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 JCth CENTURY SCIENCE SERIES 
 
Prehistoric Man 
 
(Side view.; (Front view.) 
 
 Early Paleolithic Man 
 
 (From the restoration by Richard S. Lull, Ph.D.) 
 
 1 'ate 1. Prehistoric Man, frontis. 
 
PREHISTORIC MAN 
 
 BY 
 
 JOSEPH McCABE, 
 
 Author of " Evolution, " etc. 
 Translator of Fauth, Giinther, Haeckel, etc 
 
 Illustrate 
 
 •■e*- 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 Frederick A. Stokes Company, 
 Publishers. 
 

 
PREFACE 
 
 Few phases of the scientific doctrine of evolution 
 have a greater fascination than the long story of the rise 
 of man from his primitive level of stunted savagery to 
 the fulness of modern civilisation. During a period of 
 stupendous length man wandered over the earth without 
 even the rudiments of culture. Our present knowledge 
 puts the dawn of civilisation, in the valley of the Nile 
 and on the heights ahove the valley of Mesopotamia, at 
 about 10,000 years ago. But man had then existed on 
 this planet during a period which hardly any competent 
 student would now estimate at less than 100,000 years. 
 In that long night preceding the dawn of history were 
 slowly shaped the ideas and institutions from which 
 civilisation would eventually issue. 
 
 To trace the lines of this gradual rise, to restore the 
 forms and the habits of the strange races of men who 
 spread over the planet, to indicate the causes of their 
 progress or their halting on the upward path, is the aim 
 of the present manual. 
 
 A kindly reviewer of the writer's previous contribution 
 to the Twentieth Century Science Series ("Evolution") 
 observed that it was so lucidly written that the reader 
 might be tempted to regard the more speculative passages 
 in it as established truths. This danger will be met, not 
 by a sacrifice of lucidity, but by persistent care to distin- 
 guish stimulating conjecture from accredited fact. We 
 
VI PREFACE 
 
 have, considering the very recent date of the science of 
 prehistoric man, a really remarkable mass of direct relics 
 of the earlier races of mankind ; nor must we forget that, 
 if we proceed with care, much can be learned from living 
 races which have dropped out by the wayside on the 
 upward march, and live to-day as our ancestors lived in 
 the Old Stone Age. 
 
 Yet our knowledge is still fragmentary, and great care 
 is needed, in putting together the mosaic of prehistoric 
 life, to assign a proper value to each piece of evidence 
 and each link of connecting speculation. In this little 
 work, indeed, the author's chief concern is with the 
 acknowledged facts and such general truths as are 
 usually presented in the literature of the subject. That 
 literature (English, American, French, German, and 
 Italian) has been assiduously searched and compared by 
 the writer, who has, in addition, examined many fine 
 collections of prehistoric remains and implements, and 
 has some personal acquaintance with the instructive 
 labour of collecting them. 
 
 J. M. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 »©<<x>- 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter I. — The Founding of the Scievce ... 3 
 
 II. — The Earliest Traces of Man ... 17 
 III. — The Beginning of the Old Stone 
 
 i"V';r. .., ... ... ••• £<J 
 
 IV. — Progress during the Old Stone 
 
 Age ... ... ... ... 46 
 
 V. — The Men of the New Stone Age 63 
 
 VI. — The Monument Builders ... 82 
 
 VII. — The Metal Age and the Dawn of 
 
 History ... ... ... 101 
 
 Bibliography ... ... ... ... 117 
 
 Index ... ... ... ... ... 121 
 
 ■ 
 
 vu 
 
The Publishers are indebted to Dr. Lull, The American 
 Journal of Science, The Independent (New York), 
 The Royal College of Surgeons, The Natural History 
 Museum (South Kensington), The Trustees of the British 
 Museum, and Messrs. Watts &> Co., for permission to 
 reproduce illustrations in this volume. 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 3j*SC 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Early Paleolithic Man ... ... ... frontis. 
 
 From the restoration by Richard S. Lull, Ph.D. 
 
 Series of Prehistoric Skulls — Casts of (1) The 
 Java Calvaria, Pithecanthropus Erectus ; (2) 
 The Spy Calvaria, No. 1 ; (3) The Neander- 
 thal Calvaria ; (4) The Tilbury Skull ; (5) The 
 Engis Cranium ... ... ... 19 
 
 Early Paleolithic Remains — Skull-cap and Femur 
 
 of Spy Skeleton ... ... ... 32 
 
 Series of Prehistoric Skulls — Java, Neanderthal 
 
 Engis... ... ... ... ... 51 
 
 Paleolithic Drawing — Reindeer Feeding — from 
 
 the Grotto of Thayngen (Switzerland) ... 56 
 
 Neolithic Arrow-heads of Flint, from Ireland ... 82 
 
 Collection of Bronze Implements from Minster, 
 
 Thanet ... ... ... ... 110 
 
Prehistoric Man 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THB FOUNDINO OP THB SCIENCE 
 
 Few sciences have offered so much difficulty to the 
 fertile inventors of names as that which treats of pre- 
 historic man. If, as is usual in scientific nomenclature, 
 we try to compress the real description of it — the 
 science of prehistoric races — into a compound Greek 
 word, we get an uncouth term, Palethnology, which has 
 not found general favour. Many French and German 
 writers are content to call the science " Prehistory," which 
 is hardly more satisfactory. The two names in most 
 common use are Prehistoric Archaeology and Prehistoric 
 Anthropology. Of these the latter is much to be pre- 
 ferred. Archaeology is the study of a limited aspect of 
 human products, generally within the historical period; 
 and, though Anthropology has so wide a range as 
 scarcely to be a distinct science at all to-day, it is 
 precisely this comprehensive outlook which we cultivate 
 in prehistoric science. We are to deal with every 
 discoverable aspect of the life of man before the historical 
 period opens. 
 
 Of far greater interest and importance than the ques- 
 tion of name is the sharp struggle of the new-born science 
 for recognition and independence. Until little more than 
 
 3 
 
4 Prbhistoric Man 
 
 half a century ago, as the centenary of Darwin's birth 
 reminds us, there was a general and deep-rooted convic- 
 tion that the whole space of humanity's life fell within 
 the narrow province of the historian, and with this 
 conviction the accumulating discoveries of earlier remains 
 had to maintain a long and heated conflict. 
 
 About half a century before the commencement of the 
 Christian era, the Roman poet Lucretius had set out in 
 verse a rough and imperfect scheme of evolution. Men 
 had, he contended, slowly risen from barbarism to 
 civilisation. An age in which men used only weapons of 
 stone had preceded the age of metal; and Lucretius 
 even made the fortunate conjecture that an age of 
 bronze had preceded the age of iron. There was, how- 
 ever, so general a conviction that the story of mankind 
 had opened with a golden age that the great truth 
 propounded by Lucretius was almost entirely tossed 
 aside until the nineteenth century. Some of the ancient 
 Italian traditions, as well as the oldest Chinese traditions, 
 had preserved the truth about early human history, but 
 — from causes which it would be out of place to investi- 
 gate here — nearly all the other races of mankind had 
 the tradition of the primitive Golden Age. Not only did 
 the classical poetry of Greece and Rome enforce this, 
 but we find it in the sacred legends of India, Persia, 
 Egypt, and Babylonia, and even in the ruder myths of 
 our old Germanic ancestors and in those of the natives 
 of America. 
 
 Passing over the occasional fruitless effort to revive 
 the theory of Lucretius during the Middle Ages, we need 
 note only two efforts to shake or evade the prevalent 
 
The Founding of the Sciencb 5 
 
 conviction until the modern science began a direct assault 
 on it. In the later Middle Ages a theory was advanced, 
 and was widely discussed, that a strangely neglected 
 race of men had been created before Adam, and that 
 there were obscure references to their descendants in 
 the earlier chapters of Genesis. It found some interested 
 supporters when it was suggested that the negroes of 
 Africa might be the descendants of these Pre-Adamites, 
 and therefore not fully entitled to human rights, but the 
 ingenious speculation was discredited and forgotten. 
 
 The next attempt was made by the earlier evolutionists 
 at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nine- 
 teenth century. As is known, however, the efforts of 
 Erasmus Darwin and Jean Lamarck met with little 
 success. Sheer speculation beat harmlessly against the 
 powerful barrier of universal prejudice. Only the 
 discovery of positive evidence of the Stone Age would 
 avail to make a serious impression on it. Such dis- 
 coveries began to accumulate in the second quarter of 
 the nineteenth century. 
 
 Stone implements of vast antiquity are strewn so 
 liberally over the surface of the earth, or found in such 
 quantities in the superficial beds which are often dis- 
 turbed, that one may wonder how the old idea had 
 survived so long. In point of fact, these implements 
 were quite well known. Arrow-heads and heavier hand- 
 implements of stone had been picked up from time 
 immemorial. One might very well ascribe them to early 
 Britons, without going outside the range of history; and 
 there were also the " antediluvians " and the " fairies " 
 to whom one might, and often did, attribute them. 
 
6 Prehistoric Mav 
 
 Travellers of grave repute have described how these 
 small arrow-heads were shot at them by unseen hands in 
 the England of their time. In Scotland the prehistoric 
 axe-heads which were taken from Neolithic graves were 
 popularly known as " Purgatory-hammers," or the 
 implements with which the dead man was to knock at 
 the doors of the nether world. In the Vatican Museum 
 itself there have been Paleolithic implements, of vast 
 antiquity, for three centuries. 
 
 These implements could not be properly interpreted 
 until geology was in a position to discuss the situation 
 in which they were found, and no sooner was the 
 science established than genuine discoveries of prehis- 
 toric relics began to be announced. Geology began to 
 claim the earlier chapters of humanity's life as belonging, 
 not to history, but to the scientific explorer of the earth's 
 crust, and a few ardent students in France, Belgium, 
 and Denmark devoted themselves to special inquiry on 
 the subject.* Between 1827 and the middle of the 
 century a number of finds were reported. In 1836 a 
 Danish student, Thomsen, determined by positive evidence 
 the successive ages of stone, bronze, and iron, which are 
 especially clear in Denmark. Several human bones of 
 great (but disputed) antiquity were discovered among 
 the bones of long-extinct animals, the exploration of the 
 floors of caverns was conducted with great zeal, and the 
 question of " fossil man " was agitating the scientific 
 world. Unfortunately great geologists like Cuvier clung 
 
 * In this country Mr. John Frere had in 1797 ascribed the 
 flints he found at Hoxne to a very remote race, without the 
 use of metal. 
 
The Founding op the Science 7 
 
 to the old prejudice, and the discoveries were treated 
 with disdain; in some cases most valuable remains have 
 been wholly lost. 
 
 By the middle of the century the new science began to 
 gather strength. In France the struggle centred about the 
 discoveries of Boucher de Perthes, a retired physician, 
 who had for some years been collecting implements in 
 the deposits of the valley of the Somme. These deposits 
 were at that time known in geology as the "diluvium," 
 or the material heaped together by the Deluge, and 
 Boucher de Perthes approached them with the innocent 
 intention of searching for traces of "antediluvian man." 
 In 1847 he published his discoveries in a work which 
 he called Celtic and Antediluvian Antiquities. The 
 prejudice which he encountered drove him to more 
 vigorous search, and he soon discovered, and announced, 
 that the flint implements of Abbeville belonged to a race 
 of men far anterior to the supposed antediluvians. By 
 1859 — when, it is interesting to note, our English 
 geologists (Sir) Joseph Prestwich and (Sir) John Evans, 
 intervened with great effect in his favour — the battle 
 was virtually won and the science accredited. 
 
 In the meantime (1856) a most important diseovery 
 had been made in Germany. In the Neanderthal (or 
 Neander Valley), near Diisseldorf, some workmen found 
 a peculiar type of human skeleton in the course of their 
 excavations. A student of the new science managed to 
 rescue some of the chief bones, including the cranium, 
 and they are now on view in the Diisseldorf Museum. 
 It is now universally recognised that these bones belong 
 to the earlier part of the Old Stone Age, and that they 
 
8 Prehistoric Man 
 
 are typical of the race of men which then peopled a 
 good part of Europe. Even in 1856 geologists had to 
 allow that the bones lay in a bed of very great antiquity, 
 and that the type of skull was at or below the level of the 
 lowest savagery. The search in caverns and superficial 
 deposits went on more ardently than ever. In 1863 Sir 
 Charles Lyell gathered together the scattered finds, 
 and enforced the moral, in his Geological Evidences of 
 the Antiquity of Man, and in the same year Huxley 
 extended the doctrine of evolution to man, in his famous 
 Man's Place in Nature, and so provided a rational frame- 
 work for the new discoveries. Darwin had, it will be 
 remembered, published the Origin of Species in 1859. 
 As the doctrine of evolution gained adherents, the old 
 prejudice slowly died. 
 
 In 1854 Keller had announced the discovery of the 
 Neolithic pile-dwellings in the Swiss Lakes, but the next 
 great controversy broke out in 1867. In 1859 Broca 
 had founded the Anthropological Society at Paris, and 
 in 1865 G. de Mortillet inaugurated the International 
 Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archaeology. 
 To one of these congresses in 1867 came a French 
 priest, the Abbe Bourgeois, with a story that he had 
 found worked flints in Tertiary strata at Thenay. The 
 Tertiary period of the geologist suggests an epoch so 
 remote that these rude flints aroused a passionate dis- 
 cussion. I may say at once that they are not admitted 
 by the majority of modern authorities, though at the 
 time the majority of the scientific commission, to whom 
 they were entrusted, declared them to be of human 
 workmanship. The man of the Old Stone Age was now 
 
The Founding of thb Science 9 
 
 freely accepted. The question was whether the story 
 did not run back to a much older period: whether we 
 ought not to admit " Tertiary Man." 
 
 It would be superfluous to trace the growth of the 
 science from 1870 onwards. Geologists and anthropolo- 
 gists continued to occupy themselves with the inquiry, 
 but it was now the theme of a special science, with 
 groups of special students and technical magazines and 
 literature in every advanced country. In Germany the 
 science was long hampered by the authority of Rudolph 
 Virchow, President of the Anthropological Society, who 
 carried with him to his grave a strange and unreason- 
 able prejudice against evolution. In England, France, 
 and Scandinavia, the science has for decades had able 
 leaders and an ample literature. Italy, Belgium and 
 Switzerland are hardly behind these countries ; and 
 Spain and Austria have reported some remarkable 
 discoveries in recent years. Both North and South 
 America have their workers and literature, and the 
 research has now been carried to some extent all over 
 the civilised world. The advance of the science becomes 
 too large for summary. In the course of this work the 
 reader will find evidence enough of its vast activity in 
 all countries, and of the voluminous literature it has 
 created. 
 
 From the enormous accumulation of material which 
 half a century of research has given us, we are now able 
 to sketch the general outline, and fill in much detail, of 
 the prehistoric life of humanity. Even if we had found 
 no human remains whatever, we should have ample 
 proof of the gradual rise of man from a lowly level to 
 
10 Prfhistoric Man 
 
 the threshold of civilisation. Prom roughly worked 
 stones, in which we barely recognise the artificial 
 chipping that fitted them for primitive man's uses, we 
 pass through slow and steady stages of improvement in 
 workmanship until we reach a period of finely polished 
 stone axes and delicately chipped arrows and lance 
 heads. After these we find man experimenting in 
 copper — the first available metal that would meet his 
 eye — and passing quickly to the use of bronze, the 
 harder alloy which an intelligent being would soon 
 devise. Lastly, in the full dawn of history, we meet 
 weapons and implements of iron. 
 
 But we are by no means restricted to these imperish- 
 able memorials of man's handiwork, which so fully 
 illustrate the gradual rise of human intelligence. We 
 have now a very fair collection of actual human remains 
 of the prehistoric age, and they are in entire accord with 
 the conclusion we draw from the stone implements. 
 Of the men of the early Stone Age we have now about 
 ten important skulls or jaws, with many other bones. 
 We shall see that these exhibit a human type of the 
 very lowest level known to us ; though we shall have to 
 consider certain bones found in Java which recall an 
 even lower and much earlier level. The few remains 
 we have of the men of the later Old Stone Age show just 
 such an increase in cranial development as our study of 
 their handiwork would suggest, and this improvement is 
 maintained when we rise to the New Stone Age. For 
 the later period the remains are, of course, abundant. 
 In a word — as will be seen by a glance at the photo- 
 graphs I have taken — we have only to place these skulls 
 
The Founding of the Science 1 1 
 
 in a chronological series to perceive at once the 
 ascending character of the story of mankind. 
 
 The succession of stone and metal ages is now heyond 
 cavil ; though, as it is hardly needful to say, the stages 
 often coexist in the sense that one race may remain 
 at the earlier level while another pushes forward to 
 a higher stage. Many savage tribes were still in the 
 Old Stone Age in the nineteenth century. Some (such 
 as the Tasmanians) remained until their extinction, 
 thirty years ago, at one of the very lowest levels of 
 primitive culture. The study of savages is, in fact, a 
 most instructive parallel to the study of prehistoric 
 races. Just as many a noble family may look back on 
 the ranks of the workers as its original level, civilised 
 peoples may look back on more primitive races. They 
 are fragments of the early waves of distribution of the 
 human family, retaining in their isolation the characters 
 of human life as it was for all in a remote antiquity. 
 Some of them have still the low type of skull and the 
 crude stone weapons of the earliest prehistoric man. 
 
 But in the arrangement of so vast a mass of material 
 and so extended a period of time we need many second- 
 ary stages, and the original division of the Stone Age 
 into Paleolithic (Old Stone) and Neolithic (New Stone= 
 polished or more finely chipped stone) is now much 
 subdivided. In the first place many high authorities 
 admit the marks of human workmanship in certain 
 stones which go back far earlier than the beginning of 
 the established Paleolithic period. For these stones, 
 which we will presently consider, the name " Eoliths " 
 (earliest stones) has been invented, and the remote 
 
12 Prehistoric Man 
 
 period to which they belong is known as the Eolithic 
 period. M. Rutot, the great Belgian authority, arranges 
 them in three stages — the Reutelian, Mafflian, and 
 Mesvinian. 
 
 'The Paleolithic period has, until recently, usually 
 been divided in England into two broad sections — the 
 (earlier) age of the River-drift men and the (later) age of 
 the Cave men. In the sense that the older Paleolithic 
 men »eem to have lived predominantly in the open air, 
 and left their implements chiefly in the gravels of the 
 broad rivers of the time, while later Paleolithic men 
 dwelt mainly in caves and rock-shelters, the distinction 
 has a broad value. But it is fairly clear that man some- 
 times inhabited caves from the start, and other divisions 
 are now adopted. It is usual to admit three stages in 
 the earlier Paleolithic, the names of which are taken 
 from the French sites where we find them best exhibited 
 — the Chellean (from Chelles), the Acheulean (St. 
 Acheul), and the Mo uster ian (Le Moustier). Advanced 
 students, like M. Rutot, add an earlier stage (the 
 Strepyian) ; others subdivide the Chellean and Acheu- 
 lean, or combine the two ; and others again assign the 
 Mousterian to the later Paleolithic. These refinements 
 may be ignored until later. 
 
 The upper and later Paleolithic is divided into the 
 Solutrean and Magdalenian, the names again being 
 borrowed from typical Prench sites (Solutre and La 
 Madeleine). We thus get five main divisions of the 
 Paleolithic, which correspond to different levels of 
 culture and to significant modifications of climate and 
 animal population. Until recent years the Paleolithic 
 
The Founding op thb Scibncb 
 
 13 
 
 was sharply divided from the Neolithic, but transitional 
 types have now been discovered, and most writers inter- 
 polate a Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) between the two. 
 This is often called the Azilian (from Mas d'Azil). We 
 then have the Neolithic — a period characterised by the 
 finer working, and often the polishing, of the implements. 
 This again has its subdivisions, as have also the metal 
 phases which follow it. All these sub-divisions and 
 their meaning will be fully explained as we reach them, 
 but it will be convenient to draw up now a scheme of 
 the entire series for reference. In order not to confuse 
 the elementary student I omit the more contested and 
 finer subdivisions. 
 
 PHASES OP PREHISTORIC DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 Eolithic 
 
 Rutot's ... 
 
 ( 
 
 Reutelian 
 Mafflian 
 
 Paleolithic ... 
 
 Earlier ... 
 
 i 
 
 Mesvinian 
 
 Chellean 
 
 Acheulean 
 
 Mousterian 
 
 
 Later 
 
 i 
 
 Solutrean 
 Magdalenian 
 
 Mesolithic ... 
 
 Azilian 
 
 
 
 Neolithic 
 
 
 
 
 Copper 
 
 
 
 
 Bronze 
 
 
 
 
 Iron 
 
 j Hallstatt 
 I La Tene 
 
 
 
f 
 
 14 Prehistoric Man 
 
 The relation of these periods to the periods of the 
 geologist may be briefly dismissed. The geologist 
 divides the entire series of stratified rocks in the earth's 
 crust into four periods. The first and longest of these 
 (the Primary) closes with the beginning of the great age 
 of Reptiles (Permian) after the Coal-forests. The 
 Secondary closes with the deposit of the Chalk. If we 
 take the entire story of the stratified rocks to extend over 
 55 million years — a moderate estimate — these two periods 
 will occupy 49 millions out of the 55. There is, of 
 course, no question of human or even ape remains in 
 either of them. The Tertiary period (on this scale) will 
 then occupy about 5£ million years, and the Quaternary 
 (or actual) about half a million. There is no question but 
 that the presence of man can be traced even in the 
 earlier part of the Quaternary, but all evidence that is 
 claimed for the Tertiary is much disputed, and, as I 
 shall have frequently to refer to its subdivisions, it will 
 be convenient to give them here in schematic form : — 
 
 THE LATER GEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 
 
 Quaternary 
 (or actual) 
 
 Tertiary 
 
 Holocene (or Recent) 
 Pleistocene 
 
 ( Pliocene 
 Miocene 
 Oligocene 
 Eocene 
 
 Lastly, since I have made allusion to chronology, a 
 word of warning must at once be given to the reader. 
 
Thb Pounding op thb Sciencb 15 
 
 In geology generally, and in prehistoric science especi- 
 ally, all chronlogical schemes must be regarded with 
 great reserve. I take 55 million years as a fair average 
 estimate of the time it took to form the stratified rocks 
 of the earth's crust, but a few eminent geologists would 
 halve this (the lowest estimate), while many would 
 double or multiply it. So in regard to primitive man 
 Any estimate which falls short of 100,000 years since 
 the beginning of the Paleolithic period may be ignored, 
 but it is difficult to go beyond this. One of the most 
 careful estimates (that of Mortillet) assigns 250,000 years 
 for the whole story since the advent of Paleolithic man, 
 but many eminent authorities would double this. Sir 
 W. Turner has recently claimed that it is at least 
 100,000 years since the beginning of the Neolithic age, 
 and it is generally agreed that the Paleolithic was at 
 least two or three times as long as the Neolithic. Dr. 
 Keane claims at least 500,000 years for the earliest 
 undisputed human traces, and one of the latest German 
 writers, Dr. Hoernes {Natur und Urgeschichte des 
 Menschen), speaks of the appearance of man at least 
 a quarter to half a million years ago. If the Eoliths 
 are admitted, the period must be greatly prolonged, 
 while the Ape-man of Java is generally admitted to go 
 back to the Tertiary period. 
 
 The reader will conclude that we have by no means 
 as yet the material required to settle the question of 
 chronology, and will dispense me from pausing at the 
 various phases of evolution to say " whence these things 
 were." It is enough to say with Sir John Evans, one of 
 the most cautious authorities : " The mind is almost 
 
16 Prehistoric Man 
 
 lost in amazement at the vista of antiquity displayed." 
 If we can succeed in restoring the outline of some of 
 the strange races of men who roamed our planet with 
 strange animal companions in the dark night of pre- 
 history, we may leave the closer determination to a 
 more developed science. To that task I now apply 
 myself. 
 
The Earliest Traces of Man 17 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 THE EARLIEST TRACES OF MAN 
 
 The very fact that man has ascended gradually from 
 an animal level implies that any very early traces of him 
 which we may find will lend themselves to almost 
 endless controversy. If we find remains of the being 
 who is slowly assuming human shape, it will be quite 
 natural that many will hesitate whether to describe the 
 transitional form as animal or human. If we find 
 specimens of man's most primitive efforts to give an edge 
 to a flint, the marks will differ little from the chipping to 
 which flints are subjected in the river-bed or on the 
 shore of the ocean. It is not surprising, therefore, that 
 the claims for the most primitive traces of man are much 
 disputed ; and, since this little manual is not controversial 
 but educative in aim, these disputed traces must be 
 simply described, and the marshalling of authorities, for 
 or against their human character, briefly indicated. 
 
 The most important of these controversies centres 
 about some remains that were found in the island of 
 • Java in 1891 and 1892. Dr. Eugene Dubois was 
 investigating some fossiliferous deposits at Trinil (Java), 
 and he discovered four bones of singular interest — a 
 skull-cap, a thigh-bone, and two teeth. The bones were 
 not found together nor at the same time, but all belong 
 to the same deposit, and were only separated by a dozen 
 
 B 
 
18 Prehistoric Man 
 
 yards. Dr. Dubois produced them at the International 
 Zoological Congress at Leyden in 1894, and claimed that 
 he had discovered the "missing link" in the chain of 
 man's evolution. The skull proved to have a cranial 
 capacity of about 900 or 950 cubic centimetres. This 
 capacity is just midway between that of the highest 
 ape (600) and that of early Paleolithic or low savage 
 man (about 1200). The eye-ridges were prominent and 
 powerful, the forehead very low, and the whole appear- 
 ance singularly brutal. The teeth are not less removed 
 from both the human and ape type. The thigh-bone, 
 though nearer to the human type, is conspicuously 
 curved and twice as heavy as an ordinary human femur. 
 There was a long and heated discussion at the Leyden 
 Congress on the character of the being to whom the 
 bones belonged, and the issue was instructive. Of 
 twelve experts present, three declared them to be the 
 remains of an abnormal man, three regarded them as 
 bones of an unknown and advanced man-like ape, and 
 six said that they were of the intermediate type which 
 Dr. Dubois claimed. The minority which claimed them 
 to show a degenerate human type was led by Professor 
 Virchow, whose prejudice on the subject of evolution 
 was well known. In the previous year he had, at the 
 Vienna Anthropological Congress, gone so far as to 
 declare that "man might just as well be said to have 
 descended from the elephant as from the ape." His 
 objection — that the bones showed pathological degenera- 
 tion — has not been sustained, and the latest German 
 writer on the subject, Dr. Hoernes, declares it to be 
 absolutely groundless. 
 
Thb Earliest Traces of Man 19 
 
 By 1899, Professor Klaatsch tells us, only three out of 
 eighteen authorities ascribed the skull to an ape, nine to 
 a man, and six to an intermediate being. As Dr. Hoernes 
 observes, the conclusion is clear. A being which experts 
 could class as either ape or man or intermediate between 
 the two is obviously intermediate, and it is now the 
 usual practice to speak of it as the erect Ape-man 
 {Pithecanthropus erectus) of Java. It seems to be one of 
 those semi-human, semi-ape types which the theory of 
 evolution places before the definitely human type. It 
 does not follow, however, that we may insert it in the 
 line of man's ancestry. It may represent some collateral 
 branch of the Primate family, which was extinguished 
 before it reached a human level. Its great interest is 
 that it exhibits a type high above the level of the most 
 advanced ape, a type in which we certainly find the 
 beginning of human characters. In our chief museums 
 (Natural History Museum, Royal College of Surgeons, 
 etc.) the cast of the skull is definitely ranged as early 
 human. 
 
 The question whether the skull-cap, femur, and teeth 
 (which were found at intervals of several months) be- 
 longed to the same individual is not very important, since 
 the skull alone suffices for our purpose, but the close 
 association of the bones at the same horizon, and the 
 peculiarly transitional character of all of them, dispose 
 us to think this. More important is the question 
 whether the bones really belong to the Pliocene period, 
 to which they are referred. If they do, a very great 
 antiquity would be demanded. Some hold, however, 
 that the bones do not belong originally to the bed in 
 
20 Prehistoric Man 
 
 which they were found, and a recent geological investi- 
 gator has even claimed that the bed itself is not Miocene, 
 but mid-Quaternary. Final decision must be reserved, 
 though the very low organisation seems to point to the 
 earlier date.* 
 
 There is a further point to be considered before one 
 can venture to build any large structure of speculation 
 on so slender a basis. From the organisation of a single 
 individual we must not hastily conclude that we have the 
 typical organisation of the species to which it belonged. 
 Especially in brain-capacity individuals of the same small 
 community vary immensely, and we must study a number 
 of skulls to get the average of the group. No doubt the 
 variation is much greater to-day than it was in primitive 
 times, but the point must not be neglected. In the case 
 of Paleolithic man we have a number of skulls, from 
 different parts of Europe, and from them we gather the 
 typical Paleolithic form. We must remember that we 
 have as yet only one skull of this very primitive species, 
 and refrain from large generalisations. I may add, 
 however, that the early Paleolithic skulls vary much less 
 than skulls do in a modern community. 
 
 With these reserves we may attempt to picture to 
 ourselves the kind of being who roamed over the islands 
 or the "lost continent" of the Indian Ocean at that 
 remote date. From the thigh-bone we gather that the 
 Pithecanthropus was a few inches over five feet high, 
 and stood erect, though retaining a strong curve from a 
 
 * An expedition was sent out from Germany to Trinil in 
 1906, and vast material has been collected. The results of this 
 search may modify earlier conclusions. 
 
The Earliest Traces of Man 21 
 
 quadruped ancestor. From the skull and teeth we 
 clearly gather a face intermediate between that of the 
 chimpanzee and that of the native Australian — a heavy, 
 bestial face, with great arches over the eyes and 
 retreating forehead, with bulging teeth and massive jaws 
 and receding chin. Powerful in muscle, stunted in 
 brain, probably (from reasons we shall see later) covered 
 with a thick coat of hair, the Pithecanthropus is just the 
 type of creature that the doctrine of evolution would 
 place at the end of the Tertiary period. The earliest 
 ape-like creatures, the Lemurs, appear in the Eocene. 
 The man-like apes appear in the Miocene. Pithecan- 
 thropus, if assigned (as is usual) to the late Pliocene, 
 comes midway between the highest fossil apes and 
 Paleolithic man (in the Pleistocene); and this is 
 precisely its position in organisation. 
 
 Prom any larger or more speculative conclusions I 
 
 must entirely refrain here. In my earlier manual 
 
 (Evolution, ch. vi.) I have summarised the most recent 
 
 speculations on the evolution of man, and suggested the 
 
 causes of his upward advance. Where that important 
 
 evolution took place we do not know. Dr. Keane 
 
 confidently looks to the neighbourhood of the Indian 
 
 Ocean (where, as we know, much land has disappeared 
 
 under the waves) for this cradle of humanity, but the 
 
 evidence is slender. In view of the distribution of the 
 
 man-like apes in Africa and Asia (and formerly in 
 
 Europe) it is not unnatural, and the finding of the Java 
 
 bones may be held to confirm it. But this supposition 
 
 is much complicated by the next claim of early human 
 
 traces, which we have now to consider. 
 
22 Prehistoric Man 
 
 We turn now from human remains to the relics of 
 human workmanship, and we shall meet all the obscurity 
 and controversy which I explained to be inseparable from 
 the earliest artificial touches. I will first run briefly 
 over certain disputed flints, which are claimed to be the 
 work of Tertiary man, and then deal with the more 
 weighty of the English " Eoliths." 
 
 In the preceding chapter we saw that a French priest, 
 the Abbe Bourgeois, candidly brought before the Inter- 
 national Congress in 1867 certain flints which he believed 
 to bear traces of human workmanship. They exhibited 
 a network of fine cracks which could only be due to 
 heat, and it was suggested that they had been put into 
 fire to split them — a procedure that we find among 
 certain savages to-day. In addition, many of them had 
 a series of chips along the edge, which were claimed to 
 show design and purpose. Apart from the crude 
 character of the flints, however, the fact that they were 
 found in Miocene beds made the majority decline to 
 recognise them. They were found in the district of 
 Thenay, about sixteen feet below the present surface, 
 and the period to which they were referred was one so 
 remote that palms then flourished in Northern France 
 and crocodiles swam in its rivers. 
 
 The controversy which ensued is no nearer a close 
 to-day than it was forty years ago. Eminent authorities 
 like Sergi and Mortillet accept them as the work of 
 Tertiary man: other authorities entirely reject them: 
 the majority of experts maintain a reserve of opinion. 
 The situation is typical for the whole of the claims of 
 Tertiary traces of man, and I need not do more than 
 
The Earliest Traces of Man 23 
 
 enumerate the disputed " finds." Certain flints were 
 found in Tertiary strata at Otta in Portugal. Mortillet 
 and others regard them as genuine worked flints of the 
 upper Miocene, but the great majority of the authorities 
 are against them. The flints of Puy-Courny are in the 
 same position (admitted by Keane, Rutot, Klaatsch, 
 Mortillet, and others), and there is the same division of 
 authorities in regard to all the alleged finds of "Eoliths," 
 or pre-Paleolithic implements, in Africa, India, and all 
 parts of Europe. 
 
 The difficulty is natural. On the one hand, we can 
 point to tribes like the extinct Tasmanians whieh gave 
 no more finish to their stone implements at times than 
 is seen in many of the Eoliths; on the other hand, many 
 authorities believe that the accidental chipping of flints 
 in nature leads to forms quite analagous to those of the 
 Eoliths. It is precisely the situation we would expect. 
 Tertiary man — and most of the authorities agree that 
 the human stage was probably reached in the later 
 Tertiary — would have so feeble an intelligence that his 
 handiwork would hardly be demonstrable. 
 
 I pass entirely over certain scratched or cut bones 
 from Tertiary deposits, and the skulls and other remains 
 once referred to the Tertiary in California (the Calaveras 
 skull, etc.) and now claimed in South America. Few 
 are willing to consider these claims to-day. Other 
 Eoliths, found at Boncelles, are actually referred by 
 their supporters to the Oligocene — a period, on a 
 moderate estimate, four or five million years ago — and 
 are said to be already fashioned into knives, borers, etc. 
 The Eoliths of Aurillac are referred to the Miocene, 
 
24 Prehistoric Man 
 
 All these and the whole Eolithic scheme of M. Rutot 
 (the most ardent Eolithist, and the leading Belgian 
 authority) are generally regarded with reserve, or 
 rejected outright.* 
 
 The English Eoliths call for somewhat fuller notice, 
 and have a much greater weight of authority behind 
 them. The classical examples of these flints, for which 
 human use is claimed, are those found by Mr. Benjamin 
 Harrison in the neighbourhood of Ightham, Kent. In 
 the patches of gravel which are scattered over the 
 surface of the North Downs a number of flints were 
 discovered which seemed to have been used, and in some 
 cases deliberately adapted, for the purposes of a very 
 primitive race of men. The safe and ordinary marks of 
 human workmanship, which we shall see later, were 
 lacking, but this defect would be quite in harmony with 
 the reputed age of the implements. Some were believed 
 to show signs of wear, others had the appearance of 
 scrapers or borers, and others again had a roughly 
 chipped edge. Similar implements have since been 
 discovered in large numbers near Salisbury, in Dorset- 
 shire and Essex, and in Belgium, France, Germany, 
 North and South Africa, and India. 
 
 * See, for full particulars, Mortillet's Prehistoriquc (p. 25- 
 126), and Hoernes' Natur und U rgeschichte des Menschen. 
 A good discussion is found in an article by Professor Sollas 
 (who admits many of Rutot's Eoliths) in Science Progress, 
 January, 1909. Another excellent summary is found in Dr. 
 Windle's Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England, 1904. 
 For a recent attack on the English Eoliths, by Mr.Worthington 
 Smith, see Man, 1903, p. 26. Fuller treatment is found in 
 G. G. MacCurdy's The Eolithic Problem, 1906. 
 
The Earliest Traces of Man 25 
 
 It would be impossible here to discuss these stones in 
 a manner sufficient to enable the inexpert reader to form 
 a judgment on them. The highest expert opinion in the 
 world is still greatly divided on the subject of their 
 intelligent use. The earliest convert to Mr. Harrison's 
 view of the Kent Eoliths was Sir Joseph Prestwich, a 
 very cautious authority, who had hitherto been reluctant 
 to admit the larger claims for the antiquity of man. On 
 many of the specimens in the large collection at the 
 Natural History Museum at South Kensington the 
 visitor will notice a small paper disk. This was put on 
 them by Sir J. Prestwich to denote the flints which, in 
 his opinion, were genuine Eoliths. He further deter- 
 mined that they had been rolled to their present bed on 
 the plateau of the Downs from a high hill (2,500 feet) 
 which has since been entirely removed by denudation ; 
 and he thus assigned them an incalculable antiquity. 
 That they have been thus rolled in the bed of a river 
 which no longer exists is agreed — they bear obvious 
 traces of the process — but it is still very keenly disputed 
 whether we may attribute them to human beings. 
 
 While Dr. Keane, Lord Avebury, Sir E. Ray 
 Lankester, and other high authorities accept the Eoliths, 
 equally good authorities like Mr. Worthington Smith 
 emphatically reject them. Sir John Evans was their 
 principal opponent during his life ; though it is curious to 
 find him saying in 1902 (as quoted by Mr. Newton in 
 Man) that Mr. Harrison's "numerous and important 
 discoveries" had "done much to revolutionise our ideas 
 as to the age and character of the drift-deposits capping 
 the chalk downs in West Kent." One may say that the 
 
26 Prehistoric Man 
 
 Eolithic position gains ground in England, and is 
 favoured by the majority of the authorities. On 
 December 1st, 1908, Professor A. Schwartz and Sir 
 Hugh R. Beevor read a paper on the subject at the 
 Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, and 
 claimed to demonstrate the human purposiveness of the 
 Eoliths. Since Dr. Blackmore began his investigations 
 in the district of Salisbury the position has been much 
 strengthened. We now find a conservative writer like 
 Dr. Windle not only accepting the Eoliths, but adding 
 that " the question of the Pliocene date of the Eoliths 
 must be regarded as settled."* On the Continent 
 Mortillet, Rutot, Klaatsch, Schweinfurth and others 
 accept, but a large number of the chief authorities in 
 France and Germany refuse to recognise any Tertiary 
 traces of man, while generally allowing that man was 
 probably evolved in the Tertiary period. 
 
 As far as the Tertiary period is concerned, therefore, 
 we must say that no undisputed trace of man is 
 discoverable, but that a very large number of the 
 leading authorities (Keane, Lord Avebury, Sir E. Ray 
 Lankester, Rutot, Mortillet, Klaatsch, Sergi, etc.) 
 admit such traces in England, Prance, Belgium, Spain, 
 and Italy, or some one of these countries. The question 
 must remain in reserve. In view, however, of the high 
 authority now quotable in support of Tertiary man, it 
 will not be without interest to discuss his relation to 
 the general development of the earth. 
 
 Europe enjoyed a semi-tropical climate in the Miocene 
 
 * Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England, 
 p. 7 (1904). 
 
The Earliest Traces of Man 27 
 
 period, to which the earliest and most disputed traces of 
 man are referred. Palms flourished as far north as the 
 region which is now the north of France and the south 
 of Britain ; though at that time the British Isles were 
 not separated from, hut formed part of, the Continent. 
 Large man-like apes lived as far west and north as Prance, 
 and it is not impossible that the precursor of man was 
 amongst them. As his intelligence developed — possibly 
 through his having been forced to leave the trees, adopt 
 the erect posture, and use his fore-limbs as hands — he 
 would (on the analogy of the ape) use weapons of wood, 
 torn from the trees, or throw stones. Of such early 
 wooden weapons no trace could possibly be preserved, on 
 account of the corruptible material. 
 
 The next step would be to select stones which were 
 naturally adapted for his primitive needs, and from such 
 selection to the rough chipping of the stones, to give an 
 edge or a point, would be a natural transition. Theo- 
 retically, we should be disposed to place this step in 
 the Pliocene period, and it is precisely to this period 
 that the bones of the Ape-man of Java and the Eoliths 
 are generally referred. From the rough nature of the 
 workmanship we cannot demonstrate the presence of 
 intelligent fashioning, but the Tasmanians and the 
 Andaman Islanders were found in the nineteenth 
 century to work the stones they used in just the same 
 crude way. 
 
 If we accept these traces as genuine, therefore, we have 
 a lowly type of human being, midway in brain and frame 
 between the Chimpanzee and the Australian savage, wan- 
 dering on foot into what is now the island of Britain, and 
 
28 Prehistoric Man 
 
 living, in a genial climate, along the banks of its broad 
 marshy rivers, with the hippopotamus, rhinocerous, tiger 
 and hyena for neighbours. Prom some cause which is 
 not yet established, the climate was growing colder. 
 Northern Europe was preparing for the vast mantle of 
 ice which would presently cover it. The palms and the 
 tropical animals were retreating southward, and man, not 
 yet intelligent enough to adapt himself to the colder climate, 
 may have retreated with them. As the Miocene period 
 ends, the glacial ice-streams begin to descend from the 
 more northern or the higher mountains, and in the first 
 part of the Quaternary period nearly the whole north of 
 Europe (down to the Thames and Danube) and of North 
 America was covered with a great ice-sheet. 
 
 Here, however, we come to the Old Stone Age proper, 
 and must describe the earliest undisputed remains of 
 Paleolithic man. Eolithic or Tertiary man awaits the 
 final decision of science. Fresh material is being con- 
 stantly accumulated, and a few more years may see the 
 question settled. Important discoveries are announced 
 from Scotland, where even Paleolithic man had not 
 hitherto been admitted ; and I have myself examined a 
 remarkable collection of crude Paleoliths from the 
 upper valley of the Lea (where, in spite of the 
 assertion of 6ome writers, implements are very abund- 
 ant) which may turn out to have very great interest in 
 linking the Eolithic with the Paleolithic. It is enough 
 here to describe the position of the controversy and 
 the theoretical course of man's evolution. Now we 
 reach surer ground as we turn to consider the relics 
 of early Paleolithic man. 
 
The Beginning of the Old Stone Age 29 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 the beginning op the old stonb age 
 
 The student of evolution may feel some impatience 
 that we skip from one definite period to another, 
 instead of following a completely graduated series of 
 human stages from the first appearance of man to 
 the dawn of history. Many authorities believe that 
 we can already trace this perfect sequence in the 
 stone implements of early man, and that we can 
 pursue the slow growth of art through the Eolithic, 
 Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods. We 
 have not only the strong claims already mentioned on 
 behalf of England and Belgium, but Schweinfurth 
 believes he has traced the sequence in Egypt, and 
 Mr. J. P. Johnson (The Stone Implements of South 
 Africa, 1907) for South Africa. No one questions 
 that the evolution is continuous, but, not only are the 
 earlier stages open to disputes as to identity from the 
 very nature of the case, but the great changes of 
 climate, which took place in the northern hemisphere, 
 would cause such migrations that we have little hope 
 of finding a perfect succession in any one locality. 
 
 On the other hand, when we bring together different 
 strata of culture from different localities, it is difficult 
 to determine their chronological relations with confi- 
 dence. As time goes on we find all the different 
 
/ 
 
 30 Prehistoric Man 
 
 stages existing simultaneously in different regions. In 
 the middle of the nineteenth century every singL- 
 stage of human culture — from Eolithic to advanced 
 civilisation — was discoverable at some point or other 
 on the earth's surface. The tracing of the perfect 
 sequence is, therefore, a task of the future. For the 
 present we may be content to sum up our knowledge 
 of the early Paleolithic race, or races, of men. 
 
 What we do know is that in the earlier half of the 
 Quaternary period, vastly earlier than the first dawn of 
 history in Egypt 10,000 years ago, human beings 
 
 ! wandered over the greater part of Europe, and possibly 
 Southern Asia and Northern Africa. They were below 
 the cultural level of the Australian native. Their 
 beetling eye-ridges, retreating foreheads, heavy chinless 
 jaws, and protruding teeth, are quite in accord 
 with their stone implements, and betray a very low 
 level of mental culture. They had no agriculture, no 
 bows and arrows, no tamed cattle, no pottery, no 
 woven texture, and probably — as we shall see — no 
 clothing and no articulate speech. In the enormously 
 long period of the Old Stone Age (which is generally 
 computed at something over 100,000 years), the only 
 progress they made consisted in preparing their stone 
 weapons and tools with a finer process of chipping ; 
 this, at least, was the only progress made during the 
 greater part of the period. Prom the earliest re- 
 mains found, these men are given the name of the 
 Neanderthal race. 
 
 The general physical and mental character of this 
 race is now firmly established. I have already referred 
 
Thb Beginning op thb Old Stonb Agb 31 
 
 to the finding of a prehistoric skeleton at Neanderthal, 
 near Diisseldorf, in 1856. When the rescued bones 
 came to be examined, it was found that they belonged 
 to an extraordinarily primitive type of man. All 
 controversy as to the normal human character is now 
 over, and the skeleton is admitted to be that of a 
 man of the early part of the Old Stone Age. The 
 thigh-bones were very heavy and much curved, and they 
 and the other bones indicated very powerful muscles 
 and a very moderate height. The man stood about 
 5 feet 3 inches, his legs slightly curved, and his limbs 
 and chest of great power. His large teeth bulged 
 outward, and there was little chin. Two thick bony 
 ridges stood out far over his eyes, and his forehead 
 was extremely low. The skull might contain 1,220 
 cubic centimetres of brain matter, which is much the 
 same as that of an Australian native. Some writers 
 have represented that this is a fair capacity for a man 
 of 5 feet 3 inches, and greater than that of many 
 Veddahs and Andamanese. The latter, however, have 
 very slight frames to control, unlike the Neanderthal 
 man. As Huxley said, the skull was "the most brutal 
 of all human skulls" at the time it was discovered. 
 
 Since the middle of the last century, however, we 
 have discovered other remains of early Paleolithic man, 
 and we know that the Neanderthal individual is a fair 
 specimen of the race to which he belonged. The next 
 most important discovery was at Spy, in Belgium. 
 In 1886 two Belgian students explored a grotto at 
 Spy, and, in the terrace before it, two or three feet 
 below the actual surface, they found two fairly 
 
32 Prehistoric Man 
 
 complete skeletons of the Neanderthal type. One skull 
 is slightly better than the other (which some authorities 
 attribute to difference of age), but both have the heavy 
 frontal ridges, and the low, retreating forehead, the 
 powerful chinless jaw, and the bulging teeth of the 
 Diisseldorf skeleton. The men were evidently adults, 
 but the mental capacity was low, and the great mass of 
 the brain was thrown behind. The thigh-bones were 
 thick and curved, and they and the other bones indi- 
 cated very powerful muscles. We had the same 
 suggestion of a squat, powerful, stunted savage, with 
 brain and facial features going back toward those of 
 the ape. 
 
 Every fresh discovery has confirmed this suggestion. 
 In Belgium, again, at La Naulette, a lower jaw was 
 found which has been accepted as early Paleolithic. 
 At Malarnaud and Arcy in France other jaws were 
 discovered, and the latter, at least, is recognised as 
 early Paleolithic ; the former is generally admitted. 
 In England a skeleton found at Tilbury (at a 
 depth of 32 feet) during the excavation for the docks 
 in 1882, a fragment of a skull found at Bury St. 
 Edmunds in 1884, and a skull and other bones found at 
 Galley Hill (Kent) in 1888, have been attributed to the 
 same race. It is more probable, however, that these 
 remains belonged to the later Old Stone Age, and we 
 may postpone them until the next chapter. The same 
 must be said of finds at Predmost and Podbaba 
 (Moravia), Briix (Bohemia), Schipka (Moravia), Taubach 
 (Germany), Eguisheim (Alsace), Engis (Belgium), and 
 Gibraltar. They seem to belong to the Paleolithic race, 
 but not to its earlier section. 
 
CO 
 
 Si 
 
 
 o S 
 
 o 
 u 
 
 M CO 
 
 *3 o 
 
 3 OB 
 
 - >> 
 
 ^ o 
 
 CO u 
 
 '-' o 
 
 E1 
 
 'J X 
 
 J c 
 C a 
 
 ^2 
 
 < 
 
 ffl 
 
 5 
 
 Q, 
 
The Beginning op the Old Stone Age 33 
 
 On the other hand important discoveries have been 
 made in recent years, which fully confirm the type 
 suggested by the relics of Neanderthal, Spy, Arcy, and 
 La Naulette. The first of these occurred at Krapina, 
 in Croatia, where nearly 500 human teeth and bones 
 (or parts of bones) were found, in 1899, in association 
 with animals (arctic and cave-bear, woolly rhinocerous, 
 beaver, etc.) of an interglacial character. Patient 
 reconstruction yielded the remains of at least two 
 individuals of the Neanderthal type, the jaw-characters 
 approaching even nearer than those of Spy to the most 
 primitive standard. 
 
 More recently finds of great importance have been 
 made in France and Germany, and the character of 
 early Paleolithic man may be regarded as fixed. In 
 1906 a Swiss explorer, Hauser, found a nearly complete 
 skeleton at La Vezere, in the Dordogne. The district 
 had yielded vast numbers of Paleolithic relics, as we 
 shall see, but at a lower depth (30 feet below the 
 stratum previously worked) in a grotto that had been 
 cut off by recent buildings, the bones of a youth were 
 discovered, with early Paleolithic implements. Such 
 finds are now very carefully controlled, and the skele- 
 ton was at once shown to be early Paleolithic. Dr. 
 Reinhardt estimated that it was some 400,000 years 
 at least since, in the penultimate interglacial period, 
 this young specimen of early humanity had met his 
 premature death.* Professor Klaatsch regarded the 
 remains as the most primitive yet discovered — earlier 
 
 *Naturwiss. Wochenschrift, May 20th, 1909. 
 
 c 
 
34 Prehistoric M\n 
 
 than the Neanderthal and Spy remains — and this was 
 generally accepted. The familiar early Paleolithic 
 characters — heavy frontal ridges, retreating forehead, 
 bulging teeth, and retreating chin — were very strongly 
 developed. 
 
 In the following year (1907), however, another 
 human relic was found which disputes the priority of 
 the Vezere man. This was a lower human jaw dis- 
 covered at Mauer, near Heidelberg, in October, at a 
 depth of 80 feet below the actual surface. Dr. Otto 
 Schoetensach,* to whom the examination of the jaw was 
 entrusted, claims that it is by far the oldest yet known, 
 and many authorities agree with him. The bones I have 
 already described belong probably to the middle of the 
 Pleistocene period. The Heidelberg jaw belongs to the 
 earliest part of the Pleistocene, if not (as some think) 
 to the last part of the Pliocene. This conclusion is 
 reached on a geological examination of the deposit in 
 which it was found, and it is quite borne out by the 
 appearance of the relic itself. While the teeth, which 
 are preserved in it, stamp it as distinctly human, the 
 massiveness of the jaw and complete absence of chin 
 bring it closer to the ape-type than any other. It is 
 midway in profile between the jaw of the gorilla and 
 that of an Australian native, and much more primitive 
 than the Spy and Krapina jaws. There is very strong 
 reason to regard this jaw as intermediate in type, 
 between the Ape-man of Java and the Neanderthal 
 man, if not entirely on a level with the former. Mean- 
 
 *Der Unterkiefcr des Homo Heidelbergensis, 1908. 
 
The Beginning of the Old Stone Agb 35 
 
 time we may confidently class it as very early 
 Paleolithic at least. 
 
 The most recent find of importance was made by 
 the Abb£s J. and A. Bouysonnie at Chapelle-aux-Saints, 
 in the Correze, in 1908. It was the skeleton of a man 
 who had stood about 5 feet 2 inches in height, lying on 
 its back, the head supported by stones, at a great depth 
 in a cave. The skull was extremely thick, and had the 
 Neanderthal features (eye-ridges, low forehead, absence 
 of chin) very strongly developed. The distinguished 
 French authority, M. Boule, claims that it is the 
 earliest Paleolithic skeleton yet discovered, and nearer 
 to the Ape-man than any of the others. 
 
 Into the dispute as to the chronological priority of 
 these recent finds it is impossible to enter here, but 
 we may pause for a moment to sum up these very 
 valuable discoveries of early human remains. As the 
 matter now stands, we have undisputed remains of a 
 dozen of the earliest representatives of the distinctly 
 human family. Midway, or little less than midway, 
 between the highest ape and the lowest living human, 
 we have the remains found at Java, at Mauer, at 
 Vezere, and at Chapelle-aux-Saints. Coming close 
 after these we have the remains found at Neanderthal, 
 Spy (two skeletons), Krapina (several skeletons), La 
 Naulette, Arcy, and Malarnaud. These chance dis- 
 coveries show us that a type of humanity much lower 
 than any we know to-day was spread over a large 
 part of the earth's surface in the earlier part of the 
 Pleistocene period. That the later type is evolved from 
 the earlier, or that either type was ancestral to any 
 
36 Prehistoric Man 
 
 modern race, cannot be affirmed with confidence. The 
 whole of the remains may belong to races, or off-shoots 
 of the developing human family, which were later 
 extinguished. In any case they give us a most valu- 
 able illustration of a phase (or phases) through which 
 humanity passed in its slow upward evolution. 
 
 The Java remains record a stage in which the 
 pithecoid features are so gradually approaching the 
 human that the authorities hesitate whether to pro- 
 nounce them simian or human, and rightly decide to 
 speak of them as belonging to an Ape-man. It is the 
 next known stage after the large man-like apes of the 
 Miocene, a stage probably belonging to the late 
 Pliocene. The next stage is seen in the Mauer, Vezere, 
 and Chapelle-aux-Saints remains. Here the pithecoid 
 features have definitely shaded into the human, but 
 the beetling ridges over the eyes, the low forehead, 
 the chinless jaw, and protruding teeth, still recall the 
 gorilla or the chimpanzee.* In the Neanderthal-Spy 
 race these characters continue to be modified, and we 
 approach the type of the living Australian native. 
 
 But we cannot fully understand the relationship 
 of these early types until we have glanced at the 
 classification of Paleolithic implements. The discovery 
 of the actual remains of early man has a far greater 
 interest than the examination of chipped flints, but the 
 
 *It is not, of course, suggested that the anthropoid ape is in 
 the line of man's ancestry. The stock which was to become 
 human probably diverged very early from the main simian 
 body. It would, however, have to pass through an anthropoid 
 stage. 
 
The Beginning of the Old Stone Age 37 
 
 scantiness of the former still forces us to rely on 
 the very abundant supply of the latter for the more 
 definite arrangement of our material. 
 
 Here again, however, we must as yet beware of 
 taking up too dogmatic a position. We have searched 
 only a small part of the earth's surface for the relics 
 of early man, and, great as is the mass of material 
 collected, we must leave room for discoveries that 
 may modify our schemes. In a general way we may 
 say that the stone implements — generally flint imple- 
 ments, but often of other hard stone, such as quartz, 
 chert, greenstone, etc. — of the Paleolithic age begin 
 with roughly worked stones, to be held in the hand, and 
 pass on to edged scrapers, flint knives, and ultimately 
 chisels, borers, and lance-heads. Some claim that 
 scrapers and a rough type of knife are found from 
 the first. 
 
 In England it has been customary to distinguish the 
 earlier Paleolithic relics as belonging to "river-drift" 
 man, and the later as of "cave" man. The same 
 distinction was broadly maintained in Germany, and 
 we shall see that it has a general justification. Others 
 distinguish the cave-bear, mammoth, and reindeer 
 periods, but distinction on grounds of animal popula- 
 tion is precarious. More recently a French scheme of 
 classification, due originally to M. Mortillet, has been 
 generally adopted in its main lines. On this scheme 
 the various stages of the Paleolithic, which follow upon 
 the (disputed) Eolithic, are known as (beginning with 
 the older) the Chellean, Acheulean, Mousterian, 
 Solutrean, and Magdalenian. Most authorities, how- 
 
38 Prehistoric Man 
 
 ever, omit the Acheulean, and some substitute the 
 «• Papalian" (or " Hippic" = horse-period) and "Cervidian" 
 (reindeer-period) for the Solutrean and Magdalenian. 
 
 The earliest or Chelles-Acheulean stage, which takes 
 its name from the French districts (Chelles and St. 
 Acheul) where its implements were found in greatest 
 abundance, is chiefly characterised by what English 
 writers used to call a "celt," and the French more 
 expressively term a coup de poing. This is a flint 
 varying from two or three to (especially later) eight or 
 ten inches in length. The unworked back of the thick 
 stone was apparently grasped in the hand, and the front 
 part was chipped to an edge, generally tapering to a 
 point at the top. This tool or weapon (or both) is one 
 of the most characteristic and persistent of Paleolithic 
 types. We recognise the workmanship, even in the 
 earlier and rougher specimens, by the obvious design of 
 the chipping along the edge, and also by the peculiar 
 hollow (" bulb of percussion ") made where a piece has 
 been intentionally chipped off by the hand of man. 
 In the course of the Paleolithic period the chipping 
 becomes finer and the tool more effective, though it still 
 seems to have been held in the hand.* We cannot, 
 however, venture to tell the age of an implement from 
 the roughness of the workmanship alone, as lower 
 groups of men continued to co-exist with the more 
 advanced. We have implements of the early Paleolithic 
 
 * A claim has been made for the discovery of a hafted 
 Paleolithic implement at Ipswich in recent years. Apart from 
 this disputable claim we have no trace of halting in the 
 Paleolithic. 
 
The Beginning of the Old Ston^ Agb 39 
 
 that some tribes do not equal to-day. To assign a very 
 early age to a rough Paleolith, we must know that it 
 was found in early deposits (and had not slipped 
 subsequently into them). We have some test, too, in 
 the incrustations on many very early implements, and 
 the deep ochreous colour of their surfaces. The expert 
 alone can apply these tests with confidence. 
 
 Recent authorities (such as Dr. Obermaler, who has 
 devoted a special study to the point) believe that other 
 types of implements are found in the older strata 
 together with the "knuckle-duster." I have myself 
 found a worked flint in the gravel of the Lea valley 
 which seemed from position and colour to belong to the 
 older Paleolithic. It was clearly a hammer-stone, or a 
 " celt " that had been used extensively as a hammer, and 
 implied the use of a punch for chipping implements. 
 The remarkable collection of early Paleoliths made by 
 my friend Mr. St. John Parker at Ware includes a great 
 diversity of types. Nevertheless, the coup de poing is 
 the dominant type of Paleolithic implement, and is 
 found over the four continents (in Algeria, Egypt, India, 
 and — it is claimed — South Africa and South America, 
 as well as England, Prance, Belgium, Germany, Austria, 
 Italy and Spain). The gravel-quarry of St. Acheul alone 
 has yielded some 20,000 specimens — a significant indica- 
 tion of the length of the period, since we must assume a 
 sparse population for Prance in those remote ages. 
 
 The other chief types of implements are generally 
 regarded as later inventions, as the primitive life of 
 Paleolithic man developed. The scraper, a thinner 
 stone chipped at one edge (or all round) seems to have 
 
40 Prehistoric Man 
 
 been used chiefly to remove the fat, etc., from animal 
 skins in order to make garments. We shall see that 
 there are grounds for thinking that man was usually 
 nude until the later part of the Paleolithic, but in colder 
 regions he may have come earlier to the invention of 
 clothing. Most authorities do not admit the scraper 
 in the earlier deposits. Mr. Worthington Smith {Man 
 the Primeval Savage), who has explored the Paleolithic 
 floor of England at Caddington (near Dunstable) and in 
 certain parts of London, as well as discovered much 
 earlier and simpler implements, only found the scraper 
 at the later level. Mortillet makes the same claim for 
 Prance. In the present state of the science it may be 
 said that the earliest race we have studied chiefly used 
 the coup de poing and indeterminate implements, while 
 the Neanderthal (or later) race introduced the scraper, 
 borer, and knife (a long flake of flint, struck off the core 
 at one blow). The javelin and lance-heads come later 
 still, and the arrow is not found certainly until the 
 Neolithic, or the transition period.* 
 
 From this accumulation of evidence we can restore at 
 least the general outline of the story of early Paleolithic 
 man. The question of his relation to the great Ice Age 
 is still unsettled, but the majority of the authorities 
 now think that he wandered into Europe during an 
 inter-glacial period — the period of temperate climate 
 between two extensions of the vast northern ice-sheet. 
 
 * The first trace of the arrow is a drawing on the wall of the 
 Grotte des Forges, discovered in 1908. It represents a bison 
 with an arrow sticking in it. These drawings belong to the 
 very last phase of the Paleolithic. 
 
The Beginning of THe Old Stone Age 41 
 
 Geologists now agree that, at some undeterminable but 
 very remote date, the climate of Northern Europe fell 
 so low that the snow condensed into glaciers on the 
 mountains, and the glaciers blended on the plains into a 
 vast sheet of ice, which spread over half of Europe and 
 North America. Whether this was due to astronomical 
 causes, or to the uplifting of the land, or to the reduction 
 of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, or to changes 
 in the ocean currents, or to a canopy of cosmic dust, is 
 still disputed. Nor are we any nearer agreement as to 
 the time when the glacial period set in. Estimates vary 
 from 800,000 to 100,000 years ago. Certain it is only 
 that the sub-tropical climate of Britain and France in 
 the Miocene (even in Greenland the temperature must 
 have been 30 degrees higher than it is to-day) slowly 
 cooled during the Pliocene, and became Arctic in the 
 early Pleistocene. 
 
 German and English glacial geologists generally agree 
 that the ice-sheet proceeded from, and receded toward, 
 the north (or the summits of higher European moun- 
 tains) several distinct times, with intervening periods of 
 temperate climate. The evidence we have as yet points 
 to one of these interglacial periods as the epoch when 
 the Neanderthal race reached the west of Europe. 
 Whether it was evolved in Europe, or came from Asia 
 or Africa, is too thorny a problem for us to discuss here 
 At that time Africa was directly connected with Europe 
 across the Mediterranean, and Great Britain was part 
 of the continent of Europe. On foot — no boats are 
 known until a much later period — the squat, powerful, 
 low-browed humans wandered over the available 
 
42 Prehistoric Man 
 
 c mtinent, as far west as Cornwall. Recent discoveries 
 in Scotland are said to show that they even penetrated 
 so far north. 
 
 The geological indications point to a genial climate, 
 with broad marshy rivers, and an animal population 
 totally different from that of to-day. The German 
 Ocean and English Channel of to-day were then broad 
 valleys, and great rivers took out their rainfall to points 
 far away from the actual shores. The Thames then 
 meandered lazily over a broad swampy bed, several 
 miles wide; the valley on which London is built has 
 been hollowed out by the river since man chipped his 
 rough tools in its upper gravel-beds. The hippopotamus 
 then floated in our streams, and extinct types of 
 rhinoceroses and elephants and tigers roamed over the 
 land. The Irish elk, the hyena, the bear, and bison, 
 and other creatures, have left their bones in the soil 
 which Paleolithic man trod. 
 
 In that genial climate man would not unnaturally live 
 on the gravel-beds by the broad rivers, where stone 
 abounded for his weapons and fish could be obtained, 
 so that " river-drift man " is not an inappropriate name. 
 He would dispute the warmer caves and rock-shelters 
 with the hyena and huge cave-bear only when a fresh 
 advancing ice-sheet lowered the climate ; or not habitu- 
 ally until then. We shall find, too, that when art 
 develops tens of thousands of years later, though still 
 within the Paleolithic period, the primitive artist always 
 draws his fellows nude, with marks indicating a pro- 
 nounced coat of hair. This, with the analogy of the 
 lowest tribes we find in a genial climate, and the apparent 
 
The Beginning of the Old Stone Age 43 
 
 absence of scrapers, seems to indicate that he wore no 
 clothing in that early time. 
 
 Whether he lived in isolated family groups or in 
 social aggregations cannot be decided on the direct 
 evidence. Many writers hastily assume that social life 
 had already begun, because we find what we may call 
 the floor of Paleolithic workshops for the manufacture 
 of implements — areas strewn with debris, flint cores, or 
 broken implements. There is, however, no evidence 
 that these belong to the earliest Paleolithic. The 
 "workshops" discovered by Mr. Worthington Smith, 
 for instance, are later than the crude, deeply-stained 
 flints which he assigns to an earlier period. The 
 indisputably earliest stones are always scattered, and 
 many writers assume that men wandered merely in 
 family groups until near the end of the Paleolithic 
 period. That the family group itself was already 
 formed we have very strong reason to believe. It is 
 found among the higher apes, which live generally in 
 isolated family groups, and among the lowest races 
 (Veddahs, Tasmanians, Yahgans, etc.), who also have 
 little social life and no tribal organisation. 
 
 The point can hardly be settled on direct evidence, 
 but a very curious light is thrown on it by an exam- 
 ination of early Paleolithic remains. Articulate speech 
 has greatly developed the chief muscle under the 
 human tongue, and caused a proportionate extension 
 of the bony tubercle in the lower jaw to which this 
 hypoglossal muscle is attached. In the highest apes 
 this tubercle is little developed : in civilised man it is 
 very prominent. In the early Paleolithic jaws, several 
 
44 Prehistoric Man 
 
 of which I have examined, this bony prominence is so 
 very feebly developed that Dr. Munro and other 
 authorities conclude that early Paleolithic man had no 
 articulate speech. Speech was so crude, and had to 
 be so liberally supported with gesture, among the 
 Tasmanians that one must not press this conclusion 
 too strongly. It is, however, in accord with the few 
 indications we have that men did not yet live in 
 social groups. 
 
 Of the use of fire, again, there is no evidence in 
 the earliest Paleolithic period. On the recognised 
 "Paleolithic floor" of Britain and France we some- 
 times find charred remains and primitive " fire-places," 
 but, as I have explained, this floor does not represent 
 the earliest inhabitants. The question must be left 
 open. The Tasmanians could not produce fire, nor 
 would primitive man be in much need of it as long as 
 the climate remained warm. 
 
 Whether this early race of men buried their dead 
 or not — we certainly do not find any other trace of 
 religious belief — is another of the points which must be 
 left unsettled. The remains which had been discovered 
 until the last few years seemed to indicate death and 
 entombment from accident, but some of the more 
 recent discoveries are said to point to burial. The 
 claim is somewhat precarious. The V^zere skeleton 
 seemed rather to suggest death during sleep, and the 
 Chapelle-aux-Saints skeleton may quite accidentally 
 have a heap of stones under the head. In both cases, 
 however, it is claimed that the remains of funeral 
 feasts are found, and the point needs further 
 elucidation. 
 
The Beginning op the Old Stonb Age 45 
 
 In a work of this character it would be improper 
 to attempt any further suggestion of the habits of 
 early Paleolithic man. Those who are acquainted 
 with the conditions of the preservation of animal 
 remains will see that what has already been accom- 
 plished by prehistoric science is very considerable. 
 Even the hardest bones will dissolve into their 
 elements in so vast a period of time, unless they 
 happen to be laid in quite exceptional circumstances. 
 This lucky accident occurred in so many cases that 
 already, though the search has explored only a minute 
 fraction of the surface of Europe, we have the full 
 skeleton of early Paleolithic man, and a dozen different 
 relics to show that we possess the normal type. From 
 the bony frame modern science can with much 
 confidence restore the living form, and we have seen 
 what kind of man it was who dropped his flint 
 implements over the wide area between Cornwall and 
 India, if not on to China and Japan, and between 
 Central Germany and Algeria. We have now to see 
 the evolution of this stunted race during the long course 
 of the Old Stone Age. 
 
46 Prehistoric Man 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 PROGRESS DURING THE OLD STONE AGE 
 
 Nothing, perhaps, impresses us more strongly with 
 the lowly character of the men of the Old Stone Age 
 than the extraordinary slowness of their advance during 
 that enormous period. We have made immeasurably 
 more progress in one hundred years — in the century 
 of science — than primitive man made in a hundred 
 thousand years. There is not even the most question- 
 able trace of the hafting or polishing of weapons, the 
 use of the bow and arrow, or the making of clothing, 
 until the very close of the Paleolithic period ; and there 
 is no trace of pottery, agriculture, weaving, or hut- 
 building, until the Neolithic. The whole advance made 
 until near the close of the period is measured by a slow 
 improvement in the chipping and fashioning of the stone 
 implements. 
 
 Though we cannot say with any confidence what 
 period of time is represented by the Old Stone Age, 
 there is a general agreement that it was two or three 
 times as long as the New Stone Age. When we find 
 rich masses of Chellean implements 40 feet below the 
 actual surface of France (at Chelles), and human 
 remains 80 feet below the present surface of Germany 
 (at Mauer) : when we reflect that the valley of the 
 Thames, some four miles in width, has been excavated 
 
Progress during the Old Stone Age 47 
 
 by the river since primitive man first wandered along 
 its banks, and the German Ocean and English Channel 
 have since then severed England from the Continent : 
 we feel that the period must be expressed in hundreds 
 of thousands, rather than tens of thousands, of years. 
 The most ingenious efforts have been made to give an 
 approximate figure of the duration of the period, but 
 they rest on astronomical or geological theories which 
 have not won general acceptance. 
 
 The lowest estimate (Walcott) for the Quaternary 
 period is 270,000 years, and we saw that the most 
 primitive human remains go back to the early Pleisto- 
 cene, if not the Pliocene. It is, in fact, now generally 
 agreed, even by authorities who reject the Eoliths, that 
 man must have appeared in the Tertiary. If then we 
 take Mortillet's 250,000 years as the minimum for the 
 span of human existence, we find that 240,000 years of 
 this preceded the first dawn of civilisation, and probably 
 200,000 belong to the Old Stone Age. Many authorities 
 (Dr. Keane, Sir W. Turner, etc.) would multiply these 
 figures by three. In any case, the far greater part of 
 human existence was passed in the dark night of the 
 Old Stone Age. 
 
 It would be useless and precarious to attempt to 
 arrange the remaining Paleolithic skulls and skeletons 
 which we have in any series of successive Paleolithic 
 races. That is a task of the future, when the material 
 has greatly multiplied. For the present we can merely 
 say that we have a number of human relics which are 
 later than the Neanderthal race, yet earlier than the 
 Neolithic, and that they show just such an advance in 
 
48 Prehistoric Man 
 
 human features as theory demands, and the stone and 
 other implements illustrate. It is, however, advisable 
 to explain briefly the divisions of the later Paleolithic 
 before we attempt to classify its human remains. The 
 distinction is based partly on climate, partly on animal 
 population, and partly on human culture. 
 
 The Chellean period, in which the earlier Paleolithic 
 race lived, was one of fairly warm and uniform tempera- 
 ture. Animals belonging to a genial climate — the 
 cave-bear, hippopotamus, hyena, and southern elephant 
 — flourished in it, and have left abundant remains. 
 Plants such as the wild fig and canary-laurel were then 
 found in Central France. In the Acheulean period the 
 fauna and flora indicate a lowering of climate ; but we 
 have followed the prevailing practice of bracketing the 
 Chellean and Acheulean. 
 
 In the following period, the Mousterian, the climate 
 sinks still lower, the atmosphere is charged with 
 moisture, and the glaciers begin to spread their icy 
 sheets over the plains once more. This — on the most 
 received calculation — third ice-sheet had a much more 
 restricted area than the previous (and most extended) 
 sheet, and did not prevent the spread of humanity over 
 Southern and Central Europe. The older type of 
 elephant is now displaced by the woolly elephant, or 
 mammoth: the hippopotamus and other warm-loving 
 species retreat south : the woolly rhinocerous replaces 
 the older type. At the same time the worked flints show 
 a marked improvement, and a greater variety of definite 
 types. The chipping of the stones is finer, and the form 
 of the implements more graceful. 
 
Progress durino the Old Stone Age 49 
 
 In the following, or Solutrean, period the climate is 
 again moderated, apparently owing to the retreat of the 
 glaciers. Finely chipped laurel-leaf shaped, or more 
 pointed and slender implements abound, and scrapers, 
 borers, and other specialised implements are found. 
 The flint seems now to be flaked by pressure, not merely 
 shaped by chipping. 
 
 A period of intense cold follows, in which herds of 
 reindeer browse on mossy plains as far south as the 
 Pyrenees, and many animals, which are now confined to 
 the Alps or the colder zone, spread over the plains of 
 Europe. This is the important Magdalenian (or "rein- 
 deer") period, in which the Paleolithic age reaches its 
 culmination. Lance and javelin heads of finely worked 
 flint are added to the previous type, and harpoons, 
 needles, and borers of bone are found in some abundance. 
 Men now live in large social groups in the caverns, make 
 clothing of the skins of animals, and develop a consider- 
 able degree of skill in drawing on stone, ivory, or 
 reindeer-horn. The Paleolithic race (or races) is making 
 a rapid stride in its last days, but some great change 
 now supervenes, and the stage is cleared for Neolithic 
 man. 
 
 This threefold division of the later Paleolithic is by no 
 means universally recognised. Some writers (like Dr. 
 Hoernes) unite the Mousterian with the Chellean : some 
 (Deniker, Keane, etc.) omit the Solutrean: some 
 (Salmon) regard the Magdalenian as Mesolithic : others 
 (Boule, etc.) unite the three in one as "late Paleolithic." 
 It will, perhaps, be most helpful to divide the whole 
 Paleolithic into three broad stages : — 
 
 D 
 
60 Prehistoric Man 
 
 Chellean = River-drift period 
 Mousterian (or Solutrean) = Mammoth period 
 
 Cave 
 
 Magdalenian = Reindeer period J period 
 
 In regard to the human remains of the later Paleolithic, 
 however, we are quite unable to trace this sequence of 
 stages. They must remain, for the present, stages of 
 culture, climate, and geological deposit. The Neander- 
 thal race we have studied belongs to the Chellean and, 
 perhaps, the earlier part of the Mousterian. The rest of 
 the Paleolithic remains are either definitely Magdalenian, 
 or are not susceptible of chronological arrangement. 
 
 To this later Paleolithic group belong the English 
 remains which I have already mentioned: the partial 
 skeleton found in the Tilbury excavations in 1884, at a 
 depth of 32 feet, the fragment of a human skull found in 
 the same year near Bury St. Edmunds (at a depth of 
 7£ feet, with mammoth remains and Acheulean imple- 
 ments), and the skull and bones found at Galley Hill 
 (Kent) in 1888. Some of the leading English writers 
 have always disputed the Paleolithic character of these 
 remains, but special authorities, such as Klaatsch and 
 Schwalbe, admit it, and they are now generally followed. 
 The Gibraltar skull (1886) is in the same position. 
 Schwalbe, perhaps the chief expert on such matters, 
 declares it to be Paleolithic. 
 
 We then have a large group of remains found in 
 various parts of the continent during the nineteenth 
 century. All these are open to dispute, but are now 
 generally classed as late Paleolithic. Naturally, as we 
 approach the end of the Paleolithic, the type shades 
 
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Progress during the Old Stone Age 51 
 
 gradually into the Neolithic, and, if the geological indica- 
 tions are uncertain, we must hesitate in our classification. 
 There is not the gulf between the two Stone Ages which 
 the earlier investigators imagined. Late Paleolithic 
 remains cannot very confidently be marked off from 
 Mesolithic or early Neolithic. Moreover, Neolithic man 
 begins to bury his dead, and this means the intrusion of* 
 later bodies into Paleolithic deposits. 
 
 With this reserve the following list may be drawn up 
 of remains that are generally, but not universally, 
 described as late Paleolithic : the famous Engis skull 
 (1833), which some regard as a relic of a Neolithic grave : 
 certain human fragments found at Denise, in a volcanic 
 deposit, in 1844: the fragments of a skull found at 
 Eguisheim (Alsace) in 1865, in a Paleolithic bed: a 
 skeleton found at Clichy in 1868, which is assigned to a 
 Neolithic grave by some : a skull found at Podbaba 
 (near Prague) in 1883, suspiciously near a cemetery of 
 the Metal Age : a skull found at Brux (also Bohemia) in 
 1872: a skull found at Briinn (Moravia) in 1891, which a 
 few regard still as Neolithic : and various fragments from 
 Olmo, Schipka, and Predmost. 
 
 On the other hand, we have certain remains which 
 have survived the earlier criticism, and are now gener- 
 ally admitted to be late Paleolithic. A skeleton of this 
 character was found at Laugerie Basse in 1872. From 
 its appearance the conclusion was very strongly sug- 
 gested that the man had been accidentally buried by a 
 fall of rock. The body lay in a Magdalenian deposit, 
 and the district abounds in relics of Magdalenian 
 industry. In a similar deposit at Sordes, in the floor of 
 
52 Prehistoric Man 
 
 a cave, a skeleton was found in the following year which 
 presented the same appearance of death and entombment 
 from a fall of rock. In 1888 a Magdalenian bed at 
 Chancelade yielded a third skeleton of the same general 
 type. In this case the skull was abnormally large, but 
 many of the other bones pointed to an abnormal or 
 pathological character. These three skeletons are the 
 surest relics we have of the men of the later Old Stone 
 Age. 
 
 To conclude with the various remains which are 
 claimed by one or more weighty writers to be late 
 Paleolithic, I may mention a few of the more important 
 instances. The Furfooz skull is still claimed occasion- 
 ally, but it is, says Dr. Munro, rejected as Neolithic by 
 the most competent authorities. The Cro-Magnon 
 skeleton is still more frequently described as Paleolithic, 
 but is ascribed by most of the leading authorities to a 
 late Neolithic grave; as are also the skeletons found at 
 Grenelle. Some skeletons found in the grottoes near 
 Mentone in 1892 are referred by Boule, Verneau, Dr. 
 Hoernes, Professor Sergi and others, to the late Paleo- 
 lithic, but are not admitted by other authorities. Other 
 finds at Solutre, Bruniquel, and other parts of Central 
 France are referred by leading French authorities to 
 Neolithic graves. Finally, a skeleton was discovered in 
 Gough's Cavern (near Cheddar) in 1904, which was 
 declared to be Magdalenian in character and deposit, 
 but the claim has not been widely admitted. 
 
 We have, then, so few undisputed remains of later 
 Paleolithic man that we must refrain from building 
 on them, as we were able to do in the case of the 
 
Progress during the Old Stone Age o3 
 
 Neanderthal race. The admitted remains show a 
 development of the human form on such lines as we 
 should anticipate. The heavy frontal ridges over the 
 eyes are decreasing, the low retreating forehead rises a 
 little, the cranial capacity approaches nearer to the 
 modern standard, though it is still low.* The chin 
 is more pronounced, and the teeth draw inward. The 
 femur is less curved and massive. We shall not be far 
 astray if we put it that, during the long course of the 
 Old Stone Age, man rises from the level of the 
 Tasmanian or the ape-like Central African to the level 
 of the Eskimo. Indeed the parallel will be singularly 
 confirmed by the further details we shall see in regard 
 to the last phase of the Old Stone Age. 
 
 From all the indications I have given we can form 
 only a very dim picture of the development of humanity 
 during the Old Stone Age. The descendants of the 
 Neanderthal race, or some other offshoot of the human 
 stem, are still scattered over Central and Southern 
 Europe, and during tens of thousands of years we note 
 only a very slow and slight improvement in the chipping 
 of their hand-weapons and implements. The climate 
 sinks lower and lower. The mammoth and the reindeer 
 now characterise the landscape. The floors of caverns 
 
 *Sir E. Ray Lankester makes the singular statement in his 
 Kingdom of Man (p. 22) that the human brain is of full weight 
 or size from the start, and that progress consists rather in 
 refinement of structure. This is quite contrary to the facts. 
 The Java man has a cranial capacity of less than 1,000 cubic 
 centimetres, the Neanderthal man of 1,250, and the modern 
 European 1,600 (on the average). The late Paleolithic skulls 
 oome between the two, and much nearer to the Neanderthal. 
 
54 Prehistoric Man 
 
 and rock shelters become thickly strewn with relics of 
 man's presence, and we may fitly speak of the cave man, 
 as opposed to the earlier river-drift man. 
 
 In the last phase of the Old Stone Age we find a more 
 rapid development. There are caves in England (Kent's 
 Cavern, for instance) and France where we can to-day 
 cut through the thick floor-stratum, and discover the 
 various stages of the advance of culture in superimposed 
 layers. Generations or races of primitive men, separ- 
 ated from each other by vast periods, have successively 
 found shelter in the caves, and left the debris of their 
 possessions and food in the soil. We are able to restore 
 the sequence of Paleolithic life in a way which very 
 largely compensates for the fewness or obscurity of the 
 human remains. I have already described how the 
 chief stone implements improve in make, and how stone 
 scrapers, points, borers, saws, chisels, punches (or "fabri- 
 cators"), and hammer-stones, anvils, knives, and lance- 
 heads make their appearance. Primitive man is now 
 aware that flint can be more finely worked by adroit 
 pressure, or by using a fabricator and hammer-stone, 
 than by merely chipping one flint with another. In the 
 Solutrean period bone instruments begin to appear. 
 Fractured bones are found much earlier, but these 
 longitudinal splits of horse and other bones may merely 
 indicate Paleolithic man's taste for marrow. In the 
 Magdalenian period, however, borers, needles, spear and 
 harpoon-heads (often ingeniously barbed) of bone or of 
 reindeer horn are found in great abundance. 
 
 One of the most interesting finds among the debris 
 of the Magdalenian floors is a proof that late Paleolithic 
 
Progress during the Old Stone Age 55 
 
 man developed a considerable artistic faculty. Only 
 one of these primitive works of art — a crude drawing of 
 a horse's head — has been found in England (in a 
 Derbyshire cave), but in the caves and rock shelters of 
 Southern Prance Paleolithic drawings and sculptures 
 are found in la.-ge numbers. The drawings are made on 
 bone, ivory, or stone with a pointed flint or chisel: the 
 carvings may be in stone, ivory, or reindeer. They 
 generally represent the animals which are contemporary 
 with Magdalenian man — the reindeer, wild horse, 
 mammoth, bison, etc. — and sometimes the men them- 
 selves. The latter drawings are, however, too vague to 
 be very instructive. We recognise a steatopygous type 
 of woman (Bushman type) in some of the statuettes, and 
 this, in conjunction with the claim of negroid skeletons 
 found near Mentone, may give us presently some clue to 
 the movements of population. Other indications fur- 
 nished by the human figures will be noted presently. 
 
 Several attempts have been made to trace the 
 evolution of this primitive art, but the suggested sequence 
 of periods does not inspire much confidence. M. Piette 
 has put forward a theory that man first carved his object 
 entire from a piece of stone or bone, then reproduced it 
 in bas-relief, and finally passed to line-drawing. This 
 suggestion is very strongly opposed to the evolution of 
 the artistic instinct in the child. We can at present do 
 no more than class the objects according to skill, with no 
 reference to chronology. The carvings include some 
 clever ivory statuettes of women, and excellent repro- 
 ductions of reindeer and mammoth in the ivory or horn 
 handles of daggers. The drawings pass from the crudest 
 
56 
 
 Prehistoric Man 
 
 attempts to sketch the head of a horse or goat to such 
 finished works as "the reindeer of Thayngen," a fine 
 representation — considering the material and the stone 
 implement — of a browsing reindeer. 
 
 Reindeer Feeding 
 From Grotto of Thayngen, near Schaffhausen, Switzerland. 
 
 Lest one should be tempted to overestimate Magda- 
 lenian man's intelligence from this artistic efflorescence, 
 it is well to note certain curious limitations betrayed by 
 the artist. He has, for instance, no sense of perspective, 
 and cannot group animals. One excellent drawing on 
 stone is still occasionally described as "the fight of 
 reindeer." In reality, it is merely a number of reindeer 
 thrown together on one surface from inability to pre-judge 
 one's space and group them. The Paleolithic artist 
 commonly makes the same blunder as the rustic artist of 
 
Progress during the Old Stone Age 57 
 
 to-day, in failing to measure out his space and finishing 
 with an ignominious curtailment of his subject. It is 
 noticeable, too, that, when his animal stands sideways, he 
 always draws the eye in full (like the old Egyptian artist, 
 or the child). 
 
 Comparison of these Magdalenian drawings with 
 specimens of Eskimo art has prompted a theory that, 
 either the Magdalenian men came down from the north 
 with the reindeer, or the Eskimo of to-day are the 
 descendants of this old artistic race, retreating north 
 with the reindeer when a warmer climate returned to 
 Europe. Both theories present great difficulties. The 
 former greatly complicates the question of human 
 distribution, and explains nothing. The latter is hardly 
 in accord with the ethnological idea of the Asiatic 
 origin of the Eskimo; nor do we find the least trace of 
 the passage of the Magdalenian race across Europe, slow 
 and gradual as it would have been. The north of Prance 
 is the limit of the artistic area, which spreads rather 
 over the lower centre and south, into Spain. The art of 
 the Magdalenian period seems to have died out altogether. 
 I may add that the Eskimo drawing which is given in 
 Lord Avebury's work, for the purpose of comparison, 
 shows a complexity of social life far beyond what we can 
 attribute to late Paleolithic man. 
 
 It is, on the other hand, quite clear that by the end of 
 the Paleolithic, men lived in large social groups. I have 
 previously mentioned the Paleolithic " workshop-floors " 
 which we unearth in various parts of Prance and 
 England. These show the manufacture of flint imple- 
 ments to have proceeded on a scale which implies large 
 
58 Prehistoric Man 
 
 co-operative bodies of men. The rough "fire-places" 
 which are often discovered — one was traced on the 
 Paleolithic floor in Cornwall a few years ago — seem to 
 point to the same conclusion. In other places immense 
 heaps of horses' bones seem to represent the kitchen 
 refuse of communities. But the most signal instances 
 have been discovered in the decorated caverns of the 
 Pyrenees and Southern France. In 1901 a cave was 
 opened at Cambarolles, and found to have 109 animal 
 figures, of about life-size, cut into its walls. Some of the 
 outlines were filled in with pigment* At Altamira a 
 cavern 350 yards long was found, in 1903, to have its 
 walls frescoed with almost life-size drawings of animals. 
 The art is said considerably to surpass anything known 
 among savage tribes. 
 
 Such caverns — and many are known — undoubtedly 
 show that men were living in large social groups at the 
 end of the Old Stone Age, but we are unable to say any- 
 thing whatever on the subject of social organisation. 
 Certain carved bones were formerly described in prehis- 
 toric science as "commanders' batons." They are now 
 generally regarded rather as spear or arrow-straighteners. 
 It will be remembered that one drawing represents, 
 apparently, an arrow sticking in a bison. We have no 
 positive evidence whatever on the subject of tribal 
 organisation, and we can only make precarious inferences 
 
 *It is claimed that a halter or rope is depicted on one of the 
 horse-figures, and that we must accordingly credit Paleolithic 
 man with the taming of animals. We should hesitate to do 
 this On some of the human figures there are lines which just 
 as plainly look like tails, but we cannot accept them as such. 
 
Progress during the Old Stone Age 59 
 
 from the tribes (Eskimo, Red Indians) which seem to be 
 at about the same level of culture. No doubt, both 
 social organisation and articulate speech would develop 
 speedily after the beginning of communal life. On neither 
 point have we direct evidence. 
 
 In regard to clothing and ornamentation we have 
 much instructive material. One of the human drawings 
 of the period, which represents a man chasing an aurochs, 
 gives a series of lines round the body of the man corres- 
 ponding exactly to the lines which indicate the animal's 
 thick coat of hair. Most of the other human figures give 
 the same indication in some degree. It is impossible 
 to examine these and resist the conclusion that the 
 human body still had a conspicuous coat of hair at the 
 end of the Old Stone Age. This would imply a recent 
 invention, and perhaps scanty use, of clothing. In point 
 of fact, all these human representations depict the body 
 nude.* 
 
 Clothing was, however, clearly worn during the reindeer 
 period. Scores of remarkably fine bone needles are 
 found in the soil of the French caves. From the imple- 
 ments we gather that a thin fragment was struck 
 longitudinally off a bone, roughly rounded on a stone 
 with serrate edge, and then smoothed with a stone 
 polisher. The eye was made with a fine flint borer. 
 Some of the surviving specimens are certainly wonderful 
 pieces of work ; but when M. Mortillet would assure us 
 
 *As certain writers have seriously enlarged on the moral 
 propriety of these drawings, I must warn the reader that the 
 reproductions of them in popular circulation have been 
 decently modified. The originals show no such delicacy. 
 
60 Prehistoric Man 
 
 (he Prehistorique, p. 197 ) that no equally good needles 
 have been seen since "until the Renaissance," and that 
 "even the Romans had no needles comparable to those 
 of the Magdalenian period," we respectfully demur. For 
 thread the Paleolithic tailor would probably use animal 
 sinews. His material would undoubtedly be animal 
 skins, more particularly of the reindeer. Even orna- 
 mented buttons occur among the debris. One drawing 
 represents, apparently, a tattooed arm, and the granite 
 mortars which we find in Magdalenian strata, though 
 often conceived as mortars for preparing food, were 
 probably used to prepare the pigment from marrow. 
 Other stone vessels rather point to use in cooking; 
 others, again, have an appendage which suggests that 
 they served as lamps. There is no trace of pottery, 
 weaving, or agriculture. 
 
 That fire was commonly employed before the end of 
 the Old Stone Age we have ample evidence, but when 
 and how Paleolithic man learned the important art of 
 making fire is unknown. Some suggest that the natural 
 firing of material by the sun's rays or by volcanic matter 
 may have given him the hint. Unfortunately, neither 
 would give him the least hint how to make fire. Prom 
 the circumstance that most savage tribes obtain fire by 
 friction others conclude that this must have been the 
 method employed by primitive man. In point of fact, 
 the earliest fire-making implements we have — from Neo- 
 lithic graves — are flint and iron pyrites, and it seems to 
 me more likely that this was the first means of obtaining 
 fire. Implements were made from any kind of hard 
 stone, and it is not unnatural to imagine that iron ore 
 
Progress dur no thb Old Stone Agb 61 
 
 was occasionally taken to be a likely material. We 
 shall see later that this was commonly done in Egypt. 
 The sparks struck off in chipping with a flint may very 
 well have led to a deliberate use of iron pyrites. 
 
 If our knowledge of middle Paleolithic man is scanty, 
 therefore, we have ample compensation in our knowledge 
 of late Solutrean and Magdalenian man. It is futile to 
 speculate on whether he was a descendant of the 
 Neanderthal-Spy race. Some branch of the human 
 family at that level of culture slowly rises to the culture 
 of the late Paleolithic. We have little serious reason to 
 doubt that it is an evolution of the earlier race we 
 examined in the last chapter. During the tens of 
 thousands of years of the middle Paleolithic, man makes 
 singularly little progress. At last he begins to live in 
 social groups, and his slow wit is more briskly 
 sharpened. 
 
 With his fine flint and bone javelins he can pursue 
 the wild horse and the reindeer, if not attack the 
 mammoth. From the hunt he returns to the blazing 
 fire in the communal cavern, and his simple human 
 emotions and needs forge the instrument of articulate 
 speech — the great lever that has lifted him so high above 
 the brute. The mother of his children has fine imple- 
 ments with which to sew the animals' skins into warm 
 clothing, and an artistic caste springs up to decorate his 
 weapons and his walls, and beguile the hours of rest 
 with drawing and sculpture. The marks of his brute 
 origin — the heavy eye-ridges and bulging jaws — slowly 
 disappear. He is unconsciously ascending toward the 
 civilisation of a remote future. 
 
62 Prehistoric Man 
 
 At this point we encounter a curious confusion in our 
 fragmentary record of the onward march of humanity. 
 The men of the Old Stone Age rapidly disappear from 
 the central stage of the earth, or linger only in the 
 backward tribes of Asia, Africa, and America. A new 
 race of men, of higher type, comes on the scene. The 
 New Stone Age begins. 
 
The Men of the New Stone Agb 63 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 THE MEN OF THE NEW STONE AGE. 
 
 Until a decade ago writers on prehistoric man were 
 greatly puzzled by what they called the hiatus between 
 the Paleolithic and Neolithic ages. The thread of 
 evolution seemed to be snapped. The men of the Old 
 Stone Age apparently descended into the earth, in 
 Europe, and a new and higher race emerged suddenly 
 from complete obscurity. From the evolutionary point 
 of view it was, of course, certain that this Neolithic race 
 had developed from some branch of the older race in 
 some as yet unexplored region, but the entire absence 
 of transitional forms was tantalising. The new culture 
 seemed to overlie the older without intermediate stages. 
 
 This hiatus has now, in the opinion of most authorities, 
 been partially filled, and a Mesolithic period (or Middle 
 Stone Age) is generally recognised. Two details may 
 have attracted the particular notice of the reader in our 
 account of the Magdalenian period. One is the circum- 
 stance that the centre of the advancing culture lay in the 
 extreme south of France, and the other the fact that 
 certain human remains and representations pointed to an 
 invasion from North Africa toward the end of the 
 Paleolithic. The inference that an important branch of 
 the late Paleolithic race lay still further south, and that 
 this branch advanced to the Neolithic stage, was obvious 
 
64 Prehistoric Man 
 
 enough. It is probable that the land-bridges still existed 
 between Europe and Africa, and the strip of Africa north 
 of the Sahara has been increasingly favoured by students 
 as the probable breeding-ground of higher races. Civili- 
 sation itself was evolved in that latitude, out in Europe. 
 Sergi and others believe that Magdalenian man came 
 from North Africa, while Neanderthal man was — as is 
 commonly believed — developed in Europe. 
 
 Most of our English authorities believe that this 
 island — now severed from the Continent — entirely lost 
 its Paleolithic population, and remained without human 
 inhabitants until the Neolithic invaders arrived. Plague, 
 submersion of the land (of which geologists find confi- 
 dent traces), destructive climate, and various other more 
 or less fanciful causes, are suggested for the extinction 
 of Paleolithic man in Britain. I do not see that we are 
 compelled to admit this mysterious depopulation. There 
 is, assuredly, no clear trace of evolutionary transition in 
 England from the Old to the New Stone Age. Mr. 
 Worthington Smith describes some of the implements 
 discovered by him as "mesoliths"; Mr. Brown contends 
 that he has traced the continuous advance from Eolithic 
 to Neolithic at East Dean ; and claims of Mesolithic 
 traces are now advanced from Scotland and Ireland. All 
 these are controverted ; and, on the other hand, there 
 are localities where the Paleolithic remains are separated 
 by a distinct gap from the Neolithic. Yet the facts — 
 which are still very imperfectly known, it must be 
 remembered — do not seem to be generally inconsistent 
 with the plain theory that the better equipped Neolithic 
 invaders made an end of the cruder Paleolithic. We 
 
The Men op the New Stone Age 65 
 
 should thus get rid of the perplexing supposition that the 
 whole human population was extinguished from natural 
 causes, while the animal population generally continued 
 its normal course. 
 
 In any case we are driven further westward and 
 southward for the evidence of continuity, and the leading 
 French authorities are now agreed that such indications 
 are found in the caves of Southern France. The fine 
 bone and stone implements found in the caves of Mas 
 d'Azil, Reilhac, etc., are held to lead onward to the 
 Neolithic age.* Some authorities (such as Boyd 
 Dawkins), while not questioning that the new race was 
 evolved from the old in some part of the earth, deny 
 that the French explorers have filled up the hiatus, and 
 one must grant that there is much force in the objection. 
 If we had a distinct picture of the latest stage of 
 Paleolithic culture and the earliest stage of Neolithic, it 
 is possible that the two would be fairly bridged by the 
 Azilian (Mas d'Azil) culture. We have, unfortunately, 
 no such picture of the earliest phase of the New Stone 
 Age, and cannot distinctly say in what particulars it 
 advanced at once on the culmination of the Magdalenian. 
 Many of the pictures of " Neolithic man " are very 
 misleading. They are correctly based on Neolithic 
 remains, but it is quite impossible to say, and unlikely, 
 that Neolithic man possessed all this culture from the 
 start. The question must remain open. 
 
 * In the Mas d'Azil cave were also found certain pebbles, 
 curiously marked with bands and dots of colour. The 
 significance of these is much disputed, and very obscure. 
 It is claimed that some of the marks strikingly resemble the 
 primitive Cypriote and ^Egean alphabets. 
 
 E 
 
OG Prehistoric Man 
 
 On the other hand, however, the sudden disappearance 
 of the very promising art of the Magdalenian is a well- 
 lmo\\n fact which seems to point to a change of race. 
 The older race, hahituated to the cold and living largely 
 on the reindeer, may have followed that animal north- 
 ward as the climate grew warmer once more. The 
 inhabitants of North Africa may then have sent a wave 
 of their race into the tempered north (the south of 
 Europe), and these invaders might blend with part of the 
 race of Southern France. 
 
 Here we touch the thorny problem of race, and a 
 word of warning must be given before we proceed. 
 Hardly any question in the whole of the science is 
 farther from settlement than this, although prolonged 
 labour has been spent on it. The fact that two distinct 
 types of skull — the long and narrow, the short and broad, 
 skull — were persistently encountered, seemed to provide 
 a clue to racial origin and blending, and great efforts 
 were made to disentangle the " dolichocephalic " (long- 
 skulled) and " brachycephalic " (short-skulled) races.* 
 It cannot be said that the craniologists have been 
 successful. The leading experts offer us the most 
 contradictory versions of the origin of Neolithic man, 
 who is brought from nearly every point of the compass. 
 Indeed, refinements of skull-structure have induced some 
 
 * In such measurements the proportion of width to length of 
 the skull is the basis of classification. The length of the skull 
 is taken as 100. If the breadth is in the proportion of 70-75 to 
 this (it is rarely less than 70), the skull is dolichocephalic : if 
 the proportion is 80-85, the skull is brachycephalic : the inter- 
 mediate skulls are now known as mesaticephalic. 
 
The Men of the New Stone Age 67 
 
 experts recently to split up even Paleolithic man into 
 several species, to say nothing of races or varieties. 
 Other authorities are now contending that the form of 
 the skull and other physical characters are not to be 
 relied on at all, as such features seem rather to be 
 changing effects of environment, not persistent heredi- 
 tary types. These writers are disposed to fall back on 
 the old test of language.* 
 
 In view of this obscurity and of the very restricted 
 range of the present work we must take the question of 
 the Neolithic race on broad lines, as we have treated its 
 predecessors. We saw that certain remains found at 
 Laugerie Basse, Chancelade, and Sorde give us a fairly 
 confident idea of late Paleolithic man, who was probably 
 on an intellectual level with the Eskimo or the Amerind. 
 Then we found a large group of human remains which 
 are attributed by some to the late Paleolithic and 
 others to the early Neolithic. One is tempted to see in 
 the very divergence of opinion a proof of the continuity 
 of the race in Europe. Schwalbe, for instance, one of 
 the first authorities on skeletal characters, insists that 
 the Gibraltar skull is early Paleolithic, and the Briix, 
 Galley Hill, and Brunn remains late Paleolithic or 
 transitional. Others contend that they are Neolithic. 
 We may at least conclude that the human remains show 
 more continuity than the stone implements and artistic 
 survivals, and do not betray any pronounced hiatus. 
 
 * See, especially, the presidential address of Professor 
 Ridgeway to the Anthropological Section of the British 
 Association in 1908, published in Nature, Sept. 24th, 1908. 
 
63 Prehistoric Man 
 
 Only one further group of remains need be added to 
 those already described. Very important finds of pre- 
 historic skeletons have been made in certain grottoes on 
 the Franco-Italian frontier, near Mentone. A skeleton 
 had been removed from there to Paris in the early days 
 of the science, and in 1892 a workman brought three 
 more skeletons to light. Most of the authorities re- 
 garded them as Neolithic skeletons buried in a Mous- 
 terian bed, but there was much controversy. This led 
 to a diligent search in all the grottoes of the district, and 
 about twenty skeletons in all were discovered. 
 
 The oldest and deepest skeletons, found at a depth of 
 25 feet in the Grimaldi cavern, were of a peculiar 
 character, and said to have negroid features.* Their 
 flat noses, bulging jaws, and small stature prompted this 
 conclusion. Although the smallness of stature may be 
 explained on the ground that they were (admittedly) the 
 frames of a youth and an old woman, and although it is 
 true that the skulls were much flattened and damaged 
 by pressure, it is difficult to think that the high authori- 
 ties engaged could have been mistaken. They were 
 clearly much older than the other bodies. Possibly we 
 may see in them proof of a transitory invasion from 
 Africa. The Bushmen are known to have ranged as far 
 as Somaliland in the historical period, and many of the 
 Magdalenian statuettes ascribe Bushmen characters to 
 the women represented. 
 
 The rest of the Mentone skeletons are said by Hoernes 
 
 * Les Grottes de Grimaldi, by MM. Villeneuve, Verneau, 
 and Boule, 1906 — the official report on the discoveries. 
 
The Men of the New Stone Age 69 
 
 {Natur unci Urgeschichte des Menschen, 190S) to be now 
 generally recognised as Quaternary (Paleolithic). They 
 are assigned to the " Cro-Magnon race." In the earlier 
 days of the science the earliest known race was known 
 as the " Cannstadt race," the second as the " Cro- 
 Magnon," and the third as that of Furfooz and Grenelle. 
 This classification is superseded (the Cannstadt skull 
 being of doubtful origin), but the name Cro-Magnon is 
 still commonly given to the race to which most of the 
 disputed remains I have enumerated belonged. The 
 very careful study that was made of the Mentone 
 remains seems to show that the race does belong to the 
 end of the Paleolithic, or the transition to the new 
 period. It was a robust race of good stature and fair 
 intelligence. There are still distinct bony ridges over 
 the eyes, but the forehead is rising considerably, the 
 chin is well developed, and the teeth are less protruding. 
 The type is said to be not unlike that of the modern 
 Berber. 
 
 In view, therefore, of the fair continuity of type and 
 the comparative disturbance of culture (the extinction of 
 Magdalenian art and appearance of better-made weapons) 
 it seems reasonable to infer an invasion of Europe by a 
 not dissimilar, but slightly more advanced, race at the 
 beginning of the Neolithic. As our evidence increases, 
 the line between the two periods is increasingly blurred. 
 There is, assuredly, no pottery, no agriculture, no 
 weaving, and no house-building during the Paleolithic. 
 But there is no proof that these, or any of them, came 
 in at once with the Neolithic race. On the other hand, 
 features which were once thought to be exclusively 
 
70 Prehistoric Man 
 
 Neolithic are now generally admitted in the late Paleo- 
 lithic. The arrow, for instance, is now commonly 
 admitted in the Magdalenian, since one of the drawings 
 seems to represent an arrow, and a reindeer bone, with 
 an arrow in it, is attributed to the Magdalenian. The 
 practice of burying the dead, which may imply some 
 religious belief, is also commonly admitted now — though 
 denied by Mortillet and others — in the Magdalenian. 
 The Mentone skeletons all seem to have been interred. 
 
 Where the new race came from into the south of 
 Europe is not easily determined. The slender evidence 
 we have disposes us to look to North Africa. In the 
 Grimaldi skeletons we have indications of a passage from 
 Africa, and we shall see later that Neolithic negroid 
 pygmy skeletons have been found in Switzerland. It 
 may be recalled that civilisation first developed in the 
 region where Asia and Africa meet, in the valley of the 
 Nile and the highlands of Southern Syria. If we may 
 suppose that the inhabitants of this region were the 
 more advancing in culture, even at the earlier date, the 
 various immigrations into Europe may have come, 
 directly or indirectly, from there. They could reach 
 Western Europe either by way of North Africa or by 
 the valley of the Danube. It seems most in accord with 
 the little evidence we have to suppose that the first 
 Neolithic wave came through North Africa, and the 
 second by way of the Danube. In the first case there 
 may have been merely a spread of culture along the 
 strip of North Africa, and then a movement from Algeria 
 to the south of Europe. But the evidence is very 
 slender, and the question must be left open. 
 
The Men of the New Stone Age 71 
 
 Nor are we in a better position to answer the very 
 natural question : At what date, approximately, did 
 Europe witness this appreciable change from Paleolithic 
 culture? There are authorities who would regard 20,000 
 years as an adequate allowance since the first Neolithic 
 invasion of Europe: others give us the figure of 50,000 
 years : Dr. Keane speaks of 70,000 years : and Sir 
 William Turner claims to have shown that it is 100,000 
 years since Neolithic man invaded Scotland from the 
 north of Europe. We must refrain from any attempt to 
 give even the roundest figure. 
 
 It would be particularly interesting to pass in review 
 the different stages of the Neolithic age, and watch the 
 slow unfolding of those industries and institutions on 
 which civilisation gradually rises. This, unfortunately, 
 we are unable to do. The remains of the entire period 
 — some tens of thousands of years — shrink into a thin 
 confused layer on the earth's surface, and we cannot, 
 except on very broad lines, distinguish its successive 
 stages. The archaeological writer is usually content to 
 give us a picture of " Neolithic man," in which all the 
 details known to the science are embodied. This, 
 though almost inevitable, is misleading. Such a picture 
 is bound to represent as simultaneous many features 
 which may have been separated from each other by the 
 lapse of thousands of years and by vast stretches of 
 space. 
 
 The life of Neolithic man is revealed to us from the 
 contents of his graves, and the implements scattered in 
 the soil or in the shell-mounds of Denmark, especially in 
 the mud of certain Swiss lakes, over which Neolithic 
 
72 Prehistoric Man 
 
 communities once lived in villages built on piles. As, 
 moreover, the bulk of our savages maintained the 
 Neolithic culture until recent times, a comparison of the 
 ancient remains with their implements and utensils 
 enables us to form a very ample idea of at least the later 
 phases of the period. 
 
 The period takes its name — Neolithic — from the 
 outstanding fact that the stone implements and weapons 
 now greatly improve in manufacture. It is sometimes 
 described as the period of polished stone implements. 
 As a broad characterisation this is very true, but one 
 must understand that the polishing of bone was well 
 known in the Magdalenian period — witness the needles 
 we described— and that by no means all implements 
 were polished in the Neolithic period. Dr. Blackmore 
 suggests a distinction of the three periods in the formula 
 that the Eolithic implements were "hacked," the Paleo- 
 lithic "chipped," and the Neolithic "flaked" (by 
 pressure). This, again, must be taken as a distinction of 
 outstanding, but not exclusive, characters ; as, of course, 
 Dr. Blackmore intends. Some Eoliths seem to indicate 
 chipping, some Paleoliths are hacked, and other (later) 
 Paleoliths are apparently flaked. The more our material 
 increases, the less we are disposed to admit sharp lines 
 in the continuous evolution of the Stone Age. 
 
 The most characteristic implement of the New Stone 
 Age is the axe or chopper. The elongated " pick " (as it 
 used wrongly to be called) of the later Paleolithic now 
 becomes a definite axe-head, with (in the end) a hole for 
 hafting. In the later Neolithic (especially in Denmark) 
 this is at times so finely finished and polished that in 
 
The Men of the New Stone Age 73 
 
 photographs it looks exactly like metal. Indeed, we 
 shall see that the form runs on directly into the Metal 
 Age. Other hard stones, besides the flint, chert, and 
 quartz of the Paleolithic, are now largely employed. 
 We have finely polished axes, knives, spears, or arrows, 
 in greenstone, diorite.jadeite, obsidian, jasper, chalcedony, 
 felstone, serpentine, etc. Any hard stone that lay on the 
 surface was employed. 
 
 We even find that Neolithic man sank shafts into the 
 chalk in search of seams of better flint. A series of 
 holes in Norfolk, locally known as " Grime's graves," 
 turned out to be flint pits dug by Neolithic man. Others 
 were discovered at Cissbury. Even miners' picks of 
 deer-horn (as well as stone axes), and chalk lamp-vases 
 were discovered in the deserted shafts and tunnels. The 
 shafts are from ten to forty feet deep — the finer flint 
 being found at lower levels — and the tunnels, which 
 connected the shafts, sometimes run to thirty feet. The 
 tools are generally of rough Neolithic workmanship, but 
 we cannot on that account conclude that the excavations 
 were early. The roughly chipped implements persisted 
 alongside with the new; just as in many a British 
 blacksmith's shop of the last generation one would find 
 hammers hafted with a twisted ozier, much as Neolithic 
 man probably fitted some of his stone hammer-heads. 
 For ceremonial purposes (Mexico, Egypt, etc.) stone 
 knives continued to be used long after the introduction 
 of metal. 
 
 In a few cases the perishable wooden handles of 
 weapons have survived. Arrow-heads are found thrust 
 in a cleft of the shaft, with binding thongs, and axe-heads 
 
74 Prehistoric Man 
 
 are sometimes discovered in a similar cleft in the handle, 
 with a piece of horn inserted between the two. In the 
 finer axes a hole was bored through the stone with great 
 skill and neat finish. Experiment shows that this could 
 be done by grinding through with a twisted stick, 
 working in wet sand. 
 
 The numerous other forms of weapons made by 
 Neolithic man we must be content merely to mention. 
 Knives of various shapes and different modes of hafting, 
 spear and arrow-heads of the most beautiful finish 
 (especially in Ireland, Scotland, and Denmark), chisels, 
 adzes, crescent-knives (or " sickles " — Egypt, Japan, etc.), 
 scrapers, fabricators (or flakers), and borers, are found in 
 all parts of the world. In some places we have found 
 the polishers, or large hollowed stones, on which 
 Neolithic man ground his weapons. One must re- 
 member that, although the New Stone Age is very much 
 shorter than the Old, the population must have been 
 now considerably greater. Moreover, the use of stone 
 by no means ceases the moment a race becomes 
 acquainted with the use of metal. For nearly 5,000 
 years after its discovery of bronze Egypt continued to 
 use flint implements for the great majority of industrial 
 purposes. Bronze was introduced into Britain about 
 1,800 years before the Christian era, yet stone weapons 
 figured in British battles until the Middle Ages. Even 
 when metal was in general use, the priesthoods of various 
 nations still used stone for ceremonial purposes. Where 
 the use of stone was entirely discarded, a superstitious 
 feeling grew up in regard to the old weapons which were 
 discovered. In ancient Egypt and Italy arrow-heads 
 
The Men of the New Stone Age 75 
 
 were mounted as amulets. It is not many years since 
 application was made to the Liverpool Museum for 
 permission to touch an ailing child with one of the 
 stone axe-heads in the collection. 
 
 One group of Neolithic implements has always aroused 
 special interest, and has given rise to some fantastic 
 speculation. These are the "pygmy" implements. Not 
 only in many parts of England (Cornwall, Wiltshire* 
 Lancashire, Suffolk, Lincolnshire, etc.) and the Con- 
 tinent, but also in India (especially on the Vindhya 
 Hills), Palestine, Egypt, and North Africa, finely chipped 
 implements of abnormally small size have been found, 
 and to these the unfortunate name of "pygmies" has 
 been given. Ingenious writers at once associated them 
 with a race resembling the undersized men of the 
 Central African forests, and contended that they showed 
 a former distribution of this race over the area from 
 Cornwall to India. 
 
 A solid ground for this belief was claimed when, 
 between 1892 and 1896, a Neolithic pygmy colony was 
 explored at Schweitzersbild (Switzerland). In a bed 
 which apparently represents the beginning of the 
 Neolithic were found nine normal skeletons and five 
 pygmies. Dr. Neusch and Professor Kollmann, who 
 investigated the remains, propounded a theory that these 
 pygmies were representatives of the earliest inhabitants 
 of Europe, and that the taller race was evolved from the 
 shorter. This theory has not been widely accepted, nor 
 is it consistent with the early Paleolithic remains we 
 have described. Technically, the pygmy is a member of 
 a race which averages less than four feet eleven inches 
 
76 Prehistoric Man 
 
 in height. There are several such races known, the 
 most extreme type being found in the Central African 
 dwarfs. Early Paleolithic man, however, averages, as 
 we saw, a few inches over five feet, and no very early 
 pygmy remains are known. It is more probable that the 
 pygmies are a degeneration from the early standard. In 
 a region, for instance, where food was scarce, the 
 smaller individuals would have an advantage, and the 
 stature of the race would tend to be lowered by selection. 
 It was probably such agencies that reduced the vast 
 reptile world of former days to its present dwarfed 
 proportions. 
 
 A further ingenious conclusion that was drawn from 
 the wide spread of the " pygmy " flints may be noted in 
 passing. Sir Harry Johnston, the great authority on 
 Central Africa, has observed that the behaviour of the 
 pygmies in contact with the taller races is curiously 
 parallel to the conduct of the fairies in our old legends. 
 The supposed spread of pygmies over Europe at one 
 time seemed, therefore, to afford a substantial basis for 
 the legends themselves. If the pygmies persisted 
 through the Neolithic period side by side with the taller 
 races, we might assume that the relation between "the 
 giants and the dwarfs " would be not unlike that 
 described in the legends. 
 
 The discovery of four pygmy skeletons is too slender 
 a base for so far-reaching a conclusion. Like the 
 negroid Grimaldi skeletons, they may merely represent 
 a sporadic invasion from Africa. On the other hand, the 
 " pygmy " implements are most fallaciously quoted in 
 support of either of the two theories I have indicated. 
 
The Men of the New Stone Age 77 
 
 The smallest race we know averages about four feet 
 three inches in height (like the Schweitzersbild skele- 
 tons), and this is far too much for the miniature 
 implements we have found in various parts of the world. 
 They are quite commonly less than half-an-inch in 
 length ; some go down to one-sixteenth of an inch. One 
 collector found scores of "pygmy" scrapers which 
 weighed less than half-an-ounce.* If these are the 
 normal implements of any race, we should have to 
 assume a series of races dwindling in stature down to 
 inconceivable dimensions. It is far more probable that 
 these miniature implements were made for special 
 purposes by a normal race of men. The Rev. H. G. O. 
 Kendall has pointed out (Man, 1907, p. 83, and 1908, 
 p. 53) that many might be used as harpoon-barbs, or 
 even hooks, in fishing, and that they are found more 
 abundantly in fishing stations; though the latter point 
 requires general verification. Others may have been 
 used as arrow-tips, for piercing skins or shells (which 
 were much used as ornaments in the Neolithic), for 
 tattooing, or for purposes of which we have no analogy. 
 It is better to describe them as " microliths." There is 
 not the least reason to assume that the specimens we 
 find in different parts of the world had a common origin, 
 or belonged to a common race. Like needs engender 
 like appliances; as we see in the different groups of 
 horned or of flying animals. 
 
 Apart from the implements, which are scattered over 
 the surface of a great part of the earth, or found at little 
 
 * Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England, by Dr. B. 
 Windle, 1904. 
 
78 Prehistoric M \n 
 
 distance below it, we have special localities for obtaining 
 knowledge of the men of the New Stone Age. These 
 are the shell-mounds, or "kitchen-middens," of Denmark 
 and other countries; the remains of the pile-dwellings of 
 the Swiss and neighbouring lakes; and the tombs stone 
 monuments, and rude dwelling or storage places which 
 abound in this and other countries. The last two, the 
 richest and most important source of information, must 
 be reserved for the next chapter. The first may be 
 briefly discussed here. 
 
 The inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego, the lowest of 
 whom (the Yahgans) are amongst the most backward we 
 know to-day, live chiefly on shell-fish, and the discarded 
 shells form large mounds along their coasts. When 
 similar mounds, principally of oyster-shells, were found 
 along the coast of Denmark, it was obvious that they 
 were, as the Danes say, the kjbkkenmdddings (kitchen 
 middens) of a very early and primitive race of inhabitants. 
 Denmark and Scandinavia would be covered by the later 
 and less extensive ice-sheet (or sheets) long after central 
 Europe was habitable, and we do not find that Paleo- 
 lithic man ever penetrated so far north. When the last 
 ice-sheet had disappeared, a branch of the Neolithic race 
 occupied the liberated country, and settled largely on the 
 Danish coast — washed by the Gulf-stream — where food 
 was easily obtained in abundance. Like the Fuegians, 
 they lived mainly on molluscs, and mounds of shells, 
 often several hundred yards long, indicate their 
 settlements to the modern students. 
 
 The stone implements which are occasionally found in 
 these refuse-heaps are of a crude description, but we 
 
The Men of the New Stone Age 79 
 
 must not hastily attribute them to the earliest period of 
 the New Stone Age. The tribes which wander out of 
 contact with the rest of advancing mankind often 
 degenerate — as there is reason to suspect in the case of 
 the Fuegians themselves — and may lose much of the 
 culture of their own ancestors. On the other hand, the 
 calculations which would place the beginning of the 
 shell-mound period at between 3,000 and 5,000 years 
 before the Christian era are unreliable. Neither the 
 rate of accumulation of shells, nor the growth of forests, 
 is a process that can be regarded as identical in remote 
 periods. 
 
 It is not without significance that we find no trace of 
 agriculture in the remains of the mollusc-eaters, and 
 that the only trace we find of a domestic animat is the 
 dog. Unless we admit actual degeneration, we have 
 here an interesting early phase of Neolithic life. The 
 presence of simple pottery, and the fact that some of the 
 implements are actually made out of polished weapons, 
 make it clear that they do belong to the New Stone Age. 
 We shall see that in other localities Neolithic man 
 shows an acquaintance with agriculture, weaving, seveial 
 breeds of cattle, and much concern with the dead. As I 
 said, it would be extremely interesting to be able to 
 follow the gradual development of these inventions and 
 ideas, and the shell-mounds apparently exhibit one of the 
 earlier phases. We have, however, reason to believe 
 that a more advanced race lived at the same time on the 
 mainland of Denmark. The Bronze Age began in 
 Denmark about the same time as in Britain — nearly four 
 thousand years ago — and the bronze-using men, if not a 
 
80 Prehistoric Man 
 
 fresh invasion, could hardly be the descendants of the 
 lowly kitchen-middeners. 
 
 In referring to these shell-mounds one is once more 
 reminded of the fallacy of inferring identity of race from 
 similarity of habits in different parts of the world. Some- 
 what similar shell-heaps, of great antiquity, are found on 
 the shores of Britain — on the Moray Firth and other 
 parts of the Scottish coast, at Ventnor, Hastings, and 
 other parts of the south coast of England, and at Cork 
 Harbour in Ireland. We have no clue to the date or 
 race of these mound-makers. In Japan, again, we have 
 relics of the same character. From the designs on some 
 of the fragments of pottery in these mounds there is a 
 tendency to conclude that the early mollusc-eaters of 
 Japan were the ancestors of the Ainus. The Japanese 
 proper were in the bronze stage when they invaded the 
 islands, and as this invasion is dated some centuries 
 before Christ, the mounds must be much older, at least 
 in the south. 
 
 One must bear well in mind always the fact that 
 science, strictly speaking, tells of stone and metal phases, 
 rather than ages. While the more fortunately situated 
 people were advancing from stage to stage, the more iso- 
 lated remained unaffected. To speak of Stone Ages and a 
 Metal Age is true in the sense that there was a prolonged 
 period in which no branch of the human family had got 
 beyond the chipping of stone implements, a further long 
 period in which no race had yet discovered the use of 
 metal, and finally, a period in which the more advanced 
 races discovered the art of making implements of copper, 
 bronze, and iron. This is a chronological arrangement 
 
The Men op the New Stone Agb &i 
 
 for the main current of human development. But out 
 on the wings of the human army there were always 
 detached regiments, out of touch with the main 
 advancing body, who retained the primitive weapons of 
 the earlier days. The farther these detached fragments 
 wandered, in the search for food and peace, the more 
 surely they forfeited the stimulus to advance and the 
 opportunity to imitate. 
 
 We must not, therefore, attempt to judge the age of a 
 human relic by its lowliness. Far away, on the frontiers 
 of the inhabited earth we find representatives of the 
 earliest human wanderers. The Tasmanians, driven by 
 the oncoming Australians to the tip of their continent, 
 and then cut off by the sea : the Yahgans, pressed to the 
 extreme south of America, and cut off in turn : the 
 Bushmen, driven to the tip of Africa (and turned upward 
 again by Europeans) : the natives who sought shelter in 
 the forests of Central Africa, or the islands of the 
 Indian and Pacific Oceans (Ceylon, Malasia, and the 
 Philippines), represent the humanity of the earliest 
 known days. The Australians, Papuans, and other 
 tribes represent a next phase; and so on through the 
 vast hierarchy of races. We must not press the idea 
 too far — on account of later borrowing of one tribe from 
 another — but in a general way we can arrange these 
 backward peoples in a cultural series which roughly 
 represents the cultural development of humanity, and 
 throws a useful light on the past. This new method of 
 inquiry — a combination of ethnography and prehistoric 
 science — can, however, only be indicated in a work of 
 the restricted dimensions of this. 
 
S2 Prehistoric Man 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE MONUMENT BUILDERS 
 
 If the shell-mounds represent an earlier phase of the 
 New Stone Age — even if they be of late occurrence — the 
 pile-villages of Switzerland distinctly represent a later 
 phase. Both they and the graves, which we shall 
 consider presently, exhibit the culmination of the Stone 
 Age, and passage into the Bronze. Both, also, are 
 peculiarly adapted to preserve traces of the remote races 
 to whom they belonged. The Neolithic period is so 
 brief from the geological point of view that its scattered 
 relics are compressed into a thin seam, in which we 
 should have great difficulty in restoring the chronological 
 succession. Fortunately, we have these special centres 
 of accumulation of Neolithic remains, and they enable 
 us at least to attempt the task of reconstruction. 
 
 Deferring for a moment the very difficult question of 
 race, we find two marked phases of cultural development. 
 The first is revealed in the shell-mounds and in the more 
 primitive of the scattered implements; and to this stage 
 may be referred many of those human remains which we 
 discussed in connection with the transition to the New 
 Stone Age. We have a race of men, taller and more 
 graceful in build than their predecessors, with the simian 
 features almost obliterated. The advancing brain has 
 
late V. 
 
 Neolithic Arrow Heads of Flint, from Ireland. 
 
 (British Museum.) 
 
 Prehistoric Man, 82 
 
The Monument Builders 83 
 
 raised the dome of the forehead, and the heavy frontal 
 ridges have shrunk in proportion. Improvement in diet 
 has brought the jaws and teeth nearer to the modern 
 standard. This race is still " long-headed," and, whether 
 it be an invading race or no, is not so far removed from 
 the later Paleolithic as to be beyond the range of direct 
 evolution. If we adopt Professor Sergi's idea of a 
 Mediterranean race, living north and south of the inland 
 sea, we may still bring early Neolithic man from Africa 
 without a serious breach of continuity. We return to 
 that point later. 
 
 The culture of the early New Stone Man is not so 
 startlingly higher than that of his predecessor as used to 
 be believed. His stone implements show the finer finish 
 which we should expect, in harmony with the evolution 
 of his brain. He uses a bow and arrow habitually ; 
 though it is claimed that these were known to late 
 Paleolithic man. He has much personal adornment of 
 shells and perforated teeth : another practice which 
 began in the late Paleolithic. He has tamed the dog 
 (taking the shell-mound phase as early Neolithic), but 
 not yet the ox and the sheep; probably in the south he 
 has already tamed the horse. He has invented a crude 
 pottery, but there is as yet no clear evidence in the early 
 Neolithic of agriculture, weaving, or ceremonial concern 
 for the dead. On the other hand, he has lost the artistic 
 skill of the Magdalenian and Azilian cave-dweller. 
 
 The invention of pottery is one of the most distinctive 
 advances of Neolithic man, and it merits brief considera- 
 tion. Mr. Clodd (The Story of Primitive Man) has 
 plausibly suggested that the invention of pottery may be 
 
84 Prbhistoric Man 
 
 the accidental result of primitive cooking. It is claimed, 
 we saw, that the charred remains of feasts, and even 
 stone vessels for cooking, are discovered in the Paleo- 
 lithic. It is generally believed that late Paleolithic man 
 cooked his horse or reindeer joint. If we imagine him 
 daubing a wicker or rush vessel with clay, to prevent the 
 charring of the meat, we see that he would in the end 
 find himself in possession of crude earthenware vessels. 
 The clay would harden and retain its form. It is held 
 that the curious marks (as if made with the finger-nail) 
 which we find on the earliest pottery, are a crude 
 imitation of the marks that would be made on the clay 
 by the assumed framework of wicker or rushes in the 
 primitive cooking. 
 
 Clay is so plastic a material that, if the artistic race 
 had persisted, we might very well expect it to do much 
 finer work than it had been able to do in stone or ivory. 
 We find, however, no advantage whatever taken of the 
 new material. Not only does the old artistic industry 
 die out, but the new ornamentation is of a remarkably 
 inferior character. The graceful lines of animal forms 
 are replaced by monotonous circles and spirals which 
 betray the death of the old inspiration. In one case 
 only have we found a few crude clay statuettes. 
 Generally, the marking on the early pottery, on which 
 the Magdalenian artist could have worked so skilfully, 
 is so crude and meaningless that the earlier artistic 
 models seem to be wholly forgotten. Artistically, man 
 sinks back to a low savage level. As he undoubtedly 
 had advanced considerably in intelligence, this points 
 strongly to a large movement and displacement of 
 
The Moxument Builders 85 
 
 population. Such movement would also enable us to 
 understand the intellectual advance itself. 
 
 From the crushed and scattered relics of the New 
 Stone Age we are unable to retrace the steps by which 
 Neolithic man advances toward the threshold of civilisa- 
 tion. When we reach our next firm ground, we find 
 him very materially advanced, though by no means 
 farther advanced than the lapse of time and his relatively 
 high intelligence enable us to understand. 
 
 In 1853 there was an exceptionally dry season in 
 Switzerland, and the receding waters of the lake at 
 Zurich exposed a number of ancient piles on the 
 lake-bottom. Further search was made, and, in that 
 and the following year, further groups of piles were 
 discovered in the margins of the Alpine lakes. Savage 
 life supplied a clue once more to the interpretation of 
 antiquity. It may be, indeed, that some Swiss student 
 recollected how later Romans had taken refuge on the 
 islands in the lakes from the descending barbarians. 
 In any case, the villages which are built to-day over 
 the water on piles in New Guinea and Malasia — 
 numbers may be seen at Singapore — suggested that 
 similar pile-villages had been built over the waters of 
 the Swiss lakes several millennia before the Christian 
 era. The finding of prehistoric implements among the 
 mud put this beyond question. 
 
 Subsequent inquiry extended both the analogy and 
 the number of settlements. The " crannoges " of 
 Ireland (and a few in Scotland) were similar refuges 
 from the mainland — in this case artificial islands, 
 approached by gangways of stone or wood, which could 
 
86 Prehistoric Man 
 
 easily be cut off, or in boats. Traces of similar settle- 
 ments have been discovered in Japan, Austria, France, 
 and England. The most extensive centre of pile- 
 villages, however, is the Alpine district. In the lakes 
 of Switzerland and those parts of France, Italy, 
 Germany, and Austria which surround the mass of the 
 Alps, nearly 300 such settlements have been detected. 
 They range from small clusters of hut-piles to large 
 villages 230 yards long and 55 yards deep. In the 
 Bronze Age they became even larger. The settlement 
 at Robenhausen is calculated to have been supported 
 by about 100,000 piles (12 feet in length and 18 inches 
 in circumference) of cedar, oak, and beech wood. 
 Cross-beams are believed to have provided the platform 
 on which the floor of the hut was laid. 
 
 The comparison with the pile-dwellings of the Indian 
 Ocean must not be understood to mean that there 
 is any parallel in the culture of the races. The Swiss 
 Neolithic men were far higher than the Papuans 
 or the lower Malays. The situation of their huts — 
 chosen, no doubt, for defence against a race on the 
 l anc l — was excellent for transmitting the details of their 
 household to remote ages. Whenever a hut was 
 destroyed, or a settlement fired, quantities of interesting 
 material were entombed in the lake. Children playing 
 on the gangways would drop articles in the water, 
 and in many other ways the lake-bottom was enriched. 
 In some of the smaller lakes an accumulation of peat 
 took place over the lake-bottom, and helped to preserve 
 the relics for us. In this way we are enabled to build 
 up a fairly ample picture of the life of late Neolithic 
 man. 
 
The Monument Builders 87 
 
 There is abundant evidence that agriculture was now 
 well developed. We trace three kinds of wheat, two 
 kinds of barley, and two kinds of millet in the debris. 
 Quorns for grinding or bruising the corn — not unlike 
 the stone quorns still in use in many places— are also 
 found, and we even have fragments of the cakes into 
 which the rough flour was baked. Rye and oats come 
 later, in the Bronze Age. Many writers see a signi- 
 ficance in the early domesticated plants of Neolithic 
 man. Dr. Hoernes points out that Babylonia and 
 Egypt got their barley and wheat from the north, and 
 that the native home of these plants was probably 
 on the Asiatic plains.* This may be recalled in connec- 
 tion with other indications that the race came from 
 the direction of Asia. 
 
 There are traces of fruits and berries, and there is 
 ample proof of cattle-rearing. Oxen and goats were 
 early domesticated (as well as the dog) : the sheep, 
 horse, cat, and fowl come later, or are only found in 
 abundance when we enter the Bronze Age. In some 
 places the cattle seem to have been brought on to 
 the settlement from the fields at night. We have, 
 apparently, traces of dressed hide, or leather, as if 
 some kind of foot-covering was made. Though clothing 
 may still have consisted largely of animal skins, we find 
 that the pile-dwellers could weave, and fragments of the 
 coarse fabrics they made have been preserved. Wild 
 flax was the chief material used, together with straw, 
 Numerous stone spindle-whorls are found. A great 
 
 * Primitive Man, 1900 (Temple Primers). 
 
88 Prehistoric Man 
 
 taste for personal adornment is shown as we approach 
 the Bronze Age, and certain clay balls, with stones in 
 them, are regarded as children's toys. 
 
 From all these details we obtain a fair picture of life 
 in Europe before the age of Metal sets in. A hut that 
 was carefully traced proved to be an oblong structure, 
 33 feet by 23, divided into two chambers. It had its 
 door and fire-place, and probably walls of wattle and 
 mud, with a thatched roof of grass or reeds. The 
 domestic life shows us the culmination of the Stone Age 
 — a long stride from the naked repulsive wanderer of the 
 river-drift to the ordered and well-built home in a 
 protected settlement, with wife cooking in clay vessels or 
 making cakes and tending the little ones, while the father 
 rears his cattle or his grain on the lake-shores. Here 
 again, however, we trace a gradual growth: indeed, it is 
 nowhere more apparent than in the Alpine settlements. 
 We have not only the direct transition from the Stone 
 to the Bronze Age, but some succession can be observed 
 in the New Stone settlements themselves. The making 
 of implements becomes more refined in finish and in 
 choice of materials, and the clay pottery takes on a 
 higher degree of ornamentation. The animals also are 
 domesticated successively, the dog and a small ox 
 appearing first under human control. In some places 
 we find three settlements in succession on the same site, 
 each indicating a higher grade of culture. 
 
 What the relation of these pile-dwellers was to the 
 earlier Neolithic men, and how far their development was 
 influenced by a new, bronze-using race, must be consid- 
 ered later. We shall return to the pile-dwellers in the 
 
The Monument Builders 89 
 
 next chapter, when we shall find them in possession of a 
 rich collection of bronze, before they are finally destroyed 
 or driven away at the beginning of the Iron Age. Our 
 picture of Neolithic life has first to be completed by a 
 consideration of the stone monuments which are still so 
 liberally scattered over Britain, and other parts of the 
 world, after a lapse of several millennia. 
 
 The Neolithic men of the pile-villages do not seem to 
 have erected any of the stone monuments which are so 
 closely associated with their age. It is another point 
 which confirms some theorists in the belief that they 
 had invaded Neolithic Europe from Asia, along the valley 
 of the Danube. In other parts of the earth, however, 
 and especially in Britain, Neolithic man has left enduring 
 memorials of his activity in the "megaliths" or large 
 stone erections, which were until recently ascribed to 
 the "Druids" 
 
 Such monuments may be roughly classified as single 
 stones or menhirs, table-stones or dolmens, round 
 circles or cromlechs, obvious tombs or barrows (long 
 and round), lines and avenues and large circles of stone. 
 The meaning of these erections has filled whole volumes 
 of controversy. To-day — setting aside an astronomical 
 theory, which we will consider — the tendency is to take 
 the barrow as the complete type, and interpret the rest 
 in harmony. The barrow is found to cover a Neolithic 
 grave or graves, and most of the megalithic construc- 
 tions seem to be either reduced relics or enlargements 
 of it, or in some way connected with the homes of the 
 Neolithic dead. We will, therefore, consider the barrow 
 first. 
 
03 Prehistoric Man 
 
 When Paleolithic man, or rather, his Neolithic 
 descendant, left his cave-home, and began to build huts, 
 it is assumed by many that he more or less imitated the 
 form of the cave in his construction. The hut of the 
 modern Eskimo is regarded as a fair illustration of what 
 he would do ; to some extent we might add the ancient 
 British hut, which we shall consider shortly. The 
 inference is precarious, since we have only late Neolithic 
 models. If we refer to the practice of savages for 
 instruction, we usually find that the first hut is merely 
 a screen made from the branches of trees. However 
 that may be, it is clear that man had begun to bury his 
 dead in caves, and many writers believe that the barrow 
 is an attempt to imitate the traditional place of burial, 
 when interment was necessary in a cave-less district. 
 
 The conjecture is somewhat airy, but the nature of 
 the barrow is sufficiently consistent with it. The Neo- 
 lithic home of the dead consisted essentially of two or 
 more large stones, raised on end, with a large and 
 massive capstone. Under the shelter of these the 
 remains were placed, and a huge mound of earth was 
 then deposited over it. This is the simplest type of 
 barrow or " tumulus." In many cases it was usual to 
 bury many people under the same tumulus, and there 
 might then be several chambers in the barrow, with a 
 long, stone-covered passage, and sometimes more than 
 one entrance. In more important caves a series of up- 
 turned large stones might be placed round the edges of 
 the mound of earth, to strengthen or adorn it. In 
 others an avenue or line of stones might mark the 
 approach to it. Thus the cave of the dead differentiates 
 
The Monument Builders 91 
 
 into many forms, and most of the stone-monuments of 
 this country seem reducible to it in one way or other. 
 
 In many cases the mound of earth has been removed, 
 either by natural causes or human cupidity — farmers 
 have been known to cart it away even in recent times — 
 and the stones which once covered the death-chamber 
 are left exposed. We should thus get a dolmen like the 
 famous Kit's Coty Hole, in Kent, and the innumerable 
 dolmens of Denmark. In other cases only the encircling 
 stones may appear, and we get a cromlech. In other 
 cases again one single gigantic stone may remain, reared 
 on one end, and we have a menhir, or monolith. It is 
 clear that in this way we have a plausible theory of most 
 of our stone-monuments, but there are other theories 
 which the student has to bear in mind. Sir Norman 
 Lockyer, who has for some years paid close attention to 
 our stone-monuments, believes that the astronomical 
 clue is more likely to lead to a correct interpretation. 
 The dolmens would, on this theory, be observatories, 
 from which the position of the sun could be accurately 
 determined, and the calendar indicated. We know that 
 the early British priests, having a solar cult, must have 
 made such observations (like the Babylonian, Persian, 
 and other priests). The barrows and dolmens, however, 
 go back much earlier than Druidism, and we know 
 nothing of pre-Druidic religion in Britain. The theory 
 applies more particularly, as we shall see, to the greater 
 monuments. 
 
 The distribution of dolmens by no means coincides 
 with the area covered by Neolithic man. The map 
 given in Cleuziou's Creation de Vhomme shows that 
 
92 Prehistoric Man 
 
 they are found most abundantly in India and in Western 
 Europe, with a faint offshoot in the further East (Japan) 
 and a few patches — as of stations on a line of march — 
 between India and France (Syria, the Caucasus, Greece, 
 Corsica and Sardinia, and North Africa). In the south 
 of Spain and Portugal they are found in increasing 
 abundance, and the line travels round the west coast of 
 Spain to Prance. In the latter country they are very 
 numerous, and the line is then continued through the 
 west of England, Wales and Ireland, Scotland, North 
 Germany, Denmark, and Scandinavia. This peculiar 
 distribution has given rise to much conjecture in regard 
 to the race of dolmen-builders, but before we can 
 consider such speculation a word must be said on the 
 classic distinction of " long " and " round " barrows. 
 
 The distinction of skulls, to which we have already 
 referred, into " long " and " round " (or short) was 
 found to apply to barrows, and it has been established 
 that the long barrow covers dolichocephalic remains, 
 while the round barrow reveals the site of a brachy- 
 cephalic burial. It was further established that the 
 long barrows — take, for instance, the mound at Uley, 
 which measures 120 feet by 85 — all belong to the Stone 
 Age, while the round barrows contain bronze implements. 
 Some doubt has been thrown on this distinction of late 
 years, but it does not seem to have been sustained. The 
 long barrows sometimes contain scanty gold ornaments 
 in France and Scandinavia — a proof that we are near, 
 or in, the age of metal — but they are overwhelmingly 
 Neolithic. A further distinction, as Dr. Windle points 
 out, is that the long barrow is usually in the nature of a 
 
The .Monument Builders 93 
 
 collective vault; the round barrow a single tomb.* The 
 round barrows also occur in groups, or circles. 
 
 The mode of burial is another element of confusion. 
 Both cremation and inhumation are practised, in 
 both types of barrows, and it is impossible to sift out 
 any general principles from the mass of evidence. In 
 the Neolithic graves, it is true, we find cremation pre- 
 dominant in the north of England, and inhumation in 
 the west ; but no explanation of this is given, and in the 
 round barrows we have — as the explorations of Dr. 
 Thurnam and Canon Greenwell have shown — an extra- 
 ordinary difference of practice in the different counties 
 of England. In some cases burnt and unburnt bodies 
 have been buried simultaneously ; though in these 
 cases it is suggested that the unburnt body may be 
 that of the chief, and the charred remains those of 
 his household or slaves who may have been despatched 
 with him, according to a custom that was known to 
 many races. 
 
 It will be seen, therefore, that as far as the Neolithic 
 period is concerned, we meet very serious difficulties in 
 attempting to trace the identity of the mound-builders. 
 The most generally received theory is that two races 
 spread over Europe during the Neolithic period. The 
 first and more primitive race — commonly known as the 
 Iberians or Ivernians or Euskarians in the west, and the 
 Pelasgians, etc., of the south — displaced Paleolithic 
 
 * Naturally, the barrow is not an ordinary Neolithic or 
 Bronze grave, but the tomb of some man or woman of 
 distinction. The scarcity or abundance of stone may also 
 affect the question. 
 
94 Prehistoric Man 
 
 man, and spread the early Neolithic culture over 
 Europe. Whether this race was a continuation of the 
 Paleolithic, or an intrusion from Africa or Asia, is 
 disputed. It is generally held to survive in the Picts of 
 Scotland and the Basques. Later, on the commonly 
 received theory, there was a fresh displacement of the 
 population, and the new-comers are associated with the 
 supposed Aryan race, the theory of which is modified in 
 various ways. Many writers now hold that the Aryans 
 were developed in Eastern Europe, or, at the most, in 
 Western Asia — not in Central Asia. Most writers 
 admit that they did not bring a higher civilisation, but 
 had the character of comparative barbarians. 
 
 The question is important, because it must supply the 
 key to the problem of the origin of the actual European 
 races (apart from known Asiatic intrusions, such as the 
 Magyars and Turks). Unfortunately, we are scarcely 
 nearer agreement than in the days when the old Aryan 
 theory was first discredited. The old theory was attrac- 
 tive in its simplicity. The Aryan race was located on 
 the tableland to the north-east of India. From that 
 point a branch passed into India, another branch into 
 Persia, and a further branch into Europe, to split into 
 the familiar cognate nations of Kelt, Teuton, Slav, 
 Greek, and Roman. The earlier Neolithic population 
 was either absorbed or extinguished, save for the 
 surviving fragments of the Basques and the Picts. This 
 theory has, however, been strongly assailed by philolo- 
 gists, craniologists, and sociologists, and until a few 
 years ago one hardly dared to speak of the Aryan race. 
 
 The chief modification of the older view was to 
 
The Monument Builders 95 
 
 introduce first a brachycephalic non-Aryan race from 
 Asia, along the valley of the Danube, and make it 
 mingle with, and largely displace, the older dolicho- 
 cephalic race. Later — one writer puts the date at 
 about 2500 B.C., but most would make it much earlier 
 — the tall, blonde men of the Aryan race proper are 
 said to fall upon this Alpine (or Celtic, or Ligurian) 
 race of short, dark men. On this theory the short» 
 dark element in Southern and Western Europe would 
 belong to the non-Aryan Neolithic, and the tall, fair 
 element to the Aryan. Others, however, following 
 Professor Sergi, re-unite the blonde and the dark in a 
 common " Mediterranean race." This race is represented 
 as having three main branches — the Afric (seen in 
 the actual Libyan tribes), the Iberians, Ligurians, and 
 Pelasgians of the three South-European peninsulas, and 
 the Nordic or Teutonic. This great race was non-Aryan, 
 and gave rise to the early Latin and Greek civilisations. 
 The Aryans were a Eur-Asiatic race, who partly des- 
 troyed the Eur-African civilisation, and imposed their 
 languages on the non-Aryan peoples. 
 
 Others, again, hold that the Aryans— many German 
 writers identify them with the Teutons, and French 
 writers with the Celts, while Taylor holds that the 
 Lithuanians are the original Aryans — were evolved in 
 Northern or North-eastern Europe, and descended 
 thence upon Greece and Italy. Matters are still further 
 complicated by a recent contention of Mr. Gray, an 
 acute student of geology who has made a close examina- 
 tion of the stone circles of Britain, that these monuments 
 are due to an intrusion of a totally different people, 
 
96 Prehistoric Man 
 
 probably of Akkadian (Turkic) affinity, who worked 
 their way from the south-west of England to the north 
 of Scotland.* Finally, Professor Ridgeway has lately 
 endeavoured to undermine the whole principle of 
 classification and its outcome in theories of migration. 
 He points out that a high latitude is known (as in the 
 case of the Mongols) to modify the shape of the skull 
 and make it shorter, and that therefore the Alpine race 
 (which Sergi describes as Aryan, and others as non- 
 Aryan) may have been developed in that mountainous 
 region itself from a dolichocephalic stock. The moun- 
 tainous regions of Anatolia, Albania, etc., may have had 
 the same effect in producing brachycephalic peoples, so 
 that we need not multiply invasions. He further 
 contends that the imposition of languages on conquered 
 races is opposed to the facts of history, and thus 
 rehabilitates the older argument (from community of 
 language) for the unity of the Aryan race.f The 
 Basques he conceives to be the relic of an intrusion 
 from Africa. 
 
 It is impossible to enter further here into the per- 
 plexing problem of the Neolithic population of Europe, 
 and I will be content to resume in a few lines the trend 
 of speculation. Apart from the Basques there is no 
 admitted proof of pre-Aryan tongues in Europe, but it is 
 unknown whether early Neolithic man developed in 
 Europe from Paleolithic, or came from Africa or Asia. 
 
 * Nature, December 24th, 1908. 
 
 t Presidential speech to the Anthropological Section of the 
 British Association, 1908 {Nature, September 24th). 
 
The Monument Bl-ilders 97 
 
 I have civen certain indications which point to immigra- 
 tion, and North Africa seems to be the likeliest source. 
 There are then strong grounds for suspecting three 
 successive further immigrations, or at least irruptions 
 into known from unknown parts of Europe. One race 
 seems to have penetrated by way of the Danube valley 
 —the "Alpine race" of most writers; another race-the 
 monument-builders-seems to have come by way of 
 North Africa, Spain, France, and Britain, to Scandinav.a, 
 Possibly both these movements start from the fermenting 
 region, on the border of Asia and Africa, where civilisa- 
 tion first appears, and may be connected. The third 
 immigration is that of the Aryans. But the exact 
 relation of these races to each other and to the later 
 peoples of Europe is not yet determinable. 
 
 We see, therefore, that the abundance of dolmens, 
 cromlechs, and tumuli does not carry us much further 
 into the racial problem, which is now the central prob- 
 lem of prehistoric science. Nor do the remaining stone 
 monuments give much assistance. These are, we saw, 
 stone circles, lines and avenues of standing stones, and 
 large monuments like Avebury and Stonehenge. 
 
 Circles are divided by Dr. Windle into five groups: 
 
 (1) circles composed of cists (graves, or small dohnens) ; 
 
 (2) circles of stones which once surrounded a mound, 
 either for support or as a superstitious fence to keep the 
 spirits from wandering; (3) stones which were at one 
 time within a barrow that has disappeared ; (4) small 
 circles surrounding a grave; (5) great circles like 
 Stonehenge. Dr. Windle claims that the fitfst four 
 classes are obviously of funereal origin; though we must 
 
98 Prehistoric Man 
 
 bear in mind Mr. Gray's contention, on the ground of 
 the peculiar skulls associated with them, that the chief 
 circles (Dartmoor, Aberdeenshire, and Invernessshire) 
 are due to a race of oriental affinities. 
 
 Alignments and avenues of stones may be indications 
 of burial-sites, or monuments connected with solar or 
 other worship. Both theories have distinguished sup- 
 porters; and indeed there have been suggestions made 
 of serpent worship in connection with some of the lines. 
 The great monument at Karnac is the supreme example 
 of this kind of construction. Of this immense procession 
 of standing stones, more than a mile in length, there 
 were still 4,000 standing in the eighteenth century. 
 The natives had a theory that they were the petrified 
 remains of a legion of Roman soldiers, who had been 
 turned into stone by St. Cornelius. As the same 
 natives religiously repaired thither to light bonfires at 
 the summer solstice, many claimed that there was in 
 this a trace of a connection with the ancient sun- 
 worship. 
 
 Stonehenge has been the subject of endless specula- 
 tion. Mr. A. Evans concluded some years ago that 
 Stonehenge was probably of the same age as the 
 neighbouring barrows, and therefore only went back to 
 about 250 B.C. More recently the date has been 
 assigned at between 1800 and 1700 B.C. Professor 
 Gowland suggested the former date on archaeological 
 grounds, and Sir Norman Lockyer, who regards it 
 confidently as a solar temple and observatory, found 
 that the date of construction would, on the astronomical 
 theory, be about 1700 b.c. A very close inquiry was 
 
The Monument Builders 99 
 
 made in connection with Sir N. Lockyer's research, anJ 
 it was concluded that the present monument was built 
 on the site of an earlier vast structure. Hence, though 
 the present structure was raised by the bronze-using 
 Kelts— who apparently used stone implements in building 
 it— the temple or monument belongs really to the 
 earlier Neolithic population. It is believed that the 
 outer circle originally consisted of thirty stones, with a 
 continuous capital, and a diameter of about 100 feet. 
 Other writers regard it as a monument to the dead, or 
 as an assembly place. 
 
 The Ave bury monument is believed to have been the 
 most imposing of all in its pristine splendour. There 
 were, apparently, two inner circles of stones, surrounded 
 by an outer circle of 100 stones, each from 15 to 17 feet 
 high. The fosse is still 40 feet deep in places, and 
 encloses (with the rampart) an area of 2S< 7 acres. 
 
 A further proof of the religious feeling of Neolithic 
 man is seen by some writers in the fact that, from the 
 beginning of the New Stone Age we find trepanned 
 skulls, and also find that the pieces removed are worn 
 as amulets" It is conjectured (Broca) that the opera- 
 tion, which was performed with a sharp Hint knife, was 
 designed to let out an evil spirit; or (Munro) that the 
 aim was to relieve bodily or mental disease, and the 
 cranial fragment afterwards worn as a charm. The 
 operation speaks well for the skill and intelligence of 
 Neolithic man, but the inference as to his superstitious 
 
 * See, especially, a chapter in Dr. Munro's Prehistoric 
 Problems. Broca also urges the conclusion. 
 
100 Prehistoric Mam 
 
 feeling is not very safe. Among savage nations which 
 practise the operation to-day the aim is purely surgical. 
 Only two other relics of Neolithic man remain fur 
 consideration. There are the " souterrains " (or " dene- 
 holes") and "hut-circles" (or "pit-dwellings"), of 
 which we have many examples in England. The 
 underground chambers are probably storehouses, and 
 may belong to the British period. The pit-dwellings 
 are earlier, and seem to indicate the earliest type of 
 house of which we have direct knowledge. A hole, 
 twelve to thirty feet in diameter, and three to six feet in 
 depth, was dug in the ground. The earth was often 
 heaped round it, possibly to keep out water. The roof 
 seems to have been of branches covered with turf, and, 
 if necessary, supported by a central tree or pole. 
 
The Metal Age and the Daw* of History 101 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE METAL AGE AND THE DAWN OP HISTORY 
 
 If the New Stone Age has proved a period of 
 comparative brevity after the slow, stupendous length of 
 the Old Stone Age, the Metal Age will now prove to be 
 far briefer as a prehistoric epoch. In one sense the 
 Metal Age is not prehistoric at all. I mean that the 
 historical period had opened in Egypt, and probably 
 in Mesopotamia, before we have definite traces of the 
 use of bronze. We have now to be more careful than 
 ever to distinguish phases of human industry rather 
 than chronological stages. Mankind is now a vast 
 family scattered over the entire earth, moulded in a 
 hundred racial moulds, with a few of the more fortun- 
 ately situated branches of the family outstripping the 
 rest. There is no longer the least approach to 
 uniformity, and so not the least question of a successive 
 series of stages for the race. 
 
 How this diverse population of the world came about 
 is a problem we ought to consider before we enter upon 
 the last phase of our subject. We have seen, however, 
 that the racial question, if one of the most interesting, is 
 one of the most difficult in the whole of the science. 
 
102 Prhhistoric Man 
 
 The speculations I have previously given relate only to 
 that interesting group of races which used to be called 
 "Aryan" or "Indo-European," though we saw that the 
 theory of this great central race has been considerably 
 modified. Broadly speaking, the various existing races 
 may be ranged in three great groups. Though colour is 
 not a safe criterion of race — since it varies with latitude 
 — -this broad classification may take as its basis the 
 rough popular division into black, white, and yellow 
 or red races." 
 
 In other words, the Siberians, Tunguses, Mongols, 
 Koreans, Turki, Ugrians, Eskimo, and American Indians, 
 form one of the great divisions of humanity, the " straight- 
 haired" men, or Leiotrichi. The negroes and negroids 
 form another great group— the Bushmen, Hottentots, 
 Sudanese, and Bantu of Africa, with a black strain 
 running across the Indian and Pacific Oceans (the 
 Adamanese, Semang of Malasia, Papuans, Melanesians, 
 and Aetas, of the Philippines). These are the "woolly- 
 haired" varieties. There then remains the vast group 
 of the "wavy-haired" races, now scattered over the 
 entire earth, embracing some of the very lowest and 
 most of the highest races of men. In this group the 
 Veddahs, the Australians, the Sakai, and many of the 
 lower tribes about India, are brought together with 
 
 * See the previous volume in this series by Professor H addon, 
 
 Races of Man. 
 
The Met* l Age and the Dawn of History 103 
 
 the Indonesians, Polynesians, Hamites (Ethiopians), 
 Semites, and the Alpine, Mediterranean, and Nordic 
 (Teutonic) races of Europe. 
 
 Ethnology has no less difficulty than prehistoric 
 science in determining the genealogy of these three 
 groups of races. All that we can say is that ten thou- 
 sand years ago the main lines of the population of the 
 earth were established. The "yellow" men had streamed 
 off into Eastern and Northern Asia, left a branch to 
 become the Eskimo in the Arctic, and sent an offshooi 
 into America to become the "red" Indians. The 
 negroids had established themselves in Africa, and along 
 the island track which I indicated. The third primitive 
 stock had flung out branches eastward into Australia, 
 New Zealand, and the Pacific islands, and westward 
 into India, Persia, Arabia, Syria, the whole strip of 
 Northern Africa, and the whole of Europe (the Neolithic 
 invaders). 
 
 Setting aside China, the antiquity of whose culture 
 it is impossible to determine, civilisation began, some 
 10,000 years ago, at a central part of the "Cauoasic" 
 or "wavy- haired" world. Flinders Petrie and others 
 put the beginning in Egypt at about 8000 b.c For 
 something like 2,000 years we have a broken record — 
 we are still in the prehistoric age — of a native race 
 evolving its own civilisation, with constant irruptions 
 from the immediate east and west — from Asia 
 and Africa. In some of the earliest graves we 
 
104 Prehistoric Man 
 
 iind copper pins, as well as pottery. The copper- 
 implements increase, and the artistic quality of the 
 pottery and ornamentation increases, as the period of 
 prehistoric civilisation proceeds. Towards its close 
 we get carvings on slate which show much the same 
 variety of races as we know to-day ; we have also 
 ample testimony to the growth of shipping, commerce, 
 fighting, and the peaceful arts of civilisation. This 
 prehistoric culture decays, however, and the dynastic 
 race, with historical records, begins its new civilisation 
 about 5800 B.C. 
 
 Recent writers on Egypt are by no means unanimous 
 on this early struggle of races from east and west with 
 an aboriginal population, but, with that reserve, we may 
 follow Mr. Flinders Petrie. The new dynastic race, 
 bringing the historical civilisation, came, he concludes, 
 from the direction of Arabia. Now, the other great 
 civilisation of the ancient world appears about the same 
 period, and its beginning is traced to the same moun- 
 tainous region of Northern Arabia or Southern Syria. 
 A people of mongoloid character— the Sumerians or 
 Akkadians— is discovered at Susa with a primitive 
 civilisation about 6000 B.C. By 5000 B.C., when Babylon 
 was much nearer the sea than now, it has passed into 
 the lowlands of Mesopotamia, and founded the great 
 civilisation of that valley. A thousand years later the 
 civilisation was taken up from the older Turkik or 
 Mongol stock by a Semitic people, and the history of 
 the Babylonian empire begins. 
 
The Metal Age and the Dawn of History 105 
 
 Thus we have a great centre of fermentation in the 
 region which unites Africa and Asia about 10,000 years 
 ago, and that disposes one to regard the region as the 
 ultimate source of the successive invasions of higher 
 races into Europe. Of the course of civilisation in the 
 farther east it is difficult to treat. The Chinese and 
 Indian civilisations seem to have developed separately, 
 and independently of Europe. The difficulty which some 
 experience in attributing the independent evolution of 
 civilisation to remote China seems to be removed by the 
 fact that the American branch of the "straight-haired" 
 race did undoubtedly evolve a civilisation of its own, in 
 Mexico, Central America, and Peru; although it had the 
 horrible blemish of human sacrifices (like most early 
 civilisations) there is evidence that it was outgrowing 
 this. Isolation is, however, fatal to progress. The 
 great principle of progress has ever been the clash 
 of races and contrast of cultures. The geographical 
 position of the Afr-Asiatic region is the chief secret of 
 its advance. 
 
 With this dawn of civilisation the life of man now 
 becomes so complex that a small manual like this 
 cannot hope even to summarise the advance from the 
 Stone Age. That it was a very gradual advance the 
 Egyptian remains amply illustrate. Its earlier civilisation 
 is almost purely Neolithic. There is not even weaving, 
 which we found in the Swiss Neolithic villages, in the 
 earliest phase. There is, as in the Neolithic, a deep 
 
136 Prehistoric Man 
 
 concern for the disposal of the dead, and early in the 
 prehistoric civilisation of Egypt there are definite cults 
 of deities. The chief advances, however, are the use of 
 metal and of written language, and we may confine 
 attention to these. 
 
 The origin of spoken language is still so purely a 
 matter of speculation that it cannot be treated here. 
 The impossibility of linking together the remoter 
 groups of languages suggests that they were evolved 
 after the wide dispersal of the human family, and we 
 saw reason to doubt whether Paleolithic man had 
 articulate speech. Undoubtedly the social life of the 
 late Paleolithic would force the development of some 
 medium of communication. Sounds which were 
 instinctively used would be recognised to have a 
 conventional value — we have permanent sound- 
 expressions in the dog and ape, and other animals — 
 and the association of these sounds with objects or 
 actions would extend. Gesture would eke out the 
 scanty speech in the early days. The Tasmanians had, 
 in the nineteenth century, so poor a speech, and had 
 to supplement it so largely by gesture, that it was 
 difficult to converse in the dark. Many tribes cannot 
 count beyond three or four. Whether, however, verbs 
 were largely made by imitating the noise of the action 
 to be expressed is now much disputed. 
 
 The origin of written language is easier to follow. In 
 the ancient Chinese, Assyrian, and Egyptian writing we 
 
The Metal Age and the Dawn of History 107 
 
 have a very clear trace of the development. The 
 ancient Egyptian writing, which we trace back to 
 7000 b.c, was — as the hieroglyphics have made generally 
 known — a series of pictures of the objects to be repre- 
 sented. The transition to this from a sheer picture- 
 message is clear; and it is not difficult to imagine how a 
 phonetic alphabet, or a conventional use of a character, 
 would in time arise from the picture-writing. The 
 Chinese symbols of to-day seem far removed at first 
 sight from pictures of objects, but the ancient characters 
 show their gradual degradation. A Chinese character is 
 a word, not a letter in the European sense, and in the 
 early forms the character was a picture of an object. 
 "Chariot" was represented by a drawing of a chariot, 
 and so on. The Assyrian cuneiform characters also 
 seem, in their later form, far removed from pictures, 
 but they are clear enough in the earlier forms. As, 
 however, the picturing had to be done with a series of 
 dabs, of a triangular instrument on a clay surface, the 
 outline of the object was roughly represented by a 
 number of disconnected marks, and the character easily 
 degenerated. 
 
 To this plausible theory of the origin of the alphabet, 
 however, there are objections. That it explains the 
 origin of the hieroglyphic, cuneiform, and Chinese scripts 
 may be admitted, but the difficulty of deriving the 
 European alphabet from them is very great. Egyptolo- 
 gists are looking rather to certain marks or "signaries," 
 
1 OS Prehistoric Man 
 
 which are found in pottery as far back as 7000 B.C., 
 and which coincide to a great extent with the earliest 
 Huropean "signaries" of some centuries before Christ. 
 French scholars, on the other hand, are maintaining 
 that the painted pebbles of the cave of Mas d' Azil 
 (transition to the Neolithic) show markings which look 
 like a beginning of the early alphabet. Possibly further 
 discoveries will throw light on the question. 
 
 The other distinctive advance of humanity as it 
 approaches the historical period is the discovery of the 
 use of metals. We have so often appreciated the 
 difficulty of arranging prehistoric remains in chrono- 
 logical order that we cannot be surprised to encounter 
 fresh difficulties in connection with the beginning of 
 metal. The Paleolithic period was so long that we 
 confidently distinguish at least its earlier from its later 
 phase. We are in a fair position to do so in the 
 Neolithic. But when we come to deal with a shorter 
 period we need a finer standard of chronology than 
 is yet available in prehistoric science; and the difficulty 
 is enormously increased from the fact that very different 
 levels of culture exist simultaneously in different parts 
 of the world. After exhaustive controversy the authori- 
 ties are now generally agreed that bronze was used 
 before iron, and copper before bronze. 
 
 Writers who approach the subject from a theoretical 
 point of view object that iron would be the most likely 
 metal to meet the eye of primitive man. Meteoric 
 
The Metal Age and the Dawn of History 100 
 
 iron is ready for fashioning into weapons, and even 
 iron ore might be found smelted by volcanic agency 
 or the unintentional fire of Neolithic man. In point of 
 fact, however, iron implements are not found except at 
 a level which puts it later than the general use of 
 bronze. The painting of certain weapons blue or black 
 on the Egyptian papyrie undoubtedly represents iron, 
 and this occurs at a very early date. The word " iron " 
 is also very early, and a piece of iron has been found in 
 the remains of the fourth dynasty. This, however, does 
 not show a practice of smelting and moulding iron, or 
 anything like a general use of it. The beating of native 
 iron into rough weapons may meet the case. On the 
 other hand, iron is plainly far later than bronze in the 
 graves of Europe, and what is called the Iron Age is 
 decisively dated at not earlier than the thirteenth 
 century before the Christian era. Bronze was in 
 common use, even in Britain and Scandinavia, many 
 centuries earlier. 
 
 Copper, as we saw, is found in Egyptian remains about 
 8000 b.c, and during the course of the pre-dynastic 
 civilisation an increasing variety of implements are made 
 from it. In Ireland, Hungary, Italy, and other regions 
 we seem to have a similar precedence of copper. This 
 metal would in many parts be found pure, and could 
 easily be fashioned into implements (chisels, knives, etc.) 
 or weapons. It is, therefore, generally felt that the age 
 of metal opens with a copper phase, though this is far 
 from being universal or simultaneous. 
 
110 Prehistoric Man 
 
 Copper is, however, too soft a material for either 
 tools or weapons, and we find it speedily hardened with 
 an alloy of tin, in the shape of the familiar bronze. The 
 normal proportion is nine parts of copper to one of tin, 
 but in the earlier weapons, or in regions where tin is 
 scarce, the proportion of tin is much slighter. Where 
 and when the manufacture of this alloy first took place 
 is a matter of dispute. In Denmark and Scandinavia, 
 where very rich bronze remains have been discovered, 
 it has been possible to assign the eighteenth or seven- 
 teenth century before Christ as the beginning of the 
 period. It was introduced into Britain by the invading 
 Kelts about the same time, and we are clearly thrown 
 further east for the original manufacture. 
 
 The earliest European civilisation (probably of Asiatic 
 origin) is known as the " JEgean," and is dated between 
 the thirtieth and twentieth centuries before Christ. 
 This was responsible for the spread of bronze over the 
 Balkan peninsula, the valley of the Danube, the Swiss 
 lakes, and the north of Italy. The use of bronze is 
 much older than this in Egypt. A bronze rod found at 
 Medum dates from 3700 B.C. ; and bronze articles, of 
 native make and advanced character, are found in 
 Mesopotamia belonging to 2500 B.C. These are the 
 earliest known articles,* but an objection is raised to 
 our locating the origin of bronze in Egypt or Babylonia 
 
 * In the discussion on Professor iidgeway's paper on the 
 Iron Age— which I discuss presently — Prof. Flinders Pctrie 
 speaks of bronze as being known in I gypt by 4800 B.C., but 
 not in common use until 3,000 years later. Most implements 
 were still of stone. 
 
The Metal Age axd the Dawn of History 1 1 1 
 
 on the ground that tin is not found in or near those 
 regions. It is found in parts of Persia, and was possibly 
 found at one time in Arabia. Some have conjectured 
 that bronze was really initiated in China, and transferred 
 to the west.* As we find commerce well developed in 
 Ei^ypt long before 4800 B.C., and in Babylonia before 
 2500 b.c, we may dispense with this hypothesis. 
 
 The Bronze Age slowly spread from Egypt to the 
 Mediterranean civilisations which prepared the way for 
 that of Greece. The excavations in Asia Minor have 
 laid bare a civilisation — Hissarlik — going back to 
 2500 B.C., and showing the beginning of bronze culture. 
 The citadel-hill of Troy was found to contain the 
 successive ruins of six or seven civilisations, in super- 
 imposed layers. The lowest and oldest city shows the 
 first streak of copper in the Neolithic Age. The second 
 stratum shows a civilisation possessed of bronze, of good 
 quality. Further research, while throwing some doubt 
 on the existence of a pure Copper Age, has considerably 
 extended this Mediterranean culture. We now know 
 that it spread over the islands of the /Egean Sea, and 
 its influence extended into Central Europe, along the 
 valley of the Danube (Austria- Hungary, Bosnia, and 
 Switzerland). Crete and Cyprus were important 
 centres. Indeed Crete passed from Neolithic to Bronze 
 civilisation as early as 3000 b.c By 2500 b.c, the 
 
 * See the able discussion of the whole metal question in the 
 introduction of Mr. Read's Guide to the Antiquities of the 
 Bronze Age (British Museum). This volume and its pre- 
 decessor (Stone Age) and successor (Iron Age) are of the 
 greatest value to students. 
 
112 Prehistoric Mam 
 
 period of the second and most prosperous Hissarlik 
 culture, art and luxury advance considerably, and it is 
 impossible to enumerate the classes of weapons, pottery, 
 etc., found in the excavations. 
 
 The relations of this civilisation to Egypt and 
 Babylonia on the one hand, and Europe on the other, 
 are not wholly clear. One would be naturally disposed 
 to regard the /Egean as transmitting the culture of the 
 further east to Europe, but strong claims are made for 
 native development (with oriental influence on forms of 
 decoration), and there is no reason why civilisation 
 should not have developed at more than one centre. 
 Perhaps the dispute may be evaded when we recollect 
 that shipping and commerce were well developed by the 
 third millennium B.C., and a completely independent 
 development is hardly admissible. Crete, the chief 
 centre of Mediterranean culture, was in constant com- 
 munication with Egypt long before that time. 
 
 On the other hand, the position of the ./Egean culture 
 as a centre of radiation over Europe is clear enough. 
 Not only does the ./Egean civilisation lead on to the 
 Mycenaean (at its height about 1500 B.C.), which in turn 
 prepares the way for the later Greek development, but 
 its culture spreads fairly rapidly over Europe. It is 
 assumed that bronze was in use in the ./Egean between 
 2500 and 2000 B.C., and we saw that it reached remote 
 Britain and Scandinavia by 1800-1700 b.c It was 
 somewhat earlier in Switzerland, Austria, Italy, Spain, 
 and France. The Swiss lake-villages again exhibit the 
 transition with singular clearness, and they and the 
 bronze graves supply a vast variety of weapons, utensils, 
 
The Metal Age and the Dawn of History 113 
 
 and ornaments — swords, spears, chisels, fish-hooks, pins, 
 bracelets, sicldes, etc. The bronze axe is at first an 
 imitation of the stone model, and we can trace its 
 gradual divergence into more specific forms. The 
 articles of personal adornment have a peculiar interest. 
 We find brooches, with fasteners of the safety-pin type, 
 and bronze hair-pins recalling the elaborate hair-dress 
 of the modern geisha. The pottery also advances in 
 make, but the consideration of its many types cannot 
 be entered upon here. 
 
 Before many centuries Europe passes into the last 
 phase of prehistoric culture. Europe was now ad- 
 vancing so fast in culture, while the older empires 
 were showing signs of decay, that we are not surprised 
 to find the claim that the use of iron originated in this 
 continent. Although iron had been known in Egypt 
 for some thousands of years, it was not in general use, 
 and it is suggested that the Egyptians merely employed 
 haematite as a hard stone for making implements, and 
 did not smelt it. The Iron Age does not begin in Egypt 
 until about 800 b.c There are no reliable indications 
 of its use in Babylonia or Persia before that date. 
 On the other hand, the iron industry breaks out with 
 great vigour in Europe before the end of the second 
 millennium b.c. 
 
 Austria and Germany were on the line of the trade- 
 routes to the Baltic (for amber) during the Bronze 
 period, and were early quickened with the advancing 
 culture. It is at Hallstatt, in the Austrian Alps, where 
 we first get a great iron industry. In the thirteenth or 
 twelfth century, b.c, much earlier than any develop- 
 
 H 
 
114 Prf.historic Man 
 
 merit in the older civilisations, the first Hallstatt period 
 of the Iron Age began, and from the Austrian Alps the 
 use of the new metal spread over Europe. Italy had it 
 in the twelfth century b.c. ; Scandinavia and Britain 
 received it from 500 to 300 b.c. A second Hallstatt 
 period is dated from the tenth or ninth to the sixth 
 century b.c, and the industry then centres at La Tene, 
 in Switzerland. 
 
 How far the Iron Age is to be regarded as prehistoric, 
 is, perhaps, a question of words, but it is beyond both 
 the scope and the limits of this book to discuss it in 
 detail. The only question that remains for discussion 
 is that of the successive migrations into Britain of men 
 with metal implements, before the Romans open the 
 historic period in this island. 
 
 We have seen that Britain and Ireland were populated 
 in the Neolithic by a branch of the European race, of 
 which many still see a remnant in the Basques. Apart 
 from certain claims of later invasion — apart from Sir 
 W. Turner's claim of a Neolithic invasion of Scotland 
 from Scandinavia and Mr. Gray's theory of the passage 
 of an oriental people from South-west England to the 
 north of Scotland — the general opinion is that this 
 Iberian or Euscarian race remained in possession until 
 the bronze-using Kelts invaded the island. A late limit 
 for this invasion is fixed as the sixth or fifth 
 century b.c, but most writers consider that it occurred 
 much earlier. 
 
 This branch of the Keltic race was known as the 
 Goidhels, and has founded the "Gaels " of Ireland and 
 Scotland. They are believed to have been in turn 
 
The Metal Age and the Dawn of History 115 
 
 displaced by a fresh Keltic wave from the Continent 
 a few centuries before Christ. The Brythons drove the 
 Gaels west and north— to Ireland and Scotland — and it 
 is believed by many that the last remnant of the earlier 
 Neolithic population was pressed to the north of 
 Scotland, and survived to Caesar's time in the " Picts." 
 Certainly, the distribution of races in the United 
 Kingdom harmonises with the theory; but it must be 
 added that the efforts of philologists to detect linguistic 
 elements of the older language in Scotland and Ireland 
 meet with distinguished opposition ; nor does the 
 examination of skulls yield any clear conclusion. On 
 the other hand, the later displacement of the Brythons 
 by the Belgians, Romans, and Saxons, and their 
 establishment as the Kymry in Wales, belongs to the 
 domain of history. 
 
 the end. 
 
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118 Bibliography 
 
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INDEX. 
 
 
 
 Acheulean Stage of Paleolithic Period ... 
 
 ..12 
 
 , 37, 38, 48 
 
 ^Cgean Civilisation 
 
 
 110, 112 
 
 Africa connected with Europe ... 
 
 .. 
 
 ... 41 
 
 Ages of Stone, Bronze, and Iron determined 
 
 
 ... 6 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 .. 
 
 ... 87 
 
 Alphabet, Origin of 
 
 , , 
 
 ... 107 
 
 Alpine Race ... 
 
 .. 
 
 ... 97 
 
 Altamira Cavern 
 
 
 ... 58 
 
 Amerinds 
 
 
 ... 67 
 
 Andaman Islanders 
 
 
 27, 31 
 
 Antediluvians ... 
 
 
 7 
 
 Anthropoid Ape 
 
 
 ... 36 
 
 Anthropology ... 
 
 .. 
 
 ... 3 
 
 Anthropological Society (Paris) 
 
 . . 
 
 ... 8 
 
 Ape Man of Java ... ... 15,17,27 
 
 ,34 
 
 35, 36, 53 
 
 Archeology 
 
 
 ... 3 
 
 Arcy Remains... 
 
 
 32, 35 
 
 Arrows 
 
 
 40, 70 
 
 Artistic Faculty 
 
 !!49 
 
 55, 65, 84 
 
 Aryan Race 
 
 
 94, 97, 102 
 
 Assyrian Characters 
 
 
 ... 107 
 
 Aurillac, Eoliths of 
 
 
 ... 23 
 
 Australian Native 
 
 
 34, 36, 81 
 
 Avebury, Lord 
 
 
 25, 26 
 
 Avebury Monuments ... 
 
 
 97, 99 
 
 Axe ... ... ... ... ,,, . 
 
 
 ... 72 
 
 Azilian Period... 
 
 •• 
 
 ... 13 
 
 Barrows 
 
 
 89, 92 
 
 Basques 
 
 
 94, 96, 114 
 
 Beevor, Sir Hugh R. ... 
 
 
 • •• 2o 
 
 Berber Tribe ... 
 
 
 • • * o9 
 
 Blackmore, Dr. 
 
 
 26, 72 
 
 Boncelles, Eoliths of ... 
 
 
 ... 23 
 
 Bone Instruments 
 
 
 ... 54 
 
 Boule, M. 
 
 ..35 
 
 49, 52, 68 
 
 Bourgeois, Abbe 
 
 
 8, 22 
 
 Bouysonnie Abbe's, J. and A. ... 
 
 
 • •• OO 
 
 Brain Development 
 
 
 • • • Do 
 
 Britain connected with Continent 
 
 
 ... 41 
 
 Britain, Earliest Inhabitants ... 
 
 . , 
 
 ... 27 
 
 121 
 
122 ! dbx 
 
 Broca, H. ... ... ... ... ... 8, 99 
 
 Bronze ... ... ... ... 74,108,109,110 
 
 Bronze Age ... ... ... ... 82,86,87,88,111 
 
 Brown, Air. ... ... ... ... ... ... 64 
 
 Bruniquel Remains ... ... ... ... ••• 52 
 
 Br'unn Remains ... ... ... ... 51, 67 
 
 Briix Remains... ... ... ... ... 32, 51, 67 
 
 Bulb of Percussion ... ... ... ... ... 38 
 
 Burial of Dead ... 44, 51, 70, 90, 106 
 
 Bury St. Edmunds Remains ... ... ... 32, 50 
 
 Bushmen ... ... ... ... ... 68, 81 
 
 Caanstadt Race ... ... ... ... ... 69 
 
 Calaveras Skull ... ... ... ... ... 23 
 
 California Remains ... ... ... ... ... 23 
 
 Cambarolies Cave ... ... ... ... ... 58 
 
 Cave-bear Period ... ... ... ... ••• 37 
 
 Cave Men ... ... ... ... ... 12, 37, 54 
 
 Cave Period ... ... ... ... ... ... 50 
 
 Celt Flints ... ... ... ... ... ••• 38 
 
 Cervidian Period ... ... ... ... ••• 38 
 
 Chancelade Remains ... ... ... ... 52, 67 
 
 Chapelle-aux-Saints Remains ... ... ... 35, 36, 44 
 
 Cheilean Implements ... ... ... ... -■• 46 
 
 Chellean Stage of Paleolithic Period ... 12, 37, 48, 49, 50 
 
 Chinese Language ... ... ... ... ••• 107 
 
 Chopper ... ... ... ... ... ••• 72 
 
 Chronology, difficult to determine ... ... 15, 29, 108 
 
 Civilisation, Beginning of ... ... ... ••• 103 
 
 Civilisation's first development... ... ... ... 70 
 
 Classification of Relics ... ... ... ... 37 
 
 Clichy Remains ... ... ... ... ••• 51 
 
 Climate of Europe in Miocene Period ... ... ... 26 
 
 Clodd, Mr 83 
 
 Clothing 40, 46, 49, 59, 87 
 
 Colour as Criterion of Race ... ... ... ••• 102 
 
 Commanders' Batons ... ... ... ••• ••• 58 
 
 Copper 108, 109 
 
 Coup de Poing 38, 39, 40 
 
 Crannoges of Ireland ... ... ... ••• ••• 85 
 
 Cromlechs ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• 91 
 
 Cro-Magnon Skeleton ... ... ... ... 52, 69 
 
 Cuvier, M. ... ... ... ••• >•• ••• 6 
 
 Darwin, Charles 
 
 Darwin, Erasmus ... ... ... ••• ••• 5 
 
 Darwin, Origin of Species ... ... ••• ••• 8 
 
 Dawkins, Prof. Boyd ... ... ... ••• ••• 65 
 
 Dene-holes ... ... ••• — ••• ••• 1°° 
 
 Deniker, Dr. J. ... >•• ••• ••• *•• ^9 
 
 Denise Remains ... ••• ••• ••• ••• 51 
 
46 to 62 
 
 
 7 
 
 • ■ * 
 
 7 
 
 • « • • 
 
 91 
 
 49, 55, 
 
 65 
 
 89, 
 
 92 
 
 
 17 
 
 • • • • 
 
 14 
 
 • • • • 
 
 47 
 
 . 
 
 47 
 
 .105, 106, 
 
 107 
 
 • • • ■ 
 
 48 
 
 32, 
 
 ,51 
 
 42, 
 
 ,47 
 
 • • • 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 ,51 
 
 
 21 
 
 Index 123 
 
 Development during Old Stone Age 
 Diluvium ... ... • •• 
 
 Discoveries treated with disdain 
 
 Dolmens 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Druids 
 
 Dubois, Dr. Eugene 
 
 Duration of Geological Periods 
 
 Duration of Old Stone Age 
 
 Duration of Quaternary Period... 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Elephants 
 
 Engis (Belgium) Remains 
 
 English Channel 
 
 English Eoliths 
 
 Enguisheim (Alsace) Remains... 
 
 Eocene Period 
 
 Eoliths 11,15,22,23,24,25,27,47,72 
 
 Eolithic Man ••• 28 
 
 Eolithic Period 12, 28, 37, 64, 72 
 
 Eskimo . ... 53, 57, 59, 67, 90 
 
 Europe — Climate during Miocene Period ... ... 26 
 
 Euskarians ... ... ... ••• ••• ■■• 98 
 
 Evans, A. ... ... ... ••• ••• •■•_ 98 
 
 Evans, Sir John ... ... ... ••• 7,15,25 
 
 Evolution ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• * 
 
 Fairies ... ... ■ •• ••• • •• ••• *> 
 
 Family Life in Paleolithic Period ... ... ••• 43 
 
 Fire ... ... ... ••• ••• ••■ 44 - 60 
 
 Flints found at Ightham, Kent ... ... ... ••• 24 
 
 Flints found by Abbe Bourgeois ... ... 8, 22 
 
 Flint Implements 5, 22, 37, 38, 46, 48, 49, 54, 72 
 
 Flint Mines ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• 73 
 
 Flints produced by pressure ... ... ... •■• 54 
 
 Flints, Sharpening of ... ... ... ... • •• 27 
 
 French Scheme of Classification of Relics ... ... 37 
 
 Funeral Feasts ... ... ... ... ••• 44 
 
 Furfooz Skull ... ... ... ... ••• 52, 69 
 
 Galley Hill (Kent) Remains .' 32, 50, 67 
 
 Geological Divisions ... ... ... ... ••• 14 
 
 Geology's Claim ... ... ... • •• • •• 8 
 
 German Ocean ... ... ... ••• 42, 47 
 
 Gibraltar Remains ... ... ... ... 32, 50, 67 
 
 Glacial Period... ... ... ... ... 41, 48 
 
 Gowland, Prof. ... ... ... ••• ••■ 98 
 
 Graves ... ... ... ••• ••> ••• 89 
 
 Gray, Mr 98, 114 
 
 Greenwell, Canon ... ... ... ... ••• 93 
 
124 Index 
 
 Gough's Cavern (near Cheddar) Remains ... ... 52 
 
 Grenelle Remains ... ... ... ... 52, 69 
 
 Grimaldi Remains ... ... ... ... 63, 70, 76 
 
 Grime's Graves ... ... ... ... ... 73 
 
 Haddon, Prof. ... ... ... ... ... 102 
 
 Harpoons ... ... ... ... ... ... 49 
 
 Harrison, Benjamin ... ... ... ... 24, 25 
 
 Hauser, Swiss Explorer ... ... ... ... 33 
 
 Heidelberg Jaw ... ... ... ... ... 34 
 
 Hiatus between Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages ... ... 63 
 
 Hippie or Horse Period ... ... ... ... 3S 
 
 Hippopotamus ... ... ... ... 42, 48 
 
 Hoernes, Dr. M. ... ... 15, 18, 19, 49, 52, 68, 87, 100 
 
 Human Remains ... ... ... ... 10, 31 
 
 Human Workmanship... ... ... ... ... 22 
 
 Hut Circles ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 
 
 Huxley, Prof. ... ... ... ... ... 8, 31 
 
 l Dcr isuus ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• "«» 
 
 Ice Age ... ... ... ... ... 40,41,48 
 
 Ightham (Kent), Flints found at ... ... ... 24 
 
 Implements, Stone ... ...5,22,37,38,46,48,49,54,72 
 
 Indian Ocean ... ... ... ... ... 19, 20 
 
 Indo-European Race ... ... ... ... ... 102 
 
 International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric 
 
 Archaeology of 1867 
 
 • •• 
 
 • . . 
 
 
 8, 22 
 
 Ipswich Discovery 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 • •• 
 
 ... 38 
 
 Iron ... 
 
 ... 
 
 • •• 
 
 • •• 
 
 • •• 
 
 ... 10S 
 
 Iron Age 
 
 ... 
 
 • •• 
 
 __ 
 
 • •• 
 
 ... 114 
 
 Iverians 
 
 ... 
 
 • •• 
 
 ... 
 
 • • • 
 
 ... 93 
 
 Java Remains ... 
 
 ... 
 
 • •• 
 
 15, 17, 
 
 27, 34, 
 
 35, 36, 53 
 
 Javelin 
 
 ... 
 
 • •• 
 
 
 
 40, 49 
 
 Johnson, J. P. 
 
 ... 
 
 • •• 
 
 • •• 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 29 
 
 Johnston, Sir Harry 
 
 ... 
 
 • •• 
 
 • •• 
 
 • •• 
 
 ... 76 
 
 Karnac Monument 
 
 
 ••• 
 
 • •• 
 
 
 ... 98 
 
 Keane, Dr. 
 
 
 • •• 
 
 15, 21, 23, 
 
 25, 26, 
 
 47, 49, 71 
 
 Keller 
 
 # # 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 ... 8 
 
 Kendall, Rev. H. G. 
 
 O. 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 77 
 
 Kitchen Middens 
 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 78 
 
 Kit's Coty Hole (Kent) 
 
 *• • 
 
 a • • 
 
 
 ... 91 
 
 Klaatsch, Prof. 
 
 • • • 
 
 
 
 19, 23, 
 
 26, 33, 50 
 
 Knuckle-duster 
 
 __ _ 
 
 • • • 
 
 • • • 
 
 
 ... 3^) 
 
 Kollmann 
 
 • •• 
 
 • •• 
 
 • • • 
 
 • a • 
 
 ... 75 
 
 Krapina Remains 
 
 • •« 
 
 • •• 
 
 • •• 
 
 • •• 
 
 33, 35 
 
Index 125 
 
 Lamarck, Jean ... ... ... ... ... 5 
 
 La Naulette Remains ... ... ... ... 32, 35 
 
 Lance Heads ... ... ... ... ... 40, 49 
 
 Language ... ... ... ... ... ••■ 106 
 
 Lankester, Sir E. Ray... ... ... ... 25, 26, 53 
 
 Laugerie Basse Remains ... ... ... 51, 67 
 
 La Vezere Skeleton ... ... ... ...33, 34, 35, 36 
 
 Leiotrichi ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 
 
 Lemurs ... ... ... ... ... ... 21 
 
 Lengths of Geological Periods ... ... ... ... 14 
 
 Lockyer, Sir Norman ... ... ... ... 91, 98 
 
 Lucretius ... ... ... ... ... ... 4 
 
 Lyell, Sir Charles ... ... ... ... ... 8 
 
 MacCurdy, G. G. ... 24,100 
 
 Mafflian Stage of Eolithic Period ... ... ... 12 
 
 Magdalcnian Stage of Paleolithic Period 
 
 12, 37, 38, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57. 60, 61, 63, 64, 69, 70, 72 
 Malarnaud Remains ... ... ... ... 32, 35 
 
 Mammoth Period ... ... ... ... 37, 50 
 
 Mammoths ... ... ... ... ... 48, 53, 55 
 
 Mauer Remains ... ... ... ...34, 35, 36, 46 
 
 Mediterranean Race ... ... ... ... ••• 83 
 
 Megaliths ... ... ... ... ... ••• 89 
 
 Menhir ... ... ... ... ... ... 91 
 
 Men of Early Stone Age ... ... ... ••• 10 
 
 Mentone Remains ... ... ... 52, 55, 68, 69, 70 
 
 Mesolithic Period 13,49,51,63 
 
 Mesoliths ... ... ... ... ... ••• 64 
 
 Mesvinian Stage of Eolithic Period ... ... ... 12 
 
 Metal Age 101 
 
 Micro'.iths ... ... ... ... ... ... 77 
 
 Middle Stone Age 13,63 
 
 Miocene Period ... ... 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 28, 36, 41 
 
 Missing Link ... ... ... ... ... ... 18 
 
 Modern Tribes still in Old Stone Age ... ... ... 11 
 
 Monoliths ... ... ... ... .•• ••• 91 
 
 Monuments, Stone ... ... ... ... ••• 89 
 
 Mortillet, G. de ... 8, 15, 22, 23, 26, 37, 40, 47, 59, 70, 100 
 Mousterian Stage of Paleolithic Period... 12, 37, 4S, 49, 50, 68 
 Munro, Dr 44, 52, 99 
 
 Name of the Science ... ... ... ... •■• 3 
 
 Neanderthal Man ... 7,30,34,35,36,40,41,47,50,53,64 
 
 Negroids ... 102, 103 
 
 Neolithic Period 11, 13, 15, 40, 46, 47, 49, 51, 52, 63 to 100 
 
 Neolithic Pile Dwellings 9, 72, 78, 82, 85 
 
 Neusch, Dr. ... ... ... ... ... ••• 75 
 
 New Stone Age 10, 63 to 100 
 
 Nude Condition of Inhabitants... ... ... 40, 42, 59 
 
123 Index 
 
 0!">cima1er, Dr. ... ... ... ... ... 39 
 
 Old Stone Age ... ... ... 10, 28, 29, 46 to 62 
 
 Ongocene Period ... ... ... ... ... 23 
 
 Olma Remains ... ... ... ... ... 51 
 
 Otta (Portugal), Flints found at ... ... ... 23 
 
 Paleolithic Implements ... ... ... ... 36 
 
 Paleolithic Man ... 20, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 37, 45, 47, 76 
 
 Paleolithic Period 12, 13, 15, 29 to 62, 63, 64, 67, 69, 70, 72, 106 
 Palms growing in France and south of Britain ... ... 27 
 
 Papalian Period ... ... ... ... ... 38 
 
 Papuans ... ... ... ... ... 81, 86 
 
 Parker, St. John 39 
 
 Pelasgians ... ... ... ... ... ... 93 
 
 Petrie, Prof. Flinders ... 103, 104, 110 
 
 Phases through which humanity passca ... ... 36 
 
 Picts ... ... ... ... ... ... 94, 115 
 
 Piette, M. ... ... ... ... ... ... 55 
 
 Pile Dwellings 9, 72, 78, 82, 85 
 
 Pit Dwellings 100 
 
 Pithecanthropus Erectus ... ... ... ••• 19 
 
 Pithecoid Features ... ... ... ... ■•• 36 
 
 Pleistocene Period ... ... ... 21,34,35,41,47 
 
 Pliocene Period 19.21,27,34,36,41,47 
 
 Podbaba Remains ... ... ... ... 32, 51 
 
 Pottery ... ... ... ... ... ••• 83 
 
 Predmost Remains ... ... ... ... 32, 51 
 
 Prehistoric Development, Phases of ... ... ... 13 
 
 Prejudice against Evolution ... ... ... ... 5 
 
 Prejudice Overcome ... ... ... ... ... 7 
 
 Prestwich, Sir Joseph ... ... ... ... 7, 25 
 
 Primate Family ... ... ... ... ... 19 
 
 Problem of Race ... ... ... ... ••• 66 
 
 Purgatory Hammers ... ... ... ... ... 6 
 
 Puy-Courny, Flints found at ... ... ... ••• 23 
 
 Pygmy Implements ... ... ... ... ••• 75 
 
 Pygmy Skeletons at Schweitzersbild ... ... ... 75 
 
 Quaternary Period 14, 28, 30, 47, 68 
 
 Race Problem... ... ... ... ••• ••• 66 
 
 Races Grouped ... ... ... ••• ••• 102 
 
 Red Indians ... ... ... ... ... 59, 103 
 
 Reindeer ... ... ... ... ... 54, 55 
 
 Reindeer of Thayngen ... ... ... ... ••• 56 
 
 Reindeer Period 37, 38, 49, 50 
 
 Reinhardt, Dr. ... ... ... ... ••• 33 
 
 Relation of Tertiary Man to Development of Earth ... 26 
 
 Relics of Human Workmanship ... ... ••• 22 
 
 Religious Belief ... ... ... ••• ••■ 44 
 
Index 127 
 
 Remains of Human Beings ... ... ... 10,31 
 
 Rcutilian Stage of Eolithic Period ... ... ... VI 
 
 Rhinocerous ... ... ... ••• ••• * 2 , 4 ^ 
 
 Ridgeway, Prof. ... ... ... ••• 67, 110 
 
 River-Drift Men 12, 37, 42, 50 
 
 Rutot, M 12,23,24,26 
 
 St. Acheul ... ... ... ... ••• — 39 
 
 Salmon, Prof.... ... ... ... ••• ••■ 49 
 
 Schipka (Moravia) Remains ... ... ... 32, 51 
 
 Schoetensach, Dr. Otto ... ... ... •■• 34 
 
 Schwalbe 50, 67 
 
 Schwartz, Prof. ... ... 26 
 
 Schweinfurth ... ... ... ... ... 26, 29 
 
 Schweitzersbild Skeletons of Pygmies ... ... ... 75 
 
 Scotch Superstitions ... ... ... ... ••• 6 
 
 Scraper ... ... ... ... ••■ ... 39 
 
 Sergi, Prof. ... 23, 26, 52, 64, 83, 95 
 
 Sharpening of Flints ... ... ... ... ... 27 
 
 Shell Mounds ... ... ... ... ... ••• 78 
 
 Slowness of Advance ... ... ... ... ... 46 
 
 Smith, Mr. Worthington ... ... 24, 25, 40, 43, 61, 100 
 
 Social Life during Paleolithic Period ... ... 43, 49, 57 
 
 Sollas, Prof. 24, 100 
 
 Solutrfe Remains ... ... ... ••• ••• 52 
 
 Solutrean Stage of Paleolithic Period 12, 37, 38, 49, 5 >, 54, 61 
 Somaliland ... ... ... ... ••• ... 67 
 
 Sordes Remains ... ... ... ... 51,67 
 
 Souterrains ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 100 
 
 Speech 43, 59 
 
 Spy Remains ... ... ... ... ...31, 33, 35, 36 
 
 Stone Age ... ... ... ... ... ••■ 10 
 
 Stone Implements ... ...5, 22, 37, 3S, 46, 48, 49, 54, 72 
 
 Stonehenge 97, 98 
 
 Stone Monuments ... ... ... ... ... 89 
 
 Straight-haired Men ... ... ... ... ... 102 
 
 Strepyian Stage of Paleolithic Period ... ... ... 12 
 
 Tasmanians ... ... ... 11,23,27,43,44,53,81,106 
 
 Taubach Remains ... ... ... ... ... 32 
 
 Tertiary Man ... ... ... ... 9, 22, 23, 26, 28, 47 
 
 Tertiary Period ... ... ... 14,15,21,23,47 
 
 Tests of Flints ... ... ... ... ... 39 
 
 Thanes ... ... ... ... ... 42, 46 
 
 Thayngen, Drawing of Reindeer ... ... ... 56 
 
 Thenay, Flints found at ... ... ... 8, 22, 26 
 
 Theory of the Middle Ages ... ... ... ... 5 
 
 Thurnam, Dr. ... ... ... ... ... ... 93 
 
 Tierra del Fuego Inhabitants ... ... ... ... 78 
 
128 
 
 Index 
 
 Tilbury Remains 
 Traditions 
 Trepanned Skulls 
 Turner, Sir W. 
 
 Vatican Museum 
 Veddahs 
 Vcrnau, M. 
 Vczcre Man 
 Villeneuve, M. 
 Virchow, Prof. Rudolph 
 
 Walcott 
 
 Wavy-haired Races 
 Weapons 
 
 Windle, Dr 
 
 Woolly-haired Races .. 
 Workshop Floors 
 
 Yahgans 
 Yellow Races ... 
 
 33 
 
 24, 26 
 
 # , 
 
 
 32 
 
 , 50 
 
 .. 
 
 
 • •• 
 
 4 
 
 . . 
 
 
 ■ ■ • 
 
 99 
 
 15, 
 
 47, 
 
 71, 
 
 114 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 ,43 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 , 68 
 
 ,34 
 
 , 35 
 
 , 36 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 • • • 
 
 64 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 , 18 
 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 102 
 
 46 
 
 77, 
 
 92, 
 
 97, 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 • •• 
 
 102 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 57 
 
 
 43 
 
 , 78 
 
 ,81 
 
 
 
 • •a 
 
 103 
 
 Zoological Congress (.Leyden) 1894 
 
 18 
 
 
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