that the finer bedsteads in this country were of this same variety. It has never been the writer's good fortune to find an example of a bedstead which, with any certainty, could be assigned to the seven- teenth century, and such pieces seem totally to have disappeared. There are probably two reasons for this. First, as we have before suggested, the large portion of bedsteads were simple frames for holding drapery, and not in themselves worth preserving ; and, second, in the South, where there must have been some of the handsomely carved oak bedsteads, there seems to be a complete dearth of seven- teenth-century pieces, due to the devastation of two wars and the wealth of many of the people enabling them to replace the old- fashioned with the new, thus relegating the heavy oak furniture, 305 COLONIAL FURNITURE which, in tlic hght of the radically difterent fashion which replaced it, was probabl)- considered very unsightly, to the cabins of the slaves, where it was broken up or otherwise destroyed. In New England, where practically all the examples of sev- enteenth-century furniture now known have been found, the less extravagant habits of the people caused them to be more conservative ; but, notwithstanding this, most of the fine chests, cupboards, etc., recently unearthed have been found in attics, woodsheds, or barns, partly destroyed, and nearly alwaj's painted and maltreated in every way. Cupboards, tables, and chairs could for a while serve their useful purposes in kitchen or woodshed, but a bedstead, when dis- carded, could not be utilized for any useful purpose, and was, conse- quently, destroyed. Miss Helen Evertson Smith, author of " Colonial Days and Ways," informs us that she remembers, many years ago, going to the home of the widow of Peter G. Stuyvesant, at the corner of Eleventh Street and Second Avenue, New^ York City, and seeing there a state bedstead with elegant hangings which was said to have belonged to Governor Stuyvesant, and on the third floor a bedstead which she describes as follows : " Another bedstead, not so beautiful as this one, but more plentifully (if not so finely) carved, stood dismantled in a rear third- story room, and had, apparently, been intended to fit into an alcove, as all the carving was on one side. A pair of carved and panelled doors opened beneath the high bed-place. The closet thus formed may have been used for bedding. The place for the beds w-as a sort of box deep enough to have held three or four mattresses or feather- beds, laid, without the intervention of anything to answer the purpose of springs, directly upon the age-darkened boards. At each corner rose a carved post from six to seven inches in diameter, as I now guess. The two front posts were square as far as they formed the ends of the closet beneath the bed, and round as they rose above this .506 BEDS T E A D S till they merged into a carved cornice of over a foot in depth. The two rear posts were halves laid flat against a heavily panelled rear wall." This would seem to have been a handsome cupboard-bedstead, but the writer has been unable to locate it or to find whether it is still in existence. These cupboard-bedsteads we find frequently mentioned throughout the inventories, which would indicate that they were popular, probably because, being built into an alcove, they took up but litde room; and this would also account for the fact that they have so Figure 263. Couch-bedstead, seventeenth century. entirely disappeared, for, being built for a particular room, they would have been of little use elsewhere, and when families moved or remodelled their houses these bedsteads would have been destroyed. Couch-bedsteads are mentioned occasionally in the Northern inventories, and very frequently in the South ; in fact, there is hardly a Southern inventory of any size during the first hundred years which does not mention at least one couch-bedstead. These were, as their name indicates, couches which could be utilized for sleeping purposes. The back and seat of a crudely hewn oak couch-bedstead, which belongs to Mr. Charles Morson, of Brooklyn, is shown in Figure 263. The original legs and bracing are missing, and the light legs and 307 C (_) I. O N I A L ¥ U R N I T U R E stretchers which liave been su[)pliecl are quite out of keeping with the massive effect of the back and arms. The original lees and bracing- were undoubtedl)- square and heavy, after the fashion of the wainscot chair. The seat, which is a frame over which heavy canvas Figure 264. Cradle, sixteenth century. is Stretched, is arranged to fold one section on the other, with the legs fitting into grooves, exactly as in the modern sota-bed. As .several cradles dating before 1700 have been found in this country, we will briefly describe them here before proceeding further with the discussion of bedsteads. There were apparent!)- two styles of cradles, one swinging be- tween uprights, which stood firm on the floor, the other swinging on BEDSTEADS short rockers ; but, so far as this country is concerned, the former style, though antedating- the hitter in Europe, does not seem to have appeared liere until much later. Figure 264 is an example of one of the latter style made of oak, the top and side of the hood made with turned spindles, much after the fashion of Elder Brewster's chair, shown in Figure 85. This turned style is extremely old, and we have found such pieces illus- riguie 265. Wicker Cradle, early seventeenth century. trated as early as the fifteenth century. This particular cradle is the finest that has come under our observation in this country, and is probably late sixteenth or early seventeenth century. It is now at Pilgrim Hall, Plymouth, in a glass case. Another cradle at the same place is shown in Figure 265. This piece, it will be seen, is made of wicker, and tradition says that it came over in the Mayflower and was used for Peregrine White. The fact that it is made of wicker can easily be explained Ijy the fact that the Pilgrims came from Holland, which at that time was engaged in the India trade, and this piece was undoubtedly of Eastern origin. 309 COLONIAL FURNITURE What has been said with reference to definite knowledire of bed- steads before 1700 is also to a certain extent true of those after 1700. The bedsteads, when mentioned separate from the bedding and fur- nishings, rarely exceed a pound in value, and this is probably due to the fact that they continued to be perfectly plain. That this is true seems to be indicated by an examination of the well-known bedstead at Mount X'ernon in which Washington died. He was a man of ample means, and his furniture in general was of the best ; yet the bedstead has perfectly plain turned posts, and could easily have been valued at less than a pound. We find at Philadelphia, in 1709, "a black walnut bedstead ^i"; at Providence, in 1726, "2 bedsteads los," and in the same inventory, "I bedstead and bedding ^,ic>"'' ^^^^ '" 1 734' " H '"'^w bedsteads ^14." Occasionally a will throws a little light on the subject, as in the case of the will of Thomas Meriwether, of South Farnham Parish, Essex County, Virginia, February 10, 1708: "I give my dear and loving wife Susanna mj- best new bed and furniture and the set of chairs belonging to it. The whole sute of Japan." At Providence, in an inventory of i 730, appears " a feather bed & pannoled bedstead ^10," which probably was an oak bedstead of an earlier date. The bedsteads of the eighteenth century, after the oak style had disappeared, were usually made of mahogany, maple, cherry, or Virginia walnut, and the posts were much more slender than those which belong to the Empire period. After i 740, when the ball-and- claw foot was used extensively, bedsteads were made with slender plain or fluted posts and cabriole legs, with the shell at the knee, fin- ished with the ball-and-claw on all four feet, and sometimes only on the lower ones, in which case the two upper ones were straight and plain. This fashion, with little variation, was favored for a long period, probably until late in the century, thus making it impossible to date bedsteads of this kind definitely. Figure 266 shows a bedstead belonging to Mr. Meggat, which BEDSTEADS Figure 266. Mahogany Bedstead, about 1750. 3" COLONIAL F U R X I T U R E may have been of an earl\- date, as intlicated by the slender turned posts. The tester is built on a curve, and set on posts much lower than those which support flat-top testers. The bedposts designed by Chippendale were tall and slender, his favorite desifjn beinij a fluted column with garlands of flowers or ribbons entwining the posts in raised carving. He shows no ball- and-claw-foot bedsteads in his book of designs, but, as in the case of chairs, he probably made them. Some of these bedsteads came to Draped Bedstead, late eighteenth century. this country, but are now very difficult to find. The writer has heard of one which a collector tells him he saw at an auction in a country town of Connecticut many years ago, but because covered with green paint, and being then ignorant of the possibilities of restoration, he did not bid, and it was sold for a song. Figure 267, one of the bedsteads now preserved at Mount Vernon, illustrates admirably how completely the drapery covered the frame and posts of the bedstead, thus making any elaboration of Figure 20N. Mahogany Bedstead, Ball-and-claw Feet, 1770-80. 313 BEDSTEADS the posts quite unnecessary, and the elegant appearance of the bed was made to depend upon the draperies. Figure 26S shows part of a very graceful bedstead belonging to Mrs. Alexander Forman, of Brooklyn. The posts, with their slender fluting and carved drapery, forcibly sug- gest posts shown among Hepplewhite's designs ; but the four ball-and-claw feet, which are without doubt original, show a variation Hepplewhite was not likely to use. The ball-and-claw feet are at the end of straight legs instead of cabriole legs, a method of construction which can hardly be approved, for a straight leg does not harmonize w'ith a ball-and-claw foot ; how- ever, in some of the most beautiful designs for chairs by Ince this method is employed, but conventionalized in such a way as to make a most pleasing effect. The heavily carved mahogany bed- steads, ornamented principally in designs of acanthus-leaves and pineapples, with both high and low posts, came into use about 1800-20, when furniture of similar style and design was generally adopted. There have been called to the writer's 1810-20. notice a numljer of high-post bedsteads of this description which have associated with them traditions of use, during the Revolution, by either Washington or Lafayette. This seems very improbable, for absolutely no other furniture in this style was at all known previous to 1800, and there is no reason to believe that bedsteads were radically different from the other furniture of their time. 31S Figure 269. Examples of Empire Bedposts, C O L O X I A L F U R N I T U R E Figure 269 shows four posts in die familiar styles of the Empire high bedsteads,, the first and last ornamented with acanthus-leaves and pineapples, the second a slender turned post similar to those long in use, which continued to be used as long as high-post bedsteads remained in fashion. Figure 271. Low-post Bedstead, 1810-20. The headboards belonging to these bedsteatls were often hand- somely carved with drapery, flowers, fruit, and sometimes with a spread eagle ; and while, as a rule, no footboard is used, this is not invariably the case. The draper\- of beds which were handsomely carved was much lighter than that previously employed, and ar- ranged to display both the posts and headboard. Figure 270 shows a portion of an Empire bedstead found in Virginia, belonging to the writer, which rejjresents the finer betl- .^16 Figure 270. Empire Bedstead, about 1810. 317 BEDSTEADS steads of its kind. The maliogany is very finely grained, and the carving, though not fine, is good. The posts measure 7 feet 1 1 inches in height and 14 inches in circumference. The bolt-lioles are covered Figure 272. Low-post Bedstead, 1820-30. by carved panels, which are cleverly held in place by means of wooden blocks which slide into grooves. Two low-post bedsteads with characteristic Empire decorations, which belong to Mr. Meggat, are shown in Figures 271 and 272. The ball-and-claw feet on Figure 271 are probably not original, as they do not harmonize with the style in which the bed is made. The pineapple terminals shown in Figure 272 were very frequently used, 319 COLONIAL F I' R X I T I' R E and are sometimes the only carving employed, the rest of the posts being simply turned. From 1820 to 1840 great numbers of low-post bedsteads in maple and cherry, with simple turned posts, and with a headboard finished with a heav\- row of moulding, were in use throughout New England. Figure 273. French Bedstead, about 1S30. The French Empire bedsteads, with rolling head- and footboard, were popular here about 1830, and remained in fashion until replaced by the black-walnut machine-made bedsteads. The handsomest of these French bedsteads were ornamented with ormolu, but as a rule they were massive and plain. A simple bedstead in this style, which belongs to Mr. Casper Sommerlad, of Brooklyn, is shown in bigure 273. The side rails are narrower than usual, and the feet are turned instead of being a con- tinuation of the side. 320 XI CLOCKS WE do not consider that clocks technically should be classified as furniture, and still, as there is hardly a collector who does not possess at least one specimen, we think it may be well to give a brief sketch of the subject, having reference more especially to such pieces as have been in the country from colonial times, confining ourselves to clocks in household use, and not speaking of the early clocks in various towers and churches. It is not our intention, in the limited space that can be given to the subject in a general book on colonial furniture, to state more than the leading points which one should know to enable him to buy intelligendy, and we would refer the reader for fuller description and information to the excellent books heretofore pub- lished exclusively on this subject. This country was just being settled when the Clock-makers' Company was founded in London, in 1631. This company had for its object the regulation of the clock trade, and in order to prevent persons frOm being cheated or deceived by unskilled makers, the members were given the right of search and confiscation of clocks and watches which had "bad and deceitful works." This company seems particularly to have directed its energies against the Dutch, in whose ability as clock-makers, whether merited or not, the English had little confidence. 321 COLONMAL FURNITURE The most important work which this company accompHshed was the training of men for the art. There was a carefully arranged ap- prenticeship, and after serving his turn each apprentice had to make his masterpiece before he was admitted as a workmaster ; and there- fore the possessor of a clock bearing the name of a member of the guild may rest assured that the piece is at least well made. At the time our history begins there were two general styles of clocks in use, one which was run with weights, and the other with a spiral spring. The former variety was the older, although, so far as this country is concerned, it was contemporaneous and of necessity was a stationary clock, while the latter was easily carried about and was often called a portable or table clock. Clocks are seldom mentioned in any of the records in this coun- try prior to 1700, and were always valued at a fairly high price — the lowest 6s., and the highest ^20. Descriptions are seldom given, so it is largely a matter of surmise in what style the earliest clocks were. Thus at Boston, in 1638, we find " i clock i8s"; in 1652, "i brass clock £2" and again " one clock in case ^6 " ; at Salem, in 1660, a clock valued at £2; at New York, in 1689, "one Pendula Clock £(i " ; and at Boston, in the inventory of Sir William Phips, a very wealthy man, we find, in 1696, a clock valued at ^20 and a repeating clock at £\o\ at New York, in 1691, we find a "diamond watch" mentioned without valuation given, which shows a lu.xury quite up- to-date. The earliest clock mentioned, in 1638, could have been either a lantern clock, described below, or a portable clock; but as the inven- tories several times refer to brass clocks when describing the lantern variety, the one mentioned in 1638 was probably a portable one after the fashion of the one shown in Figure 274. This style of clock came into use about the beginning of the six- teenth century, and this particular clock was made by Jonathan CLOCKS Loundes, a famous clock-maker of Pall Mall, London, who was ad- mitted to the Clock-makers' Company in 1680. It will be seen that the face has the oval top. This style was introduced by Tompion, who died in 1713, and onl)- appears on his later clocks. The style, how- ever, became very popular in the reign of George I, which Ix'gan in I 714, and we should place the date of the clock somewhere between 1 710 and I 720. The face has not the applied spandrels in the corner, Portable or Table Clock, 1710-20. P'igure 275. Portable or Table Clock, last quarter eighteenth century. as is usual, but is engraved with an urn at the top, and oval figures surrounded with wTeaths in the four corners. The case is in the typi- cal style of the portable clock, and is japanned. It belongs to the Long Island Historical Society. Figure 275 is another clock in the same style, made by Isaac Fox, of London, who was admitted to the Clock-makers' Company in 1772, and is given to show how little the style ch^liged during a long- period. It belongs to Mr. Meggat. The clock next found in the inventories is in 1652 — " i brass clock COLONIAL FURNITURE £2." This undoubtedly refers to such a clock as is shown in Figure 276. Such clocks are known by the following names: " chamber," "lantern," "bird-cage," and "bedpost"; all but the last name prob- ably referring to its shape, and the last referring either to its shape or to its beinor at times fastened to the bedposts; for, as they were often fitted with an alarm attachment, they must have been designed for sleep- ing-rooms as well as other parts of the house. This style of clock came into existence in England about the year 1600. These clocks were set upon brackets, as shown in this illustration, with weights hanging below, and were wound up by pulling down the opposite end of the cord holding the weights. The face was usually a little larger than the rest, and the centre of the dial was often beautifully etched. The bell at the top was sometimes used for an alarm only, and sometimes to strike the hour as well. The earliest clocks had no pen- dulum, but a balance controlled the movement, and about the middle of the seventeenth century the pendu-' lum came into use. The original pendulum was short, about the length of the case, and as it swung would fly out at either side of the case, acquiring the name of " bob pendulum." It is some- 324 t!J Figure 276. Chamber or Lantern Clock, 1600-40. Figure 277. Chamber or Lantern Clock, 1660-80. 325 CLOCKS times found hung outside the case, and sometimes inside, and when the latter is true little slits are cut in the case to allow the pendulum to swing out on each side. Such clocks run not longer than from twelve to thirty hours. It will be noticed that at the top, on three sides, is a fret, put there partially to conceal the large bell and give finish to the piece, and these frets will often enable one to determine the age of a clock. Many clock-makers had their own private frets, while others followed the design most popular at that time. The clocks also often have the maker's name engraved on the dial. The fret on Figure 276 is called the " heraldic fret," and was used from 1600 to 1640, so that this clock is an extremely early one. The next pattern of fret most commonly found is the " dolphin fret," which appeared about 1650 and remained popular throughout the rest of the time this style of clock was fashionable ; consequently it is the pattern most commonly met with. It consisted either of two dolphins with tails crossed, or two dolphins with heads together and tails form- ing a curve at either side. Another fret which was used by Charles Fox, clock-maker, and possibly a few others between 1660 and 1680 is shown in Figure 277, and a still later pattern is^shown in Figure 278. To return to Figure 276, it is arranged for an alarm onl)-, and does not strike the hours, the alarm being set by a centre dial. It will be noted that in nearly all of these clocks there is but a single hand, tell- ing the hour and fifths of hours. The maker's name does not appear on this clock; it was found at Salem, Massachusetts. Figure 277 is a more pretentious clock. It both strikes the hour and has the alarm, which is set in the same w^ay as in the preceding clock, and the dial is very handsomely engraved. The upper side of the inner dial has the following inscription : " Charles Fox at the Fox Lothbury, Londini Fecit." Charles Fox was admitted to the Clock-makers' Company in 1660. This clock was found in New 327 COLONIAL FURNITURE Jersey, and it and the preceding one belong to Mr. Meggat. It is more compact than Figure 276, but its dimensions are about the same: 1 5 inches high by 5 3^ inches wide, and the dial is 6%^ inches in diameter. Figure 278 shows another clock of this same style, also in the possession of Mr. Meggat. It is \ery much smaller than the two others shown, being but 9 inches in height and 3^4 inches wide, and the dial is 4J-4 inches in diameter. It still has its original bob pendulum, which can be seen in the illustration hanging in the middle between its four legs. It also has a minute-hand. This clock strikes, but has no alarm, and seems to be of French make. Figures 276 and 277 have had the long pen- dulum substituted for the bob pendulum, probably because they would thus keep better time. It was the fashion, during the first twenty years of the eighteenth century, to have this change made, and many advertisements are to be found of clock-makers who advertise to substitute long pendulums for short ones at reasonable charges. The long or royal pendulum is supposed to have been invented by Richard Harris at London in 1 64 1 ; but it found little favor at first, and the date when it came into common use is usually placed at 16S0. It was also invented on the Continent at about the same time, apparently without knowledge of Harris's invention, and it is probable that some of those found their way to this country before 1680. Figure 279 shows a Dutch bracket clock owned by Mr. Charles Figure 278. Chamber or Lantern Clock, last quarter seventeenth centurv. ^,2S CLOCKS Morson, of Brooklyn. The face and ornaments are made of lead, the ornaments gilded, and the face painted. The feet are of wood, and in the usual Dutch ball -foot style. It has a bob pendulum, and the works are of brass. It differs from the brass clocks above described in that the top of the clock is protected by a wooden hood. A characteristic of the brackets of these clocks is the mermaid cut out of the wood on either side of the back. Such clocks are contemporaneous with the English brass chamber clocks, but are very inferior in workmanship, and, we believe, are such as the Clock- makers' Company sought to suppress. The development from the brass chamber or lantern clock to the tall or "grandfather's" was a natural one. First, a wooden hood was placed over the brass clock for protection, and when the long pendulum came into fashion it had to be enclosed to keep it from injury, the result being a clock with a long case. The earliest lonfr-case clocks, as well as any seventeenth-century clocks, are extremely scarce. The inventory at Boston, " i clock and case £6," in 1652, would be an extremely early entry for a tall clock, although the high price would indicate that it was such ; but there can be no doubt about the entry in New York, in 1689, "one Pendulum Clock /,6," referring to the tall-case clock. 329 Figure 279. Dutch Chamber Clock, seven- teenth century. COLONMAL FURNITURE The earliest clock-cases were very plain, made mostly of oak or walnut, the finer ones being almost entirely of the latter wood; and on the dial-face of the earlier ones the maker's name appears vmder the dial in Latin ; a little later the name appeared on the dial between the figures \'II and Y within the circle, and about 1715 the name- plate appeared. At first the dials were square, but they later (about 1710) were made with the straight top broken by a half-circle, suggested either by the dome bell on the chamber clock, or more probably to cover the top of the bell; and many of the old clock-faces were made over in this way when the fashion changed. As with the chamber clock the date could be told somewhat by the fret, so in the tall clock an approximation can be made by observ- ing the spandrels or corner ornaments on the face. The earliest faces have a cherub's head, almost perfectly plain, in the four corners, which continued in use as late as i 700. This was followed by cherubs a little more ornate, going out of style about the same time. Then, about the year 1 700, came two cupids supporting a crown (see Figure 282), which, in its simple or more elaborate form, continued to be used until about 1740, and in George Ill's reign the pattern became very intricate, sometimes with an Indian or some other head in the centre of a mass of scrollwork, sometimes without the head. (See Figure 285.) It is impossible to tell the age of a clock by its case, as very often the works were brought over here without the case, or, as during the Revolutionary War, the works were taken out and hid- den and the case left to be destroyed. Nor can one alwajs judge by the face, as old faces have sometimes been discarded for newer styles. Nor can one always tell from the name-plate, for the writer knows of at least one instance where the name-plate had been re- moved and that of a clock-maker who made repairs substituted. It is really only by taking into consideration all the points heretofore dis- cussed that one can come to an approximation of the age of a clock. 330 Figure 280. Tall Clock, about 1700. 331 CLOCKS Fio^ure 280 shows one of the earliest tall clocks which we have found in this country. It is owned by the Philadelphia Library, and is said to have belonged to Oliver Cromwell ; but this tradition cannot be true. It probably dates about 1690-1700. The name of the maker appears below the dial in Latin, "Johannes Fromanteel, Londini fecit," which, as we have seen, is an indication of its age. This John Fromanteel was a member of an illustrious family of clock- makers who are mentioned as early as 1630. One of them is spoken of by Evelyn as "our famous Fromantel," and they were undoubtedly at the head of their profession. This John was not admitted to the Clock-makers' Company until 1663, and for that reason we have said that this clock could not have belonged to Oliver Cromwell, who had died before that date, and it is hardly likely that he would have owned a clock made by an apprentice not yet admitted to the guild. The dial of this clock is silvered and the rest of the face is of brass, without spandrels at the corners, and we can see no signs of there ever having been any, although on some of his clocks are to be found the early cherub-head spandrels. There was originally, no doubt, but a single hand, and the clock has a small calendar attachment. The case is made of walnut, and very tall, to make room for the pen- dulum. These pendulums were sometimes seven feet long. The early single moulding is seen about the doors, and the spiral-turned columns are typical of the early clock-cases. As to whether the broken arch at the top is of the same age as the rest of the case it is very difficult to tell; in fact, the whole question of the age of the broken arch, as we have seen in the chapter on Chests of Drawers, is very difficult to solve we believe, however, that it could have been original on this clock, as we have seen them on clocks dating about I 700. Figure 281 shows another early clock. The case is made of pine or some other soft wood, and the band of carving at the top is early in design. This clock-case also has the single-arch moulding 333 COLONIAL FURNITURE about the doors, and there is an opening in the lower door to show the swinging of the penduhnn. It is at the Van Cortlandt Mansion, Van Cortlandt Park, New York. Figfure 282 shows a detail of the face of the forefjoino- clock which is worth noting. It will be seen that the spandrels are of the lA Figure 282. Dial of Clock shown in Figure 281. third order, — cupids holding a crown, — which came into fashion about 1 700. The maker's name, Walter Archer, appears between the num- erals VII and V, which shows it to date proba- bly before 171 5. We have been unable to find this maker's name among the members of the Clock-makers' Company or elsewhere, and this would seem to indicate that he was probably from one of the smaller towns in England or a colonial maker. The clock is dated 1619, and an examination with the eye failed to detect that the date was 334 Figure 2S1. Tall Clock, about 1700-10. CLOCKS engraved at a later date than the rest of the face ; but the photograph very readily shows it to be of a different depth, and it was without doubt added at a rather recent date. The fact that pendulum clocks were not invented until 1 64 1 of itself would disprove the date, apart from the other indications above referred to, which lead us to date it i 700-10. Figure 283. Dial of Tall Clock showing Arch Top, 1725-30. It will readily be seen that the arched upper part of the dial, which came in a litde later, was intended to cover the bell, which in this illustra- tion shows at the top. This clock is wound by pulling up the weights by hand, as is the method in the bird-cage clocks above referred to. Figure 283 shows a clock-face of a little later date, indicated by the curved top of the dial, and the name-plate, both of which came into vogue about 171 5. The spandrels, however, are of the same kind as those shown in the last figure, and the name-plate follows the same design as the spandrels. It dates about 1725-30. 335 COLONIAL FURNITURE Figure 2S5. Dial of Clock shown in Figure 284. I'igure 2S4. Musical Clock, Chippen- dale Case, 1760-70. 336 CLOCKS From about 1 730 down toward the close of the century there was very Httle change in the general style of the clocks. They were all either the tall "grandfather" or the portable clock. Figure 284 shows a musical clock in a Chippendale case, belonging to Mr. Charles Morson, its chief difference from those hereto- fore described being that the lower part of the case is kettle shape. Figure 285 shows a detail of the face of this clock. It will be seen that the late spandrels are in the two lower corners. This clock was made by Joseph Rose, of London, who, with his son, had a shop at 19 Foster Lane from 1765 to 1768. It will be seen that this is both a chime and a musical clock. The upper dial sets the musical part to play either a polonaise or a march. The dial to the left, as one faces it, regulates the strike, and that on the right the chime. Such clocks as these were not only imported to the colonies, but there were several clock-makers here who advertise to make them. In the Boston "Gazette" for P'ebruary / /O' the fol- Figure 286. Burnap Clock, 1799. lowing advertisement appears : " Benjamin Willard " (first of the famous American clock- makers of that name) " at his shop in Roxbur)- Street pursues different branches of clock and watch work, has for sale musical clocks playing different tunes, a new tune every day of the week and on Sunday a psalm tune. These tunes perform every hour without any obstruction to the motion or going of the clock and new inven- tion for pricking barrels to perform the music and his clocks are COLONIAL FURNITURE I 1 1 made much cheaper than any ever j-et known. All the branches of this business likewise carried on at his shop in Grafton." Figure 286 illustrates a clock in the possession of Mrs. W. W. Andrews, made by Daniel Burnap, a well-known American clock- maker, who lived at Andover, Plymouth, and East Windsor, Con- necticut, between 17S0 and 1800, and this clock was bought in 1799. A characteristic of his clocks is the sil- vered face, usually beautifully engraved, without spandrels. This clock has both the calendar and moon phases, and the background for the moon phases is tinted blue. The works are always of brass, and this maker's clocks are always highly prized. Toward the close of the century there was great demand for cheaper clocks, due to the poverty of the young republic, just recovering from the Revo- lutionary War and an inflated currency. To meet this demand, about 1 790, the painted or white-enamelled dials came in, taking the place, except in the expensive clocks, of the brass dial. These painted faces were made either of metal or wood, and large numbers were sold to clock- makers throughout the country, who added their names and placed the dials on works often not made by themselves. It was also at this time, and for much the same reason, that the wooden works began to be used. These wooden works usually had bone or some other hard substance for bearings, and there are still many to be found keeping good time. Figure 287 shows a painted-face clock, in the possession ot Mr. m ij Fisiure 28S. French Clock of Alabaster, 1800-20. ^^^i J^ Figure 2S7. Tall Clock with Painted Face, about 1800. 339 CLOCKS Meggat. On its face appears the name of Jacob Sargent, of Spring- field, Massachusetts, a locally well-known clock-maker of a hundred years ago. The works are of brass, and the case is of pine, painted. These later tall clocks are sometimes found in miniature, from three to four feet tall, with the other proportions corresponding. Figure 288 shows a clock in the Louis XVI style, belonging to Mr. L. A. Lockwood. It is made of alabaster, and the face and pen- dulum are of fire-gilt. Such clocks were intended to be kept under Figure 289. \\'illard or Banjo Clock, 1800-20. Figure 290. Willard or Banjo Clock, 1800-20. large glass globes, which fit into the grooves on the wooden frame, thus making it dust-proof Many such clocks found their way to this country about 1800-20. Such clocks, besides being made of alabaster, were often of black marble or wood painted black, with brass capitals at the tops of the columns. They were nearly always furnished with compen.sating pen- dulums, and were excellcMit timekeepers, often running sixteen days. A form of clock known as "Willard" or "banjo" is shown in Figures 289 and 290. There seems to be a great deal of doubt as to 34" COLONIAL FURNITURE who made these clocks first, and they are generally credited to a clock-maker by the name Willard. Mr. Britton, in his book on " Old Clocks and Watches and their ?^Iakers," credits them to a J. Willard living in Boston in iSoo; but avc have been unable to find, either in the Boston directories or the genealogy of the Willard family, any clock- maker with that initial. The Willard family had been famous as clock-makers for several generations. There were three brothers: Benjamin, who had shops at Boston, Roxbury, and Grafton, and advertised the musical clocks already mentioned ; Aaron, who had a shop in Boston early in the nineteenth century; and Simon, who made a specialty of tall eight-day clocks. The banjo clocks are, as a rule, without name, and it has proved difficult to determine which Willard was the maker. We know of banjo clocks bearing the name Willard or "Willard patent" stencilled on the case, and the clock shown in higure 289 had originally the name "Willard, Jr.," printed on its face; and we know of one banjo clock bearing the name Simon Willard in the same lettering as appears on a tall clock by that maker owned by the same person. We are told b)- others that they have seen such clocks which they think bear the name A. Willard, but we have been unable to prove this. It therefore lies between Simon and Aaron, and, we believe, in favor of the former, for he had a son Simon, also a famous clock-maker, and this may account for the "Willard, Jr.," on the clock shown in Figure 289. On the other hand, a clock bearing the inscription "A. Willard, Boston," shown in Figure 291, and owned by the Misses Brown, of Salem, having been bought from Willard by their grandfather, although not banjo in shape, certainly suggests the banjo clock in its 342 Figure 291. Clock made by A. Wil- lard, early nineteenth century. CLOCKS painted case, and it seems possible that the man who made such a clock as this could also have made the banjo clock. The solution may be that Simon, Simon, Jr., and Aaron all made these clocks, as also did others, for we know of several clocks in the banjo shape which bear names of various clock-makers of Boston and else- where. We know definitely, however, that Simon Willard made these clocks, but whether the other Willards did is an open question. >^: Ml / <^ 'O % i )■ \ \ •^* Figure 292. Mantel Clock, 1812. In general shape the banjo clock resembles an English clock called "act of Parliament clock," which was made in the last years of the eighteenth century, and as it was within ten years of this that the banjo clock appeared, Willard may have used it for his model. They are usually constructed very simply, having brass works, and running eight days, but having no strike. They were excellent timekeepers, and many are in use to-day, still keeping good time. The clock shown in Figure 289 is an exception to the general 343 COLONIAL FURNITURE rule, as it has an alarm attachment. Both the foregoing banjo clocks belono- to Mr. IMesfo-at. In 1812 the shelf or mantel clocks were invented, and because they could be sold for a small sum, and were better timekeepers than the cheaper tall clocks with wooden works, they soon took their place, and it is practically from 181 2 that the decline of tall clocks can be said to date. The first mantel clocks made in this coun- tr\- were made by Eli Terry, of Plymouth Hol- low (now Thomaston), Connecticut. He was a clock-maker of considerable reputation, and so arreat was the demand for clocks at the beeinninLT of the nineteenth centur\- that in 1803 he made three thousand tall-clock move- ments. He then sold out to Calvin Hoadley and Seth Thomas, a well-known American clock-maker, and retired from business. The demand for cheaper clocks than could be made with the tall cases led him to experiment in making small clocks, and about the )ear 1812 he made six mantel clocks. Figure 202 shows the first of these clocks. It was a very crude affair, and Terry never used it as a model, one of the other five subse- quently being adopted for the working model of the later mantel clock, and therefore it has the honor ot beintr the first made and the only one built from this design. It will ^be seen that it is nothing more or less than a tall-case clock cut down. The works are made of wood, and a weight is used for the running power in the same way as in the tall clocks. This clock was bought from Eli Terry b)- Ozias Goodwin, and is now in the possession of his great-grandson, J. C. Spencer, of Thomaston, Connecticut. The model which was adopted for the later mantel clocks was 344 Figure 293. Mantel Clock, 1820-30. CLOCKS arranged with the pendukim and verge in front of the works behind the face, and was run with a spiral spring. Figure 293 shows a shelf clock, belonging to the Hon. John R. Buck, which dates between 1820 and 1830, and is a good example of the stj'le. It was quite often the custom to paste in the backs of these clocks a copy of the last census of the principal cities of the United States, and it is thus possible to approximate the year they were made. 345 INDEX Adam, James, lo Adam, Robert, lo American Antiquarian Society, double Chippendale chair owned by, 202 ; slate-top table, 227 American Hepplewhite chair, 1S7 American oak, characteristics of, 35 American Sheraton settee, 206 Andrews, Mrs. W. \V., specimens owned by: Burnap clock, 337, 338; candle- stand, 232; Dutch chairs, 158; Hep- plewhite side-board, 115; Hepplewhite table, 239; pine settle, 197, 198; roundabout chair, 157; Sheraton sofa, 213, 214; Sheraton wash-stand, 108 Archer \V'alter, 334 B Ball-foot scrutoir, 255, 257 Bandy-legged chairs, 152, 157-165 Banister-back chair, 155, 156; armed, 156 Banjo clock, 341 "Beaufatts" (Buffets), descriptions and cuts of, 107, 108 Bedposts, Empire, 315 Bedstead, Countess of Devon's famous, 301 ; Peter Stuyvesant's, Helen Evert- son Smith quoted on, 306 Bedsteads, 300-320: historical sketch of, 300-307 ; prices of, in seventeenth cen- tury, 303 ; kinds of colonial, 304 ; rea- sons for disappearance of seventeenth- century, 305 ; couch, 307 ; woods used in construction of, 310; Chippendale, 312 ; low-post, 316 Beekman, Mrs. Henry R., description and cut of kas owned by, 98 Bible-box, 248, 249 Bidwell, Miss Esther, descriptions and cuts of specimens in the collection of: chairs, 158, 163, 164, 184; chest, 28; chest of drawers, 60; cupboard, 62; dressing-table, 63; Dutch table 228, 229; mirror, 288; tea-table, 200 Block-front bureau, 7 i Block-front cabinet-top scrutoir, 272, 273; slant-top, 272 Block-front low chest of drawers, 72 Boardman, Mr. William G., rare dressing- table with slate top owned by, 53 BoIIes collection : chest, description and cut of, in, 23 ; slant-top scrutoirs in, 257 Books of design, first, 7, 8 ; Sheraton's, 1 1 Brasses, earliest use of, in drawer-handles, 36 ; as bail handles, 53 Brewster's, Elder, ship-chest, 14; turned chair, 128 Brown, Miss E. A., descriptions and cuts of furniture owned by : card-table, 244 ; Empire sofa, 214; Hepplewhite easy- chair, 188 ; mirror, carved and gilt, 290 Buck, Hon. John R., descriptions and cuts of furniture owned by : Chippendale chair, 177; clock, 345; mirrors, 295, 296; Windsor chair, 166 Buffets, descriptions and cuts of : Mr. Meggat's, 106, 108; Mr. A. H. Pitkin's corner, 107, 108 Bulkeley, Mrs. G. L., descriptions and cuts of furniture owned by : Chijipendale chair, 183; chest, 16; cupboard, 90, 91 ; settle, carved oak, 196, 197 ; Shera- ton scrutoir, 278 Bureau, origin of word, 262 ; true mean- ing of, 263 Bureaus, 69-79 I5urnap clock, 337 Burnell, Mr. C. J., slat-back chair owned W> 154 Butterfly table, 224 347 INDEX Cabinet-top scrutoirs, 264, 267, 271 Cabriole-legged furniture; chairs, 152, J57-165 ; chests of drawers, 54, 55, 57 ; dressing-table, 56; scrutoir, 25S-260 Cane chairs, first, 139 Card-tables, 234-243: Chippendale, 235, 237; Empire, 243 ; Hepplewhite, 238 ; Sheraton, 239 Carved mahogany mirror, 297, 298 Carved spoon-rack, description and cut of, 101 Carver, Governor, turned chair of, 128 Carving, first mention of, 13; on colonial chests, 15 ; cost of cupboard, 92 Chairs, 123-195 : age of, to determine,! 23 ; banister-back, 155, 156 ; cabriole-legged, 152, 157-165; cane, 139; Chinese de- signs used by Chippendale, 174; Chip- pendale, 173, 185 ; colonial, varieties of, 129; Empire, 193, 194; Flemish, 139- 1 44 ; Gibbons, mahogany chair carved bv, 7 ; Hepplewhite, 1 1, 186-188 ; Ital- ian, 145; leather, 134-139; roundabout, 156; scroll-foot, 139-144; Sheraton, 189-193; slat-back, 153-155 ; Spanish, 139, 146, 150, 163; how to distinguish Chippendale, Hepplewhite, Sheraton, and Dutch, 1 72 ; spiral turned, 3 ; turned, 127, 130; upholstered, 2; wainscot, 131-134; Windsor, 152, 164-170 Chair-tables, 134, 221 Chaise-longue, 209, 210 Chambers, 8 Chests : two-drawer carved chests, 24 ; his- tory of, 13; original colonial, 14; first drawers in, ig; Dutch, 17, 18; Eliza- bethan, 16; " Hadley," 27-32; how to determine dates of, 33 ; Lady Anne Millington's carved oak, 17; panelled chest in author's collection, 22 ; mould- ings on designs of, 23 ; carved and wain- scoted, in the colonies, 6 ; values of, 33 Chests of drawers, 36-79 : cabriole-legged, 54 ; description of earliest colonial, 43, 44 ; earliest use of, 40 ; with cupboard top, description and cut of, 103 ; maple. description and cut of, 54 ; prices of, 53 ; with turned legs, 50 ; Chinese de- sign used by Chippendale, 1 74 Chippendale, Thomas, sketch of, 8, 9 ; first influence of, on chair styles, 173 ; chairs made by, 173-185; Chippendale furniture: bedsteads, 312; card-table, 235; chairs, cuts of, 179; couch, 209; double chair, 201 ; how to distinguish genuine, 172; sideboard in America, 112; sofa, 211; table, 234, 235 ; urns on mirror, 287 " Chippendale Period in English Furni- ture " quoted on serpentine inlaid side- boards, 1 1 2 Clock-makers' Company, 321 Clocks, 321-345 : values of, in seventeenth century, 322 ; banjo, 341 ; earliest cases for, 330 ; French alabaster, 338 ; lan- tern, 324, 325; mantel, 343; musical, 336, 337 ; painted-face, 338, 339 ; port- able, 322, 323 ; tall, 331, 333 ; to deter- mine age of, 330; Willard, 341, 342 Clouston, W. K., quoted on serpentine inlaid sideboards, 112 Colonial chests, 14 Connecticut Historical Society, descriptions and cuts of furniture owned by : chests, 21, 25, 26; chairs: banister-back, 155; Flemish, 140, 143; Spanish, 146, 149, 150; turned, 1 27 ; oak drawing-table, 2 18 Corner buffet, 107, 108 Corner cupboards, 1 04 Cornice, introduction of broken-arch, 6 Couch-bedstead, 307 Couches, 206-210; Chippendale, 209 Court cupboard, 81 ; description and cut of Christ Church College dining-room, 82, 83 ; prices of, 85 Cradle, sixteenth-century, 30S ; wicker, 309 Cupboards, descriptions and cuts of: carved, 89, 92 ; cloths for, 95 ; colonial terms for: corner, 104; court, 81, 85; cushions for, 95; Dutch, 96; historical sketch of, 81, 82 ; joined, 87 ; livery, Si, 85 ; oak used in construction of, 86, 92 ; panelled, 104; prices of, 85 ; wainscot, 87 ; German origin of, 95 348 INDEX D Designs : seventeenth-century chests, cup- board, and wainscot chair, i 5 Desk-box, 250, 251 Desks, 247, 252; character of early, 247, 24S ; Empire, 281 Double chair, Sheraton, 205 Drawers, chests of, 36—79 ; early seven- teenth-century chests without, 19; first colonial chests with, 19 Drawing-tables, 2 1 7 Dressing-tables, descriptions and cuts of, 46 : in writer's collection, 49 ; with stone or slate tops, 50, 51 ; prices of, 53; ve- neered walnut, 56 Drop brass handles, 53 Drop-leaf table, 230 Dutch furniture, descriptions and cuts of : chairs, 152, 157—165 ; double chair, 201 ; to determine chairs, 172; chests, de- scription of, 17; number of, in New- York, 18 ; cupboard, description and cut of, 96, 97; tables, 228, 229; tea-tables, 232, 233 Easy-chairs, Hepplewhite, 188 .Elizabethan chest, description and cue of, 15, 16 Empire furniture : style and characteristics of, 12 ; bureaus, 74, 78 ; bedposts, 315 ; bedstead, 316, 317 ; French, 273 ; chairs, 193, 194; desk, 281; mirror, carved mahogany, 297, 298 ; gilt, 298 ; gilt mantel, 299 ; sideboards, descriptions and cuts of, i ig-122 ; sofas, 214, 215 ; tables: card, 243-245 ; work, 243, 244; pillar-and-claw, 245 English oak, characteristics of, 35 Erving, Mr. Henry W., description and cuts of furniture owned by : chests, Had- ley, 26, 28, 32 ; chest of drawers, 37, 44-46 ; two-drawer, carved, 24 ; couch, rush-bottomed, 208 ; cupboard, panelled and inlaid jjress, 89, 90 ; desk-box, 251; table, X-braced, 225 Escutcheons, cut of, 54 Essex Institute, wainscot chair owned by, 132; settee owned by, 199-201 Ethridge, Mr., Hepplewhite sideboard owned by, 114 Extension-table, first, 3 Fan-back Windsor chairs, 167 Feather-beds, used without bedstead in New England, 302 Ferris, Prof. H. B., oak chest in the col- lection of, 1 7 Fire-screen scrutoir, 277 Flemish chairs, 139, 144 Flemish couch, 207, 208 Flemish furniture, popularity o(, 4 Forman, Mrs. Alexander, descriptions and cuts of furniture owned by : bedstead, 313; bureau, 74; table, 244 Forms, wide use of, 1 24 Fox, Charles, 327 Framed desk, 252 " Gates of Language Unlocked " quoted, 136 " Gentleman's and Cabinet-Maker's Direc- tor," quotation from, 9 Gibbons, Grinling, mahoganv chair carved by, 7 Gillingham, Mr. F. C, slat-back chair owned by, 1 54 Girandole, carved and gilt, 293 H " Hadley " chest, descriptions and cuts of, 26, 27 Handles, drawer, 53 ; cut of, 54 ; rosette, on •double chest of drawers, 68 ; third and fourth periods, cuts of, 69 ; descrip- tions and puts of, from 1800 to 1820, 79 Harris, Richard, 328 Hejiplewhite, sketch of, 10, 11 ; furniture, points of, II ; descriptions and cuts of: card-tables, 238, 239, 241; chair, ii; chairs, 186-188; to determine chairs, 349 INDEX 172; mirrors, 2g2 ; sideboards, 113-115 ; wash-stand, 108 High-boy, description of flat-topped bandy- legged, 59 Holland, furniture imported from, 2 Holland cupboard, description and cut of, 96 Hosnier,. Mr. Walter, descriptions and cuts of furniture in the collection of : chest, 32; chest of drawers, ^o ; Chip- pendale couch, 2og ; cupboard, 90 ; cup- board of drawers, 93 ; Dutch chair, 162 ; scrutoir, cabriole-legged, 260 Hulbert, Mr., description and cut of panelled cupboard in collection of, 87 Ince, 9 Inlay, beauty of Hepplewhite's, 1 1 ; Sher- aton's use of, 11; woods used by Hep- plewhite and Shearer for, 112 Italian chair, 145 J Jacobean furniture, 2 Jenkins, Mrs. E. W.. owned by, 234, 235 Johnson, 9 K mahogany table Kas, descriptions and cuts of Dutch, 98, 99 Knife-and-spoon box, cut of, 117 Lantern-clock, 324 Leather chair, 134-139 Livery cupboard, 81 ; prices of, 85 Lockwood,John Vincent, descriptions and cuts of furniture owned by : chairs : Chip- pendale, 185 ; Flemish and Spanish, 149 ; turned, 130; Windsor writing, 167, 168; chest, two-drawer panelled, 22 ; chests of drawers, 49, 51, 54; spoon-rack, 102; tables: dressing, 49; tea, 22^, 234 Lockwood,_ Mr. Luke A., descriptions and cuts of furniture owned by : chairs : banister-back, 156; Sheraton double, 205; slat-back, 153; clock, alabaster, 338,341; Hepplewhite sideboard, 113 Long Island Historical Society, portable clock owned by, 323 ; slant-top writing- desk, 249, 250 Louisiana furniture, 1 2 Loundes, Jonathan, 323 Low-boy, description and cut of, 46 Low-post bedstead, 316-319 Lyon, Dr., quoted on Chippendale, 8 M Maclntire, 10 Mahogany, Chippendale's almost exclusive use of, 8 ; difference between old and new, 78; history of, 75-79; introduc- tion of, 7 Manning, Miss .Augusta, descriptions and cuts of furniture owned by : chairs : Chippendale, 181; Italian, 145; Span- ish, 151; Sheraton card-table, 239- 241 Mantel-clock, 344 Mantelpiece, English, 21 Manwaring, 9 Marble tables, 1 1 1 ]\Iarquetry Empire scrutoir, 282 ; intro- duction into England, 4 ; woods used by Shearer and Hepplewhite for, 112 "Martha Washington tea-table," 230, 231 Matthews, Mr. John R., mirror owned by, 287 Meggat, Mr. William, descriptions and cuts of furniture owned by : banjo clock, 341 ; bedsteads, low-post, 316, 319; buffet, 108; bureau, block-front, 73; card- tables, 235, 238; chairs: Chippendale, 177, 179; Dutch, 162; Hepplewhite, 186, 187; Phyfe, 193, 194; Sheraton, igo, 192; slat-back, 154; Spanish, 150; chests of drawers, 49, 64 ; clocks : banjo, 341 ; chamber, 328; painted-face, 341 ; portable, 323 ; knife-and-spoon box, 117; mirror, 291 ; scrutoirs : serpentine- front, 276; slant-top, 260, 261; side- boards: Empire, 120, 121; Sheraton, 117; tables: card, 235, 238; dressing, veneered walnut, 56; Dutch, 228; oak, 350 INDEX 2ig, 220 ; pie-crust, 232, 233 ; tea, 231 ; wash-stand, Hepplewhite, 108 Memorial Hall, Spanish chair at, 146, 147 Millington, Lady Anne, carved chest of, 16 Mirrors, 284-299: dates of, 284; prices of, in seventeenth century : carved and gilt, 290 ; Empire carved mahogany, 297, 298 ; gilt mantel, 299 ; Hepplewhite, 292 ; mahogany inlaid, 291 ; olive-wood, 285, 286; walnut and gilt, 286, 287 Morson, Charles, Dutch bracket-clock owned by, 329 Musical clock, 336, 337 N New Amsterdam, early furniture of, 5 New England, early furniture of, 5 ; side- board, 122 O Oak, English bedsteads constructed of, 301 ; characteristics of English and American, 35 ; universal English use of, 2 ; used in cupboards, 86 Old Newbury Historical Society, oak table owned by, 219 Otto, Mrs., Hepplewhite chair owned by, 187, 188 Palmer, Mr. George S., Chippendale chairs owned by, 173 Panelled chests, variety of mouldings on designsof English-made, 23, 24 ; chests of drawers, 38, 41 ; cupboards, 87-89, 104 Pendleton, Mr. C. L., Chippendale chairs owned by, 173; chests of drawers, 59, 60, 69 Philadelphia Library, tall clock owned by, 33'', 333 ; oldest scrutoir with top, 264, 265 Phyfe, card-table made by, 243 ; chair, 193. 194 Pie-crust tables, 232, 233 Pierce, Mr. F. O., Chippendale chair owned by, 177 ; Flemish couch in collection of, 207, 208 Pilgrim Hall, descriptions and cuts of furniture at: wainscot chair, 132; six- teenth-century cradle, 309 ; upholstered settee, 202, 203 ; thousand-legged table, 222 Pilgrim Society, description and cut of chest owned by, 22 Pitkin, Mr. Albert H., descriptions and cuts of furniture owned by : chair : roundabout, 159 ; Windsor, i6g ; mirror: filigree gilt, 290 ; mantel, 298, 299 ; scrutoir, low block-front, 272, 276 Pollen, W. H., quoted, 196; on Flemish furniture, 20 ■ Press cupboards, 85 ; description and cuts of, 86, 87 " Putnam cupboard," description and cut of, 93 Q Queen Anne, chair, description and cut of, 151, 157-165 ; urns on mirror, 287 R Raleigh, Sir Walter, introduction of mahogany into England by, 76 Rocking-chairs, how to distinguish genuine, 169, 170 Rococo, mirror designs in French, 289 Room-panelling, first English use of, 13 Rosettes, enamel and brass mirror, 299 Roundabout chair, 156, 157 ; Dutch, 160 ; Mr. Pitkin's, 160 Rush-bottom couch, 208 Satinwood low chest of drawers, 74 Schutz, Mr. W. S., block-front bureau in collection of, 71 Scroll design, 15 Scroll-top high chest of drawers, descrip- tion and cut of, 60, 61 Scrutoirs, descriptions and cuts of, 253— 280 : ball-foot, 255 ; block-front cabinet- lop, 271-273; cabinet-top, 264-267; cabriole-legged, 258, 259; early, 254; fire-screen, 276, 277; low block-front, 272-276 ; marquetry Empire with book- case top, 279; secret drawers in, 269, 351 INDEX 270; serpentine-front slant-top, 275, 276; slant-top, 254-257, 261; Shera- ton scrutoir, 278 Serpentine bureau, 71 Settles, 196-205 Shearer, Thomas, originator of colonial sideboard, 1 1 2 Shearer sideboard, 113 Sheraton, Thomas, sketch of, 1 1 Sheraton furniture, descriptions and cuts of: bureau, 74; card-table, 239, 241; chairs, 11, 113, 189, 205; chest of drawers, 75, 76 ; settee, 206 ; sideboard, 1 16-1 18; sofa, 213; to distinguish, 172; wash-stand, 108; writing-table, 277 Ship-chests, 14 Sideboards, 108-122: Empire, 118-122; first, 4 ; Hepplewhite, 1 1, 1 13, 1 1 5, 1 1 7 ; historical sketch of, 108, 109; New England, 122; Shearer, 113, 115, 117; Sheraton, 1 16 Sideboard-tables, 1 1 1 Side-wall buffet, 108 Slant-top scrutoirs, two styles of, 254, 257, 261, 268-270 Slat-back chair, 153-155; Southern type of, 154 Smith, Helen Evertson, quoted on Peter Stuyvesant's bed, 307 Smith, Mr. Robert T., chest with drawer in collection of, 19; Flemish chair, 140 Snakewood, Hosmer cupboard veneered with, 94 Sofas, 210-215: Chippendale, 211; Em- pire, 213-215; Sheraton, 213 Sofa-table, 246 Sommerlad, Mr. Casper, French bedstead owned by, 320; scrutoir, marquetry Empire, 282 Spanish mahogany, 79; chairs, 139, 146- 15°: '5' Spencer, J. C, mantel-clock owned by, 343. 344 Stools, definition and earliest mention of, 127, 128 Swell-front bureau, 73 Table-carpets, 218 Tables, descriptions and cuts of, 216-245 ■ butterfly, 224; card, 234—239; chair, 221; drawing, 217; Empire pillar-and- claw, 245 ; extension, first, 3 ; marble-top, III; pie-crust, 232, 233 ; sideboard, 1 1 1 ; slate-top, 226 ; sofa, 246 ; tea, 229, 230 ; tea-tray, 234; thousand-legged, 223 Tea-tables, first mention of, 229; cuts of, 231 Thousand-legged tables, cuts of, 222, 223 Torr, Mrs. Charles Clarence, girandole owned by, 295 Trinity College, leather chair owned by, 135 Turkey work, chair-coverings of, 137, 138 Turned chairs, 127, 130 U Upholstered chair, introduced from Ven- ice, 2 Upholstery, introduced from Venice, 2 ; in Chippendale chairs, 183 V Van Cortlandt Manor, Flemish chair at. 143; clock at, 322, 334 \'an Rensselaer, Dom Nicolas, old in- ventory of, 40 Von Falke, Dr., quoted on German origin of w'ainscot cupboards, 95, 96 W W'ainscot cupboards, German origin of, 95 ; chairs, 1 31-134 Walnut, used in Dutch chests, 18 Wash-stand, Hepplewhite, Sheraton, 108 Watkinson, Mrs. E. B., Hepplewhite mir- ror owned by, 292 Wight, Dr. J. Sherman, Queen Anne dou- ble chair owned by, 201, 202 Willard clock, 341, 342 Windsor chairs, 152, 164, 170 ^\■riting-chair, author's Windsor, 167, 168 Writing-table, Sheraton, 278 X X-braced table, 225 / UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY, LOS ANGELES COLLEGE LIBRARY This book is due on the last date stamped below. lEBPl Book Slip-35m-7,'63(D8634s4)4280 1 iirx i-(uo LO 11, L 005 720 591 6 IK SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY D 000 534 338 9